Cold War America, 1946 to 1990 (Almanacs of American Life)

✰ ALMANACS OF AMERICAN LIFE ✰ COLD WAR AMERICA 1946 to 1990 ✰ ALMANACS OF AMERICAN LIFE ✰ COLD WAR AMERICA 1946 to ...

Author: Ross Gregory

157 downloads 4202 Views 7MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

✰ ALMANACS OF AMERICAN LIFE ✰

COLD WAR AMERICA 1946 to 1990

✰ ALMANACS OF AMERICAN LIFE ✰

COLD WAR AMERICA 1946 to 1990 Ross Gregory Richard Balkin General Editor

Cold War America, 1946 to 1990 Copyright © 2003 by Ross Gregory Map and graphs © Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street NewYork NY 10001 ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-3868-8 ISBN-10: 0-8160-3868-6 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gregory, Ross. Cold War America, 1946 to 1990/Ross Gregory. p. cm.—(Almanacs of American life) ISBN 0-8160-3868-6 (hardcover) 1. United States—History—1945. 2. United States—Social conditions—1945. 3. Cold War—Social aspects—United States. I.Title. II. Series. E741 .G76 2002 973.92—dc21 2001051136 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Fred Pusterla Cover design by Cathy Rincon Maps and graphs by Dale Williams, Jeremy Eagle, and Sholto Ainslie Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10

9 8

7

6

5

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

4 3

For

Shirley,Theresa, Graham, Darren, and Danielle

Note on Photos

Many of the illustrations and photographs used in this book are old, historical images. The quality of the prints is not always up to modern standards, as in some cases the originals are damaged. The content of the illustrations, however, made their inclusion important despite problems in reproduction.

Contents

List of Maps Preface

Water Transport 157 End of an Era 160

xiii

xv 6.

1. The Americans: Population and Immigration 1 The American Population 1 Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the American Population 6 Immigration 20 2. Weather and Climate 29 Methods of Measuring Comfort or Discomfort 30 Weather as a Destructive Force 35 3.

Chronology, 1946–1990 48 The Postwar Period and Start of the Cold War, 1946–1960 48 The Era of the Sixties, 1961–1970 54 The Era of the Seventies, 1971–1980 60 The Eighties, 1981–1990 64

4. The American Economy 69 The Stock Market 76 Energy 80 Banking and Finance 88 International Business 90 Employment 97 Poverty 113 Agriculture 115 Earnings and Expenses and a Parity Price Prices and Inflation 126 Taxes 131 5.

7. Vital Statistics and Health Care 178 Births 178 Birth Control 182 Abortion 184 Sexual Behavior and Attitudes 187 Marriage 190 Divorce 191 Families and Households 192 Medical Care and Medical Care Providers 202 Some Major Developments in Health and Medicine, 1946–1990 203 Substance Use and Abuse 214 8.

Religion 222 The Course of Religion, 1946–1990 222 Catholicism in the United States 227 Television Evangelists and Emergence of the Religious Right 229

9.

Politics and Government 231 Vietnam,Watergate, and the Crisis of the Modern Presidency 236 Chronology of the Watergate Scandal 236 Money in Politics and Growth of the PAC 241 Expansion of the Electorate, 1946–1990 245 Civil Rights 248 Development of the Civil Rights Movement and the Issue of Race Relations, 1954–1990 248

124

Transportation 136 General Trends 136 Motor Vehicles 136 Gas-guzzlers, Beetles, and the Japanese Invasion 141 Air Transport 148 Railroads 153 Urban Transport 157

Communications 163 The Course of the Communications System 163 Postal Service 163 Telephones 165 Developments in Telephone Communication, 1946–1990 166 Radio and Television 167 The Next Generation: Enter the Internet 171 The Print Media 172 In the Beginning Was the Word 176

ix

The Supreme Court 250 Trends and Themes of Government Finance Social Insurance Programs 258

10. Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold 263 The United States and Origins of the Cold War 263 The Cold War Moves East: China and Korea 267 Presidential Doctrines and American Foreign Policy 272 Instruments of American Policy:The Armed Forces 272 Instruments of American Policy: Alliances 288 Instruments of American Policy: Covert Activity 289 Instruments of American Foreign Policy: Armed Intervention 290 The Vietnam War 290 Instruments of American Policy: Foreign Aid and Sale of Military Goods 296 The End to the Cold War 302 Selected Chronological Developments in the End of the Cold War 302 11.

x

States 304 Alabama 304 Alaska 304 Arizona 304 Arkansas 305 California 305 Colorado 306 Connecticut 307 Delaware 307 Florida 307 Georgia 308 Hawaii 308 Idaho 309 Illinois 309 Indiana 310 Iowa 310 Kansas 310 Kentucky 311 Louisiana 311 Maine 312 Maryland 312 Massachusetts 312 Michigan 313 Minnesota 313 Mississippi 314 Missouri 314 Montana 314 Nebraska 315 Nevada 315 New Hampshire 316 New Jersey 316 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

New Mexico 316 New York 317 North Carolina 317 North Dakota 317 Ohio 318 Oklahoma 318 Oregon 319 Pennsylvania 319 Rhode Island 320 South Carolina 320 South Dakota 320 Tennessee 321 Texas 321 Utah 322 Vermont 322 Virginia 322 Washington 323 West Virginia 324 Wisconsin 324 Wyoming 325

253

12.

Cities of the United States 326 The Most, and Least, Promising Metropolitan Counties, 1990 332 New York City 333 Los Angeles 334 Chicago 335 Houston 335 Philadelphia 336 San Diego 336 Detroit 336 Dallas 337 Phoenix 337 San Antonio 338

13. Prominent and Representative Americans 339 Rachel Carson 339 Cesar Chavez 339 Vine Deloria, Jr. 340 Clint Eastwood 340 Chris Evert 340 Ella Fitzgerald 341 Betty Friedan 341 Billy Graham 341 Bob Hope 341 Hubert H. Humphrey 342 Daniel K. Inouye 342 Lyndon B. Johnson 343 Barbara Jordan 343 George F. Kennan 343 John F. Kennedy 344 Martin Luther King, Jr. 345 Henry Kissinger 346 Ray Kroc 347

Nancy Lopez 347 Malcom X 347 Thurgood Marshall 347 Joe McCarthy 348 James Michener 348 Marilyn Monroe 348 Richard M. Nixon 349 Sandra Day O’Connor 349 I. M. Pei 350 Jackson Pollock 351 Colin Powell 351 Elvis Presley 352 Ronald Reagan 352 Jackie Robinson 352 Jonas Salk 352 Charles M. Schulz 353 William B. Shockley 353 Frank Sinatra 353 Harry S.Truman 354 Werner von Braun 355 George C.Wallace 355 Ryan White 355 14.

Education 356 The Course of American Education 356 Aspects of Education: An International Comparison 370 Education and Racial Segregation 374 The School and Greater American Society Colleges and Universities 378

377

15.

Science and Technology 400 U.S.Winners of Nobel Prizes in the Sciences 403 The Space Program 403 Computers 412 Weapons Technology: An Example 415 Environmentalism 416 Domestic Technology 431 Science,Technology, and Change in the American Diet 434

16.

Art and Architecture 438 Art in the United States:Who Pays for It Directions of American Art 441 Architecture 446 Bridges 449

17. Entertainment 451 The Broadway Stage 452 Motion Pictures 456 Radio 466 Television 468 Popular Music 478 Reading 494

438

18.

Sports 505 Baseball 507 Changes in Major League Baseball Teams, 1946–1990 509 A Selected Glossary of Baseball Terminology 519 Basketball 520 Major NCAA Rule Changes, 1947–1990 527 Professional Football 533 College Football 540 Tennis 552 Golf 558 Hockey 562 Boxing 565 Automobile Racing 569 Horse Racing 571 The Most Exciting Sporting Event of the Era 574

19.

Crime and Punishment 575 Multiple Murders and Multiple Murderers Capital Punishment 583 Drugs and the Law 587

581

20. Selected Documents 590 Amendments to the Constitution (Twenty-second– Twenty-seventh) 590 National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC–68), April 1950 591 Advice to the Working Girl, 1951 592 Supreme Court Case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 1954 592 Origins of the Domino Theory, April 7, 1954 593 John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961 594 The Cuban Missile Crisis: President John F. Kennedy’s Report to the Nation, October 22, 1962 595 Civil Rights Act of 1964 597 Kerner Commission Report on Racial Violence in American Cities, 1968 598 President Lyndon Johnson Explains and Defends American Involvement in Vietnam, April 1965 599 AVietnam Veteran Speaks Against the War, 1971 600 The War Powers Act, 1973 602 The Women’s Movement: Senate Hearings on an Equal Rights Amendment, May 7, 1970 602 Supreme Court Case of Roe v.Wade, 1973 603 President Reagan Describes the Soviet Union at the Start of His Presidency, 1981, and at the End, 1989 604 Selected Bibliography Appendix: List of Tables Index

606 609

625 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

xi

List of Maps

Rush to the Sunbelt: Percent Increase in Population by State, 1950–1990 2 Asian Population, 1990 16 Hispanic Population, 1990 20 U.S. Interstate Highway System, 1981 146 The Baby Boom and Birthrate, 1940–1990 180 Alliances of the United States During the Cold War 289 Segregation in the South: Percent of Black Students Attending School with White Students 375 Status and Approximate Location of Nuclear Power Plants in the United States, 1988 417

xiii

Preface

The title, Cold War America, is not intended to suggest that the volume contains a history of the cold war, with focus on international relations and military considerations.The purpose, instead, is to examine aspects of life in the United States during the years of the cold war—which one can reasonably identify as the 45 (really 46) years following the Second World War.The timeline carries a conclusion that a genuine fissure developed between the United States and the Soviet Union almost immediately following the end of the world conflict and, on the other end, that virtually all the forces proclaiming an end to the cold war, except for dismantlement of the USSR, were in place by the year 1990. To be sure, diplomatic and military affairs were exceptionally important during these years. They constituted a lifeand-death proposition for millions of military people (and for many thousands, the outcome was death).The nation, and indeed the world as a whole, faced the prospect of utter destruction. The fact that the world survived more or less intact should not suggest that the danger had not existed. For whatever reason, perhaps it was the weapons themselves, the nation and the world was spared a nuclear holocaust and life went on, influenced—sometimes blatantly, sometimes subtly—by the continuing tension but also following the needs, wishes, and aspirations of an ever-changing American populace. It is the purpose of this volume to describe the course of society and its constituent parts, at least the major ones—to measure direction and change during the years 1946 to 1990. Such an understanding of course must be multifaceted, requiring attention to themes and subthemes too numerous for a short introduction. The reach and dimension, however, can be suggested in a few broad categories. American society in the post–Second World War period was striking in sheer size and scope. The population grew by 100 million people and the economy came to be measured not in billions but trillions of dollars. The knowledge of humankind truly expanded at remarkable speed and the country experienced scientific and technological change that only a few years earlier had been the subject of fantasy: Placing a person on the moon and the emerging computer revolution were two examples. The American population and culture, diverse at the start of the period, underwent a continuously evolving diversification that affected politics, government—virtually all aspects of society. The changes called into question some of

the most accepted and honored standards, principles, and institutions in the land. Needless to say, the information in this study is unique to the period, but organization and structure remains consistent with other volumes in this series. The volume is designed to convey information basic to the period and also material that would be meaningful from the perspective of a few years or even decades later. There is some room for choice in the selection of topics but—hopefully—not in the presentation of data.The numbers must be allowed to fall where they will.The volume offers a multidimensional approach that is concerned with both breadth in the selection of topics and depth in the extent of coverage. It seeks to intermingle tabular arrangements of statistics with introductions, essays, personal profiles, and other forms of discussion, but the basic information is within the data. One cannot acquire a full picture of a subject from a recitation of statistics, but one cannot get an accurate picture without them. Behind every persuasive argument or statement of fact there is, or needs to be, numbers. People from libraries, museums, government agencies, and my classes who helped me in various ways probably numbered in the dozens. I will not mention names, but I offer them warmest gratitude. There is a small number of people, the closest to me or to the project, whom I do want to mention. Jessica (Grace) Baby gave invaluable help one summer in finding materials on the Internet. Diether H. Haenicke, former president of Western Michigan University, provided a grant that was useful in many ways, especially with illustrations. My daughter, Theresa, helped with computer searches for photographs; my sons, Graham and Darren, helped lead me through the thicket of popular music after the 1960s. At Facts On File Nicole Bowen and Gene Springs were the most cordial and cooperative editors.Two people deserve special thanks: Shirley, my wife, offered more support and patience than I had a right to ask for; free with information about a period she remembers, Shirley remained a wise adviser. Richard Balkin, the series editor, always was on top of things. Continuously generous with ideas and encouragement, Rick helped keep me going. Ross Gregory Kalamazoo, Michigan

xv

CHAPTER 1 The Americans: Population and Immigration The American Population The fact that first catches one’s attention in surveying the American population in the 44 years between 1946 and 1990 is the great growth in numbers: from 141 million to 253 million. In passing the 250 million mark by 1990, the nation had reached these milestones: It had increased its population by 100 million in 40 years (it had taken approximately 140 years to reach the first 100 million); national population had doubled in 60 years and trebled in 90—since the start of the 20th century. Reasons for growth continued to be the two standard ones—birthrate and immigration—and they served to complement each other. The United States experienced a remarkable surge in the birthrate during the first 18 years of the period, the era of the “baby boom,’’ and when the surge halted and a sharp decline set in during the late 1960s, immigration, which had begun to pick up, increased markedly in the 1970s and 1980s. The rate of population growth did

slow at the end of the period, but because it was calculated on a large population base, the numbers in absolute terms increased considerably in the 1980s. Population trends underwent some changes in the era and in other cases extended patterns long under way. After struggling for decades to catch up, the number of females passed males for the first time in 1946. More males continued to be born each year, but a longer life expectancy allowed females to sustain their lead and in most years to add to it. People continued a trend of moving from countryside to city, although the pace of change slowed in the 1970s and 1980s. Directional shifts were to the South and, more strikingly, to the West. California passed NewYork in the 1960s as the most populous state; it so rapidly extended its lead that by 1990 California stood—in the fashion that New York for decades had done—as clearly the giant of the states. Between 1950 and 1990 California’s population increased by more than 19 million, a number larger than the total population of any other state. Two other warm-

TABLE 1.1 ESTIMATED POPULATION (IN THOUSANDS) OF THE UNITED STATES BY SEX AND BY COLOR, 1946–1990 Sex

Color

Year

Total

Male

Female

White

Nonwhite

Males per 100 Females

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

141,389 144,126 146,631 149,188 151,684

70,631 71,946 73,130 74,335 75,539

70,757 72,180 73,502 74,853 76,146

126,565 129,059 131,308 133,598 135,814

14,824 15,067 15,323 15,590 15,865

... ... ... ... 98.6

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

154,287 156,954 159,565 162,391 165,275

76,792 78,061 79,295 80,647 82,030

77,496 78,893 80,270 81,744 83,246

138,049 140,344 142,073 144,891 147,428

16,241 16,616 17,003 17,423 17,848

... ... ... ... ...

1956 1957 1958 1959

168,221 171,274 174,141 177,830

83,434 84,892 86,236 87,995

84,786 86,382 87,905 89,834

149,923 152,512 154,922 157,655

18,297 18,766 19,220 20,175

... ... ... ...

Black

Other

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

180,671 183,691 186,538 189,242 191,889

89,320 90,740 92,066 93,303 94,518

91,352 92,952 94,472 95,939 97,371

160,023 162,533 164,885 167,104 169,257

19,066 19,437 19,852 20,255 20,672

1,642 1,721 1,801 1,882 1,960

97.1 ... ... ... ...

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

194,303 196,560 198,712 200,706 202,677

95,609 96,620 97,564 98,426 99,287

98,694 99,941 101,148 102,280 103,390

171,205 172,998 174,695 176,246 177,782

21,064 21,434 21,780 22,117 22,431

2,034 2,129 2,237 2,343 2,464

... ... ... ... ...

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

204,879 206,230 208,232 209,851 211,391

100,266 100,439 101,450 102,229 102,945

104,613 105,791 106,782 107,622 108,446

179,491 180,411 181,894 183,032 184,083

22,787 23,084 23,465 23,796 24,113

2,600 2,725 2,875 3,031 3,193

94.8 ... ... ... ...

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

213,051 214,669 216,432 218,228 220,099

103,723 104,477 105,240 106,120 107,006

109,328 110,192 111,092 112,108 113,093

185,158 186,227 187,365 188,657 189,968

24,436 24,772 25,112 25,487 25,863

3,457 3,670 3,865 4,083 4,268

... ... ... ... ...

(continued)

1

TABLE 1.1

(continued) Sex Male

Color Female

Year

Total

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

227,061 229,307 231,821 234,023 236,158

110,528 111,423 112,644 113,721 114,765

116,533 117,884 119,177 120,302 121,393

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

238,740 241,078 243,419 245,807 248,240 252,688

116,161 117,360 118,539 119,738 120,982 122,431

122,579 123,718 124,880 126,069 127,258 127,875

White

Nonwhite Black

Other

Males per 100 Females

195,185 196,635 198,037 199,420 200,708

26,771 27,133 27,508 27,867 28,212

5,150 5,657 6,039 6,505 6,757

94.5 ... ... ... ...

202,031 203,430 204,770 206,129 207,540 209,150

28,569 28,942 29,325 29,723 30,143 30,620

7,324 7,506 7,872 8,256 8,618 9,523

... ... ... ... ... 95.1

Note: Population estimates vary in accordance with time of year the estimates were made (usually April or July), with revisions that the Census Bureau will make over the years with acquisition of new information, and with differences in the population that is being counted. For the most part the estimates in this table came in July. The categories of Total, Male, and Female during the years 1946–90 and the categories White, Black, and Other during the years 1946–70 included armed forces overseas. For the years 1971–90 the categories White, Black, and Other included armed forces at home but not abroad. After the year 1960 the classification of Other came to mean largely American Indians and Alaska Natives and Asians and Pacific Islanders. Hispanics of course were counted but not given a separate category in this table. Hispanics, so noted the Census Bureau, could belong to any race. Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, The Statistical History of the United States, From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1976), 8—a reproduction of the Census Bureau’s Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1978 (Washington, D.C., 1978), 28; Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1980 (Washington, D.C., 1980), 28; Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1987 (Washington, D.C., 1987), 17; Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 16–18.

RUSH TO THE SUNBELT: PERCENT INCREASE IN POPULATION BY STATE, 1950–1990 NH 114% ME VT 33% 49%

WA 96% MT 36% OR 82%

ND 6% MN 45%

ID 73% WY 73%

NV 573% CA 175%

UT 158%

AZ 400%

NM 140%

MI 46%

IA 5%

NE 20% CO 159%

WI 40%

SD 8%

NY 20%

OH 36%

IN IL 33% 41%

KS 31% OK 47%

TX 130%

MO 30%

PA 13%

KY 27%

WV VA -7% 86%

MA 25% RI CT 27% 63% NJ 63% DE MD 109% 102%

NC 65%

TN 51% AR 27%

SC 68% AL MS 24% 37%

GA 93%

LA 68% FL 363%

AK 347%

HI 128%

2

Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

Sunbelt states

Levittown, Pennsylvania, offered affordable, look-alike suburban mass-produced housing, popular in the immediate postwar period. Pioneer communities built by the Wm. Levitt Company were called Levittowns. (National Archives)

TABLE 1.2 POPULATION DENSITY AND AREA OF RESIDENCEa, 1940–1990 Total Percent Population per Percent Year Population Increase Square Mile Urban

Percent Rural

1940 1950 1960

131,669,275 150,697,361 179,323,175

7.2 14.5 18.5

44.2 50.7 50.6

56.5 64.0 69.9

43.5 36.0 30.1

1970 1980 1990

203,302,031 226,545,805 248,709,873

13.4 11.4 9.8

57.4 64.0 70.3

73.5 73.7 75.2

26.5 26.3 24.8

a Resident population only, as of April 1. Source: John W. Wright, ed., The New York Times 1998 Almanac (New York, 1997), 267.

weather states, Florida and Texas, came next in absolute growth. In proportionate terms, Nevada, which increased its population nearly eight times, ranked first, although the numbers remained small. Population of states of the East and Midwest grew slowly, and in the upper Great Plains it grew hardly at all during more than 40 years. One state,West Virginia, lost population between 1946 and 1990. While the United States continued to be a predominantly white nation at the start of the 1990s, with more than 80 percent of the people identified as Caucasian, trends of the era—especially the 1970s and 1980s—revealed steady and rapid growth in the proportion of people placed in other racial or ethnic classifications. Projections suggested that these trends would accelerate in years to come. If the face of America was changing, so also were its faces.

The Americans: Population and Immigration

3

TABLE 1.3

U.S. RESIDENT POPULATION, BY REGION AND DIVISION, 1960–1990a Population (millions)

Percent Distribution

Region and Division

1960

1970

1980

1985

1990

1960

1970

1980

1985

1990

United States

179.3

203.3

226.5

237.9

248.7

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Northeast New England Middle Atlantic

44.7 10.5 34.2

49.1 11.8 37.2

49.1 12.3 36.8

49.9 12.7 37.1

50.8 13.2 37.6

24.9 5.9 19.1

24.1 5.8 18.3

21.7 5.5 16.2

21.0 5.4 15.6

20.4 5.3 15.1

Midwest East North Central West North Central

51.6 36.2 15.4

56.6 40.3 16.3

58.9 41.7 17.2

58.8 41.4 17.4

59.7 42.0 17.7

28.8 20.2 8.6

27.8 19.8 8.0

26.0 18.4 7.6

24.7 17.4 7.3

24.0 16.9 7.1

South South Atlantic East South Central West South Central

55.0 26.0 12.1 17.0

62.8 30.7 12.8 19.3

75.4 37.0 14.7 23.7

81.4 40.2 15.0 26.3

85.4 43.6 15.2 26.7

30.7 14.5 6.7 9.5

30.9 15.1 6.3 9.5

33.3 16.3 6.5 10.5

34.2 16.9 6.3 11.0

34.4 17.5 6.1 10.7

West Mountain Pacific

28.1 6.9 21.2

34.8 8.3 26.5

43.2 11.4 31.8

47.8 12.7 35.1

52.8 13.7 39.1

15.6 3.8 11.8

17.1 4.1 13.1

19.1 5.0 14.0

20.1 5.4 14.7

21.2 5.5 15.7

a Resident population only, as of April 1, except in 1985. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract 1993, 23.

TABLE 1.4 UNITED STATES POPULATION BY STATE, 1940–1990 State Total U.S.

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

132,164,569

151,325,798

179,323,175

203,302,031

226,542,203

248,709,873

Ala. Alaska Ariz. Ark. Calif.

2,832,961 72,524 499,261 1,949,387 6,907,387

3,061,743 128,643 749,587 1,909,511 10,586,223

3,266,740 226,167 1,302,161 1,786,272 15,717,204

3,444,354 302,583 1,775,399 1,923,322 19,971,069

3,894,025 401,851 2,716,546 2,286,357 23,667,764

4,040,587 550,043 3,665,228 2,350,725 29,760,021

Colo. Conn. Del. D.C. Fla.

1,123,296 1,709,242 266,505 663,091 1,897,414

1,325,089 2,007,280 318,085 802,178 2,771,305

1,753,947 2,535,234 446,292 763,956 4,951,560

2,209,596 3,032,217 548,104 756,668 6,791,418

2,889,735 3,107,564 594,338 638,432 9,746,961

3,294,394 3,287,116 666,168 606,900 12,937,926

Ga. Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind.

3,123,723 422,770 524,873 7,897,241 3,427,796

3,444,578 499,794 588,637 8,712,176 3,934,224

3,943,116 632,772 667,191 10,081,158 4,662,498

4,587,930 769,913 713,015 11,110,285 5,195,392

5,462,982 964,691 944,127 11,427,409 5,490,214

6,478,216 1,108,229 1,006,749 11,430,602 5,544,159

Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine

2,538,268 1,801,028 2,845,627 2,363,880 847,226

2,621,073 1,905,299 2,944,806 2,683,516 913,774

2,757,537 2,178,611 3,038,156 3,257,022 969,265

2,825,368 2,249,071 3,220,711 3,644,637 993,722

2,913,808 2,364,236 3,660,324 4,206,116 1,125,043

2,776,755 2,477,574 3,685,296 4,219,973 1,227,928

Md. Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss.

1,821,244 4,316,721 5,256,106 2,792,300 2,183,796

2,343,001 4,690,514 6,371,766 2,982,483 2,178,914

3,100,689 5,148,578 7,823,194 3,413,864 2,178,141

3,923,897 5,689,170 8,881,826 3,806,103 2,216,994

4,216,933 5,737,093 9,262,044 4,075,970 2,520,770

4,781,468 6,016,425 9,295,297 4,375,099 2,573,216

Mo. Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H.

3,784,664 559,456 1,315,834 110,247 491,524

3,954,653 591,024 1,325,510 160,083 533,242

4,319,813 674,767 1,411,330 285,278 606,921

4,677,623 694,409 1,485,333 488,738 737,681

4,916,762 786,690 1,569,825 800,508 920,610

5,117,073 799,065 1,578,385 1,201,833 1,109,252

N.J. N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak.

4,160,165 531,818 13,479,142 3,571,623 641,935

4,835,329 681,187 14,830,192 4,061,929 619,636

6,066,782 951,023 16,782,304 4,556,155 632,446

7,171,112 1,017,055 18,241,391 5,084,411 617,792

7,365,011 1,303,302 17,558,165 5,880,095 652,717

7,730,188 1,515,069 17,990,455 6,628,637 638,800

6,907,612 2,336,434 1,089,684 9,900,180 713,346 1,899,804

7,946,627 2,233,351 1,521,341 10,498,012 791,896 2,117,027

9,706,397 2,328,284 1,768,687 11,319,366 859,488 2,382,594

10,657,423 2,559,463 2,091,533 11,800,766 949,723 2,590,713

10,797,603 3,025,487 2,633,156 11,864,720 947,154 3,120,729

10,847,115 3,145,585 2,842,321 11,881,643 1,003,464 3,486,703

Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C.

4


1940

1950

1960

1980

1990

S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah Vt.

State

642,961 2,915,841 6,414,824 550,310 359,231

652,740 3,291,718 7,711,194 688,862 377,747

680,514 3,567,089 9,579,677 890,627 389,881

1970 666,257 3,926,018 11,198,655 1,059,273 444,732

690,768 4,591,023 14,225,513 1,461,037 511,456

696,004 4,877,185 16,986,510 1,722,850 562,758

Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

2,677,773 1,736,191 1,901,974 3,137,587 250,742

3,318,680 2,378,963 2,005,552 3,434,575 290,529

3,966,949 2,853,214 1,860,421 3,951,777 330,066

4,651,448 3,413,244 1,744,237 4,417,821 332,416

5,346,797 4,132,353 1,950,186 4,705,642 469,557

6,187,358 4,866,692 1,793,477 4,891,769 453,588

Note: Excludes military and overseas population. Source: John W. Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 291.

Once-thriving small towns, such as Welch,West Virginia, shown here in 1946, experienced decline and abandonment in ensuing decades. (National Archives) The Americans: Population and Immigration

5

Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the American Population

TABLE 1.5 U.S. POPULATION ABROAD, BY SELECTED COUNTRY, 1989 Country Totalb

Totala

Resident U.S. Citizens

U.S. Tourists

4,244.4 84.2 19.5 53.8 650.7 23.5 27.7 65.7

2,241.7 67.0 12.8 41.5 259.7 20.8 23.7 48.8

1,164.5 13.9 4.5 11.6 388.9 2.1 3.6 15.6

26.2 134.3 67.5

17.8 44.6 54.0

2.7 88.5 9.6

Hong Kong Ireland Israel Italy Japan

25.0 36.5 93.7 157.7 94.6

17.3 31.8 77.2 83.4 34.9

6.6 4.4 15.9 49.4 8.6

Jerusalem Mexico Netherlands Panama Philippines

35.3 690.2 32.5 27.1 197.6

30.0 425.4 22.5 7.5 120.6

5.8 262.0 3.9 0.3 3.4

Portugal Saudi Arabia South Korea Spain Switzerland

32.1 25.1 54.9 106.1 36.5

20.8 20.1 11.7 61.4 24.1

8.6 1.2 15.5 26.0 11.4

Turkey United Kingdom Venezuela West Germany

23.0 256.9 24.0 627.8

11.2 170.1 20.3 152.3

2.8 42.5 3.3 12.3

Australia Belgium Brazil Canada Colombia Costa Rica Dominican Republic Egypt France Greece

a Includes Dept. of Defense noncombatant employees, other U.S. government employees, and dependents of U.S. military and civilian employees, not shown separately. b

Includes other countries not shown separately. Note: Population figures are in thousands, as of May 1. Source: Mark Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1992 (New York, 1991), 76.

The following tables, all based on information supplied by the Bureau of the Census, indicate that the government’s methods of classifying the population, and the terminology as well, have changed to correspond with the change in the volume of diversity in the people of the United States. For much of American history the population consisted largely of two groups: a huge majority of whites and a small but conspicuous minority group of African Americans, numbering much of the time in the neighborhood of 10 percent of the population. The rest of the people frequently were combined in a catchall category of Others or All Others. The Census Bureau at times might distinguish between the two or three largest groups, but the category as a whole represented a tiny minority—in 1940 about one-half of 1 percent—of the total population. Terminology reflected popular usage at a given time. Negro usually identified black people until the 1960s; after that point black came to be used interchangeably with Afro or African American. In the 1960s the numbers of the nonwhite, or perhaps more accurately the non–Anglo, groups began to increase markedly, with sharp growth in the movement from specified parts of Latin America and impressive growth in the numbers of the American Indian population. The 1970s and, even more remarkable, the 1980s produced still larger increases in the numbers of people of various minority groups but notably from Latin America and East Asia. The Census Bureau moved to establish new forms of identification for general groups and subclassifications within the group. Asian and Pacific Islander became generic labels. Native American often replaced Indian, although both terms continued to be used. Hispanics replaced Spanish-origin as a label for people from Latin America, and the bureau hastened to explain that Hispanics did not constitute a race but could belong to any race. In 1980 Hispanics received their own category, with an understanding that they might be counted twice—as Hispanics and as members of another racial category. The most striking population trend in the last quarter of the 20th century, a change expected to continue into the 21st, was the steady proportional decline in the category of whites, the people who had controlled and in large measure defined the United States since its inception.This trend corresponded with and was enhanced by a modest but steady increase in the proportion of black Americans and a much more dramatic surge in numbers of people with roots in Latin America (the Hispanics) and East Asia. Encouraged by self-appointed spokespeople for the subgroups and by politicians who curried their support, an emphasis on ethnicity or race as opposed to national identity or even individualism produced ramifications in politics, economics, and virtually every area of American society. Diversity and multiculuralism had become buzzwords, taken at face value as virtuous, as the nation entered the final decade of the century.

TABLE 1.6 RESIDENT POPULATION BY RACE, 1940–1970 Nonwhite Year

White

Black

Indian

Japanese

Chinese

All Other

Total Nonwhite

1940 1950 1960 1970

118,214,870 134,942,028 158,831,732 177,748,975

12,865,518 15,042,286 18,871,831 22,580,289

333,969 343,410 523,591 792,730

126,947 141,768 464,332 591,290

77,504 117,629 237,292 435,062

50,467 110,240 394,397 1,063,580

13,454,405 15,755,333 20,491,443 25,462,951

Source: Dan Golenpaul, ed., Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook, 1974 (New York, 1973), 708.

6


TABLE 1.7 RESIDENT POPULATION BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1980–1990 Race/ Hispanic Origina

1980 Number

1990

Percent

Number

Change Percent

Number

Percent

Total Population 226,545,805 100.0 248,709,873 100.0 22,164,068 White 188,371,622 Black 26,495,025 American Indian, Eskimo, 1,420,400 or Aleut Asian or Pacific Islander 3,500,439 Other Race 6,758,319 Hispanic origin 14,608,673

83.1 199,686,070 11.7 29,986,060

80.3 11,314,448 12.1 3,491,035

0.6

1,959,234

0.8

1.5 3.0 6.4

7,273,662 9,804,847 22,354,059

2.9 3.9 9.0

538,834

9.8 6.0 13.2 37.9

3,773,223 107.8 3,046,528 45.1 7,745,386 53.0

a

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Source: Wright, New York Times Almanac 1998, 268.

TABLE 1.8

RESIDENT POPULATION OF THE STATES BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1990

State

Total

White

Black

American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut

United States

Asian or Pacific Islander

Other

Hispanic Origina

248,709,873

199,586,070

29,986,050

1,959,234

7,273,662

9,804,847

22,354,059


4,040,587 550,043 3,665,228 2,350,725 29,760,021

2,975,797 415,492 2,963,186 1,944,744 20,524,327

1,020,705 22,451 110,524 373,912 2,208,801

16,506 85,698 203,527 12,773 242,164

21,797 19,728 55,206 12,530 2,845,659

5,782 6,674 332,785 6,766 3,939,070

24,629 17,803 688,338 19,876 7,687,938


3,294,394 3,287,116 666,168 606,900 12,937,926

2,905,474 2,859,353 535,094 179,667 10,749,285

133,146 274,269 112,460 399,604 1,759,534

27,776 6,654 2,019 1,466 36,355

59,862 50,698 9,057 11,214 154,302

168,136 96,142 7,538 14,949 238,470

424,302 213,116 15,820 32,710 1,574,143


6,478,216 1,108,229 1,006,749 11,430,602 5,544,159

4,600,148 369,616 950,451 8,952,978 5,020,700

1,746,565 27,195 3,370 1,694,273 432,092

13,348 5,099 13,780 21,836 12,720

75,781 685,236 9,365 285,311 37,617

42,374 21,083 29,783 476,204 41,030

108,922 81,390 52,927 904,446 98,788


2,776,755 2,477,574 3,685,296 4,219,973 1,227,928

2,683,090 2,231,986 3,391,832 2,839,138 1,208,360

48,090 143,076 262,907 1,299,281 5,138

7,349 21,965 5,769 18,541 5,998

25,476 31,750 17,812 41,099 6,683

12,750 48,797 6,976 21,914 1,749

32,647 93,670 21,984 93,044 6,829


4,781,468 6,016,425 9,295,297 4,375,099 2,573,216

3,393,964 5,405,374 7,756,086 4,130,395 1,633,461

1,189,899 300,130 1,291,706 94,944 915,057

12,972 12,241 55,638 49,909 8,525

139,719 143,392 104,983 77,886 13,016

44,914 155,288 86,884 21,965 3,157

125,102 287,549 201,596 53,884 15,931


5,117,073 799,065 1,578,385 1,201,833 1,109,252

4,486,228 741,111 1,480,558 1,012,695 1,087,433

548,208 2,381 57,404 78,771 7,198

19,835 47,679 12,410 19,637 2,134

41,277 4,259 12,422 38,127 9,343

21,525 3,635 15,591 52,603 3,144

61,702 12,174 36,969 124,419 11,333


7,730,188 1,515,069 17,990,455 6,628,637 638,800

6,130,465 1,146,028 13,385,255 5,008,491 604,142

1,036,825 30,210 2,859,055 1,456,323 3,524

14,970 134,355 62,651 80,155 25,917

272,521 14,124 693,760 52,166 3,462

275,407 190,352 989,734 31,502 1,755

739,861 579,224 2,214,026 76,726 4,665

Ohio. Okla Oreg. Pa. R.I.

10,847,115 3,145,585 2,842,321 11,881,643 1,003,464

9,521,756 2,583,512 2,636,787 10,520,201 917,375

1,154,826 233,801 46,178 1,089,795 38,861

20,358 252,240 38,496 14,733 4,071

91,179 33,563 69,269 137,438 18,325

58,996 42,289 51,591 119,476 24,832

139,696 86,160 112,707 232,262 45,752

(continued) The Americans: Population and Immigration

7

TABLE 1.8

(continued)

Total

White

Black

American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut

S.C. S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah

3,486,703 696,004 4,877,185 16,986,510 1,722,850

2,406,974 637,515 4,048,068 12,774,762 1,615,845

1,039,884 3,258 778,035 2,021,632 11,576

8,246 50,575 10,039 65,877 24,283

22,382 3,123 31,839 319,459 33,371

9,217 1,533 9,204 1,804,780 37,775

30,551 5,252 32,741 4,339,905 84,597

Vt. Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

562,758 6,187,358 4,866,692 1,793,477 4,891,769 453,588

555,088 4,791,739 4,308,937 1,725,523 4,512,523 427,061

1,951 1,162,994 149,801 56,295 244,539 3,606

1,696 15,282 81,483 2,458 39,387 9,479

3,215 159,053 210,958 7,459 53,583 2,806

808 58,290 115,513 1,742 41,737 10,636

3,661 160,288 214,570 8,489 93,194 25,751

State


Other

Hispanic Origina

aPersons

of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1995, 294.

TABLE 1.9 MINORITY POPULATION OF THE 50 LARGEST METROPOLITAN AREAS BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1990 Percent of Total Metropolitan Population Total Population (1,000)

Black

American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut

NewYork–Northern N.J.–Long Island, N.Y.–N.J.–Conn.–Pa. CMSA Los Angeles–Riverside–Orange County, Calif. CMSA Chicago–Gary–Kenosha, Ill.–Ind.–Wis. CMSA Washington, D.C.–Baltimore, Md.–Va.–W.Va. CMSA San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose, Calif. CMSA

19,342 14,532 8,240 6,727 6,253

17.8 8.5 19.0 25.2 8.6

0.2 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.7

4.6 9.2 3.1 3.7 14.8

14.7 32.9 10.9 3.9 15.5

Philadelphia–Wilmington–Atlantic City, Pa.–N.J.–Del.–Md. CMSA Boston–Brockton–Nashua, Mass.–N.H.–Me.–Conn. CMSA Detroit–Ann Arbor–Flint, Mich. CMSA Dallas–Fort Worth,Tex. CMSA Houston–Galveston–Brazonia,Tex. CMSA

5,893 5,455 5,187 4,037 3,731

18.4 4.8 20.5 14.0 17.9

0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3

2.0 2.5 1.4 2.4 3.5

3.8 4.4 2.0 13.0 20.7

Miami–Fort Lauderdale, Fla. CMSA Seattle–Tacoma–Bremerton,Wash. CMSA Atlanta, Ga. MSA Cleveland–Akron, Ohio CMSA Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minn.–Wis. MSA

3,193 2,970 2,960 2,860 2,539

18.5 4.5 25.2 15.6 3.5

0.2 1.3 0.2 0.2 1.0

1.4 6.1 1.8 1.0 2.6

33.3 3.0 2.0 1.9 1.5

San Diego, Calif. MSA St. Louis, Mo.–Ill. MSA Pittsburgh, Pa. MSA Phoenix–Mesa, Ariz. MSA Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, Fla. MSA

2,498 2,493 2,395 2,238 2,068

6.4 17.0 7.5 3.5 9.0

0.8 0.2 0.1 2.2 0.3

7.9 1.0 0.7 1.6 1.1

20.4 1.1 0.6 17.0 6.7

Denver–Boulder–Greeley, Colo. CMSA Cincinnati–Hamilton, Ohio–Ky.–Ind. CMSA Portland–Salem, Oreg.–Wash. CMSA Milwaukee–Racine,Wis. CMSA Kansas City, Mo.–Kans. MSA

1,980 1,818 1,793 1,607 1,583

5.0 11.2 2.5 13.3 12.7

0.7 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.5

2.2 0.8 3.2 1.2 1.1

12.8 0.5 4.0 3.8 2.9

Sacramento–Yolo, Calif. CMSA Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News,Va.–N.C. MSA Indianapolis, Ind. MSA Columbus, Ohio MSA San Antonio,Tex. MSA

1,481 1,443 1,380 1,345 1,325

6.9 28.3 13.2 12.1 6.7

1.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4

7.7 2.4 0.8 1.6 1.2

11.6 2.3 0.9 0.8 47.4

New Orleans, La. MSA Orlando, Fla. MSA Buffalo–Niagara Falls, N.Y. MSA Charlotte–Gastonia–Rock Hill, N.C.–S.C. MSA Hartford, Conn. MSA

1,285 1,225 1,189 1,162 1,158

34.8 12.0 10.3 19.9 8.3

0.3 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.2

1.7 1.7 0.9 1.0 1.5

4.2 8.2 2.0 0.9 6.9

Metropolitan Areaa

8


Asian and Pacific Islander

Hispanic Originb

Percent of Total Metropolitan Population Total Population (1,000)

Black



Hispanic Originb

1,134 1,072 1,062 1,050 1,007

3.3 1.0 8.9 19.3 40.7

0.3 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.2

1.8 2.4 1.3 0.7 0.8

4.2 5.8 3.0 0.7 0.8

Nashville,Tenn. MSA Oklahoma City, Okla. MSA Dayton–Springfield, Ohio MSA Louisville, Ky.–Ind. MSA Grand Rapids–Muskegon–Holland, Mich. MSA

985 959 951 949 938

15.5 10.5 13.3 12.9 6.9

0.2 4.8 0.2 0.2 0.6

1.0 1.9 1.0 0.6 0.9

0.8 3.6 0.8 0.6 3.1

Jacksonville, Fla. MSA Richmond–Petersburg,Va. MSA West Palm Beach–Boca Raton, Fla. MSA Albany–Schenectady–Troy, N.Y. MSA Raleigh–Durham–Chapel Hill, N.C. MSA

907 866 864 861 856

20.0 29.2 12.5 4.6 24.2

0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3

1.7 1.4 1.0 1.2 1.6

2.5 1.1 7.7 1.7 1.3

Metropolitan Areaa Providence–Fall River–Warwick, R.I.–Mass. MSA Salt Lake City–Ogden, Utah MSA Rochester, N.Y. MSA Greensboro—Winston-Salem—High Point, N.C. MSA Memphis,Tenn.–Ark.–Miss. MSA

a

Metropolitan areas are shown in rank order of total population of consolidated metropolitan statistical areas (CMSA) and metropolitan statistical areas (MSA). Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract:1993, 41.

b

TABLE 1.10 NEW YORK CITY—POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 1980 AND 1987 Percent Distribution Race/Ethnicity Hispanic White Black Asian

1980

1987

19.9 52.6 24.0 3.5

22.9 46.4 25.3 5.5

Source: Reddy, Record of Hispanic Americans, 181.

TABLE 1.11 MIAMI/DADE COUNTY—HISPANIC POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, 1988 Total Population

Hispanic Population

Percent Hispanic

1,900,000

861,000

45.3

Hispanic Ethnicity

Population Percent

Cubans Nicaraguans Puerto Ricans Columbians Mexicans Other Hispanics

67.0 9.5 6.0 5.0 2.0 10.0

Source: Reddy, Record of Hispanic Americans, 180–181.

TABLE 1.12 LOS ANGELES—POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 1990 L.A. Region Percent Distribution Race/Ethnicity

South Central

Koreatown

City as a Whole

Hispanic Black White Asian

45.1 55.5 10.5 1.1

67.9 5.0 25.4 26.5

39.9 14.0 52.8 9.8


Black Americans The black population underwent numerous changes in the United States during the last half of the 20th century.The number nearly doubled in the 40 years after 1950, a rate of growth substantially larger than the national average. In the 1980s the rate more than doubled the growth rate of white Americans. By 1990 black people made up more than 12 percent of all Americans. Increase in the black population in large measure stemmed from a high birthrate and steady lengthening of life expectancy.Although a modest black immigration to the United States persisted in these years, it did not begin to keep pace with inward movement of other minority groups, and immigration was the reason why other groups showed a higher growth rate than African Americans. Black people continued to move from the South to the North and West, but at no point did fewer than 50 percent live in the southern states. The pace of departure virtually came to a halt after 1970, and the start of the 1990s gave signs of a reverse migration back to the South. Movement from countryside to town continued at a higher rate than for whites. The most profound change in the status of black people came not because of numbers or movement, although both of these factors would affect developments that took place. The postwar period had little more than begun when the nation had to confront the contradiction between its avowed principles and the reality of the black experience in the United States. It was, as Swedish sociologist Gunnar Myrdal gently put it, “an American dilemma.’’ Resolving that dilemma, or even defining it, began the Civil Rights movement, which shook the nation to its foundations. Solving the problems having to do with its black citizens was one of the largest, if not the largest, domestic issues in the 45 years that followed the Second World War. And as the nation moved into the 1990s, it still was. The Americans: Population and Immigration

9

At the start of the postwar era, most African Americans lived in the South, where many still were sharecroppers. (Library of Congress)

TABLE 1.13 AFRICAN-AMERICAN POPULATION TOTALS Year

Total Population

Black Population

Percentage

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

131,669,275 151,325,798 179,323,175 203,211,926 226,545,805 248,709,873

12,865,518 15,044,937 18,871,831 22,580,289 26,495,025 29,986,060

9.8 9.9 10.5 11.1 11.7 12.1

Source: Mypho Mabunda, ed., The African-American Almanac (Detroit, 1997), 536.

TABLE 1.14 REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BLACK POPULATION, 1940–1990

TABLE 1.15 PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION LIVING IN URBAN TERRITORY, 1940–1990

Percentage of Blacks Living in Year

Northeast

North Central

South

West

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

10.6 13.4 16.0 19.2 18.3 18.7

11.0 14.8 18.3 20.2 20.1 19.1

77.0 68.0 59.9 53.0 53.0 52.8

1.3 3.8 5.8 7.5 8.5 9.4

Source: Mabunda, African-American Almanac, 534.

10


a

Year

Total Population

Blacks

Whites

1940 1950 1960a 1970 1980 1990

56.5 64.0 69.9 73.5 73.7 75.2

48.6 62.4 73.2 81.3 85.3 87.2

57.5 64.3 69.5 72.4 71.3 71.9

Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii. Source: Mabunda, African-American Almanac, 535.

TABLE 1.16

BLACK POPULATION CHANGE IN 14 CENTRAL CITIES AND THEIR SUBURBS, 1960–1980 Black Population

Area

Percent Change in Black Population

Percent Black

1980

1960

1970

1980

1960–70

1970–80

1,784,000 1,197,000 759,000 639,000

14.0 22.9 28.9 26.4

21.2 32.7 43.7 33.6

25.2 39.8 63.1 37.8

53.3 35.7 37.0 23.5

7.0 8.6 14.9 22.3

Los Angeles Washington, D.C. Houston Baltimore New Orleans

505,000 448,000 440,000 431,000 308,000

13.5 53.9 22.9 34.7 37.2

17.9 71.1 25.7 46.4 45.0

17.0 70.3 27.6 54.8 55.3

50.4 30.6 47.2 29.1 14.5

0.3 216.6 39.1 2.6 15.3

Memphis Atlanta Dallas Cleveland St. Louis

308,000 283,000 266,000 251,000 206,000

37.0 38.3 19.0 28.6 28.6

38.9 51.3 24.9 38.3 40.9

47.6 66.6 29.4 43.8 47.4

31.6 36.8 62.7 14.8 18.6

26.9 12.1 26.3 212.7 218.8

285,000 231,000 128,000 245,000

4.8 2.9 3.7 6.1

5.9 3.6 3.6 6.6

7.6 5.6 4.5 8.1

55.5 65.5 26.1 34.1

31.4 79.9 32.5 28.9

Los Angeles Washington, D.C. Houston Baltimore New Orleans

398,000 390,000 36,000 126,000 79,000

3.6 6.4 12.9 7.0 15.9

6.2 7.9 8.8 7.0 12.5

9.6 16.6 6.2 9.1 12.6

105.0 98.3 6.2 25.6 26.9

65.7 134.9 21.4 54.9 40.4

Memphis Atlanta Dallas Cleveland St. Louis

37,000 179,000 50,000 94,000 201,000

40.2 8.5 8.3 0.8 6.0

31.7 6.2 5.2 3.4 7.7

21.0 14.2 4.7 7.1 10.9

234.8 23.5 1.1 452.8 65.0

218.4 222.4 35.4 110.6 50.4

Central Cities New York City Chicago Detroit Philadelphia

Suburbs (1970 definition) New York City Chicago Detroit Philadelphia

Source: Harry A. Ploski and James Williams, The Negro Almanac: A Reference Work on the African Americans (Detroit, 1989), 493.

TABLE 1.17 THIRTY CITIES WITH LARGEST PROPORTION OF BLACK POPULATION, 1980 City Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

City East St. Louis, Ill. East Cleveland, Ohio East Orange, N.J. Compton, Calif. Prichard, Ala. Gary, Ind. Washington, D.C. Atlanta, Ga. Detroit, Mich. Newark, N.J. Inglewood, Calif. Birmingham, Ala. New Orleans, La. Baltimore, Md. Camden, N.J. Richmond,Va. Wilmington, Del. Savannah, Ga. Mount Vernon, N.Y. Richmond, Calif. Memphis,Tenn. Albany, Ga. Durham, N.C. Jackson, Miss. Oakland, Calif. Charleston, S.C. St. Louis, Mo. Trenton, N.J. Portsmouth,Va. Macon, Ga.

Percentage of Total 95.6 86.5 83.5 74.8 73.7 70.8 70.3 66.6 63.1 58.2 57.3 55.6 55.3 54.8 53.0 51.3 51.1 49.0 48.7 47.9 47.6 47.6 47.1 47.0 46.9 46.5 45.6 45.4 45.1 44.5

TABLE 1.18 TWENTY U.S. CITIES WITH LARGEST BLACK POPULATIONS, 1990 Black Overall Rank Rank

City

Total Black Population Population Percent (‘000s) (‘000s) Black

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1 3 7 5 2

New York, N.Y. Chicago, Ill. Detroit, Mich. Philadelphia, Pa. Los Angeles, Calif.

7,322.6 2,783.7 1,028.0 1,585.6 3,485.4

2,102.5 1,087.7 777.9 631.9 487.7

29 39 76 40 14

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

4 13 19 18 25

Houston,Tex. Baltimore, Md. Washington, D.C. Memphis,Tenn. New Orleans, La.

1,630.6 736.0 606.9 610.3 496.9

458.0 435.8 399.6 334.7 307.7

28 59 66 55 62

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

8 36 24 17 34

Dallas,Tex. Atlanta, Ga. Cleveland, Ohio Milwaukee,Wis. St. Louis, Mo.

1,006.9 394.0 505.6 628.1 396.7

297.0 264.3 235.4 191.3 188.4

30 67 47 31 48

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

60 12 15 39 56

Birmingham, Ala. Indianapolis, Ind. Jacksonville, Fla. Oakland, Calif. Newark, N.J.

266.0 742.0 673.0 372.2 275.2

168.3 165.6 163.9 163.3 160.9

63 22 24 44 59

Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1995, 296.

Source: Ploski and Williams, Negro Almanac, 502.


11

TABLE 1.19 TEN STATES WITH THE LARGEST BLACK POPULATION, 1990 Percent of Total Population

Rank

State

Black Population

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

N.Y. Calif. Tex. Fla. Ga.

2,859,055 2,208,801 2,021,632 1,759,534 1,746,565

15.9 7.4 11.9 13.6 27.0

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Ill. N.C. La. Mich. Md.

1,694,273 1,456,323 1,299,281 1,291,706 1,189,899

14.8 22.0 30.8 13.9 24.9

TABLE 1.20 TEN STATES WITH HIGHEST PERCENTAGE OF BLACK POPULATION, 1990 State

Total Population

Black Population

Percent Black

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Miss. La. S.C. Ga. Ala.

2,573,216 4,219,973 3,486,703 6,478,216 4,040,587

915,057 1,299,281 1,039,884 1,746,565 1,020,705

35.6 30.8 29.8 27.0 25.3

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Md. N.C. Va. Del. Tenn.

4,781,468 6,628,637 6,187,358 666,168 4,877,185

1,189,899 1,456,323 1,162,994 112,460 778,035

24.9 22.0 18.8 16.9 16.0

Rank



Some African Americans established enclaves in sections of large northern cities, as exemplified by this bar in the South Side of Chicago. (Library of Congress)

12


TABLE 1.21

BLACK POPULATION OF METROPOLITAN AREAS, 1980–1990 Metropolitan Area

1980

1990

Number Change

Percent Change

New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island, N.Y.–N.J.–Conn. CMSA Chicago–Gary–Lake County, Ill.–Ind.–Wis. CMSA Los Angeles–Anaheim–Riverside, Calif. CMSA Philadelphia–Wilmington–Trenton, Pa.–N.J.–Del.–Md. CMSA Washington, D.C.–Md.–Va. MSA

2,825,102 1,557,287 1,059,124 1,032,882 870,657

3,289,465 1,547,725 1,229,809 1,100,347 1,041,934

464,363 29,562 170,685 67,465 171,277

16.4 20.6 16.1 6.5 19.7

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Detroit–Ann Arbor, Mich. CMSA Atlanta, Ga. MSA Houston–Galveston–Brazoria,Tex. CMSA Baltimore, Md. MSA Miami–Fort Lauderdale, Fla. CMSA

921,168 525,676 564,838 560,952 394,042

975,199 736,153 665,378 616,065 591,440

54,031 210,477 100,540 55,113 197,398

5.9 40.0 17.8 9.8 50.1

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Dallas–Fort Worth,Tex. CMSA San Francisco–Oakland, San Jose, Calif. CMSA Cleveland–Akron–Lorain, Ohio CMSA New Orleans, La. MSA St. Louis, Mo.–Ill. MSA

419,030 468,477 425,861 409,076 407,918

554,616 537,753 441,940 430,470 423,182

135,586 69,276 16,079 21,394 15,264

32.4 14.8 3.8 5.2 3.7

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Memphis,Tenn.–Ark.–Miss. MSA Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News,Va. MSA Richmond–Petersburg,Va. MSA Birmingham, Ala. MSA Boston–Lawrence–Salem, Mass.–N.H. MSA

364,253 326,102 221,456 240,271 176,265

399,011 398,093 252,340 245,726 239,059

34,758 71,991 30,884 5,455 62,794

9.5 22.1 13.9 2.3 35.6

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Charlotte–Gastonia–Rock Hill, N.C.–S.C. MSA Milwaukee–Racine,Wis. CMSA Cincinnati–Hamilton, Ohio–Ky.–Ind. CMSA Kansas City, Mo.–Kans. MSA Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, Fla. MSA

194,056 164,571 185,728 180,161 148,465

231,654 214,182 203,607 200,508 185,503

37,598 49,611 17,879 20,347 37,038

19.4 30.1 9.6 11.3 24.9

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Raleigh-Durham, N.C. MSA Greensboro–Winston-Salem–High Point, N.C. MSA Jacksonville, Fla. MSA Pittsburgh–Beaver Valley, Pa. CMSA Indianapolis, Ind. MSA

146,624 162,134 156,025 181,644 157,254

183,447 182,284 181,265 178,857 172,326

36,823 20,150 25,240 22,787 15,072

25.1 12.4 16.2 21.5 9.6

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Jackson, Miss. MSA Columbus, Ohio MSA San Diego, Calif. MSA Baton Rouge, La. MSA Charleston, S.C. MSA

149,457 137,287 104,452 137,581 133,478

167,899 164,602 159,306 156,509 153,227

18,442 27,315 54,854 18,928 19,749

12.3 19.9 52.5 13.8 14.8

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Nashville,Tenn. MSA Columbia, S.C. MSA Orlando, Fla. MSA Mobile, Ala. MSA Dayton–Springfield, Ohio MSA

137,348 117,906 90,595 126,835 118,294

152,349 137,906 133,308 130,512 126,238

15,001 20,000 42,713 3,677 7,944

10.9 17.0 47.1 2.9 6.7

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Louisville, Ky.–Ind. MSA Augusta, Ga.–S.C. MSA Seattle–Tacoma,Wash. CMSA Buffalo–Niagara Falls, N.Y. CMSA Shreveport, La. MSA

120,610 106,729 87,976 113,975 110,478

124,761 123,482 123,266 121,956 116,892

4,151 16,753 35,290 7,981 6,414

3.4 15.7 40.1 7.0 5.8

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Greenville–Spartanburg, S.C. MSA West Palm Beach–Boca Raton–Delray Beach, Fla. MSA Montgomery, Ala. MSA Sacramento, Calif. MSA Little Rock–North Little Rock, Ark. MSA

97,561 77,576 94,494 61,594 90,783

111,334 107,705 105,196 101,940 101,862

13,773 30,129 10,702 40,346 11,079

14.1 38.8 11.3 65.5 12.2


American Indians The post–Second World War period answered one question with respect to Native Americans: Indians would survive as a distinct racial/ethnic group. The issue had seemed somewhat in doubt early in the century.The Indian population had dropped below a quarter million in 1910, and in 1950 there were barely 350,000. But after that point the numbers showed impressive growth: Aided, perhaps, by a more effective or liberal standard for counting Native Americans, the total reached the million mark in the 1970s and the second million (or close to it) came by 1990.The largest numbers resided in four southwestern states: California, Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico.The government still recognized some 300 reservations, but only 25 percent of the Indians

lived on them (another 10 percent lived in special Indian areas in Oklahoma).Whether the people lived on reservations or within the general populace, virtually all faced markedly substandard living conditions (although they were higher off the reservation than on them). Many Indians were determined to preserve their identity even though the traditional lifestyle no longer seemed conducive to maintaining an acceptable standard of living. Near the end of the period there emerged some propensity toward creative economic ventures, such as specialized manufacturing projects or the opening of gambling casinos on tribal lands. If these activities offered jobs and a measure of self-sufficiency for the tribes involved, they did not seem to provide much in support of traditional Indian culture during this time. The Americans: Population and Immigration

13

TABLE 1.22 POPULATION OF AMERICAN INDIANS AND THE TOTAL UNITED STATES POPULATION, 1940–1980 American Indian

Total United States

Date

Size

% Change from Previous Decade

1940 1950 1960

345,252 357,499 523,591

0.6 3.5 46.5

131,669,275 151,325,798 179,323,175

7.2 14.5 18.5

1970 1980 1990

792,730 1,366,676 1,959,234

51.4 72.4 37.9

203,302,031 226,545,805 248,709,873

13.4 11.4 9.8

Size

% Change from Previous Decade

State

1940

1950

1960

1970


16 198 11,394 25 12,265 2,349

30 1,056 13,816 160 12,196 3,237

57 2,155 21,076 181 14,297 4,020

229 4,853 33,386 751 18,924 4,980

1980 968 9,211 58,186 1,555 29,320 7,057

Source: Reddy, Record of Native Americans, 344–346.

TABLE 1.24 PERCENTAGE OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES WHO ARE URBAN, 1940–1980

Source: Marlita A. Reddy, Statistical Record of Native North Americans (Detroit, 1995), 344.

Year

Percent

TABLE 1.23 AMERICAN INDIAN POPULATION, BY STATE, 1940–1980

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

7.2 13.4 27.9 44.5 49.0

Source: Reddy, Record of Native Americans, 347.

State

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980


464 11,283 55,076 278 18,675

928 14,089 65,761 533 19,947

1,276 14,444 83,387 580 39,014

2,443 16,276 95,812 2,014 91,018

7,502 21,869 152,498 9,364 198,275


1,360 201 14 190 690

1,567 333 ? 330 1,011

4,238 923 597 587 2,504

8,336 2,222 656 956 6,677

17,734 4,431 1,307 996 19,134

State

American Indian Population

United States

1,959,234


106 ? 3,537 624 223

333 ? 3,800 1,443 438

749 472 5,231 4,704 948

2,347 1,126 6,687 11,413 3,887

7,442 2,655 10,418 15,846 7,682


16,506 85,698 203,527 12,773 242,164


733 1,165? 44 1,801 1,251

1,084 2,381 234 409? 1,522

1,708 5,069 391 3,587 1,879

2,992 8,672 1,531 5,294 2,195

5,369 15,256 3,518 11,969 4,057


27,776 6,654 2,019 1,466 36,335


73 769 6,282 12,528 2,134

314 1,201 7,000 12,533 2,502

1,538 2,118 9,701 15,496 3,442

4,239 4,475 16,854 23,128 4,113

7,823 7,483 39,734 34,831 6,131


13,348 5,099 13,780 21,836 12,720


330 16,841 3,401 4,747 50

547 16,606 3,954 5,025 74

1,723 21,181 5,545 6,681 135

5,405 27,130 6,624 7,933 361

12,129 37,598 9,145 13,306 1,297


7,349 21,965 5,769 18,541 5,998


211 34,510 8,651 22,546 10,114

621 41,901 10,640 3,742? 10,766

1,699 56,255 16,491 38,129 11,736

4,706 72,788 28,355 44,406 14,369

8,176 107,338 38,967 64,536 20,120


12,972 12,241 55,638 49,909 8,525

Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I.

338 63,125 4,594 441 196

1,146 53,769 5,820 1,141 385

1,910 64,689 8,026 2,122 932

6,654 98,468 13,510 5,533 1,390

11,985 169,292 26,591 9,179 2,872


19,835 47,679 12,410 19,637 2,134


1,234 23,347 114 1,103 3,611

554 23,344 339 2,736 4,201

1,098 25,794 638 5,750 6,961

2,241 32,365 2,276 17,957 11,273

5,665 44,948 5,013 39,740 19,158


14,970 134,355 62,651 80,155 25,917

14


TABLE 1.25 AMERICAN INDIAN POPULATION, 1990

State

American Indian Population


20,358 252,420 38,496 14,733 4,071


8,246 50,575 10,039 65,877 24,283

Vt. Va. Wash. W.Va Wis. Wyo.

1,696 15,282 81,483 2,458 39,387 9,479

TABLE 1.26 AMERICAN INDIAN POPULATION GROWTH COMPARED WITH OTHER GROUPS, 1980–1990 Race/Ethnicity

% Population Increase

Asian Hispanic Native American Black White

107.8 53.0 37.9 13.2 6.0

Source: Reddy, Record of Native Americans, 346.

Source: Mark T. Mattson, Atlas of the 1990 Census (New York, 1992), 125.

Asian and Pacific Islanders One of the most striking and least expected changes in the American population after 1945 was the extent of growth, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, in the number of people with antecedents in East Asia. At the start of the period only American Indians had smaller numbers in the Census Bureau’s catchall grouping of “others.’’ Half of the Asian Americans then were Japanese and the remainder mostly Chinese and Filipino. Immigration restrictions helped keep the total small, at least until the 1960s. Thereafter the numbers began to pick up. Immigration policy changed beginning in 1965. In some measure the growth followed the foreign policy of the United States.The closer American involvement with an Asian nation—for either friendly or hostile purposes—the more likely people from that nation would end up in the United States. The process probably began with the Philippine Islands and extended to Japan and Korea in the 1950s, and afterward the nations of Southeast Asia beginning in the 1970s. In the 1980s the traffic came as almost a torrent.This surge grew out of several factors: continued fallout from social and political upheaval, especially in the Indochinese peninsula, an opening of the Peoples Republic of China to the world, and a general globalization of social and economic change—forces that sharpened the appeal of the nation that still symbolized modernization and opportunity and which had perhaps the world’s most liberal immigration laws. The largest rate of population growth after 1980 came by far in people classified as Asian/Pacific Islander. Half of these people lived in four states: California, Hawaii, New York, and Texas, with California easily leading the way. Overwhelmingly, the Asian Americans were city dwellers.

TABLE 1.27

Daniel K. Inouye, U.S. senator from Hawaii, symbolized the resilience of Japanese Americans in recovering from a harsh wartime experience. (Courtesy Senator Daniel K. Inouye)

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES BY ASIAN ETHNICITY, BY DECADE, 1940–1990

Year

Total, U.S.

Total Asian

Chinese

Filipino

Asian Indian

Japanese

Korean

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

132,165,129 151,325,798 179,323,175 203,211,926 226,545,805 248,709,873

489,984 599,091 877,934 1,429,562 3,466,421 7,273,662

106,334 150,005 237,292 436,062 812,178 1,645,472

98,535 122,707 176,310 343,060 781,894 1,406,770

... ... ... ... 387,223 815,447

285,115 326,379 464,332 591,290 716,331 847,562

8,568 7,030 ... 69,150 357,393 798,849

Vietnamese ... ... ... ... 245,025 614,547

Source: Susan B. Gall and Timothy L. Gall, eds., Statistical Record of Asian Americans (Detroit, 1993), 572.


15

TABLE 1.28

ASIAN/PACIFIC ISLANDER POPULATION INCREASE, 1980–1990 U.S. Population, Total

Race/Ethnicity

Increase, 1980–1990

1990

1980

Number

248,709,873

226,545,805

22,164,068

9.8

7,273,662

3,726,440

3,547,222

95.2

Chinese Filipino Japanese Asian Indian Korean

1,645,472 1,406,770 847,562 815,447 798,849

812,178 781,894 716,331 387,223 357,393

833,294 624,876 131,231 428,224 441,456

102.6 79.9 18.3 110.6 123.5

Vietnamese Cambodian Hmong Laotian Thai

614,547 147,411 90,082 149,014 91,275

245,025 16,044 5,204 47,683 45,279

369,522 131,367 84,878 101,331 45,996

150.8 818.8 1,631.0 212.5 101.6

Hawaiian Guamanian Samoan Other Asian/Pacific Islander

211,014 62,964 49,345 343,910

172,346 39,520 30,695 69,625

38,668 23,444 18,650 274,285

22.4 59.3 60.8 393.9

Total U.S. Population Asian/Pacific Islander American

Percent

Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 569.

ASIAN POPULATION, 1990 WA

OR

MA

NY MI PA NJ NV

IL VA

CA

MD

TX FL

Population Concentrations (by state)

Percent of Total Population

AK 60%

2%–4%

8%–16%

Under 2%

Over 100,000

HI

16


4%–8%

Over 1,000,000

TABLE 1.29

ASIAN AND PACIFIC ISLANDER POPULATION OF METROPOLITAN AREAS, 1980–1990 Population Change, 1980–1990

Rank

Metropolitan Areas

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Los Angeles–Anaheim–Riverside, Calif. CMSA San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose, Calif. CMSA New York–Northern N.J.–Long Island, N.Y.–N.J.–Conn. CMSA Honolulu, Hawaii MSA Chicago–Gary–Lake County, Ill.–Ind.–Wis. CMSA

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

1980

Washington, D.C.–Md.–Va. MSA San Diego, Calif. MSA Seattle–Tacoma,Wash. CMSA Houston–Galveston–Brazoria,Tex. CMSA Philadelphia–Wilmington–Trenton, Penn.–N.J.–Del.–Md. CMSA

1990

Number

Percent

561,876 454,647 370,731 456,465 144,626

1,339,048 926,961 873,213 526,459 256,050

777,172 472,314 502,482 69,994 111,424

138.3 103.9 135.5 15.3 77.0

83,008 89,861 78,255 53,056 53,291

202,437 198,311 164,286 132,131 123,458

119,429 108,450 86,031 79,075 70,167

143.9 120.7 109.9 149.0 131.7

Source: Wright, New York Times Almanac 1998, 274.

TABLE 1.30 CALIFORNIA AND HAWAII CITIES AND PLACES RANKED BY ASIAN/PACIFIC ISLANDER POPULATION, 1990 Asian/Pacific Islander City or Place: California

Total Population

Population

Los Angeles San Francisco San Jose San Diego Long Beach Sacramento

3,485,398 723,959 782,248 1,110,549 429,433 369,365

341,807 210,876 152,815 130,945 58,266 55,426

9.8 29.1 19.5 11.8 13.6 15.0

372,242 210,943 354,202 92,311 60,738

54,931 48,087 44,358 40,466 34,898

14.8 22.8 12.5 43.8 57.5

Oakland Stockton Fresno Daly City Monterey Park

Percent of Total

Hispanics The term Hispanics or generally Latino/as refers to people whose origins are in part the former Spanish American empire.The territory includes Mexico, Central and South America (except for Brazil, which belonged to a Portuguese empire), and the Caribbean islands (except Haiti). Hispanic Americans have their roots in all the countries of this area, although people of different national origin congregated in different parts of the United States. Large numbers of Mexican Americans, who constituted more than half of all Hispanics, lived in California and Texas, where by 1990 they made up one-fourth of the population of each state. Many Puerto Ricans lived in New York City. Cuban Americans resided in large numbers in Florida, notably Miami, a legacy of the revolution of Fidel Castro and his troubles with the United States. Before 1970 the number of Hispanics, most of them from Mexico, was small and probably undercounted by the Census Bureau. Hispanics

Asian/Pacific Islander City or Place: Hawaii

Total Population

Population

Percent of Total

Honolulu Hilo Waipahu Kaneohe Pearl City

365,272 37,808 31,435 35,448 30,993

257,552 26,533 26,340 23,261 22,968

70.5 70.2 83.8 65.6 74.1

29,967 29,359 36,818 16,889 17,386

20,317 17,973 14,395 13,809 12,013

67.8 61.2 39.1 81.8 69.1

Waimalu Mililani Kailua Kahului Wahiawa

Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 605, 609.

then did not merit a separate category, and the Census Bureau failed to count third- or fourth-generation people or individuals who did not present a Spanish surname. Since 1970 and especially since 1980, the number has grown in dramatic fashion, the change traceable partly to different methods of counting but more to a higher birthrate and immigration from Hispanic countries, notably Mexico. If recent patterns continued, it was anticipated that Hispanics would become the largest minority group, surpassing African Americans in the first decade of the 21st century, if not earlier. Numbers allowed Hispanics to speak with a louder voice and be noticed. Descendant from a different culture or cultures, speaking a different language (at least in the first generation), Hispanics became an important part in the many controversies about multiculturalism in the 1980s and 1990s. As with groups from the outside in the past, the extent to which they would change the dominant culture, be absorbed by it, or persist as distinct subcultures remained to be seen. The Americans: Population and Immigration

17

TABLE 1.31

HISPANIC POPULATION, BY STATE AND ETHNICITY, 1990 Hispanic Population

State Total U.S.

Total

Total Population

Number

Percent

Mexicans

Puerto Ricans

Cubans

Other Ethnicities

248,709,873

22,354,059

9.00

13,495,938

2,727,754

1,043,932

5,086,435


4,040,587 550,043 3,665,228 2,350,725 29,760,021

24,629 17,803 688,338 19,876 7,687,938

0.60 3.20 18.80 0.80 25.80

9,509 9,321 616,195 12,496 6,118,996

3,553 1,938 8,256 1,176 126,417

1,463 277 2,079 494 71,977

10,104 6,267 61,808 5,710 1,370,548


3,294,394 3,287,116 666,168 606,900 12,937,926

424,302 213,116 15,820 32,710 1,574,143

12.90 6.50 2.40 5.40 12.20

282,478 8,393 3,083 2,981 161,499

7,225 146,842 8,257 2,204 247,010

2,058 6,386 728 1,241 674,052

132,541 51,495 3,752 26,284 491,582


6,478,216 1,108,229 1,006,749 11,430,602 5,544,159

108,922 81,390 52,927 904,446 98,788

1.70 7.30 5.30 7.90 1.80

49,182 14,367 43,213 623,688 66,736

17,443 25,778 665 146,059 14,021

7,818 558 164 18,204 1,853

34,479 40,687 8,885 116,495 16,178


2,776,755 2,477,574 3,685,296 4,219,973 1,227,928

32,647 93,670 21,984 93,044 6,829

1.20 3.80 0.60 2.20 0.60

24,386 75,798 8,692 23,452 2,153

1,270 3,570 3,682 6,180 1,250

488 1,403 1,075 8,569 350

6,503 12,899 8,535 54,843 3,076


4,781,468 6,016,425 9,295,297 4,375,099 2,573,216

125,102 287,549 201,596 53,884 15,931

2.60 4.80 2.20 1.20 0.60

18,434 12,703 138,312 34,691 6,718

17,528 151,193 18,538 3,286 1,304

6,367 8,106 5,157 1,539 497

82,773 115,547 39,589 14,368 7,412


5,117,073 799,065 1,578,385 1,201,833 1,109,252

61,702 12,174 36,969 124,419 11,333

1.20 1.50 2.30 10.40 1.00

38,274 8,362 29,665 85,287 2,362

3,959 437 1,159 4,272 3,299

2,108 124 480 5,988 578

17,361 3,251 5,665 28,872 5,094


7,730,188 1,515,069 17,990,455 6,628,637 638,800

739,861 579,224 2,214,026 76,726 4,665

9.60 38.20 12.30 1.20 0.70

28,759 328,836 93,244 32,670 2,878

320,133 2,635 1,086,601 14,620 386

85,378 903 74,345 3,723 63

305,591 246,850 959,836 25,713 1,338


10,847,115 3,145,585 2,842,321 11,881,643 1,003,464

139,696 86,160 112,707 232,262 45,752

1.30 2.70 4.00 2.00 4.60

57,815 63,226 85,632 24,220 2,437

45,853 4,693 2,764 148,988 13,016

3,559 1,043 1,333 7,485 840

32,469 17,198 22,978 51,569 29,459


3,486,703 696,004 4,877,185 16,986,510 1,722,850

30,551 5,252 32,741 4,339,905 84,597

0.90 0.80 0.70 25.50 4.90

11,028 3,438 13,879 3,890,820 56,842

6,423 377 4,292 42,981 2,181

1,652 44 2,012 18,195 456

11,448 1,393 12,558 387,909 25,118


562,758 6,187,358 4,866,692 1,793,477 4,891,769 453,588

3,661 160,288 214,570 8,489 93,194 25,751

0.70 2.60 4.40 0.50 1.90 5.70

725 33,044 155,864 2,810 57,615 18,730

659 23,698 9,345 897 19,116 325

168 6,268 2,281 261 1,679 63

2,109 97,278 47,080 4,521 14,784 6,633

Source: Marlita A. Reddy, Statistical Record of Hispanic Americans (Detroit, 1993), 162–163.

18


These Hispanic migrant workers labor near Salinas, California. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

TABLE 1.32 METROPOLITAN AREAS WITH LARGE NUMBERS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN POPULATION, 1990

Metropolitan Area

Number of Those with Percent of Hispanic Total Metro Origin (1,000) Area

Hispanic Origin Los Angeles–Riverside–Orange County, Calif. CMSA New York–Northern N.J.–Long Island, N.Y.–N.J.–Conn.–Pa. CMSA Miami–Fort Lauderdale, Fla. CMSA San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose, Calif. CMSA Chicago–Gary–Kenosha, Ill.–Ind.–Wis. CMSA

4,779

32.9

2,843 1,062

14.7 33.3

970

15.5

898

10.9

Houston–Galveston–Brazoria,Tex. CMSA San Antonio,Tex. MSA Dallas–Fort Worth,Tex. CMSA San Diego, Calif. MSA El Paso,Tex. MSA Phoenix–Mesa, Ariz. MSA

773 628 526 511 412 380

20.7 47.4 13.0 20.4 69.6 17.0

McAllen–Edinburg–Mission,Tex. MSA Fresno, Calif. MSA Washington, D.C.–Baltimore, Md.–Va.–W.Va. CMSA Denver–Boulder–Greeley, Colo. CMSA Boston–Brockton–Nashua, Mass.–N.H.–Me.–Conn. CMSA

327 267

85.2 35.3

259 254

3.9 12.8

239

4.4

Metropolitan Area

Number of Those with Percent of Hispanic Total Metro Origin (1,000) Area

Hispanic Origin Philadelphia–Wilmington–Atlantic City, Pa.–N.J.–Del.–Md. CMSA Albuquerque, N.Mex. MSA Brownsville–Harlingen–San Benito, Tex. MSA Corpus Christi,Tex. MSA

224 218

3.8 37.1

213 182

81.9 52.0

Austin–San Marcos,Tex. MSA Sacramento–Yolo, Calif. CMSA Tucson, Ariz. MSA Bakersfield, Calif. MSA Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, Fla. MSA Laredo,Tex. MSA

177 172 163 152

20.9 11.6 24.5 28.0

139 125

6.7 93.9

Visalia–Tulare–Porterville, Calif. MSA Salinas, Calif. MSA Stockton–Lodi, Calif. MSA Detroit–Ann Arbor–Flint, Mich. CMSA Orlando, Fla. MSA

121 120 113 105 101

38.8 33.6 23.4 2.0 8.2

Source: Statistical Abstract, 1993, 40.


19

HISPANIC POPULATION, 1990

NY ID CT

WY

NJ NV IL CA

Washington, D.C.

CO

AZ

NM

TX FL

Percent of Total Population

Population Concentrations (by state)

30%–40%

5%–10%

20%–30%

Under 5%

Over 1,000,000

HI

Immigration Always a major force in the history of the United States and the life of its people, immigration underwent new changes and sparked new controversies in the last half of the 20th century.The period began as an extension of themes in effect for approximately two decades. Regular immigration, controlled by tight and discriminatory legislation, was not large. As had been the case during the entire history of the United States, most of it was white and of European origin. Even though previous subjective limitations were reconfirmed, with slight modifications, in new legislation in 1952, the numbers started to pick up, due largely to special measures designed to address exceptional social and international circumstances. A “war brides’’ provision, designed to cover foreign spouses of American service personnel abroad—a product of the war or immediate postwar period—alone authorized some 125,000 new entrants. The troubled aftermath of the war and start of the cold war in Europe moved Congress to pass other special refugee and displaced persons laws that circumvented regular immigration policy. In the 1950s Europeans continued to make up more than 50 percent of the people coming to the United States. The era of the 1960s, however, produced major changes and the beginning of large new themes. In the first place, Congress in 1965 20


Over 4,000,000

10%–20%

replaced the previous racially based quota system with a new law that increased absolute maximum immigration, treated each nation (and presumably races and other groups) equally, and established an elaborate program of preferences for gaining entry into the United States. The law of 1965 and amendments that followed provided a foundation for substantive changes in the racial and ethnic mix of immigration, but political and economic upheaval in many parts of the world continued to be important factors. After the 1960s the absolute number of immigrants increased markedly. Legislation limited normal immigration to 270,000 per year (with no more than 20,000 from a single country), but there were so many exceptions to the law that the average in the 1980s was more than 700,000 per year, the second highest decade in U.S. history. A law passed in 1990 envisioned a maximum of 675,000 per year, but virtually no one believed that immigration would be held to that number in any year, and signals suggested that the 1990s well could bring the largest immigration ever recorded. The period also produced a dramatic shift in the origin—and thus the racial or ethnic characteristics—of the immigrants. Europeans (most of whom were white people), who historically had dominated the lists, made up less than 20 percent of the total in the 1970s and fewer than 10 percent in the 1980s. Since the start of the 1960s the

origin of the largest number of immigrants has been Latin America. Hispanics made up more than 50 percent of legal immigrants in the 1960s and nearly 50 percent in the two decades that followed. Starting in the 1970s, second largest has been immigration from Asia. Asians and Hispanics together composed at least 80 percent of immigration in the 1970s and nearly 90 percent in the 1980s, and they were changing the face of America—its politics, its economics, and almost every aspect of society. Feeling continued to grow that the United States, perhaps alone among nations of the world, had lost control of its borders, if not immigration policy in general; that such huge numbers were a financial burden and (considering the attitudes, racial and ethnic content of

TABLE 1.33

the immigrants) were divisive and were a threat to the basic fabric of the nation. Most pressure for controls came from affected states— California, for example—and especially at a time when Republicans, who did not expect much support from racial and ethnic minority groups, were in power. Purists pointed to Emma Lazarus’s noble inscription on the Statue of Liberty, and they received support from some politicians, mostly Democrats, accustomed to receiving immigrant or family-of-immigrant votes. Hispanics opposed virtually all restriction on immigration or on immigrants already living in the United States. Some demographers insisted that because of falling birthrates in the general populace, only immigration would allow the nation to maintain its population.

IMMIGRATION BY REGION OF LAST RESIDENCE, 1941–1990 Europea

Asiab

Americasc

Africa

Intercensal Decade

Total

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

1941–1950 1951–1960 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990

1,035,039 2,515,479 3,321,677 4,493,314 7,338,062

60.0 52.7 33.8 17.8 9.6

621,023 1,325,657 1,122,727 799,810 705,630

3.1 6.1 12.9 35.3 38.3

32,086 153,444 428,496 1,586,140 2,817,391

0.7 0.6 0.9 1.8 2.6

7,245 15,093 29,895 80.880 192,212

Percent 34.3 39.6 51.7 44.1 48.7

Number 355,019 996.130 1,717,307 1,981,551 3,580,928

a

Includes all of former USSR except 1941–1950 when the country was divided into European and Asian USSR. Includes Southwest Asia, e.g., Iraq, Israel, Syria, Turkey. c Includes Canada, Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 442–443. b

TABLE 1.34 IMMIGRATION RATE BY DECADE, 1941–1990 Period

Total Number ( ‘000s)

Rate per 1,000 U.S. Population

1941–50 1951–60 1961–70 1971–80 1981–90

1,035 2,515 3,322 4,493 7,338

0.7 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.9

Highest Rate 1901–10

8,795

10.4


TABLE 1.35 IMMIGRATION AS PERCENT OF POPULATION GROWTH, 1945–1990 Period

Percent

1945–49 1950–54 1955–59 1960–64 1965–69 1971–80 1981–90

10.2 10.6 10.7 12.5 19.7 19.4 32.8

Highest Percent 1901–10

39.6



21

TABLE 1.36 IMMIGRATION BY REGION AND LAST COUNTRY OF RESIDENCE, 1940–1980 Region and Country of Last Residencea All Countries

1941– 1950

1951– 1960

1961– 1970

1971– 1980

Region and Country of Last Residencea Japan Koreae Philippines Turkey Vietnam Other Asia

1,035,039

2,515,479

3,321,677

4,493,314

621,147

1,325,727

1,123,492

800,368

28,329 24,860 3,469 12,189 8,347 5,393

103,743 67,106 36,637 18,575 918 10,984

26,022 20,621 5,401 9,192 3,273 9,201

16,028 9,478 6,550 5,329 6,023 4,429

38,809 226,578 8,973 19,789 57,661

51,121 477,765 47,608 48,362 185,491

45,237 190,796 85,969 32,966 214,111

25,069 74,414 92,369 11,490 129,368

Netherlands Norway-Sweden Norway Sweden Poland Portugal Romania

14,860 20,765 10,100 10,665 7,571 7,423 1,076

52,277 44,632 22,935 21,697 9,985 19,588 1,039

30,606 32,600 15,484 17,116 53,539 76,065 2,531

10,492 10,472 3,941 6,531 37,234 101,710 12,393

South America

Soviet Union Spain Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia Other Europe

571 2,898 10,547 139,306 1,576 8,486

671 7,894 17,675 202,824 8,225 16,350

2,465 44,659 18,453 213,822 20,381 11,604

38,961 39,141 8,235 137,374 30,540 9,282

Africa

37,028

153,249

427,642

1,588,178

Europe Austria-Hungary Austria Hungary Belgium Czechoslovakia Denmark France Germany Greece Ireland Italy

Asia Chinab Hong Kongc India Iran Israeld

TABLE 1.37

16,709 ... 1,761 1,380 476

Europe

34,764 75,007 27,189 10,339 29,602

Canada & Newfoundland Mexico Caribbean Cuba Dominican Republic Haiti Jamaica Other Caribbean Central America El Salvador Other Central America

1951– 1960

1961– 1970

1971– 1980

1,555 107 4,691 798 ... 9,551

46,250 6,231 19,307 3,519 335 21,572

39,988 34,526 98,376 10,142 4,340 63,369

49,775 267,638 354,987 13,399 172,820 244,783

354,804

996,944

1,716,374

1,982,735

171,718 60,589 49,725 26,313

377,952 299,811 123,091 78,948

413,310 453,937 470,213 208,536

169,939 640,294 741,126 264,863

5,627 911 ... 16,874

9,897 4,442 8,869 20,935

93,292 34,499 74,906 58,980

148,135 56,335 137,577 134,216

21,665

44,751

101,330

134,640

5,132 16,533

5,895 38,856

14,992 86,338

34,436 100,204

21,831

91,628

257,954

295,741

Argentina Colombia Ecuador Other South America

3,338 3,858 2,417 12,218

19,486 18,048 9,841 44,253

49,721 72,028 36,780 99,425

29,897 77,347 50,077 138,420

Other America

29,276

59,711

19,630

995

7,367

14,092

28,954

80,779

14,551

12,976

25,122

41,242

142

12,491

93

12

Oceania Not specified a

Data for 1940–79 refers to country of last residence and data for 1980 refers to country of birth. b Beginning in 1957 includes Taiwan. c Data not reported separately until 1952. d Data not reported separately until 1949. e Data not reported separately until 1948. Source: Reddy, Record of Hispanic Americans, 34–35.

124,326 113,467 164,134 45,136 37,713

IMMIGRATION BY REGION AND SELECTED COUNTRY OF LAST RESIDENCE, 1981–1990

Region and Country of Last Residence All Countries

9,657 15,541 1,973 3,388 25,476

North America

1941– 1950

1981–1990

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

7,338,062

570,009

601,708

601,516

643,025

1,090,924

1,536,483

761,550

69,526

69,224

67,967

71,854

94,338

124,026

Austria-Hungary Austria Hungary Belgium Czechoslovakia Denmark France

24,885 18,340 6,545 7,066 7,227 5,370 32,353

2,521 1,930 591 775 684 465 3,530

2,604 2,039 565 843 588 544 3,876

2,401 1,769 632 859 715 515 3,809

3,200 2,493 707 706 744 561 3,637

3,586 2,845 741 705 526 617 4,101

4,733 3,774 959 827 578 674 4,265

Germany Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands

91,961 38,377 31,969 67,254 12,238

10,028 3,487 1,288 6,351 1,235

9,853 3,497 1,757 5,711 1,263

9,923 4,087 3,032 4,666 1,303

9,748 4,690 5,121 5,332 1,152

10,419 4,588 6,983 11,089 1,253

12,152 3,887 9,740 16,246 1,515

Norway-Sweden Norway Sweden Poland Portugal Romania Soviet Union

15,182 4,164 11,018 83,252 40,431 30,857 57,677

1,557 386 1,171 7,409 3,811 3,764 1,532

1,564 367 1,197 6,540 3,804 3,809 1,001

1,540 372 1,168 5,818 4,009 2,741 1,139

1,669 446 1,223 7,298 3,290 2,915 1,408

1,809 556 1,253 13,279 3,861 3,535 4,570

1,930 552 1,378 18,364 4,066 3,496 14,779

22


Region and Country of Last Residence Spain Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia Other Europe Asia

1981–1990

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

20,433 8,849 159,173 18,762 8,234

2,278 980 15,591 1,521 719

2,232 923 16,129 1,915 771

2,056 964 15,889 1,793 708

1,972 920 14,667 2,039 785

2,179 1,072 16,961 2,464 741

2,744 1,288 19,054 2,778 910

2,738,157

255,164

258,546

248,293

254,745

296,420

321,879

China Hong Kong India Iran Israel

346,747 98,215 250,786 116,172 44,273

33,095 10,795 24,536 12,327 4,279

32,389 9,930 24,808 12,031 5,124

32,669 8,785 26,394 10,323 4,753

34,300 11,817 25,312 9,846 4,444

39,284 15,257 28,599 13,027 5,494

40,639 14,367 28,809 14,905 5,906

Japan Korea Philippines Turkey Vietnam Other Asia

47,085 333,746 548,764 23,233 280,782 648,354

4,552 34,791 53,137 1,690 20,367 55,595

4,444 35,164 61,492 1,975 15,010 56,179

4,711 35,397 58,315 2,080 13,073 51,793

5,085 34,151 61,017 2,200 12,856 53,717

5,454 33,016 66,119 2,538 13,174 74,458

6,431 30,964 71,279 3,205 14,755 90,619

3,615,225

225,519

254,078

265,026

294,906

672,639

1,050,527

156,938 1,655,843

16,354 61,290

16,060 66,753

16,741 72,511

15,821 95,170

18,294 405,660

24,642 680,186

872,051

79,374

98,527

100,615

110,949

87,597

112,635

144,578 252,035 138,379 208,148 128,911

17,115 23,861 9,872 18,277 10,249

30,787 26,216 12,356 18,916 10,252

27,363 24,947 14,643 22,430 11,232

16,610 27,195 34,858 20,474 11,812

9,523 26,744 13,341 23,572 14,417

9,436 42,136 19,869 23,667 17,527

468,088

28,447

30,086

30,366

31,311

101,273

146,243

213,539 254,549

10,093 18,354

10,881 19,205

10,627 19,739

12,043 19,268

57,628 43,645

79,601 66,642

461,847 27,327 122,849 56,315 255,356

40,052 1,925 11,802 4,601 21,724

42,650 2,318 11,213 4,518 24,601

44,782 2,192 11,482 4,656 26,452

41,646 2,556 10,153 4,736 24,201

59,812 3,766 14,918 7,587 33,541

86,821 5,953 23,783 12,474 44,611

North America Canada & Newfoundland Mexico Caribbean Cuba Dominican Republic Haiti Jamaica Other Caribbean Central America El Salvador Other Central America South America Argentina Colombia Ecuador Other South America Other America Africa Oceania

458

2

2

11

9

3

...

176,893

15,236

15,500

15,730

17,124

22,485

32,797

45,205

4,552

4,352

4,437

4,324

4,956

6,804

1,032

12

8

63

72

86

450

Not specified


TABLE 1.38 ASIAN IMMIGRATION BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1941–1990 Decade

Chinese

Japanese

Asian Indian

Korean

Filipino

Vietnamese

1941–1950 1951–1960 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990

16,709 9,657a 34,764 12,326 366,622b

1,555 46,250 39,988 49,775 43,248

1,761 1,973 27,189 164,134 261,841

... 6,231 34,526 271,956 338,824

4,691 19,307 98,376 360,216 495,271

... ... 3,788 179,681 401,419

a

Beginning in 1957, Chinese total includes immigration from Taiwan. Beginning in 1982, Taiwan was no longer included in the Chinese total. From 1982 to 1990 immigration from Taiwan was 118,105. These immigrants were not included in the total for China. Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 451.

b

Preference System Immigration Act of 1965 Exempt from preference requirements and numerical quotas: spouses, unmarried minor children, and parents of U.S. citizens. 1. Unmarried adult children of U.S. citizens. 20 percent. 2. Spouses and unmarried adult children of permanent resident aliens. 20 percent (26 percent after 1980). 3. Members of the professions and scientists and artists of exceptional ability. 10 percent: requires certification from U.S. Department of Labor. 4. Married children of U.S. citizens. 10 percent.

5. Brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens over 21. 24 percent. 6. Skilled and unskilled workers in occupations for which labor is in short supply in the U.S. 10 percent: requires certification from U.S. Department of Labor. 7. Refugees from communist or communist-dominated countries, or the Middle East. 6 percent. 8. Nonpreference: applicants not entitled to any of the above. (Since there are more preference applicants than can be accommodated, this has not been used.) Source: Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York, 1990), 342.


23

TABLE 1.39 IMMIGRATION FROM MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND CARIBBEAN, 1941–1990 Year

Mexico

Total Caribbean

Central America

1941–50 1951–60 1961–70 1971–80 1981–90

60,589 299,811 453,994 640,294 1,655,843

49,725 123,091 470,213 741,126 872,051

21,665 44,751 101,330 134,640 468,088

61,290 66,753 72,511 95,170 405,660 680,186

79,374 98,527 100,615 110,949 87,597 112,635

28,447 30,086 30,366 31,311 101,273 146,243

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

The United States generally has been liberal and generous in its response to oppression in foreign lands. Even so, the existence of so much upheaval and so many refugees in the last half of the 20th century necessitated some selectivity in identifying situations worthy of a new act of Congress.These decisions and the absense of others has led to charges of discrimination, perhaps based on racial prejudice, as in the case of Haitians fleeing their country in the 1980s. The problem partly stemmed from the fact that refugee status represented a reaction to persecution, usually but not always political, of some sort. It did not apply to poor economic conditions in a country. Escape from economic depravity returned one to the familiar issue of illegal immigrants.


Exemptions to Visa Limitations and Number Admitted, 1989 The major categories of immigrants exempt from the 270,000 limit are: • Immediate relatives of U.S. citizens (spouses, children, parents of children over 21): 217,514. • Refugees and asylee adjustments: 84,288. • Special immigrants (including certain ministers of religion, certain former employees of the U.S. government abroad): 4,986. • Amerasians born in Vietnam: 8,589. • Babies born abroad to legal permanent residents (number not available). • Aliens who have unlawfully resided in the U.S. since Jan. 1, 1982 (a provision of the Immigration Reform and Control Act, 1986): 478,814. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1991, 202.

Refugees and Asylum A major reason why immigration totals vastly exceeded the maximum specified in regular legislation was because of special provisions, usually produced in piecemeal fashion, for refugees and individuals seeking asylum. A refugee was defined as a person living outside his/her country who for specific reasons, usually some form of persecution or impending threat, could not or would not return.That individual sought refuge in the United States. The refugee issue as a rule pertained to groups, often measured in thousands, if not hundreds of thousands.The problem of asylum applied to a refugee already present in the United States, legally or illegally, who applied to have the residence legitimized. An appeal for asylum at times involved a single individual, and it could affect relations with the nation from which the asylee departed. Beginning shortly after the end of the Second World War, the United States adopted several refugee measures in response to crises, political upheaval, or simply the existence of oppressive regimes. The largest groups of refugees came in waves, each of which could be traced to a well-known incident or set of circumstances abroad. First came a response to large numbers of “displaced persons’’ in Europe, a product of the Second World War, followed by people fleeing communist control of Eastern Europe, including brutal Soviet suppression of the Hungarian Rebellion of 1956. Hundreds of thousands of people fled Cuba shortly after seizure of control by Fidel Castro in 1959–60, most of them taking residence in Florida; a smaller, but still substantial, flight from Cuba came in 1980 in what became known as the Mariel Boatlift. An end to the wars in Indochina in the mid-1970s, culminating in communist victories in three countries, produced some of the largest waves of immigration since the Second World War. 24


TABLE 1.40 REFUGEE STATUS GRANTED BY COUNTRY OF ORIGIN, 1980–1990 Country

1980–1988

1989

1990

23,840 421 501 0 1,140

1,770 47 19 0 110

1,593 98 60 4 327

116,191 0 1,156 8,597 8,896

2,114 0 2 2,517 925

260 3 6 1,318 341

Egypt El Salvador Ethiopia Ghana Greece

120 107 19,663 0 421

0 8 1,697 0 0

0 15 3,061 7 0

Hong Kong Hungary Iran Iraq Laos

1,777 4,916 24,015 6,654 120,544

102 1,075 5,132 111 10,780

208 274 3,312 47 9,060

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Macau

448 28 0 17 81

1 2 0 1 0

0 2 4 0 1

Malawi Mozambique Namibia Nicaragua Peru

49 91 89 200 0

6 4 0 323 0

0 3 0 527 3

Philippines Poland Romania Somalia South Africa

96 32,735 29,087 9 188

0 3,585 3,173 14 21

0 1,483 3,561 33 34

32 745 1 721 69

1 1 0 0 40

7 0 0 0 27

USSR Vietnam Yugoslavia Zaire All Others

48,191 258,922 74 127 341

39,704 22,198 1 18 0

52,866 21,078 6 70 0

Totals

711,303

95,505

99,697

Afghanistan Albania Angola Benin Bulgaria Cambodia Cameroon China Cuba Czechoslovakia

Sudan Syria Tanzania Turkey Uganda

Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 442–443.

TABLE 1.41 PERSONS ADMITTED AS REFUGEES, 1948–1980

TABLE 1.42 SOUTHEAST ASIAN REFUGEE ARRIVALS BY NATIONALITY, 1975–1990 Country or Nationality

Admitted Under Parole Authority Years

Classification

Number

Fiscal Year

Cambodia

Laos

Vietnam

Total

1948–52 1953–56 1956 1956–57 1958–62

Displaced Persons Refugee Relief Act East European orphans Hungarians Portuguese (victims of earthquakes in the Azores)

about 450,000 about 205,000 925 38,045 4,811

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

4,600 1,100 300 1,300 6,000

800 10,200 400 8,000 30,200

125,000 3,200 1,900 11,100 44,500

130,394 14,466 2,563 20,397 80,678

1960–65 1962 1962–79 1963 1972–73

East European escapees (Fair Share Refugee Law) Chinese from Hong Kong and Macao Cubans Russian Old Believers from Turkey Ugandan Asians

19,745 14,741 692,219 200 1,500

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

16,000 27,100 20,100 13,191 19,849

55,500 19,300 9,400 2,946 7,224

95,200 86,10 42,600 23,030 24,927

166,727 132,454 72,155 39,167 52,000

1973–79 1975–79 1975–77 1976–77

Soviet Union Indochinese (10 separate programs) Chileans Chileans, Bolivians, Uruguayans

35,758 about 400,000 1,400 343

1978–79 1979 1980

Lebanese Cuban prisoners Refugees, all sources

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

19,237 10,054 1,949 2,900 2,220 2,325

5,233 12,894 15,604 14,589 12,762 8,712

25,383 22,443 22,611 17,958 30,805 41,021

49,853 45,391 40,164 35,447 45,787 52,065

1,000 15,000 110,000

Source: Gall and Gall, Record of Asian Americans, 451.

Admitted Under 1965 Immigration Act 1968–80

Seventh preferencea

about 130,000

Admitted Without Authority 1980

Cuban-Haitian “special entrants’’ (boat people from Mariel, etc.)

Totalb

140,000 about 2,261,564

a

Refers to that provision in act of 1965 that applied to refugees from communist countries or Middle East. b Because legal immigration in 1945–80 was recorded at 10,900,000, refugees made up slightly more than 20 percent of the total. Source: Daniels, Coming to America, 337.

TABLE 1.43 ASYLUM GRANTEES, 1984–1990 Nationality

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

All Nationalities

11,627

6,514

4,284

5,093

7,340

9,229

5,672

268 19 16 18 503

92 11 74 65 129

91 13 22 17 90

24 4 27 73 39

50 14 90 36 149

23 17 150 107 443

24 26 679 229 260

Ethiopia Guatemala Hungary Iran Laos

361 6 82 7,442 8

210 11 65 4,087 1

217 7 26 1,568 2

205 7 14 1,346 2

570 42 40 1,107 4

517 102 33 723 7

382 65 20 256 38

Lebanon Libya Nicaragua Panama Peru

19 17 1,153 ... 1

27 88 557 ... ...

4 55 1,284 ... ...

48 115 2,213 ... 1

73 79 3,725 47 1

76 39 5,092 318 24

86 23 2,277 251 27

953 192 35 70 36 428

549 113 22 35 41 337

456 152 16 44 57 163

558 137 14 33 67 166

488 398 79 47 36 265

329 650 128 127 28 296

39 204 204 264 63 255

Afghanistan Bulgaria China, Mainland Cuba El Salvador

Poland Romania Somalia Soviet Union Syria Other



25

Illegal Immigration Illegal immigrants, identified under such various names as undocumented aliens or simply illegals, continued to be an issue of mystery and much controversy. The number of people remained unknown, of course, and estimates placed the number at between 3 million and 12 million living illegally in the United States during this period.The bulk of them came from Latin America, and within Latin America mostly from Mexico, although efforts to smuggle people in from other countries, especially from Asia, became conspicuous in the 1980s. Focus remained on the traffic across the 2,000-mile U.S.–Mexican border, as the United States searched for ways to keep the illegals out. A border police, established in 1924 for that purpose, was by the 1980s intercepting more than 1 million per year, most of them unemployed or underemployed working- or peasant-class people who sought a higher

income north of the border. Proposals for dealing with the problem included substantially increasing the border police, of course, as well as fencing off all or much of the southwest border with Mexico. A Reform and Control Act of 1986 (also called the Simpson Act) struck at the economic incentive for the traffic by imposing stiff penalties on employers who knowingly hired illegal immigrants, but the measure also made provision for temporary agricultural workers, and it offered to legitimize certain classes of illegal aliens—perhaps several million people—already living in the country. The measure provoked contrasting charges (before passage and afterward) of being harsh and inhumane on the one hand, and permissive, loosely administered, and ineffective on the other. Perhaps the only clear conclusion was that illegal immigration continued and that it would remain an important issue for the 1990s.

TABLE 1.44 TOTAL POPULATION AND ESTIMATED ILLEGAL POPULATION FOR THE 10 STATES WITH THE GREATEST NUMBER OF ILLEGALS, 1987

TABLE 1.45

State

Total Population

California NewYork Texas Illinois Florida New Jersey Virginia Maryland Arizona Washington Total U.S. Population

Illegals

Percent Illegals

27,663,000 17,825,000 16,789,000 11,582,000 12,023,000

1,742,343 398,153 316,480 229,703 136,121

6.3 2.2 1.9 2.0 1.1

7,672,000 5,904,000 4,535,000 3,386,000 4,538,000

62,956 57,851 54,448 42,538 37,433

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.3 0.8

243,399,000

3,500,000

1.4

ALIENS EXPELLED, 1946–1990 Required to Depart

Year

Total

Deported

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

116,320 579,105 247,797 59,625 105,406

14,375 6,628 15,028 6,829 10,143

101,945 572,477 232,769 52,796 95,263

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

320,241 679,000 737,000 1,062,000 1,045,000

16,893 23,000 17,000 21,000 26,000

303,348 656,000 719,000 1,041,000 1,019,000

Source: George T. Kurian, Datapedia of the United States, 1790–2000: America Year-by-Year (Lanham, Md., 1994), 68.

Note: Only about 1 percent of U.S. residents are illegal aliens, but 6 percent are illegal in California. Source: American Demographics, September, 1988, 43.

TABLE 1.46

BORDER-PATROL ACTIVITIES, 1984–1990

Activities

1984

1985

1986

1987

Persons Apprehended

1,149,847

Deportable Aliens Located Mexican aliens Working in agriculture Working in trades, crafts industry, and service Welfare/seeking employment Canadian aliens All others

1,140,466 1,104,429 83,706

1,272,435

1,705,278

1,168,861

980,522

906,535

1,123,223

1,262,435 1,218,695 76,054

1,692,544 1,635,702 80,922

1,158,030 1,123,725 15,862

969,214 928,278 3,333

891,147 830,985 2,592

1,103,353 1,054,849 4,661

24,854 925,653 5,805 30,232

26,674 1,054,073 5,868 37,872

44,971 1,419,542 6,235 50,607

25,386 986,584 4,814 29,491

13,362 836,065 4,237 36,699

8,078 725,008 5,297 54,865

7,544 865,739 5,746 42,758

Smugglers of Aliens Located

13,435

14,666

19,275

11,560

10,373

13,794

21,901

Aliens Located Who Were Smuggled into the United States

91,722

95,741

114,665

59,268

50,122

50,638

71,049

Seizures (conveyances) Value of Seizures (dollars) Narcotics Other

1989

1990

6,456

7,327

10,512

7,512

6,643

10,789

17,275

44,505,793 42,939,946 1,565,847

122,007,498 119,822,206 2,185,292

165,106,668 161,736,752 3,369,916

590,638,336 582,395,375 8,242,961

721,213,999 700,523,810 20,690,189

1,212,724,497 1,191,505,137 21,219,360

830,734,350 797,768,179 32,966,171


26

1988


TABLE 1.47 FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, BY PLACE OF BIRTH, 1980 AND 1990

1990

(as of April 1)

Place of Birth 1990

Place of Birth Total Europe

1980 (1,000)

Number (1,000)


14,080

19,767

100.0

4,743

4,017

20.3

Austria Belgium Czechoslovakia Denmark Finland

146 36 113 43 29

88 34 87 35 22

0.4 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland

120 849 211 144 198

119 712 177 110 170

0.6 3.6 0.9 0.6 0.9

Italy Latvia Lithuania Netherlands Norway

832 34 48 103 63

581 26 30 96 42

2.9 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2

Poland Portugal Romania Spain Sweden

418 212 67 74 77

388 210 91 76 54

2.0 1.1 0.5 0.4 0.3

Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia

43 669 153

39 640 142

0.2 3.2 0.7

Soviet Union Asia Afghanistan Burma Cambodia China Hong Kong

406

334

1.7

2,540

4,979

25.2

4 11 20 286 80

28 20 119 530 147

0.1 0.1 0.6 2.7 0.7

India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel

206 30 122 32 67

450 48 211 45 86

2.3 0.2 1.1 0.2 0.4

Japan Jordan Korea Laos Lebanon

222 22 290 55 53

290 32 568 172 86

1.5 0.2 2.9 0.9 0.4

Malaysia Pakistan Philippines Saudi Arabia Syria

10 31 501 17 22

34 92 913 13 37

0.2 0.5 4.6 0.1 0.2

Taiwan Thailand Turkey Vietnam

75 55 52 231

244 107 55 543

1.2 0.5 0.3 2.7

1980 (1,000)

Number (1,000)


Canada

843

745

3.8

Mexico

2,199

4,298

21.7

Caribbean

1,258

1,938

9.8

Antigua-Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Cuba Dominican Republic

4 14 27 608 169

12 22 43 737 348

0.1 0.1 0.2 3.7 1.8

Grenada Haiti Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago

7 92 197 66

18 225 334 116

0.1 1.1 1.7 0.6

Central America

354

1,134

5.7

14 30 94 63

30 44 465 226

0.2 0.2 2.4 1.1

Belize Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama

39 44 61

109 169 86

South America

561

1,037

5.2

Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia

69 14 41 35 144

93 31 82 56 286

0.5 0.2 0.4 0.3 1.4

Ecuador Guyana Peru Uruguay Venezuela

86 49 55 13 33

143 121 144 21 42

0.7 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.2

Africa

0.6 0.9 0.4

200

364

1.8

Cape Verde Egypt Ethiopia Ghana

10 43 8 8

14 66 35 21

0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1

Kenya Morocco Nigeria South Africa

6 10 26 16

14 16 55 35

0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2

Oceania

78

104

0.5

Australia Fiji New Zealand Tonga Western Samoa

36 8 11 6 13

42 16 15 11 11

0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 50.


27

TABLE 1.48 FIVE STATES WITH HIGHEST PERCENTAGE OF FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, 1990

State

Foreign-Born Population

Foreign-Born Population as a Percentage of Total Population

California New York Hawaii Florida New Jersey

6,458,825 2,851,861 162,704 1,662,601 966,610

21.7 15.8 14.7 12.8 12.5

Percent of Total Population Entering U.S., 1980–90 10.9 6.6 6.0 5.1 5.0


Naturalization: How to Become an American Citizen A person who desires to be naturalized as a citizen of the United States may obtain the necessary application form as well as detailed information from the nearest office of the Immigration and Naturalization Service or from the clerk of a court handling naturalization cases. An applicant must be at least 18 years old. He must have been a lawful resident of the United States continuously for five years. For husbands and wives of U.S. citizens the period is three years in most instances. Special provisions apply to certain veterans of the Armed Forces. An applicant must have been physically present in this country for at least half of the required five years’ residence. Every applicant for naturalization must: (1) demonstrate an understanding of the English language, including an ability to read, write, and speak words in ordinary usage in the

28


English language (persons physically unable to do so, and persons who, on the date of their examinations, are over 50 years of age and have been lawful permanent residents of the United States for 20 years or more are exempt). (2) have been a person of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the United States for five years just before filing the petition or for whatever other period of residence is required in his case and continue to be such a person until admitted to citizenship; and (3) demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of the fundamentals of the history, and the principles and form of government, of the U.S. When the applicant files his petition he pays the court clerk $50.At the preliminary hearing he may be represented by a lawyer or social service agency. There is a 30-day wait. If action is favorable, there is a final hearing before a judge, who administers the following oath of allegiance: I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, to whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God. Source: As summarized in Hoffman, ed., World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992, 825.

CHAPTER 2 Weather and Climate The addition of Alaska and Hawaii as states in the 1950s meant that the United States, more than ever, experienced virtually every known climate and aspect of weather. Although the bulk of the nation rested in the temperate zone, it was on the fringes of other zones and in the path of atmospheric and oceanic forces that could produce abrupt and powerful change in the weather. Some individuals—meteorologists, for example, and dedicated weather watchers—heralded this grand diversity, although they did not acclaim some of the destructive turns of nature. Others who preferred more steadiness or comfort from the climate moved to the southern states, to Florida or Arizona if they could manage it, or retired there when work was done. Most Americans, it seemed, took the weather as it came, frequently complaining but assuming that it was what fate had handed them. The last half of the 20th century did produce forces that were either new or newly discovered. Scientists could show that national and world climate had been slowly warming for many years, and they blamed the problem on human behavior, notably deforestation and burning of fossil fuels for industry and industrialized society. The experts could not agree on the long-range impact of this force, although they inclined toward pessimism. Some warned of impending catastrophe. Americans became acquainted with something called acid rain, another consequence of industrial society that involved precipitation—rain or even snow—picking up chemicals placed in the air by automobiles and coal-fueled power plants and bringing them down to spoil plants, trees, and lakes. In the late 1980s a new—in truth, newly discovered—weather phenomenon called El Nin~o, which began with mysterious warming of normally cold specified Pacific waters every few years, attracted attention as a weather maker of unappreciated dimension. Evidently there had been eight El Nin~os between the 1940s and 1980s, and they had produced huge changes in weather. Unfortunately it was difficult to determine what the changes would be. If El Nin~o of 1976–77 had produced drought in California and bitter cold in the East, El Nin~o in 1982–83 had brought huge storms that broke off pieces of the coast in California and a mild winter along the Atlantic coast.Worldwide this Pacific current of the 1980s had caused perhaps as many as 2,000 deaths and damage measured in billions of dollars. These new manifestations of weather and others as well remained issues to be reckoned with in the 1990s, although the government did begin in 1990 with a law designed to address problems related to acid rain and global warming. Some of the most concrete weather-related changes after 1945 had to do with forecasting and reporting.The most useful aides before that time had been weather balloons and buoys, airplanes that flew above weather systems, and forms of communication—such as radio—that relayed information on to other weather stations. Helpful as these devices had been—and they would continue to be used—forecasting remained as much an art as a science, and one with justification could speak of “weather prediction.’’ After 1945, technology developed for other purposes found its way into learning about weather. By the 1950s radar, originally a tool of military forces, was regularly detecting weather phenomena over short distances. A more sophisticated Doppler Radar, adopted by the National Storm Center in 1971, could track movement and even wind velocity of a storm. Radar could identify thunderstorms or snowstorms on the way and could warn of possible tornadoes. In 1960 the U.S. government launched its first weather satellite, Tiros 1. Although regarded as experimental, it became a meteorologist’s dream and the precursor of a network of satellites to come. Most useful in tracking tropical storms, satellites also could detect forest fires, snowpacks, ice jams, and possibly emerging tornadoes.The computer, introduced into

weather forecasting, provided the same sort of service it supplied to other areas: storing and analysis of data, doing in almost an instant what previously had taken many people and many hours. Placing the data in context of established models, the computer allowed its operator to forecast what was likely to happen, at least in the two or three days ahead. Professionalism went beyond equipment. By the end of the 1970s most media weather forecasters were trained meteorologists. Most television stations had or had access to radar units including, by the end of the 1980s, Doppler Radar.Technology in communication satellites and in emerging television cable systems came together in May 1982 with introduction of a national weather channel, based in Atlanta, which reported national, international, and customized local weather continuously around the clock. Modern methods of detection, analysis, and reporting did not mean that weather had become fully predictable. Systems did not always follow a model—hurricanes could turn, tornadoes emerged and died in seconds, thunderstorms developed on the spot. Nature persisted in guarding an element of mystery.

The U.S. government launched its first weather satellite in 1960. Here, a scientist works on a geostationary operational environmental satellite (GOES) prior to launch, 1980. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Department of Commerce)

29

Methods of Measuring Comfort or Discomfort Meteorologists developed systems for explaining and measuring sensations of hot and cold. Sensation of cold (wind chill) varied in accordance with changing mixtures of wind speed and temperature. Degrees of feeling hot (heat index) combined relative humidity and temperature. TABLE 2.1

WIND-CHILL TABLEa

Wind Speed (mph)

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

25

210

215

220

225

230

235

240

245

5 10 15 20 25

33 22 16 12 8

27 16 9 4 1

21 10 2 23 27

16 3 25 210 215

12 23 211 217 222

7 29 218 224 229

0 215 225 231 236

25 222 231 239 244

210 227 238 246 251

215 234 245 253 259

221 240 251 260 266

226 246 258 267 274

231 252 265 274 281

236 258 272 281 288

242 264 278 288 296

247 271 285 295 2103

252 277 292 2103 2110

30 35 40 45

6 4 3 2

22 24 25 26

210 212 213 214

218 220 221 222

225 227 229 230

233 235 237 238

241 243 245 246

249 252 253 254

256 258 260 262

264 267 269 270

271 274 276 278

279 282 284 285

286 289 292 293

293 297 2100 2102

2101 2105 2107 2109

2109 2113 2115 2117

2116 2120 2123 2125

Actual Temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit)

aBoth

temperature and wind cause heat loss from body surfaces. A combination of cold and wind makes a body feel colder than the actual temperature. The table shows, for example, that a temperature of 20 degrees Fahrenheit, plus a wind of 20 miles per hour, causes a body heat loss equal to that in minus 10 degrees with no wind. In other words, the wind makes 20 degrees feel like minus 10. Source: National Weather Service, cited in Robert Famighetti, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1996 (New York, 1995), 186.

TABLE 2.2 HEAT INDEXa Air Temperatureb 70

Relative Humidity

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

115

120

Apparent Temperature

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

64 65 66 67 68

69 70 72 73 74

73 75 77 78 79

78 80 82 84 86

83 85 87 90 93

87 90 93 96 101

91 95 99 104 110

95 100 105 113 123

99 105 112 123 137

103 111 120 135 151

107 116 130 148 ...

50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

69 70 70 71 71 72

75 76 77 78 79 80

81 82 85 86 88 91

88 90 93 97 102 108

96 100 106 113 122 ...

107 114 124 136 ... ...

120 132 144 ... ... ...

135 149 ... ... ... ...

150 ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

aThe

heat index is a measure of the contribution that high humidity makes with abnormally high temperatures in reducing the body’s ability to cool itself. For example, the index shows that for an actual air temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit and a relative humidity of 50 percent, the effect on the human body would be the same as 120 degrees. Sunstroke and heat exhaustion are likely when the heat index reaches 105. This index is a measure of what hot weather “feels like’’ to the average person for various temperatures and relative humidities. bDegrees Fahrenheit. Source: National Weather Service, cited in Famighetti, ed., World Almanac and Book of Facts 1996 (New York, 1995), 186.

TABLE 2.3 State

NORMAL DAILY MEAN TEMPERATUREa—SELECTED CITIES

Station

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual Avg.


Mobile Juneau Phoenix Little Rock Los Angeles

49.9 24.2 53.6 39.1 56.8

53.2 28.4 57.7 43.6 57.6

60.5 32.7 62.2 53.1 58.0

67.8 39.7 69.9 62.1 60.1

74.5 47.0 78.8 70.2 62.7

80.4 53.0 88.2 78.4 65.7

82.3 56.0 93.5 81.9 69.1

81.8 55.0 91.5 80.6 70.5

77.9 49.4 85.6 74.1 69.9

68.4 42.2 74.5 63.0 66.8

59.8 32.0 61.9 52.1 61.6

53.0 27.1 54.1 42.8 56.9

67.5 40.6 72.6 61.8 63.0

Calif. Calif. Calif. Colo. Conn.

Sacramento San Diego San Francisco Denver Hartford

45.2 57.4 48.7 29.7 24.6

50.7 58.6 52.2 33.4 27.5

53.6 59.6 53.3 39.0 37.5

58.3 62.0 55.6 48.2 48.7

65.3 64.1 58.1 57.2 59.6

71.6 66.8 61.5 66.9 68.5

75.7 71.0 62.7 73.5 73.7

75.1 72.6 63.7 71.4 71.6

71.5 71.4 64.5 62.3 63.3

64.2 67.7 61.0 51.4 52.2

53.3 62.0 54.8 39.0 41.9

45.3 57.4 49.4 31.0 29.5

60.8 64.2 57.1 50.3 49.9

30


Station

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual Avg.

Del. D.C. Fla. Fla. Ga.

Wilmington Washington Jacksonville Miami Atlanta

30.6 34.6 52.4 67.2 41.0

33.4 37.5 55.2 68.5 44.8

42.7 47.2 61.1 71.7 53.5

52.2 56.5 67.0 75.2 61.5

62.5 66.4 73.4 78.7 69.2

71.5 75.6 79.1 81.4 76.0

76.4 80.0 81.6 82.6 78.8

75.0 78.5 81.2 82.8 78.1

68.0 71.3 78.1 81.9 72.7

56.2 59.7 69.8 78.3 62.3

46.3 49.8 61.9 73.6 53.1

35.8 39.4 55.1 69.1 44.5

54.2 58.0 68.0 75.9 61.3

Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ill. Ind.

Honolulu Boise Chicago Peoria Indianapolis

72.9 29.0 21.0 21.6 25.5

73.0 35.9 25.4 26.3 29.6

74.4 42.4 37.2 39.0 41.4

75.8 49.1 48.6 51.4 52.4

77.5 57.5 58.9 61.9 62.8

79.4 66.5 68.6 71.5 71.9

80.5 74.0 73.2 75.5 75.4

81.4 72.5 71.7 73.1 73.2

81.0 62.6 64.4 66.1 66.6

79.6 51.8 52.8 54.0 54.7

77.2 39.9 40.0 41.2 43.0

74.1 30.1 26.6 27.0 30.9

77.2 50.9 49.0 50.7 52.3

Des Moines Wichita Louisville New Orleans Portland

19.4 29.5 31.7 51.3 20.8

24.7 34.8 35.7 54.3 23.3

37.3 45.4 46.3 61.6 33.0

50.9 56.4 56.3 68.5 43.3

62.3 65.6 65.3 74.8 53.3

71.8 75.7 73.2 80.0 62.4

76.6 81.4 77.2 81.9 68.6

73.9 79.3 75.8 81.5 67.3

65.1 70.3 69.5 78.1 59.1

53.5 58.6 57.6 69.1 48.5

39.0 44.7 47.1 61.1 38.7

24.4 33.0 36.9 54.5 26.5

49.9 56.2 56.1 68.1 45.4

Baltimore Boston Detroit Sault Ste. Marie Duluth

31.8 28.6 22.9 12.9

34.8 30.3 25.4 14.0

44.1 38.6 35.7 24.0

53.4 48.1 47.3 38.2

63.4 58.2 58.4 50.5

72.5 67.7 67.6 58.0

77.0 73.5 72.3 63.8

75.6 71.9 70.5 62.6

68.5 64.8 63.2 55.1

56.6 54.8 51.2 45.3

46.8 45.3 40.2 33.0

36.7 33.6 28.3 19.0

55.1 51.3 48.6 39.7

7.0

12.3

24.4

38.6

50.8

59.8

66.1

63.7

54.2

43.7

28.4

12.8

38.5

11.8

17.9

31.0

46.4

58.5

68.2

73.6

70.5

60.5

48.8

33.2

17.9

44.9

Miss. Mo. Mo. Mont.

Minneapolis– St. Paul Jackson Kansas City St. Louis Great Falls

44.1 25.7 29.3 21.2

47.9 31.2 33.9 27.4

56.7 42.7 45.1 33.3

64.6 54.5 56.7 43.6

72.0 64.1 66.1 53.1

78.8 73.2 75.4 61.6

81.5 78.5 79.8 68.2

80.9 76.1 77.6 66.9

75.9 67.5 70.2 56.6

64.7 56.6 58.4 47.5

55.8 43.1 46.2 33.9

47.8 30.4 33.9 23.9

64.2 53.6 56.1 44.8

Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J. N.Mex.

Omaha Reno Concord Atlantic City Albuquerque

21.1 32.9 18.6 30.9 34.2

26.9 38.0 21.8 33.0 40.0

38.6 42.8 32.4 41.5 46.9

51.9 48.6 43.9 50.0 55.2

62.4 56.5 55.2 60.4 64.2

72.1 65.1 64.2 69.4 74.2

76.9 71.6 69.5 74.7 78.5

74.1 69.6 67.3 73.4 75.9

65.1 60.4 58.8 68.1 68.6

53.4 50.8 47.8 54.9 57.0

39.0 40.3 37.1 45.8 44.3

25.1 32.7 24.3 35.8 35.3

50.6 50.8 45.1 53.0 56.2

N.Y. N.Y. N.Y. N.C. N.C.

Albany Buffalo New Yorkb Charlotte Raleigh

20.6 23.6 31.5 39.3 38.9

23.5 24.5 33.6 42.5 42.0

34.3 33.8 42.4 50.9 50.4

46.4 45.2 52.5 59.4 59.0

57.6 56.6 62.7 67.4 67.0

66.9 65.9 71.6 75.7 74.3

71.8 71.1 76.8 79.3 78.1

69.6 69.0 75.5 78.3 77.1

61.3 61.9 68.2 72.4 71.1

50.2 51.1 57.5 61.3 60.1

39.7 40.5 47.6 52.1 51.2

26.5 29.1 36.6 42.6 42.6

47.4 47.7 54.7 60.1 59.3

N.Dak. Ohio Ohio Ohio Okla.

Bismarck Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus Oklahoma City

9.2 28.1 24.8 26.4 35.9

15.7 31.8 27.2 29.6 40.9

28.2 43.0 37.3 40.9 50.3

43.0 53.2 47.6 51.0 60.4

55.0 62.9 58.0 61.2 68.4

64.4 71.0 67.6 69.2 76.7

70.4 75.1 71.9 73.2 82.0

68.3 73.5 70.4 71.5 81.1

57.0 67.3 63.9 65.5 73.0

45.7 55.1 52.8 53.7 62.0

28.6 44.3 42.6 42.9 49.6

14.0 33.5 30.9 31.9 39.3

41.6 53.2 49.6 51.4 60.0

Oreg. Pa. Pa. R.I. S.C.

Portland Philadelphia Pittsburgh Providence Columbia

39.6 30.4 26.1 27.9 43.8

43.6 33.0 28.7 29.7 46.8

47.3 42.4 39.4 37.4 55.2

51.0 52.4 49.6 47.4 63.0

57.1 62.9 59.5 57.3 70.9

63.5 71.8 67.9 66.9 77.4

68.2 76.7 72.1 72.7 80.8

68.6 75.5 70.5 71.3 79.7

63.3 68.2 63.9 64.1 74.2

54.5 56.4 52.4 53.6 63.3

46.1 46.4 42.3 44.0 54.6

40.2 35.8 31.5 32.8 46.9

53.6 54.3 50.3 50.4 63.1

S.Dak. Tenn. Tenn. Tex.

13.8 39.7 36.2 43.4

19.7 44.2 40.4 47.9

32.5 53.1 50.2 56.7

46.9 62.9 59.2 65.5

58.4 71.2 67.7 72.8

68.3 79.1 75.6 81.0

74.3 82.6 79.3 85.3

71.4 81.0 78.1 84.9

60.9 74.2 71.8 77.4

48.6 63.1 60.4 67.2

33.0 52.5 50.0 56.2

18.3 43.7 40.5 46.9

45.5 62.3 59.1 65.4

Tex.

Sioux Falls Memphis Nashville Dallas– Fort Worth El Paso

42.8

48.1

55.1

63.4

71.8

80.4

82.3

80.1

74.4

64.0

52.4

44.1

63.2

Tex. Utah Vt. Va. Va.

Houston Salt Lake City Burlington Norfolk Richmond

50.4 27.9 16.3 39.1 35.7

53.9 34.1 18.2 41.0 38.7

60.6 41.8 30.7 48.6 48.0

68.3 49.7 43.9 57.0 57.3

74.5 58.8 56.3 66.1 66.0

80.4 69.1 65.2 74.1 73.9

82.6 77.9 70.5 78.2 78.0

82.3 75.6 67.9 77.2 76.8

78.2 65.2 58.9 71.9 70.0

69.6 53.2 47.8 61.2 58.6

61.0 40.8 36.8 52.5 49.6

53.5 29.7 23.0 43.8 40.1

67.9 52.0 44.6 59.2 57.7

Wash. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo. P.R.

Seattle-Tacoma Spokane Charleston Milwaukee Cheyenne San Juan

40.1 27.1 32.1 18.9 26.5 77.0

43.5 33.3 35.5 23.0 29.3 77.1

45.6 38.7 45.9 33.3 33.6 78.0

49.2 45.9 54.8 44.4 42.5 79.4

55.1 53.9 63.5 54.6 52.0 80.9

60.9 62.0 71.4 65.0 61.3 82.3

65.2 68.8 75.1 70.9 68.4 82.6

65.5 68.4 73.9 69.3 66.4 82.7

60.6 58.9 67.7 61.7 57.4 82.5

52.8 47.3 56.2 50.3 47.0 81.9

45.3 35.1 46.8 37.7 35.2 80.0

40.5 27.8 37.0 24.4 27.8 78.1

52.0 47.3 55.0 46.1 45.6 80.2

State

Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Mich. Minn. Minn.

a

In Fahrenheit degrees. Airport data except as noted. Based on standard 30-year period, 1961 through 1990. City office data. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1994), 231.

b

Weather and Climate

31

TABLE 2.4 SUNSHINE, AVERAGE WIND SPEED, MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS MINIMUM WITH TEMPERATURE BELOW 32 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, AND AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY—SELECTED CITIESa Average Percentage of Possible Sunshine

State

Station

Minimum Temperature 32 Degrees or Less

Average Wind Speed (mph)

Length of Length of Record Record (yr.) Annual (yr.) Annual

Jan.

Jul.

Average Relative Humidity (percent)

Length of Mean Length of Records Number Record (yr.) (days) (yr.)

Annual M A

M

Jan. A

M

Jul. A

b40

b59

33 95 32 32

30 86 62 73

42 45 45 48 42

9.0 8.3 6.3 7.8 7.5

10.4 8.3 5.3 8.6 6.7

7.0 7.5 7.2 6.7 7.8

28 46 30 30 31

23 142 8 60 (Z)

28 24 30 30 31

86 84 51 84 79

57 73 23 57 64

81 80 66 80 69

61 77 32 61 59

89 83 45 88 86

60 70 20 56 68


42 50 38 41 36

78 68 66 70 57

41 50 63 42 36

7.9 6.9 10.6 8.7 8.5

7.2 5.9 7.2 8.7 9.0

9.0 7.4 13.6 8.3 7.5

40 30 31 30 31

17 (Z) 2 157 135

30 30 31 30 31

82 76 84 67 76

46 62 61 40 52

90 70 86 63 71

70 56 66 49 56

76 82 86 68 78

28 66 59 34 51



... 42 39 14 55

... 56 63 73 61

42 42 41 41 52

9.1 9.4 8.0 9.3 9.1

9.8 10.0 8.2 9.5 10.5

7.8 8.2 7.1 7.9 7.6

43 30 49 26 30

100 71 15 (Z) 54

43 30 54 26 30

78 74 88 84 82

55 53 56 61 56

75 69 87 84 78

60 55 57 59 59

79 76 88 84 88

54 53 58 63 60



38 48 10 47 46

69 64 55 57 55

41 51 32 47 42

11.4 8.8 10.3 10.0 9.6

9.7 8.0 11.6 11.2 10.9

13.3 8.4 8.2 7.8 7.4

21 51 32 31 31

– 124 133 129 118

21 51 32 31 31

72 69 80 83 83

56 43 60 61 62

81 80 76 79 80

62 70 67 68 70

67 54 82 86 87

51 22 57 59 60



40 37 43 17 50

59 65 56 60 57

41 37 43 42 50

10.9 12.3 8.4 8.2 8.8

11.7 12.2 9.7 9.4 9.2

9.0 11.3 6.7 6.1 7.6

29 37 30 44 50

135 111 89 13 157

29 37 30 42 50

79 80 81 87 79

60 55 58 63 59

75 79 76 85 76

67 62 64 66 61

82 78 85 91 80

57 48 58 66 59

Md. Mass. Mich. Mich. Minn.


40 55 25 49 40

57 58 53 47 52

40 33 32 49 41

9.2 12.5 10.4 9.3 11.1

9.7 13.9 12.0 9.8 11.6

8.0 11.0 8.5 7.8 9.4

40 26 32 49 29

97 98 136 181 185

37 26 32 49 29

77 72 81 85 81

54 58 60 67 63

71 67 80 81 76

57 57 69 75 70

81 74 82 89 85

53 57 53 61 59

Minn.

52

58

52

10.6

10.5

9.4

31

156

31

78

59

74

67

80

54

Miss. Mo. Mo. Mont.

Minneapolis– St. Paul Jackson Kansas City St. Louis Great Falls

26 18 31 46

60 62 57 61

27 18 41 49

7.4 10.8 9.7 12.8

8.6 11.5 10.6 15.3

5.9 9.4 8.0 10.1

27 18 30 29

50 110 100 157

27 18 30 29

91 81 83 66

58 60 59 45

87 76 81 66

64 63 65 60

93 84 85 65

59 57 56 29



54 42 49 30 51

60 79 54 56 76

54 48 48 32 3

10.6 6.6 6.7 10.1 11.8

10.9 5.6 7.2 11.0 11.7

8.9 7.0 5.7 8.5 10.6

26 27 25 26 30

141 174 173 110 119

26 27 25 26 30

81 70 81 81 60

59 32 54 56 29

78 79 75 77 70

65 51 58 58 40

84 63 84 83 60

57 18 52 57 27


Albany Buffalo NewYorkc Charlotte Raleigh

52 47 104 40 36

52 49 58 63 59

52 51 58 41 41

8.9 12.0 9.4 7.5 7.8

9.8 14.3 10.7 7.9 8.5

7.4 10.3 7.6 6.6 6.7

25 30 77 30 26

149 133 80 67 78

25 30 61 30 26

80 80 72 83 85

57 63 56 54 54

77 79 68 78 78

63 72 60 55 55

81 78 75 87 89

55 55 55 57 58



51 7 47 39 36

59 52 49 49 68

51 43 49 41 42

10.2 9.1 10.6 8.5 12.4

10.0 10.7 12.3 10.1 12.8

9.2 7.1 8.6 6.6 10.9

31 28 30 31 25

186 108 124 119 77

31 28 30 31 25

80 28 79 80 79

56 81 62 59 54

74 59 77 76 77

68 78 69 67 59

83 67 81 84 80

47 85 57 56 49



41 48 38 37 37

48 56 46 58 64

42 50 38 37 42

7.9 9.5 9.1 10.6 6.9

9.9 10.3 10.7 11.2 7.2

7.6 8.1 7.2 9.5 6.3

50 31 31 27 24

43 97 123 119 61

50 31 30 27 24

86 76 78 75 87

60 55 57 55 51

86 73 75 70 82

76 59 65 56 54

82 79 83 77 89

45 54 54 56 54


Sioux Falls Memphis Nashville Dallas– Fort Worth El Paso

d48

d63

35 48 12

64 56 64

42 42 49 37

11.1 8.9 8.0 10.8

11.1 10.1 9.2 11.2

9.8 7.5 6.5 9.6

27 49 25 27

168 57 76 40

27 51 25 27

81 81 84 82

60 57 57 56

76 78 79 79

67 63 63 59

82 84 89 80

53 57 57 48

48

83

48

8.9

8.4

8.3

30

65

30

57

27

65

34

62

29




Tex.

32


Average Percentage of Possible Sunshine

Station

State

Length of Length of Record Record (yr.) Annual (yr.) Annual


Houston Salt Lake City Burlington Norfolk Richmood

21 52 47 26 40



24 42 e7 50 51 35

Minimum Temperature 32 Degrees or Less

Average Wind Speed (mph)

Jan.

Jul.

Average Relative Humidity (percent)

Length of Mean Length of Records Number Record (yr.) (days) (yr.)

Annual M A

M

Jan. A

M

Jul. A

56 66 49 61 62

21 61 47 42 42

7.9 8.9 8.9 10.7 7.7

8.3 7.7 9.7 11.5 8.1

7.0 9.6 7.9 9.0 6.8

21 31 26 42 61

21 125 156 54 85

21 31 25 42 56

90 67 77 78 83

59 43 59 57 53

85 79 71 74 80

63 69 63 58 57

92 52 78 82 85

58 22 53 59 56

46 54

42 43 43 50 33 35

9.0 8.9 6.3 11.6 13.0 8.4

9.8 8.8 7.5 12.7 15.4 8.5

8.3 8.6 5.0 9.7 10.3 9.6

31 31 43 30 31 35

31 139 100 141 171 ...

31 31 43 30 31 35

83 77 83 81 65 79

62 52 56 64 44 65

81 85 77 76 57 81

74 78 62 68 50 64

82 64 90 82 70 79

49 27 60 61 38 66

e40

54 65 66

– Represents zero. Z Less than one-half a day. . . . Not available. a [Airport data, except as noted. For period of record through 1990, except as noted. M 5 morning. A 5 afternoon] b Recording site is in Montgomery, Ala. c City office data. d Recording site is in Rapid City, S. Dak. e Recording site is Elkins, W.Va. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 227.

TABLE 2.5 State Ala. Alaska Ariz. Ark. Calif. Calif. Calif. Calif. Colo. Conn. Del. D.C. Fla. Fla. Ga. Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Mich. Minn. Minn.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL PRECIPITATION—SELECTED CITIESa

Station

Mobile Juneau Phoenix Little Rock Los Angeles Sacramento San Diego San Francisco Denver Hartford Wilmington Washington Jacksonville Miami Atlanta Honolulu Boise Chicago Peoria Indianapolis Des Moines Wichita Louisville New Orleans Portland Baltimore Boston Detroit Sault Ste. Marie Duluth Minneapolis– St. Paul Miss. Jackson Mo. Kansas City Mo. St. Louis Mont. Great Falls Nebr. Omaha Nev. Reno N.H. Concord N.J. Atlantic City N.Mex. Albuquerque N.Y. Albany N.Y. Buffalo N.Y. NewYork N.C. Charlotte N.C. Raleigh N.Dak. Bismarck Ohio Cincinnati Ohio Cleveland Ohio Columbus Okla. Oklahoma City

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

4.76 4.54 0.67 3.42 2.40 3.73 1.80 4.35 0.50 3.41 3.03 2.72 3.31 2.01 4.75 3.55 1.45 1.53 1.51 2.32 0.96 0.79 2.86 5.05 3.53 3.05 3.59 1.76 2.42 1.22 0.95

5.46 3.75 0.68 3.61 2.51 2.87 1.53 3.17 0.57 3.23 2.91 2.71 3.93 2.08 4.81 2.21 1.07 1.36 1.42 2.46 1.11 0.96 3.30 6.01 3.33 3.12 3.62 1.74 1.74 0.80 0.88

6.41 3.28 0.88 4.91 1.98 2.57 1.77 3.06 1.28 3.63 3.43 3.17 3.68 2.39 5.77 2.20 1.29 2.69 2.91 3.79 2.33 2.43 4.66 4.90 3.67 3.38 3.69 2.55 2.30 1.91 1.94

4.48 2.77 0.22 5.49 0.72 1.16 0.79 1.37 1.71 3.85 3.39 2.71 2.77 2.85 4.26 1.54 1.24 3.64 3.77 3.70 3.36 2.38 4.23 4.50 4.08 3.09 3.60 2.95 2.35 2.25 2.42

5.74 3.42 0.12 5.17 0.14 0.27 0.19 0.19 2.40 4.12 3.84 3.66 3.55 6.21 4.29 1.13 1.08 3.32 3.70 4.00 3.66 3.81 4.62 4.56 3.62 3.72 3.25 2.92 2.71 3.03 3.39

5.04 3.15 0.13 3.57 0.03 0.12 0.07 0.11 1.79 3.75 3.55 3.38 5.69 9.33 3.56 0.50 0.81 3.78 3.99 3.49 4.46 4.31 3.46 5.84 3.44 3.67 3.09 3.61 3.14 3.82 4.05

6.85 4.16 0.83 3.60 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.03 1.91 3.19 4.23 3.80 5.60 5.70 5.01 0.59 0.35 3.66 4.20 4.47 3.78 3.13 4.51 6.12 3.09 3.69 2.84 3.18 2.71 3.61 3.53

6.96 5.32 0.96 3.26 0.15 0.07 0.10 0.05 1.51 3.65 3.40 3.91 7.93 7.58 3.66 0.44 0.43 4.22 3.10 3.64 4.20 3.02 3.54 6.17 2.87 3.92 3.24 3.43 3.61 3.99 3.62

5.91 6.73 0.86 4.05 0.31 0.37 0.24 0.20 1.24 3.79 3.43 3.31 7.05 7.63 3.42 0.78 0.80 3.82 3.87 2.87 3.53 3.49 3.16 5.51 3.09 3.41 3.06 2.89 3.69 3.84 2.72

2.94 7.84 0.65 3.75 0.34 1.08 0.37 1.22 0.98 3.57 2.88 3.02 2.90 5.64 3.05 2.28 0.75 2.41 2.65 2.63 2.62 2.22 2.71 3.05 3.90 2.98 3.30 2.10 3.23 2.49 2.19

4.10 4.91 0.66 5.20 1.76 2.72 1.45 2.86 0.87 4.04 3.27 3.12 2.19 2.66 3.86 3.00 1.48 2.92 2.69 3.23 1.79 1.59 3.70 4.42 5.17 3.32 4.22 2.67 3.45 1.80 1.55

5.31 4.44 1.00 4.83 1.66 2.51 1.57 3.09 0.64 3.91 3.48 3.12 2.72 1.83 4.33 3.80 1.36 2.47 2.44 3.34 1.32 1.20 3.64 5.75 4.55 3.41 4.01 2.82 2.88 1.24 1.08

63.96 54.31 7.66 50.86 12.01 17.52 9.90 19.70 15.40 44.14 40.84 38.63 51.32 55.91 50.77 22.02 12.11 35.82 36.25 39.94 33.12 29.33 44.39 61.88 44.34 40.76 41.51 32.62 34.23 30.00 28.32

5.24 1.09 1.81 0.91 0.74 1.07 2.51 3.46 0.44 2.36 2.70 3.42 3.71 3.48 0.45 2.59 2.04 2.18 1.13

4.70 1.10 2.12 0.57 0.77 0.99 2.53 3.06 0.46 2.27 2.31 3.27 3.84 3.69 0.43 2.69 2.19 2.24 1.56

5.82 2.51 3.58 1.10 2.04 0.71 2.72 3.62 0.54 2.93 2.68 4.08 4.43 3.77 0.77 4.24 2.91 3.27 2.71

5.57 3.12 3.50 1.41 2.66 0.38 2.91 3.56 0.52 2.99 2.87 4.20 2.68 2.59 1.67 3.75 3.14 3.21 2.77

5.05 5.04 3.97 2.52 4.52 0.69 3.14 3.33 0.50 3.41 3.14 4.42 3.82 3.92 2.18 4.28 3.49 3.93 5.22

3.18 4.72 3.72 2.39 3.87 0.46 3.15 2.64 0.59 3.62 3.55 3.67 3.39 3.68 2.72 3.84 3.70 4.04 4.31

4.51 4.38 3.85 1.24 3.51 0.28 3.23 3.83 1.37 3.18 3.08 4.35 3.92 4.01 2.14 4.24 3.52 4.31 2.61

3.77 4.01 2.85 1.54 3.24 0.32 3.32 4.14 1.64 3.47 4.17 4.01 3.73 4.02 1.72 3.35 3.40 3.72 2.60

3.55 4.86 3.12 1.24 3.72 0.39 2.81 2.93 1.00 2.95 3.49 3.89 3.50 3.19 1.49 2.88 3.44 2.96 3.84

3.26 3.29 2.68 0.78 2.28 0.38 3.23 2.82 0.89 2.83 3.09 3.56 3.36 2.86 0.90 2.86 2.54 2.15 3.23

4.81 1.92 3.28 0.66 1.49 0.87 3.66 3.58 0.43 3.23 3.83 4.47 3.23 2.98 0.49 3.46 3.17 3.22 1.98

5.91 1.58 3.03 0.85 1.02 0.99 3.16 3.32 0.50 2.93 3.67 3.91 3.48 3.24 0.51 3.15 3.09 2.86 1.40

55.37 37.62 37.51 15.21 29.86 7.53 36.37 40.29 8.88 36.17 38.58 47.25 43.09 41.43 15.47 41.33 36.63 38.09 33.36

(continued) Weather and Climate

33

TABLE 2.5 State

(continued)

Station

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual



5.35 3.21 2.54 3.88 4.42

3.85 2.79 2.39 3.61 4.12

3.56 3.46 3.41 4.05 4.82

2.39 3.62 3.15 4.11 3.28

2.06 3.75 3.59 3.76 3.68

1.48 3.74 3.71 3.33 4.80

0.63 4.28 3.75 3.18 5.50

1.09 3.80 3.21 3.63 6.09

1.75 3.42 2.97 3.48 3.67

2.67 2.62 2.36 3.69 3.04

5.34 3.34 2.85 4.43 2.90

6.13 3.38 2.92 4.38 3.59

36.30 41.41 36.85 45.53 49.91

S.Dak. Tenn. Tenn. Tex. Tex.

Sioux Falls Memphis Nashville Dallas–Fort Worth El Paso

0.51 3.73 3.58 1.83 0.40

0.64 4.35 3.81 2.18 0.41

1.64 5.41 4.85 2.77 0.29

2.52 5.46 4.37 3.50 0.20

3.03 4.98 4.88 4.88 0.25

3.40 3.57 3.57 2.98 0.67

2.68 3.79 3.97 2.31 1.54

2.85 3.43 3.46 2.21 1.58

3.02 3.53 3.46 3.39 1.70

1.78 3.01 2.62 3.52 0.76

1.09 5.10 4.12 2.29 0.44

0.70 5.74 4.61 1.84 0.57

23.86 52.10 47.30 33.70 8.81



3.29 1.11 1.82 3.78 3.24

2.96 1.23 1.63 3.47 3.16

2.92 1.91 2.23 3.70 3.61

3.21 2.12 2.76 3.06 2.96

5.24 1.80 3.12 3.81 3.84

4.96 0.93 3.47 3.82 3.62

3.60 0.81 3.65 5.06 5.03

3.49 0.86 4.06 4.81 4.40

4.89 1.28 3.30 3.90 3.34

4.27 1.44 2.88 3.15 3.53

3.79 1.29 3.13 2.85 3.17

3.45 1.40 2.42 3.23 3.26

46.07 16.18 34.47 44.64 43.16



5.38 1.98 2.91 1.60 0.40 2.81

3.99 1.49 3.04 1.45 0.39 2.15

3.54 1.49 3.63 2.67 1.03 2.35

2.33 1.18 3.31 3.50 1.37 3.76

1.70 1.41 3.94 2.84 2.39 5.93

1.50 1.26 3.59 3.24 2.08 4.00

0.76 0.67 4.99 3.47 2.09 4.37

1.14 0.72 4.01 3.53 1.69 5.32

1.88 0.73 3.24 3.38 1.27 5.28

3.23 0.99 2.89 2.41 0.74 5.71

5.83 2.15 3.59 2.51 0.53 5.94

5.91 2.42 3.39 2.33 0.42 4.72

37.19 16.49 42.53 32.93 14.40 52.34

a

In inches. Airport data, except as noted. Based on standard 30-year period, 1961 through 1990. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract 1992, 224.

TABLE 2.6

SNOW AND ICE PELLETS—SELECTED CITIESa Length of Record Yr.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual


49 46 53 48 55

0.1 25.9 T 2.5 T

0.2 18.8 ... 1.5 T

... 15.5 T 0.5 T

T 3.7 T T ...

... ... ... ... ...

... T ... ... ...

T ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... T ... ... ...

... 1 ... ... ...

T 12.3 ... 0.2 ...

0.1 22.2 ... 0.7 T

0.4 99.4 T 5.4 T



42 50 63 56 36

T T ... 7.9 12.3

... ... T 7.5 11.6

T T T 12.8 9.5

... ... ... 9.0 1.6

... ... ... 1.7 ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... T ...

... ... ... T ...

... ... ... 1.6 ...

... ... ... 3.7 0.1

... T ... 8.2 2.1

T T ... 7.4 10.6

T T T 59.8 47.8



43 47 49 48 56

6.8 5.5 T ... 0.9

6.2 5.4 ... ... 0.5

3.2 2.1 ... ... 0.4

0.2 ... ... ... T

T T ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

T T T ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

0.1 ... ... ... ...

1. 0.9 ... ... ...

3.5 3.2 ... ... 0.2

21.0 17.1 T ... 2 .



44 51 32 47 59

... 6.8 10.7 6.5 6.1

... 3.6 8.5 5.5 5.8

... 1.8 6.6 4.1 3.5

... 0.7 1.7 0.9 0.5

... 0.1 0.1 ... ...

... T ... ... ...

... T ... T ...

... T T ... T

... ... T ... ...

... 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2

... 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.8

... 6 . 8.6 6.0 5.0

... 21.3 38.7 25.1 22.9



51 37 43 44 50

8.1 4.7 5.4 ... 19.4

7.3 4.4 4.4 0.1 17.5

6.5 2.6 3.3 T 12.4

2 0.3 0.1 T 2.9

... T T T 0.2

... T ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

T ... ... ... T

0.2 ... ... ... 0.2

2.7 1.2 1.1 T 3.1

6.9 3.4 2.2 0.1 14.7

33.7 16.6 16.5 0.2 70.4

Md. Mass. Mich. Mich.


40 55 32 49

6.1 12.2 10.0 28.6

6.7 11.4 9.1 19.3

3.7 7.4 6.8 15.2

0.1 0.9 1.7 5.5

T ... T 0.5

... ... ... T

... ... ... ...

... ... ... T

... ... T 0.1

... ... 0.2 2.3

1.1 1.4 3.1 15.3

3.6 7.4 10.6 30 .

21.3 40.7 41.5 116.8

47

16.9

11.3

13.8

6.4

0.7

...

...

T

...

1.3

11 .

15.5

76.9

52 27 56 54 53

9.9 0.6 5.7 5.3 9.9

8.4 0.2 4.4 4.5 8.5

10.9 0.2 3.7 4.3 10.4

3 ... 0.7 0.4 7.3

0.1 ... T T 1.8

T ... T T 0.3

... ... ... ... T

... ... ... ... T

... ... ... ... 1.6

0.4 ... ... T 3.1

7.1 ... 1. 1.4 7.5

9.4 ... 4.5 4 8.9

49.2 1 . 20 . 19.9 59.3

State

Station


Minn. Minn.

Minneapolis– St. Paul Miss. Jackson Mo. Kansas City Mo. St. Louis Mont. Great Falls

34


State

Station

Length of Record Yr.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual



55 48 49 46 51

7.3 5.8 18.1 5.3 2.5

6.8 5.2 14.7 5.5 2.2

6.6 4.6 10.6 2.7 1.9

0.8 1.3 2.3 0.4 0.6

0.1 0.9 0.1 T ...

T ... ... ... T

... ... ... ... T

... ... ... ... ...

T ... ... ... T

0.3 0.4 0.1 T 0.1

2.5 2.2 4.0 0.4 1.1

5.7 4.3 13.7 2.3 2.6

30.1 24.7 63.6 16.6 11.0


Albany Buffalo New York Charlotte Raleigh

44 47 122 51 46

16.5 23.8 7.6 2.1 2.4

14.3 18.5 8.5 1.8 2.7

10.9 11.1 5.0 1.3 1.4

2.8 3.2 0.9 ... ...

0.1 0.3 T ... ...

... T ... ... ...

T ... T ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

T T ... ... ...

0.2 0.2 ... ... ...

4.3 11.4 0.9 0.1 0.1

15.2 22.8 5.5 0.5 0.8

64.3 91.3 28.4 5.8 7.4



51 43 49 43 51

7.2 7.0 12.3 8.3 3.1

6.7 5.4 11.7 6.2 2.6

8.3 4.3 10.3 4.5 1.4

3.8 0.5 2.4 1 ...

0.8 ... 0.1 ... T

T ... ... T ...

T ... ... ... ...

T ... ... ... ...

0.3 ... T T ...

1.3 0.2 0.6 ... T

5.8 2.1 5.0 2.3 0.5

6.9 4.0 11.9 5.7 1.8

41.1 23.5 54.3 28.0 9.4



50 48 38 37 43

3.4 6.6 11.6 9.8 0.5

0.9 6.5 9.4 9.8 0.9

0.5 3.6 8.1 7.4 0.2

T 0.3 1.8 0.7 T

... T 0.1 0.2 ...

T ... T ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

T ... ... ... ...

T ... T ... ...

... ... 0.2 0.1 ...

0.5 0.7 3.4 1.1 T

1.4 3.6 8.2 7.1 0.2

6.7 21.3 42.8 36.2 1.8


45 40 49

6.5 2.5 4.0

8.0 1.4 3.1

9.7 0.9 1.4

2.3 T ...

... T ...

T ... ...

... ... ...

... ... T

... ... ...

0.5 T T

5.2 0.1 0.5

7.4 0.7 1.6

39.6 5.6 10.6

Tex.

Sioux Falls Memphis Nashville Dallas–Fort Worth El Paso

37 51

1.3 1.3

1.0 0.9

0.2 0.4

T 0.4

T T

... ...

... T

... ...

... ...

... ...

0.1 1.0

0.3 1.7

2.9 5.7



56 62 47 42 53

0.2 13.0 18.8 2.8 5.1

0.2 9.5 16.5 3.0 4.2

... 9.9 12 . 1.1 2.5

... 5.0 3.6 ... 0.1

... 0.6 0.2 ... T

T T ... T ...

... ... T ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... 0.1 T ... ...

... 1.3 0.2 ... T

T 6.4 6.8 ... 0.4

... 12 . 18.7 0.9 2.0

0.4 57.8 76.8 7.8 14.3



46 43 43 50 55 35

5.3 16.3 10.6 12.9 6.2 ...

1.7 7.8 8.8 9.8 5.9 ...

1.4 4.1 4.6 8.7 12.4 ...

0.1 0.7 0.9 1.8 9.0 ...

T 0.1 ... 0.1 3.5 ...

... T ... ... 0.2 ...

T ... T T T ...

... ... T T T ...

T ... T T 0.8 T

... 0.4 0.1 0.2 3.6 ...

1.3 6.2 2.2 3.0 6.8 ...

2.5 15.0 5.0 10.5 6.2 ...

12.3 50.6 32.2 47.0 54.6 T

. . . Represents zero or rounds to zero. T denotes trace. a In inches. Airport data, except as noted. For period of record through 1990. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract 1992, 226.

Weather as a Destructive Force Hurricanes Besides being a supplier of elements necessary to life, a determinant of schedules and setter of human moods, weather can become a destroyer of property, hopes, and life itself. The most powerful and destructive manifestations of weather have taken on the generic label of storms, and storms, of course, can take many forms.Among the most threatening and spectacular are the tropical storms that threaten the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States in late summer and early autumn of virtually every year. The most intense tropical storms received the designation of hurricane. Although the character and frequency of hurricanes has not changed over the broad scope of years, methods of detecting and observing them have undergone major transformation. Slow to form and slow moving, these storms lend themselves to the various tracking and measuring devices developed since the 1950s, provide areas in their path time for preparation, and add drama to the life and death of each storm and of course to the destruction left behind. A better warning system did not mean a reduction in the absolute amount of destruction. Because the targeted areas all had become more fully settled and developed over the years, the most costly hurri-

canes, with rare exceptions, were the recent ones. If the passage of time produced advance warning technology, it also placed more expensive property in the path of destructive storms. The most obvious saving came in lives lost. Probably the most intense hurricane to strike the United States in the 20th century was Camille in 1969. It left 256 dead, second-highest number in the postwar era. But in a list of killer hurricanes of the century, Camille ranked only 11th and was a far cry from the less-powerful storm that arrived virtually unannounced at Galveston in 1900 and took more than 6,000 lives. The process of tracking hurricanes became professionalized and systematized at the National Hurricane Center in Florida. In the 1970s the government adopted the Saffir/Simpson Scale, devised by two officials at the center, for classifying hurricanes. In the 1950s the National Weather Service concluded that naming hurricanes would make them easier to identify and study.The practice of using women’s names, which began in 1953, evolved from a practice of referring to storms as “she,’’ possibly in the way that the feminine pronoun was used to identify ships and nations. In a move consistent with the gender-neutral or at least gender-equal emphasis in that period, the Weather Service began in 1979 to use men’s names as well. Since that time male names alternate with female alphabetically in formation of each year’s list. Weather and Climate

35

TABLE 2.7

SAFFIR/SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE RANGES Winds (in mph)

Name

Barometric Pressure (at storm’s center, in inches)

Storm Surge (in feet)

Damage

Tropical Depression

Less than 39 mph

Above 29 inches

None

Little

Tropical Storm

39 to 74 mph

Above 29 inches

Very minor

Minor flooding

Category 1 Hurricane

75 to 95 mph

Above 28.94 inches

4 to 5 feet

Damage to shrubbery, trees, mobile homes; low-lying roads inundated; small craft torn from moorings.


96 to 110 mph

28.50 to 28.91 inches

6 to 8 feet

Some trees blown down; some windows and roofs damaged; evacuation of some shoreline residencies required.


111 to 130 mph

27.91 to 28.47 inches

9 to 12 feet

Large trees blown down; mobile homes destroyed; serious flooding on coast; low-lying escape routes cut off three to five hours before storm center.


131 to 155 mph

27.17 to 27.88 inches

13 to 18 feet

Trees blown down; complete destruction of mobile homes; major erosion of beaches; massive evacuation of all residencies within two miles of shore required.


Above 155 mph

Less than 27.17 inches

More than 18 feet

Very severe and extensive damage to all buildings; roofs blown away; small buildings overturned or blown away; massive evacuation of all residents five to ten miles inland required.

Source: Ti Sanders, Weather: A User’s Guide to the Atmosphere (South Bend, 1985), 92.

TABLE 2.8

MOST INTENSE ATLANTIC COAST HURRICANES, 1946–1990

(measured at time of landfall) Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Hurricane

Year

Category

Millibarsa

Inchesa

Camille (Mississippi/Southeast, Louisiana/Virginia) Donna (Florida/Eastern U.S.) Carla (North of Central Texas) Hugo (South Carolina) Hazel

1969 1960 1961 1989 1954

5 4 4 4 4

909 930 931 934 938

26.35 27.46 27.49 27.58 27.70

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Unnamed (Southeastern Florida/Southeastern Louisiana, Mississippi) Gloria (Eastern U.S.) Audrey (Southwestern Texas/Northern Texas) Celia (Southern Texas) Allen (Southern Texas)

1947 1985 1957 1970 1980

4 3b 4 3 3c

940 942 945 945 945

27.76 27.82 27.91 27.91 27.91

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Frederic (Alabama/Mississippi) Betsy (Southeastern Florida/Southeastern Louisiana) Diana (North Carolina) Beulah (Southern Texas) Hilda (Central Louisiana)

1979 1965 1984 1967 1964

3 3 3 3 3

946 948 949 950 950

27.94 27.99 28.02 28.05 28.05

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Gracie (South Carolina) Carmen (Central Louisiana) Edna (New England) Unnamed (Southeastern Florida) Eloise (Northwestern Florida)

1959 1974 1954 1949 1975

3 3 3d 3 3

950 952 954 954 955

28.05 28.11 28.17 28.17 28.20

a

Both millibars and inches are instruments for measuring barometric pressure. The lower the number, in either case, the more intense the storm. Winds and tides did not justify 4; moving at more than 30 mph. Reached category 5 three times over water. d Moving more than 30 mph. Source: Richard A. Wood, The Weather Almanac (Detroit, 1996), 64. b c

36


Hurricane Elena in the Gulf of Mexico, heading for the United States in September 1985, as seen from the Space Shuttle Discovery (NASA)

TABLE 2.9

MOST DESTRUCTIVE NORTH ATLANTIC HURRICANES, 1946–1990 Areas Hardest Hit

Land Stations with Highest Wind Speed

Deaths (U.S. only)

Est. Damage (millions)

Sep. 4–21, 1947

Florida and Mid-Gulf Coast

Hillsboro Light, Fla. (155 mph)

51

110

Wind damage especially heavy along Gulf Coast and Florida east coast.

Aug. 25–31, 1954

North Carolina to New England

Block Island, R.I. (135 mph)

60

461

“Carol’’—more damage than any other single storm to this date.Water and high waves flooded low-lying areas; 1,000 injuries in Long Island–New England area.

Sep. 2–14, 1954

New Jersey to New England

Block Island, R.I. (87 mph)

21

40

“Edna’’—New England again heavily hit. Gusts of 120 mph at Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.

Oct. 5–18, 1954

South Carolina to New York

New York, N.Y. (113 mph) (See Remarks)

95

252

“Hazel’’—several N.C. localities had winds of 130–150 mph with unusually heavy wave damage resulting. Est. 400–1,000 casualties in Haiti. In Canada there were 78 deaths, mostly due to flooding.

Aug. 7–21, 1955

North Carolina to New England

Wilmington, N.C. (83 mph)

184

832

“Diane’’—worst floods in history in Southern New England. 16 in. of rain in Hartford area.

Jun. 25–28, 1957

Texas to Alabama

Sabine/Pass,Tex. (100 mph)

390

150

“Audrey’’—gave an early start to the hurricane season and wiped out Cameron, La.Two weeks later “Bertha’’ struck same area.

Date

Remarks


37

TABLE 2.9

(continued)

Date

Areas Hardest Hit

Land Stations with Highest Wind Speed

Deaths (U.S. only)

Est. Damage (millions)

Remarks

Aug. 29–Sep. 13, 1960

Florida to New England

Ft. Myers, Fla. (92 mph) Block Island, R.I. (130 mph) (See Remarks)

50

500

“Donna’’—hurricane winds from a single storm swept the entire Atlantic seaboard from Florida to New England for the first time in a 75-year record.Winds estimated near 140 mph with gusts 175–180 mph on Central Keys and lower southwest Florida coast. 115 deaths in Antilles, most from flash floods in Puerto Rico.

Sep. 3–15, 1961

Texas coast

Port Lavaca,Tex. (145 mph)

46

408

“Carla’’—devastated Texas Gulf Coast cities with 15-foot tides and 15-inch rains. Gusts to 175 mph at Port Lavaca.

Aug. 20–Sep. 5, 1964

Southern Florida, Eastern Virginia

Miami, Fla. (110 mph)

3

129

“Cleo’’—first hurricane in Miami area since 1950. Killed 214 in Caribbean Islands.

Aug. 28–Sep. 16, 1964

Northeastern Florida, Southern Georgia

St. Augustine, Fla. (125 mph)

5

250

“Dora’’—first storm of full hurricane force on record to move inland from east over northeastern Florida.

Aug. 27–Sep. 12, 1965

Southern Florida and Louisiana

Port Sulphur, La. (136 mph)

75

1,420

Sep. 5–22, 1967

Southern Texas

Brownsville,Texas (109 mph gust)

15

200

Aug. 14–22, 1969

Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama,Virginia, W. Virginia

Oil drilling rig east of Boothville, La. (172 mph)

256

1,420

“Camille’’—68 additional persons missing. One of most destructive killer storms ever to hit U.S.

Jul. 23–Aug. 5, 1970

Texas coast

Corpus Christi,Tex. (130 mph)

11

453.8

“Celia’’—Gusts of 161 mph recorded.

Jun. 14–23, 1972

Florida to New York

Key West, Fla. (43 mph)

117

2,100

“Agnes’’—Devastating floods with many record-breaking river crests. Pa. hardest hit, with 50 deaths.

Sep. 13–24, 1975

Florida and Southern Alabama

Ozark, Ala. (104 mph)

21

490

“Eloise’’—Structures destroyed from Panama City Beach, Fla., to Ft.Walton Beach, Fla. Major flooding from rainfall.

Aug. 6–10, 1976

New York, New Jersey, and Southern New England

Bridgeport, Conn. (77 mph gust)

5

100

“Belle’’—Crop damage in the Northeast. Considerable inland stream and road flooding.

Aug. 25–Sep. 7, 1979

Florida to New England

Fort Pierce, Fla. (95 mph gust)

5

320

“David’’—1200 deaths in the Dominican Republic. Homes 80 percent destroyed in Dominica.

Aug. 29–Sep. 14, 1979

Alabama and Mississippi

Dauphin Island, Alabama (145 mph gust)

5

2300

Aug. 3–10, 1980

Caribbean Islands to Texas Gulf Coast

Port Mansfield,Texas (120 mph gust)

28

300

Aug. 15–21, 1983

Texas Coast

Hobby Airport (94 mph)

21

2000

“Alicia’’—Extensive damage in Galveston/Houston area.

Aug. 28–Sep. 4, 1985

Florida to Mississippi

Dauphin Island, Ala. (96 mph)

4

1,000

“Elena’’—1 million persons evacuated.

Sep. 16–27, 1985

North Carolina Outer Banks and Long Island, N.Y.

Chesapeake Bay Bridge (92 mph)

8

1,000

“Gloria’’—downed trees and power outages across southern New England.

Oct. 26–Nov. 1, 1985

Louisiana

Pensacola, Fla. (63 mph gust)

12

1,500

“Juan’’—Serious damage to offshore oil rigs. Sustained flooding over SE Louisiana.

Sep. 10–22, 1989

Caribbean Islands from Guadeloupe to Puerto Rico; South Carolina and North Carolina

Roosevelt Roads, P.R. (104 mph) Charleston, S.C. (87 mph)

49

7,000

“Hugo’’—Storm surge flood waters reached 20 feet above normal along portions of S.C. Coast. New recordhigh dollar damage.

Source: Otto Johnson, ed., The 1991 Information Please Almanac, Atlas & Yearbook (Boston, 1991), 667–669.

38


“Betsy’’—Damage in Louisiana, $1.2 billion, 27,000 homes destroyed, 17,500 injured or ill, 300,000 evacuated. Gusts of 165 mph at Pine Key, Fla. “Beulah’’—main damage was caused by torrential rains.

“Frederic’’—highest dollar damage ever in the United States. “Allen’’—Highest tides in 61 years. More than 200 killed in Caribbean Islands. Extensive crop damage in Caribbean.

Tornadoes Tornadoes in several ways represent a reverse of the activity of hurricanes. Originating over land, not water, the tornadoes’ winds turn counterclockwise around a hollow core. The storm develops when a convergence of warm and cold air masses creates an atmospheric vacuum, and air rushing in to fill the void starts to rotate.The tornado season shifts with passage of the warm months but generally is most intense from April through June and is for the most part over at the time the hurricane season begins.Tornadoes cover a much smaller area than hurricanes and have a much shorter life, but the winds can be substantially more intense and are devastating in the area they strike. Because tornadoes have been so numerous and short lived, there has been no systematic effort to give them names. A Japanese scientist did devise a system for measuring strength of the whirling winds, but the character of these storms—their unpredictability, short life, and enormous danger—has made it nearly impossible to apply the scale with precision to given situations.The large increase in the number of tornadoes since 1946 probably better reflects methods of detection and reporting than proliferation of activity. The same factors do much to explain a general reduction in yearly number of deaths, although the numbers indicate that the suddenness of these storms, their hit-and-miss behavior, and great intensity kept them a continuing threat to life and property.

Tornado Characteristics

Time of day during which tornadoes are most likely to occur is midafternoon, generally between 3 and 7 P.M., but they have occurred at all times of day. Direction of movement is usually from southwest to northeast. (Note: Tornadoes associated with hurricanes may move from an easterly direction.) Length of path averages 4 miles (6 km), but may reach 300 miles (483 km). A tornado traveled 293 miles (472 km) across Illinois and Indiana on May 26, 1917, and lasted 7 hours and 20 minutes. Width of path averages about 300–400 yards (273–364 m) but tornadoes have cut paths a mile and more in width. Speed of travel averages from 25 to 40 miles (40.25–64.4 km) per hour, but speeds ranging from stationary to 68 miles (109.5 km) per hour have been reported. The cloud directly associated with a tornado is a dark, heavy cumulonimbus (the familiar thunderstorm cloud) from which a whirling funnel-shaped pendant extends to the ground. Precipitation associated with the tornado usually occurs first as rain just preceding the storm, frequently with hail, and as a heavy downpour immediately to the side of the tornado’s path.

Louisville, Kentucky, after tornado of April 3, 1974: One of scores of tornadoes that struck the central United States, this twister had 250-mph winds and destroyed 900 homes. (Louisville Courier-Journal)

Weather and Climate

39

Sound occurring during a tornado has been described as a roaring, rushing noise, closely approximating that made by a train speeding through a tunnel or over a trestle, or the roar of many airplanes. Source: Wood, Weather Almanac, 82.

Tornado-Intensity Rating System

The intensity of tornadoes is defined according to the Fujita Scale (or F scale), which ranges from F0 to F6 as outlined below. F0: 40–72 mph (64–116 km/hr) winds. Damage is light and might include damage to tree branches, chimneys, and billboards. Shallow-rooted trees may be pushed over. F1: 73–112 mph (118–180 km/hr) winds. Damage is moderate; mobile homes may be pushed off foundations and moving autos pushed off the road.

TABLE 2.10

Source: Wood, Weather Almanac, 82.

TORNADOES THAT CAUSED OUTSTANDING DAMAGE, 1947–1989

Date Apr. 9–10, 1947 Mar. 21–22, 1952 Jun. 7–9, 1953 May 11, 1953 May 25, 1955 Apr. 11–12, 1965 May 15, 1968 May 11, 1970 Feb. 21, 1971 Mar. 31, 1973 May 26–28, 1973

Number of Tornadoes 8 31 12 1 13 47 7 1 (1) 2 96

Deaths

Property Losses (in $)

167 343 234 114 102 257 63 26 117 9 22

10,030,750 15,327,100 93,230,840 39,500,000 11,747,500 200,000,000 65,000,000 135,000,000 17,000,000 115,000,000 . . .a

Apr. 3–4, 1974 May 6, 1975 Apr. 4, 1977 Dec. 3, 1978 Apr. 10, 1979 Oct. 3, 1979 May 13, 1980 Aug. 9–11, 1980 Apr. 4, 1981 Jul. 3, 1983 Apr. 26–27, 1984

144 3 7 13 10 1 1 29 1 22 47

307 3 22 4 54 3 5 0 3 0 16

500,000,0001 400,000,0001 15,000,000 100,000,0001 . . .a 200,000,000 40,000,000 50,000,0001 12,900,000 11,000,0001 ...

May 31, 1985 Feb. 5, 1986 Feb. 27, 1987 May 22, 1987 Nov. 15–16, 1987 Nov. 15–16, 1988 Nov. 28, 1988 May 5, 1989 Nov. 15, 1989 Nov. 15–16, 1989

30 1 1 1 49 44 1 17 1 39

76 2 6 30 11 7 2 7 21 30

102,500,0001 50,000,000 28,000,000 1,300,000 70,000,0001 35,000,0001 77,500,000 64,000,0001 100,000,000 100,000,0001

a

Not definitely known; believed to be large. Source: Johnson, 1991 Information Please Almanac, 669.

40

F2: 113–157 mph (182–253 km/hr) winds. Damage is considerable. Roofs can be torn off houses, mobile homes demolished, and large trees uprooted. F3: 158–206 mph (254–334 km/hr) winds. Damage is severe. Even well-constructed houses may be torn apart, trees uprooted, and cars lifted off the ground. F4: 207–260 mph (333–419 km/hr) winds. Damage is devastating. Houses can be leveled and cars thrown; objects become deadly missiles. F5: 261–318 mph (420–512 km/hr) winds. Damage is incredible. Structures are lifted off foundations and carried away; cars become missiles. Less than 2% of all tornadoes reach an intensity of this magnitude. F6: The maximum tornado wind speeds are not expected to exceed 318 mph (512 km/hr)


States in Which Storms Occurred Texas, Okla., Kans. Ark.,Tenn., Mo., Miss., Ala., Ky. Mich., Ohio, and New England states Tex. Okla. and Kans. Iowa, Ill.,Wis., Mich., Ind., Ohio Ark., Iowa, Ill. Texas La., Miss. Ga., S.C. Hawaii and 18 states in South, Southwest, Midwest, and East 13 states in East, South, and Midwest Nebr. Ala. La. and Ark. Texas and Okla. Conn. Mich. Tex. Wis. Wis. Iowa, Ill., Kans., La., Mich., Minn., Mo., Okla., S.Dak.,Wis. Ohio, Pa., N.Y. Tex. Laurel, Miss. Saragosa,Tex. La., Miss., Okla.,Tex. Ark., Ill., Iowa, Kans., Mo., Okla.,Tex. Raleigh, N.C. Ga., S.C., N.C. Huntsville, Ala. Ala., Ark., Ga.,Tenn., N.J., Pa., N.Y.

TABLE 2.11

NATIONAL TORNADOES, TORNADO DAYS, DEATHS, AND RESULTING LOSSES, BY YEAR, 1946–1990 Property Loss Frequency* Most Deaths in Single Tornado

Year

Number Tornadoes

Tornado Days

Total Deaths

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

106 165 183 249 200

65 78 68 80 88

78 313 139 211 70

15 169 33 58 18

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

262 240 421 550 593

113 98 136 160 152

34 229 515 36 126

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

504 856 564 604 616

155 154 166 156 172

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

697 657 464 704 906

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Total Property Lossess

Category 5

Category 6

Category 7 and Over

7 7 7 7 7

29 46 62 54 47

7 7 11 13 9

0 1 2 0 0

6 57 116 6 80

7 7 8 7 7

35 53 63 63 74

11 19 18 8 13

2 0 7 1 1

83 192 66 58 46

25 44 19 21 16

7 8 7 7 7

83 129 70 70 65

24 26 8 4 11

1 3 1 1 1

169 152 141 156 181

51 28 31 73 299

16 17 5 22 44

7 7 7 7 8

103 51 77 113 126

21 10 15 17 30

1 0 1 5 11

585 926 660 608 653

150 173 171 155 171

98 114 131 66 72

58 33 34 32 26

8 8 8 8 8

79 125 82 98 97

13 33 26 16 24

4 8 6 3 6

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

888 741 1102 947 920

192 194 206 184 204

156 27 87 361 60

58 6 7 34 9

8 8 9 9 9

71 100 219 166 189

30 28 67 82 31

5 1 9 25 11

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

835 852 788 852 866

169 189 173 186 176

44 43 53 84 28

5 22 16 42 5

8 8 9 9 9

145 173 153 169 201

41 40 53 62 79

5 6 6 11 13

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

783 1046 931 907 684

175 182 190 166 168

24 64 34 122 94

5 10 3 16 18

9 9 9 9 9

144 254 211 193 114

43 79 85 90 55

12 13 10 35 14

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

764 656 702 856 1133

168 151 156 160 181

15 59 32 50 53

3 30 5 21 29

9 8 9 9 8

157 112 148 133 215

66 32 48 60 91

9 6 17 18 18

Note: The above estimated losses are based on values at time of occurrence. s Storm damages in categories: 5. $50,000 to $500,000 6. $500,000 to $5 million 7. $5 million to $50 million 8. $50 million to $500 million 9. $500 million and more * Number of Times Property Losses reported in Storm Data in categories 5, 6, 7, and more. Source: Wood, Weather Almanac, 97.

Weather and Climate

41

Other Storms The United States continued to be subject to other weather phenomena that lacked the drama of hurricanes and tornadoes but still had the capacity to threaten life and property and affect areas for years to come. Dust storms remained an issue on the Great Plains. Partly a product of another element of weather—absence of rainfall—dust storms after 1946 did not equal the intensity or impact of the great black blizzards of the 1930s. Dust clouds nonetheless darkened the sky for miles around in many years, and the storms fed off periods of drought, notably in 1952–56 and 1988. Conditions otherwise had changed since the era of the dust bowl. Government subsidies eased the blow caused by a failed crop. Utilization of underground aquifers and other techniques facilitated irrigation. Growth of metropolitan areas meant that most people’s living did not depend on the weather. People in large parts of the country accepted snow as a regular part of life. In most areas snowfall came from movement of weather systems.The right combination of moisture, cold air, and wind could produce a blizzard or at least heavy snow. In the East snowstorms often were called northeasters (or nor’ easters) from direction of the winds. Improved weather forecasting and better snow-removal equipment (in places that had it) eased and shortened the distress but by no means ended it. Blizzards nearly always shut down cities, isolated the countryside, and caused hardship and death. Areas that regularly experienced heaviest snowfall lived under different weather conditions. Cold air moving over warm water produced “lake-effect’’ snow, especially on the eastern side of Lake Michigan in Michigan and the eastern end of Lake Erie in western New York. One lake-effect blizzard brought 40 inches and drifts much higher to Buffalo, New York, in January 1977. The largest snowfalls came as a result of “upslope’’ movement of air, forced to rise when it bumped into mountains. Snowfalls could reach 10 feet on the western side of mountains near the Pacific Coast. The record of 189 inches fell at Mount Shasta, California, during a storm in February 1959. The most common form of weather disturbance, the thunderstorm, produced the most diverse consequences. By bringing rain for a parched earth, water for emptied reservoirs and rivers, relief from a hot spell, it could be essential to life itself. It could delay or cancel

TABLE 2.13

42

sporting events, picnics, reunions, summer concerts, or any outdoor activity. Thunderstorms carried potential for serious trouble. While weaker than in hurricanes and tornadoes, their winds could cause huge damage. If frequent and persistent enough, the storms can produce flooding on a general scale; if intense and concentrated enough, they can produce deadly flash floods.Thunderstorms provided spawning conditions for tornadoes. They often brought lightning, thereby creating a different set of problems. Lightning struck buildings, airplanes, and livestock. It sparked fires that could grow rapidly in dry and undeveloped areas. Largely because it took its victims one at a time, it received far less attention than it deserved as a killer. Causing death of approximately 150 Americans each year (and injury to another 250), lightning was on average a more persistent threat to life than either hurricanes or tornadoes.

TABLE 2.12 THE BEAUFORT SCALE FOR MEASURING WIND STRENGTH Wind Force (the Beaufort numbers)

Description

Wind Speed km/h mph

0 1 2 3 4

Calm Light air Light breeze Gentle breeze Moderate breeze

less than 1 1–5 6–11 12–19 20–29

less than 1 1–3 4–7 8–12 13–18

5 6 7 8 9

Fresh breeze Strong breeze Near gale Gale Strong gale

30–39 40–50 51–61 62–74 75–87

19–24 25–31 32–38 39–46 47–54

10 11 12

Storm Violent storm Hurricane

88–101 102–117 1181

55–63 64–73 741

Note: The scale has unofficially been extended to Force 17 to describe tropical storms. Source: Clive Carpenter, The Changing World of Weather (New York, 1991), 31.

RECORD U.S. BLIZZARDS AND SNOWSTORMS, 1946–1983

Date

Location

Depth

Jan. 1946 Nov. 2–8, 1946 Mar. 2–5, 1947 Mar. 2–5, 1947 Jan. 1–6, 1949

Stampede Pass,Wash. New Mexico Readsboro,Vt. Peru, Mass. Colo. to Dak.

192.2 in. 36 in. 50 in. 47 in. 7–30 in.

Record snowfall for one month Unprecedented for area Record snow for state Record snow for state 70 mph wind, 39 deaths

Mar. 25–27, 1950 Nov. 22–28, 1950 Mar. 10–14, 1951 Apr. 2–5, 1955 Mar. 16–17, 1956

Dumont, S.Dak. Ohio, Pa.,W.Va. Iowa City, Iowa Colo. to Dak. New England, N.Y., Pa.

60 in. 33–57 in. 27.2 in. 30–52 in. 20 in.

Record snow for state Record snow each state Record snow for state Heavy late spring storm Severe wind and snow

Feb. 13–19, 1958 Mar. 19–22, 1958 Feb. 18–20, 1960 Jan. 19–20, 1961 Feb. 3–5, 1961

N.C. to N.Y. Va. to New England Md. to New England N.C. to N.Y. N.C. to New England

36 in. 17–30 in. 20–36 in. 10–30 in. 10–36 in.

43 dead, $500 million damage 49 dead, severe storm Millions $ in damage 37 dead, cities halted 73 dead, 15-ft. drifts

Feb. 2–5, 1964 Jan. 29–31, 1966 Mar. 2–5, 1966 Jan. 26–27, 1967 Feb. 9–10, 1969

N.Mex.,Tex., Okla. Va. to New England Nebr. to Dakotas Chicago, Midwest N.Y., New England

18–36 in. 12–36 in. 12–36 in. 23 in. 15 in.

2nd largest area storm 50 dead, 20-ft. drifts 15 persons, 100,000 cattle dead; 30-ft. drifts Record snow and ice New York City hit badly


Remarks

Date

Location

Depth

Remarks

Feb. 1969 Feb. 10–11, 1973 Dec. 1–2, 1974 Jan. 10–12, 1975 Jan. 3–31, 1977

Mt.Wash.Vt. Ga. to Carolinas Mich., Ohio North Great Plains area W.Va.

172.8 in. 15–21 in. 17–20 in. 8–15 in. 104 in.

Month state record South’s worst storm in 20th century thus far Record snow in Detroit 60 dead, 20-ft. drifts, 80 mph winds W.Va. one month record

Jan. 26–Feb. 1, 1977 Jan. 26–28, 1978 Feb. 6–7, 1978 Jan. 13–14, 1979 Mar. 2, 1980

Ill., Ind., Ohio, N.Y., Pa. East and Midwest Northeast Chicago, Midwest South & Mid-Atlantic

12–71 in. 12–34 in. 18–38 in. 20.7 in. 10–28 in.

75 dead, 69 mph winds 100 dead, 100 mph winds, drifts to 25 ft. 100 mph winds Chicago paralyzed 36 dead, Fla. crops damaged

Jan. 10–23, 1982 Jan. 31, 1982 Jan. 1982 Dec. 24–25, 1982 Feb. 11–12, 1983

N. Minn. St. Louis & Midwest Muskegon, Mich. Denver, Colo. Northeast

38 in. 18–22 in. 89 in. 24 in. 17–35 in.

Paralyzing blizzard Paralyzing blizzard Record month snow Travelers stranded Record snow in Philadelphia

Nov. 27–28, 1983

Rockies and Central Plains

15–22 in.

50 dead, blizzards

Source: David C. Whitney, ed., Reader’s Digest 1986 Almanac and Yearbook (Pleasantville, N.Y., 1985), 152.

TABLE 2.14

CASUALTIES FROM LIGHTNING National Total Deaths by Year for Period 1959–1990

Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

1959 1960

1 0

0 0

1 1

4 5

18 7

25 33

50 25

39 17

13 9

7 0

0 0

0 0

158 97

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 3 4 9 2

2 6 3 6 4

9 27 11 15 12

23 20 37 21 34

47 26 42 29 39

20 28 20 19 28

10 9 10 7 4

1 1 2 1 2

0 0 0 1 0

0 0 81a 0 0

113 120 210 108 125

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 0

1 2 1 5 1

8 3 5 13 17

15 26 24 17 25

21 21 30 27 27

16 14 29 13 19

11 1 9 14 21

3 2 3 3 1

0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 0

76 73 103 93 111

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 2 1

2 1 2 0 3

1 1 3 7 3

12 5 10 12 11

27 21 24 21 19

33 31 31 28 28

19 28 18 24 18

19 3 13 6 6

0 1 2 0 2

0 0 1 2 0

0 0 0 0 0

113 91 105 102 91

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

1 4 1 3 0

9 9 9 11 7

19 19 26 4 16

19 16 24 20 27

19 35 22 16 20

3 14 3 4 5

2 1 1 3 1

0 0 0 2 0

0 0 1 0 0

72 98 88 63 76

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0

4 3 2 3 5

5 5 4 10 12

13 14 8 14 12

19 29 28 20 26

19 18 23 10 8

5 4 8 7 8

0 3 1 1 1

2 0 2 1 1

0 0 0 0 0

67 77 77 67 73

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 3

2 2 3 1 1

9 14 9 9 3

13 18 17 14 18

21 28 21 19 22

17 15 14 18 15

5 7 2 4 10

1 2 1 1 0

0 0 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

68 86 69 67 74

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

National Total Injuries by Year for Period 1959–1990 Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

1959 1960

0 0

0 0

0 2

5 11

27 12

52 70

110 28

103 50

23 16

3 9

1 4

1 0

325 202

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

0 0 7 0 3

0 0 0 0 2

7 3 0 10 2

14 5 6 15 4

15 39 14 14 26

49 38 64 38 42

83 90 55 99 59

50 49 44 53 59

31 12 18 8 19

5 6 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0

256 242 209 239 217


43

TABLE 2.14

(continued) National Total Injuries by Year for Period 1959–1990

Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

0 0 0 0 0

2 0 0 0 0

1 0 4 0 1

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 9 3

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

0 0 0 0 0

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Apr.

May

Jun.

Jul.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

2 4 2 4 5

37 7 16 19 40

39 35 52 75 40

42 59 117 39 82

44 33 155 23 43

15 4 14 12 43

1 2 9 0 4

0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 0

183 145 370 173 259

0 8 10 1 0

1 6 2 3 1

24 12 20 12 30

71 24 23 27 60

79 72 74 56 107

54 54 59 51 154

22 24 29 12 42

1 2 9 1 1

1 1 2 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

254 203 228 173 399

1 0 0 2 1

0 0 5 4 2

7 3 3 26 11

16 35 19 32 11

39 58 100 73 49

73 58 73 55 50

68 67 54 49 134

13 62 42 9 16

1 4 5 2 1

0 4 0 2 0

1 0 0 0 0

219 291 301 254 275

1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

2 2 24 7 29

9 6 3 5 4

34 38 25 13 42

60 20 24 43 48

108 54 87 80 61

52 32 113 53 33

9 11 30 44 27

3 4 31 7 4

13 4 0 1 0

0 2 0 0 0

291 174 337 253 248

0 0 0 1 12

2 0 0 0 0

4 2 1 8 4

2 8 14 16 6

15 66 22 23 10

68 49 53 70 43

112 121 133 135 88

43 70 63 51 62

22 43 19 12 25

3 3 5 4 1

0 1 1 2 0

0 1 0 0 1

271 364 311 322 252

a On December 8, 1963, the crash of a jetliner killing 81 people near Elkton, Maryland, was attributed to lightning by the Civil Aeronautics Board investigators. Source: Wood, Weather Almanac, 113.

TABLE 2.15 THE ODDS OF A WHITE CHRISTMAS If you want a white Christmas, head for Fairbanks, Alaska, or International Falls, Minnesota, where there is a 100 percent chance of snow on the ground on December 25. Here are the chances, by percentage, of at least an inch of snow being on the ground on Christmas Day. These odds are based on snowfall records at National Weather Service offices for the places listed. States not listed here have zero odds throughout the state (though under extremely unusual conditions snow may come to some places where the official odds are zero).

City

Percent Chance

Alabama Birmingham Huntsville Mobile Montgomery

0 9 0 0

Alaska Anchorage Barrow Bethel Cold Bay Cordova Fairbanks Juneau King Salmon Kotzebue McGrath Nome St. Paul

44


87 93 80 37 46 100 50 79 87 90 73 43

City

Percent Chance

Arizona Flagstaff Phoenix Prescott Tucson Winslow Yuma

50 0 0 0 16 0

Arkansas Fort Smith Little Rock Texarkana

0 3 0

California Bakersfield Bishop Burbank Eureka Fresno Long Beach Los Angeles Oakland Red Bluff Sacramento San Diego San Francisco Santa Maria

0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Colorado Alamosa Colo. Springs Denver Grand Junction Pueblo

47 20 23 27 27

City

Percent Chance

33 43 43

Duluth Int’l Falls Minneapolis Rochester St. Cloud

26

Missouri

Delaware Wilmington District of Columbia Washington

17

Idaho Boise Idaho Falls Lewiston Pocatello

16 30 3 43

Illinois Cairo Chicago Moline Peoria Rockford Springfield

6 43 33 30 36 26

Indiana Evansville Fort Wayne Indianapolis South Bend

10 43 26 56

Iowa Burlington Des Moines Dubuque Sioux City Waterloo Kansas

33 46 60 43 50

Concordia Dodge City Goodland Topeka Wichita

36 23 26 23 17

Kentucky Lexington Louisville

12 16

Maine Caribou Portland

97 63

Maryland Baltimore Frederick

20 27

Massachusetts Boston Nantucket Pittsfield Worcester

30 10 44 75

Michigan Alpena Detroit Escanaba Flint Grand Rapids Lansing Marquette Muskegon St. Ste. Marie

Percent Chance

Minnesota

Connecticut Bridgeport Hartford New Haven

City

Columbia Kansas City St. Joseph St. Louis Springfield

90 100 73 71 59

27 20 30 13 7

Montana Billings Glasgow Great Falls Havre Helena Kalispell Missoula

53 52 43 43 57 60 57

Nebraska Grand Island Lincoln Norfolk North Platte Omaha Scottsbluff Valentine

33 37 40 33 40 29 40

Nevada Elko Ely Las Vegas Reno Winnemucca

47 30 0 7 23

New Hampshire Concord

67

New Jersey Atlantic City Newark Trenton

7 27 23

New Mexico Albuquerque Clayton Raton Roswell

7 12 13 3

New York Albany Binghamton Buffalo NewYork Rochester Schenectady Syracuse

43 70 50 23 60 64 67

North Carolina 73 40 62 54 60 50 90 53 93

Asheville Cape Hatteras Charlotte Greensboro Raleigh Wilmington Winston-Salem

7 0 3 13 3 0 15


45

TABLE 2.15 (continued) City

City Percent Chance

Bismarck Devils Lake Fargo Williston

60 79 77 53

Ohio Akron-Canton Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus Dayton Mansfield Sandusky Toledo Youngstown

43 17 37 23 30 60 38 40 43

Oklahoma Oklahoma City Tulsa

0 3

Oregon Astoria Eugene Medford Pendleton Portland Roseburg Salem

0 0 3 0 0 7 0

Pennsylvania Allentown Erie Harrisburg Philadelphia Pittsburgh Reading Scranton Williamsport

33 47 33 23 30 33 53 43

Rhode Island Block Island Providence

17 33

South Carolina Charleston Columbia Florence Greenville

0 0 0 7

South Dakota Huron Rapid City Sioux Falls

37 30 43

Tennessee Bristol Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis Nashville Oak Ridge

18 3 10 0 10 12

Utah Milford Salt Lake City Wendover

46


Vermont Burlington

North Dakota

29 43 3

Percent Chance

77

Virginia Lynchburg Norfolk Richmond Roanoke

17 10 10 27

Washington Olympia Seattle Spokane Walla Walla Yakima

0 7 33 3 20

West Virginia Charleston Elkins Huntington Parkersburg

26 19 24 23

Wisconsin Green Bay LaCrosse Madison Milwaukee

60 63 57 40

Wyoming Casper Cheyenne Lander Sheridan

40 23 63 67

Source: Jack Williams, The USA Today Weather Almanac 1995 (New York, 1994), 367–368.

Floods and Flash Floods Drawing on their experience from before the Second World War, governments on all levels from national to local took measures to protect against floods. They dammed up rivers to hold back the water; they built walls around cities situated along the rivers that were designed to push the water downstream. But floods continued to come—partly because nature did not yield gracefully to being mastered, partly because Americans insisted on living where the rivers wanted to go and persisted with practices that fostered rapid runoff of precipitation. In some cases flooding developed from rainfall that lasted for a prolonged period; in many cases floods grew out of hurricanes that brought tidal surges and massive downpours after the strongest winds had subsided. The years that produced the most floods—1969 (445) and 1972 (555)—corresponded with the landfall of hurricanes Camille and Agnes; the year with the fewest—31 in 1988—encountered no major Atlantic hurricane. Some of the heaviest flooding during this period in the eastern states followed arrival of Agnes in 1972. As with hurricanes generally, flooding in the period after 1945 produced fewer deaths than in previous years but frequently an increase in the value of damage. The most deadly floods were those that came virtually without warning and affected a small area.The greatest danger of a flash flood came from a situation in which massive rainfall for a short period (two or three hours might be enough) trapped water in a small place and then directed it along a single path of departure. The danger had expanded with the propensity of people to settle near banks and on

the floodplain of rivers and streams and with growing popularity of narrow canyon areas as recreation sites.Two examples from the 1970s exemplified the problem. In June 1972 heavy thunderstorm cells stalled over the floodplain near Rapid City, South Dakota, pouring 15 inches of rainfall into Rapid Creek in five hours. Debris floating downstream clogged the spillway of Canyon Lake Dam, causing the reservoir to back up and the dam to break under the increased pressure. A torrent of water swept both sides of the creek, flooded downtown Rapid City, and killed 237.A similar situation occurred in July 1976 in a portion of Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado. Four hours of localized torrential rainfall flooded the Big Thompson River and sent a wave 20 feet high down the canyon, destroying more than 500 homes, 52 businesses, and the highway in the canyon, killing 139 people.

TABLE 2.16 SOME MAJOR FLOODS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1947–1980

Period

Rivers or Basins

Damage in Millions

Deaths

May–July 1947 May–June 1948 June–July 1951 April 1952

Missouri and Mississippi Columbia Kansas and Missouri Red River of north and upper Mississippi

235 101 923 198

29 75 60 11

August 1955 December 1955 April–June 1957

Northeast states Pacific Coast states Texas, Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Oklahoma California and Oregon

714 154 105

186 61 18

415

40

Upper Mississippi, Missouri, and Red North South Platte North New Jersey California

181

16

416 166 399

16 ... 60

March–April 1969 August 1969 August 1971 June 1972

Upper Midwest James New Jersey and Pennsylvania Black Hills, South Dakota

151 116 138 164

... 153 ... 237

June 1972 May 1973 Spring 1973 May 1975

Eastern States South Platte Mississippi Mississippi

4019 120 1154 ...

105 ... 33 ...

July 1975 September 1975 July 1976 September–October 1976

Red River of north New York and Pennsylvania Thompson Canyon, Colorado Southern California and Arizona

273 296 ... 160

4 9 139 ...

April 1977 July 1977 September 1977 November 1977

Kentucky rivers Johnstown, Pennsylvania Kansas City creeks Taccoa, Georgia

424 200 5 ...

22 76 23 38

February–March 1978 August 1978 April 1978

Los Angeles area

100

20

Southeast Texas Pearl River in Louisiana and Mississippi Southeast Texas

100

33

1,000 500

15 1

... 750 500

... 1 36

...

...

December 1964 March–May 1965 June 1965 May 1968 January–February 1969

April 1979 May 1979 July 1979 February 1980 April 1980

Red River of the North East Texas Arizona and Southern California Mississippi and Louisiana

Eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington on May 18, 1980. (David E. Wiesprecht, U.S. Geological Survey, Cascades Observatory, Vancouver, Washington)

Mount St. Helens: Weather Impostor Eruption of a volcano normally was not considered a feature of weather, but a major one could seriously affect atmospheric conditions.The eruption on May 18, 1980, of Mount St. Helens, a peak of the Cascades range in Washington, was an act of nature that took on features of a terrible storm. It produced ash-laden clouds that darkened the sky as at nightfall and inhibited breathing; momentary wind gusts devastated 250 square miles of surrounding recreation, timber, and private lands and left in its wake 57 people dead or missing.

Source: David M. Ludlum, The American Weather Book (Boston, 1982), 81–82.

Weather and Climate

47

CHAPTER 3 Chronology, 1946–1990 The Postwar Period and Start of the Cold War, 1946–1960 January 21, 1946 The United States Steel Workers Union closes the steel mills in a crippling strike over wages. March 5, 1946 Former British prime minister Winston Churchill, with President Harry Truman present, makes his “iron curtain’’ speech at Fulton, Missouri. March 13, 1946 The United Auto Workers Union ends a 113-day strike at General Motors in a victory. April 1, 1946 Some 400,000 United Mine Workers go on strike for better wages and medical benefits—another blow to economic recovery. A huge tidal wave, a tsunami, kills 179 in Hawaii. May 23, 1946 The Railway Trainmen and Engineers strike, shutting down the railroads. June 21, 1946 President Truman names Fred Vinson chief justice of the Supreme Court. July 1, 1946 The United States begins atomic tests at tiny Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. July 4, 1946 In fulfillment of an American pledge made much earlier, the Philippine Islands receives its independence. July 30, 1946 The United States joins UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. September 20, 1946 Secretary of Commerce (and former vice president) Henry A.Wallace resigns his post amidst furor about his criticism of foreign policy. October 23, 1946 The General Assembly of the United Nations meets in New York City and accepts $8.5 million from John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to build a permanent site for the new organization. November 5, 1946 Republicans sweep the off-year elections, gaining clear control of both houses of Congress. December 7, 1946 In the nation’s worst hotel fire, 127 die at the Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta. Other events of 1946 The trials of Nazi leaders begin in August in Nuremburg, Germany. A symposium in Buffalo suggests that lung cancer might be linked to smoking. It’s a Wonderful Life opens on the screen, Annie Get Your Gun on stage. Procter & Gamble introduces Tide soap powder. The short-waisted Eisenhower jacket becomes fashionable. A skimpy female bathing suit makes an appearance in Paris and is called a bikini. March 12, 1947 President Truman announces a program, directed at Greece and Turkey, that will be called the Truman Doctrine—a far-reaching shot in the cold war. April 11, 1947 Infielder Jackie Robinson joins the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking a color line (a ban on blacks) that had been in effect in major league baseball for more than 50 years. April 16, 1947 A ship explosion nearly destroys the town of Texas City,Texas, killing 500, injuring 2,000. June 5, 1947 Speaking at the commencement at Harvard, Secretary of State George C. Marshall proposes a massive program of economic aid for Europe that will become known as the Marshall Plan. June 23, 1947 The Republican 80th Congress overrides a presidential veto and passes the Taft-Hartley Act, which imposed major restrictions on labor unions. July 7, 1947 Congress passed a new law of presidential succession, making the speaker of the house (not the secretary of state) next in line after the president and vice president. 48

July 26, 1947 Truman signs the National Security Act, reorganizing military forces under what will become a Department of Defense. October 5, 1947 Truman becomes the first president to address the nation via televison. October 14, 1947 Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager is the first to break the sound barrier in an experimental Bell X-1 aircraft. December 23, 1947 President Truman pardons 1,523 men who evaded the draft during the Second World War. December 27, 1947 New York City experiences the largest snowfall on record: Nearly 26 inches causes 80 deaths and shuts down the city. Other events of 1947 The first Levittown (practical, massproduced postwar housing) opens on Long Island—all buyers had to be white. Buses replace the last trolley cars in New York City, ending an era. Polaroid introduces its instant “Land’’ camera, Goodyear a tubeless tire. Peter Paul produces a candy bar called Almond Joy. Epoxy glue makes an appearance. Deaths include Al Capone and Henry Ford. January 5, 1948 An art show featuring 17 huge paintings by littleknown artist Jackson Pollock opens in New York. Many viewers wonder what all the swirls were about, but the art world is dazzled. February 7, 1948 General Dwight Eisenhower retires from the army to become president of Columbia University. March 8, 1948 The Supreme Court rules that religious instruction in public schools is unconstitutional. May 10, 1948 Faced with a national rail strike, Truman orders the army to take over the railroads. May 14, 1948 Israel declares its independence, coming out of an area called Palestine;Truman quickly extends recognition. May 25, 1948 General Motors and the U.A.W. sign a landmark contract that tied wage increases to the cost of living. June 26, 1948 Faced with a Soviet blockade of the western sectors of occupied Berlin, the United States begins to supply the city by air. The Berlin Airlift—another round in a fledgling cold war—will last more than a year. July 15, 1948 Democrats meet and nominate Harry Truman for the presidency and Senator Alben Barkley for the vice presidency. A strong (for that day) civil rights platform will cause southern Democrats to bolt the party. July 17, 1948 Southern Democrats meet separately, form the States’ Rights (Dixiecrat) Party, and nominate Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for the presidency. July 22, 1948 Liberal defectors from the Democrat Party form the Progressive Party, with Henry Wallace as its presidential nominee. July 26, 1948 President Truman issues an executive order that prohibits segregation in the armed forces and calls for an end to discrimination in the national government. July 31, 1948 Truman dedicates Idlewild Airport in New York; it later will be renamed the John F. Kennedy Airport. August 3, 1948 Testifying before a congressional committee,Whittaker Chambers, a former communist, names Alger Hiss as a communist spy and in so doing instigated the Hiss case that helped fuel the Red Scare and give publicity to obscure freshman congressman Richard Nixon. October 24, 1948 In a speech before a congressional committee, elder statesman Bernard Baruch described mounting trouble with the Soviet Union as a cold war, thus giving a name to an era.

November 2, 1948 After a vigorous “whistle stop’’ campaign that targeted the “do-nothing’’ Republican 80th Congress, Truman scored a major upset victory over Thomas E. Dewey. Defecting Democrats do poorly. Other events of 1948 The first self-serve McDonald’s restaurant opens in California. The long-playing (33 rpm) record appears on the market, as does a new word game called Scrabble. Bell Laboratories introduces a tiny transistor to replace bulky and expendable vacuum tubes. A 200-inch reflecting telescope, largest in the world, goes into operation at Mount Palomar, California. The Voice of America begins radio broadcasts abroad. Alfred Kinsey, professor of zoology at Indiana University, publishes Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, a dispassionate, but nonetheless sensational, study of a topic heretofore virtually forbidden from public discussion. January 21, 1949 Dean Acheson becomes secretary of state, replacing George Marshall, at start of Truman’s new term. March 2, 1949 The first nonstop flight around the world is completed.The airplane, an American B-50 bomber, was refueled four times in the air. June 28, 1949 The United States returns home the final combat troops in Korea, leaving some 500 advisers. July 21, 1949 The Senate by a vote of 82–13 ratifies the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), committing the United States to the first entangling alliance in 150 years. August 3, 1949 Congress declares June 14 to be Flag Day. September 23, 1949 President Truman announces that the Soviet Union has exploded an atomic bomb, much earlier than expected. October 1, 1949 Mao Zedong announces the formation of the People’s Republic of China (communist, or “Red’’ China), in effect claiming victory in China’s three-year civil war, an event that was—and would continue to be—deemed a substantial defeat for the United States. October 14, 1949 Eleven high-ranking American communists are convicted of conspiring overthrow of the U.S. government. October 26, 1949 Congress raises the minimum wage from 40 to 75 cents an hour. December 26, 1949 Albert Einstein, a naturalized citizen, announces his theory of relativity. Other events of 1949 The small, “unbreakable’’ 45 rpm phonograph record is introduced by RCA. Northwest Airlines is the first to serve alcoholic drinks in flight. Actress Ingrid Bergman scandalizes public opinion (and at least stuns the film world) by leaving her husband for Italian film director Roberto Rossellini. William Faulkner wins the Nobel Prize for literature. The Catholic Church threatens to excommunicate communists. New popular songs include “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.’’ January 17, 1950 Bandits rob Brink’s, Inc., in Boston of $2.8 million; the case will not be solved until 1956. January 31, 1950 Truman gives the order to proceed on development of the “Super,’’ a hydrogen bomb vastly more powerful than the previous atomic bomb. February 9, 1950 Speaking in Wheeling, West Virginia, Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin claims to have a list of 205 communists working in the Department of State, thus firing the first shot in an upheaval that will become known as McCarthyism. February 15, 1950 The United States learns that the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China have signed an alliance, the Sino-Soviet Pact, seemingly confirming suspicion of a growing world communist conspiracy.

March 1, 1950 Arrested in Britain, scientist Klaus Fuchs is sentenced to 14 years of imprisonment for passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. Fuchs confessed. May 11, 1950 Truman dedicates the Grand Coulee Dam in the state of Washington. June 25, 1950 War begins when North Korean troops cross the 38th parallel in an invasion of South Korea. June 30, 1950 Truman orders U.S. ground forces to assist the South Koreans, bringing America into the Korean War. August 8, 1950 An American, Florence Chadwick, swims the English Channel in 13 hours, 23 minutes, breaking the woman’s record. October 7, 1950 United States and United Nations forces cross the 38th parallel, invading North Korea and starting a new phase in the Korean War. November 2, 1950 CBS television begins to broadcast in color. November 26, 1950 Chinese troops open a massive counteroffensive in North Korea, pushing back UN forces, trapping many Americans and causing others to retreat. Other events of 1950 New York opens the Port Authority Bus Terminal. Charles Schulz, a young man who began to cartoon in a correspondence course, starts a strip called Peanuts. A young Baptist minister, Billy Graham, begins a radio show called Hour of Decision. Diner’s Club introduces a credit card. Nat “King’’ Cole’s “Mona Lisa’’ is a popular song; “Frosty the Snowman’’ is another. Minute Rice is a successful new product; Silly Putty is another. February 26, 1951 The Twenty-second Amendment, which generally limits a president to two terms, is ratified and becomes part of the U.S. Constitution. The amendment represents a Republican reaction to Franklin Roosevelt’s being elected to four terms. April 4, 1951 Dwight Eisenhower ends retirement to become commander of the NATO alliance in Europe. April 11, 1951 President Truman fires General Douglas MacArthur, hero of the Second World War and commander of United States and United Nations forces in the Korean War, for insubordination in his criticism of American policy in the Korean War. June 4, 1951 In Dennis v.United States the Supreme Court, in upholding an earlier conviction of communist leaders, virtually (but not explicitly) rules that it is illegal in the United States to be a communist. June 14, 1951 The first commercial electronic digital computer (UNIVAC), weighing eight tons, begins operation in Philadelphia. July 11, 1951 The Missouri River begins a flooding that will devastate Kansas City and cause more than $1 billion in damage. September 8, 1951 Forty-nine nations sign the Americansponsored peace treaty with Japan, ending the Second World War and the American occupation of Japan, although the troops stayed under different arrangements. Other events of 1951 Dennis the Menace appears as a comic strip. Power steering becomes available in automobiles, introduced by Chrysler. The first section of the New Jersey Turnpike opens to traffic. Alan Freed, a disc jockey in Cleveland, first uses a term rock and roll to identify catchy new music. Super Glue appears, as does Jet magazine. Bobby Thomson hits a miracle home run to allow the New York Giants to defeat the Brooklyn Dodgers in a National League baseball playoff. The Yankee Clipper, Joe DiMaggio, announces retirement. February 29, 1952 New York City installs in Times Square four signs instructing pedestrians, “don’t walk,’’ the first of their kind. Chronology, 1946–1990

49

A weary Korean girl carries her brother past an American tank near Haengju during the Korean War. (National Archives)

March 30, 1952 President Truman announces that he will not seek reelection, even though the Twenty-second Amendment does not forbid it. June 14, 1952 Truman presides over laying of the keel for the first atomic-powered submarine, the Nautilus. June 25, 1952 Truman vetoes the McCarran-Walter immigration bill on grounds that the measure, which retained a quota system, is discriminatory.Within the next two days, Congress overrides the veto. July 7, 1952 On its first trip to Europe, the SS United States established a new transatlantic speed record of 3 days, 10 hours, 40 minutes. July 11, 1952 At the end of a heated convention, the Republicans nominate General Eisenhower for the presidency and Senator Richard Nixon of California for the vice presidency. July 26, 1952 In a long convention the Democrats nominate Governor Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for the presidency and Senator John Sparkman of Alabama for the vice presidency—a familiar north-south, liberal-conservative ticket balance. September 23, 1952 Faced with charge of corrupt financial dealings and possible removal from the ticket, Nixon defends himself in an emotional radio and television address that will become known as the “Checkers’’ speech—the name of his dog. 50


November 4, 1952 Eisenhower and Nixon win substantially, obtaining votes of all but nine states; Congress is split; controversial Senator Joseph McCarthy is reelected. November 16, 1952 The government announces that testing of the hydrogen bomb has been completed at Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands. November 29, 1952 Fulfilling a campaign promise, President-Elect Eisenhower begins a three-day visit of the battlefront in Korea; the war is in a stalemate as are negotiations for a truce. Other events of 1952 The Today Show debuts on NBC, as does a new kind of magazine comic book: Mad. Sony produces a tiny transistor radio. No-calorie ginger ale becomes the first sugar-free soft drink. Holiday Inn opens in Memphis its first motel. 3-D movies appear in theaters. An ABC station in Philadelphia premieres a new show called Bandstand. An American named George undergoes a “sex-change’’ operation in Denmark and presents himself/herself to the world as Christine Jorgensen. March 5, 1953 Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin dies; his death has farreaching consequences for the continuing cold war.

April 1, 1953 Congress creates a new Department of Health, Education, and Welfare; the first head will be Oveta Culp Hobby of Texas. June 1, 1953 American mountain climbers (and perhaps Americans in general) are thrilled to learn that British Edmund Hillary and his guide Tenzing Norgay are the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest. June 19, 1953 Convicted spies, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, are executed at Sing Sing prison, after failure of numerous appeals— the only individuals executed for treason in peacetime. July 27, 1953 The Korean War ends with an armistice signed at Panmunjom by UN and communist delegates. July 31, 1953 Senator Robert A.Taft of Ohio dies at age 63. Known as Mr. Republican and leading spokesman for a conservative ideology, he made several unsuccessful tries for the presidential nomination. August 19, 1953 With aid from the C.I.A., opposition forces overthrow the prime minister of Iran, and the shah (the king), who is returned to power, is grateful to the United States. October 5, 1953 Earl Warren of California becomes chief justice of the Supreme Court, succeeding Fred Vinson, who has died. December 9, 1953 General Electric Corporation announces that it will dismiss all employees who are communist.

Other events of 1953 TV Guide begins publication. Swanson introduces the TV dinner. Radial tires appear on the market. Maureen Connolly, an American, is the first woman to win the Grand Slam of tennis. CinemaScope, a wide-screen movie process, is introduced in The Robe. A new magazine, Playboy, hits the stands, the creation of Hugh Hefner; the first centerfold is Marilyn Monroe, who had posed for the photo in 1949. March 1, 1954 Puerto Rican nationalists open fire in the U.S. Capitol building, wounding five members of Congress. April 1, 1954 The president announces establishment of a new Air Force Academy at Colorado Springs, Colorado; it will be the equivalent of West Point (army) and Annapolis (navy). April 7, 1954 President Eisenhower pronounces his “domino theory’’ in the context of a conflict in French Indochina. If the area fell to the communists, so Eisenhower warned, a chain of communist victories would follow in southeast Asia. April 22, 1954 Senate hearings begin over a dispute between Senator Joseph McCarthy and the U.S. Army; McCarthy charges that the army coddled communists.The hearings will receive widespread television coverage.

U.S. Air Force B-47—first long-range jet bomber of the cold war; it was superseded by the B-52. (author’s photograph) Chronology, 1946–1990

51

May 7, 1954 After a seven-month siege, the final French fortress in Vietnam (Indochina) falls to the forces of Ho Chi Minh’s Vietminh; the communists have won, at least in the northern part of the territory. May 17, 1954 The Supreme Court under Chief Justice Warren hands down its epochal decision in Brown v. Board of Education, ruling that segregation in the public schools is unconstitutional. June 18, 1954 A coup engineered by the C.I.A. begins in Guatemala; it will oust Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, the reformist, popularly elected president. September 9, 1954 The United States and seven other nations join in a collective security pact for the Pacific area called the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO); Secretary of State John Foster Dulles is the author. December 2, 1954 Senate colleagues condemn (officially censure) Joseph McCarthy for his behavior in recent Army-McCarthy hearings; the move marks beginning of the end of McCarthyism. Other events of 1954 The publishing empire of Henry Luce (Time, Life) introduces a new member, Sports Illustrated. RCA offers color television sets at $1,000 each. The Tonight Show begins on NBC. Rising screen personality Marilyn Monroe weds baseball player Joe DiMaggio. Elvis Presley, age 19, cuts his first record, in Memphis: “I’m All Right, Mamma.’’

Powerful Hurricane Hazel strikes the Atlantic coast. January 8, 1955 Researchers announce the effectiveness of new drugs, thorazine and resperine, in treatment of mental disorder. January 20, 1955 Military technology advances as the first atomicpowered American submarine, Nautilus, engages in sea trials. April 12, 1955 After lengthy testing, the Salk polio vaccine is proclaimed safe and effective. April 18, 1955 Naturalized American Albert Einstein dies at age 76 in Princeton, New Jersey. May 27, 1955 An outbreak of tornadoes kills 121 in the Midwest and Southwest. May 31, 1955 In a decision that some people called Brown II, the Supreme Court rules that desegregation could proceed gradually, with “all deliberate speed.’’ June 13, 1955 The Legion of Decency of the Catholic Church forces theaters to remove a poster of Marilyn Monroe holding down her dress (or trying to) for the movie The Seven Year Itch. July 18, 1955 Eisenhower and Dulles meet with leaders of France, Britain, and the Soviet Union in what will be called a summit conference in Geneva, Switzerland. No agreements result, but an emerging “spirit of Geneva’’ suggests possible better times ahead for east-west relations.

USS Nautilus, first atomic-powered submarine, undergoes sea trials, January 20, 1955. (National Archives)

52


September 24, 1955 Eisenhower experiences a heart attack in Denver; he will be hospitalized three weeks. September 26, 1955 The New York Stock Exchange undergoes its largest dollar loss in a single day in history—some $44 billion. September 30, 1955 Rising actor James Dean, age 24, dies in a high-speed crash of his Porsche Spyder in California. October 26, 1955 With the support of the United States, Ngo Dinh Diem becomes president of a new nation, the Republic of South Vietnam. December 1, 1955 Seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man in Montgomery, Alabama, thus challenging the city’s, and the South’s, policy of segregation.The move touches off a boycott of the bus company, viewed by many as the first step in the Civil Rights movement. Other events of 1955 Disneyland opens its gate in Anaheim, California. Ray Kroc opens his first franchise for a fledgling McDonald’s organization in Des Plaines, Illinois. Colonel Harlan Sanders introduces Kentucky Fried Chicken, and Kenner toys introduces Play Doh. Captain Kangaroo, a children’s show, begins on television. A student at the University of Maryland, Jim Henson, locally performs an act with puppets—he calls them muppets. The movie The Blackboard Jungle popularizes a song, “Rock Around the Clock,’’ the band of Bill Haley and his Comets, and a musical form called rock and roll. Allen Ginsberg, leader of a group of artistic intellectuals known as the Beats, reads his signature poem, “Howl,’’ for which he will be arrested for obscenity. March 12, 1956 More than 100 southern members of Congress sign a manifesto urging resistance to court desegregation rulings. April 19, 1956 Charming and sophisticated actress Grace Kelly, winner of an Oscar in 1954, becomes a genuine princess when she marries Prince Rainier of Monaco. Nearly everyone agrees that the prince has the better of the bargain. June 29, 1956 Wheels for a national interstate highway system were set in motion with signing of the Highway Act. June 30, 1956 A devastating airplane accident occurs when a TWA Constellation and a United DC-7 collide over the Grand Canyon, killing 128. July 25, 1956 The Italian luxury liner Andrea Doria, like the Titanic, another said-to-be unsinkable ship, is rammed by the Swedish liner Stockholm off the coast of Nantucket, killing 52. After floundering for 12 hours, the Doria slips beneath the waves. August 11, 1956 Jackson Pollock, leader of a new wave of American and world artists, dies in an automobile crash. October 31, 1956 Eisenhower condemns British-French-Israeli action against Egypt in what will be called the Suez War. American denunciation was encouraged by its criticism, at generally the same time, of Soviet action in the Hungarian uprising. The Suez crisis will strain the western alliance and facilitate Soviet influence in the Middle East. November 6, 1956 The Republican ticket of Eisenhower and Nixon defeats the Democrats’ Stevenson and Senator Estes Kefauver by a larger margin than in 1952. But the Democrats keep control of Congess. Other events of 1956 New products that appear include Comet Cleanser, Pampers disposable diapers, nonstick cookware by Teflon, a revolutionary toothpaste with fluoride called Crest from Procter and Gamble. The Huntley-Brinkley Report (national news) premieres, as does As the World Turns and Edge of Night, on television, My Fair Lady on Broadway, and The Ten Commandments on film. The publishing sensation was the novel Peyton Place by Grace Metalious.

Don Larsen of the New York Yankees pitched a perfect game in the World Series. Demonstrating spectacular appeal to youthful music followers and record buyers, Elvis Presley hits his stride with numerous hit records, including “Hound Dog.’’ Deceased for the year included literary curmudgeon H. L. Mencken, giant of radio comedy Fred Allen, and band leader Tommy Dorsey. March 7, 1957 Congress approves the Eisenhower Doctrine, designed to resist communism in the Middle East.The move represents a U.S. response to a perceived power vacuum in aftermath of the Suez crisis. March 29, 1957 Jimmy Hoffa, aggressive vice president of the Teamsters Union, is indicted for bribery. April 9, 1957 Fiat, an Italian small-car producer, seeks to compete in the American market—unsuccessfully, as it turns out. May 2, 1957 Powerless, Senator Joseph McCarthy dies in virtual obscurity in Bethesda, Maryland. June 27–28, 1957 Hurricane Audrey strikes the Texas and Louisiana coasts, leaving 531 dead or missing. September 4, 1957 Governor Orville Faubus of Arkansas calls out the National Guard to prevent black children from entering Central High School in Little Rock. September 25, 1957 With some reluctance Eisenhower nationalizes the Arkansas National Guard and orders further army troops to enforce desegregation of Central High School. October 4, 1957 The Soviet Union’s launching of the first earth satellite (called Sputnik) stuns the United States and provokes a hurried movement to catch up, especially in the area of rocketry. November 25, 1957 President Eisenhower suffers a minor stroke but is not disabled. December 15, 1957 The air force tests its first Atlas intercontinential ballistic missile (ICBM). Other events of 1957 Theodore Geisel, who will become known as Dr. Seuss, produces his first colorful childrens’ book, The Cat in the Hat; later in the year comes How the Grinch Stole Christmas!. New products include: a portable electric typewriter by Smith Corona; a sack dress; Fortran computer language; Darvon, a powerful painkiller; Edsel, a midsized car by Ford that will be a lemon. Whamo Corporation in California produces a plastic disc that spins in the air—they called it a Frisbee. Deaths included Humphrey Bogart and Oliver Hardy—the large one in the Laurel and Hardy team. Another death of sorts, or worse, occurs when the Brooklyn Dodgers pack up and go to Los Angeles; crosstown rivals, the Giants, follow them to California, settling in San Francisco. February 28, 1958 The postal service increases cost of first-class mail from three to four cents per ounce—the normal cost of sending a letter. Airmail goes from six to seven cents. March 24, 1958 In perhaps a fitting reflection of an era, and to the dismay of millions of fans, Elvis Presley is drafted; he will spend most of his roughly two-year stint in Germany. April 11, 1958 Texan pianist Van Cliburn, 23, wins the International Tchaikovsky Piano Contest in Moscow. May 12, 1958 The United States forms a defense arrangement with Canada called NORAD—the North American Air Defense Command. June 28, 1958 Big Mac, world’s longest suspension bridge, opens over the Straits of Mackinac and connects the lower and upper peninsulas of Michigan. August 5, 1958 The atomic submarine Nautilus makes the first underwater crossing of the North Pole.The trip takes four days. Chronology, 1946–1990

53

July 15, 1958 Eisenhower dispatches marines from the sixth Fleet to Lebanon on request of the beleaguered Lebanese president—a move ostensibly legitimized by the Eisenhower Doctrine. The troops remain only a few weeks. September 2, 1958 The National Defense Education Act, a rare case of the national government supporting education, becomes law. Prompted by launching of Sputnik, the measure stresses science. September 12, 1958 Texas Instruments develops a computer microchip. September 22, 1958 Presidential Chief of Staff Sherman Adams resigns under fire for a charge of corrupt finances. October 26, 1958 Pan American Airlines begins jet passenger service to Europe in the new Boeing 707; British Airways started three weeks earlier. November 4, 1958 Democrats win off-year elections, gaining 15 seats in the Senate, 48 in the House. November 8, 1958 Harry Winston, a jeweler, donates the Hope Diamond, measured at 44.5 carats, to the Smithsonian Institution. Other events of 1958 Bank Americard and American Express issue instruments of business called credit cards. A sugar substitute, Sweet-N-Low, comes on the market. Recording star Eddie Fisher leaves his wife, Debbie Reynolds, for Elizabeth Taylor. Mimi Jordan, age 10, is national Hula Hoop champion, and Bobby Fisher is world chess champion at 15. The recording industry awards for the first time its prizes, called Grammys. January 3, 1959 Alaska becomes the 49th state, supplanting Texas as the largest in territory. January 7, 1959 The United States recognizes the new regime of Fidel Castro—a revolutionary leader who has deposed dictator Fulgencio Batista—in Cuba. April 6, 1959 The City Council of New York supports study of the prospect of New York City becoming the 51st state. April 25, 1959 The St. Lawrence Seaway begins operation, opening the interior of the United States to the Atlantic Ocean, making Chicago an international port. May 20, 1959 Some 5,000 Japanese Americans who had renounced American citizenship during the Second World War now get it back. June 11, 1959 The postmaster general bans the novel Lady Chatterley’s Lover from the mails, labeling the work “smutty,’’ “obscene,’’ “filthy.’’ July 23, 1959 Vice President Richard Nixon begins a visit to the Soviet Union, opening a cultural exhibit and perhaps signaling an easing of cold war tensions. In Moscow he will engage Premier Nikita Khrushchev in what becomes known as the “kitchen debate.’’ August 21, 1959 Hawaii officially becomes the 50th state—a fact that, of course, requires a rearrangement of the U.S. flag. September 15, 1959 Soviet Premier Khrushchev arrives in the United States for a personal visit. October 21, 1959 The Guggenheim Museum, designed—not without controversy—by Frank Lloyd Wright, opens in New York City. Other events of 1959 Barbie Doll makes its appearance, courtesy of Mattel Corporation. Heart treatment devices, electrocardiography and internal pacemaker, are developed. In a referendum Oklahomans end 51 years of prohibition; liquor now can be purchased. The Sound of Music appears on Broadway, and Ben-Hur appears on film. Rock singer Buddy Holly and members of his group, the Crickets, die in a plane crash; other deaths include singer Billie Holliday, 54


diplomat John Foster Dulles, filmmaker Cecil B. DeMille, actress Ethel Barrymore, architect Frank Lloyd Wright. January 19, 1960 Demonstrations in Tokyo against renewal of a defense pact with the United States cause Eisenhower to cancel a visit to Japan. February 1, 1960 Four black college students are denied service at the lunch counter of Woolworth’s in Greensboro, North Carolina. Their refusal to depart the premises becomes a “sit-in,’’ a new device of passive resistance in the Civil Rights movement. February 23, 1960 Work begins on demolition of Ebbetts Field in Brooklyn, former home of the Dodgers. Mourners are numerous. April 2, 1960 NASA launches its first weather satellite. April 27, 1960 A congressional committee begins investigation of possible payment by record companies to disc jockeys; this form of bribery to gain exposure for their records will be called payola. May 1, 1960 An American U-2 spy plane is shot down over the Soviet Union; the pilot, Gary Francis Powers, is captured and he confesses his mission. The U-2 incident torpedoes a summit conference planned for Paris, cancels a presidential visit to the Soviet Union, and sends the off-again, on-again Soviet-American relations back to off. June 4, 1960 The United States, which earlier had protested Cuban confiscation of American property, now charges the Castro regime with a “campaign of slander’’ against the United States. July 11, 1960 Effective organization and financial backing help Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts win the Democrat presidential nomination, despite concerns about his youth and Catholic religion. Making Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas the vice presidential nominee balances the ticket. July 27, 1960 Not unexpectedly, the Republicans pick Vice President Nixon as the presidential nominee; Ambassador (at the UN) Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., will be his running mate. October 12, 1960 Unconventional Premier Khrushchev bangs his shoe on a table in protest of a speech heard at the UN in New York. November 8, 1960 After a campaign highlighted by the first direct presidential “debates,’’ Kennedy and Johnson defeat Nixon and Lodge in a genuine cliff-hanger in popular vote; Congress remains modestly Democrat. Other events of 1960 A revolutionary oral contraceptive for women, precursor of a sexual revolution, the pill, goes on the market. Other new products include aluminum cans for drinks and felt-tip pens. Chubby Checker takes a song, “The Twist,’’ to the top of the charts and in so doing popularized a new dance and a new style: dancing alone. Wilma Rudolph wins three gold medals at the Olympic games. The run of Camelot on Broadway provides more dash for a new Kennedy administration. The “king’’ of Hollywood, Clark Gable, succumbs to heart trouble at 59.

The Era of the Sixties, 1961–1970 January 3, 1961 In response to various moves by the new Cuban leader, notably seizure of American property, the Eisenhower administration breaks relations with Cuba. They will not be restored in the 20th century. January 20, 1961 New president Kennedy gives a challenging and inspiring inaugural address, with several memorable passages. April 12, 1961 The Soviet Union sends the first human into space, Yuri Gagarin, who orbits the Earth in 89 minutes.

March 1, 1961 By executive order Kennedy creates the Peace Corps, a new form of foreign policy that is pitched to the idealism of youth; Congress will ratify the step. March 13, 1961 Kennedy proposes a new program for Latin America that will be called Alliance for Progress, which essentially involved economic development, at some expense to the United States. April 17, 1961 A plot of the CIA to depose the Castro administration, approved by Eisenhower and later by Kennedy, is launched and fails in short order. Called the Bay of Pigs project, it will add to the hostility between the United States and Castro, now associated with the USSR. May 5, 1961 The United States takes a step in the space race, albeit a modest one. Not yet prepared to go into space, Alan Shepard makes a 300-mile suborbital flight in a Mercury capsule. June 4, 1961 Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna in what will be a contentious session. Khrushchev insists on supporting revolutionary movements; Kennedy leaves, convinced that he must be tough. August 13, 1961 As an extension of a third crisis over the divided city of Berlin, the communists construct a concrete wall between the east and west sectors.As in two previous crises, Kennedy insists on holding fast to the western zones of the city. October 6, 1961 Kennedy advises that a “prudent family’’ would take steps to build or obtain a fallout shelter as protection from nuclear war. Other events of 1961 The first electric toothbrush hits the market. IBM produces a “Selectric’’ typewriter. The Civil Rights movement in the South moves to “freedom riders,’’ who seek to dramatize continued segregation; the riders often faced violent resistance. Roger Maris of the Yankees hits 61 home runs, breaking Babe Ruth’s 1927 record. Former speaker of the house and Democrat power broker, Sam Rayburn, dies, as do painter Grandma Moses and Ernest Hemingway, perhaps America’s most famous novelist. February 4, 1962 Kennedy bans all trade with Cuba. February 10, 1962 Gary Francis Powers, pilot of the ill-fated U-2 aircraft, is released by the Soviets in exchange for American release of a Soviet spy. February 28, 1962 Lt. Colonel John Glenn is the first American to orbit Earth; he circles three times in a Mercury capsule. April 10, 1962 Kennedy denounces an increase in steel prices, thus touching off a battle with the steel industry and in a general way with big business; two weeks later the companies will rescind the increase. June 25, 1962 In a case involving New York, the Supreme Court rules that prayer in the public schools is unconstitutional, a violation of separation of church and state. August 5, 1962 Many people are stunned and saddened to hear that screen star Marilyn Monroe, age 36, has died, apparently from an overdose of sleeping pills. September 30, 1962 Having previously been denied admission to the University of Mississippi by state officials, a black student, James Meredith, now is escorted into the school by federal marshalls. An ensuing riot will lead to two deaths, many injuries, and intervention by 3,000 troops. October 22, 1962 President Kennedy appears on national television to announce that the Soviet Union was installing mediumrange offensive missiles in Cuba, setting in motion what will be the Cuban missile crisis. The crisis will end after six days, with withdrawal of the missiles, but not before Kennedy has blockaded Cuba, prepares to attack the island, and threatens to launch nuclear-armed missiles on the Soviet Union. It is brinksmanship of the highest order.

December 23, 1962 The Cuban government begins to release 1,179 prisoners captured in the Bay of Pigs fiasco; the United States agrees in effect to pay ransom: some $50 million in food and medical supplies. Other events of 1962 Johnny Carson becomes host of the popular Tonight Show on NBC. K-Mart and Wal-Mart open as discount stores. Dulles Airport opens outside Washington in Virginia—the first civilian airport designed for jet aircraft. The environmental movement in a sense begins with publication of Rachel Carson’s deftly named Silent Spring, which warned of the effect of chemical pesticides on wildlife. Eleanor Roosevelt, the beloved (but also often ridiculed) former first lady and elder stateswoman, dies on November 7. March 18, 1963 In the case of Gideon v.Wainwright the Supreme Court rules that defendants in state courts are to be supplied with an attorney, if they can not afford one. April 10, 1963 The atomic submarine Thresher sinks in the North Atlantic, killing the crew of 129. May 6, 1963 In an ongoing civil rights confrontation, some 1,000 demonstrators are arrested by police in Birmingham, Alabama. June 11, 1963 Determined to prevent desegregation of his state’s schools, Governor George Wallace of Alabama nonetheless yields to pressure from the national government and allows two black students to enroll in the University of Alabama. June 17, 1963 Adding to the “school prayer’’ series of decisions, the Court declares reading of the Bible (as a religious observance) in the public schools to be unconstitutional. June 20, 1963 Perhaps sobered by events of the previous year, the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union agree to establish a “hot line’’ for highest-level, rapid communication between each other. July 25, 1963 In a first sign of progress in negotiation over nuclear weaponry, a limited test-ban treaty is signed by the United States, Soviet Union, and Great Britain. It prohibits virtually all nuclear testing other than underground. August 28, 1963 At the end of the civil rights march on Washington, some 200,000 gather at the Lincoln Memorial to hear Martin Luther King, Jr., who reaches a new oratorical peak with his “I Have a Dream’’ speech. September 15, 1963 Reflective of continuing racial violence in the South, a black church is bombed; four girls are killed. November 2, 1963 As part of a coup against the government of South Vietnam, President Ngo Dinh Diem and his brother are assassinated; U.S. leaders have advance knowledge of the coup but not of the assassination. November 22, 1963 President Kennedy is mortally wounded while riding in a motorcade in Dallas,Texas; his wife, Jackie, sitting beside him, is not injured; Governor John Connally of Texas, in the front seat, is wounded; Vice President Johnson, also in Dallas, is sworn in as president. November 24, 1963 Lee Harvey Oswald, arrested for Kennedy’s murder, is shot dead by a local nightclub owner, Jack Ruby, as Oswald is being moved by the Dallas police.The killing is captured on live network television. Other events of 1963 Popular new products include: the soft drink Tab, perma-press clothing, touch-tone telephones, cassette tape recorders, an effective measles vaccine, a metal tennis racket, and Weight Watchers International Incorporated. Stevie Wonder, age 12, releases his first album on Motown Records. Betty Friedan publishes The Feminine Mystique. Eddie Fisher, having abandoned Debbie Reynolds for Elizabeth Taylor, now finds himself abandoned by Taylor in favor of Richard Burton, her Welsh costar in the spectacular film production Cleopatra. Chronology, 1946–1990

55

On the day of John F. Kennedy’s assassination, November 22, 1963, aboard Air Force One, Lyndon B. Johnson takes the presidential oath of office. (The John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library)

January 11, 1964 A surgeon general’s report finds cigarette smoking harmful to health; two days later the FTC announces that it will require warnings on all cigarette packages. January 23, 1964 The Twenty-fourth Amendment, forbidding a poll tax for national elections, receives ratification. February 25, 1964 Cassius Marcellus Clay, loud-mouthed young boxer from Louisville, wins the heavyweight championship by knocking out Sonny Liston; converted in 1967 to Islam, Clay will become Muhammad Ali. March 14, 1964 Jack Ruby is sentenced to death for murder of Lee Harvey Oswald; he will die in prison in 1967, awaiting a new trial. July 2, 1964 President Johnson signs into law the epochal Civil Rights Act, a measure passed after lengthy debate, dramatic national attention, and racial upheaval in the deep South; broadly put, it is designed to prevent discrimination based on race (but sex also is mentioned) and to foster social and educational integration. August 2, 1964 Naval officials report that American warships were attacked off the coast of North Vietnam; the facts seemed unclear, but Johnson treated the episode as a provocation to which he replied with military strikes and an appeal for broad congressional support; he receives it on August 7 in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, a major document of the Vietnam War. 56


August 4, 1964 Three civil rights workers (two white, one black) reported missing near Philadelphia, Mississippi, on June 22, are found buried under an earthen dam. Several local white men will be acquitted in a state court; seven later will be convicted of lesser federal offenses (e.g., a violation of a person’s civil rights); the episode is part of the sensational Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964. August 7, 1964 Congress passes the “War on Poverty’’ bill— Johnson’s omnibus measure that includes VISTA and a job corps. September 24, 1964 After lengthy investigation, a blue-ribbon commission chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren (the Warren Commission) reports that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination of John Kennedy. In spite of numerous future detractors and alternative theories, the Warren Report will stand the test of time. October 14, 1964 Martin Luther King, Jr., is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. November 3, 1964 The Democrat ticket of President Lyndon Johnson and Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota defeats the Republican ticket of Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona and Congressman William Miller of New York. It is a Democrat landslide both in the presidential race and in both houses of Congress. Other events of 1964 Ford introduces the Mustang. The G.I. Joe doll appears.

The first disco, called “Whiskey-a-Go-Go,’’ opens on Sunset Strip in Los Angeles. Sidney Poitier is the first African American to receive the best actor award (in Lilies of the Field). The Broadway musical holds on with Carol Channing in Hello, Dolly, and Barbra Streisand in Funny Girl. Race riots erupt in New York and New Jersey. February 6, 1965 In response to enemy (Vietcong) attack on an American airbase at Pleiku, Johnson orders bombing of North Vietnam, a considerable escalation of the war. February 21, 1965 Malcolm X, charismatic black leader, is assassinated in Harlem at age 39; the murder evidently grew out of a division within the Nation of Islam. March 7, 1965 Alabama state police attack demonstrators for voting rights in Selma, Alabama; these events will inspire a larger march two weeks later, protected by military forces. March 8, 1965 Two battalions of American marines arrive to protect an airbase at Danang; these troops represent the first outright combat forces sent to Vietnam. April 6, 1965 NASA launches the first commercial satellite, named Early Bird. April 28, 1965 American marines land in the Dominican Republic, the first direct military intervention in Latin America in many years; the troops reportedly are there to prevent communist control of the island nation. July 14, 1965 Adlai E. Stevenson, twice Democrat nominee for president, now ambassador to the United Nations, dies of heart attack on a London street; he was 65. July 25, 1965 The crowd at the Newport Jazz Festival boos singer Bob Dylan off stage because he uses electric instruments. July 30, 1965 Johnson signs into law the Medicare bill, a measure that is to provide limited medical care for the aged under the Social Security System—another part of Kennedy’s New Frontier Program that Johnson incorporates into his Great Society. August 6, 1965 Johnson signs into law another civil rights measure, the Voting Rights Act, which is designed to facilitate suffrage for blacks in the South. August 11, 1965 Watts, a black neighborhood of Los Angeles, experiences a race riot that will last five days and cause 34 deaths, damage of approximately $40 million, and the arrest of thousands. October 3, 1965 Congress passes a law that provides the first substantive change in immigration policy in 40 years; the measure abolishes the discriminatory quota system. Other events of 1965 Miniskirts, with hemlines several inches above the knees, become fashionable. Skateboarding is a new sport, Nutrasweet an improved sugarsubstitute. The Gateway Arch is completed in St. Louis. The Astrodome opens in Houston, thus pioneering the massive enclosed, air-conditioned stadium, large enough to accommodate any sport, even baseball. In this year after the warning about cigarettes, it was striking to note that singer Nat “King’’ Cole, only 45, died of lung cancer, as did groundbreaking newscaster of radio and television Edward R. Murrow, often filmed with a cigarette in his hand or mouth. Stan Laurel, the skinny one of Laurel and Hardy, dies. April 21, 1966 Michael DeBakey implants the first artificial heart in a human at a hospital in Houston. May 11, 1966 Joseph Hirshhorn gives his modern art collection, valued at $35 million, to the United States. June 13, 1966 In the case of Miranda v. Arizona, the Supreme Court rules that defendants in state proceedings must be apprised of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney. June 29, 1966 The government announces that increased bombing in North Vietnam includes the cities of Hanoi and Haiphong and

that recent deployment raises United States forces in Vietnam to nearly 300,000. July 12, 1966 Rioting takes place on Chicago’s west side; racial disturbances will follow in several cities during the summer. July 19, 1966 Richard Speck is charged with murdering eight nurses in Chicago. August 1, 1966 Shooting from a 27-story tower on the campus of the University of Texas at Austin, Charles Whitman, an Eagle Scout, kills 12 and wounds 33. November 8, 1966 In the off-year elections, Republicans gain three seats in the Senate and a striking 47 in the House—results that will place in jeopardy further “Great Society’’ legislation; among the Republicans elected was Edward R. Brooke of Massachusetts, the first black United States senator in 85 years. Other events of 1966 Catholics now are allowed to eat meat on Fridays, except during Lent. Bill Russell of the Boston Celtics becomes the first black coach (and at $125,000 the highest paid coach) in the NBA. Frank Sinatra, 50, marries Mia Farrow, 21, in Las Vegas. Paul Simon and Arthur Garfunkel release “Feelin’ Groovy’’ (The 59th Street Bridge Song). New shows on television include Family Affair, Hollywood Squares, and Star Trek. Pennsylvania Station in New York City falls to a wrecker. January 27, 1967 Fire breaks out in Apollo I Spacecraft during testing at Cape Kennedy, Florida; caused by a defective wire, the fire kills astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chafee. March 1, 1967 The House of Representatives votes to deny seating to Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., black congressman from Harlem, for fraudulent use of government funds. March 9, 1967 Svetlana Alliluyeva, daughter of Joseph Stalin, defects to the United States. May 1, 1967 Elvis Presley marries Priscilla Beaulieu, an old girlfriend. June 12, 1967 In the case of Loving v.Virginia, the Supreme Court strikes down a Virginia law forbidding interracial marriage; by implication, laws in 15 other states become invalid. June 18, 1967 Some 500,000 attend a pop festival at Monterey, California—largest gathering yet for a rock concert. June 23 and 25, 1967 President Johnson meets briefly with Premier Aleksei Kosygin of the Soviet Union in New Jersey. July 23, 1967 Rioting that begins in Detroit will continue until July 30, when it is suppressed by the army; in its wake the riot will leave 41 dead, 2,000 injured, destruction of 5,000 homes, and a cost of $400 million. July 29, 1967 Fuel leaking from a damaged Skyhawk airplane causes a fire aboard the aircraft-carrier Forrestal that kills 134 in the Gulf of Tonkin. October 2, 1967 Thurgood Marshall, former attorney for the NAACP and great-grandson of a slave, is sworn in as the first African-American justice of the Supreme Court. October 21, 1967 Large antiwar riots in Washington, D.C., lead to arrest of some 650. November 7, 1967 Local elections produce landmark victories for black candidates; Carl Stokes in Cleveland and Richard Hatcher in Gary, Indiana, are the first black mayors of major American cities; three black men are elected to state legislatures in three southern states—the first in the 20th century. December 8, 1967 Antiwar demonstrations lead to the arrest of nearly 600 in New York City, among them baby doctor Benjamin Spock and beat-poet Allen Ginsberg. Other events of 1967 The Corporation for Public Broadcasting begins operation. Rolling Stone magazine first hits the market, as does a compact microwave oven (produced by Amana) and quartz-powered watches. Chronology, 1946–1990

57

U.S. Navy patrol craft plows waters of Cai Ngay Canal, Vietnam. (National Archives)

William Styron’s Confessions of Nat Turner is published. The Carol Burnett Show debuts on television. Deaths include Vivien Leigh, star of Gone With the Wind, folk singer Woody Guthrie, and Che Guevara, hero of the Cuban revolution, killed in the jungles of Bolivia. January 22, 1968 A B-52 bomber of the Strategic Air Command crashes off the coast of Greenland. The bomber carries four unarmed hydrogen bombs, and although there is leakage of radioactive material, no nuclear explosion takes place. January 23, 1968 North Korea seizes the U.S. navy intelligence ship Pueblo and holds the crew of 83 men; release will be negotiated but not for nearly a year. January 30, 1968 Enemy forces in Vietnam use the lunar New Year holiday to launch attacks on 35 centers, mostly provincial capitals; Saigon, and the U.S. embassy, are hit;Viet Cong forces are badly mauled in this so-called Tet Offensive, but they score a huge psychological victory in the United States. February 29, 1968 A presidential committee (the Kerner Commission) investigating racial relations reports existence of, and condemns, a condition of two “separate and unequal’’ nations, black and white. March 12, 1968 In a stunning result Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota receives nearly as many votes as the president in the Democrat presidential primary in New Hampshire. March 16, 1968 Senator Robert Kennedy of New York enters the race for the Democrat presidential nomination. March 31, 1968 Sobered, perhaps, by growing challenge within his own party, doubtless burdened by weight of office and the war in Vietnam, Johnson stuns the nation with an announcement that he will not seek reelection. 58


April 4, 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated at a motel in Memphis; James Earl Ray will be convicted of the crime, although he later will renounce his confession. April 22–23, 1968 Student protesters, many of them members of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), seize buildings of Columbia University and bring operations to a halt.The school will close for the semester. June 5, 1968 Celebrating an important victory in the California primary in his quest for the Democrat nomination, Robert Kennedy is assassinated in Los Angeles; a Jordanian immigrant, Sirhan Sirhan, will be convicted of the crime. August 8, 1968 In winning the Republican presidential nomination, Richard Nixon records a remarkable political comeback; he picks Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland for the vice presidency. August 29, 1968 During a tumultuous Democrat convention, and with tumultuous events outside in the streets of Chicago, Vice President Hubert Humphrey receives the presidential nomination; his choice for running mate, Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine, is a good one, but the party seems hopelessly split on the war. October 3, 1968 George Wallace of Alabama receives the Independent Party nomination for the presidency; former air force chief Curtis LeMay is his running mate. October 19, 1968 The former president’s widow, Jackie Kennedy, marries multimillionaire Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis. November 6, 1968 Nixon and Agnew defeat Humphrey and Muskie in a close race, doubtless made closer by candidacy of Wallace, who received 10 million votes. December 27, 1968 Apollo 8 and its crew—Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders—reach the Moon, make 10 orbits, speak to the people on Earth, and send back startling pictures. Other events of 1968 Blacks continue to score firsts:Arthur Ashe, victor in the U.S. open, is first African American to win a major tennis title; Shirley Chisholm of New York is the first black congresswoman; Diahann Carroll is first black woman to have a television series—Julia. New products and developments include waterbeds, jacuzzis, a movie rating system, Nehru jackets, Cunard’s Queen Elizabeth II, 60 Minutes and Laugh-In on television, Hair (and nudity) on Broadway, “Hey Jude’’ from the Beatles. March 28, 1969 Former military hero and president Dwight Eisenhower dies of heart failure at age 78. April 9, 1969 Student demonstrators seize the administration building at Harvard University, only one of numerous cases of activism and disruption in this continuing time of student unrest. June 22, 1969 Actress and musical icon Judy Garland is found dead in London, age 47. July 18, 1969 Senator Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts, the sole remaining Kennedy son, drives off a bridge at Chappaquiddick, Massachusetts, killing Mary Jo Kopechne; the event profoundly affects Kennedy’s appeal as a future president, but it by no means ends his political career. July 20, 1969 Astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to set foot on the Moon; Edwin Aldrin joins him on the surface, and the third member of the Apollo 11 mission, Michael Collins, remains aboard the command module. August 9, 1969 Charles Manson and members of his cult brutally kill seven people, including actress Sharon Tate, in Beverly Hills, California. August 15–18, 1969 The Woodstock music festival near Bethel, NewYork, attracts approximately 400,000 people. August 17, 1969 Hurricane Camille, the century’s most powerful, strikes the Gulf coast, killing 300. October 3, 1969 President Nixon formalizes his plan for ending U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War; it is called “Vietnamization,’’

the idea being to equip the Vietnamese to handle the conflict on their own. November 15, 1969 The Second Vietnam Moratorium Day draws 250,000 demonstrators in Washington, D.C. November 20, 1969 Militant American Indians seize Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, demanding it be given to Native Americans. Other events of 1969 Yale University admits female undergraduates. Penthouse magazine begins publication. Rubella vaccination starts. The Brady Bunch, Sesame Street, and Hee Haw appear on television. Star Trek ends its original run. The Saturday Evening Post stops production after 148 years. Julie Nixon, daughter of the president, marries David Eisenhower, grandson of a former president. February 18, 1970 A jury finds the “Chicago 7’’ innocent of conspiring to incite riots at the Democrat convention; five are convicted of lesser charges. March 28, 1969 A townhouse in New York used by radical group, the Weathermen, explodes, killing three; others barely escape. April 18, 1970 Apollo 13 comes down in the Pacific after a harrowing, aborted mission to the Moon, caused by power failure in the command module. April 20, 1970 In line with Vietnamization, Nixon promises withdrawal of more Americans from Vietnam; by year’s end the

number will be down to 340,000, 200,000 fewer than the previous year. April 30, 1970 American and South Vietnamese troops pursue the enemy into Cambodia, touching off major antiwar protest. May 4, 1970 The Ohio National Guard fires on antiwar demonstrators, killing four, wounding nine at Kent State University. May 12, 1970 The Senate unanimously approves Harry Blackmun for the Supreme Court. July 1, 1970 New York adopts the nation’s most liberal abortion law—abortion on demand in first 24 weeks of pregnancy. September 28, 1970 Egyptian president Gamel A. Nasser dies suddenly, and he is succeeded by Anwar Sadat—an event of much greater importance to the United States than anyone expected at that time. Other events of 1970 A powerful antidepressant drug, Lithium, is approved by FDA. The World Trade Center is completed in New York. New York holds its first marathon. Childproof safety caps appear on medicine bottles. Monday night football begins on ABC. Doonesbury, a “comic strip’’ of satire and political commentary appears, authored by former Yale student Gary Trudeau. To the dismay of millions of American (and other) rockers, Paul McCartney leaves the Beatles, marking the group’s breakup. Legislation drops the voting age to 18 for national elections.

Soldiers await a helicopter that will evacuate the body of a fallen comrade, Long Khanh Province,Vietnam. (National Archives) Chronology, 1946–1990

59

The Era of the Seventies, 1971–1980 February 9, 1971 Apollo 14 ends a journey of nine days in space, including a day and a half on the Moon. March 23, 1971 The Senate refuses to fund an American SST, supersonic transport aircraft, leaving the field to the Europeans. March 29, 1971 Army Lt.William Calley is convicted of murder of 22 South Vietnamese civilians at My Lai on March 16, 1968 (even though perhaps 300 Vietnamese died that day); Calley’s original life sentence will be reduced to house arrest and then to a pardon by Nixon. April 10, 1971 Chinese leaders welcome an American table-tennis team, seemingly a signal that China, estranged more than 20 years, wants to talk. April 30, 1971 The Supreme Court upholds busing as a method of attacking segregation in the public schools. June 13, 1971 The New York Times begins publication of the “Pentagon Papers,’’ a classified study in the Defense Department about Vietnam that was stolen and released by Daniel Ellsburg. June 20, 1971 The Twenty-sixth Amendment, lowering the voting age to 18, receives ratification. June 28, 1971 The Supreme Court upholds the draft resistance (as a conscientious objector) of former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali. August 15, 1971 President Nixon announces several economic moves, including a 90-day freeze on prices, wages, and rents. September 8, 1971 The Kennedy Center for artistic performances opens in Washington, D.C. Other events of 1971 Scientists at Intel in California develop a tiny silicon chip called a microprocessor—Intel 4004. Look magazine stops publication after 34 years. The FTC bans cigarette ads on television. Amtrak, the government-sponsored rail passenger service, begins operation. Walt DisneyWorld opens in Orlando, Florida. Smilies, the little yellow smiley faces, appear all over the place. The environmental group Greenpeace begins to operate. February 21, 1972 President Nixon arrives in Beijing to start a historic visit to the People’s Republic of China. The visit marks a beginning to the end of 20 years of Sino-American hostility. Official relations, however, are not restored. March 22, 1972 The Senate approves an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA); it goes to the states, where the ratification effort will fail. May 2, 1972 J. Edgar Hoover, the only head of the FBI since its start 48 years earlier, powerful player in Washington’s inner political circles, dies at age 77. May 15, 1872 Arthur Bremer shoots George Wallace as he campaigns for the Democrat presidential nomination; Wallace is left paralyzed and in pain for the rest of his life. May 22, 1972 Nixon begins a week’s visit to the Soviet Union (the first president to do so), where he will sign an arms limitation agreement called SALT. June 14, 1972 The EPA bans the chemical pesticide DDT. June 17, 1972 Five men are arrested for breaking into Democrat National Committee Headquarters at the Watergate Hotel complex in Washington, D.C., setting in motion a devastating presidential scandal that will consume more than two years. June 29, 1972 Calling the death penalty “cruel and unusual punishment,’’ the Supreme Court, voting 5–4, declares it unconstitutional. July 10, 1972 The Democrats nominate an honest, unexciting antiwar senator, George McGovern, for the presidency; the vice presidential nominee, Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri, will withdraw from the ticket three weeks later on disclosure that he had been treated for emotional disorder. 60


President and Pat Nixon tour the Great Wall of China during their epochal visit of February 1972. (National Archives)

September 3, 1972 American Bobby Fischer defeats Soviet Boris Spassky in the world championship in chess. September 11, 1972 American swimmer Mark Spitz of Indiana University wins seven gold medals at Munich Olympic games that are marked with terrorist murder of 11 Israeli athletes. November 3, 1972 The ticket of Nixon and Agnew wins reelection in a landslide: nearly 61 percent of popular vote, all but 13 of the electoral vote; but Congress remains Democrat. November 14, 1972 For the first time the Dow Jones industrial average closed above the lofty mark of 1,000. Other events of 1972 Hsing-hsing and Ling-ling, the giant pandas sent as a gift from the People’s Republic of China, arrive for a long residency at the Washington zoo. Life magazine ends publication. Home Box Office starts operation, as does Federal Express and Ms. magazine, edited by feminist leader Gloria Steinem. The Best and the Brightest by David Halberstam is popular nonfiction. The Godfather, with Marlon Brando, is a hit movie. January 5, 1973 Air terrorism causes airports in the United States to begin to inspect luggage and passengers. January 22, 1973 Former president Lyndon Johnson dies of a heart attack, age 64. In the case of Roe v.Wade, the Supreme Court rules that abortion cannot be banned during the first two trimesters of pregnancy, although there could be some regulation in the second trimester.

January 27, 1973 An armistice is signed that officially ends the Vietnam War for the United States; all American troops are to be withdrawn; all enemy-held American prisoners are to be freed. The government announces that the military draft will end. February 14, 1973 The first American prisoners return home from North Vietnam. February 27, 1973 Members of the American Indian Movement (AIM), seize a compound at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, and begin a siege that will last 71 days. April 30, 1973 Amid charges of a White House obstruction of justice, presidential aides John Erlichman, H. R. Haldeman, and John Dean resign in what has become the Watergate scandal. May 17–November 15, 1973 Senator Sam Ervin chairs a special Senate investigation into the Watergate episode; John Dean will be the star witness, but there are several important ones. July 16, 1973 Appearing before the Irvin Committee, Alexander Butterfield, a lesser presidential aide, reveals almost in passing that all conversations in the Oval Office were taped. October 6, 1973 Start of a fourth Arab-Israeli war will lead to an Arab oil embargo on the United States and an American energy crisis. October 10, 1973 Vice President Agnew pleads no contest to charges of accepting bribes and income tax evasion; he is fined but serves no prison time; he resigns his office. In accordance with the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Nixon selects a successor—Congressman Gerald Ford—and Congress approves the selection. October 20, 1973 The Saturday Night Massacre in the Watergate crisis:Three high-ranking administration officials resign or are fired; at issue is access to the presidential tapes. November 7, 1973 Congress overrides a presidential veto, and the War Powers Act—designed to restrict presidential war-making without congressional approval—becomes law. Other events of 1973 The American League in baseball adopts a designated-hitter rule. The University of Miami is the first school to award athletic scholarships to women. In a tennis match somewhat curiously deemed “battle of the sexes,’’ Billie Jean King, age 29, defeats Bobby Riggs, age 55. A once-in-a-lifetime thoroughbred, Secretariat, is first horse to win the triple crown of racing in 25 years, winning one of the races by 31 lengths. Sears Tower in Chicago becomes world’s tallest building. The American Psychiatric Association declassifies homosexuality as a mental illness. February 4, 1974 Newspaper heiress Patricia Hearst is captured by members of the Symbionese Liberation Army; later, in a bizarre turn of events, Patty Hearst, taking the name Tanya, joins her captors, even helping them in a bank robbery; she will be arrested in 1975. March 18, 1974 Arab states finally agree to end the oil embargo imposed in October 1973. April 3, 1974 In the greatest outbreak of tornadoes in a single day—perhaps 130 in an 18-hour period—storms ravage an area from Georgia to Canada; 320 die; hardest hit: Zenia, Ohio. Nixon announces he will pay back taxes of more than $300,000; he had claimed improper deductions. April 8, 1974 Hank Aaron of the Atlanta Braves hit the 715th home run of his baseball career, thus breaking the record held by Babe Ruth. June 30, 1974 Russian ballet performer Mikhail Baryshnikov defects in Canada en route to the United States. July 14, 1974 In an ongoing contest over the Watergate episode, the Supreme Court rules that Nixon must turn 64 specified tapes over

to a special prosecutor; the tapes will contain the “smoking gun”: evidence that Nixon lied and was involved in a cover-up. July 27–30, 1974 The House Judiciary Committee votes three articles of impeachment of the president. August 8, 1974 Nixon announces his resignation, to take effect the next day; admitting no guilt, he says he lacked the power base to continue. August 9, 1974 Gerald R. Ford is sworn in as president. August 21, 1974 President Ford nominates Nelson Rockefeller of New York as the new vice president; Congress approves the choice. September 8, 1974 President Ford pardons Nixon for any possible crimes associated with the Watergate scandal. Other events of 1974 The Heimlich maneuver, to clear blocked breathing passage, is introduced. Streaking—young men and/or women dashing about naked—is a momentary fad. First supermarket scanner goes into operation in Troy, Ohio, scanning its first item, a pack of chewing gum. Moses Malone is the first basketball player to go directly from high school to the NBA. A list of the deceased includes Cass Elliott (the Mamas and the Papas), Samuel Goldwyn (the G in MGM), Chet Huntley (HuntleyBrinkley Report),Walter Lippmann, Ed Sullivan, former chief justice Earl Warren. January 1, 1975 H. R. Haldeman, John Erlichman, John Mitchell, and Robert Mardian, all former high-ranking officials of the Nixon administration, are convicted of obstruction of justice. April 30, 1975 The U.S.-supported government in Saigon surrenders to the enemy, marking end to the Vietnam War and a defeat for the United States. Remaining Americans and close South Vietnamese associates scramble to evacuate. May 14, 1975 President Ford orders seizure of U.S. ship Mayaguez, captured by communists in Cambodia. July 17, 1975 American spacecraft Apollo links up with Soviet vessel Soyuz; they remain linked in orbit for two days. August 18, 1975 Former Teamster president James Hoffa disappears under suspicious circumstances; he never will be found. September 5, 1975 Manson cult member Lynette “Squeaky’’ Fromme attempts to assassinate President Ford; the gun jams. September 12, 1975 Justice William O. Douglas, appointed by Roosevelt, resigns after a record 36 years on the high court. September 22, 1975 Sara Jane Moore attempts to assassinate the president; a bystander deflects the weapon; the shot misses. September 28, 1975 Congress votes to admit women to the military service academies. October 1, 1975 In the “Thrilla in Manila,’’ heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali defeats Joe Frazier in 14 rounds in the Philippines. November 20, 1975 A Senate committee chaired by Frank Church gives first reports of the CIA using assassination as policy. November 26, 1975 After first refusing to do so, Ford approves $2 billion in loans to a bankrupt New York City. Other events of 1975 Saturday Night Live, featuring such performers as John Belushi, Gilda Radner, Dan Ackroyd, and Chevy Chase, makes its television debut. Lyme disease, caused by a tick, is first diagnosed in Lyme, Connecticut. Customized vans appear on the market, as do plastic soft-drink bottles. Auto producers offer first rebates. New cars now have catalytic converters. Popular movies include One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and Jaws. Television hits include Barney Miller and Welcome Back, Kotter. Chronology, 1946–1990

61

February 17, 1976 Influenced by recent Senate hearings, Ford announces reform of intelligence services, the FBI and the CIA. March 29, 1976 The Supreme Court rules 6–3 that states can disallow certain homosexual acts. March 31, 1976 The Supreme Court of New Jersey upholds the right of the parents to remove their comatose daughter Karen Anne Quinlan from life support; the decision will prompt other right-to-die cases. July 2, 1976 The Supreme Court rules that the death penalty is not unconstitutional, thus providing for its reinstatement. July 4, 1976 Celebrations abound as the United States observes its bicentennial birthday; largest ceremonies take place in New York and Philadelphia. July 17, 1976 Memories of Vietnam and Watergate much alive, the Democrats nominate a virtual unknown for the presidency, Jimmy Carter, former governor of Georgia, who stresses his honesty and modesty. July 20, 1976 Viking I (soon to be followed by Viking II) lands on Mars and begins to send pictures back to Earth. August 26, 1976 A mysterious illness—to be dubbed “Legionaires’ disease’’—kills 28 at American Legion Convention in Philadelphia. September 16, 1976 The Episcopal Church approves ordination of women for the clergy. November 3, 1976 The Democrat ticket of Carter and Senator Walter Mondale narrowly defeats Republican ticket of Ford and Senator Robert Dole; Democrats control Congress. December 9, 1976 A federal judge punishes school officials in Boston for not following plan of busing for desegregation. Other events of 1976 The VCR appears on the market. Citizens band radio (CB) becomes popular, especially with truckers. Scientists at M.I.T. produce the first synthetic gene. Women become eligible for Rhodes Scholarships. Barbara Walters becomes the first female news anchor on a national network (ABC). Famous people who die include eccentric, reclusive multimillionaire Howard Hughes and longtime “boss’’ of Chicago Richard Daley. January 17, 1977 A firing squad in Utah carries out the first death sentence in 10 years: convicted murderer Gary Mark Gilmore. January 21, 1977 President Carter grants unconditional pardon to nearly all draft resisters during the Vietnam War. January 28–29, 1977 The Midwest and the Northeast suffer from a major blizzard. March 27, 1977 Two 747 jumbo jets collide on a runway in the Canary Islands, killing 574—the worst accident in aviation history. April 18, 1977 President Carter calls the continuing problem of an energy supply, dramatized by proven unreliability of foreign sources of petroleum, the “moral equivalent of war.’’ July 13–14, 1977 A power failure and blackout of 25 hours in New York City produces a crime spree and evidently a miniature baby boom some nine months later. July 29, 1977 The first oil carried by the Alaska pipeline arrives at Valdez after a journey of 800 miles. August 4, 1977 Congress creates a new Department of Energy, the 12th executive body of cabinet rank. August 10, 1977 Terror in New York from a serial killer who called himself “Son of Sam’’ ends with arrest of 24-year-old David Berkowitz, who had killed seven and injured others. August 16, 1977 Elvis Presley dies at age 42 of mysterious, probably drug-related causes. September 7, 1977 The Carter administration signs a new treaty with Panama, the major condition of which is that the United States will relinquish control of the canal in December 1999; the Senate still has to approve. 62


September 21, 1977 Bert Lance, friend of the president and director of the Office of Management and Budget, resigns under fire for his financial operations. Other events of 1977 Demonstrating his simplicity and openness, Carter wears a business suit (no top hat and tails) and walks in the parade at his inaugural. Clogs become fashionable footwear for both sexes. Medical diagnosis advances with introduction of the MRI, magnetic resonance imaging. NASA tests its first space shuttle. Generic goods begin to produce competition for brand-name products. Television sensation of the year is small-screen adaptation of Alex Haley’s novel, Roots. February 15, 1978 An obscure boxer named Leon Spinks defeats heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali. March 19, 1978 Another hazard of the issue of energy appears when the supertanker Amoco Cadiz runs aground off coast of France, spilling 68 million gallons of oil that will bespoil a wide area. June 6, 1978 Voters in California pass Proposition 13, heralded as the first major shot in a broadening revolt against taxation. June 28, 1978 The Supreme Court recognizes the principle of reverse discrimination in the Bakke case, which rejects quotas as a tool of affirmative action. August 8, 1978 Carter approves a measure to guarantee loans of $1.6 billion to stave off bankruptcy of New York City. September 17, 1978 Carter’s mediation of talks between President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Premier Menachem Begin of Israel leads to signing of the Camp David Accords—the foundation for a landmark Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty. November 18, 1978 Nearly 1,000 American followers of cult leader Jim Jones commit mass suicide in Jonestown, Guyana, after members murder a U.S. congressman. Other events of 1978 Large popularity of film Saturday Night Fever with John Travolta marks perhaps peak popularity of a dance style called disco. Volkswagen begins to produce cars in the United States. Ultrasound appears as a supplement to X ray. China adopts Pinyin as a new method of translating Chinese characters into English; the name of Chinese leader Teng Hsiao-ping, for example, now will be rendered Deng Xiaoping. Coca-Cola reaches an agreement to start to sell Coke in China. Garfield (a cat) appears in comic strip. Dallas starts on CBS. Evita comes to the Broadway stage. January 1, 1979 As part of an agreement reached earlier, the United States grants recognition to the People’s Republic of China and breaks diplomatic relations with Taiwan. January 16, 1979 Faced with mounting popular opposition, Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, shah of Iran, friend and ally of the United States, departs the country, never to return; the new Iranian regime will be a theocracy of fundamentalist Muslims, headed by the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. February 26, 1979 To deal with a second energy crisis provoked partly by conditions in Iran, Carter asks for power to order gas rationing and other measures of conservation. March 28, 1979 The worst nuclear accident in U.S. history takes place at Three-Mile-Island plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, which releases large clouds of radioactive steam. April 4, 1979 Bill Rodgers of the United States runs the Boston Marathon in a record 2 hours, 9 minutes, 27 seconds. May 25, 1979 A DC-10 of American Airlines crashes shortly after leaving O’Hare Airport in Chicago, killing 272.

Jimmy Carter helped negotiate the signing of the Camp David Accords by Anwar Sadat of Egypt (left) and Menachem Begin of Israel (right). (Courtesy Jimmy Carter Library)

June 11, 1979 Actor John Wayne dies of cancer at age 72. June 18, 1979 Carter and Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev sign SALT II, designed to allow each power approximate parity in strategic weaponry; each side is limited to 2,250 delivery systems; the Senate, of course, needs to approve the treaty. August 5, 1979 Patricia Harris becomes the first black female member of the cabinet as secretary of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). October 1, 1979 Pope John Paul II begins a week’s visit to the United States, which includes stops at six eastern and midwestern cities. November 4, 1979 Iranian militants seize the U.S. embassy in Tehran and capture 66 hostages; 13, blacks and women, will be released but the remainder are held in a hostage crisis with Iran that will last nearly 15 months. December 27, 1979 The government participates in the “bail-out’’ of the beleaguered Chrysler Corporation, guaranteeing $1.75 billion in loans; Chrysler will pay off the debt by 1984. Other events of 1979 Jerry Falwell, Baptist minister from Virginia, forms the Moral Majority, to move the church into political activity.

The Treasury begins to produce the Susan B. Anthony silver dollar. Sony produces the Walkman. A board game, Trivial Pursuit, becomes popular as home and party entertainment. The courts begin to hear “palimony’’ suits—financial claims from romantic relationships outside of marriage. Larry Bird and Earvin Johnson compete in a college basketball game, preparatory to both entering the NBA. January 4, 1980 Carter announces major economic sanctions against the USSR in retaliation for Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. January 29, 1980 Canadian officials help six Americans escape from Iran. March 10, 1980 Jean Harris, head of an eastern girls school, kills Dr. Herman Tarnower, founder of the Scarsdale Diet, after he drops her as a lover. April–August 1980 The Freedom Flotilla takes place as 125,000 Cubans flee to the United States; unexpectedly, the Castro regime allowed them to depart. Chronology, 1946–1990

63

April 12, 1980 The U.S. Olympic Committee grants Carter’s request (demand?) that the United States not participate in the Olympic games in Moscow this year. April 24, 1980 Eight American servicemen die in an unsuccessful attempt at rescue of the hostages in Iran. May 17, 1980 A race riot breaks out in Miami in protest of charges of police brutality; 18 die, 400 are injured. May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens in Washington explodes in violent volcanic eruption, killing 26 and destroying terrain for miles around. June 1, 1980 Ted Turner begins CNN, the nation’s first 24-hour news channel; from a base in Atlanta, the station feeds into the cable system. September 19, 1980 Iraq invades Iran, bringing a new dimension to the continuing hostage crisis. November 4, 1980 The Republican ticket of Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush defeat a weakened President Carter and Vice President Mondale by 52 percent of popular vote to 41.6 percent (Independent candidate John Anderson received most of the remainder); Reagan and Bush had all but 49 of the electoral votes. Republicans control the Senate. December 8, 1980 Former Beatle John Lennon is murdered by a deranged fan near his home in New York City. Other events of 1980 The 3-M Corporation introduces Post-it notes. In-line rollerblade skates start to catch on. An ABC late-night television show, Night-Line with Ted Koppel, designed to follow the hostage crisis, becomes permanent. A French firm introduces a new abortion pill called RU-486 (mifepristone). The United States boycotts the summer Olympics in Moscow in protest of Soviet action in Afghanistan; Japan and West Germany follow suit. The Museum of Modern Art in New York exhibits 1,000 paintings of Pablo Picasso. In a major sports feat of the modern era, the U.S. hockey team, made up of college and low-level professional players, defeats a heavily favored Soviet team and wins the gold medal in winter games at Lake Placid, New York.

The Eighties, 1981–1990 January 20, 1981 The Carter administration negotiates a deal through which the hostages in Iran will be released after 444 days of captivity. Timing of the deal, inauguration day, leaves a false impression that Reagan’s people were responsible. February 17, 1981 Chrysler Corporation announces losses of $1.71 billion, largest in history of U.S. business; losses of Ford and General Motors verify that Americans are turning to smaller, more efficient foreign cars. March 2, 1981 Reagan announces an intent to send advisers and funds to support President José Duarte, at war with leftist rebels in El Salvador. March 30, 1981 President Reagan is wounded by an assassin outside the Hilton Hotel in Washington; three others, including Press Secretary James Brady, are injured; the young man who fires the shots, John Hinckley, Jr., later will be found innocent on grounds of insanity. April 12, 1981 NASA launches Columbia, a shuttle and first reusable space vehicle; Columbia will return after two days and 36 orbits. June 12, 1981 Major league baseball players strike, largely over the issue of free agency; the stoppage will last seven weeks, until August 9. June 21, 1981 A long reign of terror ends in Atlanta with arrest of Wayne Williams, a 28-year-old black man who will be implicated in the murder of 28, many of them black children. 64


July 18, 1981 Two aerial walkways collapse at the packed Hyatt Hotel in Kansas City, killing 113 and injuring 190. July 29, 1981 Congress passes Reagan’s tax-reduction legislation, designed to reduce taxes by $750 billion over five years. August 6, 1981 Reagan fires 12,000 air-traffic controllers who have gone on strike. September 21, 1981 Sandra Day O’Connor, appointed by Reagan, becomes the first female member of the Supreme Court. October 6, 1981 Anwar Sadat, courageous president of Egypt, close friend of the United States, and pathmaker for settlement in the Middle East, is assassinated by fundamentalist soldiers in Cairo. Other events of 1981 Pac-Man video games appear. The FDA approves aspartame for use as a sweetener. MTV debuts on television. Walter Cronkite retires as anchor of the popular CBS evening news show. Actress Natalie Wood drowns in waters off California. A deadly new disease that seems to affect mostly homosexual men and intravenous drug users receives a name: AIDS, acronym for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. January 5, 1982 A federal judge strikes down a law in Arkansas that requires teaching creation as well as evolution in public schools. January 13, 1982 A Boeing 737 airliner crashes in an icy Potomac River in Washington, D.C., killing 78. February 28, 1982 The United Auto Workers conclude an agreement with Ford that trades wage and benefit gains for job security. June 6, 1982 The Israeli army invades southern Lebanon, to drive away Palestinian warriors, creating new problems for the United States. June 15, 1982 The Supreme Court rules that all children are entitled to public education, challenging a law in Texas that denies public schooling for aliens. June 30, 1982 The ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) is defeated when it falls three states short of the 38 needed for ratification. July 9, 1982 A Pan American jet liner crashes near airport in New Orleans, killing 154. July 16, 1982 The Reverend Sun Myung Moon marries 4,150 followers in a massive ceremony at Madison Square Garden, New York. July 28, 1982 San Francisco becomes the first city to ban sale of handguns; few cities follow. August 26, 1982 Plagued by lawsuits alleging medical problems from asbestos, the Manville Corporation files for bankruptcy. October 26, 1982 The Reagan administration reports a record budget deficit of $110 billion for fiscal 1982. November 10, 1982 Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader since 1964, dies at age 75;Yuri Andropov succeeds him. November 13, 1982 The Vietnam Veterans Memorial, a black granite wall inscribed with names of nearly 60,000 killed in Vietnam, is dedicated in Washington, D.C. December 2, 1982 Barney Clark, 61, receives the first artificial heart, in Salt Lake City; he will live 112 days. Other events of 1982 Halcion, a sleep medication by Upjohn, comes on the market. USA Today hits the newsstands. Plastic surgeons begin a procedure called liposuction. National Football League players strike for 57 days. Braniff International Airlines files for bankruptcy. Honda begins to produce cars in Ohio. Gandhi is a successful movie; Cats, a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber, debuts on Broadway. Jimmy Connors defeats John McEnroe in the longest singles final atWimbledon: 4 hours, 14 minutes.

John Belushi dies of drug overdose. Princess Grace (Grace Kelly) dies at 52 in an auto crash in Monaco. January 31, 1983 Reagan declares Times Beach, Missouri, a disaster area caused by dioxin, a chemical used to control dust on roads; the town will be virtually abandoned. March 23, 1983 Reagan announces plans for a spectacular missile defense system, Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), better known as Star Wars; after costing some $30 billion, the program will be canceled in 1993. April 4, 1983 The space shuttle Challenger makes its first flight into space; two astronauts will make a space walk. April 12, 1983 Harold Washington is elected first black mayor of Chicago. June 18, 1983 Sally Ride becomes the first American female astronaut in space, aboard shuttle Challenger. September 1, 1983 A Soviet fighter plane shoots down a South Korean 747 airliner over Sakhalin Island, killing 269, including 61 Americans, one of whom was a congressman. Reagan sends 2,000 marines into Lebanon as peacekeepers, seeking to bring order to that divided and beleaguered land. September 26, 1983 Australian yacht Australia II defeats America’s Liberty to win the America’s Cup, breaking a U.S. win streak of 132 years. October 23, 1983 A large truck bomb explodes near the American marine compound in Lebanon, killing 241 American armedservices members. October 25–30, 1983 United States forces invade tiny island of Grenada, near South America, to oust a Cuban-oriented regime and to evacuate some 700 U.S. citizens. November 2, 1983 Reagan signs into law a measure proclaiming the third Monday in January as Martin Luther King, Jr., Day and a national holiday. Other events of 1983 The compact disc makes a debut. Apple Computers introduces a new device called a mouse. Drivers in Chicago are the first to use cellular phones. Vanessa Williams becomes the first black Miss America; she will lose the title the next year after publication of nude pictures in Penthouse. Guion Bluford, aboard Challenger on August 30, is the first black astronaut in space. A Bible produced by the National Council of Churches addresses God in a gender-neutral fashion. Long-running television series M*A*S*H shows its last episode, watched by a record 125 million viewers. Crack cocaine hits the streets, a devastating development because of the drug’s strength, addictive qualities, and low cost. January 10, 1984 The United States and the Vatican establish diplomatic relations, after 116 years of not doing so. February 1, 1984 Reagan orders marines withdrawn from Lebanon. February 3, 1984 On its fourth mission Challenger features two astronauts flying free of the spacecraft, propelled by jet backpacks. February 9, 1984 Soviet leader Andropov dies after a brief tenure; he will be replaced by Konstantin Chernenko, also in poor health. April 26, 1984 Reagan makes his first visit to China. July 12, 1984 For the first time, a presidential nominee, Democrat Walter Mondale, chooses a woman as his vice presidential running mate, Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro of New York. July 28–August 12, 1984 The summer Olympic games are held in Los Angeles; in an obvious payback gesture the Soviet Union boycotts the games and 13 other communist states do the same. October 12, 1984 Reagan signs the Boland II amendment that prohibits government agencies from supporting military activity in Nicaragua; Congess also outlaws aid to the Contras.

November 6, 1984 The Republican ticket of Reagan and Bush scores a landslide victory: 59 percent of the vote; electoral vote of all states but one, Mondale’s home, Minnesota. December 3, 1984 A gas leak at a chemical factory of Union Carbide in Bophal, India, kills 3,000; after five years of legal maneuver, the American company will pay damages of $470 million. December 22, 1984 Bernard Goetz, a modern vigilante, shoots four black youth (none fatally) who prepared to rob him in a New York subway; Goetz, who was white, was viewed variously by blacks as a hero and as an agent of oppression. Other events of 1984 Jim Fixx, fitness guru and author of works about running, dies of heart attack at 52—while running. The Cosby Show begins on television. Madonna, brazen and daring singer and entertainment personality, turns underwear into outerwear. Film The Killing Fields reminds viewers of the horrors of Cambodia in the previous decade. The film industry adds PG 13 to its rating system. The year 1984 is proclaimed to be the year of the yuppie—young urban (or upwardly mobile) professional, said to be an insatiable consumer. February 21, 1985 Reagan reiterates that he opposes the leftist Sandinista regime in Nicaragua and its new president, Daniel Ortega. He wants to aid a counterrevolutionary force called the Contras, aid to whom was outlawed by Congress on October 12, 1984. March 11, 1985 In a move, the significance of which could not have been known, Soviet communists pick Mikhail Gorbachev as leader, replacing Chernenko, who died the previous day. April 23, 1985 The Coca-Cola Corporation announces that it is changing the formula for its beverage; in July the company announced that because of numerous complaints, it would resume production of the original recipe, calling it Coke Classic. May 5, 1985 Reagan creates a stir, when after laying a wreath at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany (where Anne Frank died), he visits a cemetery at nearby Bitburg that contains graves of SS soldiers. May 15, 1985 Police in Philadelphia end a siege by bombing headquarters of a black radical group, killing 11 and causing a fire that destroys 61 homes. May 28, 1985 The FBI arrests retired naval officer John Walker and his son Michael for espionage. June 14, 1985 A TWA plane is seized by terrorists over skies of Athens; plane, crew, and 153 passengers are held 17 days then released, except for one American serviceman, who is killed. September 1, 1985 A team of French and U.S. scientists locate the wreck of Titanic, more than two miles down; the sighting will be the first since April 14, 1912, when the great liner sank, taking 1,522 lives. October 11, 1985 American fighter planes force down an Egyptian plane carrying hijackers of an Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro; hijackers kill one American. November 19, 1985 Reagan meets for the first time with Gorbachev in Geneva; they accomplish nothing but agree to meet again. December 12, 1985 Crash of a chartered airliner off the coast of Newfoundland kills all 256 aboard; most are members of the 101st Airborne Division, American soldiers returning home after duty in the Sinai peninsula. Other events of 1985 Nintendo video games become popular. The Disney Channel and Home Shopping Network come to cable TV. Montgomery Ward halts catalog sales. ABC television network is sold to Capital City Communications for $3.5 billion. Chronology, 1946–1990

65

General Electric acquires NBC network and RCA for $6.3 billion. Libby Riddle becomes the first woman to win the difficult Iditarod dogsled race in Alaska. A mother who had taken fertility medication gives birth to six in Orange, California. Actor Rock Hudson, age 59, dies of AIDS, casting huge attention on this startling new disease. January 28, 1986 Space shuttle Challenger explodes a minute after takeoff, killing all seven aboard, including Christa McAuliffe, a teacher from New Hampshire. April 14, 1986 Reagan blames Libya and its leader Muammar Qaddafi for a bombing in West Berlin that killed an American and orders an air strike on Libyan targets. June 4, 1986 Jonathan Ray Pollard is found guilty of spying for Israel and is sentenced to prison. July 3–6, 1986 Americans celebrate the 100th birthday of the Statue of Liberty. July 17, 1986 LTV Corporation, second largest steel company in the United States, files for bankruptcy. September 17, 1986 The Senate confirms William Rehnquist, whom Reagan has elevated to chief justice of the Supreme Court; Antonin Scalia, Reagan’s appointee, will be confirmed as a new justice. October 2, 1986 The Senate overrides Reagan’s veto of a bill imposing sanctions on the segregationist government of South Africa. October 10, 1986 Federal officials seize 4,620 pounds of cocaine in West Palm Beach, Florida, a record haul.

October 17, 1986 The Senate passes an immigration bill that by fining employers is designed to reduce illegal immigration. October 22, 1986 Reagan signs a measure that provides major revision of tax policy, reducing brackets from 14 to 3. November 3–6, 1986 American newspapers publish a story that the Reagan administration secretly sold arms to Iran in exchange for release of American hostages held in the Middle East. November 4, 1986 Democrats retain a majority in the House and win eight Senate seats, placing them in control of Congress for the first time in six years. November 14, 1986 In a development that perhaps symbolized a motif of the 1980s, stock broker Ivan Boesky pleads guilty to insider trading; his sentence is reduced because he leads the government to an even larger fish, junk bond manipulator Michael Milken. December 10, 1986 Elie Wiesel, famed author and concentration camp survivor, receives the Nobel Peace Prize. Other events of 1986 Robert Penn Warren becomes the first poet laureate of the United States. Rhode Island is the first state to establish a recycling policy. Halley’s comet makes the first appearance in 75 years, but the sighting is disappointing; Actor Clint Eastwood, famous for roles as a tough cowboy and cop, is elected mayor of Carmel, California. Len Bias, basketball star from the University of Maryland, top draft choice of the Boston Celtics, dies of drug overdose. Singer Corporation, long a symbol of American enterprise abroad, stops selling sewing machines.

President and Nancy Reagan aboard a battleship, July 4, 1986 (Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library)

66


January 5, 1987 Reagan presents Congress with the nation’s first trillion-dollar budget ($1,024.3 billion), which includes a deficit of $107.8 billion. January 8, 1987 The Dow Jones average closes at 2002.25—the first time over 2,000. March 10, 1987 Television evangelist Jim Bakker, cohost of the PTL program, confesses an adulterous affair with secretary Jessica Hahn in 1980.The scandal will end his career. April 7, 1987 Mayor Harold Washington of Chicago is reelected by 54 percent to 43 percent. He receives 97 percent of the black vote; 15 percent of whites. May 4, 1987 Former senator Gary Hart, front-runner for the Democrat presidential nomination in 1988, is discovered in an affair with model Donna Rice; he drops from the race on May 8. May 17, 1987 Iraqi missiles strike the American frigate Stark in the Persian Gulf, killing 37. Iraq apologizes to the United States, which had started to tilt toward Iraq in the long war with Iran. July 7, 1987 Lt. Colonel Oliver North (of the National Security Council) will begin testimony before Congress about the growing Iran-Contra scandal, in which he played a major part; National Security Adviser John Poindexter will begin testimony on July 15, as will Secretary of State George Shultz on July 23. North insists that his superiors approved all the dealings; Reagan (and Vice President Bush) deny any knowledge that money from selling arms to Iran was being diverted to the Contras in Nicaragua; questions and inconsistencies abound, but no one will be punished. August 7, 1987 Alan Greenspan replaces Paul Volcker as chairman of the Federal Reserve Board; under Volcker, inflation during the years 1979–87 dropped from 13.3 percent to 1.1 percent. September 10, 1987 Pope John Paul II begins a 10-day visit to the United States. September 17, 1987 Reagan and other officials commemorate the 200th aniversary of the Constitution. October 4, 1987 Canada and the United States agree to a freetrade pact. October 19, 1987 Stock prices dropped 508 points, 22.6 percent of the total, nearly doubling the crash of 1929. Referred to at the time as Black Monday, it was the worst day in the history of Wall Street to that time. October 23, 1987 By a vote of 58–42 the Senate fails to confirm Robert Bork for the Supreme Court. November 28, 1987 Twana Brawley, a 15-year-old black girl in Wappinger Falls, New York, claims that she was kidnapped and raped by six white men; a grand jury will find the charge to be fraudulent. December 8, 1987 In their third meeting, Reagan and Gorbachev agree to an INF Treaty—a pact that eliminates all intermediate range (300–3400 miles) missiles. Other events of 1987 Andy Warhol, pop art entrepreneur, dies after gall bladder surgery. A court orders Rotary Clubs to admit women. The National Museum of Women in the Arts opens in Washington. Influenced by the spread of AIDS, televison stations begin to carry advertisements for condoms; the first station to act is KRON in San Francisco. The FDA approves a new drug, AZT, as treatment for AIDS, and an anticholesterol “statin’’ drug called Lovastatin, marketed by Merck under the brand name Mevacor. Texaco Petroleum Corporation files for protection under the bankruptcy laws, the largest firm to do so. February 3, 1988 The Senate approves appointment of Anthony Kennedy as justice of the Supreme Court; Kennedy is Reagan’s third choice after rejection of Robert Bork and Douglas Ginsburg.

February 21, 1988 In the wake of the fall of Jim Bakker, popular televangelist Jimmy Swaggart admits reports of his consorting with a prostitute; Swaggart eventually will be renounced as a minister of the Assemblies of God. April 18, 1988 U.S. warships in the Persian Gulf, protecting Kuwaiti tankers from Iran, clash with Iranian forces. May 4, 1988 Nearly 1.4 million aliens meet the deadline for applying for amnesty under new legislation. July 3, 1988 American cruiser Vincennes mistakenly shoots down an Iranian passenger liner over the Persian Gulf, killing all 290 aboard. July 20, 1988 The Democrats select little-known Governor Michael Dukakis of Massachusetts for the presidential nomination and Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas for the vice presidency. July–August 1988 Summer drought feeds fires that consume millions of acres in the West, including thousands of acres of forestland in Yellowstone National Park. August 10, 1988 Reagan signs a bill that supplies an apology and $20,000 per person to Japanese Americans interned during the Second World War. October 3, 1988 Space shuttle Discovery completes the first mission after the disaster of Challenger. November 8, 1988 The Republican ticket of Vice President Bush and Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana soundly trounces the Democrats with 54 percent of popular vote; 40 out of 50 states; but the Democrats hold on to Congress. December 21, 1988 Pan American flight 103, a Boeing 747, is blown from the sky by a terrorist bomb over Lockerbie, Scotland; all 259 on the plane and 11 on the ground are killed. December 21, 1988 Drexel Burnham Lambert agrees to pay a $650 million penalty for securities fraud. Other events of 1988 Prozac, an antidepressant produced by Eli Lilly, makes a debut; it will be enormously successful. America’s worst drought in 50 years causes the nation, for the first time in its history, to import grain. Beaches in New York and New Jersey are bespoiled by washedup medical waste. Roseanne begins as a series on ABC; Rain Man, featuring Dustin Hoffman and Tom Cruise, is a popular new movie. Songwriter Irving Berlin observes his 100th birthday. Venerable and charming Wrigley Field in Chicago, home of the Cubs, yields to the advance of civilization; the Cubs permit installation of lights and Wrigley’s first night baseball game. Further meetings between Reagan and Gorbachev and a new emerging Soviet attitude suggest that exceptional developments are underway in international affairs. January 4, 1989 Navy F-14 jets shoot down two Libyan fighters off the coast of Libya. January 6, 1989 The Labor Department reports that unemployment has dropped to 5.3 percent, lowest in 14 years. February 10, 1989 As chair of the Democrat National Committee, Ronald Brown of Washington, D.C., becomes the first African American to head a major national party. March 24, 1989 Supertanker Exxon Valdez runs aground and spills 11 million gallons of crude oil into pristine Prince William Sound, Alaska; the worst oil spill in U.S. history, it caused enormous financial and environmental damage. April 10, 1989 An explosion inside a 16-inch gun turret on the battleship Iowa killed 47 sailors as the recommissioned ship was on maneuvers. April 19, 1989 Young black and Hispanic boys “wilding’’ in New York rape and beat nearly to death a female jogger in Central Park. They will be identified and punished. May 4, 1989 Lt. Colonel Oliver North is convicted of charges related to the Iran-Contra scandal, but conviction later will be overturned. Chronology, 1946–1990

67

June 21, 1989 In a 5–4 vote, the Supreme Court rules that burning the American flag constitutes freedom of expression, a right that must be preserved. August 10, 1989 President Bush appoints General Colin Powell to be chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff—the first African American to hold that post. August 30, 1989 Wealthy Manhattan property owner Leona Helmsley, nicknamed the “Queen of Mean,’’ is convicted of fraud and tax evasion, fined, and sentenced to prison. September 21, 1989 Hurricane Hugo slams ashore near Charleston, South Carolina, taking 24 lives and devastating the affected area. October 17, 1989 As the nation watches a World Series game at Candlestick Park, San Francisco, the city is struck by an earthquake that measures 6.9 on the Richter Scale; 60 die, 3,000 are injured, damage is huge. November 7, 1989 Results of local elections produce the first black mayor of New York City, David Dinkins, and the first black governor of Virginia since Reconstruction, Douglas Wilder. November 9, 1989 The Berlin Wall is opened to Berliners, and its total destruction begins, without any opposition. It is the most convincing evidence to that point that the cold war is indeed ending. December 20, 1989 The United States invades Panama to depose its dictator, Manuel Noriega, who is charged with involvement in the drug traffic in the United States; Noriega will be captured and transported to the United States for trial. Other events of 1989 The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles become popular with youngsters. Bristol-Myers and Squibb merge to form a pharmaceutical giant. The Los Angeles Herald Examiner ceases publication after 86 years. Pete Rose, record-setting baseball player and manager of the Cincinnati Reds, is banned from professional baseball for life by Commissioner Bart Giamatti, for gambling on games. Ford buys prestigious Jaguar Motor Company of Great Britain. Kareem Abdul Jabbar retires from the Los Angeles Lakers and from professional basketball. January 18, 1990 In a sting operation, Mayor Marion Barry of Washington, D.C., is arrested for smoking crack cocaine. February 26, 1990 Election of Violeta Chamorro as president of Nicaragua, ousting incumbent Daniel Ortega, accomplishes what President Reagan had tried for nearly eight years to do. March 11, 1990 Lithuania declares itself independent of the USSR and gets away with it. March 18, 1990 A dozen works of art by the Old Masters are stolen from Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. The

68


works are worth $100 million and represent the largest art heist on record. March 25, 1990 Fire in the crowded Happy Land social club kills 87 in the Bronx. May 29, 1990 Russian politician Boris Yeltsin, no longer a communist, is elected chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet. July 26, 1990 President Bush signs the Americans with Disabilities Act, designed to prevent discrimination against, and provide assistance for, disabled people. August 2, 1990 Iraqi troops invade and overrun Kuwait, a tiny Arab state on the Persian Gulf that possesses large oil reserves. President Bush denounces the move. August 7, 1990 Bush sends the first contingent of U.S. forces to the Persian Gulf area. They are to constitute part of an operation, code-named Desert Shield, to protect Saudi Arabia from an invasion by Iraq. September 27, 1990 The Senate confirms nomination of David Souter, appointed to the Supreme Court by Bush to replace William Brennan, who retires. October 3, 1990 In a move that virtually no one would have dared to predict, East and West Germany reunify, and the Gorbachev regime stands by and watches—further indication of a new Soviet attitude and an end to the cold war. October 20, 1990 Bush vetoes a civil rights bill on grounds that it would promote quotas in hiring; the Senate fails by one vote to override. Other events of 1990 Seinfeld begins a long run on NBC. Dr. Jack Kevorkian of Detroit introduces his suicide machine. All U.S. airlines ban smoking on domestic flights. General Motors introduces a new car, Saturn. The FDA approves Norplant, a birth control insert. NASA sends the costly and sophisticated Hubble telescope into space aboard shuttle Discovery, only to learn that its ability to peer into space, the chief mission, was limited by improper operation of its mirrors. Deceased of the year include Jim Henson, creator of the Muppets, actress Ava Gardner, actress Greta Garbo, composer Aaron Copland; conductor and composer Leonard Bernstein dies five days after announcing his retirement. By the end of the year a coalition of forces put together by President Bush has exceeded 500,000 in the Persian Gulf area; a good portion of them are American; Desert Shield has become Desert Storm, and its objectives are to drive Iraqi forces from Kuwait, to assure the security of Saudi Arabia, and perhaps to provoke a change in the government of Iraq. The United Nations has given Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein a deadline of January 15, 1991, to withdraw from Kuwait. Desert Storm is about to begin.

CHAPTER 4 The American Economy A discussion of the American economy in the 50 or so years after the Second World War quickly becomes a litany of superlative terminology. In the broad scope of national and international economics it was an account of enormous growth. Measured in current dollars, the gross national product increased 250 percent between 1945 and 1960. It doubled again in the 1960s, nearly trebled in the 1970s (albeit a time of very high inflation, which of course inflated the numbers); it came reasonably close to doubling another time in the 1980s. Beneath the veneer of broad economic statistics one could find categories of remarkable growth and material betterment for large groups of people. Many millions of middle-class people in the 1970s and 1980s had more in the way of comfort and convenience than the richest individuals had had at a time when their grandparents, or even their parents, were of comparable age. Looking beneath the national numbers one also could find less appealing segments of the economic system. It was essentially a capitalist economy, and capitalism continued to show itself subject to periods of growth and recession, good times and bad—of different degrees, of course, depending on the times. The economy remained responsive to various national pressures, and as the era moved along, the impact of international economic development became markedly greater. Within broad periods of expansion, one could find shorter times of little growth and even an occasional year of economic loss, especially if one took inflation into account. During the decade of the 1980s, when expansion generally continued, the unemployment rate at one point reached nearly depression-era proportion. As a rule, however, American capitalism was at its best when it came to production. Problems more commonly came in the area of distribution. Some of the richest people in the world long had been Americans; the United States had been known for the large size—and after 1946 the striking growth—in its middle class, but the nation continued to have a substantial number of people left out, loosely and commonly referred to as poor. In the 1960s the government devised a method for classifying the poor by specifying an income designation as the poverty line. Poverty in the first instance thus was an expression of class. People beneath the poverty line were the impoverished class, and because most people were white, the bulk of poor people were white. Probing deeper and giving close attention to proportion and ratio quickly revealed that poverty, and economic representation all along the line, was also a matter of race and ethnicity. The largest proportion of people left out were nonwhite: African Americans and Native Americans being most conspicuous—one because the numbers of people were so large, the other because the economic numbers were so low. Poverty related to ethnicity lost much of its force or at least underwent change in the postwar era.The world war and the postwar boom did much to move white ethnic groups—Polish, Italians, Irish, various Slavic nationalities—into the middle class. What essentially was left were the Hispanics, a classification so poorly understood and defined that it did not have a name (Mexicans was most commonly used), and the government did not count it separately until the 1970s. As Hispanics began—because of a high birthrate and high immigration, legal or otherwise—to appear in growing numbers, they became rivals to black Americans, overrepresented in a major way below the poverty line. For much of the period one did not think of women being rich or poor in terms of a separate identity. The economic status of a female probably was determined by class if she was white and by race and ethnicity if she was nonwhite or Hispanic. In the 1970s women began to receive more separate identity—partly because of the women’s movement, which demanded it, and partly because of major changes in

social and cultural practices and attitudes. A new emphasis on gender had mixed consequences: Some women, acting on their own and demanding their rights, moved up the economic ladder; a more common direction, because of social changes, was downward, often below the poverty line. At the start of the postwar era, it seemed that everything had been arranged to enhance the economy of the United States. The nation was intact, undamaged by war, and a massive wartime economy was in place, in need only of retooling. The population had a demand for goods that were pent up by scarcities of war; it had money saved up and offered anew in various government programs for returning veterans. Benefits in a G.I. Bill of Rights, for example, produced an enormous rush to build and sell new houses. Competitors to the United States had been weakened, drained financially, damaged or—as in the case of Germany and Japan—virtually destroyed. The Korean War and the cold war assured continuing major government participation in the economy. The world was open to American capitalism, and the United States made the most of it. New York became, or remained, the world’s capital of finance; the dollar became the world’s currency. In the 1960s the economy slowed somewhat at the start. President John F. Kennedy endorsed a tax reduction calculated to “get America moving again.’’The Vietnam War poured increasing amounts of money into the economy, and it raised questions as to the ultimate consequences for economic stability. By the 1960s Europe and Japan essentially had recovered from the Second World War (albeit with much American assistance) and were placing themselves in a position to challenge economic domination of the United States. Developing nations (then known as the Third World), seeking to modernize, urged American companies to locate in their lands, offering numerous enticements, not the least of which was very low labor costs. Although national numbers continued to climb during the 1970s, with many economic segments it appeared that everything that could go wrong did; the Vietnam War caused government deficits to increase; deficits helped fuel inflation, which reached 10 percent in 1973, the last official year of the war for the United States; modern economies in Europe and Japan competed with an older American economy in selling goods abroad and in the United States. Less expensive, and in some cases better quality, foreign goods caused some American firms to close down or leave the country. A first energy crisis in 1973–74 created a shortage and caused the price of oil to quadruple.The second crisis of 1978–80 produced new rounds of price increases. At a time when Americans wanted energyefficient four-cylinder cars, United States firms were tooled to produce six-cylinder and V-8 engines. Japan, by contrast, was ready to go with its little Toyotas, Datsuns, and Hondas. By the end of the 1970s the economic numbers almost defied credibility: Gasoline sold at $1.40 per gallon; inflation ran at 13 percent, the prime interest rate 20 percent; unemployment stood at 7 percent and was still rising. President Jimmy Carter said there was a national crisis of confidence; the people thought there was a crisis of Jimmy Carter. Under the new leadership of Ronald Reagan, the 1980s heralded a purported new era of American economics. Influenced by the theories of economist Arthur Laffler, the Reagan administration sought to institute an approach termed “supply-side’’ economics, a strategy that stressed sharply lower taxes, lower government spending, and fewer controls, a system designed to promote private savings, investment, and initiative. One consequence would be a balanced national budget; the ultimate objective of course was more economic growth. The keynote was a massive tax reduction measure, passed in 1981. 69

The results varied: The economy worsened substantially until 1983, a consequence that the new administration blamed on Jimmy Carter. Unemployment passed 10 percent; companies continued to shut down; foreign goods flooded the market. In 1983 the economy began not to reverse itself but at least to improve. Automobile companies improved their product lines and, stung by criticism, worked to improve quality. A glut of oil production brought the price down sharply. Unemployment dropped, interest rates receded. Reagan’s people would trumpet several years of growth. But it did not go as Arthur Laffler had planned. Congress did not want to reduce domestic spending; Reagan wanted to—and did—provide huge new sums of money for the military forces. Reduced taxes and increased spending could lead to only one result: record budget deficits. Continuing American propensity to buy cheaper and presumably TABLE 4.1

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCTa, 1946–1990

(in billions of dollars)

TABLE 4.2

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCTa, 1946–1990

(in billions of dollars)

Actual Dollars

1987 Dollars

Year

Total

Percent Change

Total

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

212.6 235.5 261.8 260.7 288.5

20.4 10.8 11.2 20.4 10.7

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

333.6 351.8 372.0 373.1 406.8

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Actual Dollars

1987 Dollars

Percent Change

Year

Total

Percent Change

Total

1,276.0 1,258.5 1,307.0 1,311.8 1,425.6

220.5 21.4 3.9 0.4 8.7

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

211.9 234.3 260.3 259.3 287.0

20.6 10.6 11.1 20.4 10.7

1,272.1 1,252.8 1,300.0 1,305.5 1,418.5

220.6 21.5 3.8 0.4 8.7

15.6 5.5 5.7 0.3 9.0

1,567.4 1,634.3 1,694.2 1,683.3 1,779.0

9.9 4.3 3.7 20.6 5.7

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

331.6 349.7 370.0 370.9 404.3

15.5 5.5 5.8 0.2 9.0

1,558.4 1,624.9 1,685.5 1,673.8 1,768.3

9.9 4.3 3.7 20.7 5.6

429.1 451.8 457.5 497.0 516.6

5.5 5.3 1.3 8.6 3.9

1,815.5 1,850.9 1,839.7 1,939.6 1,982.8

2.1 1.9 20.6 5.4 2.2

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

426.2 448.6 454.7 494.2 513.3

5.4 5.3 1.4 8.7 3.9

1,803.6 1,838.2 1,829.1 1,928.8 1,970.8

2.0 1.9 20.5 5.5 2.2

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

535.4 575.8 607.7 653.0 708.1

3.6 7.5 5.5 7.5 8.4

2,037.1 2,143.3 2,231.8 2,358.1 2,488.9

2.7 5.2 4.1 5.7 5.5

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

531.8 571.6 603.1 648.0 702.7

3.6 7.5 5.5 7.4 8.4

2,023.8 2,128.1 2,215.6 2,340.6 2,470.5

2.7 5.2 4.1 5.6 5.5

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

774.9 819.8 895.5 965.6 1,017.1

9.4 5.8 9.2 7.8 5.3

2,633.2 2,702.6 2,815.6 2,890.9 2,891.5

5.8 2.6 4.2 2.7 0.0

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

769.8 814.3 889.3 959.5 1,010.7

9.5 5.8 9.2 7.9 5.3

2,616.2 2,685.2 2,796.9 2,873.0 2,873.9

5.9 2.6 4.2 2.7 0.0

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

1,104.9 1,215.7 1,362.3 1,474.3 1,599.1

8.6 10.0 12.1 8.2 8.5

2,975.9 3,128.8 3,298.6 3,282.4 3,247.6

2.9 5.1 5.4 20.5 21.1

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

1,097.2 1,207.0 1,349.6 1,458.6 1,585.9

8.6 10.0 11.8 8.1 8.7

2,955.9 3,107.1 3,268.6 3,248.1 3,221.7

2.9 5.1 5.2 20.6 20.8

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1,785.5 1,994.6 2,254.5 2,520.8 2,742.1

11.7 11.7 13.0 11.8 8.8

3,412.2 3,569.0 3,739.0 3,845.3 3,823.4

5.1 4.6 4.8 2.8 20.6

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1,768.4 1,974.1 2,232.7 2,488.6 2,708.0

11.5 11.6 13.1 11.5 8.8

3,380.8 3,533.3 3,703.5 3,796.8 3,776.3

4.9 4.5 4.8 2.5 20.5

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

3,063.8 3,179.8 3,434.4 3,801.5 4,053.6

11.7 3.8 8.0 10.7 6.6

3,884.4 3,796.1 3,939.6 4,174.5 4,295.0

1.6 22.3 3.8 6.0 2.9

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

3,030.6 3,149.6 3,405.0 3,777.2 4,038.7

11.9 3.9 8.1 10.9 6.9

3,843.1 3,760.3 3,906.6 4,148.5 4,279.8

1.8 22.2 3.9 6.2 3.2

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4,277.7 4,544.5 4,908.2 5,266.8 5,567.8

5.5 6.2 8.0 7.3 5.7

4,413.5 4,544.5 4,726.3 4,852.7 4,916.5

2.8 3.0 4.0 2.7 1.3

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4,268.6 4,539.9 4,900.4 5,250.8 5,546.1

5.7 6.4 7.9 7.2 5.6

4,404.5 4,539.9 4,718.6 4,838.0 4,897.3

2.9 3.1 3.9 2.5 1.2

a GNP measures goods and services from labor and property of U.S. residents, wherever they are produced. Source: Arnsey J. Darnay, Economic Indicators Handbook (Detroit, 1994), 7–8.

70

better foreign products led to another troubling development, record deficits in trade, most conspicuously with Japan. As meaningful numbers about the effects of the new economics began to appear later in the 1980s, they confirmed what critics had feared. Reaganomics had produced a significant shift in income from the poor to the rich.The economic contradictions and potential problems seemed to faze the president not at all; he turned the presidency over to his successor, George H. W. Bush, in 1989 and headed into retirement, convinced that he had placed the country on sound economic footing. Reagan had another reason for believing that his basic economic instincts had been right. Capitalism was riding high at the end of the 1980s. Socialist economies, which had seemed promising—some had said that it was the wave of the future—40 years earlier, were floundering or failing altogether. The People’s Republic of China, at one


a

Percent Change

GDP measures goods and services produced in the United States, regardless of the nationality of who is supplying the labor and property. Source: Darnay, Economic Indicators Handbook, 14–15.

time the symbol of social revolution, had been moving toward a market economy for more than 10 years. A new Soviet leader admitted economic failures and called for major restructuring of the original communist system. Every loosening of controls in Eastern Europe sent those countries dashing toward capitalism. Nations in all parts of the world were begging for American private investment; workers’ groups and local governments were trying to keep the companies at home. Conservatives interpreted these events as the

ultimate and inevitable triumph of private enterprise. If somewhat sobered by these developments, liberals doubted that they should be accepted as eternal economic truth. Skeptics preferred to see the victories of capitalism as a response to economic stimuli at a specific time.They argued that Reaganomics confirmed that evils of capitalism that had produced leftist economics in the first place had not vanished.

TABLE 4.3 GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT— A NATIONAL COMPARISON, 1986

TABLE 4.4 GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT PER CAPITA— A NATIONAL COMPARISON, 1986

Rank

Aggregate GNP ($ million)

Country

Rank

Top 10 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Top 10

United States Japan Germany,West France United Kingdom

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Italy Canada China Brazil India

4,221,750 1,559,720 735,940 595,180 504,850

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

489,880 361,720 314,800 250,520 213,440

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Source: William T. Kurian, The New Book of World Rankings (New York, 1991), 68.

TABLE 4.5

NEW HOUSING STARTS AND MOBILE HOMES SHIPPED, 1945–1990

(in thousands) Year 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Number of Units Started 326 1,952 1,646 1,296 1,510 1,469 1,171 1,313 1,072 1,712 1,756 1,745 1,807 1,623 1,488 1,376 1,193

GNP per Capita ($ million)

Country

Year 1965 1970 1975 1980 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 ... ... ... ... ...

Mobile Homes Shipped 216 401 213 222 296 295 284 244 233 218 198 188 ... ... ... ... ...

Source: Otto Johnson, Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook, 1992 (Boston, 1991), 46.

Bermuda Switzerland United States Luxembourg Norway

20,420 17,840 17,500 15,920 15,480

Brunei United Arab Emirates Canada Kuwait Iceland

15,400 14,410 14,100 13,890 13,370

Source: Kurian, New Book of Rankings, 70.

TABLE 4.6

EXPENDITURES FOR NEW PLANTS AND EQUIPMENTa, 1950–1990

(in billions of dollars) Year

Total Manufacturing Transportationb Nonmanufacturing

Total

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

7.73 12.50 16.36 25.41 36.99

2.87 3.10 3.54 5.66 7.17

18.08 24.58 32.63 45.39 69.16

25.81 37.08 48.99 70.79 106.15

1975 1980 1984 1985 1986

53.66 112.60 139.61 152.88 137.95

9.95 13.56 13.44 14.57 15.05

108.95 205.48 278.77 302.05 309.16

162.60 318.08 418.38 454.93 447.11

1987 1988 1989 1990

141.06 163.45 183.80 192.78

15.07 16.63 18.84 21.59

320.45 344.77 380.13 399.52

461.51 508.22 563.93 592.31

a Data exclude agriculture. b Transportation is included in total nonmanufacturing. Source: Information Please Almanac, 1992, 46.

The American Economy

71

TABLE 4.7

BUSINESS FORMATIONS AND FAILURES, 1950–1990 Business Failures Amount of Current Liabilities (millions of dollars)

Number of Failures

Year or Month

Index of Net Business Formation (1967 = 100)

New Business Incorporations (number)

Business Failure Ratea

Total

Under $100,000

$100,000 and Over

Total

Under $100,000

$100,000 and Over

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

87.7 86.7 90.8 89.7 88.8 96.6 94.6 90.3 90.2 97.9 94.5 90.8 92.6 94.4 98.2 99.8 99.3 100.0 108.3 115.8 108.8 111.1 119.3 119.1 113.2 109.9 120.4 130.8 138.1 138.3 129.9 124.8 116.4 117.5 121.3 120.9 120.4 121.2 124.1 124.8 120.7

93,092 83,778 92,946 102,706 117,411 139,915 141,163 137,112 150,781 193,067 182,713 181,535 182,057 186,404 197,724 203,897 200,010 206,569 233,635 274,267 264,209 287,577 316,601 329,358 319,149 326,345 375,766 436,170 478,019 524,565 533,520 581,242 566,942 600,400 634,991 662,047 702,738 685,572 685,095 676,565 646,107

34.3 30.7 28.7 33.2 42.0 41.6 48.0 51.7 55.9 51.8 57.0 64.4 60.8 56.3 53.2 53.3 51.6 49.0 38.6 37.3 43.8 41.7 38.3 36.4 38.4 42.6 34.8 28.4 23.9 27.8 42.1 61.3 89.0 110.0 107.0 115.0 120.0 102.0 98.0 65.0 75.0

9,162 8,058 7,611 8,862 11,086 10,969 12,686 13,739 14,964 14,053 15,445 17,075 15,782 14,374 13,501 13,514 13,061 12,364 9,636 9,154 10,748 10,326 9,566 9,345 9,915 11,432 9,628 7,919 6,619 7,564 11,742 16,794 24,908 31,334 52,078 57,253 61,616 61,111 57,097 50,361 60,508

8,746 7,626 7,081 8,075 10,226 10,113 11,615 12,547 13,499 12,707 13,650 15,006 13,772 12,192 11,346 11,340 10,833 10,144 7,829 7,192 8,019 7,611 7,040 6,627 6,733 7,504 6,176 4,861 3,712 3,930 5,682 8,233 11,509 15,509 19,618 36,539 38,908 38,949 38,300 33,312 40,530

416 432 530 787 860 856 1,071 1,192 1,465 1,346 1,795 2,069 2,010 2,182 2,155 2,174 2,228 2,220 1,807 1,962 2,729 2,715 2,526 2,718 3,182 3,928 3,452 3,058 2,907 3,634 6,060 8,561 13,399 15,825 32,460 20,714 22,708 22,162 18,797 17,049 19,978

248.3 259.5 283.3 394.2 462.6 449.4 562.7 615.3 728.3 692.8 938.6 1,090.1 1,213.6 1,352.6 1,329.2 1,321.7 1,385.7 1,265.2 941.0 1,142.1 1,887.8 1,916.9 2,000.2 2,298.6 3,053.1 4,380.2 3,011.3 3,095.3 2,656.0 2,667.4 4,635.1 6,955.2 15,610.8 16,072.9 29,268.6 36,937.4 44,724.0 34,723.8 39,573.0 42,328.8 59,836.5

151.2 131.6 131.9 167.5 211.4 206.4 239.8 267.1 297.6 278.9 327.2 370.1 346.5 321.0 313.6 321.7 321.5 297.9 241.1 231.3 269.3 271.3 258.8 235.6 256.9 298.6 257.8 208.3 164.7 179.9 272.5 405.8 541.7 635.1 409.8 423.9 838.3 746.0 686.9 670.5 730.0

97.1 128.0 151.4 226.6 251.2 243.0 322.9 348.2 430.7 413.9 611.4 720.0 867.1 1,031.6 1,015.6 1,000.0 1,064.1 967.3 699.9 910.8 1,618.4 1,645.6 1,741.5 2,063.0 2,796.3 4,081.6 2,753.4 2,887.0 2,491.3 2,487.5 4,362.6 6,549.3 15,069.1 15,437.8 28,858.8 36,513.5 43,885.7 33,977.8 38,886.1 41,658.2 59,106.5

Liability Size Class

Liability Size Class

a

Failure per 10,000 listed enterprises. Source: Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Report of the President 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 404.

TABLE 4.8

BUSINESS CYCLE EXPANSIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

Business Cycle Reference Dates

Duration in Months Cycle

Trough

Peak

Contraction (trough from previous peak)

October 1945 October 1949 May 1954 April 1958 February 1961

November 1948 July 1953 August 1957 April 1960 December 1969

8 11 10 8 10

November 1970 March 1975 July 1980 November 1982

November 1973 January 1980 July 1981 July 1990

11 16 6 16

Expansion (trough to peak)

Trough from Previous Trough

Peak from Previous Peak

37 45 39 24 106

88 48 55 47 34

45 56 49 32 116

36 58 12 92

117 52 64 28

47 74 18 108

Note: Figures printed in bold are the wartime expansions (World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam War), the postwar contractions, and the full cycles that include the wartime expansions. Source: Ronald Alsop, ed., The Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998 (New York, 1997), 156.

72


TABLE 4.9

TABLE 4.10 RECORDED MERGERS IN MANUFACTURING AND MINING, 1946–1990

CORPORATE PROFITS AND CAPITAL ADJUSTMENTS, 1959–1990

(billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates) Corporate Profits After Tax with Inventory Valuation and Capital Consumption Adjustments Corporate Profits with Inventory Valuation and Capital Corporate Year or Consumption Profits Tax Quarter Adjustments Liability

Total

Undistributed Profits with Inventory Valuation and Capital Consumption Dividends Adjustments

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

52.3 50.7 51.6 59.6 65.1 72.1

23.6 22.7 22.8 24.0 26.2 28.0

28.6 28.0 28.8 35.6 38.9 44.1

12.7 13.4 14.0 15.0 16.1 18.0

15.9 14.6 14.8 20.6 22.8 26.1

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

82.9 88.6 86.0 92.6 89.6

30.9 33.7 32.7 39.4 39.7

52.0 54.9 53.3 53.2 49.9

20.2 20.9 22.1 24.6 25.2

31.8 34.0 31.2 28.6 24.7

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

77.5 90.3 103.2 116.4 104.5

34.4 37.7 41.9 49.3 51.8

43.1 52.6 61.3 67.1 52.7

23.7 23.7 25.8 28.1 30.4

19.4 28.8 35.5 39.0 22.3

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

121.9 147.1 175.7 199.7 202.5

50.9 64.2 73.0 83.5 88.0

71.0 82.8 102.6 116.2 114.5

30.1 35.6 40.7 45.9 52.4

40.9 47.2 61.9 70.3 62.1

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

177.7 182.0 151.5 212.7 264.2

84.8 81.1 63.1 77.2 94.0

92.9 100.9 88.4 135.4 170.2

59.0 69.2 70.0 81.2 82.7

33.9 31.7 18.4 54.2 87.5

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

280.8 271.6 319.8 365.0 351.7 319.0

96.5 106.5 127.1 137.0 138.0 135.3

184.2 165.1 192.8 228.0 213.7 183.6

92.4 109.8 106.2 115.3 127.9 133.7

91.9 55.4 86.5 112.6 85.8 49.9

Source: Council of Advisors, Economic Report of the President, 1992, 397.

Year

Mergers

1946 1948 1950 1953 1955 1958

419 223 219 295 683 589

1960 1963 1965 1968 1970 1973

844 861 1,008 2,407 1,315 1,919

1976 1978 1980 1983 1985 1986

1,081 1,279 1,889 2,533 3,489 4,463

1987 1988 1989 1990

4,024 4,233 4,167 4,168

Source: George T. Kurian, Datapedia of the United States 1790–2000 (Lanham, Md., 1994), 371.

TABLE 4.11 LARGEST CORPORATE MERGERS OR ACQUISITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES Company

Acquirer

Dollars (in billions)

Year

RJR Nabisco Warner Communications Gulf Oil Kraft Squibb Getty Oil Conoco Standard Oil Federated Dept. Stores

Kohlberg Kravis Roberts Time Chevron Philip Morris Bristol-Myers Texaco DuPont British Petroleum Campeau

24.9 13.9 13.3 11.5 11.5 10.1 8.0 7.9a 7.4

1988 1989 1984 1988 1989 1984 1981 1987 1988

MCA Marathon Oil Contel Beatrice RCA Superior Oil Pillsbury General Foods Safeway Stores

Matsushita U.S. Steel GTE Kohlberg Kravis Roberts General Electric Mobil Oil Grand Metropolitan Philip Morris Kohlberg Kravis Roberts

6.5 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.2 5.7 5.7 5.6 5.3

1990 1981 1990 1986 1986 1984 1988 1986 1986

Farmers Group Southern Pacific Southland Hughes Aircraft Nabisco Signal Cos. Sperry Connecticut General Borg-Warner

B.A.T. Industries Santa Fe Railroad J.T. Acquisition General Motors R.J. Reynolds Allied Corp. Burroughs INA AV Holdings

5.2 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.9 4.8 4.3 4.2

1988 1983 1987 1985 1985 1986 1986 1981 1987

Texasgulf Cities Service Dome Petroleum R.H. Macy American Hospital Owens-Illinois Belridge Oil NWA Allied Stores

Elf Aquitaine Occidental Petroleum Amoco various investors Baxter Travenol Kohlberg Kravis Roberts Shell Oil Checchi Group Campeau

4.2 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5

1981 1982 1987 1986 1986 1987 1979 1988 1986

(continued) The American Economy

73

TABLE 4.11 (continued) Company

Acquirer

Dollars (in billions)

Year

Fort Howard Paper ABC Broadcasting Columbia Pictures Viacom McCaw Cellular Panhandle Eastern Chesebrough-Pond’s MidCon American Medical Intl. Texas Oil and Gas

Morgan Stanley Group Capital Cities Comm. Sony National Amusements LIN Broadcasting Texas Eastern Unilever N.V. Occidental Petroleum IMA Holdings USX Corp.

3.5 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0

1988 1985 1989 1987 1989 1989 1987 1986 1989 1986

Ernhart Camation Celanese Esmark G.D. Searie Continental Group St. Joe Minerals Electronic Data Systems Firestone Tire Macmillan Associated-Dry Goods

Black & Decker Nestle American Hoechst Beatrice Foods Monsanto Kiewit-Murdock Fluor General Motors Bridgestone Maxwell Comm. May Dept. Stores

2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5

1989 1984 1987 1984 1986 1984 1981 1984 1988 1988 1986

a For the 45% of Standard Oil that British Petroleum did not already own. Source: Mark S. Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1992 (New York, 1991), 148.

TABLE 4.12

LARGEST AMERICAN BUSINESSES, 1990

(in millions of dollars) 50 Largest Industrial Corporations Sales General Motors Exxon Ford Motor Int’l Business Machines Mobil

74

Assets

126,017.0 105,885.0 98,274.7 69,018.0 58,770.0

180,236.5 87,707.0 173,662.7 87,568.0 41,665.0

General Electric Philip Morris Texaco E.I. Du Pont De Nemours Chevron

58,414.0 44,323.0 41,235.0 39,839.0 39,262.0

153,884.0 46,569.0 25,975.0 38,128.0 35,089.0

Chrysler Amoco Boeing Shell Oil Procter & Gamble

30,868.0 28,277.0 27,595.0 24,423.0 24,376.0

46,374.0 32,209.0 14,591.0 28,496.0 18,487.0

Occidental Petroleum United Technologies Dow Chemical USX Eastman Kodak

21,947.0 21,783.2 20,005.0 19,462.0 19,075.0

19,743.0 15,918.3 23,953.0 17,268.0 24,125.0

Atlantic Richfield Xerox Pepsico McDonnell Douglas Conagra

18,819.0 18,382.0 17,802.7 16,351.0 15,517.7

23,864.0 31,495.0 17,143.4 14,965.0 4,804.2

Tenneco Phillips Petroleum RJR Nabisco Holdings Hewlett-Packard Digital Equipment

14,893.0 14,032.0 13,879.0 13,233.0 13,084.5

19,034.0 12,130.0 32,915.0 11,395.0 11,654.8

Minnesota Mining & Mfg. International Paper Westinghouse Electric Georgia-Pacific Rockwell International

13,021.0 12,960.0 12,915.0 12,665.0 12,442.5

11,079.0 13,669.0 22,033.0 12,060.0 9,738.1


Allied-Signal Sun Sara Lee Caterpillar Goodyear Tire & Rubber

12,396.0 11,909.0 11,652.0 11,540.0 11,453.1

10,456.0 9,000.0 7,636.4 11,951.0 8,963.6

Johnson & Johnson Motorola Aluminum Co. of America Anheuser-Busch Unocal

11,232.0 10,885.0 10,865.1 10,750.6 10,740.0

9,506.0 8,742.0 11,413.2 9,634.3 9,762.0

Bristol-Myers Squibb Coca-Cola General Dynamics Unisys Lockheed

10,509.0 10,406.3 10,182.0 10,111.3 9,977.0

9,215.0 9,278.2 6,573.0 10,288.6 6,860.0

25 Largest Retailing Companies Sales

Assets

Sears Roebuck Wal-Mart Stores Kmart American Stores Kroger

55,971.7 32,601.6 32,080.0 22,155.5 20,261.0

96,252.8 11,388.9 13,899.0 7,244.7 4,118.5

J.C. Penney Safeway Dayton Hudson Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea May Department Stores

17,410.0 14,873.6 14,739.0 11,164.2 11,027.0

12,325.0 4,739.1 8,524.0 2,831.6 8,295.0

Woolworth Winn-Dixie Melville Albertson’s Southland

9,789.0 9,744.5 8,686.8 8,218.6 8,037.1

4,305.0 1,732.7 3,662.2 2,013.5 2,799.0

R.H. Macy McDonald’s Supermarkets General Holdings Walgreen Publix Super Markets

7,266.8 6,639.6 6,126.0 6,063.0 5,820.7

6,483.3 10,667.5 2,438.8 1,913.6 1,475.7

Food Lion Toys “R’’ Us Price Vons The Limited

5,584.5 5,521.2 5,428.8 5,333.9 5,253.5

1,559.5 3,582.4 1,210.1 1,712.8 2,871.9

Source: Fortune Magazine, reproduced in Johnson, Information Please Almanac, 1992, 48–49.

Automobiles led the charge into the postwar economy and consumer culture. Shown here is the 1950 Studebaker. (From the Collection of Studebaker National Museum, South Bend, Indiana)

TABLE 4.13

Rank 1. 2.

TOP 50 FRANCHISES, 1989

Franchise

4. 5.

McDonald’s Century 21 Real Estate Kentucky Fried Chicken Dairy Queen Burger King, Inc.

6. 7.

H & R Block Jazzercise

3.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Business

Franchise Number Fees (in of dollars) Franchises

16.

Radio Shack

17. 18.

Diet Center Chem-Dry

19. 20.

Hardee’s Food Systems Arby’s

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Little Caesars Pizza Dunkin’ Donuts Realty World RE/MAX Dollar Rent A Car

Pizza takeout Donut shops Real estate brokers Real estate brokers Car rental

15,000 30,000–40,000 13,000–15,000 10,000–20,000 N.A.

1,880 1,841 1,826 1,617 1,6001

26.

Midas Muffler & Brake Shops Rainbow International Jani-King International Holiday Inns Fantastic Sam’s

Auto maintenance centers Carpet dyeing and cleaning Janitorial services

10,000

1,590

15,000

1,559

6,5001

1,509

Hotel/motel Discount hair cutters

varies 25,000

1,410 1,321

Frozen yogurt stores Car rentals and leasing Packaging/shipping centers Auto supplies, bicycles, lawn and garden Business printing

20,000 25,0001

1,321 1,304

395

1,300

0

1,253

40,000

1,152

Fast food restaurants 22,500 Real estate brokers 11,000–25,000

8,101 7,133

Fast food restaurants

20,000

5,707

Ice cream stores Fast food restaurants

30,000 40,000

5,181 5,083

Tax preparation Dance fitness centers Servicemaster Commercial cleaning services Domino’s Pizza Pizza delivery and takeout Subway Sandwiches Fast food restaurants & Salads

600–1,200 500

4,892 4,100

27.

6,000–17,000

3,893

28.

1,320–3,250

3,654

29. 30.

7,500

3,586

N.A.

3,398 33.

TCBY Yogurt American Intl. Rent-a-Car Packy the Shipper

Car rental Convenience stores Real estate brokers

15,000 varies 16,900

3,171 3,103 3,001

34.

Western Auto

Fast food restaurants

25,000

2,560

35.

PIP Printing

Baskin-Robbins Ice Cream Budget Rent A Car 7-Eleven Store Electronic Realty Associates Wendy’s

Ice cream stores

31. 32.

Electronics 15,000–40,000 retailers Weight loss centers 30,000 Carpet and uphol7,600–7,900 stery cleaning Fast food restaurants 15,000 Fast food restaurants 25,000–37,500

2,246 2,236 2,134 2,106 1,931

(continued)


75

TABLE 4.13

Rank 36. 37. 38. 39.

Franchise Ben Franklin Stores, Inc. Jiffy Lube Quality Inns International Taco Bell

40.

Kwik-Kopy Printing Centers

41.

Coast to Coast Total Hardware Decorating Den

42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

The Stock Market

(continued)

Minuteman Press International Sonic Drive In Restaurants European Body Wrap Nutri-System Mail Boxes Etc. One Hour Martinizing Days Inn of America Franchising, Inc. The Medicine Shoppe

Business

Franchise Number Fees (in of dollars) Franchises

Variety/craft stores

24,000

1,104

Auto maintenance Hotel/motel

35,000 35,000

1,057 1,040

Mexican fast food restaurants Printing services

35,000

1,035

22,000

1,005

Hardware retailers

5,000

933

Home decorating services Printing centers

7,000–19,000

925

27,500

909

Fast food drive-in restaurants Body wrapping

15,000

908

1,000

903

Weight loss centers Postal services Dry cleaners

13,000 19,500 20,000

890 867 856

Hotel/motel

varies

853

Drug stores

18,000

822

Source: John W. Wright, The Universal Almanac 1991 (New York, 1990), 231.

TABLE 4.14 TEN FASTEST-GROWING INDUSTRIES, 1990 (billions of constant 1987 dollars) Industry

Change in Value of Shipments

Computers and peripherals Radio communication equipment Misc. plastics products, except bottles Commercial printing Aircraft engines and engine parts

3.0 2.2 1.9 1.5 1.3

Pharmaceutical preparations Poultry slaughtering and processing Aircraft Surgical appliances and supplies Surgical and medical instruments

1.2 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.9

Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 228.

76


While the form and volume of the stock market changed drastically in the last quarter of the 20th century, its original objectives remained in force. The market was a place for financing trade and business expansion through the issuance and sale of stocks and bonds. Purchase of a stock made the holder part owner of a business and entitled to a share of whatever profit, if any, that company produced. It probably was inevitable that the buying and selling of securities would become a special skill and business of its own, as opposed to an investor’s simply wishing to become part owner of a profitable company.The stock market became synonymous with speculation, creative buying and selling; the trade itself became the end product.The focus of American investment activity was New York City, and in New York all paths led to Wall Street, center of the exchange system.The oldest and largest such establishment was the New York Stock Exchange. Methods for measuring stock market activity also became important instruments for evaluating economic health of the nation. Established in 1957, the Standard & Poor’s 500 was a marketweighted index containing 500 stocks chosen for various features: market size, liquidity, representation of a group. Standard & Poor’s multiplied stock price by the number of shares to determine that weight in the index corresponded with its market value. A far more familiar measurement of the market came in the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Dating to the 1890s, this index was composed of 30 bluechip stocks (issued by sound, prestigious firms) selected by editors of the Wall Street Journal newspaper. During this period, a day’s or year’s performance of the stock market usually depended on whether the Dow was up or down and by what numbers. The Dow certainly had a tradition of going either way. Fluctuation long had marked market behavior, but beginning with a low point in the great crash of 1929–33, the general trend of the Dow Industrial Average was upward. The incline was gradual and unsteady until the 1980s. It took the Dow some 75 years to reach 1,000. The market reached that point in 1972. It then fell back, hovered and stagnated and did not reach 1,000 as a yearly average until 1983. The second thousand came quickly. The Dow reached 2,000 in 1987 and seemed poised to go to 3,000 before year’s end. Then, investors panicked. Troubled by high interest rates, a cheapened dollar, and a soaring trade deficit, they rushed into a sell-off more substantial than the great crash of 1929. The market lost more than 22 percent of its value in one day—October, 19, 1987. Recovery, however, began almost immediately. By 1989 the market had regained its losses; in October 1990 the Dow came within one quarter-point of reaching 3,000. In the decade between 1981 and 1990, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (and generally the New York Stock Market) gained more than 1,700 points, a larger increase in current dollars than in the entire previous history—nearly 100 years—of the Dow index. Although the stock market continued to stand as one barometer of the power and health of the economy, the lack of a devastating fallout from the crash of 1987 suggested that size, complexity, and built-in safeguards had equipped the economic system with resilency to withstand the sort of sudden shock that the market could produce.

TABLE 4.15 SIGNIFICANT HISTORICAL DATES, NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE, 1952–1990 Date

Year

Sep. 29

1952

Jun. 4 Jul. 14 Dec. 20

1953 1966 1966

Mar. 26

1970

Feb. 18 Jul. 27 Jul. 13

1971 1971 1972

May 11

1973

Oct. 1

1974

Apr. 30 Jun. 16 Jan. 19

1975 1975 1976

Mar. 1

1976

Mar. 4

1976

May 24 Feb. 3

1976 1977

Apr. 17 Aug. 7 May 17

1978 1980 1982

Aug. 18 Sep. 23

1982 1983

Nov. 6

1984

Nov. 16 Mar. 28

1984 1985

Jun. 3

1985

Sep. 30 Oct. 21 Jun. 5

1985 1985 1986

Sep. 21

1987

Oct. 19

1987

Oct. 20 Oct. 19

1987 1988

Nov. 7

1988

Jun. 12

1990

Aug. 6

1990

Event Trading hours changed.Weekdays, 10 A.M.–3:30 P.M. No Saturdays. First member corporation—Woodcock, Hess & Co. New NYSE Composite Index inaugurated. Transmission of trade and quote data from Floor fully automated. Public ownership of member firms approved. New York Stock Exchange incorporated. First member organization listed—Merrill Lynch. Board of Directors, with 10 public members, replaced Board of Governors. Depository Trust Company succeeded Central Certificate Service. Trading hours extended to 4 P.M. Fixed commission system abolished. Full consolidated tape introduced. New high-speed data line began to transmit market data at up to 36,000 characters a minute. Designated Order Turnaround (Dot) System inaugurated. Alternative listing standards adopted to facilitate listing of major foreign corporations. Specialists began handling odd lots in their stocks. Foreign broker/dealers permitted to obtain membership. Intermarket Trading System (ITS) inaugurated. New York Futures Exchange (NYFE) opened. Trading started through experimental linkage between the NASD and Intermarket Trading System (ITS) operated by NYSE and six other exchanges. First 100 million share day (132,681,120 shares). Trading started in options on NYSE Composite Index. NYSE opened on presidential election day for first time ever. NYSE launched SuperDot 250. Ronald Reagan became first U.S. president to visit the NYSE while in office. NYSE began to trade in options on three OTC stocks. Trading hours changed to 9:30 A.M.–4 P.M. NYSE began to trade in options on two listed stocks. Board of Directors expanded to 24 outside directors: 12 public members, and 12 industry members. Highest price paid for a membership ($1,150,000). Largest point drop in Dow Jones Industrial Average: 508 points. Highest volume day: 608,148,710 shares. The SEC approved a series of initiatives by the NYSE and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange to coordinate procedures between the equities and futures markets, including coordinated circuit breakers; a joint effort against front-running; interexchange communications; and shared audit trail and surveillance information. The NYSE opened an office in London to assist European companies in gaining access to the U.S. capital markets and listing on the NYSE. The NYSE’s Market Volatility and Investor Confidence Panel released the results of a six-month study recommending initiatives aimed at reducing market volatility and enhancing investor confidence. The NYSE implemented a new rule requiring Trade Date 1 1 (T11) completion of transactions effected on the NYSE.

TABLE 4.16 NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE SHARES TRADED, 1946–1990 Total Daily Volume Percent Average High Low Year (millions) Turnover (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) 1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

363.7 524.8 649.6 766.7 1,556.3

22 23 19 12 16

1,370 1,980 2,578 3,042 6,179

3,624 4,859 7,717 5,303 11,434

487 1,061 1,230 1,894 3,028

1970 1975 1980 1985 1986

2,937.4 4,693.4 11,352.3 27,510.7 35,680.0

19 21 36 54 64

11,564 18,551 44,871 109,169 141,028

21,345 35,158 84,297 181,027 244,293

6,660 8,670 16,132 62,055 48,865

1987 1988 1989 1990

47,801.3 40,849.3 41,698.5 39,664.5

73 55 52 46

188,938 161,461 165,470 156,777

608,149 343,949 416,396 292,364

86,366 72,088 68,869 56,853

Source: NYSE, Fact Book, 1993, 100–101.

TABLE 4.17 DOW JONES INDUSTRIAL AVERAGE— HIGHS AND LOWS, 1961–1990 High Date

Low DJIA

Year

Date

DJIA

Dec. Jan. Dec. Nov. Dec.

13 3 18 18 31

734.91 726.01 767.21 891.71 969.26

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Jan. Jun. Jan. Jan. Jun.

3 26 2 2 28

610.25 535.76 646.79 766.08 840.59

Feb. Sep. Dec. May Dec.

9 25 3 14 29

995.15 943.08 985.21 968.85 842.00

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Oct. 7 Jan. 3 Mar. 21 Dec. 17 May 6

744.32 786.41 825.13 769.93 631.16

Apr. Dec. Jan. Mar. Jul.

28 11 11 13 15

950.82 1036.27 1051.70 891.66 881.81

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Nov. 23 Jan. 26 Dec. 5 Dec. 6 Jan. 2

797.97 889.15 788.31 577.60 632.04

Sep. Jan. Sep. Oct. Nov.

21 3 8 5 20

1014.79 999.75 907.74 897.61 1000.17

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Jan. Nov. Feb. Nov. Apr.

2 2 28 7 21

858.71 800.85 742.12 796.67 759.13

Apr. Dec. Nov. Jan. Dec.

27 27 29 6 16

1024.05 1070.55 1287.20 1286.64 1553.10

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Sep. Aug. Jan. Jul. Jan.

25 12 3 24 4

824.01 776.92 1027.04 1086.57 1184.96

Dec. Aug. Oct. Oct. Jul.

2 25 21 9 16

1955.57 2722.42 2183.50 2791.41 2999.75

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jan. Oct. Jan. Jan. Oct.

22 19 20 3 11

1502.29 1738.74 1879.14 2144.64 2365.10

Source: World Almanac, 1992, 143.

Source: New York Stock Exchange, Fact Book for the Year 1993 (New York, 1994), 98–99.


77

TABLE 4.18

COMMON STOCK PRICES AND YIELDS, 1952–1990 Common Stock Yields (percent)

Common Stock Prices New York Stock Exchange Indexes (Dec. 31, 1965 = 50)

Year or Month

Composite

Industrial

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

13.81 13.67 16.19 21.54 24.40 23.67 24.56 30.73

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

30.01 35.37 33.49 37.51 43.76 47.39 46.15 50.77 55.37 54.67

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Transportation

Standard & Poor’s Composite Index (1941–43 = 10)

DividendPrice Ratio

EarningsPrice Ratio

Utility

Finance

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

270.76 275.97 333.94 442.72 493.01 475.71 491.66 632.12

24.50 24.73 29.69 40.49 46.62 44.38 46.24 57.38

5.80 5.80 4.95 4.08 4.09 4.35 3.97 3.23

9.47 10.26 8.57 7.95 7.55 7.89 6.23 5.78

... ... ... ... ... ... 46.18 51.97 58.00 57.44

... ... ... ... ... ... 50.26 53.51 50.58 46.96

... ... ... ... ... ... 45.41 45.43 44.19 42.80

... ... ... ... ... ... 44.45 49.82 65.85 70.49

618.04 691.55 639.76 714.81 834.05 910.88 873.60 879.12 906.00 876.72

55.85 66.27 62.38 69.87 81.37 88.17 85.26 91.93 98.70 97.84

3.47 2.98 3.37 3.17 3.01 3.00 3.40 3.20 3.07 3.24

5.90 4.62 5.82 5.50 5.32 5.59 6.63 5.73 5.67 6.08

45.72 54.22 60.29 57.42 43.84 45.73 54.46 53.69 53.70 58.32

48.03 57.92 65.73 63.08 48.08 50.52 60.44 57.86 58.23 64.76

32.14 44.35 50.17 37.74 31.89 31.10 39.57 41.09 43.50 47.34

37.24 39.53 38.48 37.69 29.79 31.50 36.97 40.92 39.22 38.20

60.00 70.38 78.35 70.12 49.67 47.14 52.94 55.25 56.65 61.42

753.19 884.76 950.71 923.88 759.37 802.49 974.92 894.63 820.23 844.40

83.22 98.29 109.20 107.43 82.85 86.16 102.01 98.20 96.02 103.01

3.83 3.14 2.84 3.06 4.47 4.31 3.77 4.62 5.28 5.47

6.45 5.41 5.50 7.12 11.59 9.15 8.90 10.79 12.03 13.46

68.10 74.02 68.93 92.63 92.46 108.09 136.00 161.70 149.91 180.02 183.46

78.70 85.44 78.18 107.45 108.01 123.79 155.85 195.31 180.95 216.23 225.78

60.61 72.61 60.41 89.36 85.63 104.11 119.87 140.39 134.12 175.28 158.62

37.35 38.91 39.75 47.00 46.44 56.75 71.36 74.30 71.77 87.43 90.60

64.25 73.52 71.99 95.34 89.28 114.21 147.20 146.48 127.26 151.88 133.26

891.41 932.92 884.36 1,190.34 1,178.48 1,328.23 1,792.76 2,275.99 2,060.82 2,508.91 2,678.94

118.78 128.05 119.71 160.41 160.46 186.84 236.34 286.83 265.79 322.84 334.59

5.26 5.20 5.81 4.40 4.64 4.25 3.49 3.08 3.64 3.45 3.61

12.66 11.96 11.60 8.03 10.02 8.12 6.09 5.48 8.01 7.41 6.47


78

Dow Jones Industrial Average


TABLE 4.19 NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE MEMBERSHIP PRICES, 1945–1990 Year

High ($)

Low ($)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

95,000 54,000 90,000 162,000 250,000 320,000 300,000 250,000 190,000 105,000 138,000 104,000 95,000 105,000 210,000 275,000 285,000 340,000 425,000 400,000 480,000 600,000 1,150,000 820,000 675,000 430,000

49,000 46,000 80,000 135,000 190,000 130,000 145,000 150,000 72,000 65,000 55,000 40,000 35,000 46,000 82,000 175,000 220,000 190,000 310,000 290,000 310,000 455,000 605,000 580,000 420,000 250,000

Source: NYSE, Fact Book 1991 (New York, 1991), 88.

TABLE 4.20 FIFTY LEADING STOCKS IN MARKET VALUE, 1990 Market Value (millions of $)

Stock Exxon Corp. International Business Machines General Electric Morris (Philip) Merck & Co. Coca-Cola Co. Bristol-Myers Squibb Wal-Mart Stores American Telephone & Telegraph Procter & Gamble Johnson & Johnson BellSouth Corporation Amoco Corp. Mobil Corporation Chevron Corp. du Pont de Nemours PepsiCo., Inc. General Motors Bell Atlantic Eli Lilly Atlantic Richfield GTE Corp. Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Abbott Laboratories American Information Technologies (Ameritech) Pacific Telesis American Home Products Schlumberger Ltd. American International Group Waste Management Southwestern Bell Texaco Inc. Boeing Co. US WEST Eastman Kodak Dow Chemical Royal Dutch Petroleum NYNEX Corp. Anheuser-Busch Disney (Walt) Pfizer Inc. McDonald’s Corp. Ford Motor Ralston Purina Kellogg Co. Schering-Plough Corporation Warner-Lambert Company Westinghouse Electric Pacific Gas & Electric BCE Inc. Total

93,808 64,591 53,272 48,403 40,940 38,947 35,769 34,578 32,815 31,444 27,529 26,703 26,468 25,401 24,846 24,750 22,643 21,740 21,423 20,721 20,705 20,600 20,238 19,692 19,612 19,585 18,695 17,610 17,284 16,990 16,850 16,595 15,935 15,649 15,552 15,538 15,283 14,678 14,460 13,894 13,401 12,164 11,893 11,749 11,719 11,598 10,822 10,544 10,537 10,386 $1,177,048

Listed Shares (millions of $) 1,812.7 571.6 926.5 935.3 455.5 839.8 531.9 1,143.1 1,089.3 363.0 383.7 486.6 505.3 438.0 342.1 673.5 862.6 630.2 399.5 282.9 167.7 704.3 236.0 437.6 293.8 432.8 355.2 304.3 224.8 482.0 300.9 274.3 349.3 402.6 373.6 327.1 194.1 206.4 335.3 136.7 165.4 417.7 444.6 114.6 154.5 261.4 160.3 370.0 419.4 304.4 23,023.9

Source: Information Please Almanac, 1992, 50.


79

Market Talk: Bulls and Bears A Bull market is an optimistic, rising market marked with buying based on expectation that prices will increase. To be official the Bull requires a 30 percent increase in the Dow Jones Average after 50 calendar days or a 13 percent increase after 155. The Bear market is pessimistic, a selling market based on expectation of further decline. To be a Bear the Dow must drop 30 percent in 50 calendar days or 13 percent after 145 calendar days.

TABLE 4.21

DEFINED BULL MARKETS, 1947–1990

Beginning

Ending

Date

DJIA

Date

DJIA

% Gain

Days

5/17/47 6/13/49 9/14/53 10/22/57 10/25/60

163.21 161.60 255.49 419.79 566.05

6/15/48 1/05/53 4/06/56 1/05/60 12/13/61

193.16 293.79 521.05 685.47 734.91

18.4 81.8 103.9 63.3 29.8

395 1,302 935 805 414

6/26/62 10/07/66 5/26/70 11/23/71 12/06/74

535.76 744.32 631.16 797.97 577.60

2/09/66 12/03/68 4/28/71 1/11/73 9/21/76

995.15 985.21 950.82 1051.70 1014.79

85.7 32.4 50.6 31.8 75.7

1,324 788 337 415 655

2/28/78 4/21/80 8/12/82 7/24/84 10/19/87 10/11/90

742.12 759.13 776.92 1086.57 1738.74 2365.10

9/08/78 4/27/81 11/29/83 8/25/87 7/16/90 ...

907.74 1024.05 1287.20 2722.42 2999.75 ...

22.3 34.9 65.7 150.6 72.5 ...

192 371 474 1,127 1,001 ...

Source: Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998, 347.

TABLE 4.22 DEFINED BEAR MARKETS, 1946–1990 Beginning

Ending DJIA

% Decline Days

Date

DJIA

Date

5/29/46 6/15/48 1/05/53 4/06/56 1/05/60

212.50 193.16 293.79 521.05 685.47

5/17/47 6/13/49 9/14/53 10/22/57 10/25/60

163.21 161.60 255.49 419.79 566.05

223.2 216.3 213.0 219.4 217.4

353 363 252 564 294

12/13/61 2/09/66 12/03/68 4/28/71 1/11/73

734.91 995.15 985.21 950.82 1051.70

6/26/62 10/07/66 5/26/70 11/23/71 12/06/74

535.76 744.32 631.16 797.97 577.60

227.1 225.2 235.9 216.1 245.1

195 240 539 209 694

9/21/76 9/08/78 4/27/81 11/29/83 8/25/87 7/16/90

1014.79 907.74 1024.05 1287.20 2722.42 2999.75

2/28/78 4/21/80 8/12/82 7/24/84 10/19/87 10/11/90

742.12 759.13 776.92 1086.57 1738.74 2365.10

226.9 216.4 224.1 215.6 236.1 221.2

525 591 472 238 55 87


80


Energy The economy ran on energy, and the more reliable and efficient the energy supply the better the economy ran. The purposes of energy in American society have been to supply heat, generate electricity for numerous activities, and fuel the various kinds of machines necessary for society to function. In the postwar period a new function that appeared—the cooling of buildings, which came to be regarded as important as heating—was in fact an extension of the electrical component. For many years the energy supply had rested largely on three fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, and petroleum. In the 1950s a new source of energy, nuclear power, appeared on the scene and at one point gave signs of bringing an absolute revolution to the system. Concerns about safety and other considerations prevented a major transformation from taking place, but nuclear power did establish its niche, producing a fairly steady 20 percent of electrity each year and powering some of the navy’s most modern warships. With postwar retirement of the steam locomotive and a shift away from coal in modern residential heating, the emphasis in energy usage shifted from coal to natural gas and petroleum. Such a change carried risks that were detectable but not fully appreciated by a consumer society that enjoyed the availability of inexpensive fuel. Although the United States was more than self-sufficient in coal and able to produce most of its needs in natural gas, the domestic oil industry could not nearly keep pace with growing needs of the gluttonous motor-vehicle culture of the 1950s and 1960s. Petroleum, of course, is not a renewable energy; when a supply is extinguished one must find another source or do without. Faced with dwindling domestic reserves, American companies had begun to purchase oil from abroad. Economic and political ramifications of U.S. dependency on foreign petroleum sources did not appear until the 1970s when the Arab-Israeli War of 1973 produced an Arab oil embargo placed on the United States during 1973–74 (angered at American support of Israel, Arab nations refused to sell petroleum to the United States). Later in that same decade the Iranian revolution of 1978–79 halted what had been substantial Iranian oil production, creating a worldwide shortage. These developments provoked two energy crises in the United States, each of which produced a scary but far from devastating shortage of petroleum products; the scarcity was accompanied in both cases by a sharp increase in price. The nation responded to the crises with various energy-saving activities, including a national speed limit of 55 miles per hour and an industrywide movement to produce smaller, more energy-efficient automobiles. Many power plants shifted back to burning coal, making that fuel again the leading producer of energy in the nation. These efforts and more creative and challenging ventures in quest of energy supplies other than fossil fuel began to lose momentum in the 1980s as the world came to experience an oversupply of petroleum; the price came down—but not nearly to the pre-1973 level—and the Ronald Reagan administration seemed interested only in finding more oil. Even though the nation continued to purchase some 40 percent of its petroleum from foreign sources that, as recent experience had revealed, were less than reliable, there was little mention of an energy problem as the 1990s began and no sense of urgency in taking steps to stave off the next energy crisis.

TABLE 4.23

ENERGY PRODUCTION BY SOURCE, 1949–1990

(in quadrillion Btua) Natural Gas

Crude Oil

Natural Gas Plant Liquids

Nuclear Electric Power

Hydroelectric Power

Total

Year

Coal

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

11.97 14.06 14.42 12.73 12.28 10.54

5.38 6.23 7.42 7.96 8.34 8.68

10.68 11.45 13.04 13.28 13.67 13.43

0.71 0.82 0.92 1.00 1.06 1.11

... ... ... ... ... ...

1.42 1.42 1.42 1.47 1.41 1.36

30.18 33.98 37.22 36.45 36.77 35.13

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

12.37 13.31 13.06 10.78 10.78 10.82

9.34 10.00 10.61 10.94 11.95 12.66

14.41 15.18 15.18 14.20 14.93 14.93

1.24 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.38 1.46

... ... ... ... ... 0.01

1.36 1.43 1.52 1.59 1.55 1.61

38.73 41.21 41.65 38.81 40.60 41.49

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

10.45 10.90 11.85 12.52 13.06 13.47

13.10 13.72 14.51 15.30 15.78 17.01

15.21 15.52 15.97 16.16 16.52 17.56

1.55 1.59 1.71 1.80 1.88 2.00

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06

1.66 1.82 1.77 1.89 2.06 2.06

41.99 43.58 45.85 47.72 49.34 52.17

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

13.83 13.61 13.86 14.61 13.19 14.09

17.94 19.07 20.45 21.67 22.28 22.21

18.65 19.31 19.56 20.40 20.03 20.04

2.18 2.32 2.42 2.51 2.54 2.60

0.09 0.14 0.15 0.24 0.41 0.58

2.35 2.35 2.65 2.63 2.82 2.86

55.04 56.81 59.10 62.07 61.29 62.42

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

13.99 14.07 14.99 15.65 15.76 14.91

22.19 21.21 19.64 19.48 19.57 19.49

19.49 18.57 17.73 17.26 17.45 18.43

2.57 2.47 2.37 2.33 2.33 2.25

0.91 1.27 1.90 2.11 2.70 3.02

2.86 3.18 3.15 2.98 2.33 2.94

62.06 60.84 59.86 59.89 60.22 61.10

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

17.54 18.60 18.38 18.64 17.25 19.72

20.08 19.91 19.70 18.32 16.59 18.01

18.10 18.25 18.15 18.31 18.39 18.85

2.29 2.25 2.31 2.19 2.18 2.27

2.78 2.74 3.01 3.13 3.20 3.55

2.93 2.90 2.76 3.27 3.53 3.35

63.80 64.76 64.42 63.96 61.28 65.92

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

19.33 19.51 20.14 20.74 21.35 22.46

16.98 16.54 17.14 17.60 17.85 18.36

18.99 18.38 17.67 17.28 16.12 15.57

2.24 2.15 2.22 2.26 2.16 2.17

4.15 4.47 4.91 5.66 5.68 6.16

2.94 3.02 2.59 2.31 2.77 2.93

64.84 64.30 64.91 66.08 66.13 67.85

a

Btu means “British thermal units,’’ the accepted instrument for measuring energy. One Btu is roughly the energy released in burning one wooden match. The term thus is meaningful only in showing comparisons. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Annual Energy Review, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 9.

TABLE 4.24

ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY SOURCE, 1949–1990

(in quadrillion Btu)

Year

Coal

Natural Gas

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

11.98 12.35 12.55 11.31 11.37 9.71

5.15 5.97 7.05 7.55 7.91 8.33

11.88 13.32 14.43 14.96 15.56 15.84

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

11.17 11.35 10.82 9.53 9.52 9.84

9.00 9.61 10.19 10.66 11.72 12.39

17.25 17.94 17.93 18.53 19.32 19.92

Petroleum


Hydroelectric Power

Total

0 0 0 0 0 0

1.45 1.44 1.45 1.50 1.44 1.39

30.46 33.08 35.47 35.30 36.27 35.27

0 0 0 ... ... 0.01

1.41 1.49 1.56 1.63 1.59 1.66

38.82 40.38 40.48 40.35 42.14 43.80


81

TABLE 4.24

(continued)

Year

Coal

Natural Gas

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

9.62 9.91 10.41 10.96 11.58 12.14

12.93 13.73 14.40 15.29 15.77 17.00

20.22 21.05 21.70 22.30 23.25 24.40

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

11.91 12.33 12.38 12.26 11.60 12.08

17.94 19.21 20.68 21.79 22.47 22.70

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

12.97 12.66 12.66 13.58 13.92 13.77

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990


Hydroelectric Power

Total

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.06

1.68 1.82 1.77 1.91 2.06 2.07

44.46 46.53 48.32 50.50 52.68 55.66

25.28 26.98 28.34 29.52 30.56 32.95

0.09 0.14 0.15 0.24 0.41 0.58

2.34 2.34 2.66 2.65 2.86 2.94

57.57 61.00 64.19 66.43 67.89 71.26

22.51 21.73 19.95 20.35 19.93 20.00

34.84 33.45 32.73 35.17 37.12 37.97

0.91 1.27 1.90 2.11 2.70 3.02

3.01 3.31 3.22 3.07 2.51 3.14

74.28 72.54 70.55 74.36 76.29 78.09

15.04 15.42 15.91 15.32 15.89 17.07

20.67 20.39 19.93 18.51 17.36 18.51

37.12 34.20 31.93 30.23 30.05 31.05

2.78 2.74 3.01 3.13 3.20 3.55

3.14 3.12 3.11 3.57 3.90 3.76

78.90 75.96 73.99 70.85 70.52 74.10

17.48 17.26 18.01 18.85 18.94 19.12

17.83 16.71 17.74 18.55 19.38 19.30

30.92 32.20 32.87 34.22 34.21 33.55

4.15 4.47 4.91 5.66 5.68 6.16

3.36 3.39 3.07 2.64 2.88 2.95

73.95 74.24 76.84 80.20 81.35 81.29

Petroleum

Source: Dept. of Energy, Annual Energy Review, 1991, 11.

TABLE 4.25 TYPE OF HEATING IN OCCUPIED HEATING UNITS, 1950–1989 (in percent) Year

Coal

Natural Gas

Liquefied Gas

Distillate Fuel Oil

Kerosene

Electricity

Wood

1950 1960 1970 1973 1974

33.8 12.2 2.9 1.2 1.0

26.0 43.1 55.2 55.5 55.7

2.3 5.1 6.0 6.4 5.8

22.1 32.4 26.0 24.9 23.8

... ... ... ... ...

0.6 1.8 7.7 10.4 11.9

9.7 4.2 1.3 0.9 0.9

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5

56.4 55.7 55.2 55.1 55.1

5.7 5.7 5.6 5.4 5.3

22.5 22.2 20.7 20.3 19.5

... ... 0.6 0.5 0.5

12.6 13.7 14.8 15.9 16.9

1.2 1.2 1.6 1.4 1.4

1980 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989

0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4

55.4 55.4 55.2 51.3 50.6 50.6

5.2 5.0 4.6 4.1 4.0 3.9

18.1 17.0 14.9 14.1 14.0 13.3

0.5 0.4 0.5 1.2 1.2 1.1

17.7 18.6 18.5 20.8 22.7 24.6

1.7 2.3 4.8 7.1 6.0 4.9

Source: Dept. of Energy, Annual Energy Review, 1991, 49.

82


TABLE 4.26

UNITED STATES COAL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION, 1950–1990

(in millions of short tons) Consumption by Sector Commercial, Residential

Year

Production

Consumption

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

560.4 490.8 434.3 527.0 612.7

494.1 447.0 398.1 472.0 523.2

114.6 68.4 40.9 25.7 16.1

104.0 107.7 81.4 95.3 96.5

1975 1980 1985 1990

654.6 829.7 883.6 1,029.1

562.6 702.7 818.0 896.4

9.4 6.5 7.8 6.7

83.6 66.7 41.1 39.8

Coke Plants

Transportation

Electric Utilities

Misc.

63.0 17.0 3.0 0.7 0.3

91.9 143.8 176.7 244.8 320.2

120.6 110.1 96.0 105.6 90.2

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

406.0 569.3 693.8 773.5

63.6 60.3 75.4 76.3

Source: Dept. of Energy, Annual Energy Review 1991, 189, 193.

Devastation in the cause of energy: “Strip-mining, or “open-pit” coal mining, in western Pennsylvania (Special Collections, Indiana University of Pennsylvania) The American Economy

83

TABLE 4.27

UNITED STATES NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION, 1950–1990

(in trillions of cubic feet per year) Consumption by Sector Year

Production

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Consumption

Residential, Commercial

Industrial

5.77 8.69 11.97 15.28 21.14 19.54 19.88 17.28 18.72

1.59 2.75 4.12 5.34 7.24 7.43 7.36 6.86 7.01

3.43 4.54 5.77 7.11 9.25 8.36 8.20 6.87 8.25

6.02 9.03 12.23 15.29 21.01 19.24 19.40 16.45 17.81

Transportation 0.13 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.72 0.58 0.63 0.50 0.66

Electric Utilities 0.63 1.15 1.72 2.32 3.93 3.16 3.68 3.04 2.79

Source: Dept. of Energy, Annual Energy Review 1991, 167.

TABLE 4.28 U.S. NUCLEAR GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY, 1957–1990 Net Generation of Electricity Percent of Total U.S. Generation

Year

Operable Units

Billion Net Kilowatt-Hours

1957 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

1 3 6 18 54 70 95 100 107 108 110 111

a

a

0.5 3.7 21.8 172.5 251.1 383.7 414.0 455.3 527.0 529.4 576.9

0.1 0.3 1.4 9.0 11.0 15.5 16.6 17.7 19.5 19.0 20.5

a

Negligible. Source: Annual Energy Review 1991, 237.

TABLE 4.29 NUCLEAR REACTORS— LEADING COUNTRIES, 1986 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Country

Number of Nuclear Reactors Operable

United States Soviet Union France United Kingdom Japan Canada Germany,West Sweden Spain Belgium

95 48 43 38 33 17 17 12 8 7

Source: George T. Kurian, The New Book of World Rankings (New York, 1991), 166.

TABLE 4.30 COAL RESERVES— LEADING COUNTRIES, 1990 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Country China United States United Arab Emirates Australia Germany,West South Africa Poland Mongolia Indonesia Germany, East

Source: Kurian, New World Rankings, 167.

Million Metric Tons 737,100 263,843 244,700 65,702 59,069 58,404 42,700 24,000 23,232 21,000

TABLE 4.31

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS— AMOUNT AND SOURCES, 1949–1990

(million barrels per day)

Year

Total Production

Total Imports

Petroleum Products Supplied

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

5.48 5.91 6.72 6.87 7.11 7.03

0.65 0.85 0.84 0.95 1.03 1.05

5.76 6.46 7.02 7.27 7.60 7.76

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

7.58 7.95 7.98 7.52 7.93 7.96

1.25 1.44 1.57 1.70 1.78 1.81

8.46 8.78 8.81 9.12 9.53 9.80

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

8.17 8.35 8.64 8.77 9.01 9.58

1.92 2.08 2.12 2.26 2.47 2.57

9.98 10.40 10.74 11.02 11.51 12.08

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

10.22 10.60 10.83 11.30 11.16 11.18

2.54 2.84 3.17 3.42 3.93 4.74

12.56 13.39 14.14 14.70 15.21 16.37

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

10.95 10.46 10.01 9.74 9.86 10.27

6.26 6.11 6.06 7.31 8.81 8.36

17.31 16.65 16.32 17.46 18.43 18.85

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

10.14 10.17 10.18 10.20 10.25 10.51

8.46 6.91 6.00 5.11 5.05 5.44

18.51 17.06 16.06 15.30 15.23 15.73

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

10.58 10.23 9.94 9.76 9.16 8.91

5.07 6.22 6.68 7.40 8.06 8.02

15.73 16.28 16.67 17.28 17.33 16.99

Source: Annual Energy Review 1991, 119.

84


TABLE 4.32

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS SUPPLIED, BY TYPE, 1949–1990

Liquefied Motor Jet Distillate Residual Petroleum Year Gasoline Fuel Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Gases

(million barrels per day) Liquefied Motor Jet Distillate Residual Petroleum Year Gasoline Fuel Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Gases 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

2.50 2.72 2.99 3.12 3.30 3.37 3.66 3.75 3.82 3.93 4.07 4.13 4.20 4.34 4.47 4.40 4.59 4.81

NA NA NA 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.26 0.29 0.28 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.60 0.67

0.90 1.08 1.23 1.30 1.34 1.44 1.59 1.68 1.69 1.79 1.81 1.87 1.90 2.01 2.05 2.05 2.13 2.18

1.36 1.52 1.55 1.52 1.54 1.43 1.53 1.54 1.50 1.45 1.54 1.53 1.50 1.50 1.48 1.52 1.61 1.72

0.19 0.23 0.28 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.40 0.44 0.45 0.49 0.58 0.62 0.64 0.70 0.76 0.81 0.84 0.89

Other Products

Total Products

0.81 0.90 0.98 0.98 1.00 1.03 1.12 1.16 1.15 1.19 1.24 1.36 1.44 1.55 1.68 1.92 1.74 1.82

5.76 6.46 7.02 7.27 7.60 7.76 8.46 8.78 8.81 9.12 9.53 9.80 9.98 10.40 10.74 11.02 11.51 12.08

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4.96 5.26 5.53 5.78 6.01 6.38 6.67 6.54 6.67 6.98 7.18 7.41 7.03 6.58 6.59 6.54 6.62 6.69 6.83 7.03 7.21 7.34 7.33 7.23

0.82 0.95 0.99 0.97 1.01 1.05 1.06 0.99 1.00 0.99 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.01 1.01 1.05 1.18 1.22 1.31 1.38 1.45 1.49 1.52

2.24 2.39 2.47 2.54 2.66 2.91 3.09 2.95 2.85 3.13 3.35 3.43 3.31 2.87 2.83 2.67 2.69 2.84 2.87 2.91 2.98 3.12 3.16 3.02

1.79 1.83 1.98 2.20 2.30 2.53 2.82 2.64 2.46 2.80 3.07 3.02 2.83 2.51 2.09 1.72 1.42 1.37 1.20 1.42 1.26 1.38 1.37 1.23

0.94 1.05 1.22 1.22 1.25 1.42 1.45 1.41 1.33 1.40 1.42 1.41 1.59 1.47 1.47 1.50 1.51 1.57 1.60 1.51 1.61 1.66 1.67 1.56

Other Products

Total Products

1.81 1.91 1.95 1.98 1.98 2.08 2.21 2.13 2.00 2.16 2.37 2.51 2.67 2.57 2.08 1.86 1.94 2.07 2.01 2.09 2.22 2.34 2.31 2.43

12.56 13.39 14.14 14.70 15.21 16.37 17.31 16.65 16.32 17.46 18.43 18.85 18.51 17.06 16.06 15.30 15.23 15.73 15.73 16.28 16.67 17.28 17.33 16.99

Source: Annual Energy Review 1991, 125.

TABLE 4.33

LEADING EXPORTERS OF PETROLEUM TO THE UNITED STATES, 1960–1990

(in thousands of barrels per day) OPECa Year Algeria

Indonesia

Nigeria

Saudi Arabia

Non-OPEC Venezuela

Arab OPECb

Total

Canada

Mexico

United Kingdom

Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico

Total

1960 1961 1962 1963

1 0 0 1

77 62 69 63

0 0 0 0

84 73 74 108

911 879 906 900

292 284 241 258

1,314 1,286 1,265 1,283

120 190 250 265

16 40 49 48

... 1 2 3

36 44 41 44

1,815 1,917 2,082 2,123

1964 1965 1966 1967

6 9 4 5

68 63 53 66

0 15 11 5

131 158 147 92

933 994 1,018 938

293 324 300 177

1,361 1,476 1,471 1,259

299 323 384 450

47 48 45 49

... ... 6 11

47 47 61 96

2,259 2,468 2,573 2,537

1968 1969 1970 1971

6 2 8 15

73 88 70 111

9 49 50 102

74 65 30 128

886 875 989 1,020

272 276 196 327

1,302 1,336 1,343 1,673

506 608 766 857

45 43 42 27

28 20 11 10

145 189 271 368

2,840 3,166 3,419 3,926

1972 1973 1974 1975

92 136 190 282

164 213 300 390

251 459 713 762

190 486 461 715

959 1,135 979 702

530 915 752 1,383

2,063 2,993 3,280 3,601

1,108 1,325 1,070 846

21 16 8 71

9 15 8 14

432 429 481 496

4,741 6,256 6,112 6,056

1976 1977 1978 1979

432 559 649 636

539 541 573 420

1,025 1,143 919 1,080

1,230 1,380 1,144 1,356

700 690 646 690

2,424 3,185 2,963 3,058

5,066 6,193 5,751 5,637

599 517 467 538

87 179 318 439

31 126 180 202

510 571 522 523

7,313 8,807 8,363 8,456

1980 1981 1982 1983

488 311 170 240

348 366 248 338

857 620 514 302

1,261 1,129 552 337

481 406 412 422

2,551 1,848 854 632

4,300 3,323 2,146 1,862

455 447 482 547

533 522 685 826

176 375 456 382

476 389 366 322

6,909 5,996 5,113 5,051

1984 1985 1986 1987

323 187 271 295

343 314 318 285

216 293 440 535

325 168 685 751

548 605 793 804

819 472 1,162 1,274

2,049 1,830 2,837 3,060

630 770 807 848

748 816 699 655

402 310 350 352

336 275 265 294

5,437 5,067 6,224 6,678

1988 1989 1990

300 269 280

205 183 114

618 815 800

1,073 1,224 1,339

794 873 1,025

1,839 2,130 2,244

3,520 4,140 4,296

999 931 934

747 767 755

315 215 189

264 353 315

7,402 8,061 8,018

a

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. Includes Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. Source: Dept. of Energy, Annual Energy Review 1991, 125.

b


85

TABLE 4.34

AVERAGE WELLHEAD PRICE OF U.S. CRUDE OIL, 1946–1990

(current dollars per barrel of 42 gallons) Year

Price

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

1.41 2.51 2.77 2.88 2.86

1970 1973 1974 1976 1978

3.18 3.89 6.74 8.14 8.96

1979 1980 1981 1983 1985

12.51 21.59 31.77 26.19 24.09

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

12.51 15.40 12.58 15.86 20.03

Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, The Statistical History of the United States (New York, 1976), 593; W. Willard Miller, Ruby M. Miller, Energy and American Society (Santa Barbara, 1993), 84–85.

TABLE 4.35

ESTIMATED PROVED CRUDE OIL RESERVES, BY AREA, 1950–1990

(in millions of barrels) Australasia

Canada

Latin America

Middle East

Western Europe

Soviet Union

United States

Total World

Year

Africa

1950

202.5

1,557.0

1,200.0

11,400.8

32,413.0

289.0

4,741.0

24,649.5

76,452.7

1955

112.0

2,708.0

2,207.6

14,356.0

97,459.0

1,049.2

10,047.0

29,560.7

159,499.6

1960

7,273.5

10,175.5

3,497.1

24,435.6

181,436.0

1,496.0

30,002.0

31,719.3

290,035.1

1965

19,395.0

11,613.7

6,177.5

25,525.0

212,180.0

2,035.6

30,750.0

30,990.5

338,668.0

1970

54,679.5

13,138.2

8,619.8

29,179.8

333,506.0

1,779.0

60,000.0

29,631.9

530,534.1

1975

68,299.5

21,047.7

7,171.2

40,578.0

403,858.2

25,814.0

111,400.0

34,250.0

712,418.5

1980

57,072.1

19,355.2

6,800.0

56,472.5

361,947.3

23,476.4

90,000.0

29,810.0

644,933.0

1985

55,540.6

18,529.9

7,075.0

83,315.7

398,380.8

24,425.5

84,100.0

28,466.0

699,813.4

1990

58,836.6

22,545.4

6,133.5

125,026.9

660,247.2

18,822.1

84,100.0

26,501.0

1,002,212.7

Source: Miller & Miller, Energy and American Society, 77.

Energy and the Environment It was inevitable that the issue of energy would come to clash with the issue of the environment. Because virtually all energy came from utilization of the earth’s resources, any manner of acquisition or transport of the materials or chemical change in the production process could modify and perhaps contaminate the land, water, or air in the areas involved.The possibilities were numerous. Mining coal amounted to nothing less than seizing part of the earth, and it affected the landscape regardless of the method used. Consequences of traditional underground mining mostly were hidden, but abandoned, forgotten shafts possessed a potential for various kinds of future accidents. Ugly scars and barren hills stood as testimony to increasingly popular and efficient open-pit, or strip, mining that destroyed everything in its path and left areas looking like war zones, at least in the stages of extraction. Law required the companies to fill the holes, smooth over the hills, and return some measure of topsoil. Assurances that fertility also had been restored were unconvincing. 86


Burning coal produced smoke, soot, and a new term, smog, which had been an urban plague and health hazard for many years. Small wonder that coal fell into disuse at the end of the 1950s. A return to coal after the oil crises of the 1970s would not have been possible without the desulfurization controls on power plants built after 1980.The smoke billowing from smokestacks that seemed to reach to the sky might contain fewer chemicals, but it still was black and bountiful. Nuclear energy was clean and silent; there was almost nothing to see around the power plant, but this exotic and little-understood power source carried special hazards for health and atmosphere. The problem of spent but still radioactive waste appeared immediately. Packed in allegedly leakproof containers, the stuff for 25 years was simply dumped into the ocean. Dumping stopped in 1970, allowing the issue to resurface and become seemingly perpetual.The most common solution—some form of elaborate burial procedure—was far from satisfactory to everyone, and there persisted opposition in affected areas to transport of the goods to a final resting place. It was

impossible to forget that nuclear power belonged to an activity that produced the most destructive of superweapons. Fear of an accident seemed to materialize in an alarming but largely contained incident at the Three-Mile-Island plant in Pennsylvania in 1979 and the far more destructive meltdown at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in 1986. By that time environmentalists had produced so many challenges, delays, and expensive lawsuits that the Atomic Energy Commission had given up on the construction of new plants. Perhaps the most familiar environmental hazards came from the world of petroleum. Burned gasoline and other petroleum by-products produced such gases as carbon monoxide, which could be exceptionally harmful to health (in closed quarters it could be fatal) and to the atmosphere. Mandated new emission controls on motor vehicles, especially during the years 1968–71, and an end to the use of leaded gasoline reduced pollution markedly. It so happened that much of the petroleum came from one part of the world, and the people who used it lived great distances away. Environmental risks from the transport of petroleum grew in proportion to the distances involved and the massive amounts being moved. Kept within its designated usage, petroleum worked like magic; outside its element crude oil bespoiled everything and killed much of the wildlife that it touched. Construction of an Alaskan pipeline, merely the first leg of a long transportation process, was delayed by worry that it might leak and that the simple presence of this huge, aboveground tube would endanger wildlife in the area. The pipeline began operations in 1977. Behemoths that dwarfed the largest warships or anything ever seen in the ocean were built specially to carry petroleum; there were only a few ocean oil spills, but each became international news. The major spillage in American waters—the incident of the Exxon Valdez in 1989—was by comparison small, but because it took place within a confined area (Prince William Sound in Alaska), the effects were devastating. Double-bottomed ships, a hull within a hull, surely helped, but transporting petroleum continued to be risky, and the conflict between producing the people’s energy and protecting the well-being of Earth remained unending.

TABLE 4.36

Ecological disaster in American waters: A tanker pumps oil from the punctured Exxon Valdez, Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1989. (National Marine Fisheries Service)

OIL SPILLS Major Oil Spills

Name Ixtoc I oil well Nowruz oil field Atlantic Empress & Aegean Captain Castillo de Bellver Amoco Cadiz Torrey Canyon Sea Star Urquiola Hawaiian Patriot Othello

Place southern Gulf of Mexico Persian Gulf off Trinidad & Tobago off Cape Town, South Africa near Portsall, France off Land’s End, England Gulf of Oman La Coruna, Spain northern Pacific Tralhavet Bay, Sweden

Date Jun. 3, 1979 Feb., 1983 Jul. 19, 1979 Aug. 6, 1983 Mar. 16, 1978 Mar. 18, 1967 Dec. 19, 1972 May 12, 1976 Feb. 25, 1977 Mar. 20, 1970

Cause

Tons

Blowout Blowout Collision Fire Grounding Grounding Collision Grounding Fire Collision

600,000 600,000 (est.) 300,000 250,000 223,000 119,000 115,000 100,000 99,000 60,000–100,000

Hull failure Collision Grounding Hull failure Tank rupture Well blowout Grounding Dragging anchor Ship broke in half Tank rupture

13,524,000 10,700,000 10,080,000 8,820,000 8,400,000 8,200,000 7,700,000 6,720,000 6,258,000 3,800,000

Other Notable Oil Spills (in gallonsa) World Glory Burmah Agate ExxonValdez Keo Storage tank Ekofisk oil field Argo Merchant Pipeline Tanker Storage tank

off South Africa Galveston Bay,Tex Prince William Sound, Alaska off Massachusetts Sewaren, N.J. North Sea Nantucket, Mass. West Delta, La. off Japan Monongahela River

Jun. 13, 1968 Nov. 1, 1979 Mar. 24, 1989 Nov. 5, 1969 Nov. 4, 1969 Apr. 22, 1977 Dec. 15, 1976 Oct. 15, 1967 Nov. 30, 1971 Jan. 2, 1988

a It took 269 gallons or 6.4 barrels to equal one ton. The Exxon Valdez spilled some 35,000 tons. Source: Hoffman, World Almanac 1992, 545.


87

Banking and Finance Changes in the U.S. banking system predictably included an expansion designed to at least keep pace with the nation’s economic growth. There were in fact fewer banks in the United States in 1990 than in 1946, but the number of branches, offices, and of course deposits, assets, and all phases of banking activity increased markedly. No less than in economic activity generally, banking became global, an international enterprise. Banks of one nation did business in other nations and with banks of other nations. The United States share in international banking shrank gradually but significantly. Of the 50 largest banks in the world in 1990, only one was American; the six largest were Japanese. Banking legislation of the 1960s was pointed toward promoting truth and openness in business practices; laws in the 1970s often focused on preventing racial, sexual, or other kind of discrimination, mostly in the awarding of loans. The late 1970s and 1980s were marked with removal of many regulations on banking practices, measures that fostered an overlapping of activity of the various kinds of financial institutions. The functions of commercial banks, savings and loan institutions, and money-market funds became blurred. All seem-

ingly were competing in the attraction of capital, acceptance of checking accounts, and awarding of loans. Financial institutions floated many loans that could not be repaid. Bank failures, which had averaged approximately six per year since the end of the Second World War, increased to more than 200 during some years of the 1980s. Much of the attention came to be placed on the savings and loan institutions, the so-called thrifts, which because of deregulation legislation of 1980 faced new opportunities (or challenges, depending on one’s point of view).To compensate for being locked in to long-term, low fixed-rate loans granted earlier, the thrifts took chances on loans that offered a much higher rate of interest. Many of the loans failed, especially in the Southwest, an area that suffered from a slowdown in the oil business. Property that had supported the loans and that was subject to foreclosure declined in value. More than 500 thrifts went under between 1980 and 1988.The underwriting government agency, the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) ran out of money. Congress in 1989 turned the problem over to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). As the 1990s began, estimates put the cost to the government (and thus the taxpayers) to “bail out’’ the savings and loan industry at beyond $400 billion.

TABLE 4.37 BANKS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY NUMBER AND DEPOSITS, 1945–1990 Total Number of Banks

Total Deposits (millions of dollars)

Commercial Banks

Commercial Banks

Year

All Banks

National

State

Nonmembersa

All Savings

All Deposits

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

15,969 16,500 17,001 17,549 18,384

5,017 4,958 4,692 4,530 4,815

1,864 1,912 1,847 1,641 1,405

6,421 6,576 6,698 6,955 7,327

2,667 3,054 3,764 4,423 4,837

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

18,205 18,792 18,763 18,033 15,158

4,621 4,744 4,425 4,959 3,979

1,147 1,046 997 1,070 1,009

7,743 8,595 9,013 8,378 7,355

4,694 4,407 4,328 3,626 2,815

All Savings

National

State

Nonmembersa

151,524 171,963 235,211 310,262 467,633

77,778 84,941 102,796 120,242 185,334

41,865 41,602 55,739 65,487 78,327

16,307 19,726 26,198 34,369 51,982

15,574 25,694 50,478 90,164 151,990

686,901 1,157,648 1,832,716 3,140,827 3,637,292

285,436 450,308 656,752 1,241,875 1,558,915

101,512 143,409 191,183 354,585 397,797

95,566 187,031 344,311 521,628 693,438

204,367 376,900 640,470 1,022,739 987,142

a Nonmembers are banks that do not belong to the Federal Reserve System. National and State banks are members. Note: Comprises all FDIC-insured commercial and savings banks, including savings and loan institutions (S&Ls). Source: Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. (as of Dec. 31, 1997) in Robert Farmighetti, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1999 (Mahwah, N.J., 1998), 116.

TABLE 4.38 BRANCH BANKING—COMMERCIAL BANKS AND TRUST COMPANIES, 1946–1990 Assets (millions of dollars)

Year

Banks

Branches

Offices

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

13,359 13,446 13,237 13,126 13,544

3,928 4,832 6,965 10,556 15,872

17,287 18,278 20,202 23,682 29,416

147,365 166,792 209,145 256,322 375,394

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

13,511 14,384 14,434 14,417 12,347

21,839 30,205 38,738 43,293 50,406

35,350 44,589 53,172 57,710 62,753

570,158 1,086,674 1,855,687 2,730,672 3,389,470

Source: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Statistics on Banking: Historical, 1934–1994 (Washington, D.C., 1995), A–1, A–48–49.

88


TABLE 4.39

MONEY MARKET INTEREST RATES AND MORTGAGE RATES, 1950–1990

Type

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1981

1985

1990

Prime rate charged by banks Financial Commercial Paper (3 months) Prime Bankers Accept. (90 days) Eurodollar deposits Taxable Money Market Funds

1.45

2.18

3.85

4.38

7.72

7.86

15.26

18.87

9.93

10.01

1.41

1.97

3.54

4.27

7.23

6.15

11.49

14.08

7.77

7.87

1.15

1.71

3.51

4.22

7.31

6.29

12.87

15.34

7.91

7.93

... ...

... ...

... ...

... ...

8.52 ...

7.03 6.36

14.00 12.68

16.79 16.82

8.27 7.71

8.16 7.82

... ... ... 1.22

... ... ... 1.75

... ... ... 2.87

... ... ... 3.95

... ... ... 6.39

... ... ... 5.78

... ... ... 11.39

... ... ... 14.04

7.83 8.29 9.00 7.47

7.35 7.42 7.52 7.50

1.502 1.75

1.502 2.50

3.002 4.00

4.002 4.50

5.52 6.0

6.252 7.25

10.2 13.0

12.2 13.0

7.50

6.50

4.15

4.65

6.16

5.47

9.05

9.19

13.44

16.31

12.24

10.2

...

...

...

5.83

8.52

9.10

13.95

16.52

12.29

10.1

...

...

...

5.87

8.56

9.14

13.95

16.55

12.29

10.1

Certificates of Deposit (CD) 6 months 12 months 2.5 years U.S. Gov’t Security (3 months) Federal Reserve (NY) Discount Rate Home Mortgages FHA Insured, secondary market Conventional new home Conventional, existing home

Source: Bureau of the Budget, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1972), 455; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 520.

TABLE 4.40

BANK FAILURES, 1947–1990

TABLE 4.41

MONEY IN CIRCULATION, 1945–1990

Year

Closed or Assisted

Date

Dollars (in millions)

Per Capita

1947 1949 1950 1952 1954 1956

1 4 1 3 3 3

Jun. 30, 1945 Jun. 30, 1950 Jun. 30, 1955 Jun. 30, 1960 Jun. 30, 1965

26,746.4 27,156.3 30,229.3 32.064.6 39,719.8

191.1 179.0 182.9 177.5 204.1

1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1969

8 2 2 8 8 9

Jun. 30, 1970 Jun. 30, 1975 Jun. 30, 1980 Jun. 30, 1985 Jun. 30, 1987

54,351.0 81,196.4 127,097.2 185,890.7 215,158.6

265.4 380.1 558.3 778.6 883.5

1970 1972 1975 1976 1978 1980

8 3 14 17 7 10

Jun. 30, 1988 Jun. 30, 1989 Mar. 31, 1990

235,415.9 249,182.7 257,664.4

956.6 1,002.5 1,028.4

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

10 42 48 72 120 145

1987 1988 1989 1990

184 221 207 169


Source: Luman Long, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1969 Edition (New York, 1968), 144; World Almanac, 1992, 156.


89

TABLE 4.42

GOLD RESERVES OF CENTRAL BANKS AND GOVERNMENTS, 1973–1990

(million fine troy ounces) Year End

All Countries

United States

Canada

Japan

Belgium

France

Germany

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

1.022.24 1,020.24 1,018.71 1,014.23 1,029.19 1,036.82

275.97 275.97 274.71 274.68 277.55 276.41

21.95 21.95 21.95 21.62 22.01 22.13

21.11 21.11 21.11 21.11 21.62 23.97

42.17 42.17 42.17 42.17 42.45 42.59

100.91 100.93 100.93 101.02 101.67 101.99

117.61 117.61 117.61 117.61 118.30 118.64

82.48 82.48 82.48 82.48 82.91 83.12

54.33 54.33 54.33 54.33 54.63 54.78

83.20 83.20 83.20 83.28 83.28 83.28

21.01 21.03 21.03 21.03 22.23 22.83

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

944.44 952.99 953.72 949.16 947.84 946.79

264.60 264.32 264.11 264.03 263.39 262.79

22.18 20.98 20.46 20.26 20.17 20.14

24.23 24.23 24.23 24.23 24.23 24.23

34.21 34.18 34.18 34.18 34.18 34.18

81.92 81.85 81.85 81.85 81.85 81.85

95.25 95.18 95.18 95.18 95.18 95.18

66.71 66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67

43.97 43.94 43.94 43.94 43.94 43.94

83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28

18.25 18.84 19.03 19.01 19.01 19.03

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

949.39 949.11 944.49 944.92 938.95 940.29

262.65 262.04 262.38 261.87 261.93 261.91

20.11 19.72 18.52 17.14 16.10 14.76

24.33 24.23 24.23 24.23 24.23 24.23

34.18 34.18 33.63 33.67 30.23 30.23

81.85 81.85 81.85 81.85 81.85 81.85

95.18 95.18 95.18 95.18 95.18 95.18

66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67 66.67

43.94 43.94 43.94 43.94 43.94 43.94

83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28 83.28

19.03 19.01 19.01 19.00 18.99 18.94

Italy

United Netherlands Switzerland Kingdom


International Business No topic of economics was more difficult to understand than the intricacies of international finance and the business transactions that developed between the United States and other nations. Emerging trends in American operations on the world market were easy enough to detect, starting with the most familiar international activity: trade. At the end of the Second World War, the United States stood alone as the world’s economic giant. Controlling 60 percent of world industrial capacity, it virtually had foreign markets to itself. The country exported not only agricultural products, as had been its practice, but also manufactured goods, including large amounts of consumer products. This honeymoon period did not last long. The huge American advantage in trade soon began to erode as the war-weakened nations of Europe and Asia gradually recovered.Through various aid programs to both former allies and former enemies, the United States assisted in the emergence of its competitors. In a broader scope perhaps the most striking aspect of international economics was its size.The export trade of the United States continued to increase at a remarkable rate as the nation blended in with a vast global economy. Exports of some $12 billion in 1946 had grown to more than $40 billion in 1970. By 1980 it had passed $200 billion, and in 1990 it was nearly $400 billion worth of goods sold abroad. Unfortunately, perhaps, imports of the United States increased at an ever greater rate.The ever-changing but generally diminishing value of the dollar was a factor.The nation faced a need to import supplies no longer abundant nationally, the best-known example of which was petroleum. It simply developed that other countries were able to produce some goods more efficiently and, at least in popular perception, to produce better goods. The first trade deficit appeared in 1971; by the late 1970s it had become a standard fact of life, and the question was not “if’’ but “how much?’’ If a huge trade deficit became a considerable political issue, attitudes about 90


its significance differed. Imported goods probably allowed Americans to purchase better products at lower prices. Some economists argued that it represented nothing more than the normal operation of global economics.What many Americans saw, however, was that goods purchased in the United States were no longer being made in the United States. Not only were foreign producers exploiting the American market, but American firms were moving abroad to produce the goods, expecting to ship them back to the United States. International trade became vastly more complex due to the increasing propensity of individuals or firms in one country to invest in the securities, property, or activities of another. The United States led the way in foreign investment, starting in the capital-starved countries of Europe and Asia in the aftermath of the Second World War. By 1980 nearly one-sixth of assets of nonfinancial United States firms were invested abroad. Foreign investors started later, but they caught up fast.The United States offered financial and political stability and by far the world’s largest market, which perhaps could be better exploited from within than from outside. Foreign investment in the United States roughly equaled American investment abroad by the mid-1980s, and it continued to soar. Between 1985 and 1990 it more than doubled. The age of the multinational corporation had arrived, with implications that no one fully understood. Some activities, to be sure, were easy to observe. Movement of an American factory to South Korea or Mexico produced sorrow, and probably anger, in the area being abandoned. Opening of a foreign factory on an American site was exciting news. States and municipalities competed with one another to bring them in. But the patriotic citizen wishing to “buy American’’ was totally confused.Was a Chevrolet made in Canada or a Ford from Mexico an American car, or was it a Toyota produced in Tennessee or a Mazda (a company largely owned by Ford) made in Michigan? The multinational carried a national name and had its headquarters in a single country, but its loyalty seemed to be to itself.

TABLE 4.43

U.S. INTERNATIONAL TRANSACTIONS, 1946–1990

(millions of dollars; quarterly data seasonally adjusted, except as noted. Credits [+], debits [2]) Merchandisea

Year or Quarter Exports

Imports

Services

Net

Investment Income

Net Net Travel and Receipts Payments Military Transpor- Other on U.S. on Foreign Transactation Services, Assets Assets in tions Receipts Net Abroad U.S.

Net

Balance on Goods, Services, Unilateral and Transfers, Income Net

Balance on Current Account

1946 1947 1948 1949

11,764 16,097 13,265 12,213

25,067 25,973 27,557 26,874

6,697 10,124 5,708 5,339

2424 2358 2351 2410

733 946 374 230

310 145 175 208

772 1,102 1,921 1,831

2212 2245 2437 2476

560 857 1,484 1,355

7,876 11,714 7,390 6,722

22,991 22,722 24,973 25,849

4,885 8,992 2,417 873

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

10,203 14,243 13,449 12,412 12,929

29,081 211,176 210,838 210,975 210,353

1,122 3,067 2,611 1,437 2,576

256 169 528 1,753 902

2120 298 83 2238 2269

242 254 309 307 305

2,068 2,633 2,751 2,736 2,929

2559 2583 2555 2624 2582

1,509 2,050 2,196 2,112 2,347

2,697 5,838 5,727 5,371 5,861

24,537 24,954 25,113 26,657 25,642

21,840 884 614 21,286 219

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

14,424 17,556 19,562 16,414 16,458

211,527 212,803 213,291 212,952 215,310

2,897 4,753 6,271 3,462 1,148

2113 2221 2423 2849 2831

2297 2361 2189 2633 2821

299 447 482 486 573

3,406 3,837 4,180 3,790 4,132

2676 2735 2796 2825 21,061

2,730 3,102 3,384 2,965 3,071

5,516 7,720 9,525 5,431 3,140

25,086 24,990 24,763 24,647 24,422

430 2,730 4,762 784 21,282

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

19,650 20,108 20,781 22,272 25,501

214,758 214,537 216,260 217,048 218,700

4,892 5,571 4,521 5,224 6,801

21,057 21,131 2912 2742 2794

2964 2978 21,152 21,309 21,146

639 732 912 1,036 1,161

4,616 4,999 5,618 6,157 6,824

21,238 21,245 21,324 21,560 21,783

3,379 3,755 4,294 4,596 5,041

6,886 7,949 7,664 8,806 11,063

24,062 24,127 24,277 24,392 24,240

2,824 3,822 3,387 4,414 6,823

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

26,461 29,310 30,666 33,626 36,414

221,510 225,493 226,866 232,991 235,807

4,951 3,817 3,800 635 607

2487 21,043 21,187 2596 2718

21,280 21,331 21,750 21,548 21,763

1,480 1,497 1,742 1,759 1,964

7,437 7,528 8,021 9,367 10,913

22,088 22,481 22,747 23,378 24,869

5,350 5,047 5,274 5,990 6,044

10,014 7,987 7,878 6,240 6,135

24,583 24,955 25,294 25,629 25,735

5,431 3,031 2,583 611 399

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

42,469 43,319 49,381 71,410 98,306

239,866 245,579 255,797 270,499 2103,811

2,603 22,260 26,416 911 25,505

2641 653 1,072 740 165

22,038 22,345 23,063 23,158 23,184

2,330 2,649 2,965 3,406 4,231

11,748 12,707 14,765 21,808 27,587

25,515 25,435 26,572 29,655 212,084

6,233 7,272 8,192 12,153 15,503

8,486 5,969 2,749 14,053 11,210

26,156 27,402 28,544 26,913 29,249

2,331 21,433 25,795 7,140 1,962

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

107,088 114,745 120,816 142,054 184,473

298,185 2124,228 2151,907 2176,001 2212,009

8,903 29,483 231,091 233,947 227,536

1,461 931 1,731 857 21,313

22,812 22,558 23,565 23,573 22,935

4,854 5,027 5,680 6,879 7,251

25,351 29,286 32,178 41,824 63,096

212,564 213,311 214,217 221,680 232,961

12,787 15,975 17,961 20,144 30,136

25,191 9,894 29,285 29,639 5,603

27,075 25,686 25,226 25,788 26,593

18,116 4,207 214,511 215,427 2991

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

224,269 237,085 211,198 201,820 219,900

2249,750 2265,063 2247,642 2268,900 2332,422

225,481 227,978 236,444 267,080 2112,522

21,822 2844 112 2163 22,147

2997 144 2992 24,227 29,153

8,912 12,552 12,981 13,859 14,042

71,388 84,975 85,346 81,972 92,935

242,532 253,626 257,097 254,549 269,542

28,856 31,349 28,250 27,423 23,394

9,467 15,223 3,907 230,188 286,385

28,349 28,331 29,775 29,956 212,621

1,119 6,892 25,868 240,143 299,006

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

215,935 223,367 250,266 320,337 361,451 389,550

2338,083 2368,425 2409,766 2447,323 2477,368 2497,665

2122,148 2145,058 2159,500 2126,986 2115,917 2108,115

24,096 24,907 23,662 25,743 26,204 27,220

210,788 28,939 28,006 23,844 2,621 4,140

14,008 18,551 18,012 19,925 25,998 29,456

82,282 80,982 90,536 110,669 128,651 130,091

266,115 270,013 282,908 2105,317 2125,963 2118,146

16,166 10,969 7,629 5,353 2,688 11,945

2106,859 2129,384 2145,527 2111,294 290,814 269,794

215,473 216,009 214,674 214,943 215,491 222,329

2122,332 2145,393 2160,201 2126,236 2106,305 292,123

a

Excludes military. Source: Council of Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President, 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 412.


91

TABLE 4.44

FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES, 1967–1990

(currency units per U.S. dollar, except as noted) Belgium (franc)

Canada (dollar)

France (franc)

Germany (mark)

Italy (lira)

Japan (yen)

March 1973

39.408

0.9967

4.5156

2.8132

568.17

261.90

1967 1968 1969

49.689 49.936 50.142

1.0789 1.0776 1.0769

4.9206 4.9529 5.1999

3.9865 3.9920 3.9251

624.09 623.38 627.32

362.13 360.55 358.36

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

49.656 48.598 44.020 38.955 38.959

1.0444 1.0099 .9907 1.0002 .9780

5.5288 5.5100 5.0444 4.4535 4.8107

3.6465 3.4830 3.1886 2.6715 2.5868

627.12 618.34 583.70 582.41 650.81

358.16 347.79 303.13 271.31 291.84

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

36.800 38.609 35.849 31.495 29.342

1.0175 .9863 1.0633 1.1405 1.1713

4.2877 4.7825 4.9161 4.5091 4.2567

2.4614 2.5185 2.3236 2.0097 1.8343

653.10 833.58 882.78 849.13 831.11

296.78 296.45 268.62 210.39 219.02

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

29.238 37.195 45.781 51.123 57.752

1.1693 1.1990 1.2344 1.2325 1.2952

4.2251 5.4397 6.5794 7.6204 8.7356

1.8175 2.2632 2.4281 2.5539 2.8455

856.21 1138.58 1354.00 1519.32 1756.11

226.63 220.63 249.06 237.55 237.46

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

59.337 44.664 37.358 36.785 39.409

1.3659 1.3896 1.3259 1.2306 1.1842

8.9800 6.9257 6.0122 5.9595 6.3802

2.9420 2.1705 1.7981 1.7570 1.8808

1908.88 1491.16 1297.03 1302.39 1372.28

238.47 168.35 144.60 128.17 138.07

1990

33.424

1.1668

5.4467

1.6166

1198.27

145.00

Period

Period

Netherlands (guilder)

Sweden (krona)

Switzerland (franc)

United Kingdom (pound)

Multilateral Trade-Weighted Value of the U.S. Dollar (March 1973 5 100) Nominal

Real

March 1973

2.8714

4.4294

3.2171

247.24

100.0

100.0

1967 1968 1969

3.6024 3.6198 3.6240

5.1621 5.1683 5.1701

4.3283 4.3163 4.3131

275.04 239.35 239.01

120.0 122.1 122.4

... ... ...

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

3.6166 3.4953 3.2098 2.7946 2.6879

5.1862 5.1051 4.7571 4.3619 4.4387

4.3106 4.1171 3.8186 3.1688 2.9805

239.59 244.42 250.34 245.25 234.03

121.1 117.8 109.1 99.1 101.4

... ... ... 98.9 99.4

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

2.5293 2.6449 2.4548 2.1643 2.0073

4.1531 4.3580 4.4802 4.5207 4.2893

2.5839 2.5002 2.4065 1.7907 1.6644

222.17 180.48 174.49 191.84 212.24

98.5 105.7 103.4 92.4 88.1

94.1 97.6 93.3 84.4 83.2

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

1.9875 2.4999 2.6719 2.8544 3.2085

4.2310 5.0660 6.2839 7.6718 8.2708

1.6772 1.9675 2.0327 2.1007 2.3500

232.46 202.43 174.80 151.59 133.68

87.4 103.4 116.6 125.3 138.2

84.9 100.9 111.8 117.3 128.8

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

3.3185 2.4485 2.0264 1.9778 2.1219

8.6032 7.1273 6.3469 6.1370 6.4559

2.4552 1.7979 1.4918 1.4643 1.6369

129.74 146.77 163.98 178.13 163.82

143.0 112.2 96.9 92.7 98.6

132.4 103.6 90.9 88.2 94.4

1990

1.8215

5.9231

1.3901

178.41

89.1

86.0

Source: Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President, 1992, 420.

92


TABLE 4.45 EXCHANGE RATES—INDEXES OF VALUE OF FOREIGN CURRENCY RELATIVE TO U.S. DOLLAR, 1970–1990 (19825100) Year

United States Belgium Canada

Denmark

France Germanya

Italy

Japan

Netherlands

Norway

Sweden

United Kingdom

1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

92.2 156.8 123.7 100.0 89.6 79.3

118.3 105.6 103.0 100.0 100.2 95.3

111.3 148.2 116.9 100.0 91.2 80.6

119.0 155.9 121.0 100.0 86.3 75.3

66.6 133.8 107.7 100.0 95.1 85.3

215.9 158.3 118.9 100.0 89.1 77.1

69.5 110.4 112.9 100.0 104.8 104.9

73.9 134.6 107.4 100.0 93.6 83.3

90.3 130.8 112.4 100.0 88.4 79.1

121.2 148.6 124.0 100.0 81.9 76.0

137.1 133.1 115.8 100.0 86.7 76.5

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

77.2 102.5 122.6 124.5 116.2 137.0

90.4 88.8 93.1 100.3 104.2 105.8

78.7 103.1 121.9 123.8 114.0 134.8

73.3 95.0 109.4 110.4 103.1 120.8

82.5 111.9 135.0 138.2 129.1 150.2

70.9 90.8 104.4 104.0 98.7 113.0

104.4 147.9 172.2 194.3 180.4 171.8

80.5 109.1 131.9 135.1 125.9 146.7

75.1 87.3 95.8 99.0 93.4 103.2

73.0 88.2 99.0 102.4 97.3 106.1

74.2 84.0 93.8 101.9 93.7 102.1

a

Designates West Germany, before unification. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 850.

TABLE 4.46

VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, BY AREA, 1946–1983

(in millions of dollars)

Europe Year

Exports to

UK

Imports from

Exports to

The Americas (not including United States)

Germany

Imports from

Exports to

Imports from

Exports to

Imports from

Asia Exports to

Japan

Imports from

Exports to

Imports from

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

4,122 5,670 4,279 4,118 3,306

804 817 1,121 925 1,449

855 1,103 644 700 548

158 205 290 228 335

83 128 863 822 440

3 6 32 46 104

3,684 6,199 5,307 4,861 4,902

2,762 3,401 4,100 3,995 5,064

1,327 2,330 2,130 2,256 1,540

887 1,055 1,346 1,240 1,638

102 415 325 468 418

81 35 63 82 182

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

5,121 5,089 5,711 5,118 5,126

2,119 2,029 2,335 2,083 2,453

1,000 787 826 808 1,006

466 485 546 501 616

521 450 363 505 607

233 212 277 278 366

6,607 6,682 6,514 6,521 6,903

5,826 6,025 6,117 5,896 6,262

2,410 2,541 2,783 2,577 2,581

1,983 1,813 1,626 1,467 1,876

601 633 686 693 683

205 229 262 279 432

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

6,437 6,844 5,570 5,559 7,406

2,963 3,147 3,341 4,607 4,268

985 1,164 905 1,097 1,487

726 766 864 1,137 993

943 1,330 888 880 1,275

494 607 629 920 897

8,243 9,001 7,999 7,692 7,684

6,856 7,048 6,703 7,071 6,864

3,418 3,961 3,411 3,284 4,186

1,996 1,985 1,984 2,603 2,722

998 1,319 987 1,079 1,447

558 601 667 1,029 1,149

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

7,371 7,758 8,738 9,436 9,364

4,141 4,621 4,811 5,307 6,292

1,206 1,128 1,213 1,532 1,615

898 1,005 1,079 1,143 1,405

1,343 1,581 1,582 1,606 1,650

856 962 1,003 1,171 1,341

7,673 7,724 7,944 9,207 9,917

6,995 7,591 7,850 8,390 9,212

4,653 4,676 5,448 5,802 6,012

2,583 2,960 3,192 3,620 4,528

1,837 1,574 1,844 2,009 2,080

1,055 1,358 1,498 1,768 2,414

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

10,003 10,298 11,347 12,642 14,817

7,857 8,227 10,337 10,334 11,395

1,737 1,960 2,289 2,335 2,536

1,786 1,710 2,058 2,120 2,194

1,674 1,706 1,709 2,142 2,741

1,796 1,955 2,721 2,603 3,127

11,429 11,883 13,411 14,713 15,612

10,829 11,741 14,148 15,547 16,928

6,733 7,146 7,582 8,261 10,023

5,276 5,348 6,911 8,275 9,621

2,364 2,695 2,954 3,490 4,652

2,963 2,999 4,054 4,888 5,875

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

14,562 16,181 23,161 30,070 32,732

12,881 15,744 19,812 24,625 21,623

2,369 2,658 3,564 4,574 4,527

2,499 2,987 3,657 4,061 3,784

2,831 2,808 3,756 4,985 5,194

3,651 4,250 5,345 6,324 5,381

16,850 19,690 25,033 35,745 38,843

18,730 21,930 27,322 40,325 37,796

9,855 11,297 18,419 25,785 28,223

11,780 15,117 18,157 27,345 27,055

4,055 4,963 8,313 10,679 9,563

7,259 9,064 9,676 12,338 11,268

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

35,901 37,304 43,608 54,342 67,512

23,640 28,802 36,483 41,681 46,602

4,801 5,951 7,116 10,635 12,694

4,254 5,141 6,514 8,028 9,842

5,731 5,989 6,957 8,478 10,960

5,592 7,238 9,962 10,955 11,693

41,074 43,751 50,394 61,555 74,114

43,356 50,697 56,473 68,509 78,687

29,729 31,436 39,630 48,771 60,168

39,367 49,312 58,264 66,739 80,299

10,145 10,529 12,885 17,581 20,790

15,504 18,550 24,458 26,248 30,714

1981 1982 1983

69,715 63,664 58,871

53,410 53,413 55,243

12,439 10,645 10,621

12,835 13,095 12,470

10,277 9,291 8,737

11,379 11,975 12,695

81,667 67,312 63,970

85,436 84,467 96,873

63,849 64,822 63,813

92,033 85,170 91,464

21,823 20,966 21,894

37,612 37,744 41,183

Source: Thelma Liesner, Economic Statistics, 1900–1983 (New York, 1985), 59.


93

TABLE 4.47

TOP 20 PARTNERS IN TOTAL U.S. TRADE, 1984–1990

TABLE 4.48

(domestic and foreign merchandise, F.a.s.; general imports, customs; millions of dollars) Country Canada Japan Mexico Germany United Kingdom Taiwan Korea, South France Italy China

1984

1985 1986 1987

1988

1989


1990

118,255 122,293 123,764 130,899 153,020 166,762 175,238 80,710 91,414 108,793 112,824 127,244 138,046 138,240 30,012 32,767 29,693 34,853 43,888 52,144 58,548 26,365 29,453 35,839 38,956 40,929 41,927 46,946 26,701 26,210 26,814 31,455 36,341 39,156 43,772 19,771 15,335 14,150 12,309 6,069

21,096 15,969 15,578 14,299 7,717

25,315 19,084 17,344 15,446 7,877

32,034 25,086 18,673 16,569 9,791

36,843 31,337 22,478 18,351 13,532

35,647 33,195 24,593 19,148 17,745

34,149 32,892 26,776 20,711 20,031

Netherlands 11,623 Singapore 7,654 Hong Kong 11,329 Belgium/ 8,440 Luxembourg Saudi Arabia 9,305

11,350 7,735 11,182 8,305

11,913 8,105 11,921 9,405

12,180 10,254 13,837 10,360

14,675 13,741 15,925 11,904

16,174 16,347 16,014 13,077

17,988 17,859 16,328 15,027

6,381

7,061

7,806

9,396

10,731

14,009

Brazil Australia Venezuela Switzerland Malaysia

10,666 8,277 9,936 5,764 3,839

10,698 11,905 8,179 8,500 8,238 9,165 8,229 7,400 4,150 4,818

13,561 10,514 9,769 8,808 5,833

13,214 12,204 9,796 9,626 7,614

13,038 12,967 12,554 10,396 8,697

10,261 7,468 9,920 5,679 4,576

FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN THE UNITED STATES AND U.S. INVESTMENT ABROAD, 1950–1989

Source: Department of Commerce, Trade Highlights, 1990 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 23.

Year

All Areas

Canada

Europe

Japan

Foreign Direct Investment in the United States 1950 1960 1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

3,391 6,910 13,270 83,046 108,714 124,677 137,061 164,583 184,615 220,414 271,788 328,850 400,817

1,029 1,934 3,117 12,162 12,116 11,708 11,434 15,286 17,131 20,318 24,013 27,361 31,538

2,228 4,707 9,554 54,688 72,377 83,193 92,936 108,211 121,413 144,181 186,076 216,418 262,011

... 88 229 4,723 7,697 9,677 11,336 16,044 19,313 26,824 35,151 53,354 69,699

U.S. Investment Abroad 1950 1960 1970 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

11,788 32,778 78,178 215,578 227,342 221,343 207,203 211,480 230,250 259,562 314,307 333,501 373,436

3,579 11,198 22,790 44,978 46,957 44,509 44,339 46,730 46,909 49,994 57,783 62,610 66,856

1,733 6,681 24,516 96,539 101,318 99,877 92,178 91,589 105,171 122,165 150,439 156,932 176,736

19 254 1,483 6,243 6,807 6,872 7,661 7,936 9,235 11,332 15,684 17,927 19,341

Source: Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, (Washington, D.C., 1992), 364.

TABLE 4.49 DIRECT FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN THE UNITED STATES, BY AREA AND COUNTRY, 1980–1990 (in millions of dollars) Area and Industry

1980

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

All areas Petroleum Manufacturing Finance and insurance Trade, wholesale and retail

83,046 12,200 32,993 12,027 15,210

137,061 18,209 47,665 10,934 26,513

164,583 25,400 51,802 24,881 31,219

184,615 28,270 59,584 27,429 35,873

220,414 29,094 71,963 34,978 42,920

263,394 37,815 93,865 39,455 45,399

314,754 36,006 122,582 44,010 53,590

368,924 40,345 150,949 59,597 54,005

396,702 42,165 157,431 53,782 59,627

Canada Petroleum Manufacturing Finance and insurance

12,162 1,817 5,227 1,612

11,434 1,391 3,313 1,061

15,286 1,544 4,115 3,245

17,131 1,589 4,607 4,008

20,318 1,432 6,108 4,283

24,684 1,088 8,085 5,797

26,566 1,181 9,730 5,769

30,370 1,141 9,766 7,356

30, 037 1,394 9,652 7,779

Europe Petroleum Manufacturing Finance and insurance

54,688 10,137 21,953 8,673

92,936 16,326 36,866 8,450

108,211 23,142 39,083 15,945

121,413 25,636 45,841 17,022

144,181 26,139 56,016 21,787

181,006 35,700 74,300 26,336

208,942 33,499 95,641 27,121

239,190 32,649 118,129 33,157

250,973 33,608 121,292 29,400

United Kingdom Petroleum Manufacturing Finance and insurance

14,105 2257 6,159 3,350

32,152 5,955 9,221 3,777

38,387 10,991 9,179 5,485

43,555 12,155 11,687 6,483

55,935 11,758 16,500 10,163

75,519 17,950 30,372 9,801

95,698 19,522 41,708 11,256

103,458 16,666 50,166 12,790

102,790 15,841 47,304 12,577

Netherlands Petroleum Manufacturing Switzerland Manufacturing Finance and insurance

19,140 9,265 4,777 5,070 3,116 1,033

29,182 8,646 11,222 7,464 4,165 1,830

33,728 9,981 12,497 8,146 4,774 ...

37,056 11,481 13,351 10,568 6,881 5,425

40,717 ... 13,293 12,058 7,520 2,517

46,636 ... 15,615 13,772 6,921 3,211

48,128 9,045 17,843 14,372 7,613 3,506

56,734 10,061 23,090 18,746 11,798 4,492

63,938 12,686 24,717 17,745 10,393 4,796

Germany Manufacturing Finance and insurance Other Europe Petroleum Manufacturing Finance and insurance

7,596 3,875 1,248 8,777 991 4,026 1,193

10,845 4,487 1,416 13,293 1,679 7,771 2908

12,330 4,389 1,902 15,620 2,080 7,704 ...

14,816 6,015 ... 15,417 ... 7,907 ...

17,250 7,426 1,962 18,221 ... 11,277 ...

21,905 10,298 3,442 23,174 ... 11,094 2,189

25,250 13,980 2,683 25,494 4,580 14,497 406

28,386 15,560 3,139 31,866 4,786 17,515 2,519

28,309 15,695 2,484 38,191 4,806 23,183 1,408

Japan

4,723

11,336

16,044

19,313

26,824

34,421

51,126

67,268

81,775

11,472

21,356

25,043

26,758

29,091

23,283

28,120

32,096

33,917

Other areas

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 798.

94


TABLE 4.50

U.S. MERCHANDISE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS BY PRINCIPAL END-USE CATEGORY, 1965–1990

(billions of dollars; quarterly data seasonally adjusted) Exports

Imports

Nonagricultural Products

Year or Quarter Total

Agricultural Products

Nonpetroleum Products

Total

Industrial Supplies and Materials

Capital Goods Except Automotive

Automotive

Other

Total

Petroleum and Products

Total

Industrial Supplies and Materials

Capital Goods Except Automotive

Automotive

Other

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

26.5 29.3 30.7 33.6 36.4

6.3 6.9 6.5 6.3 6.1

20.2 22.4 24.2 27.3 30.3

7.6 8.2 8.5 9.6 10.3

8.1 8.9 9.9 11.1 12.4

1.9 2.4 2.8 3.5 3.9

2.6 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.7

21.5 25.5 26.9 33.0 35.8

2.0 2.1 2.1 2.4 2.6

1.5 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.4

19.5 23.4 24.8 30.6 33.2

9.1 10.2 10.0 12.0 11.8

0.9 1.8 2.4 4.0 4.9

8.0 9.2 9.9 11.8 13.0

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

42.5 43.3 49.4 71.4 98.3

7.4 7.8 9.5 18.0 22.4

35.1 35.5 39.9 53.4 75.9

12.3 10.9 11.9 17.0 26.3

14.7 15.4 16.9 22.0 30.9

3.9 4.7 5.5 6.9 8.6

4.3 4.5 5.6 7.6 10.0

39.9 45.6 55.8 70.5 103.8

2.9 3.7 4.7 8.4 26.6

4.0 4.3 5.9 8.3 9.8

36.9 41.9 51.1 62.1 77.2

12.4 13.8 16.3 19.6 27.8

5.5 7.4 8.7 10.3 12.0

15.0 16.4 20.2 23.9 27.5

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

107.1 114.7 120.8 142.1 184.5

22.2 23.4 24.3 29.9 35.6

84.8 91.4 96.5 112.2 148.9

26.8 28.4 29.8 34.0 52.1

36.6 39.1 39.8 47.3 60.0

10.6 12.1 13.4 15.7 18.3

10.8 11.7 13.5 15.2 18.5

98.2 124.2 151.9 176.0 212.0

27.0 34.6 45.0 42.6 61.0

10.2 12.3 14.0 19.4 24.5

71.2 89.7 106.9 133.4 151.1

24.0 29.8 35.7 40.6 47.5

11.7 16.2 18.6 25.0 26.5

25.3 31.4 38.6 48.4 52.6

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

224.3 237.1 211.2 201.8 219.9

42.2 44.0 37.2 37.1 38.4

182.1 193.0 174.0 164.7 181.5

65.3 63.8 58.0 52.9 56.8

76.3 83.9 76.0 71.3 77.0

17.4 19.7 17.4 18.6 22.6

23.2 25.6 22.5 21.8 25.1

249.8 265.1 247.6 268.9 332.4

79.4 78.6 62.0 55.3 58.0

31.4 36.9 38.4 43.2 60.5

170.4 186.5 185.6 213.6 274.4

52.9 56.4 48.9 53.9 66.0

28.1 30.9 34.0 43.2 56.6

58.0 62.3 64.3 73.3 91.4

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

215.9 223.4 250.3 320.3 361.5 389.6

29.6 27.4 29.5 38.2 42.2 40.2

186.4 196.0 220.7 282.1 319.3 349.3

54.8 59.4 63.6 82.6 91.9 96.7

79.6 82.9 92.4 119.0 139.3 153.8

25.1 25.3 28.1 33.9 34.9 37.4

26.8 28.3 36.6 46.6 53.1 61.4

338.1 368.4 409.8 447.3 477.4 497.7

51.3 34.4 42.9 39.6 50.9 62.1

61.4 72.1 85.1 102.2 112.5 116.4

286.8 334.0 366.8 407.7 426.4 435.6

62.4 69.9 70.8 83.1 84.2 82.5

65.1 78.1 85.2 87.9 87.4 87.3

97.9 113.9 125.7 134.5 142.4 149.3

Source: Economic Advisors, Economic Report of the President, 1992, 414.

TABLE 4.51 U.S. RELIANCE ON FOREIGN SUPPLIES OF MINERALS

Mineral

Percent Imported in 1990

Columbium Graphite Manganese Mica (sheet) Strontium (Celestite)

100 100 100 100 100

Bauxite and alumina Diamonds (industrial) Fluorspar

Major Sources (1986–1989)

Major Uses

Brazil, Canada,Thailand, Germany Mexico, China, Brazil, Madagascar Gabon, South Africa India, Belgium, France, Brazil Mexico, Spain, Germany

Steelmaking and aerospace alloys Metallurgical processes Steelmaking Electronic and electrical equipment Television picture tubes, pyrotechnics

98 92 90

Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Suriname South Africa, Britain, Ireland, Zaire Mexico, South Africa

Platinum group

88

South Africa, Britain, USSR

Aluminum production Machinery for grinding and cutting Raw material for metallurgical and chemical industries Catalytic converters for autos, electrical and electronic equipment

Cobalt Tantalum Nickel Chromium Tin

86 85 83 79 76

Zaire, Zambia, Canada, Norway Thailand, Brazil, Australia, Germany Canada, Australia, Norway South Africa, Zimbabwe,Turkey,Yugoslavia Brazil, Indonesia, China

Aerospace alloys Electronic components Stainless steel and other alloys Stainless steel Cans, electrical construction

Tungsten Barite Potash Cadmium Silver

73 69 68 54 NA

China, Bolivia, Germany, Peru China, Morocco, India Canada, Israel, USSR Canada, Australia, Mexico, Germany Canada, Mexico, Britain, Peru

Lamp filaments Oil drilling fluids Fertilizer Batteries, plating and coating of metals Photography, electrical and electronic products

Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines information, cited in World Almanac, 1992, 685.


95

TABLE 4.52 JAPANESE-OWNED MANUFACTURING PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY STATE, 1989 Manufacturing Plants

State

By Number of Plants

Ala. Alaska Ariz.

17 26 10

1. Calif. 2. Ohio 3. Ill.

Ark. Calif. Colo.

13 235 10

4. Ga. 5. Mich. 6. Ind.

Conn. Del. D.C.

9 2 0

7. Ky. 8.Tex. 9. N.J.

Fla. Ga. Hawaii

14 65 14

10. N.C. 11.Tenn. 12.Wash.

Idaho Ill. Ind.

1 86 53

13. Pa. 14. N.Y. 15. Alaska

Iowa Kans. Ky.

6 6 49

16. Mass. 17. S.C. 18. Oreg.

La. Maine Md.

4 9 12

19. N.H. 20. Ala Va.

Mass. Mich. Minn.

24 61 5

22. Mo. 23. Fla. Hawaii

State

Manufacturing Plants

By Number of Plants

Miss. Mo. Mont.

7 15 0

25. Ark. 26. Md. 27. Okla.

Nebr. Nev. N.H.

9 9 20

28. Ariz. Colo. 30. Conn.

N.J. N.Mex. N.Y.

47 2 35

Maine Nebr. Nev.

N.C. N.Dak. Ohio

43 0 100

34. Miss. Wis. 36. Iowa

Okla. Oreg. Pa.

11 22 36

Kans. 38. Minn. 39. La.

R.I. S.C. S.Dak.

1 23 1

Utah Vt. 42. Del.

Tenn. Tex. Utah

41 48 4

N.Mex. W.Va. 45. Idaho

Vt. Va. Wash.

4 17 40

R.I. S.Dak. 48. D.C.

W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

2 7 0

Mont. N.Dak. Wyo.

U.S.

1,275

Source: Congressional Quarterly, Inc., CQ’s State Fact Finder: Ranking Across America (Washington, D.C., 1993), 32.

TABLE 4.53

U.S. INVESTMENT ABROAD BY COUNTRY, 1980–1990

(in millions of dollars) 1990 Country All countries Developed countries

1985

1987

1988

1989

215,375

230,250

314,307

335,893

370,091

158,214

172,058

237,508

252,649

274,564

Manufacturing

Petroleum

421,494

168,220

59,736

98,889

312,186

134,658

41,551

67,917

Total

Finance

Canada

45,119

46,909

57,783

62,656

65,548

68,431

33,231

10,691

12,025

Europe Austria Belgium Denmark France Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom West Germany

96,287 524 6,259 1,266 9,347 347 2,319 5,397 652 8,039 1,679 257 2,678 1,474 11,280 207 28,460 15,415

105,171 493 5,038 1,281 7,643 210 3,693 5,906 690 7,129 3,215 237 2,281 933 15,766 234 33,024 16,764

150,439 691 7,267 1,070 11,868 132 5,425 9,264 660 14,842 3,843 495 4,076 1,139 19,665 207 44,512 24,388

157,077 669 7,501 1,161 13,041 195 5,886 9,496 841 16,145 4,371 546 4,966 1,119 18,734 246 49,459 21,832

175,213 588 7,941 1,234 14,069 264 5,522 10,294 1,127 18,133 3,547 488 6,096 1,129 19,209 310 59,827 24,550

204,204 767 9,462 1,633 17,134 300 6,776 12,971 1,119 22,778 3,633 590 7,480 1,526 23,733 507 64,983 27,715

83,992 63 4,331 286 11,051 84 4,885 8,535 539 8,144 121 285 4,998 1,060 1,177 117 20,636 17,489

24,356 ... 327 ... ... 37 241 605 22 1,636 2,954 ... 116 16 ... 173 11,331 3,136

52,227 ... 2,059 295 960 ... 1,549 1,005 238 8,642 ... ... 3 36 11,049 ... 23,071 2,863

6,225 7,654 579 2,350

9,235 8,772 576 1,394

15,684 11,363 743 1,497

18,009 12,823 833 1,252

18,488 13,331 1,140 843

20,994 14,529 3,139 889

10,623 6,060 341 411

3,419 2,615 ... ...

2,240 1,116 257 54

Japan Australia New Zealand South Africa

96

1980


1990 Country Developing countries

1980

1985

1987

1988

1989

Total

Manufacturing

Petroleum

Finance

53,206

52,764

73,017

80,060

92,098

105,721

33,562

15,658

30,972

38,761

28,261

47,551

53,506

62,727

72,467

23,802

5,275

27,250

South America Argentina Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Peru Venezuela

16,342 2,540 7,704 536 1,012 322 1,665 1,908

17,623 2,705 8,893 88 2,148 361 1,243 1,588

21,227 2,744 10,951 348 3,104 466 1,022 2,095

21,815 2,597 12,609 672 2,248 431 976 1,903

23,612 2,684 14,522 1,069 1,977 393 939 1,503

24,920 2,889 15,416 1,341 2,043 389 600 1,581

15,242 1,566 11,286 275 799 174 78 963

2,038 437 650 ... ... 121 22 278

2,065 164 1,351 418 30 ... ... 74

Central America Mexico Panama Other Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras

10,193 5,986 3,170 1,037 303 105 229 288

9,658 5,088 3,959 611 113 73 213 171

12,218 4,913 6,622 683 141 51 174 185

13,380 5,712 6,874 794 169 56 201 240

16,050 7,280 7,889 881 163 57 215 317

18,911 9,360 8,521 1,029 193 66 245 315

8,171 7,314 363 494 ... ... ... ...

2,269 80 1,927 263 ... ... ... ...

5,647 314 5,312 21 ... ... ... ...

Other W. Hemisphere Bahamas Bermuda Dominican Republic Jamaica Netherlands Antilles Trinidad and Tobago

12,226 2,712 11,045 316 407 24,336 951

980 3,795 13,116 212 122 220,499 484

14,106 3,814 19,215 156 103 214,235 400

18,311 4,112 19,022 138 134 29,983 447

23,065 4,257 17,717 361 223 25,956 503

28,636 4,301 18,972 478 276 21,401 413

389 60 ... ... 152 38 9

967 235 260 ... ... ... ...

19,539 841 18,185 ... 3 21,689 6

Other Africa Egypt Libya Nigeria

3,778 1,038 575 18

4,497 1,926 325 44

4,372 1,669 310 894

4,219 1,637 315 660

3,993 1,744 252 406

3,780 1,451 246 210

416 45 ... 67

2,716 1,117 228 163

265 24 ... ...

Middle East Israel Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Bahrain

2,163 379 1,037 384 216

4,606 717 2,442 792 440

4,084 635 2,092 694 2340

3,806 701 1,782 672 2311

4,166 756 1,955 652 228

4,755 818 2,523 584 2100

911 311 576 13 ...

2,033 ... 558 ... ...

884 ... ... ... ...

Other Asia and Pacific China:Taiwan Hong Kong India Indonesia Malaysia Philippines Singapore South Korea Thailand Other China: Mainland

8,505 498 2,078 398 1,314 632 1,259 1,204 575 361 186 26

15,400 750 3,295 383 4,475 1,140 1,032 1,874 743 1,074 635 311

17,010 1,372 4,389 439 3,070 952 1,396 2,384 1,178 1,274 556 207

18,528 1,621 5,240 436 2,921 1,135 1,513 2,311 1,501 1,132 719 307

21,212 1,921 5,948 527 3,770 1,174 1,657 2,318 1,855 1,271 772 371

24,719 2,273 6,537 639 3,827 1,425 1,655 3,971 2,096 1,515 782 289

8,433 1,449 775 511 135 861 818 2,361 920 461 141 ...

5,635 29 188 11 3,209 379 149 775 7 719 207 ...

2,573 127 2,007 21 ... 47 95 126 98 23 ... ...

Latin America

International

3,955

5,428

3,782

3,184

3,430

3,586

–

2,527

–

Addendum—OPEC

6,090

10,383

9,899

8,827

9,046

9,828

1,930

5,516

941


Employment Working and the workforce changed in many ways during the years 1946 to 1990. The labor force and the number of people employed roughly doubled. People employed on farms shrank from some 10 million to fewer than 3 million, and the displaced farmers needed to be absorbed into the nonagricultural workforce. More people were working, and the people who worked represented a larger portion of the general population. The unemployment rate continued to be one of the two or three most important economic indicators.The rate fluctuated fairly broadly—from a low of 2.9 percent in 1953 to a high of nearly 10 percent in 1982. Lowest rates corresponded with the period after the Second World War and during the Vietnam War era; highest rates began with the end of the war in Indochina and reached almost to the end of the 1980s.

The most important shifts in employment practices involved a stagnation (and eventually a decline) in traditional manufacturing work that set in in the 1960s and became persistent and seemingly permanent. Despite a huge growth in population, there were fewer manufacturing jobs in 1990 than there had been in 1966. The great growth came in service work—a nearly sixfold increase between 1947 and 1990 and more than threefold growth in all servicerelated areas. By the 1980s appealing and rewarding opportunities had broadened in various highly skilled technological industries. In spite of constant conservative complaints about centralization of power and the bloated Washington bureacracy, employment in the national government increased slowly; the largest growth came in state and local government, if only because there were so many more units. The American Economy

97

An element receiving increased attention in the workplace was the intersection between race, ethnicity, gender, and employment practices.The starting point had been the scarcity of opportunities open to members of minority groups—the “last hired, first fired’’ adage applied to blacks, their high unemployment rate and concentration in low-paying menial jobs. Employment had been a part of the Civil Rights movement, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 carried specific antidiscrimination provisions.That measure also had introduced a new term: affirmative action, which by the 1980s had been redefined to mean preferential employment treatment for members of designated underrepresented groups. The unemployment rate for blacks in 1990 was approximately double that of the white rate. Perhaps the most striking change in the composition of the workforce was the increase in the number of women. If approximately 33

TABLE 4.54

percent of women had been working in 1950, by 1990 it had grown to nearly 60 percent, and women were making up nearly half of the workforce. More than half of married women worked; more than 80 percent of black women with children 6–13 worked. Women were having fewer children, having them later, or returning to work after childbirth. Many women still worked in such traditionally female jobs as nursing, clerical, and elementary school teaching, but women in growing numbers had broken into previously male-dominated professions. Better educated and trained for specific careers, women also could claim the offerings of affirmative-action programs. Perhaps the largest changes produced from affirmative action came in the area of gender.

EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF THE CIVILIAN NONINSTITUTIONAL POPULATION, 1947–1990a

(thousands of persons) Civilian Labor Force Employed

Year

Civilian Noninstitutional Population

Total

Percent of Population

Total

Percent of Population

Unemployed

Agriculture

Nonagricultural Industries

Number

Percent of Labor Force

Not in Labor Force

1947 1948 1949

101,827 103,068 103,994

59,350 60,621 61,286

58.3 58.8 58.9

57,038 58,343 57,651

56.0 56.6 55.4

7,890 7,629 7,658

49,148 50,714 49,993

2,311 2,276 3,637

3.9 3.8 5.9

42,477 42,447 42,708

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

104,995 104,621 105,231 107,056 108,321

62,208 62,017 62,138 63,015 63,643

59.2 59.2 59.0 58.9 58.8

58,918 59,961 60,250 61,179 60,109

56.1 57.3 57.3 57.1 55.5

7,160 6,726 6,500 6,260 6,205

51,758 53,235 53,749 54,919 53,904

3,288 2,055 1,883 1,834 3,532

5.3 3.3 3.0 2.9 5.5

42,787 42,604 43,093 44,041 44,678

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

109,683 110,954 112,265 113,727 115,329

65,023 66,552 66,929 67,639 68,369

59.3 60.0 59.6 59.5 59.3

62,170 63,799 64,071 63,036 64,630

56.7 57.5 57.1 55.4 56.0

6,450 6,283 5,947 5,586 5,565

55,722 57,514 58,123 57,450 59,065

2,852 2,750 2,859 4,602 3,740

4.4 4.1 4.3 6.8 5.5

44,660 44,402 45,336 46,088 46,960

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

117,245 118,771 120,153 122,416 124,485

69,628 70,459 70,614 71,833 73,091

59.4 59.3 58.8 58.7 58.7

65,778 65,746 66,702 67,762 69,305

56.1 55.4 55.5 55.4 55.7

5,458 5,200 4,944 4,687 4,523

60,318 60,546 61,759 63,076 64,782

3,852 4,714 3,911 4,070 3,786

5.5 6.7 5.5 5.7 5.2

47,617 48,312 49,539 50,583 51,394

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

126,513 128,058 129,874 132,028 134,335

74,455 75,770 77,347 78,737 80,734

58.9 59.2 59.6 59.6 60.1

71,088 72,895 74,372 75,920 77,902

56.2 56.9 57.3 57.5 58.0

4,361 3,979 3,844 3,817 3,606

66,726 68,915 70,527 72,103 74,296

3,366 2,875 2,975 2,817 2,832

4.5 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.5

52,058 52,288 52,527 53,291 53,602

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

137,085 140,216 144,126 147,096 150,120

82,771 84,382 87,034 89,429 91,949

60.4 60.2 60.4 60.8 61.3

78,678 79,367 82,153 85,064 86,794

57.4 56.6 57.0 57.8 57.8

3,463 3,394 3,484 3,470 3,515

75,215 75,972 78,669 81,594 83,279

4,093 5,016 4,882 4,365 5,156

4.9 5.9 5.6 4.9 5.6

54,315 55,834 57,091 57,667 58,171

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

153,153 156,150 159,033 161,910 164,863

93,775 96,158 99,009 102,251 104,962

61.2 61.6 62.3 63.2 63.7

85,846 88,752 92,017 96,048 98,824

56.1 56.8 57.9 59.3 59.9

3,408 3,331 3,283 3,387 3,347

82,438 85,421 88,734 92,661 95,477

7,929 7,406 6,991 6,202 6,137

8.5 7.7 7.1 6.1 5.8

59,377 59,991 60,025 59,659 59,900

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

167,745 170,130 172,271 174,215 176,383

106,940 108,670 110,204 111,550 113,544

63.8 63.9 64.0 64.0 64.4

99,303 100,397 99,526 100,834 105,005

59.2 59.0 57.8 57.9 59.5

3,364 3,368 3,401 3,383 3,321

95,938 97,030 96,125 97,450 101,685

7,637 8,273 10,678 10,717 8,539

7.1 7.6 9.7 9.6 7.5

60,806 61,460 62,067 62,665 62,839

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

178,206 180,587 182,753 184,613 186,393 189,164

115,461 117,834 119,865 121,669 123,869 125,840

64.8 65.3 65.6 65.9 66.5 66.5

107,150 109,597 112,440 114,968 117,342 118,793

60.1 60.7 61.5 62.3 63.0 62.8

3,179 3,163 3,208 3,169 3,199 3,223

103,971 106,434 109,232 111,800 114,142 115,570

8,312 8,237 7,425 6,701 6,528 7,047

7.2 7.0 6.2 5.5 5.3 5.6

62,744 62,752 62,888 62,944 62,523 63,324

a Applies to persons more than 16 years old who were not institutionalized, as in correctional facilities, nursing homes, or juvenile detention centers. Source: Eva E. Jacobs, ed., Handbook of Labor Statistics (Lanham, Md., 1997), 11.

98


TABLE 4.55

EMPLOYEES ON NONAGRICULTURAL PAYROLLS, BY MAJOR INDUSTRY, 1946–1990

(thousands of persons; monthly data seasonally adjusted) Goods-Producing Industries

Service-Producing Industries

Manufacturing

Mining

Construction

Total

NonduraDurable ble Goods Goods

Year Total

Total

1946 1947 1948 1949

41,652 43,857 44,866 43,754

17,248 18,509 18,774 17,565

862 955 994 930

1,683 2,009 2,198 2,194

14,703 15,545 15,582 14,441

7,785 8,358 8,298 7,462

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

45,197 47,819 48,793 50,202 48,990

18,506 19,959 20,198 21,074 19,751

901 929 898 866 791

2,364 2,637 2,668 2,659 2,646

15,241 16,393 16,632 17,549 16,314

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

50,641 52,369 52,853 51,324 53,268

20,513 21,104 20,964 19,513 20,411

792 822 828 751 732

2,839 3,039 2,962 2,817 3,004

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

54,189 53,999 55,549 56,653 58,283

20,434 19,857 20,451 20,640 21,005

712 672 650 635 634

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

60,765 63,901 65,803 67,897 70,384

21,926 23,158 23,308 23,737 24,361

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

70,880 71,214 73,675 76,790 78,265

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

TransportaFinance, tion Insurand Wholeance, Public sale Retail and Real SerUtilities Trade Trade Estate vices

Total Federal

State and Local

4,697 5,025 5,181 5,239

5,595 5,474 5,650 5,856

2,254 1,892 1,863 1,908

3,341 3,582 3,787 3,948

1,888 1,956 2,035 2,111 2,200

5,356 5,547 5,699 5,835 5,969

6,026 6,389 6,609 6,645 6,751

1,928 2,302 2,420 2,305 2,188

4,098 4,087 4,188 4,340 4,563

7,601 7,831 7,848 7,761 8,035

2,298 2,389 2,438 2,481 2,549

6,240 6,497 6,708 6,765 7,087

6,914 7,278 7,616 7,839 8,083

2,187 2,209 2,217 2,191 2,233

4,727 5,069 5,399 5,648 5,850

3,153 3,142 3,207 3,258 3,347

8,238 8,195 8,359 8,520 8,812

2,628 2,688 2,754 2,830 2,911

7,378 7,619 7,982 8,277 8,660

8,353 8,594 8,890 9,225 9,596

2,270 2,279 2,340 2,358 2,348

6,083 6,315 6,550 6,868 7,248

4,036 4,158 4,268 4,318 4,442

3,477 3,608 3,700 3,791 3,919

9,239 9,637 9,906 10,308 10,785

2,977 3,058 3,185 3,337 3,512

9,036 9,498 10,045 10,567 11,169

10,074 10,784 11,391 11,839 12,195

2,378 2,564 2,719 2,737 2,758

7,696 8,220 8,672 9,102 9,437

47,302 48,278 50,007 51,897 53,471

4,515 4,476 4,541 4,656 4,725

4,006 4,014 4,127 4,291 4,447

11,034 11,338 11,822 12,315 12,539

3,645 3,772 3,908 4,046 4,148

11,548 11,797 12,276 12,857 13,441

12,554 12,881 13,334 13,732 14,170

2,731 2,696 2,684 2,663 2,724

9,823 10,185 10,649 11,068 11,446

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

54,345 56,030 58,125 61,113 63,363

4,542 4,582 4,713 4,923 5,136

4,430 4,562 4,723 4,985 5,221

12,630 13,193 13,792 14,556 14,972

4,165 4,271 4,467 4,724 4,975

13,892 14,551 15,302 16,252 17,112

14,686 14,871 15,127 15,672 15,947

2,748 2,733 2,727 2,753 2,773

11,937 12,138 12,399 12,919 13,174

8,127 8,089 7,767 7,726 7,899

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

64,748 65,659 65,753 66,866 69,769

5,146 5,165 5,082 4,954 5,159

5,292 5,376 5,296 5,286 5,574

15,018 15,172 15,161 15,595 16,526

5,160 5,298 5,341 5,468 5,689

17,890 18,619 19,036 19,694 20,797

16,241 16,031 15,837 15,869 16,024

2,866 2,772 2,739 2,774 2,807

13,375 13,259 13,098 13,096 13,216

7,796 7,761 7,858 7,969 8,022 7,995

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

72,660 74,967 77,492 80,363 83,007 85,014

5,238 5,255 5,372 5,527 5,644 5,826

5,736 5,774 5,865 6,055 6,221 6,205

17,336 17,909 18,462 19,077 19,549 19,683

5,955 6,283 6,547 6,649 6,695 6,739

21,999 23,053 24,235 25,669 27,120 28,240

16,394 16,693 17,010 17,386 17,779 18,322

2,875 2,899 2,943 2,971 2,988 3,085

13,519 13,794 14,067 14,415 14,791 15,237

Year

Total

6,918 7,187 7,285 6,979

1946 1947 1948 1949

24,404 25,348 26,092 26,189

4,061 4,166 4,189 4,001

2,298 2,478 2,612 2,610

6,077 6,477 6,659 6,654

1,675 1,728 1,800 1,828

8,066 9,059 9,320 10,080 9,101

7,175 7,334 7,313 7,468 7,213

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

26,691 27,860 28,595 29,128 29,239

4,034 4,226 4,248 4,290 4,084

2,643 2,735 2,821 2,862 2,875

6,743 7,007 7,184 7,385 7,360

16,882 17,243 17,174 15,945 16,675

9,511 9,802 9,825 8,801 9,342

7,370 7,442 7,351 7,144 7,333

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

30,128 31,266 31,889 31,811 32,857

4,141 4,244 4,241 3,976 4,011

2,934 3,027 3,037 2,989 3,092

2,926 2,859 2,948 3,010 3,097

16,796 16,326 16,853 16,995 17,274

9,429 9,041 9,450 9,586 9,785

7,367 7,285 7,403 7,410 7,489

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

33,755 34,142 35,098 36,013 37,278

4,004 3,903 3,906 3,903 3,951

632 627 613 606 619

3,232 3,317 3,248 3,350 3,575

18,062 19,214 19,447 19,781 20,167

10,374 11,250 11,408 11,594 11,862

7,688 7,963 8,039 8,187 8,304

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

38,839 40,743 42,495 44,160 46,023

23,578 22,935 23,668 24,893 24,794

623 609 628 642 697

3,588 3,704 3,889 4,097 4,020

19,367 18,623 19,151 20,154 20,077

11,176 10,604 11,022 11,863 11,897

8,190 8,019 8,129 8,291 8,181

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

76,945 79,382 82,471 86,697 89,823

22,600 23,352 24,346 25,585 26,461

752 779 813 851 958

3,525 3,576 3,851 4,229 4,463

18,323 18,997 19,682 20,505 21,040

10,662 11,051 11,570 12,245 12,730

7,661 7,946 8,112 8,259 8,310

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

90,406 91,156 89,566 90,200 94,496

25,658 1,027 25,497 1,139 23,813 1,128 23,334 952 24,727 966

4,346 4,188 3,905 3,948 4,383

20,285 20,170 18,781 18,434 19,378

12,159 12,082 11,014 10,707 11,479

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

97,519 99,525 102,200 105,536 108,329 109,971

24,859 24,558 24,708 25,173 25,322 24,958

4,673 4,816 4,967 5,110 5,187 5,136

19,260 18,965 19,024 19,350 19,442 19,111

11,464 11,203 11,167 11,381 11,420 11,115

927 777 717 713 693 711

Government

Source: Council of Advisors, Economic Report of the President, 1992, 344–345.


99

Weary and grimy, underground miners finish a shift at Kopperston,West Virginia, August, 22 1946. (National Archives)

Gender and Professions: An Opinion Poll, 1950 Interviewing Date 6/4–9/50 Survey #456-K Question #14 Suppose a young man came to you and asked your advice about taking up a profession. Assuming that he was qualified to enter any of these professions, which one of them would you first recommend to him? (on card) Doctor of medicine Engineer, builder Business executive Clergyman Lawyer Government worker

29% 16% 8% 8% 8% 6%

Professor, teacher Banker Dentist Veterinarian None, don’t know

5% 4% 4% 3% 9%

Interviewing Date 6/4–9/50 Survey #456-K

Question #15

Suppose a young girl came to you and asked your advice about taking up a profession. Assuming that she was qualified to enter any of these professions, which one of them would you first recommend? Nurse 33% Teacher 15% Secretary 8% Social service worker 8% Dietician 7% Dressmaker 4% Beautician 4% Airline stewardess 3%

Actress Journalist Musician Model Librarian Medical, dental technician Others Don’t know

3% 2% 2% 2% 2% 1% 2% 4%

The views of men on this subject were nearly identical with those of women. Source: (Both Questions) American Institute of Public Opinion, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (New York, 1972), 925. 100


TABLE 4.56 WOMEN IN THE LABOR FORCE, 1940–1990

Year

Number (thousands)

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1988 1989 1990

12,845 18,408 23,268 31,580 45,611 54,904 56,198 56,554

TABLE 4.57 MOTHERS PARTICIPATING IN THE LABOR FORCE, 1955–1990

% Female % of Labor Force Population Population Age 16 and Older Age 16 and Older 25.4 33.9 37.8 43.4 51.6 56.6 57.5 57.5

24.3 29.0 32.5 37.2 42.0 44.5 44.8 45.3


(figures in percentage) Mothers with Children

Year

Under 18 Years

6 to 17 Years

Under 6 Years

1955 1965 1975 1980 1981

27.0 35.0 47.4 56.6 58.1

38.4 45.7 54.8 64.4 65.5

18.2 25.3 38.9 46.6 48.9

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

58.5 58.9 60.5 62.1 62.8

65.8 66.3 68.2 69.9 70.4

49.9 50.5 52.1 53.5 54.4

1987 1988 1989 1990

64.7 65.0 ... 66.7

72.0 73.3 ... 74.7

56.7 56.1 ... 58.2


TABLE 4.58

MARITAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE, 1960–1990 Female Labor Force (1,000)

Percent Distribution, Female Labor Force

Female Labor Force as Percent of Female Population

Year

Total

Single

Married

Other

Single

Married

Other

1960 1965 1970

23,240 26,200 31,543

5,410 5,976 7,265

12,893 14,829 18,475

4,937 5,396 5,804

23.3 22.8 23.0

55.5 56.6 58.6

21.2 20.6 18.4

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

37,475 38,983 40,613 42,631 44,235

9,125 9,689 10,311 11,067 11,597

21,484 22,139 22,776 23,539 24,378

6,866 7,156 7,526 8,025 8,260

24.3 24.9 25.4 26.0 26.2

57.3 56.8 56.1 55.2 55.1

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

45,487 46,696 47,755 48,503 49,709

11,865 12,124 12,460 12,659 12,867

24,980 25,428 25,971 26,468 27,199

8,643 9,144 9,324 9,376 9,644

26.1 26.0 26.1 26.1 25.9

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

51,050 52,413 53,658 54,742 56,030

13,163 13,512 13,885 14,194 14,377

27,894 28,623 29,381 29,921 30,548

9,993 10,277 10,393 10,627 11,104

1990

56,554

14,229

30,970

11,354

Total

Single

Married

Other

37.7 39.3 43.3

58.6 54.5 56.8

31.9 34.9 40.5

41.6 40.7 40.3

18.3 18.4 18.5 18.8 18.7

46.3 47.3 48.4 50.0 50.9

59.8 61.0 62.1 63.7 64.6

44.3 45.3 46.4 47.8 49.0

40.1 40.5 41.5 42.8 43.1

54.9 54.5 54.4 54.6 54.7

19.0 19.6 19.5 19.3 19.4

51.5 52.1 52.6 52.9 53.6

64.4 64.5 65.1 65.0 65.6

49.9 50.5 51.1 51.8 52.8

43.6 44.6 44.8 44.4 44.7

25.8 25.8 25.9 25.9 25.7

54.6 54.6 54.8 54.7 54.5

19.6 19.6 19.4 19.4 19.8

54.5 55.3 56.0 56.6 57.4

66.6 67.2 67.4 67.7 68.0

53.8 54.9 55.9 56.7 57.8

45.1 45.6 45.7 46.2 47.0

25.2

54.8

20.1

57.5

66.9

58.4

47.2



101

TABLE 4.59 PERCENT OF FEMALE WORKERS IN SELECTED OCCUPATIONS, 1975–1990 Percentage of Women Employed Within Occupation Occupation

1975

1985

1990

Airline pilot Auto mechanic Bartender Bus driver Cab driver, chauffeur

– 0.5 35.2 37.7 8.7

2.6 0.6 47.9 49.2 10.9

5.1 0.8 55.6 51.6 9.5

Carpenter Child care worker Computer programmer Computer systems analyst Data entry keyer

0.6 98.4 25.6 14.8 92.8

1.2 96.1 34.3 28.0 90.7

1.3 97.0 36.0 34.5 87.2

Data-processing equipment repairer Dental assistant Dentist Economist Editor, reporter

1.8

10.4

11.4

100.0 1.8 13.1 44.6

99.0 6.5 34.5 51.7

98.7 9.5 43.8 52.0

Garage gas station attendant Lawyer, judge Librarian Mail carrier Office machine repairer

4.7 7.1 81.1 8.7 1.7

6.8 18.2 87.0 17.2 5.7

4.7 20.8 83.3 24.9 5.4

Physician Registered nurse Social worker Teacher, college/university Teacher, elementary school

13.0 97.0 60.8 31.1 85.4

17.2 95.1 66.7 35.2 84.0

19.3 94.5 68.2 37.7 85.2

Telephone installer/repairer Telephone operator Waiter Welder

4.8 93.3 91.1 4.4

12.8 88.8 84.0 4.8

11.3 89.0 80.8 4.0

Source: John Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991 (New York, 1990), 224.

TABLE 4.60 WOMEN AS A PERCENTAGE OF ALL CIVILIAN EMPLOYEES IN SELECTED OCCUPATIONS, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1990

Occupation

Percent Female All Races

Percent White Female

Percent Black Female

Percent Hispanic Origina Female

Secretary Textile sewing machine operator Health aide, except nursing Waiter Production inspector, checker, or examiner

99.0 89.2 84.8 80.8 52.2

89.5 66.5 65.6 74.2 42.4

7.5 14.6 17.0 3.3 7.9

5.1 18.0 4.7 4.3 4.5

Bus driver Financial manager Assembler Computer programmer Precision food

51.5 44.3 43.5 36.0 32.7

42.4 41.3 34.1 30.6 25.3

8.6 1.8 7.3 2.4 6.7

2.3 1.0 5.6 1.0 3.1

Insurance sales Stock handler and bagger Farm worker Physician Laborer, except construction

32.6 25.0 21.0 19.3 18.7

29.3 21.9 19.0 16.2 14.4

2.6 2.2 1.3 0.5 3.7

1.3 2.3 4.2 0.5 1.9

Police and detective force Electrical and electronic equipment repairer Engineer Construction trades

13.9 8.7 8.0 1.9

9.8 6.5 7.0 1.7

3.9 1.8 0.1 0.1

0.8 0.3 0.3 0.1

Total, all occupations

45.4

38.7

5.0

3.0

a

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Source: Paula Ries and Ann J. Stone, The American Woman 1992–93: A Status Report (New York, 1992), 340.

102


TABLE 4.61

ANNUAL INDEXES OF MANUFACTURING PRODUCTIVITY AND RELATED MEASURES, 12 COUNTRIES

(1982 5 100) Country

1960

1970

1973 1979

1980 1981 1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989 1990

Output per Hour United States Canada Japan Belgium Denmark France

58.4 51.6 18.6 24.2 32.4 30.7

77.2 76.9 52.0 44.3 57.2 58.5

89.4 91.9 66.1 57.8 72.7 68.7

97.3 103.8 88.8 82.2 92.9 89.9

96.6 99.9 92.1 87.5 98.0 90.6

97.9 104.8 95.5 94.2 99.6 93.4

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

105.0 107.3 101.9 110.2 104.9 102.5

110.0 116.3 106.1 114.6 104.3 104.5

114.8 119.8 112.0 116.4 105.0 108.8

120.0 117.9 110.3 117.8 98.9 110.8

126.4 119.0 119.4 123.0 98.4 113.0

132.1 119.6 126.6 129.8 100.4 120.6

133.3 120.2 133.1 134.9 103.1 126.4

136.6 121.8 138.0 140.5 105.5 127.7

Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Sweden United Kingdom

38.6 29.1 26.5 47.8 36.2 49.4

67.0 54.6 52.9 74.5 69.1 70.8

78.5 65.2 67.3 86.4 81.2 84.1

100.2 91.1 92.9 97.7 94.9 90.2

98.4 95.5 93.9 96.3 96.4 89.9

100.5 97.8 97.5 96.5 95.8 94.5

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

105.3 105.2 106.6 105.2 106.5 108.4

108.9 115.7 115.0 112.6 111.9 114.0

112.9 122.3 118.7 116.0 112.6 117.8

113.4 123.7 119.1 114.6 114.3 122.6

111.5 127.2 118.7 120.4 115.7 130.1

115.4 130.5 123.4 119.7 117.3 137.2

120.7 134.5 126.9 124.2 117.6 143.8

126.2 138.8 129.4 127.1 118.2 145.0

Unit Labor Costs (U.S. dollar basis) United States Canada Japan Belgium Denmark France

38.3 40.6 24.4 34.6 28.8 32.2

46.3 44.1 33.4 48.2 43.4 36.2

48.0 48.2 56.6 72.3 65.7 55.0

76.9 72.1 107.6 148.0 129.1 108.2

86.7 83.1 106.7 154.8 126.2 125.2

93.8 88.9 112.6 125.8 107.8 109.2

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

97.7 99.0 105.7 86.1 92.9 92.9

96.3 91.0 104.6 79.4 87.3 86.5

96.8 88.2 102.7 80.8 90.4 87.8

96.8 91.4 155.2 110.2 128.3 116.7

94.0 97.8 170.8 128.9 166.7 136.9

93.0 109.1 185.3 126.6 170.2 132.4

95.8 120.0 173.4 119.6 160.2 122.9

96.5 128.7 167.5 144.4 194.6 148.0

Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Sweden United Kingdom

20.4 29.5 23.7 18.7 31.3 23.4

34.2 46.0 38.9 29.8 42.8 28.7

56.4 63.1 62.0 46.0 61.0 37.7

108.9 106.9 120.4 97.5 117.4 88.3

121.2 116.3 126.8 110.2 130.2 118.1

101.7 103.2 103.0 105.2 120.4 112.1

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

94.8 99.1 91.8 92.6 84.4 85.5

86.2 89.5 77.2 85.0 81.0 76.7

85.0 87.5 75.6 85.7 84.9 77.2

119.5 115.4 104.4 110.4 109.3 91.0

153.7 136.3 129.8 131.8 129.6 102.2

157.8 137.9 130.8 145.2 140.9 111.1

147.7 138.9 119.7 137.7 145.7 106.7

175.8 171.0 141.2 157.6 172.5 128.7

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, March 1992, 91.

TABLE 4.62

CIVILIAN UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTIC, 1948–1990

(percent: monthly data seasonally adjusted) White

Black and Other or Black

Males

Year

All Civilian Workers

Total

Total

16–19 Years

Females 20 Years and Older

Total

16–19 Years

Males 20 Years and Older

Total

Total

16–19 Years


Total

20 Years 16–19 and Years Older

Black and Other 1948 1949

3.8 5.9

3.5 5.6

3.4 5.6

... ...

... ...

3.8 5.7

... ...

... ...

5.9 8.9

5.8 9.6

... ...

... ...

6.1 7.9

... ...

... ...

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

5.3 3.3 3.0 2.9 5.5

4.9 3.1 2.8 2.7 5.0

4.7 2.6 2.5 2.5 4.8

... ... ... ... 13.4

... ... ... ... 4.4

5.3 4.2 3.3 3.1 5.5

... ... ... ... 10.4

... ... ... ... 5.1

9.0 5.3 5.4 4.5 9.9

9.4 4.9 5.2 4.8 10.3

... ... ... ... 14.4

... ... ... ... 9.9

8.4 6.1 5.7 4.1 9.2

... ... ... ... 20.6

... ... ... ... 8.4

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

4.4 4.1 4.3 6.8 5.5

3.9 3.6 3.8 6.1 4.8

3.7 3.4 3.6 6.1 4.6

11.3 10.5 11.5 15.7 14.0

3.3 3.0 3.2 5.5 4.1

4.3 4.2 4.3 6.2 5.3

9.1 9.7 9.5 12.7 12.0

3.9 3.7 3.8 5.6 4.7

8.7 8.3 7.9 12.6 10.7

8.8 7.9 8.3 13.7 11.5

13.4 15.0 18.4 26.8 25.2

8.4 7.4 7.6 12.7 10.5

8.5 8.9 7.3 10.8 9.4

19.2 22.8 20.2 28.4 27.7

7.7 7.8 6.4 9.5 8.3

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

5.5 6.7 5.5 5.7 5.2

5.0 6.0 4.9 5.0 4.6

4.8 5.7 4.6 4.7 4.1

14.0 15.7 13.7 15.9 14.7

4.2 5.1 4.0 3.9 3.4

5.3 6.5 5.5 5.8 5.5

12.7 14.8 12.8 15.1 14.9

4.6 5.7 4.7 4.8 4.6

10.2 12.4 10.9 10.8 9.6

10.7 12.8 10.9 10.5 8.9

24.0 26.8 22.0 27.3 24.3

9.6 11.7 10.0 9.2 7.7

9.4 11.9 11.0 11.2 10.7

24.8 29.2 30.2 34.7 31.6

8.3 10.6 9.6 9.4 9.0

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

4.5 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.5

4.1 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1

3.6 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5

12.9 10.5 10.7 10.1 10.0

2.9 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9

5.0 4.3 4.6 4.3 4.2

14.0 12.1 11.5 12.1 11.5

4.0 3.3 3.8 3.4 3.4

8.1 7.3 7.4 6.7 6.4

7.4 6.3 6.0 5.6 5.3

23.3 21.3 23.9 22.1 21.4

6.0 4.9 4.3 3.9 3.7

9.2 8.7 9.1 8.3 7.8

31.7 31.3 29.6 28.7 27.6

7.5 6.6 7.1 6.3 5.8

1970 1971 1972

4.9 5.9 5.6

4.5 5.4 5.1

4.0 4.9 4.5

13.7 15.1 14.2

3.2 4.0 3.6

5.4 6.3 5.9

13.4 15.1 14.2

4.4 5.3 4.9

8.2 9.9 10.0

7.3 9.1 8.9

25.0 28.8 29.7

5.6 7.3 6.9

9.3 10.9 11.4

34.5 35.4 38.4

6.9 8.7 8.8


103

TABLE 4.62

(continued) White

Black and Other or Black

Males

All Civilian Workers

Year

Total

Total

16–19 Years


Total

16–19 Years

Males 20 Years and Older

Total

Total


16–19 Years

Total

20 Years 16–19 and Years Older

Black 1972 1973 1974 1975

5.6 4.9 5.6 8.5

5.1 4.3 5.0 7.8

4.5 3.8 4.4 7.2

14.2 12.3 13.5 18.3

3.6 3.0 3.5 6.2

5.9 5.3 6.1 8.6

14.2 13.0 14.5 17.4

4.9 4.3 5.1 7.5

10.4 9.4 10.5 14.8

9.3 8.0 9.8 14.8

31.7 27.8 33.1 38.1

7.0 6.0 7.4 12.5

11.8 11.1 11.3 14.8

40.5 36.1 37.4 41.0

9.0 8.6 8.8 12.2

1976 1977 1978 1979

7.7 7.1 6.1 5.8

7.0 6.2 5.2 5.1

6.4 5.5 4.6 4.5

17.3 15.0 13.5 13.9

5.4 4.7 3.7 3.6

7.9 7.3 6.2 5.9

16.4 15.9 14.4 14.0

6.8 6.2 5.2 5.0

14.0 14.0 12.8 12.3

13.7 13.3 11.8 11.4

37.5 39.2 36.7 34.2

11.4 10.7 9.3 9.3

14.3 14.9 13.8 13.3

41.6 43.4 40.8 39.1

11.7 12.3 11.2 10.9

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

7.1 7.6 9.7 9.6 7.5

6.3 6.7 8.6 8.4 6.5

6.1 6.5 8.8 8.8 6.4

16.2 17.9 21.7 20.2 16.8

5.3 5.6 7.8 7.9 5.7

6.5 6.9 8.3 7.9 6.5

14.8 16.6 19.0 18.3 15.2

5.6 5.9 7.3 6.9 5.8

14.3 15.6 18.9 19.5 15.9

14.5 15.7 20.1 20.3 16.4

37.5 40.7 48.9 48.8 42.7

12.4 13.5 17.8 18.1 14.3

14.0 15.6 17.6 18.6 15.4

39.8 42.2 47.1 48.2 42.6

11.9 13.4 15.4 16.5 13.5

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

7.2 7.0 6.2 5.5 5.3 5.5

6.2 6.0 5.3 4.7 4.5 4.7

6.1 6.0 5.4 4.7 4.5 4.8

16.5 16.3 15.5 13.9 13.7 14.2

5.4 5.3 4.8 4.1 3.9 4.3

6.4 6.1 5.2 4.7 4.5 4.6

14.8 14.9 13.4 12.3 11.5 12.6

5.7 5.4 4.6 4.1 4.0 4.1

15.1 14.5 13.0 11.7 11.4 11.3

15.3 14.8 12.7 11.7 11.5 11.8

41.0 39.3 34.4 32.7 31.9 32.1

13.2 12.9 11.1 10.1 10.0 10.4

14.9 14.2 13.2 11.7 11.4 10.8

39.2 39.2 34.9 32.0 33.0 30.0

13.1 12.4 11.6 10.4 9.8 9.6


TABLE 4.63

U.S. UNEMPLOYMENT RATES COMPARED WITH EIGHT INDUSTRIAL COUNTRIES, 1975–1990

Year

U.S.

Canada

Australia

Japan

France

West Germany

Italy

Sweden

United Kingdom

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

8.5 7.7 7.1 6.1 5.8

6.9 7.2 8.1 8.4 7.5

4.9 4.8 5.6 6.3 6.3

1.9 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.1

4.2 4.6 5.2 5.4 6.1

3.4 3.4 3.4 3.3 2.9

3.4 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.4

1.6 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.1

4.6 5.9 6.4 6.3 5.4

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

7.1 7.6 9.7 9.6 7.5

7.5 7.6 11.0 11.9 11.3

6.1 5.8 7.2 10.0 9.0

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 2.8

6.5 7.6 8.3 8.6 10.0

2.8 4.0 5.6 6.9 7.1

4.4 4.9 5.4 5.9 5.9

2.0 2.5 3.1 3.5 3.1

7.0 10.5 11.3 11.8 11.7

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

7.2 7.0 6.2 5.5 5.3 5.6

10.5 9.6 8.9 7.8 7.5 8.1

8.3 8.1 8.1 7.2 6.2 6.9

2.6 2.8 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.1

10.5 10.6 10.8 10.3 9.6 9.1

7.2 6.6 6.3 6.3 5.7 5.0

6.0 7.5 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.0

2.8 2.6 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.8

11.2 11.2 10.3 8.6 7.2 6.9

Source: Mark S. Littmann, A Statistical Portrait of the U.S., Social Conditions and Trends (Lanham, Maryland, 1998), 272.

Labor Unions The union movement began the post–Second World War period with strength but faced with major challenges. Successes of the previous decade and activities within some unions (charges of corruption and communist affiliation) had sparked an antiunion backlash that found expression in passage of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, a measure designed to restrain the union movement. In addition to other restrictions, the law contained a provision that authorized the states to legitimize the so-called open shop, in which employees could choose not to join a union. Such measures, termed right-to-work laws, passed in few, mostly southern, states. Hostility to the Taft-Hartley Act pro104


moted a measure of unity in the movement, which culminated in the merger in 1955 of the two major general unions, the AFL and the CIO—organizations that a few years earlier had been involved in bitter fratricidal conflict. From that point, however, the union movement seemed to go downhill. Most blue-collar jobs in manufacturing, mining, and construction had been unionized, and other categories of workers— women, white-collar, and professional people—showed little inclination toward organization. Companies increasingly turned to automation or moved to more business-friendly southern states. The 1960s brought the beginning of decline in manufacturing work, as

companies moved work or moved themselves out of the country. More and more goods on the American market were being produced abroad.The 1980s added to these problems a presidential administration with little sympathy for the union movement, as was exemplified in 1981 in President Ronald Reagan’s firing of air traffic controllers on strike. Long strikes at Greyhound bus line (1983) and Hormel Meatpacking (1985–86) showed management’s willingness to hire replacement workers—the hated scabs. Faced with company threats to shut down or move out, unions had to consider “give-back’’ demands, calling for low or no wage increases and reductions in fringe benefits, notably medical insurance. The internationalization of business and expansion in the American market of cheaper, foreign-produced goods further eroded local standards of labor.

The unions nonetheless scored some victories. President John F. Kennedy in an executive order in 1962 authorized unionization of federal workers, and the most successful recruitment campaigns came with public employees on all levels. Many teachers, also on several levels (including college professors), become dues-paying members of unions. By contrast, most people involved in the highly technical specialties of the global economy showed little inclination toward unionism, and many in the low-wage service work were, for one reason or another, not organized. Unionism seemed to be holding its own and gave no indication of dying out at the start of the 1990s. But it was a holding action on a lower scale. At the peak in the late 1940s, unions claimed 35 percent of the workforce as members. In 1990 they had to be content with 16–17 percent.

TABLE 4.64

TABLE 4.65 STATES WITH RIGHT-TO-WORK LAWS, 1953–1982

TRADE-UNION MEMBERSHIP, 1945–1990

Year

Members (’000s)

Percent of Labor Force

State

1953

1960

1975

1980

1982

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

14,322 14,267 16,802 17,049 17,299

35.5 31.5 33.2 31.4 28.4

Ala. Ariz. Ark. Fla. Ga.

yes yes yes no yes

yes yes yes no yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

19,381 19,611 19,843 16,996 16,740

27.3 25.5 21.9 18.0 16.1

Iowa Kans. La. Miss. Nebr.

yes yes no no yes

yes yes no yes yes

yes yes no yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes no yes yes yes

Nev. N.C. N.Dak. S.C. S.Dak.

yes yes yes no yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

Tenn. Tex. Utah Va. Wyo.

yes yes no yes no

yes yes yes yes no

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

yes yes yes yes yes

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, cited in Chris Cook, David Waller, The Longman Handbook of Modern American History, 1763–1996 (New York, 1998), 199.

Source: Leo Troy, Neil Sheflin, Union Sourcebook: Membership, Structure, Finance Directory (West Orange, N.J., 1985), 3–10.

TABLE 4.66

MEMBERSHIP IN MAJOR AFL-CIO UNIONS, 1955–1989

(in thousands) Organizations

1955

1965

Actors and Artists Automobiles, Aerospace and Agriculture (UAW) Boilermakers, Shipbuilders

34 1,260

61 1,150

151

Bricklayers Carpenters Clothing & Textile workers Communications workers Electronic workers

120 750 ... 249 ...

Electrical workers Operating Engineers Firefighters Food & commercial workers Garment workers

460 200 72 ... 383

Government employees Graphic communications Hotel & Restaurant workers Laborers Letter Carriers Assn.

47 ... 300 ... 100

1975 76

1985

1989

a

100 974

97 917

108

123

110

75

120 700 ... 288 ...

143 700 ... 476 ...

95 609 228 524 198

84 613 180 492 171

616 270 87 ... 363

856 300 123 ... 363

791 330 142 989 210

744 330 142 999 153

132 ... 300 403 130

255 ... 421 475 151

199 141 327 383 186

156 124 278 406 201


105

TABLE 4.66

(continued)

Organizations

1955

Machinists & Aerospace Musicians Oil, Chemical, Atomic Painters Paperworkers Plumbing and Pipe fitting Postal workers Retail, wholesale, department store Service employees Sheet metal workers State, county, municipal workers Steelworkers Teachers Teamsters Transit union Totals, AFL-CIO unions

1965

1975

1985

1989

627 250 160 182 ... 200 ...

663 225 140 160 ... 217 ...

780 215 145 160 275 228 249

520 671 108 133 232 226 232

517 54 71 128 210 220 213

97 ... 50

114 ... 100

118 480 120

106 688 108

137 762 108

99 980 40 ... ... 12,622

237 876 97 ... 98 12,919

647 1,062 396 ... 90 14,070

997 572 470 ... 94 13,109

1,090 481 544 1,161 96 13,556

a

Disaffiliated 7/1/68; reaffiliated 7/1/81. Source: C. D. Gifford, ed., Directory of U.S. Labor Unions (Washington, D.C., 1996), 83–85.

TABLE 4.67

WORK STOPPAGES OF 1,000 WORKERS OR MORE, 1947–1990

(workers and days idle in thousands) Stoppages Beginning in Year

Days Idle

Year

Number

Workers Involved

Number

Percent of Working Time

1947 1949 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

270 262 424 470 265 287 332 222 211 246 321 392 381 250 434 231 219 187 96 62 69 40 44

1,629 2,537 1,698 2,746 1,075 1,370 1,587 896 793 1,183 1,300 1,855 2,468 975 1,796 1,519 1,006 795 656 376 533 118 185

25,720 43,420 30,390 48,820 16,630 26,840 17,900 13,260 11,760 16,850 31,320 35,567 52,761 16,764 31,809 23,962 23,774 20,844 9,061 8,499 11,861 4,381 5,926

... 0.22 .26 .38 .13 .20 .13 .09 .08 .11 .10 .20 .29 .09 .16 .12 .11 .09 .04 .04 .05 .02 .02

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1989, 543; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 434.

TABLE 4.68 WORKERS KILLED OR DISABLED ON THE JOB, 1960–1990, AND BY INDUSTRY GROUP, 1990 Deaths Total

Deaths

Manufacturing

Nonmanufacturing

Year

Number (1,000)

Ratea

Number (1,000)

Ratea

Number (1,000)

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

13.8 14.1 13.8 13.0 13.2 11.5 11.5 11.1 11.3 11.0 10.7 10.5

21 20 18 15 13 11 11 10 10 10 9 9

1.7 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1

10 10 9 9 8 6 6 5 5 6 6 6

12.1 12.3 12.1 11.4 11.5 10.4 10.3 10.1 10.3 9.9 9.6 9.4

a Per 100,000 workers. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1992, 419.

106


Ratea 25 24 21 17 15 12 12 11 11 10 10 10

Disabling Injuries (1,000) 1,950 2,100 2,200 2,200 2,200 1,900 2,200 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,700 1,800

Industry Group, 1990

Number (1,000)

Ratea

Total Agriculture Mining and quarrying Construction Manufacturing Transportation and utilities Trade Services Government

10.5 1.3 0.3 2.1 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.6 1.6

9 42 43 33 6 22 4 4 9

Disabling Injuries (1,000) 1,800 120 30 210 360 120 330 340 290

Earnings and Income Wage earners appeared on the surface to have made considerable gains during this period. As measured in current dollars, hourly and weekly wages increased in all categories between the years 1946 and 1990.The record became much less impressive when it recorded earnings in constant dollars, which allowed for inflation, and when one took into account the changing size of the groups being measured.The areas of employment with highest wages and largest increase—manufacturing, construction, and mining—were areas that experienced little, if any, growth in the number of the people involved. Mining experienced an absolute loss. Areas of employment that contained the largest increase in numbers—notably service work and retail trade—also produced the lowest wages. There were marked differences in earnings and income relating to race, ethnicity, and gender that changed slowly, if at all, over the passage of years. In places with union-scale rates, race and ethnicity did not openly make a difference; the differences probably stemmed from job classification and promotion, which began to TABLE 4.69

moderate at the end of the period, if only because affirmativeaction mandates began to kick in. But in terms of general earnings and income, whether one measured money income or per capita or household income, whites had more than blacks by substantial amounts that had lessened only slightly by 1990. Hispanics, latecomers to the comparison tables, lagged behind black people in per capita income, but they surpassed African Americans in household income. Earning differences stemming from gender were understandably huge at the beginning of the postwar period when the bulk of society recognized and generally accepted a sharp division of labor based on sex. On average, women made about 60 percent of what men earned for the same kind of work in 1960, and nearly all the high-paying jobs went to men. Even though challenges to employment practices and principles began to surface with some regularity in the 1960s, genuine change would take time to filter through the system and would involve educational choices and opportunities, legislation, lawsuits, court trials, and of course a considerable change in attitudes. Women’s earn-

AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS OF PRODUCTION OR NONSUPERVISORY WORKERS ON PRIVATE NONAGRICULTURAL PAYROLLS, BY INDUSTRY, 1946–1990

(dollars) Manufacturing Year

Total Private

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

... ... ... ... 1.34 1.45 1.52 1.61 1.65 1.71 1.80 1.89 1.95 2.02 2.09 2.14 2.22 2.28 2.36 2.46 2.56 2.68 2.85 3.04 3.23 3.45 3.70 3.94 4.24 4.53 4.86 5.25 5.69 6.16 6.66 7.25 7.68 8.02 8.32 8.57 8.76 8.98 9.28 9.66 10.01

Mining Construction ... 1.47 1.66 1.72 1.77 1.93 2.01 2.14 2.14 2.20 2.33 2.45 2.47 2.56 2.60 2.64 2.70 2.75 2.81 2.92 3.05 3.19 3.35 3.60 3.85 4.06 4.44 4.75 5.23 5.95 6.46 6.94 7.67 8.49 9.17 10.04 10.77 11.28 11.63 11.98 12.46 12.54 12.80 13.26 13.68

... 1.54 1.71 1.79 1.86 2.02 2.13 2.28 2.38 2.45 2.57 2.71 2.82 2.93 3.07 3.20 3.31 3.41 3.55 3.70 3.89 4.11 4.41 4.79 5.24 5.69 6.06 6.41 6.81 7.31 7.71 8.10 8.66 9.27 9.94 10.82 11.63 11.94 12.13 12.32 12.48 12.71 13.08 13.54 13.77

Total 1.08 1.22 1.33 1.38 1.44 1.56 1.64 1.74 1.78 1.85 1.95 2.04 2.10 2.19 2.26 2.32 2.39 2.45 2.53 2.61 2.71 2.82 3.01 3.19 3.35 3.57 3.82 4.09 4.42 4.83 5.22 5.68 6.17 6.70 7.27 7.99 8.49 8.83 9.19 9.54 9.73 9.91 10.19 10.48 10.83

Transportation and Durable Nondurable Public Wholesale Goods Goods Utilities Trade 1.14 1.28 1.39 1.45 1.45 1.65 1.74 1.85 1.89 1.98 2.08 2.18 2.25 2.35 2.42 2.48 2.55 2.63 2.70 2.78 2.89 2.99 3.18 3.38 3.55 3.79 4.07 4.35 4.70 5.15 5.57 6.06 6.58 7.12 7.75 8.53 9.03 9.38 9.73 10.09 10.28 10.43 10.71 11.01 11.35

1.00 1.15 1.25 1.30 1.30 1.45 1.51 1.58 1.62 1.68 1.77 1.85 1.92 1.98 2.05 2.11 2.17 2.22 2.29 2.36 2.45 2.57 2.74 2.91 3.08 3.27 3.48 3.70 4.01 4.37 4.71 5.11 5.54 6.01 6.56 7.19 7.75 8.09 8.39 8.72 8.95 9.19 9.45 9.75 10.12

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.89 3.03 3.11 3.23 3.42 3.63 3.85 4.21 4.65 5.02 5.41 5.88 6.45 6.99 7.57 8.16 8.87 9.70 10.32 10.79 11.12 11.40 11.70 12.03 12.26 12.60 12.97

... 1.22 1.31 1.36 1.36 1.52 1.61 1.69 1.76 1.83 1.93 2.02 2.09 2.18 2.24 2.31 2.37 2.45 2.52 2.60 2.73 2.87 3.04 3.23 3.43 3.64 3.85 4.07 4.38 4.72 5.02 5.39 5.88 6.39 6.95 7.55 8.08 8.54 8.88 9.15 9.34 9.59 9.98 10.39 10.79

Retail Trade ... 0.84 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.06 1.09 1.16 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.37 1.42 1.47 1.52 1.56 1.63 1.68 1.75 1.82 1.91 2.01 2.16 2.30 2.44 2.60 2.75 2.91 3.14 3.36 3.57 3.85 4.20 4.53 4.88 5.25 5.48 5.74 5.85 5.94 6.03 6.12 6.31 6.53 6.75

Finance Insurance and Real Estate

Services

... 1.14 1.20 1.26 1.26 1.45 1.51 1.58 1.65 1.70 1.78 1.84 1.89 1.95 2.02 2.09 2.17 2.25 2.30 2.39 2.47 2.58 2.75 2.93 3.07 3.22 3.36 3.53 3.77 4.06 4.27 4.54 4.89 5.27 5.79 6.31 6.78 7.29 7.63 7.94 8.36 8.73 9.06 9.53 9.97

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.94 2.05 2.17 2.29 2.42 2.61 2.81 3.04 3.27 3.47 3.75 4.02 4.31 4.65 4.99 5.36 5.85 6.41 6.92 7.31 7.59 7.90 8.18 8.49 8.88 9.38 9.83

Source: Jacobs, Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1997, 132.


107

ings of 72 percent of men’s in 1990 might seem to be a gross injustice, but it represented a 12 percent gain in 10 years. In the 20 years before 1980, there had been no change at all. In the broad scope of general earning and accumulation of wealth, two trends appeared in the postwar era. The lower reaches of wage earners held their own, even scored small fractional gains in the 35 years after 1945. Losses by the highest quintile (one-fifth) income group were at least proportionate to the lowest quintile’s gain. These

TABLE 4.70

trends reversed themselves fairly abruptly at the start of the 1980s. The lowest levels of income lost in their share of national earnings, and in 10 years the highest 5 percent increased their share of national wealth by two full percentage points, which was, needless to say, a gain considerably larger than if it had been simply a 2 percent increase in previous earnings. It would appear that the proverb “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer’’ was in full swing as the last half of the 20th century was approaching an end.

AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS IN CURRENT DOLLARS, BY GROUP, 1947–1990

Industry Group

1947

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

Average weekly earning Manufacturing Mining Construction Trans., public utility

46 49 60 59 ...

53 58 68 70 ...

68 75 90 91 ...

81 90 105 113 ...

95 108 124 138 125

120 133 164 195 156

164 191 249 266 233

235 289 397 368 351

299 386 520 454 450

345 442 603 526 505

50 34

58 40

74 49

91 58

106 67

137 82

183 109

267 147

352 175

411 194

43 ...

51 ...

64 ...

75 ...

89 74

113 97

148 135

210 191

289 257

357 319

Wholesale trade Retail trade Finance, insurance, realty Services

1985

1990

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Statistics, 1989, 320–322.

TABLE 4.71

AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS IN CONSTANT (1977) DOLLARS, BY GROUP, 1947–1990

Industry Group

1947

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990a

Average weekly earning Manufacturing Mining Construction Trans., public utility

123 133 162 159 ...

134 147 169 176 ...

153 170 203 206 ...

165 183 215 230 ...

183 206 237 266 240

187 208 256 304 243

184 215 280 300 262

173 212 292 270 250

170 220 296 265 257

259 332 453 395 379

Wholesale trade Retail trade Finance, insurance, realty Services

136 92

146 100

169 110

186 118

204 128

214 128

206 123

197 108

200 100

309 146

117 ...

127 ...

145 ...

154 ...

171 141

176 151

167 152

154 140

165 146

268 240

a

Statistics for 1990 are in 1982 dollars. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Handbook of Statistics, 1989, 320–322.

TABLE 4.72 MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION WORKER STATISTICS, 1955–1990

Year

Average Average Average All Production Weekly Hourly Hours Employees Workers Earnings Earnings per Week

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

16,882,000 16,796,000 18,062,000 19,367,000 18,323,000

13,288,000 12,586,000 13,434,000 14,044,000 13,043,000

$75.30 89.72 107.53 133.33 190.79

$1.85 2.26 2.61 3.35 4.83

40.7 39.7 41.2 39.8 39.5

1980 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990

20,285,000 19,260,000 19,024,000 19,403,000 19,612,000 19,111,000

14,214,000 13,092,000 12,970,000 13,254,000 13,375,000 12,974,000

288.62 386.37 406.31 418.40 429.27 441.86

7.27 9.54 9.91 10.18 10.47 10.83

39.7 40.5 41.0 41.1 41.0 40.8


108


TABLE 4.73 COMPARISON OF MEDIAN EARNINGS OF YEAR-ROUND, FULL-TIME WORKERS 15 YEARS AND OVER, BY SEX, 1960–1990 Earnings Gap in Current Dollars

Median Earnings

Women’s Earnings as a Percent of Men’s

Percent Men’s Earnings Exceeded Women’s

Earnings Gap in Constant 1990 Dollars

Year

Women’s

Men

1960 1970 1980 1981 1982

$3,257 5,323 11,197 12,001 13,014

$5,368 8,966 18,612 20,260 21,077

2,111 3,643 7,415 8,259 8,063

60.7 59.4 60.2 59.2 61.7

64.8 68.4 66.2 68.8 62.0

8,569 11,529 11,776 11,981 11,023

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

13,915 14,780 15,624 16,232 16,911

21,881 23,218 24,195 25,256 25,946

7,966 8,438 8,571 9,024 9,035

63.6 63.7 64.7 64.3 65.2

57.2 57.1 54.9 55.6 53.4

10,453 10,614 10,411 10,761 10,395

1988 1989 1990

17,606 18,778 19,822

26,656 27,430 27,678

9,050 8,652 7,856

66.0 68.5 71.6

51.4 46.1 39.6

9,999 9,119 7,856

Source: Otto Johnson, ed., Information Please Almanac, 1993 (Boston, 1992), 59.

TABLE 4.74 EFFECTIVE FEDERAL MINIMUM HOURLY WAGE RATES, 1950–1990

In Effect

Minimum Rate for Nonfarm Workers

Percent of Average Earningsa

Minimum Rate for Farm Workers (in dollars)

1950–55 1956–60 1961–62 1963–66 1967

$0.75 1.00 1.15 1.25 1.40

54 52 50 51 50

... ... ... ... 1.00

1968–73 1974 1975 1976–77 1978

1.60 2.00 2.10 2.30 2.65

54 46 45 46 44

1.15 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.65

1979 1980 1981–88 1989–90

2.90 3.10 3.35 3.35

45 44 43 32

2.90 3.10 3.35 3.35

a

Percent of average hourly earnings in manufacturing. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1991, 418.

TABLE 4.75

MEDIAN EARNINGS BY WOMEN AND MEN WHO WORK FULL-TIME, YEAR-ROUND, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1960–1990

(income in 1991 dollars) Year

Total Women

White

Black

Hispanic

Total Men

White

Black

Hispanic

1960 1962 1964 1966 1968

13,777 14,168 14,828 15,268 16,102

... ... ... ... 16,546

... ... ... ... 12,589

... ... ... ... ...

22,706 23,893 25,070 26,528 27,688

... ... ... ... 28,432

... ... ... ... 19,198

... ... ... ... ...

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978

17,554 18,108 18,291 18,570 18,866

17,848 18,399 18,422 18,697 19,018

14,665 15,789 17,223 17,541 17,799

... ... 15,549 16,000 16,294

29,568 31,295 31,132 30,851 31,740

30,416 32,495 31,801 31,672 32,274

21,001 22,396 22,878 23,186 24,907

... ... 23,319 23,542 23,679

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

18,530 18,541 19,375 20,172 20,270 20,656

18,663 18,749 19,537 20,408 20,515 20,892

17,661 17,284 17,985 18,310 19,040 18,799

16,018 15,831 16,445 17,194 17,091 16,331

30,801 30,028 30,436 31,386 30,689 28,843

31,703 30,776 31,411 32,219 31,348 30,096

22,419 22,087 21,808 22,790 23,453 22,002

22,437 21,915 22,206 20,896 20,552 19,941

Source: Cheryl Russell and Margaret Ambry, The Official Guide to American Incomes (Ithaca, N.Y., 1993), 51–52.


109

TABLE 4.76

PER CAPITA INCOME AND PERSONAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURES, 1950–1990

(in current dollars) Personal Consumption Expenditures Year

Gross National Product

Personal Income

Disposable Personal Income

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

1,900 2,456 2,851 3,268 4,951

1,504 1,901 2,265 2,840 4,056

1,368 1,687 1,986 2,505 3,489

203 235 240 327 418

1975 1980 1985 1990

7,401 11,985 16,776 21,737

6,081 9,916 13,895 18,477

5,291 8,421 11,861 15,695

627 963 1,555 1,910

Durable Goods

Nondurable Goods

Services

Total

648 755 847 987 1,318

416 570 741 954 1,385

1,267 1,560 1,829 2,268 3,121

1,927 2,992 3,807 4,748

2,135 3,653 5,622 7,888

4,689 7,607 10,985 14,547

Source: Otto Johnson, ed., Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook, 1997 (Boston, 1996), 137.

TABLE 4.77

PER CAPITA MONEY INCOME IN CURRENT AND CONSTANT (1990) DOLLARS, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1970–1990

(in dollars) Current Dollars Year

All Races

1970 1975 1980 1981 1982

3,177 4,818 7,787 8,476 8,980

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

White

Constant (1990) Dollars

Black

Hispanic

All Races

White

Black

Hispanic

3,354 5,072 8,233 8,979 9,527

1,869 2,972 4,804 5,129 5,360

... 2,847 4,865 5,349 5,448

10,702 11,705 12,351 12,187 12,163

11,298 12,322 13,059 12,910 12,903

6,296 7,220 7,620 7,375 7,260

... 6,916 7,717 7,691 7,379

9,548 10,328 11,013 11,670 12,391

10,125 10,939 11,671 12,352 13,143

5,755 6,277 6,840 7,207 7,645

5,852 6,401 6,613 7,000 7,653

12,529 12,992 13,377 13,917 14,256

13,287 13,761 14,177 14,730 15,121

7,552 7,896 8,308 8,594 8,796

7,679 8,052 8,033 8,348 8,805

13,123 14,056 14,387

13,896 14,896 15,265

8,271 8,747 9,017

7,956 8,390 8,424

14,499 14,815 14,387

15,353 15,701 15,265

9,138 9,220 9,017

8,790 8,843 8,424


TABLE 4.78 MONEY INCOME OF HOUSEHOLDS—MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME IN CURRENT AND CONSTANT (1990) DOLLARS, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN OF HOUSEHOLDER, 1970–1990

Median Income in Current Dollars

Year

All Households

White

Black

1970 1975 1977 1978 1979

8,734 11,800 13,572 15,064 16,461

9,097 12,340 14,272 15,660 17,259

5,537 7,408 8,422 9,411 10,133

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

17,710 19,074 20,171 21,018 22,415

18,684 20,153 21,117 22,035 23,647

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

23,618 24,897 26,061 27,225 28,906 29,943

24,908 26,175 27,458 28,781 30,406 31,231

110

Median Income in Constant (1990) Dollars

Hispanic

Current Dollars


18,652 17,997 18,164 18,865 18,242

(NA) 21,536 22,963 23,660 23,479

7 6 7 11 9

2 21 1 3 22

29,636 28,977 28,601 28,915 29,747

17,073 16,261 16,210 16,368 16,946

21,653 21,999 20,557 20,726 21,375

8 8 6 4 7

25 22 ... 1 2

30,255 31,214 31,591 31,798 32,049 31,231

18,000 17,983 18,031 18,127 19,060 18,676

21,214 21,885 22,247 22,493 23,105 22,330

5 5 5 5 6 4

2 4 1 ... 1 22

All Households

White

Black

(NA) 8,865 10,647 11,803 13,042

29,421 28,667 29,272 30,197 29,634

30,644 29,978 30,781 31,392 31,071

10,764 11,309 11,968 12,473 13,471

13,651 15,300 15,178 15,794 16,992

28,091 27,425 27,320 27,581 28,197

14,819 15,080 15,672 16,407 18,083 18,676

17,465 18,352 19,336 20,359 21,921 22,330

28,688 29,690 29,984 30,079 30,468 29,943



Annual Percent Change of Median Income of All Households

Hispanic

TABLE 4.79 PERSONAL INCOME PER CAPITA IN CURRENT AND CONSTANT (1982) DOLLARS, BY STATE, 1980–1989 Current Dollars

Constant (1982) Dollars Income Rank

Region, Division, and State

1980

1985

1987

1988

1989

1980

1985

1987

1988

1989

1980

1989

United States

9,919

13,896

15,423

16,513

17,596

11,427

12,452

12,895

13,295

13,546

(X)

(X)

Northeast New England Maine N.H. Vt. Mass. R.I. Conn.

10,603 10,542 8,218 9,788 8,577 10,612 9,518 12,112

15,570 15,950 11,903 15,367 12,373 16,305 13,779 18,227

17,792 18,633 13,985 18,032 14,256 19,140 15,644 21,288

19,373 20,249 15,045 19,410 15,268 20,898 16,870 23,190

20,694 21,504 16,248 20,267 16,371 22,174 17,950 24,683

12,216 12,145 9,468 11,276 9,881 12,226 10,965 13,954

13,952 14,292 10,666 13,770 11,087 14,610 12,347 16,332

14,876 15,579 11,693 15,077 11,920 16,003 13,080 17,799

15,599 16,304 12,114 15,628 12,293 16,826 13,583 18,671

15,931 16,554 12,508 15,602 12,603 17,070 13,818 19,002

(X) (X) 39 23 35 12 27 2

(X) (X) 26 7 24 3 14 1

Middle Atlantic N.Y. N.J. Pa. Midwest East North Central Ohio Ind. Ill. Mich. Wis.

10,624 10,721 11,573 9,891 9,919 10,077 9,723 9,245 10,837 10,165 9,845

15,441 15,773 17,618 13,554 13,569 13,694 13,176 12,424 14,730 14,001 13,234

17,503 17,906 20,303 15,103 14,997 15,174 14,529 13,894 16,366 15,473 14,652

19,072 19,663 22,265 16,135 15,856 16,130 15,427 14,721 17,567 16,391 15,378

20,414 21,073 23,778 17,269 16,926 17,214 16,373 15,779 18,824 17,444 16,449

12,240 12,351 13,333 11,395 11,427 11,609 11,202 10,651 12,485 11,711 11,342

13,836 14,134 15,787 12,145 12,159 12,271 11,806 11,133 13,199 12,546 11,858

14,635 14,972 16,976 12,628 12,539 12,687 12,148 11,617 13,684 12,937 12,251

15,356 15,832 17,927 12,991 12,766 12,987 12,421 11,853 14,144 13,197 12,382

15,715 16,222 18,305 13,294 13,030 13,252 12,604 12,147 14,491 13,429 12,663

(X) 10 4 18 (X) (X) 25 31 7 15 20

(X) 5 2 20 (X) (X) 23 30 11 19 22

9,534 10,062 9,537 9,298 8,538 8,217 9,274 9,941

13,273 14,144 12,619 13,250 11,951 11,029 12,967 13,812

14,575 15,716 13,859 14,582 12,641 12,370 13,976 14,962

15,205 16,472 14,316 15,331 12,342 12,599 14,569 15,688

16,244 17,657 15,487 16,292 13,563 13,685 15,446 16,498

10,984 11,592 10,987 10,712 9,836 9,467 10,684 11,453

11,893 12,674 11,037 11,873 10,709 9,883 11,619 12,376

12,186 13,140 11,588 12,192 10,569 10,343 11,686 12,510

12,242 13,262 11,527 12,344 9,937 10,144 11,730 12,631

12,505 13,593 11,922 12,542 10,441 10,535 11,891 12,701

(X) 16 26 29 37 40 30 17

(X) 15 32 25 44 41 33 21

8,944 9,171 10,249 10,790 12,322 9,827 7,915 7,999 7,589 8,348 9,764

12,608 13,301 14,547 15,970 17,811 14,468 10,073 11,662 10,729 12,616 13,935

13,817 15,022 16,319 18,231 19,579 16,531 10,959 13,284 12,070 14,316 15,538

14,810 16,073 17,347 19,639 22,063 17,712 11,578 14,243 12,907 15,280 16,515

15,773 17,123 18,483 21,013 23,491 18,927 12,345 15,198 13,634 16,053 17,647

10,305 10,566 11,808 12,431 14,196 11,321 9,119 9,215 8,743 9,618 11,249

11,297 11,918 13,035 14,310 15,960 12,964 9,026 10,450 9,614 11,305 12,487

11,552 12,560 13,645 15,243 16,370 13,822 9,163 11,107 10,092 11,970 12,992

11,924 12,941 13,967 15,812 17,764 14,261 9,322 11,468 10,392 12,303 13,297

12,143 13,182 14,229 16,176 18,084 14,570 9,503 11,700 10,496 12,358 13,585

(X) (X) 14 8 (X) 21 46 44 48 38 24

(X) (X) 12 6 (X) 10 49 34 42 27 17

7,752 8,022 8,030 7,704 6,926 9,326 7,465 8,682 9,393 9,798

10,640 10,768 11,252 10,698 9,249 12,679 10,525 11,302 12,139 13,476

11,976 11,963 12,913 11,982 10,250 12,993 11,385 11,439 12,481 13,734

12,853 12,792 13,895 12,814 11,055 13,933 12,141 12,238 13,306 14,753

13,673 13,743 14,694 13,625 11,724 14,817 12,901 12,921 14,154 15,702

8,931 9,242 9,251 8,876 7,979 10,744 8,600 10,002 10,821 11,288

9,534 9,649 10,082 9,586 8,288 11,361 9,431 10,127 10,877 12,075

10,013 10,003 10,797 10,018 8,570 10,864 9,519 9,564 10,436 11,483

10,349 10,300 11,188 10,317 8,901 11,218 9,775 9,853 10,713 11,878

10,526 10,580 11,312 10,489 9,025 11,406 9,931 9,497 10,896 12,088

(X) 43 42 47 50 (X) 49 34 28 22

(X) 39 35 43 50 (X) 48 47 37 31

10,843 9,445 8,924 8,569 11,339 10,598 8,169 9,172 7,952 11,421 11,343 10,725 9,866 11,603 13,835 10,617

14,763 12,730 11,015 10,817 12,834 14,699 11,197 12,957 10,653 14,693 15,504 14,076 12,628 16,035 18,785 13,900

16,247 13,813 12,331 11,838 12,819 15,624 11,872 14,355 11,532 16,381 17,125 15,535 13,850 17,749 18,282 15,540

17,278 14,590 12,870 12,652 13,720 16,471 12,401 14,995 12,225 17,849 18,237 16,364 14,811 18,915 19,237 16,840

18,349 15,566 14,078 13,707 14,508 17,553 13,140 15,802 13,079 19,269 19,331 17,647 15,919 19,929 21,656 18,472

12,492 10,881 10,281 9,872 13,063 12,210 9,411 10,567 9,161 13,158 13,068 12,356 11,366 13,368 15,939 12,232

13,229 11,407 9,870 9,693 11,500 13,171 10,033 11,610 9,546 13,166 13,892 12,613 11,315 14,368 16,832 12,455

13,585 11,549 10,310 9,898 10,718 13,064 9,926 12,003 9,642 13,696 14,319 12,989 11,580 14,840 15,286 12,993

13,912 11,747 10,362 10,187 11,047 13,262 9,985 12,073 9,843 14,371 14,684 13,176 11,925 15,229 15,489 13,559

14,125 11,983 10,838 10,552 11,169 13,513 10,115 12,165 10,069 14,834 14,881 13,585 12,255 15,342 16,671 14,220

(X) (X) 33 36 6 13 41 32 45 5 (X) 9 19 3 1 11

(X) (X) 38 40 36 18 45 29 46 9 (X) 16 28 8 4 13

West North Central Minn. Iowa Mo. N.Dak. S.Dak. Nebr. Kans. South South Atlantic Del. Md. D.C. Va. W.Va. N.C. S.C. Ga. Fla. East South Central Ky. Tenn. Ala. Miss. West South Central Ark. La. Okla. Tex. West Mountain Mont. Idaho Wyo. Colo. N.Mex. Ariz. Utah Nev. Pacific Wash. Oreg. Calif. Alaska Hawaii



111

TABLE 4.80

ECONOMIC GAIN IN 1980s Shares of Pretax Adjusted Family Income (AFI) (%)

All Families (by income group)

1977

1980

1985

1988

Lowest quintile Second quintile Middle quintile Fourth quintile 81 to 90 percent 91 to 95 percent 96 to 99 percent Top 1 percent Overall Highest quintile Top 10 percent Top 5 percent

4.7 10.8 16.3 22.9 15.6 10.1 11.6 8.3 100.0 45.6 30.0 19.9

4.3 10.5 16.0 22.9 15.7 10.1 11.7 9.2 100.0 46.7 31.0 20.9

3.7 9.5 15.1 22.2 15.7 10.4 12.4 11.6 100.0 50.1 34.4 24.0

3.5 9.1 14.6 21.7 15.3 10.1 12.6 13.4 100.0 51.4 36.1 26.0

1989 3.6 9.2 14.7 21.7 15.4 10.3 12.7 13.0 100.0 51.4 36.0 25.7

Source: Kevin Phillips, Boiling Point: Republicans, Democrats and the Decline of Middle-Class Prosperity (New York, 1993), 279.

TABLE 4.81 SHARE OF AGGREGATE INCOME RECEIVED BY HIGH- AND LOW-INCOME HOUSEHOLDS, 1967–1990 Income at Selected Positions (Dollars) Upper Limit of Each Fifth ($)

Percent Distribution of Income

Year

Number (1,000)

Lowest Fifth

Second

Third

Fourth

Highest Fifth

1967 1968 1970 1972 1973 1974 1975 1980 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1990

60,446 61,805 64,374 68,251 69,859 71,163 72,867 82,368 83,918 86,789 88,458 89,479 92,830 94,312

12,248 13,063 13,230 13,518 13,872 13,878 13,185 13,466 13,022 13,551 13,692 13,856 14,259 14,174

23,883 24,766 25,348 26,035 26,353 25,742 24,746 25,253 24,766 25,361 25,761 26,503 26,934 26,830

33,910 35,497 36,874 38,485 39,091 38,038 37,393 38,716 37,841 39,073 39,908 41,132 41,975 41,047

48,343 49,877 52,609 55,074 56,470 55,205 53,690 56,687 56,428 59,023 60,021 62,176 63,380 62,597

77,570 78,031 83,171 88,653 89,513 87,378 84,725 91,227 93,146 97,706 99,173 104,262 107,285 107,434

Source: Johnson, Information Please Almanac, 1997, 53.

TABLE 4.82 APPROXIMATE NUMBERS OF MILLIONAIRES, DECAMILLIONAIRES, CENTIMILLIONAIRES, AND BILLIONAIRES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1953–1988 Year 1953 1957 1961/1962 1965 1968/1969 1972–1973 1976 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

DecaCentiMillionaires millionaires millionaires Billionaires 27,000 ... 80,000 90,000 121,000 180,000 250,000 450,000 519,000 574,000 638,000 ... ... 832,000 ... 1,239,000 1,500,000

800 ... 2,500 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38,885 ... ... ... ... 81,816 100,000

... 44 ... ... 153 ... ... ... ... ... ... 400 500 600 700 900 1,200 1,200

... 1 1 ... 2 4 2 1 ? ? 13 15 12 13 26 49 51

Source: Kevin Phillips, The Politics of the Rich and Poor (New York, 1990), 239.

112


Lowest Fifth 4.0 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.9

Top 5 Percent 17.5 16.6 16.6 17.0 16.6 16.5 16.6 16.5 17.0 17.1 17.6 18.0 18.3 18.6

7 points between 1964 and 1969, and it would go lower in years to come. A poverty rate of 11 percent–12 percent that remained throughout the 1970s constituted a marked improvement from the 22 percent in 1960, but it still amounted to 25,000,000 people. The rates of poverty increased significantly in the 1980s, and they included familiar faces. The African-American rate passed one-third of the black people, and the Hispanic rate, while high, remained a few points behind blacks. The new feature was the feminization of poverty, a phenomenon that grew out of several factors, including the “new morality’’ and women’s “liberation.’’ Women—black women, especially—had children out of wedlock in record numbers: now shamelessly, perhaps, but with no means to support them. Divorce came easily, but it scarcely was free; the mother got the kids and also the need to reenter the workforce with little preparation for doing anything.The fashionable “no-fault’’ settlements usually called for splitting assets down the middle, which on the surface seemed fully equitable, but it was a far cry from another time when the wife got (or, from the male point of view, seemed to get) everything. By the 1980s, 66 percent of adults classified as poor were women.There might have been a Reagan revolution, but it did not reach the nation’s impoverished classes, an increasing number of whom were female.

Poverty There always had been poverty in the United States—before, as Lyndon Johnson had put it, “it even had a name’’ and before there was a system for identifying impoverishment. In 1964 the Social Security System estimated the income needed to obtain a minimally acceptable standard of living and deemed it to be the poverty level. The largest number of impoverished people, before 1964 or afterward, always had been white only because the largest number of people had been white. The largest proportion by far had been nonwhites, of whom African Americans were most numerous. As Hispanics became more prominent in society and the Census Bureau began to classify them separately, they consistently produced poverty percentages substantially higher than non-Hispanic whites, frequently approaching the more-than-30-percent attributed to black people. Democrat politicians frequently bemoaned the number of people in need, and now and then some gave them concrete attention. John Kennedy became acquainted with the “other America’’ but had time before his death to obtain only piecemeal legislation. Lyndon Johnson’s major legislative objective was the War on Poverty, a multifaceted program (with no shortage of critics) that produced genuine but, of course, limited results. The poverty rate dropped more than

TABLE 4.83

PERSONS BELOW THE POVERTY LEVEL, CALENDAR YEARS 1960–1990

(in thousands) Persons in Families Persons 65 Years and Older

Year

All Persons

Total

Householders

Children under 18 Years

Other Family Members

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

39,851 39,628 38,625 36,436 36,055

34,925 34,509 33,623 31,498 30,912

8,243 8,391 8,077 7,554 7,160

17,288 16,577 16,630 15,691 15,736

9,394 9,541 8,916 8,253 8,016

... ... ... ... ...

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

33,185 28,510 27,769 25,389 24,147

28,358 23,809 22,771 20,695 19,175

6,721 5,784 5,667 5,047 5,008

14,388 12,146 11,427 10,739 9,501

7,249 5,879 5,677 4,909 4,667

... 5,114 5,388 4,632 4,787

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

25,420 25,559 24,460 22,973 23,370

20,330 20,405 19,577 18,299 18,817

5,260 5,303 5,075 4,828 4,922

10,235 10,344 10,082 9,453 9,967

4,835 4,757 4,420 4,018 3,928

4,793 4,273 3,738 3,354 3,085

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

25,877 24,975 24,720 24,497 26,072

20,789 19,632 19,505 19,062 19,964

5,450 5,311 5,311 5,280 5,461

10,882 10,081 10,028 9,722 9,993

4,457 4,240 4,165 4,059 4,509

3,317 3,313 3,177 3,233 3,682

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

29,272 31,822 34,398 35,303 33,700

22,601 24,850 27,349 27,933 26,458

6,217 6,851 7,512 7,647 7,277

11,114 12,068 13,139 13,427 12,929

5,270 5,931 6,698 6,859 6,251

3,871 3,853 3,751 3,625 3,330

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

33,064 32,370 32,221 31,745 32,415

25,729 24,754 24,725 24,048 24,882

7,223 7,023 7,005 6,874 6,895

12,483 12,257 12,275 11,935 12,541

6,032 5,475 5,445 5,238 5,446

3,456 3,477 3,563 3,481 3,312

1990

33,585

25,232

7,098

12,715

5,419

3,658

Source: Moody, Facts & Figures on Finance, 48.


113

TABLE 4.84

TABLE 4.85 AVERAGE INCOME CUTOFFS FOR A NONFARM FAMILY OF FOUR, 1960–1990

PERSONS BELOW THE POVERTY LEVEL, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1959–1990

(percent) Year

White

Black

Hispanic Origin

Total

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

18.1 17.8 17.4 16.4 15.3 14.9 13.3 11.3 11.0 10.0 9.5 9.9 9.9 9.0 8.4 8.6 9.7 9.1 8.9 8.7 9.0 10.2 11.1 12.0 12.1 11.5 11.4 11.0 10.4 10.1 10.0 10.7

55.1 ... ... ... ... ... ... 41.8 39.3 34.7 32.2 33.5 32.5 33.3 31.4 30.3 31.3 31.1 31.3 30.6 31.0 32.5 34.2 35.6 35.7 33.8 31.3 31.1 32.4 31.3 30.7 31.9

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21.9 23.0 26.9 24.7 22.4 21.6 21.8 25.7 26.5 29.9 28.0 28.4 29.0 27.3 28.0 26.7 26.2 26.2

22.4 22.2 21.9 21.0 19.5 19.0 17.3 14.7 14.2 12.8 12.1 12.6 12.5 11.9 11.1 11.2 12.3 11.8 11.6 11.4 11.7 13.0 14.0 15.0 15.2 14.4 14.0 13.6 13.4 13.0 12.8 13.5

At 125 Percent of Poverty Level

Year

At Poverty Level

1960 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978

3,022 3,968 5,500 5,815 6,191 6,662

3,778 4,960 6,875 7,269 7,739 8,328

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

7,412 8,414 9,287 9,862 10,178 10,609

9,265 10,518 11,609 12,328 12,723 13,261

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

10,989 11,203 11,611 12,092 12,674 13,359

13,736 14,004 14,514 15,115 15,843 16,699

Source: Chadwick & Heaten, Handbook, 251.

Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 375.

TABLE 4.86 FAMILIES BELOW POVERTY LEVEL AND BELOW 125 PERCENT OF POVERTY LEVEL, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1960–1990 Number Below Poverty Level (1,000)

Percent Below Poverty Level

Year

All Races

White

Black

1960 1970 1971 1972 1973

8,243 5,260 5,303 5,075 4,828

6,115 3,708 3,751 3,441 3,219

... 1,481 1,484 1,529 1,527

... ... ... 477 468

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

4,922 5,450 5,311 5,311 5,280

3,352 3,838 3,560 3,540 3,523

1,479 1,513 1,617 1,637 1,622

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

5,461 6,217 6,851 7,512 7,647

3,581 4,195 4,670 5,118 5,220

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

7,277 7,223 7,023 7,005 6,874 6,784 7,098

4,925 4,983 4,811 4,567 4,471 4,409 4,622

Hispanic

All Races

Number (1,000)

Percent

... ... ... 20.6 19.8

11,525 7,516 ... 7,347 7,044

25.4 14.4 ... 13.5 12.8

26.9 27.1 27.9 28.2 27.5

21.2 25.1 23.1 21.4 20.4

7,195 7,974 7,647 7,713 7,417

12.9 14.2 13.5 13.5 12.8

6.9 8.0 8.8 9.6 9.7

27.8 28.9 30.8 33.0 32.3

20.3 23.2 24.0 27.2 25.9

7,784 8,764 9,568 10,279 10,358

13.1 14.5 15.7 16.7 16.7

9.1 9.1 8.6 8.1 7.9 7.8 8.1

30.9 28.7 28.0 29.4 28.2 27.8 29.3

25.2 25.5 24.7 25.5 23.7 23.4 25.0

9,901 9,753 9,476 9,338 9,284 9,267 9,564

15.8 15.3 14.7 14.3 14.1 14.0 14.4

White

Black

18.1 10.1 10.0 9.3 8.8

14.9 8.0 7.9 7.1 6.6

... 29.5 28.8 29.0 28.1

526 627 598 591 559

8.8 9.7 9.4 9.3 9.1

6.8 7.7 7.1 7.0 6.9

1,722 1,826 1,972 2,158 2,161

614 751 792 916 981

9.2 10.3 11.2 12.2 12.3

2,094 1,983 1,987 2,117 2,089 2,077 2,193

991 1,074 1,085 1,168 1,141 1,133 1,244

11.6 11.4 10.9 10.7 10.4 10.3 10.7

Note: Table measures income below which a family was (1.) at the poverty level and (2.) only 25 percent above the poverty level. Source: Bruce A. Chadwick and Tim B. Heaton, Statistical Handbook on the American Family (Phoenix, 1999), 255.

114


Below 125 Percent of Poverty Level Hispanic

TABLE 4.87

POVERTY RATE AND FAMILIES WITH FEMALE HOUSEHOLDERS, 1959–1990

(in percent)

Year

Poverty Rate for Families Poverty Rate with Female Year for Families Householder

Poor Families Families with with Female Female Householder Householder as a Percent as a Percent of All Poor of All Families Families

1959 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978

18.5 17.2 11.8 10.1 8.8 9.1

42.6 42.9 33.1 32.5 32.1 31.4

9.8 10.0 10.5 11.5 13.0 14.6

23.0 25.2 29.8 37.1 47.2 50.3

1982 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

12.2 10.9 10.7 10.4 10.3 10.7

36.3 34.6 34.2 33.4 32.2 33.4

15.4 16.2 16.4 16.5 16.5 17.0

45.7 51.4 52.2 53.0 51.7 53.1

Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of the U.S., 305.

TABLE 4.88 RECIPIENTS OF SOCIAL INSURANCE PROGRAMS, 1987

Program Nonmeans-tested Social Security (OASDI) Medicare (hospital insurance) Veterans programs Railroad retirement State unemployment insurance State temporary disability Means-testeda Medicaid Supplemental Security Income Aid to Families with Dependent Children Food stamps General assistance

Number of Recipients (thousands)

Percentage of U.S. Population

37,973.0 31,853.0 3,829.0 935.3 2,032.0 151.6

15.6 13.1 1.6 0.4 0.8 0.1

23,109.0 4,457.8 11,027.0

9.5 1.8 4.5

19,113.0 1,168.0

7.8 0.5

a Means-tested pertains to a requirement to demonstrate financial need based on assets and income. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 386.

TABLE 4.89 AID TO FAMILIES WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN VERSUS THE POVERTY LINE, 1945–1990

Year

Average Monthly Benefit per Family

Yearly Benefit

Average Poverty Thresholda

1945 1950 1955 1960 1961

48.18 71.33 84.17 105.75 110.97

578.16 855.96 1,010.04 1,269.00 1,331.64

... ... ... 3,022 3,054

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

116.30 120.19 126.88 133.20 142.83

1,395.60 1,442.28 1,522.56 1,598.40 1,713.96

3,089 3,128 3,169 3,223 3,335

Average Monthly Benefit per Family

Yearly Benefit

Average Poverty Thresholda

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

155.19 168.41 174.89 183.13 187.16

1,862.28 2,020.92 2,098.68 2,197.56 2,245.92

3,410 3,553 3,743 3,968 4,137

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

188.87 190.91 204.27 219.44 236.10

2,266.44 2,290.92 2,451.24 2,633.28 2,833.20

4,275 4,540 5,038 5,500 5,815

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

246.27 253.89 262.86 280.03 282.04

2,955.24 3,046.68 3,154.32 3,360.36 3,384.48

6,191 6,662 7,412 8,414 9,287

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

303.02 312.82 325.44 342.15 355.04

3,636.24 3,753.84 3,905.28 4,105.80 4,260.48

9,862 10,178 10,609 10,989 11,203

1987 1988 1989 1990 (prelim.)

361.37 374.07 ... ...

4,336.44 4,488.84 ... ...

11,611 12,092 12,675 13,360

a

Poverty threshold is for a family of four. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 387.

Agriculture American agriculture underwent many sharp turns and experienced numerous radical changes in the last half of the 20th century. Between 1946 and 1990 the number of farms declined from roughly six million to barely more than two million.The average size of farms more than doubled. The farm population decreased fivefold, from approximately 25 million to fewer than 5 million. Farm production nonetheless more than doubled and one suspects that farmers could have produced a great deal more had market conditions suggested that it would be wise to do so. The increase in efficiency, as measured in yield per acre of certain crops, was astonishing. After the Second World War, American farmers behaved as they always had: utilizing the most up-to-date equipment and most advanced scientific knowledge about every stage of the production process to raise more and better goods. New types of growing aids— fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides—appeared with remarkable frequency. A shrinking number of draft animals remained on the job for a few years after the Second World War, and then, except for the Budweiser Clydesdales and pulling contests at state and county fairs, the horses and mules disappeared, their existence not even appearing as a farm statistic. Large machines replaced small ones, and new devices came on line to perform nearly every farm function. Science was even putting the bull of the cattle herd out of business. The agricultural transformation, however, did not unfold as an account of uninterrupted triumph. The ability to produce carried the ability to overproduce; too many goods meant low prices. Agricultural advance in other countries—the “green revolution’’—placed frequent pressure on the world price of many items. Government price supports remained a constant, if controversial, feature of American agriculture. Weather—too little rain, too much rain, a storm or a flood—could destroy crops and the year’s income. Large machines and the technological miracle makers, even the fertilizers and chemicals, cost considerable money. Strange as it sounded, becoming efficient was becoming The American Economy

115

expensive. All the forces of agriculture, it would appear, seemed arranged in favor of the large farm and the agricultural corporation and against the traditional independent farmer. Some farmers, the numbers suggest a good many of them, quit because they were deeply in debt or at least could not make a profit. Some were foreclosed on or simply lost their farms. Others sold out because they found an opportunity to make a huge sum in a very short time. Here one aspect of postwar America intersected with another. If the farm population was shrinking, the urban population and the cities themselves were expanding, stretching out into the countryside. Building the first Levittown created a scenario that would be repeated many thousand times in many years to come. Surely the most tragic feature of the post-1945 transformation was not the shrinkage of the number of farms, for farms could be absorbed into larger organizations, but the amount of precious farmland lost, for once topsoil was dug up, it could no more than HumptyDumpty be returned to its former state. Many millions of people in 1990 lived on land that in 1946 had been producing crops.

Farms (1,000)

TABLE 4.90 BASIC FARM CHARACTERISTICS, 1945–1990

Year

Average Farm Percentage Number Acres in Size Population of Total of Farms Farms Farm (thousands) Population (thousands) (thousands) (acres)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

24,420 23,048 19,078 15,635 12,363

17.5 15.3 11.6 8.7 6.4

5,859 5,388 4,654 3,962 3,356

1,141,615 1,161,420 1,201,900 1,175,646 1,139,597

195 216 258 297 340

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

9,712 8,864 6,051 5,355 4,591

4.8 4.1 2.7 2.2 1.9

2,954 2,521 2,439 2,292 2,140

1,102,769 1,059,420 1,038,885 1,012,073 987,420

373 420 426 441 461

State

1980


120 24 65 3 3


Acreage (mil.)

1990

Acreage per Farm

1980

1990

108 25 57 3 3

31 62 48 9 1

30 61 47 9

9 14 47 93 40

8 14 39 62 34

1 47 9 12 42

Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa.

95 72 35 62

84 70 37 53

16 35 18 9

R.I. S.C. S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah

1 34 39 96 196 14

1 25 35 89 186 13


8 58 38 22 93 9

7 46 37 21 80 9

2 10 16 4 19 35

1980

1990

261 2,601 734 3,100 160

281 2,449 826 3,560 163

1 45 8 10 41

109 3,467 200 126 1,043

107 3,296 218 156 1,191

16 33 18 8

171 481 517 145

187 471 488 153

a

a

6 45 14 138 12

5 44 12 132 11

87 188 1,169 142 705 919

92 212 1,266 139 710 856

2 9 16 4 18 35

226 169 429 191 200 3,846

216 193 432 180 220 3,910

a

a

Less than 500 farms or 500,000 acres. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1991, 645.

TABLE 4.92 U.S. FARMS—CLASSIFICATION BY TENURE OF OPERATOR, 1945–1987 Tenure of Operator (percent)

Source: R. Douglas Hurt, American Agriculture: A Brief History (Ames, Iowa, 1994), 395.

Year

Farms (number)

Full Owners

Part Owners

Managers

All Tenants

TABLE 4.91 FARMS—NUMBER AND ACREAGE, BY STATE, 1980 AND 1990

1945 1950 1954 1959 1964

5,859,169 5,388,437 4,783,021 3,710,503 3,157,857

56.4 57.4 57.4 57.1 57.6

11.3 15.3 18.2 21.9 24.8

.7 .4 .4 .6 .6

31.7 26.9 24.0 20.5 17.1

1969 1974 1978 1982 1987

2,730,250 2,314,013 2,257,775 2,240,976 2,087,759

62.5 61.5 57.5 59.2 59.3

24.6 27.2 30.2 29.3 29.2

... ... ... ... ...

12.9 11.3 12.3 11.6 11.5

Farms (1,000) State U.S. Ala. Alaska Ariz. Ark. Calif. Colo. Conn. Del. Fla. Ga. Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss.

116

1980

Acreage (mil.)

1990

2,440 59

2,143 47

8 59 81 27 4 4 39 59 4 24 107 87 119 75 102 37 8 18 6 65 104 55

8 47 85 27 4 3 41 49 5 22 83 68 104 69 93 34 7 15 7 54 89 40

a

a

Acreage per Farm

1980

1990

1980

1990

1,039 12 2 38 17 34 36

988 10 1 36 16 31 33

426 207 3,378 5,080 280 417 1,358 117 186 344 254 458 623 269 193 284 644 143 273 195 157 116 175 291 265

461 219 1,724 4,615 330 362 1,249 108 197 266 255 372 628 343 240 322 694 152 265 199 148 99 200 337 325

a

a

1 13 15 2 15 29 17 34 48 15 10 2 3 1 11 30 15

1 11 13 2 14 29 16 34 48 14 9 1 2 1 11 30 13


Source: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 356.

TABLE 4.93 LAND IN U.S. FARMS—CLASSIFICATION BY TENURE OF OPERATOR, 1945–1987 Tenure of Operator (percent) Year

Land in Farms (acres)

Full Owners

Part Owners

Managers

All Tenants

1945 1950 1954 1959 1964

1,141,615,364 1,161,419,720 1,158,191,511 1,123,507,574 1,110,187.000

36.1 36.1 34.2 31.0 28.7

32.5 36.4 40.7 44.0 48.0

9.3 9.2 8.6 9.8 10.2

22.0 18.3 16.5 14.8 13.1

1969 1974 1978 1982 1987

1,062,892.501 1,017,030.357 1,014,777,234 986,796,579 964,470,625

35.3 35.3 32.7 34.7 32.9

51.8 52.6 55.3 53.8 53.9

... ... ... ... ...

13.0 12.0 12.0 11.5 13.2

Source: Agricultural Statistics, 1991, 356.

TABLE 4.94

FARMS—NUMBER, 1974–1987, AND ACREAGE, 1978–1987, BY SIZE OF FARM Land in Farms (mil. acres)

Number of Farms (1,000)

Size of Farm Total Under 10 acres 10 to 49 acres 50 to 99 acres 100 to 179 acres 180 to 259 acres 260 to 499 acres 500 to 999 acres 1,000 to 1,999 acres 2,000 acres and over

Cropland Harvested (mil. acres)

Percent Distribution, 1987 All Land in Farms

Cropland Harvested

1974

1978

1982

1987

1978

1982

1987

1978

1982

1987

Number of Farms

2,314

2,258

2,241

2,088

1,014.8

986.8

964.5

317.1

326.3

282.2

100.0

100.0

100.0

128 380 385 443 253 363 207 93 62

151 392 356 403 234 348 213 98 63

188 449 344 368 211 315 204 97 65

183 412 311 334 192 286 200 102 67

0.6 10.9 25.9 55.0 50.6 124.6 146.7 133.0 467.4

0.7 12.1 24.8 49.9 45.7 113.0 140.5 132.4 467.5

0.7 11.1 22.5 45.3 41.5 103.0 138.5 138.8 463.2

0.2 4.5 10.2 23.3 23.7 64.5 75.2 58.2 57.3

0.3 4.5 9.5 21.2 21.7 60.5 77.6 64.5 66.6

0.2 3.9 7.9 17.1 17.2 47.3 67.4 61.1 60.2

8.8 19.8 14.9 16.0 9.2 13.7 9.6 4.9 3.2

0.1 1.2 2.3 4.7 4.3 10.7 14.4 14.4 48.0

0.1 1.4 2.8 6.1 6.1 16.8 23.9 21.7 21.3


Farming on a massive scale. Parallel terraces are planted in cotton with windstrips in wheat. (U.S. Department of Agriculture) The American Economy

117

TABLE 4.95

FARM INPUT USE, SELECTED INPUTS, 1947–1990

Farm Population, April

Farm Employment (thousands)

As Percent of Number Total Year (thousands) Population Total

Selected Indexes of Input Use (1977 5 100)

Family Workers

Hired Workers

Crops Harvested (millions of acres)

Total

Farm Labor

Farm Real Estate

Mechanical Power and Machinery

Agricultural Chemicals

Feed, Seed, and Livestock Purchases

1947 1948 1949

25,829 24,383 24,194

17.9 16.6 16.2

10,382 10,363 9,964

8,115 8,026 7,712

2,267 2,337 2,252

355 356 360

104 104 108

297 285 285

106 107 108

54 62 68

15 16 18

51 52 56

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

23,048 21,890 21,748 19,874 19,019

15.2 14.2 13.9 12.5 11.7

9,926 9,546 9,149 8,864 8,651

7,597 7,310 7,005 6,775 6,570

2,329 2,236 2,144 2,089 2,081

345 344 349 348 346

106 106 105 103 102

265 251 237 220 214

109 109 108 108 108

72 77 81 82 82

19 21 23 24 24

58 62 63 63 65

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

19,078 18,712 17,656 17,128 16,592

11.5 11.1 10.3 9.8 9.3

8,381 7,852 7,600 7,503 7,342

6,345 5,900 5,660 5,521 5,390

2,036 1,952 1,940 1,982 1,952

340 324 324 324 324

104 103 100 98 101

220 212 196 182 183

108 106 105 104 105

83 84 83 83 84

26 27 27 28 32

66 69 68 73 77

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

15,635 14,803 14,313 13,367 12,954

8.7 8.1 7.7 7.1 6.7

7,057 6,919 6,700 6,518 6,110

5,172 5,029 4,873 4,738 4,506

1,885 1,890 1,827 1,780 1,604

324 302 295 298 298

99 98 98 98 98

177 167 163 155 148

103 103 104 104 104

83 80 80 79 80

32 35 38 43 46

77 81 83 83 85

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

12,363 11,595 10,875 10,454 10,307

6.4 5.9 5.5 5.2 5.1

5,610 5,214 4,903 4,749 4,596

4,128 3,854 3,650 3,535 3,419

1,482 1,360 1,253 1,213 1,176

298 294 306 300 290

97 96 98 97 96

144 132 128 124 118

103 102 104 102 102

80 82 85 86 86

49 56 66 69 73

86 89 92 89 93

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

9,712 9,425 9,610 9,472 9,264

4.7 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.3

4,523 4,436 4,373 4,337 4,389

3,348 3,275 3,228 3,169 3,075

1,175 1,161 1,146 1,168 1,314

293 305 294 321 328

96 97 97 98 98

112 108 110 109 109

105 103 102 100 99

85 87 86 90 92

75 81 86 90 92

96 102 104 107 99

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

8,864 8,253 6,194 6,501 6,241

4.1 3.8 2.8 2.9 2.8

4,342 4,374 4,155 3,957 3,774

3,026 2,997 2,859 2,689 2,501

1,317 1,377 1,296 1,268 1,273

336 337 345 338 348

97 98 100 102 105

106 100 100 100 99

97 98 100 100 103

96 98 100 104 104

83 96 100 107 123

93 101 100 108 115

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

6,051 5,850 5,628 5,787 5,754

2.7 2.5 2.4 2.5 2.4

3,705 3,552 3,400 3,247 3,094

2,402 2,267 2,136 2,007 1,976

1,303 1,285 1,264 1,240 1,118

352 366 362 306 348

103 102 98 96 95

96 96 93 97 92

103 104 102 101 99

101 98 89 86 85

123 129 118 102 120

114 108 107 103 103

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

5,355 5,226 4,986 4,951 4,801

2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9

2,941 2,749 2,734 2,789 2,873

1,904 1,768 1,743 1,810 1,926

1,037 981 992 979 947

342 325 302 297 318

91 89 89 87 87

85 80 78 75 76

97 96 95 94 93

80 77 74 74 73

115 109 111 112 119

102 109 116 111 113

1990

4,591

1.8

2,869

1,965

904

322

88

80

93

71

122

113

Source: Council of Advisers, Economic Report of the President, 1992, 407.

118


TABLE 4.96

FARM OUTPUT AND PRODUCTIVITY INDEXES, 1947–1990

(1977 5 100) Farm Output

Productivity Indicators

Crops

Farm Output

Food Grains

Oil Crops

Livestock and Products

Per Unit of Total Input

Per Hour of Farm Work

Crop Production per Acre

Year

Total

Total

Feed Grains

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

58 63 62 61 63 66 66 66

56 64 61 59 60 62 62 61

39 57 50 51 47 50 49 51

64 62 53 49 49 63 57 51

22 27 26 26 26 26 26 28

65 64 67 70 73 74 74 77

55 60 57 58 60 62 64 65

18 21 20 22 24 26 28 29

57 64 60 59 59 62 62 61

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

69 69 67 73 74 76 76 77 80 79

63 63 62 69 68 72 70 71 74 72

54 54 58 64 66 69 62 62 68 59

48 50 47 69 55 66 60 56 59 65

30 34 33 39 36 38 43 44 46 46

79 79 78 79 83 82 86 86 89 91

66 67 67 74 73 76 78 78 82 81

30 31 33 39 39 42 44 46 51 52

63 64 65 73 72 77 78 81 83 81

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

82 79 83 85 85 84 92 91 93 88

76 73 77 79 80 77 86 87 92 84

70 70 79 75 78 71 92 88 91 74

67 67 76 80 74 69 81 77 86 91

53 55 56 64 65 66 68 74 87 71

89 91 94 94 95 99 100 101 99 100

84 83 85 87 88 87 95 94 95 90

56 59 64 68 72 74 85 83 86 81

85 83 86 89 91 88 96 99 99 88

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

95 97 100 104 111 104 118 116 96 112

93 92 100 102 113 101 117 117 88 111

91 96 100 108 116 97 121 122 67 116

108 107 100 93 108 121 144 138 117 129

86 74 100 105 129 99 114 121 91 106

95 99 100 101 104 108 109 107 109 107

99 98 100 101 105 101 116 119 100 118

90 97 100 104 113 109 123 125 100 121

96 94 100 105 113 100 115 116 100 112

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

118 111 110 102 114 119

118 109 108 92 107 114

134 123 106 73 108 112

121 107 107 98 107 136

117 110 108 89 106 107

110 110 113 116 116 118

129 124 124 116 130 135

139 139 142 135 147 142

120 116 123 106 119 127


TABLE 4.97

LIVESTOCK ON FARMS

(in thousands) Type Cattle

Dairy cows Sheep Swine Chickens Turkeys

1950

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

77,963 23,853 29,826 58,937 535,266 44,134

96,236 19,527 33,170 59,026 1,976,737 84,458

109,000 16,981 25,127 56,106 2,535,141 105,914

112,369 13,303 20,423 57,046 3,220,085 116,139

132,028 11,220 14,515 54,693 3,173,820 124,165

111,242 10,758 12,699 67,318 4,201,706 165,243

109,582 10,311 10,716 54,073 4,689,973 185,427

98,162 10,153 11,363 51,150 3,236,993 304,863



119

Large farms require large, expensive equipment. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

TABLE 4.98 State

120

AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT BY STATES, 1990 CROPS Corn (1,000 bu)

Wheat (1,000 bu)

Cotton (1,000 ba)

Potatoes (1,000 cwt)

Tobacco (1,000 lb)

Cattle (1,000 head)

Swine (1,000 head)

... ... ... ... ...

1,750 8.2 830 1,700 4,800

... ... ... ... ...


13,920 ... 1,120 6,935 25,600

6,650 ... 9,266 49,000 47,906

400.0 ... 1,015.0 1,100.0 2,805.8

1,943 ... 1,794 ... 17,783

Colo. Conn. Del. Fla. Ga.

128,650 ... 19,780 5,325 37,400

86,950 ... 3,060 1,815 20,650

... ... ... 45.0 410.0

24,032 ... 2,009 9,792 ...

... 3,000 ... 19,040 103,200

2,900 76 31 1,925 1,400

... ... ... ... 1,100

Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss. Mo.

... 3,900 1,320,800 703,050 1,562,400 188,500 120,000 21,576 ... 53,100 ... 238,050 762,600 11,200 205,800

... 112,340 837 858 160 ... ... ... 20,520 324 650 12,115 16,110 ... 957

... ... ... 13,440 ... ... 437,153 ... ... 9,443 ... ... ... ... 5,625

205 1,660 1,950 1,250 4,500 5,700 2,420 1,050 116 315 71 1,225 2,600 1,370 4,400

... ... 5,700 4,300 13,800 1,500 920 ... ... ... ... 1,250 4,500 ... 2,800

... 99,600 91,200 50,440 3,375 472,000 20,000 12,870 ... 9,880 ... 41,250 138,620 15,600 76,000


... ... ... ... ... 1.1 ... 1,180.0 ... ... ... ... ... 1,851.1 305.0

Corn (1,000 bu)

Wheat (1,000 bu)

Cotton (1,000 ba)

Potatoes (1,000 cwt)

Tobacco (1,000 lb)

Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J. N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak. Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C. S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah Vt. Va. Wash. W.Va Wis. Wyo.

855 934,400 ... ... 8,850 7,975 60,760 72,760 36,800 417,450 10,032 2,700 109,610 ... 14,400 234,000 43,860 130,500 2,660 ... 36,500 14,000 5,250 354,000 6,000

145,865 85,500 980 ... 1,247 8,125 7,105 22,550 385,220 79,650 201,600 57,616 10,500 ... 14,440 128,004 17,640 130,200 7,170 ... 12,220 150,080 552 10,085 6,113

... ... ... ... ... 126.0 ... 271.0 ... ... 380.0 ... ... ... 145.0 ... 490.0 5,085.0 ... ... 6.6 ... ... ... ...

2,492 3,539 2,345 ... 1,012 3,400 7,890 3,380 16,675 1,911 ... 23,014 5,400 294 ... 1,980 ... 3,072 1,643 ... 1,980 67,980 ... 23,075 561

... ... ... ... ... ... ... 639,620 ... 20,500 ... ... 19,780 ... 109,905 ... 99,416 ... ... ... 109,498 ... 2,880 13,575 ...

2,300 5,800 570 46 70 1,360 1,540 900 1,700 1,650 5,250 1,400 1,860 7.0 590 3,380 2,300 13,200 780 297 1,700 1,330 490 4,170 1,220

4,300 ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,800 ... 2,000 ... ... 920 ... ... 1,770 620 ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,200 ...

U.S.Total

7,933,068

2,738,594

15,616.6

393,867

1,606,851

98,162

54,362a

State

Cattle (1,000 head)

Swine (1,000 head)

a

Includes states not listed individually. The 16 listed states accounted for roughly 91 percent of the total. Source: Information Please Almanac, 1992, 61.

Corporation farming is specialized farming. Professional grain harvesters at work (U.S. Department of Agriculture) The American Economy

121

TABLE 4.99 PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY—CORN AND WHEAT, 1946–1990 Corn Acres Harvested (1,000)

Year

Wheat Yield per Acre (bushels)

Acres Harvested (1,000)

Yield per Acre (bushels)

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

87,600 81,800 79,500 71,400 55,300

36.7 37.6 40.6 54.7 73.8

67,100 61,600 47,300 51,900 49,600

17.2 16.5 19.8 26.1 26.5

1969 1976 1978 1980 1982

54,600 71,500 71,900 73,000 72,700

83.9 88.0 101.0 91.0 113.2

47,600 70,900 56,500 71,100 78,000

30.7 30.3 31.4 33.5 35.5

1984 1986 1988 1989 1990

71,900 69,000 58,300 64,700 67,000

106.7 119.4 84.6 116.3 118.5

67,000 60,700 53,200 62,200 69,400

38.8 34.4 34.1 32.7 39.5

Source: Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1961 (Washington, D.C., 1961), 1, 29; Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 1, 28; Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Statistics, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 1, 31.

TABLE 4.100

AVERAGE PRICES RECEIVED BY U.S. FARMERS, 1940–1990 Calves (veal)

Sheep

Lambs

Milk Cows

Chickens (excl. broilers)

Broilers

Turkeys

Eggs

Wool

Year

Hogs

Cattle (beef)

1940 1950 1960 1970

5.39 18.00 15.30 22.70

7.56 23.30 20.40 27.10

8.83 26.30 22.90 34.50

3.95 11.60 5.61 7.51

8.10 25.10 17.90 26.40

61 198 223 332

1.82 3.89 4.21 5.71

13.0 22.2 12.2 9.1

17.3 27.4 16.9 13.6

15.2 32.8 25.4 22.6

18.0 36.3 36.1 39.1

28.4 62.1 42.0 35.4

1975 1980 1984 1985

46.10 38.00 47.10 44.00

32.20 62.40 57.30 53.70

27.20 76.80 59.90 62.10

11.30 21.30 16.40 23.90

42.10 63.60 60.10 67.70

412 1,190 895 860

8.75 13.05 13.46 12.76

9.9 11.0 15.9 14.8

26.3 27.7 33.7 30.1

34.8 41.3 48.9 49.1

54.5 56.3 72.3 57.1

44.8 88.1 79.5 63.3

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

49.30 51.20 42.30 42.50 53.70

52.60 61.10 66.60 69.50 74.60

61.10 78.50 89.20 90.80 95.60

25.60 29.50 25.60 24.40 23.20

69.00 77.60 69.10 66.10 55.50

820 920 990 1,030 1,160

12.51 12.54 12.26 13.56 13.74

12.5 11.0 9.2 14.9 9.3

34.5 28.7 33.1 36.6 32.6

47.1 34.8 38.6 40.9 39.4

61.6 54.9 52.8 68.9 70.9

66.8 91.7 138.0 124.0 80.0

Milk

Figures represent dollars per 100 lb. for hogs, beef cattle, veal calves, sheep, lamb, and milk (wholesale); dollars per head for milk cows; cents per lb. for chickens, broilers, turkeys, and wool; cents per dozen for eggs; weighted calendar year prices for livestock and livestock products other than wool. For 1943–63, wool prices are weighted on marketing year basis. The marketing year was changed in 1964 from a calendar year to a Dec.–Nov. basis for hogs, chickens, broilers, and eggs.

Upland cotton

Oats

Barley

0.67 2.00 1.74 1.33

9.8 39.9 30.1 21.9

0.30 0.79 0.60 0.62

0.39 1.19 0.84 0.97

1.80 5.09 4.55 5.17

0.89 2.47 2.13 2.85

0.87 1.88 1.49 2.04

2.54 3.11 2.63 2.23

3.55 3.91 3.39 3.08

51.1 74.4 58.7 56.8

1.45 1.79 1.67 1.23

2.42 2.86 2.29 1.98

8.35 12.80 8.04 6.53

4.92 7.57 5.84 5.05

1.50 1.94 2.54 2.36 2.28

2.42 2.57 3.72 3.72 2.61

51.5 63.7 55.6 63.6 67.1

1.21 1.56 2.61 1.49 1.14

1.61 1.81 2.80 2.42 2.14

3.75 7.27 6.83 7.35 6.68

4.78 5.88 7.42 5.69 5.74

Year

Corn

1940 1950 1960 1970

0.62 1.52 1.00 1.33

1975 1980 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Wheat

Rice

Soybeans

Cottonseed

Hay

3.7 10.9 10.0 12.8

21.70 86.60 42.50 56.40

9.78 21.10 21.70 26.10

0.85 1.50 2.00 2.21

NA NA 2.7 6.5

4.21 5.25 4.15 3.45

19.0 25.1 27.9 24.4

97.00 129.00 99.50 66.00

52.10 71.00 72.70 67.60

4.48 6.55 5.69 3.92

8.8 12.1 15.5 17.3

2.45 3.04 4.05 3.75 3.79

29.2 28.0 28.0 28.0 34.7

80.00 82.50 118.00 105.00 121.00

59.70 65.00 85.20 85.40 80.60

5.03 4.38 6.02 7.36 6.08

19.1 12.7 17.4 13.9 20.9

Sorghum Peanuts

Potatoes Apples

Figures represent cents per lb. for cotton, apples, and peanuts; dollars per bushel for oats, wheat, corn, barley, and soybeans; dollars per 100 lb. for rice, sorghum, and potatoes; dollars per ton for cottonseed and baled hay; weighted crop year prices. The marketing year is described as follows: apples, June–May; wheat, oats, barley, hay, and potatoes, Jul.–Jun.; cotton, rice, peanuts, and cottonseed, Aug.–Jul.; soybeans, Sep.–Aug.; and corn and sorghum grain, Oct.–Sep. Source: World Almanac, 1999, 142.

122


TABLE 4.101

FARM INCOME, 1946–1990

(billions of dollars; quarterly data at seasonally adjusted annual rates) Income of Farm Operators from Farming Gross Farm Income Cash Marketing Receipts

Totala

Total


1946 1947 1948 1949

29.6 32.4 36.5 30.8

24.8 29.6 30.2 27.8

13.8 16.5 17.1 15.4

11.0 13.1 13.1 12.4

.0 21.8 1.7 2.9

14.5 17.0 18.8 18.0

15.1 15.4 17.7 12.8

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

33.1 38.3 37.8 34.4 34.2 33.5 34.0 34.8 39.0 37.9

28.5 32.9 32.5 31.0 29.8 29.5 30.4 29.7 33.5 33.6

16.1 19.6 18.2 16.9 16.3 16.0 16.4 17.4 19.2 18.9

12.4 13.2 14.3 14.1 13.6 13.5 14.0 12.3 14.2 14.7

.8 1.2 .9 2.6 .5 .2 2.5 .6 .8 .0

19.5 22.3 22.8 21.5 21.8 22.2 22.7 23.7 25.8 27.2

13.6 15.9 15.0 13.0 12.4 11.3 11.3 11.1 13.2 10.7

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

38.6 40.5 42.3 43.4 42.3 46.5 50.5 50.5 51.8 56.4

34.0 35.2 36.5 37.5 37.3 39.4 43.4 42.8 44.2 48.2

19.0 19.5 20.2 20.0 19.9 21.9 25.0 24.4 25.5 28.6

15.0 15.7 16.3 17.4 17.4 17.5 18.4 18.4 18.7 19.6

.4 .3 .6 .6 2.8 1.0 2.1 .7 .1 .1

27.4 28.6 30.3 31.6 31.8 33.6 36.5 38.2 39.5 42.1

11.2 12.0 12.1 11.8 10.5 12.9 14.0 12.3 12.3 14.3

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

58.8 62.1 71.1 98.9 98.2 100.6 102.9 108.8 128.4 150.7

50.5 52.7 61.1 86.9 92.4 88.9 95.4 96.2 112.4 131.5

29.5 30.5 35.6 45.8 41.3 43.1 46.3 47.6 59.2 69.2

21.0 22.3 25.5 41.1 51.1 45.8 49.0 48.6 53.2 62.3

.0 1.4 .9 3.4 21.6 3.4 21.5 1.1 1.9 5.0

44.5 47.1 51.7 64.6 71.0 75.0 82.7 88.9 103.2 123.3

14.4 15.0 19.5 34.4 27.3 25.5 20.2 19.9 25.2 27.4

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

149.3 166.3 164.1 153.9 168.0 161.2 156.1 168.4 177.9 191.9 198.1

139.7 141.6 142.6 136.8 142.8 144.1 135.4 141.8 151.2 160.8 169.5

68.0 69.2 70.3 69.6 72.9 69.8 71.6 76.0 79.6 83.9 89.2

71.7 72.5 72.3 67.2 69.9 74.3 63.8 65.8 71.6 76.9 80.3

26.3 6.5 21.4 210.9 6.0 22.3 22.2 22.3 24.1 3.8 3.3

133.1 139.4 140.3 139.6 142.0 132.6 125.2 131.0 139.9 146.7 153.3

16.1 26.9 23.8 14.2 26.0 28.6 30.9 37.4 38.0 45.3 44.8

Year

Crops

Value of Inventory Changes

Production Expenses

Net Farm Income

a Cash marketing receipts and inventory changes plus Government payments, other farm cash income, and nonmoney income. Source: Council of Economic Advisers, Economic Report of the President, 1998 (Washington, D.C., 1998), 393.


123

TABLE 4.102

FARM INCOME—MARKETINGS AND GOVERNMENT PAYMENTS, BY STATE, 1989 AND 1990

(thousands of dollars) 1989 Farm Marketings

State

Total

Crops

1990 Farm Marketings Livestock and Products

Total

Crops


Government Payments


2,670,904 28,631 1,926,022 4,156,869 18,050,380

696,322 19,771 1,181,836 1,496,114 12,857,370

1,974,582 8,860 744,186 2,660,755 5,193,010

2,737,422 26,539 1,865,492 4,259,205 18,858,873

654.909 18,977 1,046,246 1,552,776 13,343,714

2,082,513 7,562 819,246 2,706,429 5,515,159

82,226 1,117 43,349 312,696 252,333


3,969,206 426,259 661,640 6,246,284 3,907,761

1,320,629 239,892 159,032 5,030,897 1,626,283

2,648,577 186,367 502,608 1,215,387 2,281,478

4,213,419 445,901 643,661 5,708,300 3,842,186

1,184,074 250,068 183,829 4,448,019 1,574,081

3,029,345 195,833 459,832 1,260,281 2,268,105

236,723 2,123 3,213 37,155 130,593

Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa

585,002 2,745,336 6,978,820 4,281,440 9,048,625

493,215 1,661,606 4,727,437 2,455,574 3,755,249

91,787 1,083,730 2,251,383 1,825,866 5,293,376

587,689 2,934,519 7,937,793 4,930,668 10,319,173

499,245 1,780,841 5,460,821 2,871,067 4,437,024

88,444 1,153,678 2,476,972 2,059,601 5,882,149

519 133,431 506,603 244,170 753,733

Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md.

6,548,317 2,924,151 1,707,682 444,038 1,336,215

2,132,274 1,266,117 1,093,656 227,953 477,149

4,416,043 1,658,034 614,026 216,085 859,066

6,994,864 3,098,398 1,921,224 460,387 1,345,165

2,098,649 1,400,075 1,284,157 240,492 516,701

4,896,215 1,698,323 637,067 219,895 828,464

834,746 81,610 154,631 6,982 17,386

Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss. Mo.

433,955 2,922,761 6,513,260 2,275,837 3,920,049

321,032 1,611,462 2,819,850 981,002 1,751,019

112,923 1,311,299 3,693,410 1,294,835 2,169,030

418,462 3,183,356 7,011,173 2,432,964 3,938,589

302,525 1,785,034 3,253,477 1,111,288 1,667,974

115,937 1,398,322 3,757,696 1,321,676 2,270,615

3,023 168,831 511,759 185,969 299,065

Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J.

1,553,782 8,725,832 243,589 138,824 661,691

624,526 3,079,816 101,556 73,429 464,363

929,256 5,646,016 142,033 65,395 197,328

1,605,731 8,845,164 333,435 133,892 647,383

742,052 2,807,674 115,085 70,720 451,510

863,679 6,037,490 218,350 63,172 195,873

299,599 624,646 5,347 1,856 15,744

N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak. Ohio

1,458,917 2,853,916 4,592,584 2,151,510 3,786,524

484,706 917,270 2,082,348 1,482,514 2,088,064

974,211 1,936,646 2,510,236 668,996 1,698,460

1,528,793 3,006,046 4,866,512 2,537,350 4,171,818

482,814 1,022,887 2,213,714 1,723,899 2,335,424

1,045,979 1,983,159 2,652,798 813,451 1,836,394

63,840 59,304 73,255 545,378 197,006

Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C.

3,514,760 2,284,656 3,602,210 78,317 1,234,700

1,137,297 1,546,451 991,513 65,461 680,310

2,377,463 738,205 2,610,697 12,856 554,390

3,554,437 2,311,783 3,767,174 70,793 1,175,560

1,191,312 1,557,088 1,053,407 58,269 599,038

2,363,125 754,695 2,713,767 12,524 576,522

319,040 89,137 41,414 191 62,637


2,982,194 1,945,725 10,923,494 755,279 429,318

950,887 863,290 4,062,624 188,181 50,247

2,031,307 1,082,435 6,860,870 567,098 379,071

3,348,717 2,038,610 11,980,527 754,826 446,722

1,036,068 928,009 4,268,378 178,686 48,951

2,312,649 1,110,601 7,712,149 576,140 397,771

332,851 91,029 974,702 34,897 5,793

Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

2,039,137 3,689,120 310,275 5,399,559 827,171

694,323 2,456,532 60,316 1,049,982 162,735

1,344,814 1,232,588 249,959 4,349,577 664,436

2,119,633 3,815,779 338,132 5,706,149 766,767

740,881 2,420,139 69,517 1,124,923 157,193

1,378,752 1,395,640 268,615 4,581,226 609,574

32,378 205,425 6,049 181,243 31,283

$160,892,528

$76,761,482

$84,131,046

$169,987,155

$80,363,701

$89,623,454

$9,298,030

U.S.


Earnings and Expenses and a Parity Price When the government began during the Depression of the 1930s to seek to improve the income of farmers, there logically appeared the need to find some standard of measuring the desired improvement. 124


Officials concluded that farm prices should be elevated to a position commensurate with farm, or simply living, expenses. Research produced a calculation that during the years 1909–14 the relationship between prices and cost had been reasonable and equitable and that reestablishment of that ratio would be the objective of government policy. When prices received attained a level equitable with prices

paid, they were said to have reached a state of parity. Farmers hoped to receive prices that were at or above the parity level. Prices beneath 100 percent of parity signaled that agriculture was not receiving a fair share of income, and the lower the parity number, the greater the hardship that farmers were having to bear.The two tables of commodity prices, which utilized the original parity ratio, revealed that farmers received good prices—above parity—for seven years after the Second World War; then prices began a slide that continued, except for

TABLE 4.103

a brief period in the 1970s, to the 1990s. By 1986 prices reached 51, barely half of the established objective. A following table that utilized a different index told a slightly different story. Prices received exceeded prices paid until 1980, at which time the negative ratio continued to broaden. Small wonder that the farmer’s share of the market price also declined. Between 1950 and 1990 the producer’s share of the market price of food went from nearly 50 percent to only 30 percent.

INDEXES OF PRICES RECEIVED AND PRICES PAID BY FARMERS, 1950–1990

(1975 = 100) Prices Received by Farmers

Prices Paid by Farmers Production Items

Fertilizer

Fuels and Energy

Wage Rates

Addendum: Average Farm Real Estate Value per Acre

... ... ... ... ...

54 57 59 59 59

... ... ... ... ...

22 25 26 27 27

14 16 18 18 18

43 43 44 46 46

... ... ... ... ...

58 57 58 58 57

... ... ... ... ...

27 28 29 30 32

19 19 21 22 23

44 44 45 45 45

46 46 47 47 47

... ... ... ... ...

57 58 58 57 57

... ... ... ... ...

33 33 34 35 36

24 25 26 27 29

54 60 57 60 67

47 49 49 51 53

48 50 50 50 52

39 40 42 44 47

57 56 55 52 48

49 49 50 50 51

38 41 44 48 53

31 33 35 38 40

52 56 60 91 117

67 67 77 104 94

55 58 62 71 81

54 57 61 73 83

49 51 54 58 68

48 50 52 56 92

52 53 54 57 79

57 59 63 69 79

42 43 47 53 66

101 102 100 115 132

105 102 100 105 116

98 101 100 124 147

89 95 100 108 123

91 97 100 108 125

82 91 100 109 122

120 102 100 100 108

88 93 100 105 137

85 93 100 107 117

75 86 100 109 125

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

134 139 133 135 142

125 134 121 128 138

144 143 145 141 146

138 150 159 161 164

138 148 153 152 155

136 152 165 174 181

134 144 144 137 143

188 213 210 202 201

127 138 144 148 151

145 158 157 148 146

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

128 123 127 138 148 149

120 107 106 126 134 127

136 138 146 150 160 170

162 159 162 170 178 184

151 144 148 157 165 171

178 174 174 181 193 202

135 124 118 130 137 131

201 162 164 167 180 204

154 159 166 171 185 191

128 112 103 106 111 112

All Commodities, Services, Interest, Taxes, and Wage Rates

Tractors and Self-propelled Machinery

42 47 47 44 44

40 40 42 43 43

53 52 53 51 49

53 55 52 52 50

60 62 69 98 105

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Year or Month

All Farm Products


Crops

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

56 66 63 56 54

54 61 62 55 56

58 70 64 56 52

37 41 42 40 40

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

51 50 51 55 53

53 54 52 52 51

49 47 51 57 53

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

52 53 53 53 52

51 52 54 55 55

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

54 58 55 56 59

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Total



125

Prices and Inflation

TABLE 4.104 FARM-TO-RETAIL PRICE SPREADS, 1951–1975 Market Basket of Farm Food Products

Year

Retail Cost (dollars)

Farm Value (dollars)

Farm—Retail Spread (dollars)

Farmer’s Share of Retail Cost (percent)

1951 1952 1953 1954

1,024.04 1,034.04 1,003.31 985.79

496.77 481.73 445.48 421.37

527.27 552.31 557.83 564.42

49 47 44 43

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

969.35 972.21 1,007.41 1,064.16 1,040.20

394.78 389.88 401.46 429.55 398.27

574.57 582.33 605.95 634.61 641.93

41 40 40 40 38

1960 1963 1964 1965

1,051.70 1,006.94 1,008.92 1,037.15

408.12 377.94 377.13 415.82

643.58 629.00 631.79 621.33

39 38 37 40

1966 1967 1968 1969

1,092.49 1,080.64 1,119.62 1,178.98

445.41 419.07 441.42 481.24

647.08 661.57 678.20 697.74

41 39 39 41

1970 1971 1972

1,228.43 1,250.47 1,310.82

477.99 479.61 524.14

750.44 770.86 786.68

39 38 40

1973 1974 1975

1,537.30 1,749.56 1,876.07

700.78 747.64 784.12

836.52 1,001.92 1,091.95

46 43 42

Source: Agricultural Statistics, 1961, 467; Agricultural Statistics, 1976 (Washington, D.C., 1976), 448.

TABLE 4.105 INDEX OF FARM-TO-MARKET PRICE SPREADS, 1976–1990 Market Basket of Food Products

Farm to Retail Spread

Farm Value Share of Retail Cost (%)

Year

Retail Cost

Farm Value

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Index 1982– 84 5 100 65 66 74 82 88

Index 1982– 84 5 100 72 72 83 92 97

Index 1982– 84 5 100 61 63 68 77 83

38 37 38 38 37

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

95 98 99 103 104

99 99 97 104 96

92 98 100 103 108

36 35 34 35 32

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

106 112 117 125 134

95 97 100 107 112

112 119 125 134 145

31 30 30 30 30

Source: Agricultural Statistics, 1991, 378.

126


A dollar is a dollar, and at any given time a dollar will buy a dollar’s worth of goods. Change in the value of a dollar over a period of time represents a mark of change in what the dollar will buy.That quantity is of course affected by change in price, which theoretically could involve a reduction, called deflation, but the recent history of the United States more commonly has been characterized by price increases, or inflation. Efforts to measure price changes and the changing value of the dollar are called price indexes, in which a year or a small number of years is arbitrarily chosen as a standard with which other years will be compared. Identification of the selected year will not change the amount of inflation or deflation, but it will affect the numbers that appear in the index. The first table in this unit, which surveyed a broad scope of American history, established the year 1860 (the time of the Civil War) as the base. The survey revealed some fluctuation in price, of course,

TABLE 4.106

THE VALUE OF A DOLLAR, 1860–1990

(composite Consumer Price Index; 1860 = $1) Year

Value

1860 1885 1903 1921 1930 1944 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

1.00 1.00 .96 2.22 1.90 1.92 2.00 2.17 2.48 2.68 2.65 2.68 2.89 2.95 2.98 2.99 2.98 3.02 3.13 3.22 3.24 3.29 3.33 3.36 3.40 3.45 3.51 3.61 3.71 3.87 4.08 4.32 4.50 4.65 4.94 5.48 5.98 6.33 6.74 7.25 8.09 9.18 10.13 10.75 11.10 11.58 11.99 12.22 12.66 13.18 13.81

Source: Scot Derks, The Value of a Dollar: Prices and Incomes in the United States 1860–1999 (Lakeville, Conn., 1999), 2.

but it also pointed to a remarkable price stability for 50 years. A dollar in 1910 would buy the same amount of goods as it did in 1860. The First World War and its immediate aftermath drove prices upward, and within approximately 10 years—by the early 1920s—the dollar had lost half of its value.Through a period of basic stability in the 1920s and a time of modest deflation in the 1930s, the dollar (albeit an inflated dollar) essentially retained its value for a quarter century. In 1946 the currency would buy as much as it had purchased in 1920. The history of the post–Second World War period, however, left a legacy of inflation, as one would expect in a time of an expanding population and booming economy. Prices began to move upward—slowly

TABLE 4.107

at first, but except for a single year, the direction was unrelenting. Between 1946 and 1970, roughly 25 years, the value of the dollar again was cut in half. In terms of price stability, the 1970s was a time of disaster. Influenced by the final phase of the Vietnam War and by two stunning energy crises, the dollar was halved again in 10 years. The pace of inflation slowed in the 1980s, but it still continued. A different base (other tables in this unity utilized the years 1982–84) produced different numbers, but the theme was the same. Prices went up, and the relative value of the dollar went down. To prosper or even to survive in such a setting, it was necessary to experience an increase in earnings that at least kept pace with the increase in price.

CONSUMER PRICE INDEXES, SELECTED GROUPS, AND PURCHASING POWER OF THE CONSUMER DOLLAR, 1946–1990

(1982–1984 = 100, except as noted) All Urban Consumers

Renters’ Costs

Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers

Purchasing Power of Apparel and Consumer Upkeep Dollar

Purchasing Power of Consumer Dollar

All Items

Food

Renters’ Costs

Apparel and Upkeep

511.5 447.4 415.1 419.3

19.6 22.5 24.2 24.0

19.8 24.1 26.1 25.0

... ... ... ...

34.6 40.1 42.7 41.0

508.8 445.1 412.9 417.1

40.3 43.9 43.5 43.1 43.1

415.1 384.6 376.5 373.5 371.7

24.2 26.1 26.7 26.9 27.0

25.4 28.2 28.7 28.3 28.2

... ... ... ... ...

40.5 44.1 43.7 43.3 43.3

412.9 382.5 374.5 371.5 369.7

... ... ... ... ...

42.9 43.7 44.5 44.6 45.0

373.2 367.8 354.9 345.7 342.7

26.9 27.3 28.3 29.1 29.3

27.8 28.0 28.9 30.2 29.7

... ... ... ... ...

43.1 44.0 44.7 44.8 45.2

371.2 365.9 353.1 343.8 340.9

30.0 30.4 30.6 31.1 31.5

... ... ... ... ...

45.7 46.1 46.3 46.9 47.3

337.3 334.0 330.4 326.5 322.0

29.8 30.1 30.4 30.8 31.2

30.0 30.4 30.6 31.1 31.5

... ... ... ... ...

45.9 46.3 46.6 47.1 47.5

335.5 332.2 328.7 324.8 320.3

31.5 32.4 33.4 34.8 36.7

32.2 33.8 34.1 35.3 37.1

... ... ... ... ...

47.8 49.0 51.0 53.7 56.8

316.6 308.0 299.3 287.3 272.6

31.7 32.6 33.6 35.0 36.9

32.2 33.8 34.1 35.3 37.1

... ... ... ... ...

48.0 49.2 51.2 54.0 57.1

315.0 306.3 297.7 285.8 271.2

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

38.8 40.5 41.8 44.4 49.3

39.2 40.4 42.1 48.2 55.1

... ... ... ... ...

59.2 61.1 62.3 64.6 69.4

257.4 246.6 239.1 225.1 202.9

39.0 40.7 42.1 44.7 49.6

39.2 40.3 42.1 48.2 55.1

... ... ... ... ...

59.5 61.4 62.7 65.0 69.8

256.0 245.3 237.9 223.9 201.8

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

53.8 56.9 60.6 65.2 72.6

59.8 61.6 65.5 72.0 79.9

... ... ... ... ...

72.5 75.2 78.6 81.4 84.9

185.9 175.7 164.9 153.2 138.0

54.1 57.2 60.9 65.6 73.1

59.8 61.6 65.5 72.0 80.0

... ... ... ... ...

72.9 75.6 79.0 81.7 85.2

184.9 174.7 164.0 152.4 136.9

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

82.4 90.9 96.5 99.6 103.9

86.8 93.6 97.4 99.4 103.2

... ... ... 103.0 108.6

90.9 95.3 97.8 100.2 102.1

121.5 109.8 103.5 100.3 96.1

82.9 91.4 96.9 99.8 103.3

87.0 93.7 97.4 99.4 103.2

... ... ... ... ...

90.9 95.6 97.8 100.2 102.0

120.6 109.6 103.3 100.0 96.8

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

107.6 109.6 113.6 118.3 124.0

105.6 109.0 113.5 118.2 125.1

115.4 121.9 128.1 133.6 138.9

105.0 105.9 110.6 115.4 118.6

92.8 91.3 88.0 84.6 80.7

106.9 108.6 112.5 117.0 122.6

105.4 108.8 113.3 117.9 124.8

103.6 109.5 114.6 119.2 123.9

105.0 105.8 110.4 114.9 117.9

93.5 92.0 89.0 85.5 81.6

1990

130.7

132.4

146.7

124.1

76.6

129.0

132.1

130.1

123.1

77.5

Year

All Items

Food

1946 1947 1948 1949

19.5 22.3 24.1 23.8

19.8 24.1 26.1 25.0

... ... ... ...

34.4 39.9 42.5 40.8

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

24.1 26.0 26.5 26.7 26.9

25.4 28.2 28.7 28.3 28.2

... ... ... ... ...

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

26.8 27.2 28.1 28.9 29.1

27.8 28.0 28.9 30.2 29.7

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

29.6 29.9 30.2 30.6 31.0

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Source: Jacobs, Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1997, 256–257.


127

TABLE 4.108

CONSUMER PRICE INDEXES, BY MAJOR GROUPS, 1960–1990

(1982–84=100; represents annual averages of monthly figures; reflects buying patterns of all urban consumers)

Year

All Items

Energy

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

29.6 29.9 30.2 30.6 31.0 31.5 32.4 33.4 34.8 36.7 38.8 40.5 41.8 44.4 49.3 53.8 56.9 60.6 65.2 72.6 82.4 90.9 96.5 99.6 103.9 107.6 109.6 113.6 118.3 124.0 130.7

22.4 22.5 22.6 22.6 22.5 22.9 23.3 23.8 24.2 24.8 25.5 26.5 27.2 29.4 38.1 42.1 45.1 49.4 52.5 65.7 86.0 97.7 99.2 99.9 100.9 101.6 88.2 88.6 89.3 94.3 102.1

Food

Shelter

30.0 30.4 30.6 31.1 31.5 32.2 33.8 34.1 35.3 37.1 39.2 40.4 42.1 48.2 55.1 59.8 61.6 65.5 72.0 79.9 86.8 93.6 97.4 99.4 103.2 105.6 109.0 113.5 118.2 125.1 132.4

25.2 25.4 25.8 26.1 26.5 27.0 27.8 28.8 30.1 32.6 35.5 37.0 38.7 40.5 44.4 48.8 51.5 54.9 60.5 68.9 81.0 90.5 96.9 99.1 104.0 109.8 115.8 121.3 127.1 132.8 140.0

Apparel and Upkeep 45.7 46.1 46.3 46.9 47.3 47.8 49.0 51.0 53.7 56.8 59.2 61.1 62.3 64.6 69.4 72.5 75.2 78.6 81.4 84.9 90.9 95.3 97.8 100.2 102.1 105.0 105.9 110.6 115.4 118.6 124.1

TransMedical portation Care 29.8 30.1 30.8 30.9 31.4 31.9 32.3 33.3 34.3 35.7 37.5 39.5 39.9 41.2 45.8 50.1 55.1 59.0 61.7 70.5 83.1 93.2 97.0 99.3 103.7 106.4 102.3 105.4 108.7 114.1 120.5

22.3 22.9 23.5 24.1 24.6 25.2 26.3 28.2 29.9 31.9 34.0 36.1 37.3 38.8 42.4 47.5 52.0 57.0 61.8 67.5 74.9 82.9 92.5 100.6 106.8 113.5 122.0 130.1 138.6 149.3 162.8

Fuel Oil

Electricity

Utility (piped gas)

13.5 14.0 14.0 14.3 14.0 14.3 14.7 15.1 15.6 15.9 16.5 17.6 17.6 20.4 32.2 34.9 37.4 42.4 44.9 63.1 87.7 107.3 105.0 96.5 98.5 94.6 74.1 75.8 75.8 80.3 98.6

29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.8 29.7 29.7 29.9 30.2 30.8 31.8 33.9 35.6 37.4 44.1 50.0 53.1 56.6 60.9 65.6 75.8 87.2 95.8 98.9 105.3 108.9 110.4 110.0 111.5 114.7 117.4

17.6 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 18.0 18.1 18.1 18.2 18.6 19.6 21.0 22.1 23.1 26.0 31.1 36.3 43.2 47.5 55.1 65.7 74.9 89.8 104.7 105.5 104.8 99.7 95.1 94.5 97.1 97.3

Telephone All SerComvices modities 58.3 58.5 58.5 58.6 58.6 57.7 56.5 57.3 57.3 58.0 58.7 61.6 65.0 66.7 69.5 71.7 74.3 75.2 76.0 75.8 77.7 84.6 93.2 99.2 107.5 111.7 117.2 116.5 116.0 117.2 117.7

33.6 33.8 34.1 34.4 34.8 35.2 36.1 36.8 38.1 39.9 41.7 43.2 44.5 47.8 53.5 58.2 60.7 64.2 68.8 76.6 86.0 93.2 97.0 99.8 103.2 105.4 104.4 107.7 111.5 116.7 122.8


TABLE 4.109 CONSUMER PRICE INDEXES—PERCENT CHANGE IN MAJOR GROUPS, 1960–1990 (in percent; minus sign indicates decrease)

Year

All Items

Energy

Food

Shelter

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

1.7 1.0 1.0 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.9 3.1 4.2 5.5 5.7 4.4 3.2 6.2 11.0 9.1 5.8 6.5 7.6 11.3 13.5 10.3 6.2 3.2 4.3 3.6 1.9 3.6 4.1 4.8 5.4

2.3 0.4 0.4 ... 20.4 1.8 1.7 2.1 1.7 2.5 2.8 3.9 2.6 8.1 29.6 10.5 7.1 9.5 6.3 25.1 30.9 13.6 1.5 0.7 1.0 0.7 213.2 0.5 0.8 5.6 8.3

1.0 1.3 0.7 1.6 1.3 2.2 5.0 0.9 3.5 5.1 5.7 3.1 4.2 14.5 14.3 8.5 3.0 6.3 9.9 11.0 8.6 7.8 4.1 2.1 3.8 2.3 3.2 4.1 4.1 5.8 5.8

2.0 0.8 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.9 3.0 3.6 4.5 8.3 8.9 4.2 4.6 4.7 9.6 9.9 5.5 6.6 10.2 13.9 17.6 11.7 7.1 2.3 4.9 5.6 5.5 4.7 4.8 4.5 5.4

Note: . . . Represents zero. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1993, 482.

128


Apparel and Upkeep 1.6 0.9 0.4 1.3 0.9 1.1 2.5 4.1 5.3 5.8 4.2 3.2 2.0 3.7 7.4 4.5 3.7 4.5 3.6 4.3 7.1 4.8 2.6 2.5 1.9 2.8 0.9 4.4 4.3 2.8 4.6

TransMedical portation Care ... 1.0 2.3 0.3 1.6 1.6 1.3 3.1 3.0 4.1 5.0 5.3 1.0 3.3 11.2 9.4 10.0 7.1 4.6 14.3 17.9 12.2 4.1 2.4 4.4 2.6 23.9 3.0 3.1 5.0 5.6

3.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.4 4.4 7.2 6.0 6.7 6.6 6.2 3.3 4.0 9.3 12.0 9.5 9.6 8.4 9.2 11.0 10.7 11.6 8.8 6.2 6.3 7.5 6.6 6.5 7.7 9.0

Fuel Oil

Electricity

Utility (piped gas)

21.5 3.7 ... 2.1 22.1 2.1 2.8 2.7 3.3 1.9 3.8 6.7 ... 15.9 57.8 8.4 7.2 13.4 5.9 40.5 39.0 22.3 22.1 28.1 2.1 24.0 221.7 2.3 ... 5.9 22.8

1.4 ... ... ... 20.3 20.3 ... 0.7 1.0 2.0 3.2 6.6 5.0 5.1 17.9 13.4 6.2 6.6 7.6 7.7 15.5 15.0 9.9 3.2 6.5 3.4 1.4 20.4 1.4 2.9 2.4

6.7 1.7 ... ... ... 0.6 0.6 ... 0.6 2.2 5.4 7.1 5.2 4.5 12.6 19.6 16.7 19.0 10.0 16.0 19.2 14.0 19.9 16.6 0.8 20.7 24.9 24.6 20.6 2.8 0.2

TeleAll phone ComServices modities 1.6 0.3 ... 0.2 ... 21.5 22.1 1.4 ... 1.2 1.2 4.9 5.5 2.6 4.2 3.2 3.6 1.2 1.1 20.3 2.5 8.9 10.2 6.4 8.4 3.9 4.9 20.6 20.4 1.0 0.4

0.9 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.1 2.6 1.9 3.5 4.7 4.5 3.6 3.0 7.4 11.9 8.8 4.3 5.8 7.2 11.3 12.3 8.4 4.1 2.9 3.4 2.1 20.9 3.2 3.5 4.7 5.2

TABLE 4.110 CONSUMER PRICE INDEX—CHANGE BY YEAR IN PERCENT, 1946–1990 Year

% Change

1946 1947 1948 1949

18.1 8.8 3.0 22.1

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

5.9 6.0 0.8 0.7 20.7

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

0.4 3.0 2.9 1.8 1.7

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

1.4 0.7 1.3 1.6 1.0

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

TABLE 4.111

Year

% Change

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

5.6 3.3 3.4 8.7 12.3

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

6.9 4.9 6.7 9.0 13.3

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

12.5 8.9 3.8 3.8 3.9

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

3.8 1.1 4.4 4.4 4.6

1990

6.1


1.9 3.5 3.0 4.7 6.2

ANNUAL PERCENT CHANGES IN CONSUMER PRICES, UNITED STATES AND OECD COUNTRIES, 1970–1990

(covers member countries of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD]) Country

1970

1975

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

United States OECD, total OECD, Europe Australia Canada

5.8 6.0 6.1 3.9 3.3

9.1 11.8 14.4 15.1 10.7

11.3 10.7 12.7 9.1 9.1

13.5 14.2 17.7 10.2 10.2

10.3 10.9 13.4 9.7 12.4

6.1 8.1 11.5 11.1 10.8

3.2 5.7 9.5 10.1 5.8

4.3 5.8 9.0 3.9 4.3

3.5 5.1 7.9 6.8 4.0

1.9 3.2 5.3 9.1 4.2

3.7 3.9 5.1 8.5 4.4

4.1 4.8 7.1 7.2 4.0

4.8 5.8 8.3 7.6 5.0

5.4 6.3 8.6 7.3 4.8

Japan New Zealand Austria Belgium Denmark

7.7 6.5 4.4 3.9 5.8

11.8 14.7 8.4 12.8 9.6

3.7 13.7 3.7 4.5 9.6

7.8 17.2 6.4 6.6 12.3

4.9 15.4 6.8 7.1 11.7

2.7 16.2 5.4 8.7 10.1

1.9 7.3 3.3 7.7 6.9

2.2 6.2 5.6 6.3 6.3

2.0 15.4 3.2 4.9 4.7

0.6 13.2 1.7 1.3 3.6

20.1 15.8 1.4 1.6 4.0

0.7 6.4 2.0 1.2 4.6

2.3 5.7 2.5 3.1 4.8

3.1 6.1 3.3 3.4 2.7

Finland France Greece Ireland Italy

2.8 5.2 3.2 8.2 5.1

17.9 11.8 13.4 20.9 17.2

7.5 10.8 19.0 13.3 15.7

11.6 13.6 24.9 18.2 21.1

12.0 13.4 24.5 20.4 18.7

9.6 11.8 21.0 17.1 16.3

8.3 9.6 20.2 10.5 15.0

7.1 7.4 18.4 8.6 10.6

5.9 5.8 19.3 5.4 8.6

2.9 2.7 23.0 3.8 6.1

4.1 3.1 16.4 3.1 4.6

5.1 2.7 13.5 2.1 5.0

6.6 3.6 13.7 4.1 6.6

6.1 3.4 20.4 3.3 6.1

Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain

4.6 3.6 10.6 6.3 5.9

10.7 10.2 11.7 20.4 16.9

4.5 4.2 4.8 23.9 15.6

6.3 6.5 10.9 16.6 15.6

8.1 6.7 13.7 20.0 14.5

9.4 5.9 11.3 22.4 14.4

8.7 2.7 8.4 25.5 12.2

5.6 3.3 6.3 28.8 11.3

4.1 2.3 5.7 19.6 8.8

0.3 0.1 7.2 11.8 8.8

20.1 20.7 8.7 9.4 5.2

1.4 0.7 6.7 9.7 4.8

3.4 1.1 4.6 12.6 6.8

3.7 2.5 4.1 13.4 6.7

Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom Germany

7.0 3.6 28.7 6.4 3.4

9.8 6.7 19.5 24.2 6.0

7.2 3.6 58.7 13.4 4.1

13.7 4.0 110.2 18.0 5.5

12.1 6.5 36.6 11.9 6.3

8.6 5.6 29.7 8.6 5.3

8.9 3.0 31.4 4.6 3.3

8.0 2.9 48.4 5.0 2.4

7.4 3.4 45.0 6.1 2.2

4.3 0.8 34.6 3.4 20.1

4.2 1.4 38.9 4.1 0.2

5.8 1.9 75.4 4.9 1.3

6.4 3.2 63.3 7.8 2.8

10.5 5.4 60.3 9.5 2.7



129

Sample Prices in Current Dollars 1946–1990 TABLE 4.112 TUITION AND FEES FOR ACADEMIC YEAR AT PUBLIC FOUR-YEAR COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES, 1959–1990 Year

TABLE 4.113 MEDIAN SALES PRICE FOR NEW HOMES, 1950–1990

Cost

1959 1960 1962 1964 1966

$198 198 265 281 298

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976

366 427 527 552 656

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

732 836 1,042 1,284 1,536 1,726 2,035

Year

Price

1950 1960 1966 1968 1970

$9,422 15,200 21,400 24,700 23,400

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

27,600 35,900 44,200 55,700 64,600

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

69,300 79,900 92,000 112,500 122,900

Source: Derks, Value of a Dollar, 490.


TABLE 4.114

TABLE 4.115

AVERAGE PRICE OF RESIDENTIAL ELECTRICITY, 1946–1990

WHOLESALE PRICE OF SUGAR, 1946–1990

(per pound, in dollars)

(per kWh, in dollars) Year

Price

Year

Price

1946 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966

0.032 0.029 0.027 0.025 0.024 0.022

1946 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966

0.064 0.078 0.086 0.086 0.089 0.096

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990

0.022 0.031 0.043 0.069 0.074 0.076

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990

0.112 0.321 0.167 0.270 0.234 0.300



TABLE 4.116 ADVERTISED NEW-CAR PRICES, 1946–1990 Year

Car

Price ($)

1946 1947 1949 1949

DeSoto Custom Suburban, 8 pass. sedan Chevrolet Fleetmaster, 4-door sedan Buick Roadmaster Riviera, hardtop Packard Super 8 DeLuxe

2,093–2,631 1,212–2,013 3,203 2,894–2,919

1956 1959 1961 1964

Plymouth Fury, hardtop Chevrolet Corvette convertible Chevrolet Corvair Monza Pontiac Grand Prix

2,866 3,631–3,934 2,850 2,895

1968 1976 1980 1981

Volkswagen Station Wagon (bus) Volkswagen Rabbit Pontiac Firebird Cadillac Eldorado

2,602 3,500 6,132 19,700

1987 1988 1990 1990

Mazda RX-7 Roadster Dodge Medallion, 4-door Ford Escort Ford Taurus, 4-door

22,000 8,995 5,999 9,999

Source: Derks, Value of a Dollar, 267, 310, 334, 335, 357, 400, 417, 432, 451.

130


TABLE 4.117

COST OF MISCELLANEOUS GOODS, 1946–1989

Item Baseball Bicycle Camera film Coca-Cola Electric iron Washing machine Flashlight battery Diapers Power mower Toothpaste Wedding ring (man’s)

1946

1950

1954

1959

1964

1968

1975

1982

1986

1989

$1.67 41.50 .32 .05 7.60 79.95

2.45 44.95 .38 .05 6.45 64.95

2.79 51.50 .43 .05 6.95 69.95

2.77 49.95 .45 .05 6.45 79.95

2.37 45.95 2.89 ... 13.66 244.95

2.75 46.95 6.69 ... 14.75 239.95

2.39 74.99 5.33 ... 22.79 249.95

... 99.99

... 119.99

... 89.99

... 29.99 ...

... 39.99 399.99

... 39.99 ...

.10 2.98 ... .37 7.95

.09 2.65 87.50 .43 6.75

.11 2.74 104.50 .63 6.45

.18 2.72 86.50 ... 6.46

.21 2.54 99.95 ... 7.00

... 2.45 96.50 ... 8.50

.35 3.77 79.00 ... ...

1.15 38.99 249.99 ... ...

1.35 16.49 ... ... ...

... ... 249.99 ... ...

Source: Derks, Value of a Dollar, 272, 293, 314, 338, 363, 403, 419, 434.

Taxes For government to function it needs money, and the most common form of raising revenue has been to require the citizenry, and groups emerging therefrom, to pay taxes. All levels of U.S. government imposed taxation of some form. The national government in the 20th century largely relied on personal and corporation income taxes; the states utilized both income and sales taxes, and local agencies preferred property taxes. The agency responsible for collecting national taxes has been the Internal Revenue Service, and although the payment of taxes has been said to be voluntary, the revenue service has numerous devices for supervising compliance with tax laws, and, indeed, most citizens pay the income tax before they even see the money—through compulsory deduction at the workplace. Beginning at least with the American Revolution, payment of taxes—or the amount the citizen was required to pay—has sparked

controversy based both on principle and simple financial fact.Taxes are said to be one of the two (death being the other one) inevitable aspects of life, and the tax collector came to be thought of as one of the great proverbial villains of history. Since the 1930s the Democrats have generally been associated with higher taxation because they favored more government programs, which of course cost money. Many Democrats did not object to using the tax power to bring a measure of social and economic leveling to society. Opposed to many government programs, commonly identified with propertied groups, the Republicans persistently clamored for lower taxes. During the brief period in the post–Second World War era that the Republicans controlled Congress (1947–48), they predictably began by selectively cutting taxes—over three vetoes by Democrat President Harry S.Truman. From the 1950s to the 1980s the Democrats controlled the legislature, and taxation remained, if not—as compared with other nations—strikingly high, it at least was sharply graduated and enormously complicated.

TABLE 4.118 FEDERAL INDIVIDUAL INCOME TAX RATES AND EXEMPTIONS, 1946–1990 Taxable Income Bracketsa

Personal Exemptions Dependents ($)

Rates (range in percent)

Lowest: Amount Under ($)

1,000 1,200

500 600

19.0–86.45b 16.6–82.13b

2,000 2,000

200,000 200,000

600 600 600

1,200 1,200 1,200

600 600 600

17.4–84.36b 20.4–91.0b 20.0–91.0b

2,000 2,000 2,000

200,000 200,000 200,000

1964 1965–67 1968 1969

600 600 600 600

1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200

600 600 600 600

16.0–77.0 14.0–70.0 14.0–75.25 14.0–77.0

500 500 500 500

100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000

1970 1971 1972–76 1977–78 1979–81

625 675 750 750 1,000

1,250 1,350 1,500 1,500 2,000

625 675 750 750 1,000

14.0–71.75 14.0–70.0 14.0–70.0 0.–70.0 0.0–70.0

500 500 500 3,200 3,400

100,000 100,000 100,000 203,200 215,400

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,040 1,080 1,900 1,950 2,000

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,080 2,160 3,800 3,900 4,000

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,040 1,080 1,900 1,950 2,000

0.0–50.0 0.0–50.0 0.0–50.0 0.0–50.0 0.0–50.0 11.0–38.5 15.0–28.0 15.0–28.0

3,400 3,400 3,400 3,540 3,670 3,000 29.750 30,950

85,600 109,400 162,400 169,020 175,250 90,000 171,090 149,250

1990

2,050

4,100

2,050

15.0–28.0

32,450

78,400

Years

Single ($)

1946–47 1948–49

500 600

1950 1952–53 1954–63

Married— Joint Return ($)

Highest: Amount Over ($)

a

Married filing joint return. Subject to maximum effective rate limitation: 85.5% for 1946–47, 80% for 1950, 87.2% for 1951, 88% for 1952–53, 87% for 1954–57. Source: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, Significant Features of Fiscal Federalism Vol. I (Washington, D.C., 1995), 21.

b


131

In the 1980s the Republicans got even.With a doctrinaire conservative, Ronald Reagan, in the presidency, with a few fellow-traveling Reagan Democrats (or boll-weevil Democrats) willing to support the Republicans, Congress in 1981 passed the largest tax-cut measure in history, a $750 billion reduction over six years.With Reagan administration approval and both parties supporting the measure, Congress also passed a tax reform law in 1986 that vastly simplified the system by reducing income tax brackets, setting the top rate at 28 percent in most cases, and eliminating many deductions. As revealed in the subTABLE 4.119

stance of the tax cut and in the recipients of general economic gain in the decade, most of the benefits of tax policy in the 1980s went to people with the highest incomes—as, indeed, supply-side economics was designed to do. Of course, the national income tax was only the first deduction from an employee’s take-home pay. By the 1980s the worker also faced a separate deduction for Social Security; many states had their own income tax, and numerous cities or local entities had one as well.

TAX-RATE SCHEDULES, 1989

Taxable Income

What One Pays

Married Individuals Filing Joint Returns, and Surviving Spouses $0.00–$30,950 $30.950–$74,850 $74,850–$155,320 $155,320 and over

15% of sum over $0.00 $4,642.50 1 28% of sum over $30,950 $16,934.50 1 33% of sum over $74,850 $43,489.60 1 28% of sum over $155,320 Heads of Households

$0.00–$24,850 $24,850–$64,200 $64,200–$128,810 $128,810 and over

15% of sum over $0.00 $3,727.50 1 28% of sum over $24,850 $14,745.50 1 33% of sum over $64,200 $36,066.80 1 28% of sum over $128,810 Single Individuals

$0.00–$18,550 $18,550–$44,900 $44,900–$93,130 $93,130 and over

15% of sum over $0.00 $2,782.50 1 28% of sum over $18,550 10,160.50 1 33% of sum over $44,900 26,076.40 1 28% of sum over $93,130 Filing Separate Returns

$0.00–$15,475 $15,475–$37,425 $37,425–$117,895 $117,895 and over

15% of sum over $0.00 $2,321.25 1 28% of sum over $15,475 $8,467.25 1 33% of sum over $37,425 $35,022.35 1 28% of sum over $117,895


TABLE 4.120

FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL TAX RECEIPTS, PER CAPITA AND PERCENT DISTRIBUTION

(selected fiscal years 1946–1990) Per Capita

132

Percentage Distribution

Year

Total

Federal

State

1946 1948 1950 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

357 377 365 548 571 569 539 602 637 631 630 709 724 756 794 834 859 949 1,056 1,096 1,297 1,357 1,352 1,513 1,654 1,825

276 277 252 414 429 423 388 436 457 446 435 495 497 516 543 567 578 642 731 743 901 916 877 971 1,057 1,185

44 54 60 73 76 77 78 88 95 95 100 113 118 126 134 144 151 167 177 196 222 249 263 303 345 373


Local

Total

Federal

State

Local

38 46 53 61 66 69 73 78 85 90 94 101 109 114 117 124 130 141 148 157 174 192 211 239 252 266

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

77.3 73.6 69.1 75.5 75.2 74.3 72.0 72.3 71.8 70.6 69.1 69.8 68.7 68.3 68.4 67.9 67.2 67.6 69.2 67.8 69.5 67.5 64.9 64.2 63.9 65.0

12.2 14.3 16.3 13.3 13.3 13.6 14.5 14.7 14.9 15.1 15.9 15.9 16.3 16.6 16.9 17.2 17.6 17.5 16.8 17.9 17.1 18.4 19.4 20.0 20.8 20.5

10.5 12.1 14.6 11.2 11.5 12.1 13.5 13.0 13.3 14.2 15.0 14.3 15.1 15.1 14.7 14.9 15.2 14.8 14.0 14.3 13.4 14.1 15.6 15.8 15.2 14.6

Per Capita Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Total 1,942 2,063 2,392 2,646 2,952 3,222 3,653 3,779 3,765 4,114 4,466 4,681 5,110 5,409 5,832 6,033

Percentage Distribution

Federal

State

Local

Total

Federal

State

Local

1,247 1,310 1,549 1,725 1,979 2,181 2,505 2,557 2,455 2,687 2,925 3,057 3,368 3,587 3,889 4,015

409 441 501 557 612 658 732 773 824 904 975 1,020 1,092 1,120 1,195 1,208

286 312 342 364 361 383 415 449 485 524 566 605 650 702 748 809

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

64.2 63.5 64.7 65.2 67.0 67.6 68.6 67.7 65.2 65.3 65.5 65.3 66.0 66.3 66.7 66.6

21.1 21.4 20.0 21.1 20.7 20.5 20.0 20.4 21.9 22.0 21.8 21.8 21.3 20.7 20.5 20.0

14.7 15.1 14.3 13.8 12.2 11.9 11.4 11.9 12.9 12.7 12.7 12.9 12.7 13.0 12.8 13.4

Source: Tax Foundation, Facts & Figures on Government Finance, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 17.

TABLE 4.121

TOTAL TAXES AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL INCOME

(selected calendar years 1945–1990) Year

Total Taxes as a Percentage of Income

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

25.7 25.8 25.9 24.1 22.9 25.5 27.3 27.3 27.1 25.7 26.5 27.3 27.5 26.9 27.9 28.9 29.0 29.0 29.5 28.2 28.1 28.9 29.4 31.0 32.5 31.5 30.9 32.1 32.0 32.9 31.6 32.3 32.6 32.4 32.6 32.9 33.7 33.3 32.3 32.1 32.5 32.6 33.5 33.1 33.2 32.9

Source: Moody, Facts & Figures on Finance, 16.


133

TABLE 4.122

SOCIAL SECURITY TAX RATESa

(calendar years 1937–1990) Tax Rate (percent)

Year

Maximum Taxable Base (dollars)

1937–1949 1950 1951–1953 1954 1955–1956 1957–1958 1959 1960–1961 1962 1963–1965 1966 1967 1968 1969–1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

3,000 3,000 3,600 3,600 4,200 4,200 4,800 4,800 4,800 4,800 6,600 6,600 7,800 7,800 7,800 9,000 10,800 13,200 14,100 15,300 16,500 17,700 22,900 25,900 29,700 32,400 35,700 37,800 39,600 42,000 43,800 45,000 48,000 51,300

Combined Employer & Employee

Employer or Employee Alone

2 3 3 4 4 4.5 5 6 6.25 7.25 8.4 8.8 8.8 9.6 10.4 10.4 11.7 11.7 11.7 11.7 11.7 12.1 12.3 12.3 13.3 13.4 13.4 14 14.1 14.3 14.3 15.02 15.02 15.3

Maximum Tax (dollars) SelfEmployed

Combined Employer & Employee

b

1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2.25 2.5 3 3.125 3.625 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.2 5.85 5.85 5.85 5.85 5.85 6.05 6.13 6.13 6.65 6.7 6.7 7.0 7.05 7.15 7.15 7.51 7.51 7.65

Employer or Employee Alone

60 90 108 144 168 189 240 288 300 348 554 581 686 749 811 936 1,264 1,544 1,650 1,790 1,931 2,142 2,808 3,175 3,950 4,342 4,784 5,292 5,584 6,006 6,263 6,759 7,210 7,849

b

2.25 3 3 3.375 3.75 4.5 4.7 5.4 6.15 6.4 6.4 6.9 7.5 7.5 8 7.9 7.9 7.9 7.9 8.1 8.1 8.1 9.3 9.35 9.35 14.0 14.1 14.3 14.3 15.02 15.02 15.3

SelfEmployed (b)

30 45 54 72 84 95 120 144 150 174 277 290 343 374 406 468 632 772 825 895 965 1,071 1,404 1,588 1,975 2,171 2,392 2,646 2,792 3,003 3,132 3,380 3,605 3,924

(b)

81 108 126 142 180 216 226 259 406 422 499 538 585 675 864 1,043 1,114 1,209 1,304 1,434 1,855 2,098 2,762 3,029 3,338 5,292 5,584 6,006 6,263 6,759 7,210 7,849

a

Includes old-age, survivors, disability, and hospital insurance (DI since 1956 and HI since 1966). Not covered until January 1, 1951. Source: Moody, Facts & Figures on Finance, 118.

b

TABLE 4.123 BENEFACTORS OF TAX CHANGES IN 1980s (total federal effective tax rates for all families) Percent Change All Families (by income group) 1977 1980 1985 1988 1989 1977–1989 Lowest quintile Second quintile Middle quintile Fourth quintile

9.3 15.4 19.5 21.8

8.1 15.6 19.8 22.9

10.3 15.8 19.1 21.7

9.3 15.9 19.8 22.4

9.3 15.7 19.4 22.0

0.1 1.4 2.4 .7

81 to 90 percent 91 to 95 percent 96 to 99 percent Top 1 percent

24.0 25.2 27.0 35.5

25.3 26.3 27.9 31.7

23.4 24.2 24.3 24.9

24.6 26.0 26.5 26.9

24.2 25.6 26.2 26.7

.9 1.5 22.9 224.7

Overall Highest quintile Top 10 percent Top 5 percent

22.8 27.2 28.8 30.6

23.3 27.5 28.6 29.6

21.7 24.1 24.5 24.6

22.9 26.0 26.5 26.7

22.6 25.6 26.2 26.5

2.7 25.8 29.0 213.5

Source: Phillips, Boiling Point, 282.

134


TABLE 4.124 DECLINING IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL EXEMPTION—FEDERAL INCOME TAX PERSONAL EXEMPTION AS A PERCENT OF INDIVIDUAL INCOME, 1948–1990 Year

1948 1954 1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990

Personal $600 exemption Exemption 42% as percent of individual income a

$600

$600

$600

$750

33%

27%

20%

16%

$750 $1,000 $2,050a 9%

8%

16%

If exemption was equal to percent of income applied in 1948, it would be $7,781 in 1990. Source: Phillips, Boiling Point, 281.

TABLE 4.125 “TAX FREEDOM DAY’’ AND “TAX BITE IN EIGHT-HOUR DAY’’ (calendar years 1946–1990) Tax Bite in the Eight-Hour Dayb (hours:minutes) Year 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Tax Freedom Daya March 31 April 3 March 28 March 24 April 3 April 10 April 10 April 10 April 6 April 9 April 11 April 13 April 10 April 14 April 17 April 18 April 18 April 19 April 15 April 15 April 18 April 20 April 25 May 1 April 28 April 25 April 29 April 29 May 3 April 28 May 1 May 3 May 3 May 3 May 1 May 4 May 3 April 30 April 28 May 1 May 1 May 4 May 3 May 4 May 5

Total 1:57 2:01 1:55 1:48 2:02 2:11 2:12 2:12 2:05 2:09 2:13 2:14 2:12 2:16 2:22 2:22 2:21 2:23 2:18 2:17 2:21 2:24 2:32 2:38 2:34 2:31 2:36 2:36 2:41 2:35 2:40 2:41 2:41 2:41 2:39 2:43 2:41 2:38 2:36 2:38 2:38 2:42 2:42 2:43 2:45

Federal 1:30 1:33 1:26 1:16 1:30 1:40 1:40 1:40 1:30 1:34 1:37 1:37 1:32 1:36 1:40 1:38 1:38 1:39 1:33 1:33 1:36 1:37 1:39 1:48 1:40 1:36 1:39 1:41 1:45 1:38 1:42 1:43 1:45 1:48 1:48 1:52 1:48 1:43 1:42 1:44 1:43 1:47 1:46 1:47 1:47

State and Local :27 :28 :29 :32 :32 :31 :32 :32 :35 :35 :36 :37 :40 :40 :42 :44 :43 :44 :45 :44 :45 :47 :53 :50 :54 :55 :57 :55 :56 :57 :58 :58 :56 :53 :51 :51 :53 :55 :54 :54 :55 :55 :56 :56 :58

a “Tax Freedom Day’’ represents the date on which the average person would finish paying Federal, state, and local taxes if all earnings since January 1 were turned over to the governments to fulfill annual tax obligations. b The “Tax Bite in the Eight-Hour Day’’ reflects the amount of time out of each workday that the average person spends earning enough money to pay tax obligations. Source: Tax Foundation, Facts & Figures on Government Finance, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 17.


135

CHAPTER 5 Transportation General Trends The transportation system of the United States was a major contributor to and a major benefactor of many of the economic, technological, political, and cultural changes that affected the nation, if not the world, in the decades following the Second World War.The system grew in accordance with economic and population growth; it shifted in accordance with demographic shifts. It responded to international changes on many fronts, notably to political crises, which placed the energy supply (especially petroleum products) in jeopardy. The transportation establishment, and the system in general, was affected by the emergence of foreign nations as consumers of automobiles, airplanes, and other items, making them potential customers of the United States. Some of these same countries, in Europe and Asia but also Latin America, became producers of these items, making them competitors of American transportation companies. All sectors of American transportation did not change in the same ways.The largest growth came in segments related to cars, trucks, and other motor vehicles and airplanes.The sharpest decline in activity involved railroads, especially in the carrying of passengers, and in water-borne passenger service. Technological changes in the decades following the Second World War largely involved an extension of—new forms in—processes already begun in transportation. Cars became better, airplanes faster, safer, with much longer range. Perhaps most significant is that nearly all methods of transport came within the reach of all. Virtually any adult who wanted one had a car, and by the 1980s most families and many individuals had more than one. It was a rare American who by the 1980s had not traveled on a jet liner; for most of the few who had not, it was a matter of choice, not opportunity. The most striking innovation, a means for humans to travel beyond the planet, became a startling reality in the 1960s.The mission to the Moon foreshadowed more such activity in the decades to come and surely into the next century. Globalization was a compelling theme of the last half of the 20th century, and transportation provided the fuel on which it moved. Advances in air travel made it possible for Americans as a matter of course to travel from country to country and continent to continent. Competition in many areas of enterprise became global, and transportation felt the effects profoundly. Globalization opened new markets for American industries, but it also brought new competitors into the contest. Boeing Aircraft came to face a more formidable challenge from a European consortium than from such traditional rivals as Douglas or Lockheed. American automobile companies, which had been laggard in exploiting a slowly developing foreign market, discovered that by the time those markets began to expand, producers from other areas—notably Europe and Japan—were in a position to move in and squeeze the Americans out. For American consumers and for producers, the story of transporation in the decades following 1945 was a continuing account of growth (in several areas), change, and adjustment. For consumers the keystones were the automobile and the airplane.Although both were more readily available than ever before, they came at considerable financial cost and remained subject to abrupt shocks, as in the energy crises of the 1970s. U.S. producers went from a position of absolute domination of important areas of enterprise—such as automobiles and airplanes—to a brief period of weeding out weaker competitors in the United States. The three major automobile firms and the three or four aircraft companies that survived by the 1960s largely had the U.S. market to themselves. The two decades after 1970 were much different. Competition from foreign companies jolted American manufacturers and forced them to change and to seek ways to control their own market. The 136

struggle still went on in 1990, and by that time the process of globalization had taken new turns. Some Japanese cars were built in the United States; some American cars—the parts or the assembled vehicles— were being built in Mexico and other countries.American firms collaborated with foreign companies; sometimes they owned part of each other.The terms American made and import had begun to lose meaning.

Motor Vehicles American automobile manufacturers faced an almost ideal situation at the end of the Second World War. Nearly everyone, it seemed, wanted a new car, and increased income and savings during the war made it possible for millions of them to afford one. The companies could sell everything they made, and in addition to the multidimensional “Big Three’’ companies of General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler, several older independents and even a new firm—Kaiser-Fraser— competed on the market. By 1960 more than three-quarters of families owned a car, many had more than one, and related industries such as road construction, restaurants, motels, and suburban shopping centers expanded accordingly—as did movement of people to the suburbs. It did not take many years, however, for supply to catch up with demand, causing tighter competition among sellers and greater selectivity with buyers. In this setting bigness mattered. One by one the independents began to falter; some dropped out altogether, others tried merger. Studebaker joined with Packard in 1954, but the union produced little benefit. Packard, so stylish and prestigious in the prewar years, vanished from the market in 1958, and Studebaker held on only a few years longer. By the end of the 1970s there remained only four firms: the Big Three (and one of them, Chrysler, was fighting off bankruptcy) and tiny American Motors, product of a merger of Nash and Hudson, which struggled to survive by marketing a small car called Rambler. By that time competition for the Big Three, almost a Big Two, came from a different source. Many changes came to the automobile during these years, all within the basic framework of a carriage propelled by an internal combustion engine. Some were refinements designed to increase comfort and ease of operation; others represented a response to pressures brought on by customer taste or changes in the national or international marketplace. In selecting “optional’’ equipment customers responded most quickly to automatic transmission and slowest to air conditioning. Otherwise, fuel injection replaced carburetors, steel-belted radial tires became standard, front-wheel drive became more popular than rear-wheeldrive vehicles. Several changes had to do with air pollution and safety. In the 1970s new emission controls removed most hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide and in the mid-1980s use of leaded gasoline came to an end. Changes in safety devices, inspired partly by Ralph Nader’s Unsafe at Any Speed, a volume about the Chevrolet Corvair, included various kinds of locks and different bumpers and roofs. The most familiar safety device took the form of seat belts required on all vehicles, followed by introduction of air bags for first the driver’s side and then both sides of the front seat of motor vehicles. The American love affair with the motor vehicle in no way had diminished by the end of the 1980s, but it had found new forms of expression. In the 1960s station wagons had caught on as a means of hauling children of the baby-boom era, and in the 1980s pickup trucks, vans, and minivans began to capture a growing share of the market. Many Americans preferred foreign to domestic makes. People wishing to apply a principle—to “buy American,’’ for example, or “punish General Motors’’—found themselves bewildered. Foreign

Introduction of the spirited 1949 “Rocket 88’’ Oldsmobile was a major step in the auto industry’s (and society’s) rush to the horsepower race via the V-8 engine. (Oldsmobile History Center, Lansing, Michigan)

TABLE 5.1

WORLD MOTOR VEHICLE PRODUCTION

(in thousands) Year

U.S.

Canada

Europe

Japan

Other

Total

U.S. % of World Total

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

8,006 9,204 7,905 11,138 8,284

388 452 398 847 1,160

1.991 3,738 6,830 9,571 13,243

32 68 482 1,876 5,289

160 166 873 835 1,427

10,577 13,628 16,488 24,267 29,403

75.7 67.5 50.4 49.4 32.1

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

8,987 11,489 12,703 12,899 11,480

1,424 1,640 1,775 1,818 1,632

13,473 15,202 15,885 16,118 16,293

6,942 7,841 8,515 9,269 9,636

2,172 2,155 2,069 2,195 2,478

32,998 38,341 40,947 42,299 41,519

27.2 30.0 31.0 30.5 27.7

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

8,010 7,943 6,986 9,205 10,939

1,374 1,323 1,276 1,524 1,829

15,446 14,440 14,808 15,708 15,293

11,043 11,180 10,732 11,112 11,465

2,641 2,344 2,311 2,206 2,532

38,514 37,230 36,113 39,755 42,058

20.8 21.3 19.3 23.2 26.0

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

11,653 11,335 10,925 11,214 10,874 9,780

1,933 1,854 1,635 1,949 1,934 1,896

15,959 16,701 17,518 18,213 18,946 18,614

12,271 12,260 12,249 12,700 13,026 13,487

2,995 3,147 3,576 4,134 4,216 4,336

44,811 45,297 45,903 48,210 48,996 48,113

26.0 25.0 23.8 23.3 22.2 20.3

Source: MVMA (Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association), Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures ‘91 (Detroit, 1991), 30.

Transportation

137

brands were being made in the United States; American cars were being made abroad. As for the companies, they only wanted to make money. Automobiles remained vital to American culture, and the automobile industry a bellweather of the economy if not the United

TABLE 5.2

States in general. The most striking change between the years 1946 and 1990 had been the United States’s loss of its position as king of the automobile world, marked among other ways by a drastic reduction in the nation’s share of world vehicle production.

MOTOR-VEHICLE RETAIL SALES IN UNITED STATES, 1949–1990

(in thousands) New Passenger Cars Year

Domestic

Import

1949 1950

5,119 6,665

a a

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

5,143 4,228 5,775 5,474 7,408

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

New Trucks Total

Domestic

Import

Total

... ...

1,134 1,337

a

... ...

21 29 33 32 58

5,164 4,257 5,808 5,506 7,466

1,111 864 965 857 1,012

a

1 3

1,111 864 965 858 1,015

5,844 5,826 4,289 5,468 6,142

98 207 379 614 499

5,942 6,033 4,668 6,100 6,641

903 876 731 928 926

7 16 29 37 37

910 894 760 966 963

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

5,556 6,753 7,334 7,617 8,763

379 339 386 484 569

5,935 7,092 7,720 8,101 9,332

908 1,068 1,230 1,351 1,539

29 32 40 42 14

937 1,100 1,270 1,393 1,553

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

8,377 7,568 8,625 8,464 7,119

651 769 1,031 1,118 1,280

9,028 8,337 9,656 9,582 8,400

1,619 1,524 1,807 1,936 1,746

17 21 24 34 65

1,636 1,545 1,831 1,970 1,811

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

8,681 9,327 9,676 7,454 7,053

1,561 1,614 1,748 1,399 1,571

10,242 10,940 11,424 8,853 8,624

2,011 2,486 2,916 2,512 2,249

85 143 232 176 229

2,096 2,629 3,148 2,688 2,478

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

8,611 9,109 9,312 8,341 6,581

1,499 2,074 2,002 2,332 2,398

10,110 11,183 11,314 10,673 8,979

2,944 3,352 3,773 3,010 2,001

237 323 336 470 487

3,181 3,675 4,109 3,480 2,487

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

6,209 5,759 6,795 7,592 8,205

2,327 2,224 2,387 2,439 2,838

8,536 7,982 9,182 10,390 11,042

1,809 2,146 2,658 3,475 3,902

451 414 471 618 779

2,260 2,560 3,129 4,093 4,682

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

8,215 7,081 7,526 7,073 6,897

3,245 3,196 3,004 2,699 2,404

11,460 10,277 10,530 9,772 9,301

3,921 4,055 4,508 4,403 4,215

941 858 641 538 631

4,863 4,912 5,149 4,941 4,846

a Negligible. Source: MVMA, Moter Vehicle Facts and Figures ‘76 (Detroit, 1976), 15; MVMA, Facts and Figures ‘91, 7.

138


a

a a

TABLE 5.3

YEARLY U.S. MOTOR-VEHICLE REGISTRATIONS AND PASSENGER-CAR SCRAPPAGE, 1946–1990

Year

Automobiles

Buses

Trucks

Total

New Cars Registered During Year

Cars Scrapped During Year

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

28,213,336 30,845,350 33,350,894 36,453,351 40,333,591

173,585 187,457 196,726 208,929 223,652

5,986,081 6,808,691 7,537,911 8,028,016 8,604,448

34,373,002 37,841,498 41,085,531 44,690,296 49,161,691

1,815,196 3,167,231 3,490,952 4,838,342 6,326,438

478,038 855,517 1,220,041 2,315,110 3,711,820

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

42,682,591 43,817,580 46,422,443 48,461,219 52,135,583

230,461 240,485 244,251 248,346 255,249

9,009,913 9,207,341 9,554,395 9,800,688 10,302,987

51,922,965 53,265,406 56,221,089 58,510,253 62,693,819

5,060,903 4,158,394 5,738,989 5,535,464 7,169,908

3,137,989 2,465,936 3,491,000 3,247,436 4,312,759

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

54,200,784 55,906,195 56,870,684 59,561,726 61,558,847

258,764 264,062 270,163 265,114 272,129

10,694,262 10,960,814 11,158,561 11,670,559 11,937,589

65,153,810 67,131,071 68,299,408 71,497,399 73,768,565

5,955,248 5,281,656 5,575,893 6,364,634 6,045,822

4,309,153 4,221,607 2,981,641 4,348,719 4,294,118

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

63,275,499 65,928,547 68,978,589 71,950,198 75,252,040

279,668 285,219 297,401 305,490 314,271

12,291,365 12,809,150 13,416,324 14,041,445 14,790,437

75,846,582 79,022,916 82,692,314 86,297,133 90,356,748

6,425,973 7,314,715 7,877,424 8,592,728 9,197,480

4,360,774 4,741,017 5,319,286 5,704,373 6,173,512

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

78,331,488 80,458,317 83,698,100 87,153,381 89,309,101

323,197 337,197 351,804 364,340 379,021

15,522,114 16,193,618 16,998,546 17,885,836 18,747,781

94,176,799 96,989,132 101,048,450 105,403,557 108,435,903

8,688,162 8,590,365 9,485,392 9,414,509 8,709,902

6,984,214 6,200,017 6,348,488 7,460,984 6,021,041

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

92,752,515 96,948,813 101,578,539 104,898,256 106,712,551

397,627 407,706 425,313 446,547 462,144

19,772,212 21,261,643 23,153,024 24,598,284 25,775,710

112,922,354 118,618,102 125,156,876 129,943,087 132,950,405

10,178,662 11,353,586 9,996,071 8,301,759 9,406,522

7,058,029 7,987,384 7,193,679 5,668,708 6,828,903

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

110,351,327 113,696,111 116,574,999 120,247,990 121,723,650

478,339 491,674 500,362 520,367 528,801

27,719,597 29,562,485 31,702,604 33,349,742 33,637,241

138,549,263 143,750,270 148,777,965 154,118,099 155,889,692

10,319,298 10,960,194 11,032,068 9,603,185 8,817,281

8,233,925 7,907,075 9,312,274 8,404,993 7,542,480

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

123,461,507 123,697,863 126,727,873 127,866,900 132,108,164

543,894 559,197 565,515 583,671 593,527

34,451,110 35,252,765 36,547,781 38,047,099 38,989,042

158,456,511 159,509,825 163,841,169 166,497,670 171,690,733

7,949,799 8,336,651 9,732,353 10,372,287 11,048,203

6,921,273 6,242,544 6,674,928 7,728,594 8,442,465

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

135,431,112 137,323,632 141,251,695 143,081,443 143,549,627

593,720 602,055 612,611 625,040 626,987

40,166,499 41,118,762 42,529,368 43,554,084 44,478,848

176,191,331 179,044,449 184,393,674 187,260,567 188,655,462

10,684,054 10,424,490 10,220,604 9,414,552 8,616,179

8,103,356 8,754,185 8,981,300 8,896,662 8,565,401

Source: Ward’s Communications, 1970 Automotive Yearbook (Detroit, 1970), 100; Ward’s Communications, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook 1992 (Detroit, 1992), 240, 250.

TABLE 5.4 NEW-CAR PRICES AND CONSUMER EXPENDITURES PER NEW CAR, 1950–1990 Consumer Expenditure Per New Cara Year

Domestic

Import

Average

Median Annual Family Earnings

Weeks of Earnings to Equal Car Cost

1950 1955 1960 1965

$2,211 2,508 2,918 3,074

$1,775 2,206 2,063 2,120

$2,210 2,506 2,853 3,014

$3,319 4,418 5,620 6,957

34.6 29.5 26.4 22.5

1971 1975 1980 1982

3,919 5,084 7,609 9,865

2,769 4,384 7,482 9,957

3,742 4,950 7,574 9,890

10,285 13,719 21,023 23,433

18.9 18.8 18.7 21.9

1985 1987 1989 1990

11,733 13,239 14,957 15,641

12,875 14,602 16,127 17,010

12,022 13,657 15,292 16,012

27,144 29,744 32,448 33,960

23.0 23.9 24.5 24.5

a

Average price per new car, U.S. Department of Commerce. Source: MVMA, Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures ‘82 (Detroit, 1982), 42; MVMA, Facts and Figures ‘91, 40.

Transportation

139

TABLE 5.5 OPTIONAL EQUIPMENT PURCHASED, 1957 Equipment

Percent of Cars

Heater Radio Automatic Transmission White Wall Tires Windshield Washer Power Steering Power Brakes Power Seats Power Windows Seat Belts

97.4% 83.9 81.8 67.5 56.4 40.5 34.9 11.1 9.1 3.9

Source: MVMA, Automotive Facts and Figures 1958 (Detroit, 1958), 35.

TABLE 5.6

FACTORY-INSTALLED EQUIPMENT IN U.S. CARS, 1949–1990

(percentage of cars equipped with specified equipment) Model Year

% Auto Trans.

% Air Cond.

% Disc Brakes

1949 1950

43.1 33.1

a a

a a

a a

a a

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

44.8 47.4 49.4 58.3 70.3

a a a a 1.5

a a a a a

a 4.6 11.7 18.0 23.2

a a a a a

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

74.8 79.9 76.8 71.5 71.4

2.8 3.7 4.6 6.2 6.9

a a a a a

27.7 38.1 42.8 40.0 38.0

a a a a a

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

74.1 74.4 76.3 77.7 80.6

8.1 11.3 14.1 17.9 23.3

a a a a a

40.0 43.6 50.1 53.8 59.6

a a a a a

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

83.5 86.7 89.0 90.2 91.3

29.3 38.0 44.3 55.3 60.1

4.0 6.1 12.7 27.8 41.0

66.6 74.3 80.0 84.6 85.0

a a a a a

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

91.1 90.5 93.4 89.8 91.6

63.4 67.5 72.6 67.9 72.6

63.1 73.6 85.7 84.1 85.7

82.5 85.7 87.7 83.4 89.9

a a 13.3 33.3 82.3

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

91.4 95.2 93.1 89.7 82.7

74.0 81.7 80.8 79.8 73.0

98.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

89.9 92.0 92.7 88.7 83.7

77.3 83.8 84.4 92.8 95.4

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

81.7 84.5 86.6 85.2 86.2

76.4 80.7 83.5 84.0 87.2

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

83.5 88.1 90.5 89.9 92.3

99.9 99.9 99.9 100.0 100.0

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

85.9 88.0 86.2 87.5 88.4

88.5 85.2 90.3 91.0 91.9

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

92.3 93.9 97.1 98.0 97.3

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

a None or negligible. Source: Ward’s Automotive Yearbook 1980 (Detroit, 1980), 115; Ward’s Yearbook 1991, 276.

140


% Power Steer.

% Radial Tires

TABLE 5.7 TOP-SELLING U.S. CARS, TRUCKS, AND SPORTS UTILITY VEHICLES, 1990 Cars Brand

Units

Market Share

Honda Accord Ford Taurus Chevy Cavalier Ford Escort Toyota Camry

417,179 313,274 295,123 288,727 284,595

4.5% 3.4% 3.2% 3.1% 3.0%

Chevy Corsica/Beretta Toyota Corolla Honda Civic Chevy Lumina Ford Tempo

277,176 228,211 220,852 218,288 215,200

3.0% 2.5% 2.4% 2.3% 2.3%

Trucks and Sports Utility Vehicles Small Pickup Brand

Units

Ford Ranger Chevy S-10 Toyota

280,610 210,318 181,719 Sports Utility Vehicles

Brand

Units

Ford Explorer/Bronco II Chevy Blazer S Jeep Cherokee

181,748 146,989 124,864 Vans

Brand Dodge Caravan Ford Aerostar Plymouth Voyager

Units 205,956 177,860 171,527

Source: 1991 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 202.

Gas-guzzlers, Beetles, and the Japanese Invasion In the postwar era American companies preferred to produce large cars with large engines, and a survey of the prevailing forces—an apparent abundance of inexpensive energy, rapidly improving highways, and customer response—offered little reason why they should not do so. Distinguishing characteristics of the era were the gaudy tail fins, which began with Cadillac in 1948, and the horsepower race.The contest for power and speed, which came to involve improvement and increased use of the V-8 engine, received a major boost in 1949 when General Motors placed a large V-8 in a fairly small Oldsmobile 88.The “Rocket 88,’’ with its speed and acceleration, had such immediate success that it even inspired a song to proclaim its glories. It set the stage for things to come. Chrysler introduced its powerful hemi V-8 shortly thereafter and even began to put it in its low-classed Plymouths. Chevrolet, leader of the low-priced three (Ford and Plymouth were the others) and best-selling car in the country, long had depended on a reliable but sluggish “straight’’ six-cylinder engine. In 1955 Chevrolet introduced its first V-8, thereby joining the horsepower race and the movement to glitz. Tail fins on the 1957 Chevy would become the most time-honored of them all. Production of large, powerful machines, as manifested in the V-8 engine, dominated the American automotive industry for at least a quarter-century, to the end of the

1970s.The gas-guzzlers might not produce even 15 miles per gallon on the highway or 10 in the city, but with fuel prices at 30–35 cents per gallon, less if there happened to be a price war under way; drivers did not seem to care. One vehicle, however, managed to buck the trend.The Volkswagen came to the United States from a storied past in Germany. Designed by Ferdinand Porsche in the 1930s, favored by Adolf Hitler as the “people’s car’’ (Volkswagen) in his new society, the bug or beetle did not go into full production because of the War. The concept of Porche’s vehicle was revived by a British occupation officer and then by German managers who believed that inexpensive basic transportation would be suitable to cash-strapped postwar Germany and to people in many countries.The beetle appeared in the United States as a novelty, a virtual antidote to the trend of automobile marketing. It was tiny, cramped, slow, almost ugly. Nonetheless it had appeal. Everyone seemed to know something about its origin, and hundreds of thousands of American soldiers encountered the car during their occupation service in Germany. And it was a reliable car. Top speed was around 60, less going up a hill, but the air-cooled engine needed no water or antifreeze, could produce 30 miles per gallon, and was virtually indestructable. One could drive it “wide-open’’ (as fast as it would go) without damage to the engine. Placing the engine over the pulling wheels in the rear gave exceptional traction: in winter the Volkswagen could move when American cars sat and spun their wheels. Choice of a car always had been an expression of image, and in the atmosphere of the 1950s and 1960s ownership of a VW could give off signals of individuality, creativity, and simple good common sense.The Volkswagen so completely dominated foreign competition in the United States that during a period of 15 or so years, it not only outsold all foreign brands but in several years outsold all foreign brands combined. The Volkswagen introduced Americans to the merits of the small car. It legitimized the idea that someone besides Americans could manufacture effective and efficient automobiles. The domination ended partly because the Beetle and its successors—notably the Rabbit—fell victim to a condition it had helped create. Popularity of the Volkswagen existed as a type of automotive subculture in the United States. Growth of the market for foreign brands that began in the mid-1970s by contrast represented an entirely new trend for automobile production and consumption. The emphasis on size and horsepower never had been universally popular. Critics long had pointed to the wastefulness of big cars, to the damage that they produced in speed and attitudes. Growing concerns about air and noise pollution and highway safety further suggested a need for a different philosophy to encompass the motor vehicle. The decisive push came from international events in the 1970s. Events in the Middle East—the war of 1973 and Iranian revolution of 1978–79— produced two energy crises in the United States marked by shortage of petroleum products (which included gasoline) and two rounds of major increases in price. By 1980–81 a gallon of gasoline fetched nearly $1.40. It began to sink in that the time of inexpensive gas had gone and that the future of energy supplies, not to mention the price, would be highly unpredictable. Perceptions rapidly changed. The revered V-8 now took on the appearance of a dinosaur, or part of one. Small, energy-efficient automobiles, probably powered by fourcylinder engines, became the item of the era. Ill prepared to meet these pressures, American manufacturers could only begin to design new cars and new engines. Japanese producers, who had done their homework, had the machines ready to go. By the time Detroit had adjusted to the new reality, Japanese car manufacturers had established themselves in the American market and broken old company loyalty. Such names as Toyota, Datsun, and Honda, once the object of derision, now earned a vote of confidence, even a measure of prestige, from the American automobile buyer. One can follow the story in the tables pertaining to gasoline prices and gasoline mileage, changing emphasis in engine production and automobile registration, Transportation

141

TABLE 5.8 DOMESTIC CAR ENGINE PRODUCTION, 1956–1990 Model Year

%—4 cyl.

%—6 cyl.

%—8 cyl.

Total Units

1956 1960 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

... ... 2.5 1.2 ... ... 0.1 ... ... 0.1 0.1 7.2 9.4 8.6 12.7 8.5 10.3 6.3 10.1 17.4 31.4 39.9 41.4 38.7 45.0 46.4 51.0 54.1 48.9 47.0 46.6

18.6 43.3 41.4 36.5 31.1 26.6 21.5 16.4 13.7 11.0 12.8 12.3 10.8 9.9 18.7 18.9 20.9 17.9 23.9 23.6 36.5 33.2 30.3 29.1 26.9 26.2 28.6 27.4 33.8 38.0 38.1

81.4 56.7 56.1 62.3 68.9 73.4 78.4 83.6 86.3 88.9 87.1 80.5 79.8 81.5 68.6 72.6 68.8 75.8 66.0 59.0 32.1 26.9 28.3 32.2 28.1 27.4 20.4 18.5 17.3 15.0 15.3

6,295,000 6,012,000 6,687,000 7,340,000 7,891,000 8,842,500 8,605,700 7,658,600 8,399,000 8,476,700 7,586,700 7,181,000 9,022,900 10,310,300 8,336,700 6,647,682 8,445,360 9,524,063 9,260,732 9,568,263 7,349,729 7,094,858 5,710,121 6,158,514 8,709,676 8,384,738 8,621,092 7,669,871 7,668,153 7,688,215 6,925,229

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1971 (Washington, D.C., 1971), 536; 1991 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 59.

TABLE 5.9 VOLKSWAGEN SALES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1949–1990 Year

Sales

1949 1950 1952 1954

2 157 601 6,343

... 0.9 2.0 19.5

1956 1958 1960 1962

50,011 78,588 159,995 192,570

50.9 20.8 32.1 56.8

1964 1965 1966 1968

307,173 383,978 420,018 563,522

63.4 67.4 63.8 57.0

1970 1972 1974 1976

569,182 480,689 327,488 199,062

46.0 31.0 24.0 14.0

1978a 1980 1982 1984

239,612 255,127 149,422 155,322

12.0 10.0 7.0 6.0

1986 1988 1990

201,165 166,372 125,906

6.0 4.0 4.0

a

% of All Imports

Between 1978 and 1988 sales included cars manufactured in the United States as well as imported automobiles. Source: Ward’s Automotive Yearbook for 1967 (Detroit, 1967), 170, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1970, (Detroit, 1970), 137, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1972, 119, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1976, (Detroit, 1976), 133, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1980, (Detroit, 1980), 152, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1984 (Detroit, 1984), 110, 1988 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, (Detroit, 1988), 170, 1991 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 243.

142


domestic and foreign, especially in 1974–75 and 1980–82. American carmakers blamed Japanese success on lower production costs, especially for labor, and barriers erected over the Japanese market. Statistics, however, revealed that while Japanese auto workers at one time had earned considerably less than their American counterparts, by the end of the 1980s the gap had narrowed considerably.While charges of a closed Japanese market might have merit, it failed to account for Japan’s remarkable success in competing in the United States. Whether or not Japanese cars were better than American makes at the start of the 1990s, many Americans thought they were.

TABLE 5.10 U.S. NEW-CAR REGISTRATIONS, FOREIGN AND DOMESTICa, 1955–1990 Year

Total

Domestic

Foreign

Foreign Share

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

7,169,908 5,955,248 5,982,342 4,654,515 6,041,275 6,576,650

7,111,443 5,857,061 5,775,515 4,275,998 5,427,144 6,077,865

58,465 98,187 206,827 378,517 614,131 498,785

0.8 1.7 3.4 8.1 10.2 7.6

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

5,854,747 6,938,863 7,556,717 8,065,150 9,313,912

5,476,125 6,599,703 7,171,093 7,581,019 8,744,497

378,622 339,160 385,624 484,131 569,415

6.5 4.9 5.1 6.0 6.1

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

9,008,488 8,357,421 9,403,862 9,446,524 8,388,204

8,350,365 7,678,201 8,418,095 8,384,907 7,157,243

658,123 779,220 985,767 1,061,617 1,230,961

7.3 9.3 10.5 11.2 14.7

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

9,838,626 10,487,794 11,350,995 8,701,094 8,261,840

8,343,013 8,958,392 9,631,082 7,331,946 6,760,912

1,487,613 1,529,402 1,719,913 1,369,148 1,500,928

15.1 14.6 15.1 15.7 18.2

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

9,751,485 10,826,234 10,946,094 10,356,705 8,760,937

8,304,848 8,849,722 9,000,000 8,005,652 6,291,757

1,446,637 1,976,512 1,946,094 2,351,053 2,469,180

14.8 18.3 17.8 22.7 28.2

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

8,443,919 7,754,342 8,924,186 10,128,729 10,888,608

6,012,239 5,485,711 6,466,829 7,604,755 7,877,476

2,431,680 2,268,631 2,457,357 2,523,974 3,011,132

28.8 29.3 27.5 24.9 27.6

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

11,139,842 10,122,154 10,479,931 9,852,617 9,159,629

7,695,652 6,497,618 6,770,053 6,313,174 6,018,097

3,444,190 3,624,536 3,709,878 3,539,443 3,141,532

30.9 35.8 35.4 35.9 34.3

aForeign

cars includes imports as well as foreign makes manufactured in the United States, which began in 1978. Domestic makes includes cars imported by U.S. firms. Source: Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1972, 119, 1988, 170, 1991, 237.

TABLE 5.11

MILES PER GALLON AND GASOLINE PRICES, 1945–1990 Miles per Gallon

Gasoline Prices (cents per gallon, inc. tax)

New Car

Year

Average Passenger Cara

All Motor Vehiclesb

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

14.9 14.9 14.5 14.3 14.3

13.1 12.9 12.7 12.4 12.5

... 16.0 16.0 15.5 15.4

... ... ... ... ...

... ... 16.1 16.1 15.9

... 26.8 29.1 31.1 31.2

... ... ... ...

1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

13.5 13.5 13.5 13.8 14.0 14.4

12.0 12.2 12.1 12.3 12.3 12.5

14.1 15.1 16.6 17.2 18.7 19.3

... 23.3 25.4 27.7 27.3 26.1

15.2 15.8 17.5 18.3 19.9 20.3

35.7 56.7 59.0 62.2 62.6 85.7

... ... ... 65.6 67.0 80.3

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

15.5 15.9 16.7 17.1 17.8

13.3 13.6 14.1 14.2 14.5

22.6 24.2 25.0 24.6 25.6

29.6 31.5 31.1 32.4 32.0

24.3 25.9 26.6 26.4 26.9

119.1 131.1 122.2 115.7 112.9

124.5 137.8 129.6 124.1 121.2

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

18.2 18.3 19.2 19.9 20.3 20.9

14.6 14.7 15.1 15.6 15.9 16.3

26.3 26.6 27.0 27.4 27.1 26.9

31.5 31.6 31.2 31.5 30.6 29.9

27.6 28.2 28.5 28.8 28.3 28.1

111.5 85.7 89.7 89.9 99.8 114.9

120.2 92.7 94.8 94.6 102.1 116.4

Domestic

Import

Average

Leaded Regular

Unleaded Regular

a

From 1960–65 passenger cars included motorcycles. Includes passenger cars, motorcycles, buses, and trucks. Source: Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, Part I, (Washington, D.C., 1975), 716, U.S. Department of Transportation, Annual Energy Review, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 53, 161; MVMA, Automobile Facts & Figures, 1991, 74.

b

TABLE 5.12 TOP 10 FOREIGN CAR REGISTRATION—1966, 1978, 1990a 1966 Rank

Make

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Volkswagen Opel Volvo Datsun MG

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Standard Triumph Mercedes Benz Toyota Simca Renault

Total All Others

1978 Total

Rank

420,018 31,555 25,126 21,726 21,709

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

17,184 16,081 15,814 12,596 11,500

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

64,814

Grand Total

658,123

1990

Make

Total

Toyota Datsun Honda Volkswagen Subaru Fiesta Mazda Fiat Volvo Colt

Total All Others

Rank

Total

427,465 337,523 258,151 239,612 79,015

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Honda Toyota Nissan Mazda Mitsubishi

719,189 709,246 421,648 222,561 139,827

76,001 71,921 57,946 48,494 45,126

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Acura Hyundai Volkswagen Subaru Volvo

138,340 134,704 125,906 108,238 91,256

304,840

Grand Total

Make

1,946,094

Total All Others

674,751

Grand Total

3,485,666

a

Includes North American–built and imported cars. Source: Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1970, 137, Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1980, 152, 1991 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 243.

TABLE 5.13

JAPANESE TRANSPLANT CAR PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1982–1990

Make

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

1984

Honda Nissan Toyota Mazda Diamond-Star NUMMI Subaru-Isuzu

435,437 95,844 218,195 184,428 148,379 205,287 32,461

361,670 115,584 151,150 216,200 90,741 192,235 2,600

366,355 109,897 18,527 167,205 2,409 129,978 ...

324,064 117,334 ... 4,200 ... 187,378 ...

234,159 65,147 ... ... ... 205,795 ...

145,337 43,810 ... ... ... 64,601 ...

138,572 ... ... ... ... ... ...

Total

1,320,031

1,130,180

794,371

632,976

509,101

253,751

138,572

55,337

1,500

Big 3 Prod.

4,757,854

5,693,778

6,307,028

6,400,157

7,186,316

7,724,689

7,367,789

6,423,410

4,877,722

Source: 1991 Ward’s Automotive Handbook, 19.

1983 55,337 ... ... ... ... ... ...

1982 1,500 ... ... ... ... ... ...

The “Bus’’ and the “Beetle,’’ 1963.Volkswagen produced not only popular cars but also witty advertisements. (Volkswagen of America)

TABLE 5.14 IMPORT NEW-CAR MARKET PENETRATIONa (state registrations % total) 10 Highest States

1987

1986

Hawaii California Oregon Washington Colorado

62.8 56.6 52.2 52.1 48.7

63.5 51.9 48.8 48.2 45.1

Washington DC Alaska Utah Connecticut Rhode Island

48.6 47.5 45.7 43.0 42.6

46.9 41.3 44.0 37.7 33.5

10 Lowest States

1987

1986

Michigan Iowa South Dakota Indiana Minnesota

14.9 18.5 18.9 19.6 21.1

11.4 15.8 15.8 15.9 19.1

North Dakota Wisconsin Nebraska Ohio Missouri

21.5 21.7 23.1 23.7 26.2

19.1 18.2 20.1 19.5 21.7

a Includes U.S.-built cars of foreign manufacturers. Source: 1991 Ward’s Automotive Handbook, 170.

144


TABLE 5.15

HOURLY COMPENSATION FOR MOTOR VEHICLE PRODUCTION WORKERS, 1975 AND 1980–1990

(in U.S. dollars) Country or Area

1975

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

United States Canada Mexico Brazil Australia Japan Korea Taiwan Belgium Denmark France Germany Ireland Italy Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom Global Average

9.53 7.25 2.94 1.29 5.83 3.56 0.48 0.64 7.16 5.78 5.10 7.89 3.77 5.16 6.72 ... ... 7.44 4.01 4.45

15.88 10.63 4.38 2.01 8.61 6.97 1.33 1.68 14.27 10.10 9.98 15.56 7.31 8.13 11.64 2.87 7.11 12.70 6.50 8.30

16.94 11.58 5.27 2.53 9.45 7.61 1.40 1.99 12.33 8.70 9.11 13.34 6.63 7.64 9.51 2.79 7.03 11.95 7.87 8.09

17.99 12.30 3.56 2.47 9.92 7.21 1.55 1.86 10.34 8.25 8.85 13.03 6.77 7.67 9.32 2.65 6.69 10.36 7.62 7.81

18.23 12.65 2.61 1.79 9.45 7.83 1.68 1.66 9.99 7.94 8.79 13.16 6.47 7.81 8.95 2.53 5.69 9.18 7.11 7.55

18.92 13.05 2.55 1.59 10.07 7.90 1.87 2.09 9.64 7.49 8.20 11.92 6.05 7.69 8.13 2.22 5.35 9.64 6.66 7.42

19.63 12.99 2.66 1.64 8.35 8.09 1.92 1.85 9.91 7.52 8.38 12.09 6.21 7.72 8.35 2.26 5.54 10.14 7.05 7.49

19.97 13.38 2.03 ... 8.77 11.80 2.00 2.23 13.61 10.52 11.24 16.83 8.32 10.38 11.29 3.09 7.74 12.75 8.70 9.19

20.51 14.56 2.45 ... 9.74 13.83 2.32 2.83 16.98 13.85 13.41 21.44 10.15 12.79 14.06 3.65 9.54 15.43 10.63 10.96

21.11 16.56 ... ... 11.42 16.36 3.41 3.50 17.44 14.90 14.02 23.00 11.14 13.54 14.65 3.92 10.85 17.13 12.28 11.85

21.51 17.74 3.12 ... 12.20 15.65 4.92 4.16 17.04 14.04 13.75 22.29 10.31 14.00 13.89 ... ... 17.75 12.30 11.30

21.93 19.23 2.75 ... 12.96 15.77 5.73 4.76 20.94 16.88 15.94 27.12 14.14 17.17 16.44 ... ... 21.13 14.04 13.00

Source: Ward’s Communications, 1992 Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 64.

TABLE 5.16

MOTOR-VEHICLE DEATHS AND DEATH RATES, 1946–1990

Year

No. of Deaths

Estimated No. of Vehicles (millions)

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

33,411 32,697 32,259 31,701 34,763 36,996 37,794 37,956 35,586 38,426 39,628 38,702 36,981 37,910 38,137 38,091 40,804 43,564 47,700 49,163 53,041 52,924 54,862 55,791 54,633 54,381 56,278 55,511 46,402 45,853 47,038 49,510 52,411 53,524 53,172 51,385 45,779 44,452 46,263 45,901 47,865 48,290 49,078 47,575 46,814

34.4 37.8 41.1 44.7 49.2 51.9 53.3 56.3 58.6 62.8 65.2 67.6 68.8 72.1 74.5 76.4 79.7 83.5 87.3 91.8 95.9 98.9 103.1 107.4 111.2 116.3 122.3 129.8 134.9 137.9 143.5 148.8 153.6 159.6 161.6 164.1 165.2 169.4 171.8 177.1 181.4 183.9 189.0 191.7 192.9

Death Rates Per 10,000 Motor Vehicles 9.72 8.64 7.85 7.09 7.07 7.13 7.10 6.74 6.07 6.12 6.07 5.73 5.37 5.26 5.12 4.98 5.12 5.22 5.46 5.36 5.53 5.35 5.32 5.19 4.92 4.68 4.60 4.28 3.44 3.33 3.28 3.33 3.41 3.35 3.29 3.13 2.77 2.62 2.69 2.59 2.63 2.63 2.60 2.48 2.43

Per 100,000,000 Vehicle Miles 9.80 8.82 8.11 7.47 7.59 7.53 7.36 6.97 6.33 6.34 6.28 5.98 5.56 5.41 5.31 5.16 5.32 5.41 5.63 5.54 5.70 5.50 5.40 5.21 4.88 4.57 4.43 4.24 3.59 3.45 3.33 3.35 3.39 3.50 3.50 3.30 2.88 2.68 2.69 2.59 2.60 2.51 2.42 2.26 2.18

Per 100,000 Population 23.9 22.8 22.1 21.3 23.0 24.1 24.3 24.0 22.1 23.4 23.7 22.7 21.3 21.5 21.2 20.8 22.0 23.1 25.0 25.4 27.1 26.8 27.5 27.7 26.8 26.3 26.9 26.3 21.8 21.3 21.6 22.5 23.6 23.8 23.4 22.4 19.8 19.0 19.6 19.3 19.9 19.9 20.1 19.3 18.8

Source: National Safety Council, Accident Facts, 1998 Edition (Itasca, Ill., 1998), 104–05.

Transportation

145

0

N

U.S. INTERSTATE HIGHWAY SYSTEM, 1981

300 mi

0

300 km

Note: There is no interstate in Alaska.

CANADA Seattle

95 90 15

Coeur d’Alene

82

29

Bismark

Portland

89

Butte

5

84

Billings

Boise Boise

Chicago Cheyenne

San Francisco

76

74

Kansas City

15 35

70

Washington, D.C.

71 79

24

65

75

77

81

17

10

San Diego

Nashville

Oklahoma City

40

27

8

25

Tucson

Birmingham

10

Dallas

20 59

20 10

45

10

San Antonio

10

Charleston 16

Savannah

65 Montgomery Mobile 10

12

35

10

26 20

Atlanta 85

55

19

Oahu

75 59

30

Lubbock Fort Worth

El Paso

85

40

Little Rock

Albuquerque Albuquer que

Phoenix

95

Charlotte

40 40

Newport News 85

5

Los Angeles

64

64

Louisville

55

44

76

77 70

57

New York

78 76

75

65 69

57

70

95

84 80

90

Indianapolis 74 55 Cincinnati St. Louis 70 64

29

Denver

70

Des Moines

80

Omaha

88

81

Detroit 94

35

Salt Lake City

90

69 96

84

80

Buffalo

43

90

Sioux Falls

25

Boston

87 91

75

90 86

81

Minneapolis

94

Rapid City

80

93

Fargo

94

95

Jacksonville 75

New Orleans New 4

Houston

Tampa

95

37

Laredo Corpus Christi

2

Pearl Harbor 1

Miami

MEXICO

1

Honolulu

TABLE 5.17

ROADS, STREETS, AND HIGHWAYS, 1945–1990 Surfaced Mileage (’000s)

Total Mileage (’000s)

Year

State Control

County and Local Control

Total

State Control

County and Local Control

Total

Percent Surfaced

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

482 542 610 660 701 748

1,239 1,397 1,663 1,897 2,075 2,198

1,721 1,939 2,273 2,557 2,776 2,946

574 609 651 694 728 781

2,745 2,704 2,767 2,852 2,962 2,949

3,319 3,313 3,418 3,546 3,690 3,730

51.9 58.5 66.5 72.1 75.2 79.0

1975 1980 1985 1988 1989 1990

763 753 612 618 619 619

2,338 2,605 2,868 2,873 2,888 2,899

3,101 3,358 3,480 3,491 3,507 3,518

796 781 613 619 620 620

3,042 3,174 3,249 3,252 3,257 3,260

3,838 3,955 3,862 3,871 3,877 3,880

80.8 84.9 90.1 90.2 90.5 90.7

Source: MVMA, Motor Vehicle Facts & Figures (Washington, D.C., 1996), 69.

146


TABLE 5.18 RURAL AND URBAN ROAD MILEAGE, BY STATE, 1989 State

Aerial view of Long Island highways leading to New York City in the 1950s— an increasingly familiar sight throughout the nation. (National Archives)

Rural Mileage

Urban Mileage

Total Mileage


73,691 10,462 43,919 69,466 91,578

16,844 1,810 13,479 7,656 72,720

90,535 12,272 57,398 77,122 164,298


66,132 9,045 3,828 59,305 87,345

11,229 10,869 1,589 48,650 20,665

77,361 19,914 5,417 107,955 108,010

Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa

2,663 58,911 103,957 73,941 103,778

1,419 2,406 31,921 17,803 8,773

4,082 61,317 135,878 91,744 112,551

Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md.

124,169 62,098 46,277 19,781 16,333

8,987 7,613 12,244 2,459 12,162

133,156 69,711 58,521 22,240 28,495

Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss. Mo.

13,201 90,968 115,458 64,988 104,230

20,606 27,028 14,095 7,324 15,847

33,807 117,996 129,553 72,312 120,077

Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J.

69,092 87,509 41,780 12,387 11,791

2,268 4,950 3,076 2,416 22,455

71,360 92,459 44,856 14,803 34,246

N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak. Ohio

49,367 73,263 75,165 84,579 82,126

5,440 37,701 19,063 1,805 31,313

54,807 110,964 94,228 86,384 113,439

Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C.

99,578 86,325 88,447 1,484 54,699

12,091 9,105 27,830 4,400 9,405

111,669 95,430 116,277 5,884 64,104


71,622 68,854 217,044 37,430 12,923

1,756 15,227 88,648 5,541 1,170

73,378 84,081 305,692 42,971 14,093

52,228 65,011 31,425 95,447 37,624 ...

15,054 16,428 3,052 14,366 1,917 1,102

67,282 81,439 34,477 109,813 39,541 1,102

3,122,724

753,777

Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo. District of Columbia TOTAL

3,876,501

Source: MVMA, Motor Vehicle Facts & Figures 1991, 84.

Transportation

147

Like highway construction, bridge building increased in the postwar era. One of the largest, the Mackinac Bridge (Big Mac), here under construction in the 1950s, connected the two peninsulas of Michigan. (Michigan Department of Transportation)

Air Transport The most striking aspect of air transportation after 1946 was an explosion in the number of customers. Passengers trebled in the first eight years; they had multiplied 13 times by 1970, and by the end of the 1980s the number approached a half-billion per year. Reasons for expansion included an increase in disposable individual wealth (more people could afford to fly), greater confidence in the safety of the enterprise, and the development of new aircraft that enhanced comfort, safety, efficiency, and especially speed of flying. The matching of jet engines with passenger aircraft beginning in the late 1950s changed flying in almost every respect, but especially in speed and efficiency. Thereafter the aircraft companies—led by Boeing—developed jet planes to fit almost every condition: the DC 9 for short distances, Boeing’s 727 and 737 for medium-length trips, and the “jumbo’’ Boeing 747, DC 10 (Douglas) and L1011 (Lockheed) for coastto-coast and intercontinental travel. Other companies specialized in smaller jets for private and company use; still others produced conventional propellor-driven craft of many types and sizes for the public market. Small airlines usually purchased aircraft with two 148


piston-type engines to feed traffic from small cities into the large metropolitan airports. Explosion of flying did not come without bumps, bruises, and outright tragedy. More traffic meant congestion in the skies and on the ground; the need for larger and better airports, for more sophisticated guidance systems in the tower and cockpit never ended.Airliner crashes, rare as they might be, continued to attract national media coverage. In 1958 Congress created two agencies: the Federal Aviation Agency to oversee safety standards and the Civil Aeronautics Board to supervise routes and rates. In the 1970s and beyond international problems spilled over to the business with a wave of forceable seizure of aircraft in flight (thus creating a new word: skyjacking) and other acts of terrorism that involved planes or airports. International politics in the 1980s led to violent destruction of three jumbo jets and death of everyone aboard: a Korean 747 shot down by the Soviets; an Iranian Airbus destroyed by an American ship; a Pan-Am 747 blown out of the air over Scotland by a bomb placed aboard.The first energy crisis of 1973–74 roughly doubled fuel costs, and the second crisis of 1978–80 doubled them again. Consistent with a trend of the era, Congress deregulated the airline industry in 1978, a move that raised concerns about safety (as did

President Ronald Reagan’s firing of striking air-traffic controllers in 1982) and set off a bewildering state of affairs in the 1980s. New airlines popped up suddenly and many expired just as fast. Rate wars provoked intense competition and need to cut costs, which caused labor troubles and more worry about safety. Merger and corporate takeover affected virtually aspect of the industry as well as most of the companies. By the end of the 1980s some of the most prestigious air-

TABLE 5.19

lines, including three of the traditional big four—Eastern, Pan American, and TWA—stood on the verge of collapse. The end of the era seemed to foretell an industry dominated by a small number of large firms, although it was nearly impossible to tell how the situation would play out. Perhaps the most that one could predict was that the passengers would continue to come.

SCHEDULED AIR TRANSPORTATION, DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL, 1946–1990 Ton-miles flown

Year

Revenue Revenue Average Passengers Passenger- PassengerNumber of Aircraft Persons Carried miles Flown mile Rate Operatorsa in Service Employed (1,000) (millions) (dollars)

Express and Freight (1,000)

Mail (1,000)

Fuel Consumed Average Average Gasoline Available Speed (million gal.) Seats (mpn)

Domestic 1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

23 52 42 42 40

674 960 1212 1594 1896

69,182 61,903 95,548 133,717 169,952

12,213 17,345 38,025 56,352 92,073

5,945 8,007 18,852 30,567 51,887

.0463 .0554 .0536 .0609 .0606

15,096 60,588 96,378 191,585 597,324

32,969 47,740 88,751 135,923 225,992

236 418 912 922 448

25.3 37.5 51.2 65.5 89.2

160 180 208 235 314

1970 1975 1978 1980 1985

33 33 34 72 86

2437 2260 2345 2505 2860

242,206 290,000 329,000 371,000 355,000

153,408 205,000 275,000 297,000 382,000

104,156 162,800 226,800 255,200 336,400

.0587 .0770 .0850 .1130 .1230

1,229,000 2,049,000 2,313,000 2,465,000 2,887,000

705,711 1,109,000 1,181,000 1,342,000 1,659,000

... 9,507 10,534 11,311 12,603

110.4 130.4 140 143.1 152.5

350 403 409 405 409

1988 1989 1990

88 62 60

4439 4477 4665

481,000 507,000 545,000

455,000 454,000 466,000

423,300 432,700 457,900

.1230 .1310 .1340

4,789,000 5,359,000 5,524,000

1,837,000 1,911,000 2,004,000

15,094 15,624 16,252

153.1 152.1 151.9

409 406 408

38,590 152,228 229,966 386,933 943,128 1,966,009 4,796,000 5,818,000 5,742,000 6,020,000 9,632,000 10,275,000 10,600,000

8,165 26,228 61,233 103,335 254,093 548,845 426,000 374,000 393,000 445,000 470,000 496,000 513,000

60 154 258 205 41 2,241 1,949 1,913 2,093 2,488 3,192 3,537 3,791

27.2 41 56.4 89.9 129.1 154.9 224.8 244.1 274.5 296.6 281.3 277.1 275.7

166 218 244 307 451 482 482 489 494 497 488 486 489

International 1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1978 1980 1985 1988 1989 1990

5 6 9 13 10 6 2 2 ... ... ... ... ...

147 160 147 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

27,372 20,883 26,655 29,054 36,882 48,520 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

1,041 1,675 3,416 5,904 10,847 16,260 16,000 21,000 24,000 25,000 35,000 37,000 42,000

1,104 2,214 4,499 8,306 16,789 27,563 31,100 44,100 54,400 65,800 94,000 102,700 117,700

.0831 .0728 .0666 .0635 .0529 .0500 .0720 .0750 .0750 .0980 .1040 .1040 .1080

aThe Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 produced changes that left no clear distinction between domestic and international operators. Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, ed., The Statistical History of the United States (New York, 1976), 769, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992, 625.

TABLE 5.20

AIRPORTS, AIRCRAFT, AND PILOTS, 1946–1990 Airports and Landing Fields

Certified Airplane Pilots

Year

Total

Lighted

Total Civil Aircraft

Total

Airline Transport

Commercial

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1987 1989 1990

4,490 6,403 6,839 6,881 9,566 11,261 13,251 15,161 16,318 17,015 17,446 17,490

1,019 1,670 1,247 2,133 2,878 3,554 4,171 4,738 4,941 4,922 4,443 4,822

81,002 92,809 85,320 111,580 142,078 154,450 196,300 259,400 274,900 275,100 274,800 275,900

400,061 ... 643,201 783,232 497,770 732,729 728,000 827,000 710,000 700,000 700,000 703,000

7,654 ... 13,700 20,985 22,440 34,430 43,000 70,000 83,000 91,000 102,000 108,000

203,251 ... 211,142 262,437 116,665 186,821 189,000 183,000 152,000 144,000 145,000 149,000

Private 189,156 ... 418,359 499,810 196,393 303,779 306,000 357,000 311,000 301,000 293,000 299,000

Percent Female ... ... ... 2.9 3.7 4.0 5.2 6.4 6.1 6.1 6.1 5.8

Source: Wattenberg, Statistical History, 733; Statistical Abstract, 1960, 579; Statistical Abstract, 1970, 563; Statistical Abstract, 1982–83, 633; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 639.

Transportation

149

TABLE 5.21

MAJOR AIRCRAFT IN EVOLUTION OF COMMERCIAL AIR TRAVEL, 1946–1990a

Model DC 3 DC 4 202 377 (Stratocruiser) LO949 (Constellation) 240 DC 6 L1049 (Super Constellation) DC 7 707 L188 (Electra) DC 8 990 DC 9 727 737 747 Concorde DC 10 A 300 (Airbus) L1011 (Tristar) 767 757

Manufacturer

Passengers

Douglas Douglas Martin Boeing Lockheed Convair Douglas Lockheed Douglas Boeing Lockheed Douglas Convair McDonnell-Douglas Boeing Boeing Boeing British Airways/Aerospatiale McDonnell-Douglas Airbus Industries Lockheed Boeing Boeing

35 86 53 93 96 51 87 102 99 100/181 64/104 116/259 103 90/172 70/145 105/149 331/452 144 250/380 220/345 250/400 211/290 178/290

Engines (no. & type) 2 piston 4 piston 2 piston 4 piston 4 piston 2 piston 4 piston 4 piston 4 piston 4 jet 4 turboprop 4 jet 4 jet 2 jet 3 jet 2 jet 4 jet 4 jet 3 jet 2 jet 3 jet 2 jet 2 jet

a

Cruising Speed 217 250 255 312 300 270 300 300 310 615 405 580 600 593 620 577 565 1,350 615 460 615 550 494

Year Introduced 1935 1942 1946 1947 1947 1948 1951 1954 1955 1957 1958 1958 1961 1965 1967 1967 1969 1969 1972 1974 1976 1981 1982

Specification for aircraft of the same model will change with modification over the years. Source: Dan Golenpaul, ed., Information Please Almanac 1957 (New York, 1956), 485, Otto Johnson, ed., Information Please Almanac 1988 (New York, 1987), 358–59, Enzo Angelucci, World Encyclopedia of Civil Aircraft (New York), 1982, 286–90.

Pacemaker of the age of jet flight, the Boeing 707 came on line in the late 1950s. (The Boeing Company Archives)

150


TABLE 5.22 AIR TRANSPORTATION ACCIDENTS ON DOMESTIC SCHEDULED AIR CARRIERS, 1946–1990 Year

Total Accidents

Fatal Accidents

Passenger Fatalities

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

33 44 56 35 39 45 44 37 49 45 55 44 42 61 62 56 35 39 45 55 50 43 44 37 31

9 8 5 8 4 11 6 5 4 8 4 4 4 9 10 5 5 4 6 6 4 8 11 7 1

75 199 83 96 96 142 46 86 16 156 143 32 114 209 326 124 158 48 106 205 59 226 258 132 0

Major Airplane Accidents Involving Americans, 1952–1990 January 22, 1952, Elizabeth, New Jersey 29 killed, including former Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson, when airliner hit apartments; seven of dead were on ground. June 18, 1953, near Tokyo, Japan Crash of U.S. Air Force “Globemaster’’ killed 129 servicemen. December 16, 1960, New York City United and Trans World planes collided in fog, crashed in two boroughs, killing 134 in air and on ground. February 15, 1961, near Brussels, Belgium 72 on board and farmer on ground killed in crash of Sabena plane: U.S. figure-skating team wiped out. December 24, 1966, Binh Thai, South Vietnam Crash of military-chartered plane into village killed 129. November 14, 1970, Huntington, West Virginia Chartered plane carrying 43 players and coaches of Marshall University football team crashed; 75 dead. July 30, 1971, Morioka, Japan Japanese Boeing 727 and F-86 fighter collided in midair; toll was 162. September 4, 1971, near Juneau, Alaska Alaska Airlines Boeing 727 crashed into Chilkoot Mountains; 111 killed. December 30, 1972, Miami, Florida Eastern Airlines Lockheed 1011 TriStar Jumbo jet crashed into Everglades; 101 killed, 75 survived. April 4, 1975, near Saigon, Vietnam Air Force Galaxy C-5A crashed after takeoff, killing 172, mostly Vietnamese children. March 27, 1977, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands Pan American and KLM Boeing 747s collided on runway. All 249 on KLM plane and 333 of 394 aboard Pan Am jet killed.Total of 582 is highest for any type of aviation disaster. September 25, 1978, San Diego, California Pacific Southwest plane collided in midair with Cessna. All 135 on airliner, two in Cessna, and seven on ground killed for total of 144.

Year

Total Accidents

Fatal Accidents

Passenger Fatalities

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

39 43 32 43 29

6 7 6 7 2

194 186 217 460 122

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

21 18 19 18 15

2 2 4 5 ...

36 75 16 352 38

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

25 15 23 14 17

4 3 4 1 4

4 233 15 197 197

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

21 32 28 25 24

2 4 3 8 6

5 231 285 131 39

Source: Wattenberg, Statistical History of the U.S. 744; George Thomas Kurian, Datapedia of the United States 1789–2000, America Year by Year (Lanham, Md., 1994), 293.

May 25, 1979, Chicago American Airlines DC-10 lost left engine upon takeoff and crashed seconds later, killing all 272 persons aboard and three on the ground in worst U.S. air disaster. March 14, 1980,Warsaw, Poland LOT Polish Airlines Ilyushin 62 crashed while attempting landing; 22 boxers and officials of a U.S. amateur boxing team killed along with 65 others. August 30, 1983, near Siberia Near island of Sakhalin off Siberia South Korean civilian jetliner shot down by Soviet fighter after it strayed off course into Soviet airspace. All 269 people aboard killed. December 12, 1985 A chartered Arrow Air DC-8, bringing American soldiers home for Christmas, crashed on takeoff from Gander, Newfoundland. All 256 aboard died. May 9, 1987, Poland Polish airliner, Ilyushin 62M on charter flight to New York, crashes after takeoff from Warsaw, killing 183. August 16, 1987, Detroit Northwest Airlines McDonnell Douglas MD-30 plunges to heavily traveled boulevard, killing 156. Girl, four, only survivor. July 3, 1988, Persian Gulf U.S. Navy cruiser Vincennes shot down Iran Air A300 Airbus, killing 290 persons, after mistaking it for an attacking jet fighter. August 28, 1988, Ramstein Air Force Base, West Germany Three jets from Italian air force acrobatic team collided in midair during air show and crashed, killing 70 persons, including the pilots and spectators on the ground. It is worst air-show disaster in history. December 21, 1988, Lockerbie, Scotland A New-York-bound Pan-Am Boeing 747 exploded in flight from a terrorist bomb and crashed into a Scottish village, killing all 259 aboard and 11 persons on the ground. Passengers included 38 Syracuse University students and many U.S. military personnel. February 24, 1989, UAL 811, near Hawaii About 100 miles southwest of Hawaii, a 10- 3 40-ft hole blew open in the fuselage of a United Airline Boeing 747. Nine passengers were sucked out of the jet liner to their deaths 20,000 ft over the Pacific: 27 other passengers were injured. Source: Otto Johnson, ed., Information Please Almanac 1992 (1991), 388.

Transportation

151

TABLE 5.23 BUSIEST U.S. AIRPORTS, ENPLANING (BOARDING) ONLY, 1988 Rank

Airport

Total Enplaned Passengers

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Chicago (O’Hare), Ill. Atlanta, Ga. Dallas/Ft.Worth (Regional),Tex. Los Angeles, Calif. Denver, Colo.

26,596,800 21,824,125 21,014,158 18,643,319 14,441,817

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

San Francisco, Calif. New York (La Guardia), N.Y. Newark, N.J. New York (John F. Kennedy), N.Y. Boston, Mass.

13,347,979 11,321,800 10,837,963 10,660,421 10,141,298

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

St. Louis, Mo. Miami, Fla. Phoenix, Ariz. Detroit, Mich. Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii

9,554,454 9,461,760 9,455,324 9,213,713 8,396,313

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Pittsburgh, Pa. Minneapolis St. Paul, Minn. Orlando, Fla. Washington (National), D.C. Houston (Intercontinental),Tex.

8,378,639 8,170,952 7,473,086 7,259,448 6,871,886

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Las Vegas, Nev. Seattle-Tacoma,Wash. Philadelphia, Pa. Charlotte, N.C. San Diego, Calif.

6,864,803 6,825,513 6,633,677 6,619,780 5,180,587

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation 1988 (Washington, D.C., 1990), 82.

TABLE 5.24

BUSIEST U.S. AIRPORTS, ALL OPERATIONS, 1988 Air Carrier

Total

Rank

Operations

Air Taxi

General Aviation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

631,073 562,698 490,327 435,751 374,614

129,981 191,203 149,880 135,728 94,171

31,208 27,449 22,554 55,548 40,205

3,487 1,336 1,507 4,871 2,336

1 2 3 4 6

795,749 782,686 664,268 631,898 511,326

San Francisco St. Louis Int’l Newark LaGuardia Phoenix Sky Harbor Int’l

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

321,420 285,710 282,488 269,643 268,236

104,884 89,098 67,775 66,403 65,697

32,378 43,364 25,971 27,608 114,529

2,531 11,198 588 533 6,880

7 12 22 26 9

461,213 429,370 376,822 364,187 455,342

Pittsburgh Greater Int’l Miami International Detroit Metro Wayne County Boston Logan John F. Kennedy Int’l

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

256,627 254,597 250,445 246,423 221,615

97,706 56,417 69,470 146,793 81,318

25,937 45,718 59,939 51,683 25,012

6,675 1,688 307 274 681

18 28 19 10 30

386,945 358,420 380,161 445,173 328,626

Minneapolis–St. Paul Int’l Charlotte Douglas Memphis International Houston Intercontinental Philadelphia Int’l

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

214,025 213,291 211,732 205,969 195,506

87,442 104,298 63,570 40,103 161,685

73,146 83,895 76,906 50,098 57,199

5,193 3,743 6,590 1,108 1,214

20 16 27 34 14

379,806 405,227 358,798 297,278 415,604

Washington National Orlando Int’l Airport Honolulu Las Vegas McCarren Seattle Tacoma

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

190,609 188,024 187,445 177,700 175,746

60,213 60,396 57,366 80,766 119,656

76,494 37,843 86,418 105,340 15,614

321 4,072 35,912 8,801 467

31 37 25 23 32

327,637 290,335 367,141 372,607 311,483

Tower Chicago O’Hare Int’l Atlanta International Dallas Ft.Worth Reg’l Los Angeles Int’l Denver Stapleton Int’l

Source: FAA Handbook 1988, 15.

152


Military

Rank

Operations

TABLE 5.25

TOP 25 U.S. AIRLINES, 1988

TABLE 5.26

Rank

Revenue Passenger Milesa (’000s)

Rank

64,296 59,969 56,326 37,636 35,784

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

64,752,866 51,652,125 69,024,633 40,498,243 40,148,340

2. 3. 1. 4. 5.

Eastern USAir Piedmont Trans World Southwest

35,621 32,466 27,117 25,124 16,842

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

28,793,436 17,315,319 13,051,317 34,699,818 7,711,064

8. 9. 10. 6. 11.

Pan American America West Hawaiian Alaska Braniff

16,755 12,651 5,497 4,772 4,322

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

29,308,089 6,949,731 3,008,063 3,559,508 4,047,099

7. 12. 15. 14. 13.

Midway Aloha Air Wisconsin PSA Horizon Air

4,258 3,426 2,420 2,365 1,397

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

2,990,582 450,472 421,328 915,641 285,176

16. 21. 22. 18. 24.

Westair Florida Express Aspen Presidential Midwest Express

1,218 1,166 878 844 402

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

231,273 564,218 157,716 325,654 261,098

26. 20. 27. 23. 25.

Passengers (’000s)

American Delta United Continental Northwest

Airline

TOP 15 U.S. CARGO AIRLINES, 1988

Rank

Airline

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Flying Tiger Northwest Federal Express United Pan American American Continental Delta Trans World Eastern Challenge Air Cargo Piedmont Zantop Rosenbalm Alaska

Freight Ton-milesa (’000s) 2,792,107 1,476,061 1,228,207 942,167 714,534 489,755 487,782 476,429 447,027 164,484 74,196 67,519 62,909 51,563 40,605

a

One ton of freight traveling one mile equals one freight ton mile. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1991, 280.

a

One paying passenger traveling one mile generates one revenue passenger mile. Source: John W. Wright, ed., The Universal Almanac 1991 (New York, 1990), 279.

Railroads Long the dominant force in travel across country, railroad passenger service had been in decline since the 1920s, the system as a whole running annual deficits.The Second World War reversed the trend for passenger and freight service as well and perhaps created an illusion of good times to come. It was not to be in the years after 1945. Even though railroad companies upgraded equipment (diesel engines and air-conditioned cars became commonplace) and brightened and speeded up the trains, they could not keep pace with competitors in any dimension, save possibly travel safety. Automobiles offered privacy, individualized movement, and a way of moving about a destination after one had arrived. Airplanes far surpassed trains in speed over long distances. By 1970 trains carried less than 1 percent of intercity travel and only 6 percent of commercial traffic; airplanes had most of the rest. Even the mail and express service, which had accompanied the passenger trains, shifted to trucks and airplanes. The intercity trains all lost money and one by one were dropped from service, even the most prestigious ones. In many small and middle-sized towns the depots along the tracks closed, were leveled, or given a new function, perhaps as a bus station or a museum. The grandiose train stations in the large cities evolved into small ghost towns, awaiting destruction, preservation as a historical structure, or modernization and reduction in size to meet the needs of a specialized clientele. Passenger trains that survived carried commuter traffic into the cities in morning and away from town in the evening. Even so, the railroad companies, the national government, and considerable segments of the population hesitated to have intercity train travel pass into oblivion. Highway traffic produced noise, air pollution, and appalling casualties. Travel by bus was tedious and confining, especially over long distances. A segment of the populace remained unwilling to fly. Such considerations and emerging concerns

over energy supplies produced a compromise in the form of national legislation passed in October 1970 that created the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, better known as Amtrak.This special corporation was to provide specified intercity passenger service on tracks owned by 19 railroad companies. Given time to acquire modern equipment and to identify the most effective routing, Amtrak stopped the decline of train travel, produced a slight increase that leveled out at 20 million to 21 million passengers per year. The system nonetheless lost money annually and existed largely through subsidies from Congress. Having survived efforts to drastically pare down operations or end them altogether, Amtrak stood as a safe, comfortable, speedy (faster than cars, slower than planes) alternative to conventional travel and as a possible safety valve for transportation crises—suspected or unanticipated—of the future. As a carrier of freight, railroads experienced decline that was more proportionate than absolute; although trains suffered losses to other transport competitors, the record remained far less dismal than in passenger service. Railroads carried more freight in 1990 than 1946, but their share of all freight was cut approximately in half.To protect their domain and hopefully to add to it, railroad companies produced numerous changes. Steam engines gave way to diesels: automation and computerization came to switching and terminal operations; the “piggyback’’ innovation placed truck trailers and then standardized compartments on flatbeds; special bilevel and trilevel cars allowed railroads to transport approximately half the new automobiles to their destination. Major competition came from trucks (in many kinds of goods), pipelines (oil and other fluids), and river barges (coal and grain). The railroads survived this competition reasonably well, and in the 1980s they continued to be the largest transporter of freight, but they had lost a long-held position as the only powerhouse contributor to that enterprise. Transportation

153

Still pulled by a massive, hooded Hudson steam locomotive on its New York–Chicago run, the Twentieth Century Limited remained in 1948 the nation’s, if not the world’s, most famous train. (National New York Central RR Museum)

TABLE 5.27 RAILROAD FREIGHT AND PASSENGER TRAFFIC, 1946–1990 Year

Revenue Freighta: 2,000-pound Tons (1,000)

Passengers (1,000)

1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956

1,367,000 1,507,000 1,355,000 1,382,600 1,224,000 1,447,400

794,800 646,500 488.000 471,000 440,800 430,000

1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968

1,190,400 1,240,800 1,193,700 1,354,600 1,448,900 1,431,300

381,600 327,200 313,100 314,400 307,500 301,400

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

1,484,900 1,448,900 1,530,000 1,370,700 1,390,400 1,492,400

289,500 ... 274,000 268,000 281,000 300,000

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

1,268,600 1,429,400 1,306,000 1,429,000 1,425,000

... ... ... ... ...

TABLE 5.28 ANNUAL RAILROAD CARLOADINGSa, 1945–1990

a

Class I railroads; a Class I railroad was one that grossed more than $50 million a year. Source: Wattenberg, Historical Statistics, 727–29; Kurian, Datapedia, 275–76; Statistical Abstract, 626.

154


a

Year

Total

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

41,918,000 38,903,000 32,761,707 27,886,950 28,344,381

1970 1975 1980 1981 1982

27,015,020 22,929,843 22,223,000 21,342,987 18,584,760

1983 1984 1985 1986

19,013,250 20,945,536 19,501,242 19,588,666

1987 1988 1989 1990

20,602,204 22,599,993 21,226,015 21,884,649

Only Class 1 railroads, except for 1945 and 1950. Source: Johnson, Information Please Almanac 1992, 65.

TABLE 5.29

RAILROAD MILEAGE AND EQUIPMENT, 1946–1990 Freight Cars

Year

Miles of Track

Locomotives in Service

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

398,000 396,000 391,000 382,000 371,000

45,511 42,951 33,533 31,178 30,061

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

360,000 324,000 290,000 257,000 239,000

29,122 28,210 28,094 22,932 18,835

Pass. Cars in Service

Number

Average Capacitya

38,697 37,359 32,118 25,746 20,022

1,768,400 1,745,800 1,723,700 1,690,400 1,515,200

51.3 52.6 53.7 55.4 59.8

11,378 6,471 4,347 2,502 ...

1,453,700 1,359,000 1,168,000 867,000 659,000

67.1 72.9 78.5 83.2 87.5

a In tons. Source: Wattenberg, Historical Statistics, 727–29, 732–33; Kurian, Datapedia, 275–76.

TABLE 5.30

AMTRAK OPERATIONS, 1974–1990

TABLE 5.31 U.S. RAILROADS AND TRAIN-MILES OPERATED, 1987

Year

Revenue Passengers Carried (1,000)

Revenue (mil. $)

Expenses (mil. $)

Profit or Loss (mil. $)

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

18,000 18,000 19,000 19,000 19,000 21,000

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

21,000 20,000 19,000 19,000 20,000

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

21,000 20,000 21,000 21,000 21,000 22,000

825 861 973 1,106 1,269 1,308

1,600 1,563 1,672 1,757 1,934 2,012

2865 2702 2699 2651 2665 2704

TABLE 5.32 COMMUTER RAIL SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1988 Passenger Passenger Trips Miles Route Vehicles (’000s) (’000s) Station Miles Operated

New York–LIRR1 New York–MetroNorth Newark–NJT Corp.2 Chicago Commuter Rail Bd. Chicago–Burlington Northern

96,101.9 55,887.9

2,107,010.4 1,359,925.7

136 106

623.3 535.3

1,049 673

43,396.0 29,395.6

1,025,597.0 600,215.7

151 121

755.2 417.0

722 383

12,882.0

255,753.8

26

74.4

161

Chicago & NW, Trans. Co. Philadelphia— SEPTA San Francisco— CALTRANS Staten Island (NewYork) Rapid Transit

22,610.7

499,765.5

62

309.4

328

25,450.1

335,941.1

181

375.6

283

5,591.5

130,359.9

26

93.8

67

6,227.6

42,970.6

22

28.6

36

Train-miles Operated

Railroad CLASS I RAILROADS, TOTAL

532,861,687

Burlington Northern Inc. CSX Transportation Union Pacific Railroad Co. Norfolk Southern Corp. Consolidated Rail Corp. (Conrail)

88,753,970 70,699,184 70,109,027 50,630,032 49,705,075

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Atchison,Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co. Southern Pacific Transportation Co. Amtrak (National Railroad Passenger Corp.) Chicago and North Western Kansas City Southern Railway Co.

49,677,394 35,531,871 34,972,173 17,535,636 10,711,722

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Soo Line Railroad Co. Illinois Central Gulf Railroad Co. St. Louis Southwestern Railway Co. Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad Co. Grand Trunk Western Railroad Co.

9,173,719 8,506,155 8,152,286 6,575,793 5,394,661

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Louisiana and Arkansas Railway Co. Missouri-Kansas Texas Railroad Co. Florida East Coast Railway Co. Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway Co. Delaware and Hudson Railway Springfield Terminal Railway Co.

4,722,051 4,114,217 3,342,822 1,814,914 1,553,838 1,185,147

CLASS II RAILROADS

7,256,814

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Source: Statistical Abstract, 1992, 619, Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 280.

System

Rank

CLASS III RAILROADS Total, all railroads

69,215,928 609,334,429

Note: Railroads are classified according to total annual gross operating revenue (in 1978 dollars): class I, more than $50 million; class II, $10–$50 million; class III, less than $10 million. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1991, 280.

1

Long Island Railroad 2 New Jersey Transit. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1991, 280.

Transportation

155

TABLE 5.33

INTERCITY PASSENGER MILES BY MODE, 1945–1990

(in billions) Auto/Truck Year

Miles

Bus

Percent

Miles

Railroad Percent

Air

Miles

Percent

Miles

Total

Percent

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

220.3 438.3 637.4 706.1 817.7

63.8 87.0 89.7 90.4 89.2

27.4 22.7 21.9 19.3 23.8

7.9 4.5 3.1 2.5 2.6

93.5 32.5 28.7 21.6 17.6

27.1 6.5 4.0 2.8 1.9

4.3 10.1 22.9 34.0 58.1

1.2 2.0 3.2 4.4 6.3

345.5 503.6 710.8 781.0 917.2

1970 1975 1980 1982

1,026.0 1,170.7 1,210.3 1,226.0

86.9 86.4 82.5 82.3

25.3 25.4 27.4 26.9

2.1 1.9 1.9 1.8

10.9 10.1 11.0 10.2

0.9 0.7 0.7 0.7

118.6 148.3 219.1 226.7

10.0 11.0 14.9 15.2

1,180.8 1,354.5 1,467.8 1,498.8

1984 1986 1988 1990

1,277.4 1,367.8 1,494.7 1,638.8

81.0 79.4 79.6 80.6

24.6 23.7 23.1 23.0

1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1

10.8 11.7 12.6 13.2

0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6

263.7 320.3 346.9 358.9

16.7 18.6 18.5 18.0

1,576.5 1,723.5 1,877.3 2,033.9

Source: AAMA, Motor Vehicle Facts & Figures, 1997, 66.

TABLE 5.34

DOMESTIC FREIGHT TRAFFIC BY MAJOR CARRIERS, 1945–1990

(in millions of ton-miles)a Railroads

Inland Waterways

Motor Trucks

Oil Pipelines

Air Carriers

Year

Ton-miles

Percent of Total

Ton-miles

Percent of Total

Ton-miles

Percent of Total

Ton-miles

Percent of Total

Ton-miles

Percent of Total

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

690,809 596,940 631,385 579,130 708,700

67.3 56.2 49.5 44.1 43.3

142,737 163,344 216,508 220,253 262,421

13.9 15.4 17.0 16.8 16.0

66,948 172,860 223,254 285,483 359,218

6.5 16.3 17.5 21.7 21.9

126,530 129,175 203,244 228,626 306,393

12.3 12.1 16.0 17.4 18.7

91 318 481 778 1,910

... ... ... ... 0.1

1970 1975 1980 1983 1985

771,168 759,000 932,000 841,000 895,000

39.8 36.7 37.2 36.0 36.4

318,560 342,210 420,000 359,000 382,000

16.4 16.5 16.9 15.4 15.6

412,000 454,000 567,000 575,000 610,000

21.3 22.0 22.6 24.6 24.9

431,000 507,300 588,000 556,000 564,000

22.3 24.6 23.1 23.8 22.9

3,274 3,732 4,528 5,870 6,080

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

889,000 972,000 1,028,000 1,048,000 1,080,000

35.5 36.8 37.0 37.3 37.6

393,000 411,000 438,000 448,000 461,000

15.7 15.6 15.8 15.9 16.0

634,000 661,000 699,000 716,000 735,000

25.4 25.1 25.1 25.4 25.6

578,000 587,000 605,000 591,000 585,000

23.1 22.2 21.8 21.0 20.4

7,100 8,670 9,300 10,210 10,480

0.3 0.3 0.3 0.36 0.37

a

Mail and express included, except railroads for 1970. Source: Johnson, Information Please Almanac 1992, 65.

TABLE 5.35

PASSENGER DEATHS AND DEATH RATES, 1950–1990 Passenger Cars & Taxis

Year

Railroad Passenger trains

Buses

Scheduled Domestic Air Transport Planes

Number

Ratea

Number

Ratea

Number

Ratea

Number

Ratea

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

22,200 25,100 24,800 32,500 34,800

2.90 2.70 2.20 2.40 2.10

100 100 70 100 130

.18 .18 .13 .16 .19

184 19 33 12 10

.58 .07 .16 .07 .09

96 156 297 205 0

1.15 .76 .93 .38 .00

1975 1980 1985 1990

27,200 27,339 22,974 23,924

1.40 1.29 .96 1.05

110 42 47 24

.15 .05 .04 .02

8 4 3 3

.08 .04 .03 .02

113 28 202 11

a Rate based on 100 million passenger miles. Source: National Safety Council, Accident Facts 1970 Edition, 76; 1980 Edition, 75; 1992 Edition, 90.

156


.08 .01 .07 .003

Urban Transport During the years 1946 to 1990 public urban transportation declined markedly but still continued to provide an important community service. Even with the increasing problems of traffic congestion and shortage of parking places, urban workers and shoppers preferred to come to town by car. In many towns and small cities, public transport vanished or maintained only a token presence. In the metropolitian areas, however, there remained a need for ways other than the private car to get about the city. Taxis, while probably indispensable to the urban transportation scheme, were too expensive for regular use. Thus mass transit or urban transit remained a persisting problem in all large cities, if only because of sharply escalating costs amid a prospect of reduced ridership. Methods of transport maintained trends established in the 1930s and 1940s. The traditional streetcar or trolley—electric-powered coaches that ran on tracks in the center of the street—vanished altogether (except in San Francisco). Something called a trolley bus or coach, which was powered by electricity but ran on tires not tracks, claimed a small but not insignificant share of the market. Electric railway systems ran either underground (subway), above ground (elevated), or at ground level and remained steady contributors to city travel, although many of the busiest ones were lodged between urban and interurban classification.The dominant force of public transport within the city itself in terms of passengers and even more conspicuously in numbers of vehicles continued to be the motor bus, but the bus did not escape the trend of the time. If there were more buses on the streets in 1990 than in 1946, only half as many people rode them.

Century leaves the scene: A victim of the airplane and automobile, the Twentieth Century Limited stopped operation in 1967. (National New York Central RR Museum)

TABLE 5.36

PUBLIC-TRANSIT EQUIPMENT AND PASSENGERS, 1946–1990 Equipment

Passengers Carried (millions)

Year

Railway Cars

Trolley Coaches

Motor Buses

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

33,479 22,986 14,532 11,866 10,664

3,916 6,504 6,157 3,826 1,453

52,450 56,820 52,400 49,600 49,600

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

10,600 9,608 9,641 9,326 10,419

1,050 703 823 676 832

49,700 50,811 59,411 64,285 59,753

Railway Cars

Trolley Coaches

Motor Buses

23,372 17,246 11,529 9,395 8,253

11,862 6,168 3,077 2,313 2,134

1,311 1,658 1,202 657 305

10,199 9,420 7,250 6,425 5,814

7,332 6,972 8,567 8,636 8,873

2,116 1,810 2,256 2,432 2,749

182 ... 142 142 126

5,034 5,084 5,837 5,675 5,677

Total Passengers (millions)

Source: Wattenberg, Historical Statistics, 721; Statistical Abstract, 1982–83, 623; Statistical Abstract, 1988, 584; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 626.

Water Transport Travel by water remained an indispensable part of the transportation system of the United States.With respect to the movement of domestic freight, vessels on the inland waterways, of which the Great Lakes and Mississippi River systems were most important, continued to carry a consistent 16 to 17 percent each year. Transport by ship dominated freight commerce abroad. Airlines took a meaningful portion of specialized international cargo, such as mail and goods for which speed of delivery was vital, but the bulk of foreign trade remained the burden of the trudging but steady oceangoing merchant ships. In the second half of the 20th century the United States continued a trend begun earlier—

reversed briefly during the Second World War—of relying on foreign ships. The portion of foreign trade carried in United States bottoms dwindled from more than 50 percent in the late 1940s to a mere 7 percent in 1990. Few vessels came from American shipyards, and few flew the American flag. Shipowners could register vessels under any flag they chose, and as a rule they sought out nations, such as Liberia and Panama, that had legislation most favorable to their interests. Major innovations in merchant shipping included the container ship that facilitated loading and unloading and the supertankers, vessels that dwarfed the largest warships of any era. Built as a response to the world’s growing demand for oil, these behemoths carried a potential for disaster proportionate to their size if one happened to flounder and spill its cargo. Transportation

157

TABLE 5.37

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS, BY METHOD OF TRANSPORT, 1950–1968

Item Exports Value, all methods of transportation Vessel Percent of total Air Shipping weight: Vessel Air Imports Value, all methods of transportation Vessel Percent of total Air Shipping weight: Vessel Air

1950

1955

1960

1965

1967

1968

10,275 ... ... ...

15,547 9,227 59.4 ...

20,575 13,142 63.9 ...

27,478 16,926 61.6 2,289

31,526 18,772 59.5 3,233

34,413 19,511 58.6 3,789

... ...

225,169 ...

248,456 ...

343,461 457

375,198 540

389,336 654

8,852 ... ... ...

11,384 8,073 70.9 ...

14,654 11,106 75.8 ...

21,366 14,943 69.9 1,316

26,812 17,492 65.2 1,947

33,114 21,234 64.1 2,548

... ...

283,069 ...

398,085 ...

511,509 192

512,686 305

566,222 431

Exports and Imports, by Method of Transport, 1970–1990 Exports Item

Unit

All methods Vessel Air Shipping weight:Vessel Air

Bil. dol. Bil. dol. Bil. dol. Bil. kg. Bil. kg.

1970 43.2 24.6 6.1 218.0 0.4

Imports

1980

1985

1988

1989

1990

1970

1980

1985

1988

1989

1990

220.7 120.9 46.1 363.7 1.0

213.1 91.7 52.3 317.7 0.8

320.4 126.0 91.6 361.8 1.4

363.8 146.3 101.9 390.6 1.6

393.0 150.8 110.5 372.4 1.5

40.0 24.8 3.4 271.4 0.3

240.8 165.1 28.0 443.1 0.6

345.3 208.4 51.3 361.5 1.3

441.3 255.8 77.5 466.8 1.5

473.4 269.9 84.4 494.7 4.3

495.3 283.4 90.9 496.3 1.7

a

Value in millions of dollars, except percent; shipping weight in millions of pounds. Export data include both domestic and foreign; import data for general imports only. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1969, 574, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 642.

TABLE 5.38 VESSELS ENTERED AND CLEARED IN FOREIGN TRADE—NET REGISTERED TONNAGE, BY FLAG OF CARRIER VESSEL, 1946–1990 All Ports

Seaports

Tonnage, all Vessels

Yearly Average or Year Entered: 1946–1950 1951–1955 1956–1960 1961–1965 1966–70 1971–75 1976–80 1981–85 1986–90 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Cleared: 1946–1950 1951–1955 1956–1960 1961–1965 1966–70 1971–75 1976–80 1981–85 1986–90

158


Tonnage, with Cargo

Number of Vessels

Total

Percent U.S.

U.S.

Foreign

Total

U.S.

Foreign

Total

U.S.

Foreign

48,813 48,082 51,874 49,670 53,459 53,760 53,700 50,124 61,978 53,293 51,443 53,645 53,531 56,859 59,563 62,097 64,946 66,424

87 114 155 187 232 319 458 452 548 254 355 492 451 489 518 556 587 589

46 39 31 33 29 30 40 57 46 26 32 52 53 49 48 47 44 41

52.8 34.3 20.0 17.9 12.5 9.5 8.7 12.4 8.4 10.3 9.9 10.6 11.7 10.0 9.3 8.5 7.4 7.0

41 75 124 154 203 290 418 395 502 226 323 440 398 439 470 509 543 548

75 100 139 166 206 292 425 424 521 227 326 460 426 463 492 527 558 564

42 35 26 29 27 28 38 55 45 24 30 50 52 48 47 46 42 40

32 65 112 136 180 264 387 369 476 202 297 410 374 415 445 481 516 524

50 78 110 127 157 220 316 277 346 171 240 310 283 310 333 352 367 367

26 26 21 18 18 24 30 36 30 19 26 34 34 32 29 30 31 30

23 51 88 108 139 196 286 241 315 152 215 276 249 278 304 322 335 337

45,135 45,324 49,079 48,098 52,415 53,039 52,931 50,291 60,249

87 115 156 189 232 324 453 460 551

44 39 31 33 30 31 41 57 47

51.5 34.2 19.9 17.9 12.8 9.9 9.1 12.4 8.6

42 75 125 155 202 293 412 403 504

74 101 140 167 206 296 420 432 524

40 35 27 30 27 29 38 55 46

33 65 113 137 179 267 382 377 478

54 68 85 95 122 149 203 251 284

29 25 19 20 23 21 26 34 31

25 42 65 75 99 127 177 217 253


All Ports

Seaports


Yearly Average or Year 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Number of Vessels 52,195 51,017 52,928 53,095 55,710 58,307 60,540 63,042 63,648

Percent U.S. 27 34 54 55 51 49 49 45 43

Total 253 363 487 461 491 521 561 590 592

U.S. 10.6 10.3 11.1 11.9 10.4 9.4 8.7 7.6 7.3


Foreign 226 329 433 406 441 472 512 545 550

Total 226 334 456 435 466 495 531 561 566

U.S. 25 31 51 53 49 48 47 44 41

Tonnage, with Cargo

Foreign 201 303 405 382 417 447 484 517 525

Total 132 168 246 253 246 269 295 304 304

U.S. 20 23 33 36 33 31 31 30 29

Foreign 112 144 213 217 212 238 264 274 275

[In millions of net tons, except as indicated. Includes Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. Seaports comprise all ports except Great Lakes ports. Sources: Statistical Abstract, 1971, 564, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 634.

TABLE 5.39 MERCHANT VESSELS LAUNCHED AND OWNED—WORLD AND UNITED STATES, 1950–1990a World

United States

Launched

Owned

Launched

Owned

Year

Number

Gross Tons (1,000)

Number

Gross Tons (1,000)

Number

Gross Tons (1,000)

Number

Gross Tons (1,000)

1950 1955 1960 1970 1980 1984

990 1,437 2,005 2,814 2,412 2,210

3,489 5,315 8,382 20,980 13,101 18,334

27,922 29,967 36,311 52,444 73,832 76,068

83,996 100,069 129,770 227,490 419,911 418,682

51 26 49 156 205 73

437 73 379 375 555 84

4,531 4,225 4,059 2,983 5,579 6,441

27,404 26,343 24,837 18,463 18,464 19,292

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

1,964 1,634 1,528 1,575 1,593 1,672

18,157 16,845 12,259 10,909 13,236 15,885

76,395 75,266 75,240 75,680 76,100 78,336

416,269 404,910 403,498 403,406 410,481 423,627

66 36 29 60 10 16

180 223 164 11 4 15

6,447 6,496 6,427 6,442 6,375 6,348

19,518 19,901 20,178 20,832 20,588 21,328

Total

Domestic

Foreign

a Vessels of 100 gross tons and over. Excludes sailing ships, nonpropelled craft, and all ships built of wood. Sources: Statistical Abstract, 1971, 568, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 636.

TABLE 5.40

COMMERCE AT MAJOR U.S. PORTS, 1988

(tonnage) Rank

Port

Total

Domestic

Foreign

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

New Orleans, La. New York, N.Y. Houston,Tex. Valdez Harbor, Ala. Baton Rouge, La. Corpus Christi,Tex. Tampa, Fla. Norfolk,Va. Long Beach, Calif. Los Angeles, Calif. Texas City,Tex. Baltimore, Md. Duluth Superior, Minn. Philadelphia, Pa. Lake Charles, La. Mobile, Ala. Pittsburgh, Pa. Portland, Oreg. Beaumont,Tex. Marcus Hook, Pa.

175,500,858 155,061,783 124,886,883 107,144,515 78,857,473 57,931,945 50,252,299 46,872,002 46,559,885 45,213,855 42,746,698 41,925,745 40,002,268 37,826,999 37,311,924 36,476,377 34,373,364 31,970,940 31,947,319 29,815,233

107,904,683 99,416,833 60,269,197 107,137,158 50,862,340 23,719,730 29,429,174 10,707,123 25,063,239 23,192,340 19,719,829 13,193,637 32,942,447 14,505,234 15,391,008 19,694,707 34,373,364 12,631,448 22,207,204 13,443,448

67,596,175 55,644,950 64,617,686 7,357 27,995,133 34,212,215 20,823,125 36,164,879 21,496,646 22,021,515 23,026,869 28,732,108 7,059,821 23,321,765 21,920,916 16,781,760 0 19,339,492 9,740,115 16,371,785

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

St. Louis, Mo. Pascagoula, Miss. Port Arthur,Tex. Chicago, Ill. Paulsboro, N.J.

29,011,497 28,527,726 23,801,409 22,893,740 22,004,472

29,011,497 11,654,688 8,710,408 19,914,938 9,505,939

0 16,873,038 15,091,001 2,978,802 12,498,533

Rank

Port

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Newport News,Va. Tacoma,Wash. Boston, Mass. Richmond, Calif. Seattle,Wash.

21,391,195 20,667,517 20,641,073 18,912,900 18,645,664

2,349,466 5,599,652 8,164,425 14,111,103 7,269,342

19,041,729 15,067,865 12,476,648 4,801,797 11,376,322

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Huntington,W.Va. Lorain Harbor, Ohio Indiana Harbor, Ind. Jacksonville, Fla. Detroit, Mich.

17,700,717 17,475,549 16,643,362 15,805,551 15,331,351

17,700,717 17,443,727 16,154,640 8,650,231 12,142,101

0 31,822 488,722 7,155,320 3,189,250

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Freeport,Tex. Toledo, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Port Everglades, Fla. Savannah, Ga.

15,137,891 14,741,752 14,550,876 14,207,239 13,980,978

8,822,971 8,763,052 11,565,041 9,507,320 2,901,798

6,314,920 5,978,700 2,985,835 4,699,919 11,079,180

41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51.

Anacortes,Wash. San Juan, PR. Galveston,Tex. Presque Isle, Mich. Cincinnati, Ohio Honolulu, Hawaii Ashtabula, Ohio Conneaut, Ohio Calcite, Mich. Memphis,Tenn. Oakland, Calif.

13,637,730 13,503,267 12,354,709 11,433,323 11,242,990 10,654,845 10,335,305 10,220,234 10,205,105 10,200,387 10,140,753

10,817,217 7,942,552 2,984,429 7,462,283 11,242,990 8,942,733 4,617,244 3,702,055 8,608,127 10,200,387 3,604,430

2,820,513 5,560,715 9,370,280 3,971,040 0 1,712,112 5,718,061 6,518,179 1,596,978 0 6,536,323


Transportation

159

ness brought on by an increase in travel between the United States and Europe. Ship companies set to building new vessels or returning to service the best and largest of the older ones that had been commandeered for military operations during the war. Conspicuous for its absence was France’s majestic Normandie, which had fallen victim to a war-related accident while interned in New York. Cunard’s Queens were back at sea by 1947; America’s most illustrious competitor, a new ship named United States, promptly broke the speed record across the Atlantic, thus capturing the Blue Ribband from the British. Even by that time, however—in July 1952—ship owners encountered signals ominous for their future.The ships were expensive to build and operate, given safety standards and expectations of employees and customers of that era. Competition stiffened with more countries entering the race. But any observer could see that the most serious challenge came from another source. Each year airplanes carried a larger share of passenger service to Europe, and almost each year the planes became better and faster. In 1956 airplanes passed ships in number of passengers carried, at which time, incidently, the airlines still used propellor-driven aircraft. The final blow came in the late 1950s with introduction of jet airliners, which substantially reduced time of travel even more. One by one the shipping lines left competition; their vessels sat idle, awaiting a new fate. A few were turned into museums or something similar, as in the case of Cunard’s Queen Elizabeth, largest of the lot, which became a stationary floating university in East Asia. Many would be broken up for scrap, an unfitting end it would seem for an agent of such a distinguished enterprise. New ships, indeed, had arrived on the scene and more were to follow. These were the cruise ships and they were different. They sailed and broadcast destinations but did not seem to go anywhere. Not designed as a true means of transportation, they functioned as a floating resort and casino. They were colorful and glamorous, with a remarkable array of services. But one did not think of passage on a cruise ship as a dignified or prestigious experience, and except perhaps for some of the individuals who took a cruise, few people remembered their names.

TABLE 5.41 MAJOR MERCHANT FLEETS OF THE WORLD, BY TONNAGE AND NUMBER OF SHIPS, 1988 Deadweight Tons (000s)

Number of Shipsa

Rank

Liberia Panama Japan Greece Cyprus

93,537 68,884 44,819 39,387 30,318

1,465 3,208 1,265 1,030 1,168

3 1 4 7 6

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

USSR British Coloniesb United Statesc China Nassau Bahamas

24,479 22,245 21,200 17,992 15,203

2,439 514 444 1,211 337

2 10 11 5 17

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Philippines Singapore Italy Korea, South Brazil

13,749 11,634 11,268 10,548 9,763

530 432 525 423 325

8 12 9 13 20

Rank

Country

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

All othersd

153,531

7,991

…

Total

588,557

23,307

…

a

Oceangoing merchant ships of 1,000 gross tons and over. Hong Kong and Gibraltar. Privately owned. d Includes 265 U.S. government–owned ships of 4,545,000 deadweight tons. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac 1991, 278. b c

End of an Era Perhaps no theme better illustrates the idea that the post–Second World War period would not be an extension of the prewar era than the case of the transatlantic passenger liner. Heirs of a fabled operation stretching back many decades, ship owners anticipated enlarged busi-

TABLE 5.42 25 LARGEST TRANSATLANTIC LINERS FROM 1945 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Ship

Tonnage

Flag

Queen Elizabeth Queen Mary Queen Elizabeth 2 France United States

83,673 81,237 67,107 66,348 53,329

Cunard Line Cunard Line Cunard Line French Line US Lines

British British British French American

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Liberte; Raffaello Michelangelo Canberra Aquitania

51,839 45,933 45,911 45,733 45,647

French Line Italian Line Italian Line P&O-Orient Cunard Line

French Italian Italian British British

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Ile de France Oriana Rotterdam Nieuw Amsterdam Mauretania

44,356 41,923 38,645 36,667 35,655

French Line P&O-Orient Holland-America Holland-America Cunard Line

French British Dutch Dutch British

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Australis ex-America Caronia Leonardo daVinci Bremen Independence

34,449 (33,532) 34,172 33,340 32,336 30,293

Chandris Lines US Lines Cunard Line Italian Line North German Lloyd American Export

Panamanian/Greek American British Italian West German American

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Constitution Hanseatic Iberia Arcadia Cristoforo Colombo

30,293 30,029 29,734 29,614 29,191

American Export Hamburg-Atlantic P&O-Orient P&O-Orient Italian Line

American West German British British Italian

Source: William H. Miller, Transatlantic Liners 1945–1980 (New York, 1981), 219.

160

Company


Sample Transatlantic Sailing from New York, July 11–18, 1959

TABLE 5.43 MODE OF TRANSPORT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE—UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN CARRIERS COMBINED, 1949–1972

Saturday, July 11, 1959 Westerdam, Holland-America; Rotterdam

Noon 5th Street, Hoboken Sunday, July 12 No sailings Monday, July 13

Constitution, American Export; Mediterranean

Noon 84 HR, West 44th St Tuesday, July 14

Atlantic, American Banner; Amsterdam

11.59 pm 97 HR, West 57th St Wednesday, July 15

Queen Mary, Cunard; Southampton Statendam, Holland-America; Rotterdam

1.30 pm 90 HR, West 50th St Noon 5th Street, Hoboken Thursday, July 16

Berlin, North German Lloyd; Bremerhaven United States, United States Lines; Bremerhaven Guadalupe, Spanish Line; Spain Zion, Zim Lines; Haifa

11.00 am 88 HR, West 48th St Noon 86 HR, West 46th St Noon 15 ER, Maiden Lane 6.00 pm Kent St, Brooklyn Friday, July 17 Noon 5th Street, Hoboken Noon 97 HR, West 57th St 3.30 pm 92 HR, West 52nd St 4.00 pm 86 HR, West 46th St

Nieuw Amsterdam, Holland-America Rotterdam Andes, Royal Mail Lines; Southampton Parthia, Cunard; Liverpool America, United States Lines; Bremerhaven

Number of Passengers (thousands)

Sea

Air as Percent of Air Plus Sea

256 297 318 372 497 573

588 724 663 768 752 791

30.3 29.1 32.4 32.6 39.8 42.0

1514 1734 1861 2024 2231

692 878 1038 1220 1465

822 856 823 804 766

45.7 50.6 55.8 60.3 65.7

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

2485 2804 2975 3351 3784

1748 2092 2275 2640 3084

737 712 700 711 700

70.3 74.6 76.5 78.8 81.5

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

4323 4809 5323 5925 6689

3681 4243 4827 5539 6341

642 566 496 386 348

85.1 88.2 90.7 93.5 94.8

1970 1971 1972

7994 9071 10658

7695 8865 10480

299 206 178

96.3 97.7 98.3

U.S.-Flag Plus Foreign-Flag

Year Ended June 30

Total

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

844 1021 981 1140 1249 1364

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Air

Source: Civil Aeronautics Board, Handbook of Airline Statistics 1973 Edition (Washington, D. C., 1974), 610.

Saturday, July 18 Liberté;, French Line; Le Havre Kungsholm, Swedish-American; Gothenburg

11.30 am 88 HR, West 48th St 4.30 pm 97 HR, West 57th St

Source: William H. Miller, The Last Atlantic Liners (London, 1985), 183.

Chronology of Significant Transatlantic Liner Events August 1945 First commercial transatlantic crossing since the war, made by Norwegian America Stavangerfjord. June 1946 Holland-America Line resumes transatlantic passenger service with Westerdam. September 1946 Swedish-American Stockholm launched; first new postwar liner for North Atlantic service. October 1946 Queen Elizabeth commissioned following war duties. November 1946 America recommissioned following war service. January 1947 Italian Line resumes transatlantic liner service with Saturnia. July 1947 Queen Mary recommissioned after war service. August 1947 Cunard Media completed: first new transatlantic passenger ship to enter service. October 1947 Nieuw-Amsterdam recommissioned following war service. January 1949 Cunard Caronia commissioned; first large liner designed mostly for cruising. May 1949 Home Lines begin North Atlantic passenger operations. July 1949 Ile De France recommissioned after war duties. December 1949 Cunard Aquitania retired; last four-stacker. August 1950 French Liberté recommissioned.

January 1951 Polish Batory withdrawn from transatlantic service through political troubles in the United States. July 1951 Holland America Ryndam introduces tourist class dominance of passenger accommodations. July 1952 United States sweeps the North Atlantic and takes the Blue Ribband from Queen Mary; last record-breaker. January 1955 North German Lloyd resumes transatlantic passenger service with Berlin. July 1956 Italian Andrea Doria sinks off Nantucket after collision with Swedish Stockholm. October 1958 First commercial jet aircraft service across the Atlantic. November 1958 Ile de France retired. September 1959 Rotterdam commissioned; first Atlantic liner to dispense with conventional funnel. December 1960 Cunard’s Britannic retired; last of the original White Star Line fleet. January 1961 Portuguese Santa Maria hijacked by political rebels during transatlantic crossing. November 1961 French Liberté retired. February 1962 France commissioned; last of the purposely designed transatlantic superliners. Transportation

161

Put out of business by the airplane, the luxury liner Queen Mary rests at Long Beach, California, as hotel, restaurant, and tourist attraction. (Queen Mary Enterprises)

February 1963 Queen Elizabeth makes first cruise in the history of the Cunard Queens. October 1963 Home Lines ceases transatlantic passenger services. April 1966 Soviets resume North Atlantic passenger service (first since 1949) with Alexandr Pushkin to Montreal. September 1967 Queen Mary retired from transtlantic service; last three-stacker. October 1968 Cunard ends its Canadian passenger service. November 1968 Zim Lines ceases Atlantic passenger operations. September 1968 American Export Lines ceases Atlantic liner services. October 1968 Queen Elizabeth retired from transatlantic service. May 1969 Queen Elizabeth 2 commissioned; last of the superliners. November 1969 United States withdrawn; United States Lines ends transatlantic passenger service. May 1971 Queen Mary opens as hotel and museum ship at Long Beach, California. September 1971 Holland-America Line and North German Lloyd cease transatlantic operations.

162


November 1971 Canadian Pacific ends Atlantic liner service. January 1972 Former Queen Elizabeth, as the Seawise University, destroyed by fire at Hong Kong. March 1973 Spanish Line ceases North Atlantic passenger operations. May 1973 Soviets open irregular Atlantic service to New York with Mikhail Lermontov. September 1974 France withdrawn; French Line ends Atlantic liner runs. January 1975 Greek Line ceases all passenger operations. December 1975 Swedish-American Line ends passenger service. June 1976 Italian Line ends transatlantic passenger service. May 1980 France recommissioned as cruise ship Norway. 1981 Jugolinija ends transatlantic passenger operations; termination of all regular liner service to the Mediterranean area. Soviets withdraw from all Atlantic liner service. Source: Miller, Last Liners, 181–82.

CHAPTER 6 Communications The Course of the Communications System One of the largest areas of American economic enterprise, the communications industry in the postwar world grew rapidly in size, technological advance, and diversity. Starting with well-defined components of telephone and telegraph, postal service, newspapers and books, and an elementary broadcast operation, the industry expanded into a gigantic maze of overlapping and interrelated entities, offering new technologies in telephone, radio, television, cable, film, video, email, and other computer-based activities. While the more familiar postal service and print media remained important parts of the vast communication complex, much of the change and growth took place in electronic-driven operations, where technology and organizational tactics caused the constituent elements to become mixed in together. At some point after 1970, for example, it no longer became fashionable to speak merely of the telephone business; it now became telecommunications and its realm included, but went far beyond, the operations of Ma Bell. Technological changes were manifold, of course, but a few of the major ones included launching of the communication satellites, beginning in the 1960s; a cable network, HBO, that began to rent space on an RCA satellite in 1975, making possible national distribution of its programming; and a demonstration by the Apple Computer company in the late 1970s that a computer could be a personal instrument, affordable for an individual to purchase, and possible for the nonspecialist (with a little instruction) to operate. In the 1980s came expansion of fiber-optic network systems that transmitted communication by digital technology, clarifying the transmission and producing mes-

Space-race breakthrough and everyone can watch it. President John and Mrs. Kennedy,Vice President Lyndon Johnson, and aides follow on television the suborbital flight of astronaut Alan Shephard in May 1961. (John F. Kennedy Library)

sages readable by different types of equipment. By that time there had been, starting in the late 1960s, a linking together of computer systems, laying a foundation for direct communication between personal computers on an international basis, through a network called the Internet. Connection between elements of the business appeared in the fact that email messages, read almost instantly by a computer, traveled over telephone lines. An emerging organizational structure was exemplified by the merger in 1989 of Time, originally a respected magazine publisher, with Warner Brothers, a film studio, producing a corporation that functioned in magazines and book publishing; worked in movie and television production; controlled cable stations, including HBO, and cable systems; and soon would join with a telephone company. Other multifaceted mergers took place or appeared on the corporate horizon. Americans as a whole surely marveled at the ease with which they could communicate and acquire massive amounts of information, but critics warned of the danger in having so much that the people saw and heard originate with a few massive organizations, each reaching like an octopus in many directions. Only the U.S. mail, it appeared, stood outside control of the private corporations, and one even could hear calls for privatization of the postal service.

Postal Service The United States post office began the postwar period as part of the federal system; its leader, the postmaster general, was a member of the cabinet and in traditional practice the major dispenser of political patronage. The service maintained a virtual monopoly in the delivery of written communications. By the 1960s, charges of mismanagement, poor service, and repeated deficits led the Richard Nixon administration to seek reorganization of the system. What followed was the Postal Service Act of 1969, which created an independent, self-supporting postal corporation owned by the national government. The postmaster general remained the CEO but he or she lost cabinet rank and stood accountable to a board of directors. In the 1970s and 1980s the Postal Service came to face competition from rapid delivery systems such as Federal Express (now FedEx), private package transport companies such as United Parcel Service (UPS), from a new method of message transmission called a fax, and from technologies—including a form of instant communication referred to as e-mail—emerging on an electronic internet. The service responded with changes. It produced an express system of its own, starting in 1977. A five-digit zip code system established in 1963—identifying regional and local postal zones—was expanded to nine digits in 1983. A new self-adhesive, peel and stick stamp, testmarketed in 1989, proved to be an immediate success. The extent of automation and computerization of postal operations could be seen in the fact that although the amount of mail handled multiplied nearly five times between 1946 and 1990, the number of postal workers did not even double. The service continued to face criticism on many fronts (many people referred to it as “snail mail’’), but the nation continued to rely on it. In 1988 the U.S Postal Service still delivered 77 percent of all personal and business correspondence. Modernization of operations evidently had been effective, but expansion of the marketplace provided another explanation for durability of the postal service. The volume of mail had grown more than the competition from private carriers. 163

Mail Service: Definitions and Charges, 1989

TABLE 6.1

FIRST CLASS MAIL RATES, 1946–1990

1. First class mail. The standard personal letter or communication. Rate: 1st ounce, $.25; each of next nine ounces, $.20; 11th ounce, $.10; for letters more than 11 ounces, use priority mail. Some 50–60 percent of all mail is first class. 2. Second class mail. Authorized newspapers and magazines, classroom and nonprofit publications. Rates are based on weight and content: $.092 to $.197 per pound for advertising part and $.069 for nonadvertising part of the publication. Normally not used by private senders. 3. Third class mail. Books, catalogues, circulars, also various merchandise (seeds, etc.) weighing less than 16 ounces. Rates: same as first class for first four ounces; $.15 for fifth and sixth ounces; $.10 for each two ounces between 6 and 16 ounces. Bulk rate for heavier mail: $.36 per pound. 4. Fourth class mail. Parcel post. Rates depend on weight and zone of destination. Maximum charge is $25.46 for a 70-pound parcel sent to zone 9. Personal written messages forbidden. 5. Priority mail. Two-day domestic delivery service between major business centers. Packages weighing up to 2 pounds cost $2.40 whatever the destination in the United States. Cost of parcels more than 2 pounds depends on weight and zone. Maximum charge is $72.24 for a 70-pound package sent to zone 7. 6. Express mail. Overnight delivery service for packages up to 70 pounds and 108 inches (length and width) in size. First 8 ounces cost $8.75; 8 ounces–2 pounds, $12.00; 2–5 pounds, $15.25; 5–70 pounds, consult postal service.

Date of Rate Each Change oz

First oz

Each Added oz

Post Card

Express Maila

1946b 1952 1958 1963 1968

$.03 $.03 $.04 $.05 $.06

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

$.01 $.02 $.03 $.04 $.05

... ... ... ...

1971 1974 1975 (Sep) 1975 (Dec)c 1978

$.08 $.10 ... ... ...

... ... $.10 $.13 $.15

... ... $.09 $.11 $.13

$.06 $.08 $.07 $.09 $.10

... ... ... ... ...

1981 (Mar) 1981 (Nov) 1985 1988

... ... ...

$.18 $.20 $.22 $.25

$.17 $.17 $.17 $.20

$.12 $.13 $.14 $.15

... $9.35 $10.75 $12.00d

a

For weight up to 2 pounds, all zones. Rate established in 1932, still in force in 1946. c In 1975, surface first class mail was upgraded to airmail. d Over 8 ounces and up to 2 pounds. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 560. b

Source: John Wright, ed., The Universal Almanac, 1991 (New York, 1990), 120; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 549.

TABLE 6.2

OPERATIONS OF THE POSTAL SERVICE, 1946–1990

(in thousands, except for post offices) Year

Post Offices

Pieces of Mail All Kinds

Employees

Revenues

Expenditures

Surplus or Deficit

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

41,751 41,464 38,316 35,238 33,624 32,002

36,318,158 45,063,737 55,233,564 63,674,604 71,873,166 84,881,833

487 501 512 563 596 741

$1,224,572 1,677,487 2,349,477 3,276,588 4,483,390 7,701,695

$1,353,654 2,222,949 2,721,150 3,873,953 5,275,840 7,867,269

$2148,083 2545,462 2362,673 2634,534 2792,450 2165,574

1975 1980 1984 1986 1988 1990

30,754 30,326 29,750 29,344 29,203 28,959

89,300,000 106,300,000 131,500,000 147,400,000 161,000,000 166,300,000

702 667 702 785 824 809

11,590,000 19,106,000 26,474,000 31,021,000 35,939,000 40,074,000

12,578,000 19,412,000 26,357,000 30,716,000 36,119,000 40,490,000

2988,000 2312,000 1117,000 1305,000 2140,000 2416,000

Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, ed., The Statistical History of the United States (New York, 1976), 804, 806; Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 549–51.

TABLE 6.3

POSTAL TRAFFIC, BY CLASS OF MAIL, 1946–1990

(in millions of pieces) Year

Airmail and First Classa

Second Class

Third Class

Fourth Class

Priority Mail

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

20,059 24,500 28,713 33,235 38,068

5,932 6,265 6,740 7,535 8,600

6,055 10,343 15,050 17,910 19,454

944 1,179 1,136 1,016 1,045

... ... ... ...

34 51 114 129

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

50,174 52,482 60,332 72,517 89,917

9,914 9,713 10,221 10,380 10,680

19,974 21,867 30,381 52,170 63,725

977 801 633 576 663

185 207 248 308 518

218 336 540 710 574

a

Starting in 1980, includes express mail, established as a class in October 1977, and mailgrams. Source: Wattenberg, Statistical History of the U.S., 806; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 550.

164


Franked and Free for Blind

TABLE 6.4

DOMESTIC AIRMAIL RATES, 1946–1975

(includes Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, all outlying areas except the Canal Zone) Effective Date

Rate

1946 1949 1958 1963

$.05 per oz $.06 per oz, $.04 per postcard $.07 per oz, $.05 per postcard $.08 per oz, $.06 per postcard

1968 1971 1974 1975a

$.10 per oz, $.08 per postcard $.11 per oz, $.09 per postcard $.13 per oz, $.11 per postcard $.13 per oz, $.11 per postcard

a Beginning on October 11, 1975, domestic airmail merged with first class mail. Source: Wattenberg, Statistical History of the U.S., 807; Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976 (Washington, D.C., 1976), 531.

TABLE 6.5

INTERNATIONAL AIR MAIL RATES FROM THE UNITED STATES, 1961–1990

(excludes Canada and Mexico) Zone 1a

Zone 1b

Zone 1c

Date of Rate Change

Each 1/2 oz up to 2 oz

Each Added 1/2 oz


Each Added 1/2 oz


Each Added 1/2 oz

Postal and Postcards

1961 (July 1) 1967 (May 1) 1971 (July 1) 1974 (March 2) 1976 (January 3) 1981 (January 1) 1985 (February 17) 1988 (April 17)d 1989 (August)

$0.13 $0.15 $0.17 $0.21 $0.25 $0.35 $0.39 $0.45 $0.45

$0.13 $0.15 $0.17 $0.17 $0.21 $0.30 $0.33 $0.42 $0.42

$0.15 $0.20 $0.21 $0.26 $0.31 $0.40 $0.44 $0.45 $0.45

$0.15 $0.20 $0.21 $0.21 $0.26 $0.35 $0.39 $0.42 $0.42

$0.25 $0.25 $0.21 $0.26 $0.31 $0.40 $0.44 $0.45 $0.45

$0.25 $0.25 $0.21 $0.21 $0.26 $0.35 $0.39 $0.42 $0.42

$0.11 $0.13 $0.13 $0.18 $0.21 $0.28 $0.33 $0.36 $0.36

Aerograms $0.11 $0.13 $0.13 $0.18 $0.22 $0.30 $0.36 $0.39 $0.39

a

Caribbean, Central and South America. Europe and Mediterranean Africa. c Rest of the world. d Air letters collapsed to a single schedule except Canada and Mexico. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 555. b

TABLE 6.6

SOURCES OF POSTAL REVENUE, 1950–1990


Year

Operating Postal Revenue

Stamps, Cards, Etc.

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

1,606 2,266 3,198 4,374 6,290 10,015

862 999 1,245 1,528 1,936 2,819

1980 1985 1987 1989 1990

17,143 27,736 31,528 37,979 39,201

4,287 6,520 7,246 8,381 8,638

2nd Class Cash Postage

Permit, Meter Postage

Box Rents

40 64 86 131 192 284

678 1,136 1,699 2,529 3,883 6,241

14 26 29 34 44 67

11 41 130 152 235 556

881 1,339 1,326 1,594 1,580

10,828 17,747 20,280 24,534 25,311

160 230 273 362 394

892 1,774 2,255 2,959 3,124

Misc.

Money Order Revenue

Gov’t Approp.

% of Rev.

63 66 81 59 57 53

... ... 634 793 1,509 1,533

... ... ... ... ... 13.2

95 126 148 148 154

1,610 970 650 436 453

8.4 3.3 2.0 1.1 1.1

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1971, 479; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 549.

Telephones The telephone system underwent major change during the last half of the 20th century in three categories: new technology, restructuring of the entire system in the 1980s, and blending of the reorganized and fragmented telephone service with other means of communication.

At the start of the period standard telephone service involved use of the black, rotary-dialed telephone in major cities; other places had desk phones that required operator assistance in placing calls, and in the countryside one still could find the older box fastened on the wall, with speaker protruding, a listening device hanging from a cord, and a ringer crank on the side. In all cases long distance calls had to be completed by Communications

165

an operator. Aided by such developments as the communication satellite and efficient fiber-optic transmission, standard service by the end of the 1980s had advanced to direct dialing anywhere in the world; reception in a call from London to the United States was as clear as if it were from the next room; there were telephones that one could carry around—cordless phones at home and cellphones when leaving the premises; also available were answering services, voicemail, conference calls, and even telephones that showed a picture of the caller. At the start, telephone service remained in the hands of American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), also known as Bell Telephone. Virtually no one doubted that Bell possessed a monopoly, but because the Federal Communications Commission provided continuous supervision and regulation of the industry, and because the system generally worked, there were few complaints on philosophical grounds, other than from potential competitors, notably the MCI Corporation, which also wanted to supply long-distance service. In 1974—during the Richard Nixon administration—the Department of Justice filed an antitrust suit against AT&T, charging the firm with monopolistic practices. After a long legal struggle, the two sides reached an agreement in 1982 that went into effect in 1984. AT&T was allowed to keep its manufacturing element, Western Electric, its research element, Bell Laboratories, its retail sales, international operations, and long-distance services, although other companies could enter competition for the long-distance business. The penalty was called divestiture: AT&T had to divest itself of 22 companies that provided local telephone service throughout the nation. In the realm of local service, Ma Bell was broken up. Telephone service generally continued as in the past, but some changes soon could be detected. Customers of local service now had to deal with one of seven independent regional companies instead of AT&T. Competition with Bell telephone came to long-distance service. Perhaps the most significant effect of the change came in the seemingly constant pestering from competing long-distance firms to induce customers to switch their service.

Developments in Telephone Communication, 1946–1990 1947 The cellular telephone is developed by Bell Laboratories. 1950 The soon-to-be familiar black, rotary-dial desk telephone is introduced. 1951 Direct-dial long-distance service starts in the United States (as opposed to operator-assisted calls). 1956 The first transatlantic telephone cable is completed—between Britain and Canada and the United States. 1960 Echo I, the first communication satellite, is launched by NASA. 1962 Telstar, the first active communications satellite, is launched by AT&T. 1963 The first touch-tone, press-button telephone service becomes available in Pennsylvania. 1965 Early Bird, the first commercial communications satellite, is put in orbit. 1967 Regular transatlantic direct-dial telephone service begins between New York and London and New York and Paris. 1968 An emergency telephone system using the prefix 911 is inaugurated in Haleyville, Alabama, and New York City. Many other cities soon follow. A court rules that people can buy their own telephone equipment—instead of being required to rent from the service supplier, probably AT&T. 1970 The first picturephone service opens in Pittsburgh. 1977 A new fiber-optic communication system is tested in Chicago. 166


1982 The court orders breakup of the AT&T telephone monopoly. Reorganization, complete by 1984, allows AT&T. to retain long-distance service and certain facilities but requires relinquishment of local and regional service. 1983 Motorists in Chicago are the first to use cellular phones on a regular basis.The cost: $3,000 for the phone; $150 per month for service. 1985 In a Bell Laboratories test, a single optical fiber was able to carry some 300,000 conversations at the same time. 1987 AT&T completes computerized “digitalization’’ of longdistance service, making transmission more efficient. Source: The New York Public Library Desk Reference, (New York, 1993), 381–87; Thomas Streissguth, Communications: Sending the Message (Minneapolis, 1997), 130; Bruce Wetterau, The New York Public Library Book of Chronologies (New York, 1990), 215.

TABLE 6.7 AMERICAN TELEPHONE SERVICE BEFORE DIVESTITURE OF AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH (BELL TELEPHONE), 1945–1980 Portion Controlled by Bell (in percent)

Year

Households Number with of Telephones Local Telephones (in percent) Telephones Calls

Long Distance Calls

1945 1950 1955 1960

27,867,000 43,004,000 54,525,000 74,342,000

46.2 61.8 71.8 78.3

83.3 84.8 85.4 84.7

83.4 84.5 81.5 78.8

98.0 98.6 83.8 83.5

1965 1970 1975 1980

93,656,000 120,218,000 148,600,000 180,200,000

84.6 90.5 93.0 96.0

84.0 83.1 81.9 80.7

77.9 77.7 77.0 75.0

82.4 84.0 79.0 79.0

Source: Leonard S. Hyman, Richard C. Toole, and Rosemary M. Avellis, The New Telecommunications Industry: Evolution and Organization (1987), 103, 108, 136–37, 174–77.

TABLE 6.8 THE BABY BELLS (REGIONAL BELL OPERATING COMPANIES EMERGING FROM REORGANIZATION OF AT&T IN 1984) Company

Local Telephone Service Area

Ameritech BellAtlantic

Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio,Wisconsin Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey Pennsylvania,Virginia,Washington, D.C.,West Virginia Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina,Tennessee

Chicago, Ill. Philadelphia, Pa.

Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, NewYork, New Hampshire,Vermont, Rhode Island California, Nevada

NewYork, N.Y.

BellSouth

NYNEX Pacific Telesis Corp. Southwestern Bell Corp. U.S. WEST

Headquarters

Atlanta, Ga.

San Francisco, Calif.

Texas, Oklahoma, Missouri, San Antonio,Tex. Arkansas, Kansas Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Minnesota, Englewood, Colo. Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah,Washington,Wyoming

Source: Ronald J. Alsop, The Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998 (New York, 1997), 489.

TABLE 6.9

COMPETITION FOR LONG-DISTANCE MARKET—MARKET SHARE BY CORPORATION, 1984–1990

(all statistics based on fourth-quarter reports) Year

AT&T

MCI

Sprint

Worldcom

Others

1984 1985 1986 1987

87.7% 85.7 81.5 78.3

4.9% 6.3 7.9 9.0

3.0% 3.2 5.1 6.2

... ... ... ...

4.4% 4.8 5.6 6.5

1988 1989 1990

73.9 69.0 65.5

7.2 8.9 9.1

0.1% 0.2 0.3

7.1 8.2 9.0

11.7 13.7 15.1

Source: Alsop, Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998, 488.

TABLE 6.10

SALES OF SELECTED EQUIPMENT, 1983–1990

(in thousands) Fax Machines

Modemsa

Year

Answering Machines

1983 1984 1985 1986

2,200 3,000 4,220 6,450

95.4 115.5 139.5 218.5

770 960 1,220 1,380

1987 1988 1989 1990

8,800 11,100 12,500 13,500

583.8 1,260.9 1,725.1 ...

1,810 2,020 2,500 ...

a

A modem is a device that transmits computer information through phone lines. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 242.

COST OF UNLIMITED LOCAL TELEPHONE SERVICE, 1946–1990 Year

Monthly Charge (in dollars)

1946 1948 1950 1952 1954

$3.84 4.09 4.47 4.83 5.18

1956 1958 1960 1962 1964

5.34 5.44 5.64 5.71 5.76

1966 1968 1970 1972 1974

5.77 5.72 5.87 6.51 7.14

1976 1978 1980 1982

7.77 8.16 8.32 9.73

1984 1986 1988 1990

13.35 16.13 16.59 19.79

Radio and Television

Source: Barry Cole, After the Breakup: Assessing the New Post AT&T Divestiture Era (New York, 1991), 189.

TABLE 6.11

TABLE 6.12

CELLULAR TELEPHONES, 1984–1990 Average Monthly Bill (in dollars)

Year

Systems

Subscribers

Annual Revenue (in dollars)

1984 1985 1986 1987

32 102 ... 312

92,000 340,000 682,000 1,230,000

178,000,000 482,000,000 823,000,000 1,152,000,000

... ... ... 96.82

1988 1989 1990

517 584 751

2,069,000 3,508,000 5,283,000

1,960,000,000 3,341,000,000 4,549,000,000

98.02 89.30 80.90


First there was radio and then came television. Each in its day swept the country as an exciting new medium of entertainment, and each from the time of introduction became an exceptional form of communication of news, information, and exposure to many facets of society and culture. Radio dominated the airwaves from the early 1920s to the mid-to-late 1950s. Television superseded radio as the primary source of entertaiment and communications in the 1950s; an exact date is difficult to identify; the reign continued for the rest of the century. As television assumed the sort of programming schedule once found in its predecessor, radio did not vanish but shifted its focus to such areas as music, sporting events, news, and public affairs. No longer burdened with a rigid and costly schedule, perhaps from a national network, radio could be more flexible and concerned with public concerns. No longer a central, even elegant piece of furniture in the living room, the radio still was around the house somewhere. At some point, probably in the 1960s, radio ceased being optional equipment on automobiles. Every new car had one. Well suited to remaining in the background, undemanding of its client’s full attention, radio was alive and well in the 1990s. In the beginning television functioned as an agent of communication in much the same fashion as radio had done. Entertainment was communication of sorts and now it had a visual effect. Movement to a new era of information in television corresponded with the technological and structural changes that began to appear in the 1960s and 1970s. Needless to say, the operation of a communication satellite became a turning point, which—among other changes—led to rapid growth in the number of cable systems. In creating an opportunity for a proliferation of channels and networks, cable also encouraged specialization in programming and/or in the targeted audience. Information could supersede entertainment in such circumstances, although there probably was some attempt to promote a blending of the two. A public affairs network (C-SPAN) began operation in 1979, an around-the-clock national weather channel in 1982. Ted Turner’s Cable News Network (CNN), which went on cable in 1980, soon became a source for international news, and it attracted an international audience. In a broadening crisis in the Persian Gulf between Iraq and an American-led coalition in 1990, both sides received information from CNN. Among devices for the dissemination of information in 1990, nothing surpassed television. Communications

167

New form of communication and politics. A family watches the presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon, September 26, 1960. (National Archives)

TABLE 6.13 U.S. RADIO STATIONS , 1946–1990 Year 1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

961 2,773 3,211 4,133 5,249

1970 1975 1980 1981 1982

6,760 7,744 8,566 9,361 9,461

1983 1984 1985 1986

9,678 10,021 10,359 9,824

1987 1988 1989 1990

10,074 10,244 10,674 10,819


168


Radio Stations on Air

TABLE 6.14

RADIO SALES BY CATEGORY, 1954–1990

(in thousands) Year

Table

Clock

Portable

Sub-Total

Auto

Total

1954

2,759

1,922

1,438

6,119

4,124

10,243

1955

3,002

2,243

2,082

7,327

6,863

14,190

1956

3,360

2,475

3,116

8,951

5,057

14,008

1957

3,360

2,612

3,980

9,952

5,496

15,448

1958

3,230

2,462

5,105

10,797

3,715

14,512

1959

4,156

3,733

7,883

15,772

5,501

21,273

1960

4,511

3,780

9,740

18,031

6,432

24,463

1961

5,012

3,991

14,651

23,654

5,568

29,222

1962

4,333

4,488

15,960

24,781

7,249

32,030

1963

3,640

4,300

15,662

23,602

7,946

31,548

1964

3,820

4,253

15,485

23,558

8,313

31,871

1965

4,370

5,448

21,871

31,689

10,037

41,726

1966

6,229

5,141

23,409

34,779

9,394

44,173

1967

4,116

5,362

22,206

31,684

9,527

41,211

1968

6,383

5,376

22,563

34,322

12,510

46,832

1969

4,681

7,801

26,932

39,414

11,939

51,353

1970

5,714

4,874

23,461

34,049

10,378

44,427

1971

4,760

6,460

22,885

34,105

13,505

47,610

1972

4,926

7,474

29,749

42,149

13,162

55,311

1973

3,023

10,425

24,204

37,652

12,546

50,198

1974

2,764

9,174

21,292

33,230

10,762

43,992

1975

2,253

6,641

16,382

25,276

9,239

34,515

1976

2,876

7,353

21,427

31,656

12,445

44,101

1977

1,990

11,447

26,599

40,036

12,890

52,926

1978

1,805

11,488

22,074

35,367

12,668

48,035

1979

1,250

9,354

17,044

27,648

12,381

40,029

1980

896

9,932

17,234

28,062

11,470

39,532

1981

1,005

9,087

19,323

29,415

12,883

42,298

1982

808

8,210

23,645

32,663

12,306

44,969

1983

930

12,443

26,123

39,496

12,081

51,577

1984

1,354

16,316

28,783

46,453

15,630

62,083

1985

677

9,968

10,929

21,574

15,497

37,071

1986

337

11,330

13,696

25,363

15,783

41,146

1987

149

13,716

14,245

28,110

12,826

40,936

1988

170

12,425

11,028

23,623

13,808

37,431

1989

419

15,387

9,447

25,253

11,394

36,647

1990

357

11,497

9,731

21,585

12,251

33,836

Source: Warren Publishing, Inc., Television & Cable Factbook, 1995 (New York, 1995), 1–18.

TABLE 6.15 TELEVISION STATIONS ON THE AIR, 1946–1990 Year

Stations

Year

Stations

1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956

6 16 98 108 356 459

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

862 906 938 960 982 1,011

1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968

523 559 603 649 699 785

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 ...

1,065 1,138 1,235 1,362 1,442 ...

Source: Television & Cable Factbook, 1995, iv.

TABLE 6.16 HOUSEHOLDS WITH TELEVISION, 1950–1990 Year

Percent

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

12 67 88 92 95

1975 1980 1985 1990

97 98 98 98

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1971, 487; Statistical Abstract, 1992, 551.

Communications

169

TABLE 6.17

TELEVISION SALES, 1959–1990

(in thousands) Year

Total Sales

Color Sets

1959 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

6,368 5,829 7,134 9,764 12,714 13,211 12,220 17,084 15,279 14,131 17,407 18,532 16,406 20,992 22,163 22,796 21,795

90 120 438 1,404 5,012 6,215 5,320 8,845 8,411 8,194 10,674 11,803 11,484 16,083 18,204 20,216 20,384

Source: Television & Cable Factbook, 1995, 1–7.

TABLE 6.18 BASIC CABLE TV SYSTEMS AND SUBSCRIBERS, 1952–1990 Subscribers ( ‘000s)

TABLE 6.19

Percent of U.S. Households with TV

Year

Number of Systemsa

1952 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

70 400 640 1,325 2,490 3,506

14 150 650 1,300 3,900 8,600

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

4,225 4,375 4,825 5,600 6,200 6,600

15,200 17,830 24,290 28,320 32,930 36,340

19.9 22.3 29.8 34.0 39.3 42.8

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

7,500 7,900 8,500 9,050 9,575

39,160 41,690 43,790 47,770 51,900

45.6 47.7 49.4 52.8 56.4

VIDEOCASSETTE RECORDERS IN USE, 1975–1990

(in thousands) Households with VCR

Year

0.1% 0.5 1.4 2.3 6.7 12.6

Percent of Households with TV

1975 1978 1980 1982

30 200 840 2,530

... 0.3 1.1 3.1

1984 1986 1988 1990

8,880 30,290 51,390 76,000

10.6 36.0 58.0 71.9

Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 242; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 551.

a

As of January 1. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 241; Television and Cable Factbook, 1995, iv.

TABLE 6.20

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

TOP 10 CABLE NETWORKS, 1988 Subscribers (’000s)

Number of Systems

Launch Date

Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN) Cable News Network (CNN) Superstation TBS USA Network Nickelodeon/Nick at Nite

54,000 52,700 51,000 49,800 48,900

21,500 8,970 12,930 10,100 7,310

1979 1980 1976 1980 1979

Sports events, business news 24-hour news, special-interest reports Movies, sports, original and syndicated shows Sports, family entertainment Children’s programming, young adults

Music Television (MTV) The Nashville Network (TNN) Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN) The Family Channel The Discovery Channel

48,600 47,800 46,800 46,800 46,100

5,845 8,605 3,485 8,600 6,500

1981 1983 1979 1977 1985

Music videos, concerts, interviews Country music, talk shows, sports Public affairs Movies, family entertainment, religious shows Nonfiction, nature, science, etc.

Network


170


Content

TABLE 6.21

THE ELECTRONIC HOME, 1990

Percent of U.S. Homes

Facilities

99% 98 96 92 68

Have a radio Have a TV set Have a color TV set Have an audio system Have a VCR

64 55 52 31 29

Have two or more TV sets Buy basic cable Own prerecorded videocassettes Have a telephone answering device Buy one or more pay channels

25 23

Have a cordless telephone Have a home computer

19 19 13

Have color TV with MTS Have a compact disc player Have a home alarm system

10 6 3.5 3

Have a camcorder Have projection TV Have LCD TV Have satellite dishes


The Next Generation: Enter the Internet One would be hard-pressed to determine which electronic development in postwar communication was the most miraculous or most far-reaching. For several years it certainly seemed to be television, and then with more new technology and gradual awakening to its potentialities, the computer came to occupy center stage. At the start of the 1990s a rapidly growing group of converts was swearing that the future of communication belonged to the Internet. An extension of computer technology, the Internet consisted of a national and international network of interconnected computer systems. The Internet transmitted vast storehouses of information in possession of participating bodies that could become available—“accessed,’’ in computer language—in an instant.The Internet also used a process to send what was called e-mail (electronic mail) through which messages could be transmitted over the same network of computer systems—to another state, another country, to another room in the same building, in a matter of seconds, and a reply could be had almost as fast. The Internet grew out of the cold war, when, beginning in 1969 the Department of Defense set up a system called ARPAnet through which researchers at various sites could communicate with one another. Starting with four university locations, the number grew to some 200 in 1974. In the 1980s more and more computer systems came aboard. The National Science Foundation established its own network and invited everyone to join. It was not possible to determine the number of participating systems at the end of the 1980s or the TABLE 6.22

U.S. UNIT SALES OF AND REVENUES FROM MICRO-, MINI- AND MAINFRAME COMPUTERS, 1960–1990

(in thousands) Microcomputers Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Minicomputers

Mainframes

Revenues Units Revenues Units (in dollars) (in dollars)

Units

Revenues (in dollars)

... ... ... 10.5 796.0 1,157.0 1,950.0 3,249.0 5,190.0 4,750.0 5,060.0 5,460.0 5,990.0 6,649.0 6,915.0

1.79 5.35 5.70 6.70 9.90 10.70 10.60 9.98 11.33 10.91 10.99 11.20 11.24 11.52 11.64

590.0 1,770.0 3,600.0 5,410.0 8,840.0 9,640.0 10,300.0 10,480.0 11,890.0 11,850.0 12,090.0 12,340.0 12,550.0 12,790.0 12,860.0

... ... ... 20.0 1,550.0 2,550.0 4,390.0 7,470.0 11,940.0 11,260.0 11,740.0 12,830.0 14,380.0 15,600.0 16,600.0

... 0.60 6.06 26.99 95.87 101.99 108.50 116.80 170.40 153.80 143.70 145.80 160.00 165.00 157.30

... 66.0 485.0 1,484.0 5,752.0 6,242.0 6,410.0 6,830.0 9,887.0 8,901.0 8,148.0 8,291.0 9,040.0 9,340.0 8,856.0


TABLE 6.23

E-MAIL COMMUNICATIONS, 1980–1990

(in millions of messages) Year

A soldier “writes” home in the electronic age. War-weary President Johnson listens to a tape from his son-in-law, Capt. Charles Robb, from Vietnam. (LBJ Library photo by Jack Kightlinger)

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Number of Messages .43 .47 .54 .67 1.0 1.67 4.1 5.25 6.96 8.6 12.43

Source: Bernard Johnston, ed., Collier’s Encyclopedia, 1995 Edition (Vol. 21, New York, 1995), 116.

Communications

171

number of users (1 million might be a reasonable guess), but the number was growing in leaps and bounds. There was no World Wide Web in 1990; it was not yet an information superhighway, but the Internet was an explosion about to take place.

The Print Media The print media continued to be an important aspect of the system of communication and dispersion of information. Newspapers and magazines retained a vital if ever-narrowing niche in reporting of news; books, publication of which had proliforated markedly in the 40 years after 1950, remained popular entertainment, the standard avenue of in-depth inquiry and most extensive depository of information of all sorts. Faced with competition first from radio, then television and other electronic media in the 1980s, newspapers struggled to hold their own. The number declined slowly but steadily; a modest increase in circulation of the dailies did not nearly keep pace with growth in population or in television and other electronic forms of communication. Quality journalism continued to exist, and newspapers left their mark on national and local developments—the high point perhaps being reached during 1972–74, in the involvement of the Washington Post in exposure of the Watergate scandal and ultimately bringing down a president. But several newspapers either ceased publication or merged with a local competitor. Cities without multiple newspapers—and different points of view—became the standard. By 1990 TABLE 6.24

fewer than 40 cities had more than a single daily paper. In 1982 the Gannett Company founded USA Today, an openly national daily (except for weekends) that used color and graphics and featured short stories and much popular culture.Although charged with lowering journalistic standards, USA Today soon became one of the two or three most popular newspapers in the country and established practices that competitors would find it difficult to avoid imitating. Many of the publications that survived belonged to one of such newspaper chains as Gannett, Hearst, Knight-Ridder, or Scripps-Howard—thus diminishing, if not destroying, their independence. By 1990 some 82 percent of dailies were chain-owned. The American magazine market showed a great deal of fluidity over the years. Influenced by themes and moods of the time, new publications were born, others declined or ceased publication; a few showed remarkable durability. In the surveys listed below, the most stable periodicals included Reader’s Digest, National Geographic, and Better Homes and Gardens. Such male-oriented publications as Playboy and Penthouse, daring and risque at the time of their introduction, showed a considerable reduction in popularity between the 1970s and 1990. Some traditional standards, such as The Saturday Evening Post and Collier’s, dropped from the lists entirely. It also was noteworthy that the survey of 1953 classified “comic books,’’ the cartoon-formated but increasingly violent and sexually oriented miniature tabloids, as magazines. Rapidly growing in popularity, they also sparked a great deal of controversy. New on the market in the 1950s, pathbreaking Mad magazine fit the physical characteristics of the comic book, but its thrust was social and political satire.

NUMBER AND CIRCULATION OF DAILY AND SUNDAY NEWSPAPERS, 1946–1990

(circulation in thousands) Daily Total

Morning

Sunday

Evening

Year

Number

Circ.

Number

Circ.

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

1,763 1,772 1,760 1,763 1,751

50.928 53,829 56,147 58,882 60,358

334 322 316 312 320

20,546 21,266 22,183 24,029 24,107

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

1,748 1,756 1,745 1,676 1,611

62,108 60,700 62,200 62,800 62,300

334 339 387 482 559

25,934 25,500 29,400 36,400 41,300

Number

Circ.

Number

Circ.

1,429 1,450 1,454 1,459 1,444

30,382 32,563 33,964 34,853 36,251

497 549 541 563 562

43,665 46,582 46,448 47,699 48,600

1,429 1.436 1,388 1,220 1,084

36,174 35,200 32,800 26,400 21,000

586 639 736 798 863

49,217 51,100 54,700 58,800 62,600

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1971, 490; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 557.

TABLE 6.25 NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS, 1946–1990 Year

1946

1950

1955

1960

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

Newspapers Total

12,804

12,115

11,415

11,315

11,383

11,400

9,620

9,134

11,471

Semiweekly Weekly Daily

286 10,424 2,020

337 9,794 1,894

324 9,126 1,860

324 8,979 1,854

357 8,903 1,838

506 8,824 1,819

537 7,159 1,744

517 6,811 1,701

579 8,420 1,788

Periodicals Total

6,693

6,960

7,648

8,422

9,573

9,657

10,236

11,090

11,092

Weekly Semimonthly Monthly Bimonthly Quarterly

1,331 253 3,595 345 595

1,443 416 3,694 436 604

1,602 503 3,782 608 674

1,580 527 4,113 743 895

1,856 589 4,314 957 1,108

1,918 537 4,087 1,009 1,093

1,716 645 3,985 1,114 1,444

1,367 801 4,088 1,361 1,759

553 435 4,239 2,087 2,758

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract, 1971, 491; Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 557.

172


TABLE 6.26

LARGEST DAILY NEWSPAPERS, 1974a

Newspaper

Circulation

NewYork (N.Y.) Daily News Los Angeles (Calif.) Times NewYork (N.Y.) Times Detroit (Mich.) News Chicago (Ill.) Tribune Detroit (Mich.) Free Press NewYork (N.Y.) Post Philadelphia (Pa.) Bulletin Chicago (Ill.) Sun-Times Washington (D.C.) Post Boston (Mass.) Globe San Francisco (Calif.) Chronicle Long Island (N.Y.) Newsday Philadelphia (Pa.) Inquirer Los Angeles (Calif.) Herald-Examiner Cleveland (Ohio) Plain Dealer Chicago (Ill.) Daily-News Washington (D.C.) Star Miami (Fla.) Herald Baltimore (Md.) Sun Cleveland (Ohio) Press Newark (N.J.) Star-Ledger Boston (Mass.) Herald-American Milwaukee (Wis.) Journal Long Island (N.Y.) Press Kansas City (Mo.) Times Houston (Tex.) Chronicle Houston (Tex.) Post Kansas City (Mo.) Star St. Louis (Mo.) Post-Dispatch Buffalo (N.Y.) News Pittsburgh (Pa.) Press St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-Democrat Dallas (Tex.) News Minneapolis (Minn.) Star Denver (Colo.) Post Philadelphia (Pa.) Daily News Atlanta (Ga.) Journal Des Moines (Ia.) Register Dallas (Tex.) Times Herald Portland (Ore.) Oregonian Seattle (Wash.) Times Minneapolis (Minn.) Tribune Indianapolis (Ind.) Star Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal FortWorth (Tex.) Star-Telegram

2,028,522 1,005,442 843,267 663,249 660,826 627,826 598,512 585,158 550,893 521,114 486,361 465,012 452,586 427,251 418,803 408,377 402,004 379,599 376,856 373,655 364,961 361,006 346,101 343,557 324,187 317,519 299,921 296,292 296,256 289,009 277,812 273,669 271,815 264,750 252,294 248,885 247,720 244,189 241,403 241,191 238,414 232,726 228,291 224,630 223,834 222,980

a

Does not include Wall Street Journal, circulation 1,637,430. Source: Laurence Urdang, ed., The CBS News Almanac, 1976 (Maplewood, N.J., 1975), 767.

TABLE 6.27 TOP 100 DAILY NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1989 Rank

Newspaper

Average Daily Paid Circulation

Rank

Newspaper


21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

St. Louis Post-Dispatch Dallas Morning News Boston Herald St. Petersburg Times Denver Rocky Mountain News

376,888 371,537 358,218 349,460 345,943

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Orange County-Santa Ana Register Houston Post Phoenix Arizona Republic Buffalo News Portland Oregonian

343,899 325,407 322,534 312,246 310,446

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Atlanta Constitution New Orleans Times-Picayune Kansas City Times Milwaukee Journal San Jose Mercury News

284,015 276,195 275,844 275,632 274,484

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Tampa Tribune San Diego Union Orlando Sentinel Sacramento Bee Columbus Dispatch

268,681 268,450 266,549 259,497 252,206

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Denver Post Baltimore Sun Charlotte Observer Indianapolis Star Seattle Times

240,162 238,533 236,496 234,888 233,106

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Pittsburgh Press Philadelphia Daily News Louisville Courier-Journal Hartford Courant Dallas Times Herald

232,282 232,129 231,042 227,763 225,691

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel Oklahoma City Daily Oklahoman Des Moines Register Memphis Commercial Appeal Providence Journal

224,208 220,183 209,765 209,205 204,196

56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

Seattle Post-Intelligencer St. Paul Pioneer Press Dispatch Cincinnati Enquirer Los Angeles Daily News Atlanta Journal

203,560 200,508 196,290 185,736 181,440

61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

San Antonio Express-News Dayton Daily News Milwaukee Sentinel Jacksonville Times-Union Austin American-Statesman

179,590 178,615 178,364 173,528 172,518

66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

Kansas City Star San Antonio Light Baltimore Evening Sun Birmingham News West Palm Beach Post

170,801 170,800 170,750 170,327 169,360

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Wall Street Journal USA Today NewYork Daily News Los Angeles Times NewYork Times

1,835,713 1,325,507 1,194,237 1,107,623 1,068,217

71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette Hackensack Record Toledo Blade Little Rock Gazette Akron Beacon Journal

164,309 156,019 155,579 154,001 153,550

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Washington Post Chicago Tribune Long Island Newsday Detroit News Detroit Free Press

772,749 720,155 700,174 690,422 626,434

76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

Norfolk Virginian Pilot Asbury Park Press FortWorth Star-Telegram Riverside Press-Enterprise Fresno Bee

150,958 150,590 150,190 147,424 146,723

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

San Francisco Chronicle Chicago Sun-Times Boston Globe NewYork Post Philadelphia Inquirer

560,640 535,864 516,031 507,568 504,903

81. 82. 83. 84. 85.

Grand Rapids Press Richmond Times-Dispatch Raleigh News & Observer Columbia State San Francisco Examiner

143,101 142,151 141,800 141,742 137,969

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Newark Star-Ledger Houston Chronicle Cleveland Plain Dealer Miami Herald Minneapolis Star Tribune

463,738 437,481 433,615 427,954 406,292

(continued)

Communications

173

TABLE 6.27

(continued)

Rank


Newspaper

86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

Allentown Morning Call Christian Science Monitor Oakland Tribune Las Vegas Review-Journal Rochester Democrat and Chronicle

137,228 137,161 134,504 132,903 129,394

91. 92. 93. 94. 95.

Nashville Tennessean TulsaWorld Long Beach Press-Telegram Lexington Herald-Leader OmahaWorld-Herald

126,092 123,510 123,371 122,673 121,985

San Diego Tribune Worcester Telegram & Gazette Wilmington News Journal Wichita Eagle Tacoma Morning News-Tribune

121,835 120,568 120,143 119,013 118,807

96. 97. 98. 99. 100.


TABLE 6.28 TOP 100 MAGAZINES RANKED BY CIRCULATION, 1989 Percent Change 1988–89

Rank

Publication

Total Paid Circulation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Modern Maturity NRTA/AARP News Bulletin Reader’s Digest TV Guide National Geographic

20,326,933 20,001,538 16,434,254 16,330,051 10,829,328

13.4% 13.5 23.1 23.5 3.0

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Better Homes & Gardens Family Circle McCall’s Ladies’ Home Journal Good Housekeeping

8,027,010 5,212,555 5,150,814 5,117,712 5,114,774

21.5 211.7 0.1 2.1 1.7

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Woman’s Day Time Guideposts National Enquirer Redbook

4,401,746 4,393,237 4,239,396 4,222,755 3,906,453

214.3 27.3 23.0 21.9 22.5

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Sports Illustrated Playboy Star PeopleWeekly Newsweek

3,771,389 3,657,904 3,562,367 3,346,535 3,288,453

9.7 7.4 21.7 2.1 20.8

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Prevention The American Legion Magazine Cosmopolitan Smithsonian Glamour

3,161,788 2,873,927 2,778,497 2,324,112 2,321,942

6.3 5.3 27.8 1.9 9.0

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

U.S. News &World Report Southern Living Penthouse Field & Stream Motorland

2,303,328 2,298,099 2,088,445 2,020,624 1,835,576

22.6 0.7 1.7 21.0 2.9

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

VFW Magazine Popular Science Country Living Ebony Money

1,827,861 1,826,156 1,825,191 1,819,042 1,816,298

1.5 20.3 6.9 4.2 0.3

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

174

Home & Away NEA Today Seventeen Life Parents Magazine

1,775,649 1,757,557 1,753,064 1,736,797 1,733,456


3.3 20.5 22.8 26.9 21.0

Rank

Publication

Total Paid Circulation

Percent Change 1988–89

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Popular Mechanics Discovery 1,001 Home Ideas Woman’sWorld Outdoor Life

1,688,784 1,596,646 1,559,917 1,529,503 1,513,017

4.3 0.0 1.4 9.1 0.0

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

The Elks Magazine The Family Handyman Boys’ Life The American Rifleman The American Hunter

1,501,587 1,471,095 1,439,494 1,419,971 1,411,156

21.4 19.3 21.7 4.0 4.1

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Globe Western Living Bon Appetit Golf Digest US

1,402,944 1,398,674 1,349,396 1,343,536 1,342,129

27.5% 22.3 3.2 1.0 7.0

56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

NewWoman TheWorkbasket Vogue True Story Home Mechanix

1,338,816 1,306,275 1,262,158 1,240,252 1,221,150

23.9 218.0 3.3 24.8 0.0

61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

Sesame Street Magazine Soap Opera Digest Rolling Stone Self Mademoiselle

1,215,811 1,206,009 1,194,915 1,173,440 1,141,271

27.4 13.8 0.9 24.2 1.8

66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

Travel & Leisure Changing Times Organic Gardening American Health WeightWatchers Magazine

1,111,264 1,065,032 1,053,736 1,048,075 1,037,284

0.2 210.7 1.8 10.1 6.4

71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

Teen Michigan Living Golf Magazine Discover National Examiner

1,034,756 1,028,746 1,027,560 1,027,089 1,025,487

214.0 1.5 9.3 2.0 29.7

76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

Health Yankee Sport Country Home Scouting

1,005,453 1,000,962 995,985 971,571 957,675

21.5 20.2 6.9 6.3 22.8

81. 82. 83. 84. 85.

Home Car and Driver WeeklyWorld News Psychology Today WorkingWoman

942,779 927,957 927,809 927,652 903,704

2.7 20.7 29.2 24.1 1.8

86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

Omni House Beautiful BusinessWeek YM Hot Rod

902,356 902,002 900,989 900,351 897,792

23.8 6.1 1.0 6.5 0.7

91. 92. 93. 94. 95.

Jet Workbench Vista USA Nation’s Business Essence

892,006 875,202 871,008 857,289 850,116

5.0 23.1 1.1 20.8 0.0

Consumers Digest Elle Food &Wine American Legion Aux. National News Victoria

844,659 826,956 823,763 821,696 810,353

10.8 0.0 7.7 4.6 50.9

260,477,673

1.6

96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

Total Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 238.

TABLE 6.29 TOP 50 MAGAZINES RANKED BY REVENUES, 1989

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Publication Time Sports Illustrated People Weekly TV Guide BusinessWeek

Revenues


$373,385,017 336,671,529 326,203,199 322,985,623 260,575,042

6.8% 4.0 6.8 23.7 14.6

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Newsweek Fortune Forbes U.S. News &World Report Better Homes & Gardens

255,918,694 167,284,538 157,696,946 152,843,252 152,436,109

5.9 21.7 22.5 19.3 20.2

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Family Circle Good Housekeeping Woman’s Day Cosmopolitan Reader’s Digest

152,208,684 148,033,344 135,632,500 125,711,842 113,644,537

13.3 14.5 17.3 9.7 20.3

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Ladies’ Home Journal Vogue Glamour Money Redbook

104,742,667 101,001,807 88,833,183 79,668,320 75,031,696

25.0 15.4 2.1 20.1 9.4

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

McCall’s Rolling Stone Golf Digest Elle Southern Living

74,798,588 71,093,073 63,995,011 62,648,418 61,224,697

19.5 14.5 15.8 13.0 20.7

TABLE 6.30

Rank

Publication

Revenues


26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Parents Life Bride’s Car and Driver The New Yorker

60,344,516 56,846,163 55,280,547 54,303,468 54,033,158

13.6 16.7 26.3 20.9 13.0

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Travel & Leisure Gentlemen’s Quarterly Mademoiselle Modern Maturity NewYork Magazine

53,342,754 49,899,443 48,697,898 47,455,205 47,430,625

19.2 13.2 0.1 18.8 7.4

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Inc. Playboy Architectural Digest Sunset Smithsonian

46,642,250 46,503,864 46,049,915 44,372,483 43,766,044

10.5 14.4 9.2 24.2 5.7

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Country Living Self Vanity Fair Field & Stream Seventeen

42,604,156 42,326,178 41,616,840 39,941,583 39,590,128

14.2 21.8 51.1 8.3 2.4

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Modern Bride Esquire Ebony Road & Track Town & Country

38,456,726 38,016,280 38,011,050 37,654,712 36,280,310

24.0 21.3 0.1 14.3 12.7


NEW BOOKS AND NEW EDITIONS PUBLISHED, BY SUBJECT, 1950–1990

Year

1950

1960

1970

1975

1980

1985

1988

1990

Total

11,022

15,012

36,071

39,372

42,377

50,070

55,446

46,738

Agriculture Art Biography Business Education

111 317 538 190 209

121 422 746 240 308

200 852 735 658 842

456 1,561 1,968 820 1,038

461 1,691 1,891 1,185 1,011

536 1,545 1,953 1,518 1,085

666 1,602 2,250 1,647 1,113

514 1,262 1,957 1,191 1,039

Fiction General History Home econ. Juvenile

1,211 262 456 150 907

1,642 233 695 155 1,628

1,998 568 1,010 235 2,472

3,805 1,113 1,823 728 2,292

2,835 1,643 2,220 879 2,659

5,105 2,905 2,327 1,228 3,801

5,564 2,475 3,260 1,057 4,954

5,764 1,760 2,243 758 5,172

Language Law Literature Medicine Music

... 228 510 312 88

... 303 560 388 82

339 355 1,349 1,144 217

438 915 1,904 2,282 305

529 1,102 1,686 3,292 357

632 1,349 1,964 3,579 364

628 1,343 2,272 3,900 329

649 896 2,049 3,014 289

Philosophy/Psych. Poetry, Drama Religion Science

380 453 626 499

496 404 983 833

843 973 1,315 1,955

1,374 1,501 1,778 2,942

1,429 1,179 2,055 3,109

1,559 1,166 2,564 3,304

1,955 1,270 2,746 3,743

1,683 874 2,285 2,742

Sociology, Econ. Sports, rec. Technology Travel

447 153 366 221

651 233 574 372

3,867 583 930 848

6,590 1,225 1,720 794

7,152 971 2,337 504

7,441 1,154 2,526 465

8,247 1,099 2,694 669

7,042 973 2,092 495

Source: George T. Kurian, Datapedia of the United States, 1790–2000 (Lanham, Md., 1994), 307–08.

Communications

175

In the Beginning Was the Word Communication originated with speech. Remarkable growth of the communication media, be it television, airmail, or e-mail, merely improved the means by which the spoken, or written, word could be spread. The standard instrument of communication in many areas of society was the speech or other form of extended public statement. With the objective of identifying the best speeches of the 20th century in mind, two professors of communication arts and sciences proceeded near the end of the century to survey 137 of their colleagues, compile the findings, and analyze the speeches from a perspective of presentation, style, and effect. The results—a ranked list of 100 most important speeches—suggested that significance of the statements were associated with the means by which they could be communicated.The speech ranked highest, for example, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have A Dream’’ Speech, was undeniably powerful, but it also benefited from being almost endlessly repeated in print, on radio, or television. Repetition of course was a testimony to impact, but one would wonder if the effect would have been as great had the speech been given in 1910.The list also was surely influenced by the age and orientation of the people participating in the survey. Approximately twothirds of the speeches came in the years 1946–90; only six were delivered after 1990, the remainder came during 1900–45, six of

them from Franklin D. Roosevelt. Listed below are the survey’s top 25 speeches of the 20th century. Best Speeches of the 20th Century: A Survey 1. Martin Luther King, Jr., “I Have a Dream,’’ August 28, 1963. Washington, D.C. 2. John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961, Washington, D.C. 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, First Inaugural, March 4, 1933, Washington, D.C. 4. Franklin D. Roosevelt, War Message, December 8, 1941, Washington, D.C. 5. Barbara Jordan, Keynote Speech, Democrat National Convention, July 12, 1976, New York City. 6. Richard M. Nixon, “Checkers Speech,’’ (Defending his behavior), September 23, 1952, Los Angeles. 7. Malcolm X, “The Ballot or the Bullet,’’ April 3, 1964, Cleveland. 8. Ronald Reagan, Speech after Challenger disaster, January 28, 1986, Washington, D.C. 9. John F. Kennedy, Speech to Houston Ministers, September 12, 1960, Houston.

Martin Luther King, Jr., and other participants in the March on Washington, August 28, 1963 (National Archives)

176


10. Lyndon B. Johnson, Speech to Congress on Voting Rights Bill, March 15, 1965,Washington, D.C. 11. Mario Cuomo, “A Tale of Two Cities,’’ (Keynote—Democrat Convention, 1984), July 16, 1984, San Francisco. 12. Jesse Jackson, “Rainbow Coalition,’’ (Democrat Convention, 1964), July 17, 1964, San Francisco. 13. Barbara Jordan, On Impeachment of Nixon, July 25, 1974, Washington, D.C. 14. Douglas MacArthur, “Old Soldiers Never Die,’’ (Farewell Speech), April 19, 1951,Washington, D.C. 15. Martin Luther King, Jr., “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop,’’ April 3, 1968, Memphis. 16.Theodore Roosevelt, “The Man with the Muckrake,’’ April 14, 1906,Washington, D.C. 17. Robert F. Kennedy, Remarks on assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., April 4, 1968, Indianapolis.

18. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address, Jan. 17, 1961, Washington, D.C. 19.Woodrow Wilson,War Message, April 2, 1917,Washington, D.C. 20. Douglas MacArthur, “Duty, Honor, Country,’’ (Farewell to West Point), May 12, 1962,West Point, N.Y. 21. Richard M. Nixon, “Silent Majority,’’ (On Vietnam War), November 3, 1969,Washington, D.C. 22. John F. Kennedy, “Ich bin ein Berliner,’’ June 26, 1963,West Berlin. 23. Clarence Darrow, Summation at Leopold and Loeb trial, July 31, 1924, Chicago. 24. Russell Conwell, “Acres of Diamonds,’’ Delivered many times, many locations, 1900–25. 25. Ronald Reagan, “A Time for Choosing’’ (For presidential candidacy of Barry Goldwater), October 27, 1964, Los Angeles. Source: USA Today, December 30, 1999.

Communications

177

CHAPTER 7 Vital Statistics and Health Care One cannot understand the course of the United States during the years of the cold war without looking in some depth at vital statistics. Population data relates information about size and magnitude, an account of a society undergoing exceptional growth. In somewhat the same fashion, vital statistics measure and describe the dimensions of diversity in the nation. Population numbers identify size of groups, vital statistics tell about behavior: in childbearing and under what terms, for example, about divorce, marriage, and family. Not far beneath the surface were the values and attitudes about lifestyle that guided the statistics. Having fewer children, for example, suggested how people preferred to (or were willing to) live, as did statistics about marriage, differing definitions of families. If statistics suggest changing values, the values point to emergence of new issues or of a willingness to deal with old ones. Availability of data—or the shortage of it—in itself suggested directions taken by society. Government agencies supplied plentiful and continuous information about the standard social topics—births, deaths, marriage, divorce, and others. But there were few, if any, reliable statistics about abortion before the 1970s and few polls to show how people approached the issue. One encountered few statistics about sexual behavior or contraception before the 1970s (Alfred Kinsey’s studies notwithstanding), not because people had no interest in these subjects but because mores of the time identified them as essentially private matters. Neither academicians nor opinion pollsters gave much indication of considering such sensitive matters appropriate for study or public exposure. In preparing his studies about sexual behavior Alfred Kinsey so worried that he might be charged with seeking attention by selecting a racy, titillating topic that he picked an obscure publisher of medical books, filled the pages with tables and scholarly language and produced two volumes that would be considered dull if not for the subject matter. Beginning approximately with the 1970s, with some subjects it came earlier, there was little hesitation to deal with virtually all aspects of human behavior.The statistics suggested that society was changing.

Births The postwar period began with a bang, or at least a boom. In fact, an increase in the birthrate had begun during the war, but it was the years

immediately following the conflict that produced a remarkable demographic turn.The birthrate surged to more than 26 live births per 1,000 population in 1947, the highest since 1921.The year 1954 produced the first yield of 4 million babies.The birthrate remained above 20, and the annual number of births above 4 million, until 1964.Thus the period of the baby boom lasted from 1946 to 1964, and it constituted a genuine demographic bulge—a pig in a python, as the experts put it—of some 75 million new citizens. Sheer size alone preordained that the baby boomers would influence the national direction. But this generation also brought attitudes conditioned by timing and circumstances of its upbringing that would be considerably different from those of its parents, who had come of age in a time of depression and world war.As it passed through stages of life, the baby boom generation produced ripples that were felt in different forms through the rest of the 20th century and, as the boomers reached retirement age, into the new millennium. There was, for example, much doubt that the Social Security System would be able to endure the shock of so many new takers. Suggestions that one baby boom would beget another, however, did not materialize. By the time the boomers reached the age of reproduction, starting roughly in the late 1960s, social standards had begun to change. The prospect of becoming parents or of remaining married because one was a parent had lost some of its appeal. Divorce became commonplace.Technology had produced new ways to prevent conception; shifts in legal and social attitudes legitimized ending pregnancies already in progress.The baby boom gave way to a “bust,’’ a remarkably rapid decline in the birthrate. By 1976 the rate had dropped to 14.6, lower than the worst years of the Great Depression. A slight upturn in the 1980s (in 1990, 4 million babies were born for the first time since 1965) came only because there were so many people to reproduce. In each of 20 years after 1970 the birthrate was lower than any other year (before 1970) in American history, and as of 1990 there appeared no indication that the trend soon would come to an end. Shifts within the birthrate were partly responsible for the continuing change in national racial and ethnic structure.African Americans and Hispanics had higher birthrates than the group classified as white. One of the most pronounced demographic themes was the steady increase in illegitimate births in virtually all racial and ethnic groups. Sharpest growth came in the 20 years after 1970. By 1990 nearly 30 percent of all babies were born to unmarried mothers.Whites experienced a slower rate of increase

TABLE 7.1 LIVE BIRTHS BY SEX, SEX RATIO, AND RACE, 1945–1990 White

Black

All Races

Year

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

1,232,972 1,575,309 1,776,355 1,848,192 1,604,422

1,162,591 1,488,318 1,682,093 1,752,552 1,519,438

163,721 236,082 281,846 303,566 294,272

160,543 230,636 276,405 298,698 286,854

1,404,587 1,823,555 2,073,719 2,179,708 1,927,054

1,330,869 1,730,594 1,973,576 2,078,142 1,833,304

1,055 1,054 1,055 1,049 1,051

1970 1975 1978 1980 1982

1,590,140 1,312,308 1,378,222 1,490,140 1,531,577

1,501,124 1,239,688 1,302,894 1,408,592 1,453,240

290,508 259,610 279,589 299,033 288,816

281,854 251,971 271,942 290,583 279,690

1,915,378 1,613,135 1,709,394 1,582,616 1,885,676

1,816,008 1,531,063 1,623,885 1,759,642 1,794,861

1,055 1,054 1,053 1,053 1,051

1985 1986 1988 1990

1,560,342 1,548,769 1,591,061 1,688,088

1,477,571 1,470,406 1,511,022 1,602,185

295,100 301,468 324,495 347,082

286,724 291,442 314,067 337,254

1,927,983 1,924,868 2,002,424 2,129,495

1,832,578 1,831,679 1,907,086 2,028,717

1,052 1,051 1,050 1,050

Female

Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1992, Vol. I, Natality (Hyattsville, Md., 1996), 68.

178

Males per 1,000 Females

in illegitimate births than most groups (only certain Asian nationalities had lower rates), but the change nonetheless was considerable—from 5.5 percent of all white births in 1970 to 20.5 percent in 1990.The proportion of Hispanic Americans born illegitimate reached beyond one-third in 1990; for Native Americans it was more than 50 percent. In 1990 twothirds of all black children were born to unmarried women.The statistics on the surface would indicate a connection between illegitimacy and lower social and economic classes—as traditionally had been the case—

but they also point to other forces at work. Once considered an expression of unrestrained passion by youngsters in their teens, illegitimacy by the 1980s came to be more commonly associated with older, probably more experienced, individuals.A review of the treatment of sexual issues by virtually all of the entertainment media, coupled with unblushing outof-wedlock parentage by high profile couples of all colors, especially in entertainment, suggested that a broadly based shift in cultural attitudes had taken place in the quarter-century before the 1990s.

Top 10 First Names of Americans by Decade of Birth Boys

Girls

1940–1949 James, Robert, John,William, Richard, David, Charles, Thomas, Michael, Ronald 1950–1959 Michael, Robert, James, John, David,William, Richard, Thomas, Mark, Steven 1960–1969 Michael, David, John, James, Robert, William, Mark, Richard,Thomas, Jeffrey 1970–1979 Michael, Christopher. David, Jason, James, John, Robert, Brian, Matthew,William 1980–1989 Michael, Christopher, Matthew, David, Joshua, Daniel, James, Jason, Robert, Andrew

1940–1949 Mary, Barbara, Patricia, Linda, Carol, Maria, Sandra, Nancy, Susan, Betty 1950–1959 Deborah, Mary, Linda, Susan, Patricia, Maria, Barbara, Karen, Nancy, Donna 1960–1969 Lisa, Maria, Mary, Susan, Karen, Kimberly, Deborah, Patricia, Michelle, Linda 1970–1979 Jennifer, Amy, Michelle, Melissa, Angela, Lisa, Heather, Kimberly, Jessica, Maria 1980–1989 Jessica, Jennifer, Amanda, Ashley, Sarah, Nicole, Stephanie, Melissa, Brittany, Elizabeth

Source: World Almanac Books, The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1999 (Mahwah, N.J., 1998), 698.

TABLE 7.2

BIRTHRATES AND FERTILITY RATES BY RACE, 1946–1990 Birthratea

Fertility Rateb All Other

Year

All Races

1946 1947 1948 1950 1952 1954

24.1 26.6 24.9 24.1 25.1 25.3

23.6 26.1 24.0 23.0 24.1 24.2

1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966

25.2 24.5 23.7 22.4 21.1 18.4

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

All Other Black

Black

All Races

White

Total

28.4 31.2 32.4 33.3 33.4 34.7

... ... ... ... ... ...

101.9 113.3 107.3 106.2 113.8 117.9

100.4 111.8 104.3 102.3 110.0 113.5

113.9 125.9 131.6 137.3 142.7 152.2

... ... ... ... ... ...

24.0 23.3 22.2 21.4 20.0 17.4

35.1 33.9 32.1 30.5 29.2 26.1

... ... 31.9 ... 29.5 26.2

121.0 120.0 118.0 112.0 104.7 90.8

115.9 114.8 113.2 107.5 99.8 86.2

159.7 159.1 153.6 147.8 140.0 123.5

... ... 153.5 ... 142.6 124.7

17.6 18.4 15.6 14.8 14.6 15.0

16.6 17.4 14.5 13.9 13.6 14.0

24.2 25.1 22.8 21.2 20.8 21.6

24.2 25.3 22.5 20.8 20.5 21.3

85.2 87.9 73.1 67.8 65.0 65.5

81.3 84.1 68.9 64.2 61.5 61.7

111.9 113.0 99.5 89.8 85.8 87.0

112.7 115.4 99.9 89.7 85.8 86.7

15.9 15.9 15.6 15.6 16.0 16.7

14.9 14.9 14.6 14.6 14.8 15.5

22.5 22.0 21.2 21.4 22.5 23.3

22.1 21.5 21.0 21.5 22.6 23.8

68.4 67.3 65.5 65.4 67.3 70.9

64.7 63.9 62.3 62.1 63.4 66.9

88.6 85.3 81.8 81.9 95.9 89.4

88.1 84.3 81.5 82.6 87.0 91.9

White

Total

a

Birthrates per 1,000 population. Fertility rates pertain to the number of births 1,000 women age 15–44 will have in a given year. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1990, Vol. I, Natality (Hyattsville, Md., 1994), 1.

b

Vital Statistics and Health Care

179

TABLE 7.3 FERTILITY RATES BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1945–1990

THE BABY BOOM AND BIRTHRATE, 1940–1990

Year

White

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

85.9 106.2 118.3 118.0 96.3 87.9

83.4 102.3 113.7 113.2 91.3 84.1

... ... ... 153.5 133.2 115.4

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

66.0 68.4 67.3 67.3 65.7 65.5

62.5 65.6 64.8 64.8 63.4 63.2

87.9 84.7 82.0 80.9 78.7 78.2

... 82.7 79.6 83.6 81.8 79.8

... 73.2 73.7 74.8 71.7 69.2

... 95.4 97.5 96.1 91.8 91.5

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

66.3 65.4 65.8 67.3 69.2 70.9

64.1 63.1 63.3 64.5 66.4 68.3

78.8 78.9 80.1 82.6 86.2 86.8

78.6 75.9 75.6 76.8 79.0 76.2

68.4 66.0 67.1 70.2 68.2 69.6

94.0 93.9 93.0 96.4 104.9 107.7

Live Births (per 1,000 women 15–44 years)

Asian or American Pacific Hispanic Black Indian Islander Origin

All Races

125 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Source: U.S. Department of Human Services, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1993, Volume 1—Mortality (Hyattsville, Md., 1999), 16.

Source: Ronald J. Alsop, ed., The Wall Street Journal Almanac 1998 (New York, 1997). 692.

TABLE 7.4

ILLEGITIMATE LIVE BIRTHS AND BIRTHRATES, BY RACE, 1946–1990 White

Black

Year

Total Births (1,000)

Ratea

Births (1,000)

Ratea

Births (1,000)

Ratea

1946 1948 1950 1955 1956 1958

125 130 142 183 194 209

10.9 12.5 14.1 19.3 20.4 21.2

... ... 54 61 68 76

... ... 6.1 7.9 8.3 8.8

... ... 88 119 126 134

... ... 71.2 87.2 92.1 97.8

1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972

224 245 276 302 339 399 403.2

21.6 21.9 23.0 23.4 24.4 26.4 24.9

83 93 114 133 155 175 160.5

9.2 9.8 11.0 12.0 13.2 13.8 12.0

142 147 161 170 184 224 242.7

98.3 97.5 97.2 92.8 86.6 89.9 86.9

1974 1976 1978 1980 1982

418.1 488.1 543.9 665.7 715.2

24.1 24.7 26.2 29.4 30.0

168.5 197.1 233.6 320.1 355.2

11.8 12.6 13.7 17.6 18.8

249.6 271.0 310.2 345.7 360.0

81.5 76.4 76.5 77.2 73.9

1984 1986 1988 1990

770.4 878.5 1005.3 1165.4

31.0 34.3 38.6 43.8

391.9 466.8 539.7 647.4

20.1 23.2 26.6 31.8

378.4 380.3 426.7 472.7

71.4 80.9 88.9 93.9

a Live births per 1,000 females age 15–44. Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, The Statistical History of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (New York, 1976), 52; George T. Kurian, Datapedia of the United States 1790–2000 (Lanham, Md., 1994), 40; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washington, D. C., 1993), 78.

180


TABLE 7.5 PERCENTAGE OF BIRTHS TO UNMARRIED WOMEN, 1940–1990 Year

All

White

Black

1940 1950 1955 1960 1965

3.8 4.0 4.5 5.3 7.7

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1970 1975 1980 1985 1986

10.7 14.3 18.4 22.0 23.4

5.5 7.1 11.2 14.7 15.9

37.5 49.5 56.1 61.2 62.4

1987 1988 1989 1990

24.5 25.7 27.1 28.0

16.9 18.0 19.2 20.4

63.4 64.7 65.7 66.5

TABLE 7.6

BIRTHS TO UNMARRIED MOTHERS BY AGE—NUMBER AND PERCENT, 1940–1990

(number in thousands) Number All Ages

Under 20

20–24

25 and Over

Under 20

20–24

Year

25 and Over

1940 1950 1955 1960 1965

90 142 183 224 291

43 59 73 92 129

27 43 56 68 91

20 39 55 65 72

48 42 40 41 44

30 30 30 30 31

22 29 30 29 25

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

399 448 666 828 1,165

200 234 272 280 361

127 134 237 300 404

72 80 157 248 401

50 52 41 34 31

32 30 36 36 35

18 18 24 30 34

Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Births to Unmarried Mothers: United States, 1980–92 (Hyattsville, Md., 1995), 17.


TABLE 7.7

Percent

ILLEGITIMATE BIRTHS AS PERCENT OF ALL BIRTHS, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1970–1990

Race and Origin of Mother All mothers

1970

1975

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

10.7

14.3

18.4

18.9

19.4

20.3

21.0

22.0

23.4

24.5

25.7

27.1

28.0

White

5.5

7.1

11.2

11.8

12.3

12.9

13.6

14.7

15.9

16.9

18.0

19.2

20.4

Black

37.5

49.5

56.1

56.9

57.7

59.2

60.3

61.2

62.4

63.4

64.7

65.7

66.5

American Indian or Alaskan Native

22.4

32.7

39.2

41.2

42.6

45.3

46.1

46.8

48.8

51.1

51.7

52.7

53.6

Asian or Pacific Islander Chinese Japanese Filipino Other Asian or Pacific Islandera

... 3.0 4.6 9.1 ...

... 1.6 4.6 6.9 ...

7.3 2.7 5.2 8.6 8.5

7.0 2.4 6.2 9.1 7.7

7.9 2.5 7.1 9.9 8.7

8.6 3.3 7.2 10.3 9.5

9.2 3.4 6.9 10.8 10.4

9.5 3.0 7.9 11.4 10.9

10.0 3.5 7.9 12.0 11.4

11.0 4.5 7.9 12.7 12.4

11.5 3.9 8.8 13.6 13.2

12.4 4.2 9.4 14.8 14.2

13.2 5.0 9.6 15.9 14.9

Hispanic origin (selected states) Mexican American Puerto Rican Cuban Central and South American Other and unknown Hispanic

... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

23.6 20.3 46.3 10.0 27.1 22.4

24.5 20.7 48.0 14.3 29.0 25.0

25.6 21.9 49.0 15.9 30.2 26.3

27.5 23.7 49.5 16.1 33.0 28.2

28.3 24.2 50.8 16.2 34.0 30.0

29.5 25.7 51.1 16.1 34.9 31.1

31.6 27.9 52.6 15.8 38.0 31.9

32.6 28.9 53.0 16.1 37.1 34.2

34.0 30.6 53.3 16.3 36.4 35.5

35.5 31.7 55.2 17.5 38.9 37.0

36.7 33.3 55.9 18.2 41.2 37.2

Non-Hispanic white (selected states)

...

...

9.6

10.0

10.5

11.0

11.5

12.4

13.5

14.3

15.2

16.1

16.9

Non-Hispanic black (selected states)

...

...

57.3

58.0

59.0

60.5

61.5

62.1

63.3

64.2

64.8

66.0

66.7

a

Includes Hawaiians and part Hawaiians. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States, 1992 (Hyattsville, Md., 1993), 25.

The Birthing Process Tables below suggest major changes in the method and safety of giving birth. The popularity of Cesarean section surged, increasing nearly fivefold, in the quarter-century before 1990. Although every age group showed marked increase in this procedure, the guiding principle seemed to be that the older the mother, the more likely she would choose or need a Caesarean section. The second table revealed an almost equal change—some fivefold—in the reduction of infant mortality since 1940. These welcome numbers surely were attributable to better medical facilities, greater social awareness, and expansion of government programs. There continued to be a conspicuous difference between the white rate and the black, but the decline in black infant mortality nonetheless was significant.

TABLE 7.8

BIRTHS BY CESAREAN SECTION BY AGE OF MOTHER, 1965–1990

(in percentage) Year

All Ages

Under 20

20–24

25–29

30–34

35 and Older

1965 1970 1975 1980 1984 1990

4.5 5.5 10.4 16.5 21.1 23.5

3.1 3.9 8.4 14.5 16.5 16.6

3.5 4.9 9.0 15.8 19.6 21.0

4.3 5.9 11.1 16.7 20.8 23.3

6.4 7.5 13.6 18.0 24.6 27.8

7.9 8.3 15.0 20.6 28.7 31.4

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract 1993, 77.


181

TABLE 7.9

INFANT MORTALITY RATEa, 1940–1990 All Other All Races

White

Year

Both Sexes

Male

1940 1950 1960 1970 1975 1980

47.0 29.2 26.0 20.0 16.1 12.6

52.5 32.8 29.3 22.4 17.9 13.9

41.3 25.5 22.6 17.5 14.2 11.2

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

10.6 10.4 10.1 10.0 9.8 9.2

11.9 11.5 11.2 11.0 10.8 10.3

9.3 9.1 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.1

Female

Both Sexes

Total

Black

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

43.2 26.8 22.9 17.8 14.2 10.9

48.3 30.2 26.0 20.0 15.9 12.1

37.8 23.1 19.6 15.4 12.3 9.5

73.8 44.5 43.2 30.9 24.2 20.2

82.2 48.9 47.9 34.2 26.2 21.9

65.2 39.9 38.5 27.5 22.2 18.4

72.9 43.9 44.3 32.6 26.2 22.2

81.1 48.3 49.1 36.2 28.3 24.2

64.6 39.4 39.4 29.0 24.0 20.2

9.2 8.8 8.5 8.4 8.1 7.6

10.4 9.9 9.5 9.4 9.0 8.5

7.9 7.7 7.5 7.3 7.1 6.6

16.8 16.7 16.5 16.1 16.3 15.5

18.3 18.5 18.1 17.3 17.6 17.0

15.3 14.9 14.8 14.8 15.0 14.0

19.0 18.9 18.8 18.5 18.6 18.0

20.8 20.9 20.6 20.0 20.0 19.6

17.2 16.8 16.8 17.0 17.2 16.2

a

Rates are infant (under 1 year) deaths per 1,000 live births in specified group. Beginning in 1980, race for live births is tabulated according to race of mother. Source: Alsop, Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998, 695.

Birth Control American women had several methods of birth control at their disposal as the postwar period began. It was not acceptable in those days to ask questions about such an intimate issue, and so systematic and continuing surveys were not available, but clues from various quarters suggested that more than 50 percent of women used some form of contraception. Reasons for not doing so varied, ranging from a desire to become pregnant (or not minding if it happened), to inconvenience, to religion. The Roman Catholic Church continued to demand that its members not utilize “artificial’’ birth control, a rule that seemed to cover almost everything. Priests told Catholic women that they could employ the rhythm method, which identifies and exploits the so-called safe period in a woman’s cycle. Referred to by some with disdain as “Vatican roulette’’ and in truth a form of abstinence, the rhythm method was the only way of preventing babies (other than abstinence itself) that the church would condone. The information that did exist (and perhaps the size of Catholic families) suggested that many Catholic women dutifully sought to use rhythm for some 15 or 20 years into the postwar period. But Catholics were subject to influence other than from the church; and as they, and the new generation, faced the temptations and challenges that began in the 1960s, aware that science had developed an easy and reliable form of contraception, they succumbed. By the 1970s, if not earlier, Catholics were using every method of birth control available and using it as often as the general population. For many years the most popular forms of birth control had been a condom or a diaphragm that placed a physical barrier in the path to conception. Usually effective when used properly and consistently, some felt that these devices were imperfect because they placed a barrier to the most intimate contact and because logistics of their use could interfere with the spontanaety of the act.An effort to find a simple pill had long been a target of the country’s most famous exponent of birth control, Margaret Sanger. In the 1950s Sanger joined forces with wealthy heiress Katherine McCormick and approached Gregory Pincus, a biologist who had done research in related areas. It was a combination of Sanger’s drive, McCormick’s money, and Pincus’s work and professional connections that in 1954 made possible the first tests of a contraceptive medication that functioned by blocking female ovulation. Passing these tests and others that followed, surviving 182


condemnation and challenges from the Catholic Church, of course, and even from some feminists who viewed the exercise as a risky male conspiracy, the first “pill’’ received approval of the FDA and arrived on the market in 1960 under the brand name Enovid, produced by the Searle Pharmaceutical Corporation. Introduction of the contraceptive pill encountered immediate customer approval. Its popularity continued to grow as new brands came on the market and as its reliabilty was confirmed and its safety increased.The pill was (and is) credited with supplying a scientific foundation for some of the social transformation that took shape beginning in the 1960s.The pill did not, however, come trouble-free. Individuals could forget to take it and in some cases it carried side effects. Unlike the condom, it permitted the most intimate physical contact, and, therefore, it provided no protection from any form of sexually transmitted disease.The problem struck with stunning force with identification of the AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) epidemic at the start of the 1980s and knowledge that HIV, the virus that caused the disease, traveled through transfer of certain body fluids into the bloodstream of another, which could happen through unprotected sex. And AIDS carried a prospect of death. More than ever before the term protection meant much more than avoidance of unwanted pregnancy, and what had been a major complaint about the condom or diaphram—that it disallowed direct contact—now became a virtue. The campaign for “safe sex’’ that began in the 1980s stressed condom use to present STDs, but did not suggest that those on the pill switch, only that they add condoms. The pill was much more effective in preventing pregnancy than were condoms. Even so, perhaps because many people felt confident about their health or that of their partners or because they simply were willing to take a risk, the contraceptive pill remained an important means of birth control, popular with unmarried women. The condom underwent a modest renewal of popularity in the 1980s, but the method of birth control that surpassed all others was female or male sterilization—an approach that, as with the pill, offered no protection against disease. Birth Control: The Catholic View, 1959 Birth Control, Artificial—The prevention of conception and birth by the use of any means contrary to the law of nature. Such means include the use of drugs, medications, instruments, devices, cleansings and actions that prevent the normal performance and fulfillment of the act of sex—a serious and unnatural sin because it

frustrates the very nature and purposes of the power of sex. The Church holds that artificial birth control is wrong for everyone, and not just Catholics, because it is against the law of nature. The practice or use of rhythm by married couples is essentially different from the practice of artificial birth control, even though the two practices may have the same result, viz., failure to conceive. In artificial birth control the act is deliberately frustrated and conception is prevented by a positive human action; in rhythm the act is normally performed and fulfilled, and conception fails to occur because of an accident or condition of nature which is not humanly caused but simply exists.

TABLE 7.10

For proportionately serious reasons and with mutual consent, married persons may practise rhythm for as long as the sufficient reasons obtain. Even when so doing, however, they are still morally bound to respect the marriage rights of each other at all times and to consent to the exercise of those rights at any time in response to need or a reasonable request. The practice of rhythm may never be so absolute as to admit of no exception; it is not intended to be an excuse or reason for sin outside of the so-called “safe’’ period. Married persons should seek the advice of a confessor regarding the use of rhythm. Source: Felician A Foy, ed., The 1960 Catholic Almanac (Garden City, 1960), 290.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION: MARRIED USERS BY RELIGION, 1955 AND 1960 Total

Method

1955

Number of users Percentage reportinga Condom Diaphragm Rhythm Douche Withdrawal Jelly alone Suppositories Abstinence Other Totalb

1,901 43 36 34 28 15 6 4 2 2 170

Protestant 1960

Catholic

Jewish

1955

1960

1955

1960

1955

1960

1,948

1,362

1,347

453

466

64

101

50 38 35 24 17 11 6 4 1 186

48 41 25 32 17 8 5 4 3 183

56 46 27 28 18 14 8 3 1 201

25 17 65 18 13 2 2 1 1 144

28 12 67 17 17 4 3 9 ... 157

72 56 8 11 6 2 3 ... ... 158

74 51 9 8 4 8 ... 2 ... 156

a

Percentage of users measured by wife’s religion. The total exceeds 100 because many couples reported two or more methods. Source: Pascal K. Whelpton et al., Fertility and Family Planning in the United States (Princeton, 1966), 278.

b

TABLE 7.12 METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION: ALL USERS, AGE 15–44, 1988, AND MARRIED USERS—BY PERCENTAGE, 1973–1988 TABLE 7.11

CONTRACEPTION: MARRIED WHITE WOMEN, 15–44 YEARS, BY RELIGION— 1965, 1973, AND 1976

(in percentage)

All Users

Currently Married Users

Method

1988

1973

1982

1988

1965

1973

1976

Sterilization Female Male

39.2 27.5 11.7

23.5 12.3 11.2

42.4 26.9 15.5

48.7 31.4 17.3

Women who use any contraception Catholic Protestant

56.8 66.5

66.4 72.1

67.5 68.9

Contraceptors who use rhythm method Catholic Protestant

Pill IUD Diaphragm Condom

30.7 2.0 5.7 14.6

36.1 9.6 3.4 13.5

19.3 6.9 6.5 14.1

20.4 2.0 6.2 14.3

31.9 4.5

8.1 2.6

8.9 3.7

Contraceptors who use birth control pill Catholic Protestant

17.9 26.8

34.1 36.1

33.1 33.1

Foam Per. abst. Withdrawal Other

1.1 2.3 2.2 2.1

5.0 4.0 2.1 2.7

2.8 4.6 1.7 1.7

1.4 2.8 2.3 1.9

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

Year

Source: National Center for Health Statistics, Trends in Contraceptive Practice: United States, 1965–76 Hyattsville, Md., 1982), 10, 15.

Total

Source: Bruce A. Chadwick and Tim B. Wheaton, Statistical Handbook on the American Family (Phoenix, 1992), 163.


183

tions as the National Right to Life Committee.The largest antiabortion organization was the Roman Catholic Church, although evidence suggested that the church hierarchy felt more strongly about the issue than did its clientele. Shock troops of the movement came mostly from Protestant Evangelicals, including such organizations as the Moral Majority, founded in the 1970s by Baptist minister Jerry Falwell. The object was to halt abortion on demand, preferably through a different court decision or if necessary through a constitutional amendment. A small fringe faction that resorted to violent tactics did much to tarnish the antiabortion cause with the general populace. Supporters of abortion rights—who deemed their cause “prochoice’’—supported such organizations as the National Abortion and Reproductive Action League, Planned Parenthood, and the National Organization for Women. Antiabortion groups had large influence within the Republican Party; pro-choice groups had at least as much influence with the Democrats. Statistics from various quarters revealed much support for a middle ground between making all abortion legal and making all abortion illegal, but they also suggested why such a ground was difficult to find. The number of abortions (or at least the number reported) soared in the first years after the court’s decision, reaching a peak rate of more than 29 (per 1,000 women) in 1980 and 1981.Thereafter the number leveled off and the rate (but not the number) declined slightly in the last half of the 1980s. Most women who had abortions were white, if only because there were many more white women. The ratio was much higher for nonwhites, especially blacks. In Washington, D.C., a city largely inhabited by African Americans, there were nearly two and one-half abortions for every live birth in 1975. Roman Catholic women were at least as willing as women of other religious groups to have abortions.Very few abortions (less than 5 percent) came because of rape, danger to women’s health, or because of a malformed fetus. The most common reasons involved the effect a new child would have on the lifestyle of the mother or the family or because of financial considerations. In 1987 unmarried women had more than 80 percent of abortions; close to 60 percent of unmarried pregnancies were aborted. In sum, the reasons for most abortions were the same reasons that most people (and a majority of people being polled) found unacceptable justification for having an abortion.The debate went on.

Abortion Abortion, the deliberate, induced termination of a fetus, always has been a delicate issue in American life, and it increasingly became a controversial one as well.As the United States entered the post–Second World War era, abortion was illegal in all the states; most Americans regarded abortion as immoral and probably believed that it constituted killing of an unborn child. Supporters of a change in attitude had long argued that criminalization of abortion had promoted an illegal, often dangerous, underground industry and that at the very least the laws needed to take into account exceptional circumstances—such as rape, evidence of trouble in the fetus, or the danger that childbirth might present to the mother’s health. Emergence, or reemergence, of a strong women’s rights movement in the 1960s carried over to the fight for abortion rights, seeking to place emphasis on the woman instead of the unborn child. Acceptance of the interpretation that a fetus was not a person but a part of the woman’s body and that the Constitution carried an implied, if undefined, right of individual privacy blended to produce the position that because women had the private right to control their bodies, they had the constitutional right to abortion. In the late 1960s and early 1970s several states changed their laws to take into account exceptional circumstances that related to abortion. A very small number of states, notably New York, substantially broadened the area within which abortion was permissible. On January 23, 1973, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in the case of Roe v.Wade, which, along with a second decision, explicitly struck down abortion laws in Texas and Georgia and by implication invalidated measures in 44 other states. In this decision the court identified three classifications in the cycle of pregnancy: In the first trimester (three months) the states can pass no laws restricting abortion— women had the right of “abortion on demand’’; in the second trimester the states could regulate procedure in certain reasonable ways; in the third trimester the states could legislate more rigorously, even prohibit abortion, but not in cases that affected the health and life of the mother.The right to abortion thus became the law of the land. Needless to say, Roe v.Wade sparked a lengthy and intense debate that continued for the rest of the 20th century. Opponents of abortion, to whom January 23, 1973, was a “day of infamy,’’ formed such organiza-

TABLE 7.13

ABORTIONS: ESTIMATED NUMBER, RATE, AND RATIO, BY RACE—1972–1990

(refers to women 15 to 44 years old at time of abortion) All Races

Year

Women 15–44 Years Old Number (1,000) (1,000)

White

Abortions

Women Rate per Ratio per 15–44 1,000 1,000 Live Years Old Number Women Births (1,000) (1,000)

Black and Other

Abortions

Women Rate per Ratio per 15–44 1,000 1,000 Live Years Old Number Women Births (1,000) (1,000)

Abortions Rate per 1,000 Women

Ratio per 1,000 Live Births

1972 1975 1978 1979 1980

44,588 47,606 50,920 52,016 53,048

586 1,034 1,410 1,498 1,554

13.2 21.7 27.7 28.8 29.3

184 331 413 420 428

38,532 40,857 43,427 44,266 44,942

455 701 969 1,062 1,094

11.8 17.2 22.3 24.0 24.3

175 276 356 373 376

6,056 6,749 7,493 7,750 8,106

131 333 440 435 460

21.7 49.3 58.7 56.2 56.5

223 565 665 625 642

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

53,901 54,679 55,340 56,061 56,754

1,577 1,574 1,575 1,577 1,589

29.3 28.8 28.5 28.1 28.0

430 428 436 423 422

45,494 46,049 46,506 47,023 47,512

1,108 1,095 1,084 1,087 1,076

24.3 23.8 23.3 23.1 22.6

377 373 376 366 360

8,407 8,630 8,834 9,038 9,242

470 479 491 491 513

55.9 55.5 55.5 54.3 55.5

645 646 670 646 659

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

57,483 57,964 58,192 58,365 58,700

1,574 1,559 1,591 1,557 1,609

27.4 27.1 27.3 26.8 27.4

416 405 401 380 389

48,010 48,288 48,325 48,104 48.224

1,045 1,017 1,026 1,006 1,039

21.8 21.1 21.2 20.9 21.5

350 338 333 309 318

9,473 9,676 9,867 10,261 10,476

529 542 565 561 570

55.9 56.0 57.3 54.7 54.4

661 648 638 650 655

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 83; Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1994 (Washington, D.C., 1994), 85.

184


TABLE 7.14

ABORTIONS BY SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS, 1973–1988 Number (1,000)

Abortion Ratioa


Characteristic

1973

1980

1985

1988

1973

1980

1985

1988

1973

1980

1985

1988

Total abortions

745

1,554

1,589

1,591

100

100

100

100

193

300

297

286

Age of women: Less than 15 years old 15 to 19 years old 20 to 24 years old 25 to 29 years old 30 to 34 years old 35 to 39 years old 40 years old and over

12 232 241 130 73 41 17

15 445 549 304 153 67 21

17 399 548 336 181 87 21

14 393 520 347 197 96 24

2 31 32 17 10 6 2

1 29 35 20 10 4 1

1 25 35 21 11 5 1

1 25 33 22 12 6 2

476 280 181 128 165 246 334

607 451 310 213 213 317 461

624 462 328 219 203 280 409

553 444 327 218 194 254 361

Race of woman: White Black and other

549 196

1,094 460

1,076 513

1,026 565

74 26

70 30

68 32

65 36

178 252

274 392

265 397

250 389

216 528

320 1,234

281 1,307

277 1,314

29 71

21 79

18 82

17 83

74 564

98 649

88 605

87 556

411 115 104 61 55

900 305 216 83 51

872 349 240 85 43

814 379 262 93 43

55 15 14 8 7

58 20 14 5 3

55 22 15 5 3

51 24 17 6 3

242 108 190 228 196

365 208 283 288 251

358 219 288 281 230

333 227 288 276 213

... ... ...

1,043 373 138

944 416 228

908 429 254

... ... ...

67 24 9

60 26 14

57 27 16

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

284 222 131 108

800 417 202 136

811 425 198 154

800 424 198 168

38 30 18 15

52 27 13 9

51 27 12 10

50 27 12 11

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

Marital status of woman: Married Unmarried Number of prior live births: None One Two Three Four or more Number of prior induced abortions: None One Two or more Weeks of gestation: Less than 9 weeks 9 to 10 weeks 11 to 12 weeks 13 weeks or more

a Number of abortions per 1,000 abortions and live births. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1993, 83.

TABLE 7.15 LEGAL ABORTIONS, A COUNTRY COMPARISON, 1988a The Top Ten Countries Rank

Country

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Soviet Union Bulgaria Romania Yugoslavia Cuba

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Hungary Czechoslovakia Greenland Singapore United States

Selected Other Countries

Legal Abortions per 1,000 Live Births

Rank

Legal Abortions per 1,000 Live Births

Country

230.0 107.2 99.0 74.0 70.8

12. 14. 19. 21. 22.

Denmark Japan France United Kingdom Israel

40.0 37.9 23.9 20.7 19.2

65.8 52.8 51.3 47.1 42.8

24. 26. 35. 36. 37.

Canada West Germany India Chile Greece

16.5 14.8 2.0 1.0 0.2

a This data is based on a ranking of 37 nations in which abortion was legal and was reported. The numbers do not take into account the many abortions that were performed illegally or were not reported. China, a nation in which abortions were encouraged, is not included in the table. It is clear that the nations with the highest rates were communist states where abortion was financed by government and where perhaps there was little objection based on religion. It also is clear that the United States ranked very high among the nations with which it has the most dealings. Source: George T. Kurian, The New Book of World Rankings (New York, 1991), 38–39.


185

TABLE 7.16

PUBLIC OPINION AND ABORTION, 1965–1990

4. If the family has low income and cannot afford any more children.’’

The National Opinion Research Center asked the following question: “Please tell me whether or not you think it should be possible for a pregnant woman to obtain a legal abortion . . .

Year

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

Yes No

22 78

49 51

53 47

52 48

43 57

42 58

48 52

1. If the woman’s health is seriously endangered.’’ Year

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

Yes No

73 27

86 14

91 9

90 10

90 10

89 11

92 8

5. If she is not married and does not want to marry the man.’’ Year

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

Yes No

18 82

44 56

50 50

48 52

41 59

40 60

45 55

2. If she became pregnant as a result of rape.’’ Year Yes No

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

59 41

79 21

84 16

83 17

81 19

81 19

85 15

6. If she is married and does not want any more children.’’ Year

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

Yes No

16 84

40 60

46 54

47 53

40 60

40 60

45 55

3. If there is a strong chance of serious defect in the baby.’’ Year Yes No

1965 (%)

1972 (%)

1976 (%)

1980 (%)

1985 (%)

1988 (%)

1990 (%)

57 43

79 21

84 16

83 17

78 22

78 22

83 17

TABLE 7.17

Source: Barbara Hinkson Craig and David M. O’Brien, Abortion and American Politics (Chatham, N.J., 1993), 250, 252, 254.

PREGNANCIES BY OUTCOME, AGE OF WOMAN, AND RACE, 1988

Item

Total

Under 15 Years Old

15 to 19 Years Old

20 to 24 Years Old

25 to 29 Years Old

30 to 34 Years Old

35 to 39 Years Old

40 Years Old and Older

Number (1,000) Total, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses White, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses Other races, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses

6,341 3,910 1,591 840 4,698 3,046 1,026 626 1,643 863 565 214

27 11 14 3 11 4 6 2 16 7 8 1

988 478 393 117 673 315 264 94 315 163 129 23

1,774 1,067 520 187 1,270 805 332 133 504 263 187 54

1,821 1,239 347 234 1,406 1,011 219 177 415 229 129 58

1,195 804 197 194 927 661 125 141 268 142 72 53

456 270 96 91 350 218 63 69 106 52 33 21

79 41 24 14 59 32 17 10 20 9 7 4

166.7 113.4 31.8 21.5 155.3 111.6 24.1 19.5 221.9 122.3 68.8 30.8

109.7 73.7 18.1 17.8 102.2 72.9 13.8 15.5 146.5 77.8 39.6 29.1

47.2 27.9 9.9 9.4 43.2 26.9 7.8 8.5 68.1 33.4 21.0 13.8

9.6 5.0 3.0 1.7 8.4 4.6 2.4 1.5 16.6 7.3 6.2 3.0

100.0 68.1 19.1 12.9 100.0 71.9 15.6 12.6 100.0 55.1 31.0 13.9

100.0 67.2 16.5 16.2 100.0 71.3 13.5 15.2 100.0 53.1 27.0 19.9

100.0 59.1 21.0 19.9 100.0 62.2 18.1 19.8 100.0 49.0 30.8 20.2

100.0 51.6 30.9 17.4 100.0 54.1 28.7 17.2 100.0 44.2 37.6 18.2

Rate Per 1,000 Women Total, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses White, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses Other races, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses

109.0 67.2 27.3 14.4 97.2 63.0 21.2 13.0 166.5 87.5 57.3 21.7

3.3 1.3 1.7 0.3 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.2 9.7 4.0 4.9 0.7

110.8 53.6 44.0 13.2 93.4 43.7 36.6 13.1 184.3 95.3 75.5 13.6

185.3 111.5 54.2 19.6 161.7 102.5 42.3 16.9 292.3 152.3 108.5 31.5

Percent Distribution Total, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses White, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses Other races, all pregnancies Live births Induced abortions Fetal losses

100.0 61.7 25.1 13.3 100.0 64.8 21.8 13.3 100.0 52.6 34.4 13.1

100.0 39.2 50.5 10.3 100.0 35.6 50.2 14.2 100.0 41.8 50.7 7.5


186


100.0 48.4 39.7 11.9 100.0 46.9 39.2 14.0 100.0 51.7 41.0 7.4

100.0 60.2 29.3 10.6 100.0 63.4 26.2 10.5 100.0 52.1 37.1 10.8

TABLE 7.18 IDEAL NUMBER OF CHILDREN, 1945–1990 Number of Childrena Year

None

One

Two

1945 1957 1970 1980 1990

1 1 0 1 3

1 1 1 3 3

22 19 39 51 57

Three or More 76 78 60 37 29

a

Percent saying number is ideal, for selected years. Source: Margaret Ambry and Cheryl Russell, The Official Guide to the American Marketplace (Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), 420.

Sexual Behavior and Attitudes Americans traditionally had found sexual activity a sensitive subject. Although there had always been free, lively, frequently coarse discussion among young men, open attention to sex was a different proposition. In many circles mention of such intimate matters was considered inappropriate and in poor taste; in other circles it was thought to be downright dirty. Not surprisingly, there had been virtually no effort to measure the boundaries of sexual behavior or to survey attitudes about it. The principal exception in the postwar period had been the work of a stodgy, middle-aged scientist, a professor of biology at Indiana University, Alfred C. Kinsey, who almost by accident began taking “sex histories’’ of those of his students bold enough to participate.The project mushroomed. Kinsey established the Institute for Sex Research at Indiana, a move that brought him funds and staff to broaden his work. He eventually published his findings in two dry, scholarly but nonetheless sensational volumes, Sexual Behavior of the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior of the Human Female (1953). Most stunning about Kinsey’s work, aside from the fact that he broached the subject at all, was his revelation of the extent of sexual activity inside, outside, and as a supplement to marriage, the various and bizarre forms it took, that it could be and was for the pleasure of females as well as males. Such sensational material invited criticism, and it soon came. Clergymen attacked Kinsey’s casual treatment of a sensitive subject (or for treating it at all); scholars raised questions, some of them legitimate, about aspects of his research. None of this criticism diminished the idea that Kinsey was a major pioneer in social science. Kinsey’s work revealed that Americans were doing a great deal more with sex than it would appear, and the effect was greater because of an impression that they were hardly doing anything at all, at least little that was considered inappropriate. Even allowing for Kinsey’s corrections, the immediate postwar era was a time of social conservatism. Most people believed that sexual intercourse was something that should be saved for marriage—one heard it from the pulpit and from the parents. Childbirth before marriage did take place, of course, but the number was not large, and when it happened, it perhaps no longer was treated as a disgrace but still was the sort of behavior one tried to hide if at all possible. In a Gallup Poll of 1948 only 30 percent of women and 34 percent of men approved of women wearing slacks (long pants) in public. In another poll in 1955 73 percent of women and 55 percent of men disapproved of women wearing Bermuda shorts (a new style that was considerably longer than the so-called short shorts) “on the streets.’’As a rule in the movies a kiss was as far as one could go. What followed in the early to mid-1960s probably could be better termed evolution—for it still was going on as the 1990s began—than

a revolution in sexual behavior and even more markedly in public exposure to the subject. The change might have been encouraged by Kinsey’s studies, but it was fed by several forces that grew out of the sixties. Development of the contraceptive pill, which was most popular with unmarried women, did much to remove a major detriment, the fear of pregnancy, to intercourse.The baby boom generation began to reach sexual maturity in the 1960s and with it came attitudes and expectations different from the generation that had preceded it. Many—by no means all—discovered that it was fun, fashionable, and even inspiring to challenge prevailing attitudes, whether they had to do with race,Vietnam, or sexual mores. Sexual restraint, in this thinking, was old stuff; one should do what one wanted. The late 1960s and early 1970s marked a major revival of a woman’s movement, and although there soon would develop several factions, with different emphases, there was fairly broad agreement that equality for females, even if variously defined, was the ultimate goal. Equality, as it developed, often involved allowing women to do whatever men were doing. Carried over to sexual behavior, the idea had the effect of substantially (but not entirely) removing what had been a powerful and persistent restraint on premarital sexual activity: the girl’s propensity—some would say her responsibility—to say no. Supreme Court rulings on censorship substantially broadened the territory into which the media could tread in dealing with sex. Now it was possible to see nudity on the screen and couples in bed, and sex acts, either implicit or explicit, became commonplace—a far cry from the Production Code of the film industry’s Hays Committee in the 1940s and 1950s. Change in sexual behavior and social attitudes that began in the 1960s became more pronounced in the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1980s women were twice as likely to have had intercourse before age 18 as in the late 1950s. By the 1980s some 70 percent of all married women had had premarital intercourse (In 1953, Kinsey had put the number at 50 percent, at the time a stunning statistic). An overwhelming majority of abortions had been performed on unmarried women.The large increase in the rate of illegitimate births after 1970 reflected both increased activity and greater acceptance of childbirth out of wedlock. The liberalization of attitudes did not carry over to extramarital activity. Polls through the 1970s and 1980s revealed a fairly consistent feeling that sex by a married person with anyone other than the spouse was wrong. More than 80 percent of both husbands and wives in 1988 reported having had relations with only one partner during the previous year. Surveys and special studies since the 1970s have examined relations between males and females extensively; researchers have done less with homosexual behavior.They have failed to produce a reliable statistic on the number of people involved. Kinsey, who first probed the issue, reported in 1948 that 37 percent of males had had at least one homosexual contact and that some 10 percent of adults were practicing homosexuals. Recent scholars have challenged these numbers as too high, and although there was no agreement on a number, 2 or 3 percent often came up. Polls continued to show that a substantial majority of people disapproved of homosexuality but not to the extent of establishing policy discriminatory against gay people. Discovery of AIDS in the early 1980s and an initial belief that AIDS almost exclusively afflicted gay people produced a measure of nonchalance about the disease if not hostility directed at homosexuals. Better understanding of the disease and death of such prominent people as performers Rock Hudson and Liberace caused sentiment to turn into alarm and sympathy for the people affected. The shift corresponded with a growing movement to honor diversity in all its forms. Diversity was to manifest itself, among other ways, in an increased tolerance toward almost any point of view. Homosexuals would benefit, perhaps more than any group, from popular endorsement of this attitude. Vital Statistics and Health Care

187

TABLE 7.19 PERCENTAGE OF MEN AND WOMEN WHO HAVE HAD INTERCOURSE BY AGE 18, 1956–1988a Year

1956–58

1959–64

1965–67

1968–70

1971–73

1974–79

1980–82

1983–85

1986–88

Men Women

... 27

... 31

... 31

55 35

61 45

64 47

63 51

64 52

73 56

a

Data obtained from tabulations of the National Surveys of Family Growth. Source: The Allan Guttmacher Institute, Sex and America’s Teenagers (New York, 1994), 20.

TABLE 7.20

WOMEN AGE 15–19 WHO HAVE EVER HAD INTERCOURSE, BY SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS, 1988

(in percentage) Women

Percent

Black Hispanic White

61 49 52

Poor Low income Higher income

60 53 50

Roman Catholic Fundamentalist Protestant Other Protestant

48 55 54 60

Urban Rural

53 53

Source: Guttmacher Institute, Sex and Teenagers, 26.

TABLE 7.21 ADULTS REPORTING SEXUAL PARTNERS IN PAST 12 MONTHS, BY MARITAL STATUS, SEX, AND AGE, 1988a

Married Men, Spouse in Household Age of Respondents

Age of Respondents Number of Sex Partners

18–29

30–44

45–60

611

Total

16.4% 64.6 6.4 1.8 0.9 0.9 1.8 7.3

30.3% 60.6 0.8 2.3 2.3 ... ... 3.8

14.6% 61.3 5.6 4.7 3.1 2.8 1.4 6.4

All Men 0 1 2 3 4 5–10 101 No answer

9.7% 46.1 9.1 9.7 6.1 8.5 3.0 7.9

8.2% 71.0 5.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.9 6.5

188

30–44

45–60

611

0 1 2 3 4 5–10 101 No answer

7.3% 66.0 13.1 4.2 2.1 1.0 ... 6.3

7.1% 77.8 5.2 4.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 3.6

28.5% 62.9 2.6 0.7 ... ... 0.7 4.6

60.8% 26.7% 29.8 58.2 0.8 5.2 ... 2.6 ... 0.7 0.4 0.5 ... 0.2 8.2 5.9


0 1 2 3 4 5–10 101 No answer

0% 80.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 ... ... 12.0

30–44 3.8% 87.2 2.6 ... ... 0.6 ... 5.8

45–60 8.9% 78.5 3.8 1.3 ... 1.3 1.3 5.1

611

Total

20.4% 74.2 ... 1.1 1.1 ... ... 3.2

8.5% 81.2 2.1 1.1 0.5 0.5 0.3 5.8

Age of Respondents

Age of Respondents 18–29

18–29

Married Women, Spouse in Household

All Women Number of Sex Partners

Number of Sex Partners

Total

a

Number of Sex Partners

18–29

30–44

45–60

611

0 1 2 3 4 5–10 101

0% 89.3 3.6 24 ... ... ...

3.5% 91.6 ... ... ... ... ...

7.3% 85.4 ... ... ... ... 1.2

24.5% 8.8% 65.3 82.9 1.0 1.0 ... 0.5 ... ... 1.0 0.2 ... 0.2

. . . indicates zero. Survey by National Opinion Research Center. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 207.

Total

TABLE 7.22

SEXUAL FREQUENCY BY SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS, 1988–1989

Question: How often did you have sex during the last 12 months?a

(row percentages) Characteristics

Not at All

Once or Twice

About Once a Month

2–3 Times a Month

About Once a Week

2–3 Times a Week

More Than 3 Times a week

(n)

Male

Non-Hispanic/White Black Hispanic Other

13.7 2.7 5.0 26.7

6.6 2.7 10.0 6.7

8.0 16.2 10.0 20.0

18.0 13.5 ... 6.7

23.6 13.5 35.0 20.0

24.8 43.2 30.0 20.0

5.3 8.1 10.0 ...

(512) (37) (20) (15)

Female

Non-Hispanic/White Black Hispanic Other

29.4 26.3 27.3 15.8

6.3 13.7 6.8 31.6

7.9 7.4 2.3 26.3

15.3 15.8 20.5 21.1

16.8 11.6 13.6 5.3

19.9 22.1 25.0 ...

4.4 3.2 4.5 ...

(619) (95) (44) (19)

Male

Age 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–64 651

20.0 7.4 5.8 7.4 36.4

8.0 8.1 1.5 5.2 12.5

10.7 5.4 4.4 9.6 19.3

12.0 12.1 19.7 24.4 12.5

18.7 21.5 29.2 27.4 14.8

24.0 35.6 33.6 23.0 4.5

6.7 10.1 5.8 3.0 ...

(75) (149) (137) (135) (88)

Female

Age 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–64 651

16.5 5.1 11.0 28.7 75.0

8.9 10.7 7.6 8.6 3.7

7.6 5.1 6.2 12.0 7.9

15.2 15.7 22.1 19.6 6.1

15.2 20.2 21.4 14.8 7.3

24.1 38.8 26.9 12.9 ...

12.7 4.5 4.8 3.3 ...

(79) (178) (145) (209) (164)

Male

Education 0–11 12 13–15 16 171

17.6 13.1 12.3 11.8 9.5

8.8 5.7 5.8 7.4 6.0

9.8 8.0 11.0 7.4 6.0

10.8 17.7 15.6 22.1 20.2

23.5 21.1 24.0 22.1 27.4

23.5 28.0 26.0 23.5 27.4

5.9 6.3 5.2 5.9 3.6

(102) (175) (154) (68) (84)

Female

0–11 12 13–15 16 171

45.8 27.5 18.8 21.4 13.7

6.5 6.1 10.5 2.9 19.6

7.5 8.8 7.3 4.3 13.7

12.4 12.6 18.8 24.3 21.6

9.5 19.5 16.2 15.7 17.6

12.4 21.8 25.1 27.1 11.8

6.0 3.8 3.1 4.3 2.0

(201) (262) (191) (70) (51)

Male

Married Widowed Divorced Separated Never Married

5.8 72.2 10.4 6.7 25.2

4.2 ... 6.3 13.3 12.6

9.2 5.6 6.3 6.7 9.8

20.3 5.6 14.6 33.3 8.4

27.5 11.1 25.0 6.7 15.4

28.6 ... 22.9 33.3 23.1

4.4 5.6 14.6 ... 5.6

(360) (18) (48) (15) (143)

Female

Married Widowed Divorced Separated Never Married

10.8 90.4 31.8 25.6 24.8

6.3 2.6 10.0 7.7 15.0

10.0 1.8 7.3 5.1 9.0

20.7 2.6 16.4 12.8 13.5

21.8 1.8 14.5 15.4 11.3

25.7 .9 18.2 23.1 20.3

4.7 ... 1.8 10.3 6.0

(381) (114) (110) (39) (133)

a

General Social Surveys—National Opinion Research Center. Source: Chadwick and Wheaton, Handbook on the Family, 141.


189

TABLE 7.23

ATTITUDES TOWARD SEXUAL ISSUES

If a man and a woman have sex relations before marriage, is it wrong? Percent saying “not wrong at all’’a

1. Year

1972

1975

1977

1979

26

32

36

...

1982 40

1985

1987

1988

1989

42

...

40

39

2. It is . . . a good idea for a couple to live together before getting married . . . to find out whether they . . . get along? Percent saying “agree’’b Year

1972

1975

1977

1979

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

...

35

39

37

42

46

53

51

...

3. If two people really like each other, it’s all right for them to have sex even if they’ve known each other only a very short time. Percent saying “agree’’c Year

1972

1975

1977

1979

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

...

50

50

49

48

...

52

50

50

4. What is your opinion about a married person having sexual relations with someone other than the marriage partner? Percent saying “always wrong’’a Year

1972

1975

1977

1979

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

69e

73e

72

...

72

75

75

74

71

5. What about sexual relations between two adults of the same sex? Percent saying “always Year

1972

1975

1977

70e

67e

69

1979 ...

wrong’’a

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

70

75

75

74

71

6. Do you think homosexual relations between consenting adults should or should not be legal? Percent saying “not legal’’d Year

1972

1975

...

...

1977 43

1979 ...

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

39

47

54

55

36

7. It is important to have laws prohibiting homosexual relations. Percent saying “agree’’c Year

1972

1975

...

...

1977

1979

1982

1985

1987

1988

1989

49

47

47

48

53

...

...

a

Survey conducted by National Opinion Research Center. Respondants were high school students. Survey by Survey Research Center, University of Michigan. Respondants were college students. Survey by Cooperative Research Program at U.C.L.A. d Survey by Gallup Poll. e Statistics are for years 1973 and 1974 instead of 1972 and 1975. Source: Chadwick and Wheaton, Handbook on the Family, 145–46. b c

Marriage On the whole the marriage rate remained reasonably steady in the 45 years after 1945.The sharpest shift came at the start, in the immediate postwar period, which experienced a momentary surge in marriages that can be explained as a rush into unions that the war had prevented or at least delayed and an effort to establish a “normal’’ life in the wake of the great upheaval of wartime. In 1946 the rate stood at a high—and for the general period, abnormal—point of 16.4 marriages per 1,000 population.Then the rate moved down, losing four points in two years, and reached the low point of 8.4 in 1958. By 1966 the rate had climbed back to slightly less than 10 and remained in that territory—a point or less below or a point or less above 10—through the 1980s. Perhaps more striking than the marriage rate was the change in age at (first) marriage and the fact that so many of those who wed did not remain married. The age of first marriage edged upward begining in the 1950s and by 1990 had increased more than three years for both men and women. Men still waited longer than women and the differ190


ence remained nearly the same in 1990 as it had been in the 1940s: approximately three years. Clearly, however, both sexes were taking longer to marry. In 1960, 90 percent of women married before they reached 30; in 1990 only 69 percent had done so. In 1970, 21 percent of men were not married at age 30; in 1990 46 percent were single. Some of the more interesting statistics involved interracial marriage, especially between blacks and whites. Unions of this sort long had been a delicate, and in the former Confederate states, a risky, issue, especially if the coupling involved a black man and white woman. Interracial marriage remained illegal in 16 states well into the postwar era; not until June 1967 did the Supreme Court find such legislation unconstitutional. By striking down a law in Virginia, it also made measures in 15 other states inoperable. Thereafter the number of black-white marriages remained small as compared with all marriages, but the increase was enough to attract notice, and most of the growth came in unions between black men and white women. Also noticable, if less controversial, was growth of interracial marriage other than a black-white combination.

TABLE 7.24 MARRIAGES AND MARRIAGE RATES, 1945–1990

Divorce

Rate per 1,000 population Total

Men 15 Years

Women

Year Number Population of Age and Older 15 Years and Older 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

1,612,992 1,667,231 1,531,000 1,523,000 1,800,000 2,158,802 2,152,662

12.2 11.1 9.3 8.5 9.3 10.6 10.0

35.8 30.7 27.2 25.4 27.9 31.1 27.9

30.5 29.8 25.8 24.0 26.0 28.4 25.6

1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

2,390,252 2,412,625 2,407,099 2,403,378 2,395,926 2,403,268 2,443,489

10.6 10.1 10.0 9.9 9.8 9.7 9.8

28.5 27.0 26.6 26.3 26.0 25.8 26.0

26.1 24.9 24.5 24.3 24.0 23.9 24.1

Source: Alsop, Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998, 693.

TABLE 7.25 MEDIAN AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, BY SEX, 1947–1990 Year

Men

Women

1947 1950 1955 1960 1965

23.7 22.8 22.6 22.8 22.8

20.5 20.3 20.2 20.3 20.6

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

23.2 23.5 24.7 25.5 26.1

20.8 21.1 22.0 23.3 23.9

Source: Bureau of the Census, Marital Status and Living Arrangements: March 1990 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 1.

TABLE 7.26

INTERRACIAL MARRIED COUPLES, 1960–1990

(in thousands) Year All married couples Interracial married couples Black-white married couples husband white, wife black husband black, wife white Other interracial married couples husband black wife black husband white wife white

1960

1970

1980

1990

40,491 ...

44,597 310

49,714 651

53,227 964

51 26 25

65 24 41

167 45 122

211 61 150

245 8 4 139 94

484 20 14 287 163

753 24 9 436 284

... ... ... ... ...

Hispanic/Hispanic couples

...

...

1,906

3,857

Hispanic/non-Hispanic couples

...

...

891

1,434

Divorce rates began the postwar period at a high level. The first year after the war, 1946, produced 610,000 divorces with a rate of 4.3 per 1,000 population, both national records that probably were explanable in hasty wartime marriages or the failure of unions in which the members had grown apart during the experience of war. As the country moved into the cold war era, with couples concerned with economic betterment, buying a new house, and in generally being accepted by their peers, the number of divorces and the rate dropped sharply. One of the trademarks of the early anticommunist movement (promiscuity being associated with communism) was for couples to stay together (there were of course other reasons to do so). Those couples who produced the baby boom were expected, as they had been in the past, to cooperate in its rearing, at least in the early stages. The lowest number of divorces in the postwar era (368,000) and the lowest ratio (2:1) came in 1958. Marriages for the most part held together in the 1950s, either because they were working or because the partners felt that they should stick it out. As the 1960s produced new attitudes and priorities, and as the baby boomers reached age of marriage, the divorce rate began to move slowly but steadily upward. Even though the 1970s theoretically brought another shift in emphasis, it did not reverse the trend in the breakup of marriages. The largest increase in divorce came in the 1970s, the highest ratio in national history (5.3) recorded in 1979, a number that would be repeated in 1981. If the end of the 1980s produced a slight decline, it was a reduction of a high starting point. The rate continued to stand very close to 5. High divorce rates affected virtually all groups, but some had higher numbers than others.With respect to age, the people most affected after 1970 were young: Half of the women and more than half of the men divorcing in 1988 were under age 25.With respect to race and ethnicity the effect was most profound with black couples. The condition of marriage and divorce in the cold war era perhaps can best be summed up in a table that measured the maritial status of the population more than 15 years old in a given year. In the year 1950 more than 67 percent of males of all races were married, and the status of women was similar; white men ranked very close to the national average, black men, some 64 percent of whom were married, were only 3 percent below the average. By 1990 the national average had dropped nearly 7 percent, no mean decline in itself.White men ranked slightly above the national average—nearly 63 percent of males were married. Approximately 59 percent of white women were married—3 percent higher than the average, also 3 percent lower than the men, largely because, one must assume, husbands died earlier than wives. Between 1950 and 1990 the marriage rate dropped a remarkable 19.7 percent for black men and 22.2 percent for black women. Only 45 percent of black men and 40 percent of black women 15 years and older were married in 1990. If, as often has been the case, marriage has been taken as a mark of a stable society, it would appear that in the halfcentury since the Second World War, American society in general, and black society in particular, became substantially more unstable.

Source: John W. Wright, The New York Times 1998 Almanac (New York, 1997), 281; Alsop, Wall Street Journal Almanac 1998, 710.


191

TABLE 7.27

DIVORCE AND ANNULMENTS AND RATES, 1946–1990

TABLE 7.29

(rate per 1,000)

MARITAL STATUS OF THE POPULATION 15 YEARS AND OLDER BY SEX AND RACE, 1950–1990

(percent)

Year

Divorces and Annulments

Total Population

Married Women 15 Years and Older

1946 1947 1948 1950 1952 1954

610,000 483,000 408,000 385,000 392,000 379,000

4.3 3.4 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.4

17.9 13.6 11.2 10.3 10.1 9.5

Year

1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966

382,000 368,000 393,000 413,000 450,000 499,000

2.3 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5

9.4 8.9 9.2 9.4 10.0 10.9

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978

584,000 708,000 845,000 977,000 1,083,000 1,130,000

2.9 3.5 4.0 4.6 5.0 5.1

12.5 14.9 17.0 19.3 21.1 21.9

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

1,189,000 1,170,000 1,169,000 1,178,000 1,167,000 1,182,000

5.2 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7

22.6 21.7 21.5 21.2 20.7 20.9

Unmarried Married Total

Never Married

Widowed Divorced

Males All Races 67.5 69.3 66.8 63.2 60.7

32.5 30.7 33.2 36.8 39.3

26.4 25.3 28.1 29.6 29.9

4.1 3.5 2.9 2.4 2.5

2.0 1.8 2.2 4.8 7.6

4.0 3.4 2.7 2.3 2.4

2.0 1.8 2.1 4.7 6.8

5.2 4.8 4.4 3.7 3.4

1.9 2.0 3.1 6.3 8.1

11.8 12.5 12.5 12.0 11.5

2.4 2.6 3.5 6.6 8.9

11.5 12.3 12.4 11.9 11.6

2.4 2.5 3.4 6.4 8.6

14.6 14.3 13.8 13.0 11.6

2.7 4.3 4.4 8.7 11.2

White 67.8 70.3 68.0 65.0 62.8

32.1 29.7 32.0 35.0 37.2

26.1 24.5 27.2 28.1 28.0 Black

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

64.4 60.9 56.9 48.9 45.1

35.6 39.1 43.1 51.1 54.9

28.5 32.4 35.6 41.1 43.4 Females

Note: “Total population’’ includes people under 15 as well. Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Supplements to Vital Statistics Report, 1989 and 1990, 9.

All Races 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

65.8 65.9 61.9 58.9 56.9

34.2 34.1 38.1 41.1 43.1

20.0 19.0 22.1 22.5 22.8 White

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

66.2 66.6 62.8 60.7 59.1

33.8 33.4 37.2 39.3 40.9

19.9 18.7 21.3 21.0 20.6 Black

TABLE 7.28 DIVORCED PERSONS PER 1,000 MARRIED PERSONS, BY SEX AND RACE, 1960–1990 Race

1960

1970

1980

1990

100 92 203 98

142 133 282 129

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

62.0 59.8 54.1 44.6 40.2

38.0 40.2 45.9 55.4 59.8

20.7 21.6 27.7 33.6 36.9

Source: Mark S. Littman, A Statistical Portrait of the U. S., Social Conditions and Trends (Lanham, Md., 1998), 210.

Both Sexes All races White Black Hispanic

35 33 62 ...

47 44 83 61 Male

All races White Black Hispanic

28 27 45 ...

35 32 62 40

79 74 149 64

118 112 208 103

120 110 258 132

166 153 358 155

Female All races White Black Hispanic

42 38 78 ...

60 56 104 81

Source: Bureau of Census, Marital Status: March 1990, 3.

192


Families and Households As utilized by the Bureau of Census, virtually every American was (and is) part of a household and part of a family. The terms came to refer to living arrangements as opposed to related individuals who lived in different places. Having determined that every person, even one who lived alone, belonged to some form of household, the bureau established two principal categories: the family household made up of two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption, and the nonfamily household made up of a person living alone or with other unrelated individuals. Not unexpectedly, the number of households has increased sharply since the Second World War; the fact that only a small portion of the growth has come in family households was probably unanticipated.

Either because of divorce, slowness to marry, or the willingness of men and women to cohabit outside of marriage, the great increase has come in nonfamily households—a situation that also reflected changed social values and practices. The proportion of married-couple households decreased nearly 20 percent between 1950 and 1990, and the nonfamily households grew by approximately the same percentage. A major increase also came in single-parent households, which usually involved a divorced or never-married woman with children. Such conditions, which offered an open invitation to social problems, fell most heavily on black families. If 67 percent of black children lived with two parents in 1960, by 1990 the number had dropped to fewer than 40 percent. More than half of black children lived with only a mother.

TABLE 7.30

Another conspicuous change has been the increase in unmarried heterosexual cohabitation, the bulk of the growth coming after 1970. If at the start of the 1970s some 11 percent of couples had lived together before marriage, by the mid-1980s the number approached 50 percent, and the younger the people involved the more likely they were willing to cohabit before (or as a substitute for) marriage. Because much of the increase in households came in breaking off from family households and because, beginning in the 1960s, the birthrate underwent a sharp decline, it logically followed that the average size of the family would decrease in a corresponding way.

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS, BY TYPE, 1947–1990 Family Households

Nonfamily Households

Other Family

Year

Total

Married Couple

1947 1950 1955 1960 1965

89.4 89.2 87.2 85.0 83.3

78.3 78.2 75.7 74.3 72.6

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

81.2 78.1 73.9 72.3 70.8

70.5 66.0 60.9 58.0 56.0

Male Householder

Female Householder

Total

Male Householder

Female Householder

2.8 2.7 2.8 2.3 2.0

8.2 8.3 8.7 8.4 8.7

10.6 10.8 12.8 15.0 16.7

3.5 3.8 4.3 5.1 5.7

7.0 7.0 8.5 8.9 11.0

1.9 2.1 2.2 2.6 3.1

8.7 10.0 10.8 11.7 11.7

18.8 21.9 26.1 27.7 29.2

6.4 8.3 10.9 11.7 12.4

12.4 13.6 15.3 16.1 16.8


TABLE 7.31 FAMILIES MAINTAINED BY WOMEN, WITH NO HUSBAND PRESENT, 1960–1990 (numbers in thousands) 1960 Women

1970

1975

1980 Number

1990

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Percent

Number

Percent

Age of women: Under 35 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and over Median age

796 940 1,731 1,027 50.1

17.7 20.9 38.5 22.9 ...

1,364 1,074 2,021 1,131 48.5

24.4 19.2 36.1 20.2 ...

2,356 1,510 2,266 1,108 43.4

32.5 20.9 31.3 15.3 ...

3,015 1,916 2,514 1,260 41.7

34.6 22.0 28.9 14.5 ...

3,699 2,929 2,790 1,471 40.7

34.0 26.9 25.6 13.5 ...

Presence of children: No own children under 18 years With own children under 18 years Total own children under 18 years Average per family Average per family with children

2,397 2,097 4,674 1.04 2.24

53.3 46.7 ... ... ...

2,665 2,926 6,694 1.20 2.29

47.7 52.3 ... ... ...

2,838 4,404 9,227 1.27 2.10

39.2 60.8 ... ... ...

3,260 5,445 10,204 1.17 1.87

37.4 62.6 ... ... ...

4,290 6,599 11,378 1.04 1.72

39.4 60.6 ... ... ...

Race: White Black Other

3,547 947 ...

78.9 21.1 ...

4,165 1,382 44

74.5 24.7 0.8

5,212 1,940 90

72.0 26.8 1.2

6,052 2,495 158

69.5 28.7 1.8

7,306 3,275 309

67.1 30.1 2.8

Marital status: Married, husband absent Widowed Divorced Never married

1,099 2,325 694 376

24.5 51.7 15.4 8.4

1,326 2,396 1,259 610

23.7 42.9 22.5 10.9

1,647 2,559 2,110 926

22.7 35.3 29.1 12.8

1,769 2,570 3,008 1,359

20.3 29.5 34.6 15.6

1,947 2,536 3,949 2,457

17.9 23.3 36.3 22.6

Total families maintained by women

4,494

100.0

5,591

100.0

7,242

100.0

8,705

100.0

10,890

100.0

Source: Otto Johnson, ed., The 1992 Information Please Almanac (Boston, 1991), 808.


193

TABLE 7.32

FAMILY AND NONFAMILY HOUSEHOLDS, BY RACE, HISPANIC ORIGIN, AND TYPE, 1970–1990

Race, Hispanic Origin, and Type

Number (1,000)

Family Households White, total Married couple Male householder Female householder Black, total Married couple Male householder Female householder Asian or Pacific Islander, total Married couple Male householder Female householder Hispanic, total Married couple Male householder Female householder


1970

1980

1985

1990

1970

1980

1985

1990

46,166 41,029 1,038 4,099 4,856 3,317 181 1,358 ... ... ... ... 2,004 1,615 82 307

52,243 44,751 1,441 6,052 6,184 3,433 256 2,495 818 691 39 88 3,029 2,282 138 610

54,400 45,643 1,816 6,941 6,778 3,469 344 2,964 ... ... ... ... 3,939 2,824 210 905

56,590 46,981 2,303 7,306 7,470 3,750 446 3,275 1,531 1,256 86 188 4,840 3,395 329 1,116

100 89 2 9 100 68 4 28 ... ... ... ... 100 81 4 15

100 86 3 12 100 56 4 40 100 84 5 11 100 75 5 20

100 84 3 13 100 51 5 44 ... ... ... ... 100 72 5 23

100 83 4 13 100 50 6 44 100 82 6 12 100 70 7 23

23,573 9,951 13,622 3,015 1,313 1,702 1,093 587 506

100 33 67 100 41 59 100 50 49

100 40 60 100 48 52 100 56 44

100 41 59 100 46 54 100 54 46

100 42 58 100 44 56 100 54 46

Nonfamily Households White, total Male householder Female householder Black, total Male householder Female householder Hispanic, total Male householder Female householder

10,436 3,406 7,030 1,367 564 803 299 150 148

18,522 7,499 11,023 2,402 1,146 1,256 654 365 289

20,928 8,608 12,320 2,703 1,244 1,459 944 509 435


TABLE 7.33 LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF CHILDREN UNDER 18 YEARS, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1960–1990 Numbers in Thousands Living Arrangement

1960

1970

1980

Percent Distribution 1990

1960

1970

1980

1990

64,137 46,503 15,867 13,874 1,993 1,422 346

100.0 87.7 9.1 8.0 1.1 2.5 0.7

100.0 85.2 11.9 10.8 1.1 2.2 0.7

100.0 76.7 19.7 18.0 1.7 3.1 0.6

100.0 72.5 24.7 21.6 3.1 2.2 0.5

51,390 40,593 9,870 8,321 1,549 708 220

100.0 90.9 7.1 6.1 1.0 1.4 0.5

100.0 89.5 8.7 7.8 0.9 1.2 0.6

100.0 82.7 15.1 13.5 1.6 1.7 0.5

100.0 79.0 19.2 16.2 3.0 1.4 0.4

10,018 3,781 5,485 5,132 353 654 98

100.0 67.0 21.9 19.9 2.0 9.6 1.5

100.0 58.5 31.8 29.5 2.3 8.7 1.0

100.0 42.2 45.8 43.9 1.9 10.7 1.3

100.0 37.7 54.8 51.2 3.5 6.5 1.0

7,174 4,789 2,154 1,943 211 177 54

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

100.0 77.7 ... ... ... ... ...

100.0 75.7 21.1 19.6 1.5 3.4 0.1

100.0 66.8 30.0 27.1 2.9 2.5 0.8

All Races Children under 18 years Living with—Two parents One parent Mother only Father only Other relatives Nonrelatives only

63,727 55,877 5,829 5,105 724 1,601 420

69,162 58,939 8,199 7,452 748 1,547 477

63,427 48,624 12,466 11,406 1,060 1,949 388

Children under 18 years Living with—Two parents One parent Mother only Father only Other relatives Nonrelatives only

55,077 50,082 3,932 3,381 551 774 288

58,790 52,624 5,109 4,581 528 696 362

52,242 43,200 7,901 7,059 842 887 254

White

Black Children under 18 years Living with—Two parents One parent Mother only Father only Other relatives Nonrelatives only

8,650 5,795 1,897 1,723 173 827 132

9,422 5,508 2,996 2,783 213 820 97

9,375 3,956 4,297 4,117 180 999 123 Hispanic

Children under 18 years Living with—Two parents One parent Mother only Father only Other relatives Nonrelatives only

... ... ... ... ... ... ...


194


4,006 3,111 ... ... ... ... ...

5,459 4,116 1,152 1,069 83 183 8

TABLE 7.34

UNMARRIED-COUPLE HOUSEHOLDS, BY PRESENCE OF CHILDREN, 1960–1990

TABLE 7.35 BALANCE OF MALES AND FEMALES 85 YEARS AND OLDER, 1940–1990

(in thousands) Year

Total

Without Children Under 15 Years

1960 1970 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

439 523 1,137 1,589 1,863 1,988 2,220 2,558 2,856

242 327 865 1,159 1,387 1,373 1,558 1,786 1,966

With Children Under 15 Years 197 196 272 431 475 614 662 802 891

Year

Sex Ratio

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

75.0 69.7 63.9 53.3 43.7 38.6

Excess of Females (thousands) 52 103 205 430 877 1,339

Sex ratio is males per 100 females 85 years old and older. Source: Darnay, Record of Older Americans, 32.


TABLE 7.36

GROWTH OF OLDER POPULATION, 1940–1990

(in thousands) Year

Total number (all ages) 65 to 74 years Number Percent 75 to 79 years Number Percent 80 to 84 years Number Percent 80 years and over Number Percent 85 years and over Number Percent 65 years and over Number Percent

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

131,669

150,697

179,323

203,302

226,546

248,710

6,376 4.8

8,415 5.6

10,997 6.1

12,447 6.1

15,581 6.9

18,045 7.3

1,504 1.1

2,128 1.4

3,054 1.7

3,838 1.9

4,794 2.1

6,103 2.5

774 0.6

1,149 0.8

1,580 0.9

2,286 1.1

2,935 1.3

3,909 1.6

1,139 0.9

1,726 1.1

2,509 1.4

3,695 1.8

5,175 2.3

6,930 2.8

365 0.3

577 0.4

929 0.5

1,409 0.7

2,240 1.0

3,021 1.2

9,019 6.8

12,269 8.1

16,560 9.2

19,980 9.8

25,550 11.3

31,079 12.5

Source: Arsen J. Darnay, ed., Statistical Record of Older Americans (Detroit, 1994), 47–48.

TABLE 7.37 LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF THE ELDERLY, 1980 AND 1990 (in thousands) 1980

1990 Percent Distribution


Living Arrangement and Age

Total

Men

Women

Men

Women

Total

Men

Women

Men

65 years and older Alone With spouse With other relatives With nonrelatives only 65 to 74 years Alone With spouse With other relatives With nonrelatives only 75 to 84 years Alone With spouse With other relatives With nonrelatives only 85 years and older Alone With spouse With other relatives With nonrelatives only

24,157 7,067 12,781 3,892 417 15,302 3,750 9,436 1,890 226 7,172 2,664 2,977 1,394 137 1,683 653 368 608 54

9,889 1,447 7,441 832 169 6,621 797 5,285 436 103 2,708 505 1,882 271 50 560 145 274 125 16

14,268 5,620 5,340 3,060 248 8,681 2,953 4,151 1,454 123 4,464 2,159 1,095 1,123 87 1,123 508 94 483 38

100.0 14.6 75.2 8.4 1.7 100.0 12.0 79.8 6.6 1.6 100.0 18.6 69.5 10.0 1.8 100.0 25.9 48.9 22.3 2.9

100.0 39.4 37.4 21.4 1.7 100.0 34.0 47.8 16.7 1.4 100.0 48.4 24.5 25.2 1.9 100.0 45.2 8.4 43.0 3.4

29,566 9,176 16,003 3,734 653 17,979 4,350 11,353 1,931 345 9,354 3,774 4,145 1,237 198 2,233 1,051 505 567 110

12,334 1,942 9,158 953 281 8,013 1,042 6,265 528 178 3,562 688 2,537 264 73 758 213 356 160 29

17,232 7,233 6,845 2,782 372 9,966 3,309 5,089 1,401 167 5,792 3,086 1,607 974 125 1,475 838 150 406 81

100.0 15.7 74.3 7.7 2.3 100.0 13.0 78.2 6.6 2.2 100.0 19.3 71.2 7.4 2.0 100.0 28.1 47.0 21.1 3.8

Women 100.0 42.0 39.7 16.1 2.2 100.0 33.2 51.1 14.1 1.7 100.0 53.3 27.7 16.8 2.2 100.0 56.8 10.2 27.5 5.5


195

TABLE 7.38

EXPECTATION OF LIFE, BY RACE AND SEX, 1946–1990 All Races

White

All Other

Black

Year

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

66.7 68.2 69.6 69.7 70.2 70.8

64.4 65.6 66.7 66.6 66.8 67.1

69.4 71.1 72.8 73.1 73.7 74.7

67.5 69.1 70.5 70.6 71.0 71.7

65.1 66.5 67.4 67.4 67.6 68.0

70.3 72.2 73.7 74.1 74.7 75.6

59.1 60.0 63.7 63.6 64.1 65.3

57.5 59.1 61.4 61.1 61.1 61.3

61.0 62.9 66.1 66.3 67.4 69.4

... ... ... ... ... 64.1

... ... ... ... ... 60.0

... ... ... ... ... 68.3

1975 1980 1985 1987 1989 1990

72.6 73.7 74.7 74.9 75.1 75.4

68.8 70.0 71.1 71.4 71.7 71.8

76.6 77.4 78.2 78.3 78.5 78.8

73.4 74.4 75.3 75.6 75.9 76.1

69.5 70.7 71.8 72.1 72.5 72.7

77.3 78.1 78.7 78.9 79.2 79.4

68.0 69.5 71.0 71.0 70.9 71.2

63.7 65.3 67.0 66.9 66.7 67.0

72.4 73.6 74.8 75.0 74.9 75.2

66.8 68.1 69.3 69.1 68.8 69.1

62.4 63.8 65.0 64.7 64.3 64.5

71.3 72.5 73.4 73.4 73.3 73.6

Female

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Vital and Health Statistics, Supplements to the Monthly Vital Statistics Report: Advance Reports 1989 and 1990 (Hyattsville, Md., 1996), 16.

TABLE 7.39

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH, ACCORDING TO SEX—SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1984 AND 1989

Country

Male

Female

At Birth

At Birth

1984

1989

Japan Hong Kong Greece Sweden Switzerland Israel Netherlands Canada Spain Italy

74.8 75.1 73.8 73.9 73.8 73.2 73.0 73.0 73.2 71.3

76.2 74.3 74.3 74.2 74.1 73.9 73.7 73.7 73.6 73.3

Norway Australia France England and Wales Federal Republic of Germany Kuwait Denmark Cuba Austria Costa Rica

73.0 72.6 71.7 71.9 71.3 70.4 71.8 72.2 70.1 74.5

United States Ireland Northern Ireland New Zealand Singapore Belgium Portugal Finland Scotland German Democratic Republic Chile Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Poland Romania Hungary U.S.S.R.

Country

1984

1989

Japan France Switzerland Netherlands Canada Spain Sweden Hong Kong Norway Italy

80.7 80.1 80.8 79.9 80.1 79.8 80.1 81.4 79.8 77.9

82.5 81.5 81.3 81.1 80.6 80.3 80.1 80.1 80.0 79.9

73.3 73.3 73.1 72.9 72.6 72.5 72.2 72.2 72.1 72.1

Australia Greece Federal Republic of Germany Finland Austria United States England and Wales Portugal Belgium Denmark

79.3 78.6 78.1 79.0 77.3 78.2 77.9 76.2 77.8 77.8

79.6 79.4 79.2 79.0 78.9 78.6 78.4 78.2 78.2 77.9

71.2 70.8 70.3 71.2 70.2 70.8 69.3 70.5 69.9 69.6

71.8 71.7 71.4 71.4 71.4 71.4 71.1 70.9 70.6 70.1

Israel New Zealand Northern Ireland Ireland Puerto Rico Costa Rica Singapore German Democratic Republic Scotland Kuwait

76.7 77.8 76.5 76.3 78.3 78.4 75.6 75.4 75.9 74.5

77.6 77.3 77.3 77.2 77.2 76.9 76.7 76.4 76.2 75.8

67.4 71.6 67.1 68.5 67.1 66.8 67.1 65.1 62.9

70.0 69.1 69.0 68.3 67.7 66.7 66.4 65.5 64.2

Chile Poland Czechoslovakia Cuba Yugoslavia Bulgaria U.S.S.R Hungary Romania

74.8 75.0 74.6 75.3 73.0 74.5 72.7 73.3 72.7

75.7 75.5 75.4 75.3 74.8 74.8 73.9 73.9 72.3

Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States, 1992 (Hyattsville, Md., 1993), 42–43.

196


TABLE 7.40

DEATH RATES BY SEX AND RACE, 1940–1990

(number of deaths per 1,000 population) Year

1940

1950

1960

1970

1975

All Races Both Sexes Male Female

10.8 12.0 9.5

9.6 11.1 8.2

9.5 11.0 8.1

9.5 10.9 8.1

8.8 10.0 7.6

White Both Sexes Male Female

10.4 11.6 9.2

9.5 10.9 8.0

9.5 11.0 8.0

9.5 10.9 8.1

Black Both Sexes Male Female

... ... ...

... ... ...

10.4 11.8 9.1

American Indian Both Sexes Male Female

... ... ...

... ... ...

Asian or Pacific Islander Both Sexes Male Female

... ... ...

... ... ...

1978

1980

1985

1988

1990

8.7 9.8 7.6

8.8 9.8 7.9

8.8 9.5 8.1

8.9 9.5 8.3

8.6 9.2 8.1

8.9 10.0 7.8

8.8 9.8 7.8

8.9 9.8 8.1

9.0 9.6 8.4

9.1 9.6 8.7

8.9 9.4 8.5

10.0 11.9 8.3

8.8 10.6 7.3

8.6 10.2 7.1

8.6 10.3 7.3

8.5 9.9 7.3

8.9 10.3 7.6

8.7 10.0 7.5

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

4.9 6.0 3.8

4.2 4.9 3.4

4.1 4.9 3.4

4.0 4.8 3.3

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

3.0 3.6 2.2

2.8 3.4 2.2

2.8 3.4 2.3

2.8 3.4 2.3


TABLE 7.41 DEATH RATES FOR SELECTED CAUSES, BY SEX, 1950–1990 Sex and Cause of Death

1950

1960

All Persons

1970

1980

1985

1990

Deaths per 100,000 Resident Population

All Causes

841.5

760.9

714.3

585.8

548.9

520.2

Natural causes Diseases of heart Ischemic heart disease Cerebrovascular diseases Malignant neoplasms Respiratory system Colorectal Prostate2 Breast3 Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases Pneumonia and influenza Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Diabetes mellitus Human immunodeficiency virus infection

766.6 307.2 ... 88.8 125.4 12.8 ... 13.4 22.2 4.4 26.2 8.5 14.3 ...

695.2 286.2 ... 79.7 125.8 19.2 17.7 13.1 22.3 8.2 28.0 10.5 13.6 ...

636.9 253.6 ... 66.3 129.8 28.4 16.8 13.3 23.1 13.2 22.1 14.7 14.1 ...

519.7 202.0 149.8 40.8 132.8 36.4 15.5 14.4 22.7 15.9 12.9 12.2 10.1 ...

493.0 181.4 126.1 32.5 134.4 39.1 14.9 14.7 23.3 18.8 13.5 9.7 9.7 ...

465.1 152.0 102.6 27.7 135.0 41.4 13.6 16.7 23.1 19.7 14.0 8.6 11.7 9.8

73.9 57.5 23.3 11.0 5.4

65.7 49.9 22.5 10.6 5.2

77.4 53.7 27.4 11.8 9.1

66.1 42.3 22.9 11.4 10.8

55.9 34.8 18.8 11.5 8.3

55.1 32.5 18.5 11.5 10.2

External causes Unintentional injuries Motor vehicle-related injuries Suicide Homicide and legal intervention Male All causes Natural causes Diseases of heart Ischemic heart disease Cerebrovascular diseases Malignant neoplasms Respiratory system Colorectal Prostate Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases Pneumonia and influenza Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Diabetes mellitus Human immunodeficiency virus infection External causes Unintentional injuries Motor vehicle-related injuries Suicide Homicide and legal intervention

Deaths per 100,000 Resident Population 1,001.6

949.3

931.6

777.2

723.0

680.2

... 383.8 ... 91.9 130.8 21.3 ... 13.4 6.0 30.6 11.4 11.4 ...

... 375.5 ... 85.4 143.0 34.8 18.6 13.1 13.7 35.0 14.5 12.0 ...

... 348.5 ... 73.2 157.4 50.6 18.7 13.3 23.4 28.8 20.2 13.5 ...

675.5 280.4 214.8 44.9 165.5 59.7 18.3 14.4 26.1 17.4 17.1 10.2 ...

637.9 250.1 179.6 35.5 166.1 60.7 17.9 14.7 28.1 18.4 13.7 10.0 ...

595.8 206.7 144.0 30.2 166.3 61.0 16.8 16.7 27.2 18.5 12.2 12.3 17.7

... 83.7 36.4 17.3 8.4

... 73.9 34.5 16.6 7.9

... 80.7 41.1 17.3 14.9

101.7 64.0 34.3 18.0 17.4

85.2 51.8 27.3 18.8 12.8

84.4 47.7 26.3 19.0 16.3

(continued) Vital Statistics and Health Care

197

TABLE 7.41

(continued)

Sex and Cause of Death

1950

1960

Female

1970

1980

1985

1990

Deaths per 100,000 Resident Population

All causes

688.4

590.6

532.5

432.6

410.3

390.6

Natural causes Diseases of heart Ischemic heart disease Cerebrovascular diseases Malignant neoplasms Respiratory system Colorectal Breast Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases Pneumonia and influenza Chronic liver disease and cirrhosis Diabetes mellitus Human immunodeficiency virus infection

... 233.9 ... 86.0 120.8 4.6 ... 22.2 2.9 22.0 5.8 17.1 ...

... 205.7 ... 74.7 111.2 5.2 16.9 22.3 3.5 21.8 .6.9 15.0 ...

... 175.2 ... 60.8 108.8 10.1 15.4 23.1 5.4 16.7 9.8 14.4 ...

400.1 140.3 98.8 37.6 109.2 18.3 13.4 22.7 8.9 9.8 7.9 10.0 ...

382.2 127.4 84.2 30.0 111.7 22.5 12.6 23.3 12.5 10.1 6.1 9.4 ...

363.5 108.9 70.2 25.7 112.7 26.2 11.3 23.1 14.7 11.0 5.3 11.1 2.1

... 31.7 10.7 4.9 2.5

... 26.8 11.0 5.0 2.6

... 28.2 14.4 6.8 3.7

32.5 21.8 11.8 5.4 4.5

28.1 18.7 10.5 4.9 3.9

27.0 17.9 10.7 4.5 4.2

External causes Unintentional injuries Motor vehicle-related injuries Suicide Homicide and legal intervention

Source: Department of Health and Human Services, Health, United States 1996–97 (Hyattsville, Md., 1997), 111.

TABLE 7.42 DEATH RATES FOR SUICIDE, BY RACE AND SEX, 1950–1990 (deaths per 100,000 population) Race and Sex All races White male Black male White female Black female

1950

1960

1970

1975

1980

1985

1988

1989

11.0 18.1 7.0 5.3 1.7

10.6 17.5 7.8 5.3 1.9

11.8 18.2 9.9 7.2 2.9

... 19.6 11.4 7.3 2.9

11.4 18.9 11.1 5.7 2.4

11.5 19.9 11.5 5.3 2.1

11.5 19.9 11.9 5.1 2.5

11.3 19.7 12.6 4.8 2.4

1990 11.5 20.1 12.5 4.8 2.4

Source: Health and Human Services, Health, U.S., 1992, 78–79.

TABLE 7.43 DEATH RATES FOR HOMICIDE AND LEGAL INTERVENTION, BY RACE AND SEX, 1950–1990 (deaths per 100,000 population) Race and Sex

1950

All races White male Black male White female Black female

5.4 3.9 51.1 1.4 11.7

1960 5.2 3.9 44.9 1.5 11.8

1970

1975

1980

1985

1988

1989

9.1 7.3 82.1 2.2 15.0

... 9.3 79.8 2.9 16.1

10.8 10.9 71.9 3.2 13.7

8.3 8.1 50.2 2.9 10.9

9.0 7.8 58.6 2.9 12.8

9.4 8.1 61.9 2.8 13.0

Note: Legal intervention pertains to death caused by public officials—execution, death by police action, etc. Source: Health and Human Services, Health, U. S., 1992, 76–77.

198


1990 10.2 9.4 68.7 2.8 13.9

TABLE 7.44

PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF ACCIDENTAL DEATHS, 1946–1990 Total

Motor-Vehicle

Work

Public Nonmotor Vehicle

Home

Year

Deaths

Ratea

Deaths

Ratea

Deaths

Ratea

Deaths

Ratea

Deaths

Ratea

1946 1947 1948 (5th Revn.)b 1948 (6th Revn.)b 1949 1950 1951

98,033 99,579 98,001

70.0 69.4 67.1

33,411 32,697 32,259

23.9 22.8 22.1

16,500 17,000 16,000

11.8 11.9 11.0

33,000 34,500 35,000

23.6 24.1 24.0

17,500 18,000 17,000

12.5 12.6 11.6

93,000

63.7

32,259

22.1

16,000

11.0

31,000

21.2

16,000

11.0

90,106 91,249 95,871

60.6 60.3 62.5

31,701 34,763 36,996

21.3 23.0 24.1

15,000 15,500 16,000

10.1 10.2 10.4

31,000 29,000 30,000

20.9 19.2 19.6

15,000 15,000 16,000

10.1 9.9 10.4

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

96,172 95,032 90,032 93,443 94,780 95,307 90,604 92,080 93,806 92,249

61.8 60.1 55.9 56.9 56.6 55.9 52.3 52.2 52.1 50.4

37,794 37.955 35,586 38,426 39,628 38,702 36,981 37,910 38,137 38,091

24.3 24.0 22.1 23.4 23.7 22.7 21.3 21.5 21.2 20.8

15,000 15,000 14,000 14,200 14,300 14,200 13,300 13,800 13,800 13,500

9.6 9.5 8.7 8.6 8.5 8.3 7.7 7.8 7.7 7.4

30,500 29,000 28,000 28,500 28,000 28,000 26,500 27,000 28,000 27,000

19.6 18.3 17.4 17.3 16.7 16.4 15.3 15.3 15.6 14.8

16,000 16,500 15,500 15,500 16,000 17,500 16,500 16,500 17,000 16,500

10.3 10.4 9.6 9.4 9.6 10.3 9.5 9.3 9.4 9.0

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

97,139 100,669 105,000 108,004 113,563 113,169 114,864 116,385 114,638 113,439 115,448 115,821 104,622 103,030 100,761 103,202 105,561 105,312 105,718 100,704 94,082 92,488 92,911 93,457 95,277 95,020 97,100 95,027 93,000

52.3 53.4 54.9 55.8 58.1 57.3 57.6 57.8 56.2 54.8 55.2 54.8 49.0 47.8 46.3 47.0 47.5 46.9 46.5 43.9 40.6 39.5 39.3 39.1 39.5 39.0 39.7 38.3 37.3

40,804 43,564 47,700 49,163 53,041 52,924 54,862 55,791 54,633 54,381 56,278 55,511 46,402 45,853 47,038 49,510 52,411 53,524 53,172 51,385 45,779 44,452 46,263 45,901 47,865 48,290 49,078 47,575 46,800

22.0 23.1 25.0 25.4 27.1 26.8 27.5 27.7 26.8 26.3 26.9 26.3 21.8 21.3 21.6 22.5 23.6 23.8 23.4 22.4 19.7 19.0 19.6 19.2 19.9 19.8 20.1 19.2 18.8

13,700 14,200 14,200 14,100 14,500 14,200 14,300 14,300 13,800 13,700 14,000 14,300 13,500 13,000 12,500 12,900 13,100 13,000 13,200 12,500 11,900 11,700 11,500 11,500 11,100 11,300 11,000 10,900 10,600

7.4 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.2 7.2 7.1 6.8 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.3 6.0 5.7 5.9 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.4 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.2

28,500 28,500 28,000 28,500 29,500 29,000 28,000 27,500 27,000 26,500 26,500 26,500 26,000 25,000 24,000 23,200 22,800 22,500 22,800 21,700 21,200 21,200 21,200 21,600 21,700 21,400 22,700 22,500 21,000

15.3 15.1 14.6 14.7 15.1 14.7 14.0 13.7 13.2 12.8 12.7 12.5 12.2 11.6 11.0 10.6 10.3 10.0 10.0 9.4 9.1 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 8.8 9.3 9.1 8.4

17,000 17,500 18,500 19,500 20,000 20,500 21,500 22,500 23,500 23,500 23,500 24,500 23,000 23,000 21,500 22,200 22,000 21,000 21,300 19,800 19,500 19,400 18,300 18,800 18,700 18,400 18,400 18,200 18,500

9.2 9.3 9.7 10.1 10.2 10.4 10.8 11.2 11.5 11.4 11.2 11.6 10.8 10.6 10.0 10.1 9.9 9.4 9.4 8.6 8.4 8.3 7.7 7.9 7.8 7.6 7.5 7.3 7.4

a

Rates are deaths per 100,000 population. In 1948 a revision was made in the calculation of causes of death. The first figures for 1948 are comparable with those for earlier years, the second with those for later years. Source: National Safety Council, Accident Facts, 1992 Edition (Chicago, 1992), 26–27.

b


199

TABLE 7.45 REPORTED CASES OF COMMON INFECTIOUS DISEASES, 1950–1990 Disease

Disease

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Aseptic meningitis N.A. Brucellosis (undulant fever) 3,510 Diphtheria 5,796 Encephalitis 1,135 Legionnellosis N.A. Leprosy (Hansen disease) 44 Malaria 2,184 Meningococcal infections 3,788 Mumps N.A. Pertussis (whooping cough) 120,700 Plague N.A. Poliomyelitis 33,300

1,593 751 918 2,341 N.A. 54 72 2,259 N.A. 14,800 2 3,190

6,480 213 435 1,950 N.A. 129 3,051 2,505 105,000 4,200 13 33

8,028 183 3 1,402 N.A. 223 2,062 2,840 8,600 1,700 18 9

11,852 85 4 1,446 1,370 198 1,292 2,451 5,300 4,600 2 7

TABLE 7.46

1950

1960

1970

Rabies, in animals Rabies, in humans Rubella (German measles) Tetanus

7,901 18 N.A. 486

3,567 2 N.A. 368

3,224 3 56,600 148

6,421 0 3,900 95

4,826 1 1,100 64

Trichinosis Tuberculosis Tularemia Typhoid fever

327 N.A. 927 2,484

160 55,500 390 816

109 37,100 172 346

131 27,700 234 510

129 25,700 152 552

464

204

380

1,163

654

Typhus fever, tick-borne Venereal disease Gonorrhea Syphilis

286,700 217,600

1980

1990

258,900 600,100 1,004,000 690,200 122,500 91,400 68,800 134,300


TRENDS IN CANCER SURVIVAL, BY RACE AND SITE, 1960–1990 White

Black

Relative 5-Year Survival Percent

Site All sites Oral cavity & pharynx Esophagus Stomach Colon Rectum Liver Pancreas Larynx Lung & bronchus Melonoma of skin Female breast Cervix uteri Corpus uteri Ovary Prostate Testis Urinary bladder Kidney & renal pelvis Brain & nervous system Thyroid gland Hodgkin’s disease Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma Multiple myeloma Leukemia

1960–63 39 45 4 11 43 38 ... 1 53 8 60 63 58 73 32 50 63 53 37 18 83 40 31 12 14

Relative 5-Year Survival Percent

1970–73

1974–76

1977–79

1983–90

1960–63

1970–73

1974–76

1977–79

1983–90

43 43 4 13 49 45 ... 2 62 10 68 68 64 81 36 63 72 61 46 20 86 67 41 19 22

50 55 5 14 50 49 4 3 66 12 80 75 69 89 36 68 79 74 51 22 92 72 48 24 35

51 54 6 16 53 51 3 2 68 14 82 75 69 86 38 72 88 76 51 24 92 73 48 25 38

56 55 11 18 61 58 7 3 69 14 85 82 70 85 42 81 94 81 57 27 95 79 53 27 40

27 ... 1 8 34 27 ... 1 ... 5 ... 46 47 31 32 35 ... 24 38 19 ... ... ... ... ...

31 ... 4 13 37 30 ... 2 ... 7 ... 51 61 44 32 55 ... 36 44 19 ... ... ... ... ...

39 36 4 16 46 42 1 2 59 11 66 63 64 60 40 58 76 48 49 27 88 68 48 27 32

39 36 3 15 48 38 6 4 55 11 51 63 62 58 40 62 ... 55 51 28 91 73 50 34 30

40 34 6 19 50 49 4 5 53 11 70 66 56 55 38 66 87 60 52 31 90 74 45 29 31

Source: Allan R. Cook, ed., The New Cancer Sourcebook (Detroit, 1996), 32.

TABLE 7.47 AIDS CASES REPORTED, BY PATIENT CHARACTERISTIC, 1981–1990 Percent Distribution

Number of Cases Characteristic Total Age Under 5 years old 5 to 12 years old 13 to 29 years old 30 to 39 years old 40 to 49 years old 50 to 59 years old 60 years old and over Sex Male Female Not reported Race/ethnic group White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Hispanic Other/unknown

200

Total

1981–1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990a

1981–1982

1990a

142,424

838

2,059

4,435

8,182

13,124

21,117

30,858

33,714

28,097

100.0

100.0

1,937 442 29,144 65,581 30,726 10,330 4,264

12 1 196 396 169 58 6

31 1 457 929 446 166 29

47 3 960 2,108 923 312 82

110 18 1,685 3,838 1,707 626 198

156 28 2,815 6,093 2,685 968 379

265 56 4,385 9,634 4,516 1,553 708

443 126 6,383 14,199 6,529 2,163 1,015

503 102 6,780 15,553 7,340 2,431 1,005

370 107 5,483 12,831 6,411 2,053 842

1.4 0.1 23.4 47.3 20.2 6.9 0.7

1.3 0.4 19.5 45.7 22.8 7.3 3.0

128,243 14,173 8

780 58 0

1,902 157 0

4,142 293 0

7,597 585 0

12,068 1,056 0

19,290 1,826 1

27,562 3,294 2

30,053 3,658 3

24,849 3,246 2

93.1 6.9 0

88.4 11.6 0

81,081 41,119 18,785 1,439

467 251 117 3

1,174 565 311 9

2,689 1,119 605 22

4,957 2,080 1,085 60

7,822 3,392 1,785 125

12,969 5,382 2,554 212

17,177 9,107 4,274 300

18,632 10,321 4,352 409

15,194 8,902 3,702 299

55.8 30.0 14.0 0.2

54.1 31.7 13.2 1.1



Number of Cases Characteristic

Total

1981–1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990a

1981–1982

Leading Statesb New York California Florida Texas New Jersey Illinois Pennsylvania Georgia Massachusetts Maryland District of Columbia Ohio Louisiana Washington Virginia Michigan Connecticut Missouri North Carolina Colorado Percent of total

32,178 27,653 12,684 10,424 9,638 4,298 4,086 3,816 3,062 2,785 2,493 2,121 2,069 1,958 1,859 1,795 1,733 1,624 1,512 1,451 90.7

456 120 69 20 63 18 19 13 13 5 3 8 0 1 0 4 10 1 0 5 98.8

865 440 153 89 136 39 37 25 34 27 19 7 18 6 27 9 18 7 9 21 96.5

1,584 1,002 314 250 281 100 91 56 87 54 90 30 55 59 40 32 57 27 15 38 96.1

2,483 1,936 554 483 468 188 202 191 165 148 178 53 104 112 108 61 86 50 66 62 94.1

3,781 2,615 1,024 940 767 347 310 304 281 188 226 212 165 170 160 150 176 74 81 166 92.5

3,966 4,853 1,662 1,670 1,509 629 657 517 452 457 466 335 337 328 242 211 251 238 210 226 91.0

6,975 5,743 2,696 2,231 2,455 993 852 839 711 545 501 507 401 349 348 456 415 411 278 325 90.8

6,022 6,435 3,492 2,399 2,231 1,139 1,075 1,102 756 719 498 485 513 497 392 505 432 441 447 389 88.9

6,046 4,509 2,720 2,342 1,728 845 843 769 563 642 512 484 476 436 542 367 288 375 406 219 89.4

54.4 14.3 8.2 2.4 7.5 2.2 2.3 1.6 1.6 0.6 0.4 1.0 0 0.1 0 0.5 1.2 0.1 0 0.6 ...

1990a 21.5 16.1 9.7 8.3 6.2 3.0 3.0 2.7 2.0 2.3 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.9 1.3 1.0 1.3 1.4 0.8 ...

a

January 1 through August. States with at least 1,400 total cases reported through August 1990. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1991, 119.

b

Before the polio vaccine, there was the iron lung. This unit in 1949 was in the Riley Hospital, Indianapolis. (IUPUI University Library Special Collections and Archives) Vital Statistics and Health Care

201

TABLE 7.48 TRANSMISSION OF AIDS, 1981–1989 Transmission of AIDS in Adults and Adolescents, 1981–1989 Characteristic Homosexual/bisexual males Intravenous (IV) drug abusers Homosexual male and IV drug abusers Hemophilia/coagulation disorder Heterosexuals Blood transfusion Undetermined Total

Males

Percent

Females

Percent

Both Sexes

Percent

70,093 18,721 8,117 1,034 2,308 1,768 3,134

67 18 8 1 2 2 3

... 5,491 ... 28 3,322 1,062 708

... 52 ... ... 31 10 7

70,093 24,212 8,117 1,062 5,630 2,830 3,842

61 21 7 1 5 2 3

105,175

91

10,611

9

115,786

100

Transmission of AIDS in Children, Characteristic

Totals

Hemophilia/Coagulation Disorder Mother with/at risk of AIDS Blood transfusion Undetermined Total

1981–1989a Percent

106 1,614 212 63

5 81 11 3

1,995

100

a

Provisional data includes all patients under 13 years of age at time of diagnosis. Source: (both tables) Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 258.

TABLE 7.49 AIDS CASES AND DEATHS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1981–1993 Cases Diagnosed

Cases Diagnosed to Date

Known Deaths

Known Deaths to Date

Pre-1981 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

92 315 1,156 3,084 6,198 11,775

92 407 1,563 4,647 10,845 22,620

31 128 461 1,502 3,478 6,929

31 159 620 2,122 5,600 12,529

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

19,042 28,560 35,267 41,681 46,075

41,662 70,222 105,489 147,170 193,245

12,021 16,270 20,903 27,449 30,649

24,550 40,820 61,723 89,172 119,821

Year


Medical Care and Medical Care Providers The health care industry underwent major change in the period following the Second World War, as one would expect in a nation that experienced rapid population growth and new developments in the way the industry went about its business. The number of doctors increased, of course, although for several years the rate of growth was slow.The nation had only 142 doctors for each 100,000 people in 1950, and the ratio grew by only 19 in the 20 years that followed. That period produced much concern about a doctor shortage, a shortcoming that some people attributed to a conspiracy by the American Medical Association. The increase in the number of physicians picked up somewhat after 1970, and by 1990 the United States had 244 doctors per 100,000 population.The increase came partly from growth in the number of American medical schools and in the number of students admitted into the programs, but an important new factor after 1970 was entry into the United States of individuals of foreign extraction educated in foreign medical schools. By the 1980s more than 25 percent of new doctors came from abroad.The years after 1970 also produced an increase in female physicians that corresponded with a general change in attitude toward women in society. A 202


total of 21,000 female doctors in 1970 grew to 93,000 20 years later, and by that time women made up a much larger proportion of medical student clientele than had been the case in 1950 or even 1970. The medical profession showed a clear tendency toward specialization. The number of doctors engaged in general or family practice changed little after 1970.The growth came in nearly all the specialties but especially in pediatrics, obstetrics, and surgery. Physicians who offered themselves as specialists in internal medicine even surpassed the number in family practice and in some fashion perhaps became the general practitioners of the day. It was a curious fact that the large increase in medical patients did not lead to a corresponding increase in hospitals. The number of hospitals grew slowly until the mid-1970s and then began to decline. By 1990 there were fewer hospitals—and more striking, hospital beds—than in 1950 despite an increase of nearly 100,000,000 in population. The explanation appeared in the great surge in outpatient activity; new medical knowledge, improved facilities and procedures made it possible for patients to have their treatment at a hospital or a doctor’s clinic and go home. The last half of the 20th century was a period of great advance in medicine and medical procedure, a time of open-heart surgery, organ transplants, new testing devices, medications of many kinds. With all its wealth, technology, and incentive, the United States remained a leader in world medical knowledge. Prominent foreign individuals often came to this country when they needed the most sophisticated treatment. Changes in medical science surely improved the quality of life for many people and eased or eliminated pain until the malady vanished or the end came. Records verify that changes in medicine, added to numerous other social, economic, and behavioral practices lengthened the time of life. In the 45 years after 1945 average life expectancy in the United States increased by 9.5 years, not an insignificant amount, but perhaps not as much as one might expect, given the large advance in medical science. In the 45 years before 1946, before many of the “miracle’’ treatments had become available, life expectancy had increased by 12.6 years, and this period included the life-shortening two world wars (substantially larger engagements, one might add, than the various conflicts in which the nation became involved after 1945). The most striking change in the medical system—situation might be a better word, for there was no system—was in the cost. Here the numbers were truly remarkable. Total medical costs multiplied some 56 times between 1950 and 1990.The average cost of a day in a hospital

increased 130-fold between 1946 and 1990. The health-care industry indeed became a business with many arms and branches, and some of the more important changes of the 1980s had to do with management aspects of the operation. Whatever American medicine was or was not as the century moved to a close, it stood as manifestation of the capitalist objective of profit. The United States spent more money on health care, a larger portion of gross domestic product, more money per capita, than any other nation.Yet by 1990 millions of people could not claim inclusion in some medical program (they were “not covered,’’ as one commonly put it), and other millions were not adequately covered. As the United States moved toward the new millennium, health care remained one of the largest, if not the largest, social and economic problems.

Some Major Developments in Health and Medicine, 1946–1990 1951 Antabuse, a drug designed to stop alcoholics from drinking, is introduced. American surgeon John H. Gibbon, Jr., develops the heart-lung machine. 1952 Jonas Salk develops a killed-virus vaccine against polio. 1953 American James Watson and British Francis Crick determine the structure of DNA, the basis for heredity.

1954 Joseph Murray and other American surgeons perform the first successful kidney transplant. 1956 The kidney dialysis machine, developed in The Netherlands, comes into use in the United States. 1957 Polish-American Albert B. Sabin develops a live-virus vaccine against polio. It will supersede the Salk product. The first antianxiety benzodiazepine, a tranquilizer to be marketed as Librium, is discovered. 1958 American Clarence W. Lillehei produces the first pacemaker for the heart. A Scottish doctor first uses ultrasound to evaluate unborn babies. 1960 An oral contraceptive medication that blocks female ovulation, the “pill,’’ comes on the market. 1962 Lasers are used for the first time in eye surgery. 1963 Valium, another antianxiety benzodiazepine, is introduced. Americans Thomas Starzl and Francis Moore perform the first liver transplant. 1964 The surgeon general reports on the risk to health produced by smoking cigarettes. The Federal Trade Commission rules that beginning in 1965 cigarette packages must carry a warning that cigarette smoking can be harmful. James Hardy of the United States performs the first lung transplant. 1965 Medicare (a national program) and Medicaide (a shared national and state program) are established to help fund medical care for the aged and poor.

Helen Keller (center), spokesperson for the blind, with Polly Thompson, meets President Eisenhower, November 3, 1953. (National Archives) Vital Statistics and Health Care

203

1967 South African surgeon Christian Barnaard performs the first heart transplant. The recipient will live 18 days. Surgeon Rene Favaloro performs in Cleveland the first coronary bypass operation. Mammography is introduced to detect breast cancer. 1969 Dr. Denton Cooley of Texas implants the first temporary artificial heart in a human. The patient, Haskell Karp, will live short of three days. 1971 Raymond V. Damadian of New York applies for a patent for using magnetic resonance imaging, to be called an MRI, in finding internal malfunctions, such as tumors. A British engineer combines X rays and computers to produce another method of internal detection, known as computerized axial tomography, or a CAT scan. 1975 Researchers at the Squibb Institute succeed in blocking human angiotensin-converting enzymes, thus producing the first ACE inhibitor of high blood pressure, known as Captopril. 1976 A strange new disease, which will be known as Legionnaire’s disease, is discovered at an American Legion Convention in Philadelphia. 1977 A German surgeon invents balloon angioplasty, a method short of surgery, to remove blockage in an artery. 1978 The first “test-tube’’ baby, a girl named Louise Brown, is born in England.

TABLE 7.50

1980 The Salk and Sabine vaccines have been so successful that it is possible to pronounce polio globally to be extinct. Researchers in New York develop a successful vaccine against hepatitis B. 1981 Scientists identify and label a new disease that has signs of being devastating. They call it AIDS because it constitutes an acquired immune deficiency syndrome. 1982 A team of doctors led by William DeVries places an artificial heart (Jarvik 7) in a patient in Utah.The patient, Barney Clark, will live 112 days. 1986 Use of a blood test to detect prostate cancer, called a PSA, is approved in the United States. 1987 The Food and Drug Administration approves AZT, a drug marketed as Retrovir, for treatment of people with AIDS. A new antidepressant drug, fluoxetine, with trade name of Prozac, is approved for use in the United States. 1988 The Food and Drug Administration approves alpha interferon for treatment of genital warts. 1990 The FDA approves use of Norplant, a birth control device implanted under the skin. Source: Bryan Bunch, Handbook of Health & Medicine (Detroit, 1994), 291–92, 324–25, 476–77, 504–05, 525–26.

HOSPITAL STATISTICS, 1946–1990 Total Expenses

FTE Personnela

Year

Average Beds Admissions Daily (in (in Census (in Hospitals thousands) thousands) thousands)

Outpatient Visits (in thousands)

1946

6,125

1,436

15,675

1,142

...

1950 1955 1960 1965

6,788 6,956 6,876 7,123

1,456 1,604 1,658 1,704

18,483 21,073 25,027 28,812

1,253 1,363 1,402 1,403

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

7,123 7,097 7,061 7,123 7,174

1,616 1,556 1,550 1,535 1,513

31,759 32,664 33,265 34,352 35,506

1975 1976 1977 1979 1980

7,156 7,082 7,099 6,988 6,965

1,466 1,434 1,407 1,372 1,365

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

6,933 6,915 6,888 6,872 6,872

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

6,841 6,821 6,780 6,720 6,649

Employee Benefits Amount (in millions of dollars)

Amount (in millions of dollars)

830

1,103

...

1,963

... ... ... 125,793

1,058 1,301 1,598 1,952

2,191 3,582 5,588 8,551

... ... ... ...

3,651 5,594 8,421 12,948

1,298 1,237 1,209 1,189 1,167

181,370 199,725 219,182 233,555 250,481

2,537 2,589 2,671 2,769 2,919

15,706 17,635 19,530 21,330 23,821

... $ 1,531 1,925 2,238 2,611

25,556 28,812 32,667 36,290 41,406

36,157 36,776 37,060 37,802 38,892

1,125 1,090 1,066 1,043 1,060

254,844 270,951 263,775 262,009 262,951

3,023 3,108 3,213 3,382 3,492

27,135 30,438 33,742 41,464 46,970

3,175 3,848 4,691 6,155 7,221

48,706 56,005 63,630 79,796 91,886

1,362 1,360 1,350 1,339 1,318

39,169 39,095 38,887 37,938 36,304

1,061 1,053 1,028 970 910

265,332 313,667 273,168 276,566 282,140

3,661 3,746 3,707 3,630 3,625

54,516 62,015 67,742 71,007 74,387

8,738 10,420 12,036 13,005 13,875

107,146 123,219 136,315 144,114 153,327

1,290 1,267 1,248 1,226 1,213

35,219 34,439 34,107 33,742 33,774

883 873 863 853 844

294,634 310,707 336,208 352,248 368,184

3,647 3,742 3,839 3,937 4,063

78,589 83,778 91,841 99,256 108,719

14,400 15,318 16,990 19,375 21,797

165,194 178,662 196,704 214,886 234,870

a

Note: FTE—full-time employees Source: American Hospital Association, Hospital Statistics, 1994–95 Edition (Chicago, 1994), 2.

204

Number (in thousands)

Payroll Amount (in millions of dollars)


TABLE 7.51

HOSPITAL EXPENSE PER DAY, 1946–1990a Year

Amount

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

5.21 7.98 11.24 16.46 25.29 53.95 134.00 245.00 460.00 678.00

a In dollars. Average of hospitals registered by the American Hospital Association. Source: Kurian, Datapedia, 54.

TABLE 7.52

Yeara 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990

PHYSICIANS IN THE UNITED STATES—SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS, 1950–1990

Total Physicianb 219,997 241,711 260,484 292,088 334,028 393,742 467,679 485,123 501,958 519,546 536,986 552,716 569,160 585,597 600,789 615,421

Total Population (’000s)c

Total Physician per 100,000 Total Population

Total Population per One Physician

142 144 142 148 161 180 202 208 213 218 223 228 232 237 240 244

703 697 703 675 623 557 494 481 458 458 448 440 431 423 416 410

154,668 168,373 183,236 197,147 208,066 219,272 231,266 233,459 235,691 238,139 240,543 242,946 245,163 247,488 249,876 252,164

Total Total Patient Care Total Population Patient Physician per 100,000 per Patient Care Physician Total Population Care Physician ... ... ... 259,418 278,535 311,937 376,512 389,369 408,663 423,361 437,089 448,820 462,126 478,511 493,159 503,870

... ... ... 132 134 142 163 167 173 178 182 185 188 193 197 200

... ... ... 760 747 703 614 600 577 563 550 541 531 517 507 500

a

Data for 1989 and 1990 are as of January 1. Data prior to 1989 are as of December 31. Includes all federal and nonfederal physicians in the United States and Possessions, inactive physicians, and those with unknown addresses as of December 31 each year. Excluded are nonfederal physicians with temporary foreign addresses. (Note: Possessions include Canal Zone prior to 1980, Pacific Islands, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands). c Includes U.S. residents, Armed Forces overseas, and civilians in U.S. Possessions as of July 1 each year. Source: American Medical Association, Physician Characteristics and Distribution in the U.S. 1992 Edition, (Chicago, 1992), 35. b

TABLE 7.53

PHYSICIANS BY SEX, EDUCATION, AND SPECIALTY, 1970–1990

(in thousands) Activity Doctors of medicine, total Professionally active Place of medical education: U.S. medical graduates Foreign medical graduates Sex: Male Female Active Non-Federal Patient care Office-based practice General and family practice Cardiovascular diseases Dermatology Gastroenterology Internal medicine Pediatrics Pulmonary diseases General surgery Obstetrics and gynecology Ophthalmology Orthopedic surgery Otolaryngology

1970

1975

1980

1985

1986

1988

1989

1990

334.0 310.8

393.7 340.3

467.7 414.9

552.7 497.1

569.2 505.8

585.6 521.3

600.8 536.8

615.4 547.3

256.4 54.4 289.5 21.4 281.3 255.0 188.9 50.8 3.9 2.9 1.1 23.0 10.3 0.8 18.1 13.8 7.6 6.5 3.9

... ... 313.1 27.2 312.1 287.8 213.3 46.3 5.0 3.4 1.7 28.2 12.7 1.2 19.7 15.6 8.8 8.1 4.3

333.3 81.6 370.2 44.7 397.1 361.9 271.3 47.8 6.7 4.4 2.7 40.5 17.4 2.0 22.4 19.5 10.6 10.7 5.3

392.0 105.1 425.3 71.9 475.6 431.5 329.0 53.9 9.1 5.3 4.1 52.7 22.4 3.0 24.7 23.5 12.2 13.0 5.8

398.3 107.4 429.0 76.8 483.8 436.9 325.8 53.6 9.4 5.4 4.4 52.3 22.5 3.2 23.5 23.6 12.1 13.1 5.8

410.3 111.0 ... ... 499.6 453.2 337.5 55.1 9.9 5.5 4.8 55.5 23.4 3.5 23.7 24.3 12.5 13.5 6.0

423.2 113.6 ... ... 516.4 468.9 350.1 56.3 10.2 5.7 4.9 56.9 24.7 3.6 24.7 25.2 12.8 14.1 6.2

432.9 114.4 454.0 93.3 526.8 479.5 359.9 57.6 10.7 6.0 5.2 57.8 26.5 3.7 24.5 25.5 13.1 14.2 6.4


205

TABLE 7.53

(continued) Activity

Plastic surgery Urological surgery Anesthesiology Diagnostic radiology Emergency medicine Neurology Pathology, anatomical/clinical Psychiatry Radiology Other specialty Hospital-based practice Residents and interns Full-time hospital staff Other professional activity Federal Patient care Office-based practice Hospital-based practice Residents and interns Full-time hospital staff Other professional activity Inactive Not classified Unknown address Doctors of osteopathy Medical and osteopathic schools Students Graduates

1970

1975

1980

1985

1986

1988

1989

1990

1.2 4.3 7.4 0.9 ... 1.2 3.0 10.1 5.8 12.4 66.1 45.8 20.3 26.3 29.5 23.5 3.5 20.0 5.4 14.6 6.0 19.6 0.4 3.2 14.3 110 42.6 8.8

1.7 5.0 9.0 2.0 ... 1.9 4.2 12.2 7.0 15.3 74.5 53.5 21.0 24.3 28.2 24.1 2.1 22.0 4.3 17.7 4.1 21.4 26.1 5.9 15.4 123 59.3 13.9

2.4 6.2 11.3 4.2 ... 3.2 6.0 15.9 7.8 24.1 90.6 59.6 31.0 35.2 17.8 14.6 0.7 13.9 2.4 11.4 3.2 25.7 20.6 6.4 18.8 141 70.1 16.2

3.3 7.1 15.3 7.7 ... 4.7 6.9 18.5 7.4 28.5 102.5 72.2 30.3 44.0 21.6 17.3 1.2 16.1 3.3 12.9 4.3 38.6 14.0 3.0 24.0 142 73.2 17.8

3.4 7.0 15.3 8.1 7.3 4.8 6.5 18.2 6.1 20.2 111.1 77.6 33.5 46.9 21.9 17.0 1.2 15.8 2.9 12.9 5.0 46.8 13.7 2.9 25.5 142 72.8 17.7

3.5 7.2 16.0 8.6 7.6 5.1 6.7 18.7 6.1 20.3 115.7 79.5 36.2 46.4 21.7 16.9 1.1 15.8 2.7 13.0 4.8 48.0 13.4 2.9 28.3 142 71.9 17.5

3.6 7.3 16.7 9.0 8.0 5.4 7.0 19.6 6.2 21.7 118.8 80.0 38.8 47.5 20.4 15.6 1.1 14.4 2.1 12.4 4.8 48.8 12.4 2.8 29.6 142 71.6 17.2

3.8 7.4 17.8 9.8 8.4 5.6 7.3 20.0 6.1 22.8 119.6 81.7 38.0 47.3 20.5 15.6 1.1 14.6 1.7 12.8 4.8 52.7 12.7 2.8 30.9 141 72.0 16.9


TABLE 7.54 DENTISTS AND NURSES, 1946–1990 People

1946

Dentists (1,000) Rate (per 100,000 pop.) Dental Schools Students (1,000) Graduates (1,000)

... ... 39 7.3 2.7

Nurses, active registered (1,000) Rate (per 100,000 pop.) Nursing programs Students (1,000) Graduates (1,000)

... ... 1,271 129 36

1950

1955

1960

89 59 41 11.5 2.6

98 59 43 12.6 3.1

102 56 47 13.6 3.3

375 249 1,203 99 26

430 259 1,139 108 29

504 282 1,119 115 30

1965 109 56 49 13.9 3.2 613 319 1,153 130 25

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

118 58 53 16.0 3.7

127 50 59 20.8 5.0

141 60 60 22.8 5.3

156 60 60 19.6 5.4

186 63 58 15.8 4.2

700 368 1,328 165 44

961 446 1,360 250 75

1,273 560 1,385 231 76

1,538 644 1,473 218 82

1,715 690 1,470 221 66

Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, The Statistical History of the United States: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1976), 75–76; Statistical Abstract, 1993, 118.

TABLE 7.55

ORGAN TRANSPLANTS AND GRAFTS, 1981–1990

Procedure

Heart

Liver

Kidney

Heart-Lung

Pancreas

Cornea (Grafts)

1981 1985 1986

62 719 1,368

26 602 924

4,883 7,695 976

5 30 45

... 130 140

15,500 26,300 28,000

1987 1988 1989 1990

1,512 1,647 1,673 1,998

1,199 1,680 2,160 2,534

8,967 9,123 8,890 9,433

41 74 67 52

180 243 413 529

35,930 36,900 38,464 40,631

... 79

... 83

... 107

226

474

...

55

45

95

$130,000– 200,000

$30,000– 40,000

$3,500– 4,000

Number of Centers 1981 1990

8 148

1 85

157 232 Number of People Waiting

1990

1,769

1,248

17,955

One-Year Survival Rate (percent)a 1989

82

65

92 Average Cost

1988

$57,000– 110,000

$135,000– 238,000

a

$30,000– 40,000

Denotes success rate. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 117; Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 254.

206


TABLE 7.56

MEDICAL DEVICE IMPLANTS, BY AGE, SEX, AND RACE, 1988

(in thousands, except percent. Based in the National Health Interview Survey) Percent Distribution Age

Device

Total

Under 18 Years Old

Sex

Race

18–44 Years Old

45–64 Years Old

65 Years Old and Older

Male

Female

White

Black

Artificial joints Hip joints Knee joints

1,625 816 521

0.6 0.5 ...

13.0 6.5 10.9

24.6 26.3 20.5

61.7 66.7 68.5

39.9 37.5 41.8

60.1 62.4 58.2

92.3 93.5 88.1

6.2 5.5 10.0

Fixation devices Head Torso Upper extremities Lower extremities Other

4,890 351 563 646 2,690 622

3.9 4.3 5.3 3.7 3.0 6.4

44.3 67.8 49.6 55.9 39.6 34.4

28.4 22.8 31.8 25.4 27.9 34.1

23.4 5.4 13.3 15.0 29.4 25.1

57.2 57.3 62.7 70.4 52.8 57.9

42.8 42.7 37.5 29.7 47.2 42.1

91.7 93.2 92.2 91.6 91.1 93.6

6.6 4.8 6.9 5.6 7.7 3.7

Other devices: Ear vent tubes Silicone implants Breast implants Shunt or catheter

1,494 620 544 321

25.8 0.5 0.6 24.3

27.0 73.1 73.0 24.3

34.6 23.7 24.1 22.1

12.6 2.9 2.6 29.3

39.9 8.2 2.0 50.5

61.1 91.8 98.0 49.2

92.3 97.6 98.5 85.7

6.2 0.8 ... 12.5

Dental implants Heart valve Pacemaker Eye lens

275 279 460 3,765

2.2 (NA) (NA) (NA)

57.8 14.7 (NA) (NA)

27.3 35.5 13.5 18.7

12.7 49.8 86.7 81.3

56.4 52.3 50.4 37.6

43.6 47.8 49.6 62.4

93.8 89.2 93.7 95.6

4.0 10.0 6.2 3.5


Medical Costs Medical costs soared after the 1940s, although the great surge came after 1970. From a national cost of $11 billion in 1950, the total ballooned to $660 billion in 1990. Hospital care, traditionally the largest part of the bill, which took 30 percent of the costs in 1950, grew to 47 percent in the early 1980s before it leveled off. The price of a day in a hospital, $8 in 1950, increased slowly and stood at no more than $54 20 years later. Then the sky fell in; within another 20 years the price increased 13 times to an average of $678 a day, and in 1990 one could find $1,000-a-day hospitals in many places. Reasons for the changes are familiar and in some cases fully understandable; the cost of everything has grown since the 1940s. But the price of medical care moved far ahead of inflation or the general cost of living. The health-care industry developed newer, more sophisticated equipment, which was expensive to purchase and maintain and which probably required skilled technicians to operate.Various procedures not available in the 1940s now could be had, but at great cost. Doctors ordered many more tests if only because the means for doing so existed. Many of them were unnecessary, but they at least did provide the physician with some protection against a malpractice claim. Malpractice premiums were high. The existence of insurance protection, which most patients had, placed the physician one step removed from inflicting financial pain on the person he or she was serving. Insurance probably drove up the price of tests, and there were problems if the patient had no insurance and still needed the test.The United States increasingly had a larger elderly population, and elderly people needed more health care. Finally there was the vague area of waste, overcharging and outright fraud—doubtless a major cause of cost inflation but difficult to prove in some cases because the subject was technical and somewhat subjective; in other cases the mistake, or theft, could be documented, but the process took time and skilled personnel.

Availability of medical care has always been an issue in this nation that largely left medicine up to principles of supply and demand, closely connected to capitalist economics. The concept of a medical program of any sort was slow to catch on in the United States. In 1947 fewer than one-third of the population had private insurance, and there were virtually no public programs to speak of. The idea of a national medical program was one of the important political issues for several years after the Second World War, if only because President Harry S. Truman proposed such a plan in virtually every program he sent to Congress.Truman’s intention was honorable, his proposal deserving of more favorable attention than it received, but the timing might be called to question. In that seedtime of the cold war, with the nation rising on all fronts to combat “Godless communism,’’ Truman’s program had no chance. Labeling the plan “socialized medicine,’’ opponents— mostly political conservatives and health-care providers—conveyed the message that a national program was not only bad policy but also constituted the taking up of the worst features of the enemy’s system. There would be no comparable proposal, neither from Democrat nor Republican, for many years to come. Government, on both the state and national levels, did find incentive and ways to move slowly in increments, providing support for some people in need of medical treatment. Medicine in the United States thus remained overwhelmingly in private hands, and the care providers fought tooth and nail to keep it so, but government (national and state) increasingly paid a larger portion of the costs. Medical costs continued to cause vibrations that could be felt throughout the economy; they affected the national budget and the national debt, the balance sheet of corporations, the ability of small companies to succeed or fail; medical provisions often occupied center stage in union-management negotiations. A fully paid, comprehensive medical program was often a more-sought-after condition of employment than a high salary. Vital Statistics and Health Care

207

TABLE 7.57 COST OF BRAND NAMES COMPARED WITH GENERIC EQUIVALENT, 1990 Generic/(Brand Name)

Brand Generic Percentage Name Price Price of Savings

Allopurinol (Zyloprim) 300 mg Amitriptyline HCL (Elavil) 25 mg Chlorpropamide (Diabinese) 250 mg Clonidine HCL (Catapres) 0.1 mg Doxycycline hyclate (Vibramycin) 100 mg

$47.00 $33.55 $59.20 $40.15

$18.55 $5.55 $6.35 $12.20

60% 83 89 70

$46.05

$14.65

68

Imipramine HCL (Tofranil) 25 mg Indomethacin (Indocin) 25 mg Hydroxyzine HCL (Atarax) 25 mg Methyldopa (Aldomet) 250 mg Propranolol HCL (Inderal) 20 mg

$43.90 $49.80 $65.20 $27.30 $27.60

$10.15 $16.20 $14.30 $17.05 $10.55

77 67 78 38 62

Source: Prevention Magazine, Prevention’s Giant Book of Facts, (Emmans, Pa., 1991) 415.

TABLE 7.58 PERSONAL HEALTH-CARE EXPENDITURES AND PERCENT DISTRIBUTION, BY SOURCE OF FUNDS, 1940–1990 Government

Per Capita

All Sources

Out-of-Pocket Payments

Private Health Insurance

Other Private Funds

Total

Federal

State and Local

Year

Total in Billionsa

1940 1950 1955 1960 1965

3.5 10.9 15.7 23.6 35.2

26 70 93 124 172

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

a81.3

b

65.5 58.1 55.3 52.7

9.1 16.1 21.2 24.7

2.6 2.9 2.8 1.8 2.0

16.1 22.4 23.0 21.7 20.6

4.1 10.4 10.5 9.0 8.4

12.0 12.0 12.5 12.6 12.2

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

63.8 70.1 78.0 87.1 99.9

297 323 356 394 448

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

39.0 37.7 37.1 36.7 34.9

23.2 23.5 23.4 23.7 24.2

2.6 2.6 2.7 2.5 2.5

35.3 36.2 36.8 37.1 38.5

23.0 24.1 24.4 24.3 26.0

12.2 12.1 12.4 12.8 12.5

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

114.5 130.5 147.7 164.8 187.5

510 576 647 715 805

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

33.3 32.1 31.4 30.2 29.0

24.8 25.7 26.4 27.1 28.1

2.4 2.9 2.8 3.0 3.1

39.6 39.3 39.3 39.7 39.8

27.0 28.1 27.9 28.4 28.7

12.5 11.2 11.4 11.3 11.2

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

217.0 252.0 283.3 311.5 341.5

923 1,061 1,181 1,286 1,397

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

27.8 27.2 26.6 26.4 26.6

28.6 28.9 29.6 29.7 29.9

3.6 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.6

40.1 40.2 40.0 40.1 40.0

29.2 29.6 29.6 30.0 30.0

10.9 10.6 10.4 10.2 10.0

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

376.4 410.5 449.7 499.3 550.1 614.7

1,525 1,647 1,787 1,964 2,142 2,369

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

26.7 26.3 25.8 25.9 24.8 24.1

30.2 30.3 31.1 31.7 32.6 32.8

3.7 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.5

39.3 39.5 39.3 38.5 38.9 39.5

29.6 29.3 28.8 28.3 28.8 29.0

9.7 10.2 10.4 10.1 10.1 10.6


a Includes all expenditures for health services and supplies other than expenses for program administration and net cost of private health insurance and government publichealth activities. b Out-of-pocket payments and private health insurance are combined for these years. Source: Health and Human Services, Health, U.S., 1995, 249.

208


TABLE 7.59

U.S. HEALTH EXPENDITURES BY TYPE OF SERVICE, 1960–1990

(in billions of dollars) Type of Expenditure National health expenditures Health services & supplies Personal health care Hospital care Physician services Dental services Other professional services Home health care Drugs & other medical nondurables Vision products & other medical durables Nursing home care Other personal health care Program administration & net cost of private health insurance Government public-health activities Research & construction Research Construction

1960

1970

1980

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

27.1 25.4 23.9 9.3 5.3 2.0 0.6 0.0 4.2 0.8 1.0 0.7

74.4 69.1 64.9 27.9 13.6 4.7 1.5 0.1 8.8 2.0 4.9 1.4

250.1 238.9 219.4 102.4 41.9 14.4 8.7 1.3 21.6 4.6 20.0 4.6

422.6 407.2 369.7 168.3 74.0 23.3 16.6 3.8 36.2 7.1 34.1 6.4

454.8 438.9 400.8 179.8 82.1 24.7 18.6 4.0 39.7 8.1 36.7 7.1

494.1 476.8 439.3 194.2 93.0 27.1 21.1 4.1 43.2 9.1 39.7 7.8

546.0 526.2 482.8 212.0 105.1 29.4 23.8 4.5 46.3 10.1 42.8 8.7

602.8 582.1 529.9 232.6 113.6 31.6 27.1 5.6 50.6 11.4 47.7 9.7

666.2 643.4 585.3 256.0 125.7 34.0 31.6 6.9 54.6 12.1 53.1 11.3

1.2 0.4 1.7 0.7 1.0

2.8 1.4 5.3 2.0 3.4

12.2 7.2 11.3 5.4 5.8

25.2 12.3 15.4 7.8 7.6

24.6 13.5 16.0 8.5 7.4

22.9 14.6 17.3 9.0 8.2

26.8 16.6 19.8 10.3 9.5

33.9 18.3 20.7 11.0 9.6

38.7 19.3 22.8 12.4 10.4

Average Annual % Change from Previous Year Shown National health expenditures Health services & supplies Personal health care Hospital care Physician services Dental services Other professional services Home health care Drugs & other medical nondurables Vision products & other medical durables Nursing home care Other personal health care Program administration & net cost of private health insurance Government public-health activities Research & construction Research Construction

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

10.6 10.5 10.5 11.7 9.9 9.1 9.6 14.5 7.6 9.6 17.4 7.1

12.9 13.2 13.0 13.9 11.9 11.9 19.1 25.2 9.4 8.5 15.2 12.8

11.1 11.3 11.0 10.4 12.1 10.1 13.8 23.3 10.8 9.4 11.3 6.9

7.6 7.8 8.4 6.8 10.9 6.4 12.0 3.6 9.9 13.0 7.6 11.1

8.6 8.7 9.6 8.0 13.3 9.6 13.6 3.6 8.6 12.3 8.0 10.0

10.5 10.3 9.9 9.2 13.1 8.5 12.4 9.6 7.2 11.8 7.8 12.1

10.4 10.6 9.8 9.7 8.0 7.3 14.0 24.8 9.3 12.9 11.5 11.2

10.5 10.5 10.5 10.1 10.7 7.6 16.6 22.5 7.9 6.1 11.4 16.4

... ... ... ... ...

9.0 13.9 12.1 10.9 12.8

16.0 18.0 7.8 10.8 5.6

15.5 11.3 6.4 7.4 5.4

22.5 9.6 3.7 9.5 22.4

26.6 8.3 8.2 5.7 11.1

16.9 13.5 14.9 14.5 15.3

26.6 10.4 4.3 6.8 1.5

14.1 5.6 10.2 11.9 8.3

Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992, 949.

TABLE 7.60 NATIONAL HEALTH EXPENDITURES AS A PORTION OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES, 1940–1990 National Health Expenditures

Federal Government Expenditures

Year

Gross National Product in Billions

Amount in Billions

Percent of Gross National Product

1940 1950 1955 1960

99.7 284.8 398.0 515.3

4.0 12.7 17.7 27.1

4.0 4.5 4.4 5.3

29 80 101 143

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

705.1 772.0 816.4 892.6 963.9

41.6 45.9 51.7 58.5 65.7

5.9 5.9 6.3 6.6 6.8

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

1,015.5 1,102.7 1,212.8 1,359.3 1,472.8

74.4 82.3 92.3 102.5 116.1

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

1,598.4 1,782.8 1,990.5 2,249.7 2,508.2

132.9 152.2 172.0 193.7 217.2

Amount per Capita

Total in Billions

Health in Billions

Health as a Percent of Total

10.0 41.2 68.6 93.9

... $1.6 2.0 2.9

... 3.9 2.9 3.1

204 222 248 278 309

125.3 145.3 165.8 182.9 191.3

4.8 7.5 12.2 14.1 16.1

3.8 5.2 7.4 7.7 8.4

7.3 7.5 7.6 7.5 7.9

346 379 421 464 521

207.8 224.8 249.0 269.3 305.5

17.7 20.4 22.9 25.2 30.5

8.5 9.1 9.2 9.4 10.0

8.3 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7

592 672 753 839 932

364.2 393.7 430.1 470.7 521.1

36.4 42.9 47.6 54.3 61.4

10.0 10.9 11.1 11.5 11.8


209

TABLE 7.60

(continued) National Health Expenditures

Year

Gross National Product in Billions

Amount in Billions

Percent of Gross National Product

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

2,731.9 3,052.6 3,166.0 3,405.7 3,772.2

250.1 290.2 326.1 358.6 389.6

9.2 9.5 10.3 10.5 10.3

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4,014.9 4,231.6 4,515.6 4,873.7 5,200.8 5,465.1

422.6 454.8 494.1 546.0 602.8 666.2

10.5 10.7 10.9 11.2 11.6 12.2

Federal Government Expenditures

Amount per Capita

Total in Billions

Health in Billions

Health as a Percent of Total

1,063 1,221 1,358 1,479 1,592

615.1 703.3 781.2 835.9 895.6

72.0 84.0 93.3 103.2 112.6

11.7 11.9 11.9 12.3 12.6

1,710 1,822 1,961 2,146 2,346 2,566

985.6 1,034.8 1,071.9 1,114.2 1,187.2 1,275.7

123.6 133.1 144.0 156.7 175.0 195.4

12.5 12.9 13.4 14.1 14.7 15.3

Source: Health and Human Services, Health, U.S., 1991, 266.

TABLE 7.61 U.S. HEALTH EXPENDITURES COMPARED WITH OTHER COUNTRIES IN PERCENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND PER CAPITA EXPENDITURE,a 1960–1990 1960 Country

% GDP

1970

1980

1990

Per Capita

% GDP

Per Capita

% GDP

Per Capita

% GDP

Per Capita

Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland

4.9 4.4 3.4 5.5 3.6 3.9

$98 67 53 105 67 55

5.7 5.4 4.1 7.1 6.1 5.7

$212 166 131 255 215 165

7.3 7.9 6.6 7.3 6.8 6.5

$669 697 588 729 595 521

8.2 7.1 7.6 9.2 6.5 8.0

$1,316 1,160 1,247 1,691 1,069 1,292

France West Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy

4.2 4.3 2.4 3.3 3.8 3.6

73 91 16 50 37 50

5.8 5.7 3.3 5.0 5.3 5.2

208 230 60 139 98 157

7.6 8.1 3.6 6.2 8.8 7.0

716 860 190 637 468 591

8.9 8.2 4.2 8.0 6.6 8.1

1,539 1,642 389 1,375 748 1,322

Japan Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal

... ... 3.8 4.3 3.0 ...

27 ... 68 92 47 ...

4.4 3.7 5.9 5.2 4.6 2.8

132 150 205 177 135 45

6.4 6.2 7.9 6.0 7.0 5.8

535 617 693 463 639 264

6.0 6.6 8.3 7.0 7.8 6.5

1,082 1,499 1,325 937 1,365 616

Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom United States

1.5 4.7 3.3 ... 3.9 5.1

14 90 93 ... 77 141

3.7 7.1 5.2 2.4 4.5 7.1

83 274 270 23 149 341

5.7 9.4 7.3 3.3 5.6 8.9

332 867 850 77 453 1,052

6.9 8.8 8.4 2.5 6.0 12.1

813 1,492 1,782 119 957 2,683

a

Per capita health expenditures adjusted to U.S. dollars using GDP purchasing power parities for each year. Source: Wall Street Journal Almanac 1998, 732.

Medicare A principal reason why after 1970 a high percentage of Americans could claim medical insurance was the program called Medicare. A project of the national government, thus making it qualify as a form of socialized medicine, Medicare was designed to provide assistance to some of the nation’s most vulnerable citizens: older people with small incomes and high medical costs who could not afford medical insurance if indeed the companies were willing to insure such high-risk clients. Proposed by the John F. Kennedy administration in 1961 and passed in 1965 as a part of the Great Society of Lyndon B. Johnson, the program provided limited medical support for people older than age 65 and for nonelderly who received Social Security disability payments or who had permanent kidney failure. 210


The program had two parts: Part A, hospital insurance and limited other patient benefits, and Part B, supplemental medical insurance, to cover physicians’ charges, various tests, and medical procedures. In a time of soaring medical costs, Medicare doubtless became a lifesaver for millions of people who otherwise might have had no outside source of funding. The program, however, was not without weaknesses. It contained deductables, required a monthly contribution from all participants, and a copayment for many charges. Some procedures, such as yearly mammograms and cancer screening tests, were not covered. Most conspicuous was failure to cover outpatient prescription drugs—which for elderly people could be enormous—and the virtually all-consuming expenses of long-term care, such as a nursing home.

TABLE 7.62 SELECTED NATIONS AND DATE THEY ADOPTED UNIVERSAL HEALTH-CARE SYSTEMS, 1883–1986 Nation

Not surprisingly, the number of enrollees increased as the program unfolded, and costs jumped in proportion to the number of participants and sharp growth in medical charges. Bolstered by a large body of employed baby boomers who could pay into the system, the program remained financially solvent for approximately the first quarter-century. But problems loomed ahead. Administrators dreaded the time when baby boomers would reach retirement age and individuals responsible for paying into the system would come from the baby bust, the low birthrate that began in the late 1960s. Specialists calculated that the Hospital Insurance Fund would begin to lose money in 1995 and that by 2001, having used up its reserves, the fund would be in the red.The picture was not as dismal for Part B, the Supplemental Insurance Program, which drew on contributions from the Treasury and from premiums from participants that could be increased as costs increased. As a first experiment with limited socialized medicine, Medicare revealed some of the benefits and difficulties with a massive government effort to solve a massive social problem. While probably indispensable for millions of people, the program did not cover needed services; it was expensive (as indeed any medical system would be), and it carried an invitation for exploitation by the caregivers, either through overcharging, unnecessary procedures, or outright fraud. Also, of course, Medicare was designed to assist only a portion of the population. The United States continued to stand virtually alone among the democratic and/or industrialized states in its failure to establish a national medical program.

Year

Germany Switzerland New Zealand Belgium United Kingdom Sweden Greece

1883 1911 1938 1945 1946 1947 1961

Japan Canada Denmark Australia Italy Portugal Spain

1961 1966 1973 1974 1978 1979 1986

Source: USA Today, November 20, 1998.

TABLE 7.63

MEDICARE ENROLLMENT AND EXPENDITURES, 1967–1990

Type of Service

1967

1970

1975

Enrollees Total Hospital insurance Supplementary medical insurance

Total supplementary medical insurance Physician Outpatient hospital Home health agency Group practice prepayment Independent laboratory Administrative expenses

1985

1989

1990

31.1 30.6 30.0

33.6 33.0 32.1

34.2 33.7 32.6

Number in Millions 19.5 19.5 17.9

20.5 20.4 19.6

25.0 24.6 23.9

Expenditures Total Total hospital insurance Inpatient hospital Skilled nursing facility Home health agency Hospice Administrative expenses Peer review activity

1980

28.5 28.1 27.4 Amount in Millions

$4,737 3,430 3,034 282 29 ... 77 ...

$7,493 5,281 4,827 246 51 ... 157 ...

$16,316 11,581 10,877 278 160 ... 266 ...

$36,822 25,577 24,082 401 568 ... 512 14

$72,294 48,414 44,680 577 2,144 43 834 136

$100,586 60,803 53,822 2,978 2,765 238 792 208

$110,984 66,997 59,301 2,876 3,517 356 758 189

1,307 1,128 33 10 19 7 110

2,212 1,790 114 34 26 11 237

4,735 3,415 652 87 80 39 462

11,245 8,188 1,935 195 203 114 610

23,880 17,311 4,304 54 720 558 933

39,783 27,057 7,662 73 2,308 1,194 1,489

43,987 29,628 8,475 81 2,827 1,457 1,519

Percent Distribution of Expenditures Total hospital insurance Inpatient hospital Skilled nursing facility Home health agency Hospice Administrative expenses Peer review activity

100.0 88.5 8.2 0.8 ... 2.2 ...

100.0 91.4 4.7 1.0 ... 3.0 ...

100.0 93.9 2.4 1.4 ... 2.3 ...

100.0 94.2 1.6 2.2 ... 2.0 0.1

100.0 92.3 1.2 4.4 0.1 1.7 0.3

100.0 88.5 4.9 4.5 0.4 1.3 0.3

100.0 88.5 4.3 5.2 0.5 1.1 0.3

Total supplementary medical insurance Physician Outpatient hospital Home health agency Group practice prepayment Independent laboratory Administrative expenses

100.0 86.3 2.5 0.8 1.5 0.5 8.4

100.0 80.9 5.2 1.5 1.2 0.5 10.7

100.0 72.1 13.8 1.8 1.7 0.8 9.8

100.0 72.8 17.2 1.7 1.8 1.0 5.4

100.0 72.5 18.0 0.2 3.0 2.3 3.9

100.0 68.0 19.3 0.2 5.8 3.0 3.7

100.0 67.4 19.3 0.2 6.4 3.3 3.5

Source: Health and Human Services, Health, U.S., 1993, 243.


211

TABLE 7.64 MEDICARE SPENDING PER BENEFICIARY, 1975–1990 Inpatient Hospital Care

Nursing Homes

Home Health Agencies and Hospices

Outpatient Hospital Services

Doctors’ Services and Laboratories

Year

Total

Admin. Costs

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

$1,355 1,481 1,637 1,744 1,811

$61 71 59 66 63

$904 970 1,074 1,146 1,176

$25 25 26 24 22

$19 26 31 34 37

$50 63 77 87 95

$296 326 369 387 418

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

1,954 2,117 2,300 2,449 2,554

61 62 59 58 63

1,266 1,373 1,482 1,542 1,588

21 21 21 22 22

40 45 53 66 76

105 114 135 146 146

460 501 550 616 659

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

2,775 2,817 2,886 2,960 3,071 3,326

68 64 62 67 69 69

1,744 1,703 1,648 1,636 1,655 1,767

22 21 22 24 69 102

84 84 84 80 85 110

154 185 207 221 237 260

703 760 864 931 955 1,018

Payments for Military Wage Credits

Interest and Other Income

Total Income

a

1990 subtotals are estimates. Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992, 951.

TABLE 7.65

OPERATIONS OF MEDICARE HOSPITAL INSURANCE TRUST FUND, 1970–1990

(in millions) Income

Fiscal Year

Payroll Taxes

Income from Taxation of Benefits

Railroad Retirement Account Transfers

Relimbursement for Uninsured Persons

Premiums from Voluntary Enrollees

1970 1975 1980 1985 1986

$4,785 11,291 23,244 46,490 53,020

... ... ... ... ...

$64 132 244 371 364

$617 481 697 766 566

– $6 17 38 40

$11 48 141 86 2714

$137 609 1,072 3,182 3,167

$5,614 12,568 25,415 50,933 56,442

1987 1988 1989 1990

57,820 61,901 67,527 70,655

... ... ... ...

368 364 379 367

447 475 515 413

40 42 42 113

94 80 86 107

3,982 5,148 6,567 7,908

62,751 68,010 75,116 79,563

Projections for Future 2000 2001 2002 2003

127,825 134,092 141,081 148,298

4,975 5,368 5,802 6,271

399 398 409 421

155 150 141 137

1,655 1,807 1,974 2,150

63 63 63 63

4,774 1,846 21,484 25,400

139,846 143,724 147,986 151,940

2004 2005 2006

155,719 165,585 173,464

6,784 7,343 7,943

435 451 468

146 150 147

2,343 2,538 2,752

63 63 63

29,991 215,287 221,254

155,499 160,843 163,582

Disbursements

Trust Fund

Fiscal Year

Benefits Payments

Administrative Expenses

Total Disbursements

Net Increase in Fund

Fund at End of Year

1970 1975 1980 1985 1986

$4,804 10,353 23,790 47,841 49,018

$149 259 497 813 667

$4,953 10,612 24,288 48,654 49,685

$661 1,956 1,127 4,103 17,370

$2,677 9,870 14,490 21,277 38,648

1987 1988 1989 1990

49,967 52,022 57,433 65,912

836 707 805 774

50,803 52,730 58,238 66,687

11,949 15,281 16,878 12,876

50,596 65,877 82,755 95,631


172,650 187,328 203,021 219,751

1,518 1,605 1,696 1,794

174,168 188,933 204,717 221,545

234,322 245,209 256,731 269,605

37,457 27,752 264,483 2134,088

2004 2005 2006

237,542 256,139 275,934

1,896 2,003 2,117

239,438 258,142 278,051

283,939 297,299 2114,469

2218,027 2315,326 2429,795

Source: Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998, 137–38.

212


TABLE 7.66

OPERATIONS OF MEDICARE SUPPLEMENTARY MEDICAL INSURANCE FUND, 1970–1990

(in millions) Income Premium from Enrollees

Fiscal Year

Disbursements

Government Contributions

Interest And Other Income

Total Income

Benefit Payments

Balance at End of Year

Administrative Total Expenses Disbursements

1970 1975 1980 1985

$936 1,887 2,928 5,524

$928 2,330 6,932 17,898

$12 105 415 1,155

$1,876 4,322 10,275 24,577

$1,979 3,765 10,144 21,808

$217 405 593 922

$2,196 4,170 10,737 22,730

$57 1,424 4,532 10,646

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

5,699 6,480 8,756 11,548 11,494

18,076 20,299 25,418 30,712 33,210

1,228 1,018 828 1,022 1,434

25,003 27,797 35,002 43,282 46,138

25,169 29,937 33,682 36,867 41,498

1,049 900 1,265 1,450 1,524

26,218 30,837 34,947 38,317 43,022

9,432 6,392 6,447 11,412 14,527


22,057 23,037 24,070 25,183

76,619 85,374 95,367 106,572

1,990 2,017 2,052 2,077

100,666 110,428 121,489 133,832

98,017 107,500 118,384 130,582

2,078 2,164 2,255 2,351

100,095 109,664 120,639 132,933

34,482 35,246 36,096 36,995

2004 2005 2006

26,382 27,671 29,028

119,057 134,274 151,738

2,099 2,141 2,276

147,538 164,086 183,042

144,040 159,200 176,201

2,454 2,562 2,675

146,494 161,762 178,876

38,039 40,363 44,529


TABLE 7.67

PERSONS WITHOUT HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE, BY SELECTED CHARACTERISTIC, 1989

(in percent, except as indicated) Under 65 Years Old Characteristic All persons (1,000) Persons not covered

65 Years and Older

Total

Total

Under 18 Years

18 to 24 Years

25 to 44 Years

243,532 13.9

214,313 15.7

64,003 14.9

25,401 27.4

78,795 15.5

46,114 10.5

29,219 1.2

15.1 12.7

16.7 14.6

15.1 14.7

31.3 23.7

17.6 13.6

9.6 11.2

1.3 1.2

12.8 20.2 19.7

14.5 21.9 20.4

14.0 18.9 18.9

26.3 34.3 27.8

14.4 22.5 20.7

9.4 17.5 17.5

1.0 2.5 8.4

20.8 14.4 8.4

30.1 16.6 9.2

... ... ...

42.1 29.8 16.0

35.5 16.8 9.0

19.9 8.5 5.8

1.5 0.7 1.3

13.9 38.3 10.8

14.3 39.2 18.5

... ... ...

26.6 44.5 26.0

13.6 40.8 21.2

9.0 26.5 12.8

1.5 ... 1.2

27.1 27.7 24.3 10.6 5.8 3.6

31.3 36.9 30.1 11.6 6.0 3.7

25.5 31.6 30.2 10.9 4.0 2.3

27.3 43.5 37.5 22.1 18.4 12.9

42.4 43.5 32.0 11.8 5.8 3.7

35.5 32.2 21.3 6.8 3.9 1.9

1.5 1.6 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.6

45 to 64 Years

Sex Male Female

Race White Black Other

Education Less than 12 years 12 years More than 12 years

Employment Status Currently employed Unemployed Not in labor force

Family Income Less than $5,000 $5,000 to $9,999 $10,000 to $19,999 $20,000 to $34,999 $35,000 to $49,999 $50,000 or more



213

Substance Use and Abuse Tobacco The postwar period began as an extension of the 1940s. Use of tobacco in all forms remained acceptable, even popular. Many people certainly considered chewing tobacco a nasty practice, but it was accepted as a part of life in some circles. Farmers’ wives reluctantly acquiesced if they believed a “chaw’’ helped their man get through a day in the fields; old-timers insisted that one was not fully equipped to play baseball unless he carried a wad that caused the cheek to bulge out. Youngsters soon got the message. The smell of cigars probably provoked the largest protest, but some men, mostly older ones, used them, perhaps convinced that they carried a mark of distinction and success. Many women agreed that there was something special about a man who smoked a pipe. Domination of the smokers’ world of course remained with cigarettes. Small, inexpensive, easy to carry and utilize, cigarettes had been established as a mark of fashion and personality, said to be capable of enhancing any mood or self-image, be it masculinity, femininity, sophistication, or intellectualism. Fueled by effective advertising and an apparent alliance between the tobacco industry and the stars of radio, movies, and professional sports, the industry had its most successful decade in the 1940s and while the rate of growth slowed somewhat in the following decade, the 1950s also showed marked increase in the sale of cigarettes. The craggy Marlboro Man, who appeared in 1955, helped legitimize use of filter cigarettes by “masculine’’ smokers. In 1955 approximately half the adult population used tobacco products; the bulk of them smoked cigarettes. But trouble was not far away. An article in Reader’s Digest in 1954 gave broad publicity to a lingering suspicion that tobacco, especially cigarettes, carried health risks in several forms and was particularly harmful to the respiratory system. Later studies turned up more alarming information about the relationship between cigarettes and various forms of cancer, emphysema, and other pulmonary disorders, heart attack, stroke, and vascular disease. Smoking by expectant mothers could cause miscarriage and underweight and sickly babies. In 1964 the government began what would be a succession of antismoking steps.The surgeon general confirmed a link between smoking and lung cancer. In 1965 Congress required that a warning label be placed on cigarette packages; in 1970 the warning was made more concrete and threatening. Faced with harsh new legislation, tobacco companies removed cigarette ads from radio and television. A changing national mood revealed itself in statistics. Tobacco companies continued to show an increase in absolute sales in the two decades after 1960, but each decade produced a reduction in consumption per capita. By 1990 there was a decline in both categories. The portion of adults who smoked cigarettes underwent a corresponding, and steady, decline—from 42.4 percent in 1965 to 25.6 percent in 1990. Saddled with restrictive legislation and threatened by more, faced with grisly health details and smoke-free movements in a growing list of places, terrified of that first court decision that found cigarette companies responsible for someone’s death, the tobacco industry clearly was on the defensive. The public mood had shifted sharply during the 35 years before 1990, but the industry had not folded. It continued to do well in the courts and to sell cigarettes at home and abroad. There had been a considerable reduction in the percentage of smokers, but the shrinkage was not the same in all categories.Women who had been slower to start smoking (in 1955 there had been a 26-percent differential with

214


men), were slower to give it up. By 1990 the differential was barely 5 percent. Many young people remained perplexingly oblivious to the facts about smoking. The proportion of adult Americans who smoked had been roughly cut in half, down to some 25 percent, in the 35 years before 1990. But that 25 percent left some 45 million American smokers, and there still was the foreign market. TABLE 7.68

U.S. CIGARETTE CONSUMPTION, 1940–1990

(persons 18 years and older) Consumption Year

Billions

Per Capita

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

181.9 369.8 484.4 536.5 631.5 525.0

1,976 3,552 4,171 3,985 3,849 2,817

Source: New York Times Almanac, 1998, 400.

Some Prominent People Who Died from Lung Cancer, Emphysema, or Smoking-related Illness Desi Arnaz, actor, 1986 Lucille Ball, actress, 1972 Tallulah Bankhead, actress, 1968 Jack Benny, comedian, 1974 Humphrey Bogart, actor, 1957 Yul Brynner, actor, 1985 Nat (“King’’) Cole, singer, 1965 Gary Cooper, actor, 1961 Sammy Davis, Jr., singer, 1990 Walt Disney, producer, 1966 Jimmy Dorsey, band leader, 1957 Duke Ellington, band leader, 1974 Bob Fosse, choreographer, 1987 Jackie Gleason, actor, 1987 Arthur Godfrey, entertainer, 1959 Betty Grable, actress, 1973 Susan Hayward, actress, 1975 Lillian Hellman, author, 1984 Judy Holiday, actress, 1965 Chet Huntley, news anchor, 1974 Moe Howard, comic, 1975 Spike Jones, musician, 1965 Buster Keaton, actor, 1966 Alan Jay Lerner, playwright, lyricist, 1986 Steve McQueen, actor, 1980 Edward R. Murrow, broadcasting pioneer, 1965 Dick Powell, actor, 1963 Ayn Rand, author, 1982 Rod Serling, director, 1975 Ed Sullivan, television host, 1974 Franchot Tone, actor, 1968 Ernest Tubb, singer, 1984 Source: National Anti-tobacco Institute.

TABLE 7.69

TOBACCO SMOKING BY RACE, AGE, RESIDENCE, AND SEX, 1955

(in thousands of persons 18 years and older) Male

Female

Cigarette Smoker

Color, Residence, Nonsmoker and Age Total of (in Years) Persons Cigarettes Total By race: White Nonwhite

Occasional

Cigar Smoker

Pipe Smoker

Regular

Occasional

Regular

Cigarette Smoker

Occasional

Regular

Total Persons

Nonsmoker of Cigarettes

Occasional

Regular

49,581

20,219

2,005

24,667

7,391

2,636

4,630

3,645

55,096

38,048

2,086

12,986

44,870 4,711

18,452 1,767

1,691 314

22,387 2,280

6,772 619

2,343 293

4,310 320

3,370 275

49,645 5,451

34,393 3,655

1,793 293

11,737 1,249

By residence: Urban 32,572 Rural nonfarm 10,456 Rural farm 6,553

12,616 4,339 3,264

1,312 403 290

16,791 5,187 2,689

4,886 1,593 912

1,975 469 192

3,086 1,040 504

2,191 822 632

37,453 11,473 6,170

24,542 8,210 5,296

1,601 369 116

9,858 2,542 586

By age: 18 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older Percent

5,405 11,065 10,755 9,100 6,934 6,322 100.0

2,202 3,404 3,437 3,325 3,392 4,459 40.8

262 377 398 379 312 277 4.0

2,605 6,655 6,286 4,899 2,865 1,357 49.8

481 1,841 1,727 1,415 1,024 903 14.9

70 326 456 619 625 540 5.3

408 1,206 1,200 938 540 338 9.3

174 483 622 635 672 1,059 7.4

7,400 12,196 11,484 9,399 7,296 7,261 100.0

4,651 6,950 7,020 6,674 6,080 6,673 69.1

369 589 466 353 212 97 3.8

2,118 4,192 3,596 2,067 767 246 23.6

By race: White Nonwhite

100.0 100.0

41.1 37.5

3.8 6.7

49.9 48.4

15.1 13.1

5.2 6.2

9.6 6.8

7.5 5.8

100.0 100.0

69.3 67.1

3.6 5.4

23.6 22.9

By residence: Urban Rural nonfarm Rural farm

100.0 100.0 100.0

38.7 41.5 49.8

4.0 3.9 4.4

51.5 49.6 41.0

15.0 15.2 13.9

6.1 4.5 2.9

9.5 9.9 7.7

6.7 7.9 9.6

100.0 100.0 100.0

65.5 71.6 85.8

4.3 3.2 1.9

26.3 22.2 9.5

By age: 18 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

40.7 30.8 32.0 36.5 48.9 70.5

4.8 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.5 4.4

48.2 60.1 58.4 53.8 41.3 21.5

8.9 16.6 16.1 15.5 14.8 14.3

1.3 2.9 4.2 6.8 9.0 8.5

7.5 10.9 11.2 10.3 7.8 5.3

3.2 4.4 5.8 7.0 9.7 16.8

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

62.3 57.0 61.1 71.0 83.3 91.9

4.9 4.8 4.1 3.8 2.9 1.3

28.4 34.4 31.3 22.0 10.5 3.4

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1961 (Washington, D.C., 1961), 802.

TABLE 7.70 CURRENT CIGARETTE SMOKING, BY SEX, AGE, AND RACE, 1965–1990a (in percent) Sex, Age, and Race

1965

1974

1979

1983

1985

1987

1988

1990

Total smokers, 18 years old and older

42.4

37.1

33.5

32.1

30.1

28.8

28.1

25.5

Male, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

51.9 54.1 60.7 58.2 51.9 28.5

43.1 42.1 50.5 51.0 42.6 24.8

37.5 35.0 43.9 41.8 39.3 20.9

35.1 32.9 38.8 41.0 35.9 22.0

32.6 28.0 38.2 37.6 33.4 19.6

31.2 28.2 34.8 36.6 33.5 17.2

30.8 25.5 36.2 36.5 31.3 18.0

28.4 26.6 31.6 34.5 29.3 14.6

White, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

51.1 53.0 60.1 57.3 51.3 27.7

41.9 40.8 49.5 50.1 41.2 24.3

36.8 34.3 43.6 41.3 38.3 20.5

34.5 32.5 38.6 40.8 35.0 20.6

31.7 28.4 37.3 36.6 32.1 18.9

30.5 29.2 33.8 36.2 32.4 16.0

30.1 26.7 35.4 35.8 30.0 16.9

28.0 27.4 31.6 33.5 28.7 13.7

Black, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

60.4 62.8 68.4 67.3 57.9 36.4

54.3 54.9 58.5 61.5 57.8 29.7

44.1 40.2 47.5 48.6 50.0 26.2

40.6 34.2 39.9 45.5 44.8 38.9

39.9 27.2 45.6 45.0 46.1 27.7

39.0 24.9 44.9 44.0 44.3 30.3

36.5 18.6 41.6 42.5 43.2 29.8

32.5 21.3 33.8 42.0 36.7 21.5


215

TABLE 7.70

(continued)

Sex, Age, and Race

1965

1974

1979

1983

1985

1987

1988

1990

Female, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

33.9 38.1 43.7 43.7 32.0 9.6

32.1 34.1 38.8 39.8 33.4 12.0

29.9 33.8 33.7 37.0 30.7 13.2

29.5 35.5 32.6 33.8 31.0 13.1

27.9 30.4 32.0 31.5 29.9 13.5

26.5 26.1 31.8 29.6 28.6 13.7

25.7 26.3 31.3 27.8 27.7 12.8

22.8 22.5 28.2 24.8 24.8 11.5

White, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

34.0 38.4 43.4 43.9 32.7 9.8

31.7 34.0 38.6 39.3 33.0 12.3

30.1 34.5 34.1 37.2 30.6 13.8

29.4 36.5 32.2 34.8 30.6 13.2

27.7 31.8 32.0 31.0 29.7 13.3

26.7 27.8 31.9 29.2 29.0 13.9

25.7 27.5 31.0 28.3 27.7 12.6

23.4 25.4 28.5 25.0 25.4 11.5

Black, total 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and older

33.7 37.1 47.8 42.8 25.7 7.1

36.4 35.6 42.2 46.4 38.9 8.9

31.1 31.8 35.2 37.7 34.2 8.5

32.2 32.0 38.0 32.7 36.3 13.1

31.0 23.7 36.2 40.2 33.4 14.5

28.0 20.4 35.8 35.3 28.4 11.7

27.8 21.8 37.2 27.6 29.5 14.8

21.2 10.0 29.1 25.5 22.6 11.1

a

A current smoker is a person who has smoked at at least 100 cigarettes and still smokes; includes occasional smokers. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1993, 138.

Illegal Drugs With respect to illicit drugs, including the nonalcoholic narcotics, the postwar period produced a situation much different from trends in the status of tobacco. In the 1940s and 1950s such substances as marijuana, opium, and cocaine—all of them illegal—belonged to a small drug underworld, normally associated with racial and ethnic ghettoes in large cities and with such select clientele as entertainers, especially jazz musicians. Information came mostly from rumor; marijuana, for example, was not a narcotic but in popular usage was placed in the category with drugs that were. Use of any of them was considered tantamount to addiction; partakers of such a substance often were referred to as “dope fiends,’’ and in some circles people still called marijuana, probably the mildest of the substances, the killer drug—a position supported not many years earlier by the American Medical Association. Before the 1960s narcotics, with few exceptions, belonged to the underclasses, a forbidden world that carried prospect of danger, if not death. The change that came in the 1960s was more gradual than appeared on the surface. It probably began with illicit drug use by the Beats, or Beatniks, in the 1950s and Hippies in the 1960s and spread within a few years to a broader spectrum of people willing to challenge social convention and anxious to do whatever they wished. By the late 1960s a different attitude about drugs stood at the core of a youth-driven counterculture and had begun to extend into the more conventional middle class. Explanation for the shift ranged from critics who passed it off as another manifestation of spoiled-brat baby boomers seeking self-satisfaction of any kind, to defenders who insisted that their behavior exposed the failures and hypocrisies of their elders. Whatever the reason, the generation that came of age in the late 1960s and early 1970s popularized and legitimized use of drugs; some individuals defended the activity as an instrument of positive individual growth. Such arguments convinced neither large portions of the population nor the governing bodies.The drugs remained illegal. Harmful effects 216


became evident almost from the start. Bad trips and overdose became part of the lexicon; an entire vocabulary grew up. Some drugs produced bizarre, destructive behavior. Drug abuse caused the death of several prominent entertainers. Studies continued on long-term effects of this or that drug, but immediate effects could be seen in cases brought to hospital emergency rooms, in institutions or parts of institutions given over to short-term or long-term care of drug abusers. Mothers hooked on cocaine brought babies into the world already suffering from addiction. The era of the counterculture and Vietnam War passed, but the status of drugs did not revert to what it had been in the 1940s. The genie had been let out of the bottle, so to speak, and a new area of huge financial gain had opened up. The peak year of activity came in 1979 when estimates put the number of illegal drug users at 24 million. After that point, drug use underwent a reduction with virtually all age groups, although there continued to be a considerable drug traffic in every year. By far the most common drug was marijuana, a smoked substance, somewhat similar to tobacco, that was classified as a depressant or tranquilizer. Pot was a “downer.’’ Cocaine, a fairly costly short-term stimulant, something of an elitist drug, took on new life with introduction in 1986 of an inexpensive smoked version called crack, which produced an immediate, intense but only momentary high. Crack was highly addictive. Dealing with illegal drugs remained at the end of the 1980s an issue with mounting medical, social, legal, and in all cases financial, consequences. Efforts at solving the problem had ranged from Richard Nixon’s declaration of war on drugs, to admonition of another president’s wife, Nancy Reagan, that young people “just say no,’’ to spending larger sums of money to reduce both supply and consumption. The supply side, stopping the traffic and arresting the dealers, seemed to receive the most attention. A movement that attracted support at the start of the 1990s was for legalized use of marijuana in specified medical situations, such as an antidote to side effects of chemotherapy.

TABLE 7.71

DRUG USE AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE, 12–17 AND 18–25, 1974–1990

(percent of persons aged 12 to 17 and aged 18 to 25 reporting drug use in the past year, 1974 to 1990) Persons Age 12 to 17

1974

1976

Any illicit drug use Marijuana/hashish Cocaine Inhalants Hallucinogens Heroin

... 18.5 2.7 2.4 4.3 ...

... 22.3 2.6 2.2 3.1 0.6

Nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics Alcohol

... 3.0 2.0 2.0 ... 51.0

... 3.7 2.0 2.9 ... 47.5

Persons Age 18 to 25

1974

1976

... 34.2 8.1 1.2 6.1 0.8

... 35.0 7.0 1.4 6.0 0.6

... 8.0 4.2 4.6 ... 77.1

... 8.8 5.7 6.2 ... 77.9

Any illicit drug use Marijuana/hashish Cocaine Inhalants Hallucinogens Heroin Nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics Alcohol

1979

1982

1985

1988

1990

26.0 24.1 4.2 4.6 4.7 ...

22.0 20.6 4.1 ... 3.6 ...

23.7 19.7 4.0 5.1 2.7 ...

16.8 12.6 2.9 3.9 2.8 0.4

15.9 11.3 2.2 4.0 2.4 0.6

5.6 2.9 2.2 2.7 2.2 53.6

8.3 5.6 3.7 3.3 3.7 52.4

8.5 4.3 2.9 3.4 3.8 51.7

5.4 2.8 1.7 1.5 3.0 44.6

7.0 3.0 2.2 1.5 4.8 41.0

1982

1985

1988

1990

49.4 46.9 19.6 3.8 9.9 0.8

43.4 40.4 18.8 ... 6.9 ...

42.6 36.9 16.3 2.1 4.0 0.6

32.0 27.9 12.1 4.1 5.6 0.3

28.7 24.6 7.5 3.0 3.9 0.5

16.3 10.1 7.3 7.1 5.2 86.6

16.1 10.8 8.7 5.9 4.4 87.1

15.6 9.9 5.0 6.4 6.6 87.2

11.3 6.4 3.3 4.6 5.5 81.7

7.0 3.4 2.0 2.4 4.1 80.2

1979

Source: Ambry and Russell, Guide to American Marketplace, 356.

TABLE 7.72 DRUG USE AMONG ADULTS, 1974–1990 (percent of persons aged 26 or older reporting drug use in the past year and in the lifetime, 1974 to 1990) Reported Drug Use in Past Year Any illicit drug use Marijuana/hashish Cocaine Inhalants Hallucinogens Heroin Nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics Alcohol

Reported Drug Use in Lifetime Illicit drug use Marijuana/hashish Cocaine Inhalants Hallucinogens Heroin Nonmedical use of psychotherapeutics Stimulants Sedatives Tranquilizers Analgesics Alcohol

1974

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1990

... 3.8 ... ... ... ...

... 5.4 0.6 ... ... ...

10.0 9.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 ...

11.8 10.6 3.8 ... 0.8 ...

13.3 9.5 4.2 0.8 1.0 ...

10.2 6.9 2.7 0.4 0.6 0.2

10.1 7.3 2.4 0.5 0.4 0.1

... ... ... ... ... 62.7

... 0.8 0.6 1.2 ... 64.2

2.3 1.3 0.8 0.9 0.5 72.4

3.1 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 72.0

6.2 2.6 2.0 2.8 2.9 73.6

4.7 1.7 1.2 1.8 2.1 68.6

3.4 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.9 66.6

1974

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1990

... 9.9 0.9 1.2 1.3 0.5

... 12.9 1.6 1.9 1.6 0.5

23.0 19.6 4.3 3.9 4.5 1.0

24.7 23.0 8.5 ... 6.4 1.1

31.5 27.2 9.5 5.0 6.2 1.1

33.7 30.7 9.9 3.9 6.6 1.1

35.3 31.8 10.9 3.8 7.4 0.9

... 3.0 2.0 2.0 ... 73.2

... 5.6 2.4 2.7 ... 74.7

9.2 5.8 3.5 3.1 2.7 91.5

8.8 6.2 4.8 3.6 3.2 88.2

13.8 7.9 5.2 7.2 5.6 89.4

11.3 6.6 3.3 4.5 4.5 88.6

11.5 6.9 3.7 4.2 5.1 86.8

Source: Ambry and Russell, Guide to American Marketplace, 357.


217

TABLE 7.73

COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS a

Drug

Primary Effect

Alcohol Amphetamines

Depressant Stimulant

Barbituates Cocaine Heroin

Depressant Stimulant Depressant

Popular Names

State

Drink, booze Pep pills, uppers: methamphetamines: speed, meth Sleeping pills, dolls Coke, snow, lady; smokable form: crack Snow, smack; synthetic heroin: China white, Persian heroin, gasoline dope; combined heroin and cocaine: speedball LSD, acid

D-lysergic acid diethylamide

Hallucinogen

Marijuana

Hallucinogen/ depressant Stimulant/ hallucinogen

Pot, grass, joint, cannabis, dope, reefer Ecstasy

Hallucinogen Depressant Hallucinogen Depressants

Peyote, cactus

MDMA (combination of synthetic mescaline and an amphetamine) Mescaline Morphine PCP (phencyclidine) Tranquilizers

TABLE 7.75 MINIMUM AGE FOR PURCHASE OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES—1965, 1975, AND 1989

Angel dust Downers; brand names:Valium, Librium, Darvon, etc.

a

Many of these drugs were available throughout the period 1946–90 if one knew where to look. Popular prescription tranquilizers, such as Valium, did not begin to appear until the 1950s; LSD did not come on the market until the 1960s; smokeable cocaine, crack, did not appear until 1986. Various combinations were developed at various times. Most significant by the end of the 1980s was the widespread availability of them all. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995, 224.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Drug Name Alcohol-in-combination Cocaine Heroin/morphine Acetaminophen Aspirin Marijuana/hashish Alprazolam Ibuprofen Diazepam Amitriptyline

Number of Mentions

Percent of Total Episodes

123,758 102,727 36.576 30,885 21,982

30.93 25.68 9.14 7.72 5.49

16,492 16,465 15.628 14,852 8,785

4.12 4.12 3.91 3.71 2.20

a Estimates came from the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN), established in 1972 by the Drug Enforcement Administration. Changes in the number of reporting hospitals prevented a claim that these numbers constituted a representative sample, but they did suggest trends. Source: Jerome H. Jaffe, Encyclopedia of Drugs and Alcohol (New York, 1995), 397.

Alcohol Alcohol was the American drug of choice in 1946, and it remained so in 1990. In each of these years, alcohol continued to be the product most associated with substance abuse. Unlike marijuana and cocaine, alcohol was legal. Unlike users of illegal drugs, the higher the level of education, the more likely a person would be to partake of alcohol, although lesser-educated people certainly drank as well. People in many circles perceived drinking alcohol as the truly American way of relaxing. “We don’t smoke marijuana in Muskogee,’’ boasted singer Merle Haggard in his patriotic, “Okie from Muskogee.’’ Real Okies, he claimed, relaxed by drinking “white lightnin’,” a homemade alcoholic beverage. 218


1975

1989

Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California

21 21 21 21 21

21 19 19 21 21

21 21 21 21 21

Colorado Connecticut Delaware D.C. Florida

21a 21 21 21b 21

21a 18 20 21b,g 18

21 21 21 21 21

Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana

21 20 21c 21 21

18 18 19 19h 21

21 21 21 21 21

Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine

21 21a 21 18 21

18 21a 21 18 18

21 21 21 21 21

21 21 21 21 none

18h 18 18 18 21g

21 21 21 21 21

Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi

TABLE 7.74 DRUGS MENTIONED MOST FREQUENTLY IN EMERGENCY-ROOM SITUATIONS— ESTIMATES OF SELECTED HOSPITALS, 1972–1988a Rank

1965

a

Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire

21 21 21 21 21

21 18 19 21 18

21 21 21 21 21

New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

21 21 18 21b 21

18 21 18 21b 21

21 21 21 21 21

Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island

21a 21d 21 21 21

21a 21 21g 21 18

21 21 21 21 21

South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah

21e 21f 21 21 21

18 21a 18 18 21

21 21 21 21 21

Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

21 21a 21 21a 21g 21

18 21a 21 18 18 19

21 21 21 21 21 21

3.2 beer: 18. light wine: 18. c beer: 20. d 3.2 beer (female): 18. e beer and wine: 18. f 3.2 beer: 19. g beer: 18. h hard liquor: 21. Source: Luman H. Long, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1966 (New York, 1966), 779; Ann Golenpaul, ed., Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook 1976 (New York, 1975), 734; Otto Johnson, ed., Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook 1990 (Boston, 1989), 826. b

Not surprisingly, consumption of alcoholic drink increased in both absolute terms and in the more meaningful per capita usage. A slow increase in the 1950s preceded a surge in the tumultuous 1960s, followed by a 9 percent growth in the 1970s. Although the 1980s produced a meaningful reduction in drinking (some 12 percent), the decade ended with more than 100 millions drinking alcohol, approximately 15 million of them to the extent of dependency or some form of abuse. For a part of the period, governments made it easier for people to drink. Jolted by demands from rebellious siblings, impressed by apparent logic in their insistence that if you are old enough to fight (at age 18, in Vietnam) and you are old enough to vote, you should be old enough to drink—legislators beginning in the late 1960s lowered the drinking age (usually set at 21) in state after state. By 1975 only 13 states had failed to make some concession on the drinking age. The most common change was acrossthe-board reduction to 18 for all kinds of alcohol.A reaction did not take long to set in.The mood of the era passed, of course, partly because the Vietnam War ended and many movements associated with the period petered out. Alcohol-related automobile accidents increased markedly, and teenage drinking was accepted as a major cause. In the 1980s one state after another rescinded (or modified) its earlier legislation, and by the end of the decade the grand experiment in egalitarianism had ended. All states set the drinking age at 21. The more people that drank, and the more that they drank, the more problems of the practice became apparent. Drinking could cause fatal liver disease, damage to the nervous system, psychological problems of many kinds. Unborn children could be affected by the mother’s drinking. Alcohol frequently played a part in suicide, spousal abuse, criminal activity, and of course automobile accidents. The message of “demon rum’’ came from old organizations, even the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (founded in 1874), and from new ones. Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), established in 1980, was followed by Students Against Driving Drunk (SADD) in 1981. Public policy that followed usually took the form of identifying alcoholic content in a driver’s system (a practice begun in 1951) and lowering the amount necessary for criminal action. Americans seemed to be united in assailing alcohol abuse, but there appeared almost no support for another movement of absolute prohibition and little evidence of the sort of firestorm that was building against the tobacco companies.

TABLE 7.76 U.S. ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION, 1940–1990a Year

Beer

Wine

Spirits

All Beverages

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

0.73 1.04 0.99 1.14 1.38 1.34

0.16 0.23 0.22 0.27 0.34 0.33

0.67 0.77 0.86 1.11 1.04 0.78

1.56 2.04 2.07 2.52 2.76 2.46

a

Gallons of ethanol per capita, based on population age 15 and older to 1970 and age 14 and older to 1990. Source: New York Times Almanac, 1998, 399.

TABLE 7.77

U.S. CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL, COMPARED WITH OTHER COUNTRIES, 1990

(adult consumption per capita) Rank Order

Absolute Alcohol

Liters

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

France Luxembourg Germany Austria Hungary

16.5 16.4 15.0 14.0 13.5

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Spain Switzerland Portugal Belgium Denmark

13.0 12.9 12.6 12.0 11.7

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Australia Netherlands Italy

11.6 11.5 10.7 10.3 10.3

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

New Zealand Ireland Romania Finland United Kingdom

10.1 10.0 9.9 9.6 9.4

21.

United States

9.2

Source: Dwight B. Heath, International Handbook on Alcohol and Culture (Westport, Conn., 1995), 364–65.

TABLE 7.78

DEATHS AND DEATH RATES FOR ALCOHOL-INDUCED CAUSES, BY RACE AND SEX, 1980–1990

(age-adjusted rates per 100,000) All Races

White

All Other Total

Year Number 1980 1985 1990 Rate 1980 1985 1990

Both Sexes

Black

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

19,765 17,741 19,757

14,447 13,216 14,842

5,318 4,525 4,915

14,815 13,216 14,904

10,936 9,922 11,334

3,879 3,294 3,570

4,950 4,525 4,853

3,511 3,294 3,508

1,439 1,231 1,345

4,451 4,114 4,337

3,170 3,030 3,172

1,281 1,084 1,165

8.4 7.0 7.2

13.0 11.0 11.4

4.3 3.4 3.4

6.9 5.8 6.2

10.8 9.2 9.9

3.5 2.8 2.8

18.8 14.6 13.6

29.5 23.5 22.0

10.0 7.2 6.8

20.4 16.8 16.1

32.4 27.7 26.6

10.6 8.0 7.7

Male Female



219

TABLE 7.79

ALCOHOLISM DEATHS AND MORTALITY RATES—AMERICAN INDIANS AND ALL RACES, 1969–1986a

TABLE 7.80 ALCOHOL-RELATED TRAFFIC CRASH FATALITIES AS A PORTION OF ALL TRAFFIC CRASH FATALITIES, 1977–1987

(deaths per 100,000 resident population) Indian & Alaska Native Year

Number

Rate

All U.S. Races Number

Ratio Indian to All U.S. Races

Rate

1969 1971 1973 1975 1977

267 334 399 403 429

56.6 62.9 66.1 62.2 55.5

15,138 16,891 17,791 18,190 18,437

7.7 8.4 8.6 8.6 8.3

7.4 7.5 7.7 7.2 6.7

1979 1981 1983 1985 1986

398 338 293 281 272

45.1 35.8 28.9 26.1 24.6

17,064 16,745 15,424 15,844 15,525

7.4 7.0 6.1 6.2 6.4

6.1 5.2 4.7 4.2 3.8

a

For 1969–78, numbers include deaths due to alcoholism, alcoholic psychosis, and cirrhosis of the liver; for 1979 and after, numbers include deaths due to alcohol dependence syndrome, alcoholic psychosis, and chronic liver disease and cirrhosis. Source: Robert O’Brien & Morris Chafetz, The Encyclopedia of Alcoholism (New York, 1991), 31.

TABLE 7.81

Percent of All Alcohol-Related Traffic Traffic Crash Crash Fatalities Fatalities

Year

Traffic Crash Crashes

Traffic Crash Fatalities

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

42,064 44,433 45,212 45,271 43,979

47,715 50,327 51,084 51,077 49,268

17,414 18,362 20,245 21,114 20,662

36.5 36.5 39.6 41.3 41.9

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

38,899 37,971 39,622 39,196 41,090 41,435

43,721 42,584 44,241 43,825 46,082 46,386

18,622 17,847 18,523 18,040 20,038 19,918

42.6 41.9 41.9 41.2 43.5 42.9

Source: O’Brien & Chafetz, Encyclopedia of Alcoholism, 273.

ALCOHOL-RELATED FATALITIES, BY AGE, 1977–1987

(in percent) Year

Older Under 16 16–24 25–44 45–64 than 64 Unknown

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

5.5 5.0 4.8 4.5 4.1

43.2 42.9 42.6 42.4 40.1

32.4 34.3 35.4 36.2 38.4

14.2 13.2 12.8 12.7 12.9

4.3 4.2 4.1 4.0 4.3

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

4.3 4.1 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.2

41.0 39.6 39.6 37.8 38.4 35.3

38.3 40.0 40.0 41.2 41.8 44.0

12.1 12.0 11.7 11.9 11.0 11.6

4.1 4.2 4.5 4.6 4.3 4.7

0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.2

Source: O’Brien & Chafetz, Encyclopedia of Alcoholism, 276.

TABLE 7.82 TRENDS IN SELECTED BEHAVIOR AND PERCEPTIONS AMONG U.S. HIGH SCHOOL SENIORS, 1975–1990 Percent Saying “Ever’’ Tried in Lifetime

“Great Risk’’ if

Year

Any Illicit Drugsa

Cigarettes

Alcohol

Smoke 1 or More Packs of Cigarettes Every Day

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

36.2 35.4 35.8 36.5 37.4 38.7 42.8 41.1 40.4 40.3 39.7 37.7 35.8 32.5 31.4 29.4

73.6 75.4 75.7 75.3 74.0 71.0 71.0 70.1 70.6 69.7 68.8 67.6 67.2 66.4 65.7 64.4

90.4 91.9 92.5 93.1 93.0 93.2 93.2 92.8 92.6 92.6 92.2 91.3 92.2 92.0 90.7 89.5

51.3 56.4 58.4 59.0 63.0 63.7 63.3 60.5 61.2 63.8 66.5 66.0 68.6 68.0 67.2 68.2

a

Other than marijuana. Source: Metlife, Statistical Bulletin, January–March, 1993, 21.

220


“Most’’ or “All’’ of Best Friends

Take 1 or 2 Drinks Nearly Every Day

Take 5 or More Drinks Once, Twice Weekend

Drink Alcohol

Get Drunk At Least Once a Week

21.5 21.2 18.5 19.6 22.6 20.3 21.6 21.6 21.6 23.0 24.4 25.1 26.2 27.3 28.5 31.3

37.8 37.0 34.7 34.5 34.9 35.9 36.3 36.0 38.6 41.7 43.0 39.1 41.9 42.6 44.0 47.1

68.4 64.7 66.2 68.9 68.5 68.9 67.7 69.0 69.0 66.6 66.0 68.0 71.8 68.1 67.1 60.5

30.1 26.6 27.6 30.2 32.0 30.1 29.4 29.9 31.0 29.6 29.0 31.8 31.3 29.6 31.1 27.5

TABLE 7.83

CURRENT USERS OF CIGARETTES, ALCOHOL, MARIJUANA, AND/OR COCAINE, 1988

(in percent)

Substance and Age Group

Sex

Race/Ethnicity

Region

Total

Male

Female

Whiteb

Blackb

Hispanic

Northeast

Cigarettes:Total 12 to 17 years old 18 to 25 years old 26 to 34 years old 35 years old and older

28.8 11.8 35.2 37.1 27.3

32.2 12.4 35.6 40.7 32.2

25.6 11.2 34.8 33.6 23.0

28.7 13.9 36.9 37.2 26.3

30.3 5.1 29.5 36.1 35.5

26.3 7.5 28.2 33.6 27.6

29.3 11.4 33.8 35.7 29.1

Alcohol:Total 12 to 17 years old 18 to 25 years old 26 to 34 years old 35 years old and older

53.4 25.2 65.3 64.2 51.5

60.6 26.8 74.5 73.9 58.6

46.7 23.5 56.6 54.8 45.4

55.1 27.4 68.8 66.2 52.7

44.3 15.9 50.0 57.0 44.9

49.2 25.4 61.4 58.8 46.0

Marijuana:Total 12 to 17 years old 18 to 25 years old 26 to 34 years old 35 years old and older

5.9 6.4 15.5 10.8 1.4

7.9 6.1 20.0 14.8 2.2

4.0 6.7 11.2 7.0 0.7

5.6 6.8 15.7 11.2 1.1

6.3 4.4 15.0 9.3 2.2

Cocaine:Total 12 to 17 years old 18 to 25 years old 26 to 34 years old 35 years old and older

1.5 1.1 4.5 2.6 0.4

2.0 0.9 6.0 3.6 0.5

1.0 1.4 3.0 1.6

1.3 1.3 4.2 2.3 0.3

2.0

a

a

4.3 3.0 1.1

South

West

29.6 12.9 45.0 45.8 23.3

31.1 12.4 34.0 34.0 33.0

22.9 9.1 27.8 33.8 19.5

59.2 30.2 70.8 68.8 58.1

55.7 27.9 73.0 72.8 50.9

45.1 21.2 53.2 55.9 43.7

60.3 24.7 74.7 65.4 59.7

6.0 5.2 13.8 9.1

5.5 6.5 18.4 9.6 1.1

6.7 6.7 17.9 14.2 1.1

4.8 5.9 12.2 8.8 0.9

7.3 7.0 16.3 11.9 3.1

2.6 1.3 6.7 3.9

2.1 0.9 7.0 2.6 1.0

1.5 1.7 4.8 3.3

1.0

1.7 2.5 4.7 3.1

a

a

Midwest

a

a

2.9 1.8 a

a

a

Base too small to meet statistical standard of a reliable figure. Non-Hispanic. Source: Statistical Abstract, 1991, 122.

b


221

CHAPTER 8 Religion The Course of Religion, 1946–1990 As would benefit a nation of such growing population and cultural and ethnic diversity where popular attitudes and constitutional principles tolerated almost any point of view, religion in the United States underwent numerous turns in the last half of the 20th century. In the face of so many new pressures and forces, it was remarkable that the country experienced as much continuity as it did. The explanation probably rested in a basic foundation in Judeo-Christian heritage, the fact that the bulk of the population maintained an association with Christianity, albeit in vastly differing ways, and the fact that the United States remained rich and powerful—a force that tended to discourage large upheaval of any sort. Statistics suggested an upsurge in religious activity, at least in church membership, in the immediate postwar period. Religious organizations experienced an increase of more than 20 million members in the 1940s and a remarkable growth of nearly 28 million in the 1950s. By 1960, 65 percent of the populace claimed religious affiliation of some sort (as compared with 49 percent in 1940). Explanations of the surge often placed more emphasis on social and economic than religious factors.The cold war battle against “godless communism’’ placed religion in league with patriotism and individual self-interest. Postwar culture stressed commonality, fitting in, and church membership in the 1950s carried an automatic mark of respectability. Popular music fed the theme with such songs as “I Believe,’’ “The Man Upstairs,’’ and “Vaya Con Dios.’’ Most Christian churches experienced growth; some of the most impressive gains came in the respectable and relatively undemanding mainline denominations, such as Methodist and Lutheran. The Roman Catholic Church showed steady growth throughout the period, if only because of the Catholic practice of registering virtually every Catholic baby at birth. The spirit of commonality carried over to religion in formation of the National Council of Churches in 1950, merger of various Protestant denominations, and aspects of the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65. Although affiliation with religious organizations remained generally high—more than 60 percent—throughout the 1960s, other signals suggested that a weakening of faith had set in. Statistics on attendance at worship service, which never had kept pace with membership, pointed to sharper decline beginning in the mid-1960s. By the early 1970s only 40 percent went to church. In 1970, 75 percent of the people polled believed that religion was losing its influence. Mainline Protestant churches that had reached peak membership between 1965 and 1970 began a slide that would reach well into the 1980s. Between 1965 and 1989 the Presbyterian Church lost 25 percent of its membership; the Episcopal lost 28 percent, and the Methodist (United Methodist) lost 18 percent.The Catholic Church continued to put up large numbers, but evidence pointed to a substantial difference between membership and commitment. By the mid-1970s a shift clearly was taking place within the ranks of American Christianity. The participants in that shift in politics would take the form of the Religious Right. In denominational circles it meant growth in the popularity of churches peopled by Bible-believing, “born-again’’ constituents who took their religion seriously and with considerable vigor. In large measure they reacted to social and legal changes underway for several years: changing attitudes toward sex, pornography, and marriage; new policies with respect to affirmative action, prayer in schools, and, above all, abortion. To the extent that there was a catalyst for the political aspect of the movement it would be the Supreme Court decision in 1973 that legalized abortion. Denominational benefactors included “fringe’’ churches that could be 222

called evangelical, fundamentalist, and perhaps pentecostal. The Assemblies of God was such a sect, although certain branches of the more familiar Baptist Church also joined up. The most prominent leaders, Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, were Baptist ministers. A considerable force in political and religious circles though most of the 1980s, conservative Protestantism could claim victories in national and local elections, restrictions on various public policies, and growth of certain denominations. In its politics and its tactics—not to mention its image—the movement provoked hostility—often taking the form of ridicule—from groups whose interests were being threatened. Embarrassed by hypocrisy and exploitive behavior within its most conspicuous leadership, wounded by excessive activity from radical members, the Religious Right, if not conservative Christianity in general, by the late 1980s was placed on the defensive. Religion in the United States thus has been, and continued to be, erratic and diverse. A study in 1977 revealed approximately 800 separate Christian groups and more than 200 that were non-Christian.The non-Christian or quasi-Christian groups lent themselves to no single generalization other, perhaps, than there had been a lot of them and they differed considerably. It was standard practice to identify the three great religions in the United States as Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism. There continued to be a lack of popular understanding about the relationship between the Jewish people and the faith. How many Jews practiced Judaism on a regular basis? The Census Bureau did not try to determine. In counting adherents to Judaism the bureau simply included everyone who was ethnically Jewish. Judaism continued to ride on the three branches of Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative; the postwar years produced a surge in the construction of synagogues. Many American Jews nonetheless observed the faith only nominally if at all. The holocaust of the Second World War and the creation in 1948 of the state of Israel provided powerful reasons for stressing one’s Jewishness. Seeming perpetual vulnerability of Israel regularly reinforced the attitude, but the terrible slaughter of the holocaust led many Jews to question the workings, if not the existence, of a supreme being. If a decline in postwar anti-Semitism and acceptance of Jews into greater American society were regarded as positive trends, they did not do much for the faith. Orthodox Judaism no less than orthodox Christianity carried demands on behavior and attitude. Assimilation, however, was a part of acceptance in American culture. Marriage to non-Jews rose from 6 percent in 1950 to 30 percent in 1990. Judaism held its own, but it would appear that the enormous influence of Jewish people in American arts and sciences, education, entertainment, and other areas did not extend to religion. If the numbers of other groups never were known exactly, most were small and attracted attention only because of some exceptional circumstance. Most Americans knew little about Buddhism except what they might have learned in college, and they encountered the faith only when the Dalai Lama visited the United States or on learning that actors Richard Gere and Harrison Ford were Buddhist. Many people doubted that the Church of Scientology, which claimed 3 million members, was really a church, but they paid it more attention on learning that another actor, John Travolta, was a member. Such terms as Unification Church, the New Age, Branch Davidians and others provoked an emotional reaction or none at all. Islam, to be sure, was different—a bonafide, powerful world religion that was destined to grow in the United States. Even so, the surge in the number of Muslims remained an item for the near future, and up to the year 1990, the major influence of Islam came in the pressure of its representative governments on policy of the United States. Protestantism, long the

dominant religious force, still could claim a majority of people who expressed a preference, but in the course of recent history two other groups—the Catholics and Jews—had reached a position of social equality. If the pattern of recent immigration continued, especially the Surveys Conducted by the Princeton Religion Research Center—The Gallup Organization

large increase from East Asia, one could expect continued growth in the number and size of nontraditional religions. If indicators foretold a predominantly Christian United States as far as one could see, they also foretold even more diversity, inside the faith and out.

TABLE 8.2 PERCENT OF AMERICANS WHO BELIEVE IN LIFE AFTER DEATH, 1944–1988

TABLE 8.1 PERCENT OF AMERICANS WHO BELIEVE IN GOD OR A UNIVERSAL SPIRIT, 1944–1986 Year

Percent

1944 1947 1952 1953 1954 1959

96 94 99 98 96 97

1965 1967 1969 1975 1976 1981 1986

97 97 98 94 94 95 94

Year

Percent

1944 1948 1952 1957 1961 1965

76 68 77 74 74 75

1968 1975 1978 1980 1981 1988

73 69 71 67 71 71

Source: Princeton Research Center, Religion in America 1990, 25.

Source: The Princeton Religion Research Center, Religion in America 1990 (Princeton, 1990), 16.

TABLE 8.4 OPINION POLLS OF RELIGIOUS PREFERENCE—MAJOR FAITHS, 1947–1989a

TABLE 8.3 THE LAST JUDGMENT Question: How much do you agree with the statement: “We will all be called before God at the judgment day to answer for our sins.’’ (1988)

Completely Agree (%)

Those Asked

Mostly Agree (%)

Year

Mostly Completely Disagree Disagree (%) (%)

National

52

28

8

6

Men Women

45 59

31 25

10 7

7 5

Under 30 30–45 50 and older

45 50 60

35 26 24

8 9 8

6 9 4

Protestants White Black Evangelicals Non-Evangelicals

60 58 66 78 45

26 26 27 17 33

7 7 4 2 10

3 4 1 2 5

Catholics

49

35

9

2

Protestant

Catholic

Jewish

Other

None

1947 1952 1957 1962 1967

69% 67% 66% 70% 67%

20% 25% 26% 23% 25%

5% 4% 3% 3% 3%

1% 1% 1% 2% 3%

6% 2% 3% 2% 2%

1972 1974 1976 1977–78

63% 60% 61% 60%

26% 27% 27% 29%

2% 2% 2% 2%

4% 5% 4% 1%

5% 6% 6% 8%

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988–89

61% 57% 57% 58% 56%

28% 29% 28% 27% 28%

2% 2% 2% 2% 2%

2% 4% 4% 4% 4%

7% 8% 9% 9% 10%

a

Gallup Organization surveys of nearly 18,000 persons 18 and older. Source: Princeton Research Center, Religion in America 1990, 29.

Source: Princeton Research Center, Religion in America 1990, 21.

TABLE 8.5

RELIGIOUS POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1940–1990

(in thousands, except as indicated) Religious Body

1940

1950

1960

1970

1975

1980

1990

Total Members as % of population Buddhists Eastern churches Jews

64,502 49 ... ... ...

86,830 57 ... 1,859 5,000

114,449 64 20 2,699 5,367

131,045 63 100 3,850 5,870

131,013 61 60 3,696 6,115

134,817 59 60 3,823 5,920

156,336 63 19 3,976 5,981

Old Catholic, Polish National, Armenian churches Roman Catholics Protestantsa Miscellaneousb

... 21,284 37,815 ...

337 28,635 51,080 ...

590 42,105 63,669 ...

848 48,125 71,173 449

846 48,882 71,043 372

924 50,450 73,479 161

950 58,568 86,684 1,166

a

Includes such non-Protestants as Latter-Day Saints and Jehovah’s Witnesses. Officially non-Christian groups—Spiritualists, Ethical Culture, etc. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 42; Statistical Abstract, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 67.

b

Religion

223

224

Cold War America, 1946 to 1990 4,949,174 (1,708,146) (8,043,454) 256,007d

Southern Baptist Convention United Church of Christ United Methodist Church Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod

7,079,889 (1,977,418) (9,653,178) 307,216

28,634,878 209,341 237,168

(3,210,635) 284,504 124,925

1,674,901 56,480 41,560

…

8,467,439 (2,116,322) (10,029,535) 328,969

33,396,647 249,641 277,162

(3,701,635) 319,593 137,856

2,004,110 70,283 47,319

187,120

51,437

60,090 (4,672,083)

195,609 270,576 84,990 2,852,965h

123,523 142,668 1,230,021

1,897,736

400,047 54,000 57,109e

1955

9,731,591 (2,241,134) (10,641,310) 348,184i

42,104,900 254,141 317,852

(4,161,860) 354,621 155,291

2,391,195 73,125 50,646

250,000

55,338

65,780 (5,295,502)

199,947 307,629 88,452 3,269,325

170,261 170,261 1,486,887

1,801,821

508,602 72,056 59,657

1960

b

Data for 1966 Assemblies of God statistics for 1971 and later are full-membership statistics c Data for 1952 d Data for 1939 e Data for 1954 f Data for 1951 g Data for 1945 h Data for 1956 i Data for 1961 j Adjusted downward to eliminate Canadian membership previously reported. Source: National Council of the Churches of Christ, Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1990 (Nashville, 1990), 272–73.

a

24,402,124 205,881 208,030

21,284,455 238,357 176,218 6,079,305 (1,835,853) (9,135,248) 259,097

(2,969,382) 274,455 116,888

(2,690,969) 255,107 106,554

Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) Reformed Church in America Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Roman Catholic Church Salvation Army Seventh-day Adventist Church

1,422,513 52,596

…

1,277,097 51,304

…

Jehovah’sWitnesses

48,574

46,783g

Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod Mennonite Church North American Baptist Conference

45,890

Free Methodist Church of North America

55,311 (3,982,508)

186,201 226,684 81,806 2,417,464

107,094 121,706f 1,111,314

1,767,964

318,478 48,647c 58,347

1950

51,850 (3,117,626)

182,497 201,487g 75,427 2,155,514

176,908 165,532 73,357 1,996,434 45,634

911,279

95,325

1,889,066

241,782 … …

1947

74,497 63,216 724,401d

1,658,966

198,834 … 22,832d

1940

Evangelical Covenant Church of America Evangelical Lutheran Church in America

Church of God (Anderson, Ind) Church of God (Cleveland,Tenn.) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Church of the Brethren Church of the Nazarene Cumberland Presbyterian Church Episcopal Church

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

Assemblies of Godb Baptist General Conference Christian and Missionary Alliance

Denomination

(for selected U.S. denominations)

TABLE 8.6 CHURCH MEMBERSHIP STATISTICS, 1940–1989

10,770,573 2,070,413 (11,067,497) 358,466

46,246,175 287,991 364,666

(4,254,460) 385,754 168,355

2,692,889 80,087 53,711

330,358

59,415

67,441 (5,684,298)

194,815 343,380 78,917 3,429,153a

143,231 205,465 1,789,175

1,918,471

572,123 86,719 64,586

1965

11,628,032 1,960,608 10,509,198 381,321

48,214,729 326,934 420,419

(4,045,408) 367,606 152,670

2,788,536 88,522 55,080

388,920

64,901

71,808 (5,650,137)

182,614 383,284 92,095 3,285,826

150,198 272,278 2,073,146

1,424,479

625,027 103,955 112,519

1970

12,733,124 1,818,762 9,861,028 395,440

48,881,872 384,817 495,699

(3,535,825) 355,052 157,762

2,763,545 94,209 42,629j

560,897

67,043

77,737 (5,401,765)

179,336 441,093 94,050 2,857,513

166,257 343,249 2,336,715

1,302,164

785,348 115,340 145,833

1975

13,600,126 1,736,244 9,519,407 407,043

50,449,842 417,359 571,141

(3,362,086) 345,532 190,087

2,625,650 99,511 43,041

565,309

68,477

84,150 (5,384,271)

170,839 484,276 96,553 2,786,004

176,429 435,012 2,811,000

1,177,984

1,064,490 133,385 189,710

1980

14,477,364 1,683,777 9,192,172 415,389

52,654,908 427,825 651,954

3,048,235 342,375 192,082

2,628,164 91,167 42,863

730,441

72,223

89,014 (5,341,452)

159,184 522,082 98,037 2,739,422

3,860,000

185,593

1,116,326

2,082,878 132,546 227,846

1985

14,907,826 1,625,969 8,979,139 419,312

57,019,948 445,566 701,781

2,886,482 330,650 190,183

2,609,025 92,517 42,629

825,570

75,869

5,238,798

149,681 561,253 90,906 2,433,413

199,786 582,203 4,175,400

1,052,271

2,137,890 133,742 265,863

1989

TABLE 8.7

MAJOR RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS, 1985–1990a Family/Denomination

Local Congregations

Total Clergy

Total Membership

% of Total Afflliated

All Religiously Affiliated

350,337

547,064

147,607,394

100.0

Roman Catholic Church

23,500

53,111

57,019,948

38.6

Baptist Churches Southern Baptist Convention National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. National Baptist Convention of America American Baptist Churches in the USA Baptist Bible Fellowship International Progressive National Baptist Convention Inc. American Baptist Association National Primitive Baptist Convention Inc. Baptist Missionary Association of America General Association of Regular Baptist Churches Conservative Baptist Association of America Free Will Baptists, National Association of Liberty Baptist Fellowship Baptist General Conference Other (10 denominations)

97,994 37,739 26,000 11,398 5,833 3,449 655 1,705 616 1,339 1,582 1,126 2,517 510 792 2,733

147,356 64,100 27,500 28,574 8,242 4,500 863 1,760 636 2,648 N.A. 1,324 2,900 N.A. 1,700 2,619

28,463,978 14,907,826 5,500,000 2,668,799 1,548,573 1,405,900 521,692 250,000 250,000 229,315 216,468 210,000 204,489 200,000 133,742 217,174

19.3

Methodist Churches United Methodist Church African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Other (8 denominations)

53,737 37,514 6,200 6,060 2,340 1,623

56,697 38,303 6,550 6,698 2,650 2,496

13,229,155 8,979,139 2,210,000 1,220,260 718,922 100,834

9.0

Lutheran Churches Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod Others (10 denominations)

18,988 11,067 5,990 1,198 733

27,859 17,246 8,271 1,573 769

8,374,898 5,238,798 2,609,025 419,312 107,763

5.7

Pentecostal Churches Church of God in Christ Assemblies of God Church of God (Cleveland,Tenn.) United Pentecostal Church International International Church of the Foursquare Gospel Church of God in Christ, International Pentecostal Holiness Church International Others (21 denominations)

40,280 9,982 11,192 5,763 3,592 1,404 300 1,475 6,572

78,596 10,426 30,471 7,544 7,447 5,179 1,600 2,095 13,834

7,931,294 3,709,661 2,137,890 582,203 500,000 203,060 200,000 119,073 479,407

5.4

2,070 535 440 66 160

2,720 655 531 61 325

4,659,939 1,950,000 1,000,000 450,000 350,000

3.2

30 42 22 775

29 49 109 961

180,000 165,000 120,000 444,939

Latter-day Saints Churches Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Others (2 denominations)

18,192 9,049 1,048 95

48,322 30,960 16,912 450

4,370,690 4,175,400 190,183 5,107

3.0

Churches of Christ Churches of Christ Christian Churches and Churches of Christ Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

23,067 13,375 5,579 4,113

13,493 N.A. 6,596 6,897

3,748,887 1,626,000 1,070,616 1,052,271

2.5

Presbyterian Churches Presbyterian Church (USA) Presbyterian Church in America Other (7 denominations)

14,211 11,469 1,100 1,642

24,080 20,078 1,949 2,053

3,366,411 2,886,482 217,374 256,555

2.3

Episcopal Church

7,372

14,831

2,433,413

1.6

Reformed Churches United Church of Christ Reformed Church in America Christian Reformed Church in North America Others (4 denominations)

8,125 6,388 928 712 97

12,799 9,870 1,727 1,099 103

2,205,589 1,625,969 330,650 225,699 23,271

1.5

Orthodox (Eastern) Churches Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North and South America Orthodox Church in America Armenian Church of America, Diocese of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America American Apostolic Church of America Coptic Orthodox Church Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East Others (13 denominations)

(continued) Religion

225

TABLE 8.7

(continued) Local Congregations

Family/Denomination Holiness Churches Church of the Nazarene Christian and Missionary Alliance Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) Wesleyan Church Christian Congregation Jehovah’s Witnesses Adventist Churches Seventh-Day Adventists Others (3 denominations) Church of Christ, Scientist Salvation Army Roman Rite Churches Polish National Catholic Church of America North American Old Roman Catholic Church Mennonite Churches Mennonite Church Old Order Amish Church Others (9 denominations) International Confederation of Community Churches Brethren Churches Church of the Brethren Others (5 denominations) Unitarian Universalist Association Evangelical Free Church of America Friends (Quaker) Churches (5 denominations) Total Christian Churches Jews Muslims Buddhist Churches of America Other Religions

Total Clergy

12,429 5,158 1,829 2,338 1,650 1,454 9,141 4,636 4,193 443 N.A. 1,122 295 162 133 2,501 1,034 785 682 210 1,804 1,102 702 1,010 1,040 1,405 345,686 3,416 N.A. 67 1,168

Total Membership

19,451 9,138 2,370 3,410 3,076 1,457 0 5,068 4,493 575 N.A. 5,184 291 141 150 6,573 2,545 3,140 888 350 3,754 2,436 1,318 1,252 1,795 1,082 N.A. 6,500 N.A. 107 N.A.

1,245,810 561,253 265,863 199,786 110,027 108,881 825,570 733,249 701,781 31,468 700,000 445,566 345,022 282,411 62,611 250,645 92,517 70,650 87,478 250,000 225,842 149,681 76,161 182,211 165,000 118,070 141,443,624 5,944,000 3,000,000b 19,441 200,329

% of Total Afflliated 0.8

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.3 0.2

0.2

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1 0.1 95.8 4.0 N.A. 0.1 0.1

a

A year was not always indicated in these yearly surveys, but in this report of 1991, it usually was between 1988 and 1990. A few churches used an earlier year. There were no reliable statistics on the number of Muslims in the United States. The number 3,000,000 was equal to number of Muslim immigrants in the United States. Source: Reports to the Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1991 as arranged in John Wright, ed., The Universal Almanac 1994 (Kansas City, 1994), 232.

b

TABLE 8.9 TABLE 8.8

ATTENDANCE AT WORSHIP SERVICE, 1947–1990

(number and % of all clergy)

(participation by adults in percent) Year

Percent

1947 1950 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1989 1990

45 39 46 46 49 47 46 45 44 43 40 40 40 42 41 40 41 40 40 42 43 40

Source: National Council of the Churches of Christ, Yearbook of American Churches, 1970 (New York, 1970), 337; Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1990, 292; Yearbook of American Churches, 1991, 302.

226


WOMEN MEMBERS OF THE CLERGY, 1940–1986

Year

Number

Percent

1940 1950 1960 1970 1977 1986

3,148 6,777 4,727 6,314 10,470 20,730

2.3 4.1 2.3 2.0 4.0 7.9

Source: Churches of Christ, Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1978 (Nashville, 1978), 259; Yearbook of American Churches, 1989, 261–62.

TABLE 8.10 DENOMINATIONS WITH LARGEST NUMBER OF FEMALE CLERGY, 1986 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Denomination Assemblies of God Salvation Army United Methodist Church Presbyterian Church United Church of Christ Episcopal Church Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) International Church of the Foursquare Gospel Lutheran Church in America American Baptist Churches

Number of Female Clergy 3,718 3,220 1,891 1,519 1,460 796 743 666 484 429

Source: Churches of Christ, Yearbook of American Churches, 1989, 262.

Women and the Priesthood: A Catholic View Report of National Conference of Catholic Bishops (1972) The constant tradition and practice of the Catholic Church against the ordination of women, interpreted . . . as of divine law, is of such a nature as to constitute a clear teaching . . . of the Church . . ., this is Catholic doctrine. Archbishop Joseph L. Bernardin (1975): It is not correct to say that the fact . . . that women have not been ordained up to now can be explained simply by culturally conditioned notions of male superiority. This is a serious theological issue. Throughout its history the Catholic Church has not called women to the priesthood. Source: Felician A. Foy, ed., 1976 Catholic Almanac (Huntington, Ind., 1975), 121–22.

Catholicism in the United States The Roman Catholic Church of the immediate post–Second World War period remained essentially what it had been for many decades. Aloof, tightly structured, seemingly preoccupied with protecting its institutional self, it faced an American clientele that was undergoing change. Historically immigrants or children of immigrants, workingclass, defensive, semi-isolated, and subjected to discrimination of various levels, Catholics in the 1940s and 1950s were beginning to break free. The Second World War had been a major force for amalgamation, whether one served in the armed forces or the home front, and the prosperity of the postwar era reached many groups that previously had been left behind. Some of the largest proportionate gains had been scored by members of white minority groups, many of whom had been Catholic. If there had been doubts about heightened acceptability of Catholics into greater American society, they largely had been put to rest by election to the presidency of John F. Kennedy in 1960. It therefore was appropriate, even mandatory, that the American Catholic Church move to keep pace with changes in its constituency. To many people’s surprise the initiative for change came from the international church. On the death in 1958 of Pope Pius XII, whom many had considered conservative, if not reactionary—Hitler’s pope, the harshest critics called him—the College of Cardinals selected the man who, nearly 77 years old, would become Pope John XXIII. The new pope’s age provided perhaps an explanation for the surprise many Catholics felt on hearing in 1959 that he planned to call an ecumenical council, the first in nearly a century, to consider changes in the church and its position within the world. The Second Vatican Council of 1962–65—Vatican II, as American Catholics would call it—produced several decisions that loosened discipline within church hierarchy and between the clergy and the populace and sought to place the church within the diverse world of the 20th century. American Catholics first felt effects of the changes in liturgy and church discipline. Now masses were heard in English (not Latin); the priest faced the congregation; the people were encouraged to sing and in other ways participate in the ceremony. Other traditional practices, such as fast and abstinence, confession directly to a priest, were eliminated or made optional. The new era, to be sure, produced awkward moments: Some Catholics, to whom mass was a ritual of prescribed motions, did not want to sing, and to see the music led by someone with a guitar and tambourine bordered on sacrilege. To other people the changes were refreshing, liberating, consistent with popular movements of the 1960s and early 1970s. For others the church had taken away the distinctions that made them Catholic. Although it would be a mistake to hold reforms of Vatican II solely responsible for what followed, the ensuing years produced some difficult times for the established American church.The popular injunction

This Cathedral in New Ulm, Minnesota, is pictured during a folk guitar mass—very popular with the young people. (National Archives)

to “do your own thing’’ was engaging, even compelling, to young people. Attendance at mass dropped sharply; few people asked a priest to hear confession. Many priests and members of other religious orders left their vocation; fewer people entered seminaries, and there were fewer seminaries to enter. Between 1965 and 1985 female religious orders (the nuns) lost nearly 65,000 of their personnel. The 1970s and 1980s produced pressure for even further change. Critics blamed shortage of priests on the rule of celibacy; to get married or have a romantic relationship, one had to leave the priesthood and many men did. The feminist movement, which contained many Catholics and several nuns, found no logical reason why women could not become members of the clergy. Revelations about priestly molestation of children—and of the church’s handling of such matters—raised many questions, including about the sexual climate in which the leadership functioned. The issues that affected the general populace most directly were birth control (the church still condemned all “artificial’’ methods) and the ban on remarriage after divorce. Many Catholics cynically viewed annulment, often called the church’s substitute for divorce, as an option open only for the rich and powerful. Abortion remained for Catholics, as with other people, a delicate and painful issue. Although most probably supported the church’s opposition to abortion, the proportion of Catholic women who had chosen such a procedure was comparable to other white groups. A large number of individuals, perhaps a majority, resolved the dilemma faced in their catholicism with selectivity: They obeyed the commandments they chose and ignored the others. These “cafeteria’’ or “a la carte’’ Catholics found such an approach imperfect but Religion

227

workable. The demand of conservatives for a return to traditional church discipline seemed out of the question. As the 1980s came to an end the Catholic Church continued to record steady gains in membership and in its share of the world of American Christendom. But the numbers failed to measure either a level of commitment or of the diversity within the membership.The course of immigration what it was (large numbers from Catholic countries of Latin America) could mean only that the diversity would increase. One almost could say that the Catholic Church was not catholic any more. Holy Days of Obligation: Roman Catholic Church Every Catholic who had attained age of reason, was not prevented by sickness or other sufficient cause, was obliged to rest from servile work and attend Holy Mass on the following days: BeforeVatican Council II (1960) All Sundays of the year. Circumcision of Our Lord (January 1) Ascension (40 days after Easter) Assumption of Blessed Virgin (August 15) All Saints Day (November 1) Immaculate Conception (December 8) Christmas (December 25)

TABLE 8.11 ROMAN CATHOLIC CLERGY, DEACONS, AND MEMBERS OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS, 1950–1990 Year

Priests

Deacons

Brothers

Sisters

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

42,970 46,970 53,796 58,432 59,192

... ... ... ... ...

7,377 8,752 10,473 12,271 11,623

147,310 158,069 168,527 179,954 160,931

1975 1980 1985 1990

58,909 58,621 57,317 52,547

... 4,093 7,204 9,639

8,625 7,941 7,544 6,722

135,204 126,517 115,396 102,519

Source: National Council of the Churches of Christ, Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, 1986 (Nashville, 1989), 267; Yearbook of American Churches, 1991, 290.

Brief Glossary Associated with Conservative, usually Protestant, Christianity

1. Ash Wednesday 2. Good Friday 3. All Fridays of Lent (Minimum age raised to 14)

born again Originated in John 3:3–7 in which Jesus told Nicodemus that he had to be “born again’’ to see the Kingdom of God. Thus it was necessary to undergo a complete spiritual rebirth, after which the individual would be changed, a new person. charismatic movement A fairly recent energetic, joyous worship marked with emphasis on faith healing and speaking in tongues. Popularity grew with both Protestants and Catholics in late 1960s and 1970s. evangelical The term means “good news,’’ and it refers to responsibility of born-again, “Bible-believing’’ Christians to share their beliefs and spiritual joy with other people, through “witnessing’’ or other means. fundamentalism The term has a fairly lengthy historical background, but in “fundamental’’ essentials it entailed belief in certain basic truths, all of which were contained in the Bible, which represented the inspired word of God. Practice of these truths have taken different forms. glossolalia The word given to identify the practice of “speaking in tongues,’’ or strange unknown languages—a power given to the Apostles (and others present) on the day of Pentecost. Not all Protestants, not even all fundamentalists, and only charismatic Catholics approve of this form of worship. pentecostal As with glossolalia, pentecostal pertains to the day of Pentecost, at which time the people present were granted supernatural powers, such as speaking in tongues, healing, and prophecy. People who accept such “gifts of the spirit’’ are called Pentecostals. The Assemblies of God is the largest such body. rapture That moment when Christ will return to resurrect the righteous who have died and remove the “saved’’ who are still alive. Those left behind will face the “tribulation,’’ seven years during which evil forces control the earth. revival Dating to at least the 18th century, revival pertains to emotional Protestant gatherings, often held in large tents, designed to reinvigorate believers and to convert as many as possible of those persons who were not. secular humanism A belief that human beings, relying on their own devices, are capable of managing affairs of the world, with no need of God. Bible-believing Christians insisted that this humancentered (as opposed to being God-centered) society, was (and is) doomed to destruction.They believe that God is in charge.

Source: Felician A. Foy, ed., The 1960 National Catholic Almanac (New York, 1960), 128; Foy, 1976 Catholic Almanac, 287.

Source: (In part) Glenn H. Utter and John W. Storey, The Religious Right (Santa Barbara, 1995), 269–75.

AfterVatican Council II All days are the same except that January 1 was changed to Solemnity of Mary the Mother of God. Days of Fast

Days of fasting bound everyone between 21 and 59, except when health or ability to work became an issue. The individual could have one full meal and two small meatless meals. No eating in between. BeforeVatican Council II (1960) 1. All weekdays of Lent. 2. Ember days—1960: March 9–11, June 8–11, September 21–24, December 14–17. 3. Pentecost (June 4) 4. Immaculate Conception 5. Christmas (December 24) (20 days in all) AfterVatican Council II (1974) 1. Ash Wednesday 2. Good Friday (2 days) Days of Abstinence

Days of Abstinence required everyone seven and older (in 1960) to refrain from eating meat on the designated days. BeforeVatican Council II (1960) 1. All Fridays of the year. 2. Ash Wednesday 3. Holy Saturday 4. Immaculate Conception 5. Christmas (December 24) Partial: (meat once per day) 1. Ember Wednesdays 2. Ember Saturdays 3. Pentecost AfterVatican Council II (1974)

228


Television Evangelists and Emergence of the Religious Right Christianity and mass communication media made a good mix almost from the start. Most denominations maintained a desire, many considered it a duty, to spread the word, the good news, to as many people as possible. Aimee Semple McPherson and other evangelists had used radio shortly after it had been developed in the 1920s, and the number of radio preachers proliforated in the 1940s and 1950s, many of them reaching local or regional audiences. By the end of the 1950s all three major radio networks had lifted a ban on sale of radio airtime to religious broadcasters. The shift to television was as logical as it had been for normal programming, and for a while, the government facilitated the transfer. The FCC ruled that local stations must allot time for religious broadcasting, and at first networks forbade accepting payment for these programs.A reversal of that policy, allowing stations to sell airtime, did nothing to discourage preachers from taking their message to the small screen. By the 1970s ministers controlled, not only programs but also stations and even networks. The messengers and the message had moved some distance from the programs of Bishop Sheen, Walter Maier, or even Billy Graham’s crusades. No less than other types of programs, shows on religion lent themselves to showmanship and extravagant claims and behavior. The spiritual message, it often appeared, became subordinate to or a vehicle for the interests and antics of such messengers as Oral Roberts, the spellbinding Jimmy Swaggart, Jim and Tammy-Faye Bakker, whose P.T.L. program was patterned after the Tonight Show of Johnny Carson. Network television provided a lucrative platform for soliciting donations and other devices for accumulating funds that could be used for various purposes, including supporting the lifestyle of the recipients or construction of multifaceted empires that in the case of Swaggart and Roberts included colleges. The movement of televangelism into politics must have seemed to the people involved entirely logical and proper. Many of the issues emerging in the 1970s—prayer or any religious observance in public schools, sexuality, sexual orientation, aspects of the feminist movement, and, of course, abortion—did involve moral and often spiritual questions; most had become objects of public policy and thus connected to qualifications of political leaders. The television preachers most prominent on a national level of the politicization of religion were Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, both southern Baptists. The means by which an emerging Religious Right—many of which membership had been former Democrats—took up nearly the entire program of the Republican Party was a complex proposition. It partly had to do with the fact that many liberal leaders endorsed social positions that evangelicals found reprehensible; seizing the opportunity, conservative Republicans fashioned their programs to appeal to various religious groups.The marriage became strongest at the start of the 1980s with Falwell’s Moral Majority effectively targeting several Democrat senators and with the two presidential administrations of Ronald Reagan, surely the favorite politician of the Religious Right. Televangelism suffered deep wounds in the late 1980s. The humiliation of Oral Roberts, Jimmy Swaggart, and the Bakkers destroyed two of the largest and most aggressive broadcasting establishments and exposed the ease with which hypocrisy could infiltrate their brand of emotional Christianity. Even some of the most devout followers wearied of the spectacle of preachers begging for money, calling it “a love offering,’’ perhaps suggesting that earthly prosperity or even prospect for an eternal life hinged on an individual’s generosity to the cause. Religious broadcasting by no means ended, but the theatrics lessened, and some of the worst offenders

spoke to a considerably reduced audience, if they were able to continue at all. The Religious Right lived to fight another day, but it too had been affected by the preachers’ scandals and by extremist tactics of a few zealots in the battle against abortion. Robertson’s campaign for the Republican nomination in 1988 fizzled; the Moral Majority disbanded, and Ronald Reagan, the movement’s political hero, retired in 1989.

TABLE 8.12

PERCENTAGE OF AMERICANS WHO REGARD THEMSELVES “BORN-AGAIN,’’ 1988

Question: Would you describe yourself as a “born-again’’ or evangelical Christian, or not?

Five Surveys during 1988 (Telephone and Personal)

National

Yes 33%

No 63%

Not Sure 4%

Number of Interviews 5,045

29 37

67 59

4 4

2,514 2,531

30 31 39

66 66 57

4 3 4

1,137 2,031 1,836

21 32 49 26

75 64 47 70

4 4 4 4

1,208 1,338 1,527 971

31 49 57 24

65 47 40 68

4 4 3 8

4,420 606 431 311

22 30 35 45

76 66 61 49

2 4 4 6

1,384 1,240 1,700 690

25 33 35 40

73 64 60 55

2 3 5 5

984 940 687 842

49 12

48 83

3 5

2,883 1,345

Sex Men Women Age 18–29 years 30–49 years 50 & older Region East Midwest South West Race Whites Non-whites Blacks Hispanics Education College graduates College incomplete High school graduates Not high school graduates Household Income $40,000 and over $25,000–$39,999 $15,000–$24,999 Under $15,000 Religion Protestants Catholics

Source: Princeton Research Center, Religion in America, 1990, 41.

Religion

229

Milestones in Religious Broadcasting 1948 The Lutheran Hour, a radio show hosted by Walter Maier, becomes on January 1 the first regularly scheduled television broadcast of a religious program. 1950 Evangelist Billy Graham begins broadcasting his crusade over local radio stations. He calls the program Hour of Decision. 1952 Fulton J. Sheen, a Catholic bishop, starts a televison program called Life IsWorth Living. 1955 Tent-revivalist Oral Roberts begins regular television broadcasting of his program. 1956 Jerry Falwell begins radio and television coverage of Sunday services from Thomas Road Baptist Church in Lynchburg,Virginia. 1957 NBC and CBS joins ABC in lifting a ban on sale of radio airtime to independent religious broadcasters. 1957 For the first time Billy Graham’s crusade (in New York) is carried on television. 1966 Evangelist Pat Robertson, who in 1961 had formed the Christian Broadcast Network, introduces the talk-show format in The 700 Club. 1970 California-based minister Robert Schuller (who had held services at a drive-in theater) begins to broadcast the Hour of Power. 1973 Jimmy Swaggart brings his high-energy revivalism to television in The Jimmy Swaggart Telecast. 1974 Jim Bakker takes over a religious television talk show that, joined by his wife, Tammy Faye, he calls The PTL Club—Praise the Lord or People That Love. 1977 James Dobson (a psychologist, not a preacher) brings Focus on the Family to radio in Los Angeles. 1979 The Moral Majority, started by Jerry Falwell, and the Freedom Forum, headed by Pat Robertson, take religious programming into national politics. 1987 Oral Roberts informs viewers of a message from God that unless he raised $8 million he would be “taken home’’ (would die). Roberts was ridiculed as an embarrassment to the faith if not mentally defective, but he got the money.

230


TABLE 8.13

INFLUENCE OF RELIGION—OPINION POLLS, 1957–1989

Answer to question: “Do you think religion . . . is increasing its influence on American life . . . or losing its influence?’’

Year

Increasing %

Losing %

1957 1962 1965 1967 1968

69 45 33 23 18

14 31 45 57 67

1970 1974 1976 1978

14 31 44 37

75 56 45 48

1980 1983 1985 1986 1988 1989

35 44 49 48 36 33

46 42 39 39 49 49

Source: Princeton Research Center, Religion in America, 1990, 60.

1987 Jim Bakker resigns leadership of the PTL Club over evidence of sexual improprieties with a secretary. He later will be imprisoned for fraud. 1988 In a tearful performance Jimmy Swaggart admits—what already had been established—that he engaged in “perverted’’ sexual behavior (recently, with a prostitute). The Assemblies of God defrock Swaggart, and his religious empire disintegrates, but he continues to preach on television. 1988 Pat Robertson’s campaign for the Republican presidential nomination fails badly. Robertson returns to The 700 Club. 1989 Jerry Falwell disbands the Moral Majority. Source: J. Gordon Melton, Phillip C. Lucas, and Jon R. Stone, Prime-Time Religion: An Encyclopedia of Religious Broadcasting (Phoenix, 1997), 393–95.

CHAPTER 9 Politics and Government The political system of the United States encountered many tests and challenges in the half-century that followed the Second World War. The cold war produced a complex and persistent set of circumstances that made new demands on the government and its leadership, raised questions that went to the core of national political philosophy, and created a temptation to sacrifice values and principles for the sake of survival and security. The most immediate internal threat came, it would appear, at the beginning of the period, when the nation’s acknowledged adversary, the USSR, emerged as a dangerous enemy and at the same time the possessor of an alternate political and economic program that carried considerable appeal. After a brief experiment in the 1950s with using suppression as a counterforce to the perceived threat—during the era of Joseph McCarthy when government itself sponsored serious restrictions on civil liberties—the nation returned to its senses, confident that the collective will would take it in the right direction. The idea of communism as a meaningful, even preferable, alternative took care of itself, although not before considerable passage of time and great expense to the United States. If most Americans generally rejected extremism on the right in the 1950s, they also refused to yield to the most drastic thrusts from the left in the 1960s.The rejection partly represented a reaction to the tactics and demeanor of the so-called New Left and cultural fellow travelers from within the counterculture; partly it came from the reformers’ failure to formulate a concrete and effective program. A favorite slogan, “Power to the People,’’ lacked specificity, to put it mildly. The problem was not a shortage of issues. Although Vietnam, racism, excesses of capitalism, and a general maldistribution of wealth were genuine issues, they did not lend themselves to easy resolution, whatever the political system. Large and complex as it was, the war in Vietnam might have been open to the simplest—but still not simple — solution.The general populace rejected the most radical symbols of a new politics, certainly the bombings and rampages, as well as the bizarre and unblushing social behavior that seemed to be part of the package.The election of Richard Nixon in 1968 and his overwhelming reelection in 1972 stood as undeniable evidence that the center— perhaps a little to right of center—had held. So America was left with, and for the most part content with, the broad and flexible mainstream, and its generous boundaries left much room for movement and political combat.The continuing reach of the coalition of Franklin D. Roosevelt put the Democrats in charge of the government at the start, and they would continue to dominate Congress throughout the period. Control of the presidency during 1946–90 was fairly even, although most of the presidents after 1970 were Republican. It almost appeared that the people had come to prefer divided government: the Democrats to attend to major social problems, the Republicans to keep a lid on things.Americans evidently did not want to leave either party fully in charge. A distinctly nonrevolutionary political environment nonetheless left much room for change.And one of the changes was revolutionary: For the only time in its history, the Americans, in effect, kicked out a president, Richard Nixon, in 1974. Nixon’s vice president, Spiro Agnew, had also been forced to resign, from a totally different issue. The resignation of Agnew and Nixon allowed the nation to experience application (twice) of a new Twenty-fifth Amendment that addressed the issue of vacancy in one of the two top offices. Preparation of this amendment had been set in motion by perhaps the most tragic event in politics of the era, the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. Striking down a young leader—he was 46—at the time he seemed to be hitting his stride, Kennedy’s killing earned a place in

the memory of everyone old enough to remember it—a national mourning fostered for the first time by relentless media (notably television) coverage. Assassination of a president was exceptional but by no means unheard of; attempts to do so were not unusual.Three other presidents would face assassination efforts between 1946 and 1990, one (Ford) was threatened twice and one (Reagan) was seriously wounded. Reduction of the voting age from 21 to 18, which came in ratification of the Twenty-sixth Amendment in 1971, added millions of new voters to the rolls.The civil rights revolution in the southern states in the 1950s and 1960s produced several political consequences.The first and most important, of course, was that black people in the South at last obtained the suffrage, a right theoretically granted some 100 years earlier. Not only did southern blacks begin to vote, especially after 1965, but they also began to hold office. Starting with election of Maynard Jackson in 1973,Atlanta would become accustomed to having a black mayor.The new politics of race brought about another change. A South that had remained solidly Democratic more or less from the 1880s to the 1940s had changed by 1972 to the solid Republican South, at least in presidential elections. The white people switched parties, mostly because of the national Democratic Party’s identification with civil rights. The size of the shift was be lessened by the fact that black people now voted, most of them Democratic, and it was be interrupted in 1976 when Jimmy Carter—a native son southerner— ran for the presidency, but as a rule the Republicans could count on the southern states in presidential elections, and an increasing number of state and local contests produced the same result. Although a women’s movement took longer than the race-oriented crusade to get underway, it had effects that were nearly as profound and perhaps more far-reaching. Women became more politically active, beginning approximately in the mid-1960s; issues increasingly had to be framed with gender in mind. More women voted and voted independently (as opposed to mimicking their husbands—one of the older sexist, but sometimes valid, slanders). Women were elected to, and/or appointed to, political office in increasing numbers. They became members of congress and state legislatures, senators, cabinet members, mayors, and governors. The appointment of Sandra Day O’Connor to the Supreme Court in 1981 meant that females had attained every level of office in the land, save the two highest. As the running mate of Walter Mondale in 1984, Geraldine Ferraro had grabbed for the second highest ring, and by that time virtually no one doubted that the presidency would be in some woman’s future at some point. The emergence of the American female in government surely was one of the most important political changes of the post–Second World War era, if not the 20th century, and unlike the politicization of black people, it had little grounding in legislation. The change came largely in attitude. The debate over policy began the postwar period as an extension of the familiar liberal-conservative contest, muddled by the fact that the liberal side, the Democrats, contained some of the most conservative politicians in the land, the southerners, and the conservative side, the Republicans, included downright reactionaries and others more liberal than many Democrats. These left-of-center individuals were called liberal or moderate Republicans, and an example was Nelson Rockefeller of New York. In general the Democratic leadership favored using the national government as an instrument of “social justice,’’ helping people in need, and the Republicans warned about the dangers of too much spending and the growing encroachment of the national government on state authority and rights of private individuals. The debate in large measure centered on economics as 231

Geraldine Ferraro (right), pictured with Rosalynn Carter, was the first woman to run for the vice presidency (in 1984) on a major party ticket. (Courtesy Jimmy Carter Library)

exemplified in policy with respect to taxes, labor unions, regulation of business, and welfare programs. Both parties endorsed Americanism and the need to promote freedom, but they differed in priority. The Democrats championed so-called First Amendment freedoms (freedom of speech and expression, and so on), and the Republicans worried more about government encroachment on economic activity. Contests over economic policy never vanished from the scene, and in basic philosophy the position of the parties remained essentially unchanged into the 1990s. But other issues emerged.The cold war and its ramifications at home and abroad demanded attention and supplied politicians with new issues and arguments. From 1947 until its end at the start of the 1990s, the cold war helped to define virtually everything the United States did in world affairs and many issues within the nation. The liberals’ quest for social justice reached high tide in Lyndon Johnson’s program of the Great Society in 1964–65, and then it was weakened by the Vietnam War on one side and race riots and student upheaval on the other. Starting in the 1960s, race, ethnicity, and gender became important components for the political agenda. Starting in the 1970s social issues, notably abortion, began to reshape politics and the parties. It was no longer a simple case of haves against have-nots, although these themes remained a part of the political debate. There 232


seemed to emerge a pattern of alternating administrations profiting from the failures of their predecessors, but it was interesting to note that the only presidents elected more than once (there were three) all were Republican. If the parties seemed much the same as they had been in 1946 when it came to economics, they had changed with respect to appeal and constituency. The center continued to hold, if only because it stretched.

Religious Affiliation of the Presidents Harry S.Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald R. Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George Bush

Baptist Presbyterian Roman Catholic Disciples of Christ Society of Friends (Quaker) Episcopalian Baptist Episcopalian Episcopalian

Source: Congressional Quarterly, American Leaders 1789–1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 7.

TABLE 9.1

AMERICAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, 1944–1988 Votes

Year

Presidential Candidate

1944

Franklin D. Roosevelt Thomas E. Dewey Harry S. Truman Thomas E. Dewey J. Strom Thurmond Dwight D. Eisenhower Adlai E. Stevenson Dwight D. Eisenhower Adlai E. Stevenson John F. Kennedy Richard M. Nixon Lyndon B. Johnson Barry Goldwater Richard M. Nixon Hubert H. Humphrey George Wallace Richard M. Nixon George M. McGovern Jimmy Carter Gerald R. Ford Ronald Reagan Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan Walter F. Mondale George Bush Michael S. Dukakis

1948

1952 1956 1960 1964 1968

1972 1976 1980 1984 1988

Party Democratic Republican Democratic Republican States’ Rights Republican Democratic Republican Democratic Democratic Republican Democratic Republican Republican Democratic Am. Indep. Republican Democratic Democratic Republican Republican Democratic Republican Democratic Republican Democratic

Electoral

Popular

432 99 303 189 39 442 89 457 73 303 219 486 52 301 191 46 520 17 297 240 489 49 525 13 426 111

25,611,936 22,013,372 24,105,587 21,970,017 1,169,134 33,936,137 27,314,649 35,585,245 26,030,172 34,221,344 34,106,671 43,126,584 27,177,838 31,785,148 31,274,503 9,901,151 47,170,179 29,171,791 40,830,763 39,147,793 43,904,153 35,483,883 54,455,074 37,577,137 48,886,097 41,809,074

Source: Thomas L. Connelly and Michael D. Senecal, Almanac of American Presidents: From 1789 to the Present (New York, 1991), 439–40.

Honoring a campaign pledge, president-elect Eisenhower (center) visits the Korean War, sharing “chow’’ with soldiers of the Third Infantry Division, December 1952. (Courtesy Dwight D. Eisenhower Library) Politics and Government

233

TABLE 9.2 THE PRESIDENTS AND THEIR CABINETS, 1945–1993 The Truman Administration Title

Office Holder

President Vice President Secretary of State

Secretary of Treasury Secretary of War Attorney General

Postmaster General

Secretary of Navy Secretary of Interior

Secretary of Agriculture Secretary of Commerce

Secretary of Labor Secretary of Defense

Harry S. Truman Alben W. Barkley Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. James F. Byrnes George C. Marshall Dean G. Acheson Fred M.Vinson John W. Snyder Robert P. Patterson Kenneth C. Royall Tom C. Clark J. Howard McGrath James P. McGranery Frank C.Walker Robert E. Hannegan Jesse M. Donaldson James V. Forrestal Harold L. Ickes Julius A. Krug Oscar L. Chapman Clinton P. Anderson Charles F. Brannan Henry A.Wallace W. Averell Harriman Charles W. Sawyer Lewis B. Schwellenbach Maurice J.Tobin James V. Forrestal Louis A. Johnson George C. Marshall Robert A. Lovett

Dates 1945–1953 1949–1953 1945 1945–1947 1947–1949 1949–1953 1945–1946 1946–1953 1945–1947 1947 1945–1949 1949–1952 1952–1953 1945 1945–1947 1947–1953 1945–1947 1945–1946 1946–1949 1949–1953 1945–1948 1948–1953 1945–1946 1946–1948 1948–1953 1945–1948 1948–1953 1947–1949 1949–1950 1950–1951 1951–1953

Postmaster General

J. Edward Day John A. Gronouski

1961–1963 1963

Secretary of Interior

Stewart L. Udall

1961–1963

Secretary of Agriculture

Orville L. Freeman

1961–1963

Secretary of Commerce

Luther H. Hodges

1961–1963

Secretary of Labor

Arthur J. Goldberg W.Willard Wirtz

1961–1962 1962–1963

Secretary of Defense

Robert S. McNamara

1961–1963

Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare

Abraham A. Ribicoff Anthony J. Celebrezze

1961–1962 1962–1963

The Johnson Administration Title

Office Holder

President

Lyndon B. Johnson

Vice President

Hubert H. Humphrey

1965–1969

Secretary of State

Dean Rusk

1963–1969

Secretary of Treasury

C. Douglas Dillon Henry H. Fowler

1963–1965 1965–1969

Attorney General

Robert F. Kennedy Nicholas Katzenbach Ramsey Clark

1963–1964 1965–1966 1967–1969

Postmaster General

John A. Gronouski Lawrence F. O’Brien Marvin Watson

1963–1965 1965–1968 1968–1969


Stewart L. Udall

1963–1969

President Vice President Secretary of State Secretary of Treasury Attorney General Postmaster General Secretary of Interior Secretary of Agriculture Secretary of Commerce

Secretary of Labor Secretary of Defense


Office Holder Dwight D. Eisenhower Richard M. Nixon John Foster Dulles Christian A. Herter George M. Humphrey Robert B. Anderson Herbert Brownell, Jr. William P. Rogers Arthur E. Summerfield Douglas McKay Fred A. Seaton Ezra T. Benson Sinclair Weeks Lewis L. Strauss Frederick H. Mueller Martin P. Durkin James P. Mitchell Charles E.Wilson Neil H. McElroy Thomas S. Gates, Jr. Oveta Culp Hobby Marion B. Folsom Arthur S. Flemming

Dates 1953–1961 1953–1961 1953–1959 1959–1961 1953–1957 1957–1961 1953–1958 1958–1961 1953–1961 1953–1956 1956–1961 1953–1961 1953–1958 1958–1959 1959–1961 1953 1953–1961 1953–1957 1957–1959 1959–1961 1953–1955 1955–1958 1958–1961

Orville L. Freeman

1963–1969


Luther H. Hodges John T. Connor Alexander B.Trowbridge Cyrus R. Smith

1963–1964 1964–1967 1967–1968 1968–1969

Secretary of Labor

W.Willard Wirtz

1963–1969


Robert S. McNamara Clark Clifford

1963–1968 1968–1969


Anthony J. Celebrezze John W. Gardner Wilbur J. Cohen

1963–1965 1965–1968 1968–1969

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

Robert C.Weaver Robert C.Wood

1966–1969 1969

Secretary of Transportation

Alan S. Boyd

1967–1969

The Nixon Administration Title

President Vice President Secretary of State Secretary of Treasury Attorney General

234

Office Holder John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Dean Rusk C. Douglas Dillon Robert F. Kennedy


Dates 1961–1963 1961–1963 1961–1963 1961–1963 1961–1963

Office Holder

Dates

President

Richard M. Nixon

1969–1974

Vice President

Spiro T. Agnew Gerald R. Ford

1969–1973 1973–1974

Secretary of State

William P. Rogers Henry A. Kissinger

1969–1973 1973–1974


David M. Kennedy John B. Connally George P. Shultz William E. Simon

1969–1970 1971–1972 1972–1974 1974

Attorney General

John N. Mitchell Richard G. Kleindienst Elliot L. Richardson William B. Saxbe

1969–1972 1972–1973 1973 1973–1974

Postmaster General

Winton M. Blount

1969–1971


Walter J. Hickel Rogers Morton

1969–1970 1971–1974


Clifford M. Hardin Earl L. Butz

1969–1971 1971–1974


Maurice H. Stans Peter G. Peterson Frederick B. Dent

1969–1972 1972–1973 1973–1974

Secretary of Labor

George P. Shultz James D. Hodgson Peter J. Brennan

1969–1970 1970–1973 1973–1974

The Kennedy Administration Title

1963–1969


The Eisenhower Administration Title

Dates


Melvin R. Laird Elliot L. Richardson James R. Schlesinger

1969–1973 1973 1973–1974


Robert H. Finch Elliot L. Richardson Casper W.Weinberger

1969–1970 1970–1973 1973–1974


George Romney James T. Lynn

1969–1973 1973–1974


John A.Volpe Claude S. Brinegar

1969–1973 1973–1974

The Ford Administration Title

Office Holder

Secretary of Energy

James R. Schlesinger Charles W. Duncan

The Reagan Administration Title

Office Holder

Dates

President

Ronald Reagan

1981–1989

Vice President

George Bush

1981–1989

Secretary of State

Alexander M. Haig George P. Shultz

1981–1982 1982–1989


Donald Regan James A. Baker III Nicholas F. Brady

1981–1985 1985–1988 1988–1989

Attorney General

William F. Smith Edwin A. Meese III Richard L.Thornburgh

1981–1985 1985–1988 1988–1989


James G.Watt William P. Clark, Jr. Donald P. Hodel

1981–1983 1983–1985 1985–1989

Dates 1974–1977

1977–1979 1979–1981

President

Gerald R. Ford

Vice President

Nelson A. Rockefeller

1974–1977

Secretary of State

Henry A. Kissinger

1974–1977


William E. Simon

1974–1977

Attorney General

William Saxbe Edward Levi

1974–1975 1975–1977


John Block Richard E. Lyng

1981–1986 1986–1989


Rogers Morton Stanley K. Hathaway Thomas Kleppe

1974–1975 1975 1975–1977


Malcolm Baldridge C.William Verity, Jr.

1981–1987 1987–1989


Earl L. Butz John A. Knebel

1974–1976 1976–1977

Secretary of Labor


Frederick B. Dent Rogers Morton Elliot L. Richardson

1974–1975 1975–1976 1976–1977

Raymond J. Donovan William E. Brock Ann Dore McLaughlin

1981–1985 1985–1987 1987–1989


Casper Weinberger Frank C. Carlucci

1981–1987 1987–1989

Secretary of Labor

Peter J. Brennan John T. Dunlop W. J. Usery

1974–1975 1975–1976 1976–1977

Secretary of Health and Human Services

Richard S. Schweiker Margaret Heckler Otis R. Bowen

1981–1983 1983–1985 1985–1989


James R. Schlesinger Donald Rumsfeld

1974–1975 1975–1977

Secretary of Education


Casper Weinberger Forrest D. Mathews

1974–1975 1975–1977

Terrel H. Bell William J. Bennett Lauro F. Cavazos

1981–1984 1985–1988 1988–1989

Samuel R. Pierce, Jr.

1981–1989


James T. Lynn Carla A. Hills

1974–1975 1975–1977



Claude Brinegar William T. Coleman

1974–1975 1975–1977


Drew Lewis Elizabeth Hanford Dole James H. Burnley IV

1981–1982 1983–1987 1987–1989

Secretary of Energy Dates

James B. Edwards Donald P. Hodel John S. Herrington

1981–1982 1982–1985 1985–1989

The (George H. W.) Bush Administration

The Carter Administration Title

Office Holder

President

Jimmy Carter

1977–1981

Vice President

Walter F. Mondale

1977–1981

Secretary of State

Cyrus R.Vance Edmund Muskie

1977–1980 1980–1981

President

George Bush

1989–1993


W. Michael Blumenthal G.William Miller

1977–1979 1979–1981

Vice President

Dan Quayle

1989–1993

Secretary of State

James A. Baker III

1989–1992

Attorney General

Griffin Bell Benjamin R. Civiletti

1977–1979 1979–1981


Nicholas F. Brady

1989–1993

Attorney General

Richard L.Thornburgh

1989–1991


Cecil D. Andrus

1977–1981


Manuel Lujan, Jr.

1989–1993


Robert Bergland

1977–1981


Clayton K.Yeutter

1989–1991


Juanita M. Kreps Philip M. Klutznick

1977–1979 1979–1981


Robert A. Mosbacher

1989–1992

Secretary of Labor

Elizabeth Hanford Dole

1989–1991


Richard B. Cheney

1989–1993

Louis W. Sullivan

1989–1993

Secretary of Labor

F. Ray Marshall

1977–1981


Harold Brown

1977–1981

Title

Office Holder

Dates


Joseph A. Califano Patricia R. Harris

1977–1979 1979



Patricia R. Harris

1979–1981


Lauro F. Cavazos

1989–1991


Jack F. Kemp

1989–1993


Shirley M. Hufstedler

1979–1981


Patricia R. Harris Moon Landrieu

1977–1979 1979–1981


Samuel K. Skinner

1989–1991

Secretary of Energy

James D.Watkins

1989–1993


Brock Adams Neil E. Goldschmidt

1977–1979 1979–1981

Secretary of Veterans Affairs

Edward J. Derwinski

1989–1992

Source: Congressional Quarterly, The Presidency A to Z, 528–32.

Politics and Government

235

Vietnam, Watergate, and the Crisis of the Modern Presidency The American presidency underwent a crisis in the 1970s and it remained a weakened and distrusted institution for at least the decade that followed. This weakening and loss of trust began with the Vietnam War because Vietnam had been a presidential war and it had gone so badly. Many observers by 1968 had concluded that the United States had been led into a conflict it could not win and perhaps should not win and that the war had left the country weakened, embarrassed, and sharply divided.While every president dating back to Harry Truman bore some responsibility for the entanglement in Indochina, the bulk of the blame came to rest with Lyndon Johnson, who had Americanized the war and misled the people as to the expected outcome and the principles for which it was fought. Johnson left office in 1969 discredited, if not humiliated, and the major reason was the effects of the Vietnam War. In running for the presidency in 1968, Richard Nixon had promised to end the war, and soon after taking office he began a withdrawal of forces, but he took other steps—the bombing of North Vietnam and Cambodia, the invasion of Cambodia—that left his intentions and his honesty in question. The first and most substantial efforts to limit the presidency, such measures as the War Powers Act of 1973 and a tightening congressional control of the military budget, came because of Vietnam, and the armistice signed in January 1973 did not slow down the movement. It so happened that the issue of Vietnam overlapped and became entangled with the domestic political scandal known as Watergate that emerged in the early 1970s. The issues that had surfaced during the war: excessive presidential power, lack of honesty, and presidential misuse of power, grew to heroic proportion as the sordid story of the Watergate episode unfolded between 1972 and 1974. The downfall of Richard Nixon came not because he ordered a break-in of the Democrat headquarters in Washington (he did not) and not officially because he lied to the people (which he did repeatedly) but because he misused the huge powers at his disposal. Needless to say, the fact that he lied and evidence of devious behind-the-scenes dealings, laid open by the Watergate tapes, cast an even darker shadow on an institution already under fire.The presidency had gotten out of hand, had become pampered, privilege laden, grandiose, and very powerful—if only because of technology. In the estimate of Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., the office of the American chief executive had evolved into the imperial presidency. What followed in the post-Watergate period affirmed or reaffirmed that the Americans react sharply to immediate circumstances but that the collective memory often does not last. Simplicity, openness, and honesty became prized characteristics for leadership. Nixon already had acknowledged the theme in his choice of Gerald Ford, a dependable but unexceptional congressman from Michigan, to replace discredited vice president Spiro Agnew in 1973; although Agnew’s ouster had no direct connection to Watergate, it did stand as another example of untrustworthy leadership. On August 9, 1974, clean Jerry Ford of Grand Rapids was on hand to take over when the secretive Nixon resigned. During the 1970s the reputation of previously muchmaligned president HarryTruman underwent a revival.Truman’s shortcomings in retrospect seemed minor and at least “give ‘em hell Harry’’ had been open and brutally honest. The clearest and most obvious expression of a new-found presidential prerequisite appeared in the election in 1976 of Jimmy Carter. A little-known former governor of Georgia, Carter managed to identify himself as a small-town southern boy who had worked hard, remained a man of the people, and always told the truth. Another hint as to the mood of the time came in the fact that only 53.5 percent of the electorate voted in 1976, lowest for a presidential race since 1948. 236


The Carter administration had its ups and downs, successes and failures, but the new president’s preoccupation with democratic simplicity soon began to wear thin. As problems surfaced in the economy and world affairs, the people again seemed to reorder priorities. Perhaps a little more power and a little less democracy were not so bad after all. In truth, much of what took place in world affairs during the late 1970s probably would have happened under any president, but the fact that major problems developed under Carter left the impression that they developed because of Carter. The crowing event was the absolute humiliation and appearance of impotence of the United States during the Iranian hostage crisis of 1979–81. For all his high ideals and good intentions, Carter did not strengthen the office of the presidency or enhance its popularity. It is fairly commonly agreed that a period of national self-doubt, self-guilt, and reluctance to act in world affairs came to an end in the 1980s during the administration of Ronald Reagan. After a slow start, Reagan presided over a period of heightened, if poorly distributed, economic growth and reassertion of American power in world affairs. Otherwise his was a presidency marked with paradoxes. Running as an enemy of big government, he headed an administration larger than what preceded him. A foe of government spending and an unbalanced budget, he presided over a government marked with massive increases in spending and budget deficits. Reagan was essentially honest, a likeable individual, and a liked president, but his presidency was almost detached, guarded, and separated from public contact. A masterful communicator, Reagan rarely had press conferences. The supreme paradox is that while he recaptured some of the popularity and prestige the presidency had lost in the previous decade, Reagan at the same time diminished the office by in effect turning it over for others to run. Poorly informed on the issues and on the operations of government, he seemed little anxious to learn. The presidency gained popularity with Reagan in office, but it lost some of its substance.

Chronology of the Watergate Scandal February 15, 1972 Attorney General John Mitchell resigns to become head of a Committee to Reelect the President, known as CRP or CREEP. June 17, 1972 Police arrest five men who have broken into the headquarters of the Democratic Party in the Watergate Hotel Complex in Washington. It will develop that the men were commissioned by CRP. August 29, 1972 President Nixon announces that his counsel, John Dean, had investigated the “bizarre’’Watergate break-in and that no White House people had been involved. October 10, 1972 The Washington Post reports existence of a Republican espionage organization headed by John Mitchell. Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein are able to trace break-in at the Watergate to the White House. February 7, 1973 The Senate establishes a select committee, chaired by Democrat senator Sam Ervin of North Carolina, to investigate the Watergate episode. March 23, 1973 Having been tried and convicted, six of seven Watergate conspirators (involved in the break-in) are sentenced to jail by Judge John Sirica. April 20, 1973 L. Patrick Gray, acting director of the FBI, who admitted giving files on Watergate to John Dean, now admits that he had destroyed FBI Watergate documents and that Nixon’s advisers had told him to do so. April 30, 1973 Nixon announces the resignation of his highest aides, H. R. Haldeman and John Erlichman, as well as Attorney General Richard Kleindienst and that counsel John Dean had

The common touch. Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter walk to the White House after inauguration, January 20, 1977. (Courtesy: Jimmy Carter Library)

been fired. He denies advance knowledge of the break-in or that there was underway an effort to conceal the truth—a so-called cover-up. May 25, 1973 Attorney General Elliot Richardson appoints Archibald Cox as special prosecutor in the Watergate affair. June 25–29, 1973 Appearing before Ervin’s Watergate Committee, Dean implicates Haldeman, Erlichman, Mitchell, and Nixon, as well as himself in an attempt to hide the truth about the growing scandal. July 16, 1973 Before the Ervin committee, Alexander Butterfield, a White House aide, revealed almost in passing that conversations in the oval office were routinely recorded. October 10, 1973 Under fire for financial corruption unrelated to Watergate, Spiro Agnew resigns the vice presidency; two days later Nixon will appoint Congressman Gerald R. Ford of Michigan to replace him; as stipulated in the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Congress gives approval.

October 14, 1973 Nixon continues to refuse to turn taped messages over to investigators, but he offers written (and as it turned out, sanitized) summaries. October 20, 1973 “The Saturday Night Massacre.’’ Attorney General Elliot Richardson and the Assistant Attorney General William Ruckelshaus refuse Nixon’s order to dismiss special prosecutor Cox; both resign. Solicitor General Robert Bork then fires Cox who had persisted in efforts to get hold of the White House tapes. November 5, 1973 Leon Jaworski is appointed new special prosecutor for the Watergate affair. November 26, 1973 Nixon surrenders seven tapes to Judge Sirica, but he will continue to reject subpoenas for materials from both House and Senate committees. He continues to insist that he was guilty of no wrongdoing. February 6, 1974 The House of Representatives authorizes its Judiciary Committee to conduct an inquiry into impeachment. Politics and Government

237

March 1, 1974 Seven former presidential aides, including Haldeman, Erlichman, and Mitchell, are indicated for conspiracy (the cover-up). May 24, 1974 Faced with repeated rejection of appeals for the tapes from the Judiciary Committee and from the special prosecutor, Jaworski appeals to the Supreme Court. July 24, 1974 In a unanimous vote the Supreme Court orders Nixon to turn over the tapes that had been requested. July 27–30, 1974 The House Judiciary Committee passes three articles of impeachment of the president; the issue next is to go to the full House. August 5, 1974 The White House releases transcripts of three taped conversations, the most critical of which was the tape of June 23, 1972, the “smoking pistol.’’ The tapes revealed that Nixon knew about the break-in shortly after it happened, that he had been involved in a cover-up of more than two years, and had misused government agencies, such as the FBI and CIA to that end. August 8, 1974 Faced with almost certain impeachment and probable removal from office, Nixon announced resignation to take effect the next day. He became the first U.S. president to take that step. August 9, 1974 Gerald R. Ford becomes president. September 8, 1974 President Ford pardons Nixon for any crimes he might have committed while in office.

Government Officials and Other Individuals Convicted As a Result of the Watergate Affair Charles Colson, special counsel to the president John Dean, counsel to the president John Erlichman, chief presidential adviser on domestic policy H. R. Haldeman, presidential Chief of Staff Fred LaRue, member of CREEP Robert C. Mardian, assistant attorney general and counsel for CREEP John Mitchell, attorney general and head of CREEP Dwight Chapin, Nixon’s appointments secretary Herbert Kalmbach, Nixon’s personal attorney Richard Kleindienst, attorney general Egil Krough, assistant to Erlichman Jeb Stuart Magruder, aide to Haldeman Donald Segretti, head of “dirty tricks’’ division of the campaign Maurice Stans, Secretary of Commerce, chief fund raiser E. Howard Hunt, helped plan burglary G. Gordon Liddy, coleader (with Hunt) of burglary team Source: Time, June 14, 1982, 30, 32.

Source: Kane, Facts About the Presidents, 249–50; Andre Kaspi, Great Dates in United States History (New York, 1994), 197–99.

President Richard Nixon in the Oval Office with advisers: H. R. Haldeman (left), Dwight Chapin (center), and John Erlichman (right) (National Archives)

238


TABLE 9.3

PARTY STRENGTH IN CONGRESS, 1946–1990 House Majority Party

Senate

Minority Party

Majority Party

Minority Party

Party of President

Period

Congress

1945–47 1947–49 1949–51 1951–53

79th 80th 81st 82nd

D R D D

242 245 263 234

R D R R

190 188 171 199

2 1 1 1

D R D D

56 51 54 49

R D R R

38 45 42 47

1 ... ... ...

D D D D

Truman Truman Truman Truman

1953–55 1955–57 1957–59 1959–61

83rd 84th 85th 86th

R D D D

221 232 233 284

D R R R

211 203 200 153

1 ... ... ...

R D D D

48 48 49 65

D R R R

47 47 47 35

1 1 ... ...

R R R R

Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower

1961–63 1963–65 ... 1965–67 1967–69

87th 88th ... 89th 90th

D D ... D D

263 258 ... 295 246

R R ... R R

174 117 ... 140 187

... ... ... ... ...

D D ... D D

65 67 ... 68 64

R R ... R R

35 33 ... 32 36

... ... ... ... ...

D D D D D

Kennedy Kennedy Johnson Johnson Johnson

1969–71 1971–73 1973–75 1975–77

91st 92nd 93rd 94th

D D D D

245 254 239 291

R R R R

189 180 192 144

... ... 1 ...

D D D D

57 54 56 60

R R R R

43 44 42 37

... 2 2 3

R R R R

Nixon Nixon Nixon Ford

1977–79 1979–81 1981–83 1983–85

95th 96th 97th 98th

D D D D

292 276 243 267

R R R R

143 157 192 168

... ... ... ...

D D R R

61 58 53 55

R R D D

38 41 46 45

1 1 1 ...

D D R R

Carter Carter Reagan Reagan

1985–87 1987–89 1989–91

99th 100th 101st

D D D

253 258 259

R R R

182 177 174

... ... ...

R D D

53 55 54

D R R

47 45 46

... ... ...

R R R

Reagan Reagan Bush

Others

Others

Source: Congressional Quarterly, American Leaders 1789–1991, 506.

TABLE 9.4

SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE, 1945–1991 Congress

Speaker

79th 80th 81st 82nd

(1945–1947) (1947–1949) (1949–1951) (1951–1953)

Sam Rayburn, Dem-Tex. Joseph W. Martin, Jr., Rep-Mass. Rayburn Rayburn

83rd 84th 85th 86th

(1953–1955) (1955–1957) (1957–1959) (1959–1961)

Martin Rayburn Rayburn Rayburn

87th (1961) (1962–1963) 88th (1963–1965) 89th (1965–1967) 90th (1967–1969)

Rayburn John W. McCormack, Dem-Mass. McCormack McCormack McCormack

91st 92nd 93rd 94th

(1969–1971) (1971–1973) (1973–1975) (1975–1977)

McCormack Carl Albert, Dem-Okla. Albert Albert

95th 96th 97th 98th

(1977–1979) (1979–1981) (1981–1983) (1983–1985)

Thomas P. O’Neill Jr., Dem-Mass. O’Neill O’Neill O’Neill

99th (1985–1987) 100th (1987–1989) 101st (1989) (1989–1991)

O’Neill Jim Wright, Dem-Tex. Wright Thomas S. Foley, Dem-Wash.

Source: Stephen G. Christianson, Facts About the Congress (New York, 1996), 576.


239

TABLE 9.5

LEADERS OF THE HOUSE, 1946–1990 House Floor Leaders

Congress

Majority

House Whips Minority

Majority

Minority

79th (1945–47) 80th (1947–49) 81st (1949–51) 82d (1951–53)

John W. McCormack (D Mass.) Charles A. Halleck (R Ind.) McCormack McCormack

Joseph W. Martin Jr. (R Mass.) Sam Rayburn (D Texas) Martin Martin

John J. Sparkman (D Ala.) Leslie C. Arends (R Ill.) J. Percy Priest (D Tenn.) Priest

Leslie C. Arends (R Ill.) John W. McCormack (D Mass.) Arends Arends

83d (1953–55) 84th (1955–57) 85th (1957–59) 86th (1959–61)

Halleck McCormack McCormack McCormack

Rayburn Martin Martin Charles A. Halleck (R Ind.)

Arends Carl Albert (D Okla.) Albert Albert

McCormack Arends Arends Arends

87th (1961–63) 88th (1963–65) 89th (1965–67) 90th (1967–69)

McCormack/Carl Albert (D Okla.) Albert Albert Albert

Halleck Halleck Gerald R. Ford (R Mich.) Ford

Albert/Hale Boggs (D La.) Boggs Boggs Boggs

Arends Arends Arends Arends

91st (1969–71) 92d (1971–73) 93d (1973–75) 94th (1975–77)

Albert Hale Boggs (D La.) Thomas P. O’Neill Jr. (D Mass.) O’Neill

Ford Ford Ford/John J. Rhodes (R Ariz.) Rhodes

Boggs Thomas P. O’Neill Jr. (D Mass.) John J. McFall (D Calif.) McFall

Arends Arends Arends Robert H. Michel (R Ill.)

95th (1977–79) 96th (1979–81) 97th (1981–83) 98th (1983–85)

Jim Wright (D Texas) Wright Wright Wright

Rhodes Rhodes Robert H. Michel (R Ill.) Michel

John Brademas (D Ind.) Brademas Thomas S. Foley (D Wash.) Foley

Michel Michel Trent Lott (R Miss.) Lott

99th (1985–87) 100th (1987–89) 101st (1989–91)

Wright Thomas S. Foley (D Wash.) Foley/Richard A. Gephardt (D Mo.)

Michel Michel Michel

Foley Tony Coelho (D Calif.) Coelho/William H. Gray III (D Pa.)

Lott Lott Dick Cheney (R Wyo.)/Newt Gingrich (R Ga.)

Source: Congressional Quarterly, American Leaders 1789–1991, 524–25.

TABLE 9.6 LEADERS OF THE SENATE, 1946–1990 Senate Floor Leaders Congress

Majority

Senate Whips Minority

Majority

Minority

79th (1945–47) 80th (1947–49) 81st (1949–51) 82d (1951–53)

Alben W. Barkley (D Ky.) Wallace H.White Jr. (R Maine) Scott W. Lucas (D Ill.) Ernest W. McFarland (D Ariz.)

Wallace H.White Jr. (R Maine) Alben W. Barkley (D Ky.) Kenneth S.Wherry (R Neb.) Wherry/Styles Bridges (R N.H.)

Lister Hill (D Ala.) Kenneth Wherry (R Neb.) Francis Myers (D Pa.) Lyndon B. Johnson (D Texas)

Kenneth Wherry (R Neb.) Scott Lucas (D Ill.) Leverett Saltonstall (R Mass.) Saltonstall

83d (1953–55)

Lyndon B. Johnson (D Texas)

Leverett Saltonstall (R Mass.)

Earle Clements (D Ky.)

84th (1955–57) 85th (1957–59) 86th (1959–61)

Robert A.Taft (R Ohio)/ William F. Knowland (R Calif.) Lyndon B. Johnson (D Texas) Johnson Johnson

William F. Knowland (R Calif.) Knowland Everett McKinley Dirksen (R Ill.)

Earle Clements (D Ky.) Mike Mansfield (D Mont.) Mansfield

Saltonstall Everett McKinley Dirksen (R Ill.) Thomas H. Kuchel (R Calif.)

87th (1961–63) 88th (1963–65) 89th (1965–67) 90th (1967–69)

Mike Mansfield (D Mont.) Mansfield Mansfield Mansfield

Dirksen Dirksen Dirksen Dirksen

Hubert H. Humphrey (D Minn.) Humphrey Russell Long (D La.) Long

Kuchel Kuchel Kuchel Kuchel

91st (1969–71)

Mansfield

Dirksen/Hugh Scott (R Pa.)

Edward M. Kennedy (D Mass.)

92d (1971–73) 93d (1973–75) 94th (1975–77)

Mansfield Mansfield Mansfield

Scott Scott Scott

Robert C. Byrd (D W.Va.) Byrd Byrd

Hugh Scott (R Pa.)/Robert P. Griffin (R Mich.) Griffin Griffin Griffin

95th (1977–79) 96th (1979–81) 97th (1981–83) 98th (1983–85)

Robert C. Byrd (D W.Va.) Byrd Howard H. Baker Jr. (R Tenn.) Baker

Howard H. Baker Jr. (R Tenn.) Baker Robert C. Byrd (D W.Va.) Byrd

Alan Cranston (D Calif.) Cranston Ted Stevens (R Alaska) Stevens

Ted Stevens (R Alaska) Stevens Alan Cranston (D Calif.) Cranston

99th (1985–87) 100th (1987–89) 101st (1989–91)

Robert J. Dole (R Kan.) Byrd George J. Mitchell (D Maine)

Byrd Robert J. Dole (R Kan.) Dole

Alan K. Simpson (R Wyo.) Alan Cranston (D Calif.) Cranston

Cranston Alan K. Simpson (R Wyo.) Simpson

Source: Congressional Quarterly, American Leaders 1789–1991, 526–27.

240


TABLE 9.7

INCUMBENTS TO THE U.S. HOUSE OR SENATE—HOW THEY FARED, 1946–1990 Defeated

Years

Retireda

Number Seeking Reelection

Primaries

Reelected

General Election

Total

Percentage of Those Seeking Reelection

House 1946 1948 1950 1952

32 29 29 42

398 400 400 389

18 15 6 9

52 68 32 26

328 317 362 354

82.4 79.3 90.5 91.0

1954 1956 1958 1960

24 21 33 26

407 411 396 405

6 6 3 5

22 16 37 25

379 389 356 375

93.1 94.6 89.9 92.6

1962 1964 1966 1968

24 33 22 23

402 397 411 409

12 8 8 4

22 45 41 9

368 344 362 396

91.5 86.6 88.1 96.8

1970 1972 1974 1976

29 40 43 47

401 390 391 384

10 12 8 3

12 13 40 13

379 365 343 368

94.5 93.6 87.7 95.8

1978 1980 1982 1984

49 34 40 22

382 398 393 409

5 6 10 3

19 31 29 16

358 361 354 390

93.7 90.7 90.1 95.4

1986 1988 1990

38 23 27

393 409 407

2 1 1

6 6 15

385 402 391

98.0 98.5 96.1

Senate 1946 1948 1950 1952

9 8 4 4

30 25 32 31

6 2 5 2

7 8 5 9

17 15 22 20

56.7 60.0 68.8 64.5

1954 1956 1958 1960

6 6 6 5

32 29 28 29

2 0 0 0

6 4 10 1

24 25 18 28

75.0 86.2 64.3 96.6

1962 1964 1966 1968

4 2 3 6

35 33 32 28

1 1 3 4

5 4 1 4

29 28 28 20

82.9 84.8 87.5 71.4

1970 1972 1974 1976

4 6 7 8

31 27 27 25

1 2 2 0

6 5 2 9

24 20 23 16

77.4 74.1 85.2 64.0

1978 1980 1982 1984

10 5 3 4

25 29 30 29

3 4 0 0

7 9 2 3

15 16 28 26

60.0 55.2 93.3 89.6

1986 1988 1990

6 6 3

28 27 32

0 0 0

7 4 1

21 23 31

75.0 85.2 96.9

a Does not include persons who died or resigned from office before the election. Source: Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics, (Washington, D.C., 1992), 204–05.

Money in Politics and Growth of the PAC Money has always been a factor in politics on all levels, and as a rule the higher the level of office being contested the higher the price of winning the post.The most expensive campaign was for the U.S. presidency. Private contributions to campaigns were logical, inevitable, and seemingly the most democratic method of campaign finance, but they also carried an inherent contradiction. Simply put, the more money a person could contribute, the more influence that person would seem

to have on the officeholder once she or he attained the post.The Political Action Committee (PAC), which emerged in the 1940s as an expression of the collective will, contained some of the same problems. Starting with labor unions as a device to promote the interests of a group, these organizations soon spread to other areas. After 1971 corporations, which often had huge sums at their disposal, joined the process. Legislation in the mid-1970s legitimized the PAC and set limits on contributions—$1,000 per person, $5,000 per committee—to individual candidates.The PACs circumvented the legislation by their distribution of “soft money’’ not to candidates but to state or Politics and Government

241

national parties, for which no limits had been established.The parties then used the money to assist the individual candidates.Thus the PACs first raised the price of running for office and then placed themselves in a position to help pay the cost. It was the same old problem but on a higher scale. The people with the most money to offer had the best chance of having their message heard. Both parties complained about the PACs and about “soft money,’’ but both took the funds.

TABLE 9.8 LOSSES BY PRESIDENT’S PARTY IN MIDTERM ELECTIONS, 1946–1990

Year

Party Holding Presidency

President’s Party: Gain/Loss of Seats in House

President’s Party: Gain/Loss of Seats in Senate

1946 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966

D D R R D D

255 229 218 248 24 247

212 26 21 213 3 24

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990

R R D R R R

212 248 215 226 25 28

2 25 23 1 28 1

TABLE 9.9 CAMPAIGN SPENDING FOR WINNING CONGRESSIONAL CANDIDATES, 1975–1990 Political Action Committee Contributions Receiptsa

Expendituresa

Totala

Percentage of Receipts

House 1975–1976 1977–1978 1979–1980 1981–1982

$42.5 60.0 86.0 123.1

$38.0 55.6 78.0 114.7

$10.9 17.0 27.0 42.7

25.6 28.3 31.4 34.7

1983–1984 1985–1986 1987–1988 1989–1990

144.8 172.7 191.0 197.6

127.0 154.9 171.0 178.4

59.5 72.8 86.4 91.6

41.1 42.2 45.2 46.4

Senate 21.0 43.0 41.7 70.7

20.1 42.3 40.0 68.2

3.1 6.0 10.2 15.6

14.8 14.0 24.5 22.1

1983–1984 1985–1986 1987–1988 1989–1990

100.9 106.8 121.7 121.5

97.5 104.3 123.6 115.4

20.0 28.4 31.8 31.1

19.8 26.6 26.1 25.6

In millions of current dollars. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 210.

242


Listed below by Congress is the number of women members of the Senate and House of Representatives from the 80th Congress through the beginning of the 102nd Congress. The figures include women appointed to office, those chosen in general elections and special elections, and nonvoting delegates. Congress

Years

Senate

House

80th 81st 82d 83d 84th

(1947–49) (1949–51) (1951–53) (1953–55) (1955–57)

1 1 1 3 1

7 9 10 12 16

85th 86th 87th 88th 89th

(1957–59) (1959–61) (1961–63) (1963–65) (1965–67)

1 1 2 2 2

15 16 17 11 10

90th 91st 92nd 93d 94th

(1967–69) (1969–71) (1971–73) (1973–75) (1975–77)

1 1 2 0 0

11 10 13 16 19


(1977–79) (1979–81) (1981–83) (1983–85) (1985–87)

2 1 2 2 2

18 16 21 22 23

100th 101st

(1987–89) (1989–91)

2 2

24 29

TABLE 9.11 WOMEN IN CONGRESS, A ROSTER, 1946–1990 Senate Representative

Year

Vera C. Bushfield (R S.Dak.) Margaret Chase Smith (R Maine) Hazel H. Abel (R Neb.) Eva K. Bowring (R Neb.) Maurine B. Neuberger (D Ore.) Elaine S. Edwards (D La.)

1948 1949–73 1954 1954 1960–67 1972

Maryon Pittman Allen (D Ala.) Muriel Buck Humphrey (D Minn.) Nancy Landon Kassebaum (R Kan.) Paula Hawkins (R Fla.) Barbara Mikulski (D Md.)

1978 1978 1978–97 1981–87 1987–

House Representative

1975–1976 1977–1978 1979–1980 1981–1982

a

NUMBER OF WOMEN MEMBERS IN CONGRESS, 1947–1991



Years

TABLE 9.10

Year

Mary T. Norton (D N.J.) Edith N. Rogers (R Mass.) Jessie Sumner (R Ill.) Frances P. Bolton (R Ohio) Florence R. Gibbs (D Ga.)

1925–51 1925–60 1939–47 1940–69 1940–41

Margaret Chase Smith (R Maine) Clare Boothe Luce (R Conn.) Winifred C. Stanley (R N.Y.) Willa L. Fulmer (D S.C.) Emily T. Douglas (D Ill.)

1940–49 1943–47 1943–45 1944–45 1945–47

Representative

Year

Helen G. Douglas (D Calif.) Chase G.Woodhouse (D Conn.)

Representative

Year

Helen D. Mankin (D Ga.) Eliza J. Pratt (D N.C.) Georgia L. Lusk (D N.M.)

1945–51 1945–47 1949–51 1946–47 1946–47 1947–49

Katherine P. C. St. George (R N.Y.) Reva Z. B. Bosone (D Utah) Cecil M. Harden (R Ind.) Edna F. Kelly (D N.Y.) Vera D. Buchanan (D Pa.)

1947–65 1949–53 1949–59 1949–69 1951–55

Geraldine Ferraro (D N.Y.) Olympia Snowe (R Maine) Bobbi Fiedler (R Calif.) Lynn M. Martin (R Ill.) Marge Roukema (R N.J.)

1979–85 1979–95 1981–87 1981–91 1981–

Marguerite S. Church (R Ill.) Maude E. Kee (D W.Va.) Ruth Thompson (R Mich.) Gracie B. Pfost (D Idaho) Leonor K. Sullivan (D Mo.)

1951–63 1951–65 1951–57 1953–63 1953–77

Claudine Schneider (R R.I.) Jean Ashbrook (R Ohio.) Barbara B. Kennelly (D Conn.) Sala Burton (D Calif.) Barbara Boxer (D Calif.)

1981–91 1982–83 1982–99 1983–87 1983–93

Iris F. Blitch (D Ga.) Edith Green (D Ore.) Martha W. Griffiths (D Mich.) Coya G. Knutson (DFL Minn.) Kathryn E. Granahan (D Pa.)

1955–63 1955–75 1955–74 1955–59 1956–63

Katie Hall (D Ind.) Nancy L. Johnson (R Conn.) Marcy Kaptur (D Ohio) Barbara Vucanovich (R Nev.) Helen Delich Bentley (R Md.)

1982–85 1983– 1983– 1983–97 1985–95

Florence P. Dwyer (R N.J.) Catherine D. May (R Wash.) Edna O. Simpson (R Ill.) Jessica McC.Weis (R N.Y.) Julia B. Hansen (D Wash.)

1957–73 1959–71 1959–61 1959–63 1960–74

Jan Meyers (R Kan.) Cathy Long (D La.) Constance A. Morella (R Md.) Elizabeth J. Patterson (D S.C.) Patricia Saiki (R Hawaii)

1985–97 1985–87 1987– 1987–93 1987–91

Catherine D. Norrell (D Ark.) Louise G. Reece (R Tenn.) Corinne B. Riley (D S.C.) Charlotte T. Reid (R Ill.) Irene B. Baker (R Tenn.)

1961–63 1961–63 1962–63 1963–71 1964–65

Patsy T. Mink (D Hawaii) Lera M.Thomas (D Texas) Margaret M. Heckler (R Mass.) Shirley Chisholm (D N.Y.) Bella S. Abzug (D N.Y.)

1965–77 1990– 2002 1966–67 1967–83 1969–83 1971–77

Louise M. Slaughter (D N.Y.) Nancy Pelosi (D Calif.) Nita M. Lowey (D N.Y.) Jolene Unsoeld (D Wash.) Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R Fla.) Jill Long (D Ind.) Susan Molinari (R N.Y.)

1987– 1989– 1989– 1989–95 1989–97 1989–95 1990–97

Ella T. Grasso (D Conn.) Louise Day Hicks (D Mass.) Elizabeth B. Andrews (D Ala.) Yvonne B. Burke (D Calif.) Marjorie S. Holt (R Md.)

1971–75 1971–73 1972–73 1973–79 1973–87

Elizabeth Holtzman (D N.Y.) Barbara C. Jordan (D Texas) Patricia Schroeder (D Colo.) Corinne C. Boggs (D La.) Cardiss R. Collins (D Ill.)

1973–81 1973–79 1973–97 1973–91 1973–97

Marilyn Lloyd (D Tenn.) Millicent Fenwick (R N.J.) Martha E. Keys (D Kan.) Helen S. Meyner (D N.J.) Virginia Smith (R Neb.)

1975–95 1975–83 1975–79 1975–79 1975–91

Gladys Noon Spellman (D Md.) Shirley N. Pettis (R Calif.) Barbara A. Mikulski (D Md.) Mary Rose Oakar (D Ohio) Beverly Byron (D Md.)

1975–81 1975–79 1977–87 1977–93 1979–93

Source: Congressional Quarterly, American Leaders 1789–2000 (Washington, D.C, 2000), 455–56.

TABLE 9.12 WOMEN IN ELECTIVE OFFICES, 1975–1989 Level of Office 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 U.S. Congress

4%

4%

3%

4%

4%

5%

5%

5%

Statewide Elective

10%

10%

11%

11%

11%

14%

14%

14%

State Legislatures

8%

9%

10%

12%

13%

15%

16%

17%

County Governing Boards

3%

4%

5%

6%

8%

8% (1984)

9%

9% (1988)

4%

8%

10%

10%

NA

14%

NA

NA

Mayors and Municipal Councils

Source: Linda Schmittroth, ed., Statistical Record of Women Worldwide (Detroit, 1995), 894.

Author and conservative spokesperson, Phyllis Schlafly was a leader of opposition to the ERA. (Courtesy: Jimmy Carter Library) Politics and Government

243

TABLE 9.13 NUMBER OF BLACK MEMBERS IN CONGRESS, 1947–1990 Listed below by Congress is the number of black members of the Senate and House of Representatives from the 80th Congress through the beginning of the 102nd Congress. The figures do not include the nonvoting delegate from the District of Columbia. Congress

Years

Senate

House

80th 81st 82d 83d 84th

1947–49 1949–51 1951–53 1953–55 1955–57

0 0 0 0 0

2 2 2 2 3


1957–59 1959–61 1961–63 1963–65 1965–67

0 0 0 0 0

4 4 4 5 6

90th 91st 92d 93d 94th

1967–69 1969–71 1971–73 1973–75 1975–77

1 1 1 1 1

5 9 12 15 16


1977–79 1979–81 1981–83 1983–85 1985–87

1 0 0 0 0

16 16 17 20 20

100th 101st

1987–89 1989–91

0 0

22 24


TABLE 9.14 BLACK MEMBERS OF CONGRESS, A ROSTER, 1946–1990 Senate Edward W. Brooke (R Mass.)

1967–79

House William L. Dawson (D Ill.) Adam C. Powell Jr. (D N.Y.) Charles C. Diggs Jr. (D Mich.) Robert N. C. Nix (D Pa.) Augustus F. Hawkins (D Calif.)

1943–70 1945–67 1969–71 1955–80 1958–79 1963–91

John Conyers Jr. (D Mich.) Louis Stokes (D Ohio) William L. Clay (D Mo.) Shirley Chisholm (D N.Y.) George W. Collins (D Ill.)

1965– 1969–99 1969–2000 1969–83 1970–72

Ronald V. Dellums (D Calif.) Ralph H. Metcalfe (D Ill.) Parren J. Mitchell (D Md.) Charles B. Rangel (D N.Y.) Yvonne B. Burke (D Calif.)

1971–98 1971–78 1971–87 1971– 1973–79

Cardiss Collins (D Ill.) Barbara C. Jordan (D Texas) Andrew Young (D Ga.) Harold E. Ford (D Tenn.) Julian C. Dixon (D Calif.)

1973–97 1973–79 1973–77 1975–97 1979–2000

William H. Gray (D Pa.) George T. Leland (D Texas) Bennett McVey Stewart (D Ill.) George W. Crockett Jr. (D Mich.) Mervin M. Dymally (D Calif.)

1979–91 1979–89 1979–81 1981–91 1981–93

Gus Savage (D Ill.) Harold Washington (D Ill.) Katie Hall (D Ind.) Charles A. Hayes (D Ill.) Major R. Owens (D N.Y.)

1981–93 1981–83 1983–85 1983–93 1983–

House Edolphus Towns (D N.Y.) Alan Wheat (D Mo.) Alton R.Waldon Jr. (D N.Y.) Mike Espy (D Miss.) Floyd H. Flake (D N.Y.)

1983– 1983–95 1986–87 1987–93 1987–97

John Lewis (D Ga.) Kweisi Mfume (D Md.) Donald M. Payne (D N.J.) Craig Washington (D Texas)

1987– 1987–96 1989– 1990–95


TABLE 9.15 HISPANICS IN CONGRESS, 1946–1990 Senate Dennis Chavez, D-N.M. Joseph M. Monotoya, D-N.M.

1935–1962 1964–1977

House Antonio Manuel Fernandez, D-N.M. Joseph Manuel Montoya, D-N.M. Henry B. Gonzalez, D-Texas Edward R. Roybal, D-Calif. E. “Kika’’ de la Garza II, D-Texas Manuel Lujan, Jr., R-N.M. Herman Badillo, D-N.Y. Robert Garcia, D-N.Y. Anthony Lee Coelho, D-Calif. Matthew G. Martinez, D-Calif. Solomon P. Ortiz, D-Texas William B. Richardson, D-N.M. Esteban E.Torres, D-Calif. Albert G. Bustamante, D-Texas Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, R-Fla. José E. Serrano, D-N.Y.

1943–1956 1957–1964 1961–1999 1963–1993 1965–1997 1969–1989 1971–1977 1978–1990 1979–1989 1982– 1994 1983– 1983–1997 1983–1999 1985–1993 1989– 1990–


244


Expansion of the Electorate, 1946–1990 The first reason for growth of the number of people eligible to vote, of course, was expansion of the population.The number of people of voting age doubled between 1946 and 1990, and the people who voted in 1990 roughly equalled the number who had been eligible in 1946. Other factors included black people in the southern states at last being able to vote, largely because of the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965 and general intervention of national officials on their behalf, and a growing political awareness of women, beginning in the 1960s. Other than population growth, the most important single reason for increase in the franchise was reduction of the voting age from 21 to 18. One of the many reform movements of the 1960s, the

TABLE 9.16

18-year-old vote might have been anticipated, if only because many of the reformers were under age 21. The issue also became bound up in the great emotion surrounding the war in Vietnam. “If you are old enough to fight,’’ as the saying went, “you are old enough to vote—and drink.’’ Reduction of age limits for both activities came to pass, but automobile accident statistics caused the states to restore the minimum drinking age to 21 in short order. The 18-year-old vote, a case for which could be made irrespective of the war, remained and was locked in as national policy through a constitutional amendment that took effect in 1971. Subsequent statistics indicated, however, that once they had the vote, young people were not anxious to use it.The lowest voting percentage consistently came from people age 18–24, and one suspects that the bulk of the nonvoters were 21 and lower.

GROWING FRANCHISE IN THE UNITED STATES, 1946–1990 Vote Cast for Presidential Electors

Year

Estimated Population of Voting Age

Vote Cast for U.S. Representatives

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

1946 1948 1950 1952

92,659,000 95,573,000 98,134,000 99,929,000

... 48,793,826 ... 61,550,918

... 51.1 ... 61.6

34,398,000 45,933,000 40,342,000 57,571,000

37.1 48.1 41.1 57.6

1954 1956 1958 1960

102,075,000 104,515,000 106,447,000 109,672,000

... 62,026,908 ... 68,838,219

... 59.3 ... 62.8

42,580,000 58,426,000 45,818,000 64,133,000

41.7 55.9 43.0 58.5

1962 1964 1966 1968

112,952,000 114,090,000 116,638,000 120,285,000

... 70,644,592 ... 73,211,875

... 61.9 ... 60.9

51,267,000 65,895,000 52,908,000 66,288,000

45.4 57.8 45.4 55.1

1970 1972 1974 1976

124,498,000 140,777,000 146,338,000 152,308,000

... 77,718,554 ... 81,555,889

... 55.2 ... 53.5

54,173,000 71,430,000 52,495,000 74,422,000

43.5 50.7 35.9 48.9

1978 1980 1982 1984

158,369,000 164,595,000 169,936,000 174,468,000

... 86,515,221 ... 92,652,842

... 52.6 ... 53.1

55,332,000 77,995,000 64,514,000 83,231,000

34.9 47.4 38.0 47.7

1986 1988 1990

178,566,000 182,779,000 185,812,000

... 91,594,809 ...

... 50.1 ...

56,619,000 81,786,000 61,513,000

33.4 44.7 33.1

Source: Congressional Quarterly, Presidential Elections, 1789–1992 (Washington, D.C., 1995), 80.

TABLE 9.17

VOTER REGISTRATION IN 11 SOUTHERN STATES, 1960–1971

In thousands, except percent. For 1960 to 1970, covers population 18 years old and older in Georgia, and 21 and older elsewhere; for 1971, covers population 18 years old and older for all the southern states. Item

Total

Ala.

Ark.

Fla.

Ga.

1960 White Black Percent white Percent Black

12,276 1,463 61.1 29.1

860 66 63.6 13.7

518 73 60.9 38.0

1,819 183 69.3 39.4

1,020 180 56.8 29.3

1964 White Black

14,264 2,164

946 111

621 95

2,200 300

1966 White Black

14,310 2,689

1,192 250

598 115

1968 White Black

15,702 3,112

1,117 273

640 130

La.

Miss.

N.C.

S.C.

Tenn.

Tex.

Va.

993 159 76.9 31.1

478 22 63.9 5.2

1,861 210 92.1 39.1

481 58 57.1 13.7

1,300 185 73.0 59.1

2,079 227 42.5 35.5

867 100 46.1 23.1

1,340 270

1,037 165

525 29

1,942 258

703 144

1,297 218

2,602 375

1,050 200

2,093 303

1,378 300

1,072 243

471 175

1,654 282

718 191

1,375 225

2,600 400

1,159 205

2,195 292

1,524 344

1,133 350

691 251

1,579 305

587 189

1,448 228

3,532 540

1,256 255

(continued) Politics and Government

245

TABLE 9.17 Item

(continued) Total

Ala.

Ark.

Fla.

Ga.

La.

Miss.

N.C.

S.C.

Tenn.

Tex.

Va.

1970 White Black

16,985 3,357

1,311 315

728 153

2,495 302

1,615 395

1,143 319

690 286

1,640 305

668 221

1,600 242

3,599 550

1,496 269

1971 White Black Percent white Percent Black

17,378 3,449 65.0 58.6

1,370 290 78.5 54.7

674 165 61.4 80.9

3,065a 349a 69.9a 53.2a

1,598 450 68.8 64.2

1,330a 388a 74.0a 58.9a

671 268 69.7 59.4

1,911a 35.1a 65.2a 49.8a

681a 233a 50.2a 49.2a

1,542 245 67.3 565.6

3,700 575 56.8 68.2

1,550 275 59.6 52.0

a

Data for 1974. Source: Jessie C. Smith and Carrell P. Horton, eds., Historical Statistics of Black America (Detroit, 1995), 1312–13.

TABLE 9.18 PERCENTAGE OF PERSONS WHO REPORTED VOTING, BY AGE, 1964–1990 Age Year

18–24

25–44

45–64

65 and Older

1964 1966 1968

50.9 31.2 50.4

69.0 53.1 66.6

75.9 64.5 74.9

66.3 56.1 65.8

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978

40.9 49.6 23.8 42.2 23.5

65.0 62.7 42.2 58.7 43.1

77.5 70.8 56.9 68.7 58.5

73.7 63.5 51.4 62.2 55.9

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988

39.9 24.8 40.8 21.9 36.2

69.3 45.4 58.4 41.4 54.0

65.1 62.2 69.8 58.7 67.9

58.5 59.9 67.7 60.9 68.8

1990

20.4

40.7

55.8

60.3

Note: Data is for persons of voting age, which in most states prior to 1972 was 21 and older. Source: Mark S. Littman, A Statistical Portrait of the U.S., Social Conditions and Trends (Lanham, Md., 1998), 366.

TABLE 9.19 PERCENTAGE OF PERSONS WHO REPORTED VOTING, BY AGE, RACE, AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1964–1990 Age 18–24 Year

White

Black

1964 1966 1968

52.1 32.6 52.8

44.2 21.9 38.9

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978

31.5 51.9 25.2 44.7 24.2

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

Age 65 and Older Hispanic

White

Black

Hispanic

... ... ...

68.1 57.9 67.4

45.3 35.3 49.9

... ... ...

22.4 34.7 16.1 27.9 20.1

... 30.9 13.3 21.8 11.5

58.6 64.8 52.8 63.2 57.2

39.3 50.6 38.5 54.3 45.6

... 26.7 28.1 29.9 24.9

41.8 25.0 41.6 21.6 37.0

30.1 25.5 40.6 25.1 35.0

15.9 14.2 21.9 11.6 16.8

66.0 61.1 68.7 61.9 69.8

59.4 50.8 61.5 53.3 63.5

36.8 29.5 40.5 36.5 45.6

20.8

20.2

8.7

61.7

51.3

40.5

Note: Data is for persons of voting age, which in most states prior to 1972 was 21 and older. Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of the U.S., 367–68.

246


TABLE 9.20 NUMBER OF CIVILIAN FEDERAL GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES AND PERCENT UNDER MERIT CIVIL SERVICE, 1946–1990 Total Number of Employees

Year

Total Number of Employees

Year

Percentage Under Merit

Percentage Under Merit

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

2,759,019 3,002,461 3,055,212 3,076,414 2,981,574

85.8 82.8 84.1 82.9 82.3

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

2,696,529 2,111,001 2,071,009 2,102,109 1,960,708

... 80.2 82.4 84.3 84.5

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

2,862,894 2,779,261 2,732,377 2,893,118 2,896,944

84.1 61.6 62.0 57.0 57.4

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

2,482,666 2,600,612 2,558,416 2,407,676 2,397,309

86.4 86.4 83.6 82.7 83.6

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

2,883,134 2,893,334 2,929,100 2,949,630 3,121,769

57.6 57.1 57.3 56.6 56.1

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

2,398,736 2,417,565 2,382,491 2,382,807 2,398,704

85.1 85.5 85.3 85.7 85.5

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

2,947,428 2,917,095 2,920,514 2,959,317 3,059,987

58.7 59.2 59.2 58.7 57.2

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

2,435,804 2,514,197 2,527,960 2,500,503 2,527,915

86.1 85.9 85.6 86.1 85.2

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

3,061,210 3,125,635 3,126,171 3,151,334 3,503,550

56.6 56.2 56.0 56.2 50.5


TABLE 9.21

BILLS, ACTS, AND RESOLUTIONS, 1947–1990 Measures Introduced

Congress

Bills

Joint Resolutions

Measures Enacted Total

Public

Private

Total

80th (1947–1948) 81st (1949–1950) 82d (1951–1952) 83d (1953–1954) 84th (1955–1956)

10,108 14,219 12,062 14,181 16,782

689 769 668 771 905

10,797 14,988 12,730 14,952 17,687

906 921 594 781 1,028

457 1,103 1,023 1,002 893

1,363 2,024 1,617 1,783 1,921

85th (1957–1958) 86th (1959–1960) 87th (1961–1962)

18,205 17,230 17,230

907 1,031 1,146

19,112 18,261 18,376

936 800 885

784 492 684

1,720 1,292 1,569

88th (1963–1964) 89th (1965–1966)

16,079 22,483

1,401 1,520

17,480 24,003

666 810

360 473

1,026 1,283

90th (1967–1968) 91st (1969–1970) 92d (1971–1972) 93d (1973–1974) 94th (1975–1976)

24,786 24,631 21,363 21,950 19,762

1,674 1,672 1,606 1,446 1,334

26,460 26,303 22,969 23,396 21,096

640 695 607 651 588

362 246 161 123 141

1,002 941 768 774 729

95th (1977–1978) 96th (1979–1980) 97th (1981–1982) 98th (1983–1984) 99th (1985–1986)

18,045 11,722 10,582 10,134 8,697

1,342 861 908 1,022 1,188

19,387 12,583 11,490 11,156 9,885

633 613 473 623 664

170 123 56 54 24

803 736 529 677 688

8,515 9,257

1,073 1,095

9,588 10,352

713 404

48 7

761 411

100th (1987–1988) 101st (1989–1990)



247

TABLE 9.22

PRESIDENTIAL VETOES, 1945–1990

Years

President

1945–1953 1953–1961 1961–1963 1963–1969 1969–1974

Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L. Johnson Nixon

1974–1977 1977–1981 1981–1989 1989–1990

Ford Carter Reagan Bush

Regular Vetoes Vetoes Overridden

Pocket Vetoes

Total Vetoes

180 73 12 16 26a

12 2 0 0 7

70 108 9 14 17

250 181 21 30 43

48 13 39 12

12 2 9 0

18 18 39 4

66 31 78 16

a

Two pocket vetoes, overruled in the courts, are counted here as regular vetoes. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 276.

Civil Rights One of the great social and political undertakings of the 20th century, the Civil Rights Movement was designed to resolve what a scholar in the 1940s identified as an American dilemma: the contradiction between American ideals and constitutional principles and the reality of the status of black people. In its origins and most compelling stage, it involved mass action efforts to change the political, social, and economic structure of the southern states, where the color line remained, if not exactly rigid, at least the dominant fact of life. The Supreme Court’s desegregation decision in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas case of 1954 supplied the immediate encouragement and incentive for the movement to start. During the period from 1954 to approximately 1965, black and white demonstrators sought to dramatize and publicize the evils of segregation and denial of black peoples’ right to vote in hope that public pressure would induce southern state governments to change. In the event that the southern power structure would not yield, the activists sought to induce the national government to superimpose its will over the states. Battlegrounds were southern cities, small towns, and highways as the activists marched, rode, or sat in defiance of state laws and local ordinances, and southern whites, acting either through public institutions, such as the police, or as private individuals or organizations, resisted demands for change. Out of the movement came heroes and martyrs: Medgar Evers; James Meredith; Fred Schuttleworth; John Lewis; Martin Luther King, Jr. (both a hero and a martyr); and the resistors: J. Ross Barnet, “Bull’’ Connor, George Wallace, and others— these became not heroes, except in special circles, but at least national figures. In spite of murders, beatings, assaults from police dogs and firehoses, arrests, and humiliation, the reformers persisted until indeed the national government did step in.The most important measures were the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965, which were designed to strike not only at traditional forms of oppression and discrimination as manifested through organs of the state (laws that imposed segregation and prevented blacks from voting) but also at institutionalized racism as practiced by private individuals and organizations.The law of 1964, for example, forbade discrimination in hiring by private companies and discrimination in providing service by private restaurants and hotels. At the point when it appeared that the Civil Rights Movement had achieved its immediate objectives, the focus shifted. That the activity that took place in the last half of the 1960s involved race, there could be no question; that it continued to be a matter of “civil rights’’ was at least subject to debate. Attention moved from South to North and West, objectives changed, slogans changed, leadership changed. Stokeley Carmichael seemed to eclipse King; the charismatic black nationalist Malcolm X attracted national attention in the early 1960s; 248


separatism superseded integration; passive resistance was replaced, at least temporarily, by confrontation.The Black Power movement of the late 1960s produced numerous consequences, of course, many of them difficult to measure. The most conspicuous reaction at the time was the creation of a white backlash, and a lessening of sympathy for the continuing plight of much of black America. Part of what went on in race relations after 1970 involved implementation of laws and principles that the movement had produced. Black people did vote in the South, and black youth went to school with whites. The University of Alabama began to use black football players, and the University of Kentucky recruited blacks for the basketball team. It soon developed that the teams could not do without them. Passage of time allowed meaning and shortcomings of the various changes to become clear. The slowest gains came in economics— in some measure because of prejudice but also because of qualification (which also could have stemmed from prejudice).A renewed emphasis after 1970 on economics caused some terms to take on new meaning. the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had endorsed “affirmative action’’ to assure that there had been no form of discrimination; a law of 1972. the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, however, suggested that properly used, discrimination could be helpful:The measure endorsed employment practices preferential to racial and ethnic minority groups and women. Integration probably remained the most commonly accepted objective, and a “color-blind’’ society the most noble objective of race relations, but it was doubtful that many people of any color were entirely oblivious to race, and some people had come to have doubts about aspects of integration. Associations based on race often seemed to be the normal and chosen order of events in settings that officially were biracial or multiracial. In some cases, segregation became a stated objective, as in requests for separate black dormitories in universities. The movement for racial and ethnic diversity that gathered such momentum in the 1980s was in no small measure a campaign to foster racial distinction. It might seem that the United States had moved from the doctrine of separate but equal—still, for nearly 20 years after 1946, the policy of the southern states—toward a policy of equal but separate. After nearly 40 years of close attention to race relations, marked with numerous laws, court rulings, expensive programs, noble and selfless acts by people of all races, the United States in 1990 still stood a great distance from effectively dealing with the issue of race. Americans did not agree on what effective dealing would be.

Development of the Civil Rights Movement and the Issue of Race Relations, 1954–1990 1954 The Supreme Court issues its epochal desegregation decision in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. 1955 A refusal by seamstress Rosa Parks to give up her bus seat to a white man, for which she will be arrested, touches off a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama—the first expression of mass action by blacks, an event that will produce the first appearance of Martin Luther King, Jr., as a leader. 1957 When the governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, blocked racial integration of Central High School in Little Rock, President Dwight Eisenhower nationalizes the national guard to keep order and protect the nine black students wishing to attend Central High. 1960 Four black college freshmen who, denied service at the segregated lunch counter of a Woolworth store in Greensboro, North Carolina, refuse to depart the structure—thus initiating the “sit-in’’ as a tactic of passive resistance to segregation in the South. 1960 Black and white activists form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) to challenge segregation and denial of voting rights for blacks.

Civil rights advocates “sit-in’’ at a Woolworth lunch counter in Jackson, Mississippi, and are harassed by local whites, May 28, 1963. (State Historical Society of Wisconsin)

1961 The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) begins “freedom rides’’ from one southern locality to another to dramatize segregation in the South. 1962 James Meredith, a black veteran, enrolls at the University of Mississippi, but not until after resistance by state officials and a riot in Oxford that caused two deaths, several injuries, numerous arrests, and intervention by the army. 1963 The governor of Alabama, George Wallace, is forced by national officials to cease resistance to token integration of the state university. 1963 Medgar Evers, a leader of the NAACP, is murdered in his home in Jackson, Mississippi. 1963 Some 200,000 demonstrators march to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., and hear Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, “I Have a Dream’’ speech. 1964 The year of Mississippi Freedom Summer, which emphasizes voter registration of black people.The movement culminates in the murder of three civil rights workers near Philadelphia, Mississippi. National attention to the event will help promote passage of the sweeping Civil Rights Act of 1964, which had been stalled in Congress. 1964 A riot breaks out in Harlem.

1965 Aided by demonstrations in Selma, Alabama, another civil rights bill, the voting rights measure, passes Congress. The law is designed to foster registration of black people in the South. 1965 Black nationalist leader Malcolm X is assassinated in New York City, presumably by a faction of the Nation of Islam. 1965 A race riot in the Watts section of Los Angeles kills 35. 1966 Huey Newton and Bobby Seale found a social and political organization called the Black Panthers in Oakland, California. 1966 Stokeley Carmichael, an advocate of an aggressive Black Power replaces the more conciliatory John Lewis as head of SNCC. 1966 Appointed by President Johnson as head of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Robert Weaver becomes the first black member of the Cabinet. 1967 Appointed by President Johnson,Thurgood Marshall becomes the first black justice of the Supreme Court. 1967 A race riot in Newark, New Jersey, leaves 26 dead and 1,400 injured. 1967 A race riot in Detroit kills 43, injures 2,000, and leaves many city blocks gutted. 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr., is shot and killed by a sniper as he stands outside a motel in Memphis. Politics and Government

249

1968 Congress passes a civil rights act designed to prevent discrimination in the transfer of residential property—the Equal Housing Law. 1968 An investigative body appointed by the president, the Kerner Commission, reports the existence of two nations, black and white, separate and unequal. 1973 Barbara Jordan of Texas becomes the first black woman, and the first southern African American in the 20th century, to be elected to Congress. 1980 Acquittal of white police officers accused of killing a black man causes rioting in Miami that leaves 18 dead. 1983 Harold Washington is elected first black mayor of Chicago. 1990 Continuing a long series of black “firsts’’ in politics on the state and national level, L. Douglas Wilder becomes first black governor of Virginia and David Dinkins becomes the first black mayor of New York City.

The court of the immediate postwar period, called the Vinson Court, after its chief justice, Fred Vinson, continued in an approach of judicial restraint, a philosophy coming out of the years of depression that allowed the government a great deal of latitude of action, especially in dealing with economic concerns. The court restrained itself from striking down actions of the other branches. Impressed by threats and dangers implicit in an emerging cold war, the court of the early 1950s tilted in the direction of security—permitting the government more power—at some cost in the area of free speech. From the middle part of the 1950s through virtually the end of the 1960s a different Supreme Court, following a different judicial philosophy, supplied a new thrust to judicial decisions. Named the Warren Court after Chief Justice Earl Warren (appointed by Dwight Eisenhower in 1953), the court practiced a form of judicial activism that was designed to promote egalitarianism and realization of the civil liberties of all Americans. Criticized in some quarters for exercising powers it did not have (the power to make policy), the Warren Court did not hesitate to invalidate acts of a legislature that in its judgment encroached on the rights of its citizens. The bulk of such measures were acts of state legislatures, as opposed to action taken by Congress. The most striking examples included the Brown decision and other cases involving race relations; a series of decisions such as in the Miranda case, involving legal proceedings within state jurisdiction; and reapportionment decisions having to do with representation within state legislatures. The Warren Court fit the activist and reformist mood of the 1960s and even helped to make it. Following the retirement of Warren in 1969, the Supreme Court came under the leadership of Warren Burger (appointed by Richard Nixon) until 1986 and afterward by William Rehnquist (appointed originally by Nixon; elevated to the chief justiceship by Ronald

Source: Information compiled by the author from numerous materials.

The Supreme Court Although the president and Congress received more attention, it could be argued that in the end the judiciary was the most powerful branch of government. Armed with the power of judicial review, the Supreme Court could not only establish boundaries of policy but also steer policy in a distinct direction. Many of the major issues and controversies developed as a consequence of a court ruling; an answer to large questions of national policy—to the extent that any such questions were fully answered—often took the form of a decision by the highest court in the land. TABLE 9.23

JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT, 1946–1990 Term of Service

Years of Service

Life Span

Hugo L. Black Stanley F. Reed Felix Frankfurter William O. Douglas Frank Murphy

1937–71 1938–57 1939–62 1939–75 1940–49

34 19 23 36 9

1886–1971 1884–1980 1882–1965 1898–1980 1890–1949

F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt

Harlan F. Stonea Robert H. Jackson Wiley B. Rutledge Harold H. Burton Fred M.Vinsona

1941–46 1941–54 1943–49 1945–58 1946–53

5 13 6 13 7

1872–1946 1892–1954 1894–1949 1888–1964 1890–1953

F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt F. Roosevelt Truman Truman

Tom C. Clark Sherman Minton Earl Warrena John M. Harlan William J. Brennan

1949–67 1949–56 1953–69 1955–71 1956–90

18 7 16 16 33

1899–1977 1890–1965 1891–1974 1899–1971 1906–1997

Truman Truman Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower

Charles E.Whittaker Potter Stewart Byron R.White Arthur J. Goldberg Abe Fortas

1957–62 1958–81 1962–93 1962–65 1965–69

5 23 31 3 4

1901–1973 1915–1985 1917– 1908–1990 1910–1982

Eisenhower Eisenhower Kennedy Kennedy Johnson

Thurgood Marshall Warren C. Burgera Harry A. Blackmun Lewis F. Powell William H. Rehnquista

1967–91 1969–86 1970–94 1972–87 1971–

24 17 24 15 ...

1908–1993 1907–1995 1908–1999 1907–1998 1924–

Johnson Nixon Nixon Nixon Nixon

John P. Stevens Sandra Day O’Connor Antonin Scalia Anthony M. Kennedy David M. Souter

1975– 1981– 1986– 1988– 1990–

... ... ... ... ...

1920– 1930– 1936– 1936– 1939–

Ford Reagan Reagan Reagan Bush

Justice

Appointed By

a Denotes Chief Justice. Source: Commission on the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution, The Supreme Court of the United States (Washington, D.C., 1992), 273–276.

250


Reagan).There was, of course, overlapping of personnel in the various courts, but in the broad view, the significant factor was that all justices appointed between 1969 and 1990 (there were nine) and both chief justices were appointed by Republican presidents. Court watchers had reason to expect that liberal activism of the 1960s would give way to conservative jurisprudence. In some measure a conservative reaction did set in beginning in the 1970s, but it never reached the expected proportion. The Court did loosen the fairly rigid guidelines of the Miranda decision and did allow local officials grounds for acting against obscenity, but most observers gave mixed reviews to both the Burger and Rehnquist courts. Both courts continued to supply striking expressions of activism, as in the

abortion case of Roe v.Wade in 1973 and decisions in 1989 and 1990 declaring that burning the American flag was a right of free speech that had to be protected.The Burger Court more or less struck down capital punishment in 1972 and then brought it back in 1976. In judicial issues, as with society in general, the great battleground of the era came to be abortion and affirmative action.The Rehnquist Court gave no indication of moving sharply in any direction on either issue. The postwar court mirrored the flow of society in another way. Long considered the final citadel of old white men, the Supreme Court received its first black justice in the 1960s and its first female member in the 1980s.

President John F. Kennedy and Jackie Kennedy receive members of the Supreme Court and spouses on November 20, 1963, two days before Kennedy’s assassination. (John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library) Politics and Government

251

Landmark Decisions of the Supreme Court

that critics claimed belonged to the states or to private individuals. The part of the law under review (Title II) involved regulation of privately owned facilities, such as restaurants, that served the public. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) This case represented an extension of principles established in the Gideon case (1963) and Escobido case (1964). Not only did defendants in state courts have the right of silence and the right to have an attorney, but they must be advised of these rights before questioning could start. A failure to do so negated the criminal proceeding that followed. Even though Miranda had confessed to murder and rape, he was freed because he had not been so advised. Roe v.Wade (1973) In the Burger Court’s most important decision and one of the most controversial ever rendered, the Supreme Court ruled that because of an individual’s right to privacy, state governments could not prevent a woman from having an abortion. Measures in several states that had made abortion illegal were from this point on inoperable. Only in the last three months of pregnancy could the state establish any guidelines, and even then it could not forbid abortion altogether. United States v. Nixon (1974) In politics this decision sealed the fate of President Richard Nixon. The constitutional issue involved the meaning and extent of executive privilege of the president.The court (Burger Court) ruled that prevailing circumstances—such as national security—in this case did not justify the president’s withholding evidence needed in a criminal trial. Thus Nixon was ordered to surrender the “Watergate’’ tapes—the messages secretly recorded in the Oval Office—that contained evidence of his guilt. Gregg v. Georgia and other cases (1976) The Burger Court held that for a person convicted of first-degree murder, execution did not constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as stipulated in the Eighth Amendment. Judges and juries should weigh all circumstances carefully, but the death penalty hereafter was reinstated, if indeed it ever had been forbidden. United States v. Weber and other cases (1979) The Burger Court decided that although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbade racial discrimination in employment, employers could utilize certain preferential practices in hiring members of minority groups. In other words, they could discriminate. The decision provided a legal rationale for affirmative action programs—one of the heated political issues in the years to come. Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) In a narrow 5 to 4 decision, the Court ruled that an ill-defined right to privacy did not extent to homosexual relations.The Court upheld a law passed in Georgia in 1916 that made anal and oral sex a crime; to that point enforcement, to the extent it existed, had been restricted to homosexual behavior.

Dennis v. United States (1951) Heard in the early years of the cold war, during the “Red Scare’’ of the 1950s, this case tested the boundaries of First Amendment freedoms (the freedom of speech) in a time of great national and international insecurity. In upholding the conviction of 11 high-ranking American communists for advocating overthrow of the government by force (thus violating the Smith Act of 1940), the Vinson Court placed emphasis on security rather than freedom and barely stopped short of ruling that being a communist could be made illegal. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) In perhaps its most famous decision, the Warren Court ruled that segregation on a basis of race in the public schools violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The decision overturned the principle of “separate but equal’’ set down in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson, ordered that segregation of southern schools (and by implication other public facilities) must stop, and touched off a civil rights revolution and a period of some 15 years of social and political unrest. Baker v. Carr (1962) Here the Warren Court ruled that legislative apportionment within the states based on some geographic district (such as a county) violated the Fourteenth Amendment and that such issues came under the jurisdiction of the national courts.The decision laid the groundwork for the principle of “one man, one vote,’’ applied in Reynolds v. Sims, the effect of which was to shift power within the states from rural areas to the populous cities. Engel v.Vitale (1962) The Warren Court ruled that public school officials could not require students to recite even a nondenominational prayer, as it would constitute an effort to establish a religion. The ruling was one of several sensitive decisions designed to keep virtually all religious observances out of public schools. Gideon v.Wainwright (1963) This case was one of several in which the Warren Court continued a practice of applying the protections of the Bill of Rights through the Fourteenth Amendment to the states. The Gideon decision established the principle that in state and local criminal proceedings, all accused persons must be supplied with an attorney, if they wished one. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) The Supreme Court gave broad meaning to the principle of freedom of the press. A public official, victim of a harsh or even incorrect statement in the media, could not sue for libel unless it could be demonstrated that the party (in this case a newspaper) knowingly and with malice had published false information. Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) In this decision the Warren Court upheld the sweeping Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prominent politicians had challenged on constitutional grounds. The essential point was the court’s ruling that the commerce clause gave the national government jurisdiction in an area

Source: Bernard Schwartz, A History of the Supreme Court (New York, 1993), many pages, especially 263–361.

TABLE 9.24 MEASURES HELD UNCONSTITUTIONAL BY THE SUPREME COURT, 1940–1989 Period

Federal Statutes

State Laws and Local Ordinances

1940–49 1950–59 1960–69 1970–79 1980–89 Totals

2 5 16 20 16 59

57 61 149 193 162 622

Source: Lawrence Baum, The Supreme Court (Washington, D.C., 1995), 201, 205.

252


Trends and Themes of Government Finance The first trend that attracts attention was the enormous increase in the costs and expenditures of government in the United States. Spending of the national government grew from $55 billion in 1946 to $1 trillion, $250 billion in 1990. Combined expenses of the states went from $7 billion in 1946 to $570 billion in 1990. Frequently, and with increasing regularity, the government spent more money than it earned. Although deficit spending would become a familiar economic and political phenomenon, the condition took a while to develop. Budgets occasionally were balanced in the postwar years; the last surplus

TABLE 9.25

came in 1969. During the 1970s deficit spending became persistent but seemingly manageable. It was during the 1980s—the Ronald Reagan years—that the roof fell in. A sharp reduction in taxes accompanied by an increase in expenditures (mostly for military purposes) created annual budget deficits measured in the hundreds of billions. How many hundreds depended on the set of numbers one chose to use. The government in effect kept two sets of books. One set applied to the expenditures and income for standard operations of government.There also was a separate category for a number of trust funds in the hands of the national government—of which Social Security was the most prominent—that had in some measure separate taxes

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT RECEIPTS, OUTLAYS, AND SURPLUSES OR DEFICITS (–) BY FUND GROUP, 1945–1990

(in millions of dollars) Receipts

Outlays

Fiscal Year

Total

Federal Funds

Trust Funds

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

45,159 39,296 38,514 41,560 39,415

41,875 36,357 35,380 37,822 35,849

5,045 5,144 4,885 4,894 4,750

–1,760 –2,205 –1,751 –1,156 –1,184

92,712 55,232 34,496 29,764 38,835

94,846 56,204 34,803 28,988 37,686

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

39,443 51,616 66,167 69,608 69,701

35,334 46,183 59,989 63,085 62,774

5,823 6,729 7,744 8,080 8,297

–1,715 –1,296 –1,566 –1,557 –1,370

42,562 45,514 67,686 76,101 70,855

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

65,451 74,587 79,990 79,636 79,249

58,168 65,594 68,847 66,720 65,800

8,627 10,745 13,210 15,082 15,770

–1,344 –1,753 –2,067 –2,166 –2,321

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

92,492 94,388 99,676 106,560 112,613

75,647 75,175 79,700 84,013 87,511

19,232 22,320 22,981 25,792 28,461

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

116,817 130,835 148,822 152,973 186,882

90,943 101,428 111,835 114,726 143,322

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

192,807 187,139 207,309 230,799 263,224

1975 1976 TQa 1977 1978 1979

Interfund Transactions

Interfund Transactions

Total

Federal Funds

Trust Funds

–374 1,234 1,444 1,932 2,333

–1,760 –2,205 –1,751 –1,156 –1,184

–47,553 –15,936 4,018 11,796 580

–52,972 –19,847 577 8,834 –1,838

5,419 3,910 3,441 2,962 2,417

38,389 43,732 64,994 73,006 65,924

5,888 3,078 4,257 4,652 6,301

–1,715 –1,296 –1,566 –1,557 –1,370

–3,119 6,102 –1,519 –6,493 –1,154

–3,055 2,451 –5,005 –9,921 –3,151

–65 3,651 3,486 3,427 1,997

68,444 70,640 76,578 82,405 92,098

62,341 64,281 67,189 69,737 77,071

7,447 8,111 11,456 14,834 17,348

–1,344 –1,753 –2,067 –2,166 –2,321

–2,993 3,947 3,412 –2,769 –12,849

–4,173 1,313 1,657 –3,017 –11,271

1,180 2,634 1,755 248 –1,578

–2,387 –3,107 –3,005 –3,245 –3,358

92,191 97,723 106,821 111,316 118,528

74,856 79,368 86,546 90,643 96,098

19,722 21,462 23,281 23,918 25,788

–2,387 –3,107 –3,005 –3,245 –3,358

301 –3,335 –7,146 –4,756 –5,915

791 –4,193 –6,847 –6,630 –8,588

–490 858 –299 1,874 2,673

29,202 32,959 42,213 44,011 51,108

–3,328 –3,552 –5,227 –5,764 –7,549

118,228 134,532 157,464 178,134 183,640

94,853 106,590 127,544 143,100 148,192

26,703 31,495 35,147 40,799 42,996

–3,328 –3,552 –5,227 –5,764 –7,549

–1,411 –3,698 –8,643 –25,161 3,242

–3,910 –5,162 –15,709 –28,373 –4,871

2,499 1,464 7,066 3,212 8,112

143,159 133,785 148,846 161,357 181,228

58,425 64,937 71,619 90,767 103,789

–8,777 –11,583 –13,156 –21,325 –21,793

195,649 210,172 230,681 245,707 269,359

156,327 163,681 178,144 187,044 201,376

48,099 58,074 65,693 79,988 89,776

–8,777 –11,583 –13,156 –21,325 –21,793

–2,842 –23,033 –23,373 –14,908 –6,135

–13,168 –29,896 –29,299 –25,687 –20,148

10,326 6,863 5,926 10,779 14,013

279,090 298,060 81,232 355,559 399,561 463,302

187,505 201,099 54,085 241,312 270,490 316,366

117,647 132,509 31,625 151,503 166,468 188,072

–26,061 –35,548 –4,478 –37,256 –37,397 –41,136

332,332 371,792 95,975 409,218 458,746 504,032

248,174 277,242 66,878 304,474 342,372 375,435

110,220 130,099 33,575 142,000 153,771 169,733

–26,061 –35,548 –4,478 –37,256 –37,397 –41,136

–53,242 –73,732 –14,744 –53,659 –59,186 –40,729

–60,669 –76,143 –12,794 –63,162 –71,882 –59,069

7,427 2,410 –1,950 9,502 12,697 18,339

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

517,112 599,272 617,766 600,562 666,457

350,856 410,422 409,253 382,432 420,370

212,106 240,601 270,138 319,363 338,661

–45,850 –51,751 –61,625 –101,233 –92,574

590,947 678,249 745,755 808,380 851,846

433,494 496,222 543,486 613,331 638,664

203,302 233,778 263,894 296,282 305,756

–45,850 –51,751 –61,625 –101,233 –92,574

–73,835 –78,976 –127,989 –207,818 –185,388

–82,639 –85,799 –134,233 –230,899 –218,293

8,804 6,823 6,244 23,081 32,905

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

734,057 769,091 854,143 908,954 990,691

460,280 474,001 538,499 561,098 614,823

397,500 423,377 444,203 491,202 535,941

–123,723 –128,287 –128,559 –143,346 –160,073

946,391 990,336 1,003,911 1,064,140 1,143,172

726,763 757,138 760,885 814,008 890,787

343,351 361,485 371,585 393,479 412,458

–123,723 –128,287 –128,559 –143,346 –160,073

–212,334 –221,245 –149,769 –155,187 –152,481

–266,483 –283,138 –222,386 –252,909 –275,964

54,149 61,892 72,618 97,723 123,483

1990

1,031,321

635,190

566,931

–170,799

1,252,515

976,564

446,750

–170,799

–221,194

–341,374

120,180

Total

Federal Funds

Trust Funds

Surplus or Deficit (–)

a

In the calender year 1976 the July–September period was a separate accounting period, known as the transition quarter or TQ. Source: Office of Management and Budget, The Budget for Fiscal Year 1997, Historical Tables (Washington, D.C., 1996), 25.


253

254


44,800 48,935 71,568 79,990 77,692

73,441 75,991 81,783 86,054 93,531

97,284 104,863 113,428 118,805 125,949

130,059 143,022 166,849 184,464 196,165

208,190 226,157 242,186 272,709 295,488

341,517 391,085 433,340 479,297 537,338

617,166 719,249 796,483 874,264 928,188

1,032,131 1,096,401 1,148,654 1,214,812 1,270,068

1,393,121

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

1990

344,069

288,736 312,183 319,084 329,993 346,338

149,459 174,564 204,275 228,763 248,040

93,877 98,000 105,596 114,811 128,529

84,253 80,910 79,258 83,004 85,444

55,810 60,832 74,638 83,874 84,496

48,922 51,210 55,172 56,386 57,326

43,472 43,388 47,500 47,626 49,688

18,355 25,953 48,187 53,583 49,265

50,461 16,075

National Defense

39,065

28,898 30,985 32,243 33,892 36,472

18,177 20,466 21,761 23,561 26,619

12,678 13,748 14,641 15,271 16,581

7,722 8,683 9,366 9,572 11,235

5,261 5,706 6,227 6,485 6,993

3,730 4,025 4,101 4,402 4,775

2,726 2,899 3,034 3,327 3,499

2,270 2,403 2,612 2,686 2,669

1,381 1,715

17,830

13,208 13,581 14,393 14,552 17,282

10,619 12,228 11,484 12,773 12,496

7,153 9,039 7,835 7,992 9,979

3,053 4,629 5,104 5,176 5,820

1,050 1,550 2,295 2,456 3,139

685 640 598 751 1,056

802 940 964 917 836

2,470 1,885 1,280 727 639

355 2,342

856

834 568 623 377 776

434 306 576 560 792

312 294 265 277 418

319 301 432 271 243

127 125 100 173 321

137 151 151 165 164

68 82 115 135 134

69 56 64 66 60

8 35

Postal Public HighService Education ways

33,447

25,234 25,790 26,187 28,656 31,170

19,212 22,395 22,564 24,749 23,715

12,212 13,694 14,904 16,540 18,722

2,837 2,220 2,488 3,385 6,286

105 208 1,374 1,388 2,620

58 59 63 118 114

42 45 49 48 57

24 25 42 42 43

26 45

17,852

14,020 14,552 15,517 16,849 17,334

11,136 11,277 12,507 12,377 12,966

5,996 6,884 7,508 8,135 8,933

3,919 3,630 4,166 4,824 5,723

2,309 2,452 2,817 3,033 3,410

1,450 1,595 1,793 2,008 2,169

905 967 1,032 1,104 1,343

963 967 1,014 956 959

324 705

5,344

3,430 3,543 4,036 4,657 4,952

1,739 1,904 2,000 2,322 2,092

1,095 1,204 1,343 1,571 1,724

409 478 554 1,023 988

243 257 282 290 341

173 193 196 209 220

129 156 155 159 170

88 104 141 122 124

70 80

8,214 7,925 9,538 11,969 13,492 16,951

70,266

6,080 6,808 4,585 5,870 8,325

2,392 2,284 2,212 2,345 3,308

1,051 1,913 2,630 3,765 2,416

948 1,009 944 1,209 603

284 377 548 509 895

112 125 119 200 223

121 124 106 138 131

107 69

53,635 60,075 84,566 81,481 54,975

29,734 38,896 40,349 49,105 59,415

13,844 14,710 18,335 22,073 25,632

8,737 10,658 11,105 13,432 13,697

9,260 8,262 7,801 6,729 7,472

5,898 8,429 9,097 8,014 8,207

5,545 5,724 5,205 5,161 6,890

4,335 3,027 2,476 4,111 5,615

2,809 1,727

Public Health & Police Natural Welfare Hospitals Protection Resource Housing

Source: Scott Moody, Facts and Figures on Government Finance (Washington, D.C., 1999), 69–70. (A publication of the Tax Foundation)

66,534 35,592

Total

1946 1948

Year

(millions $)

TABLE 9.26 FEDERAL EXPENDITURES BY FUNCTION—SELECTED FISCAL YEARS, 1946–1990

17,353

16,876 17,139 17,088 18,340 18,669

12,443 13,776 14,959 15,817 16,020

8,598 9,289 10,165 10,776 11,553

5,388 6,411 6,882 7,353 7,523

4,190 4,510 4,425 4,740 5,046

3,689 3,965 4,129 3,941 4,189

2,997 3,097 3,186 3,455 3,645

2,796 2,601 2,428 2,710 2,811

2,534 3,293

12,710

7,427 8,619 9,230 10,691 11,290

5,330 5,687 6,040 7,062 7,556

3,280 3,680 4,038 4,365 4,808

1,688 1,881 2,245 2,544 2,448

1,069 1,131 1,224 1,319 1,458

746 788 850 923 1,016

607 675 680 693 747

514 547 608 602 622

460 445

187,952

140,281 144,167 146,155 158,119 174,288

61,286 80,510 101,816 108,735 109,209

25,005 29,306 33,276 39,330 48,768

14,037 16,599 17,114 18,332 22,450

8,940 9,589 10,373 11,607 13,260

7,662 7,485 7,162 7,682 8,293

4,845 5,311 5,497 6,116 5,543

4,404 4,221 4,262 4,863 4,796

3,865 4,323

Veterans Admnis- Interest Service tration on Debt

390,897

284,633 300,192 316,454 336,289 359,630

170,576 202,339 228,110 250,094 264,142

88,025 101,433 117,936 131,297 147,352

41,248 48,235 54,086 64,252 74,075

19,930 23,342 28,283 32,474 37,547

13,565 14,892 16,740 18,273 19,067

6,238 7,200 8,520 10,356 11,847

4,515 2,801 3,790 4,294 5,061

1,086 1,417

146,990

107,424 115,632 111,511 118,906 127,247

90,836 94,609 89,339 92,686 99,015

49,628 69,057 74,016 79,172 85,327

23,257 27,500 33,584 41,268 42,854

11,062 13,115 15,027 18,053 19,421

6,994 7,011 7,735 8,507 10,097

3,099 3,347 3,873 4,835 6,355

2,371 2,383 2,585 2,873 2,967

894 1,771

Payments Insurance to Other Trust Gov’ts

91,539

39,281 41,450 42,029 50,041 56,153

30,105 33,484 36,118 39,790 37,786

17,422 18,463 21,270 25,342 25,704

10,272 12,109 13,172 14,508 14,286

9,752 10,933 11,038 10,634 10,038

3,290 4,043 5,093 6,915 8,360

1,853 2,036 1,854 1,922 2,556

1,505 1,838 1,973 2,217 1,930

2,154 1,550

Other

and a separate accounting system. Although standard government operations during 1946–90 ran ever-increasing deficits every year but six, the trust fund ran a surplus every year but four. In 1990 the surplus was $120 billion. By placing Social Security and other trusts into the general accounting hopper, using the trust-fund surplus to reduce the budget deficit (if only as an accounting device), it was possible to make a terrible situation seem only reprehensible. In 1990 it was the difference between a budget unbalanced by $341 billion and one of $221 billion. The same basic principle applied to the issue of the national debt, which was, of course, nothing more than accumulated deficit spending. Long considered a consequence of extraordinary times, such as war, the debt became a standard and regularly growing part of economic life. As with deficit spending, the debt increased steadily but TABLE 9.27

gradually until the 1980s when it soared—to nearly $3.3 trillion in 1990. By bringing in the trust-fund surplus, however, the debt became a mere $2.4 trillion. With respect to expenditures, defense and military costs became a large obligation of the national government, and in the early years of the cold war, the military took more than half of the government’s funds. Even though defense spending went up steadily in the years that followed, it did not keep pace with the increase in general spending. The final year that the military took half the budget was 1960; by 1990 its share of the budget had dropped beneath 25 percent. By that time social and welfare spending absorbed at least 50 percent of spending by the government in Washington. The states of course had special responsibilities for education and transportation, but their budgets also were

FEDERAL RECEIPTS BY SOURCE, BY FISCAL YEAR, 1945–1990

(millions $)

Year

Total Receipts

Individual Income Taxes

Corporate Income Taxes

Social Insurance Taxes

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

45,159 39,296 38,514 41,560 39,415

18,372 16,098 17,935 19,315 15,552

15,988 11,883 8,615 9,678 11,192

3,451 3,115 3,422 3,751 3,781

6,265 6,998 7,211 7,356 7,502

1,083 1,202 1,331 1,461 1,388

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

39,443 51,616 66,167 69,608 69,701

15,755 21,616 27,934 29,816 29,542

10,449 14,101 21,226 21,238 21,101

4,338 5,674 6,445 6,820 7,208

7,550 8,648 8,852 9,877 9,945

1,351 1,578 1,710 1,857 1,905

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

65,451 74,587 79,990 79,636 79,249

28,747 32,188 35,620 34,724 36,719

17,861 20,880 21,167 20,074 17,309

7,862 9,320 9,997 11,239 11,722

9,131 9,929 10,534 10,638 10,578

1,850 2,270 2,672 2,961 2,921

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

92,492 94,388 99,676 106,560 112,613

40,715 41,338 45,571 47,588 48,697

21,494 20,954 20,523 21,579 23,493

14,683 16,439 17,046 19,804 21,963

11,676 11,860 12,534 13,194 13,731

3,923 3,796 4,001 4,395 4,731

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

116,817 130,835 148,822 152,973 186,882

48,792 55,446 61,526 68,726 87,249

25,461 30,073 33,971 28,665 36,678

22,242 25,546 32,619 33,923 39,015

14,570 13,062 13,719 14,079 15,222

5,753 6,708 6,987 7,580 8,718

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

192,807 187,139 207,309 230,799 263,224

90,412 86,230 94,737 103,246 118,952

32,829 26,785 32,166 36,153 38,620

44,362 47,325 52,574 63,115 75,071

15,705 16,614 15,477 16,260 16,844

9,499 10,185 12,355 12,026 13,737

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

279,090 298,060 355,559 399,561 463,302

122,386 131,603 157,626 180,988 217,841

40,621 41,409 54,892 59,952 65,677

84,534 90,769 106,485 120,967 138,939

16,551 16,963 17,548 18,376 18,745

14,998 17,317 19,008 19,278 22,101

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

517,112 599,272 617,766 600,562 666,486

244,069 285,917 297,744 288,938 298,415

64,600 61,137 49,207 37,022 56,893

157,803 182,720 201,498 208,994 239,376

24,329 40,839 36,311 35,300 37,361

26,311 28,659 33,006 30,309 34,440

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

734,088 769,215 854,353 909,303 991,190

334,531 348,959 392,557 401,181 445,690

61,331 63,143 83,926 94,508 103,291

265,163 283,901 303,318 334,335 359,416

35,992 32,919 32,457 35,227 34,386

37,072 40,292 42,095 44,051 48,407

1990

1,031,969

466,884

93,507

380,047

35,345

56,186

Excise Taxes

Other

Source: Office of Management and Budget, Historical Tables, 27–28.


255

TABLE 9.28 FEDERAL RECEIPTS BY SOURCE— PERCENTAGES, 1945–1990 Individual Corporate Social Excise Year Income Taxes Income Taxes Insurance Taxes Other 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

40.7 39.9 43.9 44.0 41.8

35.4 26.5 27.3 23.2 21.8

7.6 11.0 12.0 15.9 19.0

13.9 19.1 14.0 12.6 12.5

2.4 3.4 2.8 4.2 4.9

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

46.9 43.9 47.2 45.6 45.2

17.0 14.6 12.5 8.4 9.1

23.0 30.3 30.5 36.1 36.8

8.1 5.9 4.7 4.9 3.4

4.9 5.4 5.1 5.1 5.4

Source: Office of Management and Budget, Historical Tables, 29–30.

TABLE 9.29

given over heavily to welfare spending. By 1990 such social programs took up more than 60 percent of state spending. When it came to raising the money, simply put: The national government relied heavily on income taxes, the states on the sales tax, and local government on property taxes. With the passage of years, however, most states felt compelled to add some measure of income tax to the base for funding. Increasingly, the national tax policy stressed obligations of the individual. Corporation income taxes dropped sharply, although the firms did have to contribute to separate taxes for social insurance programs. In general, spending on all levels of government continued to grow, and all levels constantly sought ways to find more money. More taxes always remained an alternative, of course, but taxation remained a delicate issue. For the Republican Party it often seemed to be the only issue. In 1990 the concept of a national balanced budget seemed a world away.

FEDERAL DEBT AT THE END OF YEAR, 1945–1990 In Millions of Dollars

End of Fiscal Year 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 TQ 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Gross Federal Debt

Less: Held by Federal Government Accounts

Equals Debt Held by Public

Gross Federal Debt

24,941 29,130 32,810 35,761 38,288 37,830 40,962 44,339 47,580 46,313 47,751 50,537 52,931 53,329 52,764 53,686 54,291 54,918 56,345 59,210 61,540 64,784 73,819 79,140 87,661 97,723 105,140 113,559 125,381 140,194 147,225 151,566 148,052 157,295 169,477 189,162 199,212 209,507 217,560 240,114 264,159 317,612 383,919 457,444 550,507 678,157 795,841

235,182 241,861 224,339 216,270 214,322 219,023 214,326 214,758 218,383 224,499 226,616 222,156 219,320 226,336 234,701 236,840 238,357 248,010 253,978 256,849 260,778 263,714 266,626 289,545 278,108 283,198 303,037 322,377 340,910 343,699 394,700 477,404 495,509 549,103 607,125 640,308 709,838 785,338 919,785 1,131,596 1,300,498 1,499,908 1,736,709 1,888,680 2,050,799 2,189,882 2,410,722

122.7 127.5 115.4 101.9 96.2 96.6 81.4 76.1 73.1 73.6 71.3 65.5 62.1 62.4 59.9 57.6 56.6 54.6 53.1 50.5 48.0 44.7 42.9 43.5 39.5 38.7 38.8 38.0 36.6 34.5 35.9 37.3 36.2 36.8 36.0 34.1 34.4 33.6 36.4 41.4 42.3 45.8 50.3 52.7 54.1 55.4 58.5

260,123 270,991 257,149 252,031 252,610 256,853 255,288 259,097 265,963 270,812 274,366 272,693 272,252 279,666 287,465 290,525 292,648 302,928 310,324 316,059 322,318 328,498 340,445 368,685 365,769 380,921 408,176 435,936 466,291 483,893 541,925 628,970 643,561 706,398 776,602 829,470 909,050 994,845 1,137,345 1,371,710 1,564,657 1,817,521 2,120,629 2,346,125 2,601,307 2,868,039 3,206,564

Source: Office of Management and Budget, Historical Tables, 102.

256

As Percentages of GDP


Less: Held by Federal Government Accounts 11.8 13.7 14.7 14.5 14.6 14.2 13.1 13.0 13.1 12.6 12.4 12.1 12.1 11.9 11.0 10.6 10.5 9.9 9.6 9.5 9.2 8.8 9.3 9.3 9.5 9.9 10.0 9.9 9.8 10.0 9.8 9.0 8.3 8.2 7.9 7.8 7.5 7.1 7.0 7.2 7.1 8.0 9.1 10.3 11.4 13.1 14.5

Equals Debt Held by Public 110.9 113.8 100.6 87.5 81.6 82.4 68.4 63.1 60.0 61.0 58.9 53.4 50.0 50.5 48.9 46.9 46.1 44.7 43.5 41.1 38.9 35.9 33.6 34.2 30.0 28.7 28.8 28.1 26.8 24.5 26.1 28.3 27.8 28.6 28.2 26.4 26.8 26.5 29.5 34.1 35.2 37.8 41.2 42.4 42.7 42.3 44.0

TABLE 9.30

FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL TAX REVENUE BY SOURCE—A SUMMARY AND COMPARISON, 1957–1988

(in percent)

Jurisdiction/Year

Property Taxes

Sales, Gross Receipts, and Customs

Individual and Corporate Income Taxes

All Other Taxes

Federal 1957 1967 1972 1977 1979 1981 1982

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

15.9 13.7 13.1 9.5 8.4 12.0 11.3

81.3 83.0 82.5 86.8 88.9 85.5 85.7

2.7 3.3 4.4 3.7 2.7 2.5 3.0

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

... ... ... ... ... ...

11.7 11.9 10.8 10.0 9.0 9.4

85.5 85.1 86.4 87.3 88.3 88.1

2.8 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.6

State 1957 1967 1972 1977 1979 1981 1982

3.3 2.7 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.0 1.9

58.1 58.2 55.5 51.8 51.0 48.6 48.4

17.5 22.4 29.1 34.3 35.8 36.8 36.7

21.1 16.8 13.3 11.7 11.2 12.6 12.9

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9

48.9 48.7 48.9 49.3 48.5 49.3

36.7 37.8 37.7 37.6 39.2 38.6

12.4 11.5 11.5 11.2 10.4 10.3

Local 1957 1967 1972 1977 1979 1981 1982

86.7 86.6 83.7 80.5 77.5 76.0 76.0

7.2 6.7 8.6 11.1 13.1 13.9 14.3

1.3 3.2 4.5 5.0 5.3 5.8 5.9

4.8 3.5 3.3 3.4 4.0 4.3 3.9

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

76.0 75.0 74.2 74.0 73.7 74.1

14.5 14.8 15.6 15.6 15.5 15.2

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.9 6.1 6.0

3.9 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.7 4.7



257

TABLE 9.31

STATE EXPENDITURES BY FUNCTION—SELECTED FISCAL YEARS, 1946–1990

(millions $) Public Education

Highways

Public Welfare

Health & Hospitals

Police Protection

Administration

Insurance Trust

Payments to Other Governments

Year

Total

Other

1946 1948

7,066 11,181

518 1,081

613 1,510

680 962

424 663

45 65

192 266

1,158 1,020

2,092 3,283

1,344 2,331

1950 1952 1953 1954

15,082 15,834 16,850 18,686

1,358 1,494 1,634 1,715

2,058 2,556 2,781 3,254

1,566 1,410 1,534 1,548

947 1,132 1,184 1,276

85 106 119 130

317 361 399 419

2,177 1,413 1,416 2,096

4,217 5,044 5,384 5,679

2,357 2,318 2,399 2,569

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

20,357 21,686 24,235 28,080 31,125

1,905 2,138 2,342 2,728 3,093

3,899 4,367 4,875 5,507 6,414

1,600 1,603 1,826 1,944 2,124

1,338 1,470 1,571 1,760 1,850

139 159 179 214 228

447 477 531 569 619

2,411 1,984 2,313 3,675 4,259

5,986 6,538 7,440 8,089 8,689

2,632 2,950 3,158 3,594 3,849

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

31,596 34,693 36,402 39,583 42,583

3,396 3,792 4,270 4,718 5,465

6,070 6,230 6,635 7,425 7,850

2,221 2,311 2,509 2,712 2,796

1,896 2,059 2,161 2,330 2,464

245 261 276 297 315

654 726 763 830 871

3,461 4,701 4,238 4,306 4,364

9,443 10,114 10,906 11,885 12,968

4,210 4,499 4,644 5,080 5,490

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

45,639 51,123 58,760 66,254 74,227

6,181 7,572 9,384 10,957 12,304

8,214 8,624 9,423 9,819 10,414

2,998 3,138 4,291 5,122 6,464

2,701 2,966 3,358 3,832 4,258

348 385 441 516 585

948 1,024 1,175 1,310 1,496

4,170 3,952 4,268 4,626 4,911

14,174 16,928 19,056 21,950 24,779

5,905 6,534 7,364 8,122 9,016

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

85,055 98,840 109,255 118,836 132,134

13,780 15,800 17,153 18,283 19,753

11,044 12,304 12,747 12,072 12,636

8,203 10,518 12,247 14,147 15,169

4,788 5,400 6,008 6,506 7,494

688 797 900 1,017 1,145

1,720 1,950 2,134 2,451 2,799

6,010 8,327 8,950 9,167 10,590

28,892 32,640 36,759 40,822 45,941

9,930 11,104 12,357 14,371 16,607

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

158,882 180,926 191,225 203,832 224,653

22,902 25,546 27,073 29,577 31,517

14,258 14,860 13,853 14,658 17,079

17,457 20,157 22,646 25,729 28,742

8,968 9,851 11,209 12,319 13,786

1,314 1,412 1,569 1,683 1,825

3,205 3,539 3,983 5,288 5,953

18,860 25,455 23,426 20,495 20,111

51,978 57,858 62,460 67,287 75,963

19,940 22,248 25,006 26,796 29,677

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

257,812 291,527 310,358 334,019 351,446

35,251 39,664 42,301 44,584 48,573

20,661 20,688 20,103 21,153 23,250

33,242 38,580 41,513 44,454 49,122

15,666 18,028 19,398 20,834 21,567

2,060 2,270 2,396 2,622 2,793

6,840 7,366 8,308 9,198 9,837

24,981 32,221 34,730 42,180 34,632

84,504 93,180 98,743 101,309 108,373

34,607 39,530 42,866 47,684 53,299

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

390,828 424,216 455,696 485,005 525,077

53,667 58,260 61,647 64,110 68,583

27,167 30,191 31,488 33,732 35,318

52,688 56,256 61,123 66,570 73,138

23,211 25,471 27,202 29,381 32,360

3,114 3,328 3,636 3,914 4,138

10,897 12,221 13,339 14,569 16,038

37,940 39,749 43,316 44,217 46,995

121,571 131,966 141,425 151,662 165,415

60,573 66,774 72,520 76,850 83,094

1990

572,318

75,497

36,464

83,336

35,543

4,487

17,707

54,452

175,028

89,806

Source: Moody, Facts and Figures, 164–65.

Social Insurance Programs Programs of public assistance and social insurance did not emerge from a single grand scheme about needs of the people and responsibilities of government. Instead, they represented an accumulation of measures adopted piecemeal over the years in response to changing philosophy of government and pressure from various interest groups at various times. The basic starting point in several respects had been the Social Security Act of 1935, a part of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal during the crisis of the Great Depression. Its original purpose had been twofold: to provide old-age benefits for retired workers and unemployment compensation for people out of work. Over coming years the program expanded, not only through adding new categories of workers but also by adding new grounds on which participants could claim support. Disability insurance was added in 1956, Medicare in 1965, a black-lung program (for coal miners) in 1970, a 258


cost-of-living provision in 1972. Other programs continued to be introduced, either through the existing system or through new programs, such as food stamps in 1964 in the Department of Agriculture, or through grants of federal funds to the states. Aid to the nation’s military veterans, one of the few concepts to precede the Social Security Act, continued to expand as a result of the permanence of a large standing military force, consequences of the nation’s frequent military engagements, pressure from ever-powerful veterans groups, and inducements designed (after 1973) to keep an all-volunteer force up to strength. The social and welfare responsibilities of the government grew so large and complex that hardly anyone understood its workings. The few individuals who might have mastered the system probably were in the best position to understand its weaknesses—the overlapping, the waste, and the opportunity for abuse, if not fraud. Much easier to grasp was the huge cost. By 1976, shortly after the end of the Vietnam

TABLE 9.32

Year

SOCIAL WELFARE EXPENDITURES, BY CATEGORY, 1950–1988

Social Insurance

Public Aid

Health and Medical Programs

Veterans Programs

Education

Other Social Welfare

All Health and Medical Care

Total Social Welfare Outlays

15 75 144 238 582 2,541 6,278 11,059 10,090 11,044 14,006

174 252 417 812 2,259 4,264 8,786 7,548 7,822 8,504 8,112

1,362 1,948 2,918 4,482 16,363 33,469 68,939 122,950 130,664 141,220 149,102

10,541 14,623 24,957 37,591 77,130 166,795 302,438 449,296 471,177 496,211 523,145

... 15 33 80 120 631 601 1,540 1,872 2,129 2,550

274 367 723 1,254 1,886 2,683 4,813 6,004 6,338 6,773 7,368

1,704 2,473 3,478 4,942 8,698 17,932 31,320 50,382 57,220 62,977 70,511

12,967 18,017 27,337 39,493 68,425 122,289 189,548 282,746 311,128 337,054 362,622

15 89 177 318 701 3,172 6,879 12,598 11,962 13,174 16,556

448 619 1,139 2,066 4,145 6,946 13,599 13,552 14,161 15,278 15,480

3,065 4,421 6,395 9,424 25,061 51,401 100,259 173,332 187,884 204,197 219,613

23,508 32,640 52,293 77,084 145,555 289,084 491,986 732,042 782,305 833,265 885,767

0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.1 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.9

1.9 1.9 2.2 2.7 2.8 2.4 2.8 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.7

13.0 13.5 12.2 12.2 17.2 17.8 20.4 23.7 24.0 24.5 24.8

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.1 99.9 100.1 100.0 99.9 100.0 99.9 100.0

100.0 84.3 81.4 74.9 82.9 80.1 91.3 87.8 84.4 83.8 84.6

38.9 40.7 36.6 39.3 54.5 61.4 64.6 55.7 55.2 55.7 52.4

44.4 44.1 45.6 47.6 65.3 65.1 68.8 70.9 69.5 69.2 67.9

44.8 44.8 47.7 48.8 53.0 57.7 61.5 61.4 60.2 59.6 59.1

Housing

Federal (millions $) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988

2,103 6,385 14,307 21,807 45,246 99,715 191,162 310,175 326,016 342,920 358,412

1,103 1,504 2,117 3,594 9,649 27,186 48,666 61,985 65,722 69,233 74,137

604 1,150 1,737 2,660 4,568 7,890 12,840 18,029 19,433 20,806 22,681

6,386 4,772 5,367 6,011 8,952 16,570 21,254 26,704 27,072 27,641 28,845

157 485 868 2,470 5,876 8,629 13,452 13,796 15,022 16,062 16,952

State and Local (millions $) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988

2,844 3,450 4,999 6,316 9,446 23,298 38,592 59,420 64,754 69,941 73,783

1,393 1,499 1,984 2,670 6,839 14,171 23,309 36,169 39,026 41,748 46,237

1,460 1,953 2,727 3,495 5,038 8,852 14,423 21,024 24,512 27,565 29,859

480 62 112 20 126 449 212 338 373 410 409

6,517 10,672 16,758 25,638 44,970 72,205 107,597 158,251 174,253 188,487 202,416

Total (millions $) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988

4,947 9,835 19,307 28,123 54,691 123,013 229,754 369,595 390,770 412,862 432,195

2,496 3,003 4,101 6,283 16,488 41,357 71,975 981,154 104,747 110,981 120,375

2,064 3,103 4,464 6,155 9,606 16,742 27,263 39,053 43,495 48,371 52,540

6,866 4,834 5,479 6,031 9,078 17,019 21,466 27,042 27,445 28,051 29,254

6,674 11,157 17,626 28,108 50,846 80,834 121,050 172,048 189,276 204,549 219,368

Percentage of Total Expenditures 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988

21.0 30.1 36.9 36.4 37.6 42.6 46.7 50.5 50.0 49.5 48.8

10.6 9.2 7.8 8.2 11.3 14.3 14.6 13.4 13.4 13.3 13.6

8.8 9.5 8.5 8.0 6.6 5.8 5.5 5.3 5.6 5.8 5.9

29.2 14.8 10.5 7.8 6.2 5.9 4.4 3.7 3.5 3.4 3.3

28.4 34.2 33.7 36.5 34.9 28.0 24.6 23.5 24.2 24.5 24.8

Percentage Federal of Total 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988

42.5 64.9 74.1 77.5 82.7 81.1 83.2 83.9 83.4 83.1 82.9

44.2 50.1 51.6 57.2 58.5 65.7 67.6 63.2 62.7 62.4 61.6

29.2 37.1 38.9 43.2 47.6 47.1 47.1 46.2 44.7 43.0 43.2

93.0 98.7 98.0 99.7 98.6 97.4 99.0 98.8 98.6 98.5 98.6

2.3 4.3 4.9 8.8 11.6 10.7 11.1 8.0 7.9 7.9 7.7

Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 378–80.


259

War, payments reached nearly 57 percent of all federal expenditures. The proportion declined in the 1980s, but at the end of the decade social expenditures still absorbed approximately half of the money spent by the national government and 60 percent of what was spent

TABLE 9.33

by the states. An issue of growing concern was future solvency of the Social Security program, brought on by the massive baby-boom generation approaching retirement age and the much-smaller successive generations being left to pay for it.

SOCIAL WELFARE EXPENDITURES, 1950–1988 Federal

State and Local

Total Expenditures

Total (billions $)

Percentage of Total State and Local Outlays

Total (billions $)

Percentage of Total GNP

Year

Total (billions $)

Percentage of Total Federal Outlays

1950 1955 1960 1965 1966 1967 1968

10.5 14.6 25.0 37.6 45.2 51.2 60.2

26.2 22.3 28.1 32.6 34.9 35.0 35.1

13.0 18.0 27.3 39.5 42.6 46.3 53.4

59.2 55.3 60.1 61.7 60.0 57.8 60.0

23.5 32.6 52.3 77.1 87.8 99.5 113.6

8.2 8.2 10.3 11.5 11.9 12.5 13.4

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

68.1 77.1 92.3 105.9 122.2 136.7 166.8

37.5 40.0 44.8 47.2 50.3 52.1 53.6

58.8 68.4 78.9 84.4 91.1 101.9 122.3

58.8 57.9 59.3 60.4 59.3 58.1 61.6

127.0 145.6 171.3 190.3 213.3 238.6 289.1

13.7 14.7 16.2 16.5 16.7 16.9 19.0

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

196.5 217.6 239.0 262.9 302.4 345.6 369.2

56.8 56.1 55.1 54.7 54.2 54.2 52.8

134.8 142.4 154.4 166.6 189.5 207.4 230.9

63.2 63.2 63.2 62.1 62.9 62.3 61.1

331.4 360.1 393.4 429.5 492.0 553.0 600.2

19.5 18.6 18.1 17.6 18.4 18.5 19.1

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988

401.1 419.8 449.3 471.2 496.2 523.1

52.9 50.6 48.6 48.4 50.0 49.1

247.1 256.9 282.7 311.1 337.1 362.6

61.0 59.9 60.2 60.7 60.0 60.1

648.2 676.8 732.0 782.3 833.3 885.8

19.5 18.4 18.5 18.7 18.8 18.5


TABLE 9.34

SOCIAL SECURITY TAXES AND BENEFITS, 1945–1990

(millions $) Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund Income Net from Contributions Taxation (Taxes) of Benefits

Payments from the General Fund of the Treasury

Net Interest

Balance in Fund at End of Year

Total Receipts

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

1,420 1,447 1,722 1,969 1,816

1,285 1,295 1,557 1,685 1,666

... ... ... ... ...

... ... 1 3 4

134 152 164 281 146

304 418 512 607 721

274 378 466 556 667

30 40 46 51 54

... ... ... ... ...

7,121 8,150 9,360 10,722 11,816

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

2,928 3,784 4,184 4,359 5,610

2,667 3,363 3,819 3,945 5,163

... ... ... ... ...

4 4 ... ... ...

257 417 365 414 447

1,022 1,966 2,282 3,094 3,741

961 1,885 2,194 3,006 3,670

61 81 88 88 92

... ... ... ... (21)

13,721 15,540 17,442 18,707 20,576

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

6,167 6,697 7,381 8,117 8,584

5,713 5,172 6,825 7,566 8,052

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

454 526 556 552 532

5,079 5,841 7,507 8,646 10,308

4,968 5,715 7,347 8,327 9,842

119 132 162 194 184

(7) (5) (2) 124 282

21,663 22,519 22,393 21,864 20,141


Benefit Payments

Transfer to Railroad Retirement Account

Year

260

Total Expenditures


Old-Age and Survivors Insurance Trust Fund Payments Income from the Net from General Contributions Taxation Fund of the (Taxes) of Benefits Treasury



Total Expenditures

Benefit Payments


516 548 526 521 569

11,198 12,432 13,973 14,920 15,613

10,677 11,862 13,356 14,217 14,914

203 239 256 281 296

318 332 361 423 403

20,324 19,725 18,337 18,480 19,125

... 78 78 382 442

593 644 818 939 1,165

17,501 18,967 20,382 23,557 25,176

16,737 18,267 19,468 22,643 24,210

328 256 406 476 474

436 444 508 438 491

18,235 20,570 24,222 25,704 30,082

... ... ... ... ...

449 488 475 442 447

1,515 1,667 1,794 1,928 2,159

29,848 34,542 38,522 47,175 53,397

28,798 33,414 37,124 45,745 51,623

471 514 674 647 865

579 613 724 783 909

32,454 33,789 35,318 36,487 37,777

56,816 63,362 69,572 75,471 87,919

... ... ... ... ...

425 614 613 615 557

2,364 2,301 2,227 2,008 1,797

60,395 67,876 75,309 83,064 93,133

58,517 65,705 73,121 80,361 90,573

896 959 981 1,115 1,113

982 1,212 1,208 1,589 1,448

36,987 35,388 32,491 27,520 24,660

105,841 125,361 125,198 150,584 169,328

103,456 122,627 123,673 138,337 164,122

... ... ... ... 2,835

540 675 680 5,541 105

1,845 2,060 845 6,706 2,266

107,678 126,695 142,119 152,999 161,883

105,083 123,803 138,806 149,221 157,841

1,154 1,307 1,519 1,528 1,638

1,442 1,585 1,793 2,251 2,404

22,823 21,490 22,088 19,672 27,117

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

184,239 197,393 210,736 240,770 264,653

176,958 190,741 202,735 229,775 250,195

3,208 3,424 3,257 3,384 2,439

2,203 160 55 43 34

1,871 3,069 4,690 7,568 11,985

171,150 181,000 187,668 200,020 212,489

167,248 176,813 183,587 195,454 207,971

1,592 1,601 1,524 1,776 1,673

2,310 2,585 2,557 2,790 2,845

35,842 39,081 62,149 102,899 155,063

1990

286,653

267,530

4,848

(2,089)

16,363

227,519

222,987

1,563

2,969

214,197

Year

Total Receipts

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

11,382 11,833 12,585 15,063 16,258

10,866 11,285 12,059 14,541 15,689

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

16,610 21,302 24,034 25,040 29,554

16,017 20,580 23,138 23,719 27,947

... ... ... ... ...

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

32,220 35,877 40,050 48,344 54,688

30,256 33,723 37,781 45,975 52,081

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

59,605 66,276 72,412 78,094 90,274

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Net Interest

Disability Insurance Trust Fund 1957 1958 1959

709 991 931

702 966 891

... ... ...

... ... ...

7 25 40

59 261 485

57 249 457

3 12 50

... ... (22)

649 1,379 1,825

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

1,063 1,104 1,114 1,165 1,218

1,010 1,038 1,046 1,099 1,154

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

53 66 68 66 64

600 956 1,183 1,297 1,407

568 887 1,105 1,210 1,309

36 64 66 68 79

(5) 5 11 20 19

2,289 2,437 2,368 2,235 2,047

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

1,247 2,079 2,379 3,454 3,792 4,774 5,031 5,572 6,443 7,378

1,188 2,006 2,286 3,316 3,599 4,481 4,620 5,107 5,932 6,826

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... 16 16 32 16 16 50 51 52 52

59 58 78 106 177 277 361 414 458 500

1,687 1,947 2,089 2,458 2,716 3,259 4,000 4,759 5,973 7,196

1,573 1,784 1,950 2,311 2,557 3,085 3,783 4,502 5,764 6,957

90 137 109 127 138 164 205 233 190 217

24 25 31 20 21 10 13 24 20 22

1,606 1,739 2,029 3,025 4,100 5,614 6,645 7,457 7,927 8,109

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

8,035 8,757 9,570 13,810 15,520

7,444 8,233 9,138 13,413 15,114

... ... ... ... ...

90 103 128 142 118

502 422 304 256 358

8,790 10,366 11,945 12,954 14,186

8,505 10,055 11,547 12,599 13,786

256 285 399 325 371

29 26 (1) 30 30

7,354 5,745 3,370 4,226 5,630

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

13,871 17,078 22,71 20,680 17,304

13,255 16,738 21,995 17,991 15,945

... ... ... ... 190

130 168 174 1,121 ...

485 172 546 1,569 1,174

15,872 17,658 17,992 18,177 18,546

15,515 17,192 17,376 17,524 17,898

368 436 590 625 626

(12) 29 26 28 22

3,629 3,049 2,691 5,195 3,959

(continued)


261

TABLE 9.34

(continued) Disability Insurance Trust Fund

Year

Total Receipts

Income Net from Contributions Taxation (Taxes) of Benefits

Payments from the General Fund of the Treasury

Net Interest

Total Expenditures

Benefit Payments




1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

19,301 19,439 20,303 22,699 24,795

17,191 18,399 19,691 22,039 23,993

222 238 (36) 61 95

1,017 ... ... ... ...

870 803 648 600 707

19,478 20,522 21,425 22,494 23,753

18,827 19,853 20,519 21,695 22,911

608 600 849 737 754

43 68 57 61 88

6,321 7,780 6,658 6,864 7,905

1990

28,791

28,539

144

(775)

883

25,616

24,829

707

80

11.079

Source: Moody, Facts and Figures, 119–20.

TABLE 9.35 SOCIAL SECURITY–COVERED WORKERS AND BENEFICIARIES, 1945–1990, WITH PROJECTIONS TO 2050 Beneficiariesb Year

Covered Workersa (thousands)

OASI

DI

Total

Covered Workers per OASDI Beneficiary

Beneficiaries per 100 Covered Workers

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970

46,930 48,280 65,200 72,530 80,680 93,090

1,106 2,930 7,563 13,740 18,509 22,618

... ... ... 522 1,648 2,568

1,106 2,930 7,563 14,262 20,157 25,186

41.9 16.5 8.6 5.1 4.0 3.7

2 6 12 20 25 27

1975 1980 1985 1986 1987

100,200 112,212 120,098 122,960 125,548

26,998 30,385 32,776 33,349 33,917

4,125 4,734 3,874 3,972 4,034

31,123 35,119 36,650 37,321 37,952

3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3

31 31 31 30 30

1988 1989 1990 1995 2000

129,564 131,934 132,824 138,180 143,357

34,343 34,754 35,377 37,425 38,962

4,077 4,105 4,174 4,515 5,308

38,421 38,859 39,551 41,490 44,270

3.4 3.4 3.4 3.3 3.2

30 29 30 30 31

2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

147,487 150,903 151,914 151,456 150,597

40,458 43,599 49,248 56,367 63,007

6,235 7,143 7,641 7,888 8,269

46,693 50,742 56,890 64,254 71,276

3.2 3.0 2.7 2.4 2.1

32 34 37 42 47

2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

150,310 150,766 151,143 151,124 150,729

68,126 70,915 71,475 71,700 72,499

8,208 8,096 8,141 8,423 8,584

76,334 79,011 79,617 80,123 81,083

2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9

51 52 53 53 54

Note: “. . .’’ indicates not available; “OASI’’ indicates Old-Age and Survivors’ Insurance; “DI’’ indicates Disability Insurance. a Workers who pay OASDI taxes at some time during the year. b Beneficiaries with monthly benefits in current-payment status as of June 30. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 384.

262


CHAPTER 10 Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold The United States and Origins of the Cold War When the Second World War ended, the United States was astride the world. Alone among all major belligerents, it emerged from the war strengthened both absolutely and proportionately as an economic and military power. Its prewar rivals had either been destroyed (as in the case of Germany and Japan) or substantially weakened—despite being on the winning side—as in the case of Britain and France. One nation, to be sure, presented a paradox, at least at the start of the postwar era. In the process of defending the homeland and carrying the brunt of the war against Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union had constructed the largest army in the world. Because of the massive increase in its military strength and because its European and Asian rivals had experienced such enormous losses, the Soviet Union had undergone a proportionate gain in power during the course of the war. Political maneuvering in the immediate postwar period—in the new United Nations and outside it—left no doubt that if the United States stood supreme in power and influence, the Soviet Union was second and from all indications seemed determined to crawl, claw, or by any means necessary move itself to the top. Even so, the Soviets ranked second in the postwar period and it was a distant second, save perhaps in the strength of their conventional military forces. If the Soviet Union had gained in some areas during the war, it had lost in others: in sheer loss of people, for example, and in the thousands of villages, towns, and cities destroyed in the gigantic struggle that had taken place on the eastern front.The nation faced a major task of reconstruction. There also was a need for the Soviet government to establish its legitimacy in the conduct of diplomacy, to show that after many years as an outcast it belonged in the family of nations, that the regime of Joseph Stalin and whomever should follow him could be effective in areas other than exercise of military force. Political philosophy— communist ideology—stood as both a useful instrument or a potential detriment in the Soviet quest for power, influence, and allies. In its antiexploitation, egalitarian emphasis, the communist message in the early postwar years had great appeal worldwide—in impoverished and colonialized areas, of course, but also to intellectuals in the United States and to Americans who were not getting their share. But the proof, as they say, would be in the pudding: How would Marxism-Leninism, or any version of communism, function beyond its philosophical foundations? How well would communism live up to its rhetorical promises? How well would the philosophy, which focused on distribution, serve the interests of production? Could it be possible that communism, as with any political system, would be utilized to promote the interests of the people who controlled it or the state that served as its sponsor? Answers to these questions, although not necessarily the final answers, would come in the half-century following the Second World War, and they would have great effect on American life and the position of the United States in world affairs. The United States began the postwar period as the world’s richest, most productive, and most powerful nation; 50 years later it was still foremost in each of these categories. By 1990, to be sure, American supremacy was under challenge, subject to qualification in several categories. Military supremacy had to be defined in broad, general terms, taking into account quality, diversity, and technology. Other nations had larger armies, more tanks, and more airplanes. The United States still had the most productive economy, but in several areas the nation did not produce the best goods or the most goods; in some traditional categories it did not produce any goods at all. Absolute power of the United States was at its peak, but its power relative to other nations

had declined. If other nations were gaining fast, the United States still was on top. In the year 1941 publishing magnate Henry Luce had proclaimed that the 20th century was and would be the “American Century.’’ Looking back from near century’s end in the 1990s, it was possible to say that Luce was right. To protect that supremacy and to resist what was deemed serious, even deadly, threats to the nation and the world, the United States engaged in what came to be labeled as the cold war. People who spent much or all of their lives in that period came to think of the cold war as an ongoing phase of world history, something that seemingly would go on forever. By the 1990s it was possible to identify more specific boundaries for the phenomenon. The cold war lasted roughly 45 years—from 1945 to 1990, although it was possible to quibble about a year or so on either side of the equation. The cold war—the term originated in a speech of financier Bernard Baruch in 1947—could be defined as a long period of intense rivalry and hostility originally between the United States and the Soviet Union that constituted conflict in all respects but combat. The magnitude, intensity, and danger in the conflict qualified it to be called a war, but because for a war to be hot—by this definition—it had to involve military engagement, this one was cold. Starting in Europe, it moved to Asia, the Middle East, and over all the globe, affecting nearly everything the United States did in foreign policy. It produced two power blocs in Europe and a complex network of bilateral or multilateral agreements between a bloc leader and many of the world’s nations. The cold war led the United States into regional hot engagements in Korea and Vietnam and various other ventures. Although the United States and the Soviet Union never came to blows, the threat of a nuclear holocaust maintained at least a nominal presence throughout the period. The threat intensified on a few occasions, most prominently the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. The origins of the cold war would become a subject of intense debate in academic circles in the United States. The late 1960s produced a school of young, leftist-oriented scholars who challenged a prevailing practice of blaming the cold war on the Soviet Union and communism. These individuals, who became known as revisionists, sought to at least distribute blame between the two adversaries, if not place the bulk of responsibility on an aggressive, expansive American capitalist system. The revisionist, or New Left, point of view maintained a substantial presence in American universities through the rest of the cold war. It might have become the dominant point of view in these circles. There is little indication, however, that this perspective had much impact on general American opinion. American opinion might come to question later aspects of policy, notably in the Vietnam War, but it generally accepted the government’s explanation of how the cold war started. Almost immediately after end of the Second World War, the United States and Soviet Union set to quarreling over several issues: control of nuclear energy, procedure within the United Nations, and the status of Germany among them. In the American perspective the events that established the basis for a breach with its wartime ally were developments that took place in eastern Europe.The Soviets had overrun the area during the war with Germany, and after the end of the conflict, the Red army remained. One by one the nations that bordered on the Soviet Union took on communist regimes and accepted—had to accept—a subservient relationship with the Soviet Union that the western world identified as satellites. A process that began with Poland in 1945 extended to a communist coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948; it also included the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany: territory—including the city of Berlin—that later became the state of East Germany. 263

The United States, then under the administration of President Harry S.Truman (Franklin D. Roosevelt had died in April 1945, at the start of his 13th year in office), responded with profound disapproval of developments in eastern Europe and with a policy designed to protect European nations not under communist domination. Named containment by George F. Kennan, a state department official who gave the policy much of its rationale, the approach steered a middle course between doing nothing and confronting the Soviet Union with military force.The objective, as Kennan put it, was to contain “Russian expansive tendencies’’ wherever they developed in Europe. Containment began with efforts to promote economic health and well-being of western and central European nations not already subject to Soviet influence and a communist regime; perhaps inevitably, the response took military form, with the creation of an alliance system designed to confront a possible threat from the East. If the Americans considered their action in Europe to be a reaction to Soviet policy, the USSR produced countermeasures to whatever the United States or west Europeans did. And so it continued. By 1949 at the latest, the lines were drawn in Europe; the continent was divided East and West, into a Soviet and American sphere, by a long irregular line stretching from the Balkan countries to the Baltic Sea that Winston Churchill in 1946 had labeled an “iron curtain.’’

The existence of two power blocs, each with a clearly established leader, on the surface suggested symmetry and perhaps equal measures of virtue (or absence of virtue) on the part of the chief adversaries, both of whom were outsiders. In truth there were vast differences.The Americans were encouraged (by the Europeans) to maintain military presence in Europe after the occupation of Germany ended; the Europeans, at least at the start, were more interested in an alliance than the United States was. Nations in the western sphere maintained their independence, chose their governments, and could leave the alliance at will.The Soviets ruled the eastern sphere that they had created.All regimes had to be communist and to be acceptable to the USSR. No nation could withdraw from the eastern alliance, the Warsaw Pact—a principle that would be confirmed in Hungary in 1956, Czechoslovakia in 1968, and perhaps Poland in the 1980s.Although lines and some policies would soften with the passage of years, the division of Europe continued. For nearly a halfcentury the status of the continent rested upon two themes that signaled the continued duration of a cold war: (1) the division of Germany into two, seemingly permanent independent states—East and West Germany (and the continued partition of Berlin); (2) continued hypersensitivity of the Soviet Union about the governments of and attitudes within the eastern European states on its periphery. When attitudes on these issues changed, the cold war ended—in Europe and over the world.

Monster of the era: An atomic bomb explodes at Bikini Atoll, July 25, 1946. (National Archives)

264


Major Aspects of a Containment Policy for Europe Truman Doctrine, 1947 Economic and military aid for Greeks who were fighting communist forces with aid from the outside and for Turks who faced threats from the Soviet Union, and a sweeping statement of the United States willingness to aid “free peoples.’’ Marshall Plan, 1948 Massive American economic support for warravaged European nations. Presented as a humanitarian program—as in fact it was—but it also had clear political overtones, designed to keep communism out of Western and Central Europe. Berlin Airlift, 1948 Prompted by Soviet blockade of Berlin, 1948. The United States and allies supplied Berlin by air more than a

year, 1948–49. Lines were being drawn in Europe, pressure-points identified. NATO, 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an entangling military alliance that committed the United States to the defense of Western Europe and the Europeans to the defense of each other. Although unstated, the structure clearly was directed at the USSR. Twelve original members. TABLE 10.2

NATO Supreme Allied Commanders, NATO

Dates

TABLE 10.1

MARSHALL PLAN AID ALLOTMENTS BY COUNTRY, APRIL 3, 1948–DECEMBER 31, 1951

(in millions of dollars) Recipient Country

Total

Austria Belgium-Luxembourg Denmark France Germany (Federal Republic)

634.8 546.6 266.4 2,576.8 1,317.3

Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Netherlands

614.1 26.8 146.2 1,315.4 1,000.7

Norway Portugal Sweden Trieste Turkey

Jul. 1969–Dec. 1974 Dec. 1974–Jun. 1979 Jun. 1979–1987 Jun. 1987–

Andrew J. Goodpaster (U.S.) Alexander Haig (U.S.) Benard Rogers (U.S.) John R. Galvin (U.S.)

Greece (joined 1952, withdrew from military structure after Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974, rejoined 1980) Iceland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain (joined 1982) Turkey (joined 195 United Kingdom United States

12,385.2

a

Although Yugoslavia received aid, it was not a member of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and Development. Source: Bruce W. Jentleson and Thomas G. Paterson, Encyclopedia of American Foreign Relations, Vol. III (New York, 1997), 115.

TABLE 10.3

Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S.) Matthew Ridgway (U.S.) Alfred M. Gruenther (U.S.) Lauris Norstad (U.S.) Lyman L. Lemnitzer (U.S.)

Belgium Canada Denmark France (withdrew from military committee in 1966 while remaining member of council) W. Germany (1955)

2,865.8 61.5a 42.5 350.0

Total

Dec. 1950–Apr. 1952 Apr. 1952–Jul. 1953 Jul. 1953–Nov. 1956 Nov. 1956–Jan. 1963 Jan. 1963–Jul. 1969

Members of NATO

241.9 50.5 118.5 33.0 176.5

United Kingdom Yugoslavia Prepaid freight account European Payments Union—capital fund

Commander

Source: Chris Cook, The Facts on File World Political Almanac (New York, 1992), 20.

NATO ARMED FORCES, TOTAL MILITARY PERSONNEL, 1981–1990

(figures are in thousands) 1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

85 2,269

86 2,279

88 2,246

88 2,241

87 2,189

North America Canada U.S.A.

81 2,168

82 2,201

81 2,222

82 2,222

83 2,244

Belgium Denmark France FR Germany Greece Italy

109 33 575 493 187 505

110 30 577 490 188 517

109 30 578 496 177 498

107 31 571 487 197 508

107 29 563 493 201 531

107 28 558 495 202 529

109 28 559 495 199 531

110 30 558 495 199 533

110 31 554 503 201 533

108 30 550 503 203 520

Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey U.K.

1 108 39 88 366 741 341

1 106 41 89 372 769 334

1 104 41 93 355 824 333

1 103 39 100 342 815 336

1 103 36 102 314 814 334

1 106 38 101 314 860 331

1 106 38 105 314 879 328

1 107 40 104 304 847 324

1 106 43 104 277 780 318

1 104 51 95 295 827 313

European NATO total

3,586

3,624

3,639

3,638

3,630

3,669

3,693

3,651

3,560

3,603

NATO total

5,835

5,607

5,942

5,942

5,957

6,023

6,058

5,985

5,888

5,876

Europe

Source: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook, 1991: World Armaments and Disarmament (New York, 1991), 134.

Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

265

TABLE 10.4

MAKERS OF AMERICAN FOREIGN RELATIONS, 1945–1990

Presidents

Chairs of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee

Secretaries of State

Secretaries of Defense

Assistants to the President for National Security Affairs

Harry S.Truman (1945–1953)

Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. (1945) James F. Byrnes (1945–1947) George C. Marshall (1947–1949) Dean G. Acheson (1949–1953)

Tom Connally (1945–1947) James V. Forrestal (1947–1949) Arthur H.Vandenberg (1947–1949) Louis A. Johnson (1949–1950) Tom Connally (1949–1953) George C. Marshall (1950–1951) Robert A. Lovett (1951–1953)

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961)

John F. Dulles (1953–1959) Christian A. Herter (1959–1961)

Alexander Wiley (1953–1955) Walter F. George (1955–1957) Theodore F. Green (1957–1959) J.William Fulbright (1959–1963)

Charles E.Wilson (1953–1957) Neil H. McElroy (1957–1959) Thomas S. Gates, Jr. (1959–1961)

Robert Cutler (1953–1955 & 1957–1958) Dillon Anderson (1955–1956) William H. Jackson (1956) Gordon Gray (1958–1961)

John F. Kennedy (1961–1963)

Dean Rusk (1961–1963)

J.William Fulbright (1961–1963)

Robert S. McNamara (1961–1963)

McGeorge Bundy (1961–1963)

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969)

Dean Rusk (1963–1969)


Robert S. McNamara (1963–1968) Clark M. Clifford (1968–1969)

McGeorge Bundy (1963–1966) Walt W. Rostow (1966–1969)

Richard M. Nixon (1969–1974)

William P. Rogers (1969–1973) Henry A. Kissinger (1973–1974)


Melvin R. Laird (1969–1973) Elliot L. Richardson (1973) James R. Schlesinger (1973–1974)

Henry A. Kissinger (1969–1974)

Gerald R. Ford (1974–1977)

Henry A. Kissinger (1974–1977)

J.William Fulbright (1974–1975) John Sparkman (1975–1977)

James R. Schlesinger (1974–1976) Donald Rumsfeld (1976–1977)

Henry A. Kissinger (1974–1975) Brent Scowcroft (1975–1977)

James E.Carter (1977–1981)

Cyrus R.Vance (1977–1980) Edmund Muskie (1980–1981)

John Sparkman (1977–1979) Frank Church (1979–1981)

Harold Brown (1977–1981)

Zbigniew Brzezinski (1977–1981)

Ronald W. Reagan (1981–1989)

Alexander M. Haig, Jr. (1981–1982) Charles Percy (1981–1985) George P. Shultz (1982–1989) Richard G. Lugar (1985–1987) Claiborne Pell (1987–1989)

Casper Weinberger (1981–1987) Frank C. Carlucci (1987–1989)

Richard Allen (1981) William P. Clark, Jr. (1981–1983) Robert C. McFarlane (1983–1985) John M. Poindexter (1985–1986) Frank C. Carlucci (1986–1987) Colin L. Powell (1987–1989)

George H.W. Bush (1989–1993)

James A. Baker III (1989–1992)

Richard B. Cheney (1989–1993)

Brent Scowcroft (1989–1993)

Claiborne Pell (1989–1995)

Source: Thomas G. Paterson, J. Garry Clifford, Kenneth J. Hagan, American Foreign Relations, A History, Since 1985 (Boston, 2000), 515–16.

TABLE 10.5 AMBASSADORS TO UN, DATES, AND ADMINISTRATION, 1945–1990 Ambassador to UN

Dates

Administration

Edward R. Stettinius, Jr. Warren R. Austin Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. James J.Wadsworth Adlai E. Stevenson

1945–1946 1947–1953 1953–1960 1960–1961 1961–1965

Truman Truman Eisenhower Eisenhower Kennedy L.B. Johnson

Arthur J. Goldberg George W. Ball James Russell Wiggins Charles W.Yost George Bush

1965–1968 1968 1968–1969 1969–1971 1971–1973

L. B. Johnson L. B. Johnson L. B. Johnson Nixon Nixon

John A. Scali

1973–1975

Nixon Ford

266


Ambassador to UN

Dates

Administration

Daniel P. Moynihan William W. Scranton Andrew J.Young Donald F. McHenry

1975–1976 1976–1977 1977–1979 1979–1981

Ford Ford Carter Carter

Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Vernon A.Walters

1981–1985 1985–1989

Thomas R. Pickering

1989–1992

Reagan Reagan Bush Bush

Source: Stephen A. Flanders and Carl N. Flanders, Dictionary of American Foreign Affairs (New York, 1993), 782.

TABLE 10.6 DIRECTOR OF CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE, 1946–1990

TABLE 10.7 CHAIRMAN OF THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF, 1946–1990 Date

Director of Central Intelligence

Dates

Sidney W. Souers Hoyt S.Vandenberg Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Walter Bedell Smith

1946 1946–1947 1947–1950 1950–1953

Truman Truman Truman Truman Eisenhower

Allen W. Dulles

1953–1961

Eisenhower Kennedy

John A. McCone

1961–1965

William F. Raborn, Jr. Richard M. Helms

1965–1966 1966–1973

Kennedy L. B. Johnson L. B. Johnson L.B. Johnson Nixon

James R. Schlesinger William E. Colby

1973 1973–1976

Nixon Nixon

George H.W. Bush Stansfield Turner William J. Casey William H.Webster

1976–1977 1977–1981 1981–1987 1987–1991

Ford Carter Reagan Reagan Bush

Chairman

Administration

Administration Jul. 1942–Mar. 1949 Aug. 1949–Aug. 1953 Aug. 1953–Aug. 1957 Aug. 1957–Sep. 1960 Oct. 1960–Sep. 1962

Fleet Adm.William D. Leahy, USN Gen. of the Army Omar N. Bradley, USA Adm. Arthur W. Radford, USN Gen. Nathan F.Twining, USAF Gen. Lyman L. Lemnitzer, USA

Truman Truman/Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower Eisenhower/Kennedy

Oct. 1962–Jul. 1964 Jul. 1964–Jul. 1970 Jul. 1970–Jun. 1974 Jul. 1974–Jun. 1978

Gen. Maxwell D.Taylor, USA Gen. Earle G.Wheeler, USA Adm.Thomas H. Moorer, USN Gen. George S. Brown, USAF

Kennedy/Johnson Johnson/Nixon Nixon Ford/Carter

Jun. 1978–Jun. 1982 Jun. 1982–Sep. 1985 Oct. 1985–Sep. 1989 Oct. 1989–Oct. 1993

Gen. David C. Jones, USAF Gen. John W.Vessey, Jr., USA Adm.William J. Crowe, Jr., USN Gen. Colin L. Powell, USA

Carter/Reagan Reagan Reagan/Bush Bush/Clinton

Source: Polmar, Cold War at Sea, xvi.

Source: Flanders & Flanders, Dictionary of Foreign Affairs, 733.

The Cold War Moves East: China and Korea TABLE 10.8

PUBLIC OPINION ON U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD AFFAIRS, 1945–1990

(percent) Date

Active Part

Stay Out

No Opinion

Oct. 1945 Sep. 1947 Sep. 1949 Nov. 1950 Dec. 1950

70 65 67 64 66

19 26 25 25 25

11 9 8 11 9

Oct. 1952 Feb. 1953 Sep. 1953 Apr. 1954 Mar. 1955

68 73 71 69 72

23 22 21 25 21

9 5 8 6 7

Nov. 1956 Jun. 1965 Mar. 1973 Mar. 1975 Mar. 1976

71 79 66 61 63

25 16 31 36 32

4 5 3 4 5

Mar. 1978 Dec. 1978 Mar. 1982 Nov. 1982 Mar. 1983

64 59 61 53 65

32 29 34 35 31

4 12 5 12 4

Mar. 1984 Mar. 1985 Mar. 1986 Mar. 1988 Mar. 1989 Mar. 1990

65 70 65 65 68 69

29 27 32 32 28 27

6 2 4 4 4 4

Note: Question: “Do you think it would be best for the future of this country if we take an active part in world affairs or if we stay out of world affairs?’’ Source: From various surveys, reported in Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 342.

The Chinese Civil War of 1946–49 was an extension of a conflict that went back to the 1920s. It had appeared that the Nationalists, the Guomindang (Kuomintang) under Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek), had defeated the enemy, the Communists, eventually led by Mao Zedong, when the Second World War—the eight-year conflict between China and Japan—had interceded. A fraternal wartime truce, the “United Front,’’ between the two Chinese adversaries was a patriotic pretense that fooled no one, but the war did relieve Nationalist pressure against the Communists and gave Mao’s forces time to organize and recruit new followers. Equipped with a remarkably appealing program of agricultural reform, they made the most of it. By 1945 the Communists had raised a peasant army of considerable size and outstanding dedication. Not surprisingly, and despite American efforts to prevent it from happening, the end to the war against Japan led to the last phase of the Civil War between Nationalists and Communists. Outward appearances at the start of the Chinese Civil War would seem to support two propositions: (1) Based on the size of its army, superiority of its weapons and its international connections, the Nationalist side—then the recognized government of China—should have won and perhaps with some dispatch; (2) based on ideological trappings of the adversaries, the United States should experience neither hesitation nor timidity in its support of the forces of Jiang. In this early stage of the cold war, Mao’s forces after all were communists; the Nationalists were intensely anticommunist and pro-Western, with close American connections and at least claims to strong Christian influence in the highest rungs of leadership. Appearances, as it turned out, were only appearances and a good distance from truth. Rarely paid, with corrupt and incompetent leadership, low morale, and nothing to fight for, the Nationalist army was largely a shell; the soldiers often surrendered in large bodies, taking their weapons with them. Marked with hope and other characteristics Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

267

that often seemed to be the reverse of the Nationalists, the Communists started to win the war almost from the beginning. The truth about proposition one opened up an explanation about fallacies of proposition two. The United States had had trouble with Jiang for some time, especially during the Second World War. Constantly demanding money and equipment, he had exhibited little inclination to fight the Japanese. He was waiting for the next war, the real war, with the Communists. Corruption was rampant. It was said that Jiang loved power, not money, but plenty of people in his family and the Kuomindang regime used their position for personal enrichment. Although Mao held no illusions about what the future would bring, his forces at times had given the Japanese a great deal of difficulty. The Communists approached a new conflict with the Nationalists with confidence and momentum. Even so, all American aid to China during 1942–45 had gone to Jiang and when the Civil War started, American assistance for the regime—formally called the Republic of China—was resumed, albeit with steadily diminishing enthusiasm. Although President Truman at one point remarked that sending money to China was like pouring it “down a rat hole,’’ support for the Nationalists continued until the war came to a halt.The end came in 1949 when Communist forces overran the bulk of the provinces, occupied Beijing, and made it possible for Mao to proclaim on October 1, 1949, existence of the People’s

Republic of China (PRC). The remainder of Nationalist forces and of the Nationalist cause fled the mainland some 100 miles across the strait to Taiwan, an island that the West then called Formosa.There the Kuomindang installed itself as the Republic of China. It would appear that Truman and his secretary of state, Dean Acheson, were fed up with Chiang. In a report, really a large book called the China “White paper,’’ Acheson blamed the outcome of the civil war on the Nationalists.Truman reported that his administration might supply some economic assistance for Taiwan, but there would be no military support, even if the Communists invaded. There were hints that the United States might consider granting diplomatic recognition of the PRC.Acheson recommended waiting “until the dust has settled.’’ As it developed, other events would intervene to make recognition out of the question and to harden substantially the U.S. position on Asia. Americans learned that in February 1950 Mao Zedong had been to Moscow, and after extensive discussion with Joseph Stalin had signed several treaties, one of which was a military alliance that came to be known as the Sino-Soviet pact. In popular American perception, Mao—in making a pact with the “devil’’—had delivered himself into the hands of the world communist leader. Carried one step further, it was possible to argue that the arrangement probably had existed for some time and that the Chinese civil war had not been a social revolution after all, but an expression of Soviet imperialism.

F-80 “Shooting Star,’’ one of the United States’s first jet fighter planes, on a mission in the Korean War (National Archives)

268


TABLE 10.9 MILITARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE UNITED NATIONS COMMAND IN THE KOREAN WAR

Air Forces (Squadrons) Country United States Australia Canada South Africa Total

Ground Forces (Personnel) Country United States Republic of Korea Australia Belgium Canada Colombia Ethiopia France Greece Indiaa Italya Netherlands New Zealand Norwaya Philippines Swedena Thailand Turkey United Kingdom Total

Jun. 30, 1951

Jun. 30, 1952

253,250 273,266 912 602 5,403 1,050 1,153 738 1,027 333 0 725 797 79 1,143 162 1,057 4,602 8,278 554,577

265,864 376,418 1,844 623 5,155 1,007 1,094 1,185 899 276 64 565 1,111 109 1,494 148 2,274 4,878 13,043 678,051

Jul. 31, 1953 302,483 590,911 2,282 944 6,146 1,068 1,271 1,119 1,263 70 72 819 1,389 105 1,496 154 1,294 5,455 14,198 932,539

Jun. 30, 1951

Jun. 30, 1952

58 1 1 1 61

Jul. 31, 1953

67 1 1 1 70

66 1 1 1 69

Naval Forces (Ships)

United States Republic of Korea

Australia Canada Colombia Denmark Netherlands New Zealand Thailand United Kingdom

Jun. 30, 1951

Jun. 30, 1952

Jul. 31, 1953

186 34

195 67

261 76

Jan. 15, 1952

Oct. 15, 1952

4 3 1 1 1 2 2 22

4 3 1 1 1 2 2 22

a

Contributed noncombat medical units only. Source: James I. Matray, Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (Westport, Conn., 1991), 552.

President-elect Eisenhower confers with commanders in the Korean War: (left to right) British Gen. Alston-Roberts West, Gen. James Van Fleet, and commanding Gen. Mark W. Clark. (Courtesy Dwight D. Eisenhower Library) Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

269

TABLE 10.10

BATTLE CASUALTIES OF KOREAN WAR Korean and Chinese

United Nations (other than United States)

Killed

Wounded

Missing/POW

Total

South Koreaa

47,000

183,000

8,656

238,656

Australia

North Koreab

...

...

110,723

630,723

Chinac

...

...

21,374

381,374

United States

Total Casualties

Total

Army

Navy

USMC

Air Force

142,091

109,958

2,087

28,205

1,841

33,629

27,704

458

4,267

1,200

Killed in Action

23,300

19,334

279

3,308

379

105,785 2,501 103,284

79,526 1,930 77,596

1,599 23 1,576

24,281 537 23,744

379 11 368

Missing in Action Died Returned

5,866 5,127 715

4,442 3,778 664

174 152 13

391 391 0

859 806 38

Captured or interned Died Returned Refused repatriation

7,140 2,701 4,418 21

6,656 2,662 3,973 21

35 4 31 0

225 31 194 0

224 4 220 0

Then, in June 1950, came the Korean War. The conflict in Korea had grown out of a seemingly innocent Soviet-American agreement in 1945 to accept jointly surrender of Japanese forces in Korea in two areas divided north and south by the 38th parallel. Internal Korean divisions and emergence of Soviet-American hostility caused the two units to evolve into separate political entities: to the North a communist area, led by Kim II-Sung, under Soviet influence; to the South a noncommunist regime, led by President Syngman Rhee, influenced by the Americans. All Koreans wanted unification, each Korean regime insisted it must lead the entire state. The better-armed and more aggressive of the two forced the issue.With the approval but no guarantee of protection from Stalin, North Korean units crossed the 38th parallel on June 25 and within a few days appeared to be in the process of overrunning the entire Korean Peninsula. To the surprise of many people, probably including Kim and Stalin, Truman decided the time to act had come. Although he offered several reasons for intervention in the Korean War—the need to nip aggression in the bud, for example, and to enable an infant UN to survive a first major test (one should remember that the Korean War began only five years after the Second World War)—Truman clearly placed the issue of Korea in the broader context of Asian and international events. Influenced by conditions in Eastern Europe no less than what had happened in China, concerned that a communist onslaught would envelope all Asia, he committed U.S. forces—first in the form of air support and then ground troops hastily assembled in Japan. Officially the Korean War was a project of the United Nations, and 18 nations provided some form of support for South Korea, but the ground forces were mostly American or South Korean, nearly all the equipment came from the United States, and the Americans made all the decisions. A conventional war, with forces facing each other in the field, the Korean conflict became a seesaw affair. The threat of North Korean conquest of the South brought in the Americans (and officially the UN); the threat of American and South Korean conquest of the North (which brought them to the border of Manchuria), brought in the Chinese. By the end of the first year, the war had become a stalemate, 270

Wounded

261

1,034

37

Britain

686

2,498

1,102

4,286

Canada

294

1,202

47

1,543

New Zealand

Deaths Wounded in Action Died Other

Killed


Missing/POW

Total 1,332

22

79

1

102

Others

1,931

6,484

1,582

9,997

Total

3,194

11,297

2,769

17,260

a

There were approximately 1 million South Korean civilian casualties. b The figure for total casualties includes estimates of dead and wounded. There also were approximately 1 million North Korean civilian casualties. c Chinese casualties remain something of a mystery. Other sources estimate casualties at 900,000 or more. Source: Matray, Dictionary of the Korean War, 553.

with one side—China and North Korea—unable to win and the other—the Americans—unwilling to make a total commitment to an area that was important but not absolutely vital to national interest and security.The war was bloody and after the first year settled into a depressing slugging match, with little gain for what was being expended, somewhat on the order of the First World War. Americans became anxious to see it over, and the war probably represented the most important reason Dwight Eisenhower was elected president in 1952, while the war was still going on. Eisenhower had promised to end the war. Armistice negotiations began in 1951, a year after the war started; they would last, with frequent interruptions, for two years. The primary issue was prisoner repatriation: Should all prisoners be forced to return to their original side, even if they did not want to? The issue bore most heavily on several thousand North Korean and Chinese captives, many of whom did not wish to return. Dumbfounded that 21 Americans also refused repatriation, Americans found an explanation in relentless efforts at mind control—brainwashing, as they called it—a fitting expression of the communist system. The armistice of July 1953 acknowledged that the conflict had been a draw.The Korean War would be defended in years to come as a successful application of containment, but many Americans would have trouble understanding what they had gained for the effort. Consequences of Korea The concept of monolithic communism in Asia rested on a premise that all communist movements were allied and all were traceable to a central headquarters in the Soviet Union. It followed that every communist movement, whatever the location, existed to serve the interests of the USSR.This attitude in considerable measure grew out of experiences gathered from events in Eastern Europe, where communism was monolithic and the will of the Soviet Union prevailed, and applying them to East Asia where conditions differed. The situation varied from place to place, but a major force in Asia was not the power of the Soviet army but of nationalist, anticolonial

movements, some of which had connections to the Soviet Union, the Chinese Communists, or both. None, however, were under control of the Russian bear. In its determination to resist communism in certain situations, the United States found itself opposing legitimate aspirations of various indigenous peoples. Curiously, the country that fit this model least effectively was Korea, where Soviet influence, if poorly defined in 1950, was unmistakable and had been since the end of the Second World War.The start of the Korean War was a major force behind large steps the United States would take in Asian policy. Aspects of Asian Policy in 1950 and After Korea The United States fights a costly three-year war to preserve the independence of South Korea, after which it signs a security pact that commits the United States to defense of South Korea indefinitely. Some 35,000–40,000 American troops remain in the country to at least the end of the century. China Americans fight Chinese troops in Korea, and a long period of hostility follows that conflict. The United States keeps the People’s Republic of China out of the UN for two decades and

refuses recognition for three decades. Policy did not start to change until the 1970s. Taiwan On outbreak of the Korean War,Truman reverses an earlier position that the United States will not protect Taiwan. In 1950 the U.S. 7th fleet moves into the Straits of Taiwan to prevent a Chinese invasion. The United States signs a security pact in 1954 that will be in force until 1979. Japan The Chinese revolution and the Korean War speeds up an American decision to end the occupation of this conquered enemy and to begin to treat Japan as an ally. A formal peace treaty (ending the occupation) is signed in 1951, a security pact in 1952. The United States protects Japan; Japan permits U.S. bases on its soil. The two remain close allies throughout the century. Indochina The Korean War helps to induce the United States in 1950 to supply money and equipment to France, which also was fighting Asian Communists—in its colony of French Indochina. On defeat of the French in 1954, the United States moves in, en route to its fateful Vietnam War. Southeastern Asia In step with a broad policy of containing China in Asia, the United States signs in 1954 a multilateral security pact called SEATO—the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

A turning point: President Richard Nixon meets leader of the People’s Republic of China, Mao Zedong, in February 1972. (National Archives) Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

271

Presidential Doctrines and American Foreign Policy A curious feature of American foreign policy during the cold war was the propensity of presidents to proclaim policies that by one means or another became known as presidential doctrines. The practice of course had its origin in 1823 with James Monroe. Americans would come to think of the Monroe Doctrine as virtually holy writ, but between the years 1823 and 1946 no other president had introduced a doctrine that bore his name, or perhaps better put, no one—such as a news reporter—had seen fit to attach the president’s name to a significant statement of policy.There had been, for example, no Wilson Doctrine about submarine warfare or the First World War in general, although Wilson certainly made important statements. During the cold war it was different. Between 1947 and the late 1980s, only John F. Kennedy and Gerald Ford—both of whom had very brief presidencies—failed to issue a major principle of foreign policy that bore their name.Although there appears to have been no plan of continuity, of linking the statements together, the presidential doctrines—with possible exception of the one associated with Richard Nixon—carried much sameness in description of problem and of the proposed response. Presidential Doctrines The Truman Doctrine (1947) In the early stages of the cold war, President Harry S. Truman announces his intention to assist “free peoples’’ threatened by armed minorities on the inside or by outside forces—in either case probably communist. One of the first steps in an emerging policy of containment, the statement prefaced economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey in March 1947. The Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) Having proclaimed communism to be the primary threat to the Middle East in the wake of the Suez Crisis of 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower announces American intent to assist any Middle Eastern nation threatened by “international communism’’ to the point of using military force. The nation so threatened will have to request assistance. The Johnson Doctrine (1965) Faced with a civil war in the Dominican Republic that President Lyndon Johnson claimed is being driven by communists, Johnson dispatches 20,000 troops to the island and proclaims that American nations “cannot, must not, and will not’’ permit another communist regime in the Western Hemisphere. The Nixon Doctrine (1969) Responding to growing U.S. disenchantment with globalism and especially with the devastating entanglement in Vietnam, Richard Nixon in effect promises retrenchment. Henceforth the United States will support threatened nations with money and equipment, but troops will have to come from somewhere else. The Carter Doctrine (1980) Inspired by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the hostage crisis with Iran, and a need to toughen his image as an international leader, Jimmy Carter states that the area of the Persian Gulf (which contained huge oil reserves) is vital to American interests and that the United States will respond to any “outside force’’ that seek to control the region. The Reagan Doctrine (1985) Influenced by local resistance to Soviet action in Afghanistan and internal conflict in several other places, Ronald Reagan proclaims that the United States had a right and a duty to support “freedom fighters’’ against Soviet or Sovietassisted regimes wherever they exist.

Instruments of American Policy: The Armed Forces The primary factor affecting U.S. armed forces after 1945 was the state of world affairs. Because the world remained unsettled, marked 272


with change, revolution, nearly 50 years of rivalry with the Soviet Union, periods of armed conflict, and a standing threat of a major war, the United States committed itself to a large military force, equipped with the most modern weaponry and prepared to deal with a wide range of possible situations.The military establishment did not make a smooth transition from the Second World War to the challenges of the postwar era.Yielding to pressure to “bring the boys home,’’ and apparently anticipating that an end to the war would bring a long period of peace, the government released 9 million service personnel in one year. By the time the Korean War started in 1950, military forces had dropped below 1.5 million, with an army of scarcely a half-million. The Korean War provoked a rapid increase in numbers, and for the rest of the cold war, military forces stood at between approximately 3.5 million and 2 million, with largest numbers coming, of course, during the wars in Korea and Vietnam. If these numbers suggest a careful and continuous concern about the security of the United States and a determination to meet any military challenge that might appear, they stand in striking contrast to the 12 million men in arms in the final years of the Second World War.While the government prosecuted a long and potentially deadly cold war with the Soviet Union and responded to numerous pressure points that emerged in world affairs, the nation and the people went about their business. A second factor affecting U.S. military forces during the cold war was technology.Technology would do much to determine the number of troops (as a rule, the better the technology, the fewer the forces needed), the type of troops, and the distribution of personnel between the military branches. In the American Civil War nearly all the forces had been in the army; in the First World War approximately 80 percent of personnel served in ground forces; in the Second World War the army made up two-thirds of all personnel, although it must be added that a rapidly growing air force was classified as a part of the army. Even though the army remained “labor intensive’’ and many situations developed that called for traditional ground action, the demand for other forms of military readiness grew more rapidly. The army’s share of military personnel hovered around 40 percent during much of the cold war, and in the 1980s the percentage dropped into the 30s. The proportionate increase in the size of the navy and the air force (which became a separate department in 1947) was to considerable extent an expression of increased reliance on technology. The armed forces was a product of (and a part of) the national government, and it experienced most of the pressures that came to bear on the government. Such issues as size of the military, its personnel, its use, and especially its cost all had to be resolved in a political setting. The rationale behind raising troops through a draft was that it tapped into a huge reservoir of human resources and represented an extension of a tested system that supplied a measure of fairness and impartiality to a service that most people regarded as unpleasant and undesirable. Nonetheless, politics, influence, and power inevitably entered the conscription process and the pressures increased in proportion to the increase in danger in military service. Deferments, exceptions, other pressures and manipulations produced military forces with markings of race and class. President Truman had ordered an end to segregation in the armed forces in 1948, and the pace of desegregation accelerated during the Korean War. Nonetheless, charges of racial discrimination did not vanish and became more pronounced in the area of casualties during the Vietnam War. Lower-class men and lower-income men were more likely to serve than people in higher economic echelons. Young men from well-placed families seemed to find a way to avoid going to Vietnam. Distinction based on gender was widespread, taken for granted, and broadly accepted. Beginning in the late 1960s, however, the issue began to receive increased attention. The final two decades of the cold war—1970–90—brought several changes to constituency of the armed forces. Public pressure and politics brought the draft to an end. Thereafter the branches, especially the army, at times would have trouble keeping its ranks filled. Most of the

TABLE 10.11

MILITARY FORCES OF THE UNITED STATES, 1945–1990

(In thousands, as of end of fiscal year. Includes National Guard, Reserve, and retired regular personnel on extended or continuous active duty; excludes Coast Guard) Army

Navy

Year

Total

Total

Officers

Enlisted

Total

1945 1946 1948

12,123 3,030 1,445

8,267 1,891 554

891 267 68

7,376 1,623 485

3,380 983 419

331 141 45

1950 1952 1955

1,459 3,635 2,935

593 1,596 1,109

73 148 122

519 1,447 986

381 824 661

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

2,475 2,483 2,806 2,699 2,686

873 859 1,066 976 973

101 100 116 108 111

770 757 949 866 861

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

2,654 3,092 3,375 3,546 3,458

969 1,200 1,442 1,570 1,512

112 118 144 166 173

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

3,065 2,713 2,322 2,252 2,162

1,323 1,124 811 801 783

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

2,128 2,082 2,075 2,062 2,027

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Marine Corps

Officers Enlisted

Air Force

Total

Officers

Enlisted

Total

Officers

Enlisted

3,049 842 373

475 155 84

37 14 6

437 142 78

a a 387

a a 49

a a 338

45 82 75

333 742 583

74 231 205

7 16 18

67 215 187

411 983 960

57 128 137

354 854 823

617 626 664 664 666

70 70 75 76 76

545 552 585 584 585

171 177 191 190 190

16 16 17 17 17

154 161 174 173 173

815 821 884 869 857

130 129 135 134 133

683 690 746 733 721

855 1,080 1,297 1,402 1,337

670 743 750 764 774

78 80 82 85 85

588 659 664 674 684

190 262 285 307 310

17 21 24 25 26

173 241 262 283 284

825 887 897 905 862

132 131 135 140 135

690 753 759 762 723

167 149 121 116 106

1,153 972 687 682 674

691 622 587 564 546

81 75 73 71 67

606 542 511 490 475

260 212 198 196 189

25 22 20 19 19

235 191 178 177 170

791 755 726 691 644

130 126 122 115 110

657 625 600 572 529

784 779 782 772 759

103 99 98 98 97

678 678 680 670 657

535 525 530 530 523

66 64 63 63 62

466 458 462 463 457

196 192 192 191 185

19 19 19 18 18

177 174 173 172 167

613 585 571 570 559

105 100 96 95 96

503 481 470 470 459

2,051 2,083 2,109 2,123 2,138

777 781 780 780 780

99 102 103 106 108

674 675 673 669 668

527 540 553 558 565

63 65 67 68 69

460 470 481 485 491

188 191 192 194 196

18 18 19 20 20

170 172 173 174 176

558 570 583 592 597

98 99 102 105 106

456 467 476 483 486

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

2,151 2,169 2,174 2,138 2,130

781 781 781 772 770

110 110 108 107 107

667 667 668 660 658

571 581 587 593 593

71 72 72 72 72

495 504 510 516 516

198 199 200 197 197

20 20 20 20 20

178 179 179 177 177

602 608 607 576 571

108 109 107 105 104

489 495 495 467 463

1990

2,044

732

104

624

579

72

503

197

20

177

535

100

431

a

Included with army until 1948. Source: Ben J. Wattenberg, The Statistical History of the United States: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1976), 1141; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 343.

TABLE 10.12

MILITARY PERSONNEL ON ACTIVE DUTY, BY LOCATION, 1970–1990

(in thousands, 1970 and 1975, as of Dec. 31; thereafter, as of end of fiscal year) Item

1970

1975

1980

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Total

3,066

2,128

2,051

2,138

2,151

2,169

2,174

2,138

2,130

2,044

2,798 268 2,033 1,033

1,912 216 1,643 485

1,840 211 1,562 488

1,908 230 1,628 510

1,920 231 1,636 516

1,929 240 1,644 526

1,928 246 1,650 524

1,891 248 1,598 541

1,884 246 1,620 510

1,794 252 1,437 609

Shore-baseda Afloatb United Statesc Foreign countries a

Includes navy personnel temporarily on shore. Includes marine corps. c Includes outlying areas. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 343. b


273

TABLE 10.13

NATIONAL DEFENSE OUTLAYS AND VETERANS BENEFITS, 1945–1990

(for fiscal year ending in year shown; includes outlays of Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs, and other agencies for activities primarily related to national defense and veterans programs; minus sign (2) indicates decline.) National Defense and Veterans Outlays

Annual Percent Change

Defense Outlays

Defense Outlays Percent of —

Defense Outlays

Year

Total Outlays (billions $)

Current Constant Veterans Dollars (1982) Dollars Outlays (billions $) (billions $) (billions $)

Total Outlays

Current Dollars


Veterans Outlays

Federal Outlays

Gross National Product

1945 1950 1955 1960 1962

82.7 21.2 44.5 53.5 58.0

81.6 12.2 39.8 48.1 52.3

... ... ... 192.1 202.2

.55 8.8 4.7 5.4 5.6

... ... ... 2.5 4.0

... ... ... 2.4 4.3

... ... ... 21.9 2.6

... ... ... 3.1 1.7

89.5 32.2 62.4 52.2 49.0

39.1 5.1 11.1 9.5 9.4

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967

58.9 60.4 56.3 64.0 78.2

53.4 54.8 50.6 58.1 71.4

197.1 198.8 181.4 197.9 235.1

5.5 5.7 5.7 5.9 6.7

1.6 2.6 26.8 13.7 22.1

2.0 2.5 27.6 14.8 22.9

22.5 0.9 28.8 9.1 18.8

21.9 2.9 0.7 3.5 13.8

48.0 46.2 42.8 43.2 45.4

9.1 8.7 7.5 7.9 9.0

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

89.0 90.1 90.4 88.7 89.9

81.9 82.5 81.7 78.9 79.2

254.8 243.4 225.6 202.7 190.9

7.0 7.6 8.7 9.8 10.7

13.8 1.3 0.3 21.9 1.4

14.7 0.7 21.0 23.5 0.4

8.4 24.5 27.3 210.2 25.8

4.4 8.5 13.6 12.7 9.8

46.0 44.9 41.8 37.5 34.3

9.6 8.9 8.3 7.5 6.9

1973 1974 1975 1976 1976 TOa

88.7 92.7 103.1 108.1 26.2

76.7 79.3 86.5 89.6 22.3

175.1 163.3 159.8 153.6 37.1

12.0 13.4 16.6 18.4 4.0

1.3 4.6 11.2 4.8 ...

23.1 3.5 9.0 3.6 ...

28.3 26.7 22.1 23.9 ...

12.0 11.4 24.0 11.0 ...

31.2 29.5 26.0 24.1 23.2

6.0 5.6 5.7 5.3 5.0

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

115.3 123.5 136.3 155.2 180.5

97.2 104.5 116.3 134.0 157.5

154.3 155.0 159.1 164.0 171.4

18.0 19.0 19.9 21.2 23.0

6.1 7.1 10.4 13.9 16.3

8.5 7.5 11.3 15.2 17.6

0.5 0.5 2.6 3.1 4.5

22.1 5.2 5.0 6.3 8.5

23.8 22.8 23.1 22.7 23.2

5.0 4.8 4.8 5.0 5.3

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

209.3 234.7 253.0 279.0 299.7

185.3 209.9 227.4 252.7 273.4

185.3 201.3 211.3 230.0 244.0

24.0 24.8 25.6 26.3 26.4

15.9 12.1 7.8 10.3 7.4

17.6 13.3 8.3 11.1 8.2

8.1 8.6 5.0 8.8 6.1

4.2 3.3 3.2 2.7 0.4

24.9 26.0 26.7 26.7 27.6

5.9 6.3 6.2 6.4 6.5

1987 1988 1989 1990

308.8 319.8 333.7 328.4

282.0 290.4 303.6 299.3

251.0 252.8 256.6 271.1

26.8 29.4 30.1 29.1

3.0 3.6 4.3 21.6

3.1 3.0 4.5 21.4

2.9 0.7 1.5 5.7

1.5 9.7 2.4 23.3

28.1 27.3 26.2 23.9

6.4 6.1 5.9 5.5

a

Transition quarter, Jul.–Sep. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992 (Washington, D. C., 1992), 336.

TABLE 10.14

FEDERAL BUDGET OUTLAYS FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE FUNCTIONS, 1970–1990

(in billions of dollars, except percent; for fiscal year ending in year shown) Defense Function Total Percent changea Defense Dept., military Military personnel Percent of military Operation, maintenance Procurement Research and development Military construction Family housing Other Atomic energy activities Defense-related activities

1970

1980

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

81.7

134.0

209.9

227.4

252.7

273.4

282.0

290.4

303.6

299.3

10.1

15.2

13.3

8.3

11.1

8.2

3.1

3.0

4.5

21.4

80.1 29.0 36.2 21.6 21.6 7.2 1.2 0.6 21.1

130.9 40.9 31.2 44.8 29.0 13.1 2.5 1.7 21.1

204.4 60.9 29.8 64.9 53.6 20.6 3.5 2.1 21.2

220.9 64.2 29.0 67.4 61.9 23.1 3.7 2.4 21.7

245.2 67.8 27.7 72.4 70.4 27.1 4.3 2.6 0.6

265.5 71.5 26.9 75.3 76.5 32.3 5.1 2.8 2.0

274.0 72.0 26.3 76.2 80.7 33.6 5.9 2.9 2.6

281.9 76.3 27.1 84.5 77.2 34.8 5.9 3.1 0.2

294.9 80.7 27.0 87.0 81.6 37.0 5.3 3.3 0.1

289.8 75.6 21.7 88.3 81.0 37.5 5.1 3.5 21.2

1.4 0.2

2.9 0.2

5.2 0.3

6.1 0.4

7.1 0.5

7.4 0.5

7.5 0.6

7.9 0.5

8.1 0.6

9.0 0.6

a Change from immediate prior year; for 1970, change from 1965. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 336.

274


barriers to female service (with respect to numbers and type of duty) came down and the number of women increased in all branches. A disproportionately high number of black and Hispanic people in service suggested either that the armed forces had made considerable progress in a quest for equality or that society as a whole continued to be discriminatory. It was altogether likely that both answers applied. An end to the war in Vietnam and easing of cold-war tensions produced a slow reduction in the number of regular military personnel, and the government seemed willing to rely more on inactive forces, such as the reserves or National Guard.The costs, however, did not show corresponding shrinkage.To attract new recruits, it was necessary to offer higher wages.The technology race and modernization of weapons continued. A single top-of-the-line fighter plane in the 1980s cost $30 million. Only in the final year, 1990, did the Pentagon report a slight reduction in its budget. Raising the Troops: Volunteers and Conscripts The Second World War had been fought largely with conscripted forces. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the term of duty had been defined as the “duration’’ of the war plus six months, and at war’s end, as the government yielded to pressure to release its conquering warriors as quickly as possible, the draft continued to bring other young men into military service. The enabling legislation was extended piece-by-piece until March 31, 1947, when the draft was allowed to die. It did not stay dead long. Faced with rapidly developing difficulty with the Soviet Union, the Berlin blockade of January 1948, and a stunning communist coup in Czechoslovakia the following month, Congress enacted a new conscription measure that President Harry S. Truman signed into law on June 19, 1948. Under direction of Lewis B. Hershey, the Selective Service System resumed drafting qualified male citizens and residents aged 18 to 26. The draft thereupon became essentially a mechanism for keeping the army supplied with its rank-and-file soldiers, the “enlisted men;’’ the other military services normally could fill their quotas through volunteers, and the army’s officers were either career soldiers or men whose service included some measure of volunteerism, as in the case of the ROTC program in force on many college campuses. Young men of that era came to regard a two-year hitch in military service as a routine part of reaching adulthood, not sought-after—even dreaded by some—but probably inevitable. The existence of deferments and exemptions, however, and sheer numbers alone indicated that not every one would have to go. The Korean War started suddenly in 1950, and the first American troops in battle were men already in service or veterans in the reserve who could be recalled to duty. After the first year the bulk of combat troops were draftees. In 1951 nearly 600,000 came into the army through conscription. The draft also proved to be an inducement for volunteers. In an effort to avoid the bloody battlefields of Korea, young men offered themselves for service in the navy, the air force, or occasionally even the army if doing so would increase the opportunity for duty other than in combat arms. The Korean War ended in 1953, but the cold war did not, and conscription seemed to have become a permanent part of American life.The concept of universal military service, requiring every able young man to spend time in the armed forces, had much support. Then in the 1960s came Vietnam and coming of age of the first layers of the baby-boom, or Vietnam, generation. Although the number of men inducted yearly never reached the level of the Korean War, the draft calls did increase after 1965, by which time the Vietnam conflict had become an American war. In short order the Vietnam War became unpopular, and one of the principal targets of a growing antiwar movement was compulsory military service. Many of the protestors were young men of draftable age. In popular perception, conscription placed the individual at the mercy of the

army’s command, which produced a real prospect of combat duty and the risk of injury or death. Avoidance of the draft took many forms, starting with petitions for deferment, exemption, and finding some grounds for disqualification. Such ventures could include a claim of conscientious objector status, stressing—even creating—a medical problem, juggling of Selective Service classification, and exploiting to the fullest possible political influence. Attachment to complementary military units such as the National Guard or the reserves made much fewer demands on the participant and carried virtually no danger of combat. Rarely were these units called to active service. Persons who had access to or were willing to utilize none of these tactics or who genuinely wished to make a political statement simply resisted the draft. Perhaps encouraged by such slogans as “Hell no, we won’t go’’ or by the poster urging that “Girls say yes to boys who say no,’’ some burned draft cards in public; others less ostentatiously refused to participate in the induction process. Defenders of the movement would have every draft resister acting out of conscience and moral courage; critics, at least the harshest ones, saw them as spoiled-brat baby boomers who refused to accept anything not to their immediate liking. The truth surely included representatives from all the extremes and many others who acted out of different and more complex motivation. The upshot was that although more than 2 million young men of the Vietnam era subjected themselves to compulsory induction, a much larger number found legal or illegal ways to avoid it, and the Selective Service System came close to breaking down. Of some 26.8 million men of the Vietnam generation, 2.2 million were drafted; 8.7 million (some of whom surely came from an earlier generation) enlisted; 16 million, about 60 percent, avoided induction by deferment, exemption, disqualification, or other means. Of some 570,000 apparent draft offenders (including people who never registered) and 209,517 accused draft offenders, 8,750 would be convicted and 3,250 imprisoned. Under constant assault as being prejudicial, class-driven, racist (but, curiously, rarely sexist even though it took only males), and of course the sustaining force of an immoral war, the draft underwent change while the conflict was going on. In 1969 Curtis Tarr, who had replaced Hershey as director, reduced deferments and instituted a random lottery system. President Nixon ended the controversial student deferments in 1971; by that time the number of men in Vietnam was small, and draft calls shrank markedly. On January 27, 1973, the day of the armistice in Vietnam that officially ended U.S. participation, Nixon formally ended the draft. Since that date the United States has relied on an all-volunteer military force: the AVF. Poor enlistment rates and the increased portion of minority groups in the armed forces led President Jimmy Carter in 1980 to reinstitute the registration requirement for 18-year-old males. The move did not constitute a first step toward resumption of conscription. In 1981 the Supreme Court ruled that registration (and presumably conscription) of males only was constitutional because women could not serve in combat duty. The AVF did undergo a substantial increase in the number of women and a disproportionately high representation of black Americans, but otherwise recruitment lagged at times. During the 1980s the Ronald Reagan administration relied on advertising, higher pay, and education benefits to attract volunteers. In 1990 the AVF seemed to be responding with enthusiasm to a developing operation in the Persian Gulf, but the experience did not suggest that the United States had found a way to staff its military forces once and for all. In the possibility of a future prolonged major military engagement, resumption of a draft remained a realistic option.


275

TABLE 10.15 TOTAL CALLS, DELIVERIES, AND INDUCTIONS OF SELECTIVE SERVICE REGISTRANTS BY FISCAL YEAR, 1949–1974 Calls for Inductions

Deliveries for Induction

Inductions

4,750,873

5,635,878

4,894,462

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

35,000 0 550,397 367,288 523,000 251,000

31,800 0 608,246 408,781 589,308 289,096

30,129 0a 587,444 381,006 560,798 268,018

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

211,000 136,000 175,000 124,958 109,000

232,407 149,474 196,875 144,026 137,745

213,716 136,580 179,321 126,369 111,889

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

89,500 58,000 147,500 70,000 145,000

130,119 85,274 194,937 98,971 190,495

90,549 61,070 157,465 71,744 150,808

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

101,300 336,530 288,900 343,300 266,900

137,588 399,419 345,622 401,017 329,272

103,328 343,481 298,559 341,404 262,646

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 (first half)

209,300 152,000 25,000 35,000 0

248,862 204,446 39,669 51,429 0

203,707 153,631 25,273 35,527 0

Fiscal Year Total

a

There were 219,765 inductions in calendar year 1950. Source: Director of Selective Service, Semiannual Report of the Director of Selective Service, Jul–Dec 1973 (Washington, D.C., 1974), 32.

TABLE 10.16 NUMBER OF REGISTRANTS CLASSIFIED AS CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS, 1952–1973 Total as of Dec. 31

Total Classes 1–O, 1–W, and 4–W

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

6,233 7,196 9,740 11,282 12,551

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

14,011 15,097 16,060 16,512 17,253

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

17,574 15,712 18,802 19,397 20,963

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

24,238 29,005 35,326 52,050 65,478

1972 1973

33,041 26,043

Source: Director of Selective Service, Report, Jul–Dec 1973, 32.

TABLE 10.17 LEGAL CONSCIENTIOUS-OBJECTOR EXEMPTIONS IN THE VIETNAM PERIOD IN COMPARISON TO WORLD WAR I AND WORLD WAR II RATES War/Year

Ratio of Objector Exemptions to Actual Inductions (per 100 inductions)

World War I World War II 1966 1967 1968

0.14 0.15 6.10 8.11 8.50

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

13.45 25.55 42.62 130.72 73.30

Source: Stephen M. Kohn, Jailed for Peace: The History of American Draft Law Violations, 1658–1985 (Westport, Conn., 1986), 93.

TABLE 10.18 DISPOSITION OF DEFENDANTS CHARGED WITH VIOLATION OF SELECTIVE SERVICE ACTS, SHOWING TYPE OF SENTENCE, 1945–1971 Convicted and Not Convicted Sentenced

Type of Sentence Imprisonment

Fiscal Year

Total Defendants

Total

Total

Total

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

4,287 2,651 2,074 833 506 449 368

1,449 999 937 529 214 274 212

2,838 1,652 1,137 304 292 175 159

2,368 1,339 775 212 213 109 123

276


1 Year and Over 1 Year 1 Day and 1 Day to Under 3 Years 438 547 394 133 134 78 35

775 501 317 69 62 24 37

3–5 Years

5 Years and Over

744 244 61 9 17 6 29

411 47 3 1 ... 1 22

Average Sentence of Imprisonment (months) Probation 31.9 20.6 14.3 14.1 14.6 13.4 29.6

453 301 245 84 73 65 32

Fine and Other 17 12 117 8 6 1 1

Convicted Not and Convicted Sentenced

Type of Sentence Imprisonment 1 Year and Over 1 Year 1 Day and 1 Day to Under 3 Years

Average Sentence of Imprisonment (months) Probation

Fine and Other

Fiscal Year

Total Defendants

Total

Total

Total

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

561 630 822 719 371 357 325

248 285 398 430 185 95 96

313 345 424 289 186 262 229

272 280 356 217 123 194 190

58 61 78 54 35 60 66

77 101 137 105 50 85 81

97 84 126 47 35 41 42

40 34 15 11 3 8 1

30.5 29.3 26.4 24.8 24.0 23.7 21.6

39 64 64 70 31 68 36

2 1 4 2 2 ... 3

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

258 239 244 274 339 276 341

56 73 45 49 73 70 99

202 166 199 225 265 206 212

152 126 141 164 189 146 189

46 47 45 58 79 46 64

63 48 59 75 65 77 90

39 28 35 28 36 22 30

4 3 2 3 9 1 5

23.2 21.5 22.6 21.6 21.5 20.8 21.0

49 37 57 60 74 59 52

1 3 1 1 2 1 1

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

516 996 1,192 1,744 2,833 2,973 4,906

145 248 408 844 1,803 1,937 3,264

371 748 784 900 1,027 1,036 1,642

301 666 580 544 450 377 1,642

61 47 44 40 53 79 53

128 270 131 155 144 140 120

95 291 301 261 208 129 123

17 58 104 88 45 29 16

26.4 32.1 37.3 36.3 33.5 29.1 22.0

64 78 202 350 572 650 1,178

6 4 2 6 5 9 6

3–5 Years

5 Years and Over

Source: Director of Selective Service, Semiannual Report of the Director of Selective Service, Jul–Dec 1972 (Washington, D.C., 1973), 46.

TABLE 10.19 FEMALE ACTIVE-DUTY MILITARY PERSONNEL, 1965–1990 Women and the Military The status of women in postwar military forces was defined by the Woman’s Armed Forces Integration Act of 1948, which gave permanent status to women in the armed forces, authorized service in the army, the navy, and the air force, imposed a 2 percent ceiling on women on active duty, prohibited women from combat duty and service on all naval vessels except hospital and transport ships. Military women in the 1950s and early 1960s served as part of a permanent and professional army and navy corps of nurses, or in duties, mostly clerical, as WACS, WAVES, or Lady Marines—elements of the army and the navy. Women who served in the Korean War were almost entirely nurses, as television viewers later would learn from the longrunning popular series about a field medical unit, M*A*S*H. Of the several thousand—estimates put it at between 6,000 and 12,000—women who served in the long Vietnam War, the vast majority were nurses. Eight servicewomen died in Vietnam, all of them nurses. Seven were killed in airplane accidents; one died of wounds from an enemy artillery attack.The era of Vietnam corresponded with a growing woman’s movement that had as its most persistent objective gender equality in as many areas of society as possible. It was nearly inevitable that a linkage would be drawn to military operations, and so changes began to take place while the war was going on. In 1967 Congress lifted limitations on rank for servicewomen and abolished the 2 percent limit on the number of women who could serve.The air force opened its ROTC program to women in 1969; the army and the navy did so in 1972. Institution of the All-Volunteer Force opened the door for more women to serve and in an ever-broadening range of activity. The army and navy produced their first female pilots in 1974, and the air force began pilot training for females two years later. In 1975 Congress admitted women into the service academies of the army, the navy, and the air force, and in that same year the practice of discharging pregnant females came to an end. In 1978 the separate Woman’s Army Corps was abol-

Year

Total

Army

Navy

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

30,610 41,479 96,868 171,418 211,606 227,018

12,326 16,724 42,295 69,338 79,247 83,621

7,862 8,683 21,174 34,980 52,603 59,907

Marine Corps Air Force 1,581 2,418 3,186 6,706 9,695 9,356

8,841 13,654 30,213 60,394 70,061 74,134


TABLE 10.20

WOMEN IN UNIFORM, 1988 Officers

Enlisted

Service

Number

Percent

Number

Army Navy Marine Corps Air Force Total

11,436 7,210 659 12,595 30,476

10.4 10.1 3.3 11.5 10.3

71,343 46,195 9,172 61,640 188,350

Percent 10.6 9.1 5.1 12.4 10.2


ished, and women were integrated into the regular army. Most restrictions on service on navy ships ended. By the end of the 1980s virtually the only restriction on female activity in the armed forces involved active participation in combat arms. There did not appear to be a ground-swell movement for changing this rule, but women were getting close to combat anyway, if only in incidental circumstances.Women participated in the incursion into Grenada in 1983; nearly 800 went into Panama with the military operation of 1989; and among the large military force gathering for likely hostilities in the Persian Gulf in the winter of 1990, one could find several thousand female soldiers. Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

277

TABLE 10.21

U.S. ACTIVE-DUTY FORCES, BY SEX, RACE, AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1965–1990

(in percent) Female Year

Officers

Black

Enlisted

Hispanic

Total

Total

Officers

Enlisted

Total

Officers

Enlisted

Total

Officers Enlisted (thousands) (thousands)

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

3.1% 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.1

0.9% 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9

1.2% 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.1

1.9% ... 2.1 2.1 2.1

10.5% ... 9.9 10.2 9.6

9.5% ... 8.9 9.2 8.7

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

339 349 385 416 419

2,317 2,745 2,992 2,132 3,041

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

3.3 3.5 3.8 4.0 4.3

1.1 1.3 1.6 2.2 3.3

1.4 1.6 1.9 2.5 3.5

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.7 3.0

11.0 12.1 13.5 14.9 16.2

9.8 10.7 11.9 13.2 14.4

... 1.3% 1.2 1.2 1.3

... 3.4% 4.0 4.5 4.5

... 3.1% 3.6 4.0 3.9

402 371 336 321 303

2,664 2,329 1,987 1,932 1,860

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

4.6 5.0 5.4 6.2 6.9

4.5 5.3 5.8 6.5 7.5

4.6 5.2 5.7 6.5 7.4

3.2 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7

16.2 17.1 17.4 19.3 21.2

14.4 15.2 15.6 17.3 19.0

1.4 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6

4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.4

4.2 4.2 4.1 4.1 3.8

292 281 276 274 274

1,836 1,801 1,798 1,788 1,753

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

7.7 8.1 8.6 9.0 9.4

8.5 9.0 9.0 9.3 9.5

8.4 8.9 9.0 9.3 9.5

5.0 5.3 5.3 5.8 6.2

21.9 22.1 22.0 21.6 21.1

19.6 19.8 19.7 19.4 19.0

1.2 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.4

4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 3.9

3.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.6

278 285 292 301 304

1,759 1,783 1,804 1,811 1,820

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

9.8 10.1 10.4 10.7 11.1 11.4

9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 11.0 10.9

9.8 10.1 10.2 10.4 11.0 10.9

6.4 6.5 6.5 6.7 6.9 6.9

21.1 21.2 21.5 22.0 22.8 22.9

18.9 19.1 19.4 19.8 20.3 20.5

1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1

3.9 4.1 4.3 4.5 4.8 5.0

3.6 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.6

309 311 308 305 303 304

1,828 1,845 1,856 1,819 1,814 1,762


TABLE 10.22

Service

TABLE 10.23 U.S. ARMED FORCES WORLDWIDE, 1989

MINORITIES IN UNIFORM, 1988

Black Americans

Hispanic Americans

Num- Perber cent

Num- Per- Num- Per- Number cent ber cent ber

Other

Total Percent

Officers Army 11,192 10.5% Navy 2,576 3.6 Marine Corps 983 4.9 Air Force 5,670 5.4

1,687 1,443 416 2,129

Total

5,675 1.9

20,421

6.7

1.6% 2.0 2.1 2.0

3,140 1,969 363 2,721

2.9% 2.7 1.8 2.6

8,193 2.7

16,019 15.0% 5,988 8.3 1,762 8.7 10,520 10.1 34,289 11.3

Enlisted Army Navy Marine Corps Air Force

200,912 80,984 36,565 81,633

30.7% 16.0 20.9 17.4

Total

400,094 22.2

27,324 25,871 11,026 17,607

4.2% 28,692 4.4% 256,928 39.3% 5.1 28,532 5.6 135,387 26.8 6.3 5,543 3.2 53,134 30.4 3.7 15,753 3.4 114,993 24.5

81,828 4.5

78,520 4.4

560,442 31.1

Source: John Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1991 (New York, 1990), 113.

Location

Army

Continental U.S. Hawaii Alaska Guam Puerto Rico Johnston Atoll Transients Afloat

452,468 18,416 9,373 35 379 130 15,374 0

268,080 12,604 2,315 4,405 3,511 2 14,572 187,708

Total

496,253

493,236


Marine Corps

Air Force

Total DOD

144,027 8,565 173 360 154 0 5,440 1,038

418,008 5,763 10,928 3,424 45 10 10,071 0

1,282,583 45,348 22,789 8,224 4,089 142 45,457 188,746

159,757

448,270

1,597,517

United States

Europe Belgium West Germany Greece Greenland Iceland Italy Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Turkey United Kingdom Afloat

1,504 214,087 406 0 2 3,860 794 36 57 18 1,169 259 0

133 339 550 0 1,823 5,596 17 36 385 3,676 109 2,417 16,657

32 106 16 0 101 305 10 17 11 180 19 377 2,049

699 40,170 2,283 196 1,382 6,052 2,028 119 1,205 4,407 3,580 24,541 0

2,368 254,702 3,255 196 3,308 15,813 2,849 208 1,658 8,281 4,877 27,594 18,706

Total

222,243

31,777

3,336

86,722

344,078

65

5

110

16

196

Eastern Europe

278

Navy

Location

Army

Navy

Marine Corps

Air Force

Total DOD

TABLE 10.24 MILITARY FORCES, RANKED BY COUNTRY, 1989

East Asia and Pacific Australia Japan Philippines South Korea Thailand Afloat

20 2,176 173 32,052 67 0

429 7,196 5,037 391 10 31,595

10 24,288 978 2,233 13 2,193

274 15,931 9,207 11,495 34 0

733 49,591 15,395 46,171 124 33,788

Total

34,530

44,744

29,773

36,979

146,026

Africa, Near East, and South Asia Bahrain British Indian Ocean Territory Egypt Saudi Arabia Afloat

7 3

124 933

9 82

10 24

150 1,042

1,036 150 0

32 47 2,872

36 23 48

41 213 0

1,145 433 2,920

Total

1,413

4,047

603

394

6,457

Other Western Hemisphere Bermuda Canada Cuba (Guantanamo) Honduras Panama Afloat

0 12 10

1,787 388 1,906

74 8 466

0 127 2

1,861 535 2,384

2,628 6,953 0

5 517 2,306

13 484 0

161 2,854 0

2,807 10,808 2,306

Total

9,749

7,058

1,281

3,223

21,311

Worldwide Ashore Afloat

764,259 0

339,912 241,138

189,532 5,328

575,604 0

1,869,307 246,466

Total

764,259

581,050

194,860

575,604

2,115,773

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Armed Forces

Military Expenditures

(thousands)

(millions of dollars)

Country

Number Rank

Country

Dollars

China – Mainland Soviet Union United States India Korea, North

3,903 3,700 2,241 1,257 1,040

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Soviet Union United States France United Kingdom Germany West

311,000 304,100 35,260 34,630 33,600

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Iraq Vietnam Turkey Korea, South Iran

1,000 1,000 780 647 604

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Japan China – Mainland Italy Iraq Poland

28,410 22,330 20,720

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

France Italy Pakistan Germany,West Egypt

554 533 520 503 450

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Saudi Arabia Germany, East Canada Korea, South Czechoslovakia

14,690 13,970 10,840 9,100 8,361

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Syria China – Taiwan Poland Brazil United Kingdom

400 379 350 319 318

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

India China – Taiwan Spain Romania Netherlands

8,174 8,060 7,775 6,916 6,399

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Cuba Indonesia Spain Thailand Germany, East

297 285 277 273 262

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Brazil Australia Korea, North Bulgaria Israel

6,153 6,000 5,885 5,745

15,480

Source: U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers 1990 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 36.


Weapons and Equipment of the Armed Forces The half-century after 1945 was not only the age of the cold war; it also became an era of revolution in world affairs. If the first objective of American military forces was to protect the nation in case of conflict with its perceived enemy, the Soviet Union, a second purpose was to prepare the nation to respond to diverse situations— related to American interests and security—that emerged throughout the world. The primary focus of the military establishment remained on the rapidly expanding world of nuclear technology, but it also had to pay attention to less dramatic and more familiar military equipment. Weaponry of the United States came to be divided into two categories: conventional and nuclear, or weapons that could be and were used and weapons so destructive that they were held as a threat and deterrent to prevent the Soviet Union from using similarly destructive weapons on the United States. Thus, if the revolution in nuclear weapons brought terror and threat of massive, if not global, destruction, it also emerged as and remained a deterrent to war between the two principal adversaries. Traditional weapons of course involved arms, albeit in improved varieties, that had been used in the past: rifles, artillery, tanks, airplanes, and warships designed to fight other warships. Nuclear weapons for the most part were classified as strategic—powerful, long-range explosive devices capable of inflicting large damage on an enemy country. The atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 in retrospect would be classified as strategic warfare, although small examples by standards of the cold war.Those two bombings contained the only documented evidence of the effect of strategic warfare

on populated areas. Knowledge of the destructive power of cold war weaponry remained the domain of speculation and calculation, but no one could doubt that the impact would be mind-boggling, going far beyond damage from the immediate explosion. A second, lesser, category of nuclear weapons was termed tactical—small, low-yield devices, probably a type of artillery—designed for close-combat battlefield use. Impact and complications of such weaponry could not be established because they never were used. Perhaps the most utilitarian new weapon in the cold war era was the missile, or guided missile, as it was called in the early years. The self-propelled missile—the missile in fact was the vehicle—could transport nuclear or conventional explosive devices. Adaptable to various forms, sizes, and purposes, the missile became important to all military branches. There were air-to-air missiles: air-to-ground, or air-to-ship missiles; ground-to-air, ground-to-ground, ship-to-ship, ship-to-air, ship-to-ground missiles. They could travel several yards, intercontinental distances, or various ranges in between. Because they carried their own propulsion equipment and often guidance devices and were, of course, nonreusable, missiles were so expensive that armed services members trained in their use rarely, if ever, fired a live round, even in the small, hand-held versions. A fully equipped missile for a Trident submarine cost more than $35 million. Of all the military forces, the army changed the least in character and mission during the years of the cold war. To settle a conflict truly and to win a military engagement, the ground forces had to go in and defeat the enemy, one-by-one if necessary, and take control of territory. The Korean War was largely a conventional war fought with equipment left over from the Second World War: the M-1 semiautomatic rifle, the Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

279

jeep, and the medium tank.With passage of years, the army’s technology changed more than its mission. The M-16 rifle that became standard in the early 1960s was not as accurate as the M-1 it replaced, but, fully automatic, it spewed out so many bullets that one of them was bound to hit. The tank of the Second World War gave way to the larger M-60 and then to the much larger, redesigned, and technologically advanced M-1 Abrams tank that would serve the army into the next century. Even the durable jeep had been replaced by a much larger, ugly beast called a HumVee that cost $28,000 apiece, about the same as a Cadillac. In terms of technology and change in tactics, probably the most important development had been improvement of the helicopter, which had performed mostly transportation service in Korea and came into widespread combat usage during the war in Vietnam. Clumsy looking for a flying machine, the “chopper’’ performed many services for the army. As an instrument of combat arms, it was most effective as a mobile platform for firing missiles. The army thus had changed, probably lost its position as the preeminent element of the armed forces, but in some ways it remained the same. There were hundreds of airplanes gathering to engage Iraq in the winter of 1990; the navy’s carriers and even a couple of battleships stood off in waters nearby. But the people in charge suspected (and they were right) that it all would not be over until the foot soldiers went in and did their stuff. The air force came of age as an independent entity in the years of the cold war. Separated from the army in the National Defense Act of 1947, it received its own department, secretary, and service academy (in Colorado Springs) and despite its youth zealously protected its position as partner equal to the army and the navy. Entrusted with operating land-based units of the strategic arsenal—the intercontinental missiles and long-range B-52 bombers of the Strategic Air Command (SAC)—it also adjusted itself to perform varied nonnuclear, limited conflict duties mandated by the cold war and other regional issues. These duties took air personnel—the pilots and support personnel—to bases around the globe that were made possible by the numerous treaties and security pacts accepted by the government. The most important change in equipment of the air force was the development and continued improvement of jet propulsion. American forces had not used jet aircraft in the Second World War, but defense technology had been moving in that direction, and at war’s end it could benefit from advanced German development and a prod from knowledge that the Soviets were hard at work in the same area. By the time the Korean War started in 1950, the United States had several jet fighters in production, notably the F-80 Shooting Star and F-86 Sabrejet, both of which participated in numerous engagements in Korean skies with the Soviet-built MIG 15. The air force in Korea also used many propeller-driven aircraft such as the P-51 Mustang, and propeller planes would not disappear from the air armada. Many propeller-type planes, such as the Dragonfly, flew throughout the Vietnam War, especially in the hands of South Vietnamese pilots. Jet power in the early 1950s could increase the speed of a fighter plane by 30 to 40 percent. By the 1960s a top-of-the-line jet fighter could double, even triple the speed of a P-51. Small wonder that starting in the late 1940s the air force moved to build progressively faster, more powerful, and technologically advanced jet aircraft. The airplane of the 1960s—the Vietnam War—was the noisy, dirty but powerful Phantom, the F-4. Beginning in the mid-1970s two aircraft, the twin-engine F-15 Eagle and the single-engine F-16 Falcon entered service on a regular basis. Borrowing from experience in the Second World War, the air force had sought to build a separate fleet of heavy bombers. After experiment with several models—the speedy B-58 looked promising for a while—the Department of Defense settled on the massive, lumbering (for a jet plane) B-52. Introduced in 1952, this huge jet bomber provided the striking force for SAC: the airplanes that could bomb Moscow and return to their bases. A third leg (along with land- and submarine-based missiles) in the American TRIAD strategic defense system, counted in the SALT II treaty of 1979, the bombers officially 280


maintained their role into the 1990s. In truth a few B-52 bombers were kept in reserve for special missions; a nuclear war surely would have been fought with missiles. The genuine workhorses of the air force were continuously updated F-15 and F-16 fighter-bombers. In conjunction with carrierbased naval aircraft—the F-14 Tomcat, F-18 Hornet, and other attack craft—the fighter-bombers were being summoned to take on an expanded field of operations. The Vietnam War had left American administrations acutely sensitive to the casualties that could come from ground operations. A small but bitter experience in Lebanon in 1983 had confirmed the apprehension. If the United States truly had to act in a military situation, it was better and far less costly in terms of casualties to act with airpower.There even emerged a growing hope (but not a conviction) that in many situations, air power alone would be enough. Although the navy maintained elements of traditional ways of doing its job—the aircraft carrier Midway, for example, commissioned in 1945, was still at sea in 1990—it probably was the branch most changed by technology and demands of the era of the cold war.The navy shared in major developments in weaponry and added a wrinkle or two of its own. A deemphasis on large, heavily armored surface vessels continued. The battleships were retired as museums or cut up for scrap. The navy did place the four newest ones in protective coating called mothballs, making it possible for the government to return one or more to active service. Reagan pulled all four out for a while in the 1980s, and in fact two battleships were on hand for the Gulf Crisis of 1990.They ended up being expensive platforms for launching cruise missiles. Alone among powers of the world, the United States continued to emphasize large aircraft carriers. The carriers performed important functions, although probably in ways that had been unanticipated. They did not engage enemy warships; there were no naval battles after 1945. The Soviet Union did not present a naval threat, other than with submarines, in which case the threat was considerable, if hardly the responsibility of large carriers.Aircraft carriers did not help much in the direct struggle with the Soviet Union, but they did provide exceptional service in the numerous global responsibilities the United States chose to undertake during this period. Carriers allowed the United States to transport its air bases to the scene of action—to wars in Korea or Vietnam or almost any area that gave cause for concern. The primary function of naval aircraft, and thus the carriers, was to strike land targets. For several years the navy utilized warships constructed for the Second World War. It soon became apparent that many of the navy’s war machines and certainly aircraft carriers were large enough to lend themselves to nuclear energy as a power source. The first nuclearpowered aircraft carrier, the Enterprise, was commissioned in 1961; it could sail for years without refueling. By the start of the 1970s all new carriers and cruisers were nuclear powered, and all new warships, except for carriers, came equipped with missile-firing capability. The most striking development of naval technology took place in the area of submarines. Cold war submarines came in two varieties: First was the attack submarine that performed the traditional task of seeking out enemy ships. The most likely potential target would be enemy Uboats, for only in submarines did the Soviet Union seek to keep pace with the United States Navy; the Soviets in fact had more subs than the Americans.The first atomic-powered warship was the Nautilus, an attack submarine commissioned in 1954.After 1960 all submarines of any variety came equipped with nuclear power plants and were capable of staying submerged for months.Thereafter the navy employed a continuous program of upgrading the attack submarine fleet—modernizing vessels, retiring old models, building new ones. Jewel of the fleet, if not of the American strategic arsenal, was a vessel that blended together all the major developments in naval technology. Designated SSBN, this nuclear-powered submarine fired ballistic missiles from tubes protruding downward from the deck, not at other ships but at land-based targets perhaps 3,000 miles away. The

B-58 “Hustler’’ supersonic bomber of the early cold war: It was as fast as the Concorde but not a cost-effective weapon. (author’s photo)

first SSBN was identified by the class of its missile, Polaris.The Polaris submarine George Washington, armed with 16 nuclear-tipped missiles, set sail on November 1960. The final patrol of a Polaris submarine took place in 1981. By that time the second generation of SSBN, called the Poseidon (first tested in 1970), had taken over. Originally armed with Polaris missiles, 31 of the new submarines would be refitted to carry the newer Poseidon missile, which was equipped for multiple warheads (MIRV); each missile carried 10 warheads. In the late 1970s and 1980s, 12 of the newer Poseidon submarines were rearmed with the latest Trident C4 missile. The start of the 1980s brought the appearance of the third and latest family of ballistic submarines: the “Ohio’’ class (all, save one, would be named after states), better known as Trident submarines. Improved in every way, almost twice the size of the Poseidon vessel, the Trident submarine carried 24 missiles, each equipped with eight warheads. The Poseidon submarines were scheduled to be decommissioned or assigned a new function by the start of the 1990s; those equipped with the latest missiles would sail until the end of the 1990s. What would be left for future maritime strategic defense was the new fleet of 18 Trident submarines that could carry an astonishing amount of destructive power and were capable—it was said—of surviving almost any humanmade or natural disaster, even a nuclear war.

The Nuclear Arms Race: A Glossary antiballistic missile (ABM) A defensive missile designed to destroy an incoming enemy ballistic missile before its warhead reaches its target. ballistic missile A rocket-propelled missile that leaves the atmosphere and returns to Earth in a free fall. cruise missile A guided missile that flies to its target within the earth’s atmosphere, close to the surface. The cruise missile can carry a nuclear warhead and can be launched from air, land, or sea. delivery vehicle A missile or strategic bomber that delivers a warhead to its target. deployment Installing weapons, making them ready for action. first strike An initial nuclear attack by one country intended to destroy an adversary’s strategic nuclear forces. intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) A land-based missile capable of traveling more than 3,000 nautical miles to deliver one or more warheads. intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF) Sometimes called theater nuclear forces, these weapons have a range of about 3,000 miles. Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

281

missile experimental (MX) An American ICBM capable of carrying as many as 10 MIR Vs. multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) A vehicle loaded with a warhead and mounted, along with similar vehicles, on one ballistic missile. Once separated from the missile, each MIRV can be directed against a different target. mutual assured destruction (MAD) The ability of both the United States and the Soviet Union to inflict damage so severe that neither is willing to initiate a nuclear attack. neutron bomb An “enhanced radiation weapon,’’ this nuclear bomb is designed primarily to kill people and to inflict less damage on buildings than other bombs. nuclear freeze The immediate halt to the development, production, transfer, and deployment of nuclear weapons. second strike A retaliatory nuclear attack launched after being hit by an opponent’s first strike. strategic defense initiative (SDI) Popularly known as “Star Wars,’’ SDI was President Ronald Reagan’s 1983 proposal to build a space-based, defensive system that could establish a protective shield over the United States and its allies with the capability to shoot down incoming ballistic missiles. strategic weapons or arms Long-range weapons capable of hitting an adversary’s territory. ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers are so classified. submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) A ballistic missile carried in and launched from a submarine. surface-to-air missile (SAM) A missile launched from Earth’s surface for the purpose of knocking down an adversary’s airplanes. tactical nuclear weapons Low-yield nuclear weapons for battlefield use. triad The three-part structure of American strategic forces (ICBMs, SLBMs, and strategic bombers). warhead The part of a missile that contains the nuclear explosive intended to inflict damage.

TABLE 10.25 SELECT U.S., SOVIET, AND FRENCH BALLISTIC MISSILES TESTED AND DEPLOYED Maxi- No. Tested mum Before Highest Total Range DeployNo. No. (km) ment Deployed Built

Type

First Flight

U.S.A

Redstone Atlas Titan-1 Pershing-1 Titan-2 Lance Pershing-2 MX

1953 1957 1960 1960 1962 1965 1982 1983

500 8 000 11 000 740 11 000 125 1 800 10 000

37 45 47 69 33 156 26 20

... 132 54 216 54 ... 108 50

... (300)a 163 827 ... 2 391 336 117

USSR

SS-13 SS-17 SS-18 SS-19 SS-20 SS-23

1965 1972 1972 1973 1974 1976

... ... ... ... ... ...

44 30 35 27 (40)a (40)a

60 150 308 360 405 310

... ... ... ... (740)a (420)a

France

S-2 S-3 Pluton

1965 1977 1968

2 700 3 000 120

27 21 36

18 18 44

55 52 106

Country

a

Data in parentheses are estimates. Source: Aaron Karp, Ballistic Missile Proliferation (New York, 1996), 139.

Source: Paterson, Clifford, and Hagan, American Foreign Relations, Vol. II, 373.

TABLE 10.26 NUCLEAR ARSENALS—STRATEGIC DELIVERY SYSTEMS OF THE SUPERPOWERS, 1960–1990 United States

ICBM SLBM LRB

ICBM SLBM LRB

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

18 32 450

63 96 600

294 144 630

424 224 630

834 416 630

854 496 630

904 592 600

1054 656 540

1054 656 480

1054 656 450

1054 656 405

1054 656 360

1054 656 390

1054 656 397

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1988

1990

1054 656 397

1054 656 397

1054 656 387

1054 656 373

1054 656 366

1054 656 365

1054 656 338

1052 576 316

1052 520 316

1045 568 272

1037 592 241

1030 616 324

1000 640 396

1000 592 311

Soviet Union

ICBM SLBM LRB

ICBM SLBM LRB

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

35 na na

50 na na

75 na na

100 100 na

200 120 na

270 120 na

300 125 na

460 130 155

800 130 155

1050 130 150

1300 160 140

1510 280 140

1530 560 140

1575 628 140

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1988

1990

1618 720 140

1527 784 135

1477 845 135

1350 909 135

1400 1028 135

1398 1028 156

1398 1028 156

1398 989 150

1398 989 150

1398 980 143

1398 981 143

1398 966 165

1382 922 155

1356 930 162

na ICBM SLBM LRB Source:

no statistics available Intercontinental ballistic missiles Submarine-launched ballistic missiles Long-range bombers Cook, Facts On File World Almanac, 337.

282


TABLE 10.27

COMMISSIONED SHIPS OF THE U.S. NAVY, 1945–1990

Ship Type Submarines—conventional SS-SSK-SSR SSG auxiliary Submarines–nuclear SSN-SSRN SSGN SSBN auxiliary (total submarines) Aircraft carriers CVB-CVA-CVAN-CV-CVN CVS CVL CVE Battleships BB Cruisers CAG-CG-CLG-CGN CA (8-inch guns) CL (6-inch guns) CLAA (5-inch guns) Frigates DL DLG-DLGN Destroyers DD-DDE-DDK-DDR DDG Escort Ships/Frigates DE-DER/FF-FFR DEG/FFG Flagships/Command Ships AGC-CC-CLC-LCC-AGF AMPHIBIOUS SHIPS

1945

1950

1953

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

83 ... 15

59 ... 26

11 ... 2

6 ... 1

4 ... 1

– ... 1

22

48 ... 41 ... (174)

64 ... 41 ... (118)

73 ... 40 ... (120)

94 ... 37 2 (138)

87 ... 34 2 (124)

15 ... ... ...

13 ... ... ...

13 ... ... ...

12 ... ... ...

237 ... ...

73 ... ...

122 1 7

121 2 18

113 4 20

... ... ... ... (237)

... ... ... ... (73)

... ... ... ... (130)

1 ... ... ... (142)

7 1 2 ... (147)

20 8 70

7 ... 4 4

17 ... 5 17

16 5 1 3

14 9 ... ...

... ...

15 4 ... ...

25

1

4

3

...

...

...

...

...

2

... 24 42 6

... 9 3 1

... 15 3 1

... 10 3 ...

6 6 ... ...

12 2

10 2 ... ...

27 ... ... ...

27 ... ... ...

30 ... ... ...

43 ... ... ...

... ...

... ...

... ...

5 ...

5 4

5 20

... 20

... ...

... ...

... ...

... ...

372 ...

142 ...

246 ...

244 ...

211

189117 33

122 37

32 38

43 37

3111 37

31 22

365 ...

11 ...

89 ...

64 ...

41 ...

39121 ...

41 6

58 6

59 13

5316 4714

36112 35116

18 ~3,300

6 83

113

7 132

3 95

3 62

3 5815

4 5812

4 5913

...

}

226

}

175

}

... 29 ... (149) 16 9

... ...

3

Note: Frigates (DL–DIG–DLGN) were classified as CG–CGN–DDG in 1975. The various designations within ship categories represent differences, sometimes small, in usage or construction of the vessel. Perhaps the most meaningful observation is that up to the 1960s ships largely were of Second World War vintage, armed with guns, powered with diesel engines. Beginning in and after the 1960s, they were likely to be larger, nuclear powered, armed with missiles (and fewer guns). Appearance of an “N’’ in ship classification mean that the vessel was nuclear powered; appearance of a “G’’ indicated it fired missiles. There also was a new kind of submarine, the SSBN, the nuclear, ballistic missilefiring submarine—a naval weapon with a nonnaval function. Source: Norman Polmar, The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet (Annapolis, 1993), 611.

TABLE 10.28

AIRCRAFT CARRIERS—EARLY YEARS

Number

Name

CV 9 CV 10 CV 11 CV 12 CV 13 CV 14 CV 15 CV 16 CV 17 CV 18 CV 19 CV 20 CV 21 CVL 22–30

Essex Yorktown Intrepid Hornet Franklina Ticonderoga Randolph Lexingtonb Bunker Hilla Wasp Hancock Bennington Boxer Independence-class light carriers Bon Homme Richard Leytea Kearsarge Oriskany Reprisal Antietam Princeton Shangri-La Lake Champlain Tarawaa Midway (large)

CV 31 CV 32 CV 33 CV 34 CV 35 CV 36 CV 37 CV 38 CV 39 CV 40 CVB 41

Commissioned

Stricken

1942 1943 1943 1943 1944 1944 1944 1943 1943 1943 1944 1944 1945

Jun. 1, 1973 Jun. 1, 1973 Sep. 30, 1980 Jul. 25, 1989 Oct. 1, 1964 Nov. 16, 1973 Jun. 1, 1973

1944 1946 1946 1950 cancelled 1945 1945 1945 1944 1945 1945 1945

Sep. 20, 1989 Jun. 1, 1969 May 1, 1973 Jul. 25, 1989

Nov. 1, 1966 Jul. 1, 1972 Dec. 31, 1975 Sep. 20, 1989 Dec. 1, 1969

May 1, 1973 Jan. 30, 1970 Jul. 15, 1982 Dec. 1, 1969 Jun. 1, 1967 ...

a

Aviation transports Training carrier Source: Polmar, Guide to Ships and Aircraft, 96.

b


283

USS Enterprise, the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Here in the Gulf of Tonkin, Enterprise prepares to recover Skyhawk aircraft from attack in Vietnam. (National Archives)

TABLE 10.29

AIRCRAFT CARRIERS—THE MODERN ERA Laid Down

Ship Name

Type

Hull Builder

Launched

D

M

Y

D

M

Completed Y

D

M

Y

01 19 14 01 10 10 16

10 05 04 02 08 01 05

55 85 56 83 57 59 88

Forrestal Forrestal—Slepa Saratoga Saratoga—Slepa Ranger Independence Independence—Slepa

CV CV CV CV CV CV CV

59 Newport News 59 Phila. N.Y. 60 Brooklyn N.Y. 60 Phila. N.Y. 61 Newport News 62 Brooklyn N.Y. 62 Phila. N.Y.

14 21 16 01 02 01 18

07 01 12 10 07 07 04

52 83 52 80 54 55 85

11

12

54

08

10

55

29 06

09 06

56 58

Kitty Hawk Kitty Hawk—Slepa Constellation Constellation—Slepa Enterprise Enterprise—Rcohc America

CV CV CV CV CVNb CVNb CV

63 NYSB, Camden 63 Phila. N.Y. 64 Brooklyn N.Y. 64 Phila. N.Y. 65 Newport News 65 Newport News 66 Newport News

27 28 14 02 04

12 01 09 07 02

21

05

60

29

04

08

10

60

27

10

24

09

60

25

11

09

01

56 88 57 90 58 1991 61

01

02

64

23

01

61 1991 61 1993 61 1994 65

John F. Kennedy Nimitz Dwight D. Eisenhower CarlVinson Theodore Roosevelt

CV CVNb CVNb CVNb CVNb

67 Newport News 68 Newport News 69 Newport News 70 Newport News 71 Newport News

22 22 14 11 31

11 06 08 10 10

64 68 70 75 81

27 13 11 15 27

05 05 10 03 10

67 72 75 80 84

07 03 18 13 25

09 05 10 03 10

68 75 77 82 86

Abraham Lincoln GeorgeWashington John C. Stennis Harry S.Truman Ronald Reagan

CVNb CVNb CVNb CVNb CVNb

72 Newport News 73 Newport News 74 Newport News 75 Newport News 76 Newport News

03 25

84 86

13 21

88 90

11

11

89 1991

a

11 08 in planning in planning in planning

Slep: Service Life-Extension Project. CVN: Nuclear-Powered Aircraft Carrier. c Rcoh: Refueling and Complex Overhaul. Source: Timothy M. Laur and Steven L. Llanso, Encyclopedia of Modern U.S. Military Weapons (New York, 1995), 469. b

284


02 07 in planning in planning in planning

in planning in planning in planning

TABLE 10.30 Number

STRATEGIC-MISSILE SUBMARINES—“LAFAYETTE’’ CLASS (POSEIDON) Name

FY

Builder

Laid down

Launched

Commissioned

Status

SSBN 616 SSBN 617 SSBN 619 SSBN 620 SSBN 622

Lafayette Alexander Hamilton Andrew Jackson John Adams James Monroe

61 61 61 61 S61

General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat Mare Island Naval Shipyard Portsmouth Naval Shipyard Newport News Shipbuilding

Jan. 17, 1961 Jun. 26, 1961 Apr. 26, 1961 May 19, 1961 Jul. 31, 1961

May 8, 1962 Aug. 18, 1962 Sep. 15, 1962 Jan. 12, 1963 Aug. 4, 1962

Apr. 23, 1963 Jun. 27, 1963 Jul. 3, 1963 May 12, 1964 Dec. 7, 1963

decomm. (1990s) decomm. (1990s) decomm./str. Sep. 6, 1989 decomm./str. Sep. 30, 1989 decomm./str. Sep. 25, 1990


Nathan Hale WoodrowWilson Henry Clay DanielWebster James Madison

S61 S61 S61 S61 62

General Dynamics/Electric Boat Mare Island Naval Shipyard Newport News Shipbuilding General Dynamics/Electric Boat Newport News Shipbuilding

Oct. 2, 1961 Sep. 13, 1961 Oct. 22, 1961 Dec. 28, 1961 Mar. 5, 1962

Jan. 12, 1963 Feb. 22, 1963 Nov 30, 1962 Apr. 27, 1963 Mar. 15, 1963

Nov 23, 1963 Dec. 27, 1963 Feb. 20, 1964 Apr. 9, 1964 Jul. 28, 1964

decomm./str. Nov 3, 1986 decomm. (1990s) decomm./str. Nov 6, 1990 decomm.; to MTS 626a decomm. (1990s)


Tecumseh Daniel Boone John C. Calhoun Ulysses S. Grant Von Steuben

62 62 62 62 62

General Dynamics/Electric Boat Mare Island Naval Shipyard Newport News Shipbuilding General Dynamics/Electric Boat Newport News Shipbuilding

Jun. 1, 1962 Feb. 6, 1962 Jun. 4, 1962 Aug. 18, 1962 Sep. 4, 1962

Jun. 22, 1963 Jun. 22, 1963 Jun. 22, 1963 Nov 2, 1963 Oct. 18, 1963

May 29, 1964 Apr. 23, 1964 Sep. 15, 1964 Jul. 17, 1964 Sep. 30, 1964

SSBN 633 SSBN 634 SSBN 635

Casimir Pulaski Stonewall Jackson Sam Rayburn

62 62 62

General Dynamics/Electric Boat Mare Island Naval Shipyard Newport News Shipbuilding

Jan. 12, 1963 Jul. 4, 1962 Dec. 3, 1962

Feb. 1, 1964 Nov 30, 1963 Dec. 20, 1963

Aug. 14, 1964 Aug. 26, 1964 Dec. 2, 1964

SSBN 636 SSBN 640

Nathanael Greene Benjamin Franklin

62 63

Portsmouth Naval Shipyard General Dynamics/Electric Boat

May 21, 1962 May 25, 1963

May 12, 1964 Dec. 5, 1964

Dec. 19, 1964 Oct. 22, 1965


Simon Bolivar Kamehameha George Bancroft Lewis and Clark James K. Polk

63 63 63 63 63

Newport News Shipbuilding Mare Island Naval Shipyard General Dynamics/Electric Boat Newport News Shipbuilding General Dynamics/Electric Boat

Apr. 17, 1963 May 2, 1963 Aug. 24, 1963 Jul. 29, 1963 Nov 23, 1963

Aug. 22, 1964 Jan. 16, 1965 Mar. 20, 1965 Nov 21, 1964 May 22, 1965

Oct. 29, 1965 Dec. 10, 1965 Jan. 22, 1966 Dec. 22, 1965 Apr. 16, 1966

SSBN 654 SSBN 655 SSBN 656 SSBN 657 SSBN 658 SSBN 659

George C. Marshall Henry L Stimson GeorgeWashington Carver Francis Scott Key Mariano G.Vallejo Will Rogers

64 64 64 64 64 64

Newport News Shipbuilding General Dynamics/Electric Boat Newport News Shipbuilding General Dynamics/Electric Boat Mare Island Naval Shipyard General Dynamics/Electric Boat

Mar. 2, 1964 Apr. 4, 1964 Aug. 24, 1964 Dec. 5, 1964 Jul. 7, 1964 Mar. 20, 1965

May 21, 1965 Nov 13, 1965 Aug. 14, 1965 Apr. 23, 1966 Oct. 23, 1965 Jul. 21, 1966

Apr. 29, 1966 Aug. 20, 1966 Jun. 15, 1966 Dec. 3, 1966 Dec. 16, 1966 Apr. 1, 1967

decomm. (1990s) b b

decomm. (1990s) decomm. (1990s)

b b b

decomm./str. Jul. 31, 1989; to MTS 635a decomm. Dec. 12, 1986; str. Jan. 31, 1987 b b

to transport submarine b

decomm. (1990s) to transport submarine decomm. (1990s) decomm. (1990s) decomm. (1990s)

b b b

decomm. (1990s)

Specifications Displacement: 6,650 tons light 7,250 tons standard 8,250 tons submerged Length: 425 feet (129.6 m) overall Beam: 33 feet (10.06 m) Draft: 311/2 feet (9.6 m) Propulsion: 2 steam turbines; 15,000 shp; 1 shaft Reactors: 1 pressurized-water S5W (Westinghouse) Speed: approx. 20 knots surface approx. 25 knots submerged Manning: approx. 150(15 officers 1 135 enlisted) Missiles: 16 tubes for Poseidon C-3 SLBM, each with 10 warheads. (Original equipment was the Polaris SLBM, each with a single warhead.) a

MTS means Moored Training Ships. Eventually rearmed with upgraded Trident C-4 missiles. Source: Polmar, Guide to Ships and Aircraft, 59.

b


285

TABLE 10.31

NUCLEAR-PROPELLED STRATEGIC-MISSILE SUBMARINES—“OHIO’’ CLASS (TRIDENT)

Number

Name

FY

Builder

SSBN 726 SSBN 727 SSBN 728 SSBN 729 SSBN 730 SSBN 731 SSBN 732 SSBN 733 SSBN 734 SSBN 735 SSBN 736 SSBN 737 SSBN 738 SSBN 739 SSBN 740 SSBN 741 SSBN 742 SSBN 743

Ohio Michigan Florida Georgia Henry M. Jackson Alabama Alaska Nevada Tennessee Pennsylvania WestVirginia Kentucky Maryland Nebraska Rhode Island Maine Wyoming Louisiana

74 75 75 76 77 78 78 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91

General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat General Dynamics/Electric Boat

Laid Down Apr. 10, 1976 Apr. 4, 1977 Jun. 9, 1977 Apr. 7, 1979 Jan. 19, 1981 Aug. 27, 1981 Mar. 9, 1983 Aug. 8, 1983 Jun. 9, 1986 Mar. 2, 1987 Dec. 18, 1987 Dec. 18, 1987 Dec. 18, 1987 Dec. 18, 1987 Apr. 23, 1988 Apr. 4, 1989 Jan. 27, 1990 ...

Launched

Commissioned

Apr. 7, 1979 Apr. 26, 1980 Nov. 14, 1981 Nov. 6, 1982 Oct. 15, 1983 May 19, 1984 Jan. 12, 1985 Sep. 14, 1985 Dec. 13, 1986 Apr. 23, 1988 Oct. 14, 1989 Aug. 11, 1990 ... ... ... ... ... ...

Nov. 11, 1981 Sep. 11, 1982 Jun. 18, 1983 Feb. 11, 1984 Oct. 6, 1984 May 25, 1985 Jan. 25, 1986 Aug. 16, 1986 Dec. 17, 1988 Sep. 9, 1989 Oct. 20, 1990 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Specifications Displacement: 16,764 tons standard 18,750 tons submerged 560 feet (170.7 m) overall Length: Beam: 42 feet (12.8 m) Draft: 361/4 feet (11.05 m) Propulsion: 2 steam turbines (General Electric); 1 shaft Reactors: 1 pressurized-reactor S8G (General Electric) Speed: 28 knots surface approx. 30 knots submerged Manning: approx. 172 (16 officers 1 156 enlisted) Missiles: 24 tubes for Trident C-4 SLBM in SSBN 726–733; 24 Tubes Trident D-5 in 734–743 Each missile carried 8 warheads. Source: Polmar, Guide to Ships and Aircraft, 56.

Submarine Ohio with missile tubes open: It was the first of newest and largest class of Trident ballistic missile submarines. (Defense Visual Information Center)

286


TABLE 10.32 U.S./SOVIET MILITARY COMPARISON, 1960

Statistical Summary (January 1960) Land Power

Statistical Summary (January 1960) Manpower

U.S. 2,476,000

USSR 3,623,000

Manpower Army/Ground Forces Marines/Naval Infantry Divisions Army/Ground Forces Marines/Naval Infantry Tanks

U.S. Standing 21,147,000

Strategic Nuclear Offense Bombers Long-range Medium-range Cruise missiles Ballistic missiles ICBMs SLBMs Warheads Defense ABM Interceptor aircraft Surface-to-air missiles Theater Nuclear

Tactical Air Forces 540 1,775 30

160–190 1,000 A few

1350–380 1775 About 130

12 48 60

Under 50 48 Under 100

About 238 Par About 240

0 2,700 4,400

0 5,000 4,800

Par 22,300 2400

U.S.

MRBM/IRBM Other

U.S.

51 Many

USSR

U.S. Standing

200 A few

2149 1Many

USSR

U.S. Standing

873,000 170,600

2,250,000 A few

21,377,000 1170,600

14 3 12,975

136 0 35,000

2122 13 222,025

U.S.

USSR

U.S. Standing

4,000 0 1,000

22,195 11,300 21,000

USSR

U.S. Standing

0 23 124 13 404 0 500

123 210 1102 128 2293 1113 2500

USSR

U.S. Standing

1,065 873

1660 181

Fighter/attack Land-based Carrier-based Medium-range bombers Naval Forces

1,805 1,300 0 U.S.

Aircraft carriers Cruisers Destroyers Frigates/other escorts Attack submarines Amphibious ships Land-based bombers Mobility Forces

23 13 226 41 111 113 0 U.S.

Airlift Sealift

1,725 954

Source: Ray Bonds, The U.S. War Machine (New York, 1983), 266.

TABLE 10.33

STRATEGIC OFFENSIVE FORCES OF THE SUPERPOWERS, 1990 United States

Delivery Vehicle Type

Weapon

Launchers Deployed

Soviet Union

Warheads/ Launchers

Total Warheads

Weapon

Launchers Deployed

Warheads/ Launcher

Ballistic missiles Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM)

Minuteman II Minuteman III MX

450 500 50

1 3 10

450 1,500 500

SS-18 SS-24 SS-25 SS-11 SS-13 SS-17 SS-19

308 60 225 350 60 75 320

10 10 1 1 1 4 6

Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM)

Poseidon C-3 Trident C-4 Trident D-5

192 384 48

10 8 8

1,920 3,072 384

SS-N-6 SS-N-8 SS-N-17 SS-N-18 SS-N-20 SS-N-23

192 280 12 224 120 96

1 1 1 7 10 4

1,624

...

2,322

...

75 15 95

8 8 1 ...

Total ballistic missiles START limit

7,826 (4,900)

Bombers With air-launched cruise missiles Without air-launched cruise missiles Total bombers Grand total START limit

B-52G B-52H B-1B B-52G/H

77 95 95 39

10 10 1 1

770 950 95 39

Bear Blackjack Bear

306

...

1,854

185

1,930

...

9,680

2,497

...

(1,600)

...

(6,000)

(1,660)

...

Note: “. . .’’ indicates not applicable. Data as of June 1, 1990. “START’’ refers to the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks between the United States and Union. Shown are strategic forces under START counting rules. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 348.


287

F-117 Nighthawk Stealth fighter plane—modern technology that evaded detection by radar (Defense Visual Information Center)

TABLE 10.34

EXAMPLES OF U.S. WEAPON SYSTEM COSTS

(millions of 1988 U.S. dollars) Weapon System Nuclear aircraft carrier Trident II submarine Aegis cruiser B-1B bomber C-17A cargo aircraft Trident II missile F-15 fighter aircraft F-16 fighter aircraft UH-60 helicopter M-1 tank Harpoon antiship missile Sparrow antiaircraft missile

Unit Cost

Number Program Cost

3,046 1,486 987 261 126 36 33 16 6.5 2.5 1.2 0.19

2 11 27 100 211 845

6,092 16,350 26,658 26,142 26,607 30,451

1,286 2,737 1,121 7,857 4,023 14,309

41,904 43,147 7,233 19,947 4,996 2,724

Source: Trevor N. Dupuy, International Military and Defense Encyclopedia, Vol. 6 (New York, 1993), 2687.

Instruments of American Policy: Alliances The first military alliance of the United States had been a treaty signed with France in 1778, during the American Revolution.While the alliance had been helpful, possibly indispensable, in winning independence, it did become troublesome in its later stages, threatening to entangle the new nation in seemingly interminable quarrels of Europe. It was said that this unpleasant experience—fostered, one might add, by American isolation 288


and a popular perception of the nation’s uniqueness—caused the United States to avoid “foreign’’ alliances for more than 150 years. The two world wars had produced temporary working arrangements with “allied’’ nations, but the government had assumed no commitment to guarantee any nation support for the future.The cold war and the preeminent postwar position of the United States changed that situation, abruptly and in a major way. America’s second military alliance, the NATO Pact of 1949, committed the United States to defend much of a continent: 10 European nations (and Canada) at first and eventually there would be 15.The alliance remained in operation, if with modified objectives, as the century drew to a close. After the first step, other alliances came quickly, although—one would hope—not easily. Some were bilateral, with a single country; others involved regional groups of nations. The Rio Pact with Latin America in fact had preceded NATO, but while it carried a potential for military application, it did not constitute a hard and fast military agreement on the order of the Atlantic Alliance. The upshot was that the United States found itself committed to the defense of many of the world’s nations, the chief exceptions being the Soviet bloc, of course, and the nations of Africa.The arrangement produced a possible scenario of two nations contemplating war, as in the case of Greece and Turkey in the 1960s, and the United States would be committed to defend both. And there was more:The United States did not need a treaty to come to the protection of a country. It intervened on behalf of South Korea without a promise to do so; the treaty came later. The United States had no alliance with South Vietnam, but it fought an eight-year war on its behalf. No treaty with Israel existed, but virtually no one doubted that if Israel was about to go down, the Americans would step in.The government’s duty to protect the nation, it would appear, had taken on peculiar meaning.

ALLIANCES OF THE UNITED STATES DURING THE COLD WAR GREENLAND (DENMARK)

UNITED STATES (Alaska)

ICELAND

BELGIUM DENMARK LUXEMBOURG NETHERLANDS WEST GERMANY

NORWAY UNITED KINGDOM

CANADA

FRANCE

UNITED STATES

PACIFIC OCEAN UNITED STATES (Hawaii)

PORTUGAL

BAHAMAS

MEXICO CUBA

SPAIN

ITALY TURKEY

JAPAN

GREECE

SOUTH KOREA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

TAIWAN

HAITI DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

HONDURAS GUATEMALA TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO EL SALVADOR VENEZUELA NICARAGUA COLOMBIA COSTA RICA PANAMA ECUADOR PERU

THAILAND

Rio Treaty, 1947

PHILIPPINES

BRAZIL BOLIVIA

CHILE

PACIFIC OCEAN

PAKISTAN

INDIAN OCEAN

PARAGUAY

AUSTRALIA

URUGUAY ARGENTINA

NEW ZEALAND

NATO, 1949 Australia, New Zealand, U.S. pact (ANZUS), 1951 Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, 1954 (Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States) Bilateral Defense Treaties (Philippines, 1951; Japan, 1952, 1960; South Korea, 1953; Taiwan, 1954)

UNITED STATES COLLECTIVE DEFENSE TREATIES Members of Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty)

Members of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Argentina Bahamas Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba (suspended Jan. 1962) Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala

Belgium Canada Denmark France Greece Iceland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain

The Secret Cold War: World of the CIA Among the many fronts of the cold war was the shadowy, secret domain of intelligence, a realm that the American government largely assigned to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).The long duration, global dimension, and multiple contested points of the cold war perhaps made it inevitable that the CIA would move beyond gathering information. Secrecy of operations left the agency in a position to execute policy, even initiate it by spreading propaganda in a foreign land, influencing elections, organizing coups—even the assassination of a leader. The most aggressive covert activities of the 1950s and 1960s produced both successes and failures. The post-Vietnam syndrome of the 1970s inspired investigations of the CIA and congressional efforts to halt most clandestine operations. The Reagan administration attempted to reinvigorate “the Company’’ under an aggressive director, William Casey, and the examples of not-so-secret activity in Afghanistan and Nicaragua suggested that the results, again, were mixed. The cold war’s end seemed certain to change the role of the CIA, but in 1990 one could not tell how much or in what ways.

Haiti Honduras Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela

Turkey United Kingdom United States West Germany

Instruments of American Policy: Covert Activitya Iran (1953) President: Eisenhower. CIA efforts to encourage opposition to leftist, nationalist prime minister, Mohammad Mossadegh. Result: success—Mossadegh is deposed; the king (shah) returns to power, grateful to the Americans. Guatemala (1954) President: Eisenhower. CIA helps undermine leftist, reformist president, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmàn, who had seized American property. Result: Arbenz is deposed in favor of conservative military leader, Col. C. Castillo Armas, but troubles in Guatemala continue. Cuba (1961) President: Eisenhower/Kennedy. The Bay of Pigs Project. Poorly kept CIA effort to overthrow Castro regime in Cuba, using counterrevolutionary Cuban forces. Result: failure—plot is foiled; rebels captured; United States is embarrassed. Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

289

Cuba (1961–63) President: Kennedy. Various, often bizarre, CIA plots to assassinate Castro. Result: failure—all plots fail; Castro lives on. Chile (1973) President: Nixon. CIA organizes opposition to Salvador Allende, popularly elected Marxist president who seized American copper assets. Result: success—Allende is deposed (and assassinated), to be replaced by ultraconservative military leader. Nicaragua (1980s) President: Reagan. Not-so-secret American effort to organize a counterforce, called the Contras, to leftist Sandinista government. Result: Controversial project fails, but it does weaken the Nicaraguan regime. Afghanistan (1980s) President: Reagan. CIA-managed program to funnel military aid, notably the Stinger ground-to-air missile, to Afghans who are resisting Soviet intervention. Result: general success as Soviets become bogged down and then pull out; the Afghan victors, however, were neither saints nor democrats. Iran-Contra episode (1985–86) President: Reagan. A conspiracy within a conspiracy. When Congress refused aid for Contras in Nicaragua, people in the National Security Council, that is, Lt. Col. Oliver North, secretly sold arms to Iran, presumably the U.S.’s bitterest foe, and used the money to aid the Contras. Result: Plot was exposed; Reagan presidency threatened; a $40 million investigation followed, but no one was punished. a

Secret or not-so-secret activity, usually by the Central Intelligence Agency, to influence events in a foreign country. Projects extended to support for, weakening, even assassinating, a country’s leader or deposing its government.

Instruments of American Foreign Policy: Armed Intervention Korea (1950–1953) President: Truman/Eisenhower. The United States fought a three-year war against communist forces of North Korea and China. Result: a draw, no victor, but independence of South Korea was preserved; government claimed that containment succeeded. Lebanon (1958) President: Eisenhower. Some 14,000 marines sent ostensibly to keep communism out, in truth to prevent victory of anti-Western regime. Result: status quo preserved, but Arab nationalists were furious. Dominican Republic (1965) President: Johnson. Some 20,000 soldiers sent to prevent a leftist regime coming to power. Result: conservatives will achieve power, but Latin Americans saw more Yankee imperialism. Vietnam (1965–73) President: Johnson/Nixon. More than 500,000 troops engaged in long war to keep communism from Southern Vietnam and Southeast Asia. Result: failure in all respects—casualties high; United States is divided; communists win. Grenada (1983) President: Reagan. Perhaps partly a move to recapture American military morale. Forces sent to rescue American students caught in a civil conflict and to keep out a leftist, ProCuban regime. Result: success but at huge cost in money and casualties. Lebanon (1983) President: Reagan. Some 1,200 marines sent as peace keepers in Syrian-Palestinian-Israeli-internal Lebanese conflict in Lebanon—a real mess. Objective is honorable but unobtainable. Result: failure—some 250 marines killed; Americans are driven out. Not directly part of cold war. Panama (1989) President: Bush: 23,000 troops sent to depose and capture Manuel Noriega, corrupt, defiant dictator engaged in drug traffic. 290


Result: Noriega is captured and imprisoned in the United States, but costs are very high for United States and Panamanians. Not directly part of the cold war. Persian Gulf (1990) President: Bush. Half-million Americans lead a multinational force to protect Saudi Arabia and liberate Kuwait from conquest by Iraq. Oil has much to do with it. Result: Outcome not determined, but allied force should win. Not directly part of cold war; venture perhaps made possible by its ending.

The Vietnam War The Vietnam War grew out of the paranoia and perceptions of the early years of the cold war when conclusions that years later would be proven false seemed altogether valid. At the time the United States first established a policy toward French Indochina—of which Vietnam was a major part—communism was indeed a powerful world force; the Soviet Union was the acknowledged leader (even Mao Zedong in China had recognized that point), and in Eastern Europe the USSR was the dominant fact of political life. Its will prevailed. Specialists in the history and culture of East Asia could explain that that continent was different, that postwar revolutions in Asia were independent, largely anticolonial movements, and to the extent that communism became a force (as it frequently did), it was nationalistic and pluralistic, as opposed to being part of the large monolithic undertaking that the government of the United States claimed to have detected. Such observations at the time could only be offered as interpretation, even speculation; communism was a new force, untested in many ways, but showing a great deal of momentum in the years following the Second World War. So it was that the United States came to oppose communist-led revolutions in Asia, finding them at least oppressive, ineffective in the long run, and contrary to the general interests of the United States. The worst-case scenario identified them as agents—consciously or not—of Soviet imperialism. The American war in Vietnam developed in increments, with the failure of one step providing a basis for another, larger move. Jargon of the Vietnam era termed the process “escalation.’’ Every president from Harry Truman to Richard Nixon had a hand in building the war into the nightmare that it would become in the late 1960s. Probably the most important moves were the commitments to a separate South Vietnamese state assumed by the Dwight Eisenhower administration at the time of the ouster of the French in 1954–55 and the massive increase in military forces sent to Vietnam (more than 500,000)—in effect making the conflict an American war—undertaken by Lyndon Johnson during the years 1965–68. If Richard Nixon received credit for ending the American part in the war, the process took four years, entailed massive bombing campaigns, and came at large loss of life by Americans and people in both Vietnams. By 1967 at latest, the war had become the largest issue in national American life and politics, and matters would continue to worsen. American deaths and injuries multiplied in proportion to the increase in soldiers committed and their engagement in combat. Casual-ties, homelessness, and general suffering of the Vietnamese people increased as the war expanded. Evidence mounted to challenge presumptions and perceptions of the early years of the cold war: about the fraternal unity of all communists, for example. (The Chinese and Russians at that time were almost at one another’s throats.) The case seemed increasingly clear that the conflict in Vietnam was, and always had been, a nationalist, anticolonial revolution. To be sure, the situation was complicated by considerable brutality on the enemy’s side (really on both sides) and by the fact that the Vietnamese differed among themselves on how their land should be run. Many Vietnamese did object to a communist regime imposed by people from the north. But, as one frequently heard it put at the time, “their Vietnamese’’ seemed substantially more determined and effective than “our Vietnamese.’’The nationalist inspiration seemed to be all on the other side.

The F-4 “Phantom’’ fighter-bomber, top-of-the line of the U.S. Air Force in the 1960s, was the main plane of the Vietnam War. (author’s photo)

Finally, if the war devastated Vietnam, it also appeared to carry a danger of destroying the United States. Between 1967 and 1973 the nation experienced a division sharper than at any time since the American Civil War, and the most obvious reason was the war. At first glance it would appear that the division existed along generational lines—the newly emerging baby boomers who provided the troops, but not necessarily the leadership, of the antiwar movement—against the previous generation, or generations, who had grown up in circumstances different from their offspring. It would be interesting to know what direction the 1960s (really the late 1960s and early 1970s) would have taken had there been no war. The Civil Rights Movement earlier had sent out signals of a broadening revolution, and the new generation was giving notice that it wished to make its own rules of social behavior. As it was, the Vietnam War served to broaden, intensify, and validate a revolution in social activity that already had been building.The war was deemed so reprehensible that it explained and legitimized any activity undertaken in the name of opposition—ranging from hair styles and wearing apparel, sexual laxity, and illegal drug use to defying draft laws and the bombing of military recruitment offices, centers for weapons research, and corporation headquarters, places marked out by self-appointed radical leaders as agents of the “establishment.’’ Many Americans came to fear that the country was coming apart and to conclude that people associated with the revolution did not bother to notice or did not seem

to care if it happened.The few genuine, dedicated revolutionaries took satisfaction in the prospect of national rebirth. Whatever the antiwar movement did or did not do, it left a clear message that the United States had to get out of Vietnam. Negotiations to that end had been going on, intermittently, for nearly four years.The armistice agreement finalized in January 1973 by Henry Kissinger for the United States and Le Duc Tho for North Vietnam (for which both would receive the Nobel Peace Prize) would be merciful only for the United States. The final American troops came home; released prisoners-of-war followed shortly.The draft ended on January 27, the day the armistice took effect.The antiwar movement vanished almost overnight and the spirit of revolution died in the land. In Vietnam, however, the killing continued; 1974 produced more deaths than any other year. Nixon’s policy of Vietnamization had been designed to allow South Vietnam to stand indefinitely, but in fact it lasted only some two years. Once the enemy began a major offensive in January 1975, the regime in the south collapsed with remarkable speed.After fighting a substantial battle in early April, South Vietnamese forces either fled or fell back to the capital. The surrender of Saigon on April 30, 1975, brought the war to an end. Combined with victory of leftist revolutionaries (the Khmer Rouge) in Cambodia two weeks earlier and of leftists in Laos (the Pathet Lao) the following year, the defeat sealed not merely a failure of American policy in South Vietnam but in all former French Indochina. Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

291

TABLE 10.35 U.S. MILITARY PERSONNEL IN SOUTH VIETNAM, 1960–1973 Date

Number

Dec. 31, 1960 Dec. 31, 1961 Dec. 31, 1962 Dec. 31, 1963 Dec. 31, 1964 Dec. 31, 1965 Jun. 30, 1966 Dec. 31, 1966 Jun. 30, 1967 Dec. 31, 1967 Jun. 30, 1968 Dec. 31, 1968 Apr. 30, 1969 Jun. 30, 1969 Dec. 31, 1969 Jun. 30, 1970 Dec. 31, 1970 Jun. 30, 1971 Dec. 31, 1971 Jun. 30, 1972 Dec. 31, 1972 Mar. 30, 1973

900 3,205 9,000 16,500 23,300 184,300 267,500 385,300 448,800 485,600 534,700 536,100 543,400 538,700 475,200 414,900 334,600 239,200 156,800 47,000 24,200 240

TABLE 10.36 REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM MILITARY STRENGTH, 1955–1972 Year

Army

Air Force

Navy

1955 1960 1964 1967

170,000 136,000 220,000 303,000

3,500 4,600 11,000 16,000

2,200 4,300 12,000 16,000

1,500 2,000 7,000 8,000

54,000 49,000 96,000 151,000

48,000 48,000 168,000 149,000

1968 1969 1970 1972

380,000 416,000 416,000 410,000

19,000 36,000 46,000 50,000

19,000 30,000 40,000 42,000

9,000 11,000 13,000 14,000

220,000 190,000 207,000 284,000

173,000 214,000 246,000 248,000

Flame-throwing tank of the American First Battalion burns an unidentified village in South Vietnam. (National Archives) Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

Popular Forces

Source: Spence C. Tucker, Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (3 Vols., Santa Barbara, 1998), 526.

Source: Defense Department statistics, reported in George Donelson Moss, Vietnam: An American Ordeal (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1994), 415.

292

Regional Marine Forces Corps

An American soldier is lowered into an enemy tunnel by comrades of the First Cavalry Division. Near Duc Pho,Vietnam. (National Archives)

TABLE 10.37 COMPARATIVE MILITARY CASUALTY FIGURES, 1960–1974 Killed in Action Year

U.S.

RVNAF

Wounded in Action U.S.

TABLE 10.38 CASUALTIES, JANUARY 1, 1961– JANUARY 28, 1973 Country

Number

United States Killed in action Wounded Missing Killed or died, noncombat-related

45,941 300,635 2,330 10,420

South Vietnam Military: Killed in action Military:Wounded Civilian: Killed Civilian:Wounded

220,357 499,026 415,000 935,000

Vietcong/North Vietnam Military: Killed Civilian: North Vietnam

851,000 65,000

Third-Country Forces Military: Killed in action Korea Australia/New Zealand Thailand

4,407 469 351

RVNAF

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

0 11 31 78 147

2,223 4,004 4,457 5,665 7,457

0 2 41 218 522

2,788 5,449 7,195 11,488 17,017

1965 1966 1967

1,369 5,008 9,377

11,242 11,953 12,716

3,308 16,526 32,370

23,118 20,975 29,448

1968 1969

14,589 9,414

27,915 21,833

46,797 32,940

70,696 65,276

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

4,221 1,381 300 237 207

23,346 22,738 39,587 27,901 31,219

15,211 4,767 587 24 0

71,582 60,939 109,960 131,936 155,735

Totals

46,370

254,256

153,313a

783,602

a Pertains only to persons who required hospital care. Another 150,000 did not. Source: Moss, Vietnam, 416.

Source: Moss, Vietnam, 416.


293

TABLE 10.39 STATISTICAL PORTRAIT OF U.S. CASUALTIES IN INDOCHINA Type

TABLE 10.43 U.S. AIR SORTIES IN SOUTH VIETNAM, 1966–1973a Number

Year

Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Helicopters

45,941 300,635 10,420 41,003 4,938

1966 1967 1968 1969

170,044 222,276 281,730 254,841

2,989,546 5,479,518 7,415,452 8,208,099

1970 1971 1972 1973

129,855 40,616 118,575 10,977

7,564,064 4,212,251 1,061,842 67,383

Killed in combat Wounded in combat Died in noncombat situations 90% of combat deaths were enlisted men 10% of combat deaths were officers 60% of combat deaths were age 19–21 22% of combat deaths were age 22–25 18% of combat deaths were age 261 33% of the dead had served less than 1 year 33% of the dead had served between 1 and 2 years

26,931 10,421 8,589 14,995 14,853

Blacks accounted for 12% of the combat deaths Other nonwhites accounted for 1% of the combat deaths Whites accounted for 87% of the combat deaths Draftees accounted for 33% of the combat deaths

5,662 469 39,827 15,404

a

A sortie is a single plane flying a single mission. Source: Clodfelter, Vietnam Statistics, 227, 229.

TABLE 10.44

TOTAL AIRCRAFT LOSSES, 1962–1973

Type

Number

Fixed-wing Aircraft Helicopters

3,719 4,869

Total Aircraft

8,588


TABLE 10.40

U.S. CASUALTIES BY MILITARY SERVICE

Source: Clodfelter, Vietnam Statistics, 228.

Service

Battle Deaths

Nonbattle Deaths

WIA*

Total

Army Navy Marine Corps Air Force Coast Guard

30,905 1,626 13,082 1,739 5

7,275 923 1,754 842 2

96,802 4,178 51,392 931 n.a.

134,974 6,697 66,213 3,435 7

Total

47,357

10,796

153,303

211,326

* Wounded in action Source: Michael Clodfelter, Vietnam in Military Statistics, 1772–1991 (Jefferson, N.C., 1995), 255.

TABLE 10.41

CASUALTIES BY AGE Age

Number KIA

17 18 19 20 21

11 2,602 7,015 11,989 7,953

22 23 24 25 26

3,872 2,841 2,161 1,602 1,116

Estimated number of prostitutes in South Vietnam (1969): 600,000 Venereal disease rate per 1,000 servicemen in Vietnam (1969) 200 Venereal disease rate per 1,000 servicemen in Vietnam (1972) 700 Venereal disease rate per 1,000 adults in the U.S. (1969): 32 Selected Drug Use Estimated percent of servicemen in Vietnam who smoked marijuana: In 1967: 29% In 1969: 50.1 In 1971: 58.5 Number of Vietnam veterans addicted to heroin in 1970: 70,000

TABLE 10.42 CAUSES OF COMBAT AND NONCOMBAT DEATHS

294

Fragginga

Deaths

Number

Combat Deaths Aircraft loss Gunshot or small arms fire Artillery/rocket/other explosion Multiple fragmentation wounds Other causes/unknown

45,941 4,178 18,385 12,350 8,465 2,563

Noncombat Deaths Accidents Illness Murder Suicide Other

10,420 8,483 929 190 379 439


Number of men who fled (to another country, or in hiding) to escape the draft: 30,000 Number of men who deserted their military unit: 20,000 Number of men who deserted in, or in route to,Vietnam: 12,000 Desertion rate per 1,000 men: Army Marines In 1966: 14.7 16.1 In 1971: 73.5 56.1 Desertion rate in Korean War (1953): 22.3 29.6 Desertion at highest point in WW II (1944): 63.0 6.9 Number of deserters from Vietnamese army: 1968–71: 491,000 Venereal Disease



Miscellaneous Information about the Vietnam Military Experience Desertion

1969 Number of documented incidents: 126 Number of documented deaths: 37

1970 271 34

1971 333 12

Total 1,017b ...

a

An attack by a serviceman on a person in command: an officer or noncommissioned officer—named after a fragmentation grenade, a favorite weapon of assault. b Estimates put the number (many were unreported) much higher.

Less than Honorable Discharges, 1965–73 General discharge: Bad conduct discharges: Dishonorable discharges: Undesirable discharges: Total: Source: Clodfelter, Vietnam Statistics, 242, 246–48.

300,000 31,800 2,200 215,000 563,000

TABLE 10.45

U.S. AIRCRAFT LOSSES IN VIETNAM, 1966–1973

Losses

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

4 59 63 199 262

6 29 35 110 145

149 63 212 88 300

4 3 7 24 31

431 431 422 853

224 224 278 502

1 128 129 50 179

4 4 5 9

Fixed-Wing Aircraft Lost in North Vietnam Lost in South Vietnam Total lost in combat Operational losses Total combat and operational

284 118 402 232 634

333 141 474 254 728

143 239 382 275 657

2 156 158 308 466

Helicopters Lost in North Vietnam Lost in South Vietnam Total lost in combat Operational losses Total combat and operational

1 127 128 193 321

4 276 280 383 663

2 558 560 452 1,012

521 521 527 1,048


“Home is where you dig it’’ says the sign over a bunker of soldiers of the Seventh Infantry Regiment,Vietnam. (National Archives) Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

295

Aftermath of Vietnam: The Syndrome The Vietnam War had been a terrible experience for the people of the United States. The war had occupied some eight years of national life, caused the death of more than 58,000 service members and the expenditure of many billions of dollars; it had fractured the body politic in ways that previously had been unthinkable; and all these great costs had produced worse than nothing. Although it would be an error to classify the Vietnam War as a defeat for American military forces, it was an unqualified defeat for the policy of the United States. The reaction was immediate. The people had had enough of noble adventurism in world affairs, or whatever it was, and they were not going to do it again.The mood in the United States after 1973 resembled the attitude after the Great War in 1919, although the anger probably was greater.The United States, after all, had been on the winning side in the First World War. What was deemed the post-Vietnam syndrome manifested itself in several ways.The government was hesitant to become deeply involved in episodes abroad, and if it found reason for activity, it likely would face opposition from Congress, the people, or both. The people distrusted its government, and especially the presidency, in issues pertaining to world affairs, if not generally. The tragedy of Vietnam did correspond with the Watergate scandal, which also reflected upon the integrity of the executive branch. In general the nation seemed to experience a lack of confidence in world affairs, a fear of being burned again, making a mistake similar to the catastrophe of Vietnam. Henry Kissinger, who would be an observer, and as secretary of state under presidents Nixon and Ford, in some measure a victim of this attitude, remarked in his memoirs that Americans wanted to withdraw from world politics in the 1920s because of a belief that the world was not good enough for the United States, but in the post-Vietnam years the Americans pulled back out of a feeling that they were not good enough for the world. Examples of, or What Could Be Interpreted as, Expressions of the Post Vietnam Mentality 1973 War Powers Act. Passed over President Nixon’s veto, designed to restrict sharply presidential war-making power. 1973 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (of 1964—in support of policy in Vietnam) is repealed. Congress, it appears, is trying to take back the war. 1975 President Ford asks for 100 million to assist anticommunist forces in Cambodia. Congress refuses; Cambodia falls to the radical Khmer Rouge. 1975 President Ford asks for nearly $1 billion to assist the regime in South Vietnam. Congress refuses; South Vietnam falls to the enemy in April. 1975 President Ford and Secretary Kissinger seek congressional support for influencing a civil war in Angola; Congress refuses. 1975 Senate Intelligence Committee (Frank Church Committee) investigates activities of intelligence agencies, FBI and CIA, especially in foreign policy. Revelations about brazen behavior (attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro, for example) leads to restraints placed on CIA. 1977 President Carter completes negotiation of a treaty that will relinquish control of the canal to Panama; doubtless a proper policy, but critics see it (probably correctly) as another surrender of American world power. 1979 President Carter recognizes the People’s Republic of China, completing a policy started by Nixon; the agreement requires that the United States abrogate a security pact—and break relations— with Taiwan. 1979 SALT II arms limitation agreement with the USSR. Critics charge that Carter surrendered to the Russians; treaty never will be ratified. 296


1979 Iranian Revolution ousts the shah, paving the way for a radical, Islamic theocracy. Probably inevitable, but the United States nonetheless loses a loyal and powerful ally in the Persian Gulf. Carter administration barely lifts a finger. 1979 Nicaraguan revolution. Ousts Anastasio Somoza, a brutal, oppressive, but pro-American dictator. Carter’s acquiesence is honorable, but even so, the United States will face a leftist, antiAmerican regime of the Sandinistas. 1979 Beginning of the Iranian hostage crisis. The ultimate humiliation, compounded by Iranian celebration and defiance on television and by a bungled rescue effort in 1980. Carter is held responsible for impotence of the United States in world affairs.The people have had enough of self-condemnation, and the pendulum of attitude starts to swing back, even before Reagan administration arrives. 1980s Ronald Reagan comes to the presidency pledged to sweep away guilt and self-doubt in favor of a restoration of American power, prestige, and confidence. His rhetoric and gestures in world politics are mostly cosmetic but nonetheless impressive and very popular. Even so, the memory of the past war lingers. For all his preoccupation with influencing events in El Salvador and Nicaragua, Reagan refrains from commiting American military forces; the people still do not want “another Vietnam.’’ 1990 Popular support for a substantial military undertaking in the Persian Gulf is solid; international support is widespread.

Instruments of American Policy: Foreign Aid and Sale of Military Goods The United States was rich at the start of the postwar period, and much of the world was not only poor but—partly because of its poverty—vulnerable to movements that in the American assessment would be hazardous to its welfare and to the interests and well-being of the United States.The primary cause of poverty, at least at the start, was the destruction resulting from the Second World War; the primary threat came from communism, either through deceptive enticements in its literature and rhetoric or from its serving as a front for Soviet imperialism. So the Americans, or many of them, saw it. The United States responded with foreign aid—economic, military, or both. Some of it was humanitarian; much of it was political. Usually the United States did not see a conflict or even a distinction between the two. Humanitarian aid could serve another worthy end—keeping the communists or Russians out of a place. Foreign economic and military aid and its cousin, sale of military goods, became familiar parts of cold-war policies of the United States and, of course, of the Soviet Union. Critics looked at some of it as bribery, as indeed it was. Which country received what kind of aid depended on circumstances. Many nations needed both economic and military help.The program probably started in Greece and Turkey and the Truman Doctrine of 1947.With passage of time and economic recovery, more countries could pay for goods received, and military aid became sale of arms. In many cases aid represented an implementation of the global alliance system. In other cases the nation was friendly but not formally an ally of the United States. Saudi Arabia, which fell into such a category, did not need aid, but it wanted arms and was prepared to pay. The nation that received the largest amount of military aid was South Vietnam. South Korea was second. Selling arms, of course, constituted a business transaction, and there persisted a possibility for business considerations to prevail. But arms sales also had become part of the foreign policy of the United States, and the government would not authorize sales to nations it did not wish to have the goods. As a rule, (there were a few exceptions) the major determinant of a nation’s status with respect to economic or military aid or purchase of American arms was its position in the alignments of the cold war.

Summit Conferences, 1955–1990 For all the tension and competition in Soviet-American relations during the cold war, the two sides never stopped talking with each other.The words, to be sure, were harsh at times, especially during the contentious first 10 years: One side assailed the other for an aspect of the relationship or for some activity in world affairs; almost invariably, the other side replied in kind.Threats were implied, calmly stated, or blurted out, as in Nikita Khrushchev’s often-quoted and probably misunderstood assertion: “We shall bury you.’’ In 1962 President John F. Kennedy calmly threatened to begin a nuclear war against the USSR. But communication never ceased; neither side threatened to break relations—not in the Hungarian rebellion of 1956 or the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. The most dramatic discourse took place at the highest level: direct, personal discussion between the recognized leaders of the two states. Doubtless built on conferences during the Second World War between Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin (Harry

TABLE 10.46

Truman and Clement Atlee each attended one), the meetings during the cold war, which did not begin until 1955, came to be heralded as summit conferences. Closely followed in the national and international press, the effect was more symbolic than substantive.The first summit in Geneva in 1955, after 10 years of troubled dealings, with new leaders on both sides, gave off special meaning. The four leaders (France and Britain also participated) considered major issues, notably arms control, but they reached agreement on nothing. Even so, the mere fact that the adversaries could meet and talk was enormously encouraging.The “spirit of Geneva’’ had been born.Thereafter, every American president met with a Soviet leader at intervals ranging from several months to six or seven years. Curiously, of 17 summits between 1955 and 1990, Republican presidents represented the United States in 14, Democrats in only 3. Topics varied, of course, depending on circumstance, but two issues—the arms race and status of Europe, especially Germany and Berlin—always were on the agenda, if they did not dominate discussion altogether.

U.S. FOREIGN ECONOMIC AND MILITARY AID PROGRAMS, 1946–1990


Period or Year and Region 1946–1990, total

Economic Aid

Military Aid

Total Economic and Military Aid

Total

Loans

Grants

Total

Loans

Grants

374,046

232,971

56,364

176,607

141,075

40,983

100,092

b

1946–1952 1953–1961 1962–1969 1970–1979

41,661 43,358 50,254 65,714

31,116 24,053 33,392 26,902

8,518 5,850 15,421 9,995

22,598 18,203 17,972 16,907

10,545 19,305 16,862 38,812

161 1,620 14,179

10,545 19,144 15,242 24,633

1980–1986 1980–1987 1980–1988 1980–1989 1980–1990

96,368 111,650 125,442 140,130 155,857

63,081 73,261 82,222 92,082 102,916

10,941 12,194 13,046 13,740 14,496

52,140 61,067 69,176 78,342 88,420

33,287 38,389 43,220 48,048 52,941

19,758 20,711 21,474 21,884 22,288

13,529 17,678 21,746 26,164 30,653

6,568 6,916 6,412 2,603

3,676 4,908 3,878 1,931

1,389 1,679 1,759 840

2,288 3,229 2,119 1,091

2,892 2,009 2,535 672

70 750 1,442 494

2,822 1,259 1,093 178

1977 1978 1979

7,784 9,014 13,845

5,594 6,661 7,120

2,083 2,530 1,900

3,511 4,131 5,220

2,190 2,353 6,725

1,411 1,601 5,173

779 752 1,552

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

9,695 10,550 12,324 14,202 15,524

7,573 7,305 8,129 8,603 9,038

1,993 1,460 1,454 1,619 1,621

5,580 5,845 6,675 6,984 7,417

2,122 3,245 4,195 5,599 6,486

1,450 2,546 3,084 3,932 4,401

672 699 1,111 1,667 2,085

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

18,128 16,739 14,488 13,792 14,688

12,327 10,900 9,386 8,961 9,860

1,579 1,330 1,138 852 694

10,748 9,570 8,248 8,109 9,166

5,801 5,839 5,102 4,831 4,828

2,365 1,980 953 763 410

3,436 3,859 4,149 4,068 4,418

1990

15,727

10,834

756

10,078

4,893

404

4,489

7,377 687 373 2,144 1,176 25 3,945

3,136 535 284 1,910 1,062 25 3,883

373 21 64 184 111

2,763 514 220 1,726 951 25 3,880

4,241 152 89 234 114 ... 63

404

3,837 152 89 234 114 ... 63

1970 1975 1976 1976,TQa

Near East and South Asia East Asia Europe Latin-America Africa Oceania and other Non-regional

b

3

b b b b b b

a

Transition quarter, July–September b Represents zero. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 794.


297

TABLE 10.47

PRINCIPAL RECIPIENTS OF U.S. FOREIGN AID, 1962–1989

(millions of dollars) Region/Country Near East and South Asiaa Egypt India Israel Jordan Pakistan Turkey East Asiaa Indonesia Korea Philippines Vietnam Europe Latin

Americaa

Brazil Costa Rica Dominican Republic El Salvador Honduras Jamaica ROCAPb Africaa Cameroon Chad Kenya Morocco Niger Senegal Somalia Sudan Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Oceania and other Total

1962–1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

31,976

3,728

2,763

2,523

2,562

8,573 3,713 9,721 1,150 2,816 2,458

1,069 94 1,898 95 263 120

820 64 1,200 111 276 102

718 26 1,200 24 384 32

817 46 1,200 16 265 60

10,203

518

440

225

541

1,405 1,080 1,046 4,490

66 0 351 0

88 0 253 0

42 0 78 0

50 0 347 0

1,026

142

106

77

54

11,774

1,126

1,310

967

937

1,480 718 739 1,135 690 554 448

0 139 67 268 112 85 63

0 161 20 415 175 44 58

0 101 33 266 130 40 59

0 115 20 253 53 65 48

7,594

766

620

644

748

143 65 404 302 159 189 285 766 399 225 266

25 16 43 37 24 50 45 71 48 20 13

31 11 37 28 27 35 36 21 33 17 6

19 17 43 31 35 24 10 17 31 13 13

33 16 56 32 24 49 13 5 36 7 29

17

8

9

20

18

77,699

7,446

6,355

5,705

6,136

Note: Amounts in current dollars. Shown are loans and grants made by the U.S. Agency for International Development and its predecessor agencies. Excluded are Food for Peace and “other’’ economic assistance. a Includes countries not shown separately. b Regional programs covering Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. Source: Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 363.

TABLE 10.48

U.S. MILITARY SALES AND ASSISTANCE TO FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS, 1950–1990

(in millions of dollars; for end of fiscal year) Item

1950–81

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Military sales agreements Weapons and ammunition Support equipment Spare parts and mods Support services

91,066 38,699 11,513 20,066 20,788

16,558 6,651 3,631 3,263 3,013

14,444 7,697 1,048 3,036 2,663

12,872 5,936 1,847 2,544 2,545

10,559 3,433 1,720 2,371 3,035

6,540 2,208 664 1,544 2,124

6,449 1,838 783 1,626 2,202

11,739 5,058 997 3,125 2,559

10,747 4,386 997 2,534 2,830

13,948 5,341 1,843 2,806 3,958

Military construction sales agreements Military sales deliveries Military sales financing Military assistance programs Military assist. program deliveries IMET program/deliveries Students trained (1,000)

14,569 64,761 24,849 54,178 53,804 1,999 506

86 10,547 3,884 395 416 44 6

22 12,948 5,107 413 173 47 7

404 9,659 5,716 700 129 52 6

958 8,473 4,940 812 76 54 7

69 7,882 4,947 841 76 51 6

133 11,399 4,053 976 84 54 6

208 9,212 4,049 702 56 46 6

74 7,313 4,273 542 53 46 5

234 7,533 4,813 137 29 47 5


298


TABLE 10.49

PRINCIPAL RECIPIENTS OF U.S. MILITARY SALES AND MILITARY ASSISTANCE TO FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS, 1950–1989

(millions of dollars) Military Sales Country

1988

1989

Military Assistance, 1950–1989

608.5 27.0 126.8 375.7 99.4

862.4 222.5 213.7 494.3 37.2

400.8 153.4 161.2 352.1 36.8

0.0 1,203.8 0.0 2,554.6 4,045.1

206.0 73.4 0.0 0.0 192.3

324.5 79.1 0.0 0.0 1,295.0

323.6 129.0 0.0 0.0 753.3

571.8 138.7 0.0 0.0 233.1

884.8 1,673.5 709.0 766.7 0.0

54.9 258.1 339.3 1,369.1 118.0

65.7 353.8 284.0 2,240.6 116.6

75.2 353.2 424.7 3,232.8 95.4

62.0 335.4 299.3 1,004.4 313.7

65.4 330.6 440.7 760.6 214.0

2,243.7 5,471.7 1,178.1 23.9 1,169.0

1,433.6 4,034.3 1.2

389.5 386.4 0.0

280.0 361.1 0.0

279.0 199.0 0.0

734.6 180.8 0.0

697.0 132.8 0.0

3,138.7 1,012.9 14,773.9

85,278.9

7,570.6

7,341.0

11,240.4

8,896.4

7,321.4

54,950.7

1985

1986

2,825.8 1,657.2 1,838.1 2,629.0 463.4

522.0 119.3 73.1 339.4 45.1

409.0 27.8 113.7 247.3 142.7

Germany, Federal Republic Greece Indochina Iran Israel

7,794.9 1,826.2 8.5 10,653.9 8,486.2

222.2 115.0 0.0 0.0 479.2

Italy Korea The Netherlands Saudi Arabia Thailand

882.3 2,588.5 2,386.2 14,991.2 1,183.3

Turkey United Kingdom Vietnam

Australia Belgium Canada China (Taiwan) France

Total

1950–1984

1987


TABLE 10.50

LEADING EXPORTERS OF CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS, 1986–1990

(millions of dollars; 1985 prices) Exporters

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990 1986–90

To all countries USSR U.S.A. France UK China Germany, FR Czechoslovakia Netherlands Sweden Italy Brazil Israel Spain Canada Egypt Others Total

14,731 10,304 4,096 1,500 1,463

14,916 12,596 3,011 1,817 2,553

12,559 10,503 2,300 1,401 1,868

12,220 11,669 2,577 1,816 874

6,373 8,738 1,799 1,220 926

60,799 53,811 13,783 7,752 7,684

1,120 497 240 324 457

676 570 265 489 389

1,270 548 532 575 471

716 437 725 311 169

963 355 152 115 96

4,745 2,408 1,915 1,813 1,582

150 269 172 317 159 656

507 340 139 265 194 1,047

356 127 199 106 216 735

152 318 506 54 65 900

24 39 74 60 33 760

1,189 1,094 1,090 802 668 4,097

36,453

39,777

33,767

33,509

21,726

165,232

Source: Stockholm Peace Institute, SIPRI Yearbook, 1991, 198.

These were, of course, difficult and complicated matters, the business of diplomats and specialists. Not qualified to handle such detail, the leaders spoke in generality and broad principle. The first 17 years of summit meeting produced no agreements. The first arms agreement, SALT I, (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty I) was capped by a ceremonious signing by President Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev in a meeting in Moscow in summer 1972. Thereafter the leaders preferred to have something to sign when they met, and indeed subsequent presidents were able to produce meaningful agreement, usually in the area of arms control. Staged signings, smiling handshakes, even embraces, however, represented only the culmination of long, arduous

work behind the scene by lower-level diplomats. The summits thus remained important symbols of the status of Soviet-American relations. If the absence of a conference between 1945 and 1955 suggested a time of much trouble, the frequency of top-level meetings in the late 1980s (between 1985 and 1990 there were six summit conferences) indicated that something remarkable was taking place in Soviet-American relations and in the affairs of the world. Strategic Arms Agreements Nuclear arms had no more than been introduced than the parties involved questioned what to do with them, pondering the possibility Military Forces and Wars: Hot and Cold

299

of regulation or even their destruction. The United States and the Soviet Union began to talk about control of nuclear energy in 1945. They reached no agreement for 18 years. The United States had a monopoly of nuclear weapons and on knowledge of how to build them. The Soviet Union would accept no agreement that left this monopoly in place, and after 1949, when the Soviet exploded their first bomb, they would entertain no restrictions that left their nuclear weaponry inferior—in numbers and in technology—to the Americans.There probably could be no limits on an arms race until the two sides had reasonable parity. The definition of parity, as it developed, kept changing. Both sides set to building newer, larger, more sophisticated weapons. The hydrogen bomb, the Super, eclipsed the atomic bomb. Missiles made their appearance in the 1950s as vehicles for delivering the explosives, and they soon spread to submarines. Negotiators came to be as concerned about the missiles as with the explosive—the “payload,’’ in terminology of the day.At some early point both sides had acquired enough weapons to destroy their enemy, if not the world, but the race continued nonetheless out of fear that one side would fall behind technologically, leaving the adversary capable of neutralizing its threat. There were

TABLE 10.51

countless other hypothetical scenarios. The decade of the 1960s did produce agreement, not in reducing weapons but on peripheral issues. In 1963 the Kennedy administration agreed to a test-ban treaty that forbade testing nuclear weapons under water, in outer space, or the atmosphere; tests thereafter would be underground. China and France refused to sign, but eventually 128 nations did. In 1968 the Johnson administration obtained agreement on a nonproliferation treaty that forbade the spread of nuclear weapons to states that did not have them. By the 1970s the superpowers had achieved basic parity in their strategic arsenals. Both were massive, if formulated differently, and both countries were prepared to impose some restraint on growth with an assurance that the adversary would respond in like manner. Nuclear technology, after all, had become exceptionally expensive. The 1970s thus became the era of SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks, that would lead to a treaty with the same acronym. The difficulty in reaching agreement stemmed partly from methods of verification, partly in the difficulty of measuring technology, and in the fact that the two sides had different strategic arsenals:The Soviets relied on land-based missiles, the Americans on a TRIAD system of ICBMs, submarine missiles, and bombers. SALT I in 1972 under the Nixon

U.S.–SOVIET SUMMITS

Summit

Date

Nations

Geneva Summit

1955

United States Great Britain France Soviet Union

President Dwight D. Eisenhower Prime Minister Anthony Eden Premier Edgar Faure Premier Nikolai A. Bulganin

Discussion German reunification, European security, disarmament, U.S. Open Skies proposal

Camp David Summit

1959

United States Soviet Union

President Eisenhower Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev

Moderation Berlin Crisis

Paris Summit

1960

United States Great Britain France Soviet Union

President Eisenhower Prime Minister Harold MacMillan President Charles de Gaulle Premier Khrushchev

Terminated over U-2 Incident

Vienna Summit

1961


President John F. Kennedy Premier Khrushchev

Discussion Berlin Crisis

Glassboro Summit

1967


President Lyndon B. Johnson Premier Aleksei N. Kosygin

Discussion Middle East,Vietnam War, East-West relations

Moscow Summit

1972


President Richard M. Nixon General Secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev

Detente, Salt I arms control agreement, U.S.-Soviet trade pact.

Washington Summit

1973


President Nixon General Secretary Brezhnev

Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement

Moscow Summit

1974


President Nixon General Secretary Brezhnev

Threshold Test Ban Treaty

Vladivostok Summit

1974


President Gerald R. Ford General Secretary Brezhnev

Vladivostok Accord

Vienna Summit

1979


President Jimmy Carter General Secretary Brezhnev

Salt II arms control agreement

Geneva Summit

1985


President Ronald W. Reagan General Secretary Mikhail S. Gorbachev

Resumption top-level U.S.–Soviet contracts

Reykjavik Summit

1986


President Reagan General Secretary Gorbachev

Discussion arms control

Washington Summit

1987



INF Treaty

Moscow Summit

1988



Discussion arms control, human rights, regional issues

Malta Summit

1989


President George Bush President Gorbachev

Discussion collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, ending cold war

Washington Summit

1990


President Bush President Gorbachev

Post–cold war East–west relations, U.S.–Soviet trade pact

Helsinki Summit

1990


President Bush President Gorbachev

Coordinated response to Iraqi invasion of Kuwait

Source: Flanders & Flanders, Dictionary of Foreign Affairs, 805–06.

300


Participants

Significance

administration called for no more than two defensive missile (ABM) sites and froze offensive missile deployment for five years.Thus, there was to be equivalency in striking power and in vulnerability. A nation that went further in protecting its people from attack would be breaking the rules. SALT II in 1979 by the Jimmy Carter administration allowed each side 2,400 delivery systems and produced a complicated system of counting missiles, warheads, and bombers. Denounced in the United States and affected by other aspects of the relationship, SALT II never received ratification in the Senate. Sharply critical of the SALT approach, Ronald Reagan favored a new strategy he called Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, which carried the catchy acronym of START (another official wittily suggested they be called Faster Arms Reduction Talks). Reagan also came to propose a complicated, questionable, and very costly defensive missile system called Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or “Star Wars.’’ On the surface START seemed more aggressive than its predecessor, but Reagan had been so distrustful of the Soviets and so determined to promote American military supremacy that had other conditions remained equal, there would have been little chance of progress in arms control. The second Reagan administration, however, happened to correspond with the start of a new era in the Soviet Union and with a new leader who meant business about changing policy on, among other issues, strategic arms. Mikhail Gorbachev strongly opposed SDI, but he favored substantive arms reduction.Thus in 1987 the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to the INF (intermediate force) treaty, which eliminated all missiles with a range of 300 to 3,400 miles. The treaty left most of both nations’ arsenals (the long-range and short-range missiles) in place, but it represented a breakthrough in its destruction of a weapons system and in its provision for on-site verification. And at the start of the 1990s, the prospect for further serious arms reduction seemed more promising than in any decade since the cold war began. Strategic Arms Agreements, 1946–1990 Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963) First treaty affecting nuclear weapons, in which the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union agreed to forgo testing in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater; Senate debate also reflected presidential need to pledge continued strong defense programs to ensure passage. Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (1968) Banned the spread of nuclear weapons, provided for safeguard arrangements, and ensured nondiscriminatory access to peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Signators included the United States, the Soviet Union, and 60 other nations. Antiballistic Missile Systems (ABM) Treaty; Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I, Interim Agreement on Strategic Offensive Arms) (1972) First U.S.–USSR arms control agreements under dètente, serving to “cap’’ nuclear arms race quantitatively by limiting deployments of ABM systems, initially to two sites, and setting upper limits on the number of strategic nuclear missile launchers; also led to Jackson amendment, requiring equal levels in future agreements. ABM treaty was also the subject of a constitutional debate between the Reagan administration and the Senate over treaty interpretation as it related to Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI; Star Wars) testing. SALT II Treaty (1979) Follow-up to SALT I, extending limits to include bombers, and beginning qualitative limits as well; never brought to vote in Senate because of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, signaling the end of dètente. Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles) (1987) First U.S.–USSR arms control agreement to eliminate (rather than cap or reduce) an entire class of nuclear weapons systems. Source: Stanley I. Kutler, et al., Encyclopedia of the United States in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II (New York, 1966), 566.

TABLE 10.52

NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS SINCE 1945

U.S.

USSR

UK

France China

India

Year

a

u

a

u

a

u

a

u

a

u

a

u

Total

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

3 1 0 3 0

0 1 0 0 0

... ... ... ... 1

... ... ... ... 0

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

3 2 0 3 1

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

0 15 10 11 6

0 1 0 0 0

0 2 0 2 2

0 0 0 0 0

... ... 1 2 0

... ... 0 0 0

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

0 18 11 15 8

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

16 18 27 61 0

2 0 5 16 0

4 7 13 26 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 6 7 5 0

0 0 0 0 0

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

22 31 52 108 0

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

0 0 37 4 0

0 10 59 43 29

0 30 41 0 0

0 2 1 0 6

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 2 0 1

3 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 3 3

... ... ... ... 1

... ... ... ... 0

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

3 44 141 50 40

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

0 0 0 0 0

29 40 29 39 29

0 0 0 0 0

9 15 15 13 15

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

0 5 3 5 0

4 1 0 0 0

1 3 2 1 1

0 0 0 0 1

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

44 64 49 58 46

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

0 0 0 0 0

33 15 15 14 12

0 0 0 0 0

12 19 22 14 19

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 1

8 5 3 5 7

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 2 1 1

0 0 0 0 0

... ... ... ... 0

... ... ... ... 1

54 40 42 34 41

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

0 0 0 0 0

17 15 12 16 15

0 0 0 0 0

15 17 18 27 29

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 2 1

0 0 0 0 0

2 3 6 7 9

0 3 1 2 0

1 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

35 40 37 55 54

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

0 0 0 0 0

14 16 18 17 17

0 0 0 0 0

21 21 31 27 27

0 0 0 0 0

3 1 1 1 2

0 0 0 0 0

11 11 5 7 7

1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

50 49 55 53 55

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

0 0 0 0 0 0

15 14 14 14 11 8

0 0 0 0 0 0

7 0 23 17 7 7

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

8 8 8 8 8 8

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

31 23 47 40 27 18

Note: The Soviet Union conducted 33 other tests in the atmosphere during 1949–58, for which dates were unavailable. a: atmosphere u: underground Source: Cook, World Political Almanac, 352. Updated by author.

TABLE 10.53 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS, JULY 16, 1945–DECEMBER 31, 1990 USA

USSR

UK

France

China

India

Total

929

715

43

183

36

1

1,907

Source: Stockholm Peace Institute, SIPRI Yearbook of 1991, 47.


301

The End to the Cold War All signals at the start of the 1980s suggested that the cold war would continue indefinitely and probably would intensify in the immediate future. The United States had at its helm a doctrinaire rightwinger, a strong anticommunist and anti-Russian who saw it as his mission to rescue the United States from self-doubt of the immediate past and reestablish American supremacy in world affairs. Calling the Soviet Union an “evil empire’’ that was prepared to “commit any crime, to lie, to cheat’’ to achieve its ends, Ronald Reagan sponsored a massive increase in the military budget, ordered formation of a force to challenge, or at least pester, the Soviet-supported Sandinista regime in Nicaragua, deployed new Pershing II missiles in Europe, and looked to El Salvador, Afghanistan, or any place where he might make matters difficult for the communists and the Soviets. Headed by a quick succession of old-line, cold war-hardened bureaucrats (three leaders died in office between 1982 and 1985), the Soviet Union did its best to keep up with the Americans. Even though the effort was taking the country into bankruptcy, the Soviets probably would have continued on the course for a while longer had not new leadership taken control in the Kremlin. The immediate events that brought the cold war to an end with remarkable speed started with the assumption of power by Mikhail Gorbachev on the death of his aged predecessor, Konstantin Chernenko, in 1985. Virtually every step between 1985 and 1990 that produced a new era in Soviet-American (or Russian-American) relations constituted either a move of the Soviet leader or came as the fruit of a decision Gorbachev had made. Willing to face the facts about the state of his country, Gorbachev insisted that the Soviet Union had to change its political and economic system if it was to survive. In the area of world affairs and relations with the United States, Gorbachev reached a few critical decisions that emerged piece-by-piece in the diplomacy between 1985 and 1990: (1) The Soviet Union would relinquish its satellite empire in Eastern Europe in place, in one form or another, since the Second World War; (2) the USSR would tolerate the reunification of Germany and the end of controls in Berlin; (3) the Soviet Union would relinquish its far-flung client states, such as Cuba or Syria or Nicaragua; they were not productive anyway; (4) the Soviet government would take a hard look at basic requirements for national security and defense. All these issues were of major interest to the United States. As the Americans saw it, they had been basic reasons for start of the trouble in the first place and for keeping it going. Satisfaction—mixed, no doubt, with a measure of skepticism—the United States experienced in watching these positions develop was surpassed only by surprise. The Americans liked the first three changes; they were willing to explore the fourth.The primary contribution of the United States and of the Reagan and Bush administrations to these immediate developments was more flexibility and willingness to deal than Reagan had intended or expected to need. The primary negotiation had been in arms control, but the flurry of summit meetings contributed to the changes underway. Most observers agreed that the cold war had ended by 1990. Gorbachev had given up his empire and abandoned traditional cornerstones of Soviet security; he had not anticipated that he also would lose his country and his job. For all the emphasis on armies, bombs, and missiles, on alliances and intervention, the cold war had not been settled on a military basis after all. The Soviet Union had not been defeated; its military forces remained powerful, even ominous. It was the economy and social structure that was falling apart. Gorbachev merely admitted and moved to change weaknesses in a system that had been building for a long time. In doing so he set in motion events that went beyond his control. George F. Kennan had prophesied in his famous essay of 1947 that, effectively contained by the United States, the Soviet system would collapse under its own weight. Kennan in the end had been right, but the process took 302


Cold war thaws: President Reagan chats with President Mikhail Gorbachev in Red Square, Moscow, 1988. (Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library)

a great deal longer than he had imagined. If the Soviet Union lost the cold war, it was not clear that there had been a winner.When one considered the huge American budget and trade deficits at the end of the 1980s, the loss of jobs to other nations, and the unrest with segments of the population, one at least could say that an American gain at the end was in no way proportionate to the Soviet loss.

Selected Chronological Developments in the End of the Cold War March 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev becomes first secretary of Soviet Communist Party. Conceding almost immediately that the Soviet system had failed, he announces major programs of glasnost (political liberalization) and perestroika (economic restructuring). November 1985 Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Geneva. No agreements emerge, but the leaders establish good communication. 1986 Gorbachev continues replacing old-line bureaucrats with new people. Eduard Shevardnadze replaces Andrei Gromyko as foreign minister. 1987 Demands for change in the Baltic states, the Crimea, and Poland are allowed to take place. December 1987 In their third meeting, Reagan and Gorbachev sign a significant INF arms reduction treaty.

May 1988 Gorbachev orders Soviet troops from Afghanistan—ending the Soviets’ “Vietnam.’’ December 1988 Liberal, anticommunist “Solidarity’’ movement gains strength in Poland; Soviets do not resist. December 1988 Gorbachev orders unilateral reduction of 500,000 troops and 10,000 tanks. January 1989 The year of miracles in eastern Europe. Hungary adopts new anticommunist constitution. July 1989 Having been legalized, Solidarity forms the first noncommunist government in Poland. 1989 Gorbachev denounces Brezhnev Doctrine of 1968, which had legitimized Soviet intervention in the east European states. A Soviet official explained that new Soviet policy could be called the Frank Sinatra Doctrine, a reference to Sinatra’s signature song. East European states thereafter could do things “their way.’’ No Soviet position was more important in ending the cold war. September 1989 Hungary opens its border to Austria, allowing flight of East Germans, via Hungary and Austria, into West Germany. October 1989 Gorbachev advises East Germans to open the Berlin Wall.

November 1989 The wall comes down (Nov 9); government of East Germany resigns; change also comes in governments of Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. Uprising in Bucharest leads to fighting, arrest and execution of communist leader Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife. Free to act for the first time since the 1940s, East Europe, it is clear, is dumping communism and all Soviet connections. December 1989 Gorbachev and President George H. W. Bush meet in Malta summit to declare an end to the cold war. October 1990 Germany is reunified with Soviet acceptance: a logical extension of destruction of the Berlin Wall—a move as significant as it was stunning, a final validation that the cold war had ended. 1990 Signals do not bode well for the man who set these events in motion. Gorbachev was, after all, leader of the Soviet Union. Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia proclaim their independence from the USSR; there are rumblings in the Ukraine and other Soviet Republics, even in Russia. Gorbachev was becoming a leader without a country. Source: Information gathered by author.

One big happy family: President George H.W. Bush (third from left) and President Mikhail Gorbachev (fifth from left), wives, and advisers smile as the cold war ends, at Camp David, Maryland, June 2, 1990. (George Bush Presidential Library)


303

CHAPTER 11 States This chapter supplies selected basic information about the fifty states of America. Except for a brief discussion of the early background of each state, the emphasis of the information is on each state during the post–Second World War era, 1946–1990. The data is both absolute and comparative. Except in a few circumstances, identification of “famous natives’’ pertains to individuals born in the state under question, whose noteworthy activity came largely, if not entirely, in the 45 years after 1945. Sources are: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1953 (Washington, D.C., 1953); Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993); Council of State Governments, The Book of the States, 1946–1990 (Chicago, 1946–1990); Robert H. Ferrell and Joan Hoff, eds., Dictionary of American History: Supplement, Parts I and II (New York, 1996);Timothy L. Gall, ed., Worldmark Encyclopedia of the States (Detroit, 1995); Mark S. Hoffman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts,1992 (NewYork, 1991); Edith R. Hornor, ed., Almanac of the 50 States: Basic Data Profiles with Comparative Tables (Palo Alto, Calif., 1993); Kathleen O’Leary Morgan, Scott Morgan, and Neil Quitno, eds., State Rankings 1992 (Lawrence, Kansas, 1992); John W.Wright, ed., The Universal Almanac 1995 (NewYork, 1994).

Alabama Native American groups, especially the Creek, had a large presence in the Alabama area. The Spanish arrived around 1519 and Hernando DeSoto came later. The area was ceded to Britain in 1763, and the United States gained control in 1783.White control led to suppression and removal of the Indians. Alabama entered the union on December 22, 1819, the 22nd state, and became fully a part of the culture of the Deep South, with cotton farming and a slave-driven society.The capital is Montgomery.The origin of the name was a Choctaw term meaning “vegetable gatherers’’ or “thicket cleaners.’’ Nickname is The Heart of Dixie. Motto: “We defend our rights.’’ Flower: goldenrod. Tree: southern pine. Bird: yellowhammer. Song: “Alabama.’’ Land Area: 51,705 sq. mi. (29th). Rivers: Alabama, Chattahoochee, Mobile, Tennessee, Tensaw, Tombigbee. Mountains: Cumberland, Lookout, Raccoon, Sand. Cities (With 1990 pop.): Birmingham (265,968), Mobile (196,278), Montgomery (187,106), Huntsville (159,789),Tuscaloosa (77,759. People Population, 1945: 2,812,301 (17th); 1990: 4,040,587 (22nd). Breakdown, 1990: 73.6% white, 25.3% black, 0.6% Hispanic, 0.4% American Indian, 43.8% urban, 56.2% rural (1950); 60.4% urban, 39.6% rural, (1990). Famous natives: Hank Aaron (baseball player), Tallulah Bankhead (actress), Nat “King’’ Cole (singer), Coretta Scott King (civil rights worker), George Wallace (politician), Hank Williams (singer and songwriter). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $70.4 billion (24); per capita income: $14,826. Leading agricultural products: cattle, eggs, chickens, greenhouse products. Industry: iron and steel, retail industries, manufacturing. Minerals: aluminium, coal, iron ore, fertilizer, limestone. Major Developments, 1946–1990 After the Second World War Alabama gradually shifted away from an agriculture-oriented, cotton economy to more reliance on industry, 304

especially in Birmingham.The state became more urbanized. Alabama was at the center of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s as Governor George Wallace sought to preserve a segregated society. Such special economic projects as the power facilities at Muscle Shoals and the space center at Huntsville did not remove Alabama from the ranks of one of the poorest states.

Alaska Alaska was originally inhabited by Inuit and Aleut in the north and other Indian groups to the south. European interests stemmed from the efforts of Vitus Bering, a Dane working for Russia in 1741. Russian fur traders also helped establish claim to this frigid land. Strapped for cash, the Russian government sold Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million in 1867, the deal negotiated by Secretary of State William F. Seward. Discovery of gold in 1896 brought a brief rush of people to the area, but Alaska remained a sparsely populated, remote area until the 1940s.Alaska became a state, the 49th, on January 3, 1959. Its capital is Juneau. The name originated in an Aleut word meaning “great land.’’ Nickname:The Last Frontier. Motto: “North to the Future.’’ State flower: forget-me-not. Tree: sitka spruce. Bird: yellow ptarmigan. State song: “Alaska’s Flag.’’ Land Area: 591,000 sq. mi. (1). Rivers: Colville, Porcupine, Noatak, Yukon, Susitna, Kobuk, Koyukuk, Kuskokwim, Tanana. Mountains: Alaska Range (Mt. McKinley, highest in North America), Aleutian Range, Brooks Range, Kuskokwim, St. Elias. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Anchorage (226,338), Fairbanks (30,843), Juneau (26,751), Ketchikan (8,263), Sitka (8,588). People Population, 1950: 126,643 (no rank); 1990: 550,043 (49th). Breakdown, 1990: 75.5% white, 3.2% black, 15.6% Indian, 3.2% Hispanic, 32.5% urban, 67.5% rural, (1990). Famous natives: Ernest Gruening (politician),Walter Hickel (politician), Carl Ben Eielson (pilot). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $26.4 billion (40th); per capita income: $21,761. Leading agricultural products: barley, hay, potatoes, lettuce, cattle, sheep, reindeer. Industry: fish products, lumber, pulp, furs. Minerals: gold, oil, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 The Second World War, which had brought people north, helped facilitate a statehood movement that succeeded on January 3, 1959. It was the discovery of oil on the North Slope in 1968 and completion of the 800-mile Alaska pipeline in 1977 that boosted the economy and allowed for more population growth. Environmentalists’ worries about effects on the natural habitat materialized in March 1989 when the tanker ExxonValdez struck a reef and spilled 10 million gallons of oil into Prince William Sound. For the first year since the oil boom, production at Prudhoe Bay declined in 1989. State leaders were looking for new ways to carry on when income for oil ceased.

Arizona Arizona was home to Hopi, Apache, Navajo (Dineh), Tohono O’odham (then known as Papago) and other Indian tribes. Francisco

Vásquez de Coronado and other searchers for gold came to the area in the mid-16th century and helped establish Spanish claim. The area became a part of Mexico and later part of the Mexican cession to the United States in 1848. The area became the organized Arizona Territory and part of the legendary old West, but heat and absence of rainfall did not attract a large population. Many of the people living there were Indians, and Arizona did not become a state—last of the original 48—until February 14, 1912. The state capital is Phoenix. The name originated with the Akimel O’odham (Pima) or Tohono O’odham term for “place of small springs.’’ Nickname: Grand Canyon State. Motto: Ditat Deus (God Enriches). State flower: saguaro cactus blossom. Tree: paloverde. Bird: cactus wren. Song: “Arizona.’’ Land Area: 114,000 sq. mi. (6th). Rivers: Colorado, Gila, Little Colorado, Salt, Zuni. Mountains: Black, Gila, Hualapai, Mohawk, San Francisco Peaks. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Phoenix (983,403), Tucson (405,390), Mesa (288,091), Glendale (148,134), Tempe (141,865), Scottsdale (130,069). People Population 1945: 630,298 (37th); 1990: 3,665,228 (24th). Breakdown, 1990: 80.8% white, 3.0% black, 5.6% American Indian, 18.8% Hispanic, 55.5% urban, 44.5% rural (1950); 87.5% urban, 12.5% rural (1990). Famous natives: Bruce Babbitt (politician), Cesar Chavez (labor leader), Barry Goldwater (politician), Sandra Day O’Connor (jurist), Linda Ronstadt (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $67.3 billion (26th); per capita income: $16,297. Leading agricultural products: cotton, wheat, corn, citrus fruits, livestock. Industry: aircraft and missiles, electronics, publishing, metals. Minerals: copper, gold, silver. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Post-Second World War Arizona owed its prosperity to modern technology, notably methods of irrigation, that made the desert bloom and air conditioning that could make a searing heat almost irrelevant. Now it was the warm winters, not the hot summers, that established the state’s identity. Such natural features as the Grand Canyon, the Painted Desert, and the Petrified Forest attracted visitors, and the new cities attracted new residents, especially retired people.Arizona experienced a rate of growth larger than any state in the first half of the 1980s.

Arkansas Numerous Indian tribes—Choctaw, Chickasaw, Caddo, Quapaw, and others—inhabited the Arkansas area before the Europeans came. Spanish and French explorers crossed the area, and the French claimed it as part of Louisiana. Arkansas was part of the United States’s purchase of Louisiana in 1803 and later was incorporated into the Missouri and Arkansas territories. Admitted as 25th state in the union (and a slave state) on June 15, 1836, Arkansas seceded 25 years later, fought for the Confederacy, and had to be reaccepted in 1868.Thereafter Arkansas experienced a fate similar to other southern states: a long period of agriculture-oriented economic stagnation. The state capital is Little Rock.The origin of the name is a French word for the Quapaw tribe. Nickname is Land of Opportunity. Motto: Regnat Populus (The People Rule). Flower: apple blossom.Tree: pine. Bird: mockingbird. Song: “Arkansas.’’ Land Area: 53,187 sq. mi. (27th). Rivers:Arkansas, Mississippi, Ouachita, Red, St. Francis,White. Mountains: Ozark, Ouachita. Cities (with 1990

population): Little Rock (175,795), Ft. Smith (72,798), Pine Bluff (57,140), Fayetteville (42,099). People Population, 1945: 1,779,817 (29th); 1990: 2,350,725 (33rd). Breakdown, 1990: 82.7% white, 15.9% black, 0.8% Hispanic, 33% urban, 67% rural (1950); 53.5% urban, 46.5% rural (1990). Famous natives: Glen Campbell (singer), Dizzy Dean (baseball player), Johnny Cash (singer), William Fulbright (statesman), Douglas MacArthur (general),Alan Ladd (actor). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $38.7 billion (33rd); per capita income: $14,218. Leading agricultural products: soybeans, rice, cotton, fruit, watermelons, wheat. Industry: food products, chemicals, furniture, automobile and airplane parts. Minerals: bauxite, bromine, bauxite. Major Developments, 1946–1990 With limited natural resources, Arkansas continued to develop slowly. A less-than-Deep-South southern state with no striking identity of any sort, Arkansas received national publicity in an unexpected way during the 1950s. When Governor Orval Faubus refused to permit black students to enroll in Central High School in Little Rock in 1957, the state became known as a leader of forces against racial integration. In later years Arkansas attracted some industry; the retail giant Walmart retained its base there, but the state still possessed low marks in most economic and educational categories.

California Before the arrival of Europeans, many Indian tribes inhabited this Pacific coastal area.The Spanish arrived in 1542 and began to establish Catholic missions and institutions for control. Spanish place names still predominate. California was part of an independent Mexico after 1821, and it became U.S. property after the United States war with Mexico in 1846–48. Discovery of gold and the rush in by the “fortyniners’’ helped prepare the area for statehood. California became the 31st state on September 9, 1850, the move a part of the pre–Civil War Compromise of 1850.The state capital is Sacramento.The name probably originated from a volume of the 16th century by Garci Rodrìguez de Montalvo. State nickname: Golden State. Motto: Eureka (I have found it). Flower: golden poppy.Tree: California redwood. Bird: California valley quail. Song: “I Love You, California.’’ Land Area: 158,706 sq. mi. (3rd). Rivers: American, Colorado, Colorado River Aqueduct, Eel, Klamath, Russian, Sacramento, Salinas, San Joaquin. Mountains: Coast Ranges, Klamath, Lassen Peak, Sierra Nevada. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Los Angeles (3,485,398), San Diego (1,110,549), San Jose (782,248), San Francisco (723,959), Long Beach (429,433). People Population, 1945: 8,822,688 (3rd); 1990: 26,760,021 (1st). Breakdown, 1990: 69% white, 7.4% black, 25.8% Hispanic, 9.6% Asian, 80.7% urban, 19.7% rural (1950), 92.6% urban, 7.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: John Steinbeck (writer), Earl Warren (jurist), Shirley Temple (actress), Mark McGuire (baseball player), Richard Nixon (politician), George Patton, Jr. (general), Joe DiMaggio (baseball player). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $744 billion (1st); per capita income: $20,795. Leading agricultural products: specialized fruit and States

305

Besides other attributes, California was a major agricultural state. This 600-acre ranch in the San Joaquin Valley raised 100,000 cattle in 400 feeding pens. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

vegetable farming supplies much of winter produce, grapes, nuts. Industry: manufacturing of many kinds: aircraft and automobiles, machinery, high technology and electronic equipment. Minerals: petroleum, natural gas, gold, silver, cement. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Blessed with pleasant climate, attractive geographic features, and the glamorous film industry, California grew in leaps and bounds, became the most populous state in 1964, and left competitors far behind. Even the Brooklyn Dodgers and NewYork Giants went West in the 1950s. Silicon Valley became synonymous with high technology. Growing pains do develop from crowding caused by internal emigration and external immigration, mostly from Asia and Latin America.The state led a growing rebellion against taxes with Proposition 13 in 1978.The Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 killed 67 and caused much damage, leaving people still to wait for the “big one.’’ The most pressing problem for agriculture and perhaps for the state was the shortage of water. The same water needed for popular consumption was needed to irrigate farmlands and of course there was too little of it.

Colorado Indian groups that inhabited this land included Cheyenne,Arapaho, Pueblo, and others. France, having claimed the area, turned it over to Spain in 1763, took it back in 1801, and then sold the huge territorial domain to the United States in what the Americans called the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Part of Colorado made up the western 306


reaches of this land; the other part of Colorado came to the United States in the Mexican cession of 1848. Americans who explored the area included Zebulon Pike, Kit Carson, John C. Fremont, and later, John Wesley Powell. Discovery of gold and silver, the Homestead Act of 1862, and expansion west of the railroad all facilitated in the peopling of Colorado. War with the Indians continued through the 1870s. Colorado became a state on August 1, 1876, the 38th state. The capital is Denver. The state name originated in the Spanish word for red. Nickname: Centennial State. Motto: Nil sine numine (Nothing without providence). Flower: Rocky Mountain columbine. Tree: Colorado blue spruce. Bird: lark bunting. Song: “Where the Columbines grow.’’ Land Area: 104,091 sq. mi. (8th). Rivers: Arkansas, Colorado, Green, Platte, Rio Grande. Mountains: Front Range, Laramie, Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch Range. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Denver (467,610), Colorado Springs (281,140),Aurora (222,103), Lakewood (126,481), Pueblo (98,640). People Population, 1945: 1,120,595 (34th); 1990: 3,294,394 (26th). Breakdown, 1990: 88.2% white, 4.0% black, 12.9% Hispanic, 62.7% urban, 37.3% rural (1950); 82.4% urban, 17.6% rural (1990). Famous natives: Jack Dempsey (boxer), Douglas Fairbanks (actor), Scott Carpenter (astronaut), Lon Chaney (actor), Lowell Thomas (broadcaster), Byron White (jurist).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $71.4 billion (23rd); per capita income: $18,794. Agricultural products: corn, wheat, hay, vegetables, fruits. Industry: aerospace items, computer and electronics equipment, food products, machinery. Minerals: gold, silver, gravel, sand, stone. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Growth of Colorado corresponded with the general movement west. Discovery of uranium in 1946, establishment of the Air Force Academy (at Colorado Springs, 1958), interest in shale oil development in the 1970s, all provided economic benefits. Perhaps most striking was the majestic scenery provided in large measure by the Rocky Mountains. Such locations as Aspen and Vail became among the most prestigious U.S. locations for winter sports. In the 1980s Colorado was one of the most attractive states for people either to visit or to make a new place of residence.

Connecticut Home to various Indian tribes, such as Pequot and Mohegan, the Connecticut territory was a site of Dutch exploration, but it was mostly the English who settled the area.Thomas Hooker and other dissenters to the rigid Massachusetts Bay Colony defected and eventually formed a separate Connecticut Colony in 1736. Many men from Connecticut fought in the American Revolution, and representatives of the state were active in debates over the federal constitution, usually assuming a “small state’’ point of view.Thereupon, Connecticut became the fifth state to enter the union, on January 9, 1788. The capital is Hartford.The name originated with a Mohegan word meaning “beside the long tidal river.’’ Nickname: Constitution State. Motto: Qui Translulit Sustinet (He Who Transplanted Still Sustains). Flower: mountain laurel. Tree: white oak. Bird: robin. Song: “Yankee Doodle Dandy.’’ Land Area: 5,018 sq. mi. (48th). Rivers: Connecticut, Hoasatonic, Mianus, Naugatuck, Thames. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Bridgeport (141,686), Hartford (139,739), New Haven (130,474), Waterbury (108,961), Stamford (108,056). People Population, 1945: 1,786,300 (28th); 1990: 3,287,116 (27th). Breakdown, 1990: 87% white, 8.3% black, 6.5% Hispanic, 77.6% urban, 23.4% rural (1950); 79.1% urban, 20.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Robert Mitchum (actor), J. P. Morgan (financier), Katharine Hepburn (actress), Samuel Colt (gun manufacturer), Mark Twain (writer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $93.9 billion (28th); per capita income: $25,358. Agricultural products: vegetables, tobacco, apples and other fruits. Industry: computers and electronics, helicopters, submarines, aircraft engines, machinery. Minerals: stone, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 During the long period of development, Connecticut acquired several marks of distinction. Samuel Colt produced the revolver in 1835, and the state had a long association with firearms. Hartford established a long-running domination of the insurance industry. Groton built atomic submarines during the cold-war era. Proximity to New York City allowed economic activity to spill over and help give the state the highest per capita income. Many people from Connecticut work in, or have economic connections to, NewYork City.

Delaware The first Europeans to arrive, the Dutch in 1631, were expelled by local Indians. Swedes came to the area next, and the Dutch returned in 1651.The British seized the Delaware area and the entire Dutch holdings in 1664. The territory was part of the land granted to William Penn before it broke off from Pennsylvania. Delaware had the distinction of being the first state to ratify the new Constitution on December 7, 1787. The capital is Dover.The name comes from a governor of Virginia, Sir Thomas West—Lord De La Warr. Nickname: First State. Motto: Liberty and Independence. Flower: peach blossom. Tree: American holly. Bird: blue hen chicken. Song: “Our Delaware.’’ Land Area: 2,396 sq. mi. (49th). Rivers: Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, Delaware, Nantacoke. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Wilmington (71,529), Dover (27,630), Newark (25,098), Milford (6,040). People Population, 1945: 286,832 (46th); 1990: 666,168 (46th). Breakdown, 1990: 80.3% white, 16.9% black, 2.4% Hispanic, 62.6% urban, 37.4% rural (1950); 73% urban, 27% rural (1990). Famous natives: E. I. DuPont (manufacturer), Pete DuPont (politician), Edward Squibb (doctor), Howard Pyle (Illustrator). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $19.6 billion (44th); per capita income: $20,039. Agricultural products: soybeans, potatoes, corn, vegetables, livestock. Industry: fishing, automobiles, railroad and aircraft equipment, nylon, wearing apparel. Minerals: magnesium, sand, and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 A tiny state, smaller than many counties, Delaware in its early years acquired a most prominent family in the DuPonts. Beginning as a producer of gunpowder and then other munitions, the DuPonts later expanded into other manufactures, property, finance, even politics. Liberal corporation laws induced numerous large firms to incorporate in the state—a set of circumstances that attracted criticism from reformers but promoted the economic well-being of the state.The per capita income was high.

Florida Several Native American tribes, the Calusa, Apalachee, Timucua, and especially the more numerous Seminole inhabited the Florida area before the Spanish arrived, claimed the area and gave it its current name. Having found little gold, the Spanish did little to develop the swampy land within an empire that in the early 19th century was rapidly disintegrating.The Spanish were induced to cede the land to an expanding United States in 1819. The Seminole were mostly pushed out. Florida entered the union on March 3, 1845, the 27th state, and seceded some 16 years later in support of the losing cause of the Confederacy. The state capital is Tallahassee. The name originated in the Spanish word meaning “feast of flowers.’’ Nickname: Sunshine State. Motto: In God We Trust. Flower: orange blossom.Tree: sabal palmetto palm. Bird: mockingbird. Song: “Swanee River’’ (Old Folks at Home). Land Area: 58,644 sq. mi. (22nd). Rivers:Apalachicola, Caloosahatchee, Indian, Kissimmee, Perdido, St. Johns, St. Marys, Swanee, Withlacoochee. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Jacksonville (672,971), Miami (358,548), Tampa (280,015), St. Petersburg (238,629), Hialeah (188,004). States

307

People Population, 1945: 2,385,917 (21st); 1990: 12,937,926 (4th). Breakdown, 1990: 83.1% white, 13.6% black, 12.2% Hispanic, 65.5% urban, 34.5% rural (1950), 84.8% urban, 15.2% rural (1990). Famous natives: Joseph Stilwell (general), Sidney Poitier (actor), Ben Vereen (dancer), James Weldon Johnson (author), A. Philip Randolph (labor leader), Faye Dunaway (actress). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $244.6 billion (6th); per capita income: $18,586. Agricultural products: citrus fruits, vegetables, melons, potatoes, sugarcane. Industry: tourism, electronic equipment, lumber, chemicals, publishing, industrial machinery. Minerals: phosphate, rock, crushed stone, sand and gravel, titanium. Major Developments, 1946–1990 In geography and in its Confederate background, Florida was a southern state; in other respects it projected a different image.An enormous oceanfront and year-round warm weather were feature enticements to people from the North. Thus it attracted “snow birds’’ and other visitors in winter months and retirees year-round. The number grew as the expanding economy made it possible. Disney World moved in as did Cyprus Gardens; the Daytona 500 race, a growing national event, came early each year. Cubans fled the Castro revolution in several waves after 1959; most came to Florida. Floridians multiplied and the state prospered. But all was not paradise.The land was being trampled; animal habitat and the animals faced destruction. Both of Florida’s peninsulas were targets for hurricanes in the autumn; drug sellers from the South found Florida a logical staging ground for markets up north.

Georgia Hernando de Soto explored this area, populated by Cherokee and other Indian tribes, in the mid-16th century.The English began to colonize the land under the leadership of James Oglethorpe in 1733; Georgia was to be a home and new starting place for debtors and poor English. Oglethorpe extinguished Spanish claims in 1742. Many Georgians supported the cause of the American Revolution, and afterward the state became the fourth to join the union, on January 2, 1788.The Cherokee Indians were pushed out on the Trail of Tears in the 1830s. Georgia seceded in 1860 and suffered mightily from the Civil War.The capital is Atlanta. The name originated with George II, the king who granted the colonial charter. Nickname: Peach State. Motto:Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation. Flower: Cherokee rose. Tree: live oak. Bird: brown thrasher. Song: “Georgia on my Mind.’’ Land Area: 58,910 sq. mi. (21st). Rivers:Altamaha,Apalachicola, Chattachoochee, Flint, Ocmulgee, Oconee, Savannah, Suwanee. Mountains: Blue Ridge. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Atlanta (394,017), Columbus (179,278), Savannah (137,560), Macon (106,612), Albany (78,122). People Population, 1945: 3,191,766 (13th); 1990: 6,478,216 (11th). Breakdown, 1990: 71% white, 27% black, 1.7% Hispanic, 45.3% urban, 54.7% rural (1950); 63.2% urban, 36.8% rural (1990). Famous natives: Erskine Caldwell (writer), Jimmy Carter (president), Ray Charles (singer), Jackie Robinson (baseball player), Joanne Woodward (actress), Margaret Mitchell (writer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $135.9 billion (13th); per capita income: $16,944. Agricultural products: peanuts, cotton, corn, tobacco, 308 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

peaches. Industry: lumber, paper products, textiles, food products. Minerals: limestone, sand and gravel, clay, cement. Major Developments, 1946–1990 In the postwar period Georgia carried many of the burdens of poor economic development and racial division that marked most southern states.The state did provide leadership in many agricultural areas, such as poultry, peanuts, and pecans. Rural areas were slow to change, but Atlanta was different. In the 1970s it elected Andrew Young, first black member of Congress, and Maynard Jackson, first black mayor since Reconstruction. Atlanta also had the booming Coca-cola headquarters; it obtained professional athletic teams of the first order and housed the sprawling communications empire of Ted Turner.

Hawaii Polynesians arrived in the sixth and 10th centuries and established a basic population of these five main islands in the Central Pacific. Europeans landed in 1778 with the arrival of James Cook (a Briton). Large numbers of Japanese came in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Whites, mostly from the United States, operated the major financial enterprises, and many of the same people supported a revolution in 1893 that ended the reign of a local monarchy. The United States annexed the islands in 1898. Governed as a territory after 1900, Hawaii became the major United States military base in the Pacific area. The Japanese attack in 1941 created a strong American sentimental attachment and boosted the statehood movement after the war. Hawaii became the 50th state on August 21, 1950.The capital is Honolulu. Origin of the name is unclear; perhaps it stemmed from the discoverer of the islands, Hawaii Loa. Nickname: The Aloha State. Motto: The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness. Flower: yellow hibiscus. Tree: candlenut. Bird: Hawaiian goose. Song: “Hawaii Ponoi.’’ Land Area: 6,471 sq. mi. (47th). Rivers: Kaukonahua stream, Wailuku stream. Mountains: Hualalai, Kilauea, Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa volcanoes. Cities (with 1990 population): Honolulu (365,272), Hilo (37,808), Kailua (36,818), Kaneohe (35,448),Waipahu (31,435). People Population, 1945: 502,122 (unranked); 1990: 1,108,229 (41st). Breakdown, 1990: 33.4% white, 2.5% black, 7.3% Hispanic, 61.8% Asian, 89% urban, 11% rural (1990). Famous natives: Daniel J. Inouye (politician), Don Ho (singer), Bette Midler (singer), Bernice Bishop (philanthropist), Victoria Kaiulani (claimed heiress to Hawaiian throne). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $28.6 billion (37th); per capita income: $20,254. Agricultural products: sugar, pineapples, melons, fruits, nuts. Industry: tourism, military bases, sugar refining, printing, food products. Minerals: crushed stone, cement. Major Developments, 1946–1990 If Americans did not know much about Hawaii before 1941, they did so afterward, with the Japanese attack on December 7 and with many thousands of military personnel passing through to the Pacific war. It was an enchanting place but a long way off. Development of jet passenger travel supplied the last link in the chain.The islands continued to supply sugar, tropical fruits, and vegetables. The pentagon poured in large sums to maintain the military bases there.The government established a nostalgic Arizona (a sunken battleship in Pearl Harbor near Honolulu) war memorial. But it was as a Pacific paradise

that most Americans perceived Hawaii, and with jet aircraft and growing income for millions of mainlanderers, many could make the trip, and they did.

Idaho Indian tribes that had lived in the area that became Idaho included the Bannock, Coeur d’Alene, and Nez Perce. Lewis and Clark moved through the territory and helped assert U.S. claim to what would be called the Oregon Territory. Rival British and American claims would be resolved in a treaty of 1846 that legitimized U.S. possession of land up to the 49th parallel. Conflicts between whites and Indians, mostly the Nez Perce, would continue through the 1860s and 1870s. Idaho entered the union on July 3, 1890, in conjunction with five other silver-producing states. It was the 43rd member of the union.The capital is Boise. The name means “gem of the mountains.’’ Nickname: Gem State. Motto: Esta Perpetua (It Is Perpetual). Flower: syringa. Tree: white pine. Bird: mountain bluebird. Song: “Here We Have Idaho.’’ Land Area: 83,564 sq. mi. (13th). Rivers: Bear, Clearwater, Payette, Salmon, Snake. Mountains: Bitterroot Range, Centennial, Clearwater, Salmon River, Sawtooth Range, Wasatch Range. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Boise (125,738), Pocatello (46,080), Idaho Falls (42,929), Nampa (28,365), Lewiston (28,082).

Land Area: 56,345 sq. mi. (24th). Rivers: Fox, Illinois, Illinois Waterway, Kankakee, Kaskaskia, Mississippi, Ohio, Rock, Vermillion, Wabash. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Chicago (2,783,726), Rockford (139,426), Peoria (113,504), Springfield (105,227), Aurora (99,581). People Population, 1945: 7,721,099 (4th); 1990: 11,430,602 (6th). Breakdown, 1990: 78.3% white, 14.8% black, 7.9% Hispanic, 77.6% urban, 22.4% rural (1950); 84.6% urban, 15.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: Ray Bradbury (author), Saul Bellow (author), Enrico Fermi (scientist), Carl Sandburg (poet), Ernest Hemingway (novelist), Gloria Swanson (actress), Miles Davis (musician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $272.2 billion (4th); per capita income: $20,303. Agricultural products: corn, wheat, soybeans, hay, vegetables and fruit. Industry: machinery, electronics, metals, chemicals, automobiles. Minerals: stone, sand and gravel, coal, oil. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Illinois continued to possess many diverse features that would make it prosperous and strong: Rich prairie soil remained productive. In the south one found coal and gas fields. Rivers were plentiful, the climate moderate. Railroads, interstate highways, and aircraft lines crisscrossed the state. Lake Michigan graced the state’s northern tip. Illinois had

People Population, 1945: 500,109 (42nd); 1990: 1,006,749 (42nd). Breakdown, 1990: 94.4% white, 0.3% black, 5.3% Hispanic, 42.9% urban, 57.1% rural (1950); 57.4% urban, 42.6% rural (1990). Famous natives: Frank Church (politician), Lana Turner (actress), Ezra Pound (poet), Harmon Killebrew (baseball player), Jerry Kramer (football player). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $18.6 billion (45th); per capita income: $15,160.Agricultural products: potatoes, hay, wheat, sugar beets, fruits. Industry: lumber and wood products, chemicals, machinery, metal products. Minerals: phosphates, silver, gold, sand, coal. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Idaho had very rugged terrain, including Hell’s Canyon on the Snake River, the deepest canyon in North America, at which place a huge dam was built in the 1950s. Areas of attraction included Sun Valley, a favorite resort of novelist Ernest Hemingway; Shoshone Falls; Lava Hot Springs; and River of No Return. The state subsisted on agriculture, mining of precious metals, and development in the 1970s and the 1980s of hightechnology industries.

Illinois Numerous Indian tribes, such as the Illinois, Kaskaskia, Peoria, and others lived in this Great Lakes territory. The first Europeans were French trappers. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette explored the area, and the French were the first to claim it.The British seized control in 1763, and the area of Illinois was a sort of backwater of the American Revolution. The area was part of the Northwest Territory after independence. Illinois then followed an orderly path to statehood, the journey completed on December 3, 1819, when Illinois became the 21st state.The capital is Springfield.The name came from the Indian term iliniwek, tribe of the superior men. Nickname: Prairie State. Motto: State sovereignty—national unity. Flower: native violet. Tree: white oak. Bird: cardinal. Song: “Illinois.’’

Illinois had Chicago, and Chicago had Lake Michigan and skyscrapers. Here is the beautifully proportioned Hancock Building. (National Archives) States

309

only one large city, but it was a whopper. Chicago experienced a relative decline from its once proud position of second city, but it remained large, bustling, and attractive. Chicago frequently hosted national political conventions, and the Democrat gathering in 1968 was memorable. The city insisted on having the tallest skyscraper— Sears Tower, finished in 1973, and the busiest airport: first Midway and then O’Hare. If the population had shrunk, it had not gone far away; Chicago was parent to a metropolitan area that stretched for miles and miles.

Indiana Some of the earliest Indian artifacts were of the mound builders near Evansville that dated to the year 1,000. Afterward, the Kickapoo, Miami, and other tribes settled in the area. The French explored the territory and established a settlement at Vincennes, in the southwest part of the state.The area passed to Britain in the settlement of 1763. George Rogers Clark’s conquest of Vincennes in 1779 was one of the few revolutionary engagements in the West. The postrevolutionary period was marked with numerous battles between whites and Indians, notably the Miami.The defeat of Tecumseh’s Confederacy in 1811 in the north-central area helps pave the way for statehood. Indiana became the 19th state on December 11, 1816.The state capital is Indianapolis. The origin of the name is “land of Indians,’’ as observed by early settlers. Nickname: Hoosier State. Motto: The Crossroads of America. Flower: peony. Tree: tulip poplar. Bird: cardinal. Song: “On the Banks of the Wabash.’’

Iowa The early Indian groups in the area that became Iowa included the mound builders. Marquette and Jolliet claimed the land for France. Iowa was within the territory the United States acquired in the Louisiana Purchase (from France) in 1803. Later it was a part of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 that scarcely concealed a festering problem of slavery. Settlers to this rich land had to contend with Indians during the Black Hawk Wars in the 1830s. Iowa entered the union as a free state on December 28, 1846, (the 29th state) as the United States entered its pre–Civil War period.The capital is Des Moines.The name originated with the Iowa tribe of Indians. Nickname: Hawkeye State. Motto: Our liberties we prize, and our rights we will maintain. Flower: wild rose.Tree: oak. Bird: eastern goldfinch. Song: “The Song of Iowa.’’ Land Area: 52,275 sq. mi. (25th). Rivers: Big Sioux, Des Moines, Mississippi, Missouri. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Des Moines (193,187), Cedar Rapids (108,751), Davenport (95,333), Sioux City (80,505), Waterloo (66,467). People Population, 1945: 2,259,526 (22nd); 1990: 2,776,755 (30th). Breakdown, 1990: 96.6% white, 1.7% black, 1.2% Hispanic, 47.7% urban, 52.3% rural (1950): 60.6% urban, 39.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: George Gallup (pollster), Herbert Hoover (president), John L. Lewis (labor leader), Grant Wood (artist), John Wayne (actor).

Land Area: 36,185 sq. mi. (38th). Rivers: Kankakee, Ohio,Tippecanoe, Wabash, White, Whitewater. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Indianapolis (741,952), Ft. Wayne (173,072), Evansville (126,272), Gary (116,646), South Bend (105,511).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $56.0 billion (29th); per capita income: $17,249. Agricultural products: corn, soybeans, wheat, hay, canola. Industry: farm machinery, electronics, chemicals, fertilizer. Minerals: sand and gravel, stone, cement.

People Population, 1945: 3,437,745 (12th); 1990: 5,544,159 (14th). Breakdown, 1990: 90.6% white, 7.8% black, 1.8% Hispanic, 59.9% urban, 40.1% rural (1950); 64.9% urban, 35.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Larry Bird (basketball player), Hoagy Carmichael (composer), Michael Jackson (singer), David Letterman (comedian), Kurt Vonnegut (author), Carole Lombard (actress), James Dean (actor), Cole Porter (composer), Jane Pauley (television host).

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Iowa long has been synonymous with agriculture and for good reason.The state was blessed with exceptionally rich, deep, and productive topsoil. Several of the industries in the state were related to aspects of farming. Mechanization of farming was a reason why the population grew slowly in some years and between 1980 and 1986 Iowa lost more than 2 percent of its people. Farming has booms and busts, of course, and is vulnerable to drought (as in 1988) and the danger of floods from the great Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, both of which border the state.

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $111.9 billion (14th); per capita income: $16,866. Agricultural products: corn, wheat, soybeans, hay, hogs and cattle. Industry: machinery, electronics, steel, chemicals, automobile parts. Minerals: coal, limestone, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Long known as an agricultural state, Indiana continued to diversify, combining good prairie farmland in the north with growing industrialization, especially in such cities as Gary, East Chicago, Indianapolis, and Evansville. Southern Indiana produced increasing amounts of coal, although, sadly, much of it came from strip mines. Southern Indiana also produced much of the nation’s limestone. Once home for several automobile manufacturers, the state had to accept their departure.The last Indiana-based company, Studebaker, closed in 1963, but several Hoosier cities attracted factories from companies headquartered in Detroit. Hoosiers continued to like their basketball. High school competition was unlike any in the nation, and now the girls joined in the action. Indiana University’s men’s team won four national championships between 1946 and 1990. 310


Kansas The Spanish explorer Coronado had passed through the territory that contained the future state of Kansas, as had the French, who claimed the land. Native Americans already in residence included some of the more familiar tribes of the Great Plains: the Pawnee, Kiowa, Osage, Cheyenne, Comanche, Apache. The Kansas area came to the United States through the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The territory and later the state became a part of the Old West, with cattle drives and Indian wars. In the pre–Civil War era Kansas became a battleground of sorts before there was a battle.The antislavery people won this contest, and Kansas entered the union on January 29, 1861, as the great American conflict was getting underway. The 34th state, Kansas also was a free state, although many proslavery people inhabited the area.The capital is Topeka. The name came from Kansa, people of the south wind. Nickname: Sunflower State. Motto: Ad astra per aspera (To the stars through adversity). Flower: sunflower.Tree: cottonwood. Bird: western meadowlark. Song: “Home on the Range.’’

Land Area: 82,277 sq. mi. (14th). Rivers: Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, Republican, Saline, Smoky Hill, Solomon. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Wichita (304,011), Kansas City (149,767),Topeka (119,883), Overland Park (111,790), Lawrence (65,608).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $67.5 billion (25th); per capita income: $14,929. Agricultural products: tobacco, corn, soybeans, livestock. Industry: lumber, food products, automobiles, electronics. Minerals: coal, sand and gravel.

People Population, 1945: 1,740,379 (30th); 1990: 2,477,574 (32nd). Breakdown, 1990: 90.1% white, 5.8% black, 3.8% Hispanic, 52.1% urban, 47.9% rural (1950); 69.1% urban, 30.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Bob Dole (politician), Dwight Eisenhower (general and president), Nancy Landon Kassebaum (politician), Charlie Parker (musician), Gale Sayers (football player), Dennis Hopper (actor).

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Throughout the period Kentucky retained a distinction in several areas. It remained a center of breeding and raising horses and a home to the Kentucky Derby, America’s most famous horse race. It continued, if at a different pace and using different methods, to mine coal in the mountains; to produce bourbon whiskey; and to produce tobacco in spite of growing hostility to smoking. Diminished activity in all these areas and a growing shortage of good farmland added to economic woes for which new industry, such as Japanese automobile factories, did not entirely compensate. Kentucky was a part of the economic ramifications inherent in the term Appalachia.

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $51.1 billion (31st); per capita income: $17,986. Agricultural products: wheat, corn, hay, soybeans, livestock. Industry: machinery, food products, publishing, airplanes. Minerals: sand and gravel, cement, petroleum, zinc, lead, coal. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Wheat fields, spacious prairie lands, and herds of cattle continued to mark the landscape of Kansas. Oil derricks in specified places suggested economic activity of a different sort. Industrialization in many cases was related to agriculture. Kansas City was involved in milling, meat-packing, and other such enterprises. A lively aircraft industry that had grown up in Wichita during the Second World War continued to operate, placing an emphasis on private aircraft. Places of historic interest were largely connected to Kansas’s position in development of the West: Dodge City, Ft. Riley, and John Brown’s cabin at Osawatomie. The construction of the Dwight Eisenhower Museum and Library at Abilene attracted much interest.

Kentucky The area of Kentucky was a part of Virginia Colony and an early target for colonists moving west beyond the Appalachian Mountains. Daniel Boone led an expedition in 1769, and the first settlement was established in 1774.The area also had been claimed by the French until 1763, and Native Americans were numerous. The British and Indians collaborated until the victory of George Rogers Clark in 1779. After the American Revolution, Virginia was persuaded to cede its western lands to the central government, opening the door for the Kentucky area to petition for statehood. Kentucky became the 15th state in the union on June 1, 1792.The state capital was Frankfort.The name Kentucky was a corruption of Indian words meaning “meadowland’’ or “land of tomorrow.’’ Nickname: Bluegrass State. Motto: United we stand, divided we fall. Flower: goldenrod.Tree: Kentucky coffee tree. Bird: cardinal. Song: “My Old Kentucky Home.’’ Land Area: 40,409 sq. mi. (37th). Rivers: Cumberland, Ohio, Kentucky, Licking, Tennessee. Mountains: Appalachian, Cumberland. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Louisville (269,063), Lexington-Fayette (225,366), Owensboro (53,549), Covington (43,264), Bowling Green (40,641). People Population, 1945: 2,578,179 (18th); 1990: 3,685,296 (23rd). Breakdown, 1990: 92% white, 7.1% black, 0.6% Hispanic, 36.8% urban, 63.2% rural (1950); 51.8% urban, 48.2% rural (1990). Famous natives: Muhammad Ali (boxer), Louis D. Brandeis (jurist), Robert Penn Warren (author), Colonel Harlan Sanders (restaurant-chain owner), Fred Vinson (jurist), Diane Sawyer (television reporter).

Louisiana The Spanish were the first Europeans to travel this southern coastal area, but LaSalle claimed the area for France in 1682. By 1731 it had become a French crown colony. Some 4,000 Acadians, French living in Nova Scotia, were transported by the British to Louisiana and settled in the bayou country in 1755. The land west of the Mississippi River was ceded to Spain in 1763, retroceded in 1800, and then sold to the United States in 1803.The southernmost portion of this territory contained the future state of Louisiana. The land east of the river was ceded to Britain in 1763, and it became American as a result of the revolution. Louisiana became a state, the 18th, on April 8, 1812— during the postrevolutionary years. At the end of the War of 1812 the Americans defeated the British in the celebrated battle of New Orleans—an event that perhaps reconfirmed United States possession of the territory. The capital of Louisiana is Baton Rouge. The name originated with King Louis XIV of France. Nickname: Pelican State. Motto: Union, justice, confidence. Flower: magnolia. Tree: cyprus. Bird: eastern brown pelican. Song: “Give Me Louisiana.’’ Land Area: 47,751 sq. mi. (31st). Rivers: Atchafalaya, Mississippi, Ouachita, Pearl, Red, Sabine. Cities (with 1990 pop.): New Orleans (496,938), Baton Rouge (219,531), Shreveport (198,525), Lafayette (94,440), Kenner (72,033). People Population, 1945: 2,456,057 (20th); 1990: 4,219,973 (21st). Breakdown, 1990: 67.3% white, 30.8% black, 2.2% Hispanic, 54.8% urban, 45.2% rural (1950); 68.1% urban, 31.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Louis Armstrong (singer and musician), Truman Capote (author), Mahalia Jackson (singer), Jerry Lee Lewis (singer), Michael De Bakey (surgeon), Fats Domino (entertainer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $90.9 billion (22nd); per capita income: $14,391. Agricultural products: sugar, soybeans, pecans, corn, sweet potatoes, cotton. Industry: chemical goods, lumber, electronics, petroleum products. Minerals: salt, sulphur, gravel, oil, natural gas. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Louisiana continued to have a diverse population of whites, Cajuns (originally the Acadians), Creoles, Indians, and blacks.The petrochemical industry situated along the Mississippi River between Baton Rouge and New Orleans remained critical, if controversial, and it shifted States

311

with the industry’s ups and downs after the 1970s. A downturn in 1987 was devastating. Low taxes meant less money for schools and state services. New Orleans guarded the Mississippi River, and it was an important port for seagoing ships. In the 1970s and 1980s the state made a major pitch to attract foreign and domestic tourists to the unique culture of the southern part of the state and to “the sportsman’s paradise.’’

Maine

became one of the first round of states in the union. Ratifying the Constitution on April 28, 1788, Maryland became the seventh state. Lodged between North and South and classified as a border state in the Civil War, Maryland nonetheless was held in the Union camp. It also was the site of the battle of Antietam in 1862, one of the two major battles fought outside the South. The state capital is Annapolis. The name came from Henrietta Maria, queen consort of King Charles I. Nickname: Old Line State. Motto: Fatti Maschii, Parole Femine (Manly Deeds, Womanly Words). Flower: black-eyed Susan. Tree: white oak. Bird: Baltimore oriole. Song: “Maryland, My Maryland.’’

The Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Abenaki Indians, among others, lived in this northeasternmost portion of the future United States. The Vikings explored the area, and in the 17th century some 1,000 French settlers arrived. The land nonetheless became part of a grant made by the English king to the Plymouth Colony; it later would be attached to the larger Massachusetts Bay Colony. The area was on the frontier of repeated quarrels between the British and French, a conflict resolved, of course, in favor of the British. Massachusetts relinquished its claim to the land after the American Revolution, thus opening a door for separate statehood. Maine became the 23rd state on March 15, 1820. Capital: Augusta. Origin of the name: the French province of Mayne. Nickname: Pine Tree State. Motto: Dirigo (I Direct). Tree: eastern white pine. Bird: chickadee. Song: “State of Maine Song.’’

Land Area: 10,460 sq. mi. (42nd). Rivers: Chester, Choptank, Nanticoke, Patapsco, Patuxent, Pocomoke, Potomac, Susquehanna. Mountains: Allegheny, Blue Ridge. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Baltimore (736,014), Rockville (44,835), Frederick (40,148), Gaithersburg (39,542), Bowie (37,589).

Land Area: 33,265 sq. mi. (39th). Rivers: Alagash, Androscoggin, Aroostook, Kennebec, Machias, Penobscot, Piscatqua, Salmon Falls, St. John. Mountains: Longfellow, Appalachian. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Portland (64,358), Lewiston (39,757), Bangor (33,181),Auburn (24,309), South Portland (23,163).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $108.6 billion (16th); per capita income: $21,864. Agricultural products: tobacco, corn, soybeans, livestock. Industry: metals, electronics, machinery, ships, aircraft, food products, fishing. Minerals: coal, sand and gravel.

People Population, 1945: 785,913 (35th); 1990: 1,227,928 (38th). Breakdown, 1990: 98.4% white, 0.4% black, 0.6% Hispanic, 51.7% urban, 48.3% rural (1950); 44.6% urban, 55.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: Edmund Muskie (politician), Kenneth Roberts (novelist), Nelson Rockefeller (politician), Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (poet). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $23.3 billion (42nd); per capita income: $17,200. Agricultural products: potatoes, blueberries, hay, fruit. Industry: wood products, leather goods, paper, fishing, iron and steel, ships. Minerals: sand and gravel, cement, limestone. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Maine stretches far to the north, the coast is craggy, the soil often infertile, and for many inhabitants life was a struggle. Lumber, fishing, farming—especially hay and potatoes—continued to be major means of subsistence. Lumber companies owned huge portions of land. Reduction in defense spending caused layoffs at Bath Iron Works and the Portsmouth Naval Yard, but light industry multiplied in the 1970s and 1980s. Politics became more evenly divided between Democrats and Republicans (as opposed to being staunchly Republican). Democrat Edmund Muskie (vice presidential candidate in 1968) brought recognition to the state, as did George Mitchell, another Democrat, who became Senate majority leader in 1988.

Maryland Home of coastal Indian tribes, the Maryland area had been explored by English settlers from Jamestown; later (in 1632) it was given to Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore, to be a haven in the colonies for Roman Catholics. One of the original colonies, it also 312


People Population, 1945: 2,1235,419 (23rd); 1990: 4,781,468 (19th). Breakdown, 1990: 71% white, 24.9% black, 2.9% Asian, 2.6% Hispanic, 69% urban, 31% rural (1950); 81.3% urban, 18.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Russell Baker (journalist), Eubie Blake (musician), Billie Holiday (singer), Babe Ruth (baseball player),Thurgood Marshall (jurist).

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Maryland continued to be affected by two major geographic features: the Chesapeake Bay, which brought fishing, boating, and other water enterprises, and proximity to the national capital. Maryland nearly surrounded Washington, D.C. A native son, Spiro Agnew, served as vice president starting in 1969, although he would be forced out of office in 1973. George Wallace was shot in Maryland while running for the presidency in 1972. The naval academy remained at Annapolis and despite losses in population, Baltimore remained one of the major cities of the United States. By 1990 two-thirds of the people lived in six counties adjacent to Washington and Baltimore.

Massachusetts The Pequot, Massachuset, and Nipmuc Indians lived in this northeastern coastal area. Some of the first English settlers coming to the New World came to Massachusetts: to Plymouth in 1620 (the Pilgrims) and to Massachusetts Bay Colony after 1628 (the Puritans). A large colony with a tightly structured, church-dominated government, Massachusetts Bay was a major player in the affairs of the colonies and in the revolutionary period—providing leadership in politics, education, and other areas. It was fitting that several revolutionary leaders and two early presidents came from this area. Ratifying the Constitution of February 6, 1788, Massachusetts became the sixth state and one of the first large states to enter the union. The capital is Boston. The name originated with Algonquian words meaning “great mountain place.’’ Nickname: Bay State. Motto: Ense Petit Placidani Sub Libertate Ouietem (By the Sword We Seek Peace, But Peace Only under Liberty). Flower: mayflower. Tree: American elm. Bird: chickadee. Song: “All Hail to Massachusetts.’’ Land Area: 8,284 sq. mi. (45th). Rivers: Cape Cod Canal, Connecticut, Merrimack, Taunton. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Boston (574,283),

Worchester (169,759), Springfield (156,983), Lowell (103,439), New Bedford (99,932). People Population, 1945: 4,493,281 (9th); 1990: 6,016,425 (13th). Breakdown, 1990: 89.8% white, 5% black, 4.8% Hispanic, 84.4% urban, 15.6% rural (1950); 84.3% urban, 15.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Leonard Bernstein (conductor, composer), Richard Cardinal Cushing (religious leader), John F. Kennedy (president), Bette Davis (actress), Jack Kerouac (author), Samuel E. Morrison (historian),Ted Kennedy (politician),Thomas O’Neill (politician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $153.9 billion (9th); per capita income: $22,642. Agricultural products: cranberries, potatoes, dairy products, nursery plants. Industry: cutlery, leather goods, electronics, machinery, ships, shoes, publishing. Minerals: babingtonite, limestone, coke, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Massachusetts continued to be a national leader in business, education, arts and sciences, and politics. Many of the traditional industries, such as textiles, shoes, and machinery declined or left the state altogether. But the state rebounded with growth of high technology, electronics, and military research. Some called it the Massachusetts Miracle, as unemployment dropped from 11 percent in 1975 to 3.2 percent in 1987.The state added many new structures devoted to education and the arts, of which the John F. Kennedy Library was a part. Massachusetts could claim numerous powerful politicians throughout this period. Several came from the Kennedy family, but another Democrat, John McCormack was Speaker of the House, and still another Irish Democrat, Thomas P. “Tip’’ O’Neill, held that post from 1977 to 1987.

Michigan French fur traders who traversed this area in between the Great Lakes encountered numerous Indian tribes, among them the Potawatomi, Menominee, Huron, and Chippewa.The French left such place names as Detroit and Marquette, but they lost the area to the British in 1763. After the Revolutionary War, the area became part of the Northwest Territory and followed the orderly process toward statehood laid down in the Northwest Ordinance. Michigan thereupon became the 26th state on January 26, 1837.The capital is Lansing.The name originated in the Fox Indian word meskiani, meaning “large lake.’’ Nickname: Wolverine State. Motto: Si Quaeris Peninsulam Amoenam Circumspice (If You Seek a Pleasant Peninsula, Look about You). Flower: apple blossom. Tree: white pine. Bird: robin. Song: “Michigan, My Michigan.’’ Land Area: 58,527 sq. mi. (23rd). Rivers: Brule, Detroit, Kalamazoo, Menominee, Montreat, Muskegon, St. Joseph, St. Mary’s. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Detroit (1,027,974), Grand Rapids (189,126), Warren (144,864), Flint (140,761), Lansing (127,321). People Population, 1945: 5,471,744 (7th); 1990: 9,295,297 (8th). Breakdown, 1990: 83.4% white, 13.9% black, 2.2% Hispanic, 70.7% urban, 29.3% rural (1950); 70.5% urban, 29.5% rural (1990). Famous natives: Henry Ford (manufacturer), Charles Lindbergh (aviator), William Upjohn (scientist), Ralph Bunche (diplomat), Joe Louis (boxer), Gerald Ford, (president), Madonna (singer), Diana Ross (singer),Tom Selleck (actor), Aretha Franklin (singer).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $188 billion (9th); per capita income: $18,346. Agricultural products: corn, potatoes, dairy goods, soybeans, fruit, blueberries, grapes. Industry: automobiles, metals, machinery, chemicals, plastics. Minerals: iron ore, copper, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Long associated with the automobile industry, Michigan experienced booms and busts tracable in many ways to production and sale of motor vehicles. Many plants remained in the state, but some relocated to other states or foreign countries. Another jolt came in the oil embargo of 1973 and the sharp rise in competition from Japanese auto firms. The old industrial cities such as Detroit and Flint became centers of unemployment, crime, and racial unrest. Michigan began to bounce back in the late 1970s as car sales returned and the tourist industry boomed. Politics was evenly split between the two parties, but the Republicans seemed to have the most prominent leaders, including Governor George Romney, William Millikan (governor 14 years), and Congressman and President Gerald Ford. Farming continued to decline, but Michigan remained a leader in public education.

Minnesota The area of Minnesota had been home of northern Plains Indians, notably the Ojibway and Santee Dakota (Sioux). Britain controlled part of this area between 1763 and 1783; the western part was acquired from France in the Louisiana Purchase. Settlement and development came slowly and often involved conflict with Indians of the area, usually the Dakota Sioux. Minnesota entered the union as the 32nd state on May 1, 1858, on the eve of the Civil War. Later development, especially in farming, came at the hands of people descended from Scandanavian countries: Swedes and Norwegians. The capital is St. Paul. The name originated in the Sioux word minisota, “sky-tinted waters.’’ Nickname: North Star State. Motto: L. Étoile du Nord (The Star of the North). Flower: pink and white lady slipper.Tree: red pine. Bird: common loon. Song: “Hail! Minnesota.’’ Land Area: 84,402 sq. mi. (12th). Rivers: Minnesota, Mississippi, Red River of the North, St. Croix. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Minneapolis (368,383), St. Paul (272,285), Bloomington (86,335), Duluth (85,493), Rochester (70,745). People Population, 1945: 2,497,485 (19th); 1990: 4,375,099 (20th). Breakdown, 1990: 94.4% white, 2.2% black, 1.2% Hispanic, 1.8% Asian, 54.9% urban, 45.1% rural (1950); 69.9% urban, 31.1% rural (1990). Famous natives: Bob Dylan (singer), Warren Burger (jurist), Judy Garland (actress and singer), Garrison Keillor (humorist), Hubert Humphrey (politician), Charles Schulz (cartoonist), Walter Mondale (politician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $100 billion (19th); per capita income: $18,731. Agricultural products: corn, wheat, hay, grain, livestock. Industry: food processing, wood products, metals, printing, machinery. Minerals: iron ore, granite, limestone, taconite. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Minnesota depended on economic activity in foodstuffs, wood products, and iron ore.The Mesabi range still produced 60 percent of the nation’s iron ore, but in the postwar period the state branched out States

313

into numerous high technology areas. As with nearly all states, the small towns declined and the cities became larger. Minnesota had the first indoor shopping mall in Edina in 1956 and later it acquired the largest mall: Mall of the Americas. Minnesota established a tradition of liberal politics, with such leaders as Hubert Humphrey,Walter Mondale, Eugene McCarthy, Orville Freeman. The situation became somewhat muddled beginning in the mid-1970s when such issues as abortion and homosexuality drove some conservatives out of the Democrat-Farmer-Labor Party. The state remained predominantly white, but nonwhite groups grew. Minneapolis had the largest urban population of Native Americans in the country. The largest growth in the 1970s and 1980s was in Asians, especially from Indochina.

Mississippi

Missouri Home originally to the Missouri Indians and other tribes, Missouri was much affected by its rivers: the large Missouri that ran east and west and the Mississippi that formed its eastern border. Explored by the French and for many years a part of New France, the area became American in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Missouri became a state (the 24th) on August 21, 1821, as part of a major compromise over slavery. Missouri was a border state, but it was held in line by Union forces during the Civil War.The capital is Jefferson City. Origin of the name: from Iliniwek term missouri—“owner of big canoes.’’ Nickname: Show Me State. Motto: Salus populi Suprema lex esto (Let the good of the people be the supreme law). Flower: blossom of the hawthorne.Tree: dogwood. Bird: bluebird. Song: “Missouri Waltz.’’

DeSoto explored this area in 1540, discovered the Mississippi River, and traced it upstream. LaSalle later claimed the entire general area for France.The territory was ceded to Britain in 1763. American settlers gradually moved in and displaced the Indians living there. Mississippi was part of original United States territory, but the Spanish claimed part of the land for several years after the American Revolution. They did not depart until 1798. Mississippi entered the union as the 20th state on December 10, 1817. In years to come it developed a Deep South economy and culture in all respects. The state seceded in 1861, and the northern part of the state was a battleground.The capital is Jackson.The name stemmed from the Ojibway term: misi sipi— “great river.’’ Nickname: Magnolia State. Motto: Virtute et armis (By Valor and arms). Flower: Southern magnolia.Tree: Southern magnolia. Bird: Northern mockingbird. Song: “Go Mississippi.’’

Land Area: 69,697 sq. mi. (21st). Rivers: Des Moines, Mississippi, Missouri, Osage, St. Francis. Mountains: Ozark. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Kansas City (435,146), St. Louis (396,685), Springfield (140,494), Independence (112,301), St. Joseph (71,852).

Land Area: 47,689 sq. mi. (32nd). Rivers: Big Black, Mississippi, Pearl, Tennessee,Yazoo. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Jackson (196,637), Biloxi (46,319), Greenville (45,226), Hattiesburg (41,882), Meridian (41,036).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $103.7 billion (17th); per capita income: $17,497. Agricultural products: corn, wheat, livestock, soybeans. Industry: chemicals, automobiles, airplanes and airplane parts. Minerals: limestone, iron ore, lead.

People Population 1945; 2,080,377 (25th); 1990: 2,573,216 (31st). Breakdown, 1990: 63.5% white, 35.6% black, 0.6% Hispanic, 27.9% urban, 72.1% rural (1950); 47.1% urban, 52.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: William Faulkner (author), James Earl Jones (actor), Elvis Presley (singer), Charlie Pride (singer), Tennessee Williams (writer), Oprah Winfrey (television host).

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Missouri presented a familiar division between rural and urban areas. The St. Louis and Kansas City metropolitan areas had much of the people, but many still farmed, especially in the northern part of the state.The most famous city, St. Louis, best known for its breweries and the St. Louis Cardinals baseball team, suffered a sharp loss in population in the 1960s and 1970s.Winston Churchill made his “iron curtain’’ speech at Fulton in 1946. The Gateway Arch at St. Louis, a nationally known landmark, opened in 1964. The state’s many signs that native son Harry S. Truman had been president from 1945 to 1953 included the Truman Library and Museum at Independence.

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $39.8 billion (32nd); per capita income: $12,735. Agricultural products: cotton, corn, soybeans, wheat, rice, livestock. Industry: wood products, food products, textiles, metals. Minerals: bauxite, iron ore, oil, natural gas. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Mississippi in many ways mirrored the Deep South in the postwar period. A poor state, rural, agricultural, segregated at the start of the 1950s, Mississippi hosted some of the most intense civil rights battles of the era: James Meredith’s efforts to desegregate “Ol’ Miss,’’ the murder of Medgar Evers, violent resistance to voter registration of blacks, Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964. Victorious politicians in those days all were Democrats. Mississippi did change.The economy became more diverse, with growth of manufacturing and trade. Few people still farmed in 1990. Segregation ended—in schools, politics, and to lesser extent, in general social relations. Blacks ran for office; many of the whites shifted to the Republicans. But Mississippi still was a poor state in 1990, with low population and economic growth. Schools were improved and integrated but still rated among the weakest in the land. 314


People Population, 1945: 3,556,693 (10th); 1990: 5,117,073 (15th). Breakdown, 1990: 87.7% white, 10.7% black, 1.2% Hispanic, 61.5% urban, 38.5% rural (1950); 68.7% urban, 31.3% rural (1990). Famous natives: Omar Bradley (general), Walter Cronkite (news reporter),Walt Disney (film producer), Langston Hughes (poet), Ginger Rogers (actress), Casey Stengel (baseball manager), Yogi Berra (baseball player), Harry S.Truman (president).

Montana The area that included Montana was the northern portion of the Great Plains, a territory inhabited by the Crow and Flathead Indians. The United States acquired the territory in the Purchase of Louisiana in 1803. The course of development was part of the long story of exploration, westward expansion of the American population, and the discovery of precious metals that sparked more expansion and the inevitable conflict with Indians in the area. The storied Battle of Little Bighorn of 1876 was in Montana. Montana became a state on November 8, 1889, the 41st state and one of six so-called silver states (all contained silver deposits) brought into the union at approximately the same time.The capital is Helena.The name originated in the Spanish word montana, meaning “mountainous.’’ Nickname: Treasure State or Big Sky Country. Motto: Oro y Plata (Gold and Silver). Tree: ponderosa pine. Bird: western meadowlark. Song: “Montana.’’

Land Area: 147,046 sq. mi. (4th). Rivers: Kootenai, Milk, Missouri, Musselshell, Powder, Yellowstone. Mountains: Absaroka Range, Beartooth Range, Big Belt, Bitteroot Range, Centennial, Crazy, Lewis Range, Little Belt. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Billings (81,151), Great Falls (55,097), Missoula (42,918), Butte-Silver Bow (33,941), Helena (24,569). People Population, 1945: 457,624 (43rd); 1990: 799,065 (44th). Breakdown, 1990: 92.7% white, 0.3% black, 1.5% Hispanic, 6% American Indian, 43.7% urban, 56.3% rural (1950); 52.5% urban, 47.5% rural (1990). Famous natives: Gary Cooper (actor), Chet Huntley (newsman), Myrna Loy (actress), Mike Mansfield (politician), Charles Russell (artist). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $13.3 billion (46th); per capita income: $15,110. Agricultural products: livestock, wheat, corn, barley, oats, sugar beets. Industry: wood products, paper, oil, foodstuffs. Minerals: coal, oil, gas, copper, gravel, gypsum, phosphates. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Montana underwent major changes between 1946 and 1990. Tourism expanded as visitors came to the state’s many lakes and streams and toYellowstone and Glacier National Parks.A boom in coal mining in the 1950s and 1960s produced a backlash in the 1970s when the state passed several measures designed to protect the land. A traditional economic giant,Anaconda Copper, sold out in the 1970s;Atlantic Richfield, which took over, stopped copper operation in 1983—a devastating event. Some promise appeared in the discovery of petroleum reserves in the 1970s and 1980s, but the basic enterprise remained agriculture, and it remained accountable to the large market forces.

Nebraska Home of the Pawnee and other Indian tribes, Nebraska was part of the territory purchased from France in 1803. It was set aside as an Indian domain in 1834, but whites continued to cross the territory on the way west and enough of them stayed for Nebraska to become a territory in 1854 in the political struggles of the pre–Civil War era. The land was opened to settlement, and the railroad came in, making it possible for Nebraska to become the 37th state on March 1, 1867. The capital is Lincoln.The name’s origin is a Siouan term meaning “flat water.’’ Nickname: Cornhusker State. Motto: Equality Before the Law. Flower: goldenrod. Tree: cottonwood. Bird: western Meadowlark. Song: “Beautiful Nebraska.’’ Land Area: 77,355 sq. mi. (15th). Rivers: Missouri, North Platte, Republican, South Platte. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Omaha (335,795), Lincoln (191,972), Grand Island (39,386), Bellvue (30,982), Kearney (24,396). People Population, 1945: 1,984,920 (33rd); 1990: 1,578,385 (36th). Breakdown, 1990: 93.8% white, 3.6% black, 2.3% Hispanic, 0.8% American Indian, 46.9% urban, 53.1% rural (1950); 66.1% urban, 33.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Fred Astaire (dancer), Marlon Brando (actor), Henry Fonda (actor), Johnny Carson (comedian), Rollin Kirby (cartoonist). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $33.4 billion (34th); per capita income: $17,221.Agricultural products: sugar beets, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans,

cattle. Industry: chemicals, food products, metals, machinery, electronics. Minerals: petroleum, coal. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Nebraska is a Great Plains state that experiences great extremes of weather: cold winters and hot summers. Its chief enterprise continued to be agriculture; 95 percent of the land is used for agricultural purposes. Farming came to be so dominated by large operations that the legislature passed a law in 1982 restricting expansion of agricultural corporations. Industry often was related to food processing, although Omaha by 1990 had become a center for producing communications equipment. A growing problem was contamination of the environment, especially the water. The University of Nebraska was making a name for itself as a powerhouse of college football.

Nevada Set in a desert, Nevada was barren, with less rainfall than any other American state. The Spanish explored the area but did not stay, although the territory did become a part of New Spain. The territory passed to the United States in 1848, a consequence of the Mexican cession after the war with Mexico. It was discovery of the Comstock Lode in 1859 that brought in people by the thousands, all of them seeking either to find the precious metal or to profit from its availability. Nevada came into the union on October 31, 1864, the 36th state. Further discoveries of gold, silver, and copper helped keep the economy going until gambling came in.The state capital is Carson City.The name originated from a Spanish word meaning “snow-covered sierra.’’ Nickname: Silver State, Sagebrush State. Motto: All For Our Country. Flower: sagebrush.Tree: pinon pine and bristlecone pine. Bird: mountain bluebird. Song: “Home Means Nevada.’’ Land Area: 110,561 sq. mi. (7th). Rivers: Colorado, Humboldt. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Las Vegas (258,295), Reno (133,850), Henderson (64,942), Sparks (53,367), North Las Vegas (64,942). People Population, 1945: 159,804 (48th); 1990: 1,201,833 (39th). Breakdown, 1990: 84.3% white, 6.6% black, 10.4% Hispanic, 3.2% Asian, 57.2% urban, 42.8% rural (1950); 88.3% urban, 11.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Paul Laxalt (politician), Pat McCarran (politican), Key Pittman (politician), Andre Agassi (tennis player). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $30.8 billion (35th); per capita income: $19,416. Agricultural products: cattle, hay, potatoes, dairy products, onions. Industry: gambling, publishing and printing, tourism. Minerals: gold, silver, mercury, copper, barite. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Surely the driest of the states, Nevada did very well with what it had.The area continued to produce precious metals.The national government, which owned a large portion of the land, found the climate and terrain suitable for testing weapons and training pilots. Growth in the population was astounding: nearly 600 percent between 1950 and 1990. The bulk of the growth came in the population centers of Las Vegas and Reno, the culture of which came to resemble urban California. Nevada subsisted largely on income from gambling and tourism. One of the most remarkable transformations in the nation since the Second World War has been in the creation of Las Vegas as a gambling, entertainment, and tourist center. States

315

New Hampshire Home of the Pennacook Indians, the area of New Hampshire was explored by Champlain for France, but the first settlers in 1623 near Portsmouth were English. The area remained part of Massachusetts Bay Colony until 1679, and the Massachusetts governor had authority until 1744. The Patriots drove the royal governor out in 1775. New Hampshire was the ninth state to join the union, on June 21, 1788. The state capital is Concord. Origin of the name is a county in England (Hampshire). Nickname: Granite State. Motto: Live Free or Die. Flower: purple lilac. Tree: white birch. Bird: purple finch. Song: “Old New Hampshire.’’ Land Area: 9,279 sq. mi. (44th). Rivers: Connecticut, Merrimack, Piscataqua, Saco, Salmon Falls. Mountains: White. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Manchester (99,567), Nashua (79,662), Concord (36,006), Rochester (26,630), Dover (25,042). People Population, 1945: 452,174 (44th); 1990: 1,109,252 (40th). Breakdown, 1990: 98% white, 0.6% black, 1% Hispanic, 57.5% urban, 42.5% rural (1950); 51% urban, 49% rural (1990). Famous natives: Robert Frost (poet), Alan Shepard (astronaut), Sarah Buell Hale (author), Franklin Pierce (president), David Souter (jurist). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $23.9 billion (41st); per capita income: $20,789. Agricultural products: maple syrup, fruits and vegetables, dairy products. Industry: wood products, electronics, paper, maple syrup. Minerals: granite, limestone, sand, gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 New Hampshire underwent striking changes in the postwar era.The population grew markedly, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, and reached 1 million for the first time in 1990. Some of the growth came in Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans and African Americans. Some of it was attracted by the increase in high-technology firms in the southcentral part of the state; some of it was a product of people working in Boston and living in New Hampshire. Not that all change was acceptable to everyone. Local opposition in 1974 stopped construction of a massive oil refinery at Durham. Opposition did not halt construction of a nuclear power plant at Seabrook, which went on line in 1990. John Sununu, who served three terms as governor, was probably the most prominent politician of the later period.

New Jersey Giovanni da Verrazano and Henry Hudson explored the eastern coastal area of North America that would include the future New Jersey. Dutch settlers established Ft. Nassau in 1623, and it became a Dutch colony.The English seized the area and established New Jersey colony in 1665. New Jersey played an important part in the American Revolution, with some 100 battles within the state/colony, including important engagements at Princeton, Trenton, and Monmouth. An area with a “small-state’’ point of view, New Jersey was the third state to ratify the Constitution, on December 18, 1787. In years to come, Jersey will develop as an overflow from New York City. The capital is Trenton.The name originated in an English Channel island of the same name. Nickname: Garden State. Motto: Liberty and Prosperity. Flower: purple violet. Tree: red oak. Bird: eastern goldfinch. Song: “New Jersey Loyalty’’ (unofficial). 316


Land Area: 7,787 sq. mi. (46th). Rivers: Delaware, Hackensack, Hudson, Passaic. Mountains: Kittatinny, Ramapo. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Newark (275,221), Jersey City (228,537), Paterson (140,591), Elizabeth (110,002), Edison CDP (Census Designated Place) (88,630). People Population, 1945: 4,200,941 (8th); 1990: 7,730,188 (9th). Breakdown, 1990: 79.3% white, 13.4% black, 9.6% Hispanic, 3.5% Asian, 86.6% urban, 13.4% rural (1950); 89.4% urban, 10.6% rural (1990). Famous natives: Count Basie (orchestra leader), Paul Robeson (singer), Albert Einstein (scientist), Jack Nicholson (actor), Walter Schirra (astronaut), Meryl Streep (actress), Frank Sinatra (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $208.4 billion (8th); per capita income: $24,968. Agricultural products: nursery and greenhouse plants, fruits and vegetables. Industry: chemicals, electronic equipment, sporting goods, glasswares, textiles. Minerals: glass, stone, gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 New Jersey was surprisingly important as a producer of garden products, for its identity was closely associated with New York City. The state emerged as a center for chemical and pharmaceutical companies as well as petroleum and textile firms.The New Jersey Turnpike connecting Philadelphia and New York opened in 1952. Newark had a major race riot in 1967. Besides hosting the Miss America Pageant, Atlantic City and its landmark Boardwalk moved into legalized gambling in 1978. Senator Bill Bradley, basketball player at Princeton University and the professional New York Knicks, was probably the most prominent state politician.

New Mexico Southwestern Indians were numerous, especially the Apache, Comanche, Navajo (Dineh), in the New Mexico area.The Spanish first established settlements at Santa Fe and San Juan Pueblo. Trade with non-Spanish America grew, and Americans trickled into the area from the East.The United States acquired possession of the land in the war with Mexico. Thereafter, the territory stood as a dry, sparsely populated part of 19th-century western culture. Billy the Kid was born there. Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa raided into the territory in 1916. New Mexico became a state on January 6, 1912, the 47th and next-to-last of the original 48. The capital is Santa Fe. The name, attached by the Spanish, came from the larger Mexican area. Nickname: Land of Enchantment. Motto: Crecit Eundo (It Grows As It Goes.) Flower: yucca. Tree: pine. Bird: roadrunner. Song: “O, Fair New Mexico.’’ Land Area: 121,593 sq. mi. (5th). Rivers: Gila, Pecos, Rio Grande, Zuni. Mountains: Chuska, Guadalupe, Sacramento, San Andres, Sangre de Cristo. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Albuquerque (384,736), Las Cruces (62,126), Santa Fe (55,859), Roswell (44,654), Farmington (33,997). People Population, 1945: 535,220 (40th); 1990: 1,515,069 (37th). Breakdown, 1990: 75.6% white, 2% black, 38.2% Hispanic, 8.9% American Indian, 50% urban, 49.8% rural (1950); 73% urban, 27% rural (1990). Famous natives: Nancy Lopez (golfer), Bill Mauldin (cartoonist), Georgia O’Keeffe (artist), Al Unser (race-car driver), Bob Unser (race-car driver).

Economics Gross state product, 1990: $26.7 billion (39th); per capita income: $14,228. Agricultural products: cattle, hay, dairy products. Industry: oil refining, food products, electronics, machinery. Metals: petroleum, natural gas, uranium, potash, coal. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Los Alamos became a research center for nuclear weapons, and the first nuclear bomb had been tested at Alamogordo. New Mexico benefited from a brief oil boom in the 1970s, by expansion of military bases and nuclear research, and by the manufacture of computers, appliances and communication equipment in the Albuquerque–Santa Fe area. The tourist industry also expanded. New Mexico brought together three cultures: Indian, Mexican, and Anglo.

New York The area that became New York was home for the powerful Iroquois and other Indian tribes. Giovanni da Verrazano explored the area, and under the leadership of an Englishman, Henry Hudson, the Dutch founded New Amsterdam for which land Peter Minuit paid the Indians in trinkets. Britain seized the area in 1664 and renamed it New York.Aided by its fine port, New York grew in colonial affairs and became a major force in the Revolution and in the new nation. Among the original founders of the United States, New York entered the union on July 26,1788, the 11th state. The capital is Albany. The state was named for the Duke of York, future King James II. Nickname: Empire State. Motto: Excelsior (Ever Upward). Flower: rose. Tree: sugar maple. Bird: red-breasted bluebird. Song: “I Love New York.’’ Land Area: 49,108 sq. mi. (30th). Rivers: Allegheny, Delaware, Genesee, Hudson, Mohawk, New York State Barge Canal, Niagara, St. Lawrence, Susquehanna. Mountains: Adirondack, Allegheny, Berkshire Hills, Catskill, Kittatinny, Ramapo. Cities (with 1990 pop.): New York (7,322,564), Buffalo (328,123), Rochester (231,636), Yonkers (188,082), Syracuse (163,860). People Population, 1945: 12,584,913 (1st); 1990: 17,990,455 (2nd). Breakdown, 1990: 74.4% white, 15.9% black, 12.3% Hispanic, 3.9% Asian, 85.5% urban, 14.5% rural (1945); 84.3% urban, 15.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Humphrey Bogart (actor), George Gershwin (composer), Vince Lombardi (football coach), Nelson A. Rockefeller (politician), Richard Rodgers (song writer), Jonas Salk (scientist), Eleanor Roosevelt (stateswoman), Franklin D. Roosevelt (president). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $466.8 billion (2nd); per capita income: $21,975. Agricultural products: apples and fruits, hay, corn, potatoes, dairy products. Industry: machinery, paper products, metals, optical goods, electronics, computers. Minerals: zinc, salt, sand and gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Traditionally the most vigorous and powerful of the states, national leader in numerous categories, New York had to surrender some of its power after 1946. California crept up and then zoomed past in population and by 1990 Texas was catching up fast. Several cities lost population; many industries moved out. New York City had major problems with crime and other social issues. But New York remained a very important state. It moved into service industries and was still vital in trade and as a producer of farm goods. The St. Lawrence Seaway opened in 1959. Per capita income still was among the highest.

New York City remained the nation’s largest and most vibrant city and leader in world affairs. The United Nations kept its home there. New York’s highest ranking politicians—Thomas E. Dewey, Jacob Javits, Robert Kennedy (elected to the Senate in 1964), Daniel P. Moynihan, Andrew Cuomo, and others—were national political figures.

North Carolina The colony of North Carolina, which was home to the Cherokee and other Indian tribes, grew out of a land grant to eight English noblemen by King Charles II in 1663. The territory became a royal colony in 1729 when the proprietors sold their rights to the Crown. North Carolina was the first colony to declare independence explicitly and several battles were fought in the state during the American Revolution. After the war, North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the Constitution, on November 21, 1789.The state thereupon gave up claim to its western lands, much of which would become Tennessee. The state capital is Raleigh. The name originated with King Charles I (Carolus is Latin for “Charles’’). Nickname: Tarheel State. Motto: Esse Quam Videri (To Be Rather Than To Seem.) Flower: dogwood. Tree: pine. Bird: cardinal. Song: “The Old North State.’’ Land Area: 52,669 sq. mi. (11th). Rivers:Albemarle, Pee Dee, Roanoke, Yadkin. Mountains: Black, Blue Ridge, Great Smoky, Unaka. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Charlotte (395,934), Raleigh (207,951), Greensboro (183,521),Winston Salem (143,485), Durham (136,611). People Population, 1945: 3,504,626 (11th); 1990: 6,628,637 (10th). Breakdown, 1990: 75.6% white, 22% black, 1.2% American Indian, 1.2% Hispanic, 33.7% urban, 66.3% rural (1950); 50.4% urban, 49.6% rural (1990). Famous natives: Billy Graham (evangelist), Edward R. Murrow (newsman), Jesse Jackson (civil rights leader), Ava Gardner (actress), Michael Jordan (basketball player), Richard Petty (race-car driver). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $141.2 billion (12th); per capita income: $16,207.Agricultural products: tobacco, peanuts, corn, soybeans, sweet potatoes. Industry: textiles, wood products, furniture, chemicals. Minerals: limestone, copper, phosphate, granite, kaolin, feldspar. Major Developments, 1946–1990 North Carolina followed the path of other southern states, although it did so with much more speed and success. It confronted the civil rights revolution (the sit-ins started in Greensboro in 1960) but seemed to yield more gracefully. The state continued to grow tobacco and to face the great upheaval over smoking.The state moved to manufacturing and service industries. North Carolina shifted from a solid-South Democrat state to a two-party state, with the prominent Republican Senator Jesse Helms, first elected in 1972, still going strong in 1990. The state stood out in two other areas: in its fine university system that focused on the University of North Carolina, Duke, and North Carolina State, and as a growing sports mecca in college basketball and capital of a stock-car racing enterprise that reached full bloom.

North Dakota Dakota was Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) territory; even the name was of Sioux origin. But of course the whites kept coming. The United States acquired claim to the eastern half of the land in the States

317

Louisiana Purchase. The western part came in agreement with Britain in 1818. Arrival of the railroad enhanced movement of people into the area, many of them immigrants from such countries as Norway and Germany. Defeat of the Sioux in the 1870s and 1880s and the politics of silver in Washington, D.C., paved the way for statehood, which came on November 2, 1889. North Dakota was the 39th state. Its capital is Bismarck. The name originated in the Sioux word for “allies.’’ Nickname: Sioux State, Peace Garden State. Motto: Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. Flower: wild prairie rose.Tree:American elm. Bird: western meadowlark. Song: “North Dakota Hymn.’’ Land Area: 70,703 sq. mi. (17th). Rivers: Missouri, Red River of the North. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Fargo (74,111), Grand Forks (49,425), Bismarck (49,256), Minot (35,544), Dickinson (16,097). People Population, 1945: 520,935 (41st); 1990: 638,800 (47th). Breakdown, 1990: 94.6% white, 0.6% black, 0.7% Hispanic, 4.1% American Indian, 26.6% urban, 73.4% rural (1950); 53.3% urban, 46.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Angie Dickinson (actress), Peggy Lee (singer), Eric Sevareid (newsman), Lawrence Welk (orchestra leader), Louis L’Amour (novelist). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $12.1 billion (49th); per capita income: $15,255. Agricultural products: wheat, corn, potatoes, livestock, sunflowers. Industry: food products, farm machinery. Minerals: lignite coal, oil, natural gas. Major Developments, 1946–1990 In some measure the well-being of North Dakota depended on the weather and the price of wheat. Production of wheat ranged from 156 million bushels in 1970 to 328 million in 1981. Otherwise, the state relied heavily on the national government through price subsidies and funding of military facilities. Cold war North Dakota was sprinkled with air bases and Minuteman silos. Strip-mined coal also brought employment and generation of electric power that could be sold to other states.The population did not change much, and when it did, it often meant a reduction.There were fewer people in 1990 than there had been in 1970. Nearly 95 percent were white, and most of the rest were American Indians.

Ohio The Miami, Lenni Lenape (Delaware), and Wyandot Indians had resided in the general domain that would become Ohio, and the power of the Iroquois reached into the area as well. Both British and French explorers had moved through the territory, and rival colonial claims were not resolved until 1763 after the British had defeated the French. The Ohio territory was part of the West in the new United States, and new settlers steadily moved in along the excellent Ohio River waterway. A river town, Cincinnati, was one of the first settlements. Ohio became a state on February 19, 1803, the 17th state. In the immediate years to come, Ohio would continue to benefit from the rivers, canals, and good farmland. The capital is Columbus. The name originated in the Iroquois word oheo, which meant “beautiful.’’ Nickname: Buckeye State. Motto:With God, all things are possible. Flower: scarlet carnation.Tree: buckeye. Bird: cardinal. Song: “Beautiful Ohio.’’ Land 41,330 sq. mi. (35th). Rivers: Cuyahoga, Maumee, Miami, Muskingum, Ohio, Sandusky, Scioto. Mountains: Allegheny. Cities (with 318


1990 pop.): Columbus (632,910), Cleveland (515,616), Cincinnati (364,040),Toledo (332,943), Akron (223,019). People Population, 1945: 6,873,448 (5th); 1990: 10,847,115 (7th). Breakdown, 1990: 87.8% white, 10.6% black, 1.3% Hispanic, 0.8% Asian, 70.2% urban, 29.8% rural (1950); 74.1% urban, 25.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: John Glenn (astronaut and politician), Neil Armstrong (astronaut), Bob Hope (comedian), Dean Martin (singer), Roy Rogers (actor), Clark Gable (actor), Steven Spielberg (director), Robert A.Taft (politician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $222.1 billion (7th); per capita income: $17,473. Agricultural products: corn, soybeans, wheat, poultry, livestock, fruit. Industry: rubber goods, electrical equipment, automobiles, plumbing equipment. Minerals: coal, oil, gas, limestone, shale, gypsum, salt. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Ohio continued to prosper in the postwar period with its coal in the south, farms in the center, and industry in such cities as Cleveland, Akron, and Youngstown. Efforts to retain these traditional industries were only modestly successful, but Ohio scored victories in acquiring a Volkswagen plant in the 1970s and a factory to build Honda automobiles in the early 1980s. In the 1970s the state set forth on major programs to clean up the water and air, which included reclaiming Lake Erie, the Ohio River, and bespoiled strip-mined land in the south. Ohio received its mark of the Vietnam era when national-guard soldiers fired on demonstrators at Kent State University in 1970. Ohioans divided politics between the parties: Republican Senator Robert A. Taft was most prominent at the start of the period as was probably Democrat Senator John Glenn at the end.

Oklahoma Oklahoma had been Indian land. The Kiowa, Apache, and other tribes had lived in the area for many years. A part of New France in the colonial era, the territory followed the changes in ownership that had characterized all the land that would be involved in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Under control of the United States, the area was set aside for the “Five Civilized Indian Tribes’’: Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole. In 1889 the Oklahoma Territory was opened to non-Indian settlers—a blow, needless to say, to Native American interests; many thousands of “boomers’’ rushed in.The discovery of oil in the 1890s established an economic focus for years to come.The state entered the union on November 16, 1907, the 46th state, although large portions of land remained in Indian hands. The capital is Oklahoma City.The name originated with the Choctaw term: okla humma— “land of the red people.’’ Nickname: Sooner State. Motto: Labor omnia vinat (Work overcomes all obstacles.). Flower: mistletoe.Tree: redbud. Bird: scissor-tailed flycatcher. Song: “Oklahoma!’’ Land Area: 69,956 sq. mi. (18th). Rivers:Arkansas, Canadian, Cimarron, Red. Mountains: Ouachita, Ozark Plateau, Staked Plain,Wichita. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Oklahoma City (444,719),Tulsa (367,302), Lawton (80,5651), Norman (80,071), Broken Arrow (58,043). People Population, 1945: 2,034,460 (26th); 1990: 3,145,585 (28th). Breakdown, 1990: 82.1% white, 7.4% black, 2.7% Hispanic, 8% American

Indian, 51% urban, 49% rural (1950); 67.7% urban, 32.3% rural (1990). Famous natives:Tony Randall (actor), Mickey Mantle (baseball player), Oral Roberts (evangelist), Ralph Ellison (author), Johnny Bench (baseball player), Gene Autry (actor),Walter Cronkite (newsman), Reba McIntire (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $56 billion (28th); per capita income: $15,444. Agricultural products: wheat, corn, oats, hay, peanuts, cattle. Industry: plastic goods, machinery, metal products, rubber goods. Minerals: petroleum, natural gas, coal, stone, gravel. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Oklahoma received a boost at the start of the period with appearance of Oklahoma! as a popular Broadway show in the early 1940s and a popular movie in the 1950s. If nothing else, the show provided a rousing new tune that quickly was adopted as the state song. The state’s economy was based on oil production, farming, especially cattle ranches to the west, and growth of industry in the two major cities, Oklahoma City and Tulsa. A booming economy in the late 1970s, produced by high oil and grain prices, was followed by a devastating crash in the mid-1980s when these same forces reversed themselves. Many jobs vanished, and many farms were lost. In the 1970s and 1980s the state was struck with a remarkable display of political corruption, at the end of which, nearly 250 officials were convicted of national crimes, and others, including two governors and several state legislators, were convicted of various state offenses.

Oregon Sir Francis Drake touched this area of northwest North America in the 16th century, and James Cook visited there in the 18th century. Meriwether Lewis and James Clark reached the Oregon territory in 1805, and they encountered various Indian tribes. A long-standing dispute between the United States and Great Britain was settled by a treaty in 1846 that awarded what now is Oregon to the United States. Oregon fever, as it was called, produced a migration of settlers to the area.Territorial status came in 1848, statehood on February 14, 1859 (the 33rd state), and the railroad in 1883.The capital is Salem. Origin of name: unknown. Nickname: Beaver State. Motto: The Union. Flower: Oregon grape. Tree: Douglas fir. Bird: western meadowlark. Song: “Oregon, My Oregon.’’ Land Area: 97,073 sq. mi. (10th). Rivers: Columbia, Snake,Willamette. Mountains: Cascade Range, Coast Range, Klamath. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Portland (437,319), Eugene (112,669), Salem (107,786), Gresham (68,235), Beaverton (53,310). People Population, 1945: 1,206,322 (32nd); 1990: 2,842,321 (29th). Breakdown, 1990: 92.8% white, 1.6% black, 4% Hispanic, 1.4% American Indian, 2.4% Asian, 53.9% urban, 46.1% rural (1950); 70.5% urban, 29.5% rural (1990). Famous natives: Linus Pauling (chemist), Edwin Markham (poet), John Reed (author), Bob Packwood (politician), Mary Decker Slaney (runner). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $55.4 billion (30th); per capita income: $17,156. Agricultural products: fruit, vegetables, wheat, livestock, potatoes. Industry: wood and paper products, aluminium, metal goods, fish processing, electronic equipment. Minerals: sand gravel, cement, nickel.

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Oregon’s economy rested on agriculture, tourism, and, above all, wood products, in this area that received much rainfall.As happened in several states, manufacturing jobs departed after 1970, and many people had to take lower-paying service work.The state became known in the 1960s and 1970s for its efforts to protect the environment and clean up its rivers. In 1972 Oregon was the first state to enact a “bottle act,’’ which encouraged recycling of certain types of containers. In the 1980s the state became an outlet for dissatisfied Californians and for high-technology computer companies. In 1990 the state adopted and added to its constitution a sharp restriction on taxation. Prominent politicians were moderate Republican Senators Mark Hatfield and Robert Packwood. A well-known political maverick of the 1960s and 1970s was Senator Wayne Morse, who at various times had been Republican, Democrat, and somewhere in between.

Pennsylvania Various European explorers visited this eastern coastal territory before it was awarded by England’s King Charles II to William Penn in 1681. Penn, a Quaker, wished to make his colony a haven for religious toleration.The colony benefited from its port facilities and varied natural resources. The centrally placed and largest city, Philadelphia, became a major force in colonial affairs and in the new government of the United States. The Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution (1789) were signed there. Pennsylvania became the second state to ratify the Constitution, on December 12, 1789, and the first state (1780) to abolish slavery.The capital is Harrisburg. Origin of the name: Admiral William Penn, father of William and founder of the colony. Nickname: Keystone State. Motto: Virtue, Liberty, and Independence. Flower: mountain laurel. Tree: hemlock. Bird: ruffled grouse. Song: “Hail Pennsylvania.’’ Land Area: 45,308 sq. mi. (33rd). Rivers: Allegheny, Delaware, Juniata, Monongahela, Ohio, Schuylkill, Susquehanna. Mountains: Allegheny, Kittatinny, Laurel Hills, Pocono. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Philadelphia (1,585,718), Pittsburgh (369,879), Erie (108,718), Allentown (105,090), Scranton (78,380). People Population, 1945: 9,193,957 (2nd); 1990: 11,881,643 (5th). Breakdown, 1990: 88.5% white, 9.2% black, 2% Hispanic, 1.2% Asian, 70.5% urban, 29.5% rural (1950); 68.9% urban, 31.1% rural (1990). Famous natives: Bill Cosby (actor), George C. Marshall (general and statesman),Andy Warhol (artist),Alexander Calder (sculptor), Wilt Chamberlain (basketball player), Marian Anderson (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $244.6 billion (3rd); per capita income: $18,672.Agricultural products: corn, hay, fruits, livestock, poultry, mushrooms. Industry: steel, chemicals, machinery, electronic equipment, food products. Minerals: coal, petroleum, natural gas, limestone, iron ore, cobalt, copper, zinc. Major Developments, 1946–1990 In the early part of the postwar period, Pennsylvania exploited its traditional resources of agriculture, coal in the south, and manufacturing and the steel industry in large cities. Beginning in approximately 1970, the state had to shift to service industries and tourism (especially Philadelphia, Gettysburg, and the Pocono Mountains) as mining and steel making suffered devastating losses. Agriculture remained very important. Politics stood generally in the center, with tilting to States

319

moderate left or moderate right at various times. In the 1970s the state adopted major legislation to deal with the aged and women’s rights and also passed a rigorous antiabortion measure. The state reestablished capital punishment in the 1970s but did not execute anyone. In the 1970s and 1980s several high officials engaged in corruption, including Senator Hugh Scott. Convicted of accepting a bribe, State Treasurer R. Budd Dwyer shot himself before a televised press conference in 1987. His death before being sentenced left his family entitled to pension benefits of $1 million.

Rhode Island Most of the Indians that had inhabited the Rhode Island area were of the Narragannsett tribe.The colony grew out of defection from the restrictive religious atmosphere of Massachusetts Bay Colony. Roger Williams left and went to Providence in 1636. Other dissenters joined Williams in founding Rhode Island as a separate colony in 1647. Smallest of the colonies, it would be one of the first to declare independence in 1776 and the last of the original 13 colonies to ratify the Constitution—on May 29, 1790.The capital is Providence.The name originated with Rhode Island in Narragannsett Bay, itself named after the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean Sea. Nickname: Ocean State or Little Rhody. Motto: Hope. Flower: violet. Tree: red maple. Bird: Rhode Island Red (a chicken). Song: “Rhode Island.’’ Land Area: 1,212 sq. mi. (50th). Rivers: Blackstone, Pawcatuck, Providence, Sakonnet. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Providence (160,728), Warwick (85,427), Cranston (76,060), Pawtucket (72,644), East Providence (50,380). People Population, 1945: 758,222 (36th); 1990: 1,003,464 (43rd). Breakdown, 1990: 91.4% white, 3.9% black, 4.6% Hispanic, 1.8% Asian, 84.3% urban, 15.7% rural (1950); 86% urban, 14% rural (1990). Famous natives: Nelson Eddy (singer), George M. Cohan (song writer), Matthew Perry (admiral). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $21 billion (43rd); per capita income: $18,841. Agricultural products: potatoes, poultry, dairy products, greenhouse plants. Industry: textiles, clothing, jewelry, electronics, fish processing. Minerals: granite, limestone, gravel, bowemite cumberlandite. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Tiny Rhode Island long had subsisted on manufacturing, but beginning in the 1960s the economic base began to leave. By 1990 only about one-fifth of the workforce was so employed. Half were in the jewelry business, and only two firms employed more than 1,000 people. More people worked in the lower-paying service area, which included tourism, health services, and education.A long-time Democrat stranglehold on politics was broken in the 1970s with election of a Republican mayor of Providence and a Republican U.S. senator and congressman (in 1980). Several officeholders were found guilty of corruption in the 1980s.

South Carolina French and Spanish explorers had visited this southern coastal area in the 16th century, but it was part of the territory King Charles II of England granted to eight proprietors in 1663. South Carolina became a royal colony in 1729. Carolina had many of the markings of the 320


southern colonies, especially slavery. It became the eighth state to enter the union, on May 23, 1788, and would be the first to try to leave it in 1860. Perhaps the most rabid of the secessionist states in the Civil War era, South Carolina would pay the price. The capital is Columbia.The name originated with King Charles (Carolus) II. Nickname: Palmetto State. Motto: Amis opibusque parati (Prepared in mind and deed). Flower: yellow jessamine. Tree: palmetto. Bird: Carolina wren. Song: “Carolina.’’ Land Area: 31,113 sq. mi. (40th). Rivers: Congaree, Edisto, Pee Dee, Savannah,Tugalos,Wateree. Mountains: Blue Ridge. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Columbia (98,052), Charleston (80,414), North Charleston (70,218), Greenville (58,282), Spartanburg (43,467). People Population, 1945: 1,905,597 (27th); 1990: 3,486,703 (25th). Breakdown, 1990: 69% white, 29.8% black, 0.9% Hispanic, 0.6% Asian, 36.7% urban, 63.3% rural (1950); 54.6% urban, 45.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: Dizzy Gillespie (musician), Althea Gibson (athlete), Eartha Kitt (singer), James Byrnes (politician), Strom Thurmond (politician), Ernest Hollings (politician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $63.8 billion (27th); per capita income: $15,099. Agricultural products: tobacco, peanuts, watermelons, peaches, wheat, cattle, poultry. Industry: textiles, chemicals, clothing, tourism. Minerals: cement, sand, gravel, stone, clay. Major Developments, 1946–1990 South Carolina changed as much as any southern state between 1946 and 1990. It began as an agricultural, segregated state where whites and Democrats reigned. Mechanization, starting in the 1960s, destroyed thousands of jobs. By 1990 only 2 percent of the population lived on farms. Reapportionment in the 1970s took away rural domination of state government.The Voting Rights Act of 1965 gave black people substantial political power. Blacks were elected to office, but so was seemingly perpetual old-line Senator J. Strom Thurmond, who switched in 1964 to the Republicans. Decline of agriculture has more than been replaced by a booming tourist industry along the coastal areas and by the state’s ability after 1975 to attract foreign companies, such as Michelin Rubber, to take up roots in the state. In September 1989 Hurricane Hugo took 26 lives and destroyed billions of dollars worth of property.

South Dakota The French had claimed this northern Plains territory, which was home to the Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) Indians. The United States acquired technical ownership in the Louisiana Purchase, but control of the land would take time. Whites were slow to move in until gold was discovered in the Black Hills in the 1870s.The scramble of settlers to get to the area provoked some of the last rounds in the conflict with the Sioux and other tribes.What was regarded as the last engagement—in truth, it was a massacre—came at Wounded Knee in 1890. By that time South Dakota had become the 40th state—on November 2, 1889. The capital is Pierre. The name came from the Sioux word for “allies.’’ Nickname: Coyote State or Sunshine State. Motto: Under God, the people rule. Flower: pasque flower.Tree: Blue Hills spruce. Bird: ringnecked pheasant. Song: “Hail, South Dakota.’’ Land Area: 77,116 sq. mi. (16th). Rivers: Cheyenne, James, Missouri, Moreau,White. Mountains: Black Hills. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Sioux

Falls (100,814), Rapid City (54,523), Aberdeen 24,927), Watertown 17,592), Brookings (16,270). People Population, 1945: 589,702 (39th); 1990: 696,004 (45th). Breakdown, 1990: 91.6% white, 0.5% black, 0.8% Hispanic, 7.3% American Indian, 33.2% urban, 66.8% rural (1950); 50% urban, 50% rural (1990). Famous natives:Tom Brokaw (newsman),Alvin Hansen (economist), George McGovern (politician), Cheryl Ladd (actress), Sparky Anderson (baseball manager). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $13.1 billion (47th); per capita income: $15,872. Agricultural products: sunflowers, wheat, oats, corn, livestock. Industry: machinery, food products, meatpacking, tourism. Minerals: gold, rose quartz, coal. Major Developments, 1946–1990 South Dakota grew slowly in population, but the state changed after 1946. Agriculture remained important, but tourism (the Badlands and Mount Rushmore, for example, were attractions), mining, lumber, and assistance from the national government—agricultural subsidies, air-force bases, and work of the army corps of engineers— aided the economy. South Dakota has used tax policy (there was no income tax) and other incentives to attract outside business, but environmental concerns took high priority. There was an extended standoff at Wounded Knee between federal officials and the American Indian Movement (AIM) in 1973, but generally the plight of some 75,500 Indians, mostly Sioux, improved during this period. The state contained nine reservations.

Tennessee French claim to the area of Tennessee was based on the travels of DeSoto; the British claimed the same territory. The dispute was not resolved until the end of the French and Indian War in 1763 when French claims were extinguished. The territory then passed to the United States as a result of the peace treaty of 1783 that ended the Revolutionary War. Enough settlers moved into the area as a part of the general westward expansion to raise the prospect of a new state. The final ingredient was willingness of the coastal states, in this case, North Carolina, to give up claim to their western lands.Tennessee then became a state on June 1, 1796, the 16th member of the new union. Soon thereafter the native Cherokee Indians were pushed out.A southern state and a slave state,Tennessee seceded in 1861. Several important battles of the Civil War took place in Tennessee, and afterward the state had to go through the painful process of reconstruction. The capital is Nashville. The origin of the name was in the term tesase: the principal village of the Cherokee. Nickname: Volunteer State. Motto: agriculture and commerce. Flower: iris. Tree: tulip poplar. Bird: mockingbird. Song: “The Tennessee Waltz.’’ Land Area: 42,144 sq. mi. (34th). Rivers: Clinch, Cumberland, Mississippi,Tennessee. Mountains: Cumberland, Great Smoky, Unaka Mountains. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Memphis (610,337), Nashville–Davidson CC (510,784), Knoxville (165,121), Chattanooga (152,466), Clarksville (75,494). People Population, 1945: 2,878,777 (16th); 1990: 4,877,185 (17th). Breakdown, 1990: 83% white, 16% black, 0.7% Hispanic, 0.7% Asian, 44.1% urban, 55.9% rural (1950); 60.9% urban, 39.1% rural (1990). Famous

natives: Aretha Franklin (singer), Cordell Hull (politician), Dolly Parton (singer), James Agee (author), Dinah Shore (singer), Roy Acuff (singer), Ernie Ford (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $95.5 billion (20th); per capita income: $15,789. Agricultural products: cotton, tobacco, corn, soybeans, fruits, livestock. Industry: food processing, chemicals, automobiles, wood products, mining. Minerals: coal, zinc, lead. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Tennessee benefited from the power facilities (and other functions) of the Tennessee Valley Authority, constructed in the 1930s. Farming of traditional crops continued to be important, but Tennessee also moved into industrialization. Its success in attracting foreign—mostly Japanese—firms was exemplified by the Nissan automobile factory near Murfreesboro, built in the 1980s. Starting as a segregated state and a Democrat state, Tennessee underwent changes that became familiar throughout the former Confederacy. Black people voted in large numbers, especially after 1965. Segregation for the most part ended. Republicans competed with Democrats on an essentially even basis. Evidence that old feelings died slowly was revealed in the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., at Memphis in 1968.

Texas The Spanish, who had explored the area earlier, established a settlement in the area of Texas in the 17th century. The United States in 1819 renounced a shadowy claim inherited from France, but Americans moving west came into the area of Texas nonetheless; at one point the Spanish welcomed them with open arms. Mexican independence in 1821 left Texas as its northernmost province; quarrels with the Mexican government led Americans in the province to proclaim and then claim independence in 1936. Acceptance into the American union on December 29, 1845, the 28th state, helped provoke a war between the United States and Mexico, the outcome of which reconfirmed Texas as a state and added more territory as well. Curiously, only 16 years later, the Texans would seek to leave the union they had gone to so much trouble to enter.The state capital is Austin.The name came from an Indian word meaning “friends.’’ Nickname: Lone-Star State. Motto: friendship. Flower: bluebonnet. Tree: pecan. Bird: mockingbird. Song: “Texas, Our Texas.’’ Land Area: 266,807 sq. mi. (2nd). Rivers: Brazos, Colorado, Natchez, Nueces, Red, Rio Grande, Sabine,Trinity. Mountains: Guadalupe. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Houston (1,630,510), Dallas (1,006,877), San Antonio (935,933), El Paso (515,342),Austin (465,622). People Population, 1945: 6,786,740 (6th); 1990: 16,986,510 (3rd). Breakdown, 1990: 75.2% white, 11.9% black, 25.5% Hispanic, 1.9% Asian, 62.7% urban, 37.3% rural (1950); 80.3% urban, 19.7% rural (1990). Famous natives: Carol Burnette (comedian), Lyndon B. Johnson (politician), Barbara Jordan (politician), Chester Nimitz (admiral), Katherine Anne Porter (author), Audie Murphy (soldier, actor), Janis Joplin (singer), Dan Rather (newsman). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $372 billion (3rd); per capita income: $16,759. Agricultural products: cotton, grains, cattle, sheep, sorghum. Industry: petrochemicals, petroleum, electronic goods and equipment, airplanes. Minerals: petroleum, natural gas, sulphur. States

321

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Boosted by the Second World War and defense spending in the cold war, Texas grew rapidly. The population doubled between 1950 and 1980 and still was going strong. The oil industry had ups and downs, but much of the time it boomed, and other technical and industrial development helped the economy to grow.The Manned Space Center opened in Houston in 1963, the same year that President John Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. A large portion of the population growth was Hispanics, who by 1990 made up a quarter of the state’s population. Texas gave up segregation and one-party rule by the Democrats. Sam Rayburn, Lyndon Johnson, and other Texan Democrats were national leaders, but so were such Republicans as George Bush. Texas received professional teams in all major sports, even hockey. The Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League proclaimed themselves “America’s Team.’’

Utah Utah’s earliest residents were the Shoshone, the Paiute, and the Ute who gave the land its name.The area had been a part of New Spain and later of the state of Mexico. Morman leader Brigham Young brought his followers to the Salt Lake area in 1847 and created a state Young called Deseret. The territory came under jurisdiction of the United States the following year, at the end of the war with Mexico. The Mormon practice of polygamy stalled the movement to statehood, which finally came on January 4, 1896. Utah was the 45th state. Mormons continued to dominate for years to come, but a good portion of the land belonged to the national government.The capital is Salt Lake City. The name orginated with a Ute term meaning “people of the mountains.’’ Nickname: Beehive State or Mormon State. Motto: Industry. Flower: sego lily. Tree: blue spruce. Bird: seagull. Song: “Utah,We Love Thee.’’ Land Area: 84,899 sq. mi. (11th). Rivers: Bear, Colorado, Green, Sevier. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Salt Lake City (159,936), West Valley City (86,976), Provo (86,835), Sandy (75,058), Orem (67,561). People Population, 1945: 616,989 (38th); 1990: 1,722,850 (35th). Breakdown, 1990: 93.8% white, 0.7% black, 4.9% Hispanic, 65.3% urban, 34.7% rural (1950); 87% urban, 13% rural (1990). Famous natives: Maude Adams (actress), Philo Farnsworth (engineer), Merlin Olsen (football player and actor), LorettaYoung (actress), Ivy Baker Priest (U.S. Treasurer), Donny Osmond (singer), Marie Osmond (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $30.6 billion (37th); per capita income: $14,083. Agricultural products: hay, wheat, corn, livestock. Industry: food processing, metals, refining, computer equipment. Minerals: copper, gold, silver, lead, uranium, coal, oil, beryllium. Major Developments, 1946–1990 As with many states, Utah had to undergo an economic transition in the cold war era. In the last part of the period, the state acquired some new industry in computers, electronics, and aircraft, but a large portion of the workforce had to shift over to service industries. The state’s ski areas, national parks, and monuments made tourism a major enterprise. Utah’s hospitals pioneered in medical technology, including the first renal transplant in 1965 and the first artificial heart implant in 1982.The Mormon Church claimed some 70 percent of the population and was in itself a sizeable industry. In 1978 the church opened itself to leadership from nonwhites—but not from females. 322 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

Starting in 1979 the Utah Jazz basketball team gave the state national publicity, as did the Mormon Tabernacle Choir.

Vermont Home of the Mahican and other tribes, settled by the English from Massachusetts Bay Colony, claimed by New Hampshire and New York, the area of Vermont was moved by leadership of Ethan Allen to become a separate entity. Allen’s Green Mountain Boys fought the British in the Revolution and proclaimed an independent Republic of New Connecticut. After the ouster of Allen, the territory entered the union on March 4, 1791, as the 14th state, thus the first new entity beyond the original 13. Even before statehood, the area had provided leadership in abolishing slavery and in proclaiming full manhood suffrage. The capital is Montpelier. The name came from the French words vert mont, meaning “green mountain.’’ Nickname: Green Mountain State. Motto: Freedom and Unity. Flower: red clover. Tree: sugar maple. Bird: hermit thrush. Song: “Hail,Vermont.’’ Land Area: 9,614 sq. mi. (43rd). Rivers: Connecticut, Lamoille, Otter Creek, Poultney, White, Winooski. Mountains: Green, Taconic. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Burlington (37,712), Rutland (18,436), South Burlington (10,679), Barre (9,824), Montpelier (8,241). People Population, 1945: 310,352 (45th); 1990: 562,758 (48th). Breakdown, 1990: 98.6% white, 0.2% black, 0.5% Hispanic, 36.4% urban, 63.6% rural (1950); 67.8% urban, 32.2% rural (1990). Famous natives: Calvin Coolidge (president), John Deere (manufacturer), George Dewey (naval officer), John Dewey (philosopher), Rudy Vallee (singer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $11.2 billion (50th); per capita income: $17,436. Agricultural produce: dairy goods, corn, soybeans, maple syrup, fruits, livestock. Industry: wood and paper products, printing, tourism, machine tools. Minerals: granite, marble, slate. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Although Vermont’s rank in population dropped three places, to 48, in the postwar era, the state in fact underwent a sizeable growth after 1946.The state changed in other ways.An emphasis on such minerals as marble gave way to high technology manufacturing. Farming receded but did not vanish; tourism, especially in the ski areas, boomed. Normally a solid Republican state, Vermont began to elect some Democrats, such as Senator Patrick Leahy. There even was a woman governor, Madeleine Kunin, elected in 1984. Bernie Sanders, Socialist mayor of Burlington from 1981 to 1989, was elected to Congress in 1990. An interstate highway system truly brought the state into the nation and population centers nearby. Beginning in 1982, the stores opened on Sundays.

Virginia Virginia, of course, built a rich legacy as a colony and leader within the budding new nation. Jamestown was the first successful colony, started in 1607, and Virginia was the most prominent of the southern colonies, with such remarkable leaders as Patrick Henry, who fired up the Patriots.Thomas Jefferson in his writings justified the Revolution, and George Washington led the army.Virginia’s ratification of the Constitution on June 25, 1788, the 10th state, added mightily to the status of the new nation. Four of the first five presidents came from Virginia.

Unfortunately,Virginia also was a slave state and in 1861 it seceded to preserve the institution.The state capital, Richmond, now became the capital of another purported new nation. The origin of the name was Elizabeth I, the “Virgin Queen’’ of England. Nickname: Old Dominion. Motto: Sic semper tyrannis (Thus always to tyrants.) Flower: dogwood. Tree: dogwood. Bird: cardinal. Song: “Carry Me Back to Old Virginia.’’ Land Area: 40,767 sq. mi. (36th). Rivers: James, Potomac, Rappahannock, Roanoke, Shenandoah,York. Mountains: Allegheny, Blue Ridge, Cumberland, Unaka. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Virginia Beach (393,069), Norfolk (261,229), Richmond (203,056), Newport News (170,045), Chesapeake (151,976). People Population, 1945: 3,079,706 (14th); 1990: 6,187,358 (12th). Breakdown, 1990: 77.4% white, 18.8% black, 2.6% Hispanic, 2.6% Asian, 47% urban, 53% rural (1950); 69.4% urban, 30.6% rural (1990). Famous natives: George C. Scott (actor), Bill Robinson (dancer), Jerry Falwell (minister), George Washington (president), Thomas Jefferson (president), James Madison (president), James Monroe (president). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $141.7 billion (11th); per capita income: $19,746. Agricultural products: tobacco, cotton, dairy products, fruits, vegetables, corn, soybeans. Industry: tobacco products, food products, textiles, chemicals, furniture and wood products. Minerals: coal, clay, stone, gravel and sand.

Major Developments, 1946–1990 Virginia underwent changes familiar to nearly all southern states. It yielded reluctantly but more gracefully than other states to an end to segregation. Blacks voted in larger numbers; many whites fled to the Republicans, leaving a fairly balanced two-party system. Blacks held several offices including, starting in 1989, the governorship. Status of the coastal area varied.Virginia Beach grew rapidly; Norfolk and Newport News lost some of their power as ports and ship-building centers, but they continued to be important to the economy. Tobacco remained important despite growing assaults on smoking.Tourism was big and growing bigger.

Washington Sir Francis Drake came by the area in his travels for Britain; another Briton, James Cook, arrived in 1778. Robert Gray sailed up the Columbia River and claimed the territory for the United States.The area soon came to be known for its furs, timber, and fishing. Long-standing rival claims of Britain and the United States over what was called the Oregon Territory were resolved by treaty in 1846. Many of the settlers who followed the Oregon Trail to the area would have Washington (the northern portion of the territory) as a destination.Territorial status began in 1853. The Northern Pacific Railway arrived at Puget Sound in 1883, and the stage was set for full statehood. It came to Washington (the 42nd state) on November 11, 1889. The capital is Olympia. The name came as an honor to George Washington. Nickname: Evergreen State. Motto: Alki (By and By). Flower: western rhododendron.Tree: western hemlock. Bird: willow goldfinch. Song: “Washington, My Home.’’

Washington State featured the volcanic peaks of the Cascades, largest of which was Rainier, here standing as a backdrop for the waterfront of Tacoma. (National Archives) States

323

Land Area: 68,138 sq. mi. (20th). Rivers: Chehalis, Columbia, Pend Oreille, Snake, Yakima. Mountains: Cascade Range, Coast Range, Kettle River Range, Olympic. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Seattle (516,259), Spokane (177,196),Tacoma (176,664), Bellevue (86,874), Everett (69,961). People Population, 1945: 2,088,574 (24th); 1990: 4,866,692 (18th). Breakdown, 1990: 88.5% white, 3.1% black, 4.4% Hispanic, 4.3% Asian, 63.2% urban, 36.8% rural (1950); 76.4% urban, 26.4% rural (1990). Famous natives: Bing Crosby (singer), Jimi Hendrix (singer), Henry Jackson (politician), William O. Douglas (jurist), Edward R. Murrow (media pioneer). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $109.4 billion (15th); per capita income: $18,858. Agricultural products: wheat, apples, potatoes, lumber, vegetables. Industry: airplanes and parts, wood products, food products. Minerals: lead, zinc, gold, coal, magnesium. Major Developments, 1946–1990 The center of population of the state was the Puget Sound where shipbuilding and industry had collected. The dominant firm was Boeing Aircraft, builder of such warplanes as the B-17 and the B-29. In the 1950s, Boeing built the long-range monsters, B-52 jet bombers, and thereafter it constructed mostly civilian jet liners, starting with the 707 in 1957. A court decision in 1974 awarded half of the salmon and steelhead catch to Native Americans of the area. Mount St. Helens underwent a spectacular, deadly, and destructive eruption in 1980. The Washington Public Power Supply Company defaulted on an $8 billion bond issue in 1983.Washington suffered its blows, but it still produced apples and lumber. Naval and other military facilities remained. Boeing fluctuated but generally remained strong; a computer company named Microsoft was starting to make a mark.

West Virginia The West Virginia area (really western Virginia) had been a hunting ground for Shawnee, Lenni Lenape (Delaware), and Cherokee Indians. Virtually everything that related to colonial Virginia applied to the rugged western part of the state—except, perhaps, for slavery and secession.The mountainous west resisted attachment to the Confederacy in 1861 and insisted on detaching itself from a land that had gone to war with the United States.The Congress of that era agreed, and so on June 20, 1863, during the Civil War,West Virginia became the 35th state.The capital is Charleston.The name came from the western part of Virginia. Nickname: Mountain State. Motto: Montani semper liberi (Mountaineers are always free.) Flower: big rhododendron. Tree: sugar maple. Bird: cardinal. Song: “The West Virginia Hills.’’ Land Area: 24,231 sq. mi. (41st). Rivers: Big Sandy, Guayandotte, Kanahwa, Little Kanahwa, Ohio, Potomac, Monogahela. Mountains: Allegheny, Blue Ridge, Cumberland. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Charleston (57,287), Huntington (54,844), Wheeling (34,882), Parkersburg (33,862), Morgantown (25,879). People Population, 1945: 1,724,677 (31st); 1990: 1,793,477 (34th). Breakdown, 1990: 96.2% white, 3.1% black, 0.5% Hispanic, 34.6% urban, 65.4% rural (1950); 36.1% urban, 63.9% rural (1990). Famous natives: Cyrus Vance (diplomat), Pearl Buck (author), Walter Reuther (labor leader), Chuck Yeager (pilot), Jerry West (basketball player), Don Knotts (actor). 324


Economics Gross state product, 1990: $28.3 billion (38th); per capita income: $13,747. Agricultural products: cattle, poultry, greenhouse plants, corn, soybeans. Minerals: coal, natural gas, limestone, oil, rock-salt. Major Developments, 1946–1990 West Virginia was the only state to experience an absolute loss of population between 1946 and 1990. The loss to considerable extent resulted from changes in economics. Underground mining, long the staple of the state’s economy, continued to produce large amounts of coal, but nearly everything became mechanized, requiring fewer people. Even between the years 1980 and 1990, the number was virtually cut in half. Several chemical companies left the state. In 1985 West Virginia experienced devastating flooding from a tropical storm that reached far into the interior. Even so, not all information was dismal. West Virginia had help from powerful politicians, beginning with Robert Byrd, who went to Congress in 1953 and still was going strong (as a senator) in 1990. Byrd was joined in 1984 by John D. Rockefeller IV. The state received many miles of interstate highway that threaded through the mountains, even though the cost of construction was staggering.

Wisconsin The area west of Lake Michigan had been home to numerous Indian tribes: the Winnebago, Fox, Sauk and others.The Ojibway gave the state its name.The French explored and claimed the territory and then lost it to Britain in 1763. Although Wisconsin had been a part of original United States territory, the British controlled part of it until 1812, and afterward the Black Hawk Wars lasted until the 1830s. Many of the settlers came from northern Europe; the German and Scandinavian influence lasted until the present time. On May 29, 1848, Wisconsin became the 30th state. The capital is Madison. The name came from the Ojibway word wishkonsing—“place of the bearer.’’ Nickname: Badger State. Motto: Forward. Flower: wood violet.Tree: sugar maple. Bird: robin. Song: “On Wisconsin!’’ Land Area: 56,153 sq. mi. (26th). Rivers: Black, Chippewa, Menominee, Mississippi, St. Croix, Wisconsin. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Milwaukee (628,088), Madison (191,262), Green Bay (96,466), Racine (84,298), Kenosha (80,352). People Population, 1945: 3,137,587 (15th); 1990: 4,891,769 (16th). Breakdown, 1990: 92.2% white, 5% black, 1.9% Hispanic, 1.1 Asian, 0.8% American Indian, 57.9% urban, 42.1% rural (1950); 65.7% urban, 34.3% rural (1990). Famous natives: Liberace (musician), Alfred Lunt (actor), Joseph McCarthy (politician), Spencer Tracy (actor), Orson Welles (actor), Frank Lloyd Wright (architect). Economics Gross state product: 1990: $100.6 billion (18th); per capita income: $17,503. Agricultural products: dairy products, hay, wheat, corn, soybeans, cattle. Industry: industrial machinery, food products, printing and publishing. Minerals: stone, gravel, lime. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Wisconsin remained the nation’s chief producer of dairy products, despite a decline in the industry after 1970.As with many states with a traditional manufacturing base, Wisconsin had to watch as firms moved out, cut back, or, as in the case of Allis Chalmers (a producer of farm machinery), simply quit.To hold on, the state used tax and other

incentives to attract new industry; it maintained shipping facilities at Superior, Green Bay, and Milwaukee. It broadcast tourist attractions, such as the Dells, the Milwaukee Brewers in baseball, the Bucks in basketball, and, of course, the Green Bay Packers. Wisconsin had a reputation for progressive politics, and leadership in the postwar period was perhaps not quite up to par. Senator William Proxmire was effective and respected in the 1960s and 1970s; his immediate predecessor, Senator Joseph McCarthy, had been highly dubious during the years 1947–59.

Wyoming Wyoming had been the domain of northern Plains Indians. The Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, Nakota), Arapaho, Crow, and other tribes had lived or hunted there for hundreds of years. Originally in the colonial era a part of New France, the United States established claim in the Louisiana Purchase. Many people had come through on the way to the Oregon territory, but not many stopped. Wyoming’s story thereafter was part of the story of the trans-Mississippi west—struggles with Native Americans who lived there and the struggle to establish a political identity and an economic foundation. The 44th state, Wyoming came into the union on July 10, 1890, a part of a group of six new states. The capital is Cheyenne. The name came from the Delaware Indian term maugh-wau-wa-ma—“large plains or mountains and valleys alternating.’’ Nickname: Equality State. Motto: Equal Rights. Flower: Indian paintbrush. Tree: cottonwood. Bird: meadowlark. Song: “Wyoming.’’ Land Area: 97,809 sq. mi. (9th). Rivers: Bighorn, Green, North Platte, Powder, Snake, Yellowstone. Mountains: Absaroka, Bighorn, Black

Hills, Laramie, Owl Creek,Teton Range,Wind River Range,Wyoming Range. Cities (with 1990 pop.): Cheyenne (50,008), Casper (46,742), Laramie (26,687), Rock Springs (19,050), Gillette (17,635). People Population, 1945: 246,766 (47th); 1990: 453,588 (50th). Breakdown, 1990: 94.2% white, 0.8% black, 5.7% Hispanic, 2.1% American Indian, 49.8% urban, 50.2% rural (1950); 65% urban, 35% rural (1990). Famous natives: Jackson Pollock (artist), Nellie Tayloe Ross (politician), Alan Simpson (politician), Dick Cheney (politician). Economics Gross state product, 1990: $13 billion (48th); per capita income: $16,398. Agricultural products: hay, all grains, sugar beets, potatoes, beans. Industry: refining, chemicals, wool, fertilizer, glass, electrical equipment. Minerals: coal, petroleum, gas, uranium, iron ore, bentomite. Major Developments, 1946–1990 Wyoming is a large state with few people. Oil, uranium, and especially coal had aided the economy until the 1950s when the demand for coal slowed.Then, after 1973, a new boom occurred as many industries shifted back to coal. Low energy prices in the 1980s turned the boom into a depression, and the state’s population dropped to 50th in the land. Wyoming received the first ICBM base in 1951. Tourism was aided by Grand Teton National Park, Devil’s Tower Monument, and especially Yellowstone National Park, the nation’s first, which had suffered from devastating forest fires in the late 1880s. Prominent political leaders were Senator Gale McGee, Senator Alan Simpson, and Congressman (Wyoming had only one) Dick Cheney, who in 1989 became President George H.W. Bush’s secretary of defense.

States

325

CHAPTER 12 Cities of the United States The purpose of this chapter is to provide basic information about major urban areas of the United States and to emphasize change that took place in America’s cities between 1946 and 1990. A continuing objective, needless to say, is to detect what urban change revealed about the broader national history during approximately the last half of the 20th century.The emphasis is on size and change of size, as opposed to detailed sociological and economic data, some of which appears in other chapters.The history of urbanization after 1945 affirmed the scenario of a nation moving south and southwest to the so-called sunbelt. It was an ever-recurring account of a city rising or declining, growing or shirnking, based on location. Southern and southwestern cities grew; eastern and midwestern cities shrank in population, often markedly so. Location, it must be said, suggested supplementary information. Eastern cities were not only colder; they also were older and worn down if not worn out.Western cities were still being built, in the case of a city such as Phoenix, almost from the ground up.To the extent that a major city bucked, at least modified the trend, it would have to be New York, which continued to be a city in a class to itself. A powerful secondary theme, identified in the largest cities but not explored in detail in this chapter, was growth in the numbers and power of racial and ethnic minority groups. Much of the growth took place with blacks and Hispanics, although Asians became conspicuous TABLE 12.1

in some western cities. Of the five older cities that remained in the top 10 (Los Angeles counted as one), four had a black mayor in 1990, and the fifth, Chicago, had recently had one. The growth frequently was more proportionate than absolute, a state of affairs produced when white people fled the inner city and left the others behind.The metropolitan populations produced ethnic and racial proportions much different from the inner city. Within the territorial limits of many cities, a condition rapidly approached in which everyone would be a person of color. When one considers that the Census Bureau’s classification of “white’’ included many individuals also identified as Hispanics, it was evident that several places by 1990 already had reached that point. Sources for the cities include: Bureau of the Census, appropriate volumes in the 17th through 21st Census of the United States (1950–1990); Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstracts, especially for 1955 (Washington, D.C., 1955) and 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993); Harry Hansen, ed., World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1950 (New York, 1950); Mark Hoffman, ed., World Almanac and Book of Facts 1992 (New York, 1991); Otto Johnson, ed., The 1992 Information Please Almanac, Atlas and Yearbook (Boston, 1991); Robert H. Ferrell and Joan Hoff, eds., Dictionary of American History, Supplement, Parts I and II (NewYork, 1996); and TheWorld Book Encyclopedia, 1997 edition (Chicago, 1997).

POPULATION OF 100 LARGEST U.S. CITIES, 1950–1990

(ranked in April 1990 census) Rank

City

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

New York, N.Y. Los Angeles, Calif. Chicago, Ill. Houston,Tex. Philadelphia, Pa.

7,322,564 3,485,398 2,783,726 1,630,553 1,585,577

7,071,639 2,966,850 3,005,072 1,595,138 1,688,210

7,895,563 2,811,801 3,369,357 1,233,535 1,949,996

7,781,984 2,479,015 3,550,404 938,219 2,002,512

7,891,957 1,970,358 3,620,962 596,163 2,071,605

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

San Diego, Calif. Detroit, Mich. Dallas,Tex. Phoenix, Ariz. San Antonio,Tex.

1,110,549 1,027,974 1,006,877 983,403 935,933

875,538 1,203,339 904,078 789,704 785,880

697,471 1,514,063 844,401 584,303 654,153

573,224 1,670,144 679,684 439,170 587,718

334,387 1,849,568 434,462 106,818 408,442

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

San Jose, Calif. Indianapolls, Ind. Baltimore, Md. San Francisco, Calif. Jacksonville, Fla.

782,248 741,952 736,014 723,959 672,971

629,442 700,807 786,775 678,974 540,920

459,913 736,856 905,787 715,674 504,265

204,196 476,258 939,024 740,316 201,030

95,280 427,173 949,708 775,357 204,517

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Columbus, Ohio Milwaukee,Wis. Memphis,Tenn. Washington, D.C. Boston, Mass.

632,910 628,088 610,337 606,900 574,283

564,871 636,212 646,356 638,333 562,994

540,025 717,372 623,988 756,668 641,071

471,316 741,324 497,524 763,956 697,197

375,901 637,392 396,000 802,178 801,444

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Seattle,Wash. El Paso,Tex. Nashville-Davidson,Tenn. Cleveland, Ohio New Orleans, La.

516,259 515,342 510,784 505,616 496,938

493,846 425,259 455,651 573,822 557,515

530,831 322,261 426,029 750,879 593,471

557,087 276,687 170,874 876,050 627,525

467,591 130,485 174,307 914,808 570,445

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Denver, Colo. Austin,Tex. Fort Worth,Tex. Oklahoma City, Okla. Portland, Oreg.

467,610 465,622 447,619 444,719 437,319

492,365 345,496 385,164 403,213 366,383

514,678 253,539 393,455 368,164 379,967

493,887 186,545 356,268 324,253 372,676

415,786 132,459 278,778 243,504 373,628

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Kansas City, Mo. Long Beach, Calif. Tucson, Ariz. St. Louis, Mo. Charlotte, N.C.

435,146 429,433 405,390 396,685 395,934

448,159 361,334 330,537 453,085 314,447

507,330 358,879 262,933 622,236 241,420

475,539 344,168 212,892 750,026 201,564

456,622 250,767 45,454 856,796 134,042

326

Rank

City

1990

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Atlanta, Ga. Virginia Beach,Va. Albuquerque, N.Mex. Oakland, Calif. Pittsburgh, Pa.

394,017 393,069 384,736 372,242 369,879

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Sacramento, Calif. Minneapolis, Minn. Tulsa, Okla. Honolulu, CDP, Hawaii Cincinnati, Ohio

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

1970

1960

425,022 262,199 331,767 339,337 423,938

495,039 172,106 244,501 361,561 520,089

487,455 8,091 201,189 367,548 604,332

331,314 5,390 96,815 384,575 676,806

369,365 368,383 367,302 365,272 364,040

275,741 370,951 360,919 762,874 385,457

257,105 434,400 330,350 630,528 453,514

191,667 482,872 261,685 294,194 502,550

137,572 521,718 182,740 248,034 503,998

Miami, Fla. Fresno, Calif. Omaha, Nebr. Toledo, Ohio Buffalo, N.Y.

358,548 354,202 335,795 332,943 328,123

346,865 218,202 314,255 354,635 357,670

334,859 165,655 346,929 383,062 462,768

291,688 133,929 301,598 318,003 532,759

249,276 91,669 251,117 303,616 580,132

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Wichita, Kans. Santa Ana, Calif. Mesa, Ariz. Colorado Springs, Colo. Tampa, Fla.

304,011 293,742 288,091 281,140 280,015

279,272 203,713 152,453 215,150 271,523

276,554 155,710 63,049 135,517 277,714

254,698 100,350 33,772 70,194 274,970

168,279 45,533 16,790 45,472 124,681

56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

Newark, N.J. St. Paul, Minn. Louisville, Ky. Anaheim, Calif. Birmingham, Ala.

275,221 272,235 269,063 266,406 265,968

329,248 270,230 298,451 219,311 284,413

381,930 309,866 361,706 166,408 300,910

405,220 313,411 390,639 104,184 340,887

438,776 311,349 369,129 14,556 326,037

61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

Arlington,Tex. Norfolk,Va. Las Vegas, Nev. Corpus Christi,Tex. St. Petersburg, Fla.

261,721 261,229 258,295 257,453 238,629

160,113 266,979 164,674 231,999 238,647

90,229 307,951 125,787 204,525 216,159

44,775 304,869 64,405 167,690 181,298

7,692 213,513 24,624 108,287 96,738

66. 67. 68. 69. 70.

Rochester, N.Y. Jersey City, N.J. Riverside, Calif. Anchorage, Alaska Lexington-Fayette, Ky.

231,636 228,537 226,505 226,338 225,366

241,741 223,532 170,876 174,431 204,165

295,011 260,350 140,089 48,081 108,137

318,611 276,101 84,332 44,237 62,810

332,488 299,017 46,764 11,254 55,534

71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

Akron, Ohio Aurora, Colo. Baton Rouge, La. Stockton, Calif. Raleigh, N.C.

223,019 222,103 219,531 210,943 207,951

237,177 158,588 346,029 149,779 150,255

275,425 74,974 165,921 109,963 122,830

290,351 48,548 152,419 86,321 93,931

274,605 11,421 125,629 70,853 65,679

76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

Richmond,Va. Shreveport, La. Jackson, Miss. Mobile, Ala. Des Moines, Ia.

203,056 198,525 196,637 196,278 193,187

219,214 205,820 202,895 200,452 191,003

249,332 182,064 153,968 190,026 201,404

219,958 164,372 144,422 194,856 208,982

230,310 127,206 98,271 129,009 177,965

81. 82. 83. 84. 85.

Lincoln, Neb. Madison,Wis. Grand Rapids, Mich. Yonkers, N.Y. Hialeah, Fla.

191,972 191,262 189,126 188,082 188,004

171,932 170,616 181,843 195,351 145,254

149,518 171,809 197,649 204,297 102,452

128,521 126,706 177,313 190,634 66,972

98,884 96,056 176,515 152,798 19,676

86. 87. 88. 89. 90.

Montgomery, Ala. Lubbock,Tex. Greensboro, N.C. Dayton, Ohio Huntington Beach, Calif.

187,106 186,206 183,521 182,044 181,519

177,857 173,979 170,279 203,371 170,505

133,386 149,101 144,076 243,023 115,960

134,393 126,691 119,574 262,332 11,492

106,525 71,747 74,389 243,872 5,237

91. 92. 93. 94. 95.

Garland,Tex. Glendale, Calif. Columbus, Ga. Spokane,Wash. Tacoma,Wash.

180,650 180,038 179,278 177,196 176,664

138,857 139,060 169,441 171,300 158,501

81,437 133,000 155,028 170,516 154,407

38,501 119,000 116,779 181,608 147,979

10,571 96,000 79,611 161,721 143,673

Little Rock, Ark. Bakersfield, Calif. Fremont, Calif. Fort Wayne, Ind. Newport News,Va.

175,795 174,820 173,339 173,072 170,045

158,461 105,611 131,945 172,196 144,903

132,483 ... 100,869 178,269 138,000

107,813 56,848 43,790 161,776 114,000

102,213 ... ... 133,607 42,000

96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

1980

1950

Source: Mark Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1992 (New York, 1991), 132–33.

Cities of the United States

327

Beach crowds seen from the parachute jump at Steeplechase Park, Coney Island, New York, 1950 (National Archives)

TABLE 12.2

FORMER TOP 10 CITIES, 1950 Population Rank Population 1950 1950 1990

City Baltimore Cleveland St. Louis Washington, D.C. Boston

949,708 914,808 856,796 802,178 801,444

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

736,014 505,014 396,685 606,900 574,283

Change

Rank 1990

2213,694 2409,192 2460,111 2195,278 2227,161

12. 23. 34. 19. 20.


TABLE 12.3

CITIES, BY POPULATION SIZE, 1960–1990 Number of Cities

Population (mil.)

Percent of Total

Population Size

1960

1970

1980

1990

1960

1970

1980

1990

1960

1970

1980

1990

Total

18,088

18,666

19,097

19,289

115.9

131.9

140.3

152.9

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

1,000,000 or more 500,000 to 999,999 250,000 to 499,999 100,000 to 249,999 50,000 to 99,999 25,000 to 49,999 10,000 to 24,999 Under 10,000

5 16 30 79

6 20 30 97

6 16 33 114

8 15 40 131

17.5 11.1 10.8 11.4

18.8 13.0 10.5 13.9

17.5 10.9 11.8 16.6

20.0 10.1 14.2 19.1

15.1 9.6 9.3 9.8

14.2 9.8 7.9 10.5

12.5 7.8 8.4 11.8

13.0 6.6 9.3 12.5

180 366 978 16,434

232 455 1,127 16,699

250 526 1,260 16,892

309 567 1,290 16,929

12.5 12.7 15.1 24.9

16.2 15.7 17.6 26.4

17.6 18.4 19.8 28.0

21.2 20.0 20.3 28.2

10.8 11.0 13.1 21.5

12.2 11.9 13.3 20.0

12.3 13.1 14.1 20.0

13.9 13.0 13.3 18.4

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1992 (Lanham, Md., 1993), 35.

328


TABLE 12.4

FASTEST-GROWING CITIES, 1980–1990

(cities of more than 100,000 in 1990 that had the largest percentage increases in population from 1980) Rank

Suburb of . . .

1990

1980

Moreno Valley, Calif. Mesa, Ariz. Rancho Cucamonga, Calif. Plano,Tex. Irvine, Calif.

Riverside Phoenix Los Angeles Dallas Los Angeles

118.779 288,091 101,409 128,713 110,330

28,309 152,404 55,250 72,331 62,134

319.6 89.0 83.5 77.9 77.6

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Escondido, Calif. Oceanside, Calif. Santa Clarita, Calif. Bakersfield, Calif. Arlington,Tex.

San Diego Los Angeles Los Angeles ... Dallas

108,635 128,398 110,642 174,820 261,721

64,355 76,698 66,730 105,611 160,113

68.8 67.4 65.8 65.5 63.5

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Fresno, Calif Chula Vista, Calif. Las Vegas, Nev. Modesto, Calif. Tallahassee, Fla.

... San Diego ... ... ...

354,202 135,163 258,295 164,730 124,773

217,491 83,927 164,674 106,963 81,548

62.9 61.0 56.9 54.0 53.0

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Glendale, Ariz. Mesquite,Tex. Ontario, Calif. Virginia Beach,Va. Scottsdale, Ariz.

Phoenix Dallas Los Angeles Norfolk Phoenix

148,134 101,484 133,179 393,069 130,069

97,172 67,053 88,820 262,199 88,622

52.4 51.3 49.9 49.9 46.5

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Santa Ana, Calif. Stockton, Calif. Pomona, Calif. Irving,Tex. Aurora, Colo.

Los Angeles ... Los Angeles Dallas Denver

293,742 210,943 131,723 155,037 222,103

204,023 148,283 92,742 109,943 158,588

44.0 42.3 42.0 41.0 40.1

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Raleigh, N.C. San Bermardino, Calif. Santa Rosa, Calif. Overland Park, Kan. Vallejo, Calif

... ... San Francisco Kansas City San Francisco

207,951 164,164 113,313 111,790 109,199

150,255 118,794 82,658 81,784 80,303

38.4 38.2 37.1 36.7 36.0

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Thousand Oaks, Calif. Salinas, Calif. Durham, N.C. Austin,Tex. Laredo,Tex.

Los Angeles ... ... ... ...

104,352 108,777 136,611 465,622 122,899

77,072 80,479 101,149 345,890 91,449

35.4 35.2 35.1 34.6 34.4

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Sacramento, Calif. El Monte, Calif. Reno, Nev. Riverside, Calif. Chesapeake,Va.

... Los Angeles ... ... Norfolk

369,365 106,209 133,850 226,505 151,967

275,741 79,494 100,756 170,591 114,486

34.0 33.6 32.8 32.8 32.7

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Tempe, Artz. Oxnard, Calif. Fremont, Calif. Colorado Springs, Colo. Garland,Tex.

Phoenix Los Angeles San Jose/Oakland ... Dallas

141,865 142,216 173,339 281,140 180,650

106,919 108,195 131,945 215,105 138,857

32.7 31.4 31.4 30.7 30.1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

City

Change (percent)

Source: Hoffman, World Almanac, 1992, 131.


329

TABLE 12.5 CITIES WITH LARGEST PERCENTAGE LOSS IN POPULATION, 1980–1990 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

City Gary, Ind. Newark Detroit Pittsburgh St. Louis

1980

Change (percent)

116,646 275,221 1,027,974 369,879 396,685

151,968 329,248 1,203,369 423,960 452,804

223.2 216.4 214.6 212.8 212.4

1990

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Cleveland Flint, Mich. New Orleans Warren, Mich. Chattanooga,Tenn.

505,616 140,761 496,938 144,864 152,466

573,822 159,611 557,927 161,134 169,514

211.9 211.8 210.9 210.1 210.1

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Louisville, Ky. Peoria, III. Macon, Ga. Erie, Pa. Buffalo

269,063 113,504 106,612 108,718 328,123

298,694 124,813 116,896 119,123 357,870

29.9 29.1 28.8 28.7 28.3

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Birmingham, Ala. Richmond Chicago Atlanta Kansas City, Kan.

265,968 203,056 2,783,726 394,017 149,767

288,297 219,214 3,005,072 425,022 161,148

27.7 27.4 27.4 27.3 27.1

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Baltimore Akron, Ohio Toledo, Ohio Philadelphia Dayton, Ohio

736,014 223,019 332,943 1,585,577 182,044

786,741 237,590 354,635 1,688,210 193,549

26.4 26.1 26.1 26.1 25.9

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Knoxville,Tenn. Memphis Cincinnati Denver District of Columbia

165,121 610,337 364,040 467,610 606,900

175,045 646,170 385,410 492,694 638,432

25.7 25.5 25.5 25.1 24.9


The cities keep moving out.This farm outside Richmond,Virginia, has its days numbered. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

TABLE 12.6 75 LARGEST METROPOLITAN AREAS—RACIAL AND HISPANIC ORIGIN POPULATIONS, 1990 Percent of Total Metropolitan Population Total Population (1,000)

Black



Hispanic Originb

18,087 14,532 8,066 6,253 5,899

18.2 8.5 19.2 8.6 18.7

0.3 0.6 0.2 0.7 0.2

4.8 9.2 3.2 14.8 2.1

15.4 32.9 11.1 15.5 3.8

Detroit–Ann Arbor, Mich. CMSA Boston-Lawrence-Salem, Mass.-N.H. CMSA Washington D.C.–Md.–Va. MSA Dallas–Fort Worth,Tex. CMSA Houston-Galveston-Brazoria,Tex. CMSA

4,665 4,172 3,924 3,885 3,711

20.9 5.7 26.6 14.3 17.9

0.4 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3

1.5 2.9 5.2 2.5 3.6

1.9 4.6 5.7 13.4 20.8

Miami–Fort Lauderdale, Fla. CMSA Atlanta, Ga. MSA Cleveland-Akron-Lorain, Ohio. CMSA Seattle-Tacoma,Wash. CMSA San Diego, Calif. MSA

3,193 2,834 2,760 2,559 2,498

18.5 26.0 16.0 4.8 6.4

0.2 0.2 0.2 1.3 0.8

1.4 1.8 1.0 6.4 7.9

33.3 2.0 1.9 3.0 20.4

Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minn.Wis. MSA St. Louis, Mo.–Ill. MSA Baltimore, Md. MSA Pittsburgh–Beaver Valley, Pa. CMSA Phoenix, Ariz. MSA

2,464 2,444 2,382 2,243 2,122

3.6 17.3 25.9 8.0 3.5

1.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.8

2.6 1.0 1.8 0.7 1.7

1.5 1.1 1.3 0.6 16.3

Metropolitan Areaa New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island, N.Y.-N.J.-CT CMSA Los Angeles–Anaheim–Riverside, Calif. CMSA Chicago–Gary–Lake County, Ill-Ind.-Wis. CMSA San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose, Calif. CMSA Philadelphia-Wilmington-Trenton, Pa.-N.J.-Del.-Md. CMSA

330


Percent of Total Metropolitan Population Total Population (1,000)

Black



Hispanic Originb

Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, Fla. MSA Denver-Boulder, Colo. CMSA Cincinnati-Hamilton, Ohio.-Ky.-Ind. CMSA Milwaukee-Racine,Wis. CMSA Kansas City, Mo.-Kans. MSA

2,068 1,848 1,744 1,607 1,566

9.0 5.3 11.7 13.3 12.8

0.3 0.8 0.1 0.5 0.5

1.1 2.3 0.8 1.2 1.1

6.7 12.2 0.5 3.8 2.9

Sacramento, Calif. MSA Portland-Vancouver, Oreg.-Wash. CMSA Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News,Va. MSA Columbus, Ohio. MSA San Antonio,Tex. MSA

1,481 1,478 1,396 1,377 1,302

6.9 2.8 28.5 12.0 6.8

1.1 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.4

7.7 3.5 2.5 1.5 1.2

11.6 3.4 2.3 0.8 47.6

Indianapolis, Ind. MSA New Orleans, La. MSA Buffalo-Niagara Falls, N.Y. CMSA Charlotte–Gastonia–Rock Hill, N.C.-S.C. MSA Providence–Pawtucket–Fall River, R.I.-Maine CMSA

1,250 1,239 1,189 1,162 1,142

13.8 34.7 10.3 19.9 3.3

0.2 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.3

0.8 1.7 0.9 1.0 1.8

0.9 4.3 2.0 0.9 4.2

Hartford–New Britain–Middletown, CT CMSA Orlando, Fla. MSA Salt Lake City–Ogden, Utah MSA Rochester, N.Y. MSA Nashville Tenn. MSA

1,086 1,073 1,072 1,002 985

8.7 12.4 1.0 9.4 15.5

0.2 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.2

1.5 1.9 2.4 1.4 1.0

7.0 9.0 5.8 3.1 0.8

Memphis,Tenn.-Ark.-Mass. MSA Oklahoma City, Okla. MSA Louisville, Ky.-Ind. MSA Dayton-Springfield, Ohio MSA Greensboro–Winston-Salem–High Point, N.C. MSA

982 959 953 951 942

40.6 10.5 13.1 13.3 19.3

0.2 4.8 0.2 0.2 0.3

0.8 1.9 0.6 1.0 0.7

0.8 3.6 0.6 0.8 0.8

Birmingham, Ala. MSA Jacksonville, Fla. MSA Albany-Schenectady-Troy, N.Y. MSA Richmond-Petersburg,Va. MSA West Palm Beach–Boca Raton–Delray Beach, Fla. MSA

908 907 874 866 864

27.1 20.0 4.7 29.2 12.5

0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1

0.4 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.0

0.4 2.5 1.8 1.1 7.7

Honolulu, Hawaii MSA Austin,Tex. MSA Las Vegas, Nev. MSA Raleigh-Durham, N.C. MSA Scranton–Wilkes-Barre, Pa. MSA

836 782 741 735 734

3.1 9.2 9.5 24.9 1.0

0.4 0.4 0.9 0.3 0.1

63.0 2.4 3.5 1.9 0.5

6.8 20.5 11.2 1.2 0.8

Tulsa, Okla. MSA Grand Rapids, Mich. MSA Allentown-Bethlehem, Pa.-N.J. MSA Fresno, Calif. MSA Tucson, Ariz. MSA

709 688 687 667 667

8.2 6.0 2.0 5.0 3.1

6.8 0.5 0.1 1.1 3.0

0.9 1.1 1.1 8.6 1.8

2.1 3.3 4.2 35.5 24.5

Syracuse, N.Y. MSA Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C. MSA Omaha, Neb.–Iowa MSA Toledo, Ohio MSA Knoxville,Tenn. MSA

660 641 618 614 605

5.9 17.4 8.3 11.4 6.0

0.6 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2

1.2 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.8

1.4 0.8 2.6 3.3 0.5

El Paso,Tex. MSA Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle, Pa. MSA Bakersfield, Calif. MSA New Haven–Meriden, CT MSA Springfield, Mass. MSA

592 588 543 530 530

3.7 6.7 5.5 12.1 6.6

0.4 0.1 1.3 0.2 0.2

1.1 1.1 3.0 1.6 1.0

69.6 1.7 28.0 6.2 9.0

Baton Rouge, La. MSA Little Rock–North Little Rock, Ark. MSA Charleston, S.C. MSA Youngstown-Warren, Ohio MSA Wichita, Kans. MSA

528 513 507 493 485

29.6 19.9 30.2 11.1 7.6

0.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.1

1.1 0.7 1.2 0.4 1.9

1.4 0.8 1.5 1.5 4.1

Metropolitan Areaa

a

Metropolitan areas are shown in rank order of total population of consolidated metropolitan statistical areas (CMSA) and metropolitan statistical areas (MSA). Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Source: Statistical Abstract 1992, 34.

b


331

The Most, and Least, Promising Metropolitan Counties, 1990 The following tables, produced by American Demographics magazine, measured the business potential of counties and their independent cities with a formula that included population change between 1970 and 1990, percent change in per capita money income between 1979

and 1987, and each area’s deviation from the median density for all metropolitan counties in 1990. The 411 counties and independent cities from metros and consolidated metros of 500,000 or more population were ranked on each viable. Scores were assigned based on rank.The maximum score for population change was 480 points, for income growth 320 points, and for density deviation 200 points. The final ranking was determined by summing each area’s scores for each variable.

TABLE 12.7 THE MOST PROMISING 50 COUNTIES Population Change, 1970–90 (percent)

Per Capita Income Change, 1979–87 (percent)

Fayette, Ga. [Atlanta] Collin,Tex. [Dallas–Fort Worth] Gwinnett, Ga. [Atlanta] Hernando, Fla. [Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater] Denton,Tex. [Dallas–Fort Worth]

449.2 294.6 387.8 494.7 261.6

79.2 76.8 76.0 66.3 59.9

316 311 815 211 308

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Cherokee, Ga. [Atlanta] James City,Va. [Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News] Osceola, Fla. [Orlando] Howard, Md. [Baltimore] Loudoun,Va. [Washington]

190.4 95.3 326.4 202.6 131.8

86.3 94.0 77.9 81.6 94.6

213 244 81 743 166

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Stafford,Va. [Washington] Pasco, Fla. [Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater] Forsyth, Ga. [Atlanta] Paulding, Ga. [Atlanta] Douglas, Colo. [Denver-Boulder]

149.1 270.1 160.4 137.5 618.3

85.7 78.1 90.0 82.4 56.2

227 377 195 133 72

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Henry, Ga. [Atlanta] Seminole, Fla. [Orlando] Chesterfield,Va. [Richmond-Petersburg] Prince William,Va. [Washington] Palm Beach, Fla. [W. Palm Beach–Boca Raton–Delray Beach]

147.6 243.6 172.3 94.1 147.6

77.0 77.2 75.5 82.1 79.4

182 933 492 637 424

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Calvert, Md. [Washington] Rockdale, Ga. [Atlanta] St. Johns, Fla. [Jacksonville] Clay, Fla. [Jacksonville] St. Charles, Md. [St. Louis]

148.4 198.0 172.8 230.6 129.0

84.4 75.9 84.8 71.4 69.7

239 414 138 176 379

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Wake, N.C. [Raleigh-Durham] Riverside, Calif. [Los Angeles–Anaheim–Riverside] Williamson,Tex. [Austin] Orange, Fla. [Orlando] Dakota, Minn. [Minneapolis–St. Paul]

85.3 155.0 274.1 96.8 96.9

85.4 53.8 56.0 79.0 68.0

508 162 124 746 483

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Hunterdon, N.J. [New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island] Shelby, Ala. [Birmingham] Manassas,Va. [Washington] Cobb, Ga. [Atlanta] ChesapeakeVa. [Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News]

54.6 161.2 205.1 127.5 69.7

101.6 70.8 87.5 83.0 77.0

251 125 2,793 1,316 446

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Clark, Nev. [Las Vegas] Fort Bend,Tex. [Houston-Galveston-Brazoria] Solano, Calif. [San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose] Charles, Md. [Washington] Williamson,Tenn. [Nashville]

171.3 330.9 100.3 112.2 136.0

51.8 37.4 57.6 76.8 81.9

94 258 411 219 139

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Harford, Md. [Baltimore] Rutherford,Tenn. [Nashville] Hamilton, Ind. [Indianapolis] Ocean, N.J. [New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island] Douglas, Ga. [Atlanta]

57.9 99.5 99.8 107.8 148.2

77.6 74.8 73.6 86.1 73.1

414 192 274 681 357

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Washington, Minn. [Minneapolis–St. Paul] Frederick, Md. [Washington] Carroll, Md. [Baltimore] Queen Anne’s, Md. [Baltimore] Somerset, N.J. [New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island]

75.9 76.9 78.8 84.3 21.1

73.0 76.1 76.3 88.7 99.3

372 227 275 91 789

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

County (metropolitan area)

Source: American Demographics, September, 1991, 36.

332


Persons per Square Mile, 1990

TABLE 12.8

THE LEAST PROMISING 20 COUNTIES

(The least promising metropolitan counties are mostly central cities that are losing people and have below-average purchasing power; bottom-ranked counties, population growth 1970–1990, per capita income growth 1979–1987, and density in 1990, within metropolitan areas including consolidated metros of 500,000 or more.)

Rank

County (metropolitan area)

Population Change, 1970–90 (percent)

Per Capita Income Change, 1979–87 (percent)

Persons per Square Mile, 1990

411. 410. 409. 408. 407.

Orleans, La. [New Orleans] Denver, Colo. [Denver-Boulder] Cuyahoga, Ohio [Cleveland-Akron-Lorain] Cook, Ill. [Chicago–Gary–Lake County] Wayne, Mich. [Detroit–Ann Arbor]

216.3 29.1 218.0 27.1 220.8

44.5 51.8 54.7 55.7 54.7

2,751 3,051 3,081 5,398 3,438

406. 405. 404. 403. 402.

Milwaukee,Wis. [Milwaukee-Racine] Hopewell,Va. [Richmond-Petersburg] St. Louis, Mo. [St. Louis] Washington, D.C. [Washington] Philadelphia, Pa. [Philadelphia-Wilmington-Trenton]

29.0 21.6 236.2 219.8 218.6

54.4 58.8 65.4 65.0 65.2

3,971 2,254 6,406 9,883 11,734

401. 400. 399. 398. 397.

Portsmouth,Va. [Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News] Norfolk,Va. [Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News] Osage, Okla. [Tulsa] Baltimore, Md. [Baltimore] Hamilton, Ohio [Cincinnati-Hamilton]

26.4 215.2 40.0 218.7 26.3

60.7 64.7 37.2 70.0 62.2

3,135 4,859 19 9,108 2,126

396. 395. 394. 393. 392.

Richmond,Va. [Richmond-Petersburg] Allegheny, Pa. [Pittsburgh–Beaver Valley] Queens, N.Y. [New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island] Kings, N.Y. [New York–Northern New Jersey–Long Island] San Francisco, Calif. [San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose]

218.7 216.7 21.8 211.6 1.2

72.6 58.5 67.9 70.4 63.4

3,377 1,830 17,839 32,619 15,502

Source: American Demographics, September, 1991, 37.

Ten Largest Cities of the United States New York City Profile Founded: 1613, incorporated 1653 Population: 1990, 7,322,564, rank: 1; 1950, 7,891,957, rank: 1 Population change, 1950–1990: 2569,393 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 3,827,088; black, 2,102,512 (28.7%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 27,531 (0.4%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 512,719 (7%); Hispanic origin, 1,783,511 (24.4%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $16,281; white, $21,972; black, $10,505; American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $10,861; Asian or Pacific Islander, 12,851; Hispanic, $8,430 Land area: 309 sq. mi.; Elevation: 87 ft. above sea level Counties: Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens, Richmond Average temperature*: January, 31.5˚F; July, 76.8˚F; annual average, 54.7˚F Annual precipitation*: 47.25 inches (snowfall: 28.2 inches) Clear days*: 107; precipitation days: 121 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990: David N. Dinkins History and Develoment The area of New York was explored in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazano, an Italian sailing for France. Henry Hudson, an Englishman sailing for the Dutch, sailed into the area and claimed it as New Netherlands. The Indians living there, as the story goes, sold Manhattan Island for $24 worth of trinkets. The English seized the Dutch colony in 1664, and renamed it New York after the duke of York, the * Note: Climatological data for the most populous 10 cities has been based on a standard 30-year average. For the largest nine cities the period used was 1961–1990. For the 16th city, San Antonio, the period was 1951–1980.

future King James II. New York colony and later New York State stood out because they contained NewYork City.The factor that did most to promote NewYork as a major colonial city and soon thereafter as the dominant city in the nation was its harbor.Virtually everyone going to or coming from Europe went through New York. There is where the immigrants landed; many of them stayed. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, New York maintained its status of being not only the most populous city but center of much of what went on in American culture and economics. As the United States grew in power and wealth and its culture reached into other continents, New York probably deserved a title of first city of the world.When the United Nations was established in 1945, it was fitting that the headquarters would be in New York. The story of New York in the postwar period was a tale of contrasts. The city gave off signals similar to developments in other older urban areas. It lost some 100,000 residents in the 1950s, many of them going to bedroom communities nearby. Some businesses moved or closed, especially in the garment industries.The city appeared to be unwieldy, impossible to govern. Transit workers struck for 12 days in 1966, stopping public transportation. Sanitation workers would not work in 1968, letting garbage pile up for a week and a half.The police struck in 1971, and the city approached bankruptcy in 1975. By 1990 five major racial and ethnic groups—blacks, Irish, Italians, Jewish and Puerto Ricans—seemed to constitute five separate cities. But the city held on. It reversed a population loss in the 1960s and again in the 1980s.The Port of New York (and New Jersey) lost traffic to the St. Lawrence Seaway system, but it remained a major port. Many companies did not leave. New York dominated publishing in all respects. It was the nation’s broadcasting center. Broadway stage productions, especially the musicals, buckled somewhat in the 1960s, but survived. New York’s Stock Exchange and the Financial District gave national economics much of its thrust. Despite racial divisions the city managed to elect mayors and they came in all stripes—Jews (Abe Beame and Ed Koch); in 1988 an African American, David Dinkins, defeated an Italian, Rudolph Giuliani, and became the first person of his Cities of the United States

333

Iron workers raise steel at the 32nd floor of the Esso Building, New York City, 1954. (National Archives)

race to hold the office.There even had been an Anglo, John Lindsay, in the 1960s. New York remained in 1990 a place of large forces and momentous developments, still first city of the nation, if not the world.

Los Angeles Profile Founded: 1781, incorporated 1850 Population: 1990, 3,485,557, rank: 2; 1950, 1,970,358, rank 4 Population change, 1950–1990: 11,515,199 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 1,841,182; black, 487,674 (14%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 16,379 (0.5%), Asian or Pacific Islander, 341,807 (7.8%); Hispanic origin, 1,391,411 (39.9%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $16,188; white, $22,191; black, $11,257;American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $12,901;Asian or Pacific Islander, $13,875; Hispanic, $7,111 Land area: 469.3 sq. mi.; Elevation: 104 ft County: Los Angeles Average temperature: January, 56.8˚F; July, 69.1˚F; annual average, 63˚F Annual precipitation: 12.01 inches (snowfall: trace) Clear days: 143; precipitation days: 35 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990:Tom Bradley 334


History and Development Several Native American groups lived in what is Los Angeles many years before arrival of the Europeans. A Spanish explorer passed through in 1542, and then the area was ignored for more than 200 years until 1769 when other Spaniards appeared, and a Franciscan priest gave what he called a “delightful place’’ its name. In 1781 a party of 44 people from Spanish Mexico arrived and established the pueblo of Los Angeles. Spanish rule transferred to Mexico in 1821, the year of Mexican independence, and the general area of California fell into the United States’s hands in the treaty of 1848 that ended the U.S.-Mexican War. Growth of Los Angeles paralleled growth of the new state of California. Farming and ranching expanded. Arrival of the transcontinental railroads in the 1870s facilitated commerce and brought in people from the East. Completion of an artificial harbor in 1914 made Los Angeles a major Pacific port.There followed the development of an oil industry, the opening of new factories, and the establishment in the 1920s of Los Angeles as base for the glamorous new film industry.The Depression of the 1930s and world war of the 1940s provided major new economic incentive for people to move west. The population boom continued into the postwar period. Los Angeles grew by approximately 1 million people between 1945 and 1960. Beginning in the 1970s, if not earlier, the city became destina-

tion for many immigrants from Asia and Latin America. What had stood as a mark of appeal and success also became the measure of growing problems. More people meant need for more water—for irrigation or simply for living. Completion of the California Aqueduct in 1973 helped, but water shortages continued to appear. The city’s freeways were jammed and downright dangerous; in 1987 the city began long-term work on a mass-transit rail system. Air pollution, serious since the 1950s, induced expensive corrective measures. By the end of the 1980s Los Angeles was home to four major racial/ethnic groups—Asians, blacks, Hispanics, non-Hispanic whites—and many other subgroupings. The racial mix provided diversity to be sure, but it also produced gang competition, drive-by shootings, and racial unrest in general. It seemed that every major issue had its racial aspect. In 1973 Los Angelans elected Tom Bradley as its first AfricanAmerican mayor. He still was in office in 1990.

Chicago Profile Founded: 1803, incorporated 1837 Population: 1990, 2,783,726, rank 3; 1950, 3,620,902, rank 2 Population change, 1950–1990: 2837,236 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white 1,263,524; black, 1,087,711 (39.1%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 7,064 (0.3%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 104,118 (3.7%); Hispanic origin, 545,852 (19.6%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $12,899; white, $18,258; black, $8,596; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $11,251; Asian or Pacific Islander, $11,581; Hispanic, $7,438 Land area: 227 sq. mi.; Elevation: 623 ft County: Cook Average temperature: January, 21˚F; July, 73.2˚F; annual average, 49˚F Annual precipitation: 35.82 inches (snowfall: 38.5 inches) Clear days: 94; precipitation days: 123 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990: Richard M. Daley History and Development The area that became Chicago was a crossroads for American Indians moving from one waterway to another. The Wyandot had been there, and the Potawatomi. Later a trading post, the area on the south shore of Lake Michigan was ceded by the Indians to the United States, where soldiers proceeded to build Fort Dearborn, a place that also would be known as Chicago, a derivative from a Potawatomi name. Aided by its excellent location, the Chicago settlement grew and prospered as the nation moved west. Establishment of a railroad network enabled Chicago to build further on its identity as a crossroads. One of the first major industries was meatpacking. In the period between the two world wars, Chicago established a reputation for racial tension, based on the Red Summer of 1919, and especially as a hotbed of political corruption and brutal gang violence, brought on in many respects by the national experiment in prohibition. Chicago meanwhile had become a major manufacturing center, a city that boasted of tall buildings and, far-and-away the second-largest city of the United States. In the postwar period Chicago moved to continue in the tradition of building and growth. When Midway Airport on the southside, the nation’s busiest, was deemed too small to handle large jet aircraft, the city build O’Hare on the northwest side, which then became the busiest. There was also a network of expressways—the Dan Ryan and Kennedy, Eisenhower, Eden’s Expressway, and the Stevenson. Seeking to stay ahead of New York in the height of structures, Chicago built the Hancock Building in 1969, the Standard Oil Building in 1973, and—taking care to assure that it would be the tallest—the Sears Tower in 1974. Chicago unfortunately revealed that it would not be spared the problems facing the so-called rustbelt urban areas. Faced with foreign

competition, inefficient equipment or high labor costs, several traditional manufacturers closed shop or moved out. Faced with congestion, racial tension, simply wanting more space and a new start, Chicagoans left the city limits, probably going to suburban areas that pushed farther and farther from the central city. Chicago still might be the “second city’’ in people’s minds and hearts, but it no longer ranked number two in population. The people left behind were increasingly nonwhite, unskilled, with limited education. Chicago’s politics also changed. The mayor during the building boom, in office some 20 years, was Richard J. Daley.A political boss of the old style, Daley ran things as head of the Democrat Committee in Cook County. Clear evidence of his authority came in the tumultous events during the Democrat National Convention of 1968. Daley’s death in 1976 destroyed a political coalition and personal control of city politics. There followed the brief tenure of Daley’s protege, Michael Bilandic; a single term by “Calamity Jane’’ Byrne, the first female mayor; and in 1983 the victory of Congressman Harold Washington, the first black mayor. Reelected in 1987,Washington was preparing to start a second term when he died of a heart attack. Politics then seemed to return to “normalcy.’’ Elected in a special election in 1989 was Richard M. Daley, son of “the boss.’’

Houston Profile Founded: 1836, incorporated 1837 Population: 1990, 1,630,553, rank 4; 1950, 596,163, rank 14 Population change, 1950–1990: 11,034,701 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 859,069; black, 457,990 (28.1%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 4,126 (0.3%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 67,113 (4.1%); Hispanic origin, 450,483 (27.6%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $14,261; white, $19,817; black, $8,366; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $12,239; Asian or Pacific Islander, $12,250; Hispanic, $7,021 Land area: 539.9 sq. mi.; Elevation, 49 ft Counties: Fort Bend, Harris, Montgomery Average temperature: January, 50.4˚F; July, 82.6˚F; annual average, 67.9˚F Annual precipitation: 46.07 inches (snowfall: 0.4 inches) Clear days: 94; precipitation days: 107 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990: Katherine J.Whitmire History and Development Before arrival of the whites, the Karankawa Indians lived near what became Houston. The area became part of New Spain and after 1821 was in the province of Texas within the new state of Mexico. Two brothers, August C. and John K. Allen, founded Houston in 1836 and named it after Sam Houston, who led the army in the Texan war for independence and who was president of the Republic of Texas. Houston was capital of the new nation until 1840. As part of a state of the United States, Houston depended on agriculture, notably cotton, and a growing commerce—the railroad arrived in the 1850s and work was to begin on constructing a pathway by water to the sea. The Houston ship canal, finished in 1914, made the city a port even though it was 50 miles inland. Discovery of oil in the early 20th century did much to determine Houston’s economy for many years to come. The population soared between 1950 and 1980 when nearly everything seemed to go right. Factories expanded; a large petrochemical industry grew up. NASA established its center for the space program in Houston in 1964, and the following year, the pioneering Astrodome—pioneering because it is an indoor baseball and football stadium—opened.The economy boomed when oil prices soared after the first energy crisis of 1973. Thirty-two buildings of 500 or more feet high went up downtown, all but one of them built in the 1970s Cities of the United States

335

and 1980s. A glut in petroleum supplies and sharp drop in energy prices was devastating in the early 1980s, and it took the city several years to recover. Houston remained dependent on oil and oil-related industries, but there had been some effort to diversify the economy. The Manned Space Center—after 1973 the Lyndon B. Johnson Center—helped a great deal, as did expansion of industry and activities related to health and medical care.

Philadelphia Profile Founded: 1682, chartered 1701 Population: 1990, 1,585,577, rank 5; 1950, 2,071,605, rank 3 Population change, 1950–1990: 2486,028 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 848,586; black, 631,936 (39.9%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 3,434 (0.2%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 43,522 (2.7%); Hispanic origin, 89,193 (5.6%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $12,091; white, $15.027; black, $9,061; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $10,146; Asian or Pacific Islander, $8,285; Hispanic, $6,053 Land area: 135.1 sq. mi.; Elevation: 28 ft County: Philadelphia Average temperature: January, 30.4˚F; July, 76.7˚F; annual average, 54.3˚F Annual precipitation: 41.4 inches (snowfall: 21.1 inches) Clear days: 92; precipitation days: 116 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990:W.Wilson Goode History and Development The location of Philadelphia had much to do with its emergence as a leader in colonial America and in the life of the new nation. Located near the Atlantic coast, less than 100 miles from New York and slightly more than 100 from Washington, D.C., with two rivers to aid transportation, Philadelphia was in the midst of things. William Penn had founded the city; a pacifist and Quaker, he called it the city of brotherly love. With Benjamin Franklin as its most famous resident, Philadelphia was deeply enmeshed in the revolution and events that followed. Home of the Continental Congress, capital of the new nation, Philadelphia produced the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.The Liberty Bell is still there. Philadelphia grew into a large—second in population for many years—and influential city partly, again, because of location and because it could have access to a good mix of economic and social resources.Within its state one could find good farmland, coal and oil fields, and good transportation and manufacturing plants. The city probably reached its peak at approximately the time of the Second World War. The decline that developed in the postwar period was slow and remarkably consistent with what went on in the nation as a whole. It came in spite of efforts in the 1950s and 1960s to clean up and restore what clearly had become an aged and worn-down inner city. But the better-educated and better-employed Philadelphians—most of them white—were going to the suburbs as they had been doing in many places. Factories moved to another state or another country. The city lost some of its tax base, and remaining residents found a city beset by racial tension. The power struggles played out in the contests for the highest local office.The mayor of the 1970s was Frank Rizzo, a white, aggressive, former police commissioner, and in the 1980s it was W. Wilson Goode, an African American who had good scores in race relations but left doubt about administrative competence. In spite of its divisions and a major loss of population between 1970 and 1990, Philadelphia still had the markings of a first-class city, with museums and remarkable historic districts, competitive professional teams in all major sports, a new convention center, a marina, a trade center, and ongoing efforts to improve the center city. 336


San Diego Profile Founded: 1769, incorporated 1850 Population: 1990, 1,110,549, rank 6; 1950, 334,387, rank 31 Population change, 1950–1990: 1726,236 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 745,406; black, 104,261 (9.4%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 6,800 (0.6%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 130,945 (11.8%); Hispanic origin, 229,519 (20.7%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $16,401; white, $19,807; black, $10,375; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $11,893; Asian or Pacific Islander, $10,628; Hispanic, $8,242 Land area: 324 sq. mi.; Elevation: 13 ft County: San Diego Average temperature: January, 57.4˚F; July, 71˚F; annual average, 64.2˚F Annual precipitation: 9.9 inches (snowfall: 0) Clear days: 150; precipitation days: 41 Type of government: council-manager; mayor in 1990: Maureen O’Connor History and Development The Pacific coastal area that became San Diego was home to Native Americans known as Kumeyaay. Spaniards entered the harbor in 1542, and 60 years later the site was named in honor of San Diego de Alcalá, a Franciscan brother. In 1769 a Spanish official placed a military outpost and a mission in the bay area.The territory became part of Mexico in 1821 and in 1848 was part of the land lost to the United States in the U.S.-Mexican War. This area near the Mexican border developed slowly until the railroad, the Santa Fe, arrived in 1884. San Diego grew more rapidly in the early 20th century as a center for processing tuna and because its excellent deep-water harbor served as a major Pacific base for the U.S. Navy. During the Second World War, which included a Pacific war, the naval base expanded and numerous war-related industries, such as Consolidated Aircraft (later called General Dynamics), set up shop in the area. Growth of the city after the Second World War stemmed from three major factors and several smaller ones. First was expansion of the industrial base, in which shipbuilding, production of electronic and oceanographic equipment joined with airplane factories. Military establishments continued to be a major force, as manifested in the huge San Diego Naval Base and the Marine station nearby. The third factor was a remarkable tourist industry that offered the ocean, the prestigious San Diego Zoo, a wild animal park in Escondido, the nationally famous Sea World, and professional sports teams. An end to the cold war left apprehension about how long southern California could count on continued presence of so many service personnel and the factories that produced goods for a war machine that was likely to shrink.

Detroit Profile Founded: 1701, incorporated 1806 Population: 1990, 1,017,974, rank 7; 1950, 1,849,568, rank 5 Population change, 1950–1990: 2821,594 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 222,316; black, 777,916 (75.7%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 3,655 (0.4%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 8,461 (0.8%); Hispanic origin, 28,473 (2.8%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $9,443; white, $11,947; black, $8,809; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $8,241; Hispanic, $7,518 Land area: 138.7 sq. mi.; Elevation: 581 ft County:Wayne Average temperature: January, 22.4˚F; July, 72.3˚F; annual average, 48.6˚F Annual precipitation: 32.62 inches (snowfall: 41.1 inches)

Clear days: 75; precipitation days: 133 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990: Coleman A.Young History and Development When French explorers and fur traders reached the area that they would name Detroit, they met Wyandot, Ottawa, and other Indian tribes. Situated on Lake Saint Claire, close to Lakes Huron and Erie, Detroit was well located for commerce and other economic enterprise. The French explorer, Sieur de Cadillac, founded the area as a fur-trading post and eventually a fort. The British took control in 1760, and although the territory legally became American in 1783, the British did not depart until 1796. Friction with Indian tribes, and with the British, continued until at least the end of the War of 1812. Presence of the lakes, opening of the Erie Canal in 1925, and westward expansion of the railroad all helped Detroit move into manufacturing at an early stage. It was of course development of the automobile that gave the city its identity, much of its livelihood, and many of its people in the 20th century. The automobile factories allowed Detroit to became the nation’s third-largest city in the 1920s, and the automobile industry or its shrinkage would guide fortunes of the city for the rest of the century. The dismal times of the 1930s when people could not buy cars ended with return of prosperity during the Second World War. The people still could not buy cars, but the factories operated at full steam, producing war materials. The postwar period produced an immediate burst of activity as factories strained to keep pace with pent-up demand. By 1950 Detroit’s population approached the 2 million mark. Troubles soon began to surface. Schools were crowded, crime increased, and racial tension mounted. As had begun to happen to in other eastern and midwestern cities, people who could afford to do so, mostly whites, began to flee to the suburbs. The large and destructive race riot of 1967 gutted a portion of the city and drove more people away. The 1970s produced more bad news. Two energy crises (1973–74 and 1978–1980) depressed the demand for cars and introduced American car producers on a major scale to competition from factories abroad, notably Japan. Between 1972 and 1987 the city lost half of its stores and manufacturing plants. The population shrank to scarcely 1 million in 1990, three-fourths of whom were black people. There was a concerted effort to begin a recovery, largely under leadership of Coleman Young, the first black mayor, during the years 1973–90. From this effort came an impressive high-rise inner-city complex called Renaissance Center and such other structures as the Joe Louis arena, where the Red Wings played hockey.The “big three’’ American automobile companies reaffirmed an intent to maintain their headquarters inthe area. Detroit’s bleeding seemed to have stopped, or slowed, and the city probably would end the century ranked in the top 10—but not for much longer.

Dallas Profile Founded: 1841, chartered 1871 Population: 1990, 1,006,877, rank 8; 1950, 296,994, rank 22 Population change, 1950–1990: 1573,156 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 556,760; black, 296,994 (29.5%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 4,792 (0.5%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 21,952 (2.2%); Hispanic origin, 210,240 (20.9%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $16,300; white, $22,898; black, $8,444; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $10,048; Asian or Pacific Islander, $12,628; Hispanic, $7,093 Land area: 342.4 sq. mi.; Elevation: 596 ft Counties: Collin, Dallas, Denton, Kaufman, Rockwell Average temperature: January, 43.4˚F; July, 85.3˚F; annual average, 65.4˚F

Annual precipitation: 33.7 inches (snowfall: 2.9 inches) Clear days: 138; precipitation days: 79 Type of government: council-manager; mayor in 1990:Annette Strauss History and Development This portion of Texas was still part of Mexico in 1841 when John Neely Bryan, a lawyer from Tennessee, built a log cabin alongside the Trinity River.The town that grew up Bryan named Dallas, probably in honor of George M. Dallas, vice president of the United States, 1845–49. By the time the village began to grow, Dallas was part of the state of Texas in the American union. The town’s future was made promising in the 1870s when two railroads formed a union at Dallas. Cotton production and manufacture of farm tools aided the economy, and the discovery in 1930 of the huge East Texas oil field some 100 miles away provided a major boost. The Second World War brought defense manufacturing and an aircraft industry, some of which remained after 1945. Vought Aircraft moved to Dallas; such companies as Texas Instruments expanded their operations. Dallas also became home to Southern Methodist University, a branch of the University of Texas, and other educational facilities. A “Goals for Dallas’’ campaign that in 1967 entailed a $175 million bond issue helped build Dallas–Ft. Worth International Airport (opened in 1974), a new city hall, and the Martin Luther King, Jr., Community Center.As with any area that depended heavily on the production and sale of oil, the city’s fortunes fluctuated. Boom times in the 1970s gave way to a considerable economic downturn in the next decade. For many people Dallas remained memorable for a football organization that claimed to be “America’s team,’’ a long-running television series of the 1980s, and an exceptionally sorrowful afternoon in November 1963 when President John F. Kennedy was gunned down.

Phoenix Profile Founded: 1867, incorporated 1881 Population: 1990, 983,403, rank 9; 1950, 106,818, rank 98 Population change, 1950–1990: 1876,585 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 803,332; black, 51,053 (5.2%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 18,225 (1.9%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 16,303 (1.7%); Hispanic origin, 197,103 (20%) Per capita income (1989) by race; all races, $14,096; white, $15,497; black, $8,734; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $7,076; Asian or Pacific Islander, $12,643; Hispanic, $7,213 Land area: 419 sq. mi.; Elevation: 1,117 ft County: Maricopa Average temperature: January, 53.5˚F; July, 93.5˚F; annual average, 72.6˚F Annual precipitation: 7.66 inches (snowfall: trace) Clear days: 214; precipitation days: 34 Type of government: mayor-council; mayor in 1990: Paul Johnson History and Development Jack Swilling and Darrel Dupa, two settlers who in 1860 had happened onto the valley now known as Phoenix, noted that many years earlier, the grand civilization of the Hohokam Indians had thrived in this parched land. Convinced that another great civilization would grow in this area, Dupa named the settlement after that bird of mythology that rose from the ashes every 500 years. Explored by the Spanish, claimed by Spain from 1539 to 1821, the area became part of Mexico and was part of that land awarded to the United States in the Mexican cession of 1848. Part of the New Mexico Territory until 1863 and afterward within the Territory of Arizona, the Phoenix settlement developed slowly.The weather was too hot, water too scarce; making a living left much to the imagination. Small wonder that Arizona was last of the Cities of the United States

337

original 48 states to join the union, and that in 1920, the largest city in the state, Phoenix, had fewer than 30,000 people. Several forces combined to change the status of the city. One was the Second World War, which brought people to the area for military purposes. Second and probably most important was postwar development and mass production of air conditioning. The winters were pleasant enough to attract a growing tourist traffic, and with air conditioning the summers also became enjoyable.The third factor was establishment of an adequate supply of water—a process that began with completion of the Roosevelt Dam, 53 miles away, in 1911 and finished with a national project in 1986 to bring water in from the Colorado River. The foundation was laid for multifaceted industrial growth and for a city that could welcome droves of visitors or retirees flocking to the sunbelt where the living was easy and no one had to shovel snow.The population of Phoenix quadrupled between 1950 and 1960, and satellite suburbs such as Mesa,Tempe, and Sun City sprang up; by 1980 the population had doubled again, and Phoenix became the nation’s ninth-largest city.

San Antonio Profile Founded: 1718, incorporated 1837 Population: 1990, 935,933, rank 10; 1950, 408,442, rank 25 Population change, 1950–1990: 1590,463 Racial/ethnic mix, 1990: white, 676,082; black, 65,884 (7%); American Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, 3,303 (0.4%); Asian or Pacific Islander, 10,703 (1.1%); Hispanic origin, 520,282 (55.6%) Per capita income (1989) by race: all races, $10,884; white, $12,322; black, $8,730; Indian, Eskimo, or Aleut, $9,561; Asian or Pacific Islander, $11,075; Hispanic, $7,032 Land area: 333 sq. mi.; Elevation: 701 ft County: Bexar Average temperature: January, 50.4˚F; July, 84.6˚F; annual average, 68.7˚F

338


Annual precipitation: 29.2 inches (snowfall: 0.5 inches) Clear days: 110; precipitation days: 81 Type of government: council-mayor; mayor in 1990: Nelson Wolff History and Development The Coahuiltec Indians lived in the area of San Antonio for hundreds of years. Spaniard explorers traveled through the area in the 16th century and returned near the end of the 17th century to establish a village at a bend in the river.They named the village and the river San Antonio, and a nearby mission and military outpost was called the Alamo. Spanish rule ended in 1821 on establishment of Mexican independence. Settlers from the United States, some of whom had been invited in—first by the Spanish and later by Mexico—joined more recent American immigrants in protesting what they deemed unjust treatment by the Mexican government. In the Texan war of independence that followed in 1835–36 the most famous battle was the 13day seige of the Alamo, which ended on March 6, 1836, with death of all Texan defenders. After Texas became a state, San Antonio grew as a stopping place for cattle drives and later, after 1877, as a railroad town. Discovery of oil in the 1890s aided growth, as did two world wars, during both of which the city served as a military center. Development of San Antonio after 1945 continued to be connected to the national government. The area contained the headquarters of the Fifth Army at Ft. Sam Houston and no fewer than four air force bases, including Lackland.The military presence helped the area become a center for medical research. The city also benefited from tourism, the oil industry, good transportation facilities, and numerous manufacturing firms. The residents, more than half of whom were of Hispanic origin, elected in 1981 its first Mexican-American mayor. Henry G. Cisneros would serve four terms, reaching to 1989. San Antonio exploited to the fullest the river that meandered through and around the inner city. The river banks were lined with shops and restaurants, and the riverfront downtown featured the Villita, a square block of quaint houses and shops preserved in the Spanish tradition.

CHAPTER 13 Prominent and Representative Americans Rachel Carson Born in Springdale, Pennsylvania, on May 27, 1907, Rachel Louise Carson received a bachelor’s degree from Pennsylvania College for Women in 1929 and a master’s in biology from Johns Hopkins University in 1932. After college she taught at the University of Maryland and in the summer studied at Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts. In 1936 she began a long period of service as aquatic biologist with the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. From this post Carson developed an impressive reputation as editor of the agency’s publications and as a writer about sea life. Under the Sea (1941) was followed by The Sea Around Us, which won the National Book Award for nonfiction in 1951, and The Edge of the Sea in 1955. Carson then shifted course. Four years of study into the use of pesticides led her to conclude that human efforts to conquer nature, to make life more comfortable and convenient had had a devastating effect on the earth and the living beings that shared the planet with people.To cite a single example, the use of chemical sprays, especially DDT, to destroy bugs and other pests had rendered birds who ate the

bugs incapable of reproducing. If the process continued, the United States and the world would face a time when birds would fail to exist. Publication of this message, in the volume Silent Spring, which appeared in 1962, had an immediate profound effect.The government began an investigation into use of pesticides.The general public began to notice habits previously taken for granted. New organizations, public and private—notably the national Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—sprang up. The movement probably culminated in (but did not end with) the year 1970, when Congress passed the Clean Air Act and National Environment Act, the EPA banned use of DDT, and the first celebration of Earth Day took place. The person who started these developments, by most accounts the founder of the modern environmentalist movement, was not on hand to to see what she had done. Rachel Carson died in April 1964.

Cesar Chavez Cesar Estrada Chavez was born on March 31, 1927, on a small farm near Yuma, Arizona. Losing the land in the Great Depression of

Cesar Chavez, Hispanic leader and founder of the United Farm Workers Union (National Archives)

339

the 1930s, the Chavez family set out for California, becoming in effect, migrant workers. Cesar left school in seventh grade and worked in the fields until he joined the navy in 1944. Returning home at war’s end, Chavez seemed destined for a life of following the cycles of the crops. Chavez gradually came to the conclusion that farm workers’ conditions could be improved through organization. Affiliated between 1952 and 1962 with the Community Service Organization, he became acquainted with methods of recruitment and organization that he would utilize in starting his own farm workers union in 1962—the United Farm Workers (UFW).The zenith of his campaign came between 1965 and 1970 when he won major contracts with grape companies and led a five-year national boycott of table grapes that ended in success. He had become nationally known and had acquired support and friendship of Senator Robert Kennedy of New York, who ran for the presidency in 1968. Then Chavez’ star began to fall. Kennedy was assassinated in June 1968.When contracts with the grape growers expired, many of them chose to affiliate with the Teamsters Union that had emerged as a rival to the UFW. Chavez’s union became torn with factionalism, and new recruitment campaigns and another grape boycott failed to recapture the previous strength. Even so, he kept trying. Chavez was busy at work when he died suddenly in 1993. Still recognized nationally as a humanitarian and spokesman for the downtrodden, he was awarded posthumously the nation’s highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1995.

Vine Deloria, Jr. One of the most prolific Native American scholars and writers about Native Americans, Vine Deloria, Jr., was born on March 26, 1933, in Martin, South Dakota. A member of the Yankton Nakota (Sioux) tribe, he came from a distinguished family. His great grandfather had been a medicine man, his aunt Ella Deloria, a prominent ethnologist, his grandfather an Episcopal missionary, and his father a high official in the Episcopal Church. Vine, Jr., graduated from high school in Kent, Connecticut, spent two years (1954–56) in the U.S. Marine Corps, and received a B.A. (1958) from Iowa State University, a B.D. in theology from Augustana Lutheran Seminary in Rock Island, Illinois (1963), and a law degree from the University of Colorado (1970). In his work and in his writing, Deloria became a spokesman for the rights, interests, welfare, and culture of Native Americans. His most famous publication, Custer Died forYour Sins:An Indian Manifesto (1969), was followed by We Talk,You Listen (1970), God Is Red: A Native View of Religion (1973), Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties (1974), and several others. His works constituted an attack on the injustice and treachery of the white man, but they also represented an appeal for Indian nationalism, against Indian assimilation into decadent American culture and in favor of Indian ethnicity and self-government. Deloria was significant in the attention he drew to the status of Native Americans in the United States. His life also stands as an example of the supreme dilemma faced in seeking to remain Indian when the path to fortune, even a decent standard of living, ran down the white man’s road. A vigorous defender of Indian culture, Deloria’s education came from the public schools; he made his living selling books on the market and teaching in state universities.

Clint Eastwood Tall, with rugged good looks, with a seemingly passive but in the end decisive demeanor, Clint Eastwood became one of the most popular movie actors in the United States by the the 1980s. Born on May 31, 1930, in San Francisco, he endured high school, worked vari340


ous menial jobs, spent four years in the army, and briefly attended Los Angeles City College before, in the mid-1950s, beginning to inquire into the possibility of a career as an actor. Success came slowly, and work at first involved bit parts based entirely on his physical appearance. Eastwood’s break came in 1959 with his being signed to a television series, a “new’’ western, Rawhide, which had a large cast of continuing characters of fairly equal rank. He was to be Rowdy Yates, the “ramrod,’’ second in command to the “trail boss,’’ played by Eric Fleming. Rawhide ran eight years, to 1966, and made Eastwood a familiar face to television audiences. The series also attracted the attention of Sergio Leone, an Italian director who enticed Eastwood to star in a series of openly violent and brutal Italian films about the old West that came to be known as spaghetti westerns. After three such movies between 1964 and 1967, Eastwood returned to the United States, started his own company, Malpaso, and began to produce an American version of the spaghetti western. Starting with Hang ‘em High, he continued the image of the strong, silent loner, probably with a score to settle. One might not like the methods, but he got the job done. In 1971 Eastwood moved his character to the city, dressed him in a suit, gave him a badge, and named him Harry Callahan.The “Dirty Harry’’ series—there would be five films in all—helped project him to the top of the charts. Even President Reagan, never hesitant to steal someone else’s lines, quoted Harry Callahan. Eastwood starred in and produced other types of films as well.There was a war movie, Where Eagles Dare; a musical, Paint Your Wagon; a drama, Play Misty for Me; and a film with an orangutan as a companion, AnyWhich Way But Loose. A tumultuous private life slowed him not at all. A long-running open affair with actress Sandra Locke led to a divorce from his wife and a split with, and later a suit by, Locke; an illegitimate child with another woman was followed by marriage to still another woman and another child. Clint simply squinted and went about his business.

Chris Evert Chris Evert was one of the best American tennis players and one of the most popular female athletes in the second half of the 20th century. Born Christine Marie Evert on December 21, 1954, in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, she began to play tennis at age six, with her father, a teaching professional, as coach. By age 15 she was the top amateur player in the country; at age 18, in December 1972, after defeating some of the best professional players and winning two major tournaments, she turned professional. In the course of a professional career of 17 years, Chris, or Chrissy, put up superlative numbers in many categories. She did not have superior athletic talent, but she made the most of what she had.A dedicated baseline player, preferring hard courts, especially clay, she won the French Open, played on clay, seven times and in one stretch won 125 straight matches on clay courts. Even though her worst surface probably was grass, she won three singles titles on Wimbledon’s prestigious grass courts. There also would be six U.S. Open titles and two Australian, a total of 157 singles titles and, starting in 1975, a period of 133 consecutive weeks ranked number one in the world. Some of her most monumental battles were with Martina Navratilova; there would be 80 such matches, at the conclusion of which Navratilova had a small edge of 43 wins to 37. Evert’s popularity began with competence on the court, but she also scored with demeanor and charm. Always poised and self-composed, she took wins and losses, good calls and bad, with grace. She was pretty and photogenic, and the press followed all aspects of her private life that it was able to see. Her engagement at age 19 to dashing tennis firebrand Jimmy Connor, age 21, seemed a match made in heaven, but the wedding never came off. Marriage to British tennis player John Lloyd in 1979 lasted eight years.

Evert retired in 1989, still ranked fourth in the world. She had remarried—to skier Andy Mill—in 1988, and the couple would produce three children. The popularity of women’s tennis continued to grow and became perhaps more interesting than the men’s game, which often was dominated by an overpowering serve. Knowledgeable observers knew that Chris Evert, ever the steady ground stroker, had much to do with it.

Ella Fitzgerald She became known as “The First Lady of Song,’’ and during the period from the 1940s through the 1960s, she probably was the foremost female musical technician and jazz vocalist in the country. Born in Newport News, Virginia, in 1918, growing up in Yonkers, New York, in the era of segregation, Ella Fitzgerald began her career in what would be deemed “black’’ circumstances: singing at the Apollo Theater and Savoy Ballroom in Harlem, as a vocalist for Chick Webb’s band. Blessed with perfect pitch and clear, masterfully controlled voice, Ella went on to establish a national and international reputation as a genuine musical artist. Commonly identified as a jazz singer, adept at improvisation and extemporaneous “scat’’ vocalizing, she seemed to prefer what she called the Great American Songbook—the music of Cole Porter, George Gershwin, Irving Berlin, and other composers of the midtwentieth century.Although she often appeared with such black big band leaders as Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Louis Armstrong, she went far beyond the color line in her recordings, concerts, and guest appearances on radio and television with Bing Crosby, Dinah Shore, Ed Sullivan, and popular variety shows of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. Her music, in fact, was mostly white people’s music. Starting in 1938 with a playful tune, “A-Tisket, A-Tasket,’’ she recorded countless singles and more than 250 albums. Winner of 13 Grammy Awards, Ella was a singer’s singer, a musical artist, as opposed to someone who simply was pleasant to listen to. Her highest praise came from such musical technicians as Frank Sinatra and Mel Torme′. Her concerts at home and abroad were peopled with not merely jazz enthusiasts but students of the artform.While at the peak of her career in the 1950s, she continued to perform into the 1990s. She died in 1995 at age 78 from complications emerging from diabetes.

Betty Friedan Although Betty Friedan would accumulate a long list of publications, titles, awards, and honors, she is and will be known for a single piece of work, her book, The Feminine Mystique, published in 1963. Born Betty Goldstein on February 4, 1921, in Peoria, Illinois, she grew up in a family of comfort and means. After graduating from prestigious Smith College in 1942 and graduate work at Berkeley, she—in the fashion of most young women in the budding world of postwar America—married (in 1947, to Carl Friedan), had three children, and settled into life as the middle-class mother and housewife. On the whole, Betty found that lifestyle disappointing. Marriage and motherhood created a place and offered its rewards, but it did not leave her fulfilled, challenged, able to use her considerable education and talents. A survey she sent in 1957 by chance to 200 graduates of Smith College revealed remarkably similar feelings in former academic sisters. Now Friedan had validation of her feelings and a thesis for what would become a seminal book: the difference between appearance and reality in postwar suburban America, the loss of identity, the anxiety and hopelessness of the modern female. The home had become, she wrote, a “comfortable concentration camp.’’ Critics made their points about The Feminine Mystique. The survey was notoriously narrow and surely elitist. The alternative for many

women in that day was not being a brain surgeon, fashion designer, or—as in the case of Friedan—a successful writer and public speaker but long hours in one spot on an assembly line, beside which “staying at home,’’ as they put it, was not so bad. But Friedan had clearly put her finger on something, and her points took on greater meaning as the economy expanded, more women went to work, society opened up, and work became more automated, technical, and less physically demanding. Remarkable success of The Feminine Mystique led to countless speaking engagements, more publications on feminism, equality, aging. She helped found National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966, Woman’s Strike for Equality (1970), and National Woman’s Political Caucus (1971). Betty Friedan’s name always appears in the highest ranking of founders of the modern feminist movement. Many people date its origin to 1963.

Billy Graham The evangelism of Billy Graham extended through the entire second half of the 20th century. Except possibly for the pope, he became the religious leader best-known to Americans. During the 1970s and 1980s he faced competition from a group of more dynamic and colorful televangelists. He survived that challenge, if with a somewhat diminished following, partly because of the shortcomings of his competitors, partly because of the steadiness of his program and his reputation. William Franklin Graham was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, on November 7, 1918. He attended Bob Jones University and Florida Bible Institute and in 1943 graduated from Wheaton (Illinois) College. An ordained Baptist minister, he pastored a Baptist Church in Western Springs, a suburb of Chicago, in 1943, and in 1944 he began to hold open-air preachings in Chicago to returning armed-service members. He joined the national Crusade for Youth for Christ, also based in Chicago, and led his first bonafide crusade, a two-month series of rallies designed to recharge the faithful and convert the uncommitted, in Los Angeles in 1949. In 1950 he formed the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association and began to speak on Hour of Decision on ABC radio. During the next halfcentury, he traveled to virtually every continent and in many countries held rallies during which he urged people to make a “decision for Christ.’’ Audiences at these gatherings were huge, almost without exception, and although it was impossible to measure the level of influence or of personal commitment, the number who responded at the end to an invitation to come forward—taken as an interest in conversion—also was impressive. Graham’s evangelism stood out because it was long lasting and far reaching, consistent, appealing but not grandiose, and free of personal or financial scandal. He was an adviser to every president beginning with Eisenhower, up to the 1990s, and although he considered himself a Democrat, he seemed to do better with the Republicans. Visibly aging and suffering from Parkinson’s disease as the century ended, unsteady afoot but still mentally sharp, he denied any intent to retire. Even so, he turned more routine duties over to subordinates and to his son, Franklin, the heir apparent. Billy Graham was as close as one could come to being America’s preacher.

Bob Hope Bob Hope came to symbolize several themes: the golden age of radio in the 1930s and 1940s, triviality of the comedy films of the 1940s and 1950s, patriotism and service to country in his many trips to entertain servicemen abroad, and longevity in the American entertainment business. Prominent and Representative Americans

341

Born Leslie Townes Hope in Eltham, England, on May 29, 1903, son of an English stonemason and Welsh concert singer, he came with his family to the United States, settling in Cleveland. Bob, who became a citizen in 1920, had his mind set on show business from the beginning. For a period of 15 years he traveled the vaudeville circuit, trying almost anything that would bring a laugh—dancing (he had taken lessons), blackface routines—but what seemed to work best was his stand-up, rapid-fire jokes. His big break came in 1934 when, after appearance at the Capitol Theater in New York and on radio, NBC signed him to a weekly radio show with Pepsodent toothpaste as sponsor.Appearing on Tuesday nights for 15 years, he became one of the giants of radio and of the American entertainment business. A film career of some 70 movies extended from the 1930s to the end of the 1960s. Except for a brief experiment with drama in the 1950s, Hope’s films entailed lighthearted comedy.Although he received several special Academy Awards, he won no Oscar for acting—never even had a nomination, but his films remained a big screen fixture for a quarter-century. Hope’s celebrated trips to entertain troops abroad began with the Second World War and were in tune with the philosophy that everyone should do something to assist in the war effort.After the war they continued and became annual events at Christmas, extending through the Gulf War of 1990–91. In time they became the subject of television specials. His style was to appear on stage in loose-fitting shirt, carrying a golf club, telling jokes about the military, his colleagues, and conditions in the United States, many of the jokes carrying sexual innuendoes. The appeal of Hope’s humor surely diminished with passage of years, but he tried to keep his troupe staffed with contemporary performers, particularly sexy women. A very wealthy man, recipient of virtually every civilian award, friend and golfing partner of presidents, especially the Republicans, Hope saw the end of the century and people hoped that he would make it to 100.They knew that he represented the last of the lot.

spokesman, their labeling of this individual who usually had been a step ahead of the political crowd as agent of the establishment. Humphrey could not escape the Vietnam War; his party and the country were so divided that it was remarkable that the election of 1968 was so close. After defeat Humphrey came back to the senate (in 1970) and served for the rest of his life. His death from cancer in January 1978 was prolonged enough for him to receive the acolades he deserved. Some believed that in the two decades following the Second World War no one in government had been better.

Daniel K. Inouye Daniel K. Inouye was as legitimate a war hero as one could imagine; he has been since 1959 the most prominent Japanese American in the politics and government of the United States. Born on September 7, 1924, in Honolulu, Hawaii, of Japanese immigrant parents, he grew up on the island of Oahu and graduated from high school in 1942, shortly after the Second World War began. At a time when his ethnic brothers and sisters in the United States were interned in camps, Inouye enlisted in the army in 1943 and became a member of an allvolunteer, all-Japanese 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Assigned to the war in Europe, he spent many months in combat. The courage he displayed and the wounds he received left him with many medals and without a right arm. Arguably, he deserved a Medal of Honor. After the war, he graduated from the University of Hawaii and George Washington law school, entered politics in Hawaii, became the new state’s first congressman in 1959, and has been a U.S. senator since 1962. A Democrat, he consistently supported liberal social and economic programs in Washington. Highlights of his career included being keynote speaker at the Democrat Convention of 1968, member of the Watergate Committee, and chair of the Intelligence Committee

Hubert H. Humphrey Born in Wallace, South Dakota, on May 27, 1911, Hubert Horatio Humphrey would establish an identity as a socially active, liberal Democrat from Minnesota. Son of a small-town pharmacist, he took a crash course in pharmacy in Denver, studied political science at the University of Minnesota (B.A., 1939) and Louisiana State University (M.A., 1940), and did work on the Ph.D. at Minnesota. Rejected by the armed forces, he worked for state government and taught college during the war. After promoting a merger of the Democrat and Farmer-Labor Parties in Minnesota, he was elected mayor of Minneapolis in 1945 and began his political career. Cofounder of the liberal Americans for Democratic Action (ADA), sponsor of a strong civil-rights position in the contentious Democrat Convention of 1948, and elected to the Senate in that year, Humphrey would become the most persistent and conspicuous spokesman for liberal social and economic causes in the quarter-century that would follow. He was always at the forefront of the struggle for civil-rights legislation. Essentially a New Deal activist, an advocate of reforming (not destroying) capitalism, and a strong anticommunist, Humphrey nontheless became a target for conservative politicians and private citizens looking for someone to brand as pink if not red. Selected by Lyndon Johnson as his running mate in 1964, Humphrey spent an uneasy four years as vice president—delighted, no doubt, with social legislation of the Great Society in 1964–65, but deeply troubled with the deepening crevasse of the Vietnam War. Johnson’s decision to not seek reelection in 1968 largely left the Democrat candidacy for Humphrey, but this prize that he long had sought now became a mixed blessing at best.The irony of the election of 1968 came in the intensity with which the activist left attacked this man who—before they were old enough to know—had been their 342


Danny Inouye, before he became a badly wounded war hero, a U.S. senator from Hawaii, and a Medal of Honor recipient (Courtesy Senator Daniel K. Inouye)

in 1976 and of the Senate Iran-Contra Committee in 1987. Inouye has been an illustrious defender of his nation and a worthy and effective representative of his state and ethnic grouping. In the year 2000 a special government organization reviewed the military record of the Japanese Americans during the Second World War.Taking into account prejudice and other wartime circumstances, the government concluded that several Japanese who had received the second-highest military award, the Distinguished Service Cross, in fact deserved the nation’s highest medal. By these means Danny Inouye finally received the Congressional Medal of Honor.

Lyndon B. Johnson Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on a ranch near Stonewall, Texas, on August 27, 1908. He studied at Southwest State Teachers College, taught school briefly, married heiress Claudia “Lady Bird’’Taylor, entered Texan politics, and was elected as a Democrat, New Deal congressman in 1936. He spent eight years in the House, had very brief military service during the Second World War. In the House and as United States senator 1949–61, he developed considerable political skills; becoming Senate majority leader in 1955 made him, still in his 40s, the second most powerful man in government. Placed on the victorious national ticket in 1960, he became on John F. Kennedy’s assassination in November 1963 the 36th president of the United States. During a presidency that lasted five years Johnson established a mixed legacy. Building on his contacts and knowledge of Congress and

his reputation as a Democrat centrist, and strengthened by bountiful victories—for the presidency and in Congress—in the election of 1964, Johnson compiled a list of legislative victories second in the 20th century only to the first two terms of the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Two civil-rights laws, Medicare, and an Equal Opportunity Act were major ingredients in the program of the Great Society of 1964–65. The undoing of Johnson’s presidency came largely but not entirely from the course of the Vietnam War. Having inherited from Kennedy a losing situation in South Vietnam, he chose to try to win the war by vastly increasing American participation. Commitment of a force of 500,000 probably staved off a South Vietnamese defeat, but it caused mounting American casualties and produced—and gave no prospect of producing—neither a victory nor a foreseeable end. Escalation of the war corresponded with growing social and political tension that took two forms: racial tension in the cities and antiwar demonstrations and a general unruliness by college-based activists and their fellow travelers. However one defined and explained this multisided restiveness, under the presidency of Lyndon Johnson the country seemed to be coming apart. Johnson’s decision to not seek reelection in 1968 (announced in March) was stunning but not unwise. He left office in January 1969 a discredited president and a troubled man. Speculation that passage of time—with better understanding of his legislative record, a broader distribution of blame for Vietnam—would cause Johnson’s reputation to improve. No such transformation had taken place, or even started, at the time of his death on January 22, 1973.

Barbara Jordan Barbara Charline Jordan was born on February 21, 1936, the third and youngest daughter of Benjamin Jordan, a black Baptist minister in Houston. An honors student in high school, she graduated magna cum laude from Texas Southern University in 1956. Her major was political science, and her speciality, in high school as in college, was debating. After earning a law degree from Boston University in 1959, she returned to Houston to practice law. Elected as a Democrat in 1966, she became the first black person in the state senate of Texas since 1883 in the immediate aftermath of the period of Reconstruction. After six years in the state senate, near the end of which she was chosen president pro tem, she ran for Congress in 1972. Her election from the 18th district in Houston made her the first southern black elected to Congress in the 20th century and the first black and the first woman ever elected from Texas. During three terms in Congress, she focused on social legislation, workman’s compensation, voting rights, and the interests of poor people and minority groups. She participated in the preimpeachment hearings for Richard Nixon.The highlight of her political career came when she gave a riveting keynote address at the Democrat National Convention of 1976. Rhetoric was her forte. She retired from politics in 1979 to return to Texas where she added to her considerable collection of awards and distinctions, and taught political ethics at the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas. Eventually confined to a wheelchair by multiple sclerosis, she died from pneumonia in January 1996. A pathfinder for her race and gender, Jordan was a spokesperson for disadvantaged people of all kinds. She made her case vigorously, with decorum and absence of rancor, and always with eloquence.

George F. Kennan The “Johnson Treatment.’’ President Johnson “confers’’ with Abe Fortas, friend, adviser, short-time justice of the Supreme Court. (LBJ Library Photo by Yoichi Okamoto)

George Frost Kennan had two overlapping careers. He served 26 years as a professional foreign service officer, much of the time at very high level; he was a scholar and author of many publications about diplomacy and especially American relations with the Soviet Union. Prominent and Representative Americans

343

Born in Milwaukee on February 16, 1904, he graduated from Princeton University in 1925 and joined the foreign service in 1926. His assignments took him to Geneva, Hamburg, the three Baltic States, and Berlin and, after two years’ (1929–31) study of Russian language, culture, and history, to the Soviet Union in 1933 and again at the end of the Second World War in 1944–46. Kennan attracted attention in Washington in 1946 when he sent to the state department a “long telegram’’ explaining the sources of emerging trouble with the Soviet Union and recommending a response. Called to the United States, he became head of the Policy Planning Staff in the Department of State, in which capacity he began implementation of the policy he had recommended. In 1947 he anonymously explained the policy to the public in an article in the periodical Foreign Affairs. In this essay, signed only by “X,’’ (he did not want the piece to appear as a statement of the government) he revealed dislike and distrust of the Soviet government but not of the Russian people, and he recommended the application of counterpressure to Soviet expansionism. Kennan thus unofficially became, and to the end of the cold war remained, identified as author of a policy that would last, in one form or another, as long as the cold war lasted.The policy was called containment. Thereafter Kennan’s career fluctuated for a few years. He was appointed ambassador to the Soviet Union, but when the Soviets refused to accept him, Kennan, becoming displeased with the increasing military tone of American policy, retired and went to Princeton to study. Appointed by President Kennedy, he would be ambassador to Yugoslavia during the years 1961–63, after which he returned to Princeton and remained as a teacher and scholar until he retired at the end of the 1980s.

There he produced several volumes and other pieces about diplomacy and the Soviet Union. Russia Leaves theWar (1956), about the First World War, and Memoirs (1967) won Pulitzer Prizes. His Sketches from a Life (1989) was a best-seller. Considered one of the wisest and most experienced individuals about Eastern European affairs, his opinion often was sought out. The collapse of communism and the Soviet Union—which, in a fashion he had predicted in 1947—seemed to reaffirm, however belatedly, the depth of his wisdom.

John F. Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy had the distinction of being the youngest man elected to the presidency (but not the youngest to serve), the first president born in the 20th century, and to the end of the 20th century the first and only Catholic to be president. He was born on May 29, 1917, into what would be a large Irish-American family headed by Joseph P. Kennedy, a wealthy businessman, financier, and operator in local and national Democrat politics. After attending several prestigious private schools, Kennedy graduated from Harvard in 1940 and saw significant combat duty as a PT boat commander in the Second World War, which left him with a back injury and several decorations. With much help from his father and the Kennedy clan, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946, serving three terms in the House and then as a U.S. senator between 1953 and 1961. Effective campaigning, organization, and generous financing made it possible for him to narrowly defeat Vice President Richard Nixon in the presidential election of 1960. As a legislator, Kennedy had been anticommunist,

Kennedy at the wall. In the aftermath of a third Berlin crisis, President Kennedy visits the recently constructed Berlin Wall, June 26, 1963. (John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library)

344


centrist, practical, and not particularly outstanding; as president he exuded a refreshing and inspiring youthfulness, confidence, and vigor. He approached pressing issues of the time with caution but usually ended up on the side of the reformers. His New Frontier legislative program, which included such measures as Medicare and a major civil rights act, did not pass, but most of it became part of Lyndon Johnson’s program of the Great Society. In foreign affairs he confronted a succession of challenges and tensions that included such crises as the Bay of Pigs episode of 1961, the third confrontation over Berlin in 1961, and the harrowing crisis over Soviet missiles in Cuba in October 1962. Kennedy began his presidency a cold warrior and ended it a cold warrior, albeit a more sober and cautious one. His assassination on November 22, 1963, ended a presidency of approximately 1,000 days and provoked enormous national mourning for a charismatic young leader who seemed to be reaching his stride. Later revelations about Kennedy’s sexual escapades and other aspects of scandal in the family raised serious questions about character, but they did not appear to destroy the mystique and appeal of this knight of Camelot.

Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was born in the Deep South, in Atlanta, Georgia, in 1929, at a time of segregation of the races.A stable and loving

family life (his father was a Baptist minister) helped spare him from from the hopelessness that afflicted many young black men of that era. He graduated from Morehouse College in 1948, from Grozer Theological Seminary (with a divinity degree) in Chester, Pennsylvania, in 1951, and from Boston University with a Ph.D. in theology in 1955. His selection as new pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, by chance placed him “at the creation’’ of the Civil Rights Movement.The year he arrived, 1955, was the year of the boycott of the segregated Montgomery bus system, perhaps the earliest expression of black activism against the racial system of the South.The young minister was asked to lead the movement. From this point until his death in 1968, King would stand at the forefront of the movement against racial discrimination in the United States (chiefly the South) as its eloquent spokesman. Seeking to combine Christian love with an aggressive but peaceful activism, he moved to achieve clearly stated objectives of his Civil Rights movement: integration and equal treatment of his people. In a later stage he attacked the American war in Vietnam and injustice on all fronts. King’s principal attributes were eloquence, persistence, and raw courage. Combining the style and spirit of the African-American preacher with the content of a social reformer, he gave numerous quotable speeches, the most moving of which was the “I Have a Dream’’ address during the march on Washington in 1963. Assailed by segments of the white population and by a new chorus of separatist, militant blacks, faced with constant danger—his house was bombed in

Martin Luther King, Jr., answers questions in Kalamazoo, Michigan, October 18, 1963. (Western Michigan University Archives and Regional Collections) Prominent and Representative Americans

345

1956, he was stabbed (by a black woman) in 1958 and was repeatedly jailed and threatened—he stuck to his message and to the strategy of nonviolent passive resistance. He was on a segment of his mission when he was assassinated by a white man in Memphis on March 10, 1968. In the aftermath of his death, King’s reputation—somewhat on the order of Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy—would soar. He had been experiencing a mixed public reception and serious internal challenges to his leadership, but a brutal and tragic ending essentially put these assaults to rest. Surely the most celebrated African American in U.S. history, King—living or dead—would accumulate honors ranking from a Nobel Peace Prize (in 1964) to an astonishing number of streets, schools, and buildings bearing his name and the designation of his birthday as a national holiday, with public ceremonies and commemorations that went beyond even the greatest of America’s great: Abraham Lincoln and George Washington.

Henry Kissinger Henry Alfred Kissinger was born in Färth, Germany, on May 23, 1923. Of German-Jewish parentage, he fled with his family in 1938 to the United States to escape the regime of Adolf Hitler. He studied at City College of NewYork, served in the army between 1942 and 1947, and studied at Harvard, where in 1954 he received the Ph.D. in political science. Remaining at Harvard, he held several posts and eventually became professor of government in the Center for International Affairs in 1962.A for-

eign-policy specialist and an author (Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy, 1957), he frequently advised politicians, both Republican and Democrat. Appointed by Richard Nixon as assistant to the president for National Security in 1969, he immediately eclipsed secretary of state William Rogers in running foreign policy of the Nixon administration. In 1973, at the start of his second term, Nixon made him secretary of state. He stayed on to the end of the administration of Gerald Ford, who had replaced Nixon in 1974.Thus Kissinger had eight years at the helm of American foreign policy. In his studies, experience, and preference, Kissinger placed emphasis on traditional European-style diplomacy, called Realpolitik, or realism. The objectives were pursuit of national interest and international stability and order.The tools were unemotional diplomacy, the search for a convergence of interests, and the use, or willingness to use, simple power. Stability was expected to come through a balance of power. In the 1970s Kissinger received the bulk of credit for a series of moves in foreign policy: opening dialogue with China (1972), dètente with the USSR (1972), withdrawal from Vietnam and an armistice (1973) for which he received a Nobel Peace Prize, armistice between Israel and Egypt (1973) and between Israel and Syria (1974), and disengagement in Sinai (1975). President Ford was in awe of these maneuvers, and so were many people abroad and in the United States.There even emerged a Kissinger for president movement—which, of course, would have entailed changing the Constitution, which forbade a foreign-born person from holding the office.

Ray Kroc’s first McDonald’s franchise, Des Plaines, Illinois, 1955 (Used with permission from McDonald’s Corporation)

346


Kissinger left office in 1977 after Ford had been defeated, and there was little interest later in bringing him back. His style was criticized for being secretive, too personal, and indifferent to human rights and human suffering. He wrote penetrating books on diplomacy (Memoirs, 1979 and 1982, and Diplomacy, 1994), headed a consulting firm, and advised Republican leaders. Whenever a major issue of world affairs came up, the press sought him out, and—Kissinger always had something perceptive to say.

Ray Kroc Raymond Albert Kroc spent much of his life seemingly in a hurry to make it big—or at least to make it. Born on October 5, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, he spent many childhood days watching the Chicago Cubs play baseball and learning to play the piano. He lied himself into the army at age 15 as the First World War was coming to an end. Kroc spent the long interwar years in enterprises that included playing the piano in clubs and on radio, but mostly as a traveling salesman. He believed that he had found his niche in the late 1930s when he helped found and then became sole owner of Prince Castle, a company that produced a multispindled milk-shake mixer called a multimixer. Anxious to get his share of a booming post–Second World War economy by selling multimixers, Kroc in April 1954 investigated a small drive-in restaurant in San Bernardino, California, that used no fewer than eight of his mixers. The owners, the McDonald brothers, had made the place a model of simplicity, efficiency, and spotless cleanliness. It served only hamburgers, french fries, and drinks; all business was carry-out, service time was approximately a minute, and the line reached outside the door. Kroc quickly surmised that if this idea could be expanded, he would be able to sell many multimixers. Having persuaded the McDonald brothers to make him exclusive agent of franchising, he opened his own store at Des Plains, near his home in Chicago, and continued selling franchises. In 1960 there were 238 units, and a year later Kroc bought the McDonald brothers out. By the end of the sixties 1,500 McDonald hamburger stores operated worldwide, and by the mid-1980s a new store was literally opening somewhere every day. In a quest to sell mixers, he had become a master at marketing franchises; to sell franchises, of course, it was necessary to sell hamburgers. Shifting his attention, Kroc established a reputation for truly notable charitable work and as a colorful businessman and owner of a baseball team. The Cubs were not for sale so he bought the San Diego Padres. But when he died in January 1984, he still was known as the hamburger man, the individual who had made McDonald’s and in some considerable measure the mushrooming American fast-food industry.

Nancy Lopez Nancy Marie Lopez was born to Mexican-American parents on January 6, 1957, in Torrence, California. She grew up in lower-middle class surroundings in Roswell, New Mexico.As a little girl she began to play golf, a game she learned from her parents, who went to the links as often as they found the time. Her father, detecting that she had talent and temperament for the game, became her coach. She won her first tournament at age 9; by the time she was 11, she could beat her father. Nancy was the only female and the best player on the state championship golf team at Godland High School in Roswell. She accepted a golf scholarship at the University of Tulsa, and after winning amateur and intercollegiate titles as well as athletic awards, she left school after two years in 1977 to become, at age 19, a professional golfer. From the beginning she was the dominant player and feature attraction on a fledgling LPGA tour. By 1987 she had won 35 titles and numerous awards and was inducted into the LPGA Hall of Fame. Mar-

rying major league baseball player Ray Knight in 1982, Nancy tried to balance a professional and family life, but bearing three children between 1983 and 1988 was demanding and surely reduced her time on the course. No longer dominant, she remained a competitive player through the 1990s. Nancy Lopez probably contributed more than anyone to make professional woman’s golf popular; she was for the woman’s game what Arnold Palmer was for the men’s. Some people stressed her contribution to gender, others to ethnicity; to many observers she simply was a skilled athlete and an admirable individual who carried herself with modesty and grace.

Malcolm X He was born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska, on May 19, 1925. He grew up in Lansing, Michigan, until age 16 when he went to live with a half-sister in Roxbury, Massachusetts, a black district of Boston. Between 1941 and 1946 he held various “negro’’ jobs and soon became involved in the rackets—drugs, prostitution, robbery—of Boston and Harlem. Convicted in 1946 of larceny and burglary, he was sentenced to prison in Charlestown, Massachusetts, where he became acquainted with the Black Muslim faith as manifested in the Nation of Islam. Released in 1952, he went to Detroit, abandoned his “slave name,’’ became Malcolm X, and went to work for the Muslims. In the process of recruiting for his organization, Malcolm set a tone vastly different from Martin Luther King, Jr., and other accommodationist leaders who were active at that time. The white man was the devil, he said, and must pay for his sins. Blacks should win their freedom “by any means necessary,’’ which included armed confrontation if it came to that point. An articulate and compelling speaker, he favored separation from whites, even moving to Africa, but he also was a vigorous spokesman for black pride, self-help, and freedom from drugs and other vices that once had been a part of his life. Malcom’s confrontational style and expression of delight at any misfortune that befell the whites produced uneasiness in the Nation of Islam, as well as jealousy with his growing popularity. His open satisfaction with the assassination of President Kennedy in 1963—“chickens coming home to roost,’’ he said—led to his suspension from the group. The year 1964 produced Malcolm’s formation of a new organization called “Muslim Mosque, Inc.,’’ two trips to Africa and the Middle East, his conversion to orthodox Islam, a softening of his racial line, and intensification of the split with the parent Muslim sect. His home in NewYork was firebombed in February 1965, and on February 21, while addressing followers at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem, he was cut down by assassins. In 1966 three Black Muslims were convicted of the murder. Malcolm became markedly more popular in death than in life.With passage of time and opening up of the dialogue about race, he was honored as a black man willing to speak the truth without equivocation. Publication in 1965, after his death, of his autobiography did wonders for his reputation, as did appearance in 1992 of a movie about Malcolm, directed by Spike Lee. No one could rival King as leader of the struggle for black equality, but Malcolm, who offered an alternative course, by the 1990s surely ranked second.

Thurgood Marshall The Civil Rights movement in the postwar period was in its immediate objectives an effort to change the law. No black person—probably no person—had more to do with law as pertaining to African Americans than Thurgood Marshall. Born in Baltimore on July 3, 1908, he graduated from Lincoln University, a black school, in 1930; received a law degree from Howard University, also a school for blacks, in 1933; and joined the NAACP in 1936; and became the organization’s legal counsel in 1938. From the start of the 1940s to the early Prominent and Representative Americans

347

1960s, Marshall carried the load in the effort to overturn the system of segregation in the southern states. Point-by-point and step-by-step, Marshall won his case. In 1944 (Smith v. Allwright) black people gained the right to vote in primaries in Texas; in 1950 (Sweatt v. Painter) segregation—in truth, exclusion—of black people ended in the law school of the University of Texas.The crowning achievement for Marshall and the movement was the Brown decision of 1954 that overturned segregation in the public school system.The Supreme Court’s unanimous decision borrowed generously from the sociological and psychological argument Marshall had made before the court. In the 1960s Marshall moved into the second phase of his career: as a public servant of the government of the United States. Between 1961 and 1967 he was judge of the United States Court of Appeals and solicitor general of the United States. In 1967 President Johnson afforded him the high honor of becoming the first African American on the Supreme Court of the United States. Interpretations differed, of course, about Marshall’s 25 years on the bench, but there has been little effort to define him as a penetrating and perceptive legal scholar. Some critics were downright brutal, calling him incompetent, a justice who found in law and the Constitution what he thought should be there. He joined the liberal activist majority in the last phase of the Warren Court and generally stuck to his guns. Placing the rights of individuals in a privileged position, he wished to see the Civil Rights movement continue. He dissented in the Bakke decision of 1978 that opposed racial quotas in college admission, strongly supported affirmative action, and adamantly opposed the death penalty. He retired at age 82 in 1991 and died two years later, no doubt proud to be labeled the black people’s lawyer.

Joe McCarthy Joseph Raymond McCarthy is noted for the period from 1947 to 1957 that he spent as a U.S. senator. In the middle of that tenure, during the years 1950–1954, he began a major movement, became one of the most prominent people in the country, and added at least one new word to the English language. Born on November 14, 1908, in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, he graduated from Marquette University in 1935, served as a circuit court judge before the Second World War, served as a marine in the South Pacific, returned to the judiciary after the war, and was elected as a Republican to the U.S. Senate in the election of 1946. Undistinguished in his first term in office, McCarthy searched for a theme that would attract attention and secure reelection in 1952. Settling on the issue of the internal threat of communism, he began in 1950 to charge that the national government had several disloyal communist employees that the Harry Truman administration allowed to remain in office. Already a sensitive topic in this time of spy trials and an emerging cold war, communism in government became a major battle cry in the period preceeding and immediately following the election of 1952. McCarthy’s role was as chief and most reckless accusor, making charges he could not prove and citing numbers he could not support. Oblivious to injury that might result for person or group, he used the tactic of guilt by association and the power of the big bluff. As long as he functioned as a member of Congress, he was immune from personal lawsuits. It worked for a while. McCarthy became a popular man, a powerful and feared senator, credited with influencing the outcome of several elections. He was reelected in 1952. His downfall came in 1954 when he began to attack elements of his own Republican administration. A conflict with army officials led to a series of public, televised hearings in 1954 that exposed his brutality and evasiveness to a national audience. At the end of the proceedings, President Eisenhower issued a statement of criticism and the Senate officially censured McCarthy for his behavior.Although he stayed on in the Senate until his death (at age 49) in 1957, his power had vanished. McCarthy exemplifies the paranoia and all-encompassing demand for 348


conformity that pervaded the early years of the the cold war. He had given his name to a process that most people associated with character assassination, reckless, and irresponsible use of political power. From that point on, to be accused of McCarthyism was a serious charge indeed.

James Michener James Albert Michener was one of the most popular and prolific novelists of the last half of the 20th century. Once he had hit his stride in the years following the Second World War, most of his books became best-sellers; many of them provided a basis for theater productions, movies, or television shows. Born an orphan on February 3, 1907, in New York City, he was adopted by a Quaker family in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, who gave him a home and a last name. A graduate of Swarthmore College in Philadelphia in 1929, he taught English in high school, got a master’s degree, and became a professor at Colorado State College of Education. Spending the Second World War with the navy in the Pacific Theater of Operations provided a foundation for his first and most memorable book, Tales of the South Pacific, published in 1947. Winner of a Pulitzer Prize, basis for a long-running Broadway play and movie (South Pacific), the volume made his reputation. There followed nearly a half-century of works about widely varied places, cultures and social and political issues: The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1953) and Sayonara (1954), both of which became movies, were set in Asia. The Bridge at Andau (1957) was about the Hungarian Rebellion, and Iberia (1967) was set in Spain. That he did not neglect his homeland could be seen in the autobiographical The Fires of Spring (1949); Kent State:What Happened and Why (1971): the epic Centennial (1976) about Colorado that became a television miniseries with 26 episodes: and Texas (1985), another epic and television hit. A major philanthropist, Michener had donated some $25 million by the time of his death in 1997 to charities, schools, and institutes, including $5 million each to museums in Texas and Doylestown, Pennsylvania. An outspoken liberal and political activist, he ran unsuccessfully as a Democrat candidate for Congress in 1962; yet he accompanied Richard Nixon to historic visits to China and the Soviet Union in 1972, and Republican president Gerald Ford awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977. One could tell that James Michener was going to be a forerunner for civil rights and racial tolerance by listening in 1949 to the song from South Pacific, “You’ve Got to Be Taught.’’

Marilyn Monroe Born Norma Jean Mortensen (her father’s surname), out of wedlock, she would change her name to Norma Jean Baker, her mother’s surname. Her mother’s mental illness consigned her to years of foster parentage, which ended in 1942, when at age 16 she married James Dougherty, a factory worker. The marriage lasted four years. Possessing a pretty face and striking sex appeal, she began to model and posed for photographers while working at an aircraft factory. Appearance on the cover of national magazines led to a movie contract and between 1946 and 1950 several bit parts. Now cast as Marilyn Monroe, her acting left something to be desired, but the innocent good looks, blonde hair, and well-sculptured body caused the audience to take notice, especially of her brief appearance in 1950 in a movie named The Asphalt Jungle. Her studio, 20th Century-Fox, which also took notice, began to cast her in larger but artistically undemanding roles and embarked on a publicity campaign to produce Hollywood’s new sex goddess. It worked. Her appearance in 1952 as the first centerfold for a new

men’s magazine called Playboy did her image no harm. (The nude photo had been taken as a calendar shot in 1949.) Between 1953 and 1961 Marilyn starred in several films such as Niagara, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes,The SevenYear Itch, and the meatier Bus Stop, and The Misfits. She had become a national phenomenon. Despite all Monroe had, she could not get her life straightened out. Storybook marriages to baseball icon Joe DiMaggio and playwright Arthur Miller failed (DiMaggio after nine months; Miller after five years). She could not advance beyond being defined as a sex object and beyond a film identity as the pretty, sexy blonde without talent and without brains. One of her last, and most memorable performances was singing happy birthday to President John F. Kennedy on May 19, 1963, and it perpetuated the image. Frustrated with the outcome of her film career, depressed with the state of her personal life, the object of rumors of many kinds, including affairs with two (John and Robert) Kennedys, she died from an overdose of sleeping pills in August 1962 at age 36, evidently a suicide. Thereupon the legend, the tragedy of Marilyn Monroe—of Norma Jean—began, in film, book, and song.

Richard M. Nixon Richard Milhous Nixon had a long and contentious political career that came to an end in a controversial presidency. Born on January 9, 1913, in Yorba Linda, California, he graduated from Whittier College and Duke University law school, saw military service in the Second World War, and came to Congress in the Republican landslide of 1946. Between 1946 and 1968 he served as congressman, U.S. senator, and vice-president for eight years. He was defeated for the presidency in 1960 and for governorship of California in 1962. In the course of this

career he acquired a reputation as intelligent and opportunist, a redbaiting, modestly conservative, but skillful politician who had a mean streak that he tried to keep hidden. Aided by unusual circumstances in both the political parties, Nixon scored a remarkable political comeback in being elected president in a close race in 1968 and was reelected in a landslide in 1972. His presidency of five and one-half years was marked with high points, mostly in foreign policy: an overdue reversal of a long-standing hostility with China, an end—albeit belatedly—to the Vietnam War, and effective dealings with the USSR and the Middle East. His low point largely had to do with the Watergate episode, and it was devastating.This political scandal occupied nearly all of Nixon’s second administration, and it exposed the deceit, mean-spirited, illegal, and dangerous behavior of the man and his regime. Facing impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned on August 8, 1974. In the years that followed resignation and disgrace, he was remarkably active: traveling, writing, observing and advising on politics.When he died in 1994 at age 81 he had gone some distance in rebuilding a reputation. But he could not remove the signal distinction of his career—being the only president forced to resign from the office.

Sandra Day O’Connor Sandra Day O’Connor was the first female appointed to the Supreme Court of the United States. Contrary to expectation, the breaking of this final gender barrier in the judiciary and the closure to the final one in the government, came in the act of a conservative Republican president. Born on March 30, 1930, in El Paso, Texas, O’Connor grew up in Arizona and went to college in California. She

Sandra Day O’Connor, first woman justice of the Supreme Court, sits with the president who appointed her, Ronald Reagan. (Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library) Prominent and Representative Americans

349

graduated from Stanford University in 1950 and from Stanford Law School in 1952, ranking third in her class. One law school classmate was her future husband; another was her future boss on the high court,William Rhenquist. Finding a less-than-friendly welcome from private law firms, O’Connor found work with the state of California and, as a civilian attorney with the army, with the U.S. government. After spending some eight years as a full-time wife and mother, she turned to politics, becoming a Republican state senator and majority leader in Arizona; between 1975 and 1981 she held various judicial posts in the state. Ronald Reagan came to office in 1981, and pledged to appoint a woman to the Supreme Court. From a Republican perspective, Sandra O’Connor had a less than unblemished record on the issues (she had equivocated on abortion, for example), but she was an able Republican lawyer with judicial experience, and Reagan did not find an abundance of qualified females who were Republican, so in 1981 she got the call. As a justice of the high court, O’Connor fit no single ideological philosophy. She generally supported aggressive change in cases involving gender, was less of a reformer in cases involving race. She favored protecting, if not extending, power of the states, straddled the everexplosive abortion issue, but opposed overturning the decision in the case of Roe v.Wade. Identified by the time of the 1990s as a centrist, a swing judge, she probably disappointed the conservatives who put her in power. Although liberals found her to be much less than what they

wanted, she was more than they had expected from an appointee of Ronald Reagan.

I. M. Pei Son of a banker, Ieoh Ming Pei (Pei Ieoh-ming) was born on April 26, 1917, in Canton (Guangzhou) in southwestern China. He grew up in Hong Kong and Shanghai, where he attended Saint John’s Middle School, operated by Protestant missionaries. Interested in architecture and fascinated by watching movies about American life, he came to the United States in 1935 and graduated with a degree in architectural engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1939. Unable, because of the war with Japan, to return to China, Pei taught and studied at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, under, among other teachers, German architect Walter Gropius. After the Second World War, with China still in turmoil, he became head of the architecture division of the real estate firm of Webb and Knapp. For seven years he designed large housing complexes, shopping centers, and such urban projects as Mile High Center in Denver. In 1955 he started Pei and Associates, which in 1989 was changed to the firm of Pei, Cobb, and Freed. Over the years Pei designed or had a hand in design of such prominent structures as Society Hill apartment towers in Philadelphia, the National Airlines Termi-

East wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., is one of the more familiar projects of architect I. M. Pei. (Courtesy Linda Gregory)

350


nal at Kennedy Airport, New York; the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado; the East Wing of the National Gallery of Art in Washington; the Kennedy Library at Harvard; an addition to the Louvre in Paris, and the skyscraper Bank of China in Hong Kong. Although Pei had been influenced by the formalism of Gropius, the key to his formula was that he had no formula.The structures varied widely in shape and use of materials. The Dallas City Hall was a seven-story inverted pyramid; the Javits Conventation Center in New York had an all-glass facade. Pei wanted his buildings to be useful and joyful to see. By the start of the 1990s Pei, in his 70s, was ready to turn major jobs over to his associates. Interested in doing work in his native land, he was distressed with events in Tiananmen Square in 1989 and their aftermath. By this time he had received almost every architectural award available. A citizen of the United States since 1954, he received the Medal of Liberty from President Reagan in 1986 and the Medal of Freedom from President Bush in 1990.

Jackson Pollock Born on a sheep ranch near Cody,Wyoming, on January 28, 1912, Jackson Pollock grew up on farms in Arizona and California. He moved to New York City in 1929 to study at the Art Students League under the regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton. After roaming the West for several years he returned to New York and worked between 1935 and 1942 for the Federal Art Project, a depression-era, work-relief project of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal. Influenced by Benton’s realist work, he also began to develop a different style of abstract painting. His first showing, at the Art of this Century Gallery in New York in 1943, revealed a stage in evolution as an artist. By 1947 he had gone all the way to a new type of painting. Shunning brush and easel, he spread the canvas on the floor, walked around and proceeded to pour, drip, or splatter paint right out of a can, allowing the colors to go where they would.To create direction, he used a stick, a trowel, or a knife, sometimes throwing in sand, broken glass, or other objects. Pollock’s work had, if nothing else, spontaneity and originality. He often did not know where he was going until he arrived, and once there he was not sure from where he had come. Pollock’s first “drip’’ or “action’’ painting appeared at Betty Parson’s Gallery in 1948. Most viewers were stunned; to some it represented the absurdity to which modern art had come. Other people found no message or pattern in the work; critics would call Pollock “Jack, the Dripper.’’ Many artists saw dynamism and originality—the work of a genius.The drip paintings became the centerpiece of an emerging school called abstract expressionism, and Jackson Pollock became its messiah. During the 1950s Pollock was the bestknown contemporary artist in the United States, if not the world, and the representative of a school of work. Action painting did not last long, and Pollock himself had moved away from it; his work, after all, had reconfirmed the idea that art had virtually no bounds. An unstable man, he was given to drinking bouts, sexual escapades, and unpredictable behavior. At the end of one such binge in August 1956, Pollock, age 44, and a female companion died when his Oldsmobile convertible crashed. As frequently happened in the world of art, death enhanced the artist’s reputation and the value of the work. In 1973 Pollock’s Blue Poles sold for $2 million, the highest price ever paid for an American painting to that date.

trict. Colin graduated from high school in 1954 and City College of New York in 1958, where he majored in geology but his best area of study was ROTC, the military officer’s training familiar to nearly all campuses in that era. He attained the highest rank offered in the program, cadet colonel. Powell later would receive an MBA (masters degree in business) from George Washington University. Entering the army as a second lieutenant in 1958, Powell moved through the ranks as he held a series of posts remarkably balanced between combat arms and as military attachè to civilian officials. He served two tours of duty in Vietnam (1962–63 and 1968–69), from which he received two Purple Hearts and other medals, spent a tour in Korea, and served as a corps commander stationed in Germany. Service with civilian agencies included assistant to the deputy secretary of defense and to the secretary of defense, deputy assistant to the president for national security, and assistant to the president for national security during 1987–89—a post Henry Kissinger once had—which placed him in the inner workings of the White House of Ronald Reagan. In 1989 he became the first black man to be chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the highest ranking military official in the land. The timing could not have been better. Powell’s ascendency corresponded with an emerging crisis in the Persian Gulf, an episode that evoked large pent-up American patriotism and placed the military forces and its leading general at the center of things. Powell was so handsome, poised, articulate, patriotic, and qualified that he could have been a star in any color, but to be a black man in this age of diversity made his appeal nearly boundless. Although most of his dealings had been with Republican administrations, both political parties probably would have offered him anything he wanted. In 1990, Colin Powell’s future seemed to be limited only by his ambition.

Colin Powell Colin Luther Powell was born in Harlem, New York, on April 5, 1937, the son of Jamaican immigrants who worked in the garment dis-

General Colin Powell, shown here as U.S. Army, National Security Advisor, Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff (National Defense Information Center) Prominent and Representative Americans

351

Elvis Presley Elvis Aron Presley was one of the most remarkable forces in popular culture in the last half of the 20th century. Born in virtual poverty on January 8, 1935, in Tupelo, Mississippi—a twin, his brother was stillborn—he grew up singing at the local Assembly of God Church. The family moved to Memphis in 1948, and in Elvis’s effort to get through Humes High School (graduation, 1953), the most memorable moment was a stage appearance in his senior year singing “Old Shep,’’ a familiar country song about a dog. In the year of his graduation Presley recorded two songs as a gift for his mother. Sam Phillips, head of the local Sun Record Company, hear the recording, signed Elvis to a contract and in 1954 released the label with “I’m All Right, Mama’’ on one side and “Blue Moon of Kentucky’’ on the other. Presley’s career had been set in motion, and in the two years that followed, one plateau came after another with dazzling speed. Tom Parker took charge of promotions; RCA Victor bought his contract. Jackie Gleason introuduced him to national television in 1955 and his appearance on the Ed Sullivan Sunday night variety show in 1956 became a national event. Behind it all, of course, were the hit single records: “Don’t be Cruel,’’ “Heartbreak Hotel,’’ “Hound Dog,’’ “Love Me Tender,’’ “Blue Suede Shoes,’’ and others. Presley clearly had become a cultural phenomenon that defied a simple explanation. His music was fast paced, was emotional, and had a heavy beat. In musical parlance of “crossover,’’ blending, or switching from one genre to another, he was all over the place: country to rock, rock to rhythm and blues, country to pop, white music to black.At the start he was described as a white boy who sounded like a black.With bountiful combed-back hair, a curl, almost a snarl to his lips, and sexual gyrations released while singing, he appeared more of a rebel than he was. Through a career of some 20 years that included movies, personal appearances, television specials, and of course record sales (some 500 million and counting), he retained remarkable popularity.Appealing at the start to adolescents, especially females, his fans grew older, but they remained loyal, even in the final years when Elvis became bloated and somewhat withdrawn. He died suddenly in August 1972, apparently of a drug overdose; his estate, “Graceland,’’ in Memphis then became and remains a shrine to the king of rock and roll. A performer so familiar that he needed only one name, Elvis did more than anyone to change popular music in the United States.

Ronald Reagan Born on February 6, 1911 in Tampico, Illinois, Ronald Wilson Reagan graduated from Eureka (Illinois) College in 1932, and went to work as a sports announcer on radio in Des Moines, Iowa; among other assignments, his duties included broadcasting baseball games of the Chicago Cubs by teletype or, as they called it, ticker. A screen test in 1937 led to a film career that was prolific—more than 50 movies— if unspectacular. Reagan often played “second banana’’ to the leading man. President of the Screen Actors Guild in the 1940s and 1950s, he also was involved in national politics. For many years a New Deal Democrat, he came under the influence of his corporation contacts (he was pitchman for General Electric in the 1950s) and such people as actor-turned-U.S.-Senator George Murphy. In 1960 he made the shift to the Republican Party and he went all the way over. A powerful speech made on behalf of Barry Goldwater in the presidential election of 1964 gave him recognition and momentum to seek office on his own. He served two terms as governor of California, 1966–74. His impressive victory over a weakened President Jimmy Carter in 1980 seemed to place American leadership in the hands of a superpatriot and genuine doctrinaire economic conservative. Reagan’s formula was simple: Reduce taxes sharply, eliminate many government controls, and give military leaders whatever they 352


wanted. Assisted by simplistic but nonetheless impressive rhetoric on his part, by “Boll-weevil’’ southern Democrats who shifted over and, curiously, by public sympathy from an assassin’s attempt on his life in 1981, Reagan received largely what he wanted.Taxes went down, military spending went up, inflation and interest rates declined.The economy began a period of sustained growth. Side effects of these policies—massive budget and trade deficits, a shift of income from the poor to the rich—were indeed serious, but they did not produce an end to “Reaganomics.’’ Reagan also set out to restore American power and influence in world affairs, and he did so by rhetoric, huge defense expenditures, and such military gestures as feuding with Libya and invading Grenada in 1982. But his foreign policy experienced as many defeats as victories; the centerpiece—efforts to oust the Sandinistas in Nicaragua— failed, and the Iran-Contra scandal that surfaced in 1987 threatened the entire presidency. Fortunately Mikhail Gorbachev arrived on the scene, almost unilaterally ended the cold war and essentially on America’s terms. By being a coparticipant in arms negotiation, Reagan appeared to be a coinstigator in everything that took place. Being in office when the cold war ended made him appear to have won it. Reagan did make the presidency a more popular office, but he also turned it over for others to run.

Jackie Robinson Jackie Robinson’s national reputation came from being the most important pioneer for African Americans in professional sports. Born Jack Roosevelt Robinson in Cairo, Georgia, on January 31, 1919, he starred in high school athletics in a time when it was unusual for a black man from the segregated South to attend any high school at all. His skill in sports brought him to U.C.L.A. between 1939 and 1941. Drafted into the army in 1942, he left military service near the end of the war in 1944, as a first lieutenant. He was playing baseball for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American Baseball League when President Branch Rickey of the Brooklyn Dodgers signed him to a professional contract in 1945. After a year in the minor leagues in 1946—in Montreal, where he batted .349—Robinson joined the Dodgers in 1947, the first black player in the modern era in the major leagues of America’s premier professional sport. His appearance opened the door and the effect was immediate. Two other black players, Larry Doby of the Cleveland Indians and Hank Thompson of the St. Louis Browns, came into the majors before the year was out. Robinson batted .297 in 1947 and was National League Rookie of the Year. Playing either second or first base, he was a fine fielder, a daring base runner, and of course an excellent batter. He won the batting title at .342 in 1949 and was the league’s Most Valuable Player. During Robinson’s years with the Dodgers between 1947 and 1956, the team won six pennants and the World Series in 1955. Through it all he carried himself with dignity, courage, and pride and was aggressive without being deliberately provocative. He retired in 1957 with a lifetime battling average of .311. Life after retirement was spent in New York as corporation executive, banker, civil rights activist, and political operative on the Republican side. His many honors included election to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. His death in October 1972 at only 53 did not halt the awards. Surely the most unique distinction came in the 50th anniversary of his joining the Dodgers, in 1997, when all the major league teams permanently retired his number: 42.

Jonas Salk Jonas Salk was born in the Bronx, New York, on October 28, 1914, son of a garment worker. An intellectually gifted young man, he

attended an advanced high school (Townsend Harris), City College of New York (bachelor’s degree, 1934), and New York University Medical School, where he became deeply interested in viral research. After graduation in 1939 he spent three years researching influenza at the University of Michigan. In 1947 he moved to the University of Pittsburgh Medical School, where he shifted focus from the flu to polio, one of the most dreaded diseases of the time. Poliomeylitis, polio, was also called infantile paralysis because it often struck children. Highly contagious, it killed (3,300 in 1952), crippled, or left victims disabled for life, in some cases confined to an ugly machine called an iron lung that covered the body except for the head sticking out. The most illustrious victim had been Franklin D. Roosevelt, who contacted the disease in his late 30s and was crippled for the rest of his life.The Health Service reported nearly 58,000 cases of polio in 1952. Supported by funds from the Polio Foundation and the March of Dimes Campaign, Salk avoided the dangerous, sometimes deadly live virus, and searched for a vaccine using the killed virus. His work was ready for testing in 1952.Thousands of people, including Salk and his family, volunteered. The vaccine was ready for popular use in 1955. Distribution was slower than it needed to be, but nonetheless the results were remarkable. In 1962 only 910 cases of polio were reported and eradication in the United States was not far away. Salk became an immediate national hero. He received the highest medals, new awards were created on his behalf; numerous scholarships received the name Jonas Salk. He had to reject a ticker tape parade in NewYork City. Salk considered such commotion distasteful, a huge distraction, and other problems would follow. The Salk vaccine, administered by injection, necessitated periodic booster shots. Albert Sabin produced a slightly more risky live virus vaccine to be taken orally and it lasted for life. Salk and Sabin then engaged in a bitter intellectual and personal dispute that never was resolved. Ever the medical scientist, Salk went back to the laboratory, eventually developing a widely used flu vaccine, and when he died in June 1995 at age 80, he was hard at work on a cure for AIDS. Jonas Salk’s name lived on as the man who conquered polio.

Charles M. Schulz Charles M. Schulz became the most durable, the most persistent, and in the end the most popular and admired practitioner of comic-strip art in the last half of the 20th century. His characters were a band of small children, a dog, and a bird, but his readers mostly were adults.The strips offered humor, but they also carried philosophy and sociology and exposure into human nature. Schulz was born on November 26, 1922, in Minneapolis; a poor student, he never went to college but did take art instruction through correspondence courses. After service with the infantry in the Second World War, he tried his hand at what he wanted to do: produce a continuing comic strip. He called it Li’l Folks, and it appeared in 1948. In 1950 he renamed the strip Peanuts—in those days a child was often called Peanut—and it came out in seven newspapers.A half-century later, Schulz still was drawing Peanuts, and the coverage had expanded to more than 2,500 papers in 75 countries and 21 languages. Schulz’s cartoon did not succeed because of exquisite artwork. Crudely drawn, the characters hardly constituted art at all, if one used likeness as a measurement. Contrary to the trend of “comics’’ of the 1950s, the strip had no sexual references and virtually no violence, unless one counted Snoopy’s ongoing imaginary air battles with the Red Baron. Peanuts was about people Schulz had known as a child and knew as an adult and about Schulz himself. “All my fears, my anxieties, my joys and almost even all my experience go into that strip,’’ he said. In sum, readers could see themselves and people they knew in Charlie Brown, Linus, the Little Red-Haired Girl, even in Snoopy.

Peanuts went from being a comic strip, which of course it remained, seven days a week, to the end, to an industry with stationery, T-shirts, books, ashtrays, a Broadway play, and movies. A television special, A Charlie Brown Christmas, first appeared in 1965, and a Thanksgiving special started in 1973. Others followed. Schulz became a very rich man. Suffering from cancer, Schulz had to announce with some suddenness at the start of 2000 that he intended to retire and that Peanuts was not to be continued by someone else.With his death in February 2000 readers knew they had lost not a single friend but four little girls, three little boys, a bird named Woodstock, and a dog named Snoopy.

William B. Shockley William Bradford Shockley was born in London, England, on February 13, 1910. His higher education and his lifework all came in the United States. After graduating from Caltech—California Institute of Technology—in 1932, he became a teacher and advanced graduate student at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He received the Ph.D. in physics from MIT in 1936. Joining the well-funded Bell Telephone Laboratory as a research scientist, he became a member of a group working on electrical conduction in solids and semiconductors. After wartime work for the navy and the Department of War, he resumed his research at Bell Lab. In 1947 the Bell team under his leadership announced development of a solid-state amplifier known as the transistor, a tiny but highly efficient replacement for the bulky and expendable vacuum tube. Suitable for use in hearing aid, radio, television, computers—indeed, in almost any form of communication— the invention set the stage for the computer age and for the revolution in global, even celestial, communication that followed. Shockley, who would share the Nobel Prize for Physics with two colleagues in 1956, left Bell to teach at Stanford. In forming his own laboratory and transistor company near Palo Alto, California, he unknowingly planted the seed of a technological and cultural phenomenon known as Silicon Valley. A member of the president’s Scientific Advisory Board beginning in 1962, he stayed at Stanford until 1975. By that time Shockley had left a mark of a different sort. Shifting his studies to genetics, Shockley concluded that intelligence was passed on genetically, that blacks were less capable than whites of transmitting intelligence, and because he believed that blacks reproduced more rapidly than whites, evolution was in a state of retrogression. Needless to say, such an idea did not set well with America in the late 20th century. Shockley was harshly denounced by many people, not necessarily because they had superior scientific knowledge but because they did not want the information to be true. On a more impressive level, the theory of “retrogressive evolution’’ found few, if any, takers in the community of science. By a strange twist of fate this brilliant scientist who had done so much to start the electronics revolution was at the time of his death in August 1989 angrily denounced in certain circles as a racist and crackpot.

Frank Sinatra Francis Albert Sinatra was born of Italian-American parentage of modest means in Hoboken, New Jersey, on December 12, 1915. He came of age in the Great Depression when times were hard but one still could dream of making it big. Sinatra’s agent for success was to be singing popular music, and he put all his efforts in adolescence and early adult years toward finding the path. It probably started with winning the Major Bowes Amateur Hour Competition on radio in 1937, which led to three months of touring, more radio, and a job with Harry James’s big band in 1939. Between 1939 and 1942 Sinatra had an engagement as a regular singer with the orchestra of Tommy Dorsey, one of the most popular on the circuit. Setting out on his own in 1942, he made records, did personal appearances, and performed on such radio shows as the popular weekly Prominent and Representative Americans

353

program, Your Hit Parade. His youthful appearance, sexy and flirtatious style, and high-pitched voice made him an idol of adolescent females— the bobbysoxers. The movies in which he had begun to appear were mostly frivolous musicals. A brief lull in his career ended in the mid-1950s with his first film appearance in a nonsinging role, as Maggio in From Here to Eternity, which won him an Oscar. Many other films—in all he would appear in 58—followed over the course of many years, many of them dramas. The more mature Sinatra as a vocalist probably began with “Young at Heart’’ in 1954 and, except for a brief retirement in 1971, continued for the rest of his life. Approaching 80 in the year 1995, he still could pack them in. In personal life there was much to admire, much to dislike. He could be warm, charming, supportive, and generous. He lived life as he wished, with no apologies. A heavy smoker and drinker, something of a brawler and womanizer, he could be mean, dirty, and brutal. He liked power and people with power. A friend and supporter of President John Kennedy until the Kennedys, because of Sinatra’s alleged connections with organized crime, cut ties. Sinatra then moved over to the Republicans, and in the 1980s he was a welcome guest in the White House of Ronald Reagan. As a musical performer, however, covering almost the entire last half of the 20th century, Sinatra had no peer.Whether it was “Love and Marriage,’’ “Chicago,’’ “Come Fly with Me,’’ “Strangers in the Night,’’ “New York, New York,’’ the signature “My Way,’’ or one of dozens of other hits, his singing could evoke a mood, his phrasing was exquisite,

and one could understand every word of the song. He died at 82 in May 1998 not far removed from his last performance.

Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman came from modest circumstances. Born on May 8, 1884, into a farming family near Independence, Missouri, he graduated from high school, farmed, tried various business activities, went to France as an artillery officer in the National Guard during the First World War, and courted his beloved Bess Wallace, who for several years refused his offers of marriage. Truman entered local politics courtesy of the Pendergast Machine of Kansas City and, with the help of Pendergast, was elected to the United States Senate in 1934 and reelected in 1940. He was a respectable, honest, but not outstanding Democrat senator. His placement on the national ticket with Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944 was another of those accidents that happen in politics, especially when the vice presidency was involved. The Democrats wanted to dump incumbant Henry A. Wallace, and Truman’s name came up. Truman barely had settled into the vice presidency when Roosevelt died suddenly on April 12, 1945, at the start of his fourth term.To say that Truman was shocked and unprepared would be a considerable understatement. After a rocky start as president,Truman gained confidence and displayed a propensity for making large, far-reaching decisions. He ordered dropping of the atomic bomb in 1945, instituted the

President Harry S.Truman returns from a conference with Gen. Douglas MacArthur during the Korea War in 1950. Pictured from the left: Averell Harriman, Gen. George Marshall, Truman, Dean Acheson, John Snyder, Frank Pace, Gen. Omar Bradley. (National Park Service photograph by Abbie Rowe, Courtesy Harry S.Truman Library)

354


cold-war policy of containment and in 1949 committed the United States to the NATO alliance. He sent troops to Korea in 1950 and during that war fired the majestic general, Douglas MacArthur, for insubordination, assailed the “do-nothing’’ Republicans in Congress, and survived the assaults of Senator Joseph McCarthy. His election to a second term in 1948 was perhaps the largest upset in presidential politics.Although considered probably outside his element at the start, and criticized throughout his time in office, his reputation and his policies generally have stood the test of time. His basic honesty, frank and open manner have made the Truman presidency in retrospect even more appealing.Truman died in December 1972 in the house that Bess had inherited.

Wernher von Braun To Americans during much of the cold war,Wernher Magnus Maximilian von Braun (Werner von Braun) was the rocket man, our rocket man, and his name and German heritage made his mystique and the perception of his brilliance all the greater. Born in Wirsitz, Germany, on March 23, 1912, this Prussian nobleman became fascinated in youth with space flight. Eventually earning a Ph.D. in physics at University of Berlin in 1934, he was a rocket scientist before there was a Nazi Germany, and because Hitler’s regime eagerly sought his services, he joined the party (1937) and even the SS (1940). His work found fullest expression in the V-2 rocket that produced horror in London in the final months of the war with Germany. Even before Germany’s official surrender, von Braun delivered himself to the American army, came to Ft. Bliss,Texas, bringing several dozen members of his rocket team in Germany. Later moving to the Redstone Arsenal at Huntsville,Alabama, von Braun and his men led the way in developing propulsion devices for the military (the missiles) and for space travel (the rockets). His rocket put the first American satellite in orbit in 1958, and sent Alan Shephard into space in 1960; his SaturnV rocket sent Neil Armstrong on the way to the Moon in 1969.Von Braun also became a spokesman for missile weapons and the space program, if not for study of science in general. He liked appearing on television, and Americans liked having him on their side in the cold war. Inevitably, later—after the space race and missile program were well in hand— more shadowy aspects of his early career would receive attention: the ease with which he became a Nazi and the use of slave labor in making the V-2. Von Braun’s example reemphasized the need for pursuers of pure science to explore deeply into consequences of their efforts. He died in Alexandria,Virginia, on June 16, 1977, not long after receiving the National Medal of Science from President Gerald Ford.

George C. Wallace Born on August 25, 1919 in Clio, Alabama, George Corley Wallace was an Alabaman and a southerner to the core. He graduated from the University of Alabama law school in 1942 and almost immediately went into the army, serving on a B-29 bomber in the Pacific war.To be successful in Alabama politics in those days, one needed to be a Democrat and a segregationist. Wallace easily met these terms as, in the postwar period, he began to move up the steps of the state political ladder—from assistant attorney general to state legislator, circuit court judge, unsuccessful candidate for governor (in Alabama the primary was the election) in 1958, and the governorship in 1962. Wallace thus came on the scene in the immediate aftermath of the Brown desegregation decision, when civil-rights crusaders had placed the southern Jim Crow system under full assault. In this compelling and (outside the South) nationally popular movement, George Wallace not only appeared as a member of the decadent and bigoted opposition, he came to be its symbol: the most defiant, determined, outspo-

ken, and shrewdest leader of the forces seeking to keep black people “in their place.’’The immediate objective was to prevent desegregation of the public schools. One might forget such compatriot southern governors as Ross Barnet (Mississippi) and even the colorful Lester Maddox (Georgia), but one did not forget the feisty, “banty’’ rooster Wallace, and he wished it so. Leader of the segregationists, although he had to yield to national power, he also was leader of Alabama politics—was governor most of the time—between 1962 and 1987. This long period in politics did produce some changes. In running for the presidency in 1968 (as an independent) and 1972 (as a regular Democrat), he sought to broaden his appeal by defining himself as a populist—a man of the common people, unlike the other agents of the elite—and a patriot and nationalist determined to win the war in Vietnam.That this pitch had appeal can be seen in the fact that he received 13 percent of the popular vote (electoral vote of five states) in 1968, and before being shot in Maryland in the primary campaign of 1972, he had scored several victories, including in the primary in Michigan. The assassination effort placed him in a wheelchair in much pain the rest of his life. He nonetheless served three more terms as governor of Alabama, in the latter stages of which he projected a new demeanor. He apologized for segregation, said it was wrong, appointed black people to office, and courted their friendship. Before his death on September 13, 1998, some people offered forgiveness and support; some did not. For people familiar with the era, the most memorable image of George Wallace still was the angry little man standing in the doorway, keeping the “Nigras’’ out of his schools.

Ryan White The short life of Ryan White was a tale of inner strength, courage, and a primer in the effects and consequences of AIDS. A native of Kokomo, Indiana, he had been born (on December 6, 1971) with hemophilia, a serious disease that restricted capacity of the blood to clot. To control that condition and provide some semblance of a normal life, Ryan for years had received blood transfusions. At age 13, he was diagnosed at Riley Hospital in Indianapolis with having AIDS; the agent of transmission was contaminated blood. Determined to make the most of the life he had, Ryan also was prepared to offer himself as an expression of what the disease was and what it was not. The young man unfortunately had to deal with a society ill-prepared to face this mysterious and deadly new disease. It was not commonly understood, for example, that AIDS was not spread by casual contact or that it could be transferred through blood products. Popular perception confined the disease to homosexual activity or intravenous drug use, in either case a product of “degenerate’’ lifestyle. Once the news was out, Ryan White in effect was driven out of Kokomo. The school board would not allow him back in school. A court ruling later reversed that decision, but at school Ryan was ostracised and insulted, his family so harassed and threatened that the Whites decided to leave the area. Moving some 25 miles to Cicero, Indiana, Ryan and his family received a warm and sympathetic reception. In the following two or so years, Ryan became an agent for understanding AIDS. He appeared with officials of the AIDS Foundation and with numerous celebrities in the entertainment business. Often interviewed on television, he was modest, articulate, and photogenic as he sought to debunk myths about the disease and to instruct young people about how to prevent it.A television movie of his life appeared in 1988.A too-brief life came to an end in April 1990 when he died of a respiratory infection. Present at the funeral were Barbara Bush, wife of the president; singer Michael Jackson; TV personality Phil Donahue; and other celebrities. Singer Elton John, a good friend, sang a special song. Governor Evan Bayh ordered Indiana’s flags flown at half-mast. Ryan White gave AIDS a human face, and he demonstrated that the afflicted deserved not derision but understanding and compassion. Prominent and Representative Americans

355

CHAPTER 14 Education The Course of American Education Education in the United States was in a constant state of flux during the half-century following the Second World War. If the task of providing schooling for a large and growing population was not enough, it seemed that all the nation’s social and political problems, the differing philosophies and objectives, found their way into—indeed, often had first airing in—the public schools. Education on all levels remained largely the responsibility of the states, and while the states differed significantly in their ability and willingness to support education, the tendency with the passage of years was for states to imitate one another. Pressures and demands and financial shortages of the era provided a rationale and probably a need for the national government to become involved in education in ever-increasing ways. The Supreme Court made a continuing series of decisions having to do with the rights of students and the responsibilities of government that applied to all the states. If by the end of the period there still existed no national education policy for the United States, the nation, at least in some areas, had come closer to identification of national goals.There existed, needless to say, considerable differences on how to achieve them. Much of what went on in education aroused controversy, but some manifestations of change stood virtually, if not entirely, beyond dispute. The United States entered the period with a population that was not well educated. Only one-third of the people older than 25 (and only 14 percent of black people) had graduated from high school in 1947; the number did not reach 50 percent until 1967; by 1990 it was approximately 75 percent.The percentage of people who received a high school diploma increased steadily (but not year-after-year)—from approximately 50 percent of people of graduation age at the start of the period to 75 percent at the end. Following a long tradition, more females graduated than males, even though there probably were more males of high school age. The males gradually did catch up, and by 1990 the sexes were nearly equal in numbers graduated. In terms of the percent of people older than 25 with diplomas, the males reached parity in 1972 and occasionally did surpass females afterward.The explanation probably has to do with the propensity of older, less-educated men to die off faster than females, thus increasing the percentage of males. Race and ethnicity did affect education, especially at the start of the period. The dropout rates for blacks, and more strikingly for Hispanics, was higher than for whites throughout the era. In median years of education, blacks stood approximately three years below whites though the 1960s (Hispanics were not counted separately), but they narrowed the gap, and by 1990 African Americans had nearly pulled even with whites. Other changes of the postwar period included the following: 1. The cost of everything from teacher’s salaries to chalk and textbooks increased manifold. 2. The demands and requirements in special-education programs grew sharply in terms of numbers of programs, numbers within the program, and amount spent. 3. Long an issue within the education community, the ratio between number of students per teacher did gradually decline. Studentteacher ratios were highest in the 1950s (approximately 30 students per teacher in elementary schools) and by the end of the 1980s had dropped to fewer than 20. 4. The states still differed sharply in their support of elementary and secondary education: from a low of $2, 700 per student per year in Utah in 1990 to a high of nearly $9,000 in Washington, D.C. 5. Although clearly below earnings of college graduates in other fields, teachers’ salaries on the surface increased significantly, some 356

16-fold between 1946 and 1990. In terms of current dollars (the sum actually paid in a given year), salaries nearly doubled in the 1980s. Using constant dollars—which took inflation into account—as a measurement, the increase was much less dramatic, barely more than a twofold gain, with a more modest increase of 20 percent in the final decade. The end of the Second World War produced the baby boom, and the babies, of course, grew into children—a lot of them—who needed education. It is possible to trace the course of that demographic phenomenon in enrollment statistics. The surge began in the early 1950s when the first “boomer’’ children started to go to school. The increase was steady until the early 1970s when the last crop came of school age. The record in elementary and secondary enrollment came in 1970 and 1971. Then the slide began, and it was steady until 1985 when enrollment leveled off, albeit at numbers considerably below the peak years of the early 1970s. The first postwar “crisis’’ in education stemmed from a surplus of students and shortages of almost everything else—classrooms, teachers (because college graduates opted for better-paying carreers), and ultimately money in the hands of the states. The problem created a new political issue, a debate over larger involvement of the national government, “federal aid to education’’ as it was called in those days. As logical and sensible as the case for national participation in education seemed to be, the issue inspired multifaceted opposition, based partly on constititional grounds, partly religious and racial grounds. The Soviet Union’s launching of Sputnik in 1957, which suggested that the United States had fallen behind in scientific education, prompted passage of a National Defense Education Act, the only measure that got through Congress in the 1950s, which appropriated national money to support education, mostly in study of the sciences.The issue probably reached a peak in the presidential election of 1960. Lyndon Johnson’s program of the Great Society in the mid-1960s, which contained several measures directed at schools and students, seemingly affirmed the legitimacy of the national government’s role in education. In fact, much of the national activity would come in the area of college education, and the bulk of funding for the public schools continued to come from within the individual states. The era of the 1960s and early 1970s brought new moods and challenges. The corporation became the enemy, the establishment, in that time of student-based rebellion and high idealism in many of the nation’s colleges.A new priority given to study of the humanities, and a new respect for the honorable profession of teaching caused the shortage of teachers to end, to be replaced, except in unusual circumstances, by a surplus. An era of living life by one’s feelings, of few rules, or no rules—and in a classroom setting, perhaps of no grades—inspired a revival of “progressive’’ or “needs-based’’ education that emphasized self-development and adjustment as opposed to learning substantive information. Placing childrens’ chairs (or desks) in rows, requiring permission before one could speak, even compulsory reading assignments or homework, came to be perceived as regimentation; discipline was the way the Nazis had done it. The new system continued to have its defenders, and the students seemed to have a good time, but parents began to complain that their children were not learning anything. The late 1970s and 1980s produced growing concerns about weaknesses and failures of the system. The general dropout rate remained fairly steady, but with African Americans and especially Hispanics, it either increased or remained at a high rate.Although some statistics suggested that illiteracy virtually had vanished, other studies indicated that perhaps 20 percent of the population was functionally

The U.S. government made efforts to improve students’ scientific skills. Although still lagging, scientific knowledge grew rapidly after 1945, as exemplified by photographs of Earth from space and from the Moon.This one was taken by the crew of Apollo 17 in December 1972. (National Archives)

illiterate, unable to read beyond fifth-grade level, if that high. Student scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) used by nearly all colleges in admissions policy, which never had been high in the first place, decreased with almost every year. American students continued to perform poorly, embarrassingly so, in standardized international examinations, especially in science and mathematics.Various blue-ribbon panels studied the system in the 1980s, most of them recommending better training for teachers, especially in subject matter, a longer school year, and an emphasis on basic subjects. Many school systems sought to move in these directions, but they continued to have to deal with socially and politically based aspects of the education process and such newer concerns as drugs and even violence within the schoolyard. Some parents who blamed a purportedly uncontrollable publicschool system opted for a new experimental structure, said to be more creative and designed to meet students’ needs, called an alternative school. Some school systems established “magnet’’ schools that specialized in one area of study. A few hearty and ambitious parents, probably grounded in religious concerns, undertook the task of “home-schooling’’ their children. Most parents in search of a different educational experience turned to the private school, which could entail traditional church-based institutions, many of them Roman Catholic, or the newer idea of a private, for profit, establishment sanctioned by the state, called a charter school.

A problem with private schools, of course, always had been money; they were expensive, with no public support, and the funds often came out of the pocket of the parents. It was inevitable that advocates of private schools—not to mention the schools or the churches themselves— would seek ways to use public money to fund private institutions. A tax deducation for education expenses represented a conservative approach, but something was better than nothing. The idea with greatest appeal within private-school circles was the voucher, a system through which the state would allow parents of every child a sum that could be spent at any school they chose. Private schools loved the voucher and saw it as their salvation, as did the parents who wished to make use of the system. The idea fed the suspicions of political conservatives who were skeptical about anything run by the state. Of questionable constitutionality, the voucher threatened the public-school system. Presumably, any public money committed to a private school would be subtracted from the sum previously allotted to public schools. Devotees of the public school gave notice that they were not going to submit gracefully to this challenge, and they had in their corner millions of dedicated supporters, the powerful National Education Association (the teachers’ union) and, in some assessments, virtually the entire United States Department of Education. The future of American education remained murky at the start of the 1990s, but no one could doubt that it would be a large national issue for as far as one could see. Education

357

TABLE 14.1

ENROLLMENT IN REGULAR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY GRADE LEVEL, 1946–1947 TO FALL 1990

(enrollment in thousands) All Schools

Private Schoolsa

Public Schools

Total

Grades 9 to 12

Ratio of Kindergarten to Grade 8 Enrollment to 5- to 13Year-Olds

Ratio of Grade 9 to 12 Enrollment to 14- to 17Year-Olds

Year

Total

1946–47 1947–48 1948–49

26,598 26,998 27,694

20,177 20,743 21,398

6,421 6,256 6,296

23,659 23,945 24,477

17,821 18,291 18,818

5,838 5,653 5,658

2,939 3,054 3,217

2,355 2,451 2,580

584 602 637

93.1 93.2 93.4

102.6 103.2 102.1

72.0 70.5 72.3

1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54

28,492 29,301 30,372 31,581 33,175

22,095 22,831 23,834 24,997 26,138

6,397 6,470 6,538 6,584 7,038

25,111 25,706 26,563 27,507 28,836

19,387 19,900 20,681 21,625 22,546

5,725 5,806 5,882 5,882 6,290

3,380 3,595 3,809 4,074 4,339

2,708 2,931 3,154 3,373 3,592

672 664 656 702 747

94.3 95.4 97.0 95.7 96.7

102.1 102.5 104.6 103.0 102.7

74.5 76.6 76.7 75.5 79.4

1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59

34,569 35,872 37,303 38,756 40,290

27,210 28,177 29,107 29,966 31,040

7,359 7,696 8,195 8,790 9,250

30,045 31,163 32,334 33,529 34,839

23,471 24,290 25,016 25,669 26,581

6,574 6,873 7,318 7,860 8,258

4,524 4,709 4,968 5,227 5,451

3,739 3,886 4,092 4,297 4,459

785 823 877 931 993

97.0 97.1 97.4 97.7 97.9

102.1 101.7 101.2 101.4 101.6

81.8 83.5 86.0 86.6 87.2

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64

41,762 43,070 44,146 45,798 47,199

32,242 33,191 33,451 34,224 34,825

9,520 9,879 10,694 11,574 12,375

36,087 37,260 38,253 39,746 41,025

27,602 28,439 28,686 29,374 29,915

8,485 8,821 9,566 10,372 11,110

5,675 5,810 5,893 6,052 6,174

4,640 4,752 4,765 4,850 4,910

1,035 1,058 1,128 1,202 1,265

98.0 97.5 97.5 98.2 98.2

101.8 100.4 100.7 101.0 100.7

86.9 89.0 88.8 90.8 91.7

1964–65 Fall 1965 Fall 1966 Fall 1967 Fall 1968

48,580 48,368 49,242 49,890 50,703

35,652 35,366 35,962 36,243 36,581

12,928 13,002 13,280 13,647 14,123

42,280 42,068 43,042 43,890 44,903

30,652 30,466 31,162 31,643 32,181

11,628 11,602 11,880 12,247 12,723

6,300 6,300 6,200 6,000 5,800

5,000 4,900 4,800 4,600 4,400

1,300 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400

98.1 96.9 97.2 97.1 97.6

101.2 98.9 99.1 98.9 99.4

90.6 91.9 92.2 92.7 93.1

Fall 1969 Fall 1970 Fall 1971 Fall 1972 Fall 1973

51,050 51,257 51,271 50,726 50,445

36,713 36,610 36,218 35,579 35,101

14,337 14,647 15,053 15,148 15,344

45,550 45,894 46,071 45,726 45,445

32,513 32,558 32,318 31,879 31,401

13,037 13,336 13,753 13,848 14,044

5,500 5,363 5,200 5,000 5,000

4,200 4,052 3,900 3,700 3,700

1,300 1,311 1,300 1,300 1,300

97.5 97.5 97.5 97.0 97.2

99.7 99.8 100.0 99.7 100.2

92.2 92.0 92.2 91.0 91.0


50,073 49,819 49,478 48,717 47,637

34,671 34,215 33,822 33,172 32,195

15,403 15,604 15,656 15,546 15,441

45,073 44,819 44,311 43,577 42,551

30,971 30,515 29,997 29,375 28,463

14,103 14,304 14,314 14,203 14,088

5,000 5,000 5,167 5,140 5,086

3,700 3,700 3,825 3,797 3,732

1,300 1,300 1,342 1,343 1,353

97.2 97.6 97.7 97.6 97.1

100.6 100.9 100.9 101.0 100.3

90.4 91.1 91.5 91.2 91.1


46,651 46,208 45,544 45,166 44,967

31,734 31,639 31,380 31,361 31,296

14,916 14,570 14,164 13,805 13,671

41,651 40,877 40,044 39,566 39,252

28,034 27,647 27,280 27,161 26,981

13,616 13,231 12,764 12,405 12,271

5,000 5,331 5,500 5,600 5,715

3,700 3,992 4,100 4,200 4,315

1,300 1,339 1,400 1,400 1,400

97.1 97.8 98.3 98.9 99.6

101.0 101.7 102.0 102.4 102.9

89.8 90.3 90.8 91.8 92.9


44,908 44,979 45,205 45,486 45,430

31,205 31,229 31,536 32,162 32,535

13,704 13,750 13,669 13,324 12,896

39,208 39,422 39,753 40,007 40,189

26,905 27,034 27,420 27,930 28,499

12,304 12,388 12,333 12,077 11,690

5,700 5,557 5,452 5,479 5,241

4,300 4,195 4,116 4,232 4,036

1,400 1,362 1,336 1,247 1,206

99.9 100.0 100.1 100.4 100.1

103.2 103.7 103.9 104.3 103.6

93.2 92.5 92.4 92.1 92.2

Fall 1989 Fall 1990

45,898 46,450

33,314 33,978

12,583 12,472

40,543 41,224

29,152 29,888

11,390 11,336

5,355 5,226

4,162 4,090

1,193 1,136

101.3 102.5

104.6 106.2

93.2 93.7

a

Total

Kindergarten to Grade 8

Ratio of Kindergarten to Grade 12 Enrollment Grades to 5- to 179 to 12 Year-Olds


Grades 9 to 12


All Public and Private Schools

Data for most years was at least partially estimated. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (Washington, D.C., 1993), 37.

358


TABLE 14.2

HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES, BY SEX AND CONTROL OF INSTITUTION, 1946–1990

(numbers in thousands) High School Graduates

School Year

Population 17 Years Old

Sex Total

Male

Control Female

Public

Private a

Graduates per 100 17-Year-Oldsa

1945–46 1947–48 1949–50

2,278 2,261 2,034

1,080 1,190 1,200

467 563 571

613 627 629

... 1,073 1,063

... 117 136

47.4 52.6 59.0

1951–52 1953–54 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59

2,086 2,135 2,242 2,272 2,325 2,458

1,197 1,276 1,415 1,434 1,506 1,627

569 613 680 690 725 784

627 664 735 744 781 843

1,056 1,129 1,252 1,270 1,332 1,435

141 147 163 164 174 192

57.4 59.8 63.1 63.1 64.8 66.2

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64

2,672 2,892 2,768 2,740 2,978

1,858 1,964 1,918 1,943 2,283

895 955 938 956 1,120

963 1,009 980 987 1,163

1,627 1,725 1,678 1,710 2,008

231 239 240 233 275

69.5 67.9 69.3 70.9 76.7

1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69

2,684 3,489 3,500 3,532 3,659

2,658 2,665 2,672 2,695 2,822

1,311 1,323 1,328 1,338 1,399

1,347 1,342 1,344 1,357 1,423

2,360 2,367 2,374 2,395 2,522

298 298 298 300 300

72.1 76.4 76.3 76.3 77.1

1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74

3,757 3,872 3,973 4,049 4,132

2,889 2,937 3,001 3,036 3,073

1,430 1,454 1,487 1,500 1,512

1,459 1,483 1,514 1,536 1,561

2,589 2,637 2,699 2,730 2,763

300 300 302 306 310

76.9 75.9 75.5 75.0 74.4

1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

4,256 4,272 4,272 4,286 4,327

3,133 3,148 3,155 3,127 3,117

1,542 1,552 1,548 1,531 1,523

1,591 1,596 1,607 1,596 1,594

2,823 2,837 2,840 2,825 2,817

310 311 315 302 300

73.6 73.7 73.9 73.0 72.0

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

4,262 4,207 4,121 3,939 3,753

3,043 3,020 2,995 2,888 2,767

1,491 1,483 1,471 1,437 b1,313

1,552 1,537 1,524 1,451 b1,454

2,748 2,725 2,705 2,598 2,495

295 295 290 290 272

71.4 71.8 72.7 73.3 73.7

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89

3,658 3,621 3,697 3,781 3,761

2,677 2,643 2,694 2,773 2,727

b1,291

a1,386

b1,263

b1,380

b1,301

b1,393

b1,384

b1,389

b1,343

b1,384

2,414 2,383 2,429 2,500 2,459

263 260 265 273 268

73.2 73.0 72.9 73.4 72.5

1989–90

3,485

2,587

b1,285

b1,302

2,320

268

74.2

a

For most years, private school data has been estimated based on surveys. Estimates based on data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 55.

b

TABLE 14.3 PERCENT OF POPULATION WITH LESS THAN 12 YEARS OF SCHOOL AND WITH FOUR YEARS OF COLLEGE OR MORE, BY RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN, 1970–1990 (persons 25 years old and over; as of April 1970 and 1980, and March beginning 1985) Race and Hispanic Origin

Less Than 12 Years of School

4 Years of College or More

1970

1980

1985

1989

1990

1970

1980

1985

1989

1990

All races

47.7

33.5

26.1

23.1

22.4

10.7

16.2

19.4

21.1

21.3

White

45.5

31.2

24.5

21.6

20.9

11.3

17.1

20.0

21.8

22.0

Black

68.6

48.8

40.2

35.4

33.8

4.4

8.4

11.1

11.8

11.3

Hispanic origin Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Other

67.9 75.8 76.6 56.1 55.1

56.0 62.4 59.9 44.7 42.6

52.1 58.7 53.7 48.9 35.8

49.1 57.3 46.0 37.0 34.9

49.2 55.9 44.5 36.5 37.9

4.5 2.5 2.2 11.1 7.0

7.6 4.9 5.6 16.2 12.4

8.5 5.5 7.0 16.7 16.4

9.9 6.1 9.8 19.8 15.7

9.2 5.5 9.6 20.2 15.5

Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992 (Lanham, Md., 1992), 145.

Education

359

TABLE 14.4

PERSONS 25 AND OLDER WHO HAVE COMPLETED HIGH SCHOOL, 1947–1990

(in percent) All Races

White

Black

Hispanic

Year

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

1947 1950 1952 1957 1959

33.1 34.3 38.8 41.6 43.7

31.4 32.6 36.9 39.7 42.2

34.7 36.0 40.5 43.3 45.2

35.0 ... ... 43.2 46.1

33.2 ... ... 41.1 44.5

36.7 ... ... 45.1 47.7

13.6 13.7 15.0 18.4 20.7

12.7 12.5 14.0 16.9 19.6

14.5 14.7 15.7 21.6 19.7

1962 1964 1966 1968

46.3 48.0 49.9 52.6

45.0 47.0 49.0 52.0

47.5 48.9 50.8 53.2

48.7 50.3 52.2 54.9

47.4 49.3 51.3 54.3

49.9 51.2 53.0 55.5

24.8 25.7 27.8 30.1

23.2 23.7 25.8 28.9

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978

55.2 58.2 61.2 64.1 65.9

55.0 58.2 61.6 64.7 66.8

55.4 58.2 60.9 63.5 65.2

57.4 60.4 63.3 66.1 67.9

57.2 60.3 63.6 66.7 68.6

57.6 60.5 63.0 65.5 67.2

33.7 36.6 40.8 43.8 47.6

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988

68.6 71.0 73.3 74.7 76.2

69.2 71.7 73.7 75.1 76.4

68.1 70.3 73.0 74.4 76.0

70.5 72.8 75.0 76.2 77.7

71.0 73.4 75.4 76.5 77.7

70.1 72.3 74.6 75.9 77.6

1990

77.6

77.7

77.5

79.1

79.1

79.0

Male

Female

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

26.2 27.4 29.5 31.0

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

32.4 35.7 39.9 42.3 47.9

34.8 37.2 41.5 45.0 47.3

... ... 36.5 39.3 40.8

... ... 38.3 41.4 42.2

... ... 34.9 37.3 39.6

51.2 54.9 58.5 62.3 63.5

51.1 55.7 57.1 61.5 63.7

51.3 54.3 59.7 63.0 63.4

45.3 45.9 47.1 48.5 51.0

46.4 48.1 48.6 49.2 52.0

44.1 44.1 45.7 47.8 50.0

66.2

65.8

66.5

50.8

50.3

51.3

Source: Mark S. Littman. A Statistical Portrait of the U.S., Social Conditions and Trends (Lanham, Md., 1998), 233.

TABLE 14.5 AGES FOR COMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND COMPULSORY PROVISION OF SERVICES FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS, BY STATE, 1989–1990

State Ala. Alaska Ariz. Ark. Calif. Colo. Conn. Del. D.C. Fla. Ga. Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss.

360

Compulsory Attendance (November 1989) 7 to 16 7 to 16 8 to 16 5 to 17 6 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 16 5 to 16 7 to 17 6 to 16 7 to 16 6 to 18 7 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 16 b6 to 16 7 to 17 7 to 17 6 to 16 6 to 16 6 to 16 a7 to 18 6 to 14


State Mo. Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J. N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak. Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C. S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah Vt. Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

Compulsory Provision of Service for Special Education (1989–90) 5 to 20 3 to 21 5 to 21 5 to 20 5 to 21 5 to 20 3 to 21 3 to 20 3 to 21 5 to 18 5 to 21 3 to 20 3 to 20 3 to 21 5 to 17 Birth to 20 5 to 21 5 to 20 3 to 21 5 to 19 Birth to 20 3 to 21 Birth to 25 Birth to 20 5 to 20

a

Compulsory Attendance (November 1989) 7 to 16 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 17 6 to 16 6 to 16 6 to 18 d6 to 16 7 to 16 7 to 16 6 to 18 7 to 18 7 to 18 8 to 17 6 to 16 5 to 17 c7 to 16 7 to 17 e7 to 17 6 to 18 7 to 16 5 to 17 8 to 18 6 to 16 6 to 18 7 to 16 c7

Compulsory Provision of Service for Special Education (1989–90) 5 to 20 6 to 18 Birth to 20 5 to 21 3 to 20 3 to 21 3 to 21 3 to 21 5 to 20 3 to 20 5 to 21 4 to 21 5 to 20 5 to 21 3 to 20 5 to 20 3 to 20 4 to 21 3 to 21 3 to 21 5 to 21 2 to 21 3 to 21 5 to 22 3 to 20 3 to 20

Must have parental signature to leave school between 16 and 18. Takes effect in 2000; currently, 7–16. May leave after finishing eighth grade. d Ages 6–17 for New York City and Buffalo. e Must complete academic year in which 16th birthday occurs. Source: National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics. 1991, (Washington, D.C., 1991), 137. b c

TABLE 14.6 PERCENTAGE OF HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS AMONG PERSONS 16 TO 24 YEARS OLD, BY SEX AND RACE/ETHNICITY, OCTOBER 1967–OCTOBER 1990a Total

Men

Year

All Races

White, NonHispanic

Black NonHispanic Hispanic origin

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

17.0 16.2 15.2 15.0 14.7

15.4 14.7 13.6 13.2 13.4

28.6 27.4 26.7 27.9 23.7

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

14.6 14.1 14.3 13.9 14.1

12.3 11.6 11.9 11.4 12.0

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

14.1 14.2 14.6 14.1 13.9

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Women

All Races

White, NonHispanic

Black, NonHispanic Hispanic Origin

All Races

White, NonHispanic

Black NonHispanic

... ... ... ... ...

16.5 15.8 14.3 14.2 14.2

14.7 14.4 12.6 12.2 12.6

30.6 27.1 26.9 29.4 25.5

... ... ... ... ...

17.3 16.5 16.0 15.7 15.2

16.1 15.0 14.6 14.1 14.2

26.9 27.6 26.7 26.6 22.1

... ... ... ... ...

21.3 22.2 21.2 22.9 20.5

34.3 33.5 33.0 29.2 31.4

14.1 13.7 14.2 13.3 14.1

11.7 11.5 12.0 11.0 12.1

22.3 21.5 20.1 23.0 21.2

33.7 30.4 33.8 26.7 30.3

15.1 14.5 14.4 14.5 14.2

12.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8

20.5 22.8 22.1 22.9 19.9

34.9 36.4 32.2 31.6 32.3

11.9 11.9 12.0 11.4 11.4

19.8 20.2 21.1 19.1 18.4

33.0 33.3 33.8 35.2 33.2

14.5 14.6 15.0 15.1 15.1

12.6 12.2 12.6 12.3 12.5

19.5 22.5 22.4 20.8 19.9

31.6 33.6 33.0 37.2 36.0

13.8 13.9 14.2 13.1 12.8

11.2 11.6 11.5 10.5 10.2

20.0 18.3 20.0 17.7 17.1

34.3 33.1 34.5 33.2 30.4

13.9 13.7 13.1 12.6 12.2

11.4 11.2 11.0 10.4 9.7

18.4 18.0 15.5 15.2 14.2

31.7 31.6 29.8 27.6 30.1

14.5 14.9 14.0 13.4 13.1

12.1 12.2 12.0 11.1 10.3

21.2 19.9 16.8 16.1 15.0

30.5 34.3 30.6 29.9 32.8

13.3 12.5 12.3 11.8 11.4

10.9 10.1 10.1 9.8 9.1

15.9 16.2 14.3 14.3 13.5

32.8 29.1 29.0 25.2 27.2

12.7 12.9 12.6 12.1

10.4 9.6 9.4 9.0

14.4 14.5 13.9 13.2

28.6 35.8 33.0 32.4

13.3 13.5 13.6 12.3

10.8 10.3 10.3 9.3

15.5 15.0 14.9 11.9

29.1 36.0 34.4 34.3

12.2 12.2 11.7 11.8

10.0 8.9 8.5 8.7

13.4 14.0 13.0 14.4

28.1 35.4 31.6 30.3

Hispanic Origin

a

“Status’’ dropouts—persons not enrolled in school and not high school graduates. Source: Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education, 1992, 109.

TABLE 14.7

CHILDREN SERVED IN SPECIAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS, BY TYPE OF DISABILITY, 1947–1948 TO 1989–1990

(in thousands)

Year

Percent of Public Seriously OrthoPreSchool EmotiHard-of pedically Other Visually Multischool Enroll- Learning Speech Mentally onally Hearing HandiHealth Handi- Handi- Deaf— HandiTotal ment Disabled Impaired Retarded Disturbed and Deaf capped Impaired capped capped Blind capped

1947–48 1952–53 1957–58 1962–63

356 475 838 1,469

1.5 1.7 2.5 3.7

... ... ... ...

1965–66 1969–70 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

1,794 2,677 3,692 3,751 3,889

4.3 5.9 8.3 8.6 9.1

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

4,005 4,142 4,198 4,255 4,298

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

4,315 4,317 4,374 4,447 4,544 4,641

Other Handicapped

182 307 490 802

87 114 223 432

15 ... 29 80

14 16 20 46

50 29 52 65

... ... ... ...

8 9 12 22

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

... ... 12 22

... ... 796 964 1,130

990 1,237 1,302 1,223 1,214

540 830 959 933 901

88 113 283 288 300

51 78 87 85 85

69 269 87 87 70

... ... 141 135 105

23 24 38 35 32

... ... ... ... 50

... ... ... ... 2

... ... ... ... ...

33 126 ... ... ...

9.6 10.1 10.5 10.8 10.9

1,276 1,462 1,622 1,741 1,806

1,186 1,168 1,135 1,131 1,128

869 829 786 757 727

329 346 339 352 361

80 79 75 73 72

66 58 58 57 56

106 98 79 50 53

31 31 29 28 29

60 68 71 63 65

2 3 2 2 2

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

11.0 11.0 11.0 11.1 11.3 11.4

1,832 1,862 1,914 1,928 1,987 2,050

1,126 1,125 1,136 953 967 973

694 660 643 582 564 548

372 375 383 373 376 381

69 66 65 56 56 57

56 57 57 47 47 48

68 57 52 45 43 52

28 27 26 22 23 22

69 86 97 77 85 86

2 2 2 1 2 2

... ... ... 363 394 422

... ... ... ... ... ...

Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 44.

Education

361

362


2,907 4,311 5,838

7,344 9,092 10,955 13,569 15,613

18,373 21,325 26,248 32,977 40,683

45,500 48,050 51,852 56,970 64,846

70,601 74,194 80,844 86,712 95,962

104,125 111,186 118,425 127,500 137,000

148,600 160,900 172,400 192,977 211,731

School Year

1945–46 1947–48 1949–50

1951–52 1953–54 1955–56 1957–58 1959–60

1961–62 1963–64 1965–66 1967–68 1969–70

1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

137,165 146,365 157,098 173,099 187,384

94,321 101,109 108,268 115,392 126,337

62,054 66,864 73,058 78,951 86,984

39,630 41,818 46,213 50,025 57,363

14,729 17,218 21,053 26,877 34,218

5,722 6,791 8,251 10,252 12,329

2,707 3,795 4,687

Total

a a a a a

83,463 89,559 96,967 101,016 108,964

a a a a a a

a

a

a

a

39,687 41,869 45,024 48,403 53,258

26,224 28,148 30,119 32,609 36,482

10,016 11,750 14,445 18,376 23,270

3,782 4,552 5,502 6,901 8,351

1,854 2,572 3,112

Instruction

2,808 3,273 3,867 3,896 4,264

1,789 1,876 2,018 2,276 2,670

648 745 938 1,249 1,607

266 311 373 443 528

133 170 220

Administration

b

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

6,675 7,331 8,096 8,565 9,745

3,960 4,325 4,677 5,291 6,136

1,760 1,985 2,386 2,864 3,512

757 908 1,072 1,302 1,508

372 526 642

Plant Operation and Maintenance

Not available. Estimated. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 60–61.

a

Total Expenditures, in Millions

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

12,884 14,391 16,071 18,087

7,657 7,469 9,399 9,849 12,075

2,304 2,738 3,284 4,388 5,829

917 1,020 1,304 1,605 1,943

349 527 713

Other

Current Expenditures, Day Schools (in millions)

14,101 17,685

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

6,146 5,344 5,245 5,448 6,506

4,552 4,459 4,091 4,978 5,746

2,862 2,978 3,755 4,256 4,659

1,477 2,055 2,387 2,853 2,662

111 412 1,014

Capital Outlay, in Millions

3,213 3,693

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

1,846 1,953 1,952 1,955 1,874

1,318 1,378 1,547 1,514 1,737

588 701 792 978 1,171

114 154 216 342 490

77 76 101

2,564 2,969

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

a

553 853 589 357 598

973 396 1,698 453 702

194 428 648 866 636

30 92 101 123 133

11 28 36

Interest Other on School ExpendiDebt, in tures in Millions Millions

785 853

b708

b667

b622

b579

b544

b510

b484

b458

328 341 368 390 427

223 232 248 270 304

100 113 136 167 202

48 57 66 79 88

21 30 39

Per Capita

4,738 5,149

b4,310

b3,995

b6,724

b3,456

b3,216

b2,966

b2,754

b2,529

1,564 1,673 1,842 2,029 2,290

970 1,034 1,116 1,244 1,424

480 519 613 737 877

276 315 352 405 433

125 180 232

5,109 5,526

b4,654

b4,308

b4,020

b3,722

b3,471

b3,203

b2,973

b2,742

1,697 1,816 2,002 2,210 2,491

1,049 1,128 1,211 1,364 1,545

530 559 654 786 955

313 351 388 449 472

145 203 259

3,756 3,970 4,240 4,645 4,960

2,502 2,726 2,955 3,173 3,470

1,504 1,638 1,823 2,020 2,272

911 990 1,077 1,207 1,365

419 460 537 658 816

244 265 294 341 375

136 179 209

Current Per Pupil Per Pupil in Average in Average Per Pupil Daily Atten- Daily AttenEnrolled dance dance

Total

Expenditures in Current Dollars

823 853

b776

b762

b726

b696

b679

b660

b653

b672

750 738 746 724 699

713 717 735 734 745

424 466 540 624 679

230 269 313 352 381

145 163 210

Per Capita

4,964 5,149

b4,724

b4,560

b4,345

b4,149

b4,012

b3,837

b3,716

b3,707

3,581 3,619 3,734 3,761 3,745

3,100 3,191 3,310 3,388 3,491

2,028 2,137 2,439 2,752 2,948

1,333 1,487 1,663 1,801 1,871

870 981 1,244

5,353 5,526

b5,101

b4,918

b4,691

4,468

b4,330

b4,144

b4,011

b4,019

3,885 3,929 4,059 4,097 4,074

3,353 3,481 3,592 3,715 3,788

2,238 2,300 2,602 2,936 3,210

1,511 1,657 1,833 1,995 2,040

1,007 1,105 1,388

4,383 4,532 4,647 4,866 4,960

3,667 3,678 3,823 3,958 4,166

3,444 3,544 3,696 3,744 3,716

2,912 3,055 3,195 3,287 3,346

1,770 1,895 2,138 2,458 2,743

1,180 1,250 1,390 1,517 1,621

949 978 1,120

Current Per Pupil Per Pupil in Average in Average Per Pupil Daily Atten- Daily AttenEnrolled dance dance

Total

Expenditures in Constant 1989–90 Dollars

TABLE 14.8 TOTAL AND CURRENT EXPENDITURES AND EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY PURPOSE, 1945–1946 TO 1989–1990

TABLE 14.9 CURRENT EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY STATE, 1959–1960 TO 1989–1990 Unadjusted Dollars

State or Other Area

1959–60

1969–70

1979–80

1980–81

1981–82

1983–84

1984–85

1985–86

1986–87

1987–88

1988–89

1989–90

United States

$375

$816

$2,272

$2,502

$2,726

$3,173

$3,470

$3,756

$3,970

$4,240

$4,645

$4,960


241 546 404 225 3424

544 1,123 720 568 867

1,612 4,728 1,971 1,574 2,268

1,985 5,688 2,258 1,701 2,475

2,063 6,312 2,462 1,841 2,671

2,055 8,627 2,751 2,235 2,963

2,325 7,843 3,009 2,482 3,256

2,565 8,304 3,336 2,658 3,543

2,573 8,010 3,544 2,733 3,728

2,718 7,971 3,744 2,989 3,840

3,197 7,716 3,902 3,273 4,135

3,327 8,374 4,057 3,485 4,391


396 436 456 431 318

738 951 900 1,018 732

2,421 2,420 2,861 3,259 1,889

2,693 2,876 3,018 3,441 2,401

2,914 3,188 3,198 3,792 2,443

3,373 4,023 3,849 4,766 2,932

3,697 4,738 4,184 5,103 3,241

3,975 4,743 4,610 5,337 3,529

4,147 5,435 4,825 5,742 3,794

4,220 6,230 5,017 6,132 4,092

4,521 6,857 5,422 7,850 4,563

4,720 7,604 5,696 8,904 4,997


253 325 290 438 369

588 841 603 909 728

1,625 2,322 1,659 2,587 1,882

1,708 2,604 1,856 2,704 2,010

2,019 2,862 1,945 2,936 2,306

2,352 3,334 2,146 3,298 2,725

2,657 3,465 2,362 3,538 3,051

2,966 3,807 2,484 3,781 3,275

3,181 3,787 2,585 4,106 3,556

3,434 3,919 2,667 4,369 3,794

3,852 4,121 2,833 4,906 4,284

4,187 4,448 3,078 5,118 4,549


368 348 233 372 283

844 771 545 648 692

2,326 2,173 1,701 1,792 1,824

2,668 2,559 1,784 2,469 1,934

2,874 2,815 1,906 2,590 2,221

3,274 3,284 2,311 2,694 2,700

3,467 3,560 2,390 2,990 3,024

3,619 3,829 2,486 3,187 3,472

3,770 3,933 2,733 3,069 3,850

4,124 4,076 3,011 3,138 4,258

4,285 4,443 3,347 3,317 4,744

4,453 4,752 3,675 3,855 5,373


393 409 415 425 206

918 859 904 904 501

2,598 2,819 2,640 2,387 1,664

2,914 2,940 3,037 2,673 1,605

3,234 3,137 3,140 2,905 1,706

3,858 3,595 3,556 3,395 2,244

4,102 4,026 3,848 3,674 2,350

4,447 4,562 4,176 3,941 2,362

4,777 5,145 4,353 4,180 2,350

5,201 5,471 4,692 4,386 2,548

5,758 5,972 5,150 4,755 2,861

6,196 6,237 5,546 4,971 3,096


344 411 337 430 347

709 782 736 769 723

1,936 2,476 2,150 2,088 1,916

2,172 2,683 2,384 2,078 2,265

2,342 2,998 2,704 2,424 2,509

2,748 3,604 3,221 2,690 2,980

2,958 3,847 3,471 2,829 3,271

3,189 4,091 3,634 3,440 3,542

3,472 4,194 3,756 3,440 3,933

3,786 4,246 3,943 3,623 4,457

4,263 4,293 4,360 3,871 4,807

4,507 4,736 4,842 4,117 5,304


388 363 562 237 367

1,016 707 1,327 612 690

3,191 2,034 3,462 1,754 1,920

3,254 2,329 3,741 2,001 2,275

3,674 2,703 4,280 2,107 2,727

4,496 2,928 5,117 2,303 3,028

4,504 3,153 5,492 2,625 3,339

5,570 3,195 6,011 2,948 3,483

5,953 3,558 6,497 3,129 3,437

6,564 3,691 7,151 3,368 3,519

7,549 3,473 7,663 3,874 3,952

7,991 3,518 8,062 4,268 4,189


365 311 448 409 413

730 604 925 882 891

2,075 1,926 2,692 2,535 2,601

2,303 2,199 3,100 2,824 2,927

2,492 2,673 3,299 3,050 3,040

2,982 2,859 3,677 3,648 3,938

3,285 2,850 3,889 4,237 4,287

3,527 3,146 4,141 4,325 4,667

3,673 3,099 4,337 4,616 4,985

3,998 3,093 4,789 4,989 5,329

4,686 3,379 5,182 5,597 6,064

5,136 3,512 5,521 6,061 6,249


220 347 238 332 322

613 690 566 624 626

1,752 1,908 1,635 1,916 1,657

1,734 1,991 1,794 2,006 1,819

1,907 2,300 1,895 2,229 1,872

2,183 2,685 2,101 2,784 2,053

2,783 2,892 2,385 3,124 2,220

3,058 3,051 2,612 3,298 2,390

3,214 3,097 2,827 3,409 2,415

3,408 3,249 3,068 3,608 2,454

3,736 3,585 3,491 3,877 2,588

4,088 3,732 3,664 4,150 2,730


344 274 420 258 413 450

807 708 915 670 883 856

1,997 1,970 2,568 1,920 2,477 2,527

2,475 2,179 2,542 2,146 2,738 2,967

2,793 2,384 2,650 2,593 2,935 3,417

3,359 2,870 3,465 2,879 3,513 4,523

3,651 3,155 3,725 3,244 3,815 4,799

4,031 3,520 3,881 3,528 4,168 5,114

4,399 3,780 3,964 3,784 4,523 5,201

5,207 4,149 4,164 3,858 4,747 5,051

5,481 4,539 4,359 3,883 5,266 5,375

6,227 4,612 4,681 4,359 5,524 5,577

... 236

... 820

... ...

... ...

... 2,133

... 2,301

1,262 2,489

1,387 3,383

1,846 3,344

1,908 3,295

1,988 4,067

2,570 ...

... 106 271

... ... ...

... ... ...

... ... ...

... 961 2,646

1,142 1,247 2,710

1,693 1,319 ...

2,552 1,325 3,223

3,099 1,384 4,277

3,366 1,504 4,036

2,414 1,692 5,281

3,646 1,825 6,767

Outlying areas A.S. Guam Northern Marianas P.R. V.I.

Source: Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education, 1992, 160.

Education

363

TABLE 14.10 REVENUES FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY SOURCE OF FUNDS, 1945–1946 TO 1989–1990 In Thousands School Year

Total

Federal

Percentage Distribution Local (including intermediate)

State

Total

Federal

State

Local (including intermediate)

1945–46 1947–48 1949–50 1951–52 1953–54

3,059,845 4,311,534 5,437,044 6,423,816 7,866,852

41,378 120,270 155,848 227,711 355,237

1,062,057 1,676,362 2,165,689 2,478,596 2,944,103

1,956,409 2,514,902 3,115,507 3,717,507 4,567,512

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1.4 2.8 2.9 3.5 4.5

34.7 38.9 39.8 38.6 37.4

63.9 58.3 57.3 57.9 58.1

1955–56 1957–58 1959–60 1961–62 1963–64

9,686,677 12,181,513 14,746,618 17,527,707 20,544,182

441,442 486,484 651,639 760,975 896,956

3,828,886 4,800,368 5,768,047 6,789,190 8,078,014

5,416,350 6,894,661 8,326,932 9,977,542 11,569,213

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

4.6 4.0 4.4 4.3 4.4

39.5 39.4 39.1 38.7 39.3

55.9 56.6 56.5 56.9 56.3

1965–66 1967–68 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72

25,356,858 31,903,064 40,266,923 44,511,292 50,003,645

1,996,954 2,806,469 3,219,557 3,753,461 4,467,969

9,920,219 12,275,536 16,062,776 17,409,086 19,133,256

13,439,686 16,821,063 20,984,589 23,348,745 26,402,420

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

7.9 8.8 8.0 8.4 8.9

39.1 38.5 39.9 39.1 38.3

53.0 52.7 52.1 52.5 52.8

1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77

52,117,930 58,230,892 64,445,239 71,206,073 75,322,532

4,525,000 4,930,351 5,811,595 6,318,345 6,629,498

20,843,520 24,113,409 27,211,116 31,776,101 32,688,903

26,749,412 29,187,132 31,422,528 33,111,627 36,004,134

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

8.7 8.5 9.0 8.9 8.8

40.0 41.4 42.2 44.6 43.4

51.3 50.1 48.8 46.5 47.8

1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82

81,443,160 87,994,143 96,881,165 105,949,087 110,191,257

7,694,194 8,600,116 9,503,537 9,768,262 8,186,466

35,013,266 40,132,136 45,348,814 50,182,659 52,436,435

38,735,700 39,261,891 42,028,813 45,998,166 49,568,356

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

9.4 9.8 9.8 9.2 7.4

43.0 45.6 46.8 47.4 47.6

47.6 44.6 43.4 43.4 45.0

1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87

117,497,502 126,055,419 137,294,678 149,127,779 158,523,693

8,339,990 8,576,547 9,105,569 9,975,622 10,146,013

56,282,157 60,232,981 67,168,684 73,619,575 78,830,437

52,875,354 57,245,892 61,020,425 65,532,582 69,547,243

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

7.1 6.8 6.6 6.7 6.4

47.9 47.8 48.9 49.4 49.7

45.0 45.4 44.4 43.9 43.9

1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

169,561,974 192,016,374 207,583,910

10,716,687 11,902,001 12,750,530

84,004,415 91,768,911 98,059,659

74,840,873 88,345,462 96,773,720

100.0 100.0 100.0

6.3 6.2 6.1

49.5 47.8 47.2

44.1 46.0 46.6


TABLE 14.11 MEDIAN ANNUAL INCOME OF YEAR-ROUND FULL-TIME WORKERS 25 YEARS OLD AND OLDER, BY YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED AND SEX, 1970–1990 Elementary School Year

Total

Less Than 8 Years

8 Years

High School

8 Years or Less

College

1 to 3 Years

4 Years

1 to 3 Years

$8,514 8,945 9,462 10,401 11,225 11,511 12,301 13,120 14,199 15,198 16,101 16,938 17,496 17,685 19,120 18,881 20,003 20,863 20,777 21,065 20,902

$9,567 9,996 11,073 12,017 12,642 13,542 14,295 15,434 16,396 18,100 19,469 20,598 21,344 21,823 23,269 23,853 24,701 25,490 26,045 26,609 26,653

$11,183 11,701 12,428 13,090 13,718 14,989 15,514 16,235 17,411 19,367 20,909 22,565 23,633 24,613 25,831 26,960 28,025 29,820 30,129 31,308 31,734

4 Years

5 Years or More

Men 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

364

$9,521 10,038 11,148 12,088 12,786 13,821 14,732 15,726 16,882 18,711 20,297 21,689 22,857 23,891 25,497 26,365 27,337 28,232 29,331 30,465 30,733

$6,043 6,310 7,042 7,521 7,912 8,647 8,991 9,419 10,474 10,993 11,753 12,866 12,386 14,093 14,624 14,766 14,485 ... ... ... ...


$7,535 7,838 8,636 9,406 9,891 10,600 11,312 12,083 12,965 14,454 14,674 16,084 16,376 16,438 16,812 18,645 18,541 ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... $16,691 17,190 17,555 17,394

$13,264 13,730 14,879 15,503 16,240 17,477 18,236 19,603 20,941 22,406 24,311 26,394 28,030 29,892 31,487 32,822 34,391 35,527 36,434 38,565 39,238

$14,747 15,300 16,877 17,726 18,214 19,658 20,597 21,941 23,578 25,860 27,690 30,434 32,325 34,643 36,836 39,335 39,592 41,973 43,938 46,842 49,304

Elementary School Year

Total

Less Than 8 Years

8 Years

High School 8 Years or Less

1 to 3 Years

College

4 Years

1 to 3 Years

4 Years

5 Years or More

Women 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

5,616 5,872 6,331 6,791 7,370

3,798 3,946 4,221 4,369 5,022

4,181 4,400 4,784 5,135 5,606

... ... ... ... ...

4,655 4,889 5,253 5,513 5,919

5,580 5,808 6,166 6,623 7,150

6,604 6,815 7,020 7,593 8,072

8,156 8,451 8,736 9,057 9,523

9,581 10,581 11,036 11,340 11,790

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

8,117 8,728 9,257 10,121 11,071

5,109 5,644 6,074 6,648 7,414

5,691 6,433 6,564 7,489 7,788

... ... ... ... ...

6,355 6,800 7,387 7,996 8,555

7,777 8,377 8,894 9,769 10,513

9,126 9,475 10,157 10,634 11,854

10,349 11,010 11,605 12,347 13,441

13,138 13,569 14,338 15,310 16,693

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

12,156 13,259 14,477 15,292 16,169

7,742 8,419 8,424 9,385 9,828

8,857 9,723 10,112 10,337 10,848

... ... ... ... ...

9,676 10,043 10,661 11,131 11,843

11,537 12,332 13,240 13,787 14,569

12,954 14,343 15,594 16,536 17,007

15,143 16,322 17,405 18,452 20,257

18,100 20,148 21,449 22,877 25,076

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

17,124 17,675 18,608 19,497 20,570 21,372

9,736 10,153 ... ... ... ...

11,377 11,183 ... ... ... ...

... ... 11,018 11,358 12,188 12,251

11,836 12,267 12,939 13,104 13,923 14,429

15,481 15,947 16,549 16,810 17,528 18,319

17,989 18,516 19,946 20,845 21,631 22,227

21,389 22,412 23,399 25,187 26,709 28,017

25,928 27,279 30,060 30,136 32,050 33,750


TABLE 14.12

SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS, SPRING 1961–SPRING 1986 Item

Number of teachers, in thousands

1961 1,408

1966

1971

1976

1981

1986

1,710

2,055

2,196

2,184

2,207

Sex (percent) Men Women

31.3 68.7

31.1 69.0

34.3 65.7

32.9 67.0

33.1 66.9

31.2 68.8

Median age (years) All teachers Men Women

41 34 46

36 33 40

35 33 37

33 33 33

37 38 36

41 42 41

... ... ...

... ... ...

88.3 8.1 3.6

90.8 8.0 1.2

91.6 7.8 0.7

89.6 6.9 3.4

Race (percent) White Black Other

Marital status (percent) Single Married Widowed, divorced, or separated

22.3 68.0 9.7

22.0 69.1 9.0

19.5 71.9 8.6

20.1 71.3 8.6

18.5 73.0 8.5

12.9 75.7 11.4

Highest degree held (percent) Less than bachelor’s Bachelor’s Master’s or specialist degree Doctor’s

14.6 61.9 23.1 0.4

7.0 69.6 23.2 0.1

2.9 69.6 27.1 0.4

0.9 61.6 37.1 0.4

0.4 50.1 49.3 0.3

0.3 48.3 50.7 0.7

60.7 14

63.2 ...

56.1 9

53.1 4

8 9.1

8 5.5

12 2.4

15 3.1

College credits earned in last 3 years Percent who earned credits Mean number of credits earned Median years of teaching experience Teaching for first year (percent) Average number of pupils per class Elementary teachers, not departmentalized Elementary teachers, departmentalized Secondary teachers Mean number of students taught per day by secondary teachers

... ... 11 8.0 29 ... 28 138

... ... 8 9.1 28 ... 26 132

27 25 27 134

25 23 25 126

25 22 23 118

24 ... 25 94

(continued) Education

365

TABLE 14.12

(continued) Item

1961

1966

1971

1976

1981

1986

7.4

7.3

7.3

7.3

7.3

7.3

Average number of hours in required school day Average number of hours per week spent on all teaching duties. All teachers Elementary teachers Secondary teachers Average number of days of classroom teaching in school year Average number of nonteaching days in school year Average annual salary as classroom teacher Total income, including spouse’s (if married)

47 49 46

47 47 48

47 46 48

46 44 48

46 44 48

49 47 51

... ... $5,264 ...

181 5 $6,253 ...

181 4 $9,261 $15,021

180 5 $12,005 $19,957

180 6 $17,209 $29,831

180 5 $24,504 $43,413

Willingness to teach again (percent) Certainly would Probably would Chances about even Probably would not Certainly would not

49.9 26.9 12.5 7.9 2.8

52.6 25.4 12.9 7.1 2.0

44.9 29.5 13.0 8.9 3.7

37.5 26.1 17.5 13.4 5.6

21.8 24.6 17.6 24.0 12.0

22.7 26.3 19.8 22.0 9.3


TABLE 14.13

AVERAGE STARTING SALARIES OF PUBLIC SCHOOLTEACHERS COMPARED WITH SALARIES IN PRIVATE INDUSTRY, BY SELECTED POSITION, 1975–1990

(Except as noted, salaries represent what corporations plan to offer graduates graduating in the year shown with bachelors’ degrees. Based on a survey of approximately 200 companies.) Item and Position Salaries (dollars) Teachersa

1975

1980

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

8,233

10,764

13,366

14,500

15,460

16,500

17,500

19,400

...

20,985

College graduates: Engineering Accounting Sales—marketing Business administration

12,744 11,880 10,344 9,768

20,136 15,720 15,936 14,100

25,800 19,476 18,648 18,564

26,844 20,172 19,620 19,416

26,880 20,628 20,616 19,896

28,512 21,216 20,688 21,324

28,932 22,512 20,232 21,972

29,856 25,140 23,484 23,880

30,852 25,908 27,768 25,344

32,304 27,408 27,828 26,496

Liberal arts Chemistry Mathematics—statistics Economics—finance Computer science

9,312 11,904 10,980 10,212 ...

13,296 17,124 17,604 14,472 17,712

18,264 22,344 21,696 19,740 23,208

19,344 24,192 22,416 20,484 24,864

18,828 24,216 22,704 20,964 24,156

21,060 24,264 23,976 22,284 26,172

20,508 27,048 25,548 21,984 26,280

25,608 27,108 28,416 23,928 26,904

26,364 27,552 28,944 25,812 28,608

... 29,088 ... 26,712 29,100

a Estimate. Minimum mean salary. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1991, 146.

366


Education

367

3,010 2,111 ... 3,556 1,801 ... 2,821 3,558 3,273 3,920 2,958 1,963 ... 2,481 3,458 3,401 2,420 2,628 1,936 2,983 2,115 3,594 3,338 3,420 3,013 1,416 2,581 2,962 2,292 3,209 2,712 3,511 3,215 3,706 2,688 2,324 3,088 2,736 3,323 3,006 3,294 1,891 2,064 2,302 3,122 3,103 2,348 2,328 3,487 2,425 3,007 2,798

1949–50 5,174 4,002 6,859 5,590 3,295 6,600 4,997 6,008 5,800 6,280 5,080 3,904 5,390 4,216 5,814 5,542 4,030 4,450 3,327 4,978 3,694 5,557 5,545 5,654 5,275 3,314 4,536 4,425 3,876 5,693 4,455 5,871 5,382 6,537 4,178 3,695 5,124 4,659 5,535 5,308 5,499 3,450 3,725 3,929 4,708 5,096 4,466 4,312 5,643 3,952 4,870 4,937

1959–60 8,840 6,954 10,993 8,975 6,445 9,980 7,900 9,400 9,300 11,075 8,600 7,372 9,829 7,257 9,950 9,574 8,200 7,811 7,624 7,220 8,059 9,885 9,175 10,125 9,957 6,012 8,091 8,100 7,855 9,689 8,018 9,500 8,125 10,200 7,744 6,900 8,594 7,139 9,200 9,000 8,900 7,000 6,700 7,290 7,503 8,049 8,225 8,200 9,500 7,850 9,150 8,532

1969–70 16,715 13,338 27,697 16,180 12,704 18,626 16,840 16,989 16,845 23,027 14,875 14,547 20,436 14,110 18,271 16,256 15,776 14,513 15,350 14,020 13,743 18,308 18,900 20,682 16,654 12,274 14,543 15,080 14,236 17,290 13,508 18,851 15,406 20,400 14,445 13,684 16,100 13,500 16,996 17,060 18,425 13,670 13,010 14,193 14,729 17,403 13,300 14,655 19,735 14,395 16,335 16,830

1979–80

Current Dollars

supervisors, principals, classroom teachers, and other instructional staff. Source: Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education, 1990, 86–87.

1,441 744 ... 1,544 584 2,351 1,393 1,861 1,684 2,350 1,012 770 ... 1,057 1,700 1,433 1,017 1,014 826 1,006 894 1,642 2,037 1,576 1,276 559 1,159 1,184 829 1,557 1,258 2,093 1,144 2,604 946 745 1,587 1,014 1,333 1,640 1,809 743 807 862 1,079 1,394 981 899 1,706 1,170 1,379 1,169

United States Ala. Alaska Ariz. Ark. Calif. Colo. Conn. Del. D.C. Fla. Ga. Hawaii Idaho Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky. La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich. Minn. Miss. Mo. Mont. Nebr. Nev. N.H. N.J. N.Mex. N.Y. N.C. N.Dak. Ohio Okla. Oreg. Pa. R.I. S.C. S.Dak. Tenn. Tex. Utah Vt. Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wyo.

aIncludes

1939–40

Area

State or Other

29,231 24,210 41,531 30,550 21,097 34,304 29,626 34,802 30,614 39,616 27,052 27,606 29,510 23,105 30,673 27,188 25,592 26,309 25,327 21,802 24,161 31,932 35,327 33,151 30,960 21,175 25,666 28,042 24,100 28,860 24,690 32,110 24,797 35,400 25,900 22,370 29,322 22,400 29,300 29,881 33,326 25,608 21,420 24,536 26,572 23,655 25,525 27,833 29,468 22,711 30,958 28,327

1987–88 31,003 26,150 42,818 31,985 22,193 35,882 34,918 38,708 32,736 42,310 28,697 29,752 31,945 23,640 32,207 30,357 26,590 29,248 26,026 23,150 25,779 35,072 37,898 35,741 31,750 23,297 27,020 28,415 25,335 30,150 27,448 34,627 25,003 38,100 26,833 22,994 30,934 23,200 30,680 31,555 35,564 26,762 21,250 26,512 27,565 23,955 27,265 29,667 30,527 22,897 32,500 28,844

1988–89 32,574 26,700 43,500 33,592 22,693 37,640 35,586 41,909 34,700 42,814 30,197 31,685 32,956 24,444 34,139 30,472 27,619 30,154 27,431 23,754 27,829 37,515 40,377 37,286 33,340 25,156 28,381 29,526 26,198 31,810 28,958 37,777 25,988 40,300 28,947 23,788 32,380 23,944 31,887 33,219 36,704 28,266 22,120 27,949 28,558 24,793 29,159 31,862 31,825 23,842 33,788 29,304

1989–90 13,093 6,760 ... 14,029 5,306 21,361 12,657 16,909 15,301 21,352 9,195 6,996 ... 9,604 15,446 13,020 9,240 9,213 7,505 9,140 8,123 14,919 18,508 14,319 11,594 5,079 10,531 10,758 7,532 14,147 11,430 19,017 10,394 23,660 8,595 6,769 14,419 9,213 12,111 14,901 16,436 6,751 7,332 7,832 9,804 12,666 8,913 8,168 15,500 10,630 12,529 10,621

1939–40 16,138 11,318 ... 19,065 9,656 ... 15,125 19,076 17,548 21,017 15,859 10,525 ... 13,302 18,540 18,234 12,975 14,090 10,380 15,993 11,339 19,269 17,896 18,336 16,154 7,592 13,838 15,881 12,288 17,205 14,540 18,824 17,237 19,869 14,412 12,460 16,556 14,669 17,816 16,116 17,661 10,138 11,066 12,342 16,738 16,637 12,589 12,481 18,695 13,001 16,122 15,001

1949–50 22,359 17,294 29,640 24,156 14,239 28,521 21,594 25,963 25,064 27,138 21,953 16,871 23,292 18,219 25,124 23,949 17,415 19,230 14,377 21,512 15,963 24,014 23,962 24,433 22,795 14,321 19,602 19,122 16,750 24,602 19,252 25,371 23,258 28,249 18,055 15,967 22,143 20,133 23,919 22,938 23,763 14,909 16,097 16,979 20,345 22,022 19,299 18,634 24,386 17,078 21,045 21,335

1959–60 29,714 23,375 36,951 30,168 21,664 33,546 26,555 31,597 31,261 37,227 28,908 24,780 33,039 24,393 33,445 32,182 27,563 26,256 25,627 24,269 27,089 33,227 30,840 34,034 33,469 20,208 27,197 27,227 26,403 32,568 22,093 31,933 27,311 34,286 26,030 23,193 28,887 23,997 30,924 30,252 29,916 23,529 22,521 24,504 25,220 27,056 27,647 27,563 31,933 26,387 30,756 28,679

1969–70 27,339 21,815 45,301 26,464 20,778 30,464 27,543 27,787 27,551 37,663 24,329 23,793 33,425 23,078 29,884 26,588 25,803 23,737 25,106 22,931 22,478 29,944 30,912 33,827 27,239 20,075 23,786 24,665 23,284 28,279 26,951 30,832 25,198 33,366 23,626 22,381 26,333 22,080 27,798 27,903 30,136 22,358 21,279 23,214 24,090 28,464 21,753 23,969 32,278 23,544 26,717 27,527

1979–80

Constant 1989–90 Dollars

32,040 26,537 45,522 33,486 23,125 37,601 32,473 38,147 33,556 43,423 29,652 30,259 33,346 25,326 33,621 29,801 28,052 28,837 27,761 23,897 26,483 35,001 38,722 36,337 33,935 23,210 28,133 30,737 26,416 31,634 27,063 35,196 27,180 38,802 28,389 24,520 32,140 24,553 32,116 32,753 36,529 28,069 23,479 26,894 29,126 25,928 27,978 30,508 32,300 24,894 33,933 31,049

1987–88

32,482 27,398 44,861 33,511 23,252 37,594 36,584 40,555 34,298 44,329 30,066 31,172 33,469 24,768 33,744 31,806 27,859 30,644 27,268 24,255 27,009 36,746 39,706 37,446 33,265 24,409 28,309 29,771 26,544 31,589 28,758 36,279 26,196 39,918 28,113 24,091 32,410 24,307 32,144 33,061 37,261 28,039 22,264 27,777 28,880 25,098 28,566 31,083 31,984 23,990 34,051 30,220

1988–89

TABLE 14.14 AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARY OF INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY STATE, 1939–1940 TO 1988–1989a

TABLE 14.15 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS AND PUPIL-TEACHER RATIOS, BY LEVEL, FALL 1955–FALL 1990 Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools Year


Elementary

Secondary

Public Elementary and Secondary Schools Kindergarten to Grade 12

Elementary

Private Elementary and Secondary Schools

Secondary


Elementary

Secondary

Number of Teachers, in Thousands 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

1,286 1,354 1,424 1,475 1,531

827 854 898 931 952

459 499 526 544 580

1,141 1,199 1,259 1,306 1,355

733 751 786 815 832

408 447 473 491 524

145 155 165 169 176

94 103 112 116 120

51 52 53 53 56

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

1,600 1,643 1,708 1,790 1,865

991 992 1,021 1,050 1,086

609 651 686 739 779

1,408 1,461 1,508 1,578 1,648

858 869 886 908 940

550 592 621 669 708

192 182 200 212 217

133 123 135 142 146

59 59 65 70 71

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

1,933 2,012 2,079 2,161 2,245

1,112 1,153 1,188 1,223 1,260

822 859 891 938 986

1,710 1,789 1,855 1,936 2,016

965 1,006 1,040 1,076 1,109

746 783 815 860 908

223 223 224 225 229

147 147 148 147 151

76 76 76 78 78

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

2,292 2,293 2,337 2,372 2,410

1,283 1,263 1,296 1,308 1,330

1,009 1,030 1,041 1,064 1,079

2,059 2,063 2,106 2,136 2,165

1,130 1,111 1,142 1,151 1,166

929 952 964 985 998

233 230 231 236 245

153 152 154 157 164

80 78 77 79 81

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

2,453 2,457 2,488 2,479 2,461

1,353 1,351 1,375 1,376 1,379

1,100 1,106 1,113 1,103 1,082

2,198 2,189 2,209 2,207 2,185

1,181 1,168 1,185 1,191 1,191

1,017 1,021 1,024 1,016 994

255 268 279 272 276

172 183 190 185 188

83 85 89 87 88

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

2,486 2,440 2,458 2,476 2,508

1,402 1,404 1,413 1,426 1,451

1,084 1,037 1,045 1,050 1,057

2,185 2,127 2,133 2,139 2,168

1,190 1,183 1,182 1,186 1,208

995 945 951 953 960

301 313 325 337 340

212 221 231 240 243

89 92 94 97 97

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

2,549 2,592 2,632 2,668 2,734

1,483 1,521 1,564 1,604 1,662

1,066 1,071 1,068 1,064 1,072

2,206 2,244 2,279 2,323 2,357

1,237 1,271 1,307 1,353 1,387

969 973 973 970 970

343 348 353 345 377

246 250 257 251 275

97 98 95 94 102

1990

2,751

1,680

1,072

2,397

1,426

972

354

254

100

Pupil-Teacher Ratios 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

27.4 27.0 26.8 26.8 26.7

31.4 30.7 30.3 30.0 30.0

20.3 20.8 20.9 21.4 21.2

26.9 26.5 26.2 26.1 26.0

30.2 29.6 29.1 28.7 28.7

20.9 21.2 21.3 21.7 21.5

31.7 31.6 31.5 32.5 32.2

40.4 38.8 38.4 38.8 38.7

15.7 17.3 17.0 18.9 18.5

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

26.4 26.4 26.3 26.0 25.6

29.4 29.6 29.5 29.3 28.7

21.4 21.5 21.4 21.2 21.2

25.8 25.6 25.7 25.5 25.1

28.4 28.3 28.5 28.4 27.9

21.7 21.7 21.7 21.5 21.5

30.7 32.5 30.5 29.7 29.0

36.1 39.0 36.3 35.2 34.2

18.6 19.0 18.5 18.6 18.3

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

25.1 24.5 24.0 23.5 22.7

28.4 27.7 26.9 26.0 25.1

20.6 20.2 20.1 20.2 19.7

24.7 24.1 23.7 23.2 22.6

27.6 26.9 26.3 25.4 24.7

20.8 20.3 20.3 20.4 20.0

28.3 27.8 26.8 25.8 24.0

33.3 32.7 31.1 29.9 27.8

18.4 18.4 18.4 17.9 16.7

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

22.4 22.4 21.7 21.3 20.8

24.6 25.0 23.9 23.0 22.6

19.5 19.1 18.9 19.1 18.5

22.3 22.3 21.7 21.3 20.8

24.3 24.9 23.9 23.0 22.6

19.8 19.3 19.1 19.3 18.7

23.0 22.6 21.6 21.2 20.4

26.5 25.7 24.0 23.6 22.6

16.4 16.7 16.9 16.5 16.0

368


Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools Year

Public Elementary and Secondary Schools

Private Elementary and Secondary Schools


Elementary

Secondary


Elementary

Secondary


1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

20.3 20.1 19.6 19.2 19.0

21.7 21.7 20.9 20.9 20.5

18.6 18.3 17.9 17.1 17.0

20.4 20.2 19.7 19.3 19.1

21.7 21.8 21.1 21.0 20.6

18.8 18.5 18.2 17.3 17.2

19.6 19.3 18.4 18.7 18.1

21.5 20.9 20.0 20.2 19.7

15.7 15.8 15.1 15.6 14.8

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

18.6 18.7 18.4 18.2 17.9

20.1 20.0 19.8 19.6 19.3

16.6 16.8 16.4 16.2 16.0

18.7 18.8 18.6 18.4 18.1

20.3 20.3 20.2 19.9 19.7

16.8 16.9 16.6 16.4 16.1

17.7 17.6 17.2 17.0 16.8

18.8 18.6 18.2 18.0 17.7

15.0 15.2 14.9 14.4 14.4

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

17.6 17.4 17.3 17.0 16.8

19.1 18.8 18.8 18.6 18.4

15.6 15.5 15.0 14.7 14.3

17.9 17.7 17.6 17.3 17.2

19.5 19.3 19.3 19.0 19.0

15.8 15.7 15.2 14.9 14.6

16.2 15.7 15.5 15.2 14.2

17.1 16.5 16.4 16.1 15.1

14.0 13.6 13.1 12.8 11.7

1990

16.9

18.5

14.3

17.2

19.0

14.6

14.7

16.0

11.3

Elementary

Secondary


TABLE 14.16 MICROCOMPUTERS FOR STUDENT INSTRUCTION IN ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 1981–1990 Public Schools Number of Schools (1,000)

Year

ElemenTotal tary Junior

1981 84.2 1982 82.4 1983 81.5 1984 81.1 1985 80.8 1986 80.5 1987 80.6 1988 80.8 1989 81.7 1990, total 82.0 Number 2,028.7 of micros Students 20.9 per micro

Private Schools

Percent with Micros

Senior

Total

Elementary Junior Senior

Number Students Number Percent Number Students of Micros per of Schools with of Micros per (1,000) Micro (1,000) Micros (1,000) Micro

53.3 51.9 51.3 51.0 50.8 50.7 50.9 51.0 49.5 49.7 863.0

10.1 9.9 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.7 9.7 9.8 11.5 11.7 369.8

15.6 15.3 15.2 15.2 15.1 15.1 15.0 15.0 13.7 13.8 646.5

18.2 30.0 68.4 85.1 92.2 95.6 96.4 97.1 97.0 97.2 ...

11.1 20.2 62.4 82.2 91.0 94.9 96.0 96.8 96.8 97.3 ...

25.6 39.8 80.5 93.1 97.3 98.5 98.6 98.8 98.5 98.4 ...

42.7 57.8 86.1 94.6 97.4 98.7 99.0 99.1 99.1 98.8 ...

... ... 324.4 569.8 842.6 1,081.9 1,354.0 1,522.9 1,706.4 2,028.7 ...

... ... 92.3 63.5 45.5 36.5 30.8 26.9 24.1 20.9 ...

... ... 22.8 24.4 23.4 22.7 22.7 22.3 23.4 22.3 241.8

... ... 23.8 53.0 70.3 77.1 78.7 82.8 81.8 88.2 ...

... ... ... 62.2 101.2 129.2 151.1 185.5 222.8 241.8 ...

... ... ... 56.2 41.6 33.7 28.8 23.5 20.1 19.5 ...

25.6

19.2

16.4

...

...

...

...

...

...

19.5

...

.. .

...


TABLE 14.17 PRIVATE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY ENROLLMENT AND SCHOOLS, BY AMOUNT OF TUITION, LEVEL, AND ORIENTATION OF SCHOOL, 1987–1988 Kindergarten Through 12th Grade Enrollment

Average Tuition Paid by Students (dollars)

Schools

Orientation and Tuition

Total

Elementary

Secondary

Combined

Total

Elementary

Secondary

Combined

Total

Elementary

Secondary

Combined

Total Catholic Less than $1,000 $1,000 to $2,499 $2,500 or more Other religious Less than $1,000 $1,000 to $2,499 $2,500 or more Non-sectarian Less than $1,000 $1,000 to $2,499 $2,500 or more

5,479,368 2,901,809 1,230,392 1,456,418 214,998 1,714,852 283,399 1,034,471 396,984 862,707 96,326 214,168 552,214

3,174,760 2,096,779 1,186,981 881,701 ... 768,372 169,765 480,903 117,704 309,609 ... 73,424 219,304

896,478 731,922 ... 556,150 ... 93,058 ... ... 74,027 71,498 ... ... 66,144

1,408,132 73,107 ... ... ... 853,424 110,996 537,175 205,253 481,601 74,401 140,434 266,766

26,807 9,527 4,860 4,113 554 12,132 4,407 6,377 1,347 5,148 805 1,388 2,984

17,087 7,760 4,619 3,017 ... 6,859 2,794 3,497 568 2,468 ... 836 1,518

2,425 1,420 ... 1,037 ... 501 ... ... 360 504 ... ... 428

7,296 348 ... ... ... 4,771 1,601 2,751 419 2,177 619 520 1,038

1,915 1,327 ... ... ... 1,941 ... ... ... 3,839 ... ... ...

1,357 1,005 ... ... ... 1,619 ... ... ... 3,091 ... ... ...

2,552 2,045 ... ... ... 3,592 ... ... ... 6,391 ... ... ...

2,767 3,382 ... ... ... 2,052 ... ... ... 3,941 ... ... ...


Education

369

TABLE 14.18 SUMMARY STATISTICS ON CATHOLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS, BY LEVEL, 1949–1950 TO 1989–1990 Number of Schools

Enrollment

Instructional Staff

School Year

Total

Elementary

Secondary

Total

Elementary

Secondary

Total

Elementary

Secondary

1949–50 Fall 1960

10,778 12,893

8,589 10,501

2,189 2,392

3,066,387 5,253,791

2,560,815 4,373,422

505,572 880,369

94,295 151,902

66,525 108,169

27,770 43,733

1969–70 1970–71 1974–75 1975–76 1979–80

11,771 11,350 10,127 9,993 9,640

9,695 9,370 8,437 8,340 8,100

2,076 1,980 1,690 1,653 1,540

4,658,098 4,363,566 3,504,000 3,415,000 3,139,000

3,607,168 3,355,478 2,602,000 2,525,000 2,293,000

1,050,930 1,008,088 902,000 890,000 846,000

195,400 166,208 150,179 149,276 147,294

133,200 112,750 100,011 99,319 97,724

62,200 53,458 50,168 49,957 49,570

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

9,559 9,494 9,432 9,380 9,325

8,043 7,996 7,950 7,917 7,876

1,516 1,498 1,482 1,463 1,449

3,106,000 3,094,000 3,026,000 2,969,000 2,903,000

2,269,000 2,266,000 2,225,000 2,179,000 2,119,000

837,000 828,000 801,000 790,000 784,000

145,777 146,172 146,460 146,913 149,888

96,739 96,847 97,337 98,591 99,820

49,038 49,325 49,123 48,322 50,068

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

9,220 9,102 8,992 8,867 8,719

7,790 7,693 7,601 7,505 7,395

1,430 1,409 1,391 1,362 1,324

2,821,000 2,726,000 2,623,000 2,551,000 2,499,000

2,061,000 1,998,000 1,942,000 1,912,000 1,894,000

760,000 728,000 681,000 639,000 606,000

146,594 141,930 139,887 137,700 136,900

96,741 93,554 93,199 93,154 94,197

49,853 48,376 46,688 44,546 42,703


TABLE 14.19 SCHOLASTIC APTITUDE TEST SCORE AVERAGES, BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 1975–1976 TO 1989–1990 Racial/Ethnic Background

1975– 1976– 1977– 1978– 1979– 1980– 1981– 1982– 1983– 1984– 1986– 1987– 1988– 1989– 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 90 SAT—Verbala

All students

431

429

429

427

424

424

426

425

426

431

430

428

427

424

White Black Mexican-American Puerto Rican Asian-American American Indian Other

451 332 371 364 414 388 410

448 330 370 355 405 390 402

446 332 370 349 401 387 399

444 330 370 345 396 386 393

442 330 372 350 396 390 394

442 332 373 353 397 391 388

444 341 377 360 398 388 392

443 339 375 358 395 388 386

445 342 376 358 398 390 388

449 346 382 368 404 392 391

447 351 379 360 405 393 405

445 353 382 355 408 393 410

446 351 381 360 409 384 414

442 352 380 359 410 388 410

SAT—Mathematicala All students

472

470

468

467

466

466

467

468

471

475

476

476

476

476

White Black Mexican-American Puerto Rican Asian-American American Indian Other

493 354 410 401 518 420 458

489 357 408 397 514 421 457

485 354 402 388 510 419 450

483 358 410 388 511 421 447

482 360 413 394 509 426 449

483 362 415 398 513 425 447

483 366 416 403 513 424 449

484 369 417 403 514 425 446

487 373 420 405 519 427 450

490 376 426 409 518 428 448

489 377 424 400 521 432 455

490 384 428 402 522 435 460

491 386 430 406 525 428 467

491 385 429 405 528 437 467

a Minimum score 200; maximum score 800. Source: Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education, 1992, 125.

Aspects of Education: An International Comparison Comparative international statistics, of course, depend upon many variables, one of which involved the countries with which the United States compared itself. Nations in the tables listed below varied, but as a rule they included countries with which the United States has had the most in common: Western European nations mostly, along with Canada and Japan. Although the tables stand in isolation, their results were generally consistent with competitive measurements taken in other years. The United States by far had the largest number of students among the nations listed (China, India, and the Soviet Union did not appear) 370


and had by far the largest expenditure. In expenditure per pupil the United States ranked high: near the top—fourth out of 21—in 1980; second in 1989. In expenditure as a percent of government spending, the nation stood in the upper-middle rank in most years between 1960 and 1980 and near the top during the 1980s. In expenditure as a percent of Gross National Product, the United States ranked in the upper-middle class of nations. In number of students per teacher the nation also stood in the upper-middle ranks—the fewer the students per teacher, the higher the rank. The United States spent huge sums of money for education, but in terms of its wealth and extent of government expenditure, the nation stood higher than average, but not the highest. In selected international testing, American 12th grade students ranked low, near the bottom, in all aspects of mathematics: average score, algebra, geometry, and calculus. In fifth grade science and ninth

grade science, American students also were near the bottom. In a test of geographic knowledge Americans age 18–24 ranked rock-bottom in a group that included Japan, Canada, Mexico, and five western European countries. Older age groups performed slightly

better. American geographic knowledge, never good at any time, seemingly with each succeeding generation became progressively worse. It would appear, in sum, that results of education in the United States were not commensurate with its expenditure of funds.

TABLE 14.20 PUPILS PER TEACHER IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS— SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1970–1989 All Schools

Elementary Schools

Secondary Schools

Country

1970

1980

1985

1989

1970

1980

1985

1989

1970

Australia Brazil Canada China Egypt France Germany, (former) West Indonesia Iran, Islamic Republic of Italy Japan Korea Mexico Nigeria Pakistan Philippines Poland Spain Sweden Thailand United Kingdom United States USSR Yugoslavia

... ... 20.9 30.1 33.2 20.0 19.4 30.1 32.8 15.6 21.8 49.9 34.8 32.3 32.1 29.4 17.5 28.5 13.6 30.5 19.6 22.4 ... 24.3

16.0 23.5 ... 23.4 ... 21.4 ... 26.7 ... 12.3 20.9 43.5 30.2 35.7 27.9 ... 16.6 23.9 ... ... ... 18.9 ... 20.2

13.9 22.3 ... 22.1 26.2 ... ... 21.8 ... 10.8 20.5 36.2 26.1 ... ... 31.2 14.0 22.6 ... ... ... 17.8 ... 19.6

14.6 21.6 14.9 19.4 24.0 13.7 14.8 20.2 21.6 10.1 18.8 29.7 24.5 32.1 30.8 33.1 14.0 22.3 ... 18.2 ... 17.0 ... 18.7

28.0 23.6 23.4 33.3 38.0 26.0 25.5 28.9 32.4 21.6 26.2 56.9 45.9 34.1 41.5 28.6 23.0 34.0 20.0 34.7 23.3 24.6 10.9 27.1

18.8 25.6 ... 26.6 ... 24.0 ... 32.4 ... 16.2 25.1 47.5 39.1 37.2 36.5 ... 19.7 28.3 ... 24.7 18.9 20.7 9.4 24.1

15.9 23.8 37.5 24.9 31.9 20.3 17.0 25.3 21.9 13.5 23.9 38.3 33.6 44.1 38.7 30.9 15.6 25.3 ... 19.3 17.6 19.5 9.4 23.6

16.8 23.0 15.7 22.3 29.9 15.7 17.5 23.6 24.4 12.2 21.2 35.6 31.1 36.9 41.1 33.0 15.6 24.7 6.2 18.7 20.5 18.0 8.3 22.6

... 13.2 16.9 21.8 25.0 15.8 12.3 13.1 34.2 11.5 18.4 36.5 14.5 21.2 19.8 33.1 10.2 21.5 10.1 15.5 15.9 19.6 19.6 22.4

1980

1985

1989

12.9 14.2 ... 17.9 24.0 19.6 ... 14.9 ... 10.2 17.2 39.1 17.7 28.8 17.5 34.1 12.0 20.9 ... ... ... 17.3 ... 18.5

12.1 14.6 ... 17.2 20.4 ... ... 15.3 ... 9.5 17.9 34.3 17.2 ... ... 32.3 10.6 21.0 ... ... ... 16.3 ... 17.7

12.6 14.4 14.2 14.8 18.0 12.4 14.0 14.8 17.7 9.2 17.1 25.2 16.9 19.9 19.3 33.4 10.8 20.9 ... 16.8 ... 15.7 ... 16.9


TABLE 14.21 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY ENROLLMENT AND CURRENT EXPENDITURES—SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1980 AND 1989 1980

Country

Pre- elementary, Elementary and Secondary Enrollment

Pre-elementary, Elementary and Secondary Expenditures in Millions of U.S. Dollars

1989

Expenditure per Student

Pre-elementary Elementary and Secondary Enrollment

Pre-elementary Elementary and Secondary Expenditures in Millions of U.S. Dollars

Expenditure per Student

United States Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark

46,208,481 2,984,562 1,305,710 2,061,596 4,814,413 996,515

94,321 4,749 2,498 3,877 10,973 1,993

2,041 1,591 1,913 1,881 2,279 2,000

45,897,707 2,982,727 1,161,092 1,905,874 5,074,654 898,347

187,384 6,552 4,195 4,804 18,929 3,598

4,083 2,197 3,613 2,521 3,730 4,005

Finland France Germany, (former West) Ireland Italy

848,794 12,007,492 10,881,123 858,132 11,601,354

1,436 17,367 18,750 719 11,287

1,692 1,446 1,723 838 973

849,421 12,071,005 10,253,112 908,211 10,512,792

2,868 29,971 25,497 1,276 20,634

3,377 2,483 2,487 1,405 1,963

Japan Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal

23,791,229 3,134,403 790,547 829,151 1,738,805

27,911 5,239 837 1,468 1,183

1,173 1,671 1,058 1,770 680

23,224,369 2,717,945 717,994 797,174 1,677,389

52,090 6,558 1,202 2,659 2,580

2,243 2,413 1,675 3,336 1,538

Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom

8,768,795 1,500,083 1,030,847 7,879,094 10,578,973

3,594 3,624 2,751 1,136 16,231

410 2,416 2,669 144 1,534

9,099,233 1,484,327 894,854 10,581,118 9,496,878

8,531 5,997 4,336 20,672 27,517

938 4,040 4,845 1,954 2,897


Education

371

TABLE 14.22 PUBLIC EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATION AS A PERCENTAGE OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES FOR ALL PURPOSES—SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1960–1989 Country

1960

1970

1975

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

Australia Canada Chile France Germany, (former) Federal Republic of Hungary Italy Japan Mexico Netherlands Nigeria Norway Sweden Thailand United Kingdom United States USSR (former) Yugoslavia

... 14.3 12.6 ...

13.3 24.1 22.0 ...

14.8 17.8 12.0 ...

14.8 17.3 11.9 ...

14.5 17.0 ... ...

14.0 ... ... ...

13.6 ... ... 18.0

13.2 15.2 ... ...

12.8 12.7 15.3 ...

12.6 15.5 ... ...

12.5 15.4 ... ...

... 15.9 ... ...

... 15.3 ... ...

... 8.4 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15.1 11.7 ...

9.2 6.9 11.9 20.4 8.5 ... ... 15.5 ... 17.3 14.1 20.3 12.8 23.3

10.7 4.2 9.4 22.4 11.9 23.7 ... 14.7 13.4 21.0 14.3 18.1 12.9 24.4

10.1 5.2 ... 19.6 16.7 23.1 ... 13.8 14.1 20.6 13.9 19.9 11.2 32.5

... 5.5 ... 19.4 17.2 19.6 ... 13.5 13.9 20.0 12.2 19.1 10.9 ...

... 5.8 ... 19.1 14.6 18.8 9.6 13.5 13.0 20.1 11.9 18.1 10.3 ...

9.5 6.6 9.6 18.7 6.4 18.1 9.3 12.9 12.5 21.1 11.5 17.7 10.2 ...

9.2 6.4 8.5 18.1 ... 16.8 11.6 12.8 12.2 ... 11.3 17.7 10.2 ...

9.2 6.4 8.3 17.9 13.2 16.4 8.7 13.6 12.6 18.5 ... 17.3 ... ...

9.2 6.4 8.3 17.7 ... ... 12.0 13.6 12.6 19.4 ... 17.5 ... ...

9.0 6.3 ... 16.8 8.0 ... ... 13.8 12.8 17.9 ... 17.5 ... ...

8.8 6.4 ... 16.2 7.6 ... ... 13.5 12.3 16.6 ... 17.6 ... ...

... 7.1 ... ... ... ... ... 13.4 13.1 ... ... 18.2 ... ...


TABLE 14.23 PUBLIC EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATION AS A PERCENT OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT— SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1960–1989 Country

1960

1970

1975

1980

1981

1982

Australia Canada Chile France Germany, (former) Federal Republic of Hungary Italy Japan Mexico Netherlands Nigeria Norway Sweden Thailand United Kingdom United States USSR Yugoslavia

2.9 4.6 2.7 2.4

4.2 8.9 5.1 4.9

6.5 7.6 4.1 5.2

5.9 7.3 4.6 5.0

5.9 7.8 5.4 5.6

5.9 8.3 5.7 5.8

... 4.4 3.6 4.1 1.3 4.9 2.2 4.2 4.6 2.5 4.3 4.0 5.9 2.5

3.5 4.4 4.0 3.9 2.4 7.3 ... 6.0 7.7 3.5 5.3 5.9 6.8 4.9

5.1 4.1 4.1 5.5 3.6 8.2 4.3 7.1 7.3 3.5 6.6 6.6 7.6 5.4

4.7 4.7 ... 5.8 3.0 7.9 ... 7.2 9.0 3.4 5.6 5.8 7.3 4.7

4.7 5.1 ... 5.9 4.2 7.8 5.5 6.9 9.2 3.7 5.5 5.4 6.9 4.5

4.6 5.0 ... 5.6 5.2 7.6 2.1 7.0 9.0 3.9 5.4 5.6 6.7 4.4

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

6.3 7.7 4.9 5.8

6.0 7.2 4.8 5.8

5.9 7.0 4.4 5.8

5.7 7.5 ... 5.6

5.5 7.3 3.6 5.5

... 7.2 3.6 5.3

... 7.0 ... ...

4.8 5.8 4.8 5.6 2.8 7.4 1.6 7.0 8.4 3.9 5.2 5.6 6.8 3.7

4.6 5.4 5.1 5.2 2.5 6.8 1.2 6.7 8.0 ... 5.1 5.5 6.8 3.5

4.5 5.4 5.0 5.1 3.8 6.8 1.0 6.5 7.7 3.9 4.9 5.5 7.0 3.4

4.4 5.7 5.0 5.0 3.8 6.9 1.5 6.8 7.5 3.8 5.0 5.6 7.2 3.8

4.4 5.5 ... 4.9 3.4 7.3 ... 7.1 7.3 3.6 4.9 5.7 7.5 4.2

4.2 5.4 ... 4.8 3.3 6.8 ... 7.4 6.7 3.2 4.7 5.7 7.8 3.6

... 6.0 ... ... 3.8 ... ... 7.5 7.3 ... ... 5.8 7.9 4.4


TABLE 14.24 SCIENCE TEST SCORES FOR 10- AND 14-YEAR-OLDS, PERCENTAGE OF AGE GROUPS IN SCHOOL, AND MEAN AGES OF STUDENTS TESTED IN SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1983–1986 10-Year-Olds

Country

Grade Tested

Average Test Scores

Australia Canada (English) England Finland Hong Kong Hungary Italy Japan Korea (South) Netherlands Norway Philippines Poland Singapore Sweden Thailand United States

4,5,6 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 ... 4 5 4 5 4 ... 5

12.9 13.7 11.7 15.3 11.2 14.4 13.4 15.4 15.4 ... 12.7 9.5 11.9 11.2 14.7 ... 13.2

14-Year-Olds

Percent of Mean Age Standard Age Group in Years Deviation of Grade in school and Months age in Months Tested 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ... 99 97 99 99 99 ... 99

10:6 11:1 10:3 10:1 10:5 10:3 10:9 10:7 11:2 ... 10:1 11:1 10:1 10:1 10:1 ... 11:3


372


3.3 7.1 3.6 4.1 9.8 5.2 5.2 3.5 7.4 ... 4.0 11.3 5.4 5.7 4.1 ... 6.9

8,9,10 9 9 8 8 8 8,9 9 9 9 9 9 8 9 8 9 9

Average Test Scores 17.8 18.6 16.7 18.5 16.4 21.7 16.7 20.2 18.1 19.8 17.9 11.5 18.1 16.5 18.4 16.5 16.5

Percent of Mean Age Age Group in Years in School and Months 98 99 98 99 99 98 99 99 99 99 99 60 91 91 99 32 99

14:5 15:0 14:2 14:1 14:7 14:3 14:7 14:7 15:0 15:6 15:1 16:1 15:0 15:3 14:9 15:4 15:4

Standard Deviation of Age in Months 3.3 6.1 3.6 4.1 10.9 4.7 5.4 3.5 7.2 12.5 4.0 18.9 5.8 9.0 3.8 8.9 9.1

TABLE 14.25 INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS TEST SCORES AND PERCENTAGE OF AGE GROUP TAKING TESTS IN THE 12TH GRADE—SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1981–1982

Average Age of Students

Percent of Age Group Taking Test

Percent of Analysis items Students had Been Taught

Average Score

Algebra

17

16

76

57.1

57.6

57.2

56.4

17 17

10 10

88 ...

56.3 54.2

57.5 55.3

55.9 53.6

55.5 53.7

17 18 17

30 19 6

32 83 85

57.3 59.4 55.5

60.9 59.6 54.9

59.2 59.3 55.5

51.8 59.4 56.1

Finland Hungary Israel Japan New Zealand

18 17 17 17 17

15 50 6 12 11

87 67 78 92 93

60.5 59.9 50.0 65.0 57.2

60.7 60.9 51.5 63.7 56.8

59.8 61.1 47.7 64.9 57.0

61.0 57.7 50.9 66.5 57.7

Scotland Sweden Thailand United States

16 18 ... 17

18 12 ... 13

... 86 63 54

55.7 58.9 ... 52.2

56.2 58.5 ... 52.8

58.0 59.0 ... 53.0

52.9 59.2 ... 50.9

Country or Province Average Belgium Flemish French Canada British Columbia Ontario England and Wales

Achievement Scores for Top 5 Percent of Age Group Geometry

Analysis (calculus)


TABLE 14.26 MEAN NUMBER OF AREAS CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED IN A TEST OF GEOGRAPHY KNOWLEDGE, BY COUNTRY AND AGE, 1988 Age Country

18–24

25–34

35–44

45–54

Canada France Germany,West Italy Japan Mexico Sweden United Kingdom United States

9.3 9.2 11.2 9.3 9.5 8.2 11.9 9.0 6.9

9.2 9.6 11.2 9.3 10.8 6.9 12.3 8.4 8.8

10.5 10.1 11.0 8.4 10.5 7.6 12.5 9.2 9.6

8.3 9.0 11.8 7.8 9.7 6.4 11.5 8.9 8.8

55 and Over 8.7 8.8 10.9 5.5 7.9 5.7 10.3 7.8 8.4


TABLE 14.27 AVERAGE GRADE THAT THE PUBLIC WOULD GIVE THE SCHOOLS IN THEIR COMMUNITY AND IN THE NATION AT LARGE, 1974–1990 a All Adults

No Children in School

Year

Nation

Local Community

Nation

Local Community

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1.94 2.01 1.91 2.09 2.14 2.13 2.18 2.08 2.01 1.99

2.63 2.38 2.38 2.33 2.21 2.21 2.26 2.20 2.24 2.12 2.36 2.39 2.36 2.44 2.35 2.35 2.29

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.04 1.92 2.11 2.16 ... 2.20 2.02 1.99 1.98

2.57 2.31 2.34 2.25 2.11 2.15 ... 2.12 2.18 2.10 2.30 2.36 2.29 2.38 2.32 2.27 2.27

Public School Parents Nation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.01 1.92 2.11 2.20 ... 2.22 2.13 2.06 2.03

Local Community 2.80 2.49 2.48 2.59 2.47 2.38 ... 2.36 2.35 2.31 2.49 2.44 2.55 2.61 2.48 2.56 2.44

Private School Parents Nation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2.02 1.82 2.04 1.93 ... 2.03 2.00 1.93 1.85

Local Community 2.15 1.81 2.22 2.05 1.69 1.88 ... 1.88 2.20 1.89 2.17 2.00 2.14 2.01 2.13 2.12 2.09

a

Average based on scale of: A 5 4, B 5 3, C 5 2, D 5 1, F 5 0. Source: National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 28.

Education

373

TABLE 14.28 ITEMS MOST FREQUENTLY CITED BY THE GENERAL PUBLIC AS A MAJOR PROBLEM FACING THE LOCAL PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1970–1990 Percent Problems

1970

1975

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Use of drugs Lack of discipline Lack of financial support Getting good teachers Poor curriculum/standards Large schools/overcrowding Moral standards Parents’ lack of interest Pupils’ lack of interest/truancy Drinking/alcoholism Low teacher pay Integration/busing Teachers’ lack of interest Lack of proper facilities

11 18 17 12 6 ... ... 3 ... ... ... 17 ... 11

9 23 14 11 5 10 ... 2 3 ... ... 15 ... 3

14 26 10 6 11 7 ... 6 5 2 ... 10 6 2

15 23 12 11 14 5 1 5 4 2 ... 11 4 2

20 27 22 10 11 4 2 5 5 3 ... 6 7 2

18 25 13 8 14 3 4 6 5 3 ... 5 8 1

18 27 14 14 15 4 1 5 4 4 4 6 5 2

18 25 9 10 11 5 2 3 5 3 2 4 4 1

28 24 11 6 8 5 5 4 3 5 3 3 4 1

30 22 14 9 8 8 7 6 6 6 5 4 5 2

32 19 12 11 11 6 6 7 5 5 4 4 3 1

34 19 13 7 8 8 3 6 3 4 4 4 4 1

38 19 13 7 8 7 3 4 6 4 6 5 4 2


Education and Racial Segregation Between 1946 and 1954 the prevailing concept in the school systems of the southern and border states was the principle, modified in a few specific circumstances, of separate but equal.The purpose and the effect was to impose a separation of the races, an arrangement that facilitated keeping blacks subordinate to whites. Southern schools were separate for blacks and whites, but contrary to a Supreme Court ruling of some 60 years earlier, they were scarcely equal. As a whole the poorest in the land, southern schools for African Americans easily constituted the poorest of the poor. In the Brown decision of May 1954 the high court abolished separate but equal, and in a complementary ruling it decreed that desegregation should begin quickly but could proceed “with all deliberate speed,’’ which in fact meant gradually. Many southerners took gradually to mean never.The border states began movement, however slow and grudging, toward mixing the races, but states of the Deep South proclaimed resistance and looked for means to circumvent the court’s decision.The years 1954 to 1965 marked high tide of the Civil Rights movement, and it also produced the most determined southern resistance to desegregation of the public schools. In 1957 the governor of Arkansas openly prevented integration of Central High School in Little Rock, and when President Dwight Eisenhower sent military forces to enforce the court’s order, the governor, Orvil Faubus, closed the schools. Several counties in Virginia pursued the same course in 1958 and 1959. Resistance to token desegregation on the university level by the state governors and resident whites provoked major incidents in Louisiana in 1960, Mississippi in 1962, and Alabama in 1963. Justified as an expression of states’ rights, action of state officials had the effect of interposing the will of the national government upon the states. Tardy but persistent intervention of national officials in specific situations, passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which contained special provisions for school desegregation), and continuing decisions by the Supreme Court gradually broke the wall of southern resistance and induced local officials and much of the populace to yield to the inevitable outcome. The portion of southern black students attending totally or almost totally black schools nosedived to 25 374


percent by 1972. Very few blacks went to schools that did not also have white classmates. Desegregation efforts in the 1970s centered on public schools of the North and Midwest, where racial separation had not been rooted in law (de jure), but was de facto, a product of residential patterns and neighborhood schools that had grown from them. Court-ordered busing to achieve racial balance in the 1970s produced angry white protest in Cleveland, Detroit, Denver, Kansas City, and especially in Boston. A growing “white flight’’ to school districts in the suburbs in several cases produced more segregation than there had been in the first place. Some 10,000 students fled the Boston school district in the late 1970s. An often-mentioned antidote, cross-district busing, from suburbs to inner city and vice versa, carried such prospect for violence that it never was extensively tried. The courts began to relax rulings on busing and desegregation. By the end of the 1980s the status of desegregation lended itself to no simple generalization. Officially, segregation was illegal in all publicly supported institutions, and few students attended school with only people of their race. Opinion polls suggested that nearly everyone accepted the principle of integration. The most racially mixed schools were in the South, the least in the North and Midwest. Schools of the inner city had mostly black or Hispanic students; even at a time of a teacher surplus, it was difficult to get teachers to go there. Suburban schools contained mostly white students and were safer and better funded; in several states, school finance came partly from locally driven funding: millage—a public referendum on the rate of taxation for schools. Traditional civil-rights reformers and white liberals still formally endorsed integration, but the reformers were not as adamant as they once had been, and many of the whites in Congress probably sent their children to private schools. The most radical activists favored, even demanded, black schools for black students with black teachers and black programs. On many college campuses black students wanted racially exclusive dormitories, fraternaties and sororities, and officially recognized social organizations. Multiculturalism had clear separatist overtones. To blacks and whites the answers in 1990 were not as simple as they had appeared in 1959.

SEGREGATION IN THE SOUTH: PERCENT OF BLACK STUDENTS ATTENDING SCHOOL WITH WHITE STUDENTS Delaware 56.5%

Segregation enforced by law until 1956

West Virginia 58.2%

No blacks attending achools with whites, 1964 More than 20% blacks attending school with whites, 1964

Missouri 42%

Oklahoma 28%

Kentucky 54.4% North Carolina 0.54%

Tennessee 2.72%

South Carolina 0.004%

Arkansas 0.8% Mississippi 0% Alabama 0.007%

Texas 5.5%

Virginia 1.6%

Georgia 0.05%

Louisiana 0.6% Florida 1.5%

TABLE 14.29

GALLUP POLL ON SCHOOL INTEGRATION, SEPTEMBER 19–24, 1957

Question: The United States Supreme Court has ruled that racial segregation in the public schools is illegal. This means that all children, no matter what their race, must be allowed to go to the same schools. Do you approve or disapprove of this decision?

Answer

Percent

Approve Disapprove No opinion

59 35 6

South Only Approve Disapprove No opinion

23 72 5

TABLE 14.30 PERCENTAGES OF BLACK ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY STUDENTS GOING TO SCHOOL WITH ANY WHITES, IN 11 SOUTHERN STATES, 1954–1973 School Year

Percentage

1954–1955 1956–1957 1958–1959 1960–1961 1962–1963 1964–1965 1966–1967 1968–1969 1970–1971 1972–1973

0.001 0.14 0.13 0.16 0.45 2.25 15.9 32.0 85.6 91.3

Note: The states are Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. Source: Laurence Baum, The Supreme Court (Washington, D.C., 1995), 233.

Southern Blacks Approve Disapprove No opinion

69 13 18

Source: George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll, Public Opinion 1935–1971, Volume Two, 1949–1958 (New York, 1972), 1518, 1527.

Education

375

TABLE 14.31 YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED, BY AGE, RACE, AND ETHNIC ORIGIN, 1940–1989 Median School Years Completed by All Persons

Age/ Year

Median School Years Completed by Black Persons

Median School Years Completed by Hispanic Persons

8.6 9.3 10.6 12.1 12.5 12.7

5.7 6.8 8.0 9.8 12.0 12.4

... ... ... 9.1 10.8 12.0

25–29 Years 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1989

10.3 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.9 12.9

7.0 8.6 9.9 12.1 12.6 12.7

... ... ... ... ... 12.3

Source: Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics (Washington, D.C., 1992), 388.

PUBLIC OPINION OF WHITES ON SCHOOL INTEGRATION, BY RACIAL COMPOSITION OF SCHOOL, 1958–1990

(percent) Objection to Own Children Attending School with Date

25 years and Older 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1989

TABLE 14.32

Sep. 1958 Feb. 1959 May 1963 Apr. 1965 Jun. 1965 May 1966 Jul. 1969 Mar. 1970 Apr. 1970 Mar. 1972 Aug. 1973 Mar. 1974 Mar. 1975 Sep. 1975 Mar. 1977 Mar. 1978 Jul. 1978 Dec. 1980 Mar. 1982 Mar. 1983 Mar. 1985 Mar. 1986 Mar. 1988 Mar. 1989 Mar. 1990

A Few Blacks

Half Blacks

More Than Half Blacks

25 20 25 16 20 11 11 8 10 6 9 4 6 7 7 4 7 6 4 3 4 4 3 4 2

53 47 52 42 44 41 38 32 34 25 36 33 38 35 26 24 36 28 21 25 22 24 21 23 20

70 71 75 67 68 67 66 66 63 55 67 67 66 62 64 61 67 62 54 65 60 64 52 59 59

Note: Question: “Would you, yourself, have any objection to sending your children to a school where a few of the children are (Negroes/blacks)?’’ If no: “Where half of the children are (Negroes/blacks)?’’ If no: “Where more than half of the children are (Negroes/blacks)?’’ Those saying “don’t know’’ were assumed to have expressed some objection. Question asked of whites with school-age children only. Source: Various surveys compiled in Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 392.

TABLE 14.33

PUBLIC OPINION OF WHITES ON SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD INTEGRATION, 1942–1990

If Blacks Lived Next Door Date

(percent) Blacks and Whites Should Attend Date

Same Schools

Jun. 1942 Apr. 1956 Jun. 1956 Sep. 1956 May 1963

30 49 49 48 63

66 47 49 49 32

4 4 2 3 5

Dec. 1963 Jun. 1964 Oct. 1964 Jun. 1965 Oct. 1965

65 62 64 67 68

29 32 34 30 28

6 5 2 3 4

Apr. 1970 Mar. 1972 Nov. 1972 Mar. 1976 Mar. 1977

74 85 80 83 85

24 14 15 15 14

3 2 5 3 2

Mar. 1980 Mar. 1982 Mar. 1984 Mar. 1985

86 88 90 92

12 9 8 7

2 2 2 1

376

Separate Schools Don’t Know


1963 1965 1966 1967 1978 1990

Would Definitely Move 20 13 13 12 4 1

Might Move 25 22 21 23 9 4

Would Not Move

Don’t Know

55 65 66 65 84 93

... ... ... 3 2

If Many Blacks Lived in Neighborhood Date 1963 1965 1966 1967 1978 1990

Would Definitely Move 49 40 39 40 20 8

Might Move

Would Not Move

Don’t Know

29 29 31 31 31 18

22 31 30 29 45 68

... ... ... ... 4 6

Note: “. . .’’ indicates not available. Neighborhood questions: “If (colored/black) people came to live next door, would you move?’’ “Would you move if (colored/ black) people came to live in great numbers in your neighborhood?’’ Asked of nonblacks only. Source: Various surveys compiled in Stanley and Niemi, Statistics on Politics, 391.

TABLE 14.34

SCHOOL DESEGREGATION, BY REGION, 1968–1988

Region/Year

Percentage of Black Students in Schools with More Than Half Minority Students

Percentage of Hispanic Students in Schools with More Than Half Minority Students

Percentage of Black Students in Schools 90–100 Percent Minority

Percentage of Hispanic Students in Schools 90–100 Percent Minority

South 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

80.9 55.3 54.9 57.1 56.9 58.0 56.5 224.4

69.6 69.9 70.9 76.0 75.4 75.2 80.2 110.6

77.8 24.7 22.4 23.0 24.2 25.1 24.0 253.8

33.7 31.4 32.2 37.3 37.3 38.6 37.9 14.2

Border 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

71.6 67.2 60.1 59.2 62.5 59.3 59.6 212.0

... ... ... ... ... 29.9 ... ...

60.2 54.7 42.5 37.0 37.4 35.6 34.5 225.7

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Northeast 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

66.8 69.9 72.5 79.9 73.1 72.8 77.3 110.5

74.8 74.4 74.9 76.3 77.5 78.2 79.7 14.9

42.7 46.9 51.4 48.7 47.4 49.8 48.0 15.3

44.0 44.1 45.8 45.8 47.1 46.4 44.2 10.2

Midwest 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

77.3 75.3 70.3 69.5 70.7 69.8 70.1 27.2

31.8 34.4 39.3 46.6 53.9 54.3 52.3 120.5

58.0 57.4 51.1 43.6 43.6 38.5 41.8 216.2

6.8 9.5 14.1 19.6 24.2 23.5 24.9 118.1

West 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

72.2 68.1 67.4 66.8 66.9 68.2 67.1 25.1

42.4 44.7 52.7 63.5 68.4 69.9 71.3 128.9

50.8 42.7 36.3 33.7 29.4 28.3 28.6 222.2

11.7 11.5 13.3 18.5 22.9 24.7 27.5 115.8

Total 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1986 1988 Change 1968 to 1988

76.6 63.6 62.4 62.9 63.5 63.3 63.2 213.4

54.8 56.6 60.8 68.1 70.6 71.5 ... 116.7

64.3 38.7 35.9 33.2 33.2 32.5 32.1 232.2

23.1 23.3 24.8 28.8 31.0 32.2 ... 19.1

Source: Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics (Washington, D.C., 1994), 395–96.

The School and Greater American Society American society in the last half of the 20th century was in an almost constant state of change.The most concrete statement of change often took the form of an act of Congress or a state legislature or a decision by the national or a state Supreme Court. Decreeing change was one step; carrying it out was another matter. Often the forum of debate or the battleground was the schoolyard, the portal to the building, or what went on inside.Although the stated objectives usually were worthwhile and meritorious, at least in theory, putting them into force placed a heavy burden on the public school system, turning them into proving grounds and social laboratories for addressing the problems of American society.The following represent a few examples.

1. The long overdue civil-rights revolution began with a Supreme Court decision about schools, and it often was played out in an educational setting in such places as Little Rock,Arkansas; Oxford, Mississippi;Tuscaloosa, Alabama; NewYork City; or Boston. 2. In 1975 Congress ordered the states to provide free education for all disabled children. If they could not be “mainstreamed’’ (taught in regular classes), they would have to receive special treatment, whatever it cost in terms of money and personnel. 3. Congress in 1968 passed a law to help low-income, non-Englishspeaking children learn English, and in 1974 the Supreme Court sustained that principle. A form of bilingual education, the concept gradually turned into a program of separate instruction in a student’s native tongue. By 1990 the number of language groups that received special bilingual instruction had grown to 145. Education

377

4. Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 forbade sexual discrimination in schools, and ensuing regulations bordered on a decree that the sexes were in all respects the same. Boys took home economics; girls took shop. Girls could compete for boys athletic teams or form their own teams (rarely, if ever, were boys allowed to try out for girls basketball or volleyball squads).Valid in its most basic principle, philosophically appealing, and politically correct, the policy created situations that were awkward, unsettling, and often expensive. 5. Preoccupation with multiculturalism starting in the 1970s introduced a maze of philsophical, substantive, and political issues with respect to hiring, selection of courses, how and what the students were taught—a system that in its most stringent application could come close to thought and speech control. Although it would seem unjust and inappropriate to expect the school system, the teachers, and even the students to resolve these complex issues, it often appeared that conditions evolved in that fashion. With so many distractions, with continuing disintegration of the family and increasing extracurricular social enticements, one perhaps should not be surprised that test scores were low.

Colleges and Universities The postwar era began on college campus with a bang. In one of the most enlightened moves of the century, a wartime Congress in 1944 passed the Serviceman’s Readjustment Act. Intended as payment from a grateful nation and designed to promote an orderly passage into peacetime, the measure offered veterans of the Second World War a package of benefits that became known as the G.I. Bill of Rights. Surely the most important provision offered financial support for veterans wishing to expand their education, including—if armed service members were so inclined—four full years of college. More than 1 million showed up on campus in 1946, roughly doubling the student clientele, and producing a crisis in teachers, classrooms, and places to live. Many of the veterans were married and already had

begun work on a baby boom. By the time benefits ended on July 25, 1956 (an extension would be added for veterans of the Korean War), some 7.8 million had received education and training assistance; 2.2 million attended two- or four-year colleges. In addition to training national leadership for decades to come, the G.I. Bill gave an egalitarian mark to the idea of a college education, and it got the schools off and running. One of the most striking features of higher education between 1946 and 1990 was the sheer increase in numbers—of institutions, of students, and in the percentage of the commonly accepted college-age population that went to college.The number of schools approximately doubled during the period, and the largest increase came in two-year colleges, which nearly trebeled. The student body underwent an expansion of nearly sevenfold, which meant, among other themes, that the change was more in size of institutions than in numbers. Some campuses became virtual cities in themselves, larger in population than the towns that housed them. A majority of female students that had marked the schools during the years of war abruptly gave way to the wave of former soldiers that flooded the campus in 1946. A continuation of the male majority was consistent with social and cultural priorities of the 1950s, and the trend continued through the 1960s as well. The largest difference between male and female students, more than 1.5 million, came in the year 1970.Thereafter the male lead begins to erode, and the most rapid change would come in the late 1970s. A male majority of 1 million in 1974 dropped to 600,000 in 1976. By 1979 the women had passed the men; the lead expanded through the rest of the period. By 1990 females on campus outnumbered males by more than 1.2 million. Complete numbers did not exist for the racial and ethnic mix of students in the early part of the period. Hispanics had no numbers at all until the 1970s.The start of the Civil Rights movement produced much opposition to identification by race or ethnicity on grounds that it could invite discrimination. No one could doubt, however, that except for clearly marked African-American institutions, most of which were in the South, the college population was overwhelmingly white. With

Colleges scrambled for married veterans’ housing during the rush to campus after 1945.These facilities were at Western Michigan College, where enrollment grew from 1,839 to 4,034 in one year. (Western Michigan University Archives and Regional History Collections)

378


growing emphasis on race and ethnicity, with development of numerous state and national funding programs that targeted minority groups, and with the impact of affirmative-action preferences in enrollment practices, conditions begin to change in the 1970s. Statistics varied fairly sharply from year-to-year, but after 1975 the proportion of black and Hispanic high school graduates who enrolled in college frequently approximated the percentage of whites. Perhaps the most compelling numbers had to do with the fact that the portion of college-age people (18–24) who enrolled in college went from 12.5 percent in 1946 to 51.1 percent in 1990. Attending college had gone from being an elitist enterprise to a common part of the American experience. The college experience changed with passage of time, emergence of new issues, and appearance on campus of new generations of students. Military veterans probably had different treatment, but postwar colleges often served as surrogate parents for young people away from home, perhaps for the first extended period in their lives. Campus living arrangements remained strictly segregated.Younger students—at least the young women—had to live in campus facilities. Rules were elaborate and usually enforced. Many schools had dress codes. Uniforms remained a conspicuous part of the campus landscape, a continuing reminder of the cold war and that young men had certain (ROTC) obligations. As the baby boomers came of college age in the mid-to-late 1960s, and as pressing national problems took center stage, the universities became settings for intellectual discourse and social and political upheaval. Starting with the free speech (and filthy speech) movement at Berkeley in 1964, few major schools did not experience some form of turmoil in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Extreme examples were the seizure of Columbia University in 1968, which closed the school for the

semester, and conditions at Kent State University in 1970 that led to the killing of four people and wounding of 11 by the Ohio National Guard. Sanctity of the movements for civil rights and against the war in Vietnam seemed to legitimize anything student protestors wished to do or not do, and as the closest and most continuing object of authority— the “establishment’’—the university itself became a target. Unaccustomed to such pressure, the schools quickly abandoned the social restrictions and many canceled the ROTC programs. Demands for curricular change ranged from new, more “relevant’’ courses and instructors—especially having to do with gender, race, and ethnicity—to an end to required courses—compulsory reading assignments, examinations and even grades, which in that heady atmosphere were charged with being class-ridden and elitist. Timid adminstrators and individual instructors often yielded rather than face having their place torn up. Some of the changes of the 1960s and 1970 were long overdue, and they became lasting parts of university operations. Many schools had become impersonal diploma mills, many professors concerned largely, if not entirely, with individual projects. Courses, if not departments, in such areas as gender, ethnicity, and especially African-American studies—now part of permanent offerings—date their origins to that era. Other measures that seemed to represent student efforts to make their life easier and more fun were soon abandoned. With the Vietnam War, and the draft, ending in 1973, with the Civil Rights movement in a state of limbo, with students now into their 20s and facing a need to make a living, conditions changed on campus. The spirit of revolution died, to be replaced with more practical concerns about preparing for a good job. As with society itself, however, the universities did not go back to what they had

Closeup of a veteran’s residential “trailer,’’Western Michigan College, 1946 (Western Michigan Archives and Regional History Collections) Education

379

been. In the 1980s the colleges seek to adapt to a new technology, the ramifications of which scarcely could be imagined. Computer usage expanded rapidly, but the reaches of an Internet had yet to be established. The schools continue to grow, and the students come

from more varied backgrounds.With a growing emphasis on multiculturalism, with the concept of affirmative action taking on a substantive meaning, diversity will be a major driving force in university activity through the 1980s.

TABLE 14.35 INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY CONTROL AND TYPE OF INSTITUTION, 1949–1950 TO 1989–1990 All Institutions Year

Total

4-Year

Public 2-Year

Total

4-Year

Private 2-Year

Total

4-Year

2-Year

Excluding Branch Campuses 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54

1,851 1,852 1,832 1,882 1,863

1,327 1,312 1,326 1,355 1,345

524 540 506 527 518

641 636 641 639 662

344 341 350 349 369

297 295 291 290 293

1,210 1,216 1,191 1,243 1,201

983 971 976 1,006 976

227 245 215 237 225

1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59

1,849 1,850 1,878 1,930 1,947

1,333 1,347 1,355 1,390 1,394

516 503 523 540 553

648 650 656 666 673

353 360 359 366 366

295 290 297 300 307

1,201 1,200 1,222 1,264 1,274

980 987 996 1,024 1,028

221 213 226 240 246

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64

2,004 2,021 2,033 2,093 2,132

1,422 1,431 1,443 1,468 1,499

582 590 590 625 633

695 700 718 740 760

367 368 374 376 386

328 332 344 364 374

1,309 1,321 1,315 1,353 1,372

1,055 1,063 1,069 1,092 1,113

254 258 246 261 259

1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69

2,175 2,230 2,329 2,374 2,483

1,521 1,551 1,577 1,588 1,619

654 679 752 786 864

799 821 880 934 1,011

393 401 403 414 417

406 420 477 520 594

1,376 1,409 1,449 1,440 1,472

1,128 1,150 1,174 1,174 1,202

248 259 275 266 270

1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74

2,525 2,556 2,606 2,665 2,720

1,639 1,665 1,675 1,701 1,717

886 891 931 964 1,003

1,060 1,089 1,137 1,182 1,200

426 435 440 449 440

634 654 697 733 760

1,465 1,467 1,469 1,483 1,520

1,213 1,230 1,235 1,252 1,277

252 237 234 231 243

1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

2,747 2,765 2,785 2,826 2,954

1,744 1,767 1,783 1,808 1,843

1,003 998 1,002 1,018 1,111

1,214 1,219 1,231 1,241 1,308

447 447 452 454 463

767 772 779 787 845

1,533 1,546 1,554 1,585 1,646

1,297 1,320 1,331 1,354 1,380

236 226 223 231 266

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

2,975 3,056 3,083 3,111 3,117

1,863 1,861 1,883 1,887 1,914

1,112 1,195 1,200 1,224 1,203

1,310 1,334 1,340 1,336 1,325

464 465 471 472 474

846 869 869 864 851

1,665 1,722 1,743 1,775 1,792

1,399 1,396 1,412 1,415 1,440

266 326 331 360 352

1984–85 1985–86

3,146 3,155

1,911 1,915

1,235 1,240

1,329 1,326

461 461

868 865

1,817 1,829

1,450 1,454

367 375

Including Branch Campuses 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

3,004 3,026 3,046 3,095 3,134

1,866 1,898 1,913 1,938 1,941

1,138 1,128 1,133 1,157 1,193

1,433 1,442 1,455 1,473 1,474

537 545 550 552 550

896 897 905 921 924

1,571 1,584 1,591 1,622 1,660

1,329 1,353 1,363 1,386 1,391

242 231 228 236 269

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

3,152 3,231 3,253 3,280 3,284

1,957 1,957 1,979 1,984 2,013

1,195 1,274 1,274 1,296 1,271

1,475 1,497 1,498 1,493 1,481

549 552 558 560 565

926 945 940 933 916

1,677 1,734 1,755 1,787 1,803

1,408 1,405 1,421 1,424 1,448

269 329 334 363 355

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

3,331 3,340 3,406 3,587 3,565 3,535

2,025 2,029 2,070 2,135 2,129 2,127

1,306 1,311 1,336 1,452 1,436 1,408

1,501 1,498 1,533 1,591 1,582 1,563

566 566 573 599 598 595

935 932 960 992 984 968

1,830 1,842 1,873 1,996 1,983 1,972

1,459 1,463 1,497 1,536 1,531 1,532

371 379 376 460 452 440


380


Education

381

2,078 2,338 2,403 2,445 2,281 2,102 2,134 2,231 2,447 2,653 2,918 3,324 3,640 4,415 4,780 5,280 5,921 6,390 6,912 7,513 8,005 8,581 8,949 9,215 9,602 10,224 11,185 11,012 11,286 11,260 11,570 12,097 12,372 12,426 12,465 12,242 12,247 12,504 12,767 13,055 13,539 13,710

Fall 1946 Fall 1947 Fall 1948 Fall 1949 Fall 1950 Fall 1951 Fall 1952 Fall 1953 Fall 1954 Fall 1955 Fall 1956 Fall 1957 Fall 1959 Fall 1961 Fall 1963 Fall 1964 Fall 1965 Fall 1966 Fall 1967 Fall 1968 Fall 1969 Fall1970 Fall 1971 Fall 1972 Fall 1973 Fall 1974 Fall 1975 Fall 1976 Fall 1977 Fall 1978 Fall 1979 Fall 1980 Fall 1981 Fall 1982 Fall 1983 Fall 1984 Fall 1985 Fall 1986 Fall 1987 Fall 1988 Fall 1989 Fall 1990

12.5 14.2 14.7 15.2 14.3 13.4 13.8 14.7 16.2 17.7 19.5 22.0 23.8 23.6 27.7 28.7 29.8 30.7 32.2 34.1 35.0 35.8 35.3 35.8 36.5 37.9 40.3 38.8 39.0 38.3 38.8 40.2 41.0 41.0 42.0 42.0 43.0 45.1 47.1 49.0 51.4 51.1

Enrollment as a Percent of 18- to 24-Year-Old Population 1,418 1,659 1,709 1,722 1,560 1,391 1,380 1,423 1,563 1,733 1,911 2,171 2,333 2,586 2,962 3,249 3,630 3,856 4,133 4,478 4,746 5,044 5,207 5,239 5,371 5,622 6,149 5,811 5,789 5,641 5,683 5,874 5,975 6,031 6,024 5,864 5,818 5,885 5,932 6,002 6,190 6,239

Male

Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 76–77

Total Enrollment

Year

(in thousands)

661 679 694 723 721 711 754 808 883 920 1,007 1,153 1,307 1,559 1,818 2,031 2,291 2,534 2,779 3,035 3,258 3,537 3,742 3,976 4,231 4,601 5,036 5,201 5,497 5,619 5,887 6,223 6,397 6,394 6,441 6,378 6,429 6,619 6,835 7,053 7,349 7,472

Female ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3,184 3,573 4,096 4,439 4,793 5,210 5,499 5,816 6,077 6,072 6,189 6,370 6,841 6,717 6,793 6,668 6,794 7,098 7,181 7,221 7,261 7,098 7,075 7,120 7,231 7,437 7,661 7,780

Full-Time ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,596 1,707 1,825 1,951 2,119 2,303 2,506 2,765 2,871 3,142 3,413 3,853 4,344 4,295 4,493 4,592 4,776 4,999 5,190 5,205 5,204 5,144 5,172 5,384 5,536 5,619 5,878 5,930

Part-Time 2,116 2,192 2,216 2,064 1,902 1,896 1,973 2,164 2,345 2,571 ... ... ... 3,929 4,291 4,748 5,064 5,399 5,721 5,937 6,262 6,369 6,459 6,590 6,820 7,215 7,129 7,243 7,232 7,353 7,571 7,655 7,654 7,741 77,141 7,716 7,824 7,990 8,180 8,388 8,529

4-Year 222 211 229 217 200 238 258 282 308 347 ... ... ... 850 989 1,173 1,326 1,513 1,792 2,068 2,319 2,579 2,756 3,012 3,404 3,970 3,883 4,043 4,028 4,217 4,526 4,716 4,772 4,723 4,531 4,531 4,680 4,776 4,875 5,151 5,181

2-Year 1,152 1,186 1,207 1,140 1,038 1,101 1,186 1,354 1,476 1,656 1,973 2,181 2,561 3,081 3,468 3,970 4,349 4,816 5,431 5,897 6,428 6,804 7,071 7,420 7,989 8,835 8,653 8,847 8,786 9,037 9,457 9,647 9,696 9,683 9,477 9,479 9,714 9,973 10,161 10,578 10,741

Total 989 1,032 1,036 972 882 910 976 1112 1211 1359 ... ... ... 2341 2593 2928 3160 3444 3784 3963 4,233 4,347 4,430 4,530 4,703 4,998 4,902 4945 4,912 4,980 5,129 5,166 5,176 5,223 5,198 5,210 5,300 5,432 5,546 5,694 5,803

4-Year 163 154 171 168 156 192 210 241 265 298 ... ... ... 740 875 1,041 1,189 1,372 1,646 1,934 2,195 2,457 2,641 2,890 3,285 3,836 3,752 3,902 3,874 4,057 4,329 4,481 4,520 4,459 4,279 4,270 4,414 4,541 4,615 4,884 4,938

2-Year

Public Institutions

1,186 1,218 1,238 1,142 1,064 1,033 1,045 1,093 1,177 1,262 1,351 1,459 1,584 1,698 1,812 1,951 2,041 2,096 2,082 2,108 2,153 2,144 2,144 2,183 2,235 2,350 2,359 2,439 2,474 2,533 2,640 2,725 2,730 2,782 2,765 2,768 2,790 2,793 2,894 2,961 2,970

Total

1,127 1,161 1,179 1,092 1,020 986 997 1,052 1,134 1,212 ... ... ... 1,588 1,698 1,820 1,904 1,955 1,937 1,975 2,029 2,022 2,029 2,060 2,117 2,217 2,227 2,298 2,319 2,373 2,442 2489 2,478 2,518 2,513 2,506 2,524 2,558 2,634 2,693 2,726

4-Year

59 57 58 50 44 47 48 41 43 50 ... ... ... 111 114 132 137 141 146 133 124 122 115 122 119 134 132 141 155 160 198 236 252 264 252 261 266 235 260 267 243

2-Year

Private Institutions

TABLE 14.36 ENROLLMENT IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY SEX, ATTENDANCE STATUS, AND TYPE AND CONTROL OF INSTITUTION, FALL 1946–FALL 1990

TABLE 14.37

COLLEGE ENROLLMENT RATES OF HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES, BY RACE/ETHNICITY, 1960–1990

(numbers in thousands) High School Graduates

Enrolled in College Total

White

Black

Hispanic

Year

Total

White

Black

Hispanic

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 19697 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

1,679 1,763 1,838 1,741 2,145 2,659 2,612 2,525 2,606 2,842 2,757 2,872 2,961 3,059 3,101 3,186 2,987 3,140 3,161 3,160 3,089 3,053 3,100 2,964 3,012 2,666 2,786 2,647 2,673 2,454 2,355

1,565 1,612 1,660 1,615 1,964 2,417 2,403 2,267 2,303 2,538 2,461 2,596 2,614 2,707 2,736 2,825 2,640 2,768 2,750 2,776 2,682 2,626 2,644 2,496 2,514 2,241 2,307 2,207 2,187 2,051 1,912

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

320 335 352 324 361 359 384 392 438 333 386 337 382 337 341

152 156 133 154 129 146 174 138 185 141 169 176 179 168 112

758 847 900 784 1,037 1,354 1,309 1,311 1,444 1,516 1,427 1,535 1,457 1,425 1,474 1,615 1,458 1,590 1,584 1,559 1,524 1,646 1,568 1,562 1,662 1,539 1,499 1,503 1,575 1,463 1,410

45.1 48.0 49.0 45.0 48.3 50.9 50.1 51.9 55.4 53.3 51.8 53.4 49.2 46.6 47.5 50.7 48.8 50.6 50.1 49.3 49.3 53.9 50.6 52.7 55.2 57.7 53.8 56.8 58.9 59.6 59.9

717 798 840 736 967 1,249 1,243 1,202 1,304 1,402 1,280 1,402 1,292 1,302 1,288 1,446 1,291 1,403 1,378 1,376 1,339 1,434 1,376 1,372 1,455 1,332 1,292 1,249 1,328 1,238 1,182

45.8 49.5 50.6 45.6 49.2 51.7 51.7 53.0 56.6 55.2 52.0 54.0 49.4 48.1 47.1 51.2 48.9 50.7 50.1 49.6 49.9 54.6 52.0 55.0 57.9 59.4 56.0 56.6 60.7 60.4 61.5

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 134 166 161 147 151 154 140 151 176 141 141 175 172 178 158

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41.9 49.6 45.7 45.4 41.8 42.9 36.5 38.5 40.2 42.3 36.5 51.9 45 52.8 46.3

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 80 80 57 69 68 76 75 75 82 72 75 59 102 93 53

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 52.6 51.3 42.9 44.8 52.7 52.1 43.1 54.3 44.3 51.5 44.4 33.5 57.0 55.4 47.3


TABLE 14.38

COLLEGE FRESHMEN—SUMMARY CHARACTERISTICS, 1970–1990

(In percent; as of fall for first-time full-time freshmen) Characteristic

1970

1980

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Sex: Male Female

55 45

49 51

48 52

48 52

48 52

47 53

46 54

46 54

46 54

Average grade in high school: A- to A+ B- to B+ C to C+ D

16 58 27 1

21 60 19 1

20 58 21 1

21 59 20 1

23 56 20 1

21 59 19 1

24 58 19 1

23 59 17 a

23 58 19 a

Political orientation: Liberal Middle of the road Conservative

34 45 17

20 60 17

20 58 19

21 57 19

22 56 19

22 56 18

22 54 20

22 54 21

23 55 20

16 4 16 11 9 2 14 ... 4

9 4 24 7 12 3 7 15 6

8 4 26 7 11 3 7 14 5

8 4 27 7 11 2 8 13 5

9 4 26 8 11 2 8 12 4

9 4 27 9 10 2 9 11 3

10 4 26 9 10 2 9 12 2

9 4 25 9 10 2 10 13 3

9 4 21 10 8 2 10 15 4

... ... ... ...

2

2 16 2 3

2 16 2 2

2 15 2 2

1 16 3 2

1 16 3 2

1 15 3 2

1 16 2 2

Probable field of study: Arts and humanities Biological sciences Business Education Engineering Physical science Social science Professional Technical Data processing/ computer programming Other Communications Computer science

382


2 1

Characteristic Recipient of financial aid: Pell grant Supplemental educational opportunity grant State scholarship or grant College grant Federal guaranteed student loan Perkins loan College loan College work-study grant Attitudes–agree or strongly agree: Activities of married women are best confined to home and family Capital punishment should be abolished Legegalize marijuana There is too much concern for the rights of criminals Abortion should be legalized

1970

1980

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

...

33

20

19

17

17

20

22

23

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

8 16 13 21 9 4 15

6 14 17 23 6 4 9

5 14 19 23 6 4 10

5 14 18 25 7 4 10

6 16 13 22 5 5 10

6 14 20 22 3 6 10

6 15 20 23 2 8 10

7 16 22 23 8 6 10

48

27

23

22

20

26

26

26

25

56 38

34 39

26 23

27 22

26 21

24 20

23 19

21 17

22 19

52 ...

66 54

... 54

... 55

... 59

68 59

69 57

69 65

... 65

aRepresents

or rounds to zero. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 170.

TABLE 14.39

HIGHER EDUCATION REGISTRATIONS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES, 1960–1990

(as of fall) Item

1960

1965

1968

1970

1974

1977

1980

1983

1986

1990

Registrationsa (1,000)

647.1

1034.9

1127.4

1111.5

946.6

933.5

924.8

966.0

1003.2

1183.5

Index (1960=100) By select language (1,000): Spanish French German Italian Japanese

100.0

159.9

174.2

171.8

146.3

144.3

142.9

149.3

155.0

182.9

178.7 228.8 146.1 11.1 1.7

310.3 371.6 213.9 22.9 3.4

364.9 388.1 216.3 30.4 4.3

389.2 359.3 202.6 34.2 6.6

362.2 253.1 152.1 33.0 9.6

376.7 246.1 135.4 33.3 10.7

379.4 248.4 126.9 34.8 11.5

386.2 270.1 128.2 38.7 16.1

411.3 275.3 121.0 40.9 23.5

533.6 272.6 133.4 49.7 45.7

Russian Latin Chinese Ancient Greek Hebrew Portuguese Arabic

30.6 25.7 1.8 12.7 3.8 1.0 0.5

33.7 39.6 3.4 19.5 8.1 3.0 0.9

40.7 35 5.1 19.3 10.2 4.0 1.1

36.1 27.6 6.2 16.7 16.6 5.1 1.3

32.5 25.2 10.6 24.4 22.4 5.1 2.0

27.8 24.4 9.8 25.8 19.4 5.0 3.1

24.0 25.0 11.4 22.1 19.4 4.9 3.5

30.4 24.2 13.2 19.4 18.2 4.4 3.4

34.0 25.0 16.9 17.6 15.6 5.1 3.4

44.4 28.2 19.5 16.4 13.0 6.1 3.5

12 languages as percent of total

99.3

99.6

99.3

99.1

98.5

98.3

98.5

98.6

98.6

98.5

a

Includes other foreign lanugages, not shown separately. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 171.

Rules of Conduct: A Midwestern College in the 1950s Whether a private or state institution, the colleges and universities acted—were expected to act—as surrogate parents to their student body in the era following the Second World War.These institutions usually exhibited some leniency in requirements for men, and for recently released military veterans there were scarcely any rules at all; it was with young women that the schools felt most compelled to do their duty and to keep parents assured that their daughters would face neither threat of

harm or exceptional social temptation while in their care. Most female students were expected to live in residence halls of the host institution. The privilege of doing otherwise, of living in “approved’’ private housing required permission of an appropriate university official and written approval of the parents. Once a young woman had arrived in a dorm, the regulations began. Conditions listed below, from a medium-sized state college in Michigan in 1952, were typical. Education

383

Administrative Regulations

Drinking— The college is opposed to the use of liquor at college functions, in college buildings, or on college property. Students entering their rooming places, either dormitories or private houses, under the influence of liquor, and students who introduce liquor or liquor bottles into any rooming place or college building will be subject to dismissal from college. Hitchhiking—No hitchhiking is allowed. . . . Residence Hall Regulations

Hours: 1. Opening Hours:The dormitory opens Monday through Saturday at 7:30 A.M. and on Sunday at 8:30 A.M. Anyone who needs to leave before opening hours must sign in the book reserved for that purpose, the evening before leaving. 2. Closing Hours:The dormitory closes at 10:30 P.M. Monday through Thursday, 12:30 A.M. Friday and Saturday (1:30 A.M. after an approved college formal), and 11:00 P.M. Sunday. Special 2:00 A.M. permission has been granted for the Homecoming Dance and the Cotillion Ball. 3. Quiet Hours: They are from 7:30 P.M. to 7:30 a.m., Sunday evening through Friday morning: from 10:00 P.M. Friday to 10:00 A.M. Saturday; and from 10:00 P.M. Saturday to 10:00 A.M. Sunday. 4. Calling Hours for Men: Men may call for residents from the time the dormitory opens each day, until it closes. They may not be entertained in the building until after 4:00 P.M. on week-days, noon on Saturday; and from 9:30 A.M. on Sunday. Week-End Permission Cards—A card granting permission to stay away from the dormitory over weekends, at places other than home, must be on file for you at the Director’s Office.This card is sent out for the signature of your parents by the office of the Dean of Women. Serenading—During serenades, lights should be turned out. Clapping is the only approved form of applause. Smoking—Smoking is forbidden in all class buildings on campus. In the dormitories, smoking is permitted in the students’ rooms and in the Recreation Room, provided doors are kept closed. Smoking in bed is prohibited by Michigan State Law. Personal Conduct—Conduct demerits will be given for undesirable action such as: 1. Noise 2. Untidy rooms. 3. Soaking clothes in lavatories. 4. Radios, typewriters, and showers used at other than designated times. 5. Calling out of windows. 6. Not signing in or out. The penalties for receiving these demerits shall be: 3 demerits . . . 3 nights dormed 5 demerits . . . The offender shall appear before House Council.

384


Lateness Demerit System—Demerits; cumulative or at one time: Minutes

Dormed

5 Friday 10 Friday, Saturday 15 Friday, Saturday, Sunday 20 Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Friday 25 Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Friday, Saturday 30 Two weekends Over 30 minutes Referred to House Council What it means to be “Dormed’’—When a girl is dormed, she must remain in the dormitory with no phone calls or callers after 7:00 P.M. What it Means to be “Campused’’—When a resident is campused for a night, she must remain in her room from 7:30 P.M. to 10:30 P.M., checking with her counselor at these hours. When a resident is campused for a weekend, she must remain in the dormitory from 5:00 P.M., on Friday until 8:00 A.M. on Monday, except for possible Saturday classes, for church Sunday morning, and for one hour for Sunday evening supper. It is necessary to sign out and in at the desk for the above absences. Any resident who is campused, whether for a night or a weekend, is to have no callers and neither make nor receive any phone calls except for long distance emergency calls. What to Wear? Events

Dress

Classes

Blouses Skirts Sweaters Sweaters Skirts Long Dress Ballerina Casual Class Clothes Dressy skirts Summer cottons Sunday best Best one

Athletic Events Formal Dances Wednesday League Teas Student Dances Church Dressy Teas Dances Saturday Nite Student Dances Picnic

Dressy Dressy skirts Blouses Sweaters Jeans or Slacks

Source: Western Michigan College of Education, (Western Michigan University), For Western’s Women (1952), 12–20.

TABLE 14.40 ENROLLMENT OF THE 120 LARGEST COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES, FALL 1990 Typeb

Total Enrollment Fall 1990

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 2

57,168 54,087 49,617 44,307 43,880

6 7 8 9 10

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

43,209 42,936 41,171 38,864 38,163

Ind. Tex. Calif. Mich. Ariz.

11 12 13 14 15

1 1 1 1 1

1 2 1 1 1

37,588 36,437 36,420 36,391 35,729

University of Florida Indiana University, Bloomington Northem Virginia Community College U. of Maryland, College Park Campus San Diego State University

Fla. Ind. Va. Md. Calif.

16 17 18 19 20

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 2 1 1

35,477 35,451 35,194 34,829 34,155

Wayne State University University of Washington Callifornia State University, Long Beach University of Houston-University Park Rutgers University, New Brunswick

Mich. Wash. Calif. Tex. N.J.

21 22 23 24 25

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

33,872 33,854 33,179 33,115 33,016

Saint Louis Community College University of South Florida Brigham Young University Macomb Community College University of Cincinnati, Main Campus

Mo. Fla. Utah. Mich. Ohio.

26 27 28 29 30

1 1 2 1 1

2 1 1 2 1

32,347 32,326 31,662 31,538 31,013

New York University University of California, Berkeley Northeastern University Temple University University of Southern California

N.Y. Calif. Mass. Pa. Calif.

31 32 33 34 35

2 1 2 1 2

1 1 1 1 1

30,750 30,634 30,510 29,714 29,657

Community College of the Air Force California State University, Northridge College of Du Page University of lowa Pima Community College

Ala. Calif. III. lowa Ariz.

36 37 38 39 40

1 1 1 1 1

2 1 2 1 2

29,567 29,401 29,185 28,785 28,766

University of Colorado at Boulder University of Georgia Florida State University Tarrant County Junior College District University of Pittsburgh, Main Campus

Colo. Ga. Fla. Tex. Pa.

41 42 43 44 45

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2 1

28,600 28,395 28,170 28,161 28,120

Oakland Community College Boston University University of Akron, Main Campus SUNY at Buffalo Indiana U. - Purdue U. at Indianapolis

Mich. Mass. Ohio N.Y. Ind.

46 47 48 49 50

1 2 1 1 1

2 1 1 1 1

28,069 27,996 27,818 27,638 27,517

North Carolina State U. at Raleigh University of North Texas Western Michigan University Colorado State University San Jose State University

N.C. Tex. Mich. Colo. Calif.

51 52 53 54 55

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

27,199 27,160 26,989 26,828 26,456

University of Kansas, Main Campus La. St. U. & Ag. & Mech. & Hebert Laws Ctr. University of Tennessee, Knoxville University of Massachusetts at Amherst University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee

Kans. La. Tenn. Mass. Wisc.

56 57 58 59 60

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

26,434 26,112 26,055 26,025 26,020

El Camino College lowa State University University of South Carolina, Columbia Virginia Polytechnic Institute University of Connecticut

Calif. lowa S.C. Va. Conn.

61 62 63 64 65

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

25,789 25,737 25,613 25,568 25,497

Texas Tech University University of Missouri, Columbia Eastern Michigan University University of Illinois at Chicago University of Utah

Tex. Mo. Mich. III. Utah.

66 67 68 69 70

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

25,363 25,058 25,011 24,959 24,922

Institution

State

Rank

University of Minnesota,Twin Cities Ohio State University, Main Campus University of Texas at Austin Michigan State University Miami-Dade Community College

Minn. Ohio Tex. Mich. Fla.

1 2 3 4 5

University of Wisconsin, Madison Arizona State University Texas A&M University Pennsylvania State, Main Campus University of Illinois, Urbana Campus

Wisc. Ariz. Tex. Pa. Ill.

Purdue University, Main Campus Houston Community College System University of California, Los Angeles University of Michigan, Ann Arbor University of Arizona

Controla

(continued) Education

385

TABLE 14.40 (continued) State

Rank

Controla

University of Texas at Arlington University of Toledo Northern Illinois University University of Nebraska, Lincoln Kent State University, Main Campus

Tex. Ohio III. Nebr. Ohio

71 72 73 74 75

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

24,782 24,691 24,509 24,453 24,434

City College of San Francisco Austin Community College San Francisco State University Southern Illinois University, Carbondale University of New Mexico, Main Campus

Calif. Tex. Calif. III. N.Mex.

76 77 78 79 80

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

24,408 24,251 24,138 24,078 23,950

University of California, Davis University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill California State University, Sacramento San Diego Mesa College California State University, Fullerton

Calif. N.C. Calif. Calif. Calif.

81 82 83 84 85

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

23,890 23,878 23,478 23,410 23,376

George State University University of Louisville Harvard University Illinois State University University of Kentucky

Ga. Ky. Mass. III Ky.

86 87 88 89 90

1 1 2 1 1

1 1 2 1 1

23,336 22,979 22,851 22,662 22,538

Florida International University Orange Coast College Lansing Community College Cuyahoga Community College District De Anza College

Fla. Calif. Mich. Ohio Calif.

91 92 93 94 95

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

22,466 22,365 22,343 22,010 21,948

Syracuse University, Main Campus Portland Community College University of Pennsylvania Virginia Commonwealth University Broward Community College

N.Y. Oreg. Pa. Va. Fla.

96 97 98 99 100

2 1 2 1 1

1 2 1 1 2

21,900 21,888 21,868 21,764 21682

Milwaukee Area Voc/Tech. District University of Central Florida Nassau Community College Auburn University, Main Campus Kansas State U. of Agr. And App. Sci.

Wisc. Fla. N.Y. Ala. Kans.

101 102 103 104 105

1 1 1 1 1

2 1 2 1 1

21,600 21,541 21,537 21,537 21,137

University of Virginia, Main Campus Southwest Texas State University West Virginia University University of Delaware University of Oklahoma, Norman Campus

Va. Tex. W.Va. Del. Okla.

106 107 108 109 110

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

21,110 20,940 20,854 20,818 20,774

CUNY, Hunter College International Correspondence Schools Memphis State University Mount San Antonio College Community College of Allegheny County

N.Y. Pa. Tenn. Calif. Pa.

111 112 113 114 115

1 2 1 1 1

1 2 1 2 2

20,744 20,727 20,681 20,563 20,553

Rancho Santiago College Santa Rosa Junior College Ball State University George Mason University Diablo Valley College

Calif. Calif. Ind. Va. Calif.

116 117 118 119 120

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 1 1 2

20,532 20,475 20,343 20,308 20,255

Institution

aPublic

institutions are identified by 1’’ ; private by 2.’’ schools identified by 1’’; Two-year schools by 2.’’ Source: Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education, 1992, 213.

bFour-year

386


Typeb

Total Enrollment Fall 1990

TABLE 14.41 FOREIGN STUDENTS’ COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN, 1989–1990 Country of Territory

Students

China Taiwan Japan India Republic of Korea

33,390 30,960 29,840 26,240 21,710

Canada Malaysia Hong Kong Indonesia Iran

17,870 14,110 11,230 9,390 7,440

United Kingdom Pakistan West Germany Thailand Mexico

7,100 7,070 6,750 6,630 6,540

France Jordan Philippines Nigeria Lebanon

5,340 5,250 4,540 4,480 4,450

Singapore Greece Saudi Arabia Brazil Spain

4,440 4,430 4,110 3,730 3,640

Turkey Colombia Israel Jamaica Peru

3,400 3,320 2,910 2,850 2,750

Venezuela Bangladesh Nicaragua Italy Kuwait Panama Sri Lanka Kenya Norway

2,740 2,470 2,450 2,370 2,280 2,260 2,210 2,200 2,160

Trinidad & Tobago South Africa Ethiopia Vietnam Netherlands

2,160 2,050 2,020 1,850 1,840

Argentina Cyprus Australia Sweden Egypt

1,810 1,750 1,740 1,740 1,700

Bahamas Syria Haiti Honduras United Arab Emirates

1,640 1,500 1,490 1,470 1,450

Ireland El Salvador Cameroon Switzerland Ecuador

1,380 1,370 1,240 1,240 1,170

Morocco Chile Yugoslavia Bolivia Costa Rica

1,140 1,100 1,070 1,060 1,060

Ghana Guatemata Poland

1,030 1,030 1,010

TABLE 14.42 INSTITUTIONS ENROLLING THE MOST FOREIGN STUDENTS, 1989–1990 Miami-Dade Community College University of Southern California University of Texas at Austin University of Wisconsin at Madison Boston University

5,518 3,705 3,588 3,295 3,248

University of California at Los Angeles Ohio State University main campus Columbia University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign University of Pennsylvania

3,126 2,887 2,849 2,794 2,778

Southern Illinois University at Carbondale University of Minnesota-Twin Cities University of Michigan at Ann Arbor University of Maryland at College Park University of Houston at University Park

2,615 2,555 2,465 2,397 2,332

Northeastern University Purdue University main campus Michigan State University University of Arizona Harvard University

2,288 2,277 2,270 2,253 2,246

George Washington University State University of New York at Buffalo Iowa State University Texas A&M University main campus University of California at Berkeley

2,207 2,192 2,160 2,156 2,143

Cornell University Arizona State University New York University Stanford University Indiana University at Bloomington

2,138 2,132 2,102 2,081 2,066

Pennsylvania State University main campus Massachusetts Institute of Technology California State University at Los Angeles Rutgers University University of Iowa

2,059 2,049 2,028 1,988 1,888

University of Florida New Jersey Institute of Technology University of Hawaii at Manoa University of Kansas Oregon State University

1,880 1,864 1,850 1,837 1,817

Source: Almanac of Higher Education, 1991, 41.

Note: Includes only countries with more than 1,000 students in U.S. istitutions. Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, Almanac of Higher Education, 1991, 40.

Education

387

Prices, Professors and Degrees The costs of all aspects of college education increased every year. The largest expense, of course, came at the prestigious private universities, where by 1990 one would have to pay in the neighborhood of $15,000 for a school year in residence.The effect was softened, but by no means removed, by growing numbers of grants, fellowships, and scholarships from all levels of government and various private sources. To improve their image, private and some public institutions began to recruit promising females and students from specified minority groups, offering full-ride scholarships. One-by-one in the late 1960s and 1970s, the traditional male citadels of learning began to admit women—Harvard, Princeton,Yale, even Notre Dame. Women’s colleges changed more slowly, but many of them did begin to admit male students. Faculty salaries increased, of course, although they lagged behind other professions that required similar education and training, and if one allowed for inflation, taking into account comparative purchasing power of the currency, salaries lost ground between 1970 and 1990. Concern about earnings and other issues induced faculty at many institutions to resort to unionism and collective bargaining in the 1970s and 1980s. Males continued to dominate college faculty, except for a few special areas such as home economics and library science, but as with so many areas of American society, this condition also began to change in the 1970s. By 1990 the highest ranks still probably were largely male, but the more diverse lower ranks—instructor and assistant professor—provided a better guide to recent hiring practices and they represented the faculty of the future. Recipients of college degrees understandably followed earlier enrollment patterns. Of the small number of degrees awarded during the years of the Second World War, a majority went to women, but that condition yielded to the rush of veterans to the campus. In 1950, some four years after the surge began, the colleges established a record in awarding degrees that stood until the mid-1960s. Approximately 75 percent of the diplomas went to men. Males will retain approximately a 2–1 margin in bachelors and masters degrees into the 1960s. The lead steadily eroded until the early 1980s when women graduates surpassed men and continued to increase their majority to the end of the decade. The typical college graduate in 1990 was a female.

388


Males—white males—maintained a commanding domination of the higher degrees: the Ph.Ds and so-called professional areas (medicine, dentistry, and law) for approximately a quarter-century after the war. Changes that then take place offered perhaps the most striking indication of social trends underway in the United States in the final quarter of the 20th century. At least 90 percent of doctoral degrees during the period 1950 to 1960 went to men. In 1950, 18 women received degrees in dentistry; of 7,032 degrees awarded in medicine in 1960, 387 went to women; of 9,240 law degrees, women received 230. In 1970 men received 95 percent of all professional degrees. Then the gates opened—slowly at first—but the pace quickened almost every year. Male leadership in receiving the Ph.D. in 1990 had dropped to less than a 2–1 margin. Women, who had received fewer than 1 percent of dentistry diplomas in 1950, took a respectable 30 percent in 1990. A ninefold margin in males obtaining medical degrees in 1950 declined to fewer than a twofold lead in 1990. Approximately 28 times more men than women earned law degrees in 1950; in 1990 45 percent of new lawyers were women. Choice of fields of study also reflected shifting national interests and priorities. Business remained popular in the immediate postwar period as the veterans prepared themselves to make a good living. Their successors, who had grown up in different circumstances, had a different view of the nation and the world. The idealism and social activism of the 1960s and early 1970s expressed themselves in the popularity of majors in education and the social sciences, both of which areas achieved their highest numbers in the early 1970s. Then, as if by magic, the mood shifted after 1973. Majors in social sciences declined by 20,000 by 1976, and within 10 years the loss amounted to more than one-third the clientele. Between 1973 and 1987 education will lose more than half its majors. Practical, job-oriented, and income-oriented areas of study took center stage. Various business specialties doubled their numbers between 1973 and 1990. Engineering experienced large growth. New technically oriented majors such as communications and especially computer science had begun to position themselves for the revolution that would follow in the 1990s. No one earned a computer science degree in 1964; by 1990 colleges awarded nearly 30,000. The notion of education for education’s sake had not vanished entirely, but such an esoteric concept attracted few takers in the success-directed world of the 1990s.

Education

389

2,275 2,411 2,587 2,809 3,101

3,489 3,877 4,167 4,563 4,885 5,206 5,494 5,869 6,207 6,562 7,167

950 983 1,026 1,064 1,117

1,203 1,287 1,357 1,458 1,517

1,563 1,666 1,789 1,888 1,994

2,165 2,373 2,663 2,945 3,156

3,408 3,571 3,805 4,050 4,274 4,504

1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81

1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92

1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69

1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74

1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

3,682 3,859 4,138 4,403 4,678 4,975

2,327 2,550 2,871 3,196 3,433

... ... 1,935 2,038 2,145

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

3,951 4,406 4,747 5,160 5,504 5,964 6,272 6,725 7,212 7,602 8,286

2,577 2,725 2,917 3,167 3,499

All 4-Year

3,899 4,146 4,469 4,619 4,905 5,324

2,487 2,712 3,079 3,403 3,628

1,760 1,935 2,067 2,170 2,289

1,362 1,477 1,579 1,668 1,707

1,051 1,105 1,171 1,199 1,245

4,005 4,466 4,793 5,236 5,597 6,124 6,339 6,801 7,347 7,709 8,404

2,647 2,777 2,967 3,223 3,535

Universities

3,518 3,637 3,891 4,250 4,526 4,723

2,198 2,421 2,705 3,032 3,285

1,558 1,657 1,827 1,931 2,027

1,135 1,206 1,263 1,460 1,506

867 904 947 997 1,063

3,908 4,356 4,712 5,107 5,441 5,857 6,226 6,673 7,120 7,528 8,207

2,527 2,685 2,879 3,124 3,469

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Total Tuition, Room, and Board

Year and All Control of InstituInstitution tions-

(in dollars)

2,807 2,981 2,989 3,066 3,183 3,299

1,822 2,027 2,224 2,390 2,534

1,339 1,386 1,491 1,590 1,691

951 998 1,073 1,197 1,274

638 670 710 789 883

2,476 2,713 2,854 3,179 3,367 3,295 3,263 3,573 3,705 3,930 4,158

1,598 1,703 1,828 1,979 2,230

2-Year

971 1,045 1,106 1,218 1,285 1,356

583 635 714 798 891

432 433 479 512 543

323 351 376 407 438

243 257 275 283 295

1,457 1,626 1,783 1,985 2,181 2,312 2,458 2,658 2,839 3,016 3,367

924 984 1,073 1,163 1,289

1,228 1,318 1,414 1,537 1,646 1,780

738 804 909 1,031 1,148

... ... 617 655 688

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1,907 2,139 2,344 2,567 2,784 3,042 3,201 3,472 3,800 4,009 4,428

1,218 1,291 1,397 1,513 1,679

All InstiAll tutions 4-Year

1,386 1,536 1,651 1,726 1,846 2,035

840 915 1,042 1,164 1,284

599 642 689 736 777

527 478 526 566 581

298 327 360 366 377

1,860 2,081 2,300 2,539 2,770 3,042 3,168 3,422 3,765 3,958 4,378

1,210 1,269 1,370 1,484 1,634

Universities 2-Year

590 675 730 821 888 897 809 979 978 1,087 1,229

346 378 411 451 526

1,117 1,157 1,248 1,407 1,515 1,608

662 722 813 936 1,052

448 469 564 596 622

306 332 354 455 463

224 241 259 268 281

594 641 660 706 730 756

355 391 434 473 528

177 245 283 306 327

178 187 192 233 174

99 109 121 144 170

1,196 1,242 1,301 1,378 1,457 1,513

715 799 909 1,010 1,087

506 544 582 621 655

369 401 530 476 480

271 281 294 313 337

950 1,064 1,145 1,267 1,338 1,405 1,488 1,575 1,638 1,743 1,880

603 645 688 751 836

1,217 1,263 1,323 1,410 1,496 1,557

725 811 825 1,030 1,110

... ... 592 631 664

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

961 1,078 1,162 1,282 1,355 1,427 1,516 1,609 1,675 1,782 1,925

611 654 696 759 846

1,237 1,290 1,355 1,410 1,483 1,561

750 827 970 1,072 1,131

527 573 614 649 689

395 431 563 500 505

291 304 321 337 359

1,023 1,150 1,211 1,343 1,424 1,501 1,576 1,665 1,732 18,848 2,000

649 691 737 803 881

Universities

1,200 1,240 1,295 1,409 1,506 1,554

703 796 885 993 1,092

497 533 572 616 641

346 375 400 455 464

241 255 271 292 318

919 1,028 1,130 1,242 1,309 1,376 1,478 1,573 1,638 1,740 1,877

584 628 667 729 821

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Dormitory Rooms


Public Institutions

1,935 2,173 2,368 2,583 2,793 3,042 3,220 3,499 3,819 4,036 4,455

1,223 1,305 1,413 1,530 1,705

All Institutions

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Tuition and Required Fees (in sale)

921 960 979 943 965 962

574 642 703 755 801

424 442 465 486 527

308 338 366 398 409

178 194 213 243 278

793 873 916 1,058 1,107 1,034 1,017 1,085 1,105 1,182 1,234

503 525 575 628 705

2-Year

1,241 1,285 1,398 1,454 1,533 1,635

867 940 1,039 1,136 1,178

625 689 728 755 796

511 535 551 575 599

436 445 457 468 485

1,083 1,187 1,239 1,310 1,365 1,489 1,549 1,636 1,730 1,802 1,921

748 781 826 895 976

1,237 1,278 1,401 1,456 1,536 1,638

865 936 1,036 1,134 1,175

... ... 727 752 793

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1,082 1,189 1,242 1,311 1,365 1,495 1,555 1,644 1,737 1,811 1,934

748 780 825 895 975


1,276 1,320 1,464 1,482 1,576 1,728

898 969 1,067 1,167 1,213

634 720 763 785 823

540 658 590 602 621

462 474 490 496 509

1,121 1,235 1,282 1,353 1,403 1,581 1,596 1,715 1,850 1,903 2,027

788 818 860 936 1,020

1,302 1,380 1,349 1,417 1,488 1,581

893 994 1,086 1,162 1,205

638 699 742 797 837

465 473 515 566 591

361 367 376 402 435

1,094 1,165 1,208 1,301 1,372 1,364 1,437 1,509 1,622 1,660 1,695

750 801 842 900 1,000

(continued)

1,201 1,240 1,348 1,434 1,504 1,561

833 904 1,006 1,103 1,141

613 655 692 720 764

483 499 509 550 579

402 408 417 437 464

1,055 1,155 1,214 1,282 1,339 1,439 1,529 1,601 1,663 1,751 1,875

719 752 800 865 943

Univer- Other sities 4-Year 2-Year

4-Year Institutions

Board (7-day basis)

TABLE 14.43 AVERAGE UNDERGRADUATE TUITION AND FEES AND ROOM AND BOARD RATES PAID BY STUDENTS IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY TYPE AND CONTROL OF INSTITUTION, 1964–1990

390


2,530 2,738 2,917 3,038 3,164

3,403 3,663 3,906 4,158 4,514

4,912 5,470 6,166 6,920 7,508

8,202 8,885 9,676 10,512 11,189

12,018

1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74

1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89

1989–90

12,284

8,451 9,228 10,039 10,659 11,474

5,013 5,594 6,330 7,126 7,759

... ... 3,977 4,240 4,609

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

15,098

10,243 11,034 12,278 13,075 14,073

5,891 6,569 7,443 8,536 9,308

4,076 4,467 4,715 5,033 5,403

2,920 3,163 3,375 3,512 3,717

2,202 2,316 2,456 2,545 2,673

11,374

7,849 8,551 9,276 9,854 10,620

4,700 5,249 5,947 6,646 7,244

3,156 3,385 3,714 3,967 4,327

2,420 2,599 2,748 2,934 3,040

1,810 1,899 2,007 2,104 2,237

8,670

6,203 6,512 6,384 7,078 7,967

3,751 4,303 4,746 5,364 5,571

2,591 2,711 2,971 3,148 3,389

1,993 2,103 2,186 2,273 2,410

1,455 1,557 1,679 1,762 1,876

2-Year

8,147

5,315 5,789 6,316 6,988 7,461

3,130 3,498 3,953 4,439 4,851

2,117 2,272 2,467 2,624 2,867

1,533 1,684 1,820 1,898 1,989

1,088 1,154 1,233 1,297 1,383

8,396

5,556 6,121 6,658 7,116 7,722

3,225 3,617 4,113 4,639 5,093

... ... 2,534 2,700 2,958

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

10,348

6,843 7,374 8,118 8,771 9,451

3,811 4,275 4,887 5,583 6,217

2,614 2,881 3,051 3,240 3,487

1,809 1,980 2,133 2,262 2,375

1,297 1,369 1,456 1,534 1,638

Universities 2-Year

7,778

5,135 5,641 6,171 6,574 7,172

3,020 3,390 3,853 4,329 4,726

1,954 2,084 2,351 2,520 2,771

1,468 1,603 1,721 1,845 1,925

1,023 1,086 1,162 1,237 1,335

5,196

3,485 3,672 3,684 4,161 4,817

2,062 2,413 2,605 3,008 3,099

1,367 1,427 1,592 1,706 1,831

1,034 1,109 1,172 1,221 1,303

702 768 845 892 956

1,923

1,426 1,553 1,658 1,748 1,849

827 918 1,038 1,181 1,278

586 636 649 698 758

436 468 494 524 533

331 356 385 392 404

1,935

1,426 1,557 1,673 1,760 1,863

831 921 1,039 1,181 1,279

... ... 651 702 761

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

2,411

1,753 1,940 2,097 2,244 2,353

1,001 1,086 1,229 1,453 1,531

691 753 783 850 916

503 542 576 622 622

390 418 452 455 463

Universities

1,774

1,309 1,420 1,518 1,593 1,686

768 859 970 1,083 1,191

536 583 604 648 704

409 434 454 490 502

308 330 355 366 382

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Dormitory Rooms

All InstiAll tution 4-Year

Private Institutions

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Tuition and Required Fees (in sale)


Note: Data is for entire academic year and represents average charges. Source: Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education, 1992, 307–08.

1,907 2,005 2,124 2,205 2,321

1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69

Year and 4-Year Institutions Control All of InstiAll Univer- Other Institution tutions- 4-Year sities 4-Year

Total Tuition, Room, and Board

TABLE 14.43 (continued)

1,663

1,424 1,500 1,266 1,380 1,540

766 871 1,022 1,177 1,253

465 482 607 631 700

413 434 449 457 483

289 316 347 366 394

2-Year

1,948

1,462 1,542 1,702 1,775 1,880

955 1,054 1,175 1,300 1,380

700 755 790 836 889

561 586 603 616 642

488 495 506 516 534

All Institutions

1,953

1,469 1,551 1,708 1,783 1,889

957 1,056 1,178 1,306 1,387

... ... 791 838 890

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

2,339

1,647 1,720 2,063 2,060 2,269

1,078 1,209 1,327 1,501 1,559

771 833 882 943 1,000

608 641 666 664 720

515 529 548 556 572

All Univer4-Year sities

1,823

1,405 1,490 1,587 1,687 1,762

912 1,000 1,124 1,234 1,327

666 718 759 800 851

543 562 573 598 613

479 483 490 501 520

Other 4-Year

4-Year Institutions

Board (7-day basis)

1,811

1,294 1,340 1,434 1,537 1,609

923 1,019 1,119 1,179 1,219

660 712 772 811 858

546 560 565 595 624

464 473 487 504 529

2-Year

TABLE 14.44

Acadecmic Year

AVERAGE SALARY OF FULL-TIME INSTRUCTIONAL FACULTY IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY ACADEMIC RANK AND SEX, 1972–1973 TO 1989–1990

All Ranks

Associate Professor

Professor

Assistant Professor

Undesignated or No Academic Rank

Instructor

Lecturer

10,737 13,682 14,021 15,178 16,450 17,601 20,230 20,918 22,728 25,001

11,637 12,887 16,151 17,301 18,756 20,072 22,334 23,770 25,977 28,973

12,676 15,201 20,479 22,334 24,331 25,557 27,683 29,088 31,532 32,794

11,147 14,440 14,321 15,545 16,906 18,160 21,159 21,693 23,645 25,891

12,105 13,577 16,987 18,281 19,721 21,225 23,557 25,238 27,652 31,102

13,047 15,764 21,247 23,170 25,276 26,541 28,670 30,267 32,747 34,069

10,099 12,580 13,749 14,854 16,054 17,102 19,362 20,237 21,962 24,302

10,775 11,870 15,142 16,168 17,676 18,830 21,004 22,273 24,370 27,031

11,913 14,098 19,069 20,843 22,672 23,855 26,050 27,171 29,605 31,019

31,848 31,326 22,932 22,248 22,195 22,770 24,286 24,409 24,912 25,001

34,517 29,506 26,416 25,360 25,306 25,967 26,812 27,736 28,473 28,973

37,599 34,804 33,495 32,737 32,829 33,063 33,234 33,942 34,563 32,794

33,064 33,061 23,423 22,786 22,810 23,493 25,402 25,313 25,917 25,891

35,905 31,085 27,784 26,796 26,609 27,458 28,281 29,449 30,310 31,102

38,699 36,093 34,751 33,963 34,104 34,336 34,419 35,318 35,894 34,069

29,955 28,803 22,488 21,773 21,661 22,125 23,244 23,614 24,072 24,302

31,960 27,177 24,766 23,699 23,849 24,360 25,216 25,990 26,712 27,031

35,336 32,278 31,189 30,552 30,590 30,861 31,273 31,705 32,450 31,019

Total (in current dollars) 1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

13,850 16,634 21,367 23,302 25,449 27,196 30,447 32,392 35,897 39,965

19,182 22,611 28,371 30,753 33,437 35,540 39,743 42,268 47,040 52,809

1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

14,415 17,388 22,423 24,499 26,796 28,664 32,182 34,294 38,112 42,629

19,405 22,866 28,653 31,082 33,799 35,956 40,269 42,833 47,735 53,646

1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

11,925 14,292 18,395 19,996 21,802 23,261 25,941 27,576 30,499 33,936

17,122 20,257 25,910 27,959 30,438 32,221 35,824 38,252 42,371 47,673

1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

41,081 38,085 34,947 34,156 34,337 35,183 36,552 37,797 39,347 39,965

56,897 51,769 46,403 45,078 45,115 45,977 47,712 49,321 51,561 52,809

1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

42,757 39,811 36,675 35,911 36,154 37,082 38,635 40,017 41,774 42,629

57,558 52,353 46,864 45,560 45,603 46,516 48,344 49,980 42,322 43,646

1972–73 1975–76 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

35,371 32,723 30,086 29,310 29,416 30,092 31,143 32,178 33,431 33,936

50,786 46,380 42,378 40,982 41,068 41,684 43,007 44,635 46,443 47,673

14,572 17,026 21,431 23,214 25,278 26,921 29,945 31,787 35,231 39,381

12,029 13,966 17,459 18,901 20,608 22,056 24,668 26,277 29,110 32,694

Men (in current dollars) 14,714 17,167 21,627 23,451 25,553 27,262 30,392 32,273 35,823 40,128

12,190 14,154 17,712 19,227 21,025 22,586 25,330 27,094 30,086 33,783

Women (in current dollars) 13,827 16,336 20,642 22,295 24,271 25,738 28,517 30,300 33,528 37,440

11,510 13,506 16,971 18,302 19,866 21,130 23,575 24,966 27,600 31,099

Total (in constant 1989–90 dollars) 43,223 38,982 35,052 34,027 34,106 34,827 35,949 37,091 38,617 39,381

35,680 31,976 28,556 27,705 27,805 28,533 29,614 30,662 31,908 32,694

Men (in constant 1989–90 dollars) 43,644 39,305 35,373 35,374 34,477 35,268 36,486 37,658 39,266 40,128

36,157 32,407 28,969 28,183 28,368 29,219 30,409 31,615 32,978 33,783

Women (in constant 1989–90 dollars) 41,013 37,405 33,762 32,680 32,748 33,297 34,235 35,356 36,750 37,440

34,140 30,923 27,757 26,827 26,804 27,336 28,302 29,132 30,253 31,099


Education

391

TABLE 14.45

WOMEN AS PERCENT OF FULL-TIME FACULTY, 1962–1963, 1972–1973, AND 1979–1980

Type of Institution and Year

All Ranks

Professors

Associate Professors

Assistant Professors

Instructors

Four-Year Institutions 1962–63 1972–73

19.0 20.6

8.7 9.4

16.1 15.8

22.5 23.1

30.9 43.5

All Institutions 1972–73 1979–80

22.3 25.9

9.8 9.8

16.3 19.4

23.8 33.9

39.9 51.8

All Public Institutions 1972–73 1979–80

22.7 26.4

10.0 9.7

15.8 19.1

23.7 23.8

39.2 52.1

Public Universities 1972–73 1979–80

17.1 20.0

6.7 6.4

12.3 16.2

20.0 31.1

44.4 55.7

Public Other Four-Year 1972–73 1979–80

23.2 26.4

12.7 11.8

17.4 18.9

24.7 34.5

44.0 52.7

Public Two-Years 1972–73 1979–80

32.3 34.7

21.2 23.5

24.3 29.4

31.3 38.6

35.1 47.7

All Private Institutions 1972–73 1979–80

21.2 24.8

9.5 10.1

17.2 20.2

24.1 34.2

42.5 51.0

Private Universities 1972–73 1979–80

14.5 18.2

5.4 6.0

12.9 15.6

19.0 30.0

41.0 48.6

Private Other Four-Year 1972–73 1979–80

23.6 27.4

12.3 12.7

19.1 21.6

25.7 35.4

41.5 51.0

Private Two-Year 1972–73 1979–80

45.4 48.6

31.5 29.6

34.3 42.7

41.3 52.9

53.8 57.4

Source: American Council on Education, 1984–85 Fact Book (New York, 1984), 119.

TABLE 14.46

COLLEGE FACULTY BY SEX, ACADEMIC RANK, AND INSTITUTIONAL TYPE, 1984

(in percentages)

(percent distribution) Two-Year Institutions Four-Year Institutions Academic Rank

Women

Men

Women

Men

Full professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor

14.0 19.1 15.1 31.4

25.8 19.3 8.2 27.6

16.2 23.9 35.8 16.0

45.3 27.3 19.7 4.8

1.5 18.9 100.0

0.6 18.5 100.0

5.2 2.9 100.0

2.1 0.8 100.0

Lecturer Other faculty Total percent

TABLE 14.47 FEMALE COLLEGE FACULTY BY SELECTED FIELD, 1990

Source: Paula Ries and Anne J. Stone, The American Woman, 1992–93, A Status Report (New York, 1992), 300.

Field Physics Agriculture and forestry Natural science Engineering Political science

3.2 4.2 6.4 6.6 18.0

Law Theology Economics Earth, environment, and marine science Trade and industrial

19.0 22.8 22.8 23.5 23.7

History Computer Science Medical Science Chemistry Mathematical science

24.3 25.0 25.3 25.5 30.5

Business, commerce, and marketing Psychology Biological science Sociology Art, drama, and music

35.5 35.7 37.0 37.6 37.8

Education English Foreign language Health specialties Social Work Home economics

45.7 52.8 59.6 70.4 73.1 99.9

Source: Ries and Stone, The American Woman, 301.

392


Percent Female

TABLE 14.48

AVERAGE FACULTY SALARIES, 1989–1990 Public

Type

Salary

Private, Independent

1-Year Increase

Salary

1-Year Increase

Church-Related

All

Salary

1-Year Increase

Salary

1-Year Increase

61,210 43,810 36,330 31,190 27,400 46,380

7.0 6.4 7.6 4.8 ... 6.9

59,920 42,830 36,110 25,710 29,110 47,080

6.2 6.2 6.2 5.4 6.2

48,020 38,090 31,900 25,160 33,960 38,510

7.7 6.9 5.9 7.3 ... 6.9

49,710 39,250 32,640 25,250 26,290 40,010

6.5 6.5 6.7 5.6 ... 6.5

37,620 31,410 26,390 22,030 21,240 30,480

6.6 6.1 5.9 5.6 ... 6.2

42,180 34,030 28,210 23,210 25,860 33,400

6.1 5.8 5.8 5.1 ... 5.8

4.2 5.5 5.3 4.3 ... 6.1

42,430 25,540 30,080 25,240 22,040 33,950

5.7 6.4 5.9 5.7 ... 6.0

3.8

34,390

5.6

7.0 6.4 6.2 5.9 ... 6.6

53,540 39,590 32,970 24,890 27,780 41,650

6.3 6.3 6.3 5.4 ... 6.1

Doctoral Institutions Professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor Lecturer All ranks

57,520 42,010 35,380 24,570 27,420 45,490

5.9 6.0 5.8 4.7 ... 5.9

68,360 46,440 39,110 30,610 34,510 53,690

6.8 7.1 7.5 8.2 ... 7.0

Comprehensive Institutions Professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor Lecturer All ranks

49,610 39,690 32,730 25,110 25,630 40,140

6.4 6.5 6.8 7.3 ... 6.4

51,000 39,740 32,780 26,470 29,510 40,370

Professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor Lecturer All ranks

43,270 35,850 29,650 24,220 25,400 34,420

5.4 4.8 4.7 4.3 ... 4.9

46,830 35,940 29,520 24,100 29,170 36,320

Professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor Lecturer All ranks

43,000 35,990 30,560 25,850 22,040 34,560

5.7 6.3 5.8 5.7 ... 5.9

All

34,510

5.6

7.0 6.7 7.1 7.2 ... 6.9

Baccalaureate Institutions 6.1 6.2 6.5 5.6 ... 6.2

2-Year Institutions with Academic Ranks 31,560 27,830 24,620 18,840 ... 25,210

6.9 9.1 9.6 4.5 ... 8.1

26,040 25,130 22,490 18,570 ... 23,000

Institutions Without Academic Ranks 27,320

5.6

22,400

All Institutions Except Institutions Without Academic Ranks Professor Associate professor Assistant professor Instructor Lecturer All ranks

53,210 40,250 33,530 25,040 26,500 41,920

6.0 6.1 6.1 5.1 ... 6.0

59,600 41,210 34,030 26,030 33,050 45,080

6.7 6.8 7.1 7.0 ... 6.8

44,320 35,320 29,080 23,110 27,110 34,910

Note: Salary figures are based on 2,127 institutions; percentage increases are based on 1,717 institutions. Source: Almanac of Higher Education, 1991, 46–47.

TABLE 14.49

FACULTY ATTITUDES AND ACTIVITIES, 1988–1989 All Institutions, by Sex Men

Women

All

By Type of Institution Research

Doctoral

Comprehensive

Liberal Arts

Two-Year

Political Characterization (percent) Liberal Moderately liberal Middle of the road Moderately conservative Conservative

23 31 17 21 7

29 33 14 20 4

25 32 16 21 6

34 33 16 14 3

24 33 15 21 7

26 33 14 20 7

24 35 14 21 6

19 29 18 26 9

8 21 37 34

3 39 20 38

2 49 14 35

1 77 6 16

Scholarly Activities (percent) Major Interests: Primarily research Primarily teaching In both, but leaning toward research In both, but leaning toward teaching

7 41 26 26

4 50 18 28

6 44 23 27

18 10 48 25

Working Conditions (percent) Rate as excellent or good at own institution Own salary Own teaching load Academic reputation of department outside the institution Intellectual environment Administration Quality of life Sense of community

48 49 64

45 45 70

48 47 66

45 58 67

38 49 53

40 37 55

29 39 62

62 50 79

45 36 53 35

43 38 46 38

45 36 51 37

52 28 48 25

39 30 45 30

31 32 43 32

52 47 56 56

49 45 57 45

Source: Almanac of Higher Education, 1991, 52–53

Education

393

394


b175,615 b263,608 b328,841

b278,240 b225,981 b199,793 b186,884 b182,839

b198,615 b221,650 b241,560 b252,517 b254,063

224,538 230,456 241,309 365,349 282,173 299,287 322,711 357,682 410,595 451,097 475,594 500,590 518,191 527,313 504,841 504,925 495,454 487,347 477,344 473,611 469,883 473,364 479,140 482,319 482,528 485,923 480,854 477,203 483,346 491,488

b382,546 b329,986 b303,049 b291,508 b285,841

b309,514 b338,436 b363,502 b379,931 b392,440

365,174 383,961 411,420 461,266 493,757 520,115 558,534 632,289 728,845 792,317 839,730 887,273 922,362 945,776 922,933 925,746 919,549 921,204 921,390 929,417 935,140 952,998 969,510 974,309 979,477 987,823 991,339 994,829 1,018,755 1,049,657

140,636 153,505 170,111 195,917 211,584 220,828 235,823 274,607 318,250 341,220 364,136 386,683 404,171 418,463 418,092 420,821 424,004 433,857 444,046 455,806 465,257 479,634 490,370 491,990 496,949 501,900 510,485 517,626 535,409 558,169

b110,899 b116,786 b121,942 b127,414 b138,377

b104,306 b104,005 b103,256 b104,624 b103,002

b101,884 b103,217

b77,510 b95,571

Female

165 173 181 192 194 181 208 238 278 218 247 258 267 262 249 242 234 229 225 218 218 222 227 225 230 236 241 252 272 282

b147 b163 b167 b178 b182

b161 b143 b132 b129 b151

b113 b154 b182

b56

25 25 25 25 25 27 29 28 27 30 31 33 33 33 31 31 30 30 29 30 30 30 31 32 32 33 34 36 38 40

b26 b28 b28 b28 b27

b35 b28 b25 b24 b24

b11 b27 b36 b40

Per 100 High School Graduates 4 Years Earlier Total 19,209 42,432 50,741 58,183 65,077 63,534 60,959 56,823 58,200 59,281 61,940 65,586 72,532 74,435 84,609 91,418 98,684 109,183 121,167 140,602 167,726 176,749 193,756 208,291 230,509 251,633 263,371 277,033 292,450 311,771 317,164 311,620 301,079 298,081 295,739 295,546 289,921 284,263 286,251 288,567 289,557 299,317 210,621 323,844

9,484 28,931 35,212 41,220 46,196 43,557 40,946 38,147 38,739 39,393 41,329 44,229 48,360 50,898 57,830 62,603 67,302 73,850 81,319 93,081 103,109 113,552 121,531 125,624 138,146 149,550 154,468 157,842 161,570 167,248 167,783 161,212 153,370 150,749 147,043 145,532 144,697 143,595 143,390 143,508 141,363 145,163 149,354 153,643

Male 9,725 13,501 15,529 16,963 18,881 19,977 20,013 18,676 19,461 19,888 20,611 21,357 24,172 23,537 26,779 28,815 31,382 35,333 39,848 47,521 54,617 63,197 72,225 82,667 92,363 102,083 108,903 119,191 130,880 144,523 149,381 150,408 147,709 147,332 148,696 150,014 145,224 140,668 142,861 145,059 148,194 154,154 161,267 170,201

Female 15 31 25 21 18 15 16 17 19 20 22 21 21 20 22 23 27 28 29 30 32 34 35 33 32 32 31 31 32 33 34 34 33 32 32 32 31 30 30 30 30 30 31 33

Per 100 Bachelor’s Degrees 2 Years Earlier

Master’s Degrees (Includes Second Professional for Year Prior to 1959–60)

the number of years from the receipt of the bachelor’s degree to the receipt of the doctorate degree. See column 17. bIncludes first-professional degrees. cFirst professional degrees included with bachelor’s degrees. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 83-84.

aRepresents

Male

b58,664

Total

b136,174 b271,186 b365,492 b432,058

Year

1945–46 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Per 1000 Persons 23 Years Old

Bachelor’s Degrees

25,253 25,607 26,590 27,209 28,290 30,124 31,695 33,939 35,114 34,578 37,946 43,411 50,018 53,816 55,916 62,649 64,359 66,581 68,848 70,131 71,956 72,032 73,136 74,407 75,063 73,910 72,750 70,735 70,853 70,980

c c c c c

c c c c c

c c c c

Total

24,577 24,836 25,753 26,357 27,283 28,982 30,401 32,402 33,595 32,794 35,544 40,723 46,489 48,530 48,956 52,892 52,374 52,270 52,652 52,716 52,792 42,223 51,310 51,334 50,455 49,261 47,460 45,484 45,046 44,002

c c c c c

c c c c c

c c c c

Male

676 771 837 852 1007 1,142 1,294 1,537 1,519 1,784 2,402 2,688 3,529 5,286 6,960 9,757 11,985 14,311 16,196 17,415 19,164 19,809 21,826 23,073 24,608 24,649 25,290 25,251 25,810 26,978

c c c c c

c c c c c

c c c c

Female

First Professional Degrees

1,966 3,989 5,049 6,420 7,337 7,683 8,307 8,996 8,840 8,903 8,756 8,942 9,360 9,829 10,575 11,622 12,822 14,490 16,467 18,237 20,617 23,089 26,158 29,912 32,107 33,363 34,777 33,816 34,083 34,064 33,232 32,131 32,730 32,615 32,958 32,707 32,775 33,209 32,943 33,653 34,120 34,870 35,720 38,238

Total 1,580 3,496 4,527 5,804 6,663 6,969 7,515 8,181 8,014 8,018 7,817 7,978 8,371 8,801 9,463 10,377 11,448 12,955 14,692 16,121 18,163 20,183 22,722 25,890 27,530 28,090 28,571 27,365 26,817 26,267 25,142 23,658 23,541 22,943 22,711 22,224 21,902 22,064 21,700 21,819 22,099 22,615 22,648 24,371

Male

386 493 522 616 674 714 792 815 826 885 939 964 989 1,028 1,112 1,245 1,374 1,535 1,774 2,115 2,454 2,906 3,436 4,022 4,577 5,273 6,206 6,451 7,266 7,797 8,090 8,473 9,189 9,672 10,247 10,483 10,873 11,145 11,243 11,834 12,021 12,255 13,022 13,867

11.0 10.8 10.2 10.2 9.8 9.8 9.7 9.7 9.9 10.3 10.2 10.3 10.3 10.4 10.3 10.2 10.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 8.1 8.1 8.0 7.9 7.9 8.2 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.9 9.0 9.3 9.4 9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.4 10.5 10.5 10.5

14.1 25.9 28.7 34.4 39.5 41.5 53.4 71.5 67.5 65.4 43.0 33.0 25.6 22.7 27.6 35.2 42.3 49.7 57.6 58.9 54.3 58.8 71.6 77.9 78.0 72.3 70.4 65.0 65.5 61.0 52.6 44.1 41.3 38.8 37.1 36.9 35.5 35.1 35.7 36.4 37.1 37.9 38.8 41.1

Total Lapse Per Time 1,000 in Years, Bachelor’s Bachelor’s Degrees to x-Years Female Doctor’s Earliera

Doctor’s Degrees

TABLE 14.50 DEGREE CONFERRED BY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY SEX AND LEVEL, 1945–1946 TO 1989–1990

TABLE 14.51

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF BACHELOR AND HIGHER DEGREES, BY GENDER, 1948–1990 Percentage of Degrees Bachelor’s

1st-Professional

Master’s

Doctorate

Year

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

1947–48 1949–50 1954–55 1959–60

65 76 65 65

35 24 36 35

na na na na

na na na na

68 71 66 68

32 29 34 32

88 91 91 90

13 9 9 10

1964–65 1969–70 1974–75

57 57 55

43 43 45

96 95 88

4 5 13

68 60 55

32 40 45

89 87 79

11 13 21

1979–80 1981–82 1983–84

51 50 50

49 50 50

75 73 69

25 28 31

51 49 51

49 51 49

70 68 67

30 32 33

1984–85 1985–86 1987–88 1989–90

49 49 48 47

51 51 52 53

67 67 64 62

33 33 36 38

50 50 49 47

50 50 52 53

66 65 65 64

34 35 35 36

Source: American Council on Education, The Fact Book on Higher Education, 1997 Edition (Phoenix, 1998), 185.

TABLE 14.52 PERSONS 25 OR OLDER WHO HAVE COMPLETED FOUR OR MORE YEARS OF COLLEGE, 1947–1990 (in percent) All Races Year

Both Sexes

Male

White

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Black

Hispanic

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

Both Sexes

Male

Female

1947 1950 1952 1957 1959

5.4 6.2 7.0 7.6 8.1

6.2 7.3 8.3 9.6 10.3

4.7 5.2 5.8 5.8 6.0

5.7 ... ... 8.0 8.6

6.6 ... ... 10.1 11.0

4.9 ... ... 6.0 6.2

2.5 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.3

2.4 2.1 2.0 2.7 3.8

2.6 2.4 2.7 3.0 2.9

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1962 1964 1966 1968 1970

8.9 9.1 9.8 10.5 11.0

11.4 11.7 12.5 13.3 14.1

6.7 6.8 7.4 8.0 8.2

9.5 9.6 10.4 11.0 11.6

12.2 12.3 13.3 14.1 15.0

7.0 7.1 7.7 8.3 8.6

4.0 3.9 3.8 4.3 4.5

3.9 4.5 3.9 3.7 4.6

4.0 3.4 3.7 4.8 4.4

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980

12.0 13.3 14.7 15.7 17.0

15.4 16.9 18.6 19.7 20.9

9.0 10.1 11.3 12.2 13.6

12.6 14.0 15.4 16.4 17.8

16.2 17.7 19.6 20.7 22.1

9.4 10.6 11.6 12.6 14.0

5.1 5.5 6.6 7.2 7.9

5.5 5.7 6.3 7.3 7.7

4.8 5.3 6.8 7.1 8.1

... 5.5 6.1 7.0 7.9

... 7.1 8.6 8.6 9.7

... 4.0 4.0 5.7 6.2

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

17.7 19.1 19.4 20.3 21.3

21.9 22.9 23.2 24.0 24.4

14.0 15.7 16.1 17.0 18.4

18.5 19.8 20.1 20.9 22.0

23.0 23.9 23.1 25.0 25.3

14.4 16.0 16.4 17.3 19.0

8.8 10.4 10.9 11.2 11.3

9.1 10.4 11.2 11.1 11.9

8.5 10.4 10.7 11.4 10.8

7.8 8.3 8.4 10.1 9.2

9.6 9.5 9.5 12.3 9.8

6.2 7.0 7.4 8.1 8.7

Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of the U.S., 233–345

Education

395

396


16,823 14,991 14,222 13,492 13,070

520,115 558,534 632,289 728,845 792,317

839,730 887,273 922,362 945,776 922,933

925,746 919,549 921,204 921,390 929,417

935,140 852,998 969,510 974,309 979,477

1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70

1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

1985–86 987,823 1986–87 991,339 1987–88 994,829 1988–89 1,018,755 1989–90 1,049,657

19,402 21,467 22,650 23,134 22,802

12,682 13,516 14,856 16,253 17,528

7,178 7,866 8,308 9,965 11,321

9,119 8,922 8,603 9,150 9,261

9,455 9,728 9,823 9,186 9,325

9,146 9,222 9,250 9,273 9,132

5,570 6,440 6,962 7,822 8,226

2,663 2,937 3,057 3,477 4,105

1,801 1,674 1,774 2,028 2,059 2,333

238,160 241,156 243,725 247,175 249,081

199,338 214,001 226,893 230,031 233,351

142,379 150,964 160,187 171,764 185,361

114,865 121,360 126,263 13,166 133,010

62,721 69,032 79,074 93,094 104,706

51,076 48,074 49,017 50,639 55,474 59,288

43,091 45,408 46,726 48,645 51,434

31,282 34,222 38,602 40,165 42,083

21,282 23,214 25,400 26,457 28,616

10,802 12,340 14,317 17,096 19,248

2,357 2,741 3,173 4,269 5,199

1,548 1,830 1,519 1,687 2,001 1,928

41,889 39,664 34,523 30,454 27,434

15,121 20,267 24,510 32,172 38,878

5,652 6,407 7,201 8,719 11,154

2,388 3,402 4,304 4,756 5,033

89 222 459 933 1,544

0 0 0 0 0 87

87,221 87,115 91,287 97,082 104,715

108,309 101,113 97,991 92,382 88,161

154,807 143,722 136,141 126,109 118,169

176,614 191,220 194,229 185,225 167,015

116,448 118,955 133,965 150,985 164,080

89,002 91,028 96,280 101,338 111,215 117,137

95,953 93,074 88,706 85,225 82,110

75,000 80,005 89,270 94,444 96,105

46,331 49,283 55,654 62,375 68,893

50,046 51,164 51,265 50,286 46,852

35,615 35,954 37,368 41,248 44,479

37,679 35,698 34,735 33,458 35,226 36,795

Engineering

10,102 10,184 10,045 10,780 11,326

10,319 9,851 9,685 9,479 9,954

15,471 13,944 12,730 11,825 11,133

19,945 18,849 18,964 18,840 17,606

15,186 16,706 19,128 21,493 20,895

5,405 6,364 7,906 9,707 12,160 13,859

Foreign Languages

64,535 63,206 60,754 59,138 58,816

63,348 63,385 64,614 64,338 64,513

53,813 57,122 59,168 61,819 63,607

25,190 28,570 33,523 41,394 48,858

14,965 15,908 17,429 19,825 21,674

24,455 11,314 11,366 11,854 11,527 11,611

Health Science

35,434 37,133 39,551 43,387 48,075

33,208 34,334 32,743 33,739 34,091

43,019 38,849 36,365 34,557 33,497

64,933 64,670 61,799 55,469 48,534

42,262 45,900 52,467 59,674 62,583

22,457 24,003 26,609 30,225 35,146 38,836

157 139 123 122 84

375 307 258 255 202

843 781 693 558 398

1,013 989 1,159 1,164 1,069

619 701 814 1,000 1,054

1,938 439 423 462 510 623

38,524 38,114 36,755 36,059 37,170

43,216 41,639 39,982 38,640 38,445

54,275 53,605 51,502 48,846 46,370

35,743 37,293 42,233 48,340 51,741

26,916 28,849 31,826 35,308 37,389

15,576 16,060 16,915 19,114 22,723 25,166

16,306 16,489 15,904 15,218 14,597

11,078 11,599 12,453 13,211 15,146

15,984 14,196 12,569 11,806 11,378

24,801 23,713 23,067 21,635 18,181

19,977 21,207 23,513 27,209 27,442

11,399 13,097 14,570 16,078 18,624 19,460

21,731 19,974 17,806 17,186 16,131

23,952 24,052 23,405 23,671 23,732

21,465 22,497 22,986 23,207 23,410

21,412 20,745 20,696 21,178 20,778

17,129 17,739 19,380 21,480 21,439

16,007 15,452 15,851 16,215 17,456 17,861

40,521 42,868 45,003 48,737 53,586

40,833 41,031 40,364 39,872 39,811

49,908 47,373 44,559 42,461 41,962

37,880 43,093 47,695 51,821 50,988

16,897 19,364 23,819 29,332 33,606

8061 8460 9578 10,993 13,258 14,626

13,878 14,161 14,294 15,270 16,241

18,714 18,739 16,290 14,396 13,838

16,751 17,627 18,078 18,882 18,422

6,252 8,221 11,346 12,671 14,730

2,960 3,242 4,912 5,282 5,762

3,714 1,688 1,560 1,957 2,032 2,320

93,703 96,185 100,288 107,914 116,925

100,345 99,545 95,088 93,121 91,461

126,287 116,879 112,827 107,922 106,519

155,236 158,037 155,922 150,298 135,165

90,632 101,550 117,093 137,517 150,331

48,002 50,221 55,296 63,104 74,729 81,919

88,882 87,739 87,161 85,966 84,338

86,793 90,604 72,293 90,707 90,702

43,974 49,820 57,845 70,032 77,589

26,822 28,113 30,983 35,166 38,807

34,916 21,181 21,112 22,030 24,798 25,783

36,949 83,727 36,223 86,333 36,638 89,876 37,925 95,796 39,695 100,057

40,479 40,422 39,469 39,833 37,936

42,138 41,793 40,951 40,969 40,892

30,394 33,831 36,017 39,730 40,782

18,679 21,548 25,521 31,588 35,901

13,163 12,942 13,609 14,518 16,459 17,391

Visual and PerLibrary Life Mathe- Physical PsyPublic Social forming Letters Science Sciences matics Sciences chology Affairs Science Arts Othersa

includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences, multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degrees not classified by field of study. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 85.

aOther

21,886 21,029 20,909 19,317 18,107

392,440 365,174 383,961 422,420 461,266 493,757

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65

6,241 5,649 5,841 6,013 6,169 6,734

Total

Year

AgriArchicultural tecture Computer and and Business and Natural Environand InformaRemental Manage- Commution Educasources Design ment nications Sciences tion

TABLE 14.53 BACHELOR’S DEGREES CONFERRED BY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY FIELD OF STUDY, 1959–1960 TO 1989–1990

Education

397

74,435 84,609 91420 98684 109,183 121,167 140,602

157,726 176,749 193,756 208,291 230,509

251,633 263,371 277,033 292,450

311,771 317,164 311,620 301,079 298,081

295,739 295,546 289,921 284,263 286,251

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66

1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71

1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

4,003 4,163 4,254 4,178 3,928

3,340 3,724 4,023 3,994 3,976

2,680 2,807 2,928 3,067

1,750 1,797 2,070 1,793 2,457

1,203 1,241 1,357 1,261 1,344 1,366 1,661

3,153 3,327 3,357 3,223 3,275

3,215 3,213 3,115 3,113 3,139

1,899 2,307 2,702 2,938

812 1,021 1,143 1,427 1,705

319 378 311 356 383 373 702

57,898 61,299 65,319 66,653 67,527

42,512 46,420 48,326 50,372 55,006

30,367 31,007 32,644 36,247

14,892 17,795 19,281 21,287 26,481

4643 6723 7691 8334 9251 10,602 12,959

3,105 3,327 3,604 3,656 3,669

3,126 3,091 3,296 2,882 3,082

2,200 2,406 2,640 2,794

107 65 129 130 1,856

0 37 44 32 32 38 44

4,218 4,935 5,321 6,190 7,101

2,603 2,798 3,038 3,055 3,647

1,977 2,113 2,276 2,299

449 548 1,012 1,459 1,588

0 0 0 0 0 146 238

98,938 93,757 84,853 77,187 76,137

128,417 126,825 119,038 111,995 103,951

98,143 105,565 112,610 120,169

55,760 63,399 70,967 79,293 88,952

33,433 34,368 36,182 37,878 41,091 44,314 50,397

Architecture Computer and Business and Environand Informamental Manage- Commution EducaDesign ment nications Sciences tion

16,709 17,939 19,350 20,661 21,557

16,342 16,245 16,398 15,495 16,243

16,960 16,619 15,379 15,348

13,880 15,182 15,240 15,593 16,443

7,159 8,178 8,909 9,635 10,827 12,055 13,675

Engineering

2,104 2,008 1,759 1,773 1,724

3,531 3,147 2,726 2,426 2,236

4,616 4,289 3,964 3,807

4,017 4,511 4,691 4,803 4,755

1,055 1,274 1,480 1,849 2,196 2,690 3,393

Foreign Languages

16,004 15,942 17,068 17,443 17,383

11,885 12,323 13,619 14,781 15,068

6,875 7,879 9,090 9,901

3,398 3,677 4,067 4,488 5,445

1,838 1,632 1,632 2,011 2,279 2,493 2,833

Health Science

6,515 6,421 5,767 5,818 5,934

9,468 8,701 8,306 7,289 6,807

11,074 10,808 10,384 10,068

8,231 9,021 9,684 9,713 11,148

3,262 3,556 3,947 4,490 5,006 5,745 7,033

4,859 4,506 3,979 3,805 3,893

8,037 7,572 6,914 5,906 5,374

7,383 7,696 8,134 8,091

4,489 5,165 5,932 6,511 7,001

305 1,931 2,140 2,363 2,717 3,211 3,939

5,978 5,874 5,696 5,406 5,059

6,582 7,114 6,806 6,831 6,510

6,101 6,263 6,552 6,550

4,996 5,506 5,743 5,800 5,728

2,154 2,358 2,642 2,921 3,296 3,598 4,232

2,567 2,727 2,837 2,741 2,882

3,857 3,695 3,373 3,036 2,860

5,198 5,028 4,834 4,327

5,278 5,527 5,713 5,636 5,191

1,757 2,231 2,680 3,313 3,597 4,141 4,769

5,284 5,514 5,290 5,576 5,796

5,466 5,331 5,561 5,451 5,219

6,287 6,257 6,062 5,807

5,405 5,499 5,895 5,935 6,367

3,376 3,790 3,925 4,123 4,561 4,914 4,987

7,998 7,791 8,378 8,002 8,408

7,811 8,301 8,160 8,003 7,806

5,289 5,831 6,588 7,066

3,138 3,479 4,011 4,111 4,431

1,406 1,719 1,832 1,918 2,059 2,241 2,530

18,524 18,216 16,245 15,373 16,045

16,117 17,917 18,341 18,300 18,413

9,183 10,899 12,077 14,610

5,087 5,858 6,318 7,067 8,215

568 2,706 2,841 3,180 3,651 4,085 4,769

11,855 11,892 11,112 10,465 10,380

15,824 15,395 14,578 12,807 12,101

17,416 17,288 17,249 16,892

13,460 14,539 16,068 16,281 16,476

5,448 5,825 6,678 7,637 8,493 9,565 11,477

8,629 8,746 8,742 8,520 8,714

8,817 8,636 9,036 8,524 8,708

7,537 7,254 8,001 8,362

5,812 6,563 7,413 7,849 6,675

2,892 2,910 3,151 3,363 3,673 4,244 5,019

17,398 17,162 16,990 17,593 16,839

14,812 16,716 16,966 16,819 17,935

10,448 11,055 12,919 14,107

6,765 7,597 8,379 9,115 9,595

3,617 3,752 3,978 4,020 4,727 5,346 5,945

Visual and PerLibrary Life Mathe- Physical PsyPublic Social forming Letters Science Sciences matics Sciences chology Affairs Science Arts Othersa

Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 85.

1985–86 288,567 3,801 3,260 67,137 3,823 8,070 76,353 21,661 1,721 18,624 6,291 3,626 5,013 3,159 5,902 8,293 16,300 10,428 8,416 16,689 1986–87 289,557 3,523 3,142 67,496 3,937 8,491 75,501 22,693 1,746 18,426 6,123 3,815 4,954 3,221 5,652 8,204 17,032 10,397 8,506 16,598 1987–88 299,317 3,479 3,159 69,655 3,925 9,197 77,867 23,388 1,844 18,665 6,194 3,713 4,784 3,442 5,733 7,872 17,290 10,294 7,937 20,879 1988–89 310,621 3,245 3,383 73,521 4,257 9,414 82,533 24,572 1,898 19,293 6,676 3,953 4,961 3,447 5,723 8,552 17,918 10,867 8,265 18,143 1989–90 323,844 3,373 3,492 77,203 4,369 9,643 86,057 24,848 1,995 20,354 7,223 4,349 4,861 3,677 5,447 9,231 17,993 11,419 8,546 19,764 a “Other’’ includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences, multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degrees not classified by field of study.

Total

Year

Agricultural and Natural Resources

TABLE 14.54 MASTER’S DEGREES CONFERRED BY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY FIELD OF STUDY, 1959–1960 TO 1989–1990

398


9,829 10,575 11,622 12,822 14,490 16,467

18,237 20,617 23,089 26,158 29,866

32,107 33,363 34,777 33,816 34,083

34,064 33,232 32,131 32,730 32,615

32,958 32,707 32,775 33,209 32,943

33,653 34,120 34,870 35,720 38,238

1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65

1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70

1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

1,158 1,049 1,142 1,183 1,272

1,067 1,079 1,149 1,172 1,213

928 893 971 950 991

1,086 971 1,059 930 991

588 637 648 699 823

440 450 465 449 555 529

73 92 98 86 97

93 80 97 84 89

82 73 73 96 79

36 50 58 69 69

12 18 15 32 35

17 3 1 3 3 10

969 1,098 1,109 1,149 1,142

842 855 809 977 866

953 863 866 860 792

807 896 923 981 1009

387 437 441 530 601

135 172 226 250 275 321

223 275 234 253 269

182 200 214 219 234

204 171 191 192 193

145 111 139 175 165

11 5 1 14 10

0 16 9 7 12 9

344 374 428 551 623

252 251 262 251 248

244 216 196 236 240

128 167 196 198 213

19 38 36 64 107

0 0 0 0 0 6

7,110 6,909 6,553 6,800 6,922

7,900 7,680 7,551 7,473 7,151

7,778 7,963 7,595 7,736 7,941

6,403 7,044 7,318 7,293 7,446

3,065 3,529 4,078 4,830 5,895

1,591 1,742 1,898 2,075 2,348 2,705

Architecture Computer and Business and Environand Informamental Manage- Commution EducaDesign ment nications Sciences tion

3,410 3,820 4,191 4,523 4,965

2,561 2,636 2,831 2,981 3,230

2,821 2,586 2,440 2,506 2,507

3,638 3,671 3,492 3,312 3,108

2,304 2,614 2,932 3,377 3,681

786 943 1,207 1,378 1,693 2,124

Engineering

448 441 411 420 512

588 536 488 462 437

864 752 649 641 549

781 841 991 923 857

426 478 610 659 760

203 232 228 237 326 376

Foreign Languages

1,241 1,213 1,261 1,436 1,543

827 910 1,155 1,163 1,199

577 538 638 705 771

459 425 643 568 609

251 250 243 283 357

107 133 148 157 192 173

Health Science

1,215 1,181 1,172 1,234 1,266

1,380 1,313 1,176 1,215 1,239

1,884 1,723 1,616 1,504 1,500

1,857 2,023 2,170 2,076 1,951

801 972 1,116 1,275 1,339

431 439 526 565 618 766

62 57 46 61 41

71 84 52 74 87

71 75 67 70 73

39 64 102 60 56

19 16 22 17 40

19 14 10 17 13 12

3,358 3,423 3,629 3,520 3,844

3,718 3,743 3,341 3,437 3,432

3,392 3,397 3,309 3,542 3,636

3,645 3,653 3,636 3,439 3,384

2,097 2,255 2,784 3,051 3,289

1,205 1,193 1,338 1,455 1,625 1,928

742 725 750 866 915

728 681 698 695 699

856 823 805 730 724

1,199 1,128 1,068 1,031 975

782 832 947 1,097 1,236

303 344 396 490 596 682

3,551 3,672 3,809 3,858 4,168

3,141 3,286 3,269 3,306 3,403

3,431 3,341 3,133 3,102 3,089

4,390 4,103 4,006 3,626 3,626

3,045 3,462 3,593 3,859 4,312

1,838 1,991 2,122 2,380 2,455 2,829

3,088 3,123 2,987 3,222 3,353

2,955 2,780 3,108 2,973 2,908

2,581 2,761 2,587 2,662 2,768

1,782 1,881 2,089 2,336 2,442

1,046 1,231 1,268 1,551 1,668

641 703 781 844 939 847

385 398 470 429 495

388 389 347 421 431

298 316 385 344 372

185 219 214 214 271

108 123 129 137 152

43 66 67 77 72 87

2,955 2,916 2,781 2,885 3,023

3,114 3,061 2,931 2,911 2,851

4,154 3,784 3,583 3,358 3,219

3,659 4,078 4,230 4,123 4,209

2,033 2,388 2,684 3,016 3,638

1,211 1,302 1,309 1,461 1,719 1,913

722 792 725 752 842

654 670 692 728 693

620 662 708 700 655

621 572 616 585 649

476 504 528 684 734

292 303 311 379 422 428

2,599 2,562 3,074 2,492 2,946

2,497 2,473 2,605 2,667 2,533

2,326 2,295 2,319 2,796 2,516

1,247 1,466 1,827 1,877 2,053

767 828 1,014 983 1,189

567 529 580 598 627 722

Visual and PerLibrary Life Mathe- Physical Psy- Public Social forming Letters Science Sciences matics Sciences chology Affairs Science Arts Othersa

a“Other’’ includes degrees in area and ethnic studies, home economics, law, liberal/general studies, military sciences, multi/interdisciplinary studies, parks and recreation, philosophy and religion, protective services, theology, and degrees not classified by field of study. Source: Center for Education Statistics, 120 Years of Education, 87.

Total

Year

Agricultural and Natural Resources

TABLE 14.55 DOCTOR’S DEGREES CONFERRED BY INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION, BY FIELD OF STUDY, 1959–1960 TO 1989–1990

TABLE 14.56 FIRST-PROFESSIONAL DEGREES IN DENTISTRY, MEDICINE, AND LAW, BY SEX, 1949–1950 TO 1989–1990 Dentistry (D.D.S. or D.M.D.)

Medicine (M.D.)

Degrees Conferred

Year

Number of Institutions Conferring Degrees

Total

Men

1949–50 1951–52 1953–54 1955–56 1957–58 1959–60 1961–62 1963–64 1965–66 1967–68 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

40 41 42 42 43 45 46 46 47 48 48 48 48 51 52 52 56 57 57 58 58 58 59 59 60 59 59 58 57 58 57

2,579 2,918 3,102 3,009 3,065 3,247 3,183 3,180 3,178 3,422 3,718 3,745 3,862 4,047 4,440 4,773 5,425 5,138 5,189 5,434 5,258 5,460 5,282 5,585 5,353 5,339 5,046 4,741 4,477 4,265 4,100

2,561 2,895 3,063 2,975 3,031 3,221 3,166 3,168 3,146 3,375 3,684 3,703 3,819 3,992 4,355 4,627 5,187 4,764 4,623 4,794 4,558 4,672 4,467 4,631 4,302 4,233 3,907 3,603 3,300 3,124 2,834

Degrees Conferred

Number of Institutions Conferring Women Degrees 18 23 39 34 34 26 17 12 32 47 34 42 43 55 85 146 238 374 566 640 700 788 815 954 1,051 1,106 1,139 1,138 1,177 1,141 1,266

Law (LL.B. or J.D.)

72 72 73 73 75 79 81 82 84 85 86 89 92 97 99 104 107 109 109 109 112 116 119 118 119 120 120 121 122 124 124

Degrees Conferred

Total

Men

Women

Number of Institutions Conferring Degrees

5,612 6,201 6,712 6,810 6,816 7,032 7,138 7,303 7,673 7,944 8,314 8,919 9,253 10,307 11,356 12,447 13,426 13,461 14,279 14,786 14,902 15,505 15,814 15,484 15,813 16,041 15,938 15,428 15,358 15,460 15,075

5,028 5,871 6,377 6,464 6,469 6,645 6,749 6,878 7,170 7,318 7,615 8,110 8,423 9,388 10,093 10,818 11,252 10,891 11,210 11,381 11,416 11,672 11,867 11,350 11,359 11,167 11,022 10,431 10,278 10,310 9,923

584 330 335 346 347 387 389 425 503 626 699 809 830 919 1,263 1,629 2,174 2,570 3,069 3,405 3,486 3,833 3,947 4,134 4,454 4,874 4,916 4,997 5,080 5,150 5,152

... ... ... 131 131 134 134 133 136 138 145 147 147 152 151 154 166 169 169 175 179 176 180 177 179 181 181 179 180 182 182

Total

Men

Women

... ... ... 8,262 9,394 9,240 9,364 10,679 13,246 16,454 14,916 17,421 21,764 27,205 29,326 29,296 32,293 34,104 34,402 35,206 35,647 36,331 35,991 36,853 37,012 37,491 35,844 36,056 35,397 35,634 36,485

... ... ... 7,974 9,122 9,010 9,091 10,372 12,776 15,805 14,115 16,181 20,266 25,037 25,986 24,881 26,085 26,447 25,457 25,180 24,893 24,563 23,965 23,550 23,382 23,070 21,874 21,561 21,067 21,069 21,079

... ... ... 288 272 230 273 307 470 649 801 1,240 1,498 2,168 3,340 4,415 6,208 7,657 8,945 10,026 10,754 11,768 12,026 13,303 13,630 14,421 13,970 14,495 14,330 14,565 15,406

Source: Cynthia M. Taeuber, Statistical Handbook on Women, 1996 (Phoenix, 1996), 312.

TABLE 14.57 BARRON’S TOP 50 AMERICAN COLLEGES, 1990a School Amherst College Boston College Bowdoin College Brown University Bryn Mawr College California Institute of Technology Carleton College Carnegie Mellon University Claremont McKenna College College of William and Mary Columbia University Cornell University Dartmouth College Davidson College Duke University Georgetown University Georgia Institute of Technology Harvard University Harvey Mudd College Haverford College Johns Hopkins University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Middlebury College Northwestern University Pomona College Princeton University Reed College Rice University

School

Reputation First-rate Liberal Arts School Jesuit Ivy Innovative/Well-regarded Liberal Arts Top-notch Liberal Arts Best Women’s College Leading Edge Science Tech A Renaissance School The Professional Choice On the Verge of Greatness Strong Liberal Arts—Well Balanced Top-notch Liberal Arts Diversified Academic Excellence Top Rate Liberal Arts Demanding Liberal Arts Curriculum Thorough Coursework/Versatility of Graduates Traditional/Value Oriented Hell of an Engineer Internationally Premier College Best Specialty Engineering College Liberal Arts Center Academic Think Tank Premier Science and Engineering Institution Liberal Arts Personified Midwest Ivy Best Liberal Arts West of Mississippi Quintessential Ivy League Best Liberal Arts School Top-notch Science and Engineering

Stanford University Swarthmore College Tufts University University of California/Berkeley University of California/Irvine University of California/Los Angeles University of Chicago University of Illinois/ Urbana-Champaign University of Michigan/Ann Arbor University of North Carolina/ Chapel Hill University of Notre Dame University of Pennsylvania University of Texas/Austin University of Virginia Vanderbilt University Vassar College Wake Forest University Washington and Lee University Wellesley College Wesleyan University Williams College Yale University

Reputation Ivy League/Best Best Liberal College Strong All Around International Intellectual Center Up and Coming World-class University High-powered Academics MIT of the Midwest Best All Around Public Ivy Top-notch Undergraduate Program Strong Multifaceted University University of the First Class Great Academics Liberal Arts Stronghold Innovative and Independent Liberal Arts Bastion Best Kept Secret in the South Intellectual Haven Top-notch Liberal Arts Top-notch Liberal Arts Finest Liberal Arts—creative

aThe

highest-ranked undergraduate colleges and universities, based on three measures: percent accepted (number of applicants accepted vs. number who applied); percent enrolled (number who enrolled vs. number accepted); SAT scores (combined verbal and quantitative). Listing is alphabetically, not by rank. Source: Tom Fischgrund, ed., Barron’s Top 50: An Inside Look at America’s Best Colleges (Hauppauge, N.Y., 1991), xv, 666–67.

Education

399

CHAPTER 15 Science and Technology It would be an act of folly to attempt in a single chapter to explore the dimensions of science and technology in the United States during the 45 years following the Second World War. Much of what went on in the country involved science and technology in one fashion or another, albeit in degrees that varied from area to area. Much of the information in this volume represents a manifestation in some form of science or technology. Obvious examples include measurement and understanding of weather; all aspects of transportation and communication; many aspects of economics and of birth, death, and health care; politics; and education. The state of military forces at any time was directly related to the level of military technology.This unit thus does not purport to address all sciences and technology, aspects of which are explored in other parts of the volume. It focuses on selected themes, chosen for their significance, their propensity to stretch the bounds of knowledge and imagination, their importance to the functioning and future of the basic culture, and their relationship to the way Americans lived daily lives. The United States possessed several advantages in the pursuit of scientific inquiry and technological change. It had an expanding system of colleges and universities, in which the value of professional inquiry

TABLE 15.1

had become a staple. Intellectual curiosity aside, producing new information allowed one to advance within the system.The nation had extensive research facilities and an intellectual and political climate that as a rule fostered free inquiry.The government wanted certain subjects pursued, as did private industry, but much of what went on in research was voluntary.The competitive American economic and business system fostered continuous development and improvement of goods and services. Failure to do so usually meant, well, failure.Whether it came from government or private organizations the United States had money, and financial support was the parent of research. Such an atmosphere attracted some of the world’s best minds to the United States. Statistics on research and development reveal a few themes. The amount of money spent increased each year, but its percentage of the Gross National Product remained steady. A large portion of funds went to defense-related purposes at the start of the period, but the percentage decreased markedly though the passage of years. The largest contributor of funds for research and development each year after 1970 was private industry. The number of patents issued in the United States increased nearly every year between 1946 and 1990, but the rate of growth usually was small. The largest recipients of patents

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)—EXPENDITURES, 1960–1990 Current Dollars (billions)


Annual Percent Change

Percent of Total R&D Outlays Federally Funded Defense/Space-Related

Year or Period 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Total

Defense Space Related

Other

Total (billions)

Percent of GNP

Current Dollars

13.5 14.3 15.4 17.1 18.9 20.0 21.8 23.1 24.6 25.6 26.1 26.7 28.5 30.7 32.9 35.2 39.0 42.8 48.1 55.0 62.6 71.9 80.0 89.1 101.1 113.8 119.5 125.4 133.7 140.5 145.5

7.4 ‘8.0 8.6 9.2 10.6 10.8 11.1 11.3 12.1 11.5 11.2 11.5 11.7 12.0 11.8 12.0 13.7 14.5 15.4 17.0 18.2 20.8 24.0 26.7 31.4 37.6 40.6 43.9 45.5 46.4 46.5

6.1 6.3 6.8 7.8 8.3 9.2 10.7 11.8 12.5 14.1 14.9 15.2 16.8 18.7 ‘21.0 23.2 25.4 28.2 32.7 37.9 44.5 51.0 56.0 62.4 69.8 76.3 78.9 81.5 88.3 94.1 98.9

43.6 45.8 48.2 52.6 57.2 59.4 62.6 64.4 65.5 64.7 62.4 60.4 61.4 62.4 61.5 59.9 62.1 63.7 66.8 70.1 73.3 76.6 80.0 85.8 93.8 102.5 104.9 106.6 110.2 111.1 110.5

2.6 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7

9.4 5.9 7.5 10.8 10.5 6.3 9.0 6.0 6.3 4.2 2.0 2.1 6.7 7.9 7.0 7.2 10.8 9.6 12.5 14.2 13.9 14.8 11.3 11.4 13.5 12.5 5.0 4.9 6.7 5.0 3.5

Constant Dollars 7.5 4.9 5.2 9.2 8.8 3.8 5.5 2.9 1.6 21.2 23.5 23.2 1.7 1.7 21.5 22.6 3.8 2.4 4.9 5.0 4.5 4.6 4.4 7.2 9.4 9.2 2.3 1.7 3.3 0.9 20.6

Total

Defense

Space

55 56 56 54 56 54 51 49 49 45 43 43 41 39 36 34 35 34 32 31 29 29 30 30 31 33 34 35 34 33 32

52 50 49 41 37 33 32 35 35 34 33 33 33 32 29 27 27 27 26 25 24 24 26 27 28 30 31 32 31 29 28

3 6 7 13 19 21 19 14 14 11 10 10 8 7 7 7 8 7 6 6 5 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4

Other Outlays

Total 45 44 44 46 44 46 49 51 51 55 57 57 59 61 64 66 65 66 68 69 71 71 70 70 69 67 66 65 66 67 68

Nonfederal

Federal

35 35 36 34 34 35 36 38 39 42 43 44 44 47 49 49 49 50 50 51 53 54 54 54 55 54 55 54 54 55 56

10 9 8 12 10 11 13 13 12 13 14 13 15 14 15 17 16 16 18 18 18 17 16 16 14 13 11 11 12 12 12

Note: Includes basic research, applied research, and development. Defense-related outlays comprise all research and development spending by Department of Defense, including space activities, and a portion of Department of Energy funds. Space-related outlays are those of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; they exclude space activities of other federal agencies, estimated at less than 5 percent of all space research and development spending. Minus sign (2) indicates decrease. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1992 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 585.

400

year-after-year was American corporations, but foreign companies pick up the pace after 1970 and by 1990 foreign firms virtually had drawn even with the Americans. Japanese firms dominated foreign

TABLE 15.2

recipients of patents.There probably existed no equivalent of Thomas Edison in the last half of the 20th century, and if by chance one could be found, he or she likely worked for a corporation.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)—SOURCE OF FUNDS AND PERFORMANCE SECTOR, 1970–1990

(millions of dollars) Source of Funds Year

Total

Federal Govt.

Industry

Performance Sector

Univ., Colleges

Federal Govt.

Othera

Industry

Univ., Colleges

Associated FFRDC’sb

Othera

Current Dollars 1970 1975 1980 1982 1983 1984

26,134 35,213 62,610 80,018 89,139 101,139

14,891 18,109 29,461 36,578 40,832 45,641

10,444 15,820 30,912 40,692 45,251 52,204

462 749 1,334 1,731 1,929 2,104

337 535 903 1,017 1,127 1,190

4,079 5,354 7,632 9,141 10,582 11,572

18,067 24,187 44,505 58,650 65,268 74,800

2,335 3,409 6,077 7,323 7,877 8,617

737 987 2,246 2,479 2,737 3,150

916 1,276 2,150 2,425 2,675 3,000

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

113,818 119,529 125,352 133,741 140,486 145,450

52,120 54,273 57,904 61,499 62,688 64,000

57,977 61,056 62,642 66,953 71,767 74,700

2,376 2,790 3,200 3,473 3,948 4,450

1,345 1,410 1,606 1,816 2,083 2,300

12,945 13,535 13,413 14,281 15,121 16,100

84,239 87,823 92,155 97,889 101,599 104,200

9,686 10,926 12,153 13,465 14,987 16,000

3,523 3,895 4,206 4,531 4,729 4,800

3,425 3,350 3,425 3,575 4,050 4,350

Constant (1982) Dollars 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983

62,403 59,882 73,255 76,641 80,018 85,753

35,632 30,985 34,557 35,690 36,578 39,251

24,851 26,679 36,065 38,257 40,692 43,568

1,114 1,302 1,574 1,667 1,731 1,851

807 916 1,059 1,027 1,017 1,083

9,833 9,308 9,006 9,040 9,141 10,152

42,986 40,781 51,919 55,140 58,650 62,842

5,629 5,926 7,171 7,345 7,323 7,557

1,777 1,716 2,650 2,667 2,479 2,626

2,179 2,151 2,508 2,448 2,425 2,576

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

93,790 102,462 104,866 106,616 110,166 111,129 110,470

42,286 46,870 47,555 49,201 50,635 49,553 48,591

48,456 52,252 53,639 53,341 55,181 56,815 56,757

1,945 2,130 2,436 2,711 2,856 3,115 3,376

1,102 1,209 1,235 1,364 1,495 1,646 1,746

10,696 11,606 11,820 11,364 11,742 11,931 12,213

69,433 75,925 77,160 78,477 80,680 80,436 79,173

7,965 8,684 9,542 10,296 11,072 11,825 12,137

2,912 3,159 3,401 3,563 3,726 3,731 3,641

2,785 3,087 2,943 2,917 2,947 3,206 3,305

a

Nonprofit institutions. University-associated federally funded R&D centers. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 585.

b

TABLE 15.3

PATENTS AND TRADEMARKS, 1946–1990

(in thousands) Item

1946–50

1951–1955

1960

1965

1970

1980

1985

1990

Patent Applications Inventions Designs Botanical plants Reissues

400.3 360.1 39.1 .4 .7

379.1 351.6 26.0 .5 1.0

64.4 79.6 4.5 .1 .2

100.4 94.6 5.4 .1 .3

109.4 102.9 6.0 .2 .3

113.0 104.3 7.8 .2 .6

127.1 117.0 9.6 .2 .3

176.7 164.6 11.3 .4 .5

Patents Issued Inventions Individuals Corporations U.S. Foreign U.S. Government

163.0 144.1 59.0

209.0 192.7 78.5

50.0 47.2 13.1

66.6 62.9 16.1

68.0 64.4 13.5

66.2 61.8 13.8

77.3 71.7 12.9

99.2 90.4 17.3

78.4 4.7 1.8

100.3 10.5 3.4

28.2 4.7 1.2

37.2 8.1 1.5

36.9 12.3 1.7

27.7 19.1 1.2

31.2 26.4 1.1

36.1 36.0 1.0

Designs Botanical plants Reissues

18.0 .3 .6

15.1 .4 .8

2.5 .1 .2

3.4 .1 .2

3.2 .1 .3

3.9 .1 .3

5.1 .2 .3

8.0 .3 .4

Trademarks issued Trademarks Renewals

85.6 61.3 24.3

100.9 83.3 17.6

22.4 18.4 3.9

21.7 18.5 3.2

27.8 21.7 6.1

24.7 18.9 5.9

71.5 65.8 5.9

60.8 53.6 7.2

Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1971 (Washington, D.C., 1971), 518; Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1993 (Washington, D.C., 1993), 544.

Science and Technology

401

TABLE 15.4

FOREIGN RECIPIENTS OF UNITED STATES PATENTS, 1990

(includes only U.S. patents granted to residents of areas outside of the United States and its territories) Top Countries

Total

Inventions

Designs

Total, foreign country residents

46,223

42,973

2,956

Japan Germany France United Kingdom Canada Italy Switzerland Netherlands Sweden China:Taiwan Australia Austria Belgium Israel Denmark Finland South Korea Other countries

20,726 7,858 3,093 3,015 2,089 1,499 1,347 1,044 885 861 517 423 352 311 204 315 289 1,395

19,524 7,610 2,866 2,790 1,861 1,260 1,284 958 768 732 432 393 313 299 158 304 224 1,197

1,137 182 184 202 213 227 57 46 114 129 81 29 37 7 43 10 65 193


TABLE 15.5 TOP 74 CORPORATIONS RECEIVING U.S. PATENTS IN 1990 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

402

Company

Number

Hitachi Toshiba Corp. Canon K.K. Mitsubishi Denki K.K. General Electric Co.

908 891 868 862 785

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. Eastman Kodak Co. U.S. Philips Corp. IBM Corp. Siemens A.G.

767 720 637 608 506

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Bayer A.G. E.l. du Pont de Nemours & Co. NEC Corp. Westinghouse Electric Co. AT&T Co.

499 481 436 435 429

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Ciba—Geigy Corp. Dow Chemical Co. BASF A.G. Motorola Inc. General Motors Corp.

409 400 394 394 379

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Minolta Camera Co., Ltd. Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. Honda Motor Co., Ltd. Mobil Oil Corp. Sharp Corp.

376 372 363 353 349

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. 3M Corp. Ricoh Co., Ltd. Texas Instruments, Inc. Hoechst A.G.

340 323 292 284 278

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Shell Oil Co. Fujitsu Ltd. Xerox Corp. Hughes Aircraft Co. Allied Signal Inc.

263 260 252 248 243


Rank

Company

Number

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Sony Corp. AMP Inc. Hewlett–Packard Co. Robert Bosch GmbH Boeing Co.

238 223 218 204 192

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Amoco Corp. Hoechst Celanese Corp. Olympus Optical Co., Ltd. Brother Kogyo K.K. Imperial Chemical Industries PLC

187 182 179 178 176

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Honeywell Inc. Sunstrand Ford Motor Co. Pioneer Electronic Corp. United Technologies Corp.

167 155 154 154 151

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

Toyota Jidosha K.K. Konica Corp. Eaton Corp. American Cyanamid Co. Merck & Co., Inc.

149 147 143 136 134

56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

Mazda Motor Corp. Aisin Seiki K.K. Phillips Petroleum Co. Procter & Gamble Co. Exxon Research & Engineering Co.

132 131 131 127 126

61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

Digital Equipment Corp. Fancu Ltd. Sumitomo Electric Industries Dow Corning Corp. GTE Products Corp.

124 123 123 122 122

66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71.

Henkel KGAA Fuji Jukogyo K.K. Rockwell International Corp. Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd. Texaco Inc. Thomson–CSF

117 116 115 114 114 114

72. 73. 74.

Chrysler Motors Corp. Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. Massachusetts Inst. of Tech.

112 111 110

Source: Richard C. Levy, Inventing & Patenting Sourcebook (Detroit, 1992), 977.

U.S. Winners of Nobel Prizes in the Sciences The Nobel Prizes grew out of the will of Alfred B. Nobel, a Swedish scientist (the inventor of dynamite) and philanthropist who, on his death in 1896, left the sum of $9.2 million, the interest from which was to be distributed yearly to the individuals who had contributed the most to chemistry, physics, medicine/physiology, as well as to the individual who had produced the most distinguished literary

TABLE 15.6

work and the person who had contributed most to world peace. An award in economics was added in 1969.Worth $38,000 in 1945, each award by 1990 brought its recipient $710,000. In the first 45 years of the 20th century, Americans won 20 of the awards in the sciences; in the second 45 years Americans received 142. Assisted by generous funding for research from government, private industry, and the universities and able to attract some of the sharpest minds from other nations, the United States had established absolute domination of Nobel Prizes in the sciences.

NOBEL PRIZE LAUREATES IN CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, AND PHYSIOLOGY/MEDICINE—SELECTED COUNTRIES, 1901–1990

(presented by location of award-winning research and by date of award) 1901–90 Country

Total

Physics

Total

406

140

United States United Kingdom West Germanya France Soviet Union Japan Other countries

162 69 57 22 10 4 82

57 21 17 8 7 3 27

Physiology/ Medicine

1901–15

1916–30

115

151

52

41

49

74

92

98

36 24 28 7 1 1 18

69 24 12 7 2 0 37

3 7 15 10 2 0 15

3 8 12 3 0 0 15

14 11 11 ... 0 0 11

38 14 4 0 4 1 13

41 20 8 5 3 2 13

63 9 7 2 1 1 15

Chemistry

1931–45

1946–60

1961–75

1976–90

a Includes East Germany before 1946. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 594.

The Space Program But for the cold war the U.S. space program might never have left the ground. This undertaking that called for efforts both sublime and delicate and produced the most spectacular results in science and technology at least would have proceeded at a more deliberate pace, starved as inevitably it would have been, for funding either from government or private enterprise. A propulsion team headed by Werner von Braun had been working on a missile program for the army, but the Department of Defense in the early 1950s had rejected the idea of placing a satellite in space.The Soviet Union’s launching of Sputnik I in October 1957 and Sputnik II (or Muttnik—a dog was aboard) a month later jolted the United States into the space race. There followed a crash program of spending for space activity, creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958, the initial Mercury program (1960–63) to place an American in Earth orbit, and the two-man Gemini program of 1965–66 that made great strides in orbital docking. The three-man Apollo program that followed constituted implementation of President John Kennedy’s pledge in 1961 to place an American on the Moon before the end of the decade. Despite a tragic fire aboard the grounded spacecraft in 1967 that took the lives of astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee, the Apollo program progressed step-by-step toward its objective. The voyage of Apollo 8 that orbited the Moon with its three-man crew and sent back a Christmas message in December 1968 helped prepare the populace for the ultradramatic voyage of Apollo 11 in July 1969, at the end of which Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz’’ Aldrin set foot on the Moon—and all this for people on Earth to see on live television. One of the great scientific and technological feats of humankind, the Moon landing manifested, among other miracles, a revolution in the technology of communication.

Six other Moon missions would follow Apollo 11; five of them would achieve lunar landing—Apollo 13, having experienced a neartragic malfunction, had to abort its journey to the surface. Each landing sent back marvelous pictures; each expanded the scope of investigation of the Moon and of space, but none—Apollo 13 the closest to an exception—approached the drama and excitement of the first landing on the Moon. After Apollo 11, the moon landings were anticlimactic. Now anything was believable. By the time the Apollo program ended in December 1972, NASA was at work on its next project, a huge delta-winged spacecraft, able to accommodate a crew of several persons, go into space, and return to be used again, called the space shuttle or orbiter. Having received approval of President Richard Nixon, NASA constructed an experimental vessel it called Enterprise. Named after a starship in the venerable television series Star Trek (which was itself named after a U.S. aircraft carrier), Enterprise never went into space. The first fully functional orbiter, Columbia, took off April 12, 1981, and returned as planned two days later. Plagued with problems of many sorts, delays, and costoverruns, the shuttle program completed only 24 missions between 1981 and 1986, far fewer than had been anticipated.Then a condition that had been disappointing became a disaster. Failure of an O-ring seal of a booster rocket on January 28, 1986, caused destruction in flight of shuttle Challenger and death of its crew of seven. There followed a two-year period of recrimination, investigation, reshuffling leadership in NASA, and redesign of the vehicle. With launch of Discovery in September 1988, the shuttle program seemed back on track as the focus of space travel in the 1990s, albeit with more modest and realistic expectations. An immediate benefit of the program was launching into orbit (from a shuttle) of the revolutionary 94-inch Hubble telescope in April 1990. Early reports of a defect in the telescope, which had cost $2 billion, set off a new round of cynicism and pessimism about the space program generally, but in time the malfunction proved to be correctable. Science and Technology

403

The “right stuff’’—original seven astronauts stand in front of the Mercury capsule, June 1963. Left-to-right: L. Gordon Cooper,Walter Schirra, Alan Shepard,Virgil Grissom, John Glenn, Donald Slayton, and Scott Carpenter (NASA)

TABLE 15.7

FEDERAL SPACE ACTIVITIES BUDGET AUTHORITY, BY FISCAL YEAR, 1955–1990

Year

(millions of current dollars) Energy Commerce

Otherb

Year

Total

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

75 100 150 249 521

74 71 76 89 146

1 17 48 136 341

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

... 12 26 24 34

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

960 1,518 3,295 5,435 6,831 6,956

401 744 1,797 3,626 5,016 5,138

518 710 1,298 1,550 1,599 1,574

... 68 148 214 210 229

... ... 51 43 3 12

41 64 1 2 3 3

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

6,970 6,710 6,529 5,976 5,341

5,065 4,830 4,430 3,822 3,547

1,689 1,664 1,922 2,013 1,678

187 184 145 118 103

27 29 28 20 8

3 3 4 3 4

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

4,741 4,575 4,825 4,640 4,914

3,101 3,071 3,093 2,759 2,915

1,512 1,407 1,623 1,766 1,892

95 55 54 42 30

27 31 40 60 64

5 10 15 14 13

404

NASA

DODa


a

Total

NASA

DODa Energy Commerce Otherb

1976 Tr.Qtr.c 1977 1978 1979

5,320 1,341 5,983 6,518 7,244

3,225 849 3,440 3,623 4,030

1,983 460 2,412 2,738 3,036

23 5 22 34 59

72 22 91 103 98

16 4 18 20 21

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

8,689 9,978 12,441 15,589 17,136

4,680 4,992 5,528 6,328 6,648

3,848 4,828 6,679 9,019 10,195

40 41 61 39 34

93 87 145 178 236

28 30 29 25 22

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

20,167 21,659 26,448 26,607 28,443 31,854

6,925 7,165 9,809 8,302 10,098 12,142

12,768 14,126 16,287 17,679 17,906 19,382

34 35 48 241 97 79

423 309 278 352 301 202

17 25 27 33 42 50

DOD: Department of Defense. Departments of Interior and Agriculture and National Science Foundation. NSF transferred to NASA after 1982. Commerce was included until 1962. c Transition Quarter: July 1–September 30, 1976. Source: Aerospace Industries of America, Aerospace Facts & Figures 1973–74 (Washington, D.C., 1973), 61; Aerospace Industries of America, Aerospace Facts & Figures 91–92 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 66. b

TABLE 15.8

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION BUDGET AUTHORITY IN CONSTANT DOLLARS,a BY FISCAL YEAR, 1963–1990

TABLE 15.9 U.S. SPACECRAFT RECORDa (calendar years 1957–1990) Earth Orbitb

(millions of constant dollars, 1982 = 100)

Research and Development

Year

Space Flight Control ConResearch and Data struction Program Communiof Managecationsb Facilities ment

Year

Total

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967

11,274 15,428 15,556 14,896 13,827

8,990 11,770 12,919 12,959 11,787

... ... ... ... ...

2,284 2,157 791 176 237

1,501 1,846 1,733 1,804

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

12,339 10,191 9,038 7,586 7,182

10,519 8,454 7,216 5,854 5,478

... ... ... ... ...

102 84 128 60 115

1,718 1,653 1,695 1,672 1,589

1973 1974 1975 1976 Tr.Qtr.d

7,049 5,828 5,617 5,722 1,444

5,375 4,206 4,039 4,314 1,084

... ... ... ... ...

163 194 249 132 17

1,510 1,428 1,330 1,276 342

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

5,697 5,666 5,852 6,187 5,924

4,261 4,200 4,463 4,824 4,650

... ... ... ... ...

176 226 190 188 126

1,261 1,241 1,199 1,175 1,149

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

6,020 6,596 6,762 6,790 6,818

4,772 5,314 1,908b 2,213 2,287

... ... 3,486 3,222 3,205

114 133 206 160 154

1,134 1,148 1,161 1,194 1,172

1987 1988 1989 1990

9,254 7,450 8,655 9,349

2,672 2,697 3,324 3,963

5,168 3,129 3,594 3,523

184 175 217 165

1,231 1,449 1,520 1,535

c

a Constant dollars measured, not dollars spent in a given year, but purchasing power of money relative to other years. b Separate budget category beginning in FY 84; funds formerly included under Research and Development. c Included in Research and Development for one year. d Transition quarter: July 1–September 30, 1976. Source: Aerospace Industries, Aerospace Facts & Figures 91–92, 69.

Success

Earth Escapeb

Failure

Success

Failure

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

... 5 9 16 35

1 8 9 12 12

. .. ... 1 1 ...

... 4 2 2 2

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

55 62 69 93 94

12 11 8 7 12

4 ... 4 4 7

1 ... ... 1 1c

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

78 61 58 36 45

4 15 1 1 2

10 3 8 3 8

... ... 1 ... 1

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

33 23 27 30 33

2 2 2 4 ...

8 3 1 4 1

... ... ... ... ...

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

27 34 18 16 20

2 2 ... 4 1

2 7 ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

21 31 35 37 11

... ... 3 1 4

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1987 1988 1989 1990

9 16 24 36

1 1 ... ...

... ... 2 1

... ... ... ...

Total

1,187

144

82

15

a

Payloads, rather than launchings; some launches account for multiple spacecraft. Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched on U.S. launch vehicles. b The criterion of success is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. “Escape’’ flights include all that were intended to go at least an altitude equal to the lunar distance from the Earth. c This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. Source: Aerospace Industries, Aerospace Facts & Figures 91–92, 60.

TABLE 15.10 WORLDWIDE SPACE LAUNCHINGSa THAT ATTAINED EARTH ORBIT OR BEYOND (calendar years 1957–1990) Total 1957–90

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Total

3,308

103

110

116

100

116

USSR United States Japan People’s Republic of China European Space Agency Israel Otherb

2,256 923 41

91 6 2

95 8 3

90 12 2

74 17 2

75 27 3

28

2

2

4

...

5

35 2 23

2 ... ...

2 ... ...

7 1 ...

7 ... ...

5 1 ...

Country

a

Number of launchings rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft. b Includes 10 by France, 8 by Italy (6 were U.S. spacecraft), 3 by India, 1 by Australia, and 1 by the United Kingdom. Source: Aerospace Industries, Aerospace Facts & Figures 91–92, 60.


405

Harrison Schmitt and the lunar rover on the Moon, December 1972: Apollo 17, the last mission (NASA)

406


TABLE 15.11 Spacecraft

NOTABLE U.S. PLANETARY SCIENCE MISSIONS Launch Date (Coordinated Universal Time)

Mission

Mariner 2 Ranger 7 Mariner 4 Ranger 8 Surveyor 3 Mariner 5 Mariner 6 Mariner 7 Mariner 9 Pioneer 10

Aug. 27,1962 Jul. 28, 1964 Nov. 28, 1964 Feb. 17, 1965 Apr. 17, 1967 Jun. 14, 1967 Feb. 24, 1969 Mar. 27, 1969 May 30, 1971 Mar. 2, 1972

Venus Moon Mars Moon Moon Venus Mars Mars Mars Jupiter

Pioneer 11

Apr. 5, 1973

Jupiter, Saturn

Mariner 10

Nov. 3 1973

Venus, Mercury

Viking 1 Viking 2 Voyager 1 Voyager 2

Aug. 20, 1975 Sep. 9, 1975 Sep. 5, 1977 Aug. 20, 1977

PioneerVenus 1 PioneerVenus 2 Magellan

May 20, 1978 Aug. 8, 1978 May 4, 1989

Mars Mars Jupiter, Saturn Jupiter, Saturn Uranus, Neptune Venus Venus Venus

Galileo

Oct. 18, 1989

Jupiter

Remarks Passed within 22,000 mi of Venus 12/14/62: contact lost 1/3/63 at 54 million mi Yielded more than 4,000 photos of lunar surface Passed behind Mars 7/14/65; took 22 photos from 6,000 mi Yielded more than 7,000 photos of lunar surface Scooped and tested lunar soil In solar orbit; closest Venus flyby 10/19/67 Came within 2,000 mi of Mars 7/31/69; collected data, photos Came within 2,000 mi of Mars 8/5/69 First craft to orbit Mars 11/13/71; sent back more than 7,000 photos Passed Jupiter 12/14/73; exited the planetary system 6/13/83; transmission ended 3/31/97 at 6.39 billion mi Passed Jupiter 12/3/74; Saturn 9/1/79; discovered an additional ring and two moons around Saturn; operating in outer solar system: transmission ended 9/95 Passed Venus 2/5/74; arrived Mercury 3/29/74. First time gravity of one planet (Venus) used to whip spacecraft towad another (Mercury) Landed on Mars 7/20/76: did scientific research, sent photos; functioned 61/2 years Landed on Mars 9/3/76: functioned 31/2 years Encountered Jupiter 3/5/79, provided evidence of Jupiter ring: passed near Saturn 11/12/80 Encountered Jupiter 7/9/79; Saturn 8/25/81; Uranus 1/24/86; Neptune 8/25/89 Entered Venus orbit 12/4/78; spent 14 years strudying planet; ceased operating 10/19/92 Encountered Venus 12/9/78; probes impacted on surface Landed on Venus 8/10/90; orbited and mapped Venus: monitored geological activity on surface: ceased operating 10/11/94 Used Earth’s gravity to propel it toward Jupiter; encountered Venus Feb. 1990; scheduled to reach Jupiter in 1995.

Source: Robert Famighetti, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1999 (Mahwah, N. J., 1998), 215.

The first space shuttle, Enterprise, atop its 747 carrier, en route to its first “free-flight’’ test, October 12, 1977 (NASA) Science and Technology

407

TABLE 15.12 MANNED SOVIET AND U.S. SPACEFLIGHTS, 1961–1990 Dates

Mission

Crew (no. of flights)

4/12/61 5/5/61 7/21/61 8/6/1961–8/7/61 2/20/62 5/24/62

Vostok 1 Mercury-Redstone 3a Mercury-Redstone 4 Vostok 2 Mercury-Atlas 6a Mercury-Atlas 7

Yuri A. Gagarin Alan B. Shepard, Jr. Virgil I. Grissom Gherman S.Titov John H. Glenn, Jr. M.Scott Carpenter

1:48 0:15 0:15 25:18 4:55 4:56

1st human orbital flight 1st American in space Spacecraft sank, Grissom rescued 1st spaceflight of more than 24 hrs 1st American in orbit; 3 orblts Manual retrofire error caused 250-mi landing overshoot

8/11/62–8/15/62 8/12/62–8/15/62 10/3/62 5/15/63–5/16/63

Vostok 3 Vostok 4 Mercury-Atlas 8 Mercury-Atlas 9

Andrian G. Nikolayev Pavel R. Popovich Walter M. Schirra, Jr. L. Gordon Cooper

94:22 70:57 9:13 34:19

Vostok 3 and 4 made 1st group flight On 1st orbit it came within 3 mi of Vostok 3 Landed 5 mi from target 1st U.S. evaluation of effects of one day in space on a person; 22 orbits

6/14/63–6/19/63 6/16/63–6/19/63 10/12/64–10/13/64

Vostok 5 Vostok 6 Voskhod 1

119:06 70:50

3/18/65–3/19/65

Voskhod 2

Valery F. Bykovsky Valentina V.Tereshkova Vladimir M. Komarov, Konstantin P. Feoktistov, Boris B.Yegorov Pavel l. Belyayev, Aleksei A. Leonov

Vostok 5 and 6 made 2d group flight 1st woman in space: passes within 3 mi of Vostok 5 1st 3-person orbital flight; 1st without space suits Leonov made 1st “space walk’’ (10 min)

3/23/65 6/3/65–6/7/65

Gemini-Titan 3a Gemini-Titan 4

8/21/65–8/29/65 12/15/65–12/16/65 12/4/65–12/18/65 3/16/66

Gemini-Titan 5 Gemini-Titan 6A Gemini-Titan 7 Gemini-Titan 8

6/3/66–6/6/66

Gemini-Titan 9A

Stafford (2), Eugene A. Cernan

72:21

7/18/66–7/21/66

Gemini-Titan 10

Young (2), Michael Collins

70:47

9/12/66–9/15/66 11/11/66–11/15/66

Gemini-Titan 11 Gemini-Titan 12

Conrad (2), Richard F. Gordon, Jr. Lovell (2), Edwin W. “Buzz’’ Aldrin, Jr. Komarov (2)

71:17 94:34

Performed rendezvous maneuvers, including simulation of lunar module randezvous 1st use of Agena target vehicle’s propulsion systems; 1st orbital docking 1st tethered flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (850 mi) Final Gemini mission; 51/2 hr EVAb

26:40

Crashed on reentry, killing Komarov

Grissom (2), John W.Young James A. McDivitt, Edward H.White 2d Cooper (2), Charies Conrad, Jr. Schirra (2),Thomas P. Stafford Frank Borman, James A. Lovell Neil A. Armstrong, David R. Scott

4/23/67–4/24/67

Soyuz 1

10/11/68–10/22/68

Apollo-Saturn 7a

12/21/68–12/27/68

Apollo-Saturn 8

1/14/69–1/17/69 1/15/69–1/18/69

Soyuz 4 Soyuz 5

Vladimir A. Shatalov Boris V.Volyanov, Aleksei S. Yeliseyev, Yevgeny V. Khrunov

3/3/69–3/13/69

Apollo-Saturn 9

5/18/69–5/26/69

Apollo-Saturn 10

7/16/69–7/24/69

Apollo-Saturn 11

McDivitt (2), D. Scott (2), Russell L. Schweickart Stafford (3),Young (3), Cernan (2) Armstrong (2), Collins (2), Aldrin (2)

10/11/69–10/16/69

Soyuz 6

10/12/69–10/17/69

Soyuz 7

10/13/69 11/14/69–11/24/69

Soyuz 8 Apollo-Saturn 12

4/11/70–4/17/70

Apollo-Saturn 13

6/1/70–6/19/70

Soyuz 9

1/31/71–2/9/71

Apollo-Saturn 14

4/19/71–4/22/71

Salyut 1 Soyuz 10

6/6/71–6/30/71

408

Soyuz 11


Schirra (3), Donn F. Eisele, R.Walter Cunningham Borman (2), Lovell (3), William A. Anders

Georgi S. Shonin, Valery N. Kubasov Anatoly V. Flipchenko,Vladislav N.Volkov,Viktor V. Gorbatko Shatalov (2),Yeliseyev (2) Conrad (3), Richard F. Gordon, Jr. (2), Alan L. Bean Lovell (4), Fred W. Hase, Jr., John L. Swigart, Jr. Nikolayev (2),Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov A. Shepard (2), Stuart A. Roosa, Edgar D. Mitchell (Occupied by Soyuz 11 crew) Shatalov (3),Yeliseyev (3), Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov Georgi T. Dobrovolskiy, V.Volkov (2),Viktor I. Patsayev

Duration (hr:min)

24:17 26:02 4:53 97:56 190:55 25:51 330:35 10:41

260:09 147:00 71:21 72:54

Features

1st piloted spacecraft to change its orbital path White was 1st American to “walk in space’’ (36 min) Longest-duration human flight to date Completed 1st U.S. space rendezvous, with Gemini 7 Longest-duration Gemini flight 1st docking of one space vehicle with another; mission aborted, control malfunction; 1st Pacific landing

1st piloted flight of Apollo spacecraft commandservice module only; live TV footage of crew 1st lunar orbit and piloted lunar return reentry (command-service module only); views of lunar surface televised to Earth Docked with Soyuz 5 Docked with 4;Yeliseyev and Khrunov transferred to Soyuz 4 via a spacewalk

241:00

1st piloted flight of lunar module

192:03 195:18

1st lunar module orbit of Moon, 50,000 ft from Moon surface 1st lunar landing made by Armstrong and Aldrin (7/20); collected 48.5 lb of soil, rock samples; lunar stay time 21:36:21

118:43

1st welding of metals in space

118:40

Space lab construction test made; Soyuz 6, 7, and 8: 1st time 3 spacecraft, 7 crew members orbited the Earth at once Part of space lab construction team Conrad and Bean made 2d Moon landing (11/18); collected 74.7 lb of samples, lunar stay time 31:31 Aborted after service module oxygen tank ruptured; crew returned safely using lunar module Longest human spaceflight to date

118:51 244:36 142:54 424:59 216:01 47:46 570:22

Shepard and Mitchell made 3d Moon landing (2/3); collected 96 lb of lunar samples; lunar stay 33:31 1st space station 1st successful docking with a space station; failed to enter space station Docked and entered Salyut 1 space station; orbited in Salyut 1 for 23 days, crew died during reentry from loss of pressurization

Dates

Mission

7/26/71–8/7/71

Apollo-Saturn 15

D. Scott (3), James B. Irwin, Alfred M.Worden

295:12

4/16/72–4/27/72

Apollo-Saturn 16

265:51

12/7/72–12/19/72

Apollo-Saturn 17

Young (4), Charles M. Duke, Jr., Thomas K. Mattingly 2d Cernan (3), Ronald E. Evans, Harrison H. Schmitt

5/14/73

Skylab 1

5/25/73–6/22/73

Skylab 2

7/28/73–9/25/73

Skylab 3

Bean (2), Owen K. Garriott, Jack R. Lousma

1,427:09

Crew systems and operational tests; exceeded premission plans for scientific activities; 13 hrs EVA 13:44b

11/16/73–2/8/74

Skylab 4

2,017:15

Final Skylab mission

7/15/75–7/21/75

Soyuz 19 (ASTP)

Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson, William Pogue Leonov (2), Kubasov (2)

7/15/75–7/24/75

Apollo (ASTP)

12/10/77

Soyuz 26

1/10/78 3/2/78

Soyuz 27 Soyuz 28

4/12/81–4/14/81 11/12/81–11/14/81 11/11/82–11/16/82

Columbia c (STS-1) Columbia (STS-2) Columbia (STS-5)

6/18/83–6/24/83

Challenger (STS-7)

6/27/83

Soyuz T-9

8/30/83–9/5/83

Challenger (STS-8)

11/28/83–12/8/83

Columbia (STS-9)

2/3/84–2/11/84

Challenger (41-B)

2/8/84–4/11/84

Soyuz T-10B

4/3/84–10/2/84

Soyuz T-11

4/6/84–4/13/84

Challenger (41-C)

7/17/84

Soyuz T-12

8/30/84–9/5/84

Discovery (41-D)

10/5/84–10/13/84

Challenger (41-G)

11/8/84–11/16/84

Discovery (51-A)

4/12/85–4/19/85

Discovery (51-D)

6/17/85–6/24/85

Discovery (51-G)

10/3/85–10/7/85

Atlantis (51-J)


(Occupied by Skylab 2, 3, and 4 crews) Conrad (4), Joseph P. Kerwin, Paul J.Weitz

Vance Brand, Stafford (4), Donald K. Slayton Yuri V. Romanenko, Georgiy M. Grechko (2) Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov Aleksei A. Gubarev (2), Vladimir Remek Young (5), Robert L. Crippen Joe H. Engle, Richard H.Truly Brand (2), Robert Overmyer, William Lenoir, Joseph Allen Crippen (2), Frederick Hauck, Sally K. Ride, John M. Fabian, Norman Thagard Vladimir A. Lyakhov (2), Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov Truly (2), Daniel Brandenstein, William Thornton, Guion Bluford, Dale Gardner Young (6), Brewster Shaw, Jr., Robert Parker, Garriott (2), Byron Lichtenberg, Ulf Merbold Brand (3), Robert Gibson, Ronald McNair, Bruce McCandless, Robert Stewart Leonid Kizim,Vladimir Solovyov, Oleg Atkov Yury Malyshev (2), Gennady Strekalov (3), Rakesh Sharma Crippen (3), Francie R. Scobee, George D. Nelson,Terry J. Hart, James D. van Hoften Dzhanibekov (4), Svetlana Y. Savitskaya (2), Igor P.Volk Henry W. Hartsfield (2), Michael L. Coats, Richard M. Mullane, Steven A. Hawley, Judith A. Resnik, Charles D.Walker Crippen (4), Jon A. McBride, Kathryn D. Sullivan, Ride (2), Marc Garneau, David C. Leestma, Paul D. Scully-Power Hauck (2); David M.Walker, Dr. Anna L. Fisher, J. Allen (2), D. Gardner (2) Karol J. Bobko, Donald E.Williams, Jake Garn,Walker (2), Jeffrey A. Hoffman, S. David Griggs, M. Rhea Seddon Brandenstein (2), John O. Creighton, Shannon W. Lucid, Steven R. Nagel, Fabian (2), Prince Sultan Salman al-Saud, Patrick Baudry Bobko (3), Ronald J. Grabe, David C. Hilmers, Stewart (2), William A. Pailes

Duration (hr:min)

301:51

672:49

143:31 217:28 2,314:00 142:59 190:16

Features Scott and Irwin made 4th Moon landing (7/30); 1st lunar rover use; 1st deep space walk; 170 lb of samples; 66:55 stay Young and Duke made 5th Moon landing (4/20); colleced 213 lb of lunar samples; lunar stay 71:2 Cernan and Schmitt made 6th lunar landing (12/11); collected 243 lb of samples; record lunar stay of more than 75 hr 1st U.S. space station 1st Amer. piloted orbiting space station; crew repaired damage caused during boost

U.S.-USSR joint flight; crews linked up in space (7/17), conducted experiments, shared meals, and held a joint news conference Joint flight with Soyuz 19 1st multiple docking to a space station (Soyuz 26 and 27 docked at Salyut 6) See Soyuz 26 1st international crew launch; Remek was 1st Czech in space

54:21 54:13 122:14

1st space shuttle to fly into Earth orbit 1st scientific payload; 1st reuse of space shuttle 1st 4-person crew

146:24

Ride was 1st U.S. woman in space; 1st 5-person crew

3,585:46

Docked at Salyut 7; 1st construction in space

145:09

Bluford was 1st U.S. black in space

247:47

1st 6-person crew; 1st Spacelab mission

191:16

1st untethered EVAb

1,510:43

Docked with Salyut 7; crew set space duration record of 237 days

4,365:48

Docked with Salyut 7; Sharma 1st Indian in space

167:40 283:14 144:56

1st in-orbit satellite repair Docked at Salyut 7; Savitskaya was 1st woman to perform EVA 1st flight of U.S. nonastronaut (Walker)

197:24

1st 7-person crew

191:45

1st satellite retrieval/repair

167:55

Garn was 1st senator in space

169:39

Launched 3 satellites; Salman al-Saud was 1st Arab in space; Baudry was 1st French person on U.S. mission

97:47

1st Atlantis flight

(continued) Science and Technology

409

TABLE 15.12

(continued)

Dates

Mission

10/30/85–11/6/85

Challenger (61-A)

11/26/85–12/3/85

Atlantis (61-B)

1/12/86–1/18/86

Columbia (61-C)

1/28/86

Challenger (51-L)

2/20/86 3/13/86 2/5/87–12/29/87 7/22/87–12/29/87

Mir Soyuz T-15 Soyuz TM-2 Soyuz TM-3

12/21/87–12/21/88

Soyuz TM-4

6/7/88–6/17/88

Soyuz TM-5

9/29/88–10/3/88

Discovery (STS-26)

5/4/89–5/8/89

Atlantis (STS-30)

10/18/89–10/23/89

Atlantis (STS-34)

4/24/90–4/29/90

Discovery (STS-31)

10/6/90–10/10/90

Discovery (STS-41)


Duration (hr:min)

Features

Hartsfield (3), Nagel (2), Buchli (2), Bluford (2), Bonnie J. Dunbar,Wubbo J. Ockels, Richard Furrer, Ernst Messerschmid Shaw (2), Bryan D. O’Connor, Sherwood C. Spring, Mary L. Cleave, Jerry L. Ross, C.Walker (3), Rodolfo Neri R. Gibson (2), Charles F. Bolden, Jr., Hawley (2), G. Nelson (2), Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, Robert J. Cenker, Bill Nelson Scobee (2), Michael J. Smith, Resnik (2), Ellison S. Onizuka (2), Ronald E. McNair, Gregory B. Jarvis, Christa McAuliffe

168:45

1st 8-person crew; 1st German Spacelab mission

165:05

Space structure assembly test; Neri was 1st Mexican in space

146:04

B. Nelson was 1st U.S. representative in space; material and astronomy experiments conducted

– Kizim (3), Solovyov (2) Romanenko (3), Aleksandr I. Laveikin Aleksandr Vildorenko, Aleksandr Pavlovich Aleksandrov (2), Mohammed Faris V.Titov (2), Muso Manarov, Anatoly Levchenko Viktor Savinykh (3), Anatoly Solovyev, Aleksandr Panayotov Aleksandrov Hauck (3), Richard O. Covey (2), Hilmers (2), G. Nelson (2), John M. Lounge (2) D.Walker (2), Grabe (2),Thagard (2), Cleave (2), Mark C. Lee Williams (2), Michael J. McCulley, Lucid (2), Chang-Diaz (2), Ellen S. Baker McCandless (2), Sullivan (2), Loren J. Shriver (2), Bolden (2), Hawley (3) Richard N. Richards (2), Robert D. Cabana, Bruce E. Melnick,William M. Shepherd (2),Thomas D. Akers

a

–

Exploded 73 sec after liftoff; all were killed

– 3,000:01 7,835:38

Space station with 6 docking ports launched Ferry between stations; docked at Mir Romanenko set endurance record, since broken

3,847:16 8,782:39

Docked with Mir, Faris 1st Syrian in space Docked with Mir

236:13

Docked with Mir, Aleksandrov 1st Bulgarian in space

97:00

Redesigned shuttle makes 1st flight

96:56

Launched Venus orbiter Magellan

119:39

Launched Jupiter probe and orbiter Galileo

121:16

Launched Hubble Space Telescope

98:10

Launched Ulysses spacecraft to investigate interstellar space and the Sun

In American missions, the first name designated the spacecraft, the second the rocket: i.e., Mercury spacecraft, Redstone rocket; Gemini spacecraft, Titan rocket; Apollo spacecraft, Saturn rocket. b EVA: extravehicular activity c Beginning in 1981, all U.S. missions were in returnable space shuttles. Source: Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1971 (Washington, D.C., 1971), 521; Famighetti, World Almanac, 1999, 210–212.

410


Crew of Challenger that perished when the space shuttle blew up on January 28, 1986. Front row, left-to-right: Michael J. Smith, Dick Scobie, and Ronald McNair; back row, left-to-right: Ellison Onizuka, Christa McAuliffe (a teacher), Gregory Jarvis (of Hughes Corporation), and Judith Resnik (NASA)

An Undelivered Speech Of the many milestones and accomplishments in America’s first age of space travel, nothing rivaled the landing on the Moon on July 20, 1969, for significance, impact, and popular appeal. This scientific and technological marvel seemingly went off without a hitch. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin exited the lunar lander, tramped around the Moon’s surface, returned to the command module and—with Pete Conrad, who stayed with the mother vessel—flew off to virtually universal and everlasting adulation of Earth. The mission might have developed differently. Each phase of the adventure into space carried risks, of course, if only because each step carried problems that could not always be anticipated. The most harrowing task of Apollo 11, evidently, was getting the lunar vehicle back to the command module. A failure of that procedure and absence of a plan of rescue would have condemned Armstrong and Aldrin to remain forever on the Moon. People in and connected to the White House of Richard Nixon agreed that however unthinkable it might seem, preparation should be made for the possibility of such a disaster. Frank Borman, one of the first astronauts to reach, but not land on, the Moon, broached the idea

to William Safire, a columnist who doubled as Nixon’s speech writer. Nixon’s aide, Peter Flanigan, and his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, told Safire to get something ready. Safire proposed the president’s telephoning spouses of the condemned men, a religious service sort of like burial at sea, that commended the men’s souls “to the deepest of the deep,’’ and a brief message from the president. “These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, know there is no hope for their recovery,’’ Nixon was to say, “but they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.’’ “Man’s search will not be denied,’’ the president would promise, later in the speech. “But these were the first and will remain foremost in our hearts.’’ And there would be a poetic ending: “Every human being who looks up at the Moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind.’’ Nixon, of course, never had to give that speech. Armstrong and Aldrin were blessed with long, fruitful lives, doubtless content in the knowledge that if their mission had ended in a different way, they at least would have gone out in style. Source: William Safire, “The Speech That Never Was Given,” Kalamazoo Gazette, July 13, 1999, A-10.


411

Computers Scientists and technicians for many years had been in quest of a mechanical or automatic calculator—an electronic brain, as it sometimes had been called. An army team at the University of Pennsylvania that included John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert in 1945 made a major if somewhat cumbersome step when it produced the first functioning electronic digital computer. Named ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), it weighed 60,000 pounds, occupied an entire large room and, equipped with vacuum tubes, drained enough electricity to dim the lights in the surrounding territory. Although ENIAC and subsequent calculating machines were imposing in size, expensive to construct and operate, and limited in memory and scope of activity, they became progressively important in large business and industrial operations. One such device, in the employ of CBS News, made a speedy and remarkably accurate determination of the outcome of the presidential election of 1952. Advances in solid-state technology, especially with development of the transistor and integrated circuits, reduced the size and cost and vastly increased speed and capacity of operations.Transistors began to replace vacuum tubes in the late 1950s, and technology continued to improve to the point in the 1980s when the size of electronic devices had been reduced by a factor of 100,000. Miniaturization of components enabled a new direction in the world of electronic business devices that in short order exploded into a genuine

revolution. A new company, Apple Computer, organized by Stephen Wozniak and Steven P. Jobs, set the stage in 1977 when it introduced a fully equipped unit that weighed 12 pounds and was small enough to sit on an individual desk. Apple II, as it was called, produced a realization that a computer could be a personal tool, a household device.There followed an astonishing proliferation of new “high tech’’ companies— Microsoft, Intel,Tandy, D.E.C., and many others—each pursuing a niche in the expanding world of electronics, each seeking to gain a step on competitors. Even the electronic giant and master of the mainframe, IBM, moved into the personal computer (PC) market. Within less than 15 years the number of computers in service grew from fewer than a half-million to well beyond 100 million, and the pace of technological advance—or the reverse, the speed of obsolescence—moved accordingly. By the start of the 1990s a single quarter-inch silicon chip could outperform ENIAC by a factor of approximately 1 million. One computer expert determined that equivalent improvements in automobile manufacturing would have enabled production of a Rolls Royce car that cost $1.00 and would deliver a million miles per gallon of gasoline.A separate information revolution associated with the Internet in 1990 had little more than begun. The personal computers and mainframes were only the start of it. Traffic signals in any city, the lighting system of New York, the space shuttle Discovery and the Hubble telescope, the Trident submarine Ohio, the ignition system of nearly all cars, and the hand-held calculator, everything, it seemed, that made American society func-

ENIAC, in 1946. The first large-scale, general-purpose electronic computer filled a large room at the University of Pennsylvania. (John W. Mauchly Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, University of Pennsylvania)

412


tion, operated because of—and was at the mercy of—the transistor and the computer. As with any technological change, there would be problems, hazards, and casualties.With machines doing everything, critics wondered about the fate of the human mind.Would children learn multiplication tables anymore? Television commercials began to speak a different language, incomprehensible to many of the viewers; indeed the whole business of computer jargon would be provocative, as anything that left one feeling ignorant would be. Familial relationships shifted and perhaps suffered when children of eight knew more about something than their parents or grandparents. The self-educated mechanic discovered that he could not fix his car anymore. Older folks, regular visitors to the library, found themselves unable to find the books. Embarrassed to ask for instructions about the new machines or perhaps having failed to fully grasp the speedy lesson offered, they simply stopped coming. Large computer systems retained at least a measure of questionable security; the word hacker took on new meaning. A power outage could shut everything down. To people who had jumped aboard the computer special these problems were, if not irrelevant, at least unlikely to ever develop. It was a marvelous ride, and the object was not to look back but to position oneself for the next technological miracle. Computerese: A Primer bit means binary digit, smallest unit of information in a computer. bug an error that exists in a computer’s program or in an electrical unit. byte group of eight bits that represent one character—a letter, number, etc.; smallest unit for measuring computer storage capacity. CD-ROM means compact disk, read only memory; a spinning disk with permanent information that can be read by a laser inside a computer. central processing unit (CPU) mechanism inside the unit that responds to instructions and makes the computer perform. cursor blinking marker on computer screen that shows where operator is working. database organized information stored in computer by a certain type of software that is subject to recall and use by operator. download process of transferring information from central computer or file server to a personal computer. floppy disk a small magnetic plate that can record and store information and from which data can be recalled. gigabyte data storage capacity of one billion bytes. hacker an individual skilled in computer operations who can gain unlawful or unauthorized access into data banks and computer systems. hard drive the main drive of a computer, built in, as opposed to the floppy drive, which uses disks, or the CD drive. hardware equipment and devices that make up the computer: monitor, keyboard, CPI—as opposed to the programs and procedures. language sets of commands and instructions compatible with a computer. laptop a small self-sustaining microcomputer that can be carried around and can operate on a person’s lap. mainframe computer largest, most sophisticated and expensive units that can accommodate hundreds of users at the same time; mostly owned by large companies. megabyte storage capacity of 1 million bytes. memory capacity of a computer to store information, rendering it available for retrieval. menu list of possible actions that computer can perform, subject to operator’s command; possible programs that can be run; possible files that can be accessed. microcomputer small and least costly units, can operate on a table—the standard personal computer (PC). microprocessor a complete processing unit on a single silicon chip.

minicomputer medium-size computer system, used by small companies. monitor the screen that displays what one is working on with the computer. mouse a small device that the operator manipulates by hand to direct commands to the computer. password a word or code, preferably kept secret, that identifies an authorized user of computer information. PC the standard personal computer, a microcomputer used on a desk or person’s lap. semiconductor solid-state substance that can be electrically altered, as with a transistor. silicon chip tiny wafers of silicon covered with layers of chemicals, each of which serves as an electrical component. software the programs and procedures that tell the computer (which is the hardware) what to do, usually bought on disks or CDs and then installed onto a computer hard drive. spreadsheet a type of software that arranges numbers or text in lines and columns. superconductor the most exquisite of the mainframe computers, the fastest and best designed for complex calculations. transistor a tiny piece of semiconducting material that acts as a switching device for electrons, vastly superior to previously used vacuum tubes. user friendly perhaps the first, and worst, cliche of the industry— simply means a computer, software, or anything that is easy to use. virus a foreign program, introduced from the outside to a computer system; it can produce major damage. word processor probably the first marvel produced by computers: a text-producing and editing system that allows immediate rewriting and correction of errors. Source: Famighetti, World Almanac, 1999, 621–23; Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995, 598–600.

A Selected Short List of Milestones in Computer Technology 1946 John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert develop ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) at the University of Pennsylvania. With 18,000 vacuum tubes, it weighs 80 tons and fills a large room. 1948 IBM builds the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator. 1948 William Shockley, John Bareen, and Walter Brattain invent the transistor. 1951 UNIVAC, an 18-ft-long computer using magnetic tape, is installed at the Bureau of Census. 1952 Employed by CBS News, UNIVAC predicts a large victory for Eisenhower, one hour after polls close, using only 7% of the votes. 1953 IBM produces its first stored-program computer, the 701. 1957 Ken Olsen founds Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). 1958 Jack Kirby of Texas Instruments makes the first integrated circuit. 1959 IBM sells the 1620 and 1790, its first computers using transistors, not tubes. 1964 The number of computers in the United States increases to 18,000, up from 2,500 in 1958. 1965 DEC ships the PDP-8, the first truly successful minicomputer. 1965 Richard L. Wexelblat at the University of Pennsylvania receives the first Ph.D. degree in computer science. 1965 IBM produces System 360, a third-generation, integrated circuit-based computer. 1968 Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce found Integrated Electronics Corp., to be known as Intel, which in 1969 produces Intel 4004, the first microprocessor—miniature circuits on one chip. 1971 Floppy disks, a mobile system for storing information, are developed to load IBM’s 370, a fourth-generation computer. Science and Technology

413

1972 At Texas Instruments, Jack Kirby, Jerry Merryman, and Tim Van Tassel develop the electronic pocket calculator. 1975 The first computer store opens in Santa Monica, California. 1976 Stephen Wozniak and Steven Jobs found Apple Computer in a family garage; Apple II is marketed the following year and becomes the first widely accepted personal computer. 1977 Bill Gates and Paul Allen form Microsoft, to produce microcomputer operating systems. 1978 Computers in use in the United States pass the half-million mark. 1980 Computers in use in the United States pass the 1 million mark. 1981 IBM introduces a first personal computer, the IBM PC. Using Microsoft’s operating system called PC-DOS (personal computer disk operating system), it becomes standard of the industry. 1981 Osborne Computer produces a first portable machine, a forerunner of the laptop. 1982 In adopting Microsoft’s MS-DOS operating system, many manufacturers are able to produce clones of the successful IBM machine. 1982 Time magazine names the computer its Man of the Year. 1983 Computers in use in the United States surpass 10 million.

TABLE 15.13

1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Source: Karen P. Juliussen and Egil Juliussen, The Computer Industry 1993 Almanac (Austin, Texas, 1993), 375–79; John Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 596–98.

DOMESTIC SHIPMENTS OF MICRO-, MINI-, AND MAINFRAME COMPUTERS Micros

Year

1983 Apple introduces the mouse, a hand-maneuvered device that gives commands to the computer. 1984 Apple introduces the Macintosh personal computer that includes Apple’s first software systems.A portable version will appear in 1989. 1985 Toshiba produces the first widely used laptop computer. 1985 Apple and Aldus Corporation introduce printers that begin an era of electronic desktop publishing. 1986 Computers in use in the United States pass 30 million. 1987 IBM offers Personal System/2 (PS 2) that provides high resolution VGA display; it soon will be cloned by competitors. 1989 Intel introduces the 80486 microprocessor and 1860 RISC/coprocessor chip, each of which has 1 million transistors. Microcomputers now have the speed of supercomputers. 1989 Computers in the United States pass 50 million; in the world there are more than 100 million. 1990 Microsoft introduces a software program called Windows 3.0. Microsoft’s revenue for the fiscal year ending in June topped $1 billion.

Minis

Units

$ (in millions)

... ... ... 10,500 53,100 120,400 237,900 329,400 796,000 1,157,000 1,950,000 3,249,000 5,190,000 4,750,000 5,060,000 5,460,000 5,990,000 6,530,000 7,050,000

... ... ... 19.0 97.0 223.0 440.0 630.0 1,550.0 2,550.0 4,390.0 7,470.0 11,940.0 11,260.0 12,060.0 12,890.0 14,050.0 15,963.0 17,980.0

Units

Mainframe

Total

$ (in millions)

Units

$ (in millions)

Units

$ (in millions)

... 66.0 485.0 1,484.0 1,887.0 2,780.0 3,690.0 4,712.0 6,238.0 7,290.0 7,770.0 8,979.0 12,817.0 11,696.0 11,872.0 12,080.0 12,656.0 13,093.0 12,650.0

1,790 5,350 5,700 6,700 6,750 8,900 7,500 7,200 9,900 10,700 10,600 9,980 11,330 10,910 10,990 11,200 11,540 11,890 12,130

590 1,770 3,600 4,960 5,060 6,940 6,230 6,340 8,840 9,640 9,860 9,780 11,900 11,890 12,200 12,660 13,270 13,790 14,190

1,790 5,950 11,760 44,190 99,170 186,080 313,740 417,850 911,770 1,289,690 2,088,600 3,405,780 5,406,730 4,951,710 5,269,190 5,677,000 6,219,640 6,769,590 7,294,130

590 1,836 4,085 6,463 7,044 9,943 10,360 11,682 16,628 19,480 22,020 26,229 36,657 34,846 36,132 37,630 39,976 42,846 44,820

... 600 6,060 26,990 39,320 56,780 68,340 81,250 105,870 121,990 128,000 146,800 205,400 190,800 198,200 205,800 218,100 227,700 232,000

Source: Juliussen and Juliussen, 1993 Computer Almanac, 323.

TABLE 15.14 NATIONS WITH MOST COMPUTING POWER, 1988

TABLE 15.15 NATIONS WITH MOST COMPUTING POWER PER CAPITA, 1988

Rank

Country

Estimated MIPSa (millions)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

U.S.A Japan United Kingdom West Germany France

22.81 4.09 2.59 1.57 1.33

55.2 9.9 6.3 3.8 3.2

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1.01 0.89 0.36 0.35 0.25

2.4 2.2 0.86 0.84 0.61

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Canada Italy Australia Netherlands Brazil

a

Share of Total MIPSa (%)

Calculations are based on estimated numbers of all kinds of computers in each country and the average processing power per computer in MIPS (million instructions per second). Source: Egil Juliussen and Karen Juliussen, The Computer Industry Almanac, 1989, (New York, 1988) 17.10.

414


Rank

a

Country U.S.A. United Kingdom Canada Norway Japan Ireland Singapore Switzerland Denmark Sweden

Computers in Use Computing Power per 1,000 Peoplea,b MIPS/1000 Peoplea 167 95 82 73 71

93.5 45.5 38.9 35.1 33.5

66 65 61 61 60

32.0 24.8 29.7 29.3 29.1

Calculations based on estimated number of computers in use per person and computing power in MIPS (million instructions per second) per person. World average of computers per 1,000 people was 16. Western Europe had 51; the USSR had 0.1. Source: Juliussen & Juliussen, Computer Industry Almanac, 1989, 17.10–17.11

b

Weapons Technology: An Example Weapons activity dominated the government’s research and development expenditures for many years, and it was at any time an expensive undertaking. The process had no end. At an early date the arms race ceased to be a mere matter of destructive capacity (why make provision to blow up Earth several times over?), and it became a contest for maintaining a competitive edge, for assuring that one’s weapons could not be neutralized by an enemy, and for equipping forces for multiple circumstances they might have to face. The research and development program involved all branches of military

TABLE 15.16 Missile

forces, although new equipment for the navy and air force seemed to be the most spectacular. Technological development best could be exemplified in the area of missiles, for it was the most complex, was probably most sophisticated and effective, and was exceptionally expensive. The missile brought together three aspects of technological development. It began with propulsion, the driving force that carried the missile a range that differed from a few yards to 7,000 miles.The guidance system pointed the instrument in the right direction and steered it to a specific target: a city, a tank, a ship, a plane, a detachment of soldiers, or another missile. At the end there was the explosive device or warhead—nuclear

MAJOR U.S. MISSILES Type

Guidance

Length (feet)

Diameter (feet)

15 10.5 13.6 9.5 ...

1 1.0 1.5 0.42 ...

2.5 2.6 6.5 9 17

Weight (pounds)

Speed

Range (miles)

Stage

Propellant

1,000 570 1,785 185 ...

1 1 1 1 1

Solid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid

... Mach 2 ... ... ...

1 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.2

13.5 27 134 835 1,275

1 2 1 1 1

Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid

... 180 mph Supersonic Mach 3 Mach 2

... 11 5 6 22 20 600 30 10 ...

Asroc Bullpup A Bullpup B Chaparral Condor

Surface-to-underwater Air-to-surface Air-to-surface Surface-to-air Air-to-surface

None Command Command Infrared TV command

Dragon Entac Falcon Genie Hawk

Antitank Antitank Air-to-air Air-to-air Surface-to-air

Command Wire-guided Radar or infrared None Rader homing

Honest John Hound Dog Lance Little John Maverick

Surface-to-surface Air-to-surface Surface-to-surface Surface-to-surface Air-to-surface

None Inertial Inertial None TV homing

24.8 42.5 20 14.5 8.1

2.5 2.25 1.8 1 1

4,500 9,600 3,200 780 500

1 1 2 1 1

Solid Turbojet Liquid Solid Solid

1,200 mph Mach 1 1 ... Mach 1 1 ...

Minuteman 1 Minuteman 2 Minuteman 3 Nike-Hercules Pershing 1

Surface-to-surface Surface-to-surface Surface-to-surface Surface-to-air Surface-to-surface

Inertial Inertial Inertial Command Inertial

59.8 59.8 ... 41 34

6.2 6.2 6.2 2.6 3.25

69,000 70,000 ... 10,000 10,000

3 3 3 2 2


... 15,000 mph Mach 2 1 Mach 31 Mach 11

Pershing 2

Surface-to-surface

35.3

3.3

16,820

2

Solid

Mach 11

1,120

Phoenix Polaris A1 Polaris A2 Polaris A3

Air-to-air Underwater-to-surface Underwater-to-surface Underwater-to-surface

Inertial and radar terminal Command Inertial Inertial Inertial

13 28 31 31

1.3 4.5 4.5 4.5

838 28,000 30,000 35,000

1 1 2 2

Solid Solid Solid Solid

Supersonic ... ... 8,000 mph

... 1,200 1,500 2,500

Poseidon Quail Redeye SCAD Sergeant

Underwater-to-surface Air-to-surface Surface-to-air Armed decoy Surface-to-surface

Inertial Autopilot Infrared Inertial Inertial

34 12.9 4 ... 34.5

6 2.5 0.25 ... 2.6

... 1,100 20 ... 10,000

2 1 1 1 1

Solid Turbojet Solid Turbojet Solid

... 600 mph ... subsonic Mach 11

2,500 230 ... 1,000 75

Shillelagh Shrike Sidewinder 1C Sparrow 3 Spartan

Surface-to-surface Air-to-surface Air-to-air Air-to-air Surface-to-air

Command Infrared Infrared Radar homing Command

– 10 9.5 12 54

0.5 0.75 0.42 0.67 9.9

40 390 185 450 28,600

1 1 1 1 3


... ... Mach 2 1 Mach 21 Supersonic

10 ... 10 12 400

Sprint SRAM SS-11B1 Standard ARM Subroc

Surface-to-air Air-to-surface Antitank Air-to-surface Underwater-to-underwater

Command Autopilot Wire-guided Radar homing Inertial

27 14 3.8 26 22

4.6 1.5 0.5 ... 1.75

7,500 ... 63 3,000 4,000

2 1 1 2 1


Hypersonic Supersonic 4001 mph ... ...

301 100 1.6 35 51

Super Falcon Talos Tartar Terrier Titan 2

Air-to-air Surface-to-air Surface-to-air Surface-to-air Surface-to-surface

Radar Beam-rider Semiactive homing Beam-rider Inertial

7.2 33 15 26.5 102

0.55 2.5 1.1 1.1 10

150 7,000 1,500 3,000 330,000

1 1 1 1 2

Solid Ramjet Solid Solid Liquid

Mach 3 Mach 2.5 Mach 21 Mach 2.5 ...

TOW Trident 1 Trident 2 Walleye

Antitank Underwater-to-surface Underwater-to-surface Air-to-surface

Wire-guided Stellar-inertial Stellar-inertial Television

... ... ... 11.3

... ... ... 1.25

48 ... ... 1,100

1 ... ... 1

Solid Solid Solid [Glider]

... ... ... ...

51 6 9 ... 401

6,300 7,0001 7,0001 751 400

5 651 101 201 6,300 ... 4,000 6,0001 ...

Note: This list does not include some of the most modern missiles, such as the Stinger, a shoulder–fired antiaircraft weapon, first supplied to the army in 1981, or the MX or

Peacekeeper, an ICBM, the first 50 of which were deployed in 1986, or the Patriot, a surface-to-air weapon. Source: Bernard Johnston, Colliers Encyclopedia (New York, 1995), 508.


415

or conventional, multiple or singular, small or large—appropriate to the target. Built in many shapes and sizes for army, navy, and air force, missiles remained in a state of continuous development. In all their applications, missiles surely represented the largest change in military technology since the Second World War.

Environmentalism An environmental movement did not emerge suddenly in the United States in the last half of the 20th century. For many years there had been at least passing concern with consequences of the way Americans were using the land and with byproducts of a modern industrial nation. Regret over rapid destruction of forests had led presidents to exclude tracts of national forests from exploitation by private economic interests. Farmers who noticed that soil unprotected by vegetation washed away in heavy rains or blew away in windstorms of the Great Plains began to seek ways to halt these forms of erosion.

During the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the national government became directly involved in these efforts. In those days they called it conservation. An agency of the era of Roosevelt bore the title, Civilian Conservation Corps. Industrial pollution was as old as industry itself, and while factory operations contaminated water and soil, urban residents first saw, smelled, and breathed pollution of the air.They even devised a word for it, smog, technically a combination of fog and smoke, although fog often had little to do with it; the air was filled with smoke, soot, and tiny particles of varying compounds. Attempts to regulate factory emissions dated to the 1880s, and in 1952 Oregon acted on a statewide basis. Environmental concerns—in some instances they would constitute alarms—of the last half of the 20th century developed from these original problems being multiplied and compounded by the growth of the population, national economic expansion, and changes in lifestyle and in the production processes, which meant that the social system found more things to do with machines and more machines to do what previously had been done without them.The machines that built the machines polluted

Three Mile Island nuclear plant near Middletown, Pennsylvania, site in March 1979 of a partial meltdown and near radioactive disaster (National Archives)

416


some aspect of the environment and then the machines themselves became new agents of contamination.The postwar era did introduce one new force and it was a whopper: nuclear power and consequences of its use as an instrument of peacetime society.Any suggestion of nuclear accident set off alarms that would be heard worldwide. Scientists warned of long-range catastrophic effects of global warming, a condition that developed from sunlight being trapped in Earth’s atmosphere. This “greenhouse effect’’ was largely the product of four gases: carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and nitrous oxide being released into the atmosphere. Attending to the problem depended on a reduction of these gases, but all were byproducts of modern, industrial society. Many people dated the modern environmental movement to the first celebration of Earth Day in 1970. Others credited the origins to Rachel Carson, whose highly influential scientific study Silent Spring warned in 1962 that in the effort to conquer and utilize nature’s offerings, humankind was destroying its habitat. The movement would be fed by the energy crises of the 1970s; nuclear accidents at the Three Mile Island plant in Pennsylvania in 1979 and at Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in 1986; by oil spills on the international waterways; and by

mounting evidence of health hazards in contaminants of many kinds. Public awareness and concern inspired books and articles, movies and film documentaries, rallies, submovements and campaigns—such as recycling. It produced new organizations, such as Greenpeace, and energized older ones, such as the Sierra Club. It prompted new lesson plans for elementary and high schools, new courses for colleges and universities. Environmentalism produced many state and national laws and at least one major new institution in the government of the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). It stopped certain practices in their tracks—the use of leaded gasoline, for example, and the construction of nuclear power plants—and it produced marked improvement in some categories of health hazards. In many areas the efforts merely illuminated the magnitude and complexities of the problems.A contaminated environment came from people living their lives. Environment efforts often collided with economic interests that went beyond a fat corporation that wished to feed at the public trough. It also revealed that if science and technology had produced many problems in the living space, it would take a great deal more work in science and technology to bring them under control.

STATUS AND APPROXIMATE LOCATION OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1988

Nuclear Power Plants Operable

Construction permits granted

In startup

On order

Some Developments in Environmental History in the United States, 1948 to 1985 1948 Several days of air pollution kill 20 people in Donora, Pennsylvania. 1952 Americans learn that smog was blamed for 4,000 deaths in London. 1953 Officials blame 200 deaths in New York on smog.

1962 Rachel Carson publishes exceptionally influential book, Silent Spring, about environmental damage by pesticides. 1963 Congress passes original Clean Air Act; federal funds are to be used on air pollution. Concern about nuclear fallout leads to Test-Ban Treaty, signed by the United States and the Soviet Union. Testing is banned in atmosphere, under water, or in outer space. Science and Technology

417

1964 Congress passes Wilderness Act, designed to preserve specified wilderness areas. 1965 Congress passes Highway Beautification Law, a favorite of President Johnson’s wife Lady Bird, which bans many billboards that contaminate highway landscape settings. 1966 Congress passes Rare and Endangered Species Act. 1970 First Earth Day is celebrated on April 22. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is established in national government to establish and oversee antipollution efforts. Congress passes Water Quality Act, to clean up waterways. 1972 Congress extends and expands upon the Clean Air Act. Virtually all use of pesticide DDT is banned. 1974 Construction begins on Trans Alaska Pipeline, extensive measures having been taken to protect local environment and wildlife. Scientists warn that the protective ozone layer is being destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons. Energy crisis caused by Middle East war prompts movement toward smaller automobile engines and shift from petroleum products to coal for generating energy. 1976 Toxic Substances Act is designed to control hazardous chemicals. 1978 Buried hazardous waste forces residents to evacuate homes and move permanently from Love Canal area of NewYork State. 1979 Accident at nuclear reactor at Three Mile Island plant in Pennsylvania produces partial meltdown and a severe national reaction against additional nuclear power plants. 1980 Congress passes law creating the Superfund, and a program for cleaning up the most hazardous toxic-waste sites. 1983 Community of Times Beach, Missouri, has to evacuate upon learning that oil to control road dust has contaminated soil. 1985 Canada and the United States sign agreement to investigate causes of acid rain. Scientists warn that a hole has appeared in the ozone layer over Antarctica. 1986 News of explosion of nuclear reactor at Chernobyl in the Ukraine (USSR) that killed 31, contaminated thousands, and made hundreds of square miles uninhabitable is stunning and is a reconfirmation of the hostility toward nuclear plants. 1987 Congress passes Clean Water Act to combat pollution of rainwater and estuaries in the United States. Officials trap and confine the last-known California condor in the wild to prevent assumed extinction of species. 1989 American-owned tanker, Exxon Valdez, runs aground in Alaska, spilling its oil and despoiling pristine Prince William Sound. Worst oil spill in the United States. Source: Bruce Wetterau, The New York Public Library Book of Chronologies (New York, 1990), 422–24; Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 531.

TABLE 15.17

Air Pollution Contamination of the air attracted some of the first efforts in a fledgling movement to promote healthy living conditions in the United States. The reasons were obvious: One could see, smell, even feel the pollution in and around many of the major cities. In some cases it left a coating of soot on cars and anything out of doors. Some people found it difficult to breathe in such conditions, and in the worst cases—as in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1952—it could be deadly. The principal causes of urban pollution were motor vehicles, industrial factories, and power plants. A more broadly based atmospheric problem that gradually entered public consciousness between 1960 and 1980 became known as acid rain. Consisting mostly of the sulfur dioxide produced by the burning of coal and oil, the particles came to the ground attached to rainfall or any form of precipitation, in effect, making sulfuric acid. Acid rain could travel great distances with the wind and weather systems—from state to state or across national boundaries, as in the case of Canada and the United States.The effects included excessive, unwanted algae growth. Acid rain tarnished and discolored bronze, marble, and limestone.The military park at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, marked with hundreds of stone monuments, showed signs of premature weathering. In extreme cases, acid rain could contaminate lakes and streams, rendering them incapable of sustaining fish or other natural life. One of its worst effects was killing trees. The solution, needless to say, involved ridding the air of the pollutants. Natural gas burned cleaner than coal or oil. Filtering devices on smokestacks called scrubbers removed sulfur dioxide. Catalytic converters and other emission devices softened the environmental impact of vehicular exhaust. All these changes cost a great deal of money. They were not necessarily consistent with energy options that were most appealing during the crises of the 1970s. Nuclear power, a clean energy alternative, encountered public disfavor from different points of view. Congress passed a Clean Air Act as early as 1963, a measure that charged the Public Health Service with investigating the issue and organizing elementary efforts to control it. A stronger law in 1970 handed authority over to the newly created Environmental Protection Agency, which was to act in concert with the states in approaching the pollution problem on several fronts.The EPA set quality standards for pollutants that posed the largest threat to air quality. The most dangerous offenders were deemed “criteria pollutants’’—the EPA named six—and standards were set consistent with acceptable living conditions. The EPA also produced a second list of “hazardous pollutants’’—asbestos was an example—that could be harmful, even deadly, and it established guidelines for their use. Utilizing a variety of restraints and changes that affected industry, public and private power plants, and the general public, the EPA could claim uneven but nonetheless marked progress by the start of the 1990s.

MAJOR INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

Pollutant

Sources

Asbestos Biological pollutants Carbon monoxide Formaldehyde Lead Mercury

Old, damaged insulation, acoustical tiles. Bacteria, mold, animal residue, mites, pollen. Kerosene, gas stoves, fireplaces, auto exhaust, tobacco smoke. Textiles, glue, paneling, foam insulation. Automobile exhaust, soldering, burning lead paint. Latex paint.

Nitrogen dioxide Organic gases

Tobacco smoke, kerosene and gas heaters. Paint, solvents, aerosol spray, cleaners, air fresheners, stored fuel. Tobacco smoke, wood, kerosene heaters, stoves, fireplaces. Bug and insect killers for indoors and lawns. Well water, building material, soil and rocks under house. Cigarettes, cigars, pipes.

Particles (soot) Pesticides Radon Tobacco smoke

Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 536–37.

418


The primary cause of air pollution was emissions from motor vehicles, as one would discover in any city. (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

TABLE 15.18 HEALTH EFFECTS OF THE REGULATED AIR POLLUTANTS Criteria Pollutants Ozone

Particulate Matter Carbon Monoxide Sulfur Dioxide Lead Nitrogen Dioxide

Health Concerns Respiratory-tract problems such as difficult breathing and reduced lung function. Asthma, eye irritation, nasal congestion, reduced resistance to infection and possibly premature aging of lung tissue. Eye and throat irritation, bronchitis, lung damage, and impaired visibility Ability of blood to carry oxygen impaired. Cardiovascular, nervous, and pulmonary systems affected. Respiratory tract problems; permanent harm to lung tissue. Retardation and brain damage, especially in children. Respiratory illness and lung damage.

Hazardous Air Pollutants Asbestos Beryllium Mercury Vinyl chloride Aresenic Radionuclides Benzene Coke Oven Emissions

A variety of lung diseases, particularly lung cancer. Primary lung disease although also affects liver, spleen, kidneys, and lymph glands. Several areas of the brain as well as the kidneys and bowels affected. Lung and liver cancer Causes cancer Cause cancer Leukemia Respiratory cancer

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Progress and Challenge: EPA’s Update (Washington, D.C., 1988), 13.


419

TABLE 15.19

NATIONAL AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS, 1940–1990

(In millions of metric tons, except lead in thousands of metric tons. Metric ton 5 1.1023 short tons, PM 5 Particulate matter, SOx 5 Sulfur oxides, NOx 5 Nitrogen oxides, VOC 5 volatile organic compound, CO 5 Carbon monoxide, Pb 5 Lead. NA not available) Emissions

Percent Change from Prior Year

Year

PM

SOx

NOx

VOC

1940 1950 1960 1970

23.1 24.9 21.6 18.5

17.6 19.8 19.7 28.3

6.9 9.4 13.0 18.5

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

8.5 8.0 7.1 7.1 7.4

23.4 22.6 21.4 20.7 21.5

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

7.2 6.7 6.9 7.5 7.2 7.5

21.1 20.9 20.5 20.6 20.8 21.2

CO

Pb

PM

SOx

NOx

15.2 18.1 21.0 25.0

82.6 87.6 89.7 101.4

(NA) (NA) (NA) 203.8

(NA) 7.8 213.3 214.4

(NA) 12.5 20.5 43.7

(NA) 36.2 38.3 42.3

20.9 20.9 20.0 19.3 19.8

21.1 19.8 18.4 19.3 20.3

79.6 77.4 72.4 74.5 71.8

70.6 56.4 54.4 46.4 40.1

254.1 25.9 211.3 1.0 4.2

217.3 23.4 25.3 23.3 3.9

19.9 19.1 19.4 20.0 19.8 19.6

20.1 19.0 19.3 19.4 18.5 18.7

68.7 63.2 63.4 64.7 60.4 60.1

20.1 8.4 8.0 7.6 7.2 7.1

22.7 26.9 3.0 8.7 24.0 4.2

21.9 20.9 21.9 0.5 1.0 1.9

VOC

CO

Pb

(NA) 19.1 16.0 19.0

(NA) 6.1 2.4 13.0

(NA) (NA) (NA) (NA)

13.0 0.0 24.3 23.5 2.6

215.6 26.2 27.1 4.9 5.2

221.5 22.8 26.5 2.9 23.6

265.4 220.1 23.5 214.7 213.6

0.5 24.0 1.6 3.1 21.0 21.0

21.0 25.5 1.6 0.5 24.6 1.1

24.3 28.0 0.3 22.1 26.6 20.5

249.9 258.2 24.8 25.0 25.3 21.4


TABLE 15.20

AIR POLLUTANT EMISSIONS, BY POLLUTANT AND SOURCE, 1970–1990

(in millions of metric tons, except lead in thousands of metric tons, metric ton 5 1.1023 short tons) Controllable Emissions Transportation

Pollutant

Total Emissions

Total

Road Vehicles

Percent of Total

Fuel Combustion Total

Electric Utilities

Solid Misc. Industrial Waste UnconTrans- Fuel ComProcesses Disposal trollable portation bustion Industrial

1970 Carbon monoxide Sulfur oxides Volatile organic compounds Particulates Nitrogen oxides Lead

101.4 28.4 25.0 18.5 18.5 203.8

74.4 0.6 10.3 1.2 8.0 163.6

65.3 0.3 9.1 0.9 6.3 156.0

4.5 21.3 0.6 4.6 9.1 9.6

0.2 15.8 ... 2.3 4.4 0.3

8.9 6.4 8.9 10.5 0.7 23.9

6.4 ... 1.8 1.1 0.4 6.7

7.2 0.1 3.3 1.1 0.3 ...

73.4 2.1 41.2 6.5 43.2 80.3

4.4 75.0 2.4 24.9 49.2 4.7

8.8 22.5 35.6 56.8 3.8 11.7

6.3 3.8 9.2 3.3 0.7 3.6

2.2 ... 0.6 0.4 0.1 3.7

7.6 0.0 2.9 1.1 0.2 ...

70.5 3.8 35.5 15.3 46.9 84.1

9.3 79.9 4.3 28.2 48.3 5.5

7.9 16.2 43.6 38.8 3.3 5.1

4.7 3.1 8.1 2.8 0.6 2.2

1.7 ... 0.6 0.3 0.1 2.2

8.6 ... 2.7 1.2 0.3 ...

62.6 4.2 34.2 20.0 38.3 31.0

12.5 80.7 4.8 22.7 57.1 7.0

7.8 14.6 43.3 37.3 3.1 31.0

1980 Carbon monoxide Sulfur oxides Volatile organic compounds Particulates Nitrogen oxides Lead

79.6 23.4 21.1 8.5 20.9 70.6

56.1 0.9 7.5 1.3 9.8 59.4

48.7 0.4 6.2 1.1 7.9 56.4

7.4 18.7 0.9 2.4 10.1 3.9

0.3 15.5 ... 0.8 6.4 0.1 1990

Carbon monoxide Sulfur oxides Volatile organic compounds Particulates Nitrogen oxides Lead

60.1 21.2 18.7 7.5 19.6 7.1

37.6 0.9 6.4 1.5 7.5 2.2

Note: “. . .” represents zero. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 213.

420


30.3 0.6 5.1 1.3 5.6 2.0

7.5 17.1 0.9 1.7 11.2 0.5

0.3 14.2 ... 0.4 7.3 0.1

TABLE 15.21

POLLUTION ABATEMENT AND CONTROL EXPENDITURES, IN CURRENT AND CONSTANT (1987) DOLLARS, 1972–1990, AND BY MEDIA, 1990

(in millions of dollars) Pollution Abatement Government

Year

Total Expenditures

Total

Personal Consumption

Business

Total

Federal

State and Local

Govt Enterprise

Regulation Research and and DevelMonitoring opment

Current Dollars 1972 1975 1977 1978 1979

17,037 28,424 35,123 39,457 45,593

15,848 26,668 32,812 36,860 42,750

1,349 3,231 4,286 4,772 5,423

11,090 16,531 21,101 23,266 27,285

3,409 6,906 7,426 8,822 10,042

139 432 490 472 548

1,311 1,752 1,965 2,212 2,461

1,959 4,722 4,971 6,139 7,033

367 653 833 949 1,067

823 1,104 1,478 1,647 1,777

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

51,478 56,472 56,576 60,002 66,445

48,432 53,346 53,395 56,283 62,746

6,568 8,140 8,309 9,758 10,771

30,618 34,453 34,151 35,357 39,467

11,246 10,752 10,935 11,167 12,508

494 506 550 795 944

2,778 3,053 3,274 3,547 3,886

7,973 7,194 7,111 6,825 7,679

1,296 1,378 1,397 1,385 1,362

1,751 1,749 1,783 2,335 2,337

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

70,941 74,178 76,672 81,081 85,407

67,250 70,074 72,506 76,605 80,630

11,839 12,244 10,875 12,044 10,636

41,559 42,636 44,501 46,928 50,817

13,852 15,195 17,130 17,633 19,177

1,225 1,346 1,237 1,402 1,381

4,324 4,793 5,356 6,149 7,076

8,304 9,056 10,538 10,082 10,720

1,279 1,532 1,519 1,695 1,803

2,412 2,573 2,648 2,781 2,974

1990, prel. Air Water Solid Waste

89,967 29,499 37,260 24,110

85,087 26,969 36,202 23,504

9,247 9,247 ... ...

54,674 17,369 23,473 15,770

21,166 352 12,729 7,735

1,394 71 737 304

8,015 13 503 7,431

11,757 268 11,489 ...

1,784 476 649 408

3,097 2,053 409 197

Constant (1987) Dollars 1972 1975 1977 1978 1979

46,298 57,333 62,011 64,863 66,796

43,080 53,673 57,792 60,296 62,424

3,449 6,165 7,147 7,412 7,156

30,553 33,113 37,101 38,151 40,224

9,098 14,395 13,545 14,734 15,044

402 937 917 809 840

3,669 3,737 3,726 3,892 3,931

5,028 9,720 8,902 10,032 10,273

959 1,346 1,514 1,788 1,624

2,259 2,313 2,705 2,779 2,747

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

67,291 66,536 63,219 65,052 69,981

63,005 62,556 59,457 60,870 65,996

7,311 8,494 8,518 10,016 10,967

40,148 40,470 37,790 38,042 41,178

15,546 13,592 13,150 12,813 13,851

679 627 649 911 1,048

4,051 3,984 4,068 4,203 4,381

10,816 8,981 8,434 7,698 8,422

1,873 1,810 1,709 1,608 1,507

2,414 2,170 2,053 2,574 2,478

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

72,656 76,384 76,672 79,086 80,106

68,802 72,163 72,506 74,785 75,720

11,780 12,685 10,875 11,831 10,147

42,408 43,797 44,501 45,963 47,755

14,615 15,681 17,130 16,991 17,818

1,300 1,402 1,237 1,340 1,273

4,646 4,990 5,356 5,875 6,502

8,668 9,289 10,538 9,777 10,043

1,361 1,589 1,519 1,643 1,657

2,493 2,633 2,648 2,658 2,730

1990, prel. Air Water Solid Waste

81,838 27,313 34,391 20,938

77,472 25,053 33,435 20,393

8,665 8,665 ... ...

49,688 16,077 21,621 13,699

19,118 310 11,814 6,695

1,232 62 660 269

6,994 11 498 6,425

10,893 237 10,656 ...

1,636 446 597 372

2,370 1,814 359 173

Note: “. . .” represents or rounds to zero. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 229.


421

TABLE 15.22

AIR AND WATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT EXPENDITURES IN CONSTANT (1987) DOLLARS, 1980–1990

(in millions of dollars, excludes agricultural production of crops and livestock except feedlots) Air

Water

Mobile Sourcesa

Stationary Sources

Industrial

Public Sewer Systems

Industrial

Year

Total

Total

Carsb

Trucksb

Total

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990, prel.

25,661 27,012 25,719 26,085 27,659 29,041 30,270 28,548 29,531 27,742 26,104

12,367 13,932 13,754 15,456 16,896 18,073 19,513 17,629 19,190 17,181 15,201

9,103 11,092 10,914 12,756 14,119 14,896 15,424 13,166 14,727 12,511 10,768

2,840 2,700 2,777 3,177 4,090 4,463 4,670 4,433 4,607 3,910 3,362

13,294 13,080 11,965 10,629 10,763 10,968 10,757 10,919 10,341 10,561 10,903

Facilities Operations 6,011 5,951 5,501 3,893 3,820 3,539 3,573 3,728 3,342 3,463 3,900

6,443 6,295 5,601 5,911 6,151 6,320 6,732 6,575 6,436 6,553 6,546

Total

Facilities

26,482 24,251 23,337 23,751 25,382 26,542 27,765 29,695 29,107 30,618 33,435

3,696 3,405 3,284 2,666 2,865 2,879 2,392 2,354 2,381 2,923 3,799

a

Excludes expenditures from sources other than cars and trucks. Includes expenditures for devices such as catalytic converters. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 229.

b

TABLE 15.23

AIR QUALITY TRENDS IN SELECTED U.S. URBAN AREAS, 1985–1990

(number of PSI Days Greater than 100)

PMSA

Trend Sites Number 1985 1986 1987

1988 1989 1990

Atlanta Baltimore Boston Chicago Cleveland

7 15 24 40 25

9 25 3 9 1

18 23 2 9 2

27 28 5 17 7

21 43 15 22 21

3 9 4 4 6

17 12 1 3 2

Dallas Denver Detroit El Paso Houston

9 20 25 16 28

27 38 2 32 64

9 49 5 43 55

13 37 9 32 67

14 19 17 16 61

7 11 10 33 42

8 9 3 27 61

Kansas City Los Angeles Miami Minn./ St. Paul New York

19 37 7

3 208 5

4 226 4

6 201 4

4 239 5

2 226 4

2 178 1

22 24

14 65

13 58

7 44

1 46

5 18

1 18

Philadelphia Phoenix Pittsburgh San Diego San Francisco

36 22 31 21 11

31 88 9 88 5

23 88 8 70 4

36 42 13 61 1

35 26 25 84 2

20 30 9 90 1

14 9 11 60 1

Seattle St Louis Washington, D.C. Subtotal

13 46

25 10

13 13

14 17

20 18

8 13

5 8

32 522

17 778

12 751

26 714

37 791

8 563

5 456

Other Sites All Sites

682

878

816

824

1,163

687

552

1,204

1,656

1,567

1,538

1,954

1,250

1,008

Notes: PMSA5Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area. PSI5Pollutant Standards Index. Minn5Minneapolis. The PSI index integrates information from many pollutants across an entire monitoring network into a single number which represents the worst daily air quailty experienced in an urban area. Only carbon monoxide and ozone monitoring sites with adequate historical data are included in the PSI trend analysis above, except for Pittsburgh, where sulfur dioxide contributes a significant number of days in the PSI high range. PSI index ranges and health effect descriptor words are as follows: 0–50 (good): 51–100 (moderate); 101–199 (unhealthful); 202–299 (very unhealthful); and 300 and above (hazardous). The table above shows the number of days when the PSI was greater than 100 (5unhealthy or worse days). Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of U.S., 381.

422


Operations Facilities Operations 3,988 4,025 3,844 4,264 4,482 4,658 4,866 5,383 5,310 5,777 5,988

10,148 8,270 7,679 7,063 7,791 8,124 8,807 10,053 9,376 9,661 10,566

5,148 5,297 5,616 5,959 6,149 6,550 7,285 7,792 8,269 8,554 9,534

TABLE 15.24

METROPOLITAN AREAS FAILING TO MEET NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR-QUALITY STANDARDS FOR CARBON MONOXIDE—NUMBER OF DAYS EXCEEDING STANDARDS, 1989 AND 1990

(areas generally represent the officially defined metropolitan area, but may, in some cases, not have all the counties indentified as part of the area) Metropolitan Areas

1989

1990

Albuquerque, N.Mex. Anchorage, Alaska Baltimore, Md. Boston, Mass.–N.H. CMSA Chico, Calif. Cleveland, Ohio CMSA Colorado Springs, Colo. Denver-Boulder, Colo. CMSA Duluth, Minn. EI Paso,Tex. Fairbanks, Alaska Fort Collins, Colo. Fresno, Calif. Grant Pass, Oreg. Greensboro–Winston-Salem, N.C. Hartford, Conn. CMSA Klamath County, Oreg. Lake Tahoe S. Shore, Calif. Las Vegas, Nev. Longmont, Colo. Los Angeles, Calif. CMSA Medford, Oreg. Memphis,Tenn.–Ark.–Miss. Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minn.–Wis. Missoula County, Mont. Modesto, Calif. NewYork, N.Y.–N.J.–Conn. CMSA Ogden, Utah Philadelphia, Pa.–N.J.–Del.–Md. CMSA Phoenix, Ariz. Portland, Oreg.–Wash. CMSA Provo-Orem, Utah Raleigh-Durham, N.C. Reno, Nev. Sacramento, Calif. San Diego, Calif. San Francisco, Calif. CMSA Seattle-Tacoma,Wash. CMSA Spokane,Wash. Stockton, Calif. Syracuse, N.Y. Washington, D.C.–Md.–Va.

6 3 ... ... 1 1 1 6 2 5 3 1 13 ... ... 1 2 ... 26 ... 72 15 2 2 2 8 16 ... 2 9 2 12 2 2 18 4 6 2 11 4 2 1

3 12 1 ... 1 ... ... 3 ... 4 2 ... 1 1 ... ... ... 5 17 ... 47 ... 1 1 1 2 4 3 ... 4 2 11 2 7 11 ... 2 2 6 2 1 ...

Note: “. . .” Represents zero. CMSA 5 Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 214.

TABLE 15.25

ACID-RAIN TROUBLE AREAS, 1990 No. of Lakes over No 10 Acres Acidified Percent

Area

Adirondacks Southwest Lakes

450

171

38

68 71

8 2

43 1,396

10 12

187

21

11

675 7,452

378 745

56 10

522 669

329 187

63 28

201 50

16 3

New England Seaboard Lowlands Lakes Highland Lakes

848 3,574 Appalachia

Forested Lakes Forested Streams

433 11,631 Atlantic Coastal Plain

Northeast Lakes Pine Barrens Streams Other streams Florida Nothern Highland Lakes Northern Highland Streams

Eastern Upper Midwest Low Silica Lakes High Silica Lakes

1,254 1,673

Source: Mark Hoffman, ed., The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1991 (New York, 1990), 250.

TABLE 15.26 SOME COMMON HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS Substance

Chemical Contaminants The postwar cultural and economic revolution in the United States probably would have been impossible without chemicals. Chemicals had much to do with many aspects of manufacture and product production and innovation, with green lawns and pretty flowers and with remarkable growth in the productivity of American farms. With progress, however, often come problems, and it often appeared that chemical usage constituted the most obvious example of contradictions in modern society. Chemicals generally were considered hazardous if they caught fire quickly, reacted to other chemicals, were corrosive or toxic, or were proven to produce health problems, including cancer. Some chemicals produced such danger that they had to be banned. In the case of many others the government and society tried to strike a balance, permitting continued usage of a substance but placing it subject to careful regulation. Chemicals listed below were legal but closely regulated by the EPA, which might require regular reports from owners in possession of large amounts of a substance.

Use

Acetic acid Acetone Aluminum sulfate Ammonia Benzene

Vinegar and manufacturing processes Solvent for resins and fats Fire extinguishers, dyes Fertilizer, cleaning and disinfectant agents Detergents, dyes, plastics, paint remover, explosives

Chlorine Cumene Ethylene dichloride Ethylene oxide Formaldehyde

Water disinfectant (gas is very toxic) High octane fuel Plastics, “ethyl” gasoline Plastics Plastics, wood substitutes

Hydrodrochloric acid Methanol Nitric acid Phenol Phosphoric acid

Metals, petroleum, manufacturing processes Anti-freeze, solvent, many compounds Fertilizers, explosives Plastics Fertilizers, flavoring substances

Sodium hydroxide Styrene Sulfuric acid Toluene Vinyl chloride

Lye, caustic soda Plastics, rubber substitutes Many products and processes Drugs, dyes, explosives Aerosols, plastics



423

TABLE 15.27 MAJOR TOXIC CHEMICAL LAWS ADMINISTERED BY EPA, 1988 Statute

Provisions

Toxic Substances Control Act

Requires that EPA be notified of any new chemical prior to its manufacture and authorizes EPA to regulate production, use, or disposal of a chemical.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act

Authorizes EPA to register all pesticides and specify the terms and conditions of their use and to remove unreasonably hazardous pesticides from the marketplace.

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

Authorizes EPA in cooperation with FDA to establish tolerance levels for pesticide residues on food and food products.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Authorizes EPA to identify hazardous wastes and to regulate their generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

Requires EPA to designate hazardous substances that can present substantial danger and authorizes the cleanup of sites contaminated with such substances.

Clean Air Act

Authorizes EPA to set emission standards to limit the release of hazardous air pollutants.

Clean Water Act

Requires EPA to establish a list of toxic water pollutants and to set standards.

Safe Drinking Water Act

Requires EPA to set drinking water standards to protect public health from hazardous substances.

Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act

Regulates ocean dumping of toxic contaminants.

Asbestos School Hazard Act

Authorizes EPA to provide loans and grants to schools with financial need for abatement of severe asbestos hazards.

Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act

Requires EPA to establish a comprehensive regulatory framework for controlling asbestos hazards in schools.

Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

Requires states to develop programs for responding to hazardous chemical releases and requires industries to report on the presence and release of certain hazardous substances.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Update (1988), 113.

TABLE 15.28

U.S. COMMERCIAL PESTICIDE USE, BY SECTOR AND TYPE, 1979–1990

(million pounds of active ingredients) Industry, Commercial, and Government

Agriculture Year

Herbi- Insect- Fungcides icides icides

Total

Herbi- Insect- Fungicides icides cides

Home and Garden

Total

Herbicides

Insect- Fungiicides cides

Total Total

Herbi- Insecti- Fungicides cides cides

Total

1979 1980 1981 1982

488 445 456 430

302 306 309 295

90 95 95 90

840 846 860 815

84 82 86 86

38 47 48 48

18 18 19 19

140 147 153 153

28 28 28 28

38 42 48 48

12 12 12 12

77 82 85 88

560 555 570 544

378 395 405 391

120 125 126 121

1,058 1,075 1,101 1,056

1983 1984 1985 1986

445 545 525 500

185 200 225 210

103 105 111 110

733 850 861 820

105 105 115 125

40 40 40 45

20 20 21 25

165 165 176 195

25 25 30 30

30 30 35 40

10 10 10 11

65 65 75 81

575 675 670 655

255 270 300 395

133 135 142 146

963 1,080 1,112 1,096

1887 1988 1989 1990

505 510 520 516

179 185 151 173

130 150 135 145

814 845 806 834

115 120 110 103

45 45 45 42

40 40 40 38

200 205 195 183

25 30 25 25

36 38 30 30

12 12 14 14

73 80 78 69

645 660 655 644

260 268 226 245

182 202 189 197

1,087 1,130 1,070 1,086

Note: Estimates for total fungicide use also include other pesticides. Totals may not agree with sum of components due to independent rounding. Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of U.S., 387.

424


TABLE 15.29

PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN DOMESTIC SURVEILLANCE FOOD SAMPLES, 1978–1990

(percent of samples with residues found) Year

Grains and Grain Products

Eggs, Milk, Dairy Products

Fish, Shellfish, and Meats

Fruits

Vegetables

Other

Total

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

54 54 52 43 42

43 47 36 32 34

80 81 71 77 72

48 58 53 56 49

34 35 40 37 36

42 47 36 34 32

47 49 46 44 41

1983 1984 1985 1986

42 54 52 60

32 31 22 21

61 75 65 68

52 38 36 57

41 33 34 39

31 31 22 48

43 37 35 44

1987 1988 1989 1990

57 49 44 46

24 19 13 9

73 72 65 68

50 51 44 49

37 35 32 38

37 28 20 21

42 40 35 40

Note: Food samples are collected as close as possible to production point. Fresh produce is whole, raw, unwashed. Although a percent of samples have pesticide residue, the percent with overtolerance amounts (as set by EPA) is low. Between 1973 and 1986, 0.3 percent of samples were classified as violative; since 1987, less than 0.1 percent were violative. Source: Littman, Statistical Portrait of U.S., 390.

TABLE 15.30

PESTICIDES TAKEN OFF THE MARKET BY 1988

Pesticides Aldrin Chlordane (Agricultural uses; termiticide uses suspended or canceled) Compound 1080 (Livestock collar retained; rodenticide use under review) Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) DDT and Related Compounds Dieldrin Dinoseb (in hearings) Endrin (Avicide use retained) Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) (Very minor uses and use on citrus for export retained) Heptachlor (Agricultural uses; termiticide uses suspended or canceled) Kepone Lindane (Indoor smoke bomb canceled; some uses restricted) Mercury Mirex Silvex Strychnine (Rodenticide use and livestock collar retained) 2,4,5,-T Toxaphene (Livestock dip retained)

Use

Concerns

Insecticide Insecticide/Termites, Ants

Oncogenicitya Oncogenicity; reduction ina nontarget and endangered species

Coyote control; Rodenticide

Reductions in nontarget and endangered species; no known antidote

Soil Fumigant—Fruits and vegetables Insecticide Insecticide Herbicide/Crop dessicant Insecticide/Avicide Insecticide/Fumigant

Oncogenicity; mutagenicitya,b; reproductive effects Ecological (eggshell thinning); carcinogenicityc Oncogenicitya Fetotoxicity; reproductive effectsd; acute toxicity Oncogenicity; teratogenicity;a,e reductions in nontarget and endangered species Oncogenicity; mutagenicity;a,b reproductive effects

Insecticide

Oncogenicity; reductions ina nontarget and endangered species

Insecticide Insecticide/Vaporizer

Oncogenicitya Oncogenicity; teratogenicity;a,e reproductive effects; acute toxicity; other chronic effects Cumulative toxicant causing brain damage Nontarget species; potential oncogenicity Oncogenicity; teratogenicity;a,e fetotoxicityd

Microbial Uses Insecticide/Fire Ant Control Herbicide/Forestry, rights-of-way, weed control Mammalian predator control; rodenticide Herbicide/Forestry, rights-of-way, weed control Insecticide – Cotton

Reductions in nontarget and endangered species

Oncogenicity; teratogenicity;a,e fetotoxicityd Oncogenicity; reductions ina nontarget species; acute toxicity to aquatic organisms; chronic effects on wildlife

a

Oncogenicity: causes tumors. Mutagenicity: causes mutation. Carinogenicity: causes cancer. d Fetotoxicity: causes toxicity to unborn fetus. e Teratogenicity: causes major birth defects. Source: Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Update (1988), 118. b c

Solid Municipal Waste Some called it junk; everyone called it garbage, and the problem of what to do with the standard byproducts, the leftovers from normal living continued to grow with the passage of time. The issue became compounded and complicated with the increase in population, a growing scarcity of places suitable for waste disposal, changing

features of the waste itself, and the uncomfortable realization that there was no entirely satisfactory way of getting rid of the garbage. All standard practices of waste disposal carried objectionable features. Traditionally, the trash collectors simply had hauled the stuff away to what might be called the city dump or to a junkyard. In the Science and Technology

425

Looked on as an environmental disaster, a strip-mine coal pit in Pennsylvania (Special Collections, Indiana University of Pennsylvania)

modern era the site became a landfill, and city planners had taken means to remove the smell, unsightly appearance, and presumably any threat to health. Landfills often took the form of craters with earthmoving equipment constantly at work, keeping the garbage covered up. Unfortunately the waste simply laid there, did not decay and degrade itself, as it long had been assumed. The propensity to use more plastic containers and more paper and paperboard and to dispose of smaller amounts of food waste and metal containers made the problem larger. Of course when one landfill reached capacity, another had to open up somewhere; the cities and states were running out of usable space. Given the fact that the amount of land was fixed and that the number of people and amount of garbage not only continued to grow but also were being added to what already existed, one was left with the proposition, projected far enough into the future, that a time would come when all America would be a landfill. 426


Burning trash, another long-used practice, also carried its burdens. Simply setting garbage afire replaced one kind of pollution with another, and many—if not most—municipal administrations found the practice unthinkable. Most municipalities and towns by the start of the 1990s had banned burning refuse and fallen leaves in the autumn. More sophisticated incineration equipment did a better job of it; they separated materials, burned waste at very high temperatures, and some even produced a form of usable energy. But this technology was expensive; it produced its own—albeit smaller amounts of—waste in the form of ash, and it was impossible to filter all toxic gases from the exhaust. Recycling as a means of reducing disposable waste had stood as at least a theoretical alternative for several years, and the more seriously people and city officials began to take the condition of their homes and territory, the more appealing the possibility of reusing materials

became. Many local communities established programs for regular collection of specified items and for yard waste that then could be composted. A few states, by requiring a deposit, established a financial incentive for return and reuse of plastic, glass, and aluminum beverage containers. An increase in recycling from less than 7 percent of all waste generated in 1960 to more than 17 percent in 1990 suggested that collecting and reworking certain materials had its place in future environmental practices. As with all aspects of waste disposal, recycling was in need of more and newer technology. TABLE 15.31

Hazardous Waste While environmentalists focused much of their attention on halting objectionable practices, they also had to contend with damage already done. Sobered and stunned by news in 1978 that houses along the Love Canal area near Buffalo, New York, had been built on top of contaminated soil, by the close call at the Three Mile Island nuclear plant in 1979, and by report of the EPA about thousands of dangerously contaminated sites in the United States, Congress in 1980 passed a measure with the cumbersome title: the Comprehensive Environmen-

GENERATION AND RECOVERY OF SELECTED MATERIALS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, 1960–1990

(in millions of tons, except as indicated) Item and Material

1960

1970

1980

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Waste generated, total

87.8

121.9

151.5

164.4

170.7

178.1

184.2

191.4

195.7

Paper and paperboard Ferrous metals Aluminum Other nonferrous metals Glass Plastics Yard waste Other wastes

29.9 9.9 0.4 0.2 6.7 0.4 20.0 20.3

44.2 12.6 0.8 0.7 12.7 3.1 23.2 24.6

54.7 11.6 1.8 1.1 45.0 7.9 27.5 31.9

61.5 10.9 2.3 1.0 13.2 11.6 30.0 33.9

65.6 11.1 2.4 1.0 13.0 12.2 30.2 35.2

69.6 11.3 2.4 1.1 12.3 13.4 31.0 37.0

71.7 11.6 2.5 1.1 12.5 14.4 31.6 38.8

71.9 12.0 2.5 1.2 12.9 15.4 34.7 40.8

73.3 12.3 2.7 1.2 13.2 16.2 35.0 41.8

Materials recovered, total

5.9

8.6

14.5

16.4

18.3

20.1

23.5

29.9

33.4


5.4 0.1 ... 0 0.1 ... ... 0.3

7.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 ... ... 0.6

11.9 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.8 ... ... 0.6

13.1 0.4 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.1 ... 0.7

14.8 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.1 ... 0.7

16.3 0.4 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.1 ... 0.7

18.4 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.5 0.2 0.5 0.7

19.1 1.5 0.9 0.8 2.5 0.3 3.5 1.3

20.9 1.9 1.0 0.8 2.6 0.4 4.2 1.6

Percent of generation recovered, total

6.7

7.1

9.6

10.0

10.7

11.2

12.8

15.6

17.1

18.1 1.0 ... ... 1.5 ... ... 1.5

16.7 0.8 ... 42.9 1.6 ... ... 2.4

21.8 3.4 16.7 45.5 5.3 ... ... 1.9

21.3 3.7 26.1 50.0 7.6 0.9 ... 2.1

22.6 3.6 25.0 60.0 8.5 0.8 ... 2.0

23.4 3.5 29.2 54.5 10.6 0.7 ... 1.9

25.6 5.8 31.7 65.1 12.0 1.1 1.6 1.8

26.6 12.6 35.5 68.3 19.5 1.7 10.0 3.2

28.6 15.4 38.1 67.7 19.9 2.2 12.0 3.8


Note: Covers postconsumer residential and commercial solid wastes, which comprise the major portion of typical municipal collections. Excludes mining, agricultural and industrial processing, demolition and construction wastes, sewage sludge, and junked autos and obsolete equipment wastes. Based on material-flows estimating procedure and wet weight as generated. “. . .” represents zero. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1993, 227.

TABLE 15.32 SUPERFUND HAZARDOUS SITES, 1981–1990 Date October 23, 1981 December 30, 1982 September 8, 1983 October 15, 1984 June 10, 1986 July 22, 1987 October 4, 1989 February 21, 1990

TABLE 15.33

ACTIVITY AT TOXIC-WASTE SITES, 1990

Activity

Number of Sites

Surface impoundments Landfills, commercial/industrial Containers/drums Other manufacturing/industrial Landfills, municipal

453 423 305 241 233

Spills Chemical processing/manufacturing Waste piles Leaking containers Tanks, above ground

200 173 124 117 113

Number of Sites 115 418 406 538 703 802 981 1,081

Source: John Wright, NY Times Almanac, 1998 (New York, 1997), 803.

Tanks, below ground Groundwater plumes Electroplating Military testing and maintenance Wood-preserving

83 77 72 62 57

Note: The Environmental Protection Agency published its first “Interim Priorities List’’ of hazardous waste sites in 1981, and in 1983 it instituted the National Priorities List, which included 406 sites. As of February 1990, there were 1,218 places that the EPA deemed must be cleaned up immediately. These are the most common activities—several of which can occur at one site. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 540.


427

tal Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. Mercifully shortened to the Superfund, the measure was designed to begin immediate efforts to clean up the most hazardous waste sites in the country. The EPA assumed responsibility for compiling a priority list of dan-

TABLE 15.34 State

THE WORST TOXIC-WASTE SITES, 1990 Site

City/County

Rank

When Listed

Ala. Ark. Calif. Calif. Colo.

Triana/Tennessee River Vertac, Inc. Riverbank Army Ammunition Plant Stringfellow Rocky Flats Plant (USDOE)

Limestone/Morgan Jacksonville Riverbank Glen Avon Heights Golden

31 18 Fed. 32 Fed.

Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981 Jun. 1988 Oct. 1981 Oct. 1984

Colo. Del. Del. Fla. Fla.

Sand Creek Industrial Army Creek Landfill Tybouts Corner Landfill Reeves Southeast Galvanizing Corp. Schuylkill Metals Corp.

Commerce City New Castle County Mantua Township Tampa Plant City

36 9 2 47 41

Dec. 1982 Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981 Dec. 1982

lowa Maine Mass. Mass. Mass.

LaBounty Site McKin Co. Baird & McGuire Industri-Plex Nyanza Chemical Waste Dump

Charles City Gray Holbrook Woburn Ashland

8 33 14 5 11

Dec. 1982 Dec. 1982 Dec. 1982 Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981

Mass. Mich. Mich. Minn. Minn.

W.R. Grace & Co. Inc. (Acton Plant) Berlin & Farro Liquid Disposal, Inc. FMC Corp. (Fridley Plant) New Brighton/Arden Hills

Acton Swartz Creek Utica Fridley New Brighton

38 13 23 17 40

Dec. 1982 Jul. 1982 Jul. 1982 Jul. 1982 Jul. 1982

Minn. Mo. Mont. Mont. Mont.

Reilly Tar (St. Louis Park Plant) Weldon Spring (USDOE/Army) Anaconda Co. Smelter East Helena Site Silver Bow Creek/Butte Area

St. Louis Park St. Charles County Anaconda East Helena Deer Lodge

39 Fed. 48 29 20

Oct. 1981 Oct. 1984 Dec. 1982 Sep. 1983 Dec. 1982

N.H. N.H. N.H. N.J. N.J.

Keefe Environmental Services Somersworth Sanitary Landfill Sylvester Bridgeport Rental & Oil Services Burnt Fly Bog

Epping Somersworth Nashua Bridgeport Marlboro Township

19 16 24 35 43

Oct. 1981 Dec. 1982 Oct. 1981 Sep. 1983 Oct. 1981

N.J. N.J. N.J. N.J. N.J.

CPS/Madison Industries GEMS Landfill Helen Kramer Landfill Lipari Landfill Lone Pine Landfill

Old Bridge Township Gloucester Township Mantua Township Pitman Freehold Township

10 12 4 1 15

Dec. 1982 Jul. 1982 Jul. 1982 Oct. 1981 Sep. 1983

N.J. N.J. N.J. N.Mex. N.Y.

Price Landfill Shieldalloy Corp. Vineland Chemical Co., Inc. Cal West Metals (USSBA) Old Bethpage Landfill

Pleasantville Newfield Borough Vineland Lemitar Oyster Bay

6 46 42 Fed. 45

Sep. 1983 Sep. 1983 Sep. 1983 Jun. 1988 Oct. 1981

N.Y. Ohio Pa. Pa. Pa.

Pollution Abatement Services Arcanum Iron & Metal Bruin Lagoon McAdoo Associates Publicker Industries, Inc

Oswego Darke County Bruin Borough McAdoo Borough Philadelphia

7 28 3 26 44

Oct. 1981 Dec. 1982 Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981 May 1989

Pa. S.Dak. Tex. Tex. Tex.

Tysons Dump Whitewood Creek Crystal Chemical Co. French, Ltd. Geneva Industries/Furtherman Energy

Upper Merion Twp. Whitewood Houston Crosby Houston

25 21 34 22 37

Sep. 1983 Oct. 1981 Jul. 1982 Oct. 1981 Sep. 1983

Tex. Tex. Wash. Wash. Wash. Wis.

Motco, Inc. Sikes Disposal Pits Hanford 200-Area (USDOE) Hanford 300-Area (USDOE) Western Processing Co., Inc. Omega Hills North Landfill

La Marque Crosby Benton County Benton County Kent Germantown

27 30 Fed. Fed. 49 50

Oct. 1981 Oct. 1981 Jun. 1988 Jun. 1988 Jul. 1982 Sep. 1983

Source: EPA Priorities List, produced in Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 540.

428

gerous places, for establishing responsibility, whenever possible, for the damage, and for getting the cleanup underway, if necessary doing the work itself. Initially a five-year program, the Superfund was extended five more years in 1986 with other renewals likely to follow.


TABLE 15.35 HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES ON THE NATIONAL PRIORITY LIST, BY STATE, 1990 State Total United States

Total Sites

Rank

TABLE 15.36 MAJOR SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION REPORTED BY STATES, 1986


1,207 1,197

N/A N/A

N/A 100.0


12 6 11 10 88

27 43 29 34 3

1.0 0.5 0.9 0.8 7.4


16 15 20 0 51

22 24 19 N/A 6

1.3 1.3 1.7 0 4.3


13 7 9 37 35

26 42 38 10 11

1.1 0.6 0.8 3.1 2.9


21 11 17 11 9

18 29 21 29 38

1.8 0.9 1.4 0.9 0.8


10 25 78 42 2

34 14 5 8 48

0.8 2.1 6.5 3.5 0.2


24 10 6 1 16

15 34 43 50 22

2.0 0.8 0.5 0.1 1.3


109 10 83 22 2

1 34 4 17 48

9.1 0.8 6.9 1.8 0.2


33 11 8 95 11

12 29 40 2 29

2.8 0.9 0.7 7.9 0.9


23 3 14 28 12

16 46 25 13 27

1.9 0.3 1.2 2.3 1.0


8 20 45 5 39 3

40 19 7 45 9 46

0.7 1.7 3.8 0.4 3.3 0.3

Guam P.R.

1 9

N/A N/A

N/A N/A

Note: Includes both proposed and final sites listed on the National Priorities List for the Superfund program as authorized by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 and the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1991, 211.

Source

No. of States Reporting Source

No. of States Reporting as Primary Source

Septic Tanks Underground Storage Tanks Agricultural Activities On-site Landfills

46 43 41 34

9 13 6 5

Surface Impoundments Municipal Landfills Abandoned Waste Sites Oil and Gas Brine Pits

33 32 29 22

2 1 3 2

Saltwater Intrusion Other Landfills Road Salting Land Application of Sludge

19 18 16 12

4 0 1 0

Regulated Waste Sites Mining Activities Underground Injection Wells Construction Activities

12 11 9 2

1 1 0 0

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Update (1988), 48.

Endangered Species The environmental movement concerned itself with more than the status of human beings. Birds, animals, fish, and plants not only affected the environment; they also made up the environment, and conditions harmful to their existence probably foretold danger for the livelihood of humans. Doubtless influenced by Rachel Carson’s ground-breaking volume Silent Spring, Congress in the 1960s began to legislate about environmental conditions generally and about the status of identified species specifically. First passed in 1966, amended in 1973 and several other times, the Endangered Species Act authorized the Fish and Wildlife Service to compile two lists: First was of endangered species, at risk of becoming extinct, and the other was a list of threatened species, deemed likely soon to become at risk. The law forebade action harmful to the species—killing an animal, fowl, or fish—or, more far-reaching, damage to its habitat. Implementation of the Endangered Species Act often produced battles that pitted forces favoring or depending upon some form of economic development against those determined to protect the living space for a bird, fish, or animal. Two publicized examples involved a tiny fish called the snail darter, which stalled construction of the Tellico Dam in the Tennessee Valley, and the spotted owl, efforts to protect the habitat of which threatened lumbering operations in the Northwest. Placed on the threatened list in 1990, the spotted owl produced a controversy yet to be resolved. Science and Technology

429

TABLE 15.37

ENDANGERED AND THREATENED SPECIES AND RECOVERY PLANS Endangered

Group

U.S. Only

Threatened

U.S. & Foreign Foreign Only

U.S. Only

U.S. & Foreign

Foreign Only

Listed Species Total

Species with Plans

Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Snails Clams

32 61 8 5 45 3 32

19 15 7 0 2 0 0

241 145 59 8 11 1 2

6 7 14 3 24 6 0

2 3 4 1 6 0 0

23 0 14 0 0 0 0

323 231 106 17 88 10 34

24 57 22 5 47 7 22

Crustaceans Insects Arachnids Plants

8 10 3 153

0 0 0 6

0 0 0 1

1 7 0 40

0 0 0 6

0 0 0 2

9 17 3 208

4 12 0 85

Total

360

49

468

108

22

39

1,046

285

Total U.S. Endangered Total U.S.Threatened Total U.S. Listed

409 130 539

Approved recovery plans Species/populations in above plans Percentage of listed species covered by 1 or more plans.

245 301 52.9


TABLE 15.38

SOME ENDANGERED SPECIES IN NORTH AMERICA

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Interior Department: as of April 15, 1990) Common Name

Scientific Name

Range

Mammals Ozark big-eared bat Brown or grizzly bear Eastern cougar Columbian white-tailed deer San Joaquin kit fox Southeastern beach mouse Ocelot Southern sea otter Florida panther Utah prairie dog Morro Bay kangaroo rat Carolina northern flying squirrel Hualapai Mexican vole Red wolf

Plecotus townsendii ingens Ursus arctos horribilis Felis concolor cougar Odocoileus virginianus leucurus Vulpes macrotis mutica Peromyscus polionotus phasma Felis paradalis Enhydra lutris hereis Felis concolor coryi Cynomys parvidens Dipodomys heermanni morroensis Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus Microtus mexicanus hualapaiensis Canis rufus

U.S. (Mo., Okla., Ariz.) U.S. (48 conterminous states) Eastern N.A. U.S. (Wash., Ore.) U.S. (Calif.) U.S. (Fla.) U.S. (Tex., Ariz.) U.S. (Wash., Ore., Calif.) U.S. (La., Ark. east to S.C., Fla.) U.S. (Utah) U.S. (Calif.) U.S. (N.C.,Tenn.) U.S. (Ariz.) U.S. (Southeast to central Tex.)

Birds Masked bobwhite (quail) California condor Whooping crane Eskimo curlew Bald eagle American peregrine falcon Hawaiian hawk Attwater’s greater prairie-chicken Bachman’s warbler (wood) Kirtland’s warbler (wood) Ivory-billed woodpecker

Colinus virginianus ridgwayi Gymnogyps californianus Grus americana Numenius borealis Haliaeetus leucocephalus Falco peregrinus anatum Buteo solitartius Tympanuchus cupido attwateri Vermivora bachmanii Dendroica kirtlandii Campephilus principalis

U.S. (Ariz.) U.S. (Ore., Calif.) U.S. (Rky. Mtns. east to Carolinas), Canada Alaska and N. Canada U.S. (most states). Canada Canada to Mexico U.S. (Hawaii) U.S. (Tex.) U.S. (Southeast), Cuba U.S., Canada, Bahama Is. U.S. (Southcentral and Southeast), Cuba

Reptiles American alligator American crocodile Atlantic salt marsh snake Plymouth red-bellied turtle

Alligator mississippiensis Crocodylus acutus Nerodia fasciatia taeniata Pseudemys rubiventris bangsi

U.S. (Southeast) U.S. (Fla.) U.S. (Fla.) U.S. (Mass.)

Fishes Yaqui catfish Bonytail chub Gila trout Source: Hoffman, World Almanac, 1991, 251.

430


Ictalupus pricei Gila elegans Salmo gilae

U.S. (Ariz.) U.S. (Ariz., Calif., Col., Nev., Utah,Wyo.) U.S. (Ariz., N.Mex.)

Domestic Technology Domestic technology in the postwar years focused mostly on making life easier, safer, more comfortable, and convenient.The basic processes began with continued application of electric power to virtually all aspects of living; it culminated at the end of the period with expansion of computerization into many agents of lifestyle.Whether one was cooling a room, turning a wrench, or opening a garage door, the new devices almost always began with electricity. Several of the innovations had their foundation in wartime, when shortages of basic materials inspired development of substitutes that often proved superior to the product they replaced. Chemical compounds that replaced scarce metal goods established a basis for a postwar revolution in plastics.Wartime efforts to find substitutes for silk, then vital to female stockings and undergarments, gave birth to an ever-growing family of synthetic fabrics that at one point threatened to replace conventional cotton or wool clothing and then ended up in a blend between the old fabrics and the new. Researchers discovered that such commodities as nylon and polyester had many uses. After the mid-1940s rubber tires were not rubber any more, and wool carpets, or at least carpets, probably were not wool. Among major household items the refrigerator always came first because it was the most utilitarian. Adoption of television, another of the truly remarkable developments of the era, was stalled somewhat by cost, but more likely by availability of a clear, reliable signal. Once a nationwide network of sending stations had emerged, nearly everyone would get a TV, although color units had to wait until the 1960s. Utilization of other appliances depended on cost, adaptability to existing facilities, and perception of their importance. Bulky and noisy, automatic washers and dryers often did not fit the space within an existing residence. There needed to be modification for drainage, venting, and possibly electric power. The washer and dryer worked best in new housing construction, although some of the postwar housing projects did not include them.As late as 1990 only 35 percent of households had a separate freezer—partly because of space, buying habits, and the fact that newer refrigerators came equipped with a sizable freezing compartment. Residential air conditioning, virtually unheard of before 1946 and long perceived as an ultimate household luxury, took hold in steps that depended on product technology, status of the economy, and changing expectations in life. The most desirable method, central air conditioning, evoked some of the same complications as automatic laundering. Installation in existing facilities was expensive, always requiring a substantial new unit of some sort and in some cases a new routing system. Most residences began with window units, which were noisy, overcooled some rooms and undercooled others. Fewer than 40 percent of homes had central air conditioning in 1990, and many people continued to view the service as uneconomical if not unnecessary. Nonetheless, with passage of each year fewer and fewer new houses were built, even in the northern states, without “central air’’ facilities. Some of the most significant products of domestic technology involved small items that passed almost without notice into the mainstream of American living. Thomas Jefferson did not use a ballpoint pen and neither did Franklin D. Roosevelt. Writing instruments that had been used throughout the ages carried a measure of artistry, as with a Japanese calligraphic painting, but they had to be filled regularly: from an inkwell, bottle, or cartridge, and they could be messy and inconvenient. The ballpoint pen might have been regarded as crass at the time of its introduction, but it was effective, durable, handy, and, once its novelty had passed, very inexpensive. People old enough to recall, associated Gillette razor blades with the World Series of professional baseball. Gillette sponsored radio and television broadcasts for many years. Gillette’s promotional jingles were catchy and effective, but the products—even state of the art “blue’’ blades—would rarely provide the user more than a single shave. Messiness from used, sometimes rusting, razor blades was the order of the day

in many a bathroom cabinet. Stainless steel blades, introduced by Wilkinson in the 1950s and adopted by such major competitors as Gillette and Schick, came into common usage by the 1960s. Capable of lasting weeks if not months, stainless steel blades produced a silent, minor revolution in grooming of men’s faces and women’s legs. The standard lawnmower before the 1950s was a simple machine with revolving scissor blades activated by the wheels that made it move. Manual power thus provided both the movement and the cutting action. Operating a lawnmower in good cutting condition took a measure of effort; pushing a machine with dull blades took considerable exertion and perhaps left grass only partly severed. The new technology emerged from rearrangement of equipment already available. By attaching a flat piece of steel, sharpened at both ends, directly to a small Briggs and Stratton gasoline engine, covering the blade for safety, and putting the unit on wheels, one had the lawnmower of the future. The blade whirled so fast that it could cut even when dull; with no linkage to the cutting action the wheels ran so freely that male, female, or child of 10 or so could move the machine along.The simple technology was so effective that it remained basically unchanged decades after introduction. For all its noise, pollutant exhaust, risk of injury from incautious exposure to the whirling blade, the rotary lawnmower occupied a conspicuous place in the landscape of cold war America. Selected Examples of Domestic Technology, 1946–1990 1946 Bikini, a name associated with atomic testing, now is applied to a skimpy female swimsuit, introduced by a French designer. Procter and Gamble introduces Tide, first “built’’ detergent. Timex corporation introduces a wristwatch. 1947 Raytheon manufactures a microwave oven. “New Look’’ long skirts become fashionable. Reynolds Metal begins production of aluminum foil. 1948 DuPont begins production of a nonstick coating called Teflon. Instant tea reaches the American market. DuPont introduces Orlon, a polyester fiber. Dishpans and utility containers made of polyethylene appear, part of an emerging revolution in plastics. Burton Baskins and Irving Robbins agree to combine their ice cream businesses. The MacDonald brothers develop a self-service restaurant in California. Vinyl floor tiles, another form of plastic, become available. 1949 General Mills and Pillsbury introduce premixed cake preparations. Tufted carpet reaches the market. Sara Lee baked products are introduced by Charles Lubin. 1950 A zigzag sewing machine (the Necchi) reaches the market. Portable typewriters become available. The principle of the Bikini swimsuit now expands to standard female undergarments. 1951 DuPont produces Orlon polyester, and dacron polyester comes out in men’s suits. White fluorescent lighting tubes become available. 1952 Chemistrand introduces acrilan, acrylic fiber. A nylon stretch fiber is now used in men’s socks. Kirsch Beverages introduces a sugar-free soft drink called NoCal. 1953 Sunbeam markets an automatic electric frying pan. A felt-tipped pen called Magic Marker is patented. A tiny hearing aid with a transistor becomes available. An inexpensive plastic valve enhances appeal of the aerosol spray can. 1954 M&M candy with peanuts hits the market. The first frozen “TV’’ dinners are marketed. A petroleum-based synthetic fabric called polypropylene becomes an effective component of carpeting. Science and Technology

431

1955 A freezer (“deep freeze,’’ in popular terminology) capable of freezing fresh food from scratch becomes marketable. Franchiser Ray Kroc opens his first McDonald’s “hamburger joint’’ in Des Plaines, Illinois. A buttonless and zipperless fastener called velcro is patented. Wilkinson Sword introduces a remarkably effective stainless steel blade for safety razors. The McNeil company begins to sell Tylenol pain medicine. 1956 After years of testing at Indiana University, Procter and Gamble introduces a toothpaste with a decay resistant component called stannous fluoride; it is named Crest. Smith-Corona produces an electric portable typewriter. Southdale Center, first enclosed shopping mall, opens near Minneapolis. 1957 Steam/spray iron is produced by General Electric. StaPuf and NuSoft, both fabric softeners in the laundering process, are introduced. A plastic saucer suitable for tossing from person to person makes an appearance in California. Called a Frisbee, its use becomes a fad and then a sport. Hamilton introduces the electric watch. 1958 DuPont markets a tough, durable synthetic elastic called lycra. Hush Puppies reach the American market, as does panty hose. Wolf Company introduces an electric lawnmower with rotating blade.The first Pizza Hut restaurant opens in Wichita. A simple plastic hoop, called a hula hoop, becomes a marketing bonanza.Twenty million sell in a year. 1959 Tomato-harvesting machines are marketed. Kleenex introduces a container that easily dispenses tissues. Johnson and Johnson buys the rights to Tylenol. 1960 Cooking pans coated with Teflon reach the market. Soft drinks are now sold in aluminum cans. IBM introduces the Selectric typewriter. Tylenol goes on sale “over the counter.’’ The first oral contraceptive pill, Enovid, is marketed. L’Oreal develops hair spray called Elnett. Seamfree women’s stockings are for sale.

1961 Pampers becomes the first successful disposable diapers on the market. Coca-Cola introduces lemon-lime soft drink: Sprite. Squibb produces first electric toothbrush. Liquid fabric softener called Downy comes on sale. 1962 Plastic bags for various uses appear; Baggies are first. Silicone rubber gel sacs are utilized as breast implants. DEC produces first desktop computer. The standard two-pronged electric plug-in now is replaced by a three-pronged receptacle; third prong is for grounding. 1963 Valium appears on the market, courtesy of Roche Laboratories. Diet soft drinks appear from Coca-Cola (Tab) and Pepsi Cola (Diet Pepsi). 1964 Irradiation approved for preservation of certain foodstuffs. Permanent-press fabrics reach the market; parents will be pleased; producers of irons will not. Rudi Gernreich designs a topless swimsuit—for women! Corning’s photochronomatic glass darkens with exposure to light. 1965 Microwave ovens for domestic consumption reach the market. The daring miniskirt makes an appearance, an import from England. The water bed makes an appearance in San Francisco. Cranapple juice is introduced, as is Gatorade, a rehydrant. 1966 Gerald Moyer introduces Water-Pik. Nestle produces freeze-dried Taster’s Choice coffee. 1970 Self-cleaning ovens reach the market. Corning introduces soon-to-be-popular Corelle dinnerware. 1971 Rival company markets the Crock Pot slow-cooker. 1973 McDonald’s restaurant chain turns to breakfast, introduces the Egg McMuffin. A new form of cosmetic surgery, of face-lifting, is introduced by a French surgeon. 1974 Computerized product scanners, to replace slower, mistakeprone key-punching by cashiers, appear at Marsh Supermarkets in Troy, Ohio.

TABLE 15.39 NUMBER AND PERCENT OF WIRED HOMES WITH MAJOR ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES, SELECTED YEARS, 1960–1979a

Year

Room Air Conditioners

Clothes Dryers Dishwashers (Electric & Gas)

Electric Ranges

Refrigerators

Color Televisions

Washers

Total Wired Homes

12.1 13.9 20.0 31.6 32.9 34.0 34.9 35.5

50.7 57.3 63.9 72.6 73.9 75.8 77.6 79.2

N.A. 5.5 27.2 54.1 57.5 61.7 66.3 71.3

28.6 33.1 39.8 50.8 53.7 55.6 58.5 61.4

51.7 57.6 64.0 72.7 74.1 75.9 77.8 79.4

23.4 24.2 31.2 43.5 44.4 44.8 44.9 44.7

98.0 99.5 99.8 99.9 99.8 99.9 99.7 99.8

NA 9.5 42.5 74.4 77.7 81.3 85.2 89.8

55.4 57.4 62.1 69.9 72.5 73.3 75.2 77.3

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Home Freezers

Number (million) 1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

7.8 13.9 26.0 38.4 40.3 42.0 43.1 44.1

3.7 7.8 17.0 27.9 29.4 31.1 32.6 34.2

10.1 15.2 28.6 42.0 43.4 45.0 46.9 48.8

18.4 24.2 35.5 49.8 52.0 54.5 54.9 55.2 Percent

1960 1965 1970 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

15.1 24.2 40.6 52.8 54.4 55.3 55.4 55.5

7.1 13.5 26.5 38.3 39.6 40.9 41.9 43.0

19.6 26.4 44.6 57.7 58.6 59.3 60.3 61.5

35.6 42.0 55.5 68.5 70.1 71.9 70.6 69.5

a For houses to have electric appliances, it was necessary, of course, to have power brought into the house. Although most houses were wired for electricity in 1960, there were many thousands, especially in the rural south, that were not, although the number diminished every year. In 1978, nearly 55% of wired houses had an electric range, but only 53% of all homes did. Virtually all wired homes had a refrigerator, the first acquired and most important appliance, but when all homes were counted, the number dropped to 84%. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, 1980 Annual Report to Congress, Vol. 2 (Washington, D.C., 1981), 199.

432


1976 Bic and Gillette companies begin to sell disposable razors in the United States. The Apple corporation introduces Apple I, a personal micro computer. 1977 The convection oven becomes available. Warner-Lambert produces a home pregnancy test. 1979 Halogen lamps are introduced in the United States. 1981 Searle produces a new artificial sweetener with brand name, Equal, that utilized an aspartame substance named Nutrasweet. Many products labeled as “diet,’’ “lo-cal,’’ “nocal,’’ or “fat-free’’ will turn to Nutrasweet as a sweetening agent. A new modestly alcoholic beverage, the wine cooler, comes on the market. 1982 Alarm caused by poisoning from Tylenol products produces speedy efforts at product security and tamper-proof packaging of nonprescription drugs. A disposable watch, Swatch, appears on the market. 1983 Maytag manufactures its last wringer-type washer; the automatic machines, of course, have captured the industry. Introduction of French-style yogurt by Dannon signals growing interest in low-fat, “health’’ foods. 1984 Major producers of no-calorie soft drinks—Diet Pepsi and Diet Coke are the best examples—have adopted nutrasweet. TABLE 15.40

Many companies now produce personal computers, and more and more computer-related businesses appear on the scene. CompuServe experiments with Electronic Mall, an early form of shopping by computer. 1985 Burger King, MacDonald’s competitor, moves into breakfast business. Gillette produces a twin-blade razor cartridge. With much fanfare, Coca-Cola changes its Coke formula; popular outcry causes the company then to reintroduce the original beverage as Classic Coke; it also added Cherry Coke to the product line. Scientists report on plants, yeasts, and bacteria that are capable of combating air pollutants. Research in various quarters produces advanced individual devices for determing pregnancy and female peak fertility. 1986 Warner-Lambert reintroduced some classic, but suspended, chewing gum brands: Black Jack, Beemans, Clove. Soft bifocal contact lens are developed separately by two companies. Separate companies develop the Container-Mate closure and MicroMatch system for use in packaging. French scientists attract attention with a “morning after’’ contraceptive pill, not yet approved in the United States.

HOUSEHOLDS WITH SELECTED APPLIANCES, SELECTED YEARS, 1978–1990 Percent Change

Percent of Households Appliance Total Households

1978

1979

1980

100

100

100

1981

1982

1984

1987

1990

1980 to 1990

100

100

100

100

100

85 47 72 53 59 21 45 37 36 9 ... 28 8 4 ... ... 3

88 43 74 54 63 34 46 37 38 9 10 35 8 4 ... ... ...

93 36 76 57 79 61 51 34 43 10 14 46 9 3 ... ... ...

96 31 76 58 88 79 53 35 45 12 15 51 10 4 16 15 5

14 220 1 4 29 65 6 23 8 3 ... ... ...

Type of Appliances Electric Appliances Television Set (Color) Television Set (B/W) Clothes Washer Range (Stove-Top Burner) Oven, Regular or Microwave Oven, Microwave Clothes Dryer Separate Freezer Dishwasher Dehumidifier Waterbed Heaters Window or Ceiling Fan Whole House Fan Evaporative Cooler Personal Computer Pump for Well Water Swimming-Pool Pump

... ... 75 53 54 8 45 35 35 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

Gas Appliances Range (Stove-Top or Burners) Oven Clothes Dryer Outdoor Gas Grill Outdoor Gas Light Swimming Pool Heater

48 47 14 ... 2 ...

... ... ... ... ... ...

46 42 14 9 2 ...

46 40 16 9 2 ...

47 42 15 11 2 ...

45 42 16 13 1 1

43 41 15 20 1 1

42 41 16 26 1 2

24 21 2 17 21 ...

Refrigerators One Two or More

86 14

... ...

86 14

87 13

86 13

88 12

86 14

84 15

–2 1

Air Conditioning (A/C) Central Individual Room Units None

23 33 44

24 31 45

27 30 43

27 31 42

28 30 42

30 30 40

36 30 36

39 29 32

12 21 211

a

...

a

1

3

6

6

5

5

Portable Kerosene Heaters

82 51 75 54 59 14 47 38 37 9 ... ... ... .4 ... ... 4

82 48 74 54 58 17 45 38 37 9 ... ... ... 4 ... ... 4

a

... ... 1

a

Less than 1 percent. Source: Department of Energy, Annual Energy Review, 1991, 47.


433

Procter & Gamble introduces a disposable bib for infants, deftly named “Dribbles.’’ 1987 Richard Davis of Kansas City begins to market a condiment, K.C. Masterpiece Barbeque Sauce, on a national basis. The Kroger grocery chain uses a customer-operated scanner as a check-out instrument. A new cholesterol-lowering drug appears on the market. 1988 Prozac, a promising new antidepressant medication, makes an appearance. The Chicago Cubs baseball team plays its first home night game at Wrigley Field, heretofore a storied ballpark alone in the Major Leagues in the absence of nighttime illumination. Egg-Watchers, a liquid low-cholesterol substitute for eggs, made from soybeans, reaches the market. Source: Nell DuVall, Domestic Technology: A Chronology of Development (Boston, 1988), 445–465; Bruce Wetterau, The New York Public Library Book of Chronologies (New York, 1990), 436.

Science, Technology, and Change in the American Diet Throughout the 20th century government agencies and private groups had been active in study and policing of popular dietary habits. The activity accelerated in the postwar era with emergence of new agencies and private interest groups and the availability of growing quantities of scientific information.The Food and Drug Administration in 1973 required nutrient labeling on all foods that carry nutrient claims. The Department of Agriculture for years had recommended balance between the five food groups and a diet low in fats, sugar, and sodium. Studies of the 1980s produced a better, albeit still incomplete understanding of blood cholesterol and its connection to heart disease. They also confirmed that cholesterol had its origin in animal fats and dairy products. Food consumptive practices remained mixed, although they contained some evidence of popular attention to new available information. Americans consumed declining amounts of beef, pork, milk, and all dairy products except cheese, of which consumption increased markedly. They ate higher amounts of fish—a highly recommended meat substitute—and such safer meats as chicken and turkey, but the taste for healthy fresh fruits and vegetables improved not at all. American dietary practices, in fact, were moving in opposite directions. At the same time that some people became involved in—even obsessed with—scientific nutrition, health food, and low cholesterol

TABLE 15.41

campaigns, others (or perhaps even the same people) succumbed to the wares of a booming fast-food industry seemingly interested only in taste, speed, and convenience in dining and, of course, profit. Starting with White Castle hamburger stands in the 1920s, the fast-food chains that followed operated in a familiar fashion: standardized operations, scientifically planned goods—each McDonald’s hamburger weighed 1.6 ounces—that would produce tasty food speedily, preferably carried out, at low cost. A fast-moving, machine-driven culture of the postwar decades, with tight schedules, mothers and fathers both with jobs, was ideally suited to dine in, delivery, or carry-out foods that left nothing to cook and virtually nothing to clean up. Hamburger places led the way at the start and after 1955 McDonald’s led the hamburgers. Competition followed, especially in burgers and then chicken— starting with Col. Harlan Sanders’s “finger lickin’ good’’ Kentucky Fried Chicken; by the 1970s it was possible to buy almost every American food and nearly any ethnic specialty—Italian, Chinese, and Mexican were most popular—on the run. Then there was pizza.This simple, inexpensive dish had been available in Italian districts of large cities for many years, but most Americans probably had their first taste in the 1950s. More likely than not, they liked what they ate. Pizzarias (or pizzerias) began to move into college towns where one found a large number of people on limited budget (the students) eating out on a regular basis in the postwar period. Starting perhaps as a fad, on the order of the espresso-coffee movement, pizza caught on quickly as tasty food on which one could make a meal at a cost not substantially greater than hamburgers. In the same fashion as hamburgers and other fast-food specialties, the pizza business lended itself to national franchise operations. Shakey’s started the practice, followed by Pizza Hut (both founded in the 1950s), Domino’s (exclusively for delivery), Little Caesar’s, and others. A successful pizza chain or other fast-food chain likely then would sell out to a larger, broadly based restaurant enterprise. Pizza franchises substantially outnumbered hamburger stands by the 1980s, and their numbers did not include the frozen pizza business, such as Totino’s, operating through grocery stores. Many a youngster proudly proclaimed pizza as the favorite meal, and rarely could one find an adult who did not enjoy some variety of this new “American’’ food. In the half-century following the Second World War, no other food product changed eating habits as much as pizza.

APPARENT CIVILIAN PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF MEAT, FAT, AND FRUIT, 1946–1990

(in pounds, except eggs; calendar years, except as noted) Meats (carcass weight)

Edible Fats and Oils

Pork, Excluding Lard

Fish (edible weight)

Total (fat content)

Butter, Farm Margarine and Factory (actual weight) (actual weight)

Year

Total

Beef and Veal

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

154.1 144.6 162.8 160.9 167.1

71.6 71.4 91.4 91.2 104.7

75.8 69.2 66.8 64.9 58.7

12.8 13.8 12.9 13.2 13.9

40.0 45.9 45.9 45.3 47.8

3.9 6.1 8.2 9.4 9.9

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

186.3 180.5 126.4 124.9 112.3

116.6 123.7 73.4 76.1 64.9

66.4 54.8 52.1 47.7 46.3

14.8 12.2 12.5 15.1 15.5

53.2 52.6 57.2 64.3 62.7

11.0 11.0 11.3 10.8 10.9

Source: George T. Kurian, Datapedia of the United States 1790–2000: America Year by Year (Lanham, Md., 1994), 113.

434


Fresh Fruits (farm weight)

Total

Citrus

Apples

10.5 10.7 9.0 7.5 6.4

133.9 108.8 99.4 93.4 81.1

59.1 41.7 41.8 33.7 29.1

23.0 22.7 19.6 18.3 16.3

5.3 4.7 4.5 4.9 4.4

81.0 85.0 90.0 89.3 92.3

28.6 29.4 28.9 22.6 22.6

18.3 19.5 19.2 17.5 19.8

TABLE 15.42

APPARENT CIVILIAN PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF VEGETABLES, DAIRY, POULTRY, AND OTHER, 1946–1990

(in pounds, except eggs; calendar years, except as noted) Dairy Products

Year

Fresh Fluid Potatoes Vegetables Milk and (farm weight) (farm weight) Cream

Cheese

Ice Cream (product weight)

Chicken and Turkey (ready Eggs (number) to-cook)

Wheat Flour

Coffee Peanuts (green-bean (shelled) basis)

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965

123.0 106.0 106.0 101.0 93.0

129.9 115.2 105.2 105.9 98.6

389.0 348.0 348.0 322.0 302.0

6.7 7.7 7.9 8.3 9.6

23.1 18.0 18.0 18.3 18.5

379 389 371 335 314

23.1 24.7 26.3 34.2 40.9

156.0 135.0 123.0 118.0 113.0

5.3 4.5 4.1 4.9 5.6

20.1 16.1 15.3 15.8 14.8

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

91.0 122.2 114.2 122.4 127.2

98.9 89.9 92.7 100.2 111.0

264.0 261.4 245.6 241.0 233.2

11.5 14.3 17.5 22.5 24.7

17.7 18.6 17.5 18.1 15.7

319 276 271 255 233

49.5 48.9 42.6 49.4 63.6

110.0 114.5 116.9 124.7 137.8

5.9 6.0 4.8 6.3 6.0

13.8 12.2 10.3 10.5 10.2

Source: Kurian, Datapedia, 115.

TABLE 15.43 NUTRITION—NUTRIENTS IN FOODS AVAILABLE FOR CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA PER DAY AND PERCENT CHANGE, 1955–1988 Percent Change, 1985–88 Nutrient Food energy

Unit Calories

Protein

Grams

Total fat Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Cholesterol

Grams Grams Grams Grams Milligrams

Carbohydrate

Grams

Vitamin A Carotenes Vitamin E Ascorbic acid Thiamin

Retinol equivalents Retinol equivalents Milligram a-TE Milligrams Milligrams

Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin B6 Folacin Vitamin B12

Milligrams Milligrams Milligrams Micrograms Micrograms

Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Iron Zinc Copper Potassium

1955–59

1965–69

1975–79

1985–88

1955–59

1965–69

1975–79

3,100

3,200

3,300

3,600

13.9

11.1

8.3

94

97

99

104

9.6

6.7

4.8

142 60 56 19 510

154 62 62 23 490

157 58 63 29 450

169 61 67 34 440

16.0 1.6 16.4 44.1 215.9

8.9 21.6 7.5 32.4 211.4

7.1 4.9 6.0 14.7 22.3

380

380

390

420

9.5

9.5

7.1

1,320 430 11.3 100 1.9

1,350 430 12.7 96 1.9

1,540 600 14.5 111 2.1

1,630 750 16.3 116 2.2

19.0 42.7 30.7 13.8 13.6

17.2 42.7 22.1 17.2 13.6

5.5 20.0 11.0 4.3 4.5

2.3 20 1.9 282 9.4

2.2 22 2.0 267 10.0

2.4 24 2.1 277 10.0

2.4 26 2.1 283 9.2

4.2 23.1 9.5 0.4 22.2

8.3 15.4 4.8 5.7 28.7

0.0 7.7 0.0 2.1 28.7

Milligrams Milligrams Milligrams Milligrams

920 1,470 320 13.8

850 1,460 310 14.3

850 1,470 310 15.1

900 1,530 330 17.0

22.2 3.9 3.0 18.8

5.6 4.6 6.1 15.9

5.6 3.9 6.1 11.2

Milligrams Milligrams Milligrams

11.8 1.6 3,530

12.3 1.5 3,380

12.5 1.6 3,370

12.6 1.6 3,460

6.3 0.0 22.0

2.4 6.3 2.3

0.8 0.0 2.6

Note: Based on estimates of per capita food consumption at the retail level, on imputed consumption data for foods no longer reported, and on estimates of quantities of home grown produce. Food supply estimates do not reflect loss of food or nutrients from further marketing or home processing. Enrichment and fortification levels of iron, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin B6 vitamin B12, and ascorbic acid are included. Minus sign (2) indicates decrease. Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract, 1992, 134.

TABLE 15.44 EATING OUT, 1950–1990 Type

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Percent of all food expenditures away from home

24.2

26.6

33.7

39.4

45.7

6.2

7.1

18.4

27.9

34.4

Percent of food expenditures away from home that was fast food

Source: Restaurant Business, November 20, 1991, 2.


435

TABLE 15.45 TAKE-OUT FOOD BUSINESS, BY SPECIALTY, 1987 AND 1990 Concept Pizza Hamburger Oriental Mexican Chicken Fish/Seafood Sub Sandwiches Italian Yogurt Biscuit/Buns

1987 Units

1990 Units

% Change

41,270 31,920 17,859 14,646 12,161

49,526 34,269 23,221 17,238 12,047

20 7 30 18 21

9,970 6,153 5,142 1,341 306

10,870 9,836 8,735 3,310 908

9 60 70 147 196

Source: Restaurant Business, November 1, 1990, 2.

TABLE 15.46 TOP 25 RESTAURANT COMPANIES, 1990 1990 U.S. Sales Rank

436

Company

1.

McDonald’s Corp. McDonald’s

2.

Dollars (’000s)

U.S. Units

% Change

Number

% Change

Unit Rank

12,251,600 12,251,600

2.0 2.0

8,576 8,576

3.7 3.7

2 ...

PepsiCo Food Service Pizza Hut Kentucky Fried Chicken Taco Bell Hot ‘N Now Hamburgers

9,434,300 3,800,000 3,200,000 2,400,000 34,300

13.7 15.2 6.7 20.0 50.8

14,997 6,688 5,006 3,227 76

5.0 7.1 0.9 4.7 68.9

1 ... ... ... ...

3.

Grand Metropolitan, PCL Burger King Häagen-Dazs

5,329,000 5,250,000 79,000

3.4 3.4 2.6

5,764 5,469 295

1.6 1.7 0.0

3 ... ...

4.

Imasco, Ltd. Hardee’s/Roy Rogers

3,360,000 3,360,000

15.9 15.9

4,022 4,022

22.2 22.2

8 ...

5.

Wendy’s International Inc. Wendy’s

2,835,000 2,835,000

0.3 0.3

3,436 3,436

21.5 21.5

9 ...

6.

TW Services, Inc. Denny’s Restaurants Hardee’s Quincy’s Family Steakhouse El Pollo Loco

2,670,757 1,686,720 510,457 281,510 192,070

9.6 10.2 9.3 6.9 9.8

2,221 1,294 483 212 232

3.6 1.6 3.9 20.5 20.8

12 ... ... ... ...

7.

Domino’s Pizza, Inc. Domino’s Pizza

2,500,000 2,500,000

12.7 12.7

5,003 5,003

3.6 3.6

5 ...

8.

International Dairy Queen, Inc. Dairy Queen Orange Julius of America Karmel Korn Golden Skillet

2,142,600 2,025,000 85,000 17,600 15,000

2.6 3.1 23.4 12.0 0.0

5,277 4,622 466 138 51

21.4 20.1 27.9 215.9 25.6

4 ... ... ... ...

9.

General Mills Restaurant Group Red Lobster Olive Garden

1,913,985 1,362,000 551,985

14.8 6.4 42.6

703 475 228

13.9 6.3 34.1

24 ... ...

10.

Shoney’s, Inc. Shoney’s Captain D’s Lee’s Famous Recipe Specialty Dinnerhouses

1,584,695 991,279 413,537 140,754 39,125

10.3 14.9 5.4 23.1 8.5

1,658 734 633 274 17

4.6 7.9 4.3 22.8 6.3

15 ... ... ... ...

11.

Allied-Lyons, PLC Dunkin’ Donuts Baskin-Robbins Mister Donut Chili’s

1,438,336 790,722 490,000 127,648 29,966

18.3 10.6 2.7 217.6 27.7

4,433 1,680 2,278 460 15

13.6 7.3 22.0 28.7 25.0

7 ... ... ... ...

12.

Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc. Little Caesars

1,400,000 1,400,000

23.9 23.9

3,173 3,173

17.5 17.5

10 ...


1990 U.S. Sales Rank

Company

U.S. Units

Dollars (’000s)

% Change

Number

% Change

Unit Rank

13.

Foodmaker, Inc. Jack in the Box Chi-Chi’s

1,372,272 944,000 428,272

12.1 13.2 9.8

1,241 1,040 201

7.3 5.5 17.5

17 ... ...

14.

DWG Arby’s Restaurants Daddy-O’s Express

1,366,500 1,363,000 3,500

9.3 9.0 45.8

2,314 2,309 5

8.6 8.4 66.7

11 ... ...

15.

Doctor’s Associates, Inc. Subway Sandwiches Cajun Joe’s

1,123,000 1,100,000 23,000

39.9 37.5 666.7

4,866 4,777 89

23.1 21.3 456.3

6 ... ...

16.

Metromedia Ponderosa Bonanza

1,097,000 651,000 446,000

26.0 0.2 213.8

1,147 727 420

25.5 3.3 217.6

19 ... ...

17.

Elias Brothers Restaurants, Int. Big Boy Top Hat

1,046,700 1,040,000 6,700

0.0 0.0 26.9

923 915 8

20.1 0.0 211.1

21 ... ...

18.

Collins Foods Intl., Inc. Sizzler Kentucky Fried Chicken

1,041,584 903,100 138,484

6.7 6.2 9.7

849 640 209

2.3 2.7 1.0

22 ... ...

19.

Copeland, A., Enterprises Popeye’s Fried Chicken Church’s Fried Chicken Copeland’s

1,032,500 541,000 468,000 23,500

21.0 3.8 26.2 4.4

1,845 778 1,059 8

20.7 5.3 24.7 0.0

13 ... ... ...

20.

Tennessee Restaurant Co. Friendly Perkins Family Restaurants

992,000 520,000 472,000

1.2 26.6 11.5

1,198 799 399

0.4 23.0 8.1

18 ... ...

21.

Restaurant Enterprises Group El Torito R.E.G. Coffee Shops Far West Dinnerhouses

907,600 393,500 319,800 194,300

3.7 2.4 9.0 21.5

521 180 252 89

21.9 20.6 21.6 25.3

32 ... ... ...

22.

Long John Silver’s Holdings, Inc. Long John Silver’s

777,336 777,336

20.3 20.3

1,434 1,434

22.1 22.1

16 ...

23.

Benale Holding Corp. Bennigan’s Steak N Ale

735,000 535,000 200,000

5.0 5.9 2.6

380 225* 155*

0.3 2.3 22.5

48 ... ...

24.

Carlson Companies, Inc. TGI Friday’s Country Kitchen Dalts

672,167 470,950 173,467 27,750

8.7 12.3 1.3 0.9

410 159 240 11

1.7 7.4 20.8 215.4

43 ... ... ...

25.

Morrison, Inc. Morrison’s Cafeterias Ruby Tuesday L & N Seafood Silver Spoon

668,900 365,000 226,100 63,800 14,000

12.0 20.8 36.2 20.8 37.3

349 171 133 34 11

14.4 22.3 35.7 41.7 37.5

51 ... ... ... ...

Source: Restaurant Business, November 20, 1991, 116–120.


437

CHAPTER 16 Art and Architecture Art in the United States: Who Pays for It Historically, art in the United States had largely been an extension of the capitalist system. Art institutions, organizations, and the artists themselves had the responsibility of finding their own funding. They had relied on ticket sales: to museums, for example, or special exhibitions; artist sold, or tried to sell, their works. Private patronage provided a sometimes lucrative but always unreliable source of income. If the national or a state government occasionally agreed to support a project it usually was to decorate a building or other public property or to celebrate a person or a cause.The Civil War had inspired a virtually countless number of monuments, scattered mostly about the eastern half of the nation. During the depression era of the 1930s, an agency of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) had sponsored several art-related programs in the form of work relief for artists in need of subsistence. In the period following the Second World War, funding for the arts expanded in several areas. Private patronage grew with growth of surplus wealth and with changes in tax policy that placed gifts to artistic functions within the category of tax-deductible charitable donations. Since the 1960s major support came from philanthropic foundations and from corporations. Private companies created the Business Committee for the Arts in 1967 and contributions from this source increased markedly nearly every year. Many business people regarded assistance to the arts as a tasteful and, because of tax policy, an inexpensive way of promoting public relations. The national government had long had a hand in the world of art, if only to act as a collector and depository of national and historic works. The Smithsonian Institution, the National Gallery of Art, and the Institute of Museum Services, all in Washington, D.C., represented the most obvious examples. In the 1960s the national government became involved in the arts in a different fashion. Inspired by a favorable reaction to the WPA in the 1930s, influenced by President John F. Kennedy and especially his wife, Jacqueline, Congress set to work on creating a different sort of art agency.As frequently happened in the 1960s, what had been proposed during the shortened presidency of Kennedy came to fruition in the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson. Congress in 1965 created the National Endowment on the Arts and Humanities, which had two branches—the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA). Subject of course to appropriation from the legislature—at the start it was only $8 million a year—the N.E.A. began to make grants to organizations, to state agencies, and to individual artists for specific artistic projects. During the remarkably sympathetic administration of Richard Nixon, funding increased sharply—to $65 million in the mid-1970s, more than $150 million by the end of the decade. In the 1980s the N.E.A. had to contend with several serious challenges. First came an effort by the administration of Ronald Reagan to reduce, or at least reallocate, government expenditures by making sharp cuts in specific programs. The first proposal had called for a 50 percent reduction in funding for the N.E.A., and it took vigorous efforts to trim the cut to 10 percent. Near the end of the 1980s the government’s arts program provoked strong opposition to some of the projects that it chose to support. First came the photography of Andrés Serrano, who had received a grant and whose exhibit included pictures of a crucifix submerged in urine. A second furor then erupted over a N.E.A.–sponsored exhibition of photographs of Robert Mapplethorpe, which included pictures of men engaged in homosexual behavior and of naked children. Charged with supporting sacrilegious and obscene activity, the N.E.A. faced legislators who threatened tight 438

controls on what constituted art, a reduction in funding, if not—as some senators demanded—outright abolition of the agency. The N.E.A. weathered the storm but only barely. The agency had to impose restrictions on use of its funds; it faced a threat to reclaim any money improperly spent, and legislation passed in 1990 reauthorized the N.E.A. for three years instead of the customary five.

TABLE 16.1

GIVING TO THE ARTS, 1965–1990

(in billions of current dollars) Year

Total

Percent Change

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

0.44 0.54 0.56 0.60 0.72

22.94 4.29 8.05 18.87

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

0.66 1.01 1.10 1.26 1.20

–7.66 52.34 8.91 14.55 –4.76

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

1.56 2.27 2.32 2.40 2.73

30.00 45.51 2.20 3.45 13.75

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

3.15 3.66 4.96 4.21 4.50

15.38 16.19 35.52 –15.12 6.89

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

5.08 5.83 6.31 6.79 7.50

12.89 14.76 8.23 7.61 10.46

1990

7.89

5.20

Source: American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel, Giving USA (New York, 1996), 23.

TABLE 16.2 TOTAL CORPORATE CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ARTS, 1975–1985

Year

Estimated Amount Given to the Arts ($millions)

Percentage of Total Contributions Given to Arts

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

90 122 161 211 227

7.5 8.2 9.0 10.1 9.9

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

257 299 331 413 428 488

10.9 11.9 11.4 11.4 10.7 11.1

Source: Robert A. Porter, ed., Corporate Giving to the Arts 4 (New York, 1987), x.

TABLE 16.4

TABLE 16.3 PERCENTAGE DOLLAR ALLOCATION AMONG BENEFICIARIES OF CORPORATE SUPPORT FOR THE ARTS, 1984

FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF THE ARTS BY PRIVATE CORPORATE BUSINESS— SUMMARY, 1984–1988

(in millions of dollars) Beneficiaries

Percentage

Museums Music Public TV and radio Cultural centers Theaters

Type of Art Category

19.6 12.7 12.1 9.5 6.0

Employee matching gifts Arts funds and councils Dance Libraries Other (Number of companies)

Direct cash support Museums Symphony orchestras Performing arts and cultural facilities Theaters Art funds—general support Other music Dance Public TV and radio, program underwriting Opera Films (noncommercial) Arts-in-education programs Historic and cultural preservation projects Libraries Commercial TV and radio, cultural programming Public TV and radio, general support Crafts Artist-in-residence programs Poetry and writing Video projects (noncommercial) Folk art Other (excluding commercial activities)

5.8 5.4 2.3 1.6 25.0 (415)

Source: Porter, Corporate Giving 4, xiii.

1984

1985

1988

482.4 104.5 66.8 52.0 67.2 28.5 25.3 20.7 17.9 24.8 15.7 3.8 9.7 4.8 6.5 16.5 2.3 1.1 1.4 0.2 ... 12.7

559.0 133.2 79.8 59.4 49.5 37.9 30.2 25.4 23.6 22.7 13.2 11.8 11.3 8.8 5.6 4.5 1.8 1.0 1.0 0.2 ... 38.0

634.0 101.4 101.4 31.7 76.1 ... 44.4 50.7 25.4 50.7 ... 19.0 ... 44.4 ... 25.4 ... ... ... ... ... 63.4


TABLE 16.5 SELECTED MAJOR PRIVATE GIFTS TO THE ARTS Amount

Year

$40 milliona $1.2 billion $5 million

1974 1976 1983

$3 million

1983

$1 million

1983

93 works of art $15 million $5 million $5 million

1983 1989 1989 1989

Donor

Recipient

John Paul Getty Getty Museum Getty Estate Getty Museum Mr. & Mrs. Joe Price Los Angeles County Museum of Art Philip Morris Co. Metropolitan Museum of Art (N.Y.) Vincent Astor Foundation Brooklyn Museum of Art Paul Mellon Walter Annenberg Walter Annenberg Walter Annenberg

National Gallery of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art National Gallery of Art Philadelphia Museum of Art

a

Donation also included $2 million annual operating fund. Source: American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel, Inc., Giving USA, 1983 (New York, 1984), 87, 94; Richard B. Morris and Jeffrey B. Morris, Encyclopedia of American History (New York, 1996), 912.

TABLE 16.6

FEDERAL AID—NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS, 1970–1990

(in millions of dollars) Type of Fund and Program

1970

1975

1980

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

Funds available Program appropriation Matching funds Grants awarded (number) Funds obligated Music State programs Museums Theater Dance Media arts Challenge Visual arts Other

15.7 6.3 2.0 556 12.9 2.5 1.9 ... 2.8 1.7 0.2 ... 1.0 2.8

86.9 67.3 7.5 3,071 81.7 14.9 14.7 10.8 6.4 6.1 5.4 ... 3.2 20.1

188.1 97.0 42.9 5,505 166.4 13.6 22.1 11.2 8.4 8.0 8.4 50.8 7.3 36.6

169.9 119.0 27.4 5,056 147.4 15.2 24.6 12.5 10.7 9.1 9.5 18.8 6.6 40.6

171.7 118.7 29.5 4,801 149.4 15.3 24.4 11.9 10.6 9.0 9.9 20.7 6.2 41.3

167.1 115.7 30.0 4,484 146.6 14.6 23.8 11.5 10.2 9.0 12.3 20.7 5.7 38.8

170.9 120.8 29.3 4,542 151.4 15.1 24.6 11.5 10.8 9.1 12.9 20.8 6.2 40.4

171.1 122.2 32.9 4,628 156.3 15.3 24.9 12.6 10.7 9.2 12.4 24.8 6.0 40.4

166.7 123.5 23.6 4,604 148.3 15.3 25.5 12.7 10.7 9.5 12.7 15.4 6.1 40.2

170.8 124.3 32.4 4,475 157.6 16.5 26.1 12.1 10.6 9.6 13.9 19.7 5.9 43.1


Art and Architecture

439

TABLE 16.7

BUDGET—NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE ARTS, 1983 AND 1984

(in dollars) Programs

1983

1984

Artists-in-Education Dance Design Arts Expansion Arts Folk Arts Inter-Arts Literature Media Arts Museum Music Opera—Musical Theater State Program Locals Test Theater Visual Arts Policy, Planning, and Research Regional Representatives Advancement Subtotal (Program and Treasury Funds) Administration Challenge

4,800,000 9,039,000 4,200,000 7,500,000 2,800,000 3,300,000 4,300,000 9,100,000 10,139,000 13,039,000 5,040,000 21,039,000 ... 9,439,000 6,000,000 940,000 600,000 1,600,000 112,875,000 10,910,000 18,400,000

5,200,000 9,000,000 4,500,000 7,000,000 3,000,000 4,200,000 4,500,000 9,500,000 12,200,000 15,300,000 6,100,000 24,300,000 2,000,000 10,600,000 6,400,000 1,000,000 700,000 2,400,000 127,900,000 13,100,000 21,000,000

Source: AAFRC, Giving USA, 1983, 91.

TABLE 16.8

STATE ARTS AGENCIES LEGISLATIVE APPROPRIATIONS, FISCAL YEARS 1983 AND 1984 Per Capita (c/)

440

Appropriations ($)

State

Rank

1984

1983

1984

1983

Ala. Alaska Amer. Samoa Ariz. Ark.

46. 1. 10. 52. 34.

19.0 1025.0 111.4 14.9 31.9

14.6 1207.7 147.1 15.0 32.4

750,000 4,489,500 36,750 426,000 730,904

570,000 4,975,800 47,500 419,100 742,946

31.6 29.8 222.6 1.6 21.6

Calif. Colo. Conn. Del. D.C.

33. 40. 35. 14. 9.

34.0 27.7 31.0 69.2 145.2

44.0 28.5 28.1 71.6 139.8

8,401,000 843,242 978,000 416,300 916,400

10,649,000 844,027 881,663 428,140 882,400

221.1 2.1 10.9 22.8 3.9

Fla. Ga. Guam Hawaii Idaho

18. 39. 4. 7. 56.

50.5 28.5 175.5 147.8 10.6

39.3 29.5 108.9 161.6 10.8

5,264,106 1,605,796 192,924 1,468,779 102,000

3,997,724 1,641,521 115,445 1,585,509 103,300

31.7 22.2 67.1 27.4 21.3

Ill. Ind. Iowa Kans. Ky.

21. 42. 51. 48. 26.

48.0 26.5 16.5 17.6 40.6

24.0 25.7 12.9 17.2 35.4

5,492,440 1,450,128 479,706 422,978 1,489,000

2,751,900 1,403,286 372,776 410,660 1,295,564

99.6 3.3 28.7 3.0 14.9

La. Maine Md. Mass. Mich.

29. 45. 24. 8. 13.

38.0 21.9 42.4 147.4 78.2

45.9 19.2 42.5 95.3 56.7

1,658,892 248,529 1,807,983 8,523,671 7,126,200

1,978,007 217,039 1,810,603 5,500,000 5,217,200

216.1 14.5 2.1 55.0 36.6

Minn. Miss. Mo. Mont. Nebr.

19. 47. 20. 15. 36.

48.9 18.0 48.5 67.6 31.0

37.7 17.2 50.5 17.6 29.5

2,020,600 459,408 2,401,307 541,662 491,857

1,542,472 435,324 2,494,442 139,456 465,994

31.0 5.5 23.7 288.4 5.6

Nev. N.H. N.J. N.Mex. N.Y.

54. 53. 22. 30. 2.

13.1 13.3 47.7 37.6 198.8

11.2 10.3 48.5 39.2 200.8

115,647 126,424 3,546,322 510,700 35,100,000

94,282 96,347 3,589,842 521,100 35,340,000

22.7 31.2 21.2 22.0 2.7

N.C. N.Dak. N.M. Ohio Okla.

28. 43. 5. 17. 16.

39.4 26.1 173.4 51.8 55.1

35.5 20.7 59.6 46.6 57.2

2,370,611 174.972 30,000 5,594,547 1,751,226

2,113,672 136,466 10,000 5,024,452 1,773,517

12.2 28.2 200.0 11.3 21.3


% Change

Per Capita (c/)

Appropriations ($)

State

Rank

1984

1983

1984

1983

Oreg. Pa. P.R. R.I. S.C.

50. 27. 3. 31. 23.

16.6 40.1 180.2 35.5 47.4

12.9 40.1 162.2 41.5 42.2

440,787 4,759,000 5,859,200 339,616 1,516,644

342,460 4,758,000 5,186,240 395,262 1,337,610

28.7 0 13.0 214.1 13.4


37. 55. 44. 12. 25.

30.8 11.3 25.9 79.3 42.1

29.0 10.4 12.2 84.2 35.8

212,779 527,700 3,951,718 1,233,043 217,028

199,271 481,600 1,803,313 1,277,853 184,500

6.8 9.6 119.1 23.5 17.6

V.I. Va. Wash. W.Va. Wis. Wy.

6. 41. 32. 11. 49. 38.

157.7 27.2 35.1 87.8 17.0 30.1

156.2 25.8 17.5 92.6 17.1 29.0

156,761 1,495,215 1,488,742 1,709,792 808,300 151,064

150,856 1,400,710 738,752 1,807,690 809,000 142,902

3.9 6.7 101.5 25.4 2.1 5.7

135,423,900

123,634,495

9.5

Total

% Change

Source: AAFRC, Giving USA, 1983, 93.

Directions of American Art Art underwent multiple major changes in the United States in the period following the Second World War.The emergence of fascism and the war had induced many European artists to find refuge in the United States. American form and style began to take on unprecedented international significance, as did artists born and trained in the United States or others who had adopted the country as their own. Older patterns of social realism and regionalism ran their course as style in painting, and other art forms, became increasingly abstract.The movement culminated during the immediate postwar era in the emergence in grandiose fashion of a new, distinctly American form called abstract expressionism, an approach that was most distinct in what was absent: There were seemingly no rules as to style, subject, message, or even tools of the trade. The abstract expressionist painter did not have to use a brush. The most prominent such artist, Jackson Pollock, spread his canvas on the floor and walked about pouring paint from the bucket or applying it any way he felt like doing. The rage of the artworld in the 1950s, Pollock’s “action’’ or “drip’’ painting (colleagues called him Jack the Dripper) did not remain long in vogue, but he had at least made a point of total abstraction. Painting, or art in general, was what the artist said it was. Art thus could carry barely recognizable form, as in the works of Willem de Kooning, no form at all, or it could be precise representations of mundane aspects of life, as in a theme called pop art that caught on in the 1960s. Andy Warhol did a series of Campbell soup cans, Roy Lichtenstein painted comic-strip characters, Claes Oldenburg did hamburgers (of fabric and stuffing), and sculptor Jasper Johns worked with beer cans. Driven apparently by the dictum “anything goes,’’ art forms proliferated during the rest of the 20th century. Conventional patterns had periodic revivals, and there also was op art (optical art) that combined colors in geometric shapes, minimal art that might feature geometric shapes or flat areas of color, color field paintings, or the fluorescent-light works by Dan Flavin or neon lights by Chryssa. Earth art, or earthworks, appreciated best when viewed from the air, was exemplified by Robert Smithson’s “Spiral Jetty,’’ a jetty that spiraled 1,500 feet, ending in the Great Salt Lake. As the population and national wealth expanded, so also did the world of art. Major art exhibitions attracted audiences numbering in hundreds of thousands, if not millions; with internationalization of the

Woman and Bicycle (1952–53), by Willem de Kooning, one of the most prominent abstract expressionist painters (Whitney Museum of American Art and Willem de Kooning Revocable Trust/Artists Rights Society, New York) Art and Architecture

441

Alexander Calder’s sculpture in Grand Rapids, Michigan, completed in 1969—the first work of public art supported by the NEA (author’s photo)

art market—Japanese buyers, if inconspicuous, were exceptionally active—famous paintings brought mammoth prices at auction, the highest amounts going for traditional European masters. Wealthy contributors provided large donations, either in cash or artworks, to art institutions. New museums opened, such as the Getty Museum in California in the 1970s; older ones were renovated, rebuilt, or underwent expansion.The Guggenheim in New York moved into new quarters that were designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, in 1959; the National Gallery in Washington, D.C., received an East Annex in 1978; the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York expanded in 1987. Developments in art made national news. More than 200 unknown works of Andrew Wyeth—the Helga paintings—were discovered in 1987. Skillful thieves robbed the Gardner Museum in Boston of $200 million worth of uninsured paintings in 1990. It was likely that a large portion of the American population remained either ignorant of, amused by, or disinterested in purported new directions in art, but it appeared that the world center of art—as with so many other centers in previous years—had moved west from Europe and that an artistic revolution had taken place in the United States since the Second World War. One did not need to visit a museum to be exposed to art in the United States. It became nearly impossible to avoid. The period since the Second World War has been marked with growth in what became known as public art: conspicuously placed pieces of art, usually 442


sculpture, although wall paintings called murals, earthworks, and other forms also qualified. Public art, of course, was not new. The Statue of Liberty represented such a structure, as did the faces carved at Mount Rushmore in South Dakota. The most common examples probably had been statues of American heroes in public places. Beginning especially in the 1960s, public art expanded rapidly in numbers, sources of funding, and form. One found art pieces everywhere—in front of or near public buildings and at corporation headquarters, college campuses, city parks, or almost any conspicuous place in urban areas. The National Endowment for the Arts made its first grant in public art in 1969—for Alexander Calder’s sculpture La Grande Vitesse in Grand Rapids, Michigan. After that time the N.E.A. made at least 20 public art awards each year. Beginning in 1963 the national government customarily has reserved 1 percent of the cost of construction of virtually all public buildings for artwork. A part of the local environment in nearly every city, the public artworks doubtless received a mixed reception. Much of the native populace probably became accustomed to their presence, treating them as they would a building or a tree. Art lovers approved of the idea, if not the piece itself. Other people might consider the structure a waste of money but not necessarily offensive. The rub came when the wish for sophistication and environment enrichment came together with the free-wheeling spirit in the world of art in the last half of the 20th

century.What moved and inspired the artist was not necessarily in step with the mood and taste of the people who had to pass by the structure every day. Two examples stood out. The Vietnam War Memorial, the work of Maya Ying Lin, was unveiled in Washington in 1982. A stark, black granite wall 500 feet long, inscribed with names of the war’s dead, the memorial at first was criticized as shameful and no fitting expression of the dedication and sacrifice of the people whose names appeared on the structure. Only after construction of a more traditional sculpture of three soldiers in 1984 and another bearing a female army nurse in 1988 did the memorial come to be treated as hallowed ground. The second case emerged from the national government’s wish to decorate the Javits

Center, a federal building in New York City. The General Services Administration approved an ambitious project proposed by sculptor Richard Serra, a slight curving wall 120 feet long, 12 feet high called Tilted Arc. Erected in 1982, the wall represented to Serra and apparently to the G.S.A. a piece of art.What much of the public saw was an enormous piece of metal that rusted with age, a hulking eyesore that cut off vision and destroyed normal operations of the plaza in which it stood. Serra defended his artwork, claimed that he was exercising the artist’s right to free expression, and took his case to court, but it was to no avail. Criticized and ridiculed from the time of its appearance, Tilted Arc was dismantled in 1989.

TABLE 16.9 MAJOR AMERICAN PAINTERS, ACTIVE DURING 1946–1990

TABLE 16.10 MAJOR ART MUSEUMS IN THE UNITED STATES

Artist

Example of Work

Josef Albers Stuart Davis Willem de Kooning Helen Frankenthaler Hans Hofmann Edward Hopper Robert Indiana

Homage to the Square (series) Colonial Cubism Woman (series) Mountains and Sea The gate Nighthawks Love (series)

Jasper Johns Franz Kline Roy Lichtenstein Morris Louis Grandma Moses Robert Motherwell Barnett Newman

Three Flags Mahoning Masterpiece Unfurled (series) Sugaring-Off Elegy for the Spanish Republic (series) Concord

Georgia O’Keeffe Jackson Pollock Robert Rauschenberg Adolph (Ad) Reinhardt Larry Rivers Norman Rockwell Mark Rothko

Cow’s Skull Lavender Mist Gloria Black Paintings Dutch Masters (series) Saturday Evening Post Covers No. 10

Ben Shahn Charles Sheeler Theodore Stamos Frank Stella Andy Warhol Andrew Wyeth

Sacco-Vanzetti Trial (series) Steel-Croton High Snow, Low Sun II Jill Campbell Soup Cans (series) Helga (series)

Source: The New York Public Library Desk Reference (New York, 1993), 165–68; Les Krantz, American Artists: An Illustrated Survey of Contemporary Americans (New York, 1985), many pages.

Location

Year of Foundation

Art Institute of Chicago Brooklyn Museum of Art Busch-Reisinger Museum Carnegie Institute Cincinnati Art Museum City Art Museum

Chicago, Ill. Brooklyn, N.Y. Cambridge, Mass. Pittsburgh, Pa. Cincinnati, Ohio St. Louis, Mo.

1879 1889 1901 1896 1880 1912

Cleveland Museum of Art Corcoran Gallery of Art Currier Gallery of Art Dallas Museum of Art Denver Art Museum Detroit Institute of Arts

Cleveland, Ohio Washington, D.C. Manchester, N.H. Dallas,Tex. Denver, Colo. Detroit, Mich.

1913 1869 1915 1903 1917 1884

Fine Arts Museum of San Fran. Freer Gallery of Art Frick Collection High Museum of Art Huntington Library and Gallery John Herron Art Museum

San Francisco, Calif. Washington, D.C. New York, N.Y. Atlanta, Ga. San Marino, Calif. Indianapolis, Ind.

1924 1923 1935 1926 1919 1883

Los Angeles County Mus. of Art Metropolitan Museum of Art Milwaukee Art Center Minneapolis Institute of Art Museum of Contemporary Art Museum of Fine Arts

Los Angeles, Calif. New York, N.Y. Milwaukee,Wis. Minneapolis, Minn. Los Angeles, Calif. Boston, Mass.

1910 1870 1888 1915 1979 1870

Museum of Modern Art Museum of the City of NewYork National Collection, Fine Arts National Gallery of Art Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art New-York Historical Society

New York, N.Y. New York, N.Y. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Kansas City, Mo. New York, N.Y.

1929 1923 1906 1937 1933 1804

Pennsylvania Academy Fine Arts Philadelphia Museum of Art Public Museum of Grand Rapids San Diego Museum of Art San Fran. Museum of Modern Art Scottsdale Center for Arts

Philadelphia, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa. Grand Rapids, Mich. San Diego, Calif. San Francisco, Calif. Scottsdale, Ariz.

1805 1975 1854 1925 1921 1975

Toledo Museum of Art Virginia Museum of Fine Arts Walker Art Center Whitney Museum American Art William H. Fogg Art Museum Worcester Art Museum

Toledo, Ohio Richmond,Va. Minneapolis, Minn. New York, N.Y. Cambridge, Mass. Worcester, Mass.

1901 1910 1879 1930 1895 1896

Museum

Source: The American Association of Museums, The Official Museum Directory, 1990 (Wilmette, Ill., 1989), numerous pages.


443

TABLE 16.11 TOP WORKS OF ART AT AUCTION, TO 1990 (paintings that sold for the highest prices) Title/Date

Vincent van Gogh

Portrait du Dr. Gachet (1890) Le Moulin de la Galette (1876) Les Noces de Pierrette (1905) Irises (1889) Yo Picasso (c. 1901)

Pierre-Auguste Renoir Pablo Picasso Vincent van Gogh Pablo Picasso Pablo Picasso Vincent van Gogh Pablo Picasso

Au Lapin Agile (1905) Sunflowers (1889) Acrobate et Jeune Arlequin (1905) Portrait of Duke Cosimo l de Medici Autoportrait (1888)

Pontormo Vincent van Gogh Edouard Manet

La Rue Mosnier aux Drapeaux (1878) Le Miroir (1932) Maternité (1901) Dans la Prairie (1876) Mata Mua (1892)

Pablo Picasso Pablo Picasso Claude Monet Paul Gauguin Pablo Picasso John Constable Wassili Kandinsky Willem de Kooning Vincent van Gogh Vincent van Gogh

Hammer Witha Price Premium

Sale Date

Artist

Les Tuileries (1901) The Lock Fugue (1914) Interchange (1955) Le Pont de Trinquetaille (1888) LeVieil If (1888)

05/15/90 $75,000,000 $82,500,000 05/17/90

71,000,000

78,100,000

11/30/89 11/11/87 05/09/89

49,200,000 49,000,000 43,500,000

49,200,000 53,900,000 47,850,000

11/15/89 03/30/87

37,000,000 36,292,500

40,700,000 39,921,750

11/28/88

34,960,000

38,456,000

05/31/89 05/15/90

32,000,000 24,000,000

35,200,000 26,400,000

11/14/89 11/15/89 11/14/88 06/28/88 05/09/89

24,000,000 24,000,000 22,500,000 22,230,000 22,000,000

26,400,000 26,400,000 24,750,000 24,453,000 24,200,000

06/25/90 11/14/90 05/17/90 11/08/89

21,612,500 19,230,540 19,000,000 18,800,000

23,773,750 21,153,594 20,900,000 20,680,000

06/29/87 11/14/89

18,515,000 18,500,000

20,366,500 20,350,000

a

A premium is the 10% added to hammer price by auctioneer at most auctions. Source: Ronald Alsop, ed., The Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998 (New York, 1997), 405.

TABLE 16.12

PERFORMING ARTS—SELECTED DATA, 1955–1969

(for season ending in year shown, except as indicated) Item Theater, legitimate, New York City Broadway shows New productions, including revivals Performances Off Broadway productions New Performances Dance groups Professional Tours, October (towns and cities visited) Performances Performances, New York City Oct.–Feb. Opera companies Performances Orchestras Symphony College Community Urban Metropolitan Major Musicians Concerts played Attendance 1,000 Gross expenditures $1,000

1955

1960

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

72 58 8,917 41 41 1,883

76 58 9,214 114 100 6,803

82 63 7,975 131 107 9,296

77 67 10,000 86 75 6,637

87 68 10,360 82 75 4,865

82 69 10,152 91 80 6,326

87 73 10,056 79 77 5,140

80 67 9,672 99 118 5,828

... 106 115 197

139 142 192 191

196 117 191 222

... 229 265 340

... 176 230

... 136 199 ...

... ... ... ...

... ... ... ...

543 3,217

754 4,232

754 3,877

732 4,176

752 4,777

918 5,487

... ...

... ...

1,029 240 761 ... ... 28 2,079 2,257 4,900 13,838

1,226 250 933 ... 18 25 ... ... ... ...

1,363 284 1,025 ... 29 25 2,207 2,877 6,400 24,100

1,385 290 1,032 ... 38 25 2,216 2,987 6,750 27,700

... ... ... ... 48 26 2,343 3,488 7,747 38,384

... ... ... 31 48 28 a2,465 a3,658 c8,393 41,245

1,441 298 1,020 36 59 28 b2,396 b3,984 b8,229 a46,123

1,441 298 1,021 81 63 28 a2,512 a3,976 a8,176 a51,746

a 27 b 26 c 25

orchestras reporting orchestras reporting orchestras reporting Source: Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 204.

444


1969

TABLE 16.13

PERFORMING ARTS—SELECTED DATA, 1970–1990

(receipts and expenditures in millions of dollars; for season ending in year shown, except as indicated) Item Legitimate theater: Broadway shows: New productions Playing weeks Number of tickets sold (1,000) Gross box office receipts Road shows Playing weeks Gross box office receipts Nonprofit professional theatres: Companies reporting Gross income Earned income Contributed income Gross expenses Productions Performances Total attendance (mil.) Opera companies Major Expenditures Other companies Workshops Opera performances Operas performed Musical performances Musicals performed World premieres Attendance (mil.) Symphony orchestras College Community Urban Metropolitan Regional Major Concerts Attendance (mil.) Gross income Earned income Contributed income Gross expenses

1970

1975

1980

1984

1985

1986

1887

1988

1989

1990

62 1,047 ... 53.3

59 1,101 ... 57.4

67 1,541 9,380 143.4

36 1,119 7,898 226.5

31 1,062 7,156 208.0

33 1,049 6,527 190.6

40 1,031 6,968 207.2

31 1,114 8,142 253.4

29 1,097 7,968 262.0

35 1,062 8,039 283.3

1,024 48.0

799 50.9

1,351 181.2

1,057 206.2

993 225.9

983 235.6

901 224.2

893 222.9

869 255.5

944 367.1

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 648 35 36.5 266 347 4,779 341 ... ... 17 4.6 1,441 298 1,019 24 72 ... 28 6,599 12.7 73.3 43.1 30.2 76.4

39 34.5 21.8 12.7 34.3 398 11,952 5.4 807 54 ... 335 418 6,428 387 ... ... 16 8.0 1,463 300 1,003 41 90 ... 29 14,171 18.3 124.5 70.9 53.6 129.5

147 113.6 67.3 46.3 113.6 1,852 42,109 14.2 986 109 133.6 458 419 9,391 497 1,397 104 79 10.7 1,572 385 926 85 115 29 32 22,229 22.6 246.3 141.2 105.1 252.1

230 226.6 145.7 80.9 230.3 3,434 56,735 15.5 1,051 154 236.7 491 406 10,421 576 2,787 129 101 13.0 1,572 380 937 89 96 40 30 19,086 23.2 379.0 220.2 158.8 389.8

217 234.7 146.1 88.6 239.3 2,710 52,341 14.2 1,123 168 256.5 576 379 10,642 578 4,983 242 121 14.1 1,572 371 946 89 96 40 30 19,969 23.7 435.4 250.7 184.7 441.8

201 263.8 160.8 103.0 263.3 2,944 57,727 14.8 1,176 170 270.3 602 404 11,080 660 6,993 301 116 14.4 1,572 371 927 93 107 43 31 20,272 25.4 480.5 282.4 198.1 491.2

188 271.2 165.2 106.0 272.8 2,427 46,768 14.6 1,224 174 321.1 658 392 11,794 622 7,759 278 129 16.4 1,572 365 936 92 102 45 32 20,059 25.1 523.6 305.9 217.7 525.4

189 276.4 167.0 109.4 277.9 2,369 46,149 13.9 1,250 187 352.3 654 409 12,361 658 8.,836 296 141 17.7 1,572 350 903 103 123 57 36 17,774 23.6 561.8 332.9 228.9 571.3

192 349.0 224.6 124.4 349.2 2,469 53,263 18.7 1,285 209 403.8 658 418 15,098 731 9,825 279 165 21.4 1,666 422 924 103 121 59 37 17,361 22.4 619.5 363.3 256.2 600.0

185 307.6 188.4 119.2 306.3 2,265 46,131 15.2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... l ... ... ... 1,666 ... ... ... ... ... ... 16,725 22.2 679.9 405.4 274.5 665.4



445

TABLE 16.14

ATTENDANCE AT ARTS ACTIVITIES, 1987

(percentage of people who attended specified arts activities in previous 12 months)

Total

Jazz

Classical Music

Opera

Musicals

Plays

Ballet

Museums

10

13

3

18

12

4

22

16 15 9 8 5 3 1

12 12 16 15 2 13 8

2 2 4 4 3 3 2

16 18 22 20 18 14 9

12 12 15 13 11 10 ...

4 5 6 4 4 3 2

22 26 27 22 19 15 9

10 9

11 14

3 3

16 20

11 13

3 6

21 23

1 4 7 14 19 22

2 3 7 17 29 40

1 1 2 3 7 10

4 6 13 23 36 42

2 4 7 16 26 36

1 1 2 6 10 14

3 7 15 31 45 56

9 7 7 9 11 18 9

9 7 9 11 17 30 13

2 2 2 2 3 9 4

10 8 12 15 25 39 18

8 5 6 10 16 30 11

3 2 3 4 5 11 4

14 13 16 20 29 46 21

8 10 9 12

13 15 10 15

4 1 2 4

20 17 13 19

14 11 10 13

5 4 4 5

21 21 19 30

Age 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54 55–64 65–74 75 & Older

Sex Male Female Education Grade School Some H.S. H.S. Grad. Some College Coll. Grad. Grad. School Income Under $5,000 $5,000–9,999 $10,000–14,999 $15,000–24,999 $25,000–49,999 $50,000 & Over Unknown Region Northeast Midwest South West

Source: Dow Jones Inc., American Demographics, September 1987, 45.

Architecture Architecture had some similarity with art. Both were creative activities that represented an expression of individualism. As with artists, architects were identified with their work.The two differed in several ways, not the least of which was the element of utilitarianism. The architect had to be concerned with function as well as form. The painter or sculptor of the post-1950 era largely did what he or she wanted. Architecture was a profession; part of the world of competitive business and industry, it could count on a steady clientele but was also accountable to the same crowd. Of the many people who considered themselves artists, few would call art their profession; an even smaller number made their living in the production of creative art. In perhaps the most mundane level of architecture, residential housing, designs remained basically conservative and traditional throughout the period. The Levittowns of the immediate postwar era offered only two styles, ranch and Cape Cod. The late 1950s and 1960s produced a split-level design that featured living space at the 446


expense of storage (closets, cupboards, and the like). Once that fad had passed, most housing returned to variations of the one-story ranch, Cape Cod, or two-story colonial structures. Rental apartment complexes followed similarly conventional styles and newer condominiums—sort of enlarged privately owned apartments— showed little more creativity. The size of houses increased with passage of years and expansion of the economy. By the 1990s builders were erecting entire subdivisions of privately owned single-family homes, each of which resembled what once had been a multifamily complex or office building. An architect rarely left a mark in residential buildings, unless it was his or her own house. Reputations and careers came from public structures. In this area the artistic aspect of architecture suggested a continuing measure of diversity and individuality. The practical and commercial aspect imposed restraints and lended the profession to trends and at least loosely defined schools of style. The dominant architectural theme in the years following the Second World War consisted largely of extending and building upon what had been identified

as the International Style. Stressing clean, reasonably simple, functional designs, the style originated in the fact that its principles had received widespread approval in several areas, notably in North America and Europe. In the United States it also meant that the profession contained a generous sprinkling of architects from abroad. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, from Germany, and Eliel Saarinen and his son, Eero, from Finland, were examples. Most architects heavily utilized steel and glass in their structures. The United Nations buildings in New York, the product of a committee of international architects, stood as an example. U.S. architects, or perhaps it was their customers, continued a fascination with tall buildings, and the prewar competition in height— mostly between New York and Chicago—continued through much of the century. For all its attributes, the Empire State Building in New York, completed in 1931, was best known for many years as the nation’s, indeed the world’s, tallest building. Construction of the twin World Trade Centers in 1973 shifted the crown, but it also seemed to solidify New York’s leadership. In short order, however, Chicago, evidently not content with being the “second city’’ in everything, could boast of its Sears Tower, 101 feet taller than any building in New York. Architects showed an inclination toward diversity in the construction of skyscrapers. The Transamerica building in San Francisco, completed in 1973, was a pyramid; the Pennzoil Place in Houston

(1976) had twin trapezoidal towers. Many people considered the tapered John Hancock Building in Chicago, constructed in the late 1960s, to be the most impressive of the postwar skyscrapers. As a new generation of architects began to come on line in the 1960s, the influence of the International Style waned somewhat. Movement away from the rectangular building opened the door for freedom of choice in building shape. An emphasis on steel-supported concrete beginning in the 1960s produced new “brutalist’’ forms and finishes. The arrival in the 1970s and 1980s of a postmodernist element to architecture stimulated much disagreement as to merit. Although the theme by definition suggested variation of style, the postmodernist thrust generally was away from the sleek, simple style of the Hancock building and in the direction of more ornamentation and greater recognition of the contributions of history. The historic preservation movement that began in the 1970s called for restructuring and rebuilding dilapidated waterfront areas in such cities as St. Louis and Baltimore, in the preservation of old buildings and restoration of whole areas of inner cities. Although diversity and freedom did mark the contruction of buildings and cities at the start of the 1990s, architecture remained a part of the world of business, commerce, and living space of middle-class America. One thus would not find the extent of individuality and creativity present in such categories of art as painting and sculpture.

I. M. Pei’s design: the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston, Massachusetts, 1965–79 (Courtesy April Summitt) Art and Architecture

447

TABLE 16.15 MAJOR AMERICAN ARCHITECTS, ACTIVE DURING 1946–1990 Architect

Example of Project

Location

Max Abramovitz Pietro Belluschi Marcel Breuer Gordon Bunshaft Joseph Esherick James Freed

Corning Glass Building Juilliard School of Music Whitney Museum of Art Lever House U.S. Embassy Holocaust Museum

N.Y.C. N.Y.C. N.Y.C. N.Y.C. Bolivia Washington, D.C.

R. Buckminster Fuller Bruce Graham Walter Gropius Wallace K. Harrison Philip K. Johnson Fay E. Jones

Expo 67 Sears Tower Pan Am Building Metropolitan Opera House A.T. & T. Sony Bldg. Pinecote Pavilion

Montreal Chicago N.Y.C. N.Y.C. N.Y.C. Picayune, Miss.

Louis Kahn William Lescaze Charles M. McKim Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Richard J. Neutra Gyo Obata

Yale Art Gallery Borg-Warner Building Lutheran Church of Redeemer Buildings 845–860 Orange Co. Courthouse Air & Space Museum

New Haven Chicago Houston Chicago Santa Ana, Calif. Washington, D.C.

William Pedersen I. M. Pei William Pereira John C. Portman Kevin Roche John W. Root

333 Wacker Drive Addition to the Louvre TransAmerica Building Renaissance Center Air Force Museum Palmolive Building

Chicago Paris San Francisco Detroit near Dayton, Ohio Chicago)

Paul Rudolph Eero Saarinen Der Scutt Josep Sert Louis Skidmore Clarence S. Stein

Art & Architecture Bldg. Gateway Arch Trump Tower Holyoke Center Terrace Plaza Hotel Temple Emanu-el

Yale U. St. Louis N.Y.C. Harvard U. Cincinnati N.Y.C.

Adrian Smith Ralph T.Walker Roland A.Wank Frank Lloyd Wright William Wurster Minoru Yamasaki

A.T.&T. Center IBM Research Lab. Union Terminal Guggenheim Museum Bank of America Hq. World Trade Center

Chicago Poughkeepsie, N.Y. Cincinnati N.Y.C. San Francisco N.Y.C.

Source: Les Krantz, American Architects (New York, 1989), many pages; Mark Hoffman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992 (New York, 1991), 340–41.

448


TABLE 16.16

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS GOLD MEDALISTS, 1947–1990

(First awarded in 1907, the American Institute of Architects Gold Medal recognizes outstanding lifetime achievement.) Year

a

Medalists

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Eliel Saarinen, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. Charles Donagh Maginnis, Boston Frank Lloyd Wright, Spring Green,Wis. Sir Patrick Abercrombie, London Bernard Ralph Maybeck, San Francisco

1952 1953 1955 1956 1957

Auguste Perret, Paris Williams Adams Delano, New York Willem Marinus Dudok, Hilversum, Holland Clarence S. Stein, New York Ralph Walker, New York

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

Louis Skidmore, New York John Wellborn Root, Chicago Walter Gropius, Cambridge, Mass. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Chicago Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris), Paris

1962a 1963 1964 1966 1967

Eero Saarinen, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. Alvar Aalto, Helsinki Pier Luigi Nervi, Rome Kenzo Tange,Tokyo Wallace K. Harrison, New York

1968 1969 1970 1971

Marcel Breuer, New York William Wilson Wurster, San Francisco Richard Buckminster Fuller, Carbondale, III. Louis I. Kahn, Phildadelphia

1972 1977a 1978 1979 1981

Pietro Belluschi, Boston Richard Joseph Neutra, Los Angeles Philip Johnson, New York Ieoh Ming Pei, New York Josep Lluis Sert, Cambridge, Mass.

1982 1983 1985a 1986 1989 1990

Romaldo Giurgola, New York Nathaniel A. Owings, San Francisco William Caudill, Houston Arthur Erickson, Canada Joseph Esherick, San Francisco Fay Jones, Fayetteville, Ark.

Awarded posthumously. Source: John Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 643.

TABLE 16.17 TALLEST BUILDINGS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1990 City

Year Built

Height Stories (in feet)

Rank

Building

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Sears Tower World Trade Center, North World Trade Center, South Empire State Building Amoco

Chicago New York New York New York Chicago

1974 1972 1973 1931 1973

110 110 110 102 80

1,454 1,368 1,362 1,250 1,136

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

John Hancock Building Chrysler Building First Interstate Center Texas Commerce Tower Two Prudential Plaza

Chicago New York Los Angeles Houston Chicago

1968 1930 1989 1982 1990

100 77 75 79 64

1,127 1,046 1,018 1,000 995

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Allied Bank Plaza 333 S.Wacker Drive Columbia Center American International One Liberty Place

Houston Chicago Seattle New York Philadelphia

1983 1990 1984 1932 1987

71 65 76 67 60

972 970 954 950 945

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

40 Wall Tower Interfirst Plaza Tower Citicorp Center Transco Tower AT&T Corporate Center

New York Dallas New York Houston Chicago

1966 1985 1977 1983 1988

71 71 55 64 60

927 921 915 901 875

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

900 N. Michigan Avenue Water Tower Place First Interstate Bank Transamerica Pyramid First National Bank

Chicago Chicago Los Angeles San Francisco Chicago

1989 1976 1974 1972 1969

66 74 62 48 60

875 859 858 853 850

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

GE Rockefeller Center Two Liberty Place USX Tower Atlantic Center (IBM) City Spire

New York Philadelphia Pittsburgh Atlanta New York

1933 1990 1970 1988 1987

70 58 64 50 72

850 848 841 820 814

Bridges Bridge building represented a different sort of architecture that demanded no less skill in arts and science than the construction of buildings. The postwar era was a time of bridge building, and while size of bridges depended upon need and surroundings, there existed a form of competition for the longest span. To an extent greater than in prewar years, the suspension bridge, with its massive moorings and undulating steel cables, remained the favorite for long stretches. Bridge building otherwise produced several highlights between 1950 and 1980. The Verrazano-Narrows bridge in New York, completed in 1964, nudged out the Golden Gate bridge for longest span.The most striking “new’’ bridge, where none previously had existed, was over Mackinac Straits in northern Michigan. “Big Mac,’’ a compelling structure in its own right, linked Michigan’s two peninsulas together in 1957. A new bridge over Tacoma Narrows in Washington, finished in 1950, proved to be more stable than its predecessor, “Galloping Gertie,’’ which twisted in a storm and fell into Puget Sound in 1940, the year it had opened. One of the most scenic, and despite a somewhat remote location, most popular structures was the bridge over the New River Gorge in West Virginia, completed in 1977. One day each year, the state opened the bridge to regulated “recreational’’ jumping (bungee jumping and mini-parachute jumping). None of the new structures, however, could dethrone the monarch, and it grew grander with age. The president and the nation paused in 1983 to celebrate the 100th birthday of the Brooklyn Bridge.

Note: Antennas and flagpoles not included. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995, 347.

TABLE 16.18

LONGEST AMERICAN BRIDGES, 1969 Length Year (ft) Main ComType Span pleted

Name

Location

Verrazano-Narrows Golden Gate Mackinac George Washington Tacoma Narrows

Lower N.Y. Bay San Francisco Bay Northern Michigan Hudson River, N.Y.C. Puget Sound,Wash.

S S S S S

4,260 4,200 3,800 3,500 2,800

1964 1937 1957 1931 1950

Transbay (2 spans) Bronx Whitestone Delaware Memorial (2 spans) Seaway Skyway Gas Pipe Line

San Francisco Bay East River, N.Y.C.

S S

2,310 2,300

1936 1939

Wilmington Ogdensburg, N.Y. Atchafalaya River, La.

S S S

2,150 2,150 2,000

1951–68 1960 1951

Walt Whitman

Delaware River, Philadelphia Detroit River, Detroit East River, N.Y.C. Delaware River, Philadelphia Fayetteville,W.Va.

S S S

2,000 1,850 1,800

1957 1929 1961

S SA

1,750 1,700

1926 1977

Bayonne Commodore J. Barry Bear Mountain Wm. Preston Lane Jr. (2 spans)a Williamsburg

Bayonne, N.J. Chester, Pa. Peekskill, N.Y.

SA C S

1,675 1,644 1,632

1931 1974 1924

S S

1,600 1,600

1952–73 1903

Newport Brooklyn Greater N. Orleans Jesse Jones Mem.

Newport, R.I. East River, N.Y.C. Miss. River, La. Houston Ship Canal

S S C CA

1,600 1,595 1,576 1,500

1969 1883 1958 1982

Ambassador Throgs Neck Benjamin Franklin New River Gorge

Annapolis, Md. East River, N.Y.C.

Note: S5Suspension; SA5Steel Arch; C5Cantilever; CA5Concrete Arch. a The second span of these structures completed in 1973, is called the Chesapeake Bay Bridge. Source: Otto Johnson, The 1988 Information Please Almanac (Boston, 1987), 587–88.

“Big Mac,’’ over the Straits of Mackinac in northern Michigan. Completed in 1957, it was the second longest bridge in the United States. (Linda Norris, Michigan Department of Transportation) Art and Architecture

449

Bridge over scenic New River Gorge, Fayetteville,West Virginia. Completed in 1977, it was, at 1,700 feet, the longest steel arch bridge in the United States. (David Bowen)

450


CHAPTER 17 Entertainment Entertainment, the occupying of time not devoted to obligatory or needed duties, depended in the first instance upon preference, of course, and in the flourishing, ever-changing American culture it also depended on money. One did in spare time what one preferred to do, what was accessible and affordable; in a competitive society, what other people were doing also had an influence. Driven by businesspeople ever watchful for new products to sell, American society passed through a neverending series of fads and preoccupations in recreational activity. Purchase of a new house or a first house after World War II led to backyard cooking as a form of recreation. Families with a comfortable income or who were willing to stretch the budget might have a swimming pool installed in the back. Homeowners whose parents, or at least grandparents, never had taken a vacation, began to set aside money and a week or two for a family trip; with each year the trip took longer, and it carried the family farther. Some individuals or families took to boating and spent much of summer weekends on the lake; others took to camping. By the 1980s the popularity of camping was such that for one to be assured of a campsite on a summertime holiday weekend, it was necessary to make a reservation months in advance. Capitalism kept

turning out the machines and devices: The boats and camping equipment were followed, starting in the 1960s, by snowmobiles; by 1990 one could acquire a Jet Ski, what amounted to a snowmobile that traveled on water. Each of these instruments of culture commanded a following in the American populace, each created its own industry and each cost quite a bit of money. In the broadest sense, entertainment encompassed an exceptionally broad range of personal choices in how to spend leisure time. In a more narrow and probably more familiar sense, it pertained to a special entertainment industry. Superimposed over the various individualized entertainment activities spread a vast, ever-expanding commercialized establishment designed to attract a mass audience. If one excluded professional and some aspects of nonprofessional sports—which will be addressed in a separate unit—this empire was composed largely of five units: movies, radio, television, popular music, and live theater as exemplified by the Broadway stage. Four of the five were a part of the revolution in electronics that took place after 1950. Broadway, the weakest sibling in terms of audience, did not rely on new technology, but because of links to the other four elements, it claimed a spot in the empire.

Up-and-coming young actress Lauren Bacall chats with her accompanist,Vice President Harry S.Truman, in 1945. (Harry S.Truman Library, courtesy Stock Montage)

451

All the forces that had driven a commercial entertainment industry in previous decades remained in place and were vastly enlarged in the postwar era. The entertainment industry thus benefited from a large increase in population, an enormous increase in disposable wealth, and an increase in the population financially able to partake of commercial entertainment. Technological change transformed the industry in several categories. Performers in entertainment continued to be viewed as larger than life, the object of popular adulation, and the recipients of great sums of money. More than ever before, the entertainment industry took on international dimension. Although the United States remained the world leader in professional entertainment and it continued to have access to foreign markets, the Americans drew heavily upon foreign—mostly European—talent, especially in the segments that featured acting and popular music. Perhaps to a greater degree than at any time, the United States—and Americans—continued to be defined in the world by what its entertainment industry produced. Original Names of Selected People in the Entertainment Business Many people in entertainment found it wise to select a name to substitute for what they had been given at the start of life.The purpose in most cases was to promote simplicity, a name that was easier to pronounce and to remember, or simply something that sounded better.There is as well some indication that name change could represent an act of anglicization of an “ethnic sounding’’ name, for the purpose of facilitating acceptance in mainstream American culture.Whatever the reason for change, the substitute name usually became the only one that the public remembered or even knew about. The list below contains a few examples. Alan Alda: Alphonso D’Abruzzo Woody Allen: Allen Konigsberg Fred Astaire: Frederick Austerlitz Lauren Bacall: Betty Joan Perske Anne Bancroft: Anna Maria Italiano Tony Bennett: Anthony Benedetto Irving Berlin: Israel Baline Jack Benny: Benjamin Kubelsky Boy George: George Alan O’Dowd Albert Brooks: Albert Einstein Ellen Burstyn: Edna Gilhooley Nicolas Cage: Nicholas Coppola Maria Callas: Maria Kalogeropoulos Chubby Checker: Ernest Evans Cher: Cherilyn Sarkisian Michael Connors: Kreker Ohanian Alice Cooper:Vincent Furnier Joan Crawford: Lucille Le Sueur Tom Cruise:Thomas Mapother IV Bobby Darin:Walden Robert Cassotto Doris Day: Doris von Kappelhoff John Denver: Henry John Deutschendorf, Jr. Kirk Douglas: Issur Danielovitch Dale Evans: Francis Smith Jamie Farr: Jameel Farah Arlene Francis: Arlene Kazanjian Connie Francis: Concetta Franconero Judy Garland: Frances Gumm Kathie Lee Gifford: Kathie Epstein Cary Grant: Archibald Leach Lee Grant: Lyova Rosenthal Rex Harrison: Reginald Carey Barbara Hershey: Barbara Herzstein William Holden:William Beedle Elton John: Reginald Dwight 452


Larry King: Larry Zeigler Ted Knight:Tadeus Wladyslaw Konopka Michael Landon: Eugene Horowitz Queen Latifah: Dana Owens Bruce Lee: Lee Yuen Kam Peggy Lee: Norma Egstrom Jerry Lewis: Joseph Levitch Hal Linden: Harold Lipshitz Sophia Loren: Sophia Scicolone Madonna: Madonna Louise Ciccone Lee Majors: Harvey Lee Yeary II Walter Matthau:Walter Matuschanskayasky Dean Martin: Dino Crocetti Ray Milland: Reginald Truscott-Jones Marilyn Monroe: Norma Jean Mortenson (later Baker) Demi Moore: Demetria Guynes Minnie Pearl: Sarah Ophelia Cannon Stefanie Powers: Stefania Federkiewicz Tony Randall: Leonard Rosenberg Edward G. Robinson: Emmanuel Goldenberg Martin Sheen: Ramon Estevez Ringo Starr: Richard Starkey Sting: Gordon Sumner Robert Taylor: Spangler Brugh Danny Thomas: Muzyad Yakhoob Sid Vicious: John Simon Ritchie John Wayne: Marion Morrison Natalie Wood: Natasha Gurdin Source: Robert Famighetti, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1999 (Mahwah, N.J., 1998), 371–72.

The Broadway Stage Live American theatre had its most illustrious expression on the stages of Broadway in New York City, and the Broadway stage began the postwar era with a bang. In both drama and in musical production Broadway reached a golden age that ran from the 1940s into the 1960s. Led by the work of such playwrights as Arthur Miller (Death of a Salesman, The Crucible) and Tennessee Williams (A Streetcar Named Desire, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ), Broadway drama gave professional birth to individuals who would become stalwarts of entertainment for years to come: Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward.The string of successes in musical theatre was even more striking.There were the composers: Rodgers and Hammerstein, Lerner and Loewe, Frank Loesser, Cole Porter, Jule Styne, Bernstein and Sondheim, and the shows: South Pacific, Carousel, My Fair Lady, Guys and Dolls, Camelot,West Side Story, and many others.The Broadway setting probably constituted elitist entertainment, but its effect went beyond elitism. Broadway musicals supplied some of the nation’s most popular music, and the Broadway stage served as training ground for what the general public would see in movies, and in time on television. The golden age did not last long. Having lost some of its premier agents—to death or through defection to Hollywood—Broadway experienced, although not as profoundly as movies, competition from television. The popularity of live theatre declined sharply in the 1970s, and after a brief recovery in the early 1980s, attendance leveled off at approximately what it had been at the end of the 1950s—a disappointing level, perhaps, in view of the growth in population but still enough to leave the institution with a great deal of life, creativity, and excitement. During those years Broadway set off into several new avenues. Rock music arrived, as inevitably it would, in Godspell and Jesus Christ

Superstar; profanity on stage became commonplace; nudity made an appearance in Hair and Oh! Calcutta. Homosexuality became a common theme in the 1980s, if only because of empathy produced by the spread of AIDS, which had a profound effect on the Broadway community. The void left by Rodgers and Hammerstein and Lerner and Loewe was at least partly filled by Stephen Sondheim (Company, Follies, A Little Night Music) and British composer Andrew Lloyd Webber (Cats, Evita, Phantom of the Opera). In something of a reversal of practices of the 1950s, Broadway began to attract some of the best of filmdom to the live stage (although most had begun on the stage). Proliferation of revivals in the late 1980s perhaps suggested a shortage of original material, but even so, a new edition of Guys and Dolls still was delightful. Good new music continued to originate from the stage, if at a pace slower than in the 1940s and 1950s. Broadway held on and maintained

a special niche in American entertainment. There was a semipermanent clientele, of course, and the most prestigious American stage stood as a continuing tourist attraction. After all, one had not truly visited New York until one had been to a Broadway musical. TABLE 17.3 RECORD LONG-RUN BROADWAY PLAYSa, AS OF 1990

TABLE 17.1 BROADWAY OVER THE YEARS, 1945–1991 Theatre Season

Number of Productions

Ticket Prices

1945–46 1950–51 1955–56 1960–61 1965–66

98 88 73 63 76

$6.60 $7.20 $7.50 $8.60 $11.90

1970–71 1975–76 1980–81 1985–86 1990–91

56 65 63 42 27

$15.00 $17.50 $32.00 $43.00 $55.00

Source: Thomas S. Hischak, The Theatregoers Almanac (Westport, Conn., 1997), 3–4.

TABLE 17.2 BROADWAY SEASON STATISTICS, 1959–1990 Season

Gross (mil $)

Attendance (mil)

1959–1960 1960–1961 1961–1962 1962–1963 1963–1964

46 44 44 44 40

7.9 7.7 6.8 7.4 6.8

1,156 1,210 1,168 1,134 1,107

58 48 53 54 63

1964–1965 1965–1966 1966–1967 1967–1968 1968–1969

50 54 55 59 58

8.2 9.6 9.3 9.5 8.6

1,250 1,295 1,269 1,259 1,209

67 68 69 74 67

1969–1970 1970–1971 1971–1972 1972–1973 1973–1974

53 55 52 45 46

7.1 7.4 6.5 5.4 5.7

1,047 1,107 1,157 889 907

62 49 55 55 43

1974–1975 1975–1976 1976–1977 1977–1978 1978–1979

57 71 93 114 134

6.6 7.3 8.8 9.6 9.6

1,101 1,136 1,349 1,433 1,542

54 55 54 42 50

1979–1980 1980–1981 1981–1982 1982–1983 1983–1984

146 197 223 209 227

9.6 11.0 10.1 8.4 7.9

1,540 1,544 1,455 1,258 1,097

61 60 48 50 36

1984–1985 1985–1986 1986–1987 1987–1988 1988–1989 1989–1990

208 190 206 252 265 282

7.3 6.5 7.0 8.1 8.0 8.0

1,075 1,045 1,038 1,116 1,097 1,061

33 33 41 32 30 35

Source: Famighetti, The World Almanac, 1999, 179.

Playing Weeks

New Productions

Play

Performances

Chorus Line Oh, Calcutta (revival) 42nd Street Grease Fiddler on the Roof Cats LifeWith Father Tobacco Road Hello, Dolly! My Fair Lady Annie Man of La Mancha Abie’s Irish Rose Oklahomal Pippin South Pacific Magic Show Deathtrap Gemini Harvey Dancin’ La Cage aux Folles Hair TheWiz BornYesterday Ain’t Misbehavin’ Best LittleWhorehouse in Texas Mary, Mary Evita Voice of the Turtle Barefoot in the Park Dreamgirls Mame Same Time, NextYear Arsenic and Old Lace The Sound of Music How To Succeed in BusinessWithout Really Trying Me and My Girl Hellzapoppin The Music Man Funny Girl Mumenschanz Les Miserables Oh! Calcutta! (Original) Brighton Beach Memoirs Angel Street Lightnin’ Promises, Promises The King and I Cactus Flower Sleuth Torch Song Trilogy “1776’’ Equus Sugar Babies Guys and Dolls Amadeus Cabaret Mister Roberts Annie GetYour Gun SevenYear Itch Butterflies Are Free Pins and Needles

6,137 5,959 3,486 3,388 3,242 3,237 3,224b 3,182 2,844 2,717 2,377 2,328 2,327 2,212 1,944 1,925 1,920 1,792 1,788 1,775 1,774 1,761 1,750 1,672 1,642 1,604 1,584 1,572 1,567 1,557 1,530 1,521 1,508 1,453 1,444 1,443 1,417 1,412 1,404 1,375 1,348 1,326 1,319b 1,314 1,299 1,295 1,291 1,281 1,246 1,234 1,222 1,222 1,217 1,209 1,208 1,200 1,181 1,165 1,157 1,147 1,141 1,128 1,108

a

Performances through July 2, 1990. Still running July 2, 1990. Source: Mark S. Hoffman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992 (New York, 1991), 309.

b

Entertainment

453

The Tony Awards The Tony Awards began modestly in 1947 as an opportunity for the family of Broadway performers to recognize excellence in the art. Named after Antoinette Perry, former chair of the American Theater Wing, sponsor of the program, the Tony Awards at first discouraged a spirit of competition. Nominations were not announced; persons honored (no mention of a winner) received a scroll and either a compact or a cigarette lighter. The selection committee recognized not only an actress and actor but also “best featured’’ performers of either gender, which generally referred to a supporting role. In 1956 Tony nominations were made public, and the contest was on. With television coverage beginning in 1967, the awards ceremony became a show, and the Tony emerged as a sibling—albeit a younger and smaller one—to the Oscar.

TABLE 17.4 TONY AWARDS—BEST PLAYS AND MUSICALS, 1947–1990 Year

Play

Musical

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

No award Mister Roberts Death of a Salesman The Cocktail Party The Rose Tattoo

No award No award Kiss Me, Kate South Pacific Guys and Dolls

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

The Fourposter The Crucible The Teahouse of the August Moon The Desperate Hours The Diary of Anne Frank

The King and I Wonderful Town Kismet The Pajama Game DamnYankees

1957 1958 1959 1960

Long Day’s Journey Into Night Sunrise at Campobello J.B. The MiracleWorker

My Fair Lady The Music Man Redhead Tie: Fiorello! and The Sound of Music Bye Bye Birdie

1961

Becket

1962

A Man for All Seasons

1963

Who’s Afraid ofVirginiaWoolf?

1964 1965 1966

Luther The SubjectWas Roses Marat/Sade

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

The Homecoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead The GreatWhite Hope Borstal Boy Sleuth

1776 Applause Company

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Sticks and Bones That Championship Season The River Niger Equus Travesties

Two Gentlemen of Verona A Little Night Music Raisin TheWiz A Chorus Line

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

The Shadow Box Da The Elephant Man Children of a Lesser God Amadeus

Annie Ain’t Misbehavin’ Sweeney Todd Evita 42nd Street

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Nicholas Nickleby Torch Song Trilogy The Real Thing Biloxi Blues I’m Not Rappaport

Nine Cats La Cage Aux Folles Big River The Mystery of Edwin Drood

1987 1988 1989 1990

Fences M. Butterfly The Heidi Chronicles The Grapes ofWrath

Les Misérables Phantom of the Opera Jerome Robbins’ Broadway City of Angels

How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying A Funny Thing Happened On the Way to the Forum Hello, Dolly! Fiddler on the Roof Man of La Mancha Cabaret Hallelujah, Baby!

Source: Hischak, Theatregoers Almanac, 167–68.

454


TABLE 17.5

BEST ACTRESS—PLAYS, 1947–1990

Year

Actress

Play

1947

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Tie: Ingrid Bergman Helen Hayes Tie: Judith Anderson Katharine Cornell Jessica Tandy Martita Hunt Shirley Booth Uta Hagen Julie Harris Shirley Booth Audrey Hepburn Nancy Kelly Julie Harris Margaret Leighton Helen Hayes Gertrude Berg Anne Bancroft Joan Plowright Margaret Leighton Uta Hagen Sandy Dennis Irene Worth Rosemary Harris Beryl Reid Zoe Caldwell Julie Harris Tammy Grimes Maureen Stapleton Sada Thompson Julie Harris Colleen Dewhurst Ellen Burstyn Irene Worth Julie Harris Jessica Tandy Tie: Constance Cummings Carole Shelley Phyllis Frehlich Jane Lapotaire Zoe Caldwell Jessica Tandy Glenn Close Stockard Channing Lily Tomlin

1987 1988 1989 1990

Linda Lavin Joan Allen Pauline Collins Maggie Smith

Joan of Lorraine; Happy Birthday Medea; Antony and Cleopatra; A Streetcar Named Desire The Madwoman of Chaillot Come Back, Little Sheba The Country Girl I Am a Camera Time of the Cuckoo Ondine The Bad Seed The Lark Separate Tables Time Remembered A Majority of One The MiracleWorker A Taste of Honey The Night of the Iguana Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? AnyWednesday Tiny Alice The Lion inWinter The Killing of Sister George The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie Forty Carats Private Lives The Gingerbread Lady Twigs The Last of Mrs. Lincoln A Moon for the Misbegotten Same Time, Next Year Sweet Bird of Youth The Belle of Amherst The Gin Game Wings The Elephant Man Children of a Lesser God Piaf Medea Foxfire The Real Thing Joe Egg The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe Broadway Bound Burn This ShirleyValentine Lettice & Lovage

1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979


TABLE 17.6

BEST ACTOR—PLAYS, 1947–1990

Year

Actor

Play

1947

Tie: José Ferrer Fredric March Tie: Henry Fonda Paul Kelly Basil Rathbone Rex Harrison Sidney Blackmer Claude Rains José Ferrer Tom Ewell David Wayne Alfred Lunt Paul Muni Fredric March Ralph Bellamy Jason Robards, Jr.

Cyrano de Bergerac Years Ago Mister Roberts Command Decision The Heiress Anne of the Thousand Days Come Back, Little Sheba Darkness at Noon The Shrike The SevenYear Itch The Teahouse of the August Moon Quadrille Inherit theWind Long Day’s Journey Into Night Sunrise at Campobello The Disenchanted

1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Year 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

Melvyn Douglas Zero Mostel Paul Scofield Arthur Hill Alec Guinness Walter Matthau Hal Holbrook Paul Rogers Martin Balsam

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

James Earl Jones Fritz Weaver Brian Bedford Cliff Gorman Alan Bates Michael Moriarty John Kani and Winston Ntshona John Wood Al Pacino Bernard Hughes Tom Conti John Rubenstein Ian McKellen Roger Rees Harvey Fierstein Jeremy Irons Derek Jacobi Judd Hirsch James Earl Jones Ron Silver Philip Bosco Robert Morse

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Play

Year

Actress

Musical

The Best Man Rhinoceros A Man for All Seasons Who’s Afraid of VirginiaWoolf? Dylan The Odd Couple Mark Twain Tonight! The Homecoming You Know I Can’t Hear YouWhen the Water’s Running The GreatWhite Hope Child’s Play The School forWives Lenny Butley FindYourWay Home Sizwe Banzi Is Dead and The Island

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Patti LuPone Lauren Bacall Jennifer Holliday Natalia Makarova Chita Rivera No award Bernadette Peters Maryann Plunkett Joanna Gleason Ruth Brown Tyne Daly

Evita Woman of theYear Dreamgirls OnYour Toes The Rink

Actor

Travesties The Basic Training of Pavlo Hummel Da Whose Life Is It Anyway? Children of a Lesser God Amadeus Nicholas Nickleby Torch Song Trilogy The Real Thing Much Ado About Nothing I’m Not Rappaport Fences Speed-the-Plow Lend Me a Tenor Tru


TABLE 17.7

BEST ACTRESS—MUSICALS, 1947–1990

Year

Actress

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

No award Grace Hartman Nanette Fabray Mary Martin Ethel Merman Gertrude Lawrence Rosalind Russell Dolores Gray Mary Martin Gwen Verdon Judy Holliday Tie:Thelma Ritter Gwen Verdon Gwen Verdon Mary Martin Elizabeth Seal Tie: Anna Maria Alberghetti Diahann Carroll Vivien Leigh Carol Channing Liza Minnelli Angela Lansbury Barbara Harris Tie: Patricia Routledge Leslie Uggams Angela Lansbury Lauren Bacall Helen Gallagher Alexis Smith Glynis Johns Virginia Capers Angela Lansbury Donna McKechnie Dorothy Loudon Liza Minnelli Angela Lansbury

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Musical Angel in theWings Love Life South Pacific Call Me Madam The King and I Wonderful Town Carnival in Flanders Peter Pan DamnYankees Bells Are Ringing New Girl in Town Redhead The Sound of Music Irma La Douce Carnival No Strings Tovarich Hello, Dolly! Flora, the Red Menace Mame The Apple Tree Darling of the Day; Hallelujah, Baby! Dear World Applause No, No, Nanette Follies A Little Night Music Raisin Gypsy A Chorus Line Annie The Act Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street

Song and Dance Me and My Girl Into theWoods Black and Blue Gypsy


TABLE 17.8

BEST ACTOR—MUSICALS, 1947–1990

Year

Actor

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962

No award Paul Hartman Ray Bolger Ezio Pinza Robert Alda Phil Silvers Thomas Mitchell Alfred Drake Walter Slezak Ray Walston Rex Harrison Robert Preston Richard Kiley Jackie Gleason Richard Burton Robert Morse

1963

Zero Mostel

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Bert Lahr Zero Mostel Richard Kiley Robert Preston Robert Goulet Jerry Orbach Cleavon Little Hal Linden Phil Silvers

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Ben Vereen Christopher Plummer John Cullum George Rose Barry Bostwick John Cullum Len Cariou

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jim Dale Kevin Kline Ben Harney Tommy Tune George Hearn No award George Rose Robert Lindsay Michael Crawford Jason Alexander James Naughton

Musical Angel in theWings Where’s Charley? South Pacific Guys and Dolls Top Banana Hazel Flagg Kismet Fanny DamnYankees My Fair Lady The Music Man Redhead Take Me Along Camelot How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to The Forum Foxy Fiddler on the Roof Man of La Mancha I Do! I Do! The Happy Time Promises, Promises Purlie The Rothschilds A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Pippin Cyrano Shenandoah My Fair Lady The Robber Bridegroom On the Twentieth Century Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street Barnum The Pirates of Penzance Dreamgirls My One and Only La Cage aux Folles The Mystery of Edwin Drood Me and My Girl Phantom of the Opera Jerome Robbins’ Broadway City of Angels


Memorable Losers Prominent performances that did not win a Tony:

Actor

Play

Julie Andrews Barbara Bel Geddes Vivian Blaine and Sam Levene

My Fair Lady Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Guys and Dolls (continued) Entertainment

455

Actor

Marlon Brando Georgia Brown Carol Burnett Richard Burton Sid Caesar Carol Channing Lee J. Cobb Alfred Drake Frances Eldridge Henry Fonda Joel Grey Julie Harris Lena Horne Josephine Hull Burl Ives Deborah Kerr Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne Claudia McNeil and Sidney Poitier Laurence Olivier Jason Robards Rosalind Russell Barbra Streisand Elaine Stritch Gwen Verdon

Play

A Streetcar Named Desire Oliver! Once Upon a Mattress Hamlet Little Me Gentlemen Prefer Blondes Death of a Salesman Kiss Me, Kate Long Day’s Journey Into Night Clarence Darrow George M! A Member of the Wedding Jamaica The Solid Gold Cadillac Cat on a Hot Tin Roof Tea and Sympathy The Visit A Raisin in the Sun The Entertainer A Moon for the Misbegotten Auntie Mame Funny Girl Company Sweet Charity


Motion Pictures Motion pictures underwent many changes in the period following the Second World War. Emergence of television as mass media in the 1950s produced a sharp decline in theater attendance. Moviemakers tried to compensate with film extravaganzas, such costly movies as Cleopatra and Mutiny on the Bounty, that all lost money. Neither did the movement into new technology, with various widescreen innovations such as Cinerama and CinemaScope and the experiment with threedimensional projection (3-D), which necessitated wearing funny-looking little glasses, produce the desired turnaround. Film studios lost control of their actors, but the star system continued. In time the high cost of large-name performers induced producers to make movies with lesserknown or unknown entities. Standardized heroes and standardized endings yielded somewhat to the more naturalized “method’’ actors, as exemplified by Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, and Rod Steiger. National cynicism in the 1960s and early 1970s enhanced the popularity of antihero films, such as Catch 22 and M*A*S*H, but the strong, silent man never went away, as could be seen in the continuing popularity of John Wayne and Clint Eastwood’s westerns or Eastwood’s bluntly, even brutally stated series of Dirty Harry movies. Lifting of restrictive production codes in the 1960s produced two immediate reactions: efforts to address sensitive issues and older themes in a realistic way, and attempts to attract audiences through “shock’’ effect—nudity, explicit sex, and gratuitous scenes of blood, violence, and horror. Moviemakers were not far behind social themes that surfaced throughout the period. Black people appeared more frequently, starting in the 1970s and in more positive roles. There were black heroes and even a few movies about black people.After the 1950s women appeared less frequently solely as sex objects (although they continued to be used to dress up the scenery) or as a supporter of the male hero—someone to be protected and rescued. More and more women appeared in strong roles and increasingly they engaged in the same activity as men. In a film environment given over to hypersensitivity it was becoming difficult to find someone to villainize without offending some group. The safest course, it often appeared, was to “nail the white male.’’ Movies moved a great distance after the Second World War, and for many people aboard it had been a bumpy ride. Statistics on attendance at 456


TABLE 17.9 MOTION PICTURE STATISTICS— ADMISSIONS, 1946–1990 Year

Gross ($ millions)

Admissions (millions)

Per Week (millions)

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

1,692.0 1,594.0 1,506.0 1,448.0 1,379.0

4,067.3 3,664.4 3,422.7 3,168.5 3,017.5

78.2 70.5 65.8 60.9 58.0

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

1,332.0 1,325.0 1,339.0 1,251.0 1,204.0

2,840.1 2,777.7 2,630.6 2,270.4 2,072.3

54.6 53.4 50.6 43.7 39.9

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

1,125.0 1,078.0 1,010.0 1,006.0 984.4

1,893.9 1,727.6 1,553.8 1,488.2 1,304.5

36.4 33.2 29.9 28.6 25.1

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

945.5 874.9 925.0 947.6 1,041.8

1,224.7 1,080.1 1,093.4 1,024.4 1,031.5

23.6 20.8 21.0 19.7 19.8

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

1,067.1 1,110.0 1,282.0 1,294.0 1,429.2

975.4 926.5 978.6 911.9 920.6

18.8 17.8 18.8 17.5 17.7

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

1,349.5 1,583.1 1,523.5 1,908.5 2,114.8

820.3 934.1 864.6 1,010.7 1,032.8

15.8 18.0 16.6 19.4 19.9

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

2,036.4 2,372.3 2,643.4 2,821.3 2,748.5

957.1 1,063.2 1,128.2 1,120.9 1,021.5

18.4 20.4 21.7 21.6 19.6

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

2,965.6 3,452.7 3,766.0 4,030.6 3,749.4

1,067.0 1,175.4 1,196.9 1,199.1 1,056.1

20.5 22.6 23.0 23.1 20.3

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

3,778.0 4,252.9 4,458.4 5,033.4 5,021.8

1,017.2 1,088.5 1,084.8 1,262.8 1,188.6

19.6 20.9 20.9 24.3 22.9

Source: James D. Moser, ed., 1997 International Motion Picture Almanac (New York, 1997), 15A.

TABLE 17.10 NUMBER OF THEATERS AND AVERAGE ADMISSION PRICE, 1945–1990 Theaters Year

Indoor

Drive In

Admission Price ($)

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

20,355 16,904 19,106a 16,999a 10,150

102 2,202 ... ... 4,150

0.35 0.53 0.50 0.69 1.01

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

10,335 12,168b 14,029b 18,327b 22,774b

3,720 3,801b 3,561b 2,820b 915b

1.55 2.05 2.69 3.55 4.23

a Includes theaters of all kinds, including drive-ins. b Numbers after 1975 pertain to screens, not theaters.

Most new theaters had multiple screens. Source: John Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 235; Thomas Schatz, Boom and Bust: The American Cinema in the 1940s (New York, 1997), 461; David Oak, Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of Watergate and Vietnam, 1970–1979 (New York, 2000), 491.

theaters suggested a virtual disaster.While the numbers increased slightly at the end of the 1980s, they still stood a great distance from the glory days of the 1940s.Theater statistics, however, represented only part of the story. As with nearly everything in the last part of the 20th century, the condition of the film industry had become remarkably complex. Film companies made their peace with television by becoming part of it.They sold their movies to television networks and began to make movies and other shows specially for the small screen. Popularity after the 1970s of the videocassette recorder (VCR) made it possible for anyone to pick out a movie, rent it at the store, and watch it at home. One did not need to go to a theater to see the work of Hollywood and most people did not do so.

producers license to make the sort of films that previously had been forbidden. In showing nudity, explicit sex, and violence, filmmakers doubtless hoped to recoup at least some of the huge losses in recent years to television. In 1966 Jack Valenti, a former member of the Lyndon Johnson administration, became head of what was now called the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), and he encouraged efforts to produce a new production code, not so much to forbid certain forms of behavior but to classify films as to their suitability for various segments of the population. In November 1968 the MPA introduced a new voluntary system that carried four rating symbols. MPAA Film Rating System and Symbols

What Can Be Seen on Screen: Changes in Production Rules Since 1934 Hollywood had policed its operations in a production code administered by a special branch of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) headed by Will Hays.The Hays Office had established elaborate rules that forbade treatment of sensitive topics, banned virtually all profanity—Clark Gable’s saying “I don’t give a damn’’ in GoneWith theWind in 1939 had been a rare expression of leniency—and above all there was to be no showing of uncovered intimate parts of the body, a proviso most commonly applied to women’s breasts.The code was revised in 1956, but the ban on nudity, profanity, and obscenity remained. With emergence of Playboy magazine in the 1950s, Supreme Court rulings that subjected censorship to a narrow definition (if it allowed it at all), and gradual loosening of social taboos, producers stretched the bounds of the code in such films as Baby Doll, Peyton Place, and Lolita. Appearance of the contraceptive pill and the dash into liberalized social standards in the 1960s seemingly gave movie

TABLE 17.11

1. 1968—G: for General Audiences; M: for Mature Audiences, parental guidance advised; R: Restricted, admission limited to persons older than 16, unless accompanied by parent or adult guardian; X: no one younger than 16 admitted. 2. 1970—M changed to GP (later PG), parental guidance advised. 3. 1984—new rating, PG-13, special guidance advised for children younger than 13. 4. 1990—X rating changed to NC-17; no persons younger than 17 admitted. Summary of ratings procedure (number of films in each category) for the year 1990: G: 8; PG: 74; PG-13: 103; R: 365; NC-17 or X: 20. Ratings totals for the years 1968–1990: G: 952; PG: 2,996; PG-13: 508; R: 4,862; X or NC-17: 381. Source: Barry Monush, ed., 1992 International Motion Picture Almanac (New York, 1992), 25A.

TOP FIVE MOST POPULAR MOTION PICTURE STARS, BY YEAR AND RANK, 1946–1990

1946 Bing Crosby Ingrid Bergman Van Johnson Gary Cooper Bob Hope

1951 John Wayne Martin & Lewis Betty Grable Abbott & Costello Bing Crosby

1956 William Holden John Wayne James Stewart Burt Lancaster Glenn Ford

1961 Elizabeth Taylor Rock Hudson Doris Day John Wayne Cary Grant

1966 Julie Andrews Sean Connery Elizabeth Taylor Jack Lemmon Richard Burton

1947 Bing Crosby Betty Grable Ingrid Bergman Gary Cooper Humphrey Bogart

1952 Martin & Lewis Gary Cooper John Wayne Bing Crosby Bob Hope

1957 Rock Hudson John Wayne Pat Boone Elvis Presley Frank Sinatra

1962 Doris Day Rock Hudson Cary Grant John Wayne Elvis Presley

1967 Julie Andrews Lee Marvin Paul Newman Dean Martin Sean Connery

1948

1949

1950

Bob Hope Bing Crosby Abbott & Costello John Wayne Gary Cooper

John Wayne Bob Hope Bing Crosby Betty Grable James Stewart

1953

1954

1955

Gary Cooper Martin & Lewis John Wayne Alan Ladd Bing Crosby

John Wayne Martin & Lewis Gary Cooper James Stewart Marilyn Monroe

1958

1959

Glenn Ford Elizabeth Taylor Jerry Lewis Marlon Brando Rock Hudson

Rock Hudson Cary Grant James Stewart Doris Day Debbie Reynolds

1963

1964

Bing Crosby Betty Grable Abbott & Costello Gary Cooper Bob Hope

Doris Day John Wayne Rock Hudson Jack Lemmon Cary Grant

Doris Day Jack Lemmon Rock Hudson John Wayne Cary Grant

1968

1969

Sidney Poitier Paul Newman Julie Andrews John Wayne Clint Eastwood

Paul Newman John Wayne Steve McQueen Dustin Hoffman Clint Eastwood

James Stewart Grace Kelly John Wayne William Holden Gary Cooper

1960 Doris Day Rock Hudson Cary Grant Elizabeth Taylor Debbie Reynolds

1965 Sean Connery John Wayne Doris Day Julie Andrews Jack Lemmon

1970 Paul Newman Clint Eastwood Steve McQueen John Wayne Elliott Gould

(continued) Entertainment

457

TABLE 17.11

(continued)

1971 John Wayne Clint Eastwood Paul Newman Steve McQueen George C. Scott

1976 Robert Redford Jack Nicholson Dustin Hoffman Clint Eastwood Mel Brooks

1981 Burt Reynolds Clint Eastwood Dudley Moore Dolly Parton Jane Fonda

1986 Tom Cruise Eddie Murphy Paul Hogan Rodney Dangerfield Bette Midler

1972

1973

1974

Clint Eastwood George C. Scott Gene Hackman John Wayne Barbra Streisand

Clint Eastwood Ryan O’Neal Steve McQueen Burt Reynolds Robert Redford

Robert Redford Clint Eastwood Paul Newman Barbra Streisand Steve McQueen

1977

1978

1979

Sylvester Stallone Barbra Streisand Clint Eastwood Burt Reynolds Robert Redford

Burt Reynolds John Travolta Richard Dreyfuss Warren Beatty Clint Eastwood

Burt Reynolds Clint Eastwood Jane Fonda Woody Allen Barbra Streisand

1982

1983

1984

Burt Reynolds Clint Eastwood Sylvester Stallone Dudley Moore Richard Pryor

Clint Eastwood Eddie Murphy Sylvester Stallone Burt Reynolds John Travolta

1987

1988

Eddie Murphy Michael Douglas Michael J. Fox A. Schwarzenegger Paul Hogan

Tom Cruise Eddie Murphy Tom Hanks A. Schwarzenegger Paul Hogan

Clint Eastwood Bill Murray Harrison Ford Eddie Murphy Sally Field

1989 Jack Nicholson Tom Cruise Robin Williams Michael Douglas Tom Hanks

Note: Rankings compiled annually by Quigley Publishing Company. Source: Monush, 1993 Motion Picture Almanac, 44A.

Symbolically in the spotlight and still alone, film sensation Marilyn Monroe sings “Happy Birthday’’ to President John Kennedy in 1962—the final year of her life. (John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library)

458


1975 Robert Redford Barbra Streisand Al Pacino Charles Bronson Paul Newman

1980 Burt Reynolds Robert Redford Clint Eastwood Jane Fonda Dustin Hoffman

1985 Sylvester Stallone Eddie Murphy Clint Eastwood Michael J. Fox Chevy Chase

1990 A. Schwarzenegger Julia Roberts Bruce Willis Tom Cruise Mel Gibson

Sons of the Golden West The postwar era seemed poised to carry on an honored tradition in the world of American films. The B-grade western, standard fare since the 1920s, had followed an unchanging pattern: cheap, short, black-and-white movies, many of them made by Republic Studios, that featured a vigorous, well-tailored, unflinchingly moral male hero accompanied by a scruffy and erratic sidekick to provide humor and occasionally help the lead actor out of a tight spot. Such loyal companions as Gabby Hayes, Smiley Burnette, and Andy Devine became nearly as popular as the star. Usually part of a package offering for Saturday afternoons, the B-grade western had attracted a steady audience, mostly of young boys, and early signs suggested that the pace would continue after the Second World War. Gene Autry

returned from a stint in the army, but he had to yield top ranking to Roy Rogers, who had stayed home and made movies. It was not to be.After a good start in the postwar era, the Saturday westerns passed into obsolescence much quicker than had been expected. It was partly a matter of attrition. Several cowboy heroes reached back well into the 1930s, if not earlier, and they simply were becoming too old and too fat. Some moved on. John Wayne—at one time a member of the “Three Mesquiteers’’ hero gang—graduated to become a grade-A player of the first order. As happened in many areas of entertainment, the coup de grace came from television, although in rare cases the cowboy stars, such as Rogers and William Boyd, were able to ride that new territory for a while.

TABLE 17.12 COWBOY STARS—MOST POPULAR PERFORMERS IN GRADE B WESTERN MOVIES, BY YEAR AND RANK, 1946–1954 1946 Roy Rogers William Elliott Gene Autry “Gabby’’ Hayes Smiley Burnette Charles Starrett Johnny Mack Brown Sunset Carson Fuzzy Knight Eddie Dean

1949 Roy Rogers Gene Autry “Gabby’’ Hayes Tim Holt William Elliott Charles Starrett William Boyda Johnny Mack Brown Smiley Burnette Andy Devine

1952 Roy Rogers Gene Autry Rex Allen Bill Elliott Tim Holt “Gabby’’ Hayes Smiley Burnette Dale Evansb Charles Starrett William Boyda

1947 Roy Rogers Gene Autry William Boyda William Elliott “Gabby’’ Hayes Charles Starrett Smiley Burnette Johnny Mack Brown Dale Evansb Eddie Dean

1950 Roy Rogers Gene Autry “Gabby’’ Hayes Bill Elliott William Boyda Tim Holt Charles Starrett Johnny Mack Brown Smiley Burnette Dale Evansb

1953 Roy Roger Gene Autry Rex Allen Bill Elliott Allan “Rocky” Lane

1948 Roy Rogers Gene Autry William Elliott “Gabby’’ Hayes William Boyda Charles Starrett Tim Holt Johnny Mack Brown Smiley Burnette Andy Devine

1951 Roy Rogerss Gene Autry Tim Holt Charles Starrett Rex Allen Bill Elliott Smiley Burnette Allan Lane Dale Evansb “Gabby’’ Hayes

1954 Roy Rogers Gene Autry Rex Allen Bill Elliott “Gabby’’ Hayes

Note: Rankings based on poll of movie exhibitors by Motion Picture Herald. a Better known by his stage or movie name: Hopalong Cassidy. b The only female in the listing, Dale Evans was not, of course, a gunslinger but a proper friend and companion of Roy Rogers in the movies. Later in “real’’ life, after Rogers’ first wife died, Dale and Roy married. Source: Richard Gertner, ed., 1975 International Motion Picture Almanac (New York, 1975), 44A.

Entertainment

459

TABLE 17.13

TOP EARNING FILMS BY YEAR, 1947–1990

(in millions of dollars) 1947a .

BestYears of Our Lives (11.5) Duel in the Sun (10.7) The Jolson Story (8) Forever Amber (8) Unconquered (7.5) Life with Father (6.3) Welcome Stranger (6.1) The Egg and I (5.8) TheYearling (5.3) Green Dolphin Street (5)

1948 Road to Rio (4.5) Easter Parade (4.2) Red River (4.15) The Three Musketeers (4.1) Johnny Belinda (4.1) Cass Timberlane (4.05) The EmperorWaltz (4) Gentleman’s Agreement (3.9) Date with Judy (3.7) Captain from Castile (3.65)

1951 David and Bathsheba (7) Showboat (5.2) An American in Paris (4.5) The Great Caruso (4.5) A Streetcar Named Desire (4.15) BornYesterday (4.25) That’s My Boy (3.8) A Place in the Sun (3.5) AtWar with the Army (3.35) Father’s Little Dividend (3.1)

1952 Greatest Show on Earth (12) QuoVadis (10.5) Ivanhoe (7) Snows of Kilimanjaro (6.5) Sailor Beware (4.3) The African Queen (4) Jumping Jacks (4) High Noon (3.4) Son of Paleface (3.4) With a Song in My Heart (2.85)

1955 Cinerama Holiday (10) Mister Roberts (8.5) Battle Cry (8) 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (8) Not as a Stranger (7.1) The Country Girl (6.9) The Lady and the Tramp (6.5) Strategic Air Command (6.5) To Hell and Back (6) Sea Chase (6) A Star is Born (6)

1956 Guys and Dolls (9) The King and I (8.5) Trapeze (7.5) High Society (6.5) I’ll Cry Tomorrow (6.5) Picnic (6.3) War and Peace (6.25) The Eddy Duchin Story (5.3) Moby Dick (5.2) The Searchers (4.8)

1959 Auntie Mame (8.8) Shaggy Dog (7.8) Some Like It Hot (7) Imitation of Life (6.2) The Nun’s Story (6) Anatomy of a Murder (5.25) North by Northwest (5.25) Rio Bravo (5.2) Sleeping Beauty (4.3) Some Came Running (4.2)

1960 Ben-Hur (17.3) Psycho (8.5) Operation Petticoat (6.8) Suddenly, Last Summer (5.5) On the Beach (5.3) Solomon and Sheba (5.25) The Apartment (5.1) From the Terrace (5) Please Don’t Eat the Daisies (5) Ocean’s 11 (4.9)

1963 Cleopatra (15.7) The Longest Day (12.75) Irma La Douce (9.25) Lawrence of Arabia (9) How theWestWasWon (8) Mutiny on the Bounty (7.7) Son of Flubber (6.9) To Kill a Mockingbird (6.7) Bye Bye Birdie (5.6) Come BlowYour Horn (5.45)

1964 The Carpetbaggers (13) It’s a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (10) Unsinkable Molly Brown (7.5) Charade (6.15) The Cardinal (5.3) Move Over, Darling (5.1) My Fair Lady (5) What aWay to Go (5) Good Neighbor Sam (4.95) The Pink Panther (4.85)

1967 The Dirty Dozen (18.2) You Only Live Twice (16.3) Casino Royale (10.2) A Man for All Seasons (9.25) Thoroughly-Modern Millie (8.5) Barefoot in the Park (8.25) Georgy Girl (7.3) To SirWith Love (7.2) Grand Prix (7) Hombre (6.5)

460

1968 The Graduate (39) GuessWho’s Coming to Dinner (25) GoneWith theWind (reissue, 23) TheValley of the Dolls (20) The Odd Couple (18.5) Planet of the Apes (15) Rosemary’s Baby (12.3) The Jungle Book (11.5) Yours, Mine, and Ours (11) The Green Berets (8.7)


1949 Jolson Sings Again (5.5) Pinky (4.2) IWas a MaleWar Bride (4.1) The Snake Pit (4.1) Joan of Arc (4.1) The Stratton Story (3.7) Mr. Belvedere Goes to College (3.65) LittleWomen (3.6) Words and Music (3.5) Neptune’s Daughter (3.45)

1953 The Robe (20–30) From Here to Eternity (12.5) Shane (8) How to Marry a Millionaire (7.5) Peter Pan (7) Hans Christian Andersen (6) House ofWax (5.5) Mogambo (5.2) Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (5.1) Moulin Rouge (5)

1957 The Ten Commandments (18.5) Around theWorld in 80 Days (16.2) Giant (12) Pal Joey (6.7) SevenWonders of theWorld (6.5) Teahouse of the August Moon (5.6). The Pride and the Passion (5.5) Anastasia (5) Island in the Sun (5) Love Me Tender (4.5)

1961 The Guns of Navarone (8.6) The Absent-Minded Professor (8.2) The Parent Trap (8) Swiss Family Robinson (7.5) Exodus (7.35) TheWorld of SuzieWong (7.3) Alamo (7.25) GoneWith theWind (reissue, 6) 101 Dalmatians (5.8) Splendor in the Grass (5.1)

1965 Mary Poppins (28.6) The Sound of Music (20) Goldfinger (19.7) My Fair Lady (19) What’s New Pussycat? (7.15) Shenandoah (6.4) The Sandpiper (6.4) Father Goose (6) Von Ryan’s Express (5.6) TheYellow Rolls-Royce (5.4)

1969 The Love Bug (17) Funny Girl (16.5) Bullitt (16.4) Butch Cassidy and Sundance Kid (15) Romeo and Juliet (14.5) True Grit (11.5) Midnight Cowboy (11) Oliver! (10.5) Goodbye Columbus (10.5) Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (7.5)

1950 Samson and Delilah (11) Battleground (4.55) King Solomon’s Mines (4.4) Cheaper by the Dozen (4.3) Annie GetYour Gun (4.2) Cinderella (4.15) Father of the Bride (4.15) Sands of Iwo Jima (3.9) Broken Arrow (3.55) Twelve O’Clock High (3.225)

1954 White Christmas (12) The Caine Mutiny (8.7) The Glenn Miller Story (7) The Egyptian (6) RearWindow (5.3) The High and the Mighty (5.2) Magnificent Obsession (5) Three Coins in the Fountain (5) Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (4.8) Desiree (4.5)

1958 Bridge on the River Kwai (18) Peyton Place (12) Sayonara (10.5) No Time for Sergeants (7.2) TheVikings (7) Search for Paradise (6.5) South Pacific (6.4) Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (6.1) Raintree County (6) OldYeller (5.9)

1962 Spartacus (13.5) West Side Story (11) Lover Come Back (8.5) That Touch of Mink (8.5) El Cid (8) The Music Man (8) King of Kings (7.5) Hatari (6) The Flower Drum Song (5) The Interns (5)

1966 Thunderball (26) Doctor Zhivago (15) Who’s Afraid of VirginiaWoolf? (10.3) That Darned Cat (9.2) The Russians Are Coming . . . (7.75) Lt. Robin Crusoe, USN (7.5) The Silencers (7) Torn Curtain (7) Our Man Flint (6.5) A Patch of Blue (6.3)

1970 Airport (37.6) M*A*S*H (22) Patton (21) Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice (14) Woodstock (13.5) Hello, Dolly! (13) Cactus Flower (11.3) Catch 22 (9.25) On Her Majesty’s Secret Service (9) The Reivers (8)

1971 Love Story (50) Little Big Man (15) Summer of ‘42 (14) Ryan’s Daughter (13.4) The Owl and the Pussycat (11.5) The Aristocats (10.1) Carnal Knowledge (9.35) Willard (8.2) The Andromeda Strain (7.5) Big Jake (7.5)

1975 Jaws (102.65) The Towering Inferno (55) Benji (30.8) Young Frankenstein (30) The Godfather Part II (28.9) Shampoo (22) Funny Lady (19) Murder on Orient Express (17.8) Return of the Pink Panther (17) Tommy (16)

1979 Superman (81) EveryWhichWay But Loose (48) Rocky II (43) Alien (40.1) The Amityville Horror (35) Star Trek (35) Moonraker (33.9) The Muppet Movie (32) California Suite (29.2) The Deer Hunter (26.9)

1983 Return of the Jedi (165.5) Tootsie (94.6) Trading Places (40.6) War Games (36.6) Superman III (36.4) Flashdance (36.2) Staying Alive (33.6) Octopussy (33.2) Mr. Mom (31.5) 48 Hours (30.3)

1987 Beverly Hills Cop II (80.8) Platoon (66.7)d Fatal Attraction (60) Three Men and a Baby (45) The Untouchables (36.8) TheWitches of Eastwick (31.8) Predator (31) Dragnet (30.1) The Secret of My Success (29.5) LethalWeapon (29.5)

1972 The Godfather (81.5) Fiddler on the Roof (25.1) Diamonds Are Forever (21) What’s Up, Doc? (17) Dirty Harry (16) The Last Picture Show (12.75) A Clockwork Orange (12) Cabaret (10.89) The Hospital (9) EverythingYou AlwaysWanted to Know About Sex (8.5)

1976 One Flew Over Cuckoo’s Nest (56.5) All the President’s Men (29) The Omen (27.85) The Bad News Bears (22.3) Silent Movie (20.3) Midway (20.3) Dog Day Afternoon (19.8) Murder by Death (18.8) Jaws (reissue, 16.1) Blazing Saddles (reissue, 13.8)

1980 The Empire Strikes Back (120) Kramer vs. Kramer (60.5)c The Jerk (43)c Airplane (38) Smokey and the Bandit (37.5) Coal Miner’s Daughter (35) Private Benjamin (33.5) The Blues Brothers (31) The Electric Horseman (30.9) The Shining (30.2)

1984 Ghostbusters (127) Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (109) Gremlins (78.5) Beverly Hills Cop (58) Terms of Endearment (50.3)c The Karate Kid (41.7) Star Trek III:The Search for Spock (39) Police Academy (38.5) Romancing the Stone (36) Sudden Impact (34.6)

1988 Who Framed Roger Rabbit (78) Coming to America (65) Good Morning,Vietnam (58.1) “Crocodile’’ Dundee II (57.3) Big (50.8) Three Men and a Babyb (36.3) Die Hard (35) Cocktail (35) Moonstruck (34.4) Beetlejuice (33.3)

1973 The Poseidon Adventure (40) Deliverance (18) The Getaway (17.5) Live and Let Die (15.5) Paper Moon (13) Last Tango in Paris (12.6) The Sound of Music (reissue, 11) Jesus Christ Superstar (10.8) TheWorld’s Greatest Athlete (10.6) American Graffiti (10.3)

1977 StarWars (127) Rocky (54) Smokey and the Bandit (39.7) A Star Is Born (37.1) King Kong (35.9) The Deep (31) Silver Streak (27.1) The Enforcer (24) Close Encounters of the Third Kind (23) In Search of Noah’s Ark (23)

1981 Raiders of the Lost Ark (90.4) Superman II (64) Stir Crazy (58.4)c 9 To 5 (57.8)c Stripes (39.5) AnyWhichWayYou Can (39.5) Arthur (37) The Cannonball Run (35.4) Four Seasons (26.8) ForYour Eyes Only (25.4)

1985 Back to the Future (94) Rambo: First Blood, Part II (80). Rocky IV (65) Beverly Hills Cop (50)d Cocoon (40) The Goonies (29.9) Witness (28) Police Academy 2 (27.2) National Lampoon’s EuropeanVacation (25.6) A View to a Kill (25.2)

1989 Batman (150.5) Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (115.5) LethalWeapon 2 (79.5) Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (71) Rain Man (65) Back to the Future, Part II (63) Ghostbusters II (61.6) LookWho’s Talking (55) Parenthood (48.6) Dead Poets Society (47.6)

1974 The Sting (68.5) The Exorcist (66.3) Papillon (19.75) Magnum Force (18.3) Herbie Rides Again (17.5) Blazing Saddles (16.5) Trial of Billy Jack (15) The Great Gatsby (14.2) Serpico (14.1) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (reissue, 13.8)

1978 Grease (83.1) Close Encounters of the Third Kind (54) National Lampoon’s Animal House (52.4) Jaws 2 (49.3) Heaven CanWait (42.6) The Goodbye Girl (41) StarWars (reissue, 38.4) Hooper (31.5) Foul Play (25.1) Revenge of Pink Panther (25)

1982 E.T.:The Extra-Terrestrial (187) Rocky III (63.4) On Golden Pond (63)c Porky’s (53.5) An Officer and a Gentleman (52) The Best LittleWhorehouse in Texas (48) Star Trek II:TheWrath of Khan (40) Poltergeist (36) Annie (35) Chariots of Fire (27.6)

1986 Top Gun (82) The Karate Kid. Part II (56.9) “Crocodile’’ Dundee (51) Star Trek IV:TheVoyage Home (45) Aliens (42.5) The Color Purpleb (41.9) Back to School (41.7) The Golden Child (33) Ruthless People (31) Out of Africad (30)

1990 Ghost (94) PrettyWoman (81.9) Home Alone (81.9) Die Hard 2 (66.5) Total Recall (65) Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (62) Dick Tracy (59.5) The Hunt for Red October (58.5) Driving Miss Daisy (49.5) Back to the Future, Part III (49)

a

All statistics are based on revenues, “rentals,’’ returned to the distributors and reported in Variety Magazine. From 1947 to 1958 numbers represent total anticipated domestic earnings. b After 1959 the numbers represent only rental fees to the end of the calendar year, which of course placed films released late (Oct.–Dec.) at a disadvantage. c Represents films released late in the previous year. d Represents films released late in previous year, but rentals for only the current year are reported. Source: Cobbett Steinberg, Film Facts (New York, 1980), 20–28; Oak, Lost Illusions, 447–48.

Entertainment

461

TABLE 17.14 TOP FIVE MONEYMAKING FILMS BY DECADE, 1940s–1980s Top Five Moneymaking Films from the Forties Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Title

Rank

Amount

Bambi (1942) Fantasia (1940) Pinocchio (1940) Song of the South (1946) Cinderella (1949)

$18,735,000 15,500,000 13,000,000 12,800,000 12,450,000

Top Five Moneymaking Films from the Fifties Rank

TABLE 17.16 TOP-RENTING PRERECORDED VIDEOS, 1989

Title

Amount

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Title

Distributor

Big Die Hard A Fish CalledWanda Three Men and a Baby Beetlejuice

CBS-Fox CBS-Fox CBS-Fox Touchstone Warner

Coming to America Cocktail Twins Bull Durham Crocodile Dundee II

Paramount Touchstone MCA Orion Paramount


1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The Ten Commandments (1956) Ben-Hur (1959) Around theWorld in 80 Days (1956) The Robe (1953) South Pacific (1958)

$43,000,000 36,650,000 23,120,000 17,500,000 17,500,000

TABLE 17.17 BEST-SELLING PRERECORDED VIDEOS OF ALL TIME

Top Five Moneymaking Films from the Sixties Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Title

Amount

The Sound of Music (1965) The Graduate (1968) Doctor Zhivago (1965) Butch Cassidy (1969) Mary Poppins (1964)

$79,000,000 49,078,000 46,550,000 46,039,000 41,000,000

Top Five Moneymaking Films from the Seventies Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Title

Amount

StarWars (1977) Jaws (1975) Grease (1978) The Exorcist (1973) The Godfather (1972)

$175,849,013 133,429,000 93,292,000 88,100,000 86,275,000

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Distributor

Units sold (millions)

E.T.–The Extra-Terrestrial Batman Bambi Who Framed Roger Rabbit Cinderella

MCA Warner Disney Touchstone Disney

15.1 11.5 10.5 8.5 7.5

Honey, I Shrunk the Kids Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade The Land Before Time TheWizard of Oz Top Gun

Disney Paramount MCA MGM/UA Paramount

5.7 5.5 5.0 3.6 3.5

Title

Note: As of Apr. 1990. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 242.

Top Five Moneymaking Films from the Eighties Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Title

Amount

E.T.–The Extra-Terrestrial (1982) Return of the Jedi (1983) Batman (1989) The Empire Strikes Back (1980) Ghostbusters (1984)

$228,170,000 168,190,000 150,500,000 141,670,000 132,720,000

Note: Films of the 1940s through 1970s reflect earnings through the year 1979 and thus are little affected by the video rentals that would blossom near the end of the 20th century. Films of the 1980s reflect earnings to February 1994. Source: Steinberg, Film Facts, 13–15; Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995, 235.

TABLE 17.15 BEST-SELLING PRERECORDED VIDEOS, 1989 Title

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Batman Bambi Who Framed Roger Rabbit The Land Before Time TheWizard of Oz:The 50th Anniversary Edition

Warner Disney Touchstone MCA MGM/UA

6. 7.

Michael Jackson’s Moonwalker Sports Illustrated’s 25th Anniversary SwimsuitVideo Jane Fonda’s CompleteWorkout Rain Man Lawrence of Arabia

CBS HBO

800 600

Warner MGM/UA RCA/Columbia

500 490 450

8. 9. 10.

Distributor

Unit sold ( ‘000s)

Rank


462


11,500 10,500 8,500 5,000 3,600

The Academy Awards The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, founded in 1927, set out immediately to promote its popularity and image by honoring the most distinguished work in aspects of the field. Starting with only four awards in 1928, the categories in 1934 began to increase until they reached the point in 1990 when Academy Awards—also known as Oscars—were given to winners in 19 areas. The academy divided itself into 13 branches and entrusted each branch with making up to five nominations in its given area of specialization.The entire membership made nominations in the best film category and the entire membership voted on all categories. The large decline in made-for-theater movies as a means of entertainment seemingly had little effect on the appeal of the Academy Awards. Enhanced substantially by the emergence of television coverage, “Oscar Night’’ maintained continuing national appeal, marked with lavish and daring costumes by female attendees, acceptance speeches that competed in measure of predictability, creativity, and outright effrontery, and a rare snub by such rebels as Marlon Brando or George C. Scott. The table below lists winners of awards by year in each of arguably the seven most popular categories.

TABLE 17.18 Year

THE ACADEMY AWARDS, 1946–1990

Best Picture

Best Director

Best Actor

Best Actress

Best Supporting Best Supporting Actor Actress Anne Baxter The Razor’s Edge

Best Song (from film)

1946

The BestYears of Our Lives

William Wyler The BestYears of Our Lives

Fredric March The BestYears of Our Lives

Olivia de Havilland To Each His Own

Harold Russell The Best Years of Our Lives

“On the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe’’ The Harvey Girls

1947

Gentleman’s Agreement

Elia Kazan Gentleman’s Agreement

Ronald Colman A Double Life

Loretta Young The Farmer’s Daughter

Edmund Gwenn Celeste Holm “Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah’’ Miracle on 34th Street Gentleman’s Agreement Song of the South

1948

Hamlet

John Huston Treasure of the Sierra Madre

Laurence Olivier Hamlet

Jane Wyman Johnny Belinda

Walter Huston Treasure of the Sierra Madre

Claire Trevor Key Largo

1949

All the King’s Men

Joseph L. Mankiewicz A Letter to ThreeWives

Broderick Crawford All the King’s Men

Olivia de Havilland The Heiress

Dean Jagger Twelve O’Clock High

Mercedes McCambridge “Baby, It’s Cold Outside’’ All the King’s Men Neptune’s Daughter

1950

All About Eve

Joseph L. Mankiewicz All About Eve

Jose Ferrer Cyrano de Bergerac

Judy Holliday BornYesterday

George Sanders All About Eve

Josephine Hull Harvey

“Mona Lisa’’ Captain Carey, USA

1951

An American in Paris

George Stevens A Place in the Sun

Humphrey Bogart The African Queen

Vivien Leigh A Streetcar Named Desire

Karl Malden A Streetcar Named Desire

Kim Hunter A Streetcar Named Desire

“In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening’’ Here Comes the Groom

1952

The Greatest Show on Earth

John Ford The Quiet Man

Gary Cooper High Noon

Shirley Booth Anthony Quinn Come Back, Little Sheba Viva Zapata!

Gloria Grahame The Bad and the Beautiful

“High Noon (Do not Forsake Me, Oh My Darlin’)’’ High Noon

1953

From Here to Eternity

Fred Zinnemann From Here to Eternity

William Holden Stalag 17

Audrey Hepburn Roman Holiday

Frank Sinatra From Here to Eternity

Donna Reed From Here to Eternity

“Secret Love’’ Calamity Jane

1954

On theWaterfront

Elia Kazan On theWaterfront

Marion Brando On theWaterfront

Grace Kelly The Country Girl

Edmond O’Brien The Barefoot Contessa

Eva Marie Saint On theWaterfront

“Three Coins in the Fountain’’ Three Coins in the Fountain

1955

Marty

Delbert Mann Marty

Ernest Borgnine Marty

Anna Magnani The Rose Tattoo

Jack Lemmon Mister Roberts

Jo Van Fleet East of Eden

“Love Is a ManySplendored Thing’’ Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing

1956

Around theWorld in 80 Days

George Stevens Giant

Yul Brynner The King and I

Ingrid Bergman Anastasia

Anthony Quinn Lust for Life

Dorothy Malone Written on theWind

“Whatever Will Be.Will Be (Que Sera, Sera)’’ The ManWho Knew Too Much

1957

The Bridge on the River Kwai

David Lean The Bridge on the River Kwai

Alec Guinness The Bridge on the River Kwai

Joanne Woodward The Three Faces of Eve

Red Buttons Sayonara

Miyoshi Umeki Sayonara

“All the Way’’ The Joker IsWild

1958

Gigi

Vincente Minnelli Gigi

David Niven Separate Tables

Susan Hayward IWant to Live!

Burl Ives The Big Country

Wendy Hiller Separate Tables

“Gigi’’ Gigi

1959

Ben-Hur

William Wyler Ben-Hur

Charlton Heston Ben-Hur

Simone Signoret Room at the Top

Hugh Griffith Ben-Hur

Shelley Winters The Diary of Anne Frank

“High Hopes’’ A Hole in the Head

1960

The Apartment

Billy Wilder The Apartment

Burt Lancaster Elmer Gantry

Elizabeth Taylor Butterfield 8

Peter Ustinov Spartacus

Shirley Jones Elmer Gantry

“Never on Sunday’’ Never on Sunday

1961

West Side Story

Jerome Robbins, Robert Wise West Side Story

Maximilian Schell Judgment at Nuremberg

Sophia Loren TwoWomen

George Chakiris West Side Story

Rita Moreno West Side Story

“Moon River’’ Breakfast at Tiffany’s

1962

Lawrence of Arabia

David Lean Lawrence of Arabia

Gregory Peck To Kill a Mockingbird

Anne Bancroft The MiracleWorker

Ed Begley Sweet Bird of Youth

Patty Duke The MiracleWorker

“Days of Wine and Roses’’ Days of Wine and Roses

1963

Tom Jones

Tony Richardson Tom Jones

Sidney Poitier Lilies of the Field

Patricia Neal Hud

Melvyn Douglas Hud

Margaret Rutherford “Call Me Irresponsible’’ TheV.I.P.s Papa’s Delicate Condition

1964

My Fair Lady

George Cukor My Fair Lady

Rex Harrison My Fair Lady

Julie Andrews Mary Poppins

Peter Ustinov Topkapi

Lila Kedrova Zorba the Greek

“Chim Chim Cher-ee’’ Mary Poppins

1965

The Sound of Music

Robert Wise The Sound of Music

Lee Marvin Cat Ballou

Julie Christie Darling

Martin Balsam A Thousand Clowns

Shelley Winters A Patch of Blue

“The Shadow of Your Smile’’ The Sandpiper

1966

A Man for All Seasons

Fred Zinnemann A Man for All Seasons

Paul Scofield A Man for All Seasons

Elizabeth Taylor Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

Walter Matthau The Fortune Cookie

Sandy Dennis Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

“Born Free’’ Born Free

1967

In the Heat of the Night

Mike Nichols The Graduate

Rod Steiger In the Heat of the Night

Katharine Hepburn GuessWho’s Coming to Dinner

George Kennedy Cool Hand Luke

Estelle Parsons Bonnie and Clyde

“Talk to the Animals’’ Doctor Dolittle

1968

Oliver!

Carol Reed Oliver!

Cliff Robertson Charly

Katharine Hepburn The Lion inWinter, Barbra Streisand Funny Girl

Jack Albertson The SubjectWas Roses

Ruth Gordon Rosemary’s Baby

“The Windmills of Your Mind’’ The Thomas Crown Affair

1969

Midnight Cowboy

John Schlesinger Midnight Cowboy

John Wayne True Grit

Maggie Smith The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie

Gig Young They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?

Goldie Hawn Cactus Flower

“Raindrops Keep Fallin’ on My Head’’ Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

“Buttons and Bows’’ The Paleface


463

TABLE 17.18 Year

(continued)

Best Picture

Best Director

Best Actor

Best Actress

Best Supporting Best Supporting Actor Actress

Best Song (from film)

1970

Patton

Franklin Schaffner Patton

George C. Scott Patton

Glenda Jackson Women in Love

John Mills Ryan’s Daughter

Helen Hayes Airport

“For All We Know’’ Lovers and Other Strangers

1971

The French Connection

William Friedkin The French Connection

Gene Hackman The French Connection

Jane Fonda Klute

Ben Johnson The Last Picture Show

Cloris Leachman “Theme from Shaft’’ The Last Picture Show Shaft

1972

The Godfather

Bob Fosse Cabaret

Marlon Brando The Godfather

Liza Minnelli Cabaret

Joel Grey Cabaret

Eileen Heckart Butterflies Are Free

“The Morning After’’ The Poseidon Adventure

1973

The Sting

George Roy Hill The Sting

Jack Lemmon Save the Tiger

Glenda Jackson A Touch of Class

John Houseman The Paper Chase

Tatum O’Neal Paper Moon

“The Way We Were’’ TheWayWeWere

1974

The Godfather, Part II

Francis Ford Coppola The Godfather, Part II

Art Carney Harry and Tonto

Ellen Burstyn Robert DeNiro Alice Doesn’t Live Here The Godfather, Part II Anymore

Ingrid Bergman Murder on the Orient Express

“We May Never Love Like This Again’’ The Towering Inferno

1975

One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest

Milos Forman One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest

Jack Nicholson One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest

Louise Fletcher One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest

George Burns The Sunshine Boys

Lee Grant Shampoo

“I’m Easy’’ Nashville

1976

Rocky

John G. Avildsen Rocky

Peter Finch Network

Faye Dunaway Network

Jason Robards All the President’s Men

Beatrice Straight Network

“Evergreen’’ (love theme) A Star Is Born

1977

Annie Hall

Woody Allen Annie Hall

Richard Dreyfuss The Goodbye Girl

Diane Keaton Annie Hall

Jason Robards Julia

Vanessa Redgrave Julia

“You Light Up My Life’’ You Light Up My Life

1978

The Deer Hunter

Michael Cimino The Deer Hunter

Jon Voight Coming Home

Jane Fonda Coming Home

Christopher Walken The Deer Hunter

Maggie Smith California Suite

“Last Dance’’ Thank God It’s Friday

1979

Kramer vs. Kramer

Robert Benton Kramer vs. Kramer

Dustin Hoffman Kramer vs. Kramer

Sally Field Norma Rae

Melvyn Douglas Being There

Meryl Streep Kramer vs. Kramer

“It Goes Like It Goes’’ Norma Rae

1980

Ordinary People

Robert Redford Ordinary People

Robert DeNiro Raging Bull

Sissy Spacek Coal Miner’s Daughter

Timothy Hutton Ordinary People

Mary Steenburgen Melvin and Howard

“Fame’’ Fame

1981

Chariots of Fire

Warren Beatty Reds

Henry Fonda On Golden Pond

Katharine Hepburn On Golden Pond

John Gielgud Arthur

Maureen Stapleton “Arthur’s Theme’’ Reds (Best ThatYou Can Do) Arthur

1982

Gandhi

Richard Attenborough Gandhi

Ben Kingsley Gandhi

Meryl Streep Sophie’s Choice

Lou Gossett, Jr. An Officer and a Gentleman

Jessica Lange Tootsie

“Up Where We Belong’’ An Officer and a Gentleman

1983

Terms of Endearment

James L. Brooks Terms of Endearment

Robert Duvall Tender Mercies

Shirley MacLaine Terms of Endearment

Jack Nicholson Terms of Endearment

Linda Hunt TheYear of Living Dangerously

“Flashdance . . .What a Feeling’’ Flashdance

1984

Amadeus

Milos Forman Amadeus

F. Murray Abraham Amadeus

Sally Field Places in the Heart

Haing S. Ngor The Killing Fields

Peggy Ashcroft A Passage to India

“I Just Called to Say I Love You’’ The Woman in Red

1985

Out of Africa

Sydney Pollack Out of Africa

William Hurt Kiss of the Spider Woman

Geraldine Page The Trip to Bountiful

Don Ameche Cocoon

Anjelica Huston Prizzi’s Honor

“Say You, Say Me’’ White Nights

1986

Platoon

Oliver Stone Platoon

Paul Newman The Color of Money

Marlee Matlin Children of a Lesser God

Michael Caine Hannah and Her Sisters

Dianne Wiest Hannah and Her Sisters

“Take My Breath Away’’ Top Gun

1987

The Last Emperor

Bernardo Bertolucci The Last Emperor

Michael Douglas Wall Street

Cher Moonstruck

Sean Connery The Untouchables

Olympia Dukakis Moonstruck

“(I’ve Had) the Time of My Life’’ Dirty Dancing

1988

Rain Man

Barry Levinson Rain Man

Dustin Hoffman Rain Man

Jodie Foster The Accused

Kevin Kline A Fish Called Wanda

Geena Davis The Accidental Tourist

“Let the River Run’’ Working Girl

1989

Driving Miss Daisy

Oliver Stone Born on the Fourth of July

Daniel Day-Lewis My Left Foot

Jessica Tandy Driving Miss Daisy

Denzel Washington Glory

Brenda Fricker My Left Foot

“Under the Sea’’ The Little Mermaid

1990

DancesWithWolves

Kevin Costner DancesWithWolves

Jeremy Irons Reversal of Fortune

Kathy Bates Misery

Joe Pesci GoodFellas

Whoopi Goldberg Ghost

“Sooner or Later (I Always Get My Man)’’ Dick Tracy

Other categories for which Oscars were awarded in 1990 Foreign Film Costume Design Make Up Original Screenplay Editing Art Direction

Cinematography Feature Documentary Original Score Adapted Screenplay Short Subject Live Action Short Subject Documentary

Source: For detailed information on yearly awards see Robert Osborne, 65 Years of the Oscar: The Official History of the Academy Awards (New York, 1994), 90–307.

464


Giants of postwar movies, Gary Cooper (right) and Ingrid Bergman appear with director Sam Wood while filming ForWhom the Bell Tolls. (National Archives)

TABLE 17.19 FILMS NOMINATED FOR THE MOST OSCARS, TO 1990 Film All About Eve GoneWith theWind From Here to Eternity Mary Poppins Who’s Afraid ofVirginiaWoolf Mrs Miniver The Song of Bernadette Johnny Belinda A Streetcar Named Desire On theWaterfront Ben-Hur Becket My Fair Lady Reds Dances With Wolves

TABLE 17.20 FILMS THAT WON THE MOST OSCARS, TO 1990

Year

Awards

Nominations

Film

Year

Awards

1950 1939 1953 1964 1966 1942 1943 1948 1951 1954 1959 1964 1964 1981 1990

6 8 8 5 5 6 4 1 4 8 11 1 8 3 7

14 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Ben-Hur West Side Story Gigi The Last Emperor GoneWith theWind From Here to Eternity On the Waterfront My Fair Lady Cabaret Gandhi Amadeus

1959 1961 1958 1987 1939 1953 1954 1964 1972 1982 1984

11 10 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Source: Ash, Top Ten, 176.

Source: Russell Ash, The Top Ten of Everything (New York, 1994), 176.

Entertainment

465

Radio Radio’s position at the start of the postwar period was at the same time commanding and precarious. For more than two decades the universal form of entertainment for the American populace, radio approached the late 1940s as an extension of earlier years: the same basic schedule of diverse offerings, often the same shows and performers. For a short time, radio received the same results in audience approval: The comedy-variety programs, featuring large-name performers, such as Jack Benny or Bob Hope, remained the most popular. The end came with remarkable speed, and some people could see it coming. Freed of wartime shortages and government-imposed priorities, the television industry developed rapidly once it got started, with expansion of stations, improvement of quality, and affordability of receiving sets. Television pioneers became national figures, and then one-by-one or group-by-group, the top people of radio, and many of the most popular shows shifted over to television. The golden age of radio had largely ended by the mid-1950s or at latest the end of the decade, and the future of the medium seemed much in doubt. It developed in short order that there was still fire in the ashes, as radio set to reestablishing itself as a meaningful part of the American system of communication, information, and entertainment. In large measure it meant that radio would have to shift into different forms of programming. Having yielded virtually the entire realm of prime-time network shows to television, radio emphasized programs that one could enjoy while performing some other function. Music, after all, is

TABLE 17.21 MOST POPULAR NETWORK RADIO PROGRAMS, SEASON OF 1946–1947 Format

Hooper Ratinga

Bob Hope Fibber McGee & Molly Charlie McCarthy Jack Benny

Comedy–Variety Comedy–Drama Comedy–Variety Comedy–Variety

30.2 30.2 27.4 27.0

Red Skelton Fred Allen Lux Radio Theater Screen Actors Guild

Comedy–Variety Comedy–Variety Drama Drama

25.4 24.9 23.8 23.8

Amos ‘n Andy Phil Harris/Alice Faye Duffy’s Tavern George Burns/Gracie Allen

Comedy–Drama Comedy–Variety Comedy–Drama Comedy–Drama

22.5 21.0 19.6 17.9

Judy Canova Bob Hawk Blondie Take It or Leave It

Comedy–Variety Quiz Show Comedy–Drama Quiz Show

17.8 17.6 17.3 17.2

Eddie Cantor Great Gildersleeve Henry Aldrich Truth or Consequences

Comedy–Drama Comedy–Drama Comedy–Drama Audience Part.

17.1 16.9 16.8 16.5

Bing Crosby Date with Judy Fannie Brice Abbott & Costello

Comedy–Variety Comedy–Drama Comedy–Drama Comedy–Variety

16.1 16.0 15.9 15.7

Big Town Life of Riley Joan Davis Show Your Hit Parade

Thriller-Drama Comedy–Drama Comedy–Drama Music–Variety

15.4 15.3 14.9 14.6

Jimmy Durante Eddie Foy Jack Haley Manhattan Merry Go Round

Comedy–Variety Comedy–Variety Comedy–Drama Comedy–Variety

14.6 14.5 14.4 14.0

Program

a

The Hooper Ratings, used during 1934–49, were based on telephone calls in major cities to learn the programs to which people were listening. Source: Harry B. Summers, ed., A Thirty-year History of Programs Carried on National Networks in the United States 1926–1956 (New York, 1971), 141–43.

466


music, an audio expression that one did not need to see to appreciate. Almost immediately recorded music and disc-jockey shows became a staple of the new radio, and offerings varied as tastes and times changed. Fortunately, rock music arrived at about the same time that radio was searching for new territory, in the mid-1950s. Rock and roll music and its later variations doubtless helped radio survive, but in time one could find on the dial something for every musical taste. “Talk’’ radio, which came somewhat later, took on new life in the 1980s when such personalities as Larry King, Rush Limbaugh, and Howard Stern came on the air. Even in areas where radio duplicated television, as in coverage of sporting events, it became evident that there was an audience for both forms of broadcast. Well positioned to benefit from many of the technological advances in electronics, radio advanced its range, clarity, and quality of sound through such developments as the transistor, expansion of frequency modulation (FM) broadcasting, which lent itself to stereophonic sound (stereo), and the transmission miracles associated with space satellites. Every automobile had a radio, and one could find scarcely a household that did not have at least one portable unit. The Walkman (early versions of which had a radio) and the “boom box’’ were familiar parts of popular culture and excellent gifts for almost any occasion. Radio networks remained, but they stopped controlling programs, often confining their attention to brief hourly news summaries, special developments, and national sporting events, such as the World Series of baseball.Whether it offered music, sports, talk shows, or some combination of varied programs, radio in the last half of the 20th century became regionalized and localized, geared to ethnic, geographic, political, or cultural interests.As a consequence it became nearly impossible to identify, as once had been the practice, the most popular national radio programs, although some talk-show hosts did develop a national following. One could identify only popular formats.

TABLE 17.22 MOST POPULAR NETWORK RADIO PROGRAMS, SEASON OF 1955–1956 Format

Nielsen Ratinga

Guiding Light Helen Trent Young Dr. Malone Ma Perkins Arthur Godfrey

Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Daytime Variety

4.7 4.7 4.7 4.5 4.4

Our Miss Brooks Nora Drake Road of Life Charlie McCarthy Two for the Money

Comedy Drama Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Comedy–Drama Quiz

4.3 4.2 4.1 3.9 3.9

Brighter Day WendyWarren Aunt Jenny’s Stories Dragnet People Are Funny

Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Thriller Drama Audience Part.

3.9 3.9 3.7 3.6 3.5

Art Linkletter Lowell Thomas Second Mrs. Burton Gunsmoke Morgan Beatty

Human Interest News Daytime Dramab Thriller Drama News

3.4 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3

Robert Q. Lewis Great Gildersleeve One Man’s Family When a Girl Marries Gunsmoke

Daytime Variety Comedy Drama Homey Drama Daytime Dramab Daytime Thriller

3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2

Program

Format

Nielsen Ratinga

Gene Autry Groucho Marx PepperYoung’s Family My True Story Woman in My House

Semi-Variety Quiz Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab Daytime Dramab

3.2 3.2 3.1 3.0 2.9

Lone Ranger YoungWidder Brown Don McNeill, Breakfast Club Fibber McGee & Molly

Daytime Thriller Daytime Dramab Daytime Variety Comedy–Drama

2.7 2.6 2.6 2.5

Program

TABLE 17.24 RADIO AND TELEVISION OWNERSHIP— A COMPARISON, 1949–1990

a

The Nielsen ratings that began in 1949–50 used new technology—a device attached to radios—to answer the same question as the Hooper survey: How many radios were tuned to specific programs? The much lower numbers in these Nielsen ratings reflected not a difference in systems but that conventional radio entertainment had collapsed. b So-called soap operas, the last shows to defect to television. Source: Summers, History of Programs, 221–27.

TABLE 17.23 RECORD OF RADIO-STATION GROWTH SINCE TELEVISION BEGAN, 1946–1990 Date Jan. 1, 1949a

a

AM Authorized

On Air

FM Authorized

On Air

Jun. 30, 1946a Jan. 1, 1947a Jun. 30, 1947 Jan. 1, 1948a Jan. 1, 1949 Jan. 1, 1950

1,004 ... 1,517 ... 1,962 2,127 2,234

... ... ... 1,621 1,912 2,086

456 ... ... 918 926 966 788

55 ... ... 238 458 700 733

Jan. 1, 1951 Jan. 1, 1952 Jan. 1, 1953a Jun. 30, 1953a Jan. 1, 1954 Jan. 1, 1955 Jan. 1, 1956 Jan. 1, 1957 Jan. 1, 1958 Jan. 1, 1959 Jan. 1, 1960

2,351 2,408 2,524 ... 2,636 2,774 2,935 3,125 3,295 3,440 3,527

2,232 2,331 2,391 ... 2,521 2,669 2,824 3,008 3,196 3,326 3,398

703 650 ... 601 580 559 557 554 590 695 838

676 637 ... 580 560 552 540 530 537 578 688

Jan. 1, 1961 Jan. 1, 1962 Jan. 1, 1963 Jan. 1, 1964 Jan. 1, 1965 Jan. 1, 1966 Jan. 1, 1967 Jan. 1, 1968 Jan. 1, 1969 Jan. 1, 1970

3,667 3,911 3,924 4,039 4,077 4,129 4,190 4,249 4,300 4,344

3,539 3,693 3,810 3,937 4,009 4,049 4,121 4,156 4,237 4,269

1,018 1,128 1,128 1,249 1,468 1,657 1,865 3,005 2,114 2,651

815 960 1,081 1,146 1,270 1,446 1,643 1,753 1,938 2,476

Jan. 1, 1971 Jan. 1, 1972 Jan. 1, 1973 Jan. 1, 1974 Jan. 1, 1975 Jan. 1, 1976 Jan. 1, 1977 Jan. 1, 1978 Jan. 1, 1979 Jan. 1, 1980

4,383 4,411 4,431 4,448 4,477 4,513 4,536 4,569 4,599 4,651

4,323 4,355 4,382 4,395 4,432 4,463 4,497 4,513 4,549 4,558

2,795 2,971 3,162 3,360 3,617 3,752 3,969 4,130 4,310 4,463

2,636 2,783 2,965 3,151 3,353 3,571 3,743 3,972 4,089 4,190

Jan. 1, 1981 Jan. 1, 1982 Jan. 1, 1983 Jan. 1, 1984 Jan. 1, 1985 Oct. 30, 1985 Oct. 31, 1986 Jan. 1, 1988 Jan. 1, 1989 Jan. 1, 1990

4,700 4,763 4,828 4,897 4,924 4,975 5,026 5,072 5,199 5,223

4,589 4,634 4,685 4,733 4,754 4,805 4,856 4,902 4,932 4,966

4,588 4,736 4,970 5,240 5,479 5,657 5,781 5,933 6,434 6,705

4,374 4,467 4,505 4,649 4,888 5,066 5,190 5,342 5,529 5,665

Comparable figures for all services not available this date. Source: R. R. Bowker Co., Broadcasting and Cable Market Place, 1992 (New Providence, N.J., 1992), E–15.

Year

Radio Homes (millions)

TV Homes (millions)

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

40.8 42.1 43.6 44.8 45.0 45.4

1.6 5.9 17.3 17.3 23.4 28.2

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

46.2 47.2 48.2 48.9 49.5 49.5

32.3 36.7 40.3 43.0 46.9 45.2

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

49.5 51.1 52.3 54.9 55.2 57.0

46.9 49.0 51.3 52.6 53.8 54.9

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

57.5 58.5 60.6 62.0 62.6 64.1

56.0 57.0 58.5 60.1 62.1 64.8

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

67.4 68.9 70.4 71.4 72.9 74.6

66.2 68.5 69.6 71.2 72.9 74.5

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

76.5 78.6 80.5 84.3 84.6 84.6

76.3 77.3 81.5 83.3 83.8 84.9

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

86.7 87.1 88.1 89.9 91.1 92.8

85.9 87.4 88.6 90.4 92.1 93.1

Source: The Broadcasting Yearbook, 1991, G–16.

TABLE 17.25

RADIO FACTS, 1989 Radios in Use 533.2 million (up 17% since 1980) 343.0 million in homes 131.4 million in cars 37.8 million in trucks and vans 20.8 million at work

Households with Radios 99% of U.S.Total

Who Listens and How Long 95.3% of Americans older then 12 listen an average of 3 hours and 21 minutes each weekday. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 242.

Entertainment

467

TABLE 17.26 RADIO STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY FORMAT, 1990 Type

Number

AM Stations FM Stations Commercial Stations Noncommercial Stations Country

4,941 5,995 9,447 1,489 2,577

Adult Contemporary Religious Oldies Contemporary Hit/Top-40 Middle-of-the-Road (MOR)

2,359 1,070 934 905 555

Variety/Diverse Rock/AOR News Classical News/Talk

542 502 449 413 386

Jazz Talk Beautiful Music Spanish Gospel

342 326 311 300 266

Educational Classic Rock Urban Contemporary Progressive Big Band

241 240 235 213 181

Black Other Agriculture & Farm Nostalgia Public Affairs

173 157 105 98 53

Foreign Language/Ethnic New Age Blues Bluegrass Portuguese

46 45 30 18 8

Polka Folk Greek Children American Indian

7 6 3 3 3

Drama/Literature Polish Comedy Filipino Reggae French

2 2 2 1 1 1

Source: Broadcasting Yearbook, 1991, F–103.

Television The development of television was the most important new factor in American entertainment in the last half of the 20th century. It was one of the most important forces affecting the culture of the United States in the entire century. Television came to dominate the way people spent their leisure time; it affected all other means of entertainment in various ways—in some cases enhancing growth and expansion, as with several professional sports, in other cases producing decline of near catastrophic proportion, as in the case of theaterbased motion pictures. Because of television, every competing agent of entertainment in some fashion had to change its format. The evolution, or was it revolution, of television conformed almost perfectly with the classic tale of rags to riches—an industry that began the postwar era with virtually nothing and exploded to a 468


state in 1990 where it was on top of everything in entertainment. Developed in the 1920s, television for many years stood as an unproven technological novelty left behind by another, simpler marvel of communication, radio. In the mid-1940s there were only six television stations and barely 30,000 receiving sets in the country, most of them in the New York City area. The first full year of the postwar period, 1946, brought sales of only 7,000 units. Then everything seemed to fall into place in terms of technological improvement, increase in family income, public policy, and a culture given over to anything new that made life easier and fun. By 1950 television sales zoomed to 5 million. Within 10 years 90 percent of the people had television, and by 1990 the number without a set was negligible— probably a consequence of accessibility or of intellectual or idiosyncratic choice. Even more fully than radio a few decades earlier, television became universal American entertainment. Quality of the medium, and the cost, improved with competition and advances in technology.The transistor, so critical to the computer, also affected the quality, durability, and price of television sets. The industry began to broadcast in color in the mid-1950s, and in a relatively short time color was all it did. In the 1970s production of units began to shift abroad, starting with Japan, which first mastered the business of low-cost, precision manufacture, especially of electronics, and then it spread to other Asian states. In time nearly all television sets, or at least most of their components, came from abroad. It soon became evident that television, as with radio earlier, would focus its attention on entertainment as opposed to information and that economics would guide the selection of shows. The system remained overwhelmingly private, although in time a limited public television would appear. Sponsors, companies that paid for programs to have them interspersed with commercial messages, and advertisers wanted shows that would cause the least offense and produce the largest audience. Radio had faced this issue earlier, and at first television programming was composed of shifting radio’s lineup of shows— and often the people—over to TV. Aspects of this arrangement became almost permanent in the schedule. The basic philosophy of scheduling for parts of the day did not change much. Soap operas, for example, appeared on weekday afternoons on television as they had done on radio. But listener taste did change, with shifting emphases, the rise and fall of cultural attitudes. The westerns and variety shows that had been popular in the 1950s and 1960s at last ran their course. The appeal of certain forms remained fairly constant, even if the content within them changed: situation comedies; drama series that more often than not featured activities of police or doctors; movies, either made for television or adapted from films originally designed for theaters. Professional or intercollegiate sports maintained continuing and expanding appeal, although except for championship engagements, television sports coverage remained local or regional. In its first quarter-century of operation, television broadcasting was in the hands of three companies that started in radio, reincarnated as America’s established television networks: ABC, NBC, and CBS. Confinement of broadcasting largely to 12 Very High Frequency (VHF) channels and government concern about multiple stations interfering with one another discouraged expansion, making it possible for the Big Three to control 90 percent of prime-time broadcasting by the early 1970s. What technology gives, however, more technology perhaps can take away. Domination by ABC, NBC, and CBS began to loosen with improvement in the UHF (Ultra High Frequency) bands—channels that numbered 14 and above.Then came video cable and satellite technology that enhanced the distance of signals and created a foundation for a virtual explosion of stations and networks. In 1975 Home Box Office (HBO) began to use satellites to feed cable systems, thus becoming in effect a fourth national network, albeit committed to a limited form of programming and available only to those who paid for cable. In 1980 Ted Turner started CNN, Cable

News Network, a channel that truly came of age in the Gulf crisis that began in 1990. In 1981 MTV, an around-the-clock music channel targeted at the rock generation and its successors was made available for cable systems. Originally designed for rural and suburban customers, cable moved into the cities in the 1980s. At that time the typical household without cable had seven channels; equipped with cable the average was 33, and the process of proliferation had only started. In the late 1980s a new regular broadcast network, Fox, entered the picture and began to gear up for full-scale competition with the traditional giants. The share of prime-time broadcasting held by CBS, NBC, and ABC had slipped to 60 percent and only a fool would argue that it would not go lower, probably much lower. By 1990 television continued to command a lion’s share of the time Americans allotted to entertainment, and yet because of changes in television coverage, entertainment had taken on meaning vastly broader than in the 1950s and 1960s when the prime-time viewer as a rule had three choices.

TABLE 17.28 TV VIEWING PER HOUSEHOLD, 1949–1990

TABLE 17.27 TELEVISION HOUSEHOLDS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1949–1990

Year

Total Households (1,000)

Total TV Households (1,000)

Percent with TV

1949–1950 1950–1951 1951–1952 1952–1953 1953–1954

43,000 43,890 44,760 45,640 46,660

3,880 10,320 15,300 20,400 26,000

9.0 23.5 34.2 44.7 55.7

1954–1955 1955–1956 1956–1957 1957–1958 1958–1959

47,620 48,600 49,500 50,370 51,150

30,700 34,900 38,900 41,920 43,950

64.5 71.8 78.6 83.2 85.9

1959–1960 1960–1961 1961–1962 1962–1963 1963–1964

52,500 53,170 54,300 55,100 55,900

45,750 47,200 48,855 50,300 51,600

87.1 88.8 90.0 91.3 92.3

1964–1965 1965–1966 1966–1967 1967–1968 1968–1969

56,900 57,900 58,900 59,900 61,300

52,700 53,850 55,130 56,670 58,250

92.6 93.0 93.6 94.6 95.0

1969–1970 1970–1971 1971–1972 1972–1973 1973–1974

61,410 62,910 64,850 67,210 68,310

58,500 60,100 62,100 64,800 66,200

95.3 95.5 95.8 96.4 96.9

1974–1975 1975–1976 1976–1977 1977–1978 1978–1979

70,520 71,460 73,100 74,700 76,240

68,500 69,600 71,200 72,900 74,500

97.1 97.4 97.4 97.6 97.7

1979–1980 1980–1981 1981–1982 1982–1983 1983–1984

77,900 81,480 83,120 84,940 85,430

76,300 79,900 81,500 83,300 83,800

97.9 98.1 98.1 98.1 98.1

Hours per Day

1949–1950 1950–1951 1951–1952 1952–1953 1953–1954

4:35 4:43 4:49 4:40 4:46

1954–1955 1955–1956 1956–1957 1957–1958 1958–1959

4:51 5:01 5:09 5:05 5:02

1959–1960 1960–1961 1961–1962 1962–1963 1963–1964

5:06 5:07 5:06 5:11 5:25

1964–1965 1965–1966 1966–1967 1967–1968 1968–1969

5:29 5:32 5:42 5:46 5:50

1969–1970 1970–1971 1971–1972 1972–1973 1973–1974 1974–1975

5:56 6:02 6:12 6:15 6:14 6:07

1975–1976 1976–1977 1977–1978 1978–1979 1979–1980

6:18 6:10 6:17 6:28 6:36

1980–1981 1981–1982 1982–1983 1983–1984 1984–1985

6:45 6:48 6:55 7:08 7:07

1985–1986 1986–1987 1987–1988 1988–1989 1989–1990

7:10 7:05 6:59 7:02 6:55

Source: Les Brown’s Encyclopedia, 668–69.

TABLE 17.29 U.S. CABLE SYSTEMS, BY SUBSCRIBER SIZE, AS OF APRIL 1, 1988 Size by Subscribers

Systems

Percent of Total

Subscribers

Percent of Total

50,000 & Over

149

1.77

13,387,749

32.27

20,000–49,999

358

4.26

10,938,683

26.37

10,000–19,999

486

5.78

6,630,808

15.99

5,000–9,999

610

7.25

4,250,525

10.24

3,500–4,999

400

4.75

1,669,758

4.02

1,000–3,499

1,617

19.22

3,108,321

7.50

1,169

13.90

831,619

2.00

250–499

1,183

14.06

425,944

1.02

249 & under

1,759

20.91

247,813

0.59

1984–1985 1985–1986 1986–1987 1987–1988 1988–1989

86,530 87,590 89,125 90,270 92,030

84,900 85,900 87,400 88,600 90,400

98.1 98.1 98.1 98.1 98.1

500–999

1989–1990

93,760

92,100

98.1

Total

Source: Les Brown, Les Brown’s Encyclopedia of Television (Detroit, 1992), 652–53.

Year

Not available

682

8.10

-

-

8,413

100%

41,491,270

100%

Source: Warren Publishing Co., Television & Cable Factbook: Cable and Services 1988 (New York, 1988), C-539.

Entertainment

469

TABLE 17.30 TOP-RANKED TELEVISION PROGRAMS— SELECTED SEASONS, 1950–1990 The following table contains the highest-ranked continuing evening television programs, based on the size of the audience. The rankings came from the A.C. Nielsen Company and measure the percent of homes with television that watched a show on a given night. A rating of 50, for example, meant that half the homes with televison watched this program. A modification of the system in 1960 made it difficult to compare popularity of shows before that time with shows afterward, but relative standing of a program within a given season remained the same. The television season lasted from October of one year through April of the following year. Top 10, October 1950–April 1951 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program Texaco Star Theater Fireside Theatre Philco TV Playhouse Your Show of Shows The Colgate Comedy Hour Gillette Cavalcade of Sports The Lone Ranger Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts Hopalong Cassidy Mama

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program I Love Lucy Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts Arthur Godfrey and His Friends Dragnet Texaco Star Theater The Buick Circus Hour The Colgate Comedy Hour Gangbusters You BetYour Life Fireside Theatre

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Rating

NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC ABC CBS NBC CBS

61.6 52.6 45.3 42.6 42.0 41.3 41.2 40.6 39.9 39.7

Network

Rating

CBS CBS CBS NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC NBC

67.3 54.7 47.1 46.8 46.7 46.0 44.3 42.4 41.6 40.6

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program The $64,000 Question I Love Lucy The Ed Sullivan Show Disneyland The Jack Benny Show December Bride You BetYour Life Dragnet The Millionaire I’ve Got a Secret

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Network

Rating

CBS CBS CBS ABC CBS CBS NBC NBC CBS CBS

47.5 46.1 39.5 37.4 37.2 37.0 35.4 35.0 33.8 33.5

Program

Network

Rating

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Gunsmoke The Danny Thomas Show Tales ofWells Fargo Have GunWill Travel I’ve Got a Secret The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp General Electric Theater The Restless Gun December Bride You BetYour Life

CBS CBS NBC CBS CBS ABC CBS NBC CBS NBC

43.1 35.3 35.2 33.7 33.4 32.6 31.5 31.4 30.7 30.6

Top 10, October 1959-April 1960 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

470

Gunsmoke Wagon Train Have GunWill Travel The Danny Thomas Show The Red Skelton Show Father Knows Best 77 Sunset Strip The Price Is Right Wanted: Dead or Alive Perry Mason


36.0 31.1 31.1 29.8 29.8 29.7 28.7 28.7 27.1 27.0

Program

Network

Rating

Bonanza Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. The Lucy Show The Red Skelton Hour Batman (Thurs.) The Andy Griffith Show Bewitched The Beverly Hillbillies Hogan’s Heroes Batman (Wed.)

NBC CBS CBS CBS ABC CBS ABC CBS CBS ABC

31.8 27.8 27.7 27.6 27.0 26.9 25.9 25.9 24.9 24.7

Program The Andy Griffith Show The Lucy Show Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. Gunsmoke Family Affair Bonanza The Red Skelton Show The Dean Martin Show The Jackie Gleason Show Saturday Night at the Movies

Network

Rating

CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS NBC CBS NBC CBS NBC

27.6 27.0 25.6 25.5 25.5 25.5 25.3 24.8 23.9 23.6

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program Rowan & Martin’s Laugh-In Gunsmoke Bonanza Mayberry R.F.D. Family Affair Here’s Lucy The Red Skelton Hour MarcusWelby, M.D. Walt Disney’sWonderful World of Color The Doris Day Show

Network

Rating

NBC CBS NBC CBS CBS CBS CBS ABC NBC

26.3 25.9 24.8 24.4 24.2 23.9 23.8 23.7 23.6

CBS

22.8

Top 10, 1972–1973

Rank

Program

Rating

CBS CBS CBS NBC CBS CBS ABC CBS CBS CBS

Top 10, October 1969–April 1970 Rank

Top 10, 1957–1958

Rank

Network

Top 10, 1967–1968

Top 10, 1955–1956 Rank

Program The Beverly Hillbillies Candid Camera The Red Skelton Show Bonanza The Lucy Show The Andy Griffith Show Ben Casey The Danny Thomas Show The DickVan Dyke Show Gunsmoke

Top 10, 1965–1966 Rank

Network

Top 10, 1952–1953 Rank

Top 10, 1962–1963

Network

Rating

CBS NBC CBS CBS CBS CBS ABC NBC CBS CBS

40.3 38.4 34.7 31.1 30.8 29.7 29.7 29.2 28.7 28.3

Rank

Program

Network

Rating

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

All in the Family Sanford and Son Hawaii Five-O Maude Bridget Loves Bernie The NBC Sunday Mystery Movie The Mary Tyler Moore Show Gunsmoke TheWonderfulWorld of Disney Ironside

CBS NBC CBS CBS CBS NBC CBS CBS NBC NBC

33.3 27.6 25.2 24.7 24.2 24.2 23.6 23.6 23.5 23.4

Network

Rating

CBS ABC ABC CBS ABC CBS NBC CBS ABC ABC

30.1 28.0 27.5 25.0 24.9 24.5 24.4 24.4 24.3 24.2

Top 10, 1975–1976 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program All in the Family Rich Man, Poor Man Laverne & Shirley Maude The BionicWoman Phyllis Sanford and Son Rhoda The Six Million Dollar Man ABC Monday Night Movie

Top 10, 1977–1978 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program Laverne & Shirley Happy Days Three’s Company 60 Minutes Charlie’s Angels All in the Family Little House on the Prairie Alice M*A*S*H One Day at a Time

Network

Rating

ABC ABC ABC CBS ABC CBS NBC CBS CBS CBS

31.6 31.4 28.3 24.4 24.4 24.4 24.1 23.2 23.2 23.0

Top 10, September 1979–April 1980 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program 60 Minutes Three’s Company That’s Incredible Alice M*A*S*H Dallas Flo The Jeffersons The Dukes of Hazzard One Day at a Time

Network

Rating

CBS ABC ABC CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS

28.4 26.3 25.8 25.3 25.3 25.0 24.4 24.3 24.1 23.0

Network

Rating

CBS CBS CBS CBS ABC ABC CBS CBS ABC NBC

25.5 24.6 22.6 22.6 22.4 21.2 21.0 20.7 20.3 20.1

Network

Rating

NBC NBC CBS CBS NBC CBS ABC NBC NBC ABC

33.7 30.0 25.3 23.9 23.7 21.9 21.8 21.8 21.3 21.1

Network

Rating

NBC NBC NBC NBC ABC ABC NBC CBS CBS NBC

27.8 25.0 23.4 21.8 21.3 21.2 20.8 20.6 20.2 18.8

Top 10, 1982–1983 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program 60 Mintues Dallas M*A*S*H Magnum, P.I. Dynasty Three’s Company Simon & Simon Falcon Crest The Love Boat The A–Team

Top 10, 1985–1986 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program The Cosby Show Family Ties Murder, SheWrote 60 Minutes Cheers Dallas Dynasty The Golden Girls MiamiVice Who’s the Boss

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program The Cosby Show A DifferentWorld Cheers The Golden Girls Growing Pains Who’s the Boss? Night Court 60 Minutes Murder, SheWrote Alf

Top 10, September 1989–April 1990 Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Program The Cosby Show Roseanne Cheers A DifferentWorld America’s Funniest HomeVideos The Golden Girls 60 Minutes TheWonderYears Empty Nest Monday Night Football

TABLE 17.31 HIGHEST RANKING NETWORK SERIES, BY YEAR, 1950–1990 Season

Top 10, 1987–1988 Rank

Bill Cosby, comedian, singer, actor, costar of NBC television series, I Spy, on tour in 1969 (Western Michigan University Archives and Regional History Collections)

Network

Rating

NBC ABC NBC NBC ABC NBC CBS ABC NBC ABC

23.1 23.1 22.7 21.1 20.9 20.1 19.7 19.2 18.9 18.1

Source: Tim Brooks and Earle Marsh, The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and TV Shows, 1995 (New York, 1995), 1258–71

1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Program Texaco Star Theatre Godfrey’s Talent Scouts I Love Lucy I Love Lucy I Love Lucy $64,000 Question I Love Lucy Gunsmoke Gunsmoke Gunsmoke Gunsmoke Wagon Train Beverly Hillbillies Beverly Hillbillies Bonanza Bonanza Bonanza Andy Griffith Rowan & Martin Laugh-in Rowan & Martin Laugh-in MarcusWelby, MD All In The Family All In The Family All In The Family All In The Family All In The Family Happy Days Laverne & Shirley Laverne & Shirley 60 Minutes Dallas Dallas 60 Minutes Dallas Dynasty Bill Cosby Show Bill Cosby Show Bill Cosby Show Roseanne Roseanne

Network

Rating

NBC CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS NBC CBS CBS NBC NBC NBC CBS NBC NBC ABC CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS ABC ABC ABC CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS ABC NBC NBC NBC ABC ABC

61.6 53.8 67.3 58.8 49.3 47.5 43.7 43.1 39.6 40.3 37.3 32.1 36.0 39.1 36.3 31.8 29.1 27.6 31.8 26.3 29.6 34.0 33.3 31.2 30.2 30.1 31.5 31.6 30.5 28.2 31.2 28.4 25.5 25.7 25.0 33.8 34.9 27.8 25.5 23.4

Source: Ronald Alsop, ed., The Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998 (New York, 1997), 907.

Entertainment

471

TABLE 17.32 Rank

TOP 50 TV SERIES OF ALL TIME, THROUGH THE SEASON OF 1987–1988 Program

Network(s)

From

To

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gunsmoke The Red Skelton Show 60 Minutes Bonanza All in the Family/Archie Bunker’s Place

CBS CBS, NBC CBS NBC CBS

1955 1951 1968 1959 1971

1975 1971 ... 1973 1983

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

The Ed Sullivan Show/Toast of the Town Walt Disney The Lucy Show/Here’s Lucy M*A*S*H Dallas

CBS ABC, NBC, CBS CBS CBS CBS

1948 1954 1962 1972 1978

1971 ... 1974 1983 ...

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

The Andy Griffith Show The Jack Benny Show Three’s Company/Three’s a Crowd I Love Lucy The Danny Thomas Show

CBS CBS, NBC ABC CBS ABC,CBS

1960 1950 1977 1951 1953

1968 1965 1985 1961 1971

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

The Beverly Hillbillies You BetYour Life Happy Days I’ve Got a Secret Dragnet/Dragnet ‘67

CBS NBC ABC CBS NBC

1962 1950 1974 1952 1952

1971 1961 1984 1967 1970

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Arthur Godfrey’s Talent Scouts The Jeffersons Hawaii Five-O The Jackie Gleason Show One Day at a Time

CBS CBS CBS CBS CBS

1948 1975 1968 1952 1975

1958 1985 1980 1970 1984

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Laverne & Shirley The Milton Berle Show Sandford and Son Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. Alice

ABC NBC, ABC NBC CBS CBS

1976 1948 1972 1964 1976

1983 1967 1977 1970 1985

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Dynasty Wagon Train My Three Sons Bewitched The Love Boat

ABC NBC, ABC ABC, CBS ABC ABC

1981 1957 1960 1964 1977

... 1965 1972 1972 1986

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Fireside Theatre Little House on the Prairie The Cosby Show TheWaltons Have Gun,Will Travel

NBC, ABC NBC NBC CBS CBS

1949 1974 1984 1972 1957

1963 1983 ... 1981 1963

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Candid Camera General Electric Theater Arthur Godfrey and His Friends The Mary Tyler Moore Show Falcon Crest

CBS, NBC, ABC CBS CBS CBS CBS

1948 1953 1949 1970 1981

1967 1962 1959 1977 ...

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Maude MarcusWelby, M.D. Magnum, P.I. Cheers Family Ties

CBS ABC CBS NBC NBC

1972 1969 1980 1982 1982

1978 1976 1988 ... ...

Note: The list was compiled by authors of The Complete Directory to . . . TV Shows who developed a point system based on duration and popularity of each television series. Shows still running in 1988 of course could improve their ranking. The most significant change involved 60 Minutes, which ran strong through the rest of the century and replaced Gunsmoke in the early 1990s as the most popular series. Source: Tim Brooks and Earle Marsh, The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows, 1995 (New York, 1995), 979–80.

472


TABLE 17.33

Rank

TOP-RATED INDIVIDUAL NETWORK PROGRAMS

Program

Telecast Date

Network

Duration (minutes)

Average Audiencea %

Shareb

Average Audience (1,000)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

M*A*S*H Special Dallas Roots Pt.VIII Super Bowl XVI Game Super Bowl XVII Game

Feb 28, 1983 Nov 21, 1980 Jan 30, 1977 Jan 24, 1982 Jan 30, 1983

CBS CBS ABC CBS NBC

150 60 115 213 204

60.2 53.3 51.1 49.1 48.6

77 76 71 73 69

50,150 41.470 36,380 40,020 40.480

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Super Bowl XX Game GoneWith theWind Pt. 1 GoneWith theWind Pt. 2 Super Bowl XII Game Super Bowl XIII Game

Jan 26, 1986 Nov 7, 1976 Nov 8, 1976 Jan 15, 1978 Jan 21, 1979

NBC NBC NBC CBS NBC

231 179 119 218 230

48.3 47.7 47.4 47.2 47.1

70 65 64 67 74

41,490 33,960 33,750 34,410 35,090

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Bob Hope Christmas Show Super Bowl XVIII Game Super Bowl XIX Game Super Bowl XIV Game ABC Theater (The Day After)

Jan 15, 1970 Jan 22, 1984 Jan 20, 1985 Jan 20, 1980 Nov 20, 1983

NBC CBS ABC CBS ABC

90 218 218 178 144

46.6 46.4 46.4 46.3 46.0

64 71 63 67 62

27,260 38,800 39,390 35,330 38,550

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Roots Pt.VI The Fugitive Super Bowl XXI Game Roots Pt.V Ed Sullivan

Jan 28, 1977 Aug 29, 1967 Jan 25, 1987 Jan 27, 1977 Feb 9,1964

ABC ABC CBS ABC CBS

120 60 206 60 60

45.9 45.9 45.8 45.7 45.3

66 72 66 71 60

32,680 25,700 40,030 32,540 23,240

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Bob Hope Christmas Show Roots Pt. III Super Bowl XI Game Super Bowl XV Game Super Bowl VI Game

Jan 14, 1971 Jan 25, 1977 Jan 9, 1977 Jan 25, 1981 Jan 16, 1972

NBC ABC NBC NBC CBS

90 60 204 220 170

45.0 44.8 44.4 44.4 44.2

61 68 73 63 74

27,050 31,900 31,610 34,540 27,450

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Roots Pt. II Beverly Hillbillies Roots Pt. IV Ed Sullivan Super Bowl XXIII Game

Jan 24, 1977 Jan 8, 1964 Jan 26, 1977 Feb 16, 1964 Jan 22, 1989

ABC CBS ABC CBS NBC

120 30 60 60 213

44.1 44.0 43.8 43.8 43.5

62 65 66 60 68

31,400 22,570 31,190 22,445 39,320

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Academy Awards Thorn Birds Pt. III Thron Birds Pt. IV CBS NFC Champ. Game Beverly Hillbillies

Apr 7, 1970 Mar 29, 1983 Mar 30, 1983 Jan 10, 1982 Jan 15, 1964

ABC ABC ABC CBS CBS

145 120 180 195 30

43.4 43.2 43.1 42.9 42.8

78 62 62 62 62

25,390 35,990 35,900 34,960 21,960

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Super Bowl VII Game Thorn Birds Pt. II Super Bowl IX Game Beverly Hillbillies Super Bowl X Game

Jan 14, 1973 Mar 28, 1983 Jan 12, 1975 Feb 26, 1964 Jan 18, 1976

NBC ABC NBC CBS CBS

185 120 190 30 200

42.7 42.5 42.4 42.4 42.3

72 59 72 60 78

27,670 35,400 29,040 21,750 29,440

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Airport (Movie Specials) Love Story (Sun. Night Mov.) Cinderella Roots Pt.VII Beverly Hillbillies

Nov 11, 1973 Oct 1, 1972 Feb 22, 1965 Jan 29, 1977 Mar 25, 1964

ABC ABC CBS ABC CBS

170 120 90 60 30

42.3 42.3 42.3 42.3 42.2

63 62 59 65 59

28,000 27,410 22,250 30,120 21,650

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

Beverly Hillbillies Beverly Hillbillies Super Bowl XXII Game Miss America Pageant Beverly Hillbillies

Feb 6, 1964 Jan 29, 1964 Jan 31, 1988 Sep 9, 1961 Jan 1, 1964

CBS CBS ABC CBS CBS

30 30 229 150 30

42.0 41.9 41.9 41.8 41.8

61 62 62 75 59

21,550 21,490 37,120 19,600 21,440

Note: Rankings based on reports made from July 1960 through December 1990. List includes neither shows lasting fewer than 30 minutes nor programs, such as political conventions, covered by more than one network. a Average audience, or ratings, pertains to the percent of all households with TV that are tuned to a program. b Share pertains to portion of the audience received from all households that are watching TV in a given time slot. Source: Les Brown’s Encyclopedia, 650–51.

Entertainment

473

TABLE 17.34 TOP-RATED NETWORK SPORTS EVENTS, THROUGH THE YEAR 1990 Date

Net.

Household Rating

Share

Super Bowl XVI (San Francisco vs. Cincinnati) Super Bowl XVII (Washington vs. Miami) Super Bowl XX (Chicago vs. New England) Super Bowl XII (Dallas vs. Denver) Super Bowl XXIII (Dallas vs. Pittsburgh) Super Bowl XVIII (L.A. Raiders vs.Washington)

1/24/82 1/30/83 1/26/86 1/15/78 1/21/79 1/22/84

CBS NBC NBC CBS NBC CBS

49.1 48.6 48.3 47.2 47.1 46.4

73 69 70 67 74 71

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Super Bowl XIX (San Francisco vs. Miami) Super Bowl XIV (L.A. Rams vs. Pittsburgh) Super Bowl XXI (N.Y. Giants vs. Denver) Super Bowl XI (Minnesota vs. Oakland Raiders) Super Bowl XV (Philadelphia vs. Oakland Raiders) Super Bowl VI (Dallas vs. Miami)

1/20/85 1/20/80 1/25/87 1/9/77 1/25/81 1/16/72

ABC CBS CBS NBC NBC CBS

46.4 46.3 45.8 44.4 44.4 44.2

63 67 66 73 63 74

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Super Bowl XXIII (Cincinnati vs. San Francisco) NFC Championship Game (Dallas vs. San Francisco) Super Bowl VII (Washington vs. Miami) Super Bowl IX (Minnesota vs. Pittsburgh) Super Bowl X (Dallas vs. Pittsburgh) Super Bowl XXII (Washington vs. Denver

1/22/89 1/10/82 1/14/73 1/12/75 1/8/76 1/31/88

NBC CBS NBC NBC CBS ABC

43.5 42.9 42.7 42.4 42.3 41.9

68 62 72 72 78 62

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Super Bowl VIII (Minnesota vs. Miami) World Series Game #6 (Kansas City vs. Philadelphia) Super Bowl V (Dallas vs. Baltimore) World Series Game #7 (Boston vs. Cincinnati) World Series Game #4 (Yankees vs. Dodgers) Super Bowl IV (Minnesota vs. Kansas City)

1/13/74 10/21/80 1/17/71 10/22/75 10/6/63 1/11/70

CBS NBC NBC NBC NBC CBS

41.6 40.0 39.9 39.6 39.5 39.4

73 60 75 60 87 69

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Program

Source: Les Brown’s Encyclopedia, 648.

TABLE 17.35 SUPER BOWL RATING HISTORY, 1967–1990

TABLE 17.36 LONGEST-RUNNING TELEVISION GAME SHOWS, THROUGH THE YEAR 1990

Year

Game

Network

Total Rating

Audience Share

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Green Bay–Kansas City Green Bay–Oakland N.Y. Jets–Baltimore Kansas City–Minnesota Baltimore–Dallas Dallas–Miami

CBS CBS NBC CBS NBC CBS

33.1 48.3 47.1 52.7 50.7 55.0

43 68 71 69 75 74

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

Miami–Washington Miami–Minnesota Minnesota–Pittsburgh Dallas–Pittsburgh Oakland–Minnesota Dallas–Denver

NBC CBS NBC CBS NBC CBS

54.1 51.9 53.9 53.7 44.4 47.2

72 73 72 78 73 67

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Dallas–Pittsburgh Los Angeles–Pittsburgh Oakland–Philadelphia Cinicinnati–San Francisco Washington–Miami Washington–L.A. Raiders

NBC CBS NBC CBS NBC CBS

47.1 46.3 44.4 49.1 48.6 46.4

74 67 63 73 69 71

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

San Francisco–Miami Chicago–New England Denver–N.Y. Giants Washington–Denver San Francisco–Cincinnati San Francisco–Denver

ABC NBC CBS ABC NBC CBS

46.4 48.3 45.8 41.9 43.5 39.0

63 70 66 62 68 63

Show Righta

The Price Is What’s My Line Wheel of Fortune (syndication began 1983)a I’ve Got a Secret Concentration Hollywood Squares Let’s Make a Deal G.E. College Bowl You BetYour Life Jeopardy (syndication began 1984)a To Tell the Truth (syndication began 1969) Pantomime Quiz Truth or Consequences The Joker’sWild Family Feud (syndicated 1977) The Price Is Right Queen for a Day Truth or Consequences Newlywed Game Break the Bank Masquerade Party Tic Tac Dough Beat the Clock The Big Payoff The Dating Game $10,000/20,000 Pyramid Sports Challenge Name that Tune Celebrity Bowling The Match Game

Source: Les Brown’s Encyclopedia, 649. a

Showing

Length

Debut

daytime prime time daytime prime time daytime daytime daytime weekend prime time daytime prime time seasonal syndicated syndicated day time daytime daytime daytime daytime prime time prime time syndicated prime time daytime daytime daytime syndicated syndicated syndicated daytime

18 years 171 years 15 years 15 years 141 years 131 years 121 years 111 years 11 years 101 years 101 years 91 years 9 years 9 years 9 years 81 years 81 years 81 years 81 years 81 years 81 years 8 years 8 years 71 years 71 years 71 years 7 years 7 years 7 years 61 years

Sep. 1972 Feb. 1950 Jan. 1975 Jun. 1952 Aug. 1958 Oct. 1966 Dec. 1963 Jan. 1959 Oct. 1950 Mar. 1964 Dec. 1956 Jul. 1950 Sep. 1966 Sep. 1977 Jul. 1976 Nov. 1956 Jan. 1956 Dec. 1956 Jul. 1966 Oct. 1948 July 1952 Sep. 1978 Mar. 1950 Dec. 1951 Dec. 1965 Mar. 1973 Jan. 1971 Sep. 1968 Jan. 1971 Dec. 1962

Still running, 1990. Source: Danny Schwartz, Steven Ryan and Fred Wostrock, The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (New York, 1995), 273–74.

474


TABLE 17.37

THE EMMY AWARDS, 1948–1990

Intended as TV’s equivalent of the Oscars, the Emmy Awards were presented first in 1949. The number has grown over the years. Listed below are some of the most popular awards. 1948 Outstanding TV Personality: Shirley Dinsdale (and her puppet Judy Splinters) (KTLA) Most Popular TV Program: Pantomime Quiz Time (KTLA) Best Film Made for Television: “The Necklace,’ Your Show Time (NBC) Special Award: Louis McManus, original designer of the Emmy.

1951 Best Dramatic Show: Studio One (CBS) Best Comedy Show: The Red Skelton Show (CBS) Best Variety Show: Your Show of Shows (NBC) Best Actor: Sid Caesar (NBC) Best Actress: Imogene Coca (NBC) Best Comedian or Comedienne: Red Skelton (NBC)

1954 Best Actor Starring in a Regular Series: Danny Thomas, Make Room for Daddy (ABC) Best Actress Starring in a Regular Series: Loretta Young, The LorettaYoung Show (NBC) Best Mystery or Intrigue Series: Dragnet (NBC) Best Variety Series including Musical Varieties: Disneyland (ABC) Best Situation Comedy Series: Make Room for Daddy (ABC) Best Dramatic Series: The U.S. Steel Hour (ABC)

1957 Program of the Year: “The Comedian,’’ Playhouse 90 (CBS) Best Dramatic Series with Continuing Characters: Gunsmoke (CBS) Best Comedy Series: The Phil Silvers Show (CBS) Best Musical,Variety, Audience Participation, or Quiz Series: The Dinah Shore Chevy Show (NBC) Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: RobertYoung, Father Knows Best (NBC) Best Continuing Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic or Comedy Series: Jane Wyatt, Father Knows Best (NBC)

1960–61 Program of theYear: “Macbeth,’’ Hallmark Hall of Fame (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Humor: The Jack Benny Show (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Drama: “Macbeth,’’ Hallmark Hall of Frame (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Variety: “Astaire Time’’ (NBC) Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead): Raymond Burr, Perry Mason (CBS) Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Series (Lead): Barbara Stanwyck, The Barbara Stanwyck Show (NBC) Outstanding Performance in a Variety or Musical Program or Series: Fred Astaire, “Astaire Time” (NBC)

1963–64 Program of the Year: “The Making of the President 1960’’ (ABC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Comedy: The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS)

1949 Best Live Show: The EdWynn Show (CBS) Best Kinescope Show: Texaco Star Theater (NBC) Outstanding Live Personality: Ed Wynn (CBS) Outstanding Kinescope Personality: Milton Berle (NBC) Best Film Made for TV: The Life of Riley (NBC)

1952 Best Dramatic Program: Robert Montgomery Presents (NBC) Best Variety Program: Your Show of Shows (NBC) Best Mystery, Action, or Adventure Program: Dragnet (NBC) Best Situation Comedy: I Love Lucy (CBS) Best Actor:Thomas Mitchell Best Actress: Helen Hayes

1955 Best Action or Adventure Series: Disneyland (ABC) Best Comedy Series: The Phil Silvers Show (CBS) Best Variety Series: The Ed Sullivan Show (CBS) Best Dramatic Series: Producers’ Showcase (NBC) Best Actor (Continuing Performance): Phil Silvers, The Phil Silvers Show (CBS) Best Actress (Continuing Performance): Lucille Ball, I Love Lucy (CBS)

1958–59 Program of the Year: “An Evening with Fred Astaire’’ (NBC) Best Dramatic Series (One Hour or Longer): Playhouse 90 (CBS) Best Dramatic Series (Less Than One Hour): Alcoa-Goodyear Theatre (NBC) Best Comedy Series: The Jack Benny Show (CBS) Best Musical or Variety Series: The Dinah Shore Chevy Show (NBC) Best Western Series: Maverick (ABC) Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Dramatic Series: Raymond Burr, Perry Mason (CBS) Best Actress in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in Dramatic Series: LorettaYoung, The LorettaYoung Show (NBC) Best Actor in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Comedy Series: Jack Benny, The Jack Benny Show (CBS) Best Actress in a Leading Role (Continuing Character) in a Comedy Series: Jane Wyatt, Father Knows Best (CBS and NBC)

1961–62 Program of the Year: “Victoria Regina,’’ Hallmark Hall of Fame (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Humor: The Bob Newhart Show (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Drama: The Defenders (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Variety: The Garry Moore Show (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead): E.G. Marshall, The Defenders (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Series (Lead): Shirley Booth, Hazel (NBC) Outstanding Performance in a Variety or Musical Program or Series: Carol Burnett, The Garry Moore Show (CBS)

1964–65 Outstanding Achievements in Entertainment: The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS); “The Magnificent Yankee,’’ Hallmark Hall of Fame (NBC); “My Name Is Barbra’’ (CBS) Outstanding Individual Achievements in Entertainment

1950 Best Actor: Alan Young (CBS) Best Actress: Gertrude Berg (CBS) Outstanding Personality: Groucho Marx (NBC) Best Variety Show: The AlanYoung Show (CBS) Best Dramatic Show: Pulitzer Prize Playhouse (ABC) Best Game Show: Truth or Consequences (CBS)

1953 Best Dramatic Program: The U.S. Steel Hour (ABC) Best Situation Comedy: I Love Lucy (CBS) Best Variety Program: Omnibus (CBS) Best Male Star of Regular Series: Donald O’Connor, Colgate Comedy Hour (NBC) Best Female Star of Regular Series: Eve Arden, Our Miss Brooks (CBS) Best Mystery,Action, or Adventure Program: Dragnet (NBC)

1956 Best Single Program of the Year: “Requiem for a Heavyweight,’’ Playhouse 90 (CBS) Best Series (Half Hour or Less): The Phil Silvers Show (CBS) Best Series (One Hour or More): Caesar’s Hour (NBC) Best Continuing Performance by an Actor in a Dramatic Series: Robert Young, Father Knows Best (NBC) Best Continuing Performance by an Actress in a Dramatic Series: Loretta Young, The LorettaYoung Show (NBC)

1959–60 Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Humor: “The Art Carney Special’’ (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Drama: Playhouse 90 (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Variety: “The Fabulous Fifties’’ (CBS) Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead or Support): Robert Stack, The Untouchables (ABC) Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Series (Lead or Support): Jane Wyatt, Father Knows Best (CBS) Oustanding Performance in a Variety or Musical Program or Series: Harry Belafonte, “Tonight with Belafonte,’’ The Revlon Revue (CBS)

1962–63 Program of the Year: “The Tunnel’’ (NBC) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Humor: The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Drama: The Defenders (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Music: “Julie and Carol At Carnegie Hall’’ (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Variety: The AndyWilliams Show (NBC) Outstanding Continued performance by an Actor in a Series (Lead) E.G. Marshall, The Defenders (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Series (Lead): Shirley Booth, Hazel (NBC) Outstanding Performance in a Variety or Musical Program or Series: Carol Burnett, “Julie and Carol at Carnegie Hall’’ (CBS) and “Carol and Company” (CBS)

1965–66 Outstanding Comedy Series: The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS Outstanding Variety Series: The AndyWilliams Show (NBC) Outstanding Dramatic Series: The Fugitive (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a


475

TABLE 17.37

(continued) 1963–64

1964–65

Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of (Actors and Performers): Lynn Fontanne, “The Magnificent Yankee,’’ Hallmark Hall of Fame (NBC); Barbra Streisand, Drama: The Defenders (CBS) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of “My Name Is Barbra’’ (CBS); Dick Van Dyke, The DickVan Variety: The Danny Kaye Show (CBS) Dyke Show (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Series (lead): Dick Van Dyke, The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Series (lead): Mary Tyler Moore, The DickVan Dyke Show (CBS) Outstanding Performance in a Variety or Musical Program or Series: Danny Kaye, The Danny Kaye Show (CBS)

1966–67 Outstanding Comedy Series. The Monkees (NBC) Outstanding Variety Series: The AndyWilliams Show (NBC) Outstanding Dramatic Series: Mission: Impossible (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Bill Cosby, I Spy (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Barbara Bain, Mission: Impossible (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Don Adams, Get Smart (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Lucille Ball, The Lucy Show (CBS)

1969–70 Outstanding Comedy Series: MyWorld andWelcome to It (NBC) Outstanding Dramatic Series: MarcusWelby, M.D. (ABC) Outstanding Variety or Musical Series: The David Frost Show (syndicated) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Robert Young, MarcusWelby, M.D. (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Susan Hampshire, The Forsythe Saga (NET) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series:William Windom, MyWorld andWelcome to It (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Hope Lange, The Ghost and Mrs. Muir (ABC)

1972–73 Outstanding Comedy Series: All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: TheWaltons (CBS) Outstanding Variety Musical Series: The Julie Andrews Hour (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role (Drama Series—Continuing): Richard Thomas, TheWaltons (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role (Drama Series—Continuing): Michael Learned, TheWaltons (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jack Klugman, The Odd Couple (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Mary Tyler Moore, The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS)

1975–76 Outstanding Comedy Series: The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Police Story (NBC) Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Series: NBC’s Saturday Night Live (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Jack Albertson, Chico and the Man (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Peter Falk, Columbo (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Mary Tyler Moore, The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Michael Learned, The Waltons (CBS)

476


1967–68 Outstanding Comedy Series: Get Smart (NBC) Outstanding Dramatic Series: Mission: Impossible (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Bill Cosby, I Spy (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Barbara Bain, Mission: Impossible (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Don Adams, Get Smart (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Lucille Ball, The Lucy Show (CBS)

1970–71 Outstanding Series—Comedy: All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Series—Drama: The Senator (NBC) Outstanding Variety Series—Musical: The FlipWilson Show (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Hal Holbrook, The Senator (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Susan Hampshire, The First Churchills (Masterpiece Theatre) (PBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jack Klugman, The Odd Couple (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton, All in the Family (CBS)

1973–74 Outstanding Comedy Series: M*A*S*H (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Upstairs, Downstairs (Masterpiece Theatre) (PBS) Outstanding Music Variety Series: The Carol Burnett Show (CBS) Best Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Alan Alda, M*A*S*H (CBS) Best Lead Actor in a Drama Series:Telly Savalas, Kojak (CBS) Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Mary Tyler Moore, The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS) Best Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Michael Learned, The Waltons (CBS)

1976–77 Outstanding Comedy Series: The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Upstairs, Downstairs (Masterpiece Theatre) (PBS) Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Series: Van Dyke and Company (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O’Connor, All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: James Garner, The Rockford Files (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Beatrice Arthur, Maude (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Lindsay Wagner, The BionicWoman (ABC)

1965–66 Leading Role in a Dramatic Series:Bill Cosby, I Spy (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Barbara Stanwyck, The BigValley (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Dick Van Dyke, The Dick Van Dyke Show (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Mary Tyler Moore, The Dick Van Dyke Show (CBS)

1968–69 Outstanding Comedy Series: Get Smart (NBC) Outstanding Dramatic Series: NET Playhouse (NET) Outstanding Musical or Variety Series: Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Carl Betz, Judd, for the Defence (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Barbara Bain, Mission: Impossible (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Don Adams, Get Smart (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Hope Lange, The Ghost and Mrs. Muir (NBC)

1971–72 Outstanding Series—Comedy: All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Series—Drama: Elizabeth R (Masterpiece Theatre (PBS) Outstanding Variety Series—Musical: The Carol Burnett Show (CBS) Outstanding Variety Series—Talk: The Dick Cavett Show (ABC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series: Peter Falk, Columbo (NBC) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Carroll O’Connor, All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton, All in the Family (CBS)

1974–75 Outstanding Comedy Series: The Mary Tyler Moore Show (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Upstairs, Downstairs (Masterpiece Theatre) (PBS) Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Series: The Carol Burnett Show (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series:Tony Randall, The Odd Couple (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Robert Blake, Baretta (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series:Valerie Harper, Rhoda (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Jean Marsh, Upstairs, Downstairs (Masterpiece Theatre) (PBS)

1977–78 Outstanding Comedy Series: All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: The Rockford Files (NBC) Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Series: The Muppet Show (syndicated) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Carroll O’Connor, All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Ed Asner, Lou Grant (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jean Stapleton, All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Sada Thompson, Family (ABC)

1978–79

1979–80

Outstanding Comedy Series: Taxi (ABC) Outstanding Comedy Series: Taxi (ABC) Outstanding Drama Series: Lou Grant (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Lou Grant (CBS) Outstanding Comedy-Variety or Music Program (Special Outstanding Variety or Music Program (Special or Series): or Series): Steve & Eydie Celebrate Irving Berlin (NBC) IBM Presents Baryshnikov on Broadway (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Continuing or (Continuing or Single Performance): Carroll O’Connor, Single Performance): Richard Mulligan, Soap (ABC) All in the Family (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series (Continuing or Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series Single Performance): Ed Asner, Lou Grant (CBS) (Continuing or Single Performance): Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Continuing Ron Leibman, Kaz (CBS) or Single Performance): Cathryn Damon, Soap (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Continuing (Continuing or Single Performance): Ruth Gordon, or Single Performance): Barbara Bel Geddes, Dallas (CBS) Taxi (“Sugar Mama’’) (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Continuing or Single Performance): Mariette Hartley, The Incredible Hulk (“Married’’) (CBS)

1981–82 Outstanding Comedy Series: Barney Miller (ABC) Outstanding Drama Series: Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: Night of 100 Stars (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Daniel J. Travanti, Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Alan Alda M*A*S*H (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Michael Learned, Nurse (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Carol Kane, Taxi (“Simka Returns’’) (ABC)

1984–85

1982–83 Outstanding Comedy Series: Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Drama Series: Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: Motown 25: Yesterday,Today, Forever (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Ed Flanders, St. Elsewhere (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Judd Hirsch, Taxi (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series:Tyne Daly, Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Shelley Long, Cheers (NBC)

1985–86

Outstanding Comedy Series: The Cosby Show (NBC) Outstanding Comedy Series: The Golden Girls (NBC) Outstanding Drama Series: Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: “Motown Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: Returns to the Apollo’’ (NBC) “The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series:William Performing Arts’’ (CBS) Daniels, St. Elsewhere (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series:William Daniels, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Robert St. Elsewhere (NBC) Guillaume, Benson (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series:Tyne Daly, J. Fox, Family Ties (NBC) Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Sharon Gless, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jane Curtin, Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Kate & Allie (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Betty White, The Golden Girls (NBC)

1987–88 Outstanding Comedy Series: TheWonderYears (ABC) Outstanding Drama Series: thirtysomething (ABC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: “Irving Berlin’s 100th Birthday Celebration’’ (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael J. Fox, Family Ties (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Richard Kiley, A Year in the Life (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Beatrice Arthur, The Golden Girls (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series:Tyne Daly, Cagney & Lacey (CBS)

1980–81 Outstanding Comedy Series: Taxi (ABC) Outstanding Drama Series: Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: Lily: Sold Out (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Daniel J.Travanti, Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Judd Hirsch, Taxi (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Barbara Babcock, Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Isabel Sanford, The Jeffersons (CBS)

1983–84 Outstanding Comedy Series: Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Drama Series: Hill Street Blues (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: “The 6th Annual Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts’’ (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series:Tom Selleck, Magnum, P.I. (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: John Ritter Three’s Company (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series:Tyne Daly, Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Jane Curtin, Kate & Allie (CBS)

1986–87 Outstanding Comedy Series: The Golden Girls (NBC) Outstanding Drama Series: L.A. Law (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: “The 1987 Tony Awards’’ (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Bruce Willis, Moonlighting (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Michael J. Fox, Family Ties (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Sharon Gless, Cagney & Lacey (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Rue McClanahan, The Golden Girls (NBC)

1988–89

1989–90

Outstanding Comedy Series: Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Drama Series: L.A. Law (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Program: The Tracey Ullman Show (Fox) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series: Richard Mulligan, Empty Nest (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Carroll O’Connor, In the Heat of the Night (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Candice Bergen, Murphy Brown (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Dana Delany, China Beach (ABC)

Outstanding Comedy Series: Murphy Brown (CBS) Outstanding Drama Series: L.A Law (NBC) Outstanding Variety, Music, or Comedy Series: In Living Color (Fox) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series:Ted Danson, Cheers (NBC) Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series: Peter Falk, Columbo (ABC) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series: Candice Bergen, Murphy Brown (CBS) Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series: Patricia Wettig, thirtysomething (ABC)

Source: A detailed list of awards appears in Brooks and Marsh, Directory to TV Shows, 1995, 1216–52; this abridged version was published in Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 555–57.

Entertainment

477

Top Television Commercials, from 1960 to 1990 1. Wendy’s: “Where’s the Beef?”— competitors have little meat on their burgers. (1984) 2. California Raisin Board: “Lunch Box’’—Raisins dancing to “I Heard It Through the Grapevine.’’ (1986) 3. Alka Seltzer: “Spicy Meatball”—actor exclaims, “Mamma mia, that’s a spicy meatball.’’ (1969) 4. Hallmark: “100th Birthday’’—100-year-old grandmother surprised with birthday card. (1990) 5. Life cereal: “Hey Mikey’’—child likes cereal. (1971) 6. 7Up: “un-cola’’—white-suited actor pitches “un-cola.’’ (1969) 7. Coca-Cola: “Mean Joe Greene’’—kid gives Coke to famous football player. (1979) 8. Coca-Cola: “Hilltop song’’—group sings song of harmony, “I’d like to buy the world a Coke.’’ (1971) 9. Federal Express: “Fast Talker’’—rapid talker John Moschitta pitches the company. (1982) 10. Budweiser: “Christmas Commercial’’—Clydesdales beer wagon rolls through snow-covered small town. (1986) 11. Nike: “Bo and Bo’’—Bo Diddley says to Bo Jackson, “Bo, you don’t know Diddley.’’ (1990) 12. AT&T: “Joey calls Mom”—son called “just to say I love you, Mom.’’ (1980) 13. Eastman Kodak: “Father and Daughter’’—as daughter prepares to marry, father recalls her life through photographs.’’ (1989) 14. Maxwell House: “Perking Coffee Pot’’—Music replicates sound of perking coffee. (1960) 15. Bartles & Jaymes: “Bartles & Jaymes in New York’’—fictional winecooler salesmen thank customers “for your support.’’ (1986) Note: Titles selected from a broad survey of advertising and trade specialists prepared by USA TODAY. Source: USA TODAY, March 22, 1999, 3B.

Popular Music The postwar era in popular music began as an extension of the period that came before it, but it would not take long for changes to surface. The swing era in the age of the big bands had nearly run its course when the Second World War started, and the war served to extend its life a few more years. As the swing era waned beginning in 1945, the vocalists, many of whom had been band singers, came to the forefront. Bing Crosby had been carrying his music for many years, and now such vocalists as Frank Sinatra, Doris Day, and several others began to establish identities apart from being—as they had begun their careers—part of the band. Much of the best popular music had its origin on stage, appearing as part of Broadway musicals. The postwar period promoted the band singers, and it also produced a new crop of male and female vocalists as well as group singers: the trios, as with Nat “King’’ Cole, or the quartets—the Four Aces, Four Freshmen, Four Lads, and others. The singers, or the groups, could be black or white, although most were white. A part of the general popular music scene and yet existing on its fringes were various specialty groups, such as people involved in jazz, either Dixieland or Progressive. In 1949 Billboard magazine changed its category of “race records’’ to “rhythm and blues,’’ a music that began in black quarters of the South, expanded to the urban North, and under leadership of such persons as Count Basie, B.B. King, the Ink Spots, Ray Charles, and many others moved closer to the mainstream and attracted a national multiracial audience. Somewhat further from the center stood a music that had originated largely in the South and uplands of the border area. Called country, country and western, or simply Hillbilly, this music was

478


still largely in its “she (or he) done me wrong’’ stage, but radio had done much to broaden its exposure, and its newer singers had impressed a varied audience. By the 1950s, “crossing over’’ from one musical specialty to another was taking place with some regularity. Louis Armstrong, a jazz trumpeter who also played blues, established himself as a vocalist of mainstream popular music. Patti Page, a pop singer, had a hit with “Tennessee Waltz.’’ Tony Bennett, an emerging pop vocalist, recorded “Cold, Cold Heart,’’ written by Hank Williams, a genuine pioneer of country music. Both Eddie Fisher, a new popular artist, and Eddie Arnold, an established country singer, scored with recordings of “Any Time.’’ The most significant musical shift of the era—the development of rock and roll—had its origin in crossover, largely by whites to black rhythms, although the movement went several directions. Bill Haley, who helped establish the new music with his records “Rock Around the Clock’’ and “Shake, Rattle and Roll,’’ had started with a country and western group called the Saddlemen. Elvis Presley, perhaps the single giant of the formative years of rock, impressed his backers as a white boy who sang like a black. Presley would rank high on the musical charts, whether it was popular music, rock and roll, rhythm and blues, or even country.What Elvis began, a quartet of young men from Liverpool, the Beatles, some 10 years later would expand considerably. Surely the dominant performers of the era of early rock and roll, the Beatles offered repeatable sounds to be sure, and they led the music into new social and political themes.The Beatles also established a practice of giving themselves a name that in no way attempted to describe the entertainers involved—a departure from earlier practices exemplified in the King Cole Trio or Four Lads or Four Aces.The Beatles inspired many imitators of their music, and names of many rock bands, which, while occasionally catchy, seemed to carry little meaning beyond attracting attention. Rock music in time became the dominant popular music in the United States, but traditional musical patterns remained popular with people from pre-rock generations. Needless to say the size of that audience steadily shrank with passage of time, and the number of people to whom rock music was conventional music continued to increase. The mainstream disk jockey shows on radio gradually gave way to programs devoted to rock and roll in some form or to country music. By the start of the 1970s, rock music had begun to fragment. Folk-rock performers such as Bob Dylan, Simon and Garfunkel, and then Paul Simon alone combined message with melody. Disco seemed to attract more critics than followers, but it held on for a short while. Heavy metal bands, such as Led Zeppelin, stressed the “rock’’ in rock and roll; there also was punk rock and new-wave music. In the 1980s Madonna depended as much on sexual shock as talent, and it worked. African-American-inspired hip-hop and rap seemed to reintroduce a measure of racial segregation to music, and then some whites took up the nonmelodic, staccato, crudely poetic rhythms of rap, and some black artists came out against it. By the 1990s there seemed to be an audience for everything and toleration of almost anything in popular music but broad agreement on nothing. As with so much of change in the last half of the 20th century, development in music depended on technology. It began with improvement in recording devices. The breakable and scratchable 78 rpm disk gave way in the 1940s and 1950s to the 45 rpm single and 33 rpm album-length vinyl records that were almost unbreakable. Then came the tape deck and cassette and finally the compact disk. The recording and playback equipment, virtually all musicians’ instruments, the radio and television and public sound systems that carried the music all utilized highly technical electronic devices that produced clear, stereophonic sound and as much noise as the ear could take. Volume, it would appear, was vital to the age of rock.

TABLE 17.38

MOST POPULAR AMERICAN SINGERS, 1950

The following lists indicate the most popular American singers as measured in a Gallup Poll taken in November 1950. People surveyed simply were asked: Who is your favorite male (and female) singer? The results suggested continuity, not change, in popular music. Persons on the lists mostly had been active for several years in movies, record sales, radio, and—in smaller measure—television. There appeared to be little differentiation based on age. Seven of the women ranked highest by people in their 20s also appeared in the top 10 suggested by people older than 50. Favorite Female Vocalists (listed by frequency of mention)

Favorite Male Vocalists (listed by frequency of mention)

Dinah Shore Jeanette MacDonald Kate Smith Jo Stafford Doris Day Lily Pons Marian Anderson Judy Garland Margaret Whiting Rise Stevens

Bing Crosby Perry Como Dennis Day Nelson Eddy Frank Sinatra Vaughn Monroe Ezio Pinza Tony Martin Gene Autry Billy Eckstine

Female Vocalists by Age of Respondents, 21–29 years

Female Vocalists by Age of Respondents, 50 Years and Older

Dinah Shore Jo Stafford Doris Day Kay Starr Jeanette MacDonald Kate Smith Margaret Whiting Lily Pons Marian Anderson Betty Hutton

Jeanette MacDonald Dinah Shore Kate Smith Lily Pons Judy Garland Marian Anderson Jo Stafford Doris Day Kay Armen Rise Stevens

Source: American Institute of Public Opinion, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1935–1971, Vol. 2, 1949–1958 (New York, 1972), 954, 957.

TABLE 17.39 SELECTED POPULAR SONGS FROM THE POSTWAR, PRE–ROCK AND ROLL ERA, 1946–1954 1946

1947

“Come Rain or Come Shine” “Do You Love Me?” “Doin’What Comes Natur’lly” “The Gypsy” “Linda”

1950 “American Beauty Rose” “Autumn Leaves” “A Bushel and a Peck” “Chattanooga Shoe Shine Boy” “Dearie”

1948

“But Beautiful” “Feudin’ and Fightin’” “Heartaches” “Mam’selle” “Open the Door, Richard”

1951 “Any Time” “Beacause of You” “Cold, Cold Heart” “Come on-a My House” “I Get Ideas”

1949

“‘A’—You’re Adorable” “Baby, It’s Cold Outside” “Buttons and Bows” “Candy Kisses” “I Love You So Much It Hurts”

1952 “Auf Wiedersehen, Sweetheart” “Because You’re Mine” “Blue Tango” “Don’t Let Stars Get in Your Eyes” “Gandy Dancers’ Ball”

1953 “Baubles, Bangles & Beads” “Crying in the Chapel” “Ebb Tide” “I Believe” “I Love Paris”

“Bali Ha’i” “Cry of the Wild Goose” “Dear Hearts, Gentle People” “Daddy’s Little Girl” “I Can Dream, Can’t I?”

1954 “Hernando’s Hideaway” “Hey There” “The High and the Mighty” “Let Me Go, Lover” “Little Things Mean a Lot”

Source: Julius Mattfeld, Variety Music Cavalcade, 1620–1969 (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971), 559–611.

Entertainment

479

TABLE 17.40 TOP FIVE SINGLE RECORDS, BY YEAR, 1955–1990 The Billboard ranking of singles combined performances on the charts of best-sellers, disc jockeys, juke boxes, and the Top 100. The date indicated when a record achieved #1 on any chart. The weeks category pertained to the weeks a record reached #1 on whichever chart its total was highest. 1955 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/01 2/05 2/12 3/26

4 3 10 5

1. 2. 3. 4.

4/30

10

5.

Record Title Let Me Go Lover Hearts of Stone Sincerely The Ballad Of Davy Crockett Cherry Pink And Apple BlossomWhite

Artist

Weeks

Rank

1/07

6

1.

2/18 2/18 2/25 3/17

6 2 4 6

2. 3. 4. 5.

Bill Hayes Perez Prado

Record Title

Artist

Memories Are Made of This Rock and RollWaltz The Great Pretender Lisbon Antigua The Poor People of Paris

Dean Martin Kay Starr The Platters Nelson Riddle Les Baxter

1957 Date

Weeks

Rank

2/09 2/09 2/09 2/16 3/30

3 1 1 6 3

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Date

Weeks

Rank

1/06 2/10 2/17 2/24 3/17

7 5 4 2 5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Date

Weeks

Rank

1/19 2/9 3/9 4/13 5/11

3 4 5 4 1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title Too Much Don’t Forbid Me Young Love Young Love Butterfly

At the Hop Don’t Sugartime Get A Job Tequila

Elvis Presley Pat Boone Sonny James Tab Hunter AndyWilliams

Artist Danny & the Juniors Elvis Presley The McGuire Sisters The Silhouettes The Champs

1959 Record Title Smoke Gets inYour Eyes Stagger Lee Venus Come Softly to Me The Happy Organ

Artist The Platters Lioyd Price Frankie Avalon Fleetwoods Dave ‘Baby’ Cortez

1960 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/4 1/18 2/8 2/22

2 3 2 9

1. 2. 3. 4.

4/25

4

5.

Record Title El Paso Running Bear Teen Angel The Theme From “A Summer Place’’ Stuck OnYou

Weeks

Rank

1/9 1/30

3 2

1. 2.

2/13 2/27 3/20

2 3 2

3. 4. 5.

480

Record Title Wonderland by Night Will You Love Me Tomorrow Calcutta Pony Time Surrender


1/13

2

1.

The Twist

1/27

3

2.

2/17 3/10 3/31

3 3 1

3. 4. 5.

Peppermint Twist – Part I Duke of Earl Hey! Baby Don’t Break the Heart That LovesYou

Marty Robbins Johnny Preston Mark Dinning Percy Faith Elvis Presley

Artist Bert Kaempfert The Shirelles Lawrence Welk Chubby Checker Elvis Presley

Record Title

Artist Chubby Checker first entered #1 position in 1960 for 1 week Joey Dee & the Starliters Gene Chandler Bruce Channel Connie Francis

1963 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/12 1/26 2/9 3/2 3/23

2 2 3 3 1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title Go Away Little Girl Walk Right In Hey Paula Walk Like a Man Our DayWill Come

Artist Steve Lawrence The Rooftop Singers Paul & Paula The 4 Seasons Ruby & The Romantics

1964 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/4 2/1 3/21 4/4 5/9

4 7 2 5 1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title There! I’ve Said It Again I Want to HoldYour Hand She LovesYou Can’t Buy Me Love Hello, Dolly!

Artist Bobby Vinton The Beatles The Beatles The Beatles Louis Armstrong

1965 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/23 2/6

2 2

1. 2. 3.

2/20

2

Downtown You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feelin’ This Diamond Ring

3/6 3/13

1 2

4. 5.

My Girl Eight Days aWeek

Record Title

Artist Petula Clark The Righteous Brothers Gary Lewis & The Playboys The Temptations The Beatles

1966 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/1 1/8 2/5 2/19 2/26

2 3 2 1 1

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title The Sounds of Silence We CanWork It Out My Love Lightnin’ Strikes These Boots Are Made forWalkin’

Artist Simon & Garfunkel The Beatles Petula Clark Lou Christie Nancy Sinatra

1967 Date

Weeks

Rank

2/18 3/4 3/11

2 1 1

1. 2. 3.

3/18 3/25

1 3

4. 5.

Artist

1961 Date

Rank

Artist

1958 Record Title

Weeks

Joan Weber The Fontane Sisters The McGuire Sisters

1956 Date

1962 Date

Record Title Kind of a Drag Ruby Tuesday Love Is Here and Now You’re Gone Penny Lane Happy Together

Artist The Buckinghams The Rolling Stones The Supremes The Beatles The Turtles

1968 Date

Weeks

Rank

1/20

2

1.

2/3 2/10 3/16

1 5 4

2. 3. 4.

4/13

5

5.

Record Title Judy in Disguise (With Glasses) Green Tambourine Love is Blue (Sittin’ on) the Dock of the Bay Honey

Artist John Fred & His Playboy Band The Lemon Pipers Paul Mauriat Otis Redding Bobby Goldsboro

1976

1969 Date Weeks

Rank

Record Title

2/1

2

1.

Crimson and Clover

2/15 3/15 4/12

4 4 6

2. 3. 4.

5/24

5

5.

Everyday People Dizzy Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In Get Back

Artist

Rank

1/3

4

1.

1/31 2/7 2/14

1 1 2

2. 3. 4.

2/28

6

5.

Record Title Raindrops Keep Fallin’ On My Head IWantYou Back Venus ThankYou (Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin) Bridge Over TroubledWater

1/3 1/10 1/17 1/24

1 1 1 1

1. 2. 3. 4.

The 5th Dimension The Beatles with Billy Preston

1/31

1

5.

B.J.Thomas The Jackson 5 The Shocking Blue Sly & the Family Stone

1/23 2/13 3/20 4/3 4/17

3 5 2 2 6

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title Knock Three Times One Bad Apple Me and Bobby McGee Just My Imagination (Running Away with Me) Joy to theWorld

Rank

1/15

4

1.

2/12 2/19 3/18 3/25

1 4 1 3

2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title American Pie Parts I & II Let’s Stay Together WithoutYou Heart of Gold A Horse with No Name

Dawn The Osmonds Janis Joplin The Temptations Three Dog Night

1/6 1/27 2/3 2/24 3/24

3 1 3 5 1

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title You’re SoVain Superstition Crocodile Rock Killing Me Softly with His Song Love Train

1

1.

1/15

1

2.

1/22 1/29 2/5

1 1 2

3. 4. 5.

Don McLean Al Green Nilsson Neil Young America

Carly Simon Stevie Wonder Elton John Roberta Flack O’Jays

Rank

1/14 2/4 3/4

3 4 2

1. 2. 3.

3/18 5/13

8 1

4. 5.

1/6 2/10 3/10 3/24 4/14

2 4 3 2 1

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Date Weeks 1 1 1 3 1

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title The Joker Show and Tell You’re Sixteen TheWayWeWere Love’s Theme

Rank

Rank

1/4

2

1.

1/18 1/25 2/1 2/8

1 1 1 1

2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds Mandy Please Mr. Postman Laughter in the Rain Fire

Record Title You Don’t Have to Be a Star (To Be in My Show) You Make Me Feel Like Dancing I Wish CarWash Torn Between Two Lovers

Record Title Baby Come Back Stayin’Alive (Love Is) Thicker Than Water Night Fever If I Can’t HaveYou

Record Title Too Much Heaven DaYa Think I’m Sexy? IWill Survive Tragedy What a Fool Believes

Record Title

1/5

1

1.

Please Don’t Go

1/19 2/16

4 1

2. 3.

2/23

4

4.

3/22

4

5.

Rock withYou Do That to Me One More Time Crazy Little Thing Called Love Another Brick in theWall (Part II)

Artist Marilyn McCoo & Billy Davis. Jr Leo Sayer Stevie Wonder Rose Royce Mary MacGregor

Artist Player Bee Gees Andy Gibb Bee Gees Yvonne Elliman

Artist Bee Gees Rod Stewart Gloria Gaynor Bee Gees The Doobie Brothers

Artist K.C. & The Sunshine Band Michael Jackson The Captain & Tennille Queen Pink Floyd

1981 Artist Steve Miller Band Al Wilson Ringo Starr Barbra Streisand Love Unlimited Orchestra

Date Weeks 1/31 2/7 2/21 2/28 3/21

1 2 2 2 1

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Record Title The Tide Is High Celebration 9 To 5 I Love A Rainy Night Keep On LovingYou

Artist Blondie Kool & The Gang Dolly Parton Eddie Rabbitt REO Speedwagon

1982

1975 Date Weeks

Diana Ross Ohio Players

1980

1974

1/12 1/19 1/26 2/2 2/9

Bay City Rollers C.W. McCall Barry Manilow

1979

Date Weeks Artist

Saturday Night Convoy IWrite the Songs Theme from Mahogany (DoYou KnowWhere You’re Going To) Love Rollercoaster

Artist

1978

Date Weeks Artist

1973 Date Weeks

1/8

Date Weeks

1972 Date Weeks

Rank

Simon & Garfunkel

Artist

Record Title

1977 Date Weeks

Artist

1971 Date Weeks

Rank

Tommy James & The Shondells Sly & The Family Stone Tommy Roe

1970 Date Weeks

Date Weeks

Artist Elton John Barry Manilow Carpenters Neil Sedaka Ohio Players

Date Weeks

Rank

Record Title

1/30

1

1.

2/6 3/20

6 7

2. 3.

I Can’t Go for That (No Can Do) Centerfold I Love Rock ‘N Roll

5/8 5/15

1 7

4. 5.

Chariots of Fire—Titles Ebony and Ivory

Artist Daryl Hall & John Oates The J. Geils Band Joan Jett & the Blackhearts Vangelis Paul McCartney with Stevie Wonder


481


1987 Date Weeks

1983 Date

Weeks

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1/15 2/5 2/19

4 1 2

1. 2. 3.

Down Under Africa Baby, Come to Me

3/5 4/23

7 1

4. 5.

Billie Jean Come On Eileen

Men At Work Toto Patti Austin with James Ingram Michael Jackson Dexys Midnight Runners

1984 Date Weeks 1/21 2/4 2/25 3/31 4/21

2 3 5 3 3

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Owner of a Lonely Heart Karma Chameleon Jump Footloose Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)

Yes Culture Club Van Halen Kenny Loggins Phil Collins

1985 Date Weeks

Rank

Record Title

Artist

2/2

2

1.

2/16

3

2.

IWant to Know What Love Is CarelessWhisper

Foreigner

3/9 3/30 4/13

3 2 4

3. 4. 5.

Can’t Fight This Feeling One More Night We Are theWorld

Wham! Featuring George Michael REO Speedwagon Phil Collins USA for Africa

1986 Date Weeks 1/18 2/15 3/1 3/15 3/22

4 2 2 1 1

TABLE 17.41

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

That’s What Friends Are For HowWill I Know Kyrie Sara These Dreams

Dionne & Friends Whitney Houston Mr. Mister Starship Heart

1/17 1/24 2/7 2/14 3/14

1 2 1 4 1

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ShakeYou Down At This Moment OpenYour Heart Livin’ on a Prayer Jacob’s Ladder

Gregory Abbott Billy Vera & the Beaters Madonna Bon Jovi Huey Lewis & the News

1988 Date Weeks 1/9 1/16 1/23 1/30 2/6

1 1 1 1 2

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

So Emotional Got My Mind Set onYou TheWayYou Make Me Feel Need You Tonight Could’ve Been

Whitney Houston George Harrison Michael Jackson INXS Tiffany

1989 Date Weeks 1/14 1/21 2/4 2/11 3/4

1 2 1 3 3

Rank

Record Title

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

My Prerogative Two Hearts When I’mWithYou Straight Up Lost inYour Eyes

Bobby Brown Phil Collins Sheriff Paula Abdul Debbie Gibson

1990 Date Weeks

Rank

Record Title

1/20

3

1.

2/10

3

2.

How Am I Supposed to LiveWithoutYou Opposites Attract

3/3 3/24 4/7

3 2 1

3. 4. 5.

Escapade BlackVelvet LoveWill LeadYou Back

Artist Michael Bolton Paula Abdul with the Wild Pair Janet Jackson Alannah Myles Taylor Dayne

Source: Joel Whitburn, The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits (New York, 1989), 602–03; Joel Whitburn, Top Pop Singles (Menomonee Falls, Wisc., 1991), 818–27.

THE TOP 10 ARTISTS BY DECADE

(based on popularity of single records) 1950s ( ’55– ’59)

1960s

Rank

Artist

Points

Rank

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Elvis Presley Pat Boone Perry Como Fats Domino Nat “King’’ Cole The Platters Frank Sinatra Ricky Nelson The McGuire Sisters Bill Haley & His Comets

3595 2836 2022 1905 1782 1662 1428 1427 1358 1209

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Artist The Beatles Elvis Presley Ray Charles Brenda Lee The Supremes The 4 Seasons Connie Francis The Beach Boys James Brown Marvin Gaye

1970s Artist

Points

Rank

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Elton John Paul McCartney/Wings Bee Gees Carpenters Chicago The Jackson 5 James Brown Stevie Wonder Neil Diamond Elvis Presley

2164 2148 2003 1887 1777 1727 1639 1614 1574 1562

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.


4657 4144 2679 2575 2465 2316 2253 2230 2204 2069

1980s

Rank

Source: Whitburn, Top Pop Singles, 802.

482

Points

Artist Michael Jackson Prince Madonna Daryl Hall & John Oates George Michael/Wham! Billy Joel Elton John Lionel Richie Phil Collins John Cougar Mellencamp

Points 2095 2020 1970 1923 1796 1634 1600 1567 1492 1461

TABLE 17.42

TOP ARTIST ACHIEVEMENTS—SINGLE RECORDS, 1955–1990

Most Charted Singles

Most Top 40 Hits

Rank

Number

Artist

Rank

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

149 94 76 72 69 67 66 61 60 58 56 56 56 56 55 54 54 53 52 52 52 51 49 48 48

Elvis Presley James Brown Ray Charles Aretha Franklin The Beatles Frank Sinatra Fats Domino Stevie Wonder Pat Boone Nat “King’’ Cole Marvin Gaye The Beach Boys Neil Diamond Connie Francis Dionne Warwick Ricky Nelson Jackie Wilson Paul Anka The Rolling Stones The Temptations Brenda Lee Elton John Brook Benton Chicago Johnny Cash

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Number 107 49 48 46 44 41 41 40 38 37 37 37 35 35 35 35 34 33 33 33 31 31 30 30

Most Top 10 Hits Artist

Rank

Number

Artist

Elvis Presley The Beatles Elton John Stevie Wonder James Brown The Rolling Stones Aretha Franklin Marvin Gaye Pat Boone Fats Domino Neil Diamond The Temptations Paul McCartney/Wings The Beach Boys Ricky Nelson Connie Francis Chicago Ray Charles The Supremes Paul Anka Dionne Warwick Billy Joel The 4 Seasons Bobby Vinton

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

38 33 28 23 23 22 21 20 20 20 19 18 18 17 17 16 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

Elvis Presley The Beatles Stevie Wonder Elton John The Rolling Stones Paul McCartney/Wings Michael Jackson The Supremes Chicago Madonna Ricky Nelson Pat Boone Marvin Gaye Aretha Franklin George Michael/Wham! Connie Francis Daryl Hall & John Oates The Beach Boys The Temptations Bee Gees The 4 Seasons Olivia Newton-John The Everly Brothers Prince

Most #1 Hits

Most Weeks at #1 Position

Rank

Number

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

20 18 12 11 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

The Beatles Elvis Presley The Supremes Michael Jackson Stevie Wonder Paul McCartney/Wings Bee Gees George Michael/Wham! The Rolling Stones Madonna Whitney Houston Elton John Phil Collins Pat Boone Diana Ross Daryl Hall & John Oates The 4 Seasons Olivia Newton-John Barbra Streisand Lionel Richie Eagles KC & the Sunshine Band Bon Jovi

Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Most Consecutive #1 Hits

Number 80 59 30 29 27 25 22 22 21 21 20 19 18 18 18 17 17 15 15 14 14 14 13 13 13

Artist Elvis Presley The Beatles Paul McCartney/Wings Michael Jackson Bee Gees Stevie Wonder The Supremes George Michael/Wham! Pat Boone Lionel Richie Diana Ross Elton John The 4 Seasons Olivia Newton-John Madonna The Rolling Stones Rod Stewart The Everly Brothers Phil Collins Daryl Hall & John Oates The McGuire Sisters Whitney Houston Barbra Streisand Donna Summer Andy Gibb

Most Consecutive Top 10 Hits

Rank

Number

Artist

Rank

Number

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 4

Elvis Presley Whitney Houston The Beatles Bee Gees The Supremes Michael Jackson The Jackson 5 George Michael Paula Abdul

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

30 24 17 17 14 13 13 11 10 10

Artist Elvis Presley The Beatles Michael Jackson Madonna Pat Boone Phil Collins Lionel Richie Whitney Houston Brenda Lee George Michael

Source: Whitburn, Top Pop Singles, 804.

Entertainment

483

TABLE 17.43 TOP ARTISTS OF THE ROCK ERA: ALBUM SALES DURING THE YEARS, 1955–1990 Ranking of performers in various kinds of popular music was based on a system devised by Billboard Magazine that measured success in terms of the standing of albums on the charts of the Top 40. Points were allocated for appearance in the No. 1 position, for each additional week at the top; points also were distributed on a descending scale for appearance on the charts in positions 2 through 40; points also were allocated for number of weeks in the list of Top 40 albums during this 35-year period. Names in the ranking clearly indicated that while Billboard termed the period the “Era of Rock,’’ not all successful performers were active with rock and roll music. Rank

Artists

Points

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

The Beatles Elvis Presley Frank Sinatra The Rolling Stones Barbra Streisand The Kingston Trio Elton John Johnny Mathis Herb Alpert/The Tijuana Brass Harry Belafonte Mitch Miller Chicago Bob Dylan Andy Williams Paul McCartney/Wings Mantovani Henry Mancini Michael Jackson Bee Gees Fleetwood Mac Led Zeppelin Enoch Light The Monkees Prince Stevie Wonder Ray Conniff The Temptations Lawrence Welk Ray Charles The Beach Boys Simon and Garfunkel Billy Joel Eagles Peter, Paul and Mary The Supremes Rod Stewart Bruce Springsteen Jefferson Airplane/Starship Olivia Newton-John Neil Diamond Carole King Pink Floyd Billy Vaughn Aretha Franklin Linda Ronstadt Santana

3267 2699 2383 2128 1836 1757 1516 1422 1387 1320 1316 1136 1080 1063 1051 1022 1021 1009 1008 1001 988 937 926 901 897 891 891 891 852 832 825 824 805 786 774 742 716 698 680 679 671 661 660 651 634 632

Source: Joel Whitburn, The Billboard Book of Top 40 Albums (New York, 1991), 320–321.

484


TABLE 17.44 TOP ARTIST ACHIEVEMENTS—ALBUMS, 1955–1990 The Most No. 1 Albums Rank

Artist

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The Beatles Elvis Presley The Rolling Stones Elton John Paul McCartney/Wings Barbra Streisand Led Zeppelin The Kingston Trio Herb Alpert/The Tijuana Brass Chicago Frank Sinatra The Monkees Eagles Bruce Springsteen Mitch Miller Bob Dylan Bee Gees Fleetwood Mac Prince Stevie Wonder Simon and Garfunkel Billy Joel The Supremes Olivia Newton-John Carole King Pink Floyd Linda Ronstadt Madonna John Denver Donna Summer John Lennon Crosby, Stills, Nash &Young Allan Sherman

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

The Most Top 10 Albums Total Rank 15 9 9 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Source: Whitburn, Top 40 Albums, 324.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Artist

Total

Frank Sinatra The Rolling Stones Elvis Presley The Beatles Barbra Streisand Johnny Mathis The Kingston Trio Mitch Miller Bob Dylan Elton John The Beach Boys Chicago Andy Williams Paul McCartney/Wings Ray Conniff Neil Diamond Mantovani Led Zeppelin Stevie Wonder The Temptations Lawrence Welk Linda Ronstadt Herb Alpert/The Tijuana Brass Harry Belafonte Henry Mancini Billy Joel The Who

31 31 25 23 22 16 14 14 14 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9

TABLE 17.45 TOP 50 ALBUMS OF THE ROCK ERA, 1955–1990 Weeks Rank

Ch

40

10

#1

Peak Year

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

198 122 262 99 134

144 91 161 72 60

106 78 90 58 52

54 37 31 31 31

62 83 58 56 77

West Side Story Thriller South Pacific Calypso Rumours

Soundtrack Michael Jackson Soundtrack Harry Belafonte Fleetwood Mac

6. 7. 8. 9.

120 72 79 33

54 42 53 32

35 32 39 28

24 24 20 19

78 84 61 90

Bee Gees/Soundtrack Prince & the Revolution/Soundtrack Elvis Presley/Soundtrack

10.

96

68

48

18

87

Saturday Night Fever Purple Rain Blue Hawaii Please Hammer Don’t Hurt ‘Em Dirty Dancing

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

96 75 28 276 107

45 50 28 168 61

25 40 25 105 23

18 17 17 16 16

67 83 55 60 63

More of the Monkees Synchronicity Love Me Or Leave Me The Sound of Music Days of Wine and Roses

The Monkees The Police Doris Day/Soundtrack Original Cast Andy Williams

16. 17. 18.

480 302 175

292 68 63

173 46 33

15 15 15

56 71 67

Original Cast Carole King

19. 20.

90 118

48 43

31 31

15 15

82 59

My Fair Lady Tapestry Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band Business As Usual The Kingston Trio at Large

21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

101 123 114 162 108

50 35 78 78 67

30 27 48 46 44

15 15 14 14 14

81 80 65 86 60

Hi Infidelity TheWall Mary Poppins Whitney Houston The Button-Down Mind of Bob Newhart

REO Speedwagon Pink Floyd Soundtrack Whitney Houston

26. 27. 28.

89 80 101

55 44 59

38 35 33

14 14 14

61 76 62

Soundtrack Stevie Wonder

29. 30.

51 124

40 105

28 43

14 13

64 60

Exodus Songs in the Key of Life Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music A Hard Day’s Night Persuasive Percussion

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

95 102 151 245 87

73 49 59 123 69

37 32 28 63 51

13 13 13 12 12

61 66 69 58 88

Judy at Carnegie Hall The Monkees Hair The Music Man Faith

Judy Garland The Monkees Original Cast Original Cast George Michael

36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

96 73 77 49 64

69 42 39 26 50

46 29 29 17 33

12 12 12 12 11

62 60 78 62 61

Breakfast at Tiffany’s Sold Out Grease The First Family Calcutta!

Henry Mancini/Soundtrack The Kingston Trio Olivia Newton-John/Soundtrack Vaughn Meader Lawrence Welk

41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

85 129 71 34 118

51 32 27 22 78

31 27 21 18 64

11 11 11 11 10

87 69 64 85 89

Whitney Abbey Road Meet the Beatles! MiamiVice ForeverYour Girl

Whitney Houston The Beatles The Beatles TV Soundtrack Paula Abdul

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

88 172 97 48 119

88 78 55 48 47

54 54 52 43 43

10 10 10 10 10

57 58 76 56 59

Around theWorld in 80 Days Gigi Framption Comes Alive! Elvis Presley The Music From Peter Gunn

Soundtrack Soundtrack Peter Frampton Elvis Presley Henry Mancini/TV Soundtrack

Album Title

Artist

M.C. Hammer Soundtrack

The Beatles Men at Work The Kingston Trio

Bob Newhart

Ray Charles The Beatles/Soundtrack Enoch Light/Terry Snyder and the All-Stars

Note: Ranking based on Billboard’s point system that counted weeks at No. 1, weeks in top 10, top 40 and total weeks on the charts. Abbreviated headings have the following meanings: Peak Year: Year album reached peak position Weeks Ch: Total weeks charted Weeks 40: Total weeks in Top 40 Weeks 10: Total weeks in Top 10 Weeks #1: Total weeks in no. 1 position Source: Whitburn, Top 40 Albums, 325–26.

Entertainment

485

TABLE 17.46

THE TOP 10 ARTISTS BY DECADE

(albums on the charts) The Fifties (1955–59) Rank 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Artist Harry Belafonte Frank Sinatra Elvis Presley Johnny Mathis The Kingston Trio Mitch Miller Mantovani Roger Williams Tennessee Ernie Ford Doris Day

The Seventies Points

Rank

Artist

Points

1,103 1,015 927 851 749 747 585 418 384 356

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Elton John Chicago Paul McCartney/Wings Bee Gees The Rolling Stones Eagles Fleetwood Mac Led Zeppelin Carole King Bob Dylan

1,329 944 833 831 820 769 732 720 671 642

The Sixties 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

The Beatles Elvis Presley Frank Sinatra Herb Alpert/The Tijuana Brass The Kingston Trio Andy Williams Enoch Light The Monkees Ray Charles Barbra Streisand

The Eighties 2,817 1,469 1,309 1,302 1,008 999 930 904 852 808

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Prince Michael Jackson Bruce Springsteen Whitney Houston Madonna The Rolling Stones Billy Joel The Police U2 John Cougar Mellencamp

881 860 632 574 566 550 501 499 473 455

Source: Whitburn, Top 40 Albums, 33.

Elvis Presley Arguably the most popular and most significant single performer of popular music during the half-century following the Second World War, Elvis Presley set many ratings and sales records, especially in the category of single songs and records.While it appeared for the rest of the 20th century that Presley’s impact was timeless, his most profound effect came shortly after he burst onto the scene in the mid-1950s. Of

his 50 most popular songs, 39 were released during the 10-year period between 1956 and 1965. After that point, his popularity waned somewhat but by no means died as American pop/rock music proceeded on its never-ending process of evolution, and a new competitor, the Beatles, arrived to jolt the measurement charts in much the same fashion as “the King’’ had done nearly 10 years earlier.

Elvis Presley meets President Richard M. Nixon in the White House. (Richard M. Nixon Library)

486


TABLE 17.47 THE TOP 50 SONGS OF ELVIS PRESLEY Rank

Song

Year Song Was Introduced

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

“Don’t Be Cruel/Hound Dog” “Heartbreak Hotel” “All Shook Up” “Jailhouse Rock/Treat Me Nice” “(Let Me Be Your) Teddy Bear” “Love Me Tender” “I Want You, I Need You, I Love You” “It’s Now or Never” “Are You Lonesome Tonight?” “Don’t/I Beg of You” “Stuck On You” “Too Much” “Return to Sender” “Wear My Ring Around Your Neck” “One Night” “Love Me” “Suspicious Minds” “Good Luck Charm” “Surrender” “A Big Hunk O’ Love” “Hard Headed Woman” “Can’t Help Falling in Love” “Burning Love” “(Now and Then There’s) a Fool Such As I” “In the Ghetto” “I Got Stung” “Crying in the Chapel” “Don’t Cry Daddy” “I Need Your Love Tonight” “The Wonder of You” “(You’re the) Devil in Disguise” “She’s Not You” “Little Sister” “If I Can Dream” “My Wish Came True” “One Broken Heart for Sale” “Ask Me” “Fame and Fortune” “Promised Land” “Steamroller Blues/Fool” “I Feel So Bad” “Bossa Nova Baby” “You Don’t Have to Say You Love Me” “I’m Yours” “(Marie’s the Name) His Latest Flame” “Puppet on a String” “Kentucky Rain” “Ain’t That Loving You Baby” “Follow That Dream” “Way Down”

1956 1956 1957 1957 1957 1956 1956 1960 1960 1958 1960 1957 1962 1958 1958 1957 1969 1962 1961 1959 1958 1962 1972 1959 1969 1958 1965 1970 1959 1970 1963 1962 1961 1969 1959 1963 1964 1960 1974 1973 1961 1963 1970 1965 1961 1965 1970 1964 1962 1977

Source: Fred Bronson, Billboard’s Hottest 100 Hits (New York, 1995), 5–6.

Rock Music: Booming Business, Vulnerable Lifestyle The rock music business lended itself to overnight success, lavish wealth, and adulation, and also unhealthy living conditions, emotional stress, and sudden, untimely, frequently unnatural death of its participants. Many of the difficulties appeared to be either inherent in the entertainment business or a creation of the culture that rock music had done much to produce. Show business and especially popular music subjected performers to frequent travel and thus made them vulnerable to accident. Rock musicians faced erratic schedules and too little sleep that sometimes came, so it appeared, only with “a little help.’’ Rock music was an emotional exercise, given to sharp and sudden highs and lows on the part of both performers and audience. Rock music showed remarkable toleration of—even preference for—performers who experienced success at very early age, partly because, it would appear, the listeners and admirers were themselves very young.The setting fostered a great deal of freedom, too much temptation, and too little maturity to handle new situations. Almost from the beginning, rock music intermingled closely with the culture of mind-altering drugs, and the entanglement intensified as the culture grew. All sudden deaths from that culture were tragic, but many came as a consequence of the victim’s behavior, and those related to drugs seem to carry special meaning. The following list contains names of several musicians of the era who failed to survive the era, whose end came suddenly and in most cases at very young age. TABLE 17.48 SOME CASUALTIES FROM THE AGE OF ROCK, IN ORDER OF THEIR DEATH Artist

Band/ Age Description

Buddy Holly Sam Cooke Bobby Fuller Otis Redding Frankie Lymon Brian Jones Jimi Hendrix Janis Joplin Jim Morrison

22 The Crickets singer 23 singer 26 blues singer 25 singer 27 Rolling Stones 27 singer 27 singer 27 Doors

Cause of Death

plane crash shot auto asphyxiation plane crash drug overdose drowning in pool drug-related choking drug overdose alcohol-related heart attack Duane Allman 24 Allman Brothers motorcycle crash Berry Oakley 24 Allman Brothers motorcycle crash Jim Croce 30 singer plane crash Bobby Darin 37 singer heart attack Cass Elliot 30 Mamas and Papas choking and heart attack Peter Ham 27 Badfinger suicide Tim Buckley 28 singer drug overdose Phil Ochs 35 singer suicide Elvis Presley 42 singer drug-related heart attack Marc Bolan 29 T. Rex auto accident Ronnie Van Zant 28 Lynyrd Skynyrd plane crash Keith Moon 31 The Who drug overdose Sid Vicious 21 Sex Pistols drug overdose Gram Parsons 26 Byrds drug overdose Bon Scott AC/DC heavy drinking John Bonham Led Zeppelin inhale vomit John Lennon 40 Beatles murdered Bob Marley 36 Reggae cancer Harry Chapin 38 singer auto accident Karen Carpenter 32 The Carpenters heart attack from anorexia Tom Evans Badfinger suicide Marvin Gaye 45 soul singer drugs, depression, murder Rick Nelson 45 singer plane crash Richard Manuel 42 The Band suicide Stevie Ray Vaughan 35 bluesman plane crash

Date of Death February 1959 December 1964 July 1966 December 1967 February 1968 July 1969 September 1970 October 1970 July 1971 October 1971 November 1972 September 1973 December 1973 July 1974 April 1975 June 1975 April 1976 August 1977 September 1977 October 1977 September 1978 February 1979 September 1979 February 1980 September 1980 December 1980 May 1981 July 1981 February 1983 November 1983 April 1984 December 1985 March 1986 August 1990

Source: USA Today, April 17, 1998, 1E–2E; Michael Weatley, The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Rock (New York, 1993), 326–27.

Entertainment

487

Greatest Rock ’n’ Roll Songs: An Opinion Poll Unlike various charts that based popularity of music on raw statistics, the following table is based on a quest for the best 100 rock and roll songs that measured opinion.The survey, conducted by the television music channel VH1, polled some 700 people in the music business.As with any such survey, it was subjective, and results would bear markings of the people being polled: their age, race, ethnicity, gender, and the mere fact that they were in the music business. Several themes accompanied the outcome. The songs were rock and roll songs, as identified by beat and arrangement and also by the themes or message and not merely songs that appeared during the era. Frank Sinatra was

not on the list; neither were the Everly Brothers nor surprisingly Fleetwood Mac, U2, or Madonna.The giant of the list was the Beatles, and that group probably would have received the No. 1 ranking but for the fact that respondents split their vote among nine Beatles selections. Another message that rang clear was that the years 1955–90 composed the era of rock and roll. No song came before that period and although the poll was taken at the end of the 1990s (and published in January 2000), only one song that appeared after 1990 made the list—and even then only barely; “Smells Like Teen Spirit,’’ number 41 and by Nirvana, came out in 1991.

TABLE 17.49 100 GREATEST ROCK ’N’ ROLL SONGS— AN OPINION POLL

Rank

The 100 greatest rock ’n’ roll songs, as determined by a panel of 700 voters assembled by the music network VH1

51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100.

Rank

Song

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34.

“(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction’’ “Respect’’ “Stairway to Heaven’’ “Like a Rolling Stone’’ “Born to Run’’ “Hotel California’’ “Light My Fire’’ “Good Vibrations’’ “Hey Jude’’ “Imagine’’ “Louie Louie’’ “Yesterday’’ “My Generation’’ “What’s Going On’’ “Johnny B. Goode’’ “Layla’’ “Won’t Get Fooled Again’’ “Jailhouse Rock’’ “American Pie’’ “A Day in the Life’’ “I Got You (I Feel Good)’’ “Superstition’’ “I Want to Hold Your Hand’’ “Brown Sugar’’ “Purple Haze’’ “Sympathy for the Devil’’ “Bohemian Rhapsody’’ “You Really Got Me’’ “Oh, Pretty Woman’’ “Bridge Over Troubled Water’’ “Hound Dog’’ “Let It Be’’ “(Sittin On) the Dock of the Bay’’ “All Along the Watchtower’’

35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

“Walk This Way’’ “My Girl’’ “Rock Around the Clock’’ “I Heard It Through the Grapevine’’ “Proud Mary’’

40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

“Born to Be Wild’’ “Smells Like Teen Spirit’’ “Every Breath You Take’’ “What’d I Say’’ “Free Bird’’ “That’ll Be the Day’’

46. 47. 48. 49. 50.

“Whole Lotta Love’’ ”Dream On’’ “California Dreamin’’’ “Brown Eyed Girl’’ “Wild Thing’’

488


Artist The Rolling Stones Aretha Franklin Led Zeppelin Bob Dylan Bruce Springsteen The Eagles The Doors The Beach Boys The Beatles John Lennon The Kingsmen The Beatles The Who Marvin Gaye Chuck Berry Derek and the Dominos The Who Elvis Presley Don McLean The Beatles James Brown Stevie Wonder The Beatles The Rolling Stones Jimi Hendrix The Rolling Stones Queen The Kinks Roy Orbison Simon & Garfunkel Elvis Presley The Beatles Otis Redding The Jimi Hendrix Experience Aerosmith The Temptations Bill Haley & His Comets Marvin Gaye Creedence Clearwater Revival Steppenwolf Nirvanaa The Police Ray Charles Lynyrd Skynyrd Buddy Holly and the Crickets Led Zeppelin Aerosmith The Mamas and the Papas Van Morrison The Troggs

a

Song “Suite: Judy Blue Eyes’’ “Beat It’’ “Great Balls of Fire’’ “Stayin’ Alive’’ “For What It’s Worth’’ “Blowin’ in the Wind’’ “Twist and Shout’’ “Piano Man’’ “She Loves You’’ “Space Oddity’’ “Strawberry Fields Forever’’ “Kashmir’’ “Crazy’’ “London Calling’’ “Jumpin’ Jack Flash’’ “Rock & Roll’’ “Let’s Stay Together’’ “All Shook Up’’ “Maggie May’’ “Your Song’’ “Heartbreak Hotel’’ “God Only Knows’’ “The Twist’’ “Good Golly, Miss Molly’’ “Sunshine of Your Love’’ “California Girls’’ “Summertime Blues’’ “Blue Suede Shoes’’ “A Hard Day’s Night’’ “Fire and Rain’’ “Gloria’’ “Sexual Healing’’ “Start Me Up’’ “More Than a Feeling’’ “Roxanne’’ “We Are the Champions’’ “Tangled Up in Blue’’ “Somebody to Love’’ “Stand By Me’’ “Whole Lotta Shakin’ Going On’’ “You Shook Me All Night Long’’ “When Doves Cry’’ “In the Midnight Hour’’ “Gimme Some Lovin’’’ “Jump’’ “Thunder Road’’ “No Woman No Cry’’ “La Bamba’’ “We’ve Only Just Begun’’ “Papa Was a Rolling Stone’’

Artist Crosby, Stills and Nash Michael Jackson Jerry Lee Lewis The Bee Gees The Buffalo Springfield Bob Dylan The Beatles Billy Joel The Beatles David Bowie The Beatles Led Zeppelin Patsy Cline The Clash The Rolling Stones Led Zeppelin Al Green Elvis Presley Rod Stewart Elton John Elvis Presley The Beach Boys Chubby Checker Little Richard Cream The Beach Boys Eddie Cochran Carl Perkins The Beatles James Taylor Them Marvin Gaye The Rolling Stones Boston The Police Queen Bob Dylan Jefferson Airplane Ben E. King Jerry Lee Lewis AC/DC Prince & the Revolution Wilson Pickett Spencer Davis Group Van Halen Bruce Springsteen Bob Marley & the Wailers Ritchie Valens The Carpenters The Temptations

Released in 1991 and thus not a part of the years 1955–1990. Source: Published in Kalamazoo (Mich.) Gazette, January 7, 2000, D6.

TABLE 17.50

GRAMMY AWARDS, 1958–1990

Seeking to keep in step with other areas of comercial entertainment, a growing music recording industry formed its own organization, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences, to publicize its wares by honoring its most effective and successful members. Beginning in the year 1958, members of the academy, in time some 6,000 strong, voted on recipients of “Grammy’’ awards in a few categories. The name stemming from the term gramophone, or phonograph—as record players originally were called—the Grammy at first was awarded in only a few areas of mainstream popular music. By 1990 honorees came from approximately 70 categories. The five areas listed below remained the persistent headliners of the occasion. Year

Record of the Year

Album of the Year

Song of the Year

Best Male Vocal Performance

Best Female Vocal Performance

1958

Domenico Modugno, Henry Mancini, “Nel Blu Dipinto di Blu (Volare)” The Music from Peter Gunn

Domenico Modugno “Nel Blu Dipinto di Blu (Volare)”

Perry Como, “Catch a Falling Star”

Ella Fitzgerald, Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Irving Berlin Songbook

1959

Bobby Darin, “Mack the Knife”

Jimmy Driftwood, “The Battle of New Orleans’’

Frank Sinatra, “Come Dance with Me”

Ella Fitzgerald, But Not for Me

1960

Percy Faith, Bob Newhart, “Theme from a Summer Place” Button-Down Mind

Ernest Gold, “Theme from Exodus’’

Ray Charles, “Georgia on My Mind”

Ella Fitzgerald, Mack the Knife

1961

Henry Mancini, “Moon River”

Judy Garland, Judy at Carnegie Hall

Henry Mancini, Johnny Mercer, “Moon River’’

Jack Jones, “Lollipops and Roses”

Judy Garland, Judy at Carnegie Hall

1962

Tony Bennett, “I Left My Heart in San Francisco”

Vaughn Meader, The First Family

Leslie Bricusse, Anthony Newley, Tony Bennett, “What Kind of Fool Am I?’’ I Left My Heart in San Francisco

Ella Fitzgerald, Ella Swings Brightly with Nelson Riddle

1963

Henry Mancini, Barbra Streisand, “The Days of Wine and Roses” The Barbra Streisand Album

Henry Mancini, Johnny Mercer, “The Days of Wine and Roses’’

Jack Jones, “Wives and Lovers”

Barbra Streisand, The Barbra Streisand Album

1964

Stan Getz, Astrud Gilberto, “The Girl from Ipanema”

Stan Getz, Astrud Gilberto, Getz/Gilberto

Jerry Herman, “Hello, Dolly!’’

Louis Armstrong, “Hello, Dolly!”

Barbra Streisand, People

1965

Herb Alpert & the Tijuana Brass “A Taste of Honey”

Frank Sinatra, September of MyYears

Paul Francis Webster, Johnny Mandel, “The Shadow of Your Smile’’

Frank Sinatra, “It Was a Very Good Year”

Barbra Streisand, My Name is Barbra

1966

Frank Sinatra, “Strangers in the Night”

Frank Sinatra, A Man and His Music

John Lennon, Paul McCartney, “Michelle’’

Frank Sinatra, “Strangers in the Night”

Eydie Gorme, If He Walked into My Life

1967

5th Dimension, “Up, Up and Away”

The Beatles, Jim Webb, “Up, Up, and Away’’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band

Glen Campbell, Bobbie Gentry, “By the Time I Get to Phoenix” Ode to Billie Joe

1968

Simon & Garfunkel, “Mrs. Robinson”

Glen Campbell, By the Time I Get to Phoenix

Bobby Russell, “Little Green Apples’’

Jose Feliciano, “Light My Fire”

Dionne Warwick, DoYou Know theWay to San Jose?

1969

5th Dimension, Blood, Sweat & Tears, “Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In” Blood, Sweat & Tears

Joe South, “Games People Play’’

Harry Nilsson, “Everybody’s Talkin’”

Peggy Lee Is That All There Is?

1970

Simon & Garfunkel, “Bridge over Troubled Water”

Simon & Garfunkel, Bridge over TroubledWater

Paul Simon, “Bridge over Troubled Water’’

Ray Stevens, “Everything Is Beautiful”

Dionne Warwick, I’ll Never Fall in Love Again

1971

Carole King, “It’s Too Late”

Carole King, Tapestry

Carole King, “You’ve Got a Friend”

James Taylor, “You’ve Got a Friend”

Carole King, Tapestry

1972

Roberta Flack, “The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face”

George Harrison, Ravi Shankar, Bob Dylan et al., Concert for Bangladesh

Ewan McColl, “The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face’’

Harry Nilsson, “Without You”

Helen Reddy, I AmWoman

1973

Roberta Flack, “Killing Me Softly with His Song”

Stevie Wonder, Innervisions

Norman Gimbel, Charles Fox, “Killing Me Softly with His Song’’

Stevie Wonder, “You Are the Sunshine of My Life”

Roberta Flack, Killing Me Softly with His Song

1974

Olivia Newton-John, “I Honestly LoveYou”

Stevie Wonder, Fulfillingness’ First Finale

Marilyn & Alan Bergman, Marvin Stevie Wonder, Hamlisch, Fulfillingness’ First Finale “The Way We Were”

Olivia Newton-John, I Honestly Love You

1975

Captain & Tennille, “LoveWill Keep Us Together”

Paul Simon, Still Crazy After All TheseYears

Stephen Sondheim, “Send in the Clowns’’

Paul Simon, Still Crazy after All TheseYears

Janis Ian, At Seventeen

1976 `

George Benson, “This Masquerade”

Stevie Wonder, Songs in the Key of life

Bruce Johnston, “I Write the Songs”

Stevie Wonder, Songs in the Key of Life

Linda Ronstadt, Hasten Down theWind

1977

The Eagles, “Hotel California”

Fleetwood Mac, Rumours

Barbra Streisand, Paul Williams, “Evergreen’’

James Taylor, “Handy Man”

Barbra Streisand, Evergreen

1978

Billy Joel, “Just the Way You Are”

Various Artists, Saturday Night Fever

Billy Joel, “Just the Way You Are’’

Barry Manilow, “Copacabana (At the Copa)”

Anne Murray, You Needed Me

1979

The Doobie Brothers, “What a Fool Believes”

Billy Joel, 52nd Street

Kenny Loggins, Michael McDonald, “What a Fool Believes”

Billy Joel, 52nd Street

Dionne Warwick, I’ll Never Love ThisWay Again

1980

Chistopher Cross, “Sailing”

Christopher Cross, Christopher Cross

Christopher Cross, “Sailing’’

Kenny Loggins, “This Is It”

Bette Midler, The Rose

1981

Kim Carnes, “Bette Davis Eyes”

John Lennon/Yoko Ono, Double Fantasy

Donna Weiss, Jackie DeShannon, Al Jarreau, “Bette Davis Eyes’’ Breakin’Away

Lena Horne, The Lady and Her Music Live on Broadway

1982

Toto, “Rosanna”

Toto, Toto IV

Johnny Christopher, Mark James,Wayne Carson, “Always on My Mind’’

Melissa Manchester, You Should Hear How She Talks AboutYou

Frank Sinatra, Come Dance with Me

Lionel Richie, “Truly”


489

TABLE 17.50 Year

(continued) Record of the Year

Album of the Year

Song of the Year

Best Male Vocal Performance

Best Female Vocal Performance

1983

Michael Jackson, “Beat It”

Michael Jackson, Thriller

Sting, “Every Breath You Take’’

Michael Jackson, Thriller

Irene Cara, Flashdance . . .What a Feeling

1984

Tina Turner, “What’s Love Got to Do with It?”

Lionel Richie, Can’t Slow Down

Graham Lyle,Terry Britten, “What’s Love Got to Do With It?”

Phil Collins, Against All Odds (Take a Look at Me Now)

Tina Turner, What’s Love Got to Do with It?

1985

USA for Africa, “We Are the World”

Phil Collins, No Jacket Required

Michael Jackson, Lionel Richie, “We Are the World’’

Phil Collins, No Jacket Required

Whitney Houston, Saving All My Love forYou

1986

Steve Winwood, “Higher Love”

Paul Simon, Graceland

Various Artists, “That’s What Friends Are For”

Steve Winwood, Higher Love

Barbra Streisand, The Broadway Album

1987

Paul Simon, “Graceland”

U2, The Joshua Tree

Linda Ronstadt, James Ingram, “Somewhere Out There’’

Sting, Bring on the Night

Whitney Houston, IWanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)

1988

Bobby McFerrin, “Don’t Worry, Be Happy”

George Michael, Faith

Bobby McFerrin, “Don’t Worry, Be Happy’’

Bobby McFerrin, Don’tWorry, Be Happy

Tracy Chapman, Fast Car

1989

Bette Midler, “Wind Beneath My Wings”

Bonnie Raitt, Nick of Time

Bette Midler, “Wind Beneath My Wings’’

Michael Bolton, How Am I Supposed to Live WithoutYou

Bonnie Raitt, Nick of Time

1990

Phil Collins, “Another Day in Paradise”

Quincy Jones, Back on the Block

Julie Gold, “From a Distance’’

Roy Orbison, Oh, PrettyWoman

Mariah Carey, Vision of Love

Source: John Wright, The New York Times Almanac, 2000 (New York, 1999), 837–38.

President Ronald Reagan, a former actor, cuts in on singer Frank Sinatra, dancing with his wife, Nancy, also a former actress, at the White House. (Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library)

490


Empty at the Grammys The following artists had not won prior to 1990 or have never won a Grammy Award in a competitive category, although many have been nominated. Some have received special or honorary prizes. Roy Acuffa Beach Boys Chuck Berry Jackson Browne Byrds Benny Cartera Pablo Casalsa Cher Patsy Cline Sam Cooke Elvis Costello Creedence Clearwater Revival Cream Jim Croce Bing Crosbya Fats Dominoa Doors Drifters Four Tops Peter Frampton Benny Goodmana Grateful Dead Lionel Hampton Jimi Hendrix Jackson 5 Jefferson Airplane/Starship Janis Joplin Led Zeppelin “Little Richard’’ Penniman Mitch Miller Van Morrison Buck Owens Pretenders Queen Ramones Santana Cat Stevens Rolling Stonesa Diana Ross Sex Pistols Rod Stewart Supremes Talking Heads Three Dog Night Lawrence Welk Kitty Wellsa Who Hank Williams, Sr. a

Lifetime Achievement Awards. Source: O’Neil, The Grammys, 548.

Popular Country Songs Measurement of the popularity of country records was based on statistics compiled by Billboard that began with juke-box records, until 1948, and between 1948 and 1958 they combined record sales, diskjockey playings, and juke-box statistics. Between 1958 and 1990 the charts depended upon playlists supplied by radio stations. Beginning in 1990 Billboard utilized electronic monitors placed on radio stations.

TABLE 17.51 TOP 100 COUNTRY SINGLES, 1944–1990 Wks Rank @#1

Pk Yr

Title

Artist

1. 2.

21 21

50 47

3. 4. 5.

21 20 20

55 56 54

“I’m Moving On’’ “I’ll Hold You in My Heart (Till I Can Hold You in My Arms)” “In the Jailhouse Now’’ “Crazy Arms’’ “I Don’t Hurt Anymore’’

Hank Snow Eddy Arnold

6. 7. 8. 9.

19 19 17 17

48 61 54 49

“Bouquet of Roses’’ “Walk On By’’ “Slowly’’ “Slipping Around’’

10.

17

56

“Heartbreak Hotel’’

11.

16

49

“Lovesick Blues’’

12.

16

46

“Guitar Polka’’

13. 14.

16 16

63 46

“Love’s Gonna Live Here’’ “New Spanish Two Step’’

15.

16

47

“Smoke! Smoke! Smoke! (That Cigarette)”

16.

15

51

“Slow Poke’’

17. 18. 19. 20.

15 14 14 14

52 60 60 52

“The Wild Side of Life’’ “Please Help Me, I’m Falling’’ “He’ll Have to Go’’ “Jambalaya (On the Bayou)’’

21.

14

51

“The Shot Gun Boogie’’

22. 23.

14 14

46 47

24.

13

44

“Divorce Me C.O.D.’’ “So Round, So Firm, So Fully Packed” “So Long Pal’’

25.

13

55

“Love, Love, Love’’

Al Dexter and His Troopers Webb Pierce

26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

13 13 13 13 13

56 44 58 58 50

“Singing the Blues’’ “ Smoke on the Water’’ “City Lights’’ “Alone with You’’ “Chattanooga Shoe Shine Boy’’

Marty Robbins Red Foley Ray Price Faron Young Red Foley

31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

13 12 12 12 12

53 55 51 53 60

“Kaw-Liga’’ “I Don’t Care’’ “Always Late (With Your Kisses)’’ “There Stands the Glass’’ “Alabam’’

Hank Williams Webb Pierce Lefty Frizzell Webb Pierce Cowboy Copas

36. 37.

12 11

49 48

Eddy Arnold Jimmy Wakely

38. 39. 40.

11 11 11

51 51 51

“Don’t Rob Another Man’s Castle’’ “One Has My Name (The Other Has My Heart)’’ “I Want to Be with You Always’’ “I Wanna Play House with You’’ “There’s Been a Change in Me’’

41. 42.

11 11

62 45

43. 44. 45.

10 10 10

60 54 56

“Don’t Let Me Cross Over’’ “You Two-Timed Me One Time Too Often’’ “Wings of a Dove’’ “More and More’’ “Don’t Be Cruel/Hound Dog’’

Carl Butler and Pearl Tex Ritter and His Texans Ferlin Husky Webb Pierce Elvis Presley

46.

10

50

“Why Don’t You Love Me’’

47. 48. 49. 50.

10 10 10 10

57 58 55 59

“Gone’’ “Ballad of a Teenage Queen’’ “Sixteen Tons’’ “The Battle Of New Orleans’’

Hank Williams with His Drifting Cowboys Ferlin Husky Johnny Cash Tennessee Ernie Ford Johnny Horton

Webb Pierce Ray Price Hank Snow Eddy Arnold Leroy Van Dyke Webb Pierce Margaret Whiting & Jimmy Wakely Elvis Presley Hank Williams with His Drifting Cowboys Al Dexter and His Troopers Buck Owens Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys Tex Williams and His Western Caravan Pee Wee King and his Golden West Cowboys Hank Thompson Hank Locklin Jim Reeves Hank Williams with his Drifting Cowboys Tennessee Ernie Ford Merle Travis Merle Travis

Lefty Frizzell Eddy Arnold Eddy Arnold


491

TABLE 17.51 Wks Rank @#1

(continued) Pk Yr

Wks Rank @#1 Title

Pk Yr

Title

Artist

Artist

81.

7

57

“Bye Bye Love’’

Marty Robbins The Browns Eddy Arnold and His Tennessee Plowboys Spade Cooley Jim Reeves and the Circle O Ranch Boys

82.

7

45

83. 84. 85.

7 7 7

63 63 64

“I’m Losing My Mind Over You’’ “Still’’ “Ring of Fire’’ “I Guess I’m Crazy’’

86. 87. 88. 89.

7 7 6 6

66 66 56 53

“There Goes My Everything’’ “Waitin’ in Your Welfare Line’’ “I Walk the Line’’ “A Dear John Letter’’

90.

6

44

“Your Cheatin’ Heart’’

91.

6

44

“I’m Wastin’ My Tears on You’’

92. 93. 94.

6 6 6

62 45 64

95.

6

52

“She Thinks I Still Care’’ “Oklahoma Hills’’ “I Don’t Care (Just as Long as You Love Me)’’ “It Wasn’t God Who Made Honky Tonk Angels”

96. 97. 98. 99.

6 6 6 6

64 64 59 44

“Understand Your Man’’ “Dang Me’’ “Don’t Take Your Guns to Town’’ “Straighten Up and Fly Right’’

100.

6

66

“Giddyup Go’’

51. 52. 53.

10 10 9

61 59 48

“Don’t Worry’’ “The Three Bells’’ “Anytime’’

54. 55.

9 9

45 53

“Shame on You’’ “Mexican Joe’’

56. 57. 58. 59. 60.

9 9 9 9 8

62 57 61 66 51

“Wolverton Mountain’’ “Young Love’’ “Hello Walls’’ “Almost Persuaded’’ “Let Old Mother Nature Have Her Way’’

Claude King Sonny James Faron Young David Houston Carl Smith

61.

8

48

Eddy Arnold

62. 63. 64. 65.

8 8 8 8

51 58 53 53

“Just a Little Lovin’ (Will Go a Long, Long Way)’’ “The Rhumba Boogie’’ “Oh Lonesome Me’’ “Hey Joe!’’ “I Forgot More Than You’ll Ever Know’’

66. 67.

8 8

57 51

“Four Walls’’ “Hey, Good Lookin’’’

68.

8

52

“(When You Feel Like You’re in Love) Don’t Just Stand There’’ “At Mail Call Today’’ “It’s Been So Long’’

Hank Snow Don Gibson Carl Smith The Davis Sisters Jim Reeves Hank Williams with His Drifting Cowboys Carl Smith

69. 70.

8 8

45 53

Gene Autry Webb Pierce

71.

8

50

“Long Gone Lonesome Blues”

72.

8

58

73. 74. 75.

8 8 8

57 64 62

“Guess Things Happen ThatWay” “Wake Up Little Susie’’ “Once a Day’’ “Devil Woman’’

Johnny Cash The Everly Brothers Connie Smith Marty Robbins

76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

7 7 7 7 7

55 61 64 59 62

“Loose Talk’’ “Tender Years’’ “My Heart Skips a Beat’’ “El Paso’’ “Mama Sang a Song’’

Carl Smith George Jones Buck Owens Marty Robbins Bill Anderson

Hank Williams with His Drifting Cowboys

The Everly Brothers Al Dexter and His Troopers Bill Anderson Johnny Cash Jim Reeves Jack Greene Buck Owens Johnny Cash Jean Shepard & Ferlin Husky Hank William with His Drifting Cowboys Tex Ritter and His Texans George Jones Jack Guthrie Buck Owens Kitty Wells Johnny Cash Roger Miller Johnny Cash The King Cole Trio Red Sovine

Note: Ranking is based on the number of weeks a record held the #1 position on the charts. Ties would be broken by number of weeks in Top 10, Top 40, and Top 100. Abbreviations have the following meanings: Pk Yr: year record reached peak position. Wks @ #1: total weeks in number 1 position. Source: Joel Whitburn, The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits (New York, 1996), 502–04.

TABLE 17.52 TOP COUNTRY ARTISTS BY DECADE, 1940s–1980s Forties (1944–49)

Fifties

Sixties

Seventies

Eighties

Artist

Points

Artist

Points

Artist

Points

Artist

Points

Artist

Points

Eddy Arnold Ernest Tubb Bob Wills Al Dexter Red Foley Gene Autry Jimmy Wakely Tex Ritter Tex Williams Merle Travis

3,587 2,612 2,143 1,986 1,746 1,741 1,415 1,344 1,203 1,172

Webb Pierce Eddy Arnold Hank Snow Carl Smith Red Foley Hank Williams Johnny Cash Elvis Presley Kitty Wells Ernest Tubb

5,041 4,422 3,913 3,519 3,424 3,203 2,648 2,624 2,528 2,503

Buck Owens George Jones Jim Reeves Johnny Cash Eddy Arnold Marty Robbins Bill Anderson Webb Pierce Sonny James Ray Price

4,729 3,872 3,311 2,898 2,685 2,525 2,406 2,362 2,320 2,312

Conway Twitty Merle Haggard Charley Pride Loretta Lynn Dolly Parton Tammy Wynette Mel Tillis Waylon Jennings George Jones Sonny James

4,082 3,464 3,245 3,145 3,124 3,081 2,991 2,899 2,875 2,573

Willie Nelson Conway Twitty Alabama Ronnie Milsap Kenny Rogers Merle Haggard Oak Ridge Boys Hank Williams, Jr. George Strait Earl Thomas Conley

3,219 3,201 3,196 3,105 2,916 2,907 2,835 2,735 2,674 2,661

Source: Whitburn, Top Country Hits, 506.

492


TABLE 17.53

COUNTRY MUSIC ASSOCIATION AWARDS, 1967–1990

The Country Music Association to promote country music began in Nashville in 1958. The association founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in 1961, and in 1967, when the museum opened, the association began its program of annual awards. Entertainer of the Year Year 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Artist Eddy Arnold Glen Campbell Johnny Cash Merle Haggard Charley Pride

Female Vocalist of the Year Year

Artist

Male Vocalist of the Year

Musician of the Year*

Year

Artist

Year

Artist

Single of the Year Year

Song/Artist

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Loretta Lynn Tammy Wynette Tammy Wynette Tammy Wynette Lynn Anderson

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Jack Greene Glen Campbell Johnny Cash Merle Haggard Charley Pride

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Chet Atkins Chet Atkins Chet Atkins Jerry Reed Charley Pride

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

1972 Loretta Lynn

1972

Loretta Lynn

1972

Charley Pride

1972

Charlie McCoy

1973 1974 1975 1976

1973 1974 1975 1976

Loretta Lynn Olivia Newton-John Dolly Parton Dolly Parton

1973 1974 1975 1976

Charlie Rich Ronnie Milsap Waylon Jennings Ronnie Milsap

1973 1974 1975 1976

Charlie Mccoy Don Rich Johnny Gimble Hargus “Pig’’ Robbins

1972 “The Happiest Girl in the Whole U.S.A.,” Donna Fargo 1973 “Behind Closed Doors,’’ Charlie Rich 1974 “Country Bumpkin,’’ Cal Smith 1975 “Before the Next Teardrop Falls,’’ Freddy Fender 1976 “Good Hearted Woman,’’Waylon Jennings & Willie Nelson

1977 Ronnie Milsap 1978 Dolly Parton 1979 Willie Nelson

1977 1978 1979

Crystal Gayle Crystal Gayle Barbara Mandrell

1977 1978 1979

Ronnie Milsap Don Williams Kenny Rogers

1977 1978 1979

Roy Clark Roy Clark Charlie Daniels

1980 Barbara Mandrell 1981 Barbara Mandrell

1980 1981

Emmylou Harris Barbara Mandrell

1980 1981

George Jones George Jones

1980 1981

Roy Clark Chet Atkins

1977 “Lucille,’’Kenny Rogers 1978 “Heaven’s Just a Sin Away,’’The Kendalls 1979 “The Devil Went Down to Georgia,’’ Charlie Daniels Band 1980 “He Stopped Loving Her Today,’’ George Jones 1981 “Elvira,’’The Oak Ridge Boys

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Alabama Alabama Alabama Ricky Skaggs Reba McEntire

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Janie Frickie Janie Frickie Reba McEntire Reba McEntire Reba McEntire

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Ricky Skaggs Lee Greenwood Lee Greenwood George Strait George Strait

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Chet Atkins Chet Atkins Chet Atkins Chet Atkins Johnny Gimble

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

“Always on My Mind,’’Willie Nelson “Swingin’,’’ John Anderson “A Little Good News,’’ Anne Murray “Why Not Me,’’The Judds “Bop,’’ Dan Seals

1987 1988 1989 1990

Hank Williams, Jr. Hank Williams, Jr. George Strait George Strait

1987 1988 1989 1990

Reba McEntire K.T. Oslin Kathy Mattea Kathy Mattea

1987 1988 1989 1990

Randy Travis Randy Travis Ricky Van Shelton Clint Black

1987 1988 1989 1990

Johnny Gimble Chet Atkins Johnny Gimble Johnny Gimble

1987 1988 1989 1990

“Forever and Ever, Amen,’’ Randy Travis “Eighteen Wheels and a Dozen Roses,’’ Kathy Mattea “I’m No Stranger to the Rain,’’ Keith Whitley “When I Call Your Name,’’Vince Gill

Roy Clark Charlie Rich John Denver Mel Tillis

“There Goes My Everything,’’ Jack Greene “Harper Valley P.T.A.,’’ Jeannie C. Riley “A Boy Named Sue,’’ Johnny Cash “Okie from Muskogee,’’ Merle Haggard “Help Me Make It Through the Night,’’ Sammi Smith

* changed from instrumentalist of the year in 1988. Source: Tom Biracree, The Country Music Almanac (New York, 1993), 267–71.

TABLE 17.54 COUNTRY MUSIC’S SHARE OF THE RECORDED MUSIC MARKET, 1973–1990

TABLE 17.55

(dollars spent [in millions] and percent of total dollars spent) Year

Gross Country Sales

Country Portion of Dollars Spent on Recorded Music

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

$150.2 $255.2 $276.1 $331.2 $451.6 $426.5

10.5% 11.6% 11.7% 12.1% 12.4% 10.2%

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

$437.5 $526.5 $529.3 $538.8 $496.0 $393.3

9.0% 12.0% 15.0% 15.0% 13.0% 10.0%

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

$438.8 $415.6 $528.9 $425.3 $447.4 $663.6

10.0% 10.0% 9.5% 6.8% 6.8% 8.8%

Source: Paul Kingsbury, The Encyclopedia of Country Music (New York, 1998), 615.

FULL-TIME COUNTRY RADIO STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1961–1990

(number of country stations and their percentage of all United States stations) Year

Full-time Country Stations

Percentage of All United States Stations

1961 1963 1965 1969 1971

81 97 208 606 525

1.7 1.9 3.8 9.0 7.8

1972 1973 1974 1975 1977

633 764 856 1,116 1,140

8.6 10.2 11.0 13.9 13.6

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

1,150 1,434 1,534 1,785 2,114

13.4 16.4 17.2 19.6 23.1

1983 1984 1985 1986

2,266 2,265 2,289 2,275

24.3 23.5 23.2 22.6

1987 1988 1989 1990

2,212 2,169 2,086 2,108

21.6 20.7 19.6 19.5

Source: Kingsbury, Encyclopedia of Country Music, 615.

Entertainment

493

Reading Modern audio and video technology and great popularity of the performing arts did not mean that the most traditional, and perhaps most honored, instrument of spending leisure time—the printed word— would pass into oblivion. Society in the last half of the 20th century made room for almost everything. The publishing industry utilized evolving printing and copying technology and anything related to modern business and office techniques. Electronic communication allowed the press to keep abreast of new stories. Use of satellites enabled publications, such as the newspaper USA Today, to print in several locations at the same time. By the 1980s the writers or other print operatives had access to new and improving computer-driven methods of communication, research, storage, and composition.The simple word processor was a marvel in itself. TABLE 17.56

In addition to these factors, the writing and publishing establishment drew on all the forces driving public entertainment in the United States: a large, rapidly growing population, national wealth, and income that provided funds for inessential activity; a culture in which censorship had become a dirty word—something to be suppressed, it would appear—especially in publication; and a society that by the 1970s and 1980s treated the word diversity as almost holy writ. Major themes of publication entertainment thus would be size, volume, variety, and diversity, even though in aspects of diversity, it took a few years to get there. The United States produced winners of the Nobel Prize in literature—the supreme expression of literary accomplishment—and it produced authors of unexceptional, even trashy works in all sizes and shapes. One could succeed by applying skill, perception, and originality to the noble art of writing or by finding a

BEST-SELLERS IN AMERICA, 1946–1990 Fiction

Year

Nonfiction

Title

Author

Title

Author

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

The King’s General The Miracle of the Bells The Big Fisherman The Egyptian The Cardinal

Daphne du Maurier Russell Janney Lloyd C. Douglas Mika Waltari Henry Morton Robinson

The Egg and I Peace of Mind Crusade in Europe White Collar Zoo Betty Crocker’s Picture Cookbook

Betty MacDonald Joshua L. Liebman Dwight D. Eisenhower Clare Barnes, Jr.

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

From Here to Eternity The Silver Chalice The Robe Not As a Stranger Marjorie Morningstar

James Jones Thomas B. Costain Lloyd C. Douglas Morton Thompson Herman Wouk

LookYounger, Live Longer The Holy Bible: Revised StandardVersion The Holy Bible: Revised StandardVersion The Holy Bible: Revised StandardVersion Gift from the Sea

Gayelord Hauser

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Don’t Go Near theWater By Love Possessed Doctor Zhivago Exodus Advise and Consent

William Brinkley James Gould Cozzens Boris Pasternak Leon Uris Allen Drury

Arthritis and Common Sense Kids Say the Darndest Things! Kids Say the Darndest Things! ‘Twixt Twelve and Twenty Folk Medicine

Dan Dale Alexander Art Linkletter Art Linkletter Pat Boone D.C. Jarvis

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

The Agony and the Ecstasy Ship of Fools The Shoes of the Fisherman The SpyWho Came in From the Cold The Source

Irving Stone Katherine Anne Porter Morris L.West John le Carré James A. Michener

The New English Bible:The New Testament Calories Don’t Count Happiness Is aWarm Puppy Four Days How to Be a Jewish Mother

Dr. Herman Taller Charles M. Schulz American Heritage Dan Greenburg

1966 1967 1968 1969

Valley of the Dolls The Arrangement Airport Portnoy’s Complaint

Jacqueline Susann Elia Kazan Arthur Hailey Philip Roth

Norman F. Dacey William Manchester

1970

Love Story

Erich Segal

How to Avoid Probate Death of a President Better Homes & Gardens New Cook Book American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language EverythingYouWanted to Know About Sex but Were Afraid to Ask

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Wheels Jonathan Livingston Seagull Jonathan Livingston Seagull Centennial Ragtime

Arthur Hailey Richard Bach Richard Bach James A. Michener E.L. Doctorow

The Sensuous Man The Living Bible The Living Bible The TotalWoman Angels: God’s Secret Agents

“M.’’ Kenneth Taylor Kenneth Taylor Marabel Morgan Billy Graham

1976 1977 1978

Trinity The Silmarillion Chesapeake

Leon Uris J.R.R.Tolkien James A. Michener

Bob Woodward, Carl Bernstein Alex Haley Erma Bombeck

1979 1980

The Matarese Circle The Covenant

Robert Ludlum James Michener

The Final Days Roots If Life Is a Bowl of Cherries–What Am I Doing in the Pits? Aunt Erma’s Cope Book Crisis Investing

Erma Bombeck Douglas R. Casey

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Noble House E.T.The Extra-Terrestrial Storybook Return of the Jedi Storybook The Talisman The Mammoth Hunters

James Clavell Willam Kotzwinkle Joan D.Vinge Stephen King, Peter Straub Jean M. Auel

The Beverly Hills Diet Jane Fonda’sWorkout Book In Search of Excellence Iacocca:An Autobiography Iacocca:An Autobiography

Judy Mazel Jane Fonda Thomas J. Peters, Robert H.Waterman, Jr. Lee Iacocca with William Novak Lee Iacocca with William Novak

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

It The Tommyknockers The Cardinal of the Kremlin Clear and Present Danger The Plains of Passage

Stephen King Stephen King Tom Clancy Tom Clancy Jean Auel

Fatherhood Time Flies The Eight-Week Cholesterol Diet All I Really Need to Know I Learned in Kindergarten A Life on the Road

Bill Cosby Bill Cosby Robert Kowalski Robert Fulghum Charles Kuralt

Source: Wright, New York Times Almanac, 1998, 404–05.

494


Anne Morrow Lindbergh

ed.William Morris David Reuben, M.D.

timely subject or pushing the boundaries of acceptability, given the nation’s loosening moral standards. As with the nation itself, literature went through a process of transition from domination by white males to a state of affairs in the 1980s in which virtually every attitude and orientation had its agents of expression. The late 1960s and early 1970s produced works about change, rebellion, and fullest expression of freedom in all its forms, especially social and cultural. The later 1970s and early 1980s featured works on introspection, self-development, and how to do almost anything, in which category sexual behavior seemed to command major attention. The most prominent new voices came from the largest and most powerful groups that had been underrepresented in the past: women and black people, many of whose works were understandably politicized and radical, although a few, such as Shelby Steele and Glenn Loury, were not. Hispanics, Native Americans, and other minority groups had their spokespeople; writers representing the homosexual community were among the last to put their view forward, but once the process started the easier it became. Some groups had to rely on special publishers and sales outlets, especially at the start. As a rule the successful writers used major commercial publishing houses, mostly based in New York, and they marketed their books many ways, including through an expanding group of mass-market retail bookstore chains, such as B. Dalton, Crown, Borders, and Barnes and Noble. Virtually every press established provisions for paperback editions, and after hardback sales had run their course, a volume with prospect for more circulation would be released in the compact, less-costly paperback version. Magazines followed a pattern present in other areas of publication. The postwar period started as an extension of the earlier 1940s and then began to fragment, and proliferation became a theme. Led by the Big Three of Time, Newsweek and U.S. News & World Report, the newsmagazines held on to their following by subscription and retail sales, but the popular, general interest weeklies, such as The Saturday Evening Post, Collier’s, Life, Look, and others declined and eventually stopped publication. One or two of them later returned in modified format, but their role in shaping American culture largely had come to an end. What followed was a mighty multitude of titles, with many of them targeted at specific interest groups. The enormously popular comic

books—little magazines that started with children’s stories, moved to the superheroes, mostly in the 1940s, and in the 1950s shocked parents and members of Congress with their blatant exploitation of sex and violence—returned to popularity in the 1980s. Sports Illustrated was the most popular of several magazines devoted to sports generally and of course each sport had special publications. Ebony was designed for black people, Essence for black women and so on. There were women’s magazines for every female interest or attitude. Mention of men’s magazines invariably led one to Hugh Hefner’s revolutionary Playboy, which started publication in 1953 and attracted many imitators or competitors, but men’s interests and their publications were not confined to naked women. Traditional newsstands shrank in number and all but disappeared (except in New York City perhaps), but they were replaced by more broadly based retail outlets, including grocery supermarkets that set aside broad aisles for periodical publications. An old standard, Reader’s Digest, was the largest seller in open competition, but in the 1980s Modern Maturity, under the auspices of its parent,American Association of Retired People (AARP), circulated more copies. Also, there was one type of publication so popular that it had to be placed up front, near the checkout lane or cash register to be seen as people left the store. These shrunken tabloid newspapers, classified as magazines, were exemplified by the National Enquirer. Eager watchdogs for (or creators of?) scandal, perpetually on the edge of slander, the tabloids sold several million copies every week. Newspapers remained much alive in the United States. They attracted a hefty portion of advertising patronage; many of them did well financially. But a huge increase in national population did not produce a corresponding increase in the newspaper business. Neither the number of newspapers nor the circulation changed much between the 1950s and 1990. Only the large cities had more than one newspaper. The trend toward consolidation, into large newspaper chains, continued into the 1990s. Newspapers and most aspects of the print media frequently crossed the boundary between entertainment, communication, and information. Indeed, those portions of printed material that constituted entertainment depended on the reader. (For fuller data about published materials, one should consult the tables under the subheading “Printed Media’’ in Chapter 6, “Communication.’’)

Entertainment

495

TABLE 17.57 THE NATIONAL BOOK AWARDS, 1950–1990 The National Book Awards are given annually or outstanding literary works by American citizens. In the past the number of prizes has varied and has included such categories as poetry, fiction, biography, science, philosophy, religion, and history. Currently only two awards are made each year, one for fiction and one for nonfiction. National Book Awards for Fiction, 1950–1990 Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Author Nelson Algren William Faulkner James Jones Ralph Ellison Saul Bellow William Faulkner John O’Hara Wright Morris John Cheever Bernard Malamud Philip Roth Conrad Richter Walker Percy J.F. Powers John Updike Saul Bellow Katherine Anne Porter Bernard Malamud Thornton Wilder Jerzy Kosinski Joyce Carol Oates Saul Bellow Flannery O’Connor John Barth Thomas Pynchon Isaac Bashevis Singer Robert Stone Thomas Williams William Gaddis Wallace Stegner Mary Lee Settle Tim O’Brien William Styron Wright Morris John Updike Alice Walker Ellen Gilchrist Don DeLillo E.L. Doctorow Larry Heinemann Pete Dexter John Casey Charles Johnson

Title The Man with the Golden Arm The Collected Stories From Here to Eternity Invisible Man The Adventures of Augie March A Fable Ten North Frederick Field of Vision TheWapshot Chronicle The Magic Barrel Goodbye, Columbus TheWaters of Kronos The Moviegoer Morte d’Urban The Centaur Herzog The Collected Stories The Fixer The Eighth Day Steps Them Mr.Sammler’s Planet The Complete Stories Chimera Gravity’s Rainbow A Crown of Feathers & Other Stories Dog Soldiers The Hair of Harold Roux JR The Spectator Bird Blood Ties Going After Cacciato Sophie’s Choice Plains Song Rabbit Is Rich The Color Purple Victory Over Japan White Noise World’s Fair Paco’s Story Paris Trout Spartina The Middle Passage

National Book Awards for Nonfiction, 1950–1990 Year

Author

Title

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Ralph L. Rusk Newton Arvin Rachel Carson Bernard De Voto Bruce Catton Joseph Wood Krutch Herbert Kubly George F. Kennan Catherine Drinker Bowen J.Christopher Herold Richard Ellman William L. Shirer Lewis Mumford Leon Edel Aileen Ward Louis Fisher Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Justin Kaplan Jonathan Kozol Norman Mailer Lillian Hellman James MacGregor Burns Joseph P. Lash Frances Fitzgerald

RalphWaldo Emerson Herman Melville The Sea Around Us Course of Empire A Stillness at Appomattox The Measure of Man An American in Italy Russia Leaves theWar The Lion and the Throne Mistress to an Age James Joyce The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich The City in History Henry James, vols. 2 and 3 John Keats:The Making of a Poet The Life of Lenin A Thousand Days: JFK in theWhite House Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain Death at an Early Age The Armies of the Night An UnfinishedWoman, a Memoir Roosevelt:The Soldier of Freedom Eleanor and Franklin Fire in the Lake:TheVietnamese and the Americans inVietnam

496


Year 1974 1975

Author

1976 1977

Pauline Kael Richard B. Sewall Lewis Thomas Paul Fussell Bruno Bettelheim

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Walter Jackson Bate Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Tom Wolfe Maxine Hong Kingston Tracy Kidder Fox Butterfield Robert V. Remini

1985

J. Anthony Lukas

1986 1987 1988

Barry Lopez Richard Rhodes Neil Sheehan

1989 1990

Thomas L. Friedman Ron Chernow

Title Deeper into the Movies The Life of Emily Dickinson The Lives of a Cell The GreatWar and Modern Memory The Uses of Enchantment:The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales Samuel Johnson Robert Kennedy and His Times The Right Stuff China Men The Soul of a New Machine China:Alive in the Bitter Sea Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845, vol. 5 Common Ground:A Turbulent Decade in the Lives of Three American Families Arctic Dreams The Making of the Atom Bomb A Bright and Shining Lie: John PaulVann and America inVietnam From Beirut to Jerusalem The House of Morgan:An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance

National Book Awards for Poetry, 1950–1984 Year

Author

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

William Carlos Williams Wallace Stevens Marianne Moore Archibald MacLeish Conrad Aiken Wallace Stevens W.H. Auden Richard Wilbur Robert Penn Warren Theodore Roethke Robert Lowell Randall Jarrell Alan Dugan William Stafford John Crowe Ransom Theodore Roethke James Dickey James Merrill Robert Bly John Berryman Elizabeth Bishop Mona Van Duyn Howard Moss A.R. Ammons Allen Ginsberg

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Adrienne Rich Marilyn Hacker John Ashbery Richard Eberhart Howard Nemerov James Merrill Philip Levine Liesl Mueller William Bronk Galway Kinnell Charles Wright

Title Paterson: Book III and Selected Poems The Auroras of Autumn Collected Poems Collected Poems 1917–1952 Collected Poems The Collected Poems The Shield of Achilles Things of ThisWorld Promises: Poems, 1954–1956 Words for theWind Life Studies TheWoman at theWashington Zoo Poems Traveling Through the Dark Selected Poems The Far Field Buckdancer’s Choice Nights and Days The Light Around the Body His Toy, His Dream, His Rest The Complete Poems To See,To Take Selected Poems Collected Poems: 1951-1971 The Fall of America: Poems of These States, 1965–1971 Diving into theWreck: Poems, 1971–72 Presentation Piece Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror Collected Poems, 1930–1976 The Collected Poems Mirabell: Books of Number Ashes The Need to Hold Still Life Supports Selected Poems Country Music

Note: No awards were given for poetry during 1985–1990. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1992, 562–63.

The Pulitzer Prizes The Pulitzer Prizes had their origin in the will of Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian immigrant who established a newspaper empire targeted at mass readership that included the New York World and St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Pulitzer bequeathed the sum of $2 million to found the Columbia University School of Journalism. The trustees in 1917 began to make annual awards in journalism.The categories would change and increase over the years, although virtually all of them fell within the classification of journalism or literature. In 1990 each award carried a stipend of $3,000, but the value in terms of prestige was much greater.

TABLE 17.58 PULITZER PRIZE FOR MERITORIOUS PUBLIC SERVICE, 1946–1990

Year 1956 1957

Year

Publication

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Scranton (Pa.) Times Baltimore Sun St. Louis Post-Dispatch Nebraska State Journal Chicago Daily News; St. Louis Post-Dispatch

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Miami (Fla.) Herald; Brooklyn Eagle St. Louis Post-Dispatch Whiteville (N.C.) News Reporter; Tabor City (N.C.) Tribune Newsday (Long Island, N.Y.) Columbus (Ga.) Ledger and Sunday Ledger-Enquirer

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Watsonvile (Calif.) Register-Pajaronian Chicago Daily News Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock) Utica (N.Y.) Observer-Dispatch and Utica Daily Press Los Angeles Times

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Amarillo (Tex.) Globe-Times Panama City (Fla.) News-Herald Chicago Daily News St. Petersburg (Fla.) Times Hutchinson (Kans.) News

1966 1967

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Boston Globe Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal; Milwaukee Journal Riverside (Calif.) Press-Enterprise Los Angeles Times Newsday (Long Island, N.Y.)

1970

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Winston Salem (N.C.) Journal & Sentinel NewYork Times Washington Post Newsday (Long Island, N.Y.) Boston Globe

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Anchorage (Alaska) Daily News Lufkin (Tex.) News Philadelphia Inquirer Point Reyes (Calif.) Light Gannett News Service

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Charlotte (N.C.) Observer Detroit News Jackson (Miss.) Clarion-Ledger Los Angeles Times Ft.Worth (Tex.) Star-Telegram

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Denver Post Pittsburgh Press Charlotte (N.C.) Observer Anchorage (Alaska) Daily News Philadelphia Inquirer, Gilbert M. Gaul;Washington (N.C.)

Source: Columbia University; tables essentially as arranged in World Almanac, 1999, 669–72.

TABLE 17.59 PULITZER PRIZE IN REPORTING, 1946–1990 Year

Publication

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

1968 1969

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1986

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

William L. Laurence, NewYork Times Frederick Woltman, NewYorkWorld-Telegram George E. Goodwin, Atlanta Journal Malcolm Johnson, NewYork Sun Meyer Berger, NewYork Times

1987

1951 1952

Edward S. Montogomery, San Francisco Examiner George de Carvalho, San Francisco Chronicle (1) General or Spot; (2) Special or Investigative; (1) Providence (R.I.) Journal and Evening Bulletin; (2) Edward J. Mowery, NewYork World- Telegram & Sun (1) Vicksburg (Miss.) Sunday Post-Herald; (2) Alvin Scott McCoy. Kansas City Star (1) Mrs. Caro Brown, Alice (Tex.) Daily Echo; (2) Roland K.Towery, Cuero (Tex.) Record

1989

1953 1954 1955

1988

1990

Publication (1) Lee Hills, Detroit Free Press, (2) Arthur Daley, NewYork Times (1) Salt Lake Tribune; (2) Wallace Turner and William Lambert, Portland Oregonian (1) Fargo (N.Dak.) Forum; (2) George Beveridge, Washington (D.C.) Evening Star (1) Mary Lou Werner, Washington (D.C.) Evening Star; (2) John Harold Brislin, Scranton (Pa.) Tribune, and The Scrantonian (1) Jack Nelson, Atlanta Constitution; (2) Miriam Ottenberg, Washington (D.C.) Evening Star (1) Science de Gramont, NewYork Herald-Tribune; (2) Edgar May, Buffalo (N.Y.) Evening News (1) Robert D. Mullins, Deseret News, Salt Lake City; (2) George Bliss, Chicago Tribune (1) Sylvan Fox,William Longgood, Anthony Shannon, NewYork World-Telegram & Sun; (2) Oscar Griffin, Jr., Pecos (Tex.) Independent and Enterprise (1) Norman C. Miller, Wall Street Journal; (2) James V. Magee, Albert V. Gaudiosi, Frederick A. Meyer, Philadelphia Bulletin. (1) Melvin H. Ruder, Hungry Horse News, Columbia Falls, Mont.; (2) Gene Goltz, Houston Post (1) Los Angeles Times staff; (2) John A. Frasca,Tampa (Fla.) Tribune (1) Robert V. Cox, Chambersburg (Pa.) Public Opinion; (2) Gene Miller, Miami (Fla.) Herald (1) Detroit Free Press staff; (2) J. Anthony Lukas, NewYork Times (1) John Fetterman, Louisville Courier-Journal and Times; (2) Albert L. Delugach, St. Louis Globe Democrat, and Denny Walsh, Life (1) Thomas Fitzpatrick, Chicago Sun-Times; (2) Harold Eugene Martin, Montgomery Advertiser & Alabama Journal (1) Akron (Ohio) Beacon Journal staff; (2) William Hugh Jones, Chicago Tribune (1) Richard Cooper, John Machacek, Rochester (N.Y.) Times-Union; (2) Timothy Leland, Gerard M. O’Neill, Stephen A. Kurkjian, Anne De Santis, Boston Globe (1) Chicago Tribune; (2) Sun Newspapers of Omaha (1) Hugh F. Hough, Arthur M. Petacque, Chicago Sun-Times; (2) William Sherman, NewYork Daily News (1) Xenia (Ohio) Daily Gazette; (2) Indianapolis Star (1) Gene Miller, Miami (Fla.) Herald; (2) Chicago Tribune (1) Margo Huston, Milwaukee Journal; (2) Acel Moore, Wendell Rawis, Jr., Philadelphia Inquirer (1) Richard Whitt, Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal; (2) Anthony R. Dolan, Stamford (Conn.) Advocate (1) San Diego (Calif.) Evening Tribune; (2) Gilbert M. Gaul, Elliot G. Jaspin, Pottsville (Pa.) Republican (1) Philadelphia Inquirer; (2) Stephen A. Kurkjian, Alexander B. Hawes, Jr., Nils Bruzelius, Joan Vennochi, Robert M. Porterfield, Boston Globe (1) Longview (Wash.) Daily News staff; (2) Clark Hallas, Robert B. Lowe, Arizona Daily Star (1) Kansas City Star, Kansas City Times; (2) Paul Henderson, Seattle Times (1) Fort Wayne (Ind.) News-Sentinel; (2) Loretta Tofani, Washington Post (1) NewYork Newsday; (2) Boston Globe (1) Thomas Turcol, Virginian-Pilot and Ledger-Star, Norfolk,Va.; (2) William K. Marimow, Philadelphia Inquirer; Lucy Morgan, Jack Reed, St. Petersburg (Fla.) Times (1) Edna Buchanan, Miami (Fla.) Herald; (2) Jeffrey A. Marx, Michael M.York, Lexington (Ky.) Herald-Leader (1) Akron (Ohio) Beacon Journal; (2) Daniel R. Biddle, H.G. Bissinger, Fredric N.Tulsky, Philadelphia Inquirer, John Woestendiek, Philadelphia Inquirer (1) Alabama Journal; Lawrence (Mass.) Eagle-Tribune; (2) Walt Bogdanich, Wall Street Journal (1) Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal; (2) Bill Dedman, Atlanta Journal and Constitution (1) San Jose (Calif.) Mercury News; (2) Lon Kilzer, Chris Ison, Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune

* This category originally embraced all fields. Later, separate categories were made for national and international reporting. Source: Columbia University; tables essentially as arranged in World Almanac, 1999, 669–72.

Entertainment

497

TABLE 17.60 PULITZER PRIZE IN NATIONAL REPORTING, 1946–1990 Year

Publication

Year

Publication

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Edward A. Harris, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Edward T. Folliard, Washington Post Bert Andrews, NewYork Herald-Tribune; Nat S. Finney, Minneapolis Tribune Charles P.Trussell, NewYork Times Edwin O. Guthman, Seattle Times No award

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Homer W. Bigart, NewYork Herald-Tribune Eddy Gilmore, AP Paul W.Ward, Baltimore Sun Price Day, Baltimore Sun Edmund Stevens, Christian Science Monitor

1951

1952 1953 1954 1955

Anthony Leviero, NewYork Times Don Whitehead, AP Richard Wilson, Des Moines Register Anthony Lewis, Washington Daily News

Keyes Beech, Fred Sparks, Chicago Daily News; Homer Bigart, Marguerite Higgins, NewYork Herald-Tribune; Relman Morin, Don Whitehead, AP John M. Hightower, AP Austin C.Wehrwein, Milwaukee Journal Jim G. Lucas, Scripps-Howard Newspapers Harrison Salisbury, NewYork Times

1956 1957 1958

1956

1959 1960

Charles L. Bartlett, Chattanooga (Tenn.) Times James Reston, NewYork Times Relman Morin, AP; Clark Mollenhoff, Des Moines Register & Tribune Howard Van Smith, Miami (Fla.) News Vance Trimble, Scripps-Howard, Washington D.C.

1957 1958 1959 1960

William Randolph Hearst Jr., Frank Conniff, Hearst Newspapers; Kingsbury Smith, INS Russell Jones, UPI NewYork Times Joseph Martin, Philip Santora, NewYork Daily News A.M. Rosenthal, NewYork Times

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Edward R. Cony,Wall Street Journal Nathan G. Caldwell, Gene S. Graham, Nashville Tennessean Anthony Lewis, NewYork Times Merriman Smith, UPI Louis M. Kohlmeier, Wall Street Journal

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Lynn Heinzerling, AP Walter Lippmann, New York Herald Tribune Syndicate Hal Hendrix, Miami (Fla.) News Malcolm W. Browne, AP, David Halberstam, NewYork Times L. A. Livingston, Philadelphia Bulletin

1966 1967 1968

Haynes Johnson, Washington (D.C.) Evening Star Monroe Karmin, Stanley Penn, Wall Street Journal Howard James, Christian Science Monitor; Nathan K. Kotz, Des Moines Register Robert Cahn, Christian Science Monitor William J. Eaton, Chicago Daily News

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Peter Arnett, AP R. John Hughes, Christian Science Monitor Alfred Friendly, Washington Post William Tuohy, Los Angeles Times Seymour M. Hersh. Dispatch News Service

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Jimmie Lee Hoagland, Washington Post Peter R.Kann, Wall Street Journal Max Frankel, NewYork Times Hedrick Smith, NewYork Times William Mullen and Oyle Carter, Chicago Tribune

1976 1978 1979 1980

Sydney H. Schanberg, NewYork Times Henry Kamm, NewYork Times Richard Ben Cramer, Philadelphia Inquirer Joel Brinkley, Jay Mather, Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Shirley Christian, Miami (Fla.) Herald John Darnton, NewYork Times Thomas L. Friedman, NewYork Times; Loren Jenkins, Washington Post Karen Elliot House, Wall Street Journal Josh Friedman, Dennis Bell, Ozier Muhammad, NewYork Newsday

1986

Lewis M. Simons, Pete Carey, Katherine Ellison, San Jose (Calif.) Mercury News Michael Parks, Los Angeles Times Thomas L. Friedman, NewYork Times Glenn Frankel, Washington Post; Bill Keller, NewYork Times Nicholas D. Kristof, Sheryl Wu Dunn, NewYork Times

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Lucinda Franks,Thomas Powers, UPI Jack Anderson, United Features Syndicate Robert Boyd, Clark Hoyt, Knight Newspapers James R. Polik, Washington (D.C.) Star-News; Jack White, Providence (R.I.) Journal-Bulletin Donald L. Barlett, James B. Steele, Philadelphia Inquirer

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

James Risser, Des Moines Register Walter Mears, AP Gaylord D. Shaw, Los Angeles Times James Risser, Des Moines Register Charles Stafford, Bette Swenson Orsini, St. Petersburg (Fla.) Times

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

John M. Crewdson, NewYork Times Rick Atkinson, Kansas City Times Boston Globe John Noble Wilford, NewYork Times Thomas I. Knudson, Des Moines Register

1986

Craig Flournoy, George Rodrigue, Dallas Morning News; Arthur Howe, Philadelphia Inquirer Miami (Fla.) Herald; NewYork Times Tim Weiner, Philadelphia Inquirer Donald L. Barlett, James B. Steele, Philadelphia Inquirer Ross Anderson, Bill Dietrich, Mary Ann Gwinn, Eric Nalder, Seattle Times

1987 1988 1989 1990


498

TABLE 17.61 PULITZER PRIZE IN INTERNATIONAL REPORTING, 1946–1990


1952 1953 1954 1955

1987 1988 1989 1990


TABLE 17.62 PULITZER PRIZE FOR EDITORIAL WRITING, 1946–1990

Year 1980 1981

Publication (1) William A. Henry III, Boston Globe; (2) Ellen Goodman, Boston Globe (1) Jonathan Yardley, Washington Star; (2) Dave Anderson, NewYork Times (1) Martin Bernheimer, Los Angeles Times; (2) Art Buchwald, Los Angeles Times Syndicate (1) Manuela Hoelterhoff, Wall Street Journal; (2) Claude Sitton, Raleigh (N.C.) News and Observer (1) Paul Goldberger, NewYork Times; (2) Vermont Royster, Wall Street Journal

Year

Publication

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Hodding Carter, Greenville (Miss.) Delta Democrat-Times William H. Grimes, Wall Street Journal Virginius Dabney, Richmond (Va.) Times-Dispatch John H. Crider, Boston Herald; Herbert Elliston, Washington Post Carl M. Saunders, Jackson (Miss.) Citizen-Patriot

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

William H. Fitzpatrick, New Orleans States Louis LaCoss, St. Louis Globe Democrat Vermont C. Royster, Wall Street Journal Don Murray, Boston Herald Royce Howes, Detroit Free Press

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Lauren K. Soth, Des Moines Register & Tribune Buford Boone, Tuscaloosa (Ala.) News Harry S. Ashmore, Arkansas Gazette Ralph McGill, Atlanta Constitution Lenoir Chambers, NorfolkVirginian-Pilot

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

William J. Dorvillier, San Juan (Puerto Rico) Star Thomas M. Storke, Santa Barbara (Calif.) News-Press Ira B. Harkey, Jr., Pascagoula (Miss.) Chronicle Harzel Brannon Smith, Lexington (Miss.) Advertiser John P. Harrison, Gainesville (Fla.) Sun

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Robert Lasch, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Eugene C. Patterson, Atlanta Constitution John S. Knight, Knight Newspapers Paul Greenberg, Pine Bluff (Ark.) Commercial Philip J. Geyelin, Washington Post

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Horance G. Davis, Jr., Gainesville (Fla.) Sun John Strohmeyer, Bethlehem (Pa.) Globe-Times Roger B. Linscott, Berkshire Eagle, Pittsfield, Mass. F. Gilman Spencer, Trentonian,Trenton, N.J. John D. Maurice, Charleston (W.Va.) Daily Mail

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Bruce Alexander Russell, Los Angeles Times Vaughn Shoemaker, Chicago Daily News Reuben L. (Rube) Goldberg, NewYork Sun Lute Pease, Newark (N.J.) Evening News James T. Berryman, Washington Star

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Phillp Kerby, Los Angeles Times Warren L Lerude, Foster Church, Norman F. Cardoza. Reno Evening Gazette and Nevada State Journal Meg Greenfield, Washington Post Edwin M.Yoder, Washington Star Robert L. Bartley, Wall Street Journal

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Reginald W. Manning, Arizona Republic Fred L. Packer, NewYork Mirror Edward D. Kuekes, Cleveland Plain Dealer Herbert L. Block, Washington Post & Times-Herald Daniel B. Fitzpatrick, St Louis Post-Dispatch

1982 1983 1984 1985

Jack Rosenthal, NewYork Times Editorial board, Miami Herald Albert Scardino, Georgia Gazette Richard Aregood, Philadelphia Daily News

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jack Fuller, Chicago Tribune Jonathan Freedman, Tribune (San Diego) Jane Healy, Orlando (Fla.) Sentinel Lois Wille, Chicago Tribune Thomas J. Hylton, Pottstown (Pa.) Mercury

1956 1957 1958 1959 1961

Robert York, Louisville (Ky.) Times Tom Little, Nashville Tennessean Bruce M. Shanks, Buffalo Evening News Bill Mauldin, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Carey Orr, Chicage Tribune

1962 1963 1964 1966 1967

Edmund S.Valtman, Hartford Times Frank Miller, Des Monies Register Paul Conrad, Denver Post Don Wright, Miami (Fla.) News Patrick B. Oliphant, Denver Post

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Eugene Gray Payne, Charlotte (N.C.) Observer John Fischetti, Chicago Daily News Thomas F. Darcy, NewYork Newsday Paul Conrad, Los Angeles Times Jeffrey K. MacNelly, Richmond News-Leader

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

Paul Szep, Boston Globe Garry Trudeau, Universal Press Syndicate Tony Auth, Philadelphia Inquirer Paul Szep, Boston Globe Jeffrey K. MacNelly, Richmond News-Leader

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Herbert L. Block, Washington Post Don Wright, Miami (Fla.) News Mike Peters, Dayton (Ohio) Daily News Ben Sargent, Austin American-Statesman Richard Locher, Chicago Tribune

1984 1985 1986 1987

Paul Conrad, Los Angeles Times Jeffrey K. MacNelly, Chicago Tribune Jules Feiffer, VillageVoice (N.Y.) Berke Breathed, Washington Post

1988

Doug Marlette, Atlanta Constitution, Charlotte (N.C.) Observer Jack Higgins, Chicago Sun-Times Tom Toles, Buffalo News


TABLE 17.63 PULITZER PRIZE FOR CRITICISM (1) OR COMMENTARY (2), 1970–1990 Year

Publication

1970

(1) Ada Louise Huxtable, NewYork Times; (2) Marquis W. Childs, St. Louis Post-Dispatch (1) Harold C. Schonberg, NewYork Times; (2) William A. Caldwell, The Record, Hackensack, N.J. (1) Frank Peters, Jr., St. Louis Post-Dispatch; (2) Mike Royko, Chicago Daily News (1) Ronald Powers, Chicago Sun-Times; (2) David S. Broder Washington Post (1) Emily Genauer, NewYork Newsday; (2) Edwin A. Roberts, Jr., National Observer.

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

(1) Roger Ebert, Chicago Sun-Times; (2) Mary McGrory, Washington Star (1) Alan M. Kriegsman, Washington Post; (2) Walter W. (Red) Smith, NewYork Times (1) William McPherson, Washington Post; (2) George F.Will, Washington Post Writers Group (1) Walter Kerr, NewYork Times; (2) William Safire, NewYork Times (1) Paul Gapp, Chicago Tribune; (2) Russell Baker, NewYork Times

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

(1) Howard Rosenberg, Los Angeles Times; (2) Murray Kempton, NewYork Newsday (1) Donal J. Henthan, NewYork Times; (2) Jimmy Breslin, NewYork Daily News (1) Richard Eder, Los Angeles Times; (2) Charles Krauthammer, Washington Post (1) Tom Shales, Washington Post; (2) Dave Barry, Miami (Fla.) Herald (1) Michael Skube, Raleigh, N.C. News and Observer; (2) Clarence Page, Chicago Tribune (1) Allan Temko, San Francisco Chronicle; (2) Jim Murray, Los Angeles Times


TABLE 17.64 PULITZER PRIZE IN EDITORIAL CARTOONING, 1946–1990 Year

1989 1990

Publication

Entertainment

499

TABLE 17.65 PULITZER PRIZE IN SPOT NEWS PHOTOGRAPHY, 1947–1990 Year

Publication

Year

Publication

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Arnold Hardy, amateur, Atlanta, Ga. Frank Cushing, Boston Traveler Nathaniel Fein, NewYork Herald-Tribune Bill Crouch, Oakland (Calif.) Tribune Max Desfor, AP

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Toshio Sakai, UPI Moneta Sleet Jr., Ebony Dallas Kinney, Palm Beach (Fla.) Post Jack Dykinga, Chicago Sun-Times Dave Kennerly, UPI

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

John Robinson, Don Ultang, Des Moines Register & Tribune William M. Gallagher, Flint (Mich.) Journal Mrs.Walter M. Schau, amateur John L. Gaunt Jr., Los Angeles Times NewYork Daily News

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Brian Lanker, Topeka (Kans.) Capitol-Journal Slava Veder, AP Matthew Lewis, Washington Post Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal and Louisville Times Robin Hood, Chattanooga (Tenn.) News-Free Press

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

Harry A.Trask, Boston Traveler William C. Beall, Washington Daily News William Seaman, Minneapolis Star Andrew Lopez, UPI Yasushi Nagao, Mainichi Newspapers, Tokyo

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

J. Ross Baughman, AP Staff photographers, Boston Herald American Erwin H. Hagler, Dallas Times-Herald Taro M.Yamasaki, Detroit Free Press John H.White, Chicago Sun-Times

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Paul Vathis. AP Hector Rondon, La Republica, Caracas,Venezuela Robert H. Jackson, Dallas Times-Herald Horst Faas, AP Kyoichi Sawada, UPI

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

James B. Dickman, Dallas Times-Herald Anthony Suad, Denver Post Stan Grossfeld, Boston Globe; Larry C. Price. Phila. Inquirer Tom Gralish, Philadelphia Inquirer David Peterson, Des Moines Register

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Jack R.Thornell, AP Rocco Morabito, Jacksonville (Fla.) Journal Edward Adams, AP Steve Starr, AP John Paul Filo, Valley Daily News & Daily Dispatch of Tarentum & New Kensington, Pa.

1988 1989 1990

Michel duCille, Miami (Fla.) Herald Manny Crisostomo, Detroit Free Press David C.Turnley, Detroit Free Press

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Horst Faas, Michel Laurent, AP Huynh Cong, Utah, AP Anthony K. Roberts, AP Gerald H. Gay, Seattle Times Stanley Forman, Boston Herald American

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Neal Ulevich, AP; Stanley Forman, Boston Herald American John H. Blair, UPI Thomas, J. Kelly III, Pottstown (Pa.) Mercury UPI Larry C. Price, Ft.Worth (Tex.) Star-Telegram

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Ron Edmonds, AP Bill Foley, AP Stan Grossfeld, Boston Globe The Register, Santa Ana, Calif. Carol Guzy, Michel duCille, Miami (Fla.) Herald

1987 1988 1989 1990

Kim Komenich, San Francisco Examiner Scott Shaw, Odessa (Tex.) American Ron Olshwanger, St. Louis Post-Dispatch Oakland (Calif.) Tribune photo staff


TABLE 17.66 PULITZER PRIZE SPECIAL CITATION, 1947–1987 Year 1947 1948 1951 1952 1953 1958 1964 1976 1978 1987

500

TABLE 17.67 PULITZER PRIZE IN FEATURE PHOTOGRAPHY, 1968–1990

Publication (Pulitzer centennial year) Columbia Univ. and the Graduate School of Journalism; St. Louis Post-Dispatch Dr. Frank Diehl Fackenthal C(yrus) L. Sulzberger, NewYork Times Max Kase, NewYork Journal-American; Kansas City Star NewYork Times, Lester Markel Walter Lippmann, NewYork Herald-Tribune Gannett Newspapers, “The Road to Integration’’ Prof. John Hohenberg, Admin. of Pulitzer Prizes Richard Lee Strout, Christian Science Monitor and New Republic Joseph Pulitzer Jr.



TABLE 17.68 PULITZER PRIZE IN FEATURE WRITING, 1979–1990 Year 1979 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Publication Jon D. Franklin, Baltimore Evening Sun Madeleine Blais, Miami (Fla.) Herald Tropic Magazine Teresa Carpenter, VillageVoice, New York City Saul Pett, AP Peter M. Rinearson, Seattle Times Alice Steinbach, Baltimore Sun John Camp, St. Paul Pioneer Press & Dispatch Steve Twomey, Philadelphia Inquirer Jacqui Banaszynski, St. Paul Pioneer Press Dispatch David Zucchino, Philadelphia Inquirer Dave Curtin, Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph


TABLE 17.69 PULITZER PRIZE IN EXPLANATORY REPORTING, 1985–1990 Year

Publication

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jon Franklin, Baltimore Evening Sun NewYork Times staff Jeff Lyon, Peter Gorner, Chicago Tribune Daniel Hertzberg, James B. Stewart, Wall Street Journal David Hanners,William Snyder, Karen Blessen, Dallas Morning News David A.Vise, Steve Coll, Washington Post


TABLE 17.70 PULITZER PRIZE IN SPECIALIZED REPORTING, 1985–1990 Year 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Publication Randall Savage, Jackie Crosby, Macon (Ga.) Tel. & News Andrew Schneider & Mary Pat Flaherty, Pittsburgh Press Alex S. Jones, NewYork Times Dean Baquet,William Gaines, Ann Marie Lipinski, Chicago Tribune Edward Humes, Orange County (Calif.) Register Tamar Stieber, Albuquerque Journal


TABLE 17.71

PULITZER PRIZE IN FICTION, 1947–1990

Year

Author

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Robert Penn Warren James A. Michener James Gould Cozzens A.B. Guthrie Jr. Conrad Richter

1952 1953 1955 1956 1958

Work

Year

Author

Work

1971

Paul Zindel

All the King’s Men Tales of the South Pacific Guard of Honor TheWayWest The Town

1973 1975 1976

Herman Wouk Ernest Hemingway William Faulkner MacKinlay Kantor James Agee

The Caine Mutiny The Old Man and the Sea A Fable Andersonville A Death in the Family

1977

Jason Miller Edward Albee Michael Bennett, James Kirkwood, Nicholas Dante, Marvin Hamlisch, and Edward Kleban Michael Cristofer The Shadow Box

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963

Robert Lewis Tayor Allen Drury Harper Lee Edwin O’Connor William Faulkner

The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters Advise and Consent To Kill a Mockingbird The Edge of Sadness The Reivers

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Donald L. Coburn Sam Shepard Lanford Wilson Beth Henley Charles Fuller Marsha Norman

The Gin Game Buried Child Talley’s Folly Crimes of the Heart A Soldier’s Play ’night, Mother

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Shirley Ann Grau Katherine Anne Porter Bernard Malamud William Styron N. Scott Momaday

The Keeper of the House Collected Stories The Fixer The Confessions of Nat Turner House Made of Dawn

1984 1985 1987 1988 1989 1990

David Mamet Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine August Wilson Alfred Uhry Wendy Wasserstein August Wilson

Glengarry Glen Ross Sunday in the ParkWith George Fences Driving Miss Daisy The Heidi Chronicles The Piano Lesson

1970 1972 1973 1975 1976

Jean Stafford Wallace Stegner Eudora Welty Michael Shaara Saul Bellow

Collected Stories Angle of Repose The Optimist’s Daughter The Killer Angels Humboldt’s Gift

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

James Alan McPherson John Cheever Norman Mailer John Kennedy Toole John Updike

Elbow Room The Stories of John Cheever The Executioner’s Song A Confederacy of Dunces Rabbit Is Rich

1983 1984 1985 1986

Alice Walker William Kennedy Alison Lurie Larry McMurtry

The Color Purple Ironweed Foreign Affairs Lonesome Dove

1987 1988 1989 1990

Peter Taylor Toni Morrison Anne Tyler Oscar Hijuelos

A Summons to Memphis Beloved Breathing Lessons The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love


TABLE 17.73 PULITZER PRIZE IN GENERAL NONFICTION, 1962–1990 Year

Author

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Theodore H.White Barbara W.Tuchman Richard Hofstadter Howard Mumford Jones Edwin Way Teale

The Making of the President 1960 The Guns of August Anti-Intellectualism in American Life O Strange NewWorld Wandering ThroughWinter

1967 1968 1969

David Brion Davis Will and Ariel Durant Norman Mailer Rene Jules Dubos,

1970 1971

Eric H. Erikson John Toland

The Problem of Slavery inWestern Culture Rousseau and Revolution The Armies of the Night So Human an Animal: HowWe Are Shaped by Surroundings and Events Gandhi’s Truth The Rising Sun

1972

Barbara W.Tuchman

1973

Frances FitzGerald

1974 1975

Robert Coles Ernest Becker Annie Dillard

Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–1945 Fire in the Lake:TheVietnamese and the Americans inVietnam Children of Crisis,Volumes II & III The Denial of Death Pilgrim at Tinker Creek

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Robert N. Butler William W.Warner Carl Sagan Edward O.Wilson Douglas R. Hofstadter

Why Survive? Being Old in America Beautiful Swimmers The Dragons of Eden On Human Nature Gödel, Escher, Bach:An Eternal Golden Braid

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Cart E. Schorske Tracy Kidder Susan Sheehan Paul Starr Studs Terkel

Fin-de-SiecleVienna: Politics and Culture The Soul of a New Machine Is There No Place on Earth for Me? Social Transformation of American Medicine The GoodWar

1986

Joseph Lelyveld J. Anthony Lukas David K. Shipler Richard Rhodes Neil Sheehan

MoveYour Shadow Common Ground Arab and Jew The Making of the Atomic Bomb A Bright Shining Lie: John PaulVann and America inVietnam And Their Children After Them

Source: World Almanac, 1999, 672–73.

TABLE 17.72 Year

PULITZER PRIZE IN DRAMA, 1946–1990 Author

Work

1946 1948 1949 1950

Russel Crouse and Howard Lindsay Tennessee Williams Arthur Miller Richard Rodgers, Oscar Hammerstein II and Joshua Logar

State of the Union A Streetcar Named Desire Death of a Salesman

1952 1953 1954 1955

Joseph Kramm William Inge John Patrick Tennessee Williams

The Shrike Picnic Teahouse of the August Moon Cat on a Hot Tin Roof

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett Eugene O’Neill Ketti Frings Archibald MacLeish George Abbott, Jerome Weidman, Sheldon Harnick, and Jerry Bock

The Diary of Anne Frank Long Day’s Journey Into Night Look Homeward,Angel J. B. Fiorello!

1961 1962

Tad Mosel Frank Loesser and Abe Burrows

1965 1967 1969 1970

Frank D. Gilroy Edward Albee Howard Sackler Charles Gordone

All theWay Home How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying The SubjectWas Roses A Delicate Balance The GreatWhite Hope No Place to Be Somebody

South Pacific

The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds That Championship Season Seascape A Chorus Line

1987 1988 1989 1990

Dale Maharidge and Michael Williamson

Work


Entertainment

501

TABLE 17.74 PULITZER PRIZE IN (U.S.) HISTORY, 1946–1990 Work

TABLE 17.75 PULITZER PRIZE IN BIOGRAPHY OR AUTOBIOGRAPHY, 1946–1990

Year

Author

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. James Phinney Baxter 3d Bernard De Voto Roy F. Nichols O.W. Larkin

The Age of Jackson Scientists Against Time Across theWide Missouri The Disruption of American Democracy Art and Life in America

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Linny Marsh Wolfe William Allen White Margaret Clapp Robert E. Sherwood Samuel Flag Bemis

1951

R. Carlyle Buley

1952 1953 1954 1955

Oscar Handlin George Dangerfield Bruce Catton Paul Horgan

The Old Northwest: Pioneer Period 1815–1840 The Uprooted The Era of Good Feelings A Stillness at Appomattox Great River:The Rio Grande in North American History

Son of theWilderness (John Muir) Autobiography ofWilliam AllenWhite Forgotten First Citizen: John Bigelow Roosevelt and Hopkins John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Margaret Louise Colt Merlo J. Pusey David J. Mays Charles A. Lindbergh William S.White

John C. Calhoun:American Portrait Charies Evans Hughes Edmund Pendleton; 1721–1803 The Spirit of St. Louis The Taft Story

1956 1957 1958

Richard Hofstadter George F. Kennan Bray Hammond

1956 1957 1958

Benjamin Henry Latrobe Profiles in Courage GeorgeWashington

1959 1960

Leonard D.White and Jean Schneider Margaret Leech

1961

Herbert Feis

1959 1960

Talbot F. Hamlin John F. Kennedy Douglas Southall Freeman (Vols. I–VI) and John Alexander Carroll and Mary Wells Ashworth (Vol.VII) Arthur Walworth Samuel Eliot Morison

WoodrowWilson:American Prophet John Paul Jones

1962

Lawrence H. Gibson

1963

David Donald Leon Edel Walter Jackson Bate Ernest Samuels Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.

Charies Sumner and the Coming of the CivilWar Henry James: Vols. 2–3 John Keats Henry Adams A Thousand Days

1964

Constance McLaughlin Green Sumner Chilton Powell

1961 1963 1964 1965 1966

1965

Irwin Unger

1967 1968 1969

Justin Kaplan George F. Kennan B.L. Reid

1966 1967

Perry Miller William H. Goetzmann

1970 1971

T. Harry Williams Lawrence Thompson

Mr. Clemens and Mark Twain Memoirs (1925–1950) The Man From NewYork: John Quinn and His Friends Huey Long Robert Frost:TheYears of Triumph, 1915–1938

1968

Bernard Bailyn

1969 1970

Leonard W. Levy Dean Acheson

1972 1973 1974 1975

Joseph P. Lash W.A. Swanberg Louis Sheaffer Robert A. Caro

1976

R.W.B. Lewis

1971 1972 1973

James McGregor Burns Carl N. Degler Michael Kammen

1974 1975

Daniel J. Boorstin Dumas Malone

1976 1977 1978

Paul Horgan David M. Potter Alfred D. Chandler Jr.

1979

Don E. Fehrenbacher

1980

Leon F. Litwack

1981

Lawrence A. Cremin

1982 1983

C.Vann Woodward, ed. Rhys L. Isaac

1985 1986

Thomas K. McCraw Walter A. McDougall

1987 1988

Bernard Bailyn RobertV. Bruce

1989

Taylor Branch

1990

James M. McPherson Stanley Karnow

The Age of Reform Russia Leaves theWar Banks and Politics in America–From the Revolution to the CivilWar The Republican Era: 1869–1901 In the Days of McKinley BetweenWar and Peace:The Potsdam Conference The Triumphant Empire:Thunderclouds Gather in theWest Washington:Village and Capital, 1800–1878 PuritanVillage:The Formation of a New England Town The Greenback Era Life of the Mind in America Exploration and Empire:The Explorer and Scientist in theWinning of the AmericanWest The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution Origin of the Fifth Amendment Present at the Creation: MyYears in the State Department

Author

Work

Eleanor and Franklin Luce and His Empire O’Neill, Son and Artist The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of NewYork EdithWharton:A Biography

Roosevelt:The Soldier of Freedom Neither Black norWhite People of Paradox:An Inquiry Concerning the Origins of American Civilization The Americans:The Democratic Experience Jefferson and His Time

1977

John E. Mack

1978 1979

Walter Jackson Bate Leonard Baker

Lamy of Santa Fe The Impending Crisis TheVisible Hand:The Managerial Revolution in American Business The Dred Scott Case: Its Significance in American Law and Politics Been in the Storm So Long

1980 1981

Edmund Morris Robert K. Massie

A Prince of Our Disorder:The Life of T.E. Lawrence Samuel Johnson Days of Sorrow and Pain: Leo Baeck and the Berlin Jews The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt Peter the Great: His Life andWorld

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

William S. McFeely Russel Baker Louis R. Harlan Kenneth Silverman Elizabeth Frank

Grant:A Biography Growing Up Booker T.Washington The Life and Times of Cotton Mather Louise Bogan: A Portrait

1987

David J. Garrow

1988 1989 1990

David Herbert Donald Richard Ellmann Sebastian de Grazia

Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference Look Homeward:A Life of ThomasWolfe OscarWilde Machiavelli in Hell

American Education:The National Experience, 1783–1876 Mary Chesnut’s Civil War The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 Prophets of Regulation The Heavens and the Earth Voyagers to theWest The Launching of Modern American Science, 1846–1876 Parting theWaters:America in the King Years, 1954–63; Battle Cry of Freedom: The CivilWar Era In Our Image:America’s Empire in the Philippines

Source: World Almanac, 1999, 673–74.

502

Year



TABLE 17.76 PULITZER PRIZE IN AMERICAN POETRY, 1947–1990 Year

Author

Work

1947 1948 1949 1950

Robert Lowell W. H. Auden Peter Viereck Gwendolyn Brooks

LordWeary’s Castle The Age of Anxiety Terror and Decorum Annie Allen

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Carl Sandburg Marianne Moore Archibald MacLeish Theodore Roethke Wallace Stevens

Complete Poems Collected Poems Collected Poems TheWaking Collected Poems

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Elzabeth Bishop Richard Wilbur Robert Penn Warren Stanley Kunitz W. D. Snodgrass

Poems, North and South Things of ThisWorld Promises: Poems 1954–1956 Selected Poems 1928–1958 Heart’s Needle

1961

Phyllis McGinley

1962 1963 1964 1965

Alan Dugan William Carlos Williams Louis Simpson John Berryman

Times Three: SelectedVerse From Three Decades Poems Pictures From Breughel At the End of the Open Road 77 Dream Songs

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Richard Eberhart Anne Sexton Anthony Hecht George Oppen Richard Howard

Selected Poems Live or Die The Hard Hours Of Being Numerous United Subjects

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

William S. Merwin James Wright Maxine Winokur Kumin Robert Lowell Gary Snyder

The Carrier of Ladders Collected Poems Up Country The Dolphin Turtle Island

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

John Ashbery James Merrill Howard Nemerov Robert Penn Warren Donald Justice

Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror Divine Comedies Collected Poems Now and Then: Poems 1976–1978 Selected Poems

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

James Schuyler Sylvia Plath Galway Kinnell Mary Oliver Carolyn Kizer

The Morning of the Poem The Collected Poems Selected Poems American Primitive Yin

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Henry Taylor Rita Dove William Meredith Richard Wilbur Charles Simic

The Flying Change Thomas and Beulah Partial Accounts: New and Selected Poems New and Collected Poems TheWorld Doesn’t End


TABLE 17.77 PULITZER PRIZE SPECIAL CITATIONS, 1957–1984 Year 1957 1960 1961 1973 1977 1978 1984

Author Kenneth Roberts Garrett Mattingly James Thomas Flexner Alex Haley E.B.White Theodore Seuss Geisel

Work

TABLE 17.78 AMERICAN WINNERS OF THE NOBEL PRIZE IN LITERATURE, 1949–1990 Year

Author

1949

William Faulkner

1954

Ernest M. Hemingway

1962 1976

John Steinbeck Saul Bellow

1978

Isaac B. Singer

1980

Czeslaw Milosz

1987

Joseph Brodsky

Reason for Award For his “unique contribution to the modern American novel.’’ For his “mastery of the art of narrative,’’ as expressed in The Old Man and the Sea. For “his realistic and imaginative writings.’’ For “human understanding,’’ and “subtle analysis of contemporary culture.’’ For “impassioned narrative art,’’ which “brings universal human conditions to life.’’ (U.S. and Poland) For voicing “man’s exposed condition in a world of severe conflicts.’’ For “authorship inbued with clarity of thought and poetic intensity.’’

Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1995, 664–65.

TABLE 17.79 THE OLDEST AUTHORS TO REACH NO. 1 ON THE NEW YORK TIMES BEST-SELLERS LIST, TO 1990 Author George Burns Helen H. Santmeyer Bernard Baruch Agatha Christie Dr. Seuss J. R. R.Tolkien Agatha Christie Douglas MacArthur Katharine Hepburn Rose Kennedy Dr. Seuss Winston Churchill James Michener Louis L’Amour James Michener Louis L’Amour James Michener James Michener Harry Overstreet James Michener Winston Churchill Sidney Sheldon Hedda Hopper Sidney Sheldon Peter Wright James Michener Lloyd C. Douglas Somerset Maugham Thornton Wilder Sidney Sheldon

Age at #1

Book

92.9 88.7 87.2 86.2 86.1 85.8 85.3 84,8 83.9 83.9 82.1 81.5 81.5 79.2 78.7 78.3 76.7 75.7 74.4 73.8 73.7 73.6 73.0 71.8 71.6 71.5 71.4 70.5 70.2 70.0

Gracie ‘. . . and Ladies of the Club.’’ Baruch: My Own Story Sleeping Murder Oh, the PlacesYou’ll Go The Silmarillion Curtain Reminiscences Me Times to Remember You’re Only Old Once! The Birth of Britain Alaska The Haunted Mesa Texas Last of the Breed Poland Space The Mature Mind The Covenant The Gathering Storm Memories of Midnight TheWhole Truth and Nothing But The Sands of Time Spycatcher Chesapeake The Big Fisherman Razor’s Edge The Eighth Day Windmills of the Gods

Source: John Bear, The #1 New York Times Best Sellers (New York, 1992), 50.

for his historical novels The Armada American Heritage Picture History of the CivilWar GeorgeWashington, Vols. I–IV Roots Dr. Seuss books


Entertainment

503

TABLE 17.80 AUTHORS WHO REACHED NO. 1 ON THE NEW YORK TIMES BEST-SELLERS LIST BEFORE THEY WERE 35, TO 1990 Author

Age

Francoise Sagan Amy Wallace Marion Hargrove Bill Mauldin Norman Mailer Richard Tregaskis Ralph Martin Joe McGinnis Kathleen Winsor James Jones David Wallechinsky Michael Jackson Carl Bernstein Ken Follett “J” Ken Follett Stephen King Grace Metalious Gwethalyn Graham John le Carré Germaine Greer Richard Simmons Erich Segal Stephen King Bob Woodward Frederick Forsyth André Schwarz-Bart Stephen King Ross Lockridge Maurice Herzog Patrick Dennis Douglas Casey John Roy Carlson Jean Kerr Frederick Forsyth Leon Uris Stephen King

19.9 22.0 23.0 23.8 25.4 26.3 26.4 27.0 28.1 29.3 29.5 29.7 30.4 30.5 30.7 31.4 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.7 32.9 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.9 34.0 34.1 34.3 34.4 34.4 34.6 34.6 34.8 34.9

Title Bonjour Tristesse The Book of Lists See Here, Private Hargrove Up Front The Naked and the Dead Guadalcanal Diary Jennie The Selling of the President 1968 Forever Amber From Here to Eternity The Book of Lists Moonwalk All the President’s Men Triple The Sensuous Woman The Key to Rebecca The Dead Zone Peyton Place Earth and High Heaven The SpyWho Came in from the Cold The Female Eunuch Never Say Diet Love Story Firestarter The Final Days The Day of the Jackal The Last of the Just Cujo Raintree County Annapurna Auntie Mame Crisis Investing Under Cover Please Don’t Eat the Daisies The Odessa File Exodus Different Seasons

Source: Bear, #1 On Times List, 8.

504


The Most Influential Books The Library of Congress and Book-of-the-Month Club in 1991 conducted a survey that asked readers to name the book that had been most influential in their lives. The following 13 volumes were most frequently mentioned. 1. The Bible (No version or edition mentioned) 2. Atlas Shrugged, Ayn Rand 3. The Road Less Traveled, M. Scott Peck 4. To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee 5. The Lord of the Rings, J.R.R.Tolkien 6. Gone with theWind, Margaret Mitchell 7. How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie 8. The Book of Mormon (No author listed) 9. The Feminine Mystique, Betty Friedan 10. A Gift from the Sea, Anne Lindbergh (tie) 11. Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl (tie) 12. Passages, Gail Sheehy (tie) 13. When Bad Things Happen to Good People, Harold Kushner (tie) Source: Bear, #1 On Times List, 44.

CHAPTER 18 Sports In its broadest dimension, American competitive athletics occupied a vast domain of almost immeasurable size. In its most elementary expression, it sponsored participatory activity of many millions of people of all ages, but mostly young men and women, boys and girls, from college age down to four or five. Every state had well-established programs for sports competition between schools at every level—the most intense and best organized coming, of course, in high school. In the period after 1945 the number of sports expanded and the number of participants multiplied, most conspicuously in the 1970s to include female competitors. What was exercise and competition for one was entertainment for another. The spectator aspect of sports reached much further than the participation. Behind nearly every youthful athlete stood a legion of excitable parents, other relatives, friends, and simply interested observers.The Friday game remained part of the routine of life, probably a highlight of the week, and it was not uncommon for the local gynmasium and certainly the football field to hold more people than the town’s population. College athletics represented mass entertainment, and football and basketball competition in Division I schools carried many of the markings of big business, except that the players were not paid (but coaches and all phases of management were) and the system did not operate on the profit motive. Week-after-week and year-after-year, the University of Michigan drew more football fans than the Detroit Lions of the professional National Football League (NFL). As a rule, however, commercial sports activity pertained to professional teams and professional competition. In these categories the half-century after 1945 produced growth and expansion entirely commensurate with the numerous social, cultural, and economic revolutions underway in the nation. Those professional sports with a well-established and respected structure underwent increase in number of participants and expansion to nationwide markets. Major league baseball, the best example, which in 1946 was confined to an area north of the Mason-Dixon Line and east of the Mississippi River (except for the St. Louis Cardinals and Browns, barely on the other side of the river), moved to the West Coast in the 1950s and then, by moving teams or adding new ones, began to fill the area in between. Professional football, starting several steps behind baseball, underwent a long national building program, as did professional basketball, which had to start from scratch. Except possibly for boxing, which could not shed charges of being brutal and shadowy if not crooked, every organized professional sport underwent growth of national scope. The National Hockey League (NHL), normally associated with the frigid north and with Canada, placed teams in Dallas and Los Angeles. Other activities that were either sketchily structured or nonexistent in 1946 arose to claim a share of the growing business of spectator sports. Automobile racing, especially that form loosely defined as “stock’’ cars, represented the most striking example. The explosion of professional sports drew on familiar forces. Air travel in general and jet aircraft travel in particular made national expansion possible.TheYankees could play in NewYork one day and California the next if need be. Invariably, success in any sport came down to a matter of money. In simplest terms the population increased rapidly in cold war America and, the economy being what it was, people had money to spend on entertainment.The world of sports moved either to meet or to create demand through new forms of activity. The development would be registered in larger numbers of people attending sporting events. As time went on more dramatic evidence came in revenue produced from media coverage of sporting events—radio and television, although, of course, television became the most important. Behind every case of spectacular growth in sporting enterprise—be it the big three of professional baseball, football, and basketball, or golf, tennis, or auto

racing—one would find a large television contract, if not more than one.The traditional commercial networks competed for rights to carry sporting events. In 1979 a new network, ESPN, devoted exclusively to sports, began to offer competition, and the end of the 1980s brought signs of other broadcast enterprises preparing to enter the race. Postwar society brought prosperity to professional sports, and prosperity did not necessarily bring peace. Demanding a larger share of a team’s revenues, and later, as it appeared, as much money as they could get, players in the major sports formed unions, hired professional negotiators, while at the same time reserving the right to negotiate individually with management—a process that also became the job of a professional agent. Club owners pleaded impending bankruptcy, screamed bloody murder, and then tried to outbid each other for the services of—in the lexicon of the age—a valued “free agent.’’ The result, beginning largely in the 1970s, was a succession of deadlines and crises that occasionally produced strikes or lockouts, all these continuously interspersed with players leaving one team for another and teams trading prized players for a pittance, out of fear of losing them to free agency in the near future or to unload a burdensome contract. Perhaps the single constant theme was that salaries kept going up, the highest ones—even the players would admit—reaching far beyond any reasonable measure of fairness or worth. In terms of the quality of personnel the most significant change to the world of sports was its opening on nearly all fronts to AfricanAmerican athletes.The transformation differed with the sport. Boxing

Willie Mays, arguably the best baseball player of them all. He was centerfielder of the New York Giants and San Francisco Giants in 1950s and 1960s. (National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, N.Y.)

505

had had black participants since the start of the century. AfricanAmerican athletes had been visible but by no means fairly represented in college and high school teams in the northern states. In the three high-profile professional sports, the emergence of black players was a phenomenon of the postwar era. Although it began with football, the integration of major league baseball in 1947 received the most attention and probably was the most important step. Black players moved gradually but with some dispatch to dominate professional basketball and football rosters. The pool of baseball players did not contain as proportionately large a number of blacks, but lists of best players and recipients of postseason awards had heavy representation of AfricanAmerican names. Arrival of black baseball players called to question presumptions about the grand standard bearers of the past. How good in contemporary terms was Babe Ruth? Was Ty Cobb as good a base runner as Ricky Henderson? In the case of football, where tradition was skimpy, and with basketball, where there was none at all, black players became part of the tradition from the start. In a few other sports, where it would appear that factors other than physical ability came more prominently to bear—hockey, golf, tennis, for example— the number of black participants remained small. In all, sports competition faced large challenges and shocks in the postwar era, especially on the professional level. Fans became enraged TABLE 18.1

MOST POPULAR SPORTS—A GALLUP POLL, 1948

(in percent) Sport

National

Men

Women

Baseball Football Basketball Horse racing Boxing Ice skating, hockey

39 17 10 4 3 2

45 20 8 3 4 2

31 15 12 5 2 4

Swimming, diving Tennis Bowling Auto racing Others None

2 2 1 1 7 12

1 1 1 1 7 7

3 2 1 ... 9 16

Note: Based on a Gallup Survey of April 1948 which asked the question: What sport do you, yourself, enjoy watching most? Source: George E. Gallup, The Gallup Poll, Public Opinion 1935–1971 (New York, 1972), 733.

TABLE 18.2 MOST POPULAR SPORTS, 1986 (in percent) Sport

Americans Interested

TABLE 18.3

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF MAJOR PROFESSIONAL SPORTS TEAMS, 1989 AND 1990

(in percent) Year Sport

1989

1990

National Basketball Association Black White Latino Other

75 25 0 0

72 28 0 0

National Football League Black White Latino Other

60 40 0 0

61 39 0 0

NA NA NA NA

17 70 13 0

Major League Baseball Black White Latino Other

Source: Jessie C. Smith and Robert L. Johns, Statistical Record of Black America (Detroit, 1995), 1085–86.

TABLE 18.4 MOST POPULAR SPORTS ON TELEVISION, 1985 Sport

Number of Viewers

% of Adult

Pro football Baseball College football Boxing College basketball

63,200,000 62,700,000 48,900,000 32,200,000 36,200,000

37 37 29 22 21

Pro football Baseball Fishing College football Bowling

60 59 43 42 35

Pro basketball Pro wrestling Bowling Tennis Auto racing

34,700,000 28,800,000 28,600,000 26,300,000 25,800,000

21 17 17 16 15

Pro basketball Pro boxing Auto racing College basketball Hunting

32 32 31 30 26

Golf Drag racing Thoroughbred horse racing Hockey Track and field

25,800,000 18,400,000 18,100,000 16,600,000 16,100,000

15 11 11 10 10

Pool/billiards Ice skating Tennis Horse racing Hockey

26 25 22 20 18

Rodeo Weight lifting Harness horse racing Pro soccer Roller derby

13,200,000 12,900,000 9,800,000 8,100,000 6,600,000

8 8 6 5 4

Note: Based on a survey conducted in 1986 for Sports Illustrated magazine which asked in which sports respondents were interested. Source: Tom and Nancy Biracree, Almanac of the American People (New York, 1988), 292–93.

506

at the strikes and work stoppages, bitter about players’ salaries and correspondingly high ticket prices, cynical, if not rebellious, about the entire enterprise. However worthy and long overdue the racial integration of sports, the process required an adjustment in many white spectators, even in the North. It took an adjustment from blacks, too, albeit a happy one, as one could detect in the crowds as Jackie Robinson made the circuit of National League cities in 1947 and 1948. But the anger over disruption of the season would subside; however grudgingly, most—but not all—fans would return to the ballpark or watch the game on television. Everything considered, the process or racial integration went reasonably smooth.The fans in, of all places, Atlanta cheered mightily in 1975 when Henry Aaron hit his 715th home run, breaking perhaps the most hallowed tradition of all.


Note: Based on a survey in August 1985 by Simmons Market Research Bureau, which asked which sports adult Americans “frequently’’ or “almost always’’ watched on television. Source: Biracree, Almanac of American People, 293–94.

TABLE 18.5

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF MAJOR PROFESSIONAL COACHES AND MANAGERS, 1989 AND 1990

(in percent; numbers in parentheses) Year Sports

1989

1990

National Basketball Association Black White Latino

22 (6) 78 (21) 0 (0)

22 (6) 78 (21) 0 (0)

National Football League Black White Latino

4 (1) 96 (27) 0 (0)

4 (1) 86 (27) 0 (0)

Major League Baseball Black White Latino

4 (1) 96 (27) 0 (0)

4 (1) 96 (27) 0 (0)

Source: Smith and Johns, Black America, 1085.

Sports remained an important part of American entertainment, an entity in itself that had inseparable ties to such other entertainment as radio and television, with lesser ties to movies and Broadway. It was as well an integral part of American society and culture and of increasing importance to the economy. For better or worse, sports stood as an expression of the competitive spirit of American society and people. Competitive athletics provided a source of personal identity and a channel of linkage to other forms of identity. The association with a school or university, a town, city, or state, often—if not most commonly—found expression through athletic teams.

Baseball Organized baseball began the postwar era as the best organized and most popular national sport, perhaps not the “national pastime,’’ as advocates claimed, but as close to that status as one could find. The institution experienced challenges and pressures so formidable that at times it seemed possible that the professional game might not survive. The largest challenges came in two forms: competition from several fronts—most prominently television and such other organized sports as basketball and football—and, starting in the 1970s, internal divisions so intense that they seemed to place the major leagues on a course of self-destruction. As for the game itself, the period produced minor tinkering, some of it cosmetic, with no fundamental change in the way baseball was played. In 1954 the major leagues recognized the sacrifice fly—a small scoring adjustment that affected batting statistics, but not the production of runs. In the 1960s fielders had to bring in their gloves at the end of a half-inning, rather than flinging them onto the outfield grass. In 1973 the commissioner’s office offered leagues the option of using a substitute hitter continuously through the game in place of one batter in the lineup, almost invariably the pitcher. In response the American League in 1974 adopted the designated hitter, or D.H.; in the National League the pitcher still had to bat. Beginning in 1974 all batters had to don a protective helmet when at the plate, and in 1988 similar headgear was required of the catcher. There continued to be a mysterious tampering with the territory encompassed in a called strike.Traditionally regarded as the area over the plate, between the letters and the knees, the strike zone steadily shrank, and by the 1980s umpires seemed hesitant to designate as a strike any pitch that passed above the batter’s beltline.

Otherwise uniforms, previously loose and baggy, became form fitting, knees and leg stockings all but disappearing; the conventional white for home uniforms and gray for the road gave way to experiments with color and design. Fielder’s gloves became almost as large as a bushel basket, batter’s gloves became commonplace, even on a hot summer day. Relief pitchers developed into a new type of specialty— young power-pitchers, raised from the ground up, as opposed to being the wise and grizzled former starter with a used-up arm. Players progressively appeared larger and stronger; the good ones could play—if they wished—to almost 40. The most meaningful change in personnel, of course, stemmed from the belated, grudging, and gradual racial integration of the sport. Jackie Robinson broke the color line in April 1947 when he took the field for the Brooklyn Dodgers. Other African-American players followed almost immediately, but this black migration hardly developed into a gusher. It took 12 years to achieve even minimal integration of all 16 teams, and black players remained clearly in the minority.Those blacks who did make it represented some of the best players in the game.African Americans dominated nearly all statistics in the National League except pitching. In the American League, where integration proceeded slowly, African Americans were less prominent. Another form of integration had been underway in the major leagues for some time. At a time when blacks were banned, a few good Latin American players had found their way into the big leagues. Beginning in the 1960s they began to appear in larger numbers from several Hispanic nations, most commonly Mexico,Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, and other Caribbean Islands. To the familiar African-American names one also would add a growing list of Latinos: Rod Carew, Orlando Cepeda, Juan Marichal, David Concepcion, Tony Armas, Tony Perez, Fernando Valenzuela, Jose Canseco, and many others. Before it became a fashionable term, baseball was leading the way in promoting multiculturalism. In time the major leagues showed some balance between the teams, but not at the start of the period. Continuing a dominance that went back some two decades, the New York Yankees after 1946 won 14 of the first 20 American League championships and then settled into a period of mediocrity for the next 20 or so years.There followed brief spurts by Baltimore, Oakland, and the Yankees again and then a period of nine years, each of which produced a different winner. To the extent that the National League had a most successful team, it would be the franchise of the Brooklyn Dodgers, transplanted to Los Angeles in 1958. Between 1946 and 1990 the Dodgers won 15 pennants. Otherwise, virtually every one of the traditional eight National League teams had at least a taste of glory, either in the original city or a new location. The only National League expansion teams to win were the New York Mets, twice, and the San Diego Padres. The longest-suffering major league franchise continued to be Chicago of the National League, which still played games in quaint and historic Wrigley Field on the city’s north side. Only in 1988 did the club succumb to the modern world by allowing installation of lights for night games. The Cubbies nonetheless remained suffering, claiming not a single National League pennant between 1946 and 1990. Expansion of the two leagues and the city-hopping that some teams experienced represented a reasonable expression of the need to make major league baseball a truly national venture. But movement of teams also came to be a manifestation of the extent to which economics had come to dominate all aspects of this game originally intended as fun time for boys. Owners moved teams to cities that offered the most incentives or the largest market. Harsh reality could have been made no more clear than in the sudden departure in 1958 of the storied and generally successful Brooklyn Dodger ballclub to antiseptic, sunny Los Angeles, which to the baseball purist offered nothing but money. Team movement represented only a part of the perception of betrayal, broken loyalty, and greed that beset organized baseball in the postwar era. Sports

507

The 1970s produced the start of a series of struggles between players and owners, the outcome of which was nowhere in sight at the end of the 1980s.The players revived their union, hired a hard-driving trade-union professional, Marvin Miller, and set out to make more money and maintain control over all their activities. What one might call D-day for baseball, and perhaps professional sports, came on December 23, 1975, when independent arbitrator Peter Seitz ruled that the so-called reserve clause, which had bound a player to a team that “owned’’ him, was no longer operable and that the players who brought the suit—Dave McNally and Andy Messersmith—were free to sign with any team. The Seitz decision had two immediate effects. It touched off a bidding war for prized, unsigned players, in which TABLE 18.6

owners became victims of their most aggressive competitors—owners anxious to buy a team quickly by offering high prices, in this instance Ted Turner of the Atlanta Braves and George Steinbrenner of the New York Yankees. The second consequence was the need for owners and the players’ association to negotiate a contract, called the basic agreement, that identified new terms of employment. The owners wanted limits on salaries, probably through a team “salary cap”; the players wanted none. The owners wanted various restraints on free agency; the players opposed any provision that might limit their freedom to negotiate the best terms possible. An immediate result was escalating salaries. The average pay, $45,000 in 1975, went to $371,000 in 1985, and to $600,000 in

MAJOR LEAGUE TEAMS—1946, 1965, AND 1990 League Standings,1946 National League

a

American League

Team

Wins

Losses

Percent

Games Back

Team

Wins

Losses

Percent

Games Back

aSt. Louis Brooklyn Chicago Boston

98 96 82 81

58 60 71 72

.628 .615 .536 .529

2 14.5 15.5

Boston Detroit New York Washington

104 92 87 76

50 62 67 78

.675 .597 .565 .494

12 17 28

Philadelphia Cincinnati Pittsburgh New York

69 67 63 61

85 87 91 93

.448 .435 .409 .396

28 30 34 36

Chicago Cleveland St. Louis Philadelphia

74 68 66 49

80 86 88 105

.481 .442 .429 .318

30 36 38 55

Defeated Brooklyn in playoff 2 games to 0.

League Standings, 1965 National League

American League

Team

Wins

Losses

Percent

Games Back

Los Angeles San Francisco Pittsburgh Cincinnati Milwaukee

97 95 90 89 86

65 67 72 73 76

.599 .586 .556 .549 .531

2 7 8 11

Philadelphia St. Louis Chicago Houston New York

85 80 72 65 50

76 81 90 97 112

.528 .497 .444 .401 .309

11.5 16.5 25 32 47

Team

Wins

Losses

Percent

Games Back

Minnesota Chicago Baltimore Detroit Cleveland

102 95 94 89 87

60 67 68 73 75

.630 .586 .580 .549 .537

7 8 13 15

New York California Washington Boston Kanas City

77 75 70 62 59

85 87 92 100 103

.475 .463 .432 .383 .364

25 27 32 40 43

Percent

Games Back

League Standings,1990 National League Team

Wins

Losses

American League Percent

Games Back

Team

Wins

Losses

East Pittsburgh New York Montreal Chicago Philadelphia St. Louis

95 91 85 77 77 70

67 71 77 85 85 92

East .586 .562 .525 .475 .475 .432

4 10 18 18 25

Boston Toronto Detroit Cleveland Baltimore Milwaukee New York

88 86 79 77 76 74 67

74 76 83 85 85 88 95

West Cincinnati Los Angeles San Francisco Houston San Diego Atlanta

91 86 85 75 75 65

71 76 77 87 87 97


2 9 11 11.5 14 21

.636 .580 .512 .494 .475 .466 .457

9 20 23 26 27.5 29

West .562 .531 .525 .463 .463 .401

5 6 16 16 26

Oakland Chicago Texas California Seattle Kansas City Minnesota

Source: Rick Wolff, The Baseball Encyclopedia (New York, 1993), 302, 304, 374, 376, 506, 509.

508

.543 .531 .488 .475 .472 .457 .414

103 94 83 80 77 75 74

59 68 79 82 85 86 88

1990, with a million-dollar average only a step away. Loyalty to a team, or city—even a hometown—seemingly became an attitude of the past. Pete Rose, a native of Cincinnati whose lifelong ambition had been to be a “$100,000 singles hitter,’’ left the Reds at age 37 for more money than he had dreamed of receiving. Difficulty in agreeing to a basic contract produced a strike in 1981 that canceled a third of the season, and another shorter work stoppage came in 1985. While frustrated fans vented their feelings on both sides, it appeared that deepest anger increasingly was directed at the players who, at one time seemingly embarrassed with their soaring incomes, now defended them as an expression of right and justice. Baseball fans, as it developed, showed themselves to be remarkably forgiving, willing, once the trouble had passed, to return to their beloved game. Television contracts made it possible for most teams to absorb high salaries, but a breach continued to widen between the earnings, and thus the buying power, of teams from large market centers, such as New York and Los Angeles, and small market cities, such as Pittsburgh and St. Louis. The decision by the owners and the players’ union in 1990 to extend the basic agreement for three years merely bought time. It solved none of baseball’s problems.

Changes in Major League Baseball Teams, 1946–1990 1953 Boston Braves (N) move to Milwaukee. 1954 St. Louis Browns (A) move to Baltimore and become the Orioles; Cincinnati Reds (N) are renamed Redlegs. 1955 Philadelphia Athletics (A) move to Kansas City. 1958 Brooklyn Dodgers (N) move to Los Angeles: New York Giants (N) move to San Francisco. 1961 Washington Senators (A) move to Bloomington, Minnesota, and become the Minnesota Twins; a new Washington Senators joins the American League as an expansion team; the Los Angeles Angels join the American League; Cincinnati Redlegs (N) restore the name of Reds. 1962 Houston Colt 45s and NewYork Mets join the National League. 1965 Houston Colt 45s (N) are renamed Astros; Los Angeles Angels are renamed California Angels. 1966 California Angels (A) move to Anaheim; Milwaukee Braves move to Atlanta. 1968 Kansas City Athletics (A) move to Oakland and become A’s. 1969 Kansas City Royals and Seattle Pilots Join the American League; Montreal Expos and San Diego Padres join the National League. 1970 Seattle Pilots (A) move to Milwaukee and become the Brewers. 1972 Washington Senators (A) move to Arlington, Texas, and become the Rangers. 1977 Seattle Mariners and Toronto Blue Jays join the American League. 1982 Minnesota Twins (A) move to Minneapolis. 1987 Oakland A’s (A) are renamed Athletics.

TABLE 18.7

MAJOR LEAGUE ATTENDANCE, 1950–1990

(in millions) Year

Number of Clubs

Total Attendance

Attendance per Club

1950 1955 1960 1965

16 16 16 20

17.5 16.6 19.9 22.4

1.09 1.04 1.24 1.12

1970 1975 1976 1977

24 24 24 26

28.8 29.8 31.3 38.7

1.20 1.24 1.31 1.49

1978 1984 1985 1986

26 26 26 26

40.6 44.7 46.8 47.5

1.56 1.70 1.80 1.83

1987 1988 1989 1990

26 26 26 26

52.0 53.0 55.2 54.8

2.00 2.04 2.12 2.11

Source: Andrew Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions (New York, 1992), 52.

TABLE 18.8 AVERAGE BASEBALL TICKET PRICES, 1950–1990 Year

Box

General Admission

Overall

Overall (1990 prices)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1984 1985

... ... ... ... $7.71 $8.19

... ... ... ... $3.33 $3.48

$1.60 $2.05 $3.18 $4.53 $5.93 $6.21

$8.74 $9.11 $10.79 $7.23 $7.51 $7.60

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

$8.57 $8.95 $9.60 $9.84 $10.26

$3.61 $3.96 $4.53 $4.59 $4.47

$6.70 $6.89 $7.17 $7.61 $7.95

$8.04 $7.98 $7.98 $8.07 $7.95

Source: Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions, 52.

Sources: Mike Meserole, ed., The 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac (Boston, 1992), 97.

Sports

509

TABLE 18.9 Year

AMERICAN LEAGUE PENNANT WINNERS, 1946–1990

Club

Manager

W.

L.

Pct.

TABLE 18.10 NATIONAL LEAGUE PENNANT WINNERS, 1946–1990

G.A.

Year

Club

Manager

W.

L.

Pct.

G.A.

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Boston New York Clevelanda New York New York

Joe Cronin Bucky Harris Lou Boudreau Casey Stengel Casey Stengel

104 97 97 97 98

50 57 58 57 56

.675 .630 .626 .630 .636

12 12 1 1 3

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

St. Louisa Brooklyn Boston Brooklyn Philadelphia

Eddie Dyer Burt Shotton Billy Southworth Burt Shotton Eddie Sawyer

98 94 91 97 91

58 60 62 57 63

.628 .610 .595 .630 .591

2 5 61/2 1 2

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

New York New York New York Cleveland New York

Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Al Lopez Casey Stengel

98 95 99 111 96

56 59 52 43 58

.636 .617 .656 .721 .623

5 2 81/2 8 3

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

New York New York New York Chicago New York

Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Al Lopez Casey Stengel

97 98 92 94 97

57 56 62 60 57

.630 .636 .597 .610 .630

9 8 10 5 8

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

New Yorkb Brooklyn Brooklyn New York Brooklyn

Leo Durocher Charlie Dressen Charlie Dressen Leo Durocher Walter Alston

98 96 105 97 98

59 57 49 57 55

.624 .627 .682 .630 .641

1 41/2 13 5 131/2

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

New York New York New York New York Minnesota

Ralph Houk Ralph Houk Ralph Houk Yogi Berra Sam Mele

109 96 104 99 102

53 66 57 63 60

.673 .593 .646 611 .630

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Brooklyn Milwaukee Milwaukee Los Angelesc Pittsburgh

Walter Alston Fred Haney Fred Haney Walter Alston Danny Murtaugh

93 95 92 88 95

61 59 62 68 59

.604 .617 .597 .564 .617

1 8 8 2 7

101/2

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Baltimore Boston Detroit Baltimore (E) Baltimore (E)

Hank Bauer Dick Williams Mayo Smith Earl Weaver Earl Weaver

97 92 103 109 108

63 70 59 53 54

.606 .568 .636 .673 .667

9 1 12 19 15

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Cincinnati San Franciscod Los Angeles St. Louis Los Angeles

Fred Hutchinson Al Dark Walter Alston Johnny Keane Walter Alston

93 103 99 93 97

61 62 63 69 65

.604 .624 .611 .574 .599

4 1 6 1 2

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Baltimore (E) Oakiand (W) Oakland (W) Oakland (W) Boston (E)

Earl Weaver Dick Williams Dick Williams Al Dark Darrell Johnson

101 93 94 90 95

57 62 68 72 65

.639 .600 .580 .556 .594

12 51/2 6 5 41/2

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Los Angeles St. Louis St. Louis New York (E) Cincinnati (W)

Walter Alston Red Schoendienst Red Schoendienst Gil Hodges Sparky Anderson

95 101 97 100 102

67 60 65 62 60

.586 .627 .599 .617 .630

11/2 101/2 9 8 141/2

1976 1977 1978

New York (E) NewYork (E) New York (E)

97 100 100

62 62 63

.610 .617 .613

101/2 21/2 1

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Pittsburgh (E) Cincinnati (W) New York (E) Los Angeles (E) Cincinnati (W)

Danny Murtaugh Sparky Anderson Yogi Berra Walter Alston Sparky Anderson

97 95 82 102 108

65 59 79 60 54

.599 .617 .509 .630 .667

7 101/2 1 1 /2 4 20

102 97

57 65

.642 .599

8 14

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Cincinnati (W) Los Angeles (W) Los Angeles (W) Pittsburgh (E) Philadelphia (E)

Sparky Anderson Tommy Lasorda Tommy Lasorda Chuck Tanner Dallas Green

102 98 95 98 91

60 64 67 64 71

.630 .605 .586 .605 .562

10 10 2 1/2 2 1

59

48

.551

5

63 92 90

47 70 72

.573 .568 .556

3 6

92 101

70 61

.568 .623

12 3

108 95 94 92 91

54 67 67 70 71

.667 .586 .584 .568 .562

211/2 3 7 3 5

1979 1980

Billy Martin Billy Martin Billy Martin, Bob Lemon Baltimore (E) Earl Weaver Kansas City (W) Jim Frey

1981

NewYork (E)

8 5 1 7

95

67

.586

1

1981 1982 1983

Los Angeles (W) St. Louis (E) Philadelphia (E)

1983 1984 1985

Gene Michael, Bob Lemon Milwaukee (E) Buck Rodgers, Harvey Kuenn Baltimore (E) Joe Altobelli Detroit (E) Sparky Anderson Kansas City (W) Dick Howser

98 104 91

64 58 71

.605 .642 .562

6 15 1

1984 1985

San Diego (W) St. Louis (E)

Tommy Lasorda Whitey Herzog Pat Corrales, Paul Owens Dick Williams Whitey Herzog

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Boston (E) Minnesota (W) Oakland (W) Oakland (W) Oakland (W)

95 85 104 99 103

66 77 58 63 59

.590 .525 .642 .611 636

51/2 2 13 7 9

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

New York (E) St. Louis (E) Los Angeles (W) San Francisco (W) Cincinnati (W)

Dave Johnson Whitey Herzog Tommy Lasorda Roger Craig Lou Piniella

1982

John McNamara Tom Kelly Tony La Russa Tony La Russa Tony La Russa

GA: Games ahead of second place team. a Defeated Boston in one-game playoff. Source: Craig Carter, The Sporting News Complete Baseball Record Book, 1993 Edition (St. Louis, 1992), 176–77.

510


GA: Games ahead of second place team. a Defeated Brooklyn two games to one in pennant playoff. b Defeated Brooklyn two games to none in pennant playoff. c Defeated Milwaukee two games to none in pennant playoff. d Defeated Los Angeles two games to one, in pennant playoff. Source: Carter, Sporting News Record Book, 1993, 178.

e

TABLE 18.11

LEAGUE CHAMPIONSHIP SERIES, 1969–1990

Division play came to the major leagues in 1969 when both the American and National Leagues expanded to 12 teams. With an East and West Division in each league, League Championship Series (LCS) became necessary to determine the NL and AL pennant winners. In the charts below, the East Division champions are noted by the letter E and the West Division champions by W. Also, each playoff winner’s wins and losses are noted in parentheses after the series score. The LCS changed from best-of-5 to best-of-7 in 1985. National League Year

Winner

Manager

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

E-New York W-Cincinnati E-Pittsburgh W-Cincinnati E-New York W-Los Angeles W-Cincinnati W-Cincinnati

Gil Hodges Sparky Anderson Danny Murtaugh Sparky Aderson Yogi Berra Walter Alston Sparky Anderson Sparky Anderson

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

W-Los Angeles W-Los Angeles E-Pittsburgh E-Philadelphia W-Los Angeles E-St. Louis E-Philadelphia

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

W-San Diego E-St. Louis E-New York E-St. Louis W-Los Angeles W-San Francisco W-Cincinnati

Series

Loser

Manager

3–0 3–0 3–1 (LWWW) 3–2 (LWLWW) 3–2 (LWWLW) 3–1 (WWLW) 3–0 3–0

W-Atlanta E-Pittsburgh W-San Francisco E-Pittsburgh W-Cincinnati E-Pittsburgh E-Pittsburgh E-Philadelphia

Lum Harris Danny Murtaugh Charlie Fox Bill Virdon Sparky Anderson Danny Murtaugh Danny Murtaugh Danny Ozark

Tommy Lasorda Tommy Lasorda Chuck Tanner Dallas Green Tommy Lasorda Whitey Herzog Paul Owens

3–1 (LWWW) 3–1 (WWLW) 3–0 3–2 (WLLWW) 3–2 (WLLWW) 3–0 3–1 (WLWW)

E-Philadelphia E-Philadelphia W-Cincinnati W-Houston E-Montreal W-Atlanta W-Los Angeles

Danny Ozark Danny Ozark John McNamara Bill Virdon Jim Fanning Joe Torre Tommy Lasorda

Dick Williams Whitey Herzog Davey Johnson Whitey Herzog Tommy Lasorda Roger Craig Lou Piniella

3–2 (LLWWW) 4–2 (LLWWWW) 4–2 (LWWLWW) 4–3 (WLWLLWW) 4–3 (LWLWWLW) 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–2 (LWWWLW)

E-Chicago W-Los Angeles W-Houston W-San Francisco E-New York E-Chicago E-Pittsburgh

Jim Frey Tommy Lasorda Hal Lanier Roger Craig Davey Johnson Don Zimmer Jim Leyland

W-Minnesota W-Minnesota W-Oakland E-Detroit E-Baltimore E-Baltimore W-Oakland W-Kansas City W-Kansas City W-Kansas City W-California E-New York W-Oakland W-Calfornia W-Chicago W-Kansas City E-Toronto W-California E-Detroit E-Boston E-Toronto E-Boston

Billy Martin Bill Rigney Dick Williams Billy Martin Earl Weaver Earl-Weaver Alvin Dark Whitey Herzog Whitey Herzog Whitey Herzog Jim Fregosi Dick Howser Billy Martin Gene Mauch Tony La Russa Dick Howser Bobby Cox Gene Mauch Sparky Anderson Joe Morgan Cito Gaston Joe Morgan

American League 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

E-Baltimore E-Baltimore E-Baltimore W-Oakland W-Oakland W-Oakland E-Boston E-New York E-New York E-New York E-Baltimore W-Kansas City E-NewYork E-Milwaukee E-Baltimore E-Detroit W-Kansas City E-Boston W-Minnesota W-Oakland W-Oakland W-Oakland

Earl Weaver Earl Weaver Earl Weaver Dick Williams Dick Williams Alvin Dark Darrell Johnson Billy Martin Billy Martin Bob Lemon Earl Weaver Jim Frey Bob Lemon Harvey Kuenn Joe Altobelli Sparky Anderson Dick Howser John McNamara Tom Kelly Tony La Russa Tony La Russa Tony La Russa

3–0 3–0 3–0 3–2 (WWLLW) 3–2 (LWWLW) 3–1 (LWWW) 3–0 3–2 (WLWLW) 3–2 (LWLWW) 3–1 (WLWW) 3–1 (WWLW) 3–0 3–0 3–2 (LLWWW) 3–1 (LWWW) 3–0 4–3 (LLWLWWW) 4–3 (LWLLWWW) 4–1 (WWLWW) 4–0 4–0 (WWLWW) 4–0

Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 95.

Sports

511

TABLE 18.12

THE WORLD SERIES, 1946–1990

Year

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

ST. LOUIS CARDINALS N.Y.Yankees Cleveland N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees N.Y. GIANTS BROOKLYN DODGERS N.Y.Yankees MILWAUKEE BRAVES N.Y.Yankees L.A. DODGERS PITTSBURGH N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees L.A. DODGERS ST. LOUIS CARDINALS L.A. DODGERS Baltimore ST. LOUIS CARDINALS Detroit N.Y. METS Baltimore PITTSBURGH Oakland A’s Oakland A’s Oakland A’s CINCINNATI CINCINNATI N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees PITTSBURGH PHILADELPHIA PHILLIES L.A. DODGERS ST. LOUIS CARDINALS Baltimore Detroit Kansas City N.Y. METS Minnesota L.A. DODGERS Oakland A’s CINCINNATI

Manager Eddie Dyer Bucky Harris Lou Boudreau Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Casey Stengel Leo Durocher Walter Alston Casey Stengel Fred Haney Casey Stengel Walter Alston Danny Murtaugh Ralph Houk Ralph Houk Walter Alston Johnny Keane Walter Alston Hank Bauer Red Schoendienst Mayo Smith Gil Hodges Earl Weaver Danny Murtaugh Dick Williams Dick Williams Alvin Dark Sparky Anderson Sparky Anderson Billy Martin Bob Lemon Chuck Tanner Dallas Green Tommy Lasorda Whitey Herzog Joe Altobelli Sparky Anderson Dick Howser Davey Johnson Tom Kelly Tommy Lasorda Tony La Russa Lou Piniella

Series 4–3 (LWLWLWW) 4–3 (WWLLWLW) 4–2 (LWWWLW) 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–0 4–2 (LWLWWW) 4–3 (LWLWLWW) 4–2 (WWLLWW) 4–0 4–3 (LLWWWLW) 4–3 (LLWWWLW) 4–3 (LWLWWLW) 4–3 (LLWLWWW) 4–2 (LWWWLW) 4–3 (WLLWWLW) 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–3 (WLWLWLW) 4–0 4–3 (WLLWWLW) 4–3 (LLWWWLW) 4–0 4–3 (WLWWLLW) 4–3 (LWLLWWW) 4–1 (LWWWW) 4–1 (WWWLW) 4–3 (LLWWWLW) 4–3 (WWLWLLW) 4–3 (WLWLLWW) 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–3 (LWWLWLW) 4–0 4–2 (WLWWLW) 4–2 (LLWWWW) 4–3 (LWLLWWW) 4–2 (WWLLWW) 4–2 (LLWWWW) 4–3 (LWWLLWW) 4–1 (LWWWW) 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–3 (LLWLWWW) 4–3 (LLWWLWW) 4–3 (WWLLLWW) 4–1 (WWLWW) 4–0 4–0

Loser Boston Red Sox BROOKLYN DODGERS BOSTON BRAVES BROOKLYN DODGERS PHILADELPHIA PHILLIES N.Y. GIANTS BROOKLYN DODGERS BROOKLYN DODGERS Cleveland N.Y.Yankees BROOKLYN DODGERS N.Y.Yankees MILWAUKEE BRAVES Chicago White Sox N.Y.Yankees CINCINNATI S.F. GIANTS N.Y.Yankees N.Y.Yankees Minnesota L.A. DODGERS Boston Red Sox ST. LOUIS CARDINALS Baltimore CINCINNATI Baltimore CINCINNATI N.Y. METS L.A. DODGERS Boston Red Sox N.Y.Yankees L.A. DODGERS L.A. DODGERS Baltimore Kansas City N.Y.Yankees Milwaukee Brewers PHILADELPHIA PHILLIES SAN DIEGO ST. LOUIS CARDINALS Boston Red Sox ST. LOUIS CARDINALS Oakland A’s S.F. GIANTS Oakland A’s

Note: National League teams are listed in CAPITAL letters. Series champion’s wins and losses are noted in parentheses. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 91–92.

512


Manager Joe Cronin Burt Shotton Billy Southworth Burt Shotton Eddie Sawyer Leo Durocher Charlie Dressen Charlie Dressen Al Lopez Casey Stengel Walter Alston Casey Stengel Fred Haney Al Lopez Casey Stengel Fred Hutchinson Alvin Dark Ralph Houk Yogi Berra Sam Mele Walter Alston Dick Williams Red Schoendienst Earl Weaver Sparky Anderson Earl Weaver Sparky Anderson Yogi Berra Walter Alston Darrell Johnson Billy Martin Tommy Lasorda Tommy Lasorda Earl Weaver Jim Frey Bob Lemon Harvey Kuenn Paul Owens DickWilliams Whitey Herzog John McNamara Whitey Herzog Tony La Russa Roger Craig Tony La Russa

TABLE 18.13

BATTING CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990 American League

National League

Year

Player

Club

B.A.

Year

Player

Club

B.A.

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

James (Mickey) Vernon Theodore Williams Theodore Williams George Kell William Goodman

Washington Boston Boston Detroit Boston

.353 .343 .369 .343 .354

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Stanley Musial Harry Walker Stanley Musial Jack Robinson Stanley Musial

St. Louis St. Louis-Philadelphia St. Louis Brooklyn St. Louis

.365 .363 .376 .342 .346

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Ferris Fain Ferris Fain James (Mickey) Vernon Roberto Avila Albert Kaline

Philadelphia Philadelphia Washington Cleveland Detroit

.344 .327 .337 .341 .340

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Stanley Musial Stanley Musial Carl Furillo Willie Mays Richie Ashburn

St. Louis St. Louis Brooklyn New York Philadelphia

.355 .336 .344 .345 .338

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Mickey Mantle Theodore Williams Theodore Williams Harvey Kuenn James (Pete) Runnels

New York Boston Boston Detroit Boston

.353 .388 .328 .353 .320

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Henry Aaron Stanley Musial Richie Ashburn Henry Aaron Richard Groat

Milwaukee St. Louis Philadelphia Milwaukee Pittsburgh

.328 .351 .350 .355 .325

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Norman Cash James (Pete) Runnels Carl Yastrzemski Pedro (Tony) Oliva Pedro (Tony) Oliva

Detroit Boston Boston Minnesota Minnesota

.361 .326 .321 .323 .321

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Roberto Clemente H.Thomas Davis H.Thomas Davis Roberto Clemente Roberto Clemente

Pittsburgh Los Angeles Los Angeles Pittsburgh Pittsburgh

.351 .346 .326 .339 .329

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Frank Robinson Carl Yastrzemski Carl Yastrzemski Rodney Carew Alexander Johnson

Baltimore Boston Boston Minnesota California

.316 .326 .301 .332 .329

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Mateo Alou Roberto Clemente Peter Rose Peter Rose Ricardo Carty

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Cincinnati Cincinnati Atlanta

.342 .357 .335 .348 .366

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Pedro (Tony) Oliva Rodney Carew Rodney Carew Rodney Carew Rodney Carew

Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota Minnesota

.337 .318 .350 .364 .359

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Joseph Torre Billy Williams Peter Rose Ralph Garr Bill Madlock

St. Louis Chicago Cincinnati Atlanta Chicago

.363 .333 .338 .353 .354

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

George Brett Rodney Carew Rodney Carew Fredric Lynn George Brett

Kansas City Minnesota Minnesota Boston Kansas City

.333 .388 .333 .333 .390

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Bill Madlock David Parker David Parker Keith Hernandez William Buckner

Chicago Pittsburgh Pittsburgh St. Louis Chicago

.339 .338 .334 .344 .324

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Carney Lansford Willie Wilson Wade Boggs Donald Mattingly Wade Boggs

Boston Kansas City Boston New York Boston

.336 .332 .361 .343 .368

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Bill Madlock Albert Oliver Bill Madlock Anthony Gwynn Willie McGee

Pittsburgh Montreal Pittsburgh San Diego St. Louis

.341 .331 .323 .351 .353

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Wade Boggs Wade Boggs Wade Boggs Kirby Puckett George Brett

Boston Boston Boston Minnesota Kansas City

.357 .363 .366 .339 .329

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Timothy Raines Anthony Gwynn Anthony Gwynn Anthony Gwynn Willie McGee

Montreal San Diego San Diego San Diego St. Louis

.334 .370 .313 .336 .335

Source: Sporting News Record Book, 1993, 179–80.

Sports

513

TABLE 18.14

HOME-RUN LEADERS, 1946–1990 National League

Year 1946 1947

Player

Club

American League HR

Year

Player

Club

HR

Ralph Kiner Ralph Kiner John Mize Ralph Kiner John Mize Ralph Kiner Ralph Kiner

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh New York Pittsburgh New York Pittsburgh Pittsburgh

23 51

1946 1947

Hank Greenberg Ted Williams

Detroit Boston

44 32

40

1948

Joe DiMaggio

New York

39

54 47

1949 1950

Ted Williams Al Rosen

Boston Cleveland

43 37

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Chicago Milwaukee Cincinnati New York

42 37

1951 1952

Gus Zernial Larry Doby

Chicago-Philadelphia Cleveland

33 32

1953 1954 1955

Ralph Kiner Ralph Kiner Hank Sauer Ed Mathews Ted Kluszewski Willie Mays

47 49 51

1953 1954 1955

Al Rosen Larry Doby Mickey Mantle

Cleveland Cleveland New York

43 32 37

1956 1957 1958 1959

Duke Snider Hank Aaron Ernie Banks Ed Mathews

Brooklyn Milwaukee Chicago Milwaukee

43 44 47 46

1956 1957 1958 1959

Ernie Banks

Chicago

41

1960

New York Washington New York Cleveland Washington New York

52 42 42 42

1960

Mickey Mantle Roy Sievers Mickey Mantle Rocky Colavito Harmon Killebrew Mickey Mantle

1961 1962 1963

San Francisco San Francisco Milwaukee San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco

46 49 44

1961 1962 1963

Roger Maris Harmon Killebrew Harmon Killebrew

New York Minnesota Minnesota

61 48 45

1964 1965

Orlando Cepeda Willie Mays Hank Aaron Willie McCovey Willie Mays Willie Mays

47 52

1964 1965

Harmon Killebrew Tony Conigliaro

Minnesota Boston

49 32

1966 1967

Hank Aaron Hank Aaron

Atlanta Atlanta

44 39

1966 1967

Willie McCovey Willie McCovey Johnny Bench

San Francisco San Francisco Cincinnati

36 45 45

1968 1969 1970

Baltimore Boston Minnesota Washington Minnesota Washington

49 44

1968 1969 1970

Frank Robinson Carl Yastrzemski Harmon Killebrew Frank Howard Harmon Killebrew Frank Howard

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Willie Stargell Johnny Bench Willie Stargell Mike Schmidt Mike Schmidt

Pittsburgh Cincinnati Pittsburgh Philadelphia Philadelphia

48 40 44 36 38

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Bill Melton Dick Allen Reggie Jackson Dick Allen George Scott Reggie Jackson

Chicago Chicago Oakland Chicago Milwaukee Oakland

33 37 32 32 36

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Mike Schmidt George Foster George Foster Dave Kingman Mike Schmidt

Philadelphia Cincinnati Cincinnati Chicago Philadelphia

38 52 40 48 46

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Graig Nettles Jim Rice Jim Rice Gorman Thomas Reggie Jackson Ben Oglivie

New York Boston Boston Milwaukee New York Milwaukee

32 39 46 45 41

1981

Mike Schmidt

Philadelphia

31

1981

Dave Kingman

New York

37

1982

1983 1984

Philadelphia Philadelphia Atlanta Atlanta

40 36

1983 1984

1985

Mike Schmidt Mike Schmidt Dale Murphy Dale Murphy

California; Oakland Boston Baltimore Milwaukee California Boston Boston

22

1982

Bobby Grich, Tony Armas Dwight Evans Eddie Murray Gorman Thomas, Reggie Jackson Jim Rice Tony Armas

37

1985

Darrell Evans

Detroit

40

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Mike Schmidt Andre Dawson Darryl Strawberry Kevin Mitchell Ryne Sandberg

Philadelphia Chicago New York San Francisco Chicago

37 49 39 47 40

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jesse Barfield Mark McGwire Jose Canseco Fred McGriff Cecil Fielder

Toronto Oakland Oakland Toronto Detroit

40 49 42 36 51

1948 1949 1950 1951 1952

Source: Mark S. Hoffman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1992 (New York, 1991), 921–22.

514


40

44 49 44

39 39 43

TABLE 18.15

RUNS-BATTED-IN LEADERS, 1946–1990 American League

Year 1946 1947 1948 1949

Player

Club

National League RBI

Year 1946 1947 1948 1949

Player

Club

RBI

Enos Slaughter John Mize Stanley Musial Ralph Kiner

St. Louis New York St. Louis Pittsburgh

130 138 131 127

1950

Delmer Ennis

Philadelphia

126

Henry Greenberg Theodore Williams Joseph DiMaggio Theodore Williams Vernon Stephens Walter Dropo Vernon Stephens

Detroit Boston New York Boston Boston Boston Boston

127 114 155 159 159 144 144

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Gus Zernial Albert Rosen Albert Rosen Lawrence Doby Raymond Boone Jack Jensen

Chicago-Philadelphia Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland Detroit Boston

129 105 145 126 116 116

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Monford Irvin Henry Sauer Roy Campanella Theodore Kluszewski Edwin (Duke) Snider

New York Chicago Brooklyn Cincinnati Brooklyn

121 121 142 141 136

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Mickey Mantle Roy Sievers Jack Jensen Jack Jensen Roger Maris

New York Washington Boston Boston New York

130 114 122 112 112

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Stanley Musial Henry Aaron Ernest Banks Ernest Banks Henry Aaron

St. Louis Milwaukee Chicago Chicago Milwaukee

109 132 129 143 126

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Roger Maris Harmon Killebrew Richard Stuart Brooks Robinson Rocco Colavito

New York Minnesota Boston Baltimore Cleveland

142 126 118 118 108

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Orlando Cepeda H.Thomas Davis Henry Aaron Kenton Boyer Deron Johnson

San Francisco Los Angeles Milwaukee St. Louis Cincinnati

142 153 130 119 130

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Frank Robinson Carl Yastrzemski Kenneth Harrelson Harmon Killebrew Frank Howard

Baltimore Boston Boston Minnesota Washington

122 121 109 140 126

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Henry Aaron Orlando Cepeda Willie McCovey Willie McCovey Johnny Bench

Atlanta St. Louis San Francisco San Francisco Cincinnati

127 111 105 126 148

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Harmon Killebrew Richard Allen Reginald Jackson Jeffrey Burroughs George Scott

Minnesota Chicago Oakland Texas Milwaukee

119 113 117 118 109

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Joseph Torre Johnny Bench Wilver Stargell Johnny Bench Gregory Luzinski

St. Louis Cincinnati Pittsburgh Cincinnati Philadelphia

137 125 119 129 120

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Lee May Larry Hisle James Rice Donald Baylor Cecil Cooper

Baltimore Minnesota Boston California Milwaukee

109 119 139 139 122

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

George Foster George Foster George Foster David Winfield Michael Schmidt

Cincinnati Cincinnati Cincinnati San Diego Philadelphia

121 149 120 118 121

1981 1982

Eddie Murray Harold McRae

Baltimore Kansas City

78 133

1981 1982

1983

Milwaukee Boston Boston

126 126 123

1983

Philadelphia Atlanta Montreal Atlanta

91 109 109 121

1984

Cecil Cooper James Rice Antonio Armas

Michael Schmidt Dale Murphy Albert Oliver Dale Murphy

1984

1985

Donald Mattingly

New York

145

1985

Gary Carter Michael Schmidt David Parker

Montreal Philadelphia Cincinnati

106 106 125

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Joseph Carter George Bell Jose Canseco Ruben Sierra Cecil Fielder

Cleveland Toronto Oakland Texas Detroit

121 134 124 119 132

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Michael Schmidt Andre Dawson William Clark Kevin Mitchell Matthew Williams

Philadelphia Chicago San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco

119 137 109 125 122

1950

Source: Sporting News Record Book, 1993, 191–92.

Sports

515

TABLE 18.16

CY YOUNG AWARD, 1956–1990

Year

Player

Club

Year

1956 1957 1958 1959

Don Newcombe Warren Spahn Bob Turley Early Wynn

Dodgers Braves Yankees White Sox

1971

1960 1961 1962 1963

Vernon Law Whitey Ford Don Drysdale Sandy Koufax

Pirates Yankees Dodgers Dodgers

1964 1965 1966 1967

Dean Chance Sandy Koufax Sandy Koufax (NL) Mike McCormick (AL) Jim Lonborg

Angels Dodgers Dodgers Giants Red Sox

1968

(NL) Bob Gibson (AL) Dennis McLain (NL) Tom Seaver (AL) (tie) Dennis McLain Mike Cuellar (NL) Bob Gibson (AL) Jim Perry

Cardinals Tigers Mets Tigers Orioles Cardinals Twins

1969 1970

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Player

Club

Year

(NL) Ferguson Jenkins (AL) Vida Blue (NL Steve Carlton (AL) Gaylord Perry

Cubs A’s Phillies Indians

1981

(NL) Tom Seaver (AL) Jim Palmer (NL) Mike Marshall (AL) Jim (Catfish) Hunter

Mets Orioles Dodgers A’s

1983

(NL) Tom Seaver (AL) Jim Palmer (NL) Randy Jones (AL) Jim Palmer (NL) Steve Carlton

Mets Orioles Padres Orioles Phillies

1985

(AL) Sparky Lyle (NL) Gaylord Perry (AL) Ron Guidry (NL) Bruce Sutter (AL) Mike Flanagan (NL) Steve Carlton (AL) Steve Stone

Yankees Padres Yankees Cubs Orioles Phillies Orioles

1982

1984

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Player

Club

(NL) Fernando Valenzuela (AL) Rollie Fingers (NL) Steve Carlton (AL) Pete Vuckovich

Dodgers Brewers Phillies Brewers

(NL) John Denny (AL) LaMarr Hoyt (NL) Rick Sutcliffe (AL) Willie Hernandez

Phillies White Sox Cubs Tigers

(NL) Dwight Gooden (AL) Bret Saberhagen (NL) Mike Scott (AL) Roger Clemens (NL) Steve Bedrosian

Mets Royals Astros Red Sox Phillies

(AL) Roger Clemens (NL) Orel Hershiser (AL) Frank Viola (NL) Mark Davis (AL) Bret Saberhagan (NL) Doug Drabek (AL) Bob Welch

Red Sox Dodgers Twins Padres Royals Pirates A’s

Note: This pitcher’s award has been presented since 1956 by the Baseball Writers’ Association of America. Between 1956 and 1966 one award was given. After 1967 an award was given to the best pitcher in each league. Source: World Almanac, 1992, 924.

TABLE 18.17

MOST VALUABLE PLAYER, 1946–1990

(voted by Baseball Writers’ Association) National League

Sandy Koufax of the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers celebrates his fourth no-hit game. Unhittable when he was “right,’’ Koufax’s career (1955–66) was brief but sensational. (National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, N.Y.)

Year

Player

Team

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Stan Musial Bob Elliott Stan Musial Jackie Robinson Jim Konstanty

St. Louis Boston St. Louis Brooklyn Philadelphia

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Roy Campanella Hank Sauer Roy Campanella Willie Mays Roy Campanella

Brooklyn Chicago Brooklyn New York Brooklyn

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Don Newcombe Henry Aaron Ernie Banks Ernie Banks Dick Groat

Brooklyn Milwaukee Chicago Chicago Pittsburgh

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Frank Robinson Maury Wills Sandy Koufax Ken Boyer Willie Mays

Cincinnati Los Angeles Los Angeles St. Louis San Francisco

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Roberto Clemente Orlando Cepeda Bob Gibson Willie McCovey Johnny Bench

Pittsburgh St. Louis St. Louis San Francisco Cincinnati

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Joe Torre Johnny Bench Pete Rose Steve Garvey Joe Morgan

St. Louis Cincinnati Cincinnati Los Angeles Cincinnati

1976 1977 1978 1979

Joe Morgan George Foster Dave Parker (tie) Willie Stargell Keith Hernandez Mike Schmidt

Cincinnati Cincinnati Pittsburgh Pittsburgh St. Louis Philadelphia

1980

516


Year

Player

Team

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Mike Schmidt Dale Murphy Dale Murphy Ryne Sandberg Willie McGee

Philadelphia Atlanta Atlanta Chicago St. Louis

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Mike Schmidt Andre Dawson Kirk Gibson Kevin Mitchell Barry Bonds

Philadelphia Chicago Los Angeles San Francisco Pittsburgh

American League Year

Player

Team

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Ted Williams Joe DiMaggio Lou Boudreau Ted Williams Phil Rizzuto

Boston New York Cleveland Boston New York

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Yogi Berra Bobby Shantz Al Rosen Yogi Berra Yogi Berra

New York Philadelphia Cleveland New York New York

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Mickey Mantle Mickey Mantle Jackie Jensen Nellie Fox Roger Maris

New York New York Boston Chicago New York

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Roger Maris Mickey Mantle Elston Howard Brooks Robinson Zollo Versalles

New York New York New York Baltimore Minnesota

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Frank Robinson Cari Yastrzemski Denny McLain Harmon Killebrew John (Boog) Powell

Baltimore Boston Detroit Minnesota Baltimore

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Vida Blue Dick Allen Reggie Jackson Jeff Burroughs Fred Lynn

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Johnny Bench, catcher of Cincinnati’s “Big Red Machine,” a giant of baseball in the 1970s (National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, N.Y.)

TABLE 18.18 MAJOR LEAGUE PLAYERS’ SALARIES— MINIMUM AND MEAN, 1950–1990 Year

Minimum Salary

Mean Salary

Oakland Chicago Oakland Texas Boston

1950 1952 1953 1954 1955

$5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

$14,000 13,600 14,580 14,740 14,870

Thurman Munson Rod Carew Jim Rice Don Baylor George Brett

New York Minnesota Boston California Kansas City

1956 1967 1968 1969 1970

5,000 6,000 10,000 10,000 12,000

14,750 19,000 ... 24,909 29,303

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Rollie Fingers Robin Yount Cal Ripken Jr. Willie Hernandez Don Mattingly

Milwaukee Milwaukee Baltimore Detroit New York

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

12,750 13,500 15,000 15,000 16,000

31,543 34,092 36,566 40,839 44,676

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Roger Clemens George Bell Jose Canseco Robin Yount Rickey Henderson

Boston Toronto Oakland Milwaukee Oakland

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

19,000 19,000 21,000 21,000 30,000

51,501 76,066 99,876 113,558 143,756

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

32,500 33,500 35,000 40,000 60,000

185,651 241,497 289,194 329,408 371,157

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

60,000 62,500 62,500 68,000 100,000

412,520 412,454 438,729 497,254 597,537


Source: Patrick J. Harrigan, The Detroit Tigers: Club and Community, 1945–1995 (Toronto, 1997), 301.

Sports

517

TABLE 18.19 HIGHEST-SALARY MILESTONES, 1947–1990 Year

Salary

Player

1947 1950 1972 1975 1975 1979

$100,000 $125,000 $225,000 $250,000 $578,000 $1,000,000

Hank Greenberg Ted Williams Dick Allen Dick Allen Catfish Hunter Dave Winfield

1979 1981 1981 1989 1990

$1,300,000 $1,450,000 $2,200,000 $3,000,000 $4,700,000

Nolan Ryan George Foster Dave Winfield Kirby Puckett Jose Canseco

Source: Jonathan F. Light, The Cultural Encyclopedia of Baseball (Jefferson, N. C., 1997), 341–42.

TABLE 18.21 FIRST DATES ON WHICH A BLACK PLAYER PLAYED FOR EACH MAJOR LEAGUE BASEBALL TEAM

TABLE 18.20 SALARY SHARE IN TEAM REVENUES, 1946–1989 Salary Sharea (%)

Year 1946 1950 1974 1977

24.8 22.1 17.6 20.5

1978 1979 1980 1981

25.1 28.1 31.3 39.1

1982 1983 1984 1985

41.1 41.1 40.3 39.7

1986 1987 1988 1989

40.0 35.2 34.2 31.6

Team

a

Includes salaries of coaches and managers. Source: Zimbalist, Baseball and Billions, 87.

TABLE 18.22

Player

Date

Brooklyn Dodgers Cleveland Indians St. Louis Browns New York Giants

Jackie Robinson Larry Doby Hank Thompson Hank Thompson

April 15, 1947 July 5, 1947 July 17, 1947 July 8, 1949

Boston Braves Chicago White Sox Philadelphia Athletics Chicago Cubs

Sam Jethro Sam Hairston Bob Trice Ernie Banks

April 18, 1950 July 21, 1951 September 13, 1953 September 17, 1953

Pittsburgh Pirates St. Louis Cardinals Cincinnati Reds Washington Senators

Curt Roberts Tom Alston Nino Escalera Carlos Paula

April 13, 1954 April 13, 1954 April 17, 1954 September 6, 1954

New York Yankees Philadelphia Phillies Detroit Tigers Boston Red Sox

Elston Howard John Kennedy Ossie Virgil Pumpsie Green

April 14, 1955 April 22, 1957 June 6, 1958 July 21, 1959

Source: Harrigan, Detroit Tigers, 316.

PERCENTAGE OF BLACK PLAYERS ON MAJOR LEAGUE TEAMS, 1960–1971 National League Average

Team Atlanta Chicago Cincinnati Houston Los Angeles New York Philadelphia Pittsburgh San Francisco St. Louis Montreal San Diego Average

518

1960–71

1971

1970

1969

1968

1967

1966

1965

1964

1963

1962

1961

1960

27 19 25 24 22 18 26 35 28 28 20 24 25

40 12 32 36 24 16 20 48 24 32 8 16 26

40 20 28 36 24 16 24 44 20 44 20 24 28

32 20 36 32 16 20 28 36 28 36 32 32 29

28 24 28 28 20 16 24 44 32 36 ... ... 28

28 24 32 28 12 12 28 56 32 40 ... ... 29

24 28 24 32 32 16 20 44 32 24 ... ... 28

32 16 24 16 24 24 32 32 32 24 ... ... 26

16 20 16 12 20 16 20 28 32 16 ... ... 20

24 16 20 12 24 20 20 32 28 24 ... ... 22

20 20 20 12 20 20 24 28 28 20 ... ... 21

16 16 20 ... 24 ... 32 16 20 16 ... ... 20

24 16 20 ... 20 ... 28 16 28 24 ... ... 22


American League Average

Team

1960–71

1971

1970

1969

1968

1967

1966

1965

1964

1963

1962

1961

1960

Baltimore Boston California Chicago Cleveland Detroit Minnesota New York Oakland Washington Kansas City Milwaukee Average

17 14 17 18 21 18 22 17 21 17 24 19 18

36 12 24 28 20 16 24 20 24 28 16 20 22

36 12 20 20 16 20 32 20 28 24 28 12 22

36 12 20 24 24 28 24 28 24 16 28 24 24

24 24 16 16 40 16 24 20 12 24 ... ... 22

12 24 16 20 32 20 32 20 24 16 ... ... 22

12 24 20 20 20 24 24 20 24 16 ... ... 20

8 12 24 20 16 20 24 16 16 12 ... ... 17

12 12 16 20 16 20 20 16 24 16 ... ... 17

8 12 16 12 28 16 16 12 24 16 ... ... 16

8 8 8 12 12 20 16 12 20 8 ... ... 12

4 8 8 20 20 16 12 12 8 16 ... ... 12

12 4 ... 8 12 4 16 8 ... ... ... ... 9

Source: Arthur Ashe, Jr., A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete Since 1946 (New York, 1993), 247.

A Selected Glossary of Baseball Terminology The game of baseball, as with many kinds of activity, has lended itself to a special language. Much of the terminology has flowed from the rules, objectives, and tools of the game and, if not immediately understandable, can be surmised from the play as it unfolds. Other jargon, however, originated in attitudes, habits, and circumstances encountered in baseball’s deep, often localized roots, some so remote as to have become untraceable. Much of this terminology, which on the surface betrayed no linkage to the game’s principles and operations, sent the novice spectator searching for translation. The list that follows contains a few examples. battery The pitcher and catcher of team. boot Vernacular for failure by a defensive player to play a ball, especially a ground ball, cleanly—an error. bullpen An area near the playing field where potential relief pitchers “warm up,’’ make practice pitches, preparatory to entering the game. bunt A batted ball deliberately hit softly, either to catch fielders by surprise or to advance a runner already on base. can of corn A fly ball hit only modestly well, usually high, easy for outfielders to catch. collar Failure of a batter to hit safely during the course of a game— going for the collar. dugout Marked off area where players, coaches, and substitutes remain when not on the playing field—might or might not be beneath level of the playing field. foot-in-the-bucket Batter who stands with front foot placed near foul line, not pointed toward the pitcher—a stance often regarded as a signal of fear of being struck by pitched ball. grand slam A home run with the bases full of runners—the ultimate expression of offensive baseball, produces four runs with one play. hook A conventional “curve’’ ball by a pitcher—with lefthander, it turns to the right; with righthand pitcher, ball turns to the left. hot box Base runner trapped between two bases with a fielder on either side—leads to a back-and-forth rundown, usually ending in runner tagged out; occasionally, a fielder’s misplay allows runner to return safely to a base. hot corner Third base, where fielder often must face sharply hit balls.

junk Pitches delivered by pitcher who relies on guile, accuracy, even legal trickery, probably because the pitcher lacks the capacity to utilize speed and overpowering ball movement. knuckler Knuckleball, a pitched ball usually gripped on fingertips that approaches the batter with no, or very slight, rotation. It can fool the batter by deceptive speed or by strange movements in air currents made possible by lack of spin. on deck The next batter to come to the plate—waits a turn in a designated, marked out area: the “on-deck circle.’’ pick off Base runner caught off base by sudden throw of pitcher or catcher and tagged out. pinch hitter A batter who substitutes for another; replaced batter then is disqualified for the remainder of the game. pitchout A pitch delivered deliberately wide of the plate in anticipation of attempted steal by base runner—places the catcher in a good position to throw runner out. rhubarb A major controversy or argument during the game; can lead to a melee—fighting between a few players or entire teams. rubber arm Possessor of which is a pitcher seemingly immune from fatigue or arm injury—can pitch often and for long periods. sacrifice A batter who, usually on instruction from the manager, advances a base runner by allowing himself to be put out—usually involves bunting the ball. screwball A pitch that breaks the opposite way from a curve, or hook; a lefthander’s screwball bends to the left, etc.; it is thus a “screwy’’ curve and requires an unnatural twisting of the arm. slump A player who experiences a long period without noticeable success—usually a batter who goes many games without getting a safe base hit. steal A base runner who advances without benefit of batting or fielding developments—a product of speed and timing by runner. stuff The quality and character of a pitcher’s assortment of pitches—“good stuff’’ usually applies to rapid speed and effective movement of breaking pitches. twin-killing A double play—the act of rendering two runners, or the batter and a runner, out on the same play. warmup To prepare a player’s arms and body for the game by stretching and throwing—applies especially to practice pitches by a pitcher. Source: Essentially author’s recollection; see also Zander Hollander, The Encyclopedia of Sports Talk (New York, 1976), 13–71.

Sports

519

Little League One of the more remarkable phenomena of sports—and sociology— in the postwar era involved the emergence of Little League baseball. Begun in 1939 in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, the idea did not take off until after the war, expanding beyond Pennsylvania to nationwide in the 1950s. The organization held its first national competition, its World Series, in 1947, welcoming participants from foreign leagues in the early 1950s. By the late 1970s there were some 6,500 leagues; each league had several teams, each team had several—probably 10–15—players. Originally designed for boys no older than 12 ( the World Series maintained that classification), the idea later would expand to leagues for younger boys and for young men aged 13–18. Girls began to participate in 1974 after the National Organization for Women filed what would become a sharply divisive lawsuit. Girls continued to make up a minority of players each year thereafter, but most young female athletes chose to participate in a well-structured softball competition. In status and popularity, however, nothing would dethrone the national competition of the 12-yearsolds, culminating in the nationally televised World Series each summer in Williamsport. Within a few years the Little League organization would be able to present a growing list of illustrious alumni. Along with numerous major league players, some of them in the Hall of Fame, are actor Tom Selleck, basketball giant Kareen Abdul-Jabbar, and Vice President Dan Quayle, all supplying testimony to the benefits of growing up in Little League. The development also took shape as an expression of a new society emerging in the heady postwar years—young, vigorous, and upwardly mobile, given to large measures of sameness and imitation, but also to fierce competition. In those formidable years, attention more often than not came to focus on highly excitable parents of the little guys on the field. For those people, noted writer Earl Wilson, a Little League game was “simply a nervous breakdown divided into innings.’’

TABLE 18.23 LITTLE LEAGUE WORLD SERIES CHAMPIONS, 1947–1990 Year

Champion

Runner-up

Score

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957

Williamsport, Pa. Lock Haven, Pa. Hammonton, N.J. Houston,Tex. Stamford, Conn. Norwalk, Conn. Birmingham, Ala. Schenectady, N.Y. Morrisville, Pa. Roswell, N.M. Monterrey, Mex.

Lock Haven, Pa. St. Petersburg, Fla. Pensacola, Fla. Bridgeport, Conn. Austin,Tex. Monongahela, Pa. Schenectady, N.Y. Colton, Calif. Merchantville, N.J. Merchantville, N.J. La Mesa, Calif.

16–7 6–5 5–0 2–1 3–0 4–3 1–0 7–5 4–3 3–1 4–0

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

Monterrey, Mex. Hamtramck, Mich. Levittown, Pa. El Cajon, Calif. San Jose, Calif. Granada Hills, Calif. Staten Island, N.Y. Windsor Locks, Conn. Houston,Tex. West Tokyo, Japan Osaka, Japan

Kankakee, Ill. Auburn, Calif. Ft.Worth,Tex. EI Campo,Tex. Kankakee, Ill. Stratford, Conn. Monterrey, Mex. Stoney Creek, Can. W. New York, N.J. Chicago, Ill. Richmond,Va.

10–1 12–0 5–0 4–2 3–0 2–1 4–0 3–1 8–2 4–1 1–0

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Taipei,Taiwan Wayne, N.J. Tainan,Taiwan Taipei,Taiwan Tainan City,Taiwan Kao Hsiung,Taiwan Lakewood, N.J. Tokyo, Japan Kao Hsiung,Taiwan Pin-Tung,Taiwan Hsien,Taiwan

Santa Clara, Calif. Campbell, Calif. Gary, Ind. Hammond, Ind. Tucson, Ariz. EI Cajon, Calif. Tampa, Fla. Campbell, Calif. EI Cajon, Calif. Danville, Calif. Campbell, Calif.

5–0 2–0 12–3 6–0 12–0 7–2 4–3 10–3 7–2 11–1 2–1

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Hua Lian,Taiwan Tai-Chung,Taiwan Kirkland,Wash. Marietta, Ga. Seoul, S. Korea Seoul, S. Korea Tainan Park,Taiwan Hua Lian,Taiwan Tai–Chung,Taiwan Trumbull, Conn. Taipei,Taiwan

Tampa, Fla. Tampa, Fla. Hsien,Taiwan Barahona, D. Rep. Altamonte Springs, Fla. Mexicali, Mex. Tucson, Ariz. Irvine, Calif. Pearl City, Haw. Kaohsiung,Taiwan Shippensburg, Pa.

4–3 4–2 6–0 3–1 6–2 7–1 12–0 21–1 10–0 5–2 9–0

Source: Otto Johnson, ed., The Information Please Almanac, Atlas Yearbook, 1995 (New York, 1994), 1001.

Basketball

Mid-Island (New York) Little Leaguers celebrate national victory in 1964 with a parade in New York City. (National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, N.Y.)

520


Basketball underwent massive growth and expansion on virtually all levels in the last half of the 20th century. It became the most universal of the team sports, adaptable to both genders and nearly all age groups. The largest growth and most elaborate organization took place on three levels: high school, college, and the professional ranks. Although basketball retained an identity as a boy’s or man’s game that rewarded size, speed, strength, and athletic ability, it also provided an agreeable setting for female play, which, although following the same rules, concentrated on different skills. The game was subjected to continuous tinkering and fine tuning, a process that frequently—but not always —originated on the professional level and then filtered into the lower echelons.A few of the rule changes had a considerable impact.The ban on defensive goal tending was supplemented in 1957 with a rule against offensive goal tending. The dramatic dunk shot, forbidden in college in 1967, was reintroduced in 1976 and became seemingly a permanent and exceptionally

popular fixture.Two of the most important changes were designed to speed up the game and promote more scoring—a rule requiring a team to shoot or lose possession of the ball within 24 seconds came to the professional ranks in 1954 (collegians, who seemed to prefer a game with more artistry and deliberation, did not adopt a shot-clock until 1985, and the time limit was 45 seconds); the three-point field goal for specified long shots came to the professionals in 1979 and to college basketball in 1986. Other changes took place outside the rules. The one-hand “jump’’ or “set’’ shot developed gradually in the 1940s and 1950s. Given to a game of movement, the one-hand shot drove into extinction two previous forms of scoring: the artistic but slow-developing two-hand set shot, and the awkward-looking free throw scooped from between the legs. Except for a rare hanger-on to the traditional foul shot, both had vanished by the end of the 1950s. Basketball rapidly became a game of tall men. Pioneer tall players in college and the professionals—Bob Kurland of Oklahoma, Clyde Lovelette of Kansas, George Mikan of De Paul—were outstanding because they were tall.They also were white. By the 1960s all professional teams and many in college had players ranging between 6 feet 7 inches and 7 feet.The good ones could move, catch the ball, jump, possibly even shoot—and they were likely to be black.

Lists of individual leaders in the National Basketball Association (NBA) revealed domination by white players in the first few years of the professional league.Then, starting about 1960, African Americans took over and in the following years produced a full flowering of the black athlete on the hard court.A black starting five became commonplace in most cities of the NBA.When through unusual circumstances the Boston Celtics in the 1980s used and won with three white starting players—Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, and Danny Ainge—sportswriters jocularly referred to the Celtics as “South Africa’s team.’’ African-American domination was more gradual and sporadic in college basketball, where factors other than athletic excellence often intervened. But if one surveyed the most successful Division I programs, one likely would find, if not five black starting players, at least three or four. Both college basketball and the NBA produced a period of dynasty to be followed by a time of balance, or at least periods of close competition. On the university level, domination came in the form of coach John Wooden, who led UCLA to 10 national championships between 1964 and 1975.Wooden’s retirement in 1975 was followed by intense competition on the court and in efforts to recruit the most promising high school players. Crowds became larger, as did the buildings constructed to hold them, and CBS in 1990 paid $1 billion for rights to broadcast the

Indiana University was Big 10 Champ and National Champion in 1953. Although the state was not segregated de jure and the university did not refuse to use black players, the team of 1953 was all white. (Media Relations, Indiana University) Sports

521

Division I tournament for seven years. No team won the title more than two consecutive years. Dynasty in the NBA came in the Boston Celtics, a team that won the championship 10 out of 11 years, eight years straight during the period between 1958 and 1969. Competition of big men pitted Bill Russell of Boston against Wilt Chamberlain of Philadelphia/San Francisco. Chamberlain usually had the upper hand, but Russell got the championship rings. The 1970s produced conflicting currents: competition from the ABA, which drove up salaries, new premier performers, such as Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a titan from one of Wooden’s UCLA squads, and (from the ABA) Julius Erving—Doctor J.; there also was adverse publicity about drug use and other misbehavior by the players. The NBA had started to flounder when two truly marquis performers came aboard to give the league not only authority, but also style and respectability. Earvin “Magic’’ Johnson from Michigan State and Larry Bird of Indiana State, both drafted in 1979, would lead each of their respective teams— the Celtics of Bird, Los Angeles Lakers of Johnson—to four national championships in the 1980s. By the time the Johnson-Bird era had started to recede at the end of the 1980s, there had arrived on the scene one Michael Jordan of the Chicago Bulls, a stylish, intelligent, clean-living young man who also happened to be the best basketball player and arguably the best athlete in American history. John Wooden, the “Wizard of Westwood’’—coach of UCLA during its period of absolute and unparalleled dominance of collegiate basketball in the 1960s and 1970s (ASUCLA Photography)

TABLE 18.24 NATIONAL COLLEGIATE MEN’S BASKETBALL CHAMPIONSHIP—NCAA DIVISION I MEN’S BASKETBALL FINAL-FOUR RESULTS, 1946–1990 The first men’s national tournament was held in 1939 with eight teams selected from eight geographical regions. At the start a contest largely between major conference champions, the tournament grew in popularity and in numbers—to 16 teams and then 32; in 1977 a system of seeding participants was introduced. In 1978 the number increased to 40, to 48 the following year; in the 1980s the number reached 64—30 conference champions and 34 “at large’’ selections that would participate in three weeks of national single elimination competition culminating in a “final four’’ of surviving teams and a national champion—a process that came to be grandly described as “March Madness.’’ Score

Runner-up

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Oklahoma State Holy Cross Kentucky Kentucky CCNY

43–40 58–47 58–42 46–36 71–68

North Carolina Oklahoma Baylor Oklahoma State Bradley

Ohio State Texas Holy Cross Illinois North Carolina State

California CCNY Kansas State Oregon State Baylor

Henry Iba Alvin Julian Aldolph Rupp Aldolph Rupp Nat Holman

Bob Kurland George Kaftan Alex Groza Alex Groza Irwin Dambrot

Oklahoma State Holy Cross Kentucky Kentucky CCNY

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Kentucky Kansas Indiana La Salle San Francisco

68–58 80–63 69–68 92–76 77–63

Kansas State St.John’s Kansas Bradley La Salle

Illinois Illinois Washington Penn State Colorado

Oklahoma State Santa Clara Louisiana State Southern California Iowa

Adolph Rupp Forrest Allen Branch McCracken Kenneth Loeffler Phil Woolpert

None selected Clyde Lovellette B.H. Born Tom Gola Bill Russell

Kansas Kansas La Salle San Francisco

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

San Francisco North Carolina Kentucky California Ohio State

83–71 54–53 84–72 71–70 75–55

Iowa Kansas Seattle West Virginia California

Temple San Francisco Temple Cincinnati Cincinnati

Southern Methodist Michigan State Kansas State Louisville New York Univ.

Phil Woolpert Frank McGuire Adolph Rupp Pete Newell Fred Taylor

Hal Lear Wilt Chamberlain Elgin Baylor Jerry West Jerry Lucas

Temple Kansas Seattle West Virginia Ohio State

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Cincinnati Cincinnati Loyola (III.) UCLA UCLA

70–65 71–59 60–58 98–83 91–80

Ohio State Ohio State Cincinnati Duke Michigan

St.Joseph’s (Pa.) Wake Forest Duke Michigan Princeton

Utah UCLA Utah Kansas State Wichita State

Edwin Jucker Edwin Jucker George Ireland John Wooden John Wooden

Jerry Lucas Paul Hogue Art Heyman Walt Hazzard Bill Bradley

Ohio State Cincinnati Duke UCLA Princeton

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

UTEP UCLA UCLA UCLA UCLA

72–65 79–64 78–55 92–72 80–69

Kentucky Dayton North Carolina Purdue Jacksonville

Duke Houston Ohio State Drake New Mexico State

Utah North Carolina Houston North Carolina St.Bonaventure

Don Haskins John Wooden John Wooden John Wooden John Wooden

Jerry Chambers Lew Alcindor Lew Alcindor Lew Alcindor Sidney Wicks

Utah UCLA UCLA UCLA UCLA

1971 1972 1973 1974

UCLA UCLA UCLA North Carolina State UCLA

68–62 81–76 87–66 76–64

Villanova Florida State Memphis State Marquette

Western Kentucky North Carolina Indiana UCLA

Kansas Louisville Providence Kansas

John Wooden John Wooden John Wooden Norm Sloan

Howard Porter Bill Walton Bill Walton David Thompson

92–85

Kentucky

Louisville

Syracuse

John Wooden

Richard Washington

Villanova UCLA UCLA North Carolina State UCLA

522


Fourth Place

Outstanding Player Award

Champion

1975

Third Place

Champion Coach

Year

Fourth Place

Outstanding Player Award

Champion

Score

Runner-up

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Indiana Marquette Kentucky Michigan State Louisville Indiana North Carolina North Carolina State Georgetown Villanova Louisville Indiana Kansas Michigan UNLV

86–68 67–59 94–88 75–64 59–54 63–50 63–62 54–52

Michigan North Carolina Duke Indiana State UCLA North Carolina Georgetown Houston

UCLA UNLV Arkansas DePaul Purdue Virginia Houston Georgia

Rutgers N.Carolina-Charlotte Notre Dame Penn Iowa Louisiana State Louisville Louisville

Bob Knight Al McGuire Joe Hall Jud Heathcote Denny Crum Bob Knight Dean Smith Jim Valvano

Kent Benson Butch Lee Jack Givens Earvin Johnson Darrell Griffith Isiah Thomas James Worthy Akeem Olajuwon

Indiana Marquette Kentucky Mighigan State Louisville Indiana North Carolina Houston

84–75 66–64 72–69 74–73 83–79 80–79 103–73

Houston Georgetown Duke Syracuse Oklahoma Seton Hall Duke

Kentucky St.John’s Kansas UNLV Arizona Illinois Georgia Tech

Virginia Memphis State Louisiana State Providence Duke Duke Arkansas

John Thompson Rollie Massemino Denny Crum Bob Knight Larry Brown Steve Fisher Jerry Tarkanian

Patrick Ewing Ed Pinckney Pervis Ellison Keith Smart Danny Manning Glen Rice Anderson Hunt

Georgetown Villanova Louisville Indiana Kansas Michigan UNLV

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Third Place

Champion Coach

Year


TABLE 18.25

NCAA MEN’S DIVISION I SEASON LEADERS, 1948–1990 Scoring Average

Year 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Player and Team Murray Wier, Iowa Tony Lavelli,Yale Paul Arizin,Villanova Bill Mlkvy,Temple Clyde Lovellette, Kansas Frank Selvy, Furman Frank Selvy, Furman Darrell Floyd, Furman Darrell Floyd, Furman Grady Wallace, South Carolina Oscar Robertson, Cincinnati Oscar Robertson, Cincinnati Oscar Robertson, Cincinnati Frank Burgess, Gonzaga Billy McGill, Utah Nick Werkman, Seton Hall Howard Komives, Bowling Green Rick Barry, Miami (Fla.) Dave Schellhase, Purdue Jim Walker, Providence Pete Maravich, Louisiana St. Pete Maravich, Louisiana St. Pete Maravich, Louisiana St Johnny Neumann, Mississippi Dwight Lamar, Southwestern Louisiana William Averitt, Pepperdine Larry Fogle, Canisius Bob McCurdy, Richmond Marshall Rodgers,Texas-Pan American Freeman Williams, Portland St Freeman Williams, Portland St Lawrence Butler, Idaho St Tony Murphy, Southern-BR Zam Fredrick, South Carolina Harry Kelly,Texas Southern Harry Kelly,Texas Southern Joe Jakubick, Akron Xavier McDaniel,Wichita St Terrance Bailey,Wagner Kevin Houston, Army Hersey Hawkins, Bradley Hank Gathers, Loyola Marymount Bo Kimble, Loyola Marymount

Height 5–9 6–3 6–3 6–4 6–9 6–3 6–3 6–1 6–1 6–4 6–5 6–5 6–5 6–1 6–9 6–3 6–1 6–7 6–4 6–3 6–5 6–5 6–5 6–6 6–1 6–1 6–5 6–7 6–2 6–4 6–4 6–3 6–3 6–2 6–7 6–7 6–5 6–8 6–2 5–11 6–3 6–7 6–5

Class

GP

FG

3FG

FT

Points

Average

Sr Sr Sr Sr Sr Jr Sr Jr Sr Sr So Jr Sr Sr Sr Jr Sr Sr Sr Sr So Jr Sr So Jr Sr So Sr Sr Jr Sr Sr Sr Sr Jr Sr Sr Sr Jr Sr Sr Jr Sr

19 30 29 25 28 25 29 25 28 29 28 30 30 26 26 22 23 26 24 28 26 26 31 23 29 25 25 26 25 26 27 27 29 27 29 29 27 31 29 29 31 31 32

152 228 260 303 315 272 427 344 339 336 352 331 369 304 394 221 292 340 284 323 432 433 522 366 429 352 326 321 361 417 410 310 377 300 336 333 304 351 321 311 377 419 404

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63 87 0 92

95 215 215 125 165 194 355 209 268 234 280 316 273 234 221 208 260 293 213 205 274 282 337 191 196 144 183 213 197 176 149 192 178 181 190 169 206 142 212 268 284 177 231

399 671 735 731 795 738 1209 897 946 906 984 978 1011 842 1009 650 844 973 781 851 1138 1148 1381 923 1054 848 835 855 919 1010 969 812 932 781 862 835 814 844 854 953 1125 1015 1131

21.0 22.4 25.3 29.2 28.4 29.5 41.7 35.9 33.8 31.2 35.1 32.6 33.7 32.4 38.8 29.5 36.7 37.4 32.5 30.4 43.8 44.2 44.5 40.1 36.3 33.9 33.4 32.9 36.8 38.8 35.9 30.1 32.1 28.9 29.7 28.8 30.1 27.2 29.4 32.9 36.3 32.7 35.3

Rebounds Year 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Player and Team Ernie Beck, Pennsylvania Bill Hannon, Army Ed Conlin, Fordham Art Quimby, Connecticut Charlie Slack, Marshall

Height

Class

6–4 6–3 6–5 6–5 6–5

So So So Jr Jr

GP 27 17 26 26 21

Rebounds 556 355 612 588 538

Average 20.6 20.9 23.5 22.6 25.6

(continued) Sports 523

TABLE 18.25

(continued) Rebounds

Year

Player and Team

Height

Class

GP

Rebounds

Average

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Joe Holup, George Washington Elgin Baylor, Seattle Alex Ellis, Niagara Leroy Wright, Pacific Leroy Wright, Pacific

6–6 6–6 6–5 6–8 6–8

Sr Jr Sr Jr Sr

26 25 25 26 17

604 508 536 652 380

.256a .235a .262a .238a .234a

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Jerry Lucas, Ohio St Jerry Lucas, Ohio St Paul Silas, Creighton Bob Pelkington, Xavier (Ohio) Toby Kimball, Connecticut

6–8 6–8 6–7 6–7 6–8

Jr Sr Sr Sr Sr

27 28 27 26 23

470 499 557 567 483

.198a 211a 20.6 21.8 21.0

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Jim Ware, Oklahoma City Dick Cunningham, Murray St Neal Walk, Florida Spencer Haywood, Detroit Artis Gilmore, Jacksonville

6–8 6–10 6–10 6–8 7–2

Sr Jr Jr So Jr

29 22 25 22 28

607 479 494 472 621

20.9 21.8 19.8 21.5 22.2

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Artis Gilmore, Jacksonville Kermit Washington, American Kermit Washington, American Marvin Barnes, Providence John Irving, Hofstra

7–2 6–8 6–8 6–9 6–9

Sr Jr Sr Sr So

26 23 22 32 21

603 455 439 597 323

23.2 19.8 20.0 18.7 15.4

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Sam Pellom, Buffalo Glenn Mosley, Seton Hall Ken Williams, North Texas St Monti Davis,Tennessee St Larry Smith, Alcorn St

6–8 6–8 6–7 6–7 6–8

So Sr Sr Jr Sr

26 29 28 26 26

420 473 411 421 392

16.2 16.3 14.7 16.2 15.1

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Darryl Watson, Miss Valley LaSalle Thompson,Texas Xavier McDaniel,Wichita St Akeem Olajuwon, Houston Xavier McDaniel,Wichita St

6–7 6–10 6–7 7–0 6–8

Sr Jr So Jr Sr

27 27 28 37 31

379 365 403 500 460

14.0 13.5 14.4 13.5 14.8

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

David Robinson, Navy Jerome Lane, Pittsburgh Kenny Miller, Loyola (Ill.) Hank Gathers, Loyola (Calif.) Anthony Bonner, St Louis

6–11 6–6 6–9 6–7 6–8

Jr So Fr Jr Sr

35 33 29 31 33

455 444 395 426 456

13.0 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8

a

From 1956 to 1962, title was based on highest individual recoveries out of total by both teams in all games. Note: GP = games played; FG = field goals; 3FG = three-point field goal; FT = free throws. Source: Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac, 302–04.

TABLE 18.26

CAREER RECORDS IN COLLEGE BASKETBALL Points

Player Pete Maravich Freeman Williams Lionel Simmons Harry Kelly Hersey Hawkins Oscar Robertson Danny Manning Alfredrick Hughes Elvin Hayes Larry Bird Otis Birdsong Hank Gathers Reggie Lewis Daren Queenan Byron Larkin David Robinson Wayman Tisdale

524

Team Louisiana St Portland St La Salle Texas Southern Bradley Cincinnati Kansas Loyola (Ill.) Houston Indiana St Houston Southern Cal., Loyola Marymount Northeastern Lehigh Xavier (Ohio) Navy Oklahoma


Height

3FGa

FT

Points

1,387 1,369 1,244 1,234 1,100 1,052 1,216 1,226 1,215 1,154 1,176

... ... 56 ... 118 ... 10 ... ... ... ...

893 511 673 598 690 869 509 462 454 542 480

3,667 3,249 3,217 3,066 3,008 2,973 2,951 2,914 2,884 2,850 2,832

1,127 1,043 1,024 1,022 1,032 1,077

0 30 (1) 29 51 1 ...

469 592 626 601 604 507

2,723 2,708 2,703 2,696 2,669 2,661

Final Year

GP

FG

6–5 6–4 6–7 6–7 6–3 6–5 6–10 6–5 6–8 6–9 6–4

1970 1978 1990 1983 1988 1960 1988 1985 1968 1979 1977

83 106 131 110 125 88 147 120 93 94 116

6–7 6–7 6–5 6–3 7–1 6–9

1990 1987 1988 1988 1987 1985

117 122 118 121 127 104

Scoring Average Player Pete Maravich Austin Carr Oscar Robertson Calvin Murphy Dwight Lamar Frank Selvy Rick Mount Darrell Floyd Nick Werkman Willie Humes William Averitt Elgin Baylor Elvin Hayes Freeman Williams Larry Bird

Team Louisiana St Notre Dame Cincinnati Niagara Southwestern Louisiana Furman Purdue Furman Seton Hall Idaho St Pepperdine Coll of Idaho, Seattle Houston Portland St Indiana St

Final Year

GP

FG

1968 1971 1960 1970 1973 1954 1970 1956 1964 1971 1973 1958 1968 1978 1979

83 74 88 77 57 78 72 71 71 48 49 80 93 106 94

1,387 1,017 1,052 947 768 922 910 868 812 565 615 956 1,215 1,369 1,154

FT

Points

Average

893 526 869 654 326 694 503 545 649 380 311 588 454 511 542

3,667 2,560 2,973 2,548 1,862 2,538 2,323 2,281 2,273 1,510 1,541 2,500 2,884 3,249 2,850

44.2 34.6 33.8 33.1 32.7 32.5 32.3 32.1 32.0 31.5 31.4 31.3 31.0 30.7 30.3

a Listed is the number of three-pointers scored since it became the national rule in 1987; the number in the parentheses is number scored prior to 1987—these counted as three points in the game but counted as two-pointers in the national rankings. The three-pointers in the parentheses are not included in total points. Note: GP = games played; FG = field goals; 3FG = three-point field goals; FT = free throws. Source: Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac, 308–09.

Women’s Basketball Women’s basketball developed gradually in high school and college during the postwar era. The teams at the start had six players: three forwards that did the scoring and three guards who protected the basket, and because one set of players did not enter the territory of the other, it was in effect a half-court game for everyone involved. The movement to men’s (or boys’) rules, to varsity status and popular recognition, received a huge boost in an act of Congress in 1971, of which a section, Title IX, forbade sex discrimination at federally

Bill Walton was one of the very best of a large collection of good players for UCLA during its reign as king of college basketball. (ASUCLA Photography)

Cheryl Miller was a star player at the University of Southern California and a pioneer in the emergence of women’s intercollegiate basketball in the 1980s. (USC Sports Information) Sports

525

supported schools. In theory the sexes were to be treated equally, and in practice movement began toward intercollegiate competition, recruitment, and awarding of scholarships to female athletes. Women’s basketball was recognized at the Olympic games of 1976. The NCAA assumed control of the sport on the college level in the late 1970s, committed to providing women the same structure and status as men. The first female final four tournament, in 1982, was nationally televised. Such established stars as Nancy Lieberman of Old Dominion College and Ann Meyers of UCLA were followed in the 1980s by Cheryl Miller of Southern California, TABLE 18.27

Clarissa Davis of Texas, and many others. Pat Summitt of Tennessee became the most popular female coach. Many people, including coaching icon John Wooden, formerly of UCLA, saw women’s basketball as an appealing antidote to preoccupation in the men’s game with size and sheer physical strength. It was refreshing to see guards who were no more than 5 feet 9 inches and forwards at 6 feet 1 inch, and whatever their size, they all had to shoot the ball upward to get it to the basket. With fuller development of the game, however, it appeared that the girls and young women were becoming taller, stronger, and faster.

NCAA WOMEN’S FINAL FOUR, 1982–1990

(Replaced the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women [AIAW] tournament in 1982 as the official playoff for the national championship) Year

Champion

Head Coach

Score

Runner-up

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Louisiana Tech USC USC Old Dominion Texas Tennessee Louisiana Tech Tennessee Stanford

Sonya Hogg Linda Sharp Linda Sharp Marianne Stanley Jody Conradt Pat Summitt Leon Barmore Pat Summitt Tara VanDerveer

76–62 69–67 72–61 70–65 97–81 67–44 56–54 76–60 88–81

Cheyney Louisiana Tech Tennessee Georgia USC Louisiana Tech Auburn Auburn Auburn

Third Place Maryland Georgia Cheyney NE Louisiana Tennessee Long Beach St. Long Beach St. Louisiana Tech Louisiana Tech

Tennessee Old Dominion Louisiana Tech Western Ky. Western Ky. Texas Tennessee Maryland Virginia


TABLE 18.28 ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL AWARDS, 1977–1990 The first prize, the Broderick Award, was given to the outstanding woman basketball player, starting in 1977. Since that time three other organizations gave awards to women players. The only person to win all four in the same season was Cheryl Miller of USC in 1985. Naismith Trophyc

Women’s Basketball Coaches Associationd

Year

Broderick Awarda

Wade Trophyb

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Lucy Harris, Delta St.* Anne Meyers, UCLA* Nancy Lieberman, Old Dominion* Nancy Lieberman, Old Dominion* Lynette Woodward, Kansas

... Carol Blazejowski, Montclair St. Nancy Lieberman, Old Dominion Nancy Lieberman, Old Dominion Lynette Woodward, Kansas

... ... ... ... ...

... ... ... ... ...

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Pam Kelly, La.Tech. Anne Donovan, Old Dominion Cheryl Miller, USC* Cheryl Miller, USC Kamie Ethridge,Texas*

Pam Kelly, La.Tech. LaTaunya Pollard, L. Beach St. Janice Lawrence, La.Tech. Cheryl Miller, USC Kamie Ethridge,Texas

... Anne Donovan, Old Dominion Cheryl Miller, USC Cheryl Miller, USC Cheryl Miller, USC

... Anne Donovan, Old Dominion Janice Lawrence, La.Tech. Cheryl Miller, USC Cheryl Miller, USC

1987 1988 1989 1990

Katrina McClain, Georgia Teresa Weatherspoon, La.Tech* Bridgette Gordon,Tennessee Jennifer Azzi, Stanford

Shelly Pennefather,Villanova Teresa Weatherspoon, La.Tech. Clarissa Davis,Texas Jennifer Azzi, Stanford

Clarissa Davis,Texas Sue Wicks, Rutgers Clarissa Davis,Texas Jennifer Azzi, Stanford

Katrina McClain, Georgia Michelle Edwards, Iowa Clarissa Davis,Texas Venus Lacey, La.Tech

a

Voted on by a national panel of women’s collegiate athletic directors and first presented by the late Thomas Broderick, an athletic outfitter, in 1976. Honda has presented the award since 1987. Basketball Player of the Year is one of 10 nominated for Collegiate Woman Athlete of the Year; (*) indicates player also won Athlete of the Year. b Voted on by the National Assn. for Girls and Women in Sports (NAGWS) and awarded for academics and community service as well as player performance. First presented in 1978 in the name of former Delta St. coach Margaret Wade. c Voted on by a panel of coaches, sportwriters and broadcasters and first presented in 1983 by the Atlanta Tip-Off Club in the name of the inventor of basketball, Dr. James Naismith. d Voted on by the WBCA and first presented by Champion athletic outfitters in 1983. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 295–96.

TABLE 18.29 COACH OF THE YEAR AWARD, 1983–1990 Voted on by the Women’s Basketball Coaches Assn. and first presented by Converse athletic outfitters in 1983. Multiple winner: Jody Conradt (2). Year

Player

School

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Pat Summitt Jody Conradt Jim Foster Jody Conradt Theresa Grentz Vivian Stringer Tara VanDerveer Kay Yow

Tennessee Texas St. Joseph’s-Pa. Texas Rutgers Iowa Stanford N.C. State


526


TABLE 18.30 OTHER WOMEN’S CHAMPIONS, 1972–1990 The Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women Large College tournament determined the women’s national champion for 10 years until supplanted by the NCAA: In 1982, most Division I teams entered the first NCAA tournament rather than the last one staged by the AIAW. AIAW Finals Year

Winner

Score

Loser

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Immaculata, Pa. Immaculata, Pa. Immaculata, Pa. Delta St., Miss. Delta St., Miss. Delta St., Miss. UCLA Old Dominion Old Dominion Louisiana Tech Rutgers

52–48 59–52 68–53 90–81 69–64 68–55 90–74 75–65 68–53 79–59 83–77

West Chester, Pa. Queens College, NY Mississippi College Immaculata, Pa. Immaculata, Pa. LSU Maryland Louisiana Tech Tennessee Tennessee Texas

NCAA Div. II Finals Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Winner

Score

Cal Poly Pomona Virginia Union Central Mo.St. Cal Poly Pomona Cal Poly Pomona New Haven, Conn. Hampton,Va. Delta St., Minn. Delta St., Minn.

93–74 73–60 80–73 80–69 70–63 77–75 65–48 88–58 77–43

Loser Tuskegee, Ala. Cal Poly Pomona Virginia Union Central Mo. St. North Dakota St. Cal Poly Pomona West Texas St. Cal Poly Pomona Bentley, Mass.

NCAA Div. III Finals Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Winner Elizabethtown, Pa. North Central, Ill. Rust College, Miss. Scranton, Pa. Salem St., Mass. WI-Stevens Pt. Concordia, Minn. Elizabethtown, Pa. Hope, Minn.

Score

Loser

67–66 83–71 51–49 68–59 89–85 81–74 65–57 66–65 65–63

N.C.-Greensboro Elizabethtown, Pa. Elizabethtown, Pa. New Rochelle, N.Y. Bishop,Tex. Concordia, Minn. St. John Fisher, N.Y. CS-Stanislaus St. John Fisher

NAIA Finals Year 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Winner Kentucky St. S’western Okla. S’western Okla. NC-Asheville S’western Okla. Francis Marion, S.C. S’western Okla. Oklahoma City So. Nazarene SW Oklahoma

Score 73–67 80–45 80–68 72–70 55–54 75–65 60–58 113–95 98–96 82–75


Loser Texas Southern Mo. Southern AL-Huntsville Portland, Ore. Saginaw Val., Mich. Wayland Baptist,Tex. North Georgia Claflin, S.C. Claflin, S.C. AR-Monticello

Major NCAA Rule Changes, 1947–1990 1947–48 The clock is stopped on every dead ball the last three minutes of the second half and of every overtime period.This includes every time a goal is scored because the ball is considered dead until put into play again. (This rule was abolished in 1951.) 1948–49 Coaches are allowed to speak to players during a timeout. 1951–52 Games are to be played in four 10-minute quarters. Before this, games were played in two 20-minute halves. 1952–53 Teams can no longer waive free throws in favor of taking the ball out of bounds. The one-and-one free-throw rule is introduced, although the bonus is used only if the first shot is missed.The rule will be in effect the entire game except the last three minutes, when every foul is two shots. 1954–55 The one-and-one free throw is changed so that the bonus shot is given only if the first shot is made. Games are changed back to being played in two 20-minute halves. 1955–56 The two-shot penalty in the last three minutes of the game is eliminated.The one-and-one is now in effect the entire game. 1956–57 The free-throw lane is increased from 6 feet to 12 feet. On the lineup for a free throw, the two spaces adjacent to the end line must be occupied by opponents of the free thrower. In the past, one space was marked “H’’ for a home-team player to occupy, and across the lane the first space was marked “V’’ for a visiting-team player to stand in. Grasping the basket is now classified as a technical foul under unsportsmanlike tactics. 1957–58 Offensive goaltending is now banned, as an addition to the original 1945 rule. One free throw for each common foul is taken for the first six personal fouls by one team in each half, and the one-and-one is used thereafter. On uniforms, the use of the single digit numbers one and two and any digit greater than five is prohibited. A ball that passes over the backboard—either front to back or back to front—is considered out of bounds. 1964–65 Coaches must remain seated on the bench except while the clock is stopped or to direct or encourage players on the court. This rule is to help keep coaches from inciting undesirable crowd reactions toward the officials. 1967–68 The dunk is made illegal during the game and pregame warm-up. 1970–71 During a jump ball a nonjumper may not change his position from the time the official is ready to make the toss until after the ball has been touched. 1972–73 The free throw on the first six common fouls each half by a team is eliminated. Players cannot attempt to create the false impression that they have been fouled in charging-guarding situations or while screening when the contact was only incidental. An official can charge the “actor’’ with a technical foul for unsportsmanlike conduct if, in the official’s opinion, the actor is making a travesty of the game. Freshmen are eligible to play varsity basketball.This was the result of a change in the NCAA bylaws, not the basketball playing rules. 1973–74 Officials may now penalize players for fouls occurring away from the ball, such as grabbing, holding, and setting illegal screens. 1974–75 During a jump ball, a nonjumper on the restraining circle may move around it after the ball has left the official’s hands. A player charged with a foul is no longer required to raise his hand. (In 1978, however, it was strongly recommended that a player start raising his hand again.) 1976–77 The dunk is made legal again. 1981–82 The jump ball is used only at the beginning of the game and the start of each overtime. An alternating arrow will indicate possession in jump-ball situations during the game. Sports

527

All fouls charged to bench personnel shall be assessed to the head coach. 1982–83 When the closely guarded five-second count is reached, it is no longer a jump-ball situation. It is a violation, and the ball is awarded to the defensive team out of bounds. 1983–84 Two free throws are taken for each common foul committed within the last two minutes of the second half and the entire overtime period, if the bonus rule is in effect. (This rule was rescinded one month into the season.) 1984–85 The coaching box is introduced, whereby a coach and all bench personnel must remain in the 28-foot-long coaching box unless seeking information from the scorer’s table. 1985–86 The 45-second clock is introduced.The team in control of the ball must now shoot for a goal within 45 seconds after it attains team control. If a shooter is fouled intentionally and the shot is missed, the penalty will be two shots and possession of the ball out of bounds to the team that was fouled. The head coach may stand throughout the game, while all other bench personnel must remain seated. 1986–87 The three-point field goal is introduced and set at 19 feet 9 inches from the center of the basket. A coach may leave the confines of the bench at any time without penalty to correct a scorer or timer’s mistake. A technical foul

TABLE 18.31

is assessed if there is no mistake. (This was changed the next year to a timeout.) Also, a television replay may be used to prevent or rectify a scorer or timer’s mistake or a malfunction of the clock. 1987–88 Each intentional personal foul carries a two-shot penalty plus possession of the ball. 1988–89 Any squad member who participates in a fight will be ejected from the game and will be placed on probation. If that player participates in a second fight during the season, he will be suspended for one game. A third fight involving the same person results in suspension for the rest of the season including championship competition. 1990–91 Beginning with the team’s 10th personal foul in a half, two free throws are awarded for each common foul, except playercontrol fouls. Three free throws are awarded when a shooter is fouled during an unsuccessful three-point try. The fighting rule is amended. The first time any squad member or bench personnel participates in a fight he will be suspended for the team’s next game. If that same person participates in a second fight, he will be suspended for the rest of the season including championship competition. Source: NCAA Records Book, 1998, 203–04.

EVOLUTION OF THE NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION, 1951–1990 NBA 1951–1952 Final Standings Eastern Division W. 40 39 37 33 20

Syracuse Boston New York Philadelphia Baltimore

Western Division

L. 26 27 29 33 46

PCT. .606 .591 .561 .500 .303

W. 41 40 34 29 17

Rochester Minneapolis Indianapolis Fort Wayne Milwaukee

L. 25 26 32 37 49

PCT. .621 .606 .515 .439 .258

L. 26 30 39 53 59 67

PCT. .683 .634 .524 .354 .280 .183

NBA 1967–1968 Final Standings Eastern Division W. 62 54 43 40 39 36

Philadelphia Boston New York Detroit Cincinnati Baltimore

Western Division

L. 20 28 39 42 43 46

PCT. .756 .659 .524 .488 .476 .439

W. 56 52 43 29 23 15

St. Louis Los Angeles San Francisco Chicago Seattle San Diego

NBA 1977–1978 Final Standings Eastern Conference Atlantic Division Philadelphia NewYork Boston Buffalo New Jersey

528

W. 55 43 32 27 24

L. 27 39 50 55 58

Western Conference

Central Division PCT. .671 .524 .390 .329 .293

San Antonio Washington Cleveland Atlanta New Orleans Houston


W. 52 44 43 41 39 28

Midwest Division L. 30 38 39 41 43 54

PCT. .634 .537 .524 .500 .476 .341

Denver Milwaukee Chicago Detroit Indiana Kansas City

W. 48 44 40 38 31 31

L. 34 38 42 44 51 51

Pacific Division PCT. .585 .537 .488 .463 .378 .378

Portland Phoenix Seattle Los Angeles Golden State

W. 58 49 47 45 43

L. 24 33 35 37 39

PCT. .707 .598 .573 .549 .524

NBA 1989–1990 Final Standings Eastern Conference Atlantic Division Philadelphia Boston New York Washington Miami New Jersey

W. 53 52 45 31 18 16

L. 29 30 37 51 64 65

Western Conference

Central Division PCT. .646 .634 .549 .378 .220 .207

Detroit Chicago Milwaukee Cleveland Indiana Atlanta Orlando

W. 59 55 44 42 42 41 18

L. 23 27 38 40 40 41 64

Midwest Division PCT. .720 .671 .537 .512 .512 .500 .220

San Antonio Utah Dallas Denver Houston Minnesota Charlotte

W. 56 55 47 43 41 22 19

L. 26 27 35 39 41 60 63

Pacific Division PCT. .683 .671 .573 .524 .500 .268 .232

L.A. Lakers Portland Phoenix Seattle Golden State L.A. Clippers Sacramento

W. 63 59 54 41 37 30 23

L. 19 23 28 41 45 52 59

PCT. .768 .720 .659 .500 .451 .366 .280

Source: Alex Sachare, The Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia (New York, 1994), 57, 105, 121, 155.

TABLE 18.32

NATIONAL BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990

The National Basketball Association was originally the Basketball Association of America. It took its current name in 1949 when it merged with the National Basketball League. Western Conference (W-L)

Playoff Championsa

Season

Eastern Conference (W-L)

1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51

Washington Capitols (49–11) Philadelphia Warriors (27–21) Washington Capitols (38–22) Syracuse Nationals (51–13) Philadelphia Warriors (40–26)

Chicago Stags (39–22) St. Louis Bombers (29–19) Rochester Royals (45–15) Indianapolis Olympians (39–25) Minneapolis Lakers (44–24)

Philadelphia Warriors Baltimore Bullets Minneapolis Lakers Minneapolis Lakers Rochester Royals

1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55

Syracuse Nationals (40–26) New York Knickerbockers (47–23) New York Knickerbockers (44–28) Syracuse Nationals (43–29)

Rochester Royals (41–25) Minneapolis Lakers (48–22) Minneapolis Lakers (46–26) Ft.Wayne Pistons (43–29)

Minneapolis Lakers Minneapolis Lakers Minneapolis Lakers Syracuse Nationals

1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60

Philadelphia Warriors (45–27) Boston Celtics (44–28) Boston Celtics (48–23) Boston Celtics (52–20) Boston Celtics (59–16)

Ft.Wayne Pistons (37–35) St. Louis Hawks (38–34) St. Louis Hawks (41–31) St. Louis Hawks (49–23) St. Louis Hawks (46–29)

Philadelphia Warriors Boston Celtics St. Louis Hawks Boston Celtics Boston Celtics

1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65

Boston Celtics (57–22) Boston Celtics (60–20) Boston Celtics (58–22) Boston Celtics (59–21) Boston Celtics (62–18)

St. Louis Hawks (51–28) Los Angeles Lakers (54–26) Los Angeles Lakers (53–27) San Francisco Warriors (48–32) Los Angeles Lakers (49–31)

Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Boston Celtics

1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70

Philadelphia 76ers (55–25) Philadelphia 76ers (68–13) Philadelphia 76ers (62–20) Baltimore Bullets (57–25) New York Knickerbockers (60–22)

Los Angeles Lakers (45–35) San Francisco Warriors (44–37) St. Louis Hawks (56–26) Los Angeles Lakers (55–27) Atlanta Hawks (48–34)

Boston Celtics Philadelphia 76ers Boston Celtics Boston Celtics New York Knicks

1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

Baltimore Bullets (42–40) New York Knickerbockers (48–34) New York Knickerbockers (57–25) Boston Celtics (56–26) Washington Bullets (60–22)

Milwaukee Bucks (66–16) Los Angeles Lakers (69–13) Los Angeles Lakers (60–22) Milwaukee Bucks (59–23) Golden State Warriors (48–34)

Milwaukee Bucks Los Angeles Lakers New York Knicks Boston Celtics Golden State Warriors

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

Boston Celtics (54–28) Phildelphia 76ers (50–32) Washington Bullets (44–38) Washington Bullets (54–28) Philadelphia 76ers (59–23)

Phoenix Suns (42–40) Portland Trail Blazers (49–33) Seattle Super Sonics (47–35) Seattle Super Sonics (52–30) Los Angeles Lakers (60–22)

Boston Celtics Portland Trail Blazers Washington Bullets Seattle Super Sonics Los Angeles Lakers

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

Boston Celtics (62–20) Boston Celtics (63–19) Philadelphia 76ers (65–17) Boston Celtics (56–26) Boston Celtics (63–19)

Phoenix Suns (57–25) Houston Rockets (46–36) Los Angeles Lakers (58–24) Los Angeles Lakers (58–24) Los Angeles Lakers (62–20)

Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Philadelphia 76ers Boston Celtics Los Angeles Lakers

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Boston Celtics (67–15) Boston Celtics (59–23) Detroit Pistons (54–28) Detroit Pistons (63–18) Detroit Pistons (59–23)

Houston Rockets (51–31) Los Angeles Lakers (65–17) Los Angeles Lakers (62–20) Los Angeles Lakers (57–25) Portland Trail Blazers (59–23)

Boston Celtics Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles Lakers Detroit Pistons Detroit Pistons

a

Playoffs may involve teams other than conference winners. Source: 1991 Information Please Almanac, 894.

Sports

529

TABLE 18.33

NBA SCORING LEADERS, 1947–1990

Year

Scoring Champion

Year

Pts

Avg

1947 1948 1949 1950 1951

Joe Fulks, Philadelphiaa Max Zasiofsky, Chicagoa George Mikan, Minneapolisa George Mikan, Minneapolisa George Mikan, Minneapolisa

1,389 1,007 1,698 1,865 1,932

23.2 21.0 28.3 27.4 28.4

1952 1953 1954 1955 1956

Paul Arizin, Philadelphiaa Neil Johnston, Philadelphiaa Neil Johnston, Philadelphiaa Neil Johnston, Philadelphiaa Bob Pettit, St. Louisa

1,674 1,564 1,759 1,631 1,849

25.4 22.3 24.4 22.7 25.7

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961

Paul Arizin, Philadelphiaa George Yardley, Detroita Bob Pettit, St. Louisa Wilt Chamberlain, Philadelphiab Wilt Chamberlain, Philadelphiab

1,817 2,001 2,105 2,707 3,033

25.8 27.8 29.2 37.9 38.4

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Wilt Chamberlain, Philadelphiab Wilt Chamberlain, San Franciscob Wilt Chamberlain, San Franciscob Wilt Chamberlain, San Francisco, Philadelphiab Wilt Chamberlain, Philadelphiab

4,029 3,586 2,948 2,534 2,649

50.4 44.8 36.5 34.7 33.5

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Rick Barry, San Franciscoa Dave Bing, Detroitb Elvin Hayes, San Diegob Jerry West, Los Angelesa Lew Alcindor (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar), Milwaukeeb

2,775 2,142 2,327 2,309 2,596

35.6 27.1 28.4 31.2 31.7

TABLE 18.34

Scoring Champion

Pts

Avg

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Milwaukeeb Nate Archibald, Kans. City-Omahab Bob McAdoo, Buffalob Bob McAdoo, Buffalob Bob McAdoo, Buffalob

2,822 2,719 2,261 2,831 2,427

34.8 34.0 30.6 34.5 31.1

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Pete Maravich, New Orleansa George Gervin, San Antoniob George Gervin, San Antoniob George Gervin, San Antoniob Adrian Dantley, Utahb

2,273 2,232 2,365 2,585 2,452

31.1 27.2 29.6 33.1 30.7

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

George Gervin, San Antoniob Alex English, Denverb Adrian Dantley, Utahb Bernard King, New Yorkb Dominique Wilkins, Atlantab

2,551 2,326 2,418 1,809 2,366

32.3 28.4 30.6 32.9 30.3

1987 1988 1989 1990

Michael Jordan, Chicagob Michael Jordan, Chicagob Michael Jordan, Chicagob Michael Jordan, Chicagob

3,041 2,868 2,633 2,753

37.1 35.0 32.5 33.6

a

Designates white athlete. Designates African-American athlete. Source: Robert Famighetti, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1999 (Mahwah, N.J., 1998), 2351; African-American Encyclopedia, 2351. b

SELECTED INDIVIDUAL NBA LEADERS, 1946–1990 Assists

Rebounds

Year

Player

Team

Record

Year

1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51

Ernie Calverly Howie Dallmar Bob Davies Dick McGuire Andy Phillip

Providencea Philadelphiaa Rochestera New Yorka Philadelphiaa

202 120 321 386 414

1950–51 1951–52

1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55

Andy Phillip Bob Cousy Bob Cousy Bob Cousy

Philadelphiaa Bostona Bostona Bostona

1955–56

Bob Cousy

Bostona

1956–57

Bob Cousy

Bostona

478

1957–58

Bob Cousy

Bostona

1958–59

Bob Cousy

1959–60

Team

Record

Year

Player

Team

Record

1952–53 1953–54

Dolph Schayes Larry Foust Mel Hutchins George Mikan Harry Gallatin

Syracusea Fort Waynea Milwaukeea Minneapolisa New Yorka

1080 880 880 1007 1098

1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56

Paul Arizin Neil Johnston Neil Johnston Paul Arizin Slater Martin

Philadelphiaa Philadelphiaa Philadelphiaa Philadelphiaa Minneapolisa

2939 3166 3296 2953 2838

539 547 578 557

1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58

Neil Johnston Bob Pettit Maurice Stokes Bill Russell

Philadelphiaa St. Louisa Rochesterb Bostonb

1085 1164 1256 1564

1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60

Syracusea Syracusea Bostonb Philadelphiab

2851 2918 2979 3338

642

1958–59

Bill Russell

Bostonb

1612

Dolph Schayes Dolph Schayes Bill Russell Wilt Chamberlain Gene Shue

Detroita

3338

1959–60

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

1941

1960–61

Philadelphiab

3773

463

1960–61

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

2149

1961–62

Philadelphiab

3882

Bostona

557

1961–62

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

2052

1962–63

San Franciscob

3806

Bob Cousy

Bostona

715

1962–63

Wilt Chamberlain

San Franciscob

1946

1963–64

San Franciscob

3689

1960–61

Oscar Robertson

Cincinnatib

690

1963–64

Bill Russell

Bostonb

1930

1964–65

Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Bill Russell

Bostonb

3466

1961–62

Oscar Robertson Guy Rodgers Oscar Robertson Oscar Robertson Oscar Robertson

Cincinnatib

899

1964–65

Bill Russell

Bostonb

1878

1965–66

Philadelphiab

3737

San Franciscob

825

1965–66

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

1943

1966–67

Philadelphiab

3682

Cincinnatib

868

1966–67

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

1957

1967–68

Philadelphiab

3836

Cincinnatib

861

1967–68

Wilt Chamberlain

Philadelphiab

1952

1968–69

Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Elvin Hayes

San Diegob

3695

Cincinnatib

847

1968–69

Wilt Chamberlain

Los Angelesb

1712

1969–70

Elvin Hayes

San Diegob

3665

1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66

530


Player

Minutes Played

Assists

Rebounds

Year

Player

Team

1966–67 1967–68

Chicagob Philadelphiab Cincinnatib

1969–70 1970–71

Guy Rodgers Wilt Chamberlain Oscar Robertson Lenny Wilkens Norm Van Lier

Cincinnatib

9.1 10.1

1971–72

Jerry West

Los Angelesa

9.7

1972–73

Nate Archibald

KC-Omahab

1973–74

Ernie DiGregorio Kevin Porter Don Watts

Buffaloa

1968–69

1974–75 1975–76

Record

Seattleb

Washingtonb Seattleb

Minutes Played

Year

Player

Team

Record

Year

908 702

1969–70 1970–71

Elvin Hayes Wilt Chamberlain

San Diegob Los Angelesb

c16.9

18.2

1970–71 1971–72

John Havlicek John Havlicek

Bostona Bostona

3678 3698

772

1971–72

Wilt Chamberlain

Los Angelesb

19.2

1972–73

Nate Archibald

K.C.-Omahab

3681

1972–73 1973–74

Wilt Chamberlain Elvin Hayes

Los Angelesb Capitalb

18.6 18.1

1973–74 1974–75

Elvin Hayes Bob McAdoo

Capitalb Buffalob

3602 3539

1974–75

Wes Unseld

Washingtonb

14.8

1975–76

Los Angelesb

3379

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Bill Walton

Los Angelesb

16.9

1976–77

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Elvin Hayes

Washingtonb

3364

Portlanda

14.4

1977–78

Len Robinson

New Orleansb

3638

Houstonb

11.4

1975–76

8.2

1976–77

Orleansb

Player

Team

Record

8.0 8.1

1977–78 1978–79

Len Robinson Moses Malone

New Houstonb

15.7 17.6

1978–79 1979–80

Moses Malone Norm Nixon

Los Angelesb

3390 3226

Don Buse Kevin Porter Kevin Porter Micheal Richardson Kevin Porter

Indianab Detroit-N.J.b Detroitb New Yorkb

8.5 10.2 13.4 10.1

1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83

Swen Nater Moses Malone Moses Malone Moses Malone

San Diegoa Houstonb Houstonb Philadelphiab

15.0 14.8 14.7 15.3

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84

Adrian Dantley Moses Malone Isiah Thomas Jeff Ruland

Utahb Houstonb Detroitb Washingtonb

3417 3398 3093 3082

Washingtonb

9.1

1983–84

Moses Malone

Philadelphiab

13.4

1984–85

Buck Williams

New Jerseyb

3182

1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86

Johnny Moore Magic Johnson Magic Johnson Isiah Thomas Magic Johnson

San Antoniob

Philadelphiab

13.1 13.1 14.6 13.03 13.5

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Maurice Cheeks Michael Jordan Michael Jordan Michael Jordan Rodney McCray

Philadelphiab Chicagob Chicagob Chicagob Sacramentob

3270 3281 3311 3255 3238

1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Magic Johnson John Stockton John Stockton John Stockton

1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81

Los Angelesb Los Angelesb Detroitb L.A. Lakersb

9.6 10.5 13.1 13.98 12.6

1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89

Moses Malone Bill Laimbeer Charles Barkley Michael Cage Hakeem Olajuwon

L.A. Lakersb Utaha Utaha Utaha

12.2 13.8 13.6 14.5

1989–90

Hakeem Olajuwon Houstonb

Detroita Philadelphiab L.A. Clippersb Houstonb

14.0

a

Designates white athlete. Designates African-American athlete. c Based on average, starting in 1969–70. Source: Sachare, Official NBA Encyclopedia, 378; African-American Encyclopedia, Supplement, Vol. 8, 2351–52. b

TABLE 18.35

NBA CAREER LEADERSa

Games

Rebounds

Field Goals Made

Assists

Points

Player

Record

Player

Record

Player

Record

Player

Record

Player

Record

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Elvin Hayes John Havlicek Paul Silas Hal Greer Alex English Dennis Johnson Robert Parish Moses Malone Len Wilkens

1,560 1,303 1,270 1,254 1,122 1,114 1,100 1,100 1,082 1,077

Wilt Chamberlain Bill Russell Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Elvin Hayes Moses Malone Nate Thurmond Walt Bellamy Wes Unseld Jerry Lucas Bob Pettit

23,924 21,620 17,440 16,279 14,483 14,464 14.241 13,769 12,942 12,849

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Wilt Chamberlain Elvin Hayes John Havlicek Alex English Oscar Robertson Jerry West Elgin Baylor Moses Malone Hal Greer

15,837 12,681 10.976 10,513 10,337 9,508 9,016 8,693 8,587 8,504

Oscar Robertson Magic Johnson Len Wilkens Isiah Thomas Bob Cousy Guy Rodgers Maurice Cheeks Nate Archibald John Lucas Norm Nixon

9,887 8.932 7,211 6,985 6,955 6,917 6,665 6,476 6,454 6,386

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Wilt Chamberlain Elvin Hayes Oscar Robertson John Havlicek Jerry West Moses Malone Alex English Elgin Baylor Adrian Dantley

38,387 31,419 27,313 26,710 26,395 25,192 24,868 24,850 23,149 23,120

a Through season of 1989–90. Source: Wright, Universal Almanac, 1991, 598.

Sports

531

TABLE 18.36

NBA MOST VALUABLE PLAYERS, 1955–1990

Year

Name

Team

Points

Average

Rebounds

1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Bob Pettit Bob Cousy Bill Russell Bob Pettit Wilt Chamberlain Bill Russell Bill Russell Bill Russell Oscar Robertson Bill Russell Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Wilt Chamberlain Wes Unseld Willis Reed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Dave Cowens Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Bob McAdoo Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Bill Walton Moses Malone Kareem Abdul-Jabbar Julius Erving Moses Malone Moses Malone Larry Bird Larry Bird Larry Bird Magic Johnson Michael Jordan Magic Johnson Magic Johnson

St. Louis Hawks Boston Celtics Boston Celtics St. Louis Hawks Philadelphia Warriors Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Cincinnati Royals Boston Celtics Philadelphia 76ers Philadelphia 76ers Philadelphia 76ers Baltimore Bullets N.Y. Knicks Milwaukee Bucks Milwaukee Bucks Boston Celtics Milwaukee Bucks Buffalo Braves L.A. Lakers L.A. Lakers Portland Trail Blazers Houston Rockets L. A. Lakers Philadelphia 76ers Houston Rockets Philadelphia 76ers Boston Celtics Boston Celtics Boston Celtics L.A. Lakers Chicago Bulls L.A. Lakers L.A. Lakers

1,849 1,319 1,142 2,105 2,207 1,322 1,436 1,309 2,480 1,102 2,649 1,956 1,992 1,131 1,755 2,596 2,822 1,684 2,191 2,831 2,275 2,152 1,097 2,031 2,034 2,014 2,520 1,908 1,908 2,295 2,115 1,909 2,868 1,730 1,765

25.7 20.6 16.6 29.2 37.6 16.9 18.9 16.8 31.4 14.1 33.5 24.1 24.3 13.8 21.7 31.7 34.8 20.5 27.0 34.5 27.7 26.2 18.9 24.8 24.8 24.6 31.1 24.5 24.2 28.7 25.8 23.9 35.0 22.5 22.3

1,164 309 1,564 1,182 1,941 1,868 1,790 1,843 783 1,878 1,943 1,957 1,952 1,491 1,126 1,311 1,346 1,329 1,178 1,155 1,383 1,090 766 1,444 886 657 1,188 1,194 796 842 805 504 449 607 525

Note: Named after the first commissioner of the NBA, the Maurice Podoloff Trophy was based on a vote of the players between 1956 and 1980. Beginning in 1981 the selection was made by a panel of basketball writers and broadcasters. Source: John Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 679.

TABLE 18.37 PROFESSIONAL BASKETBALL DRAFT, ROSTERS, AND COACHES—NUMBER OF BLACK AMERICANS, 1989–1990 1989 NBA Draft Division/Team Atlantic Boston Celtics Miami Heat New Jersey Nets New York Knicks Philadelphia 76ers Washington Bullets Central Atlanta Hawks Chicago Bulls Cleveland Cavaliers Detroit Pistons Indianapolis Pacers Milwaukee Bucks Orlando Magic Midwest Charlotte Hornets Dallas Mavericks Denver Nuggets Houston Rockets Minneapolis Timberwolves San Antonio Spurs Utah Jazz Pacific Golden State Warriors Los Angeles Clippers Los Angeles Lakers Phoenix Suns Portland Trailblazers Sacramento Kings Seattle Supersonics Number Percent

1989–90 Roster

Number Black American

Number Players


Black Head Coach

2 3 2 1 3 3

1 2 2 1 3 2

12 12 13 13 17 13

7 8 8 11 13 10

... ...

2 3 2 1 2 1 2

2 3 2 1 2 0 2

13 12 15 14 13 13 14

11 9 12 11 8 6 9

...

1 3 3 0 3 1 2

1 2 2 – 2 1 2

13 13 13 16 14 11 11

1 3 1 4 2 1 2 54 100.0

1 3 0 4 2 1 2 46 85.2

12 11 11 17 15 11 11 353 100.0

Number Choices


Number


2 2 2 3 1 2

0 0 1 0 1 0

X ... ... ... ...

2 3 2 2 2 3 2

1 1 0 0 0 1 0

7 10 9 11 9 9 5

... ... ... X ... ... ...

2 2 2 3 1 4 4

1 0 1 1 0 2 0

7 8 8 11 11 8 10 246 69.7

... ... ... ... ... ... X 5 ...

2 2 2 3 2 1 2 60 100.0

0 0 0 2 0 0 1 13 21.7

Source: Carrell P. Horton and Jessie C. Smith, Statistical Record of Black America (Detroit, 1990), 617.

532

Assistant Coaches

X X

American Basketball Association The American Basketball Association (ABA) developed in the season of 1967–68 as a competitor of the NBA. It began with 10 teams, but the number and locations changed frequently during its nine years of existence. Seeking quick legitimacy, its teams bid lavishly for top draft choices and in so doing drove up the salary for professional players. Ultimate failure probably was preordained, but the ABA left a considerable imprint. It introduced to professional ranks George

TABLE 18.38

McGinnis, Julius Erving, Dan Issel, Rick Barry, and David Thompson, some of the best players in the land. It pioneered the three-point shot, the slam-dunk contest in All Star Games, and the red, white, and blue ball.The NBA eventually would adopt two of the three.The end came with a reasonable amount of grace as the four most successful franchises, the Indiana Pacers, Denver Nuggets, New York Nets, and San Antonio Spurs blended into the NBA in 1976–77.

AMERICAN BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION, 1968–1976 ABA Finals

Year

Winner

Head Coach

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Pittsburgh Pipers Oakland Oaks Indiana Pacers Utah Stars Indiana Pacers Indiana Pacers New York Nets Kentucky Colonels New York Nets

Vince Cazetta Alex Hannum Bob Leonard Bill Sharman Bob Leonard Bob Leonard Kevin Loughery Hubie Brown Kevin Loughery

Series 4–3(WLLWLWW) 4–1(WLWWW) 4–2(WWLWLW) 4–3(WWLLWLW) 4–2(WLWLWW) 4–3(WLLWWLW) 4–1(WWWLW) 4–1(WWWLW) 4–2(WLWWLW)

Loser

Head Coach

New Orleans Bucs Indiana Pacers Los Angeles Stars Kentucky Colonels New York Nets Kentucky Colonels Utah Stars Indiana Pacers Denver Nuggets

Babe McCarthy Bob Leonard Bill Sharman Frank Ramsey Lou Carnesecca Joe Mullaney Joe Mullaney Bob Leonard Larry Brown


TABLE 18.39 AMERICAN BASKETBALL ASSOCIATION LEADERS, 1968–1976 ABA Leaders Most Valuable Player

Scoring Leaders

Year

Player

Team

Pts

Year

Player

Team

Gm

Avg

Pts

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Connie Hawkins Mel Daniels Spencer Haywood Mel Daniels Artis Gilmore Billy Cunningham Julius Erving George McGinnis &Julius Erving Julius Erving

Pittsburgh, C Indiana, C Denver, C Indiana, C Kentucky, C Carolina, F New York, F Indiana, F NewYork, F New York, F

26.8 24.0 30.0 21.0 23.8 24.1 27.4 29.8 27.9 29.3

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

Connie Hawkins Rick Barry Spencer Haywood Dan Issel Charlie Scott Julius Erving Julius Erving George McGinnis Julius Erving

Pittsburgh Oakland Denver Kentucky Virginia Virginia N.Y. Nets Indiana N.Y. Nets

70 35 84 83 73 71 84 79 84

1875 1190 2519 2480 2524 2268 2299 2353 2462

26.8 34.0 30.0 29.8 34.6 31.9 27.4 29.8 29.3

1976


Professional Football Professional football began the postwar period reasonably well established in a 10-team National Football League (NFL) but clearly subordinate in popularity to professional baseball and football as played in college. Expansion came slowly at first, in small spurts and partly by default. Competition from a new league, the All American Football Conference (AAFC), beginning in 1946 did not go far. The AAFC folded in 1949, but out of the ruins came three new teams that would be incorporated into the NFL—the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco Forty-Niners in 1950, and the Baltimore Colts two years later. Needless to say, expansion of the league and of football’s popularity had a great deal to do with the emergence of television and proof of its adaptability to the gridiron.The huge audience attracted to televised coverage in 1958 of the championship game between Baltimore and the New York Giants suggested that here was a gold mine for the taking.Television also became involved in the emergence of a rival American Football League in 1960. A contract with NBC helped the infant league survive until the stronger, more popular and prestigious NFL agreed in 1966 to a merger. In 1970 a third national network, ABC, joined NBC and CBS in offering regular television coverage

of—and more money for—the reformed NFL. ABC’s Monday Night Football quickly became standard prime-time fare. The league did demand a sort of prenuptial agreement in its marriage with television. Rules determined how coverage would be divided between networks; territory close to the site of a game could be blacked-out unless the game was sold out. The league wisely decided that television revenues would be divided equally among all teams, a move that was crucial to small-market teams, such as Pittsburgh and Green Bay, and to the weaker American Conference in the early years of the merger. The arrangement did not work flawlessly, but it was profitable and an important ingredient in the league’s adding franchises, growing to national dimension. There were 28 teams in 1990. Professional football passed baseball as the leading spectator sport.The postseason meeting of the two conference champions, grandly proclaimed the Super Bowl, came to be treated almost as a national holiday. Pro football took on many characteristics of other team sports. Plentiful money means large profits, soaring salaries, numerous labor disputes, and occasional work stoppage. Football also paralleled other professional leagues in its treatment of the issue of race. The NFL had been all white before the Second Sports 533

World War and mostly white during the 1950s.The first black players, Woody Strode and Kenny Washington, joined the Los Angeles Rams about a year before Jackie Robinson played for the Dodgers. But integration came slowly, and the Washington Redskins did not use a black player until 1962.When the door opened, however, it opened widely. To a larger extent than baseball but less than in basketball, professional

TABLE 18.40

football became the domain of the black athlete. African Americans dominated the speed and power positions: offensive and defensive backs and the defensive line; they were less well represented as quarterbacks and kickers. By 1990 at least 60 percent of all players were black. The NFL was largely a league of white owners, coaches, and office personnel, and black players.

NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE CHAMPIONS, 1946–1966

Year

East Winner (W-L-T)

West Winner (W-L-T)

Playoff

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

New York Giants (7–3–1) Philadelphia Eagles (8–4–0) Philadelphia Eagles (9–2–1) Philadelphia Eagles (11–1–0) Cleveland Browns (10–2–0)

Chicago Bears (8–2–1) Chicago Cardinals (9–3–0) Chicago Cardinals (11–1–0) Los Angeles Rams (8–2–2) Los Angeles Rams (9–3–0)

Chicago Bears 24, New York 14 Chicago Cardinals 28, Philadelphia 21 Philadelphia 7, Chicago Cardinals 0 Philadelphia 14, Los Angeles 0 Cleveland 30 Los Angeles 28

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Cleveland Browns (11–1–0) Cleveland Browns (8–4–0) Cleveland Browns (11–1–0) Cleveland Browns (9–3–0) Cleveland Browns (9–2–1)

Los Angeles Rams (8–4–0) Detroit Lions (9–3–0) Detroit Lions (10–2–0) Detroit Lions (9–2–1) Los Angeles Rams (8–3–1)

Los Angeles 24, Cleveland 17 Detroit 17, Cleveland 7 Detroit 17, Celeveland 16 Cleveland 56, Detroit 10 Cleveland 38, Los Angeles 14

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

New York Giants (8–3–1) Cleveland Browns (9–2–1) New York Giants (9–3–0) NewYork Giants (10–2–0) Philadelphia Eagles (10–2–0)

Chicago Bears (9–2–1) Detroit Lions (8–4–0) Baltimore Colts (9–3–0) Baltimore Colts (9–3–0) Green Bay Packers (8–4–0)

New York 47, Chicago Bears 7 Detroit 59, Cleveland 14 Baltimore 23, New York 17 Baltimore 31, New York 16 Philadelphia 17, Green Bay 13

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

NewYork Giants (10–3–1) NewYork Giants (12–2–0) NewYork Giants (11–3–0) Cleveland Browns (10–3–1) Cleveland Browns (11–3–0) Dallas Cowboys (10–3–1)

Green Bay Packers (11–3–0) Green Bay Packers (13–1–0) Chicago Bears (11–1–2) Baltimore Colts (12–2–0) Green Bay Packers (10–3–1) Green Bay Packers (12–2–0)

Green Bay 37, New York 0 Green Bay 16, New York 7 Chicago 14, New York 10 Cleveland 27, Baltimore 0 Green Bay 23, Cleveland 12 Green Bay 34, Dallas 27


TABLE 18.41 EVOLUTION OF THE NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE, 1946–1990 1946 AAFC Eastern Division Team NewYork Brooklyn Buffalo Miami

W

L

T

10 3 3 3

3 10 10 11

1 1 1 0

Pct. .769 .231 .231 .154

Western Division PF 270 226 249 167

PA 192 339 370 378

Team Cleveland San Francisco Los Angeles Chicago

W

L

T

12 9 7 5

2 5 5 6

0 0 2 3

Playoffs Pct. .857 .643 .583 .455

PF

PA

AAFC championship

423 307 305 263

137 189 290 315

Cleveland 14 vs. New York 9

NFL Eastern Division Team N.Y. Giants Philadelphia Washington Pittsburgh Boston

W

L

T

7 6 5 5 2

3 5 5 5 8

1 0 1 1 1

Pct. .700 .545 .500 .500 .200

Western Division PF 236 231 171 136 189

PA 162 220 191 117 273

Team Chicago Bears Los Angeles Green Bay Chi. Cardinals Detroit

W

L

T

8 6 6 6 1

2 4 5 5 10

1 1 0 0 0

Playoffs Pct. .800 .600 .545 .545 .091

PF 289 277 148 260 142

PA

NFL championship

193 Chicago Bears 24 at N.Y. Giants 14 257 158 198 310

1966 AFL Eastern Division Team Buffalo Boston Patriots N.Y. Jets Houston Miami

534

W

L

T

9 8 6 3 3

4 4 6 11 11

1 2 2 0 0

Pct. .692 .667 .500 .214 .214

Western Division PF 358 315 322 335 213


PA 255 283 312 396 362

Team Kansas City Oakland San Diego Denver

W

L

T

11 8 7 4

2 5 6 10

1 1 1 0

Playoffs Pct. .846 .615 .538 .286

PF

PA

AFL championship

448 315 335 196

276 288 284 381

Kansas City 31 at Buffalo 7

NFL Eastern Conference Team Dallas Cleveland Philadelphia St. Louis Washington Pittsburgh Atlanta N.Y. Giants

Western Conference

Playoffs

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

10 9 9 8 7 5 3 1

3 5 5 5 7 8 11 12

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

.769 .643 .643 .615 .500 .385 .214 .077

445 403 326 264 351 316 204 263

239 259 340 265 355 347 437 501

Green Bay Baltimore Los Angeles San Francisco Chicago Detroit Minnesota

12 9 8 6 5 4 4

2 5 6 6 7 9 9

0 0 0 2 2 1 1

.857 .643 .571 .500 .417 .308 .308

335 314 289 320 234 206 292

163 226 212 325 272 317 304

NFL championship Green Bay 34 at Dallas 27 Super Bowl I Green Bay 35, Kansas City 10, at Los Angeles.

1990 American Conference

National Conference

Eastern Division

Eastern Division

Playoffs

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

AFC wild-card playoffs

Bufallo Miami Indianapolis N.Y. Jets New England

13 12 7 6 1

3 4 9 10 15

0 0 0 0 0

.813 .750 .438 .375 .063

428 336 281 .295 181

263 242 353 345 446

N.Y. Giants Philadelphia Washington Dallas Phoenix

13 10 10 7 5

3 6 6 9 11

0 0 0 0 0

.813 .625 625 .438 .313

335 396 381 244 268

211 299 301 308 396

Miami 17 vs. Kansas City 16 Cincinnati 41 vs. Houston 14 AFC divisional playoffs Buffalo 44 vs. Miami 34 L.A. Raiders 20 vs. Cincinnati 10

Central Division Team Cincinnati Houston Pittsburgh Cleveland

Central Division

AFC championship

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA Buffalo 51 vs. L.A. Raiders 3

9 9 9 3

7 7 7 13

0 0 0 0

.563 .563 563 .188

360 405 292 228

352 307 240 462

Chicago Tampa Bay Detroit Green Bay Minnesota

11 6 6 6 6

5 10 10 10 10

0 0 0 0 0

.688 .375 .375 .375 .375

348 264 373 271 351

280 367 413 347 326

Western Division

Western Division

NFC wild-card playoffs Washington 20 at Philadelphia 6 Chicago 16 vs. New Orleans 6 NFC divisional playoffs San Francisco 28 vs.Washington 10 N.Y. Giants 31 vs. Chicago 3

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

Team

W

L

T

Pct.

PF

PA

L.A. Raiders Kansas City Seattle San Diego Denver

12 11 9 6 5

4 5 7 10 11

0 0 0 0 0

.750 .688 .563 .375 .313

337 369 306 315 331

268 257 286 281 374

San Francisco New Orleans L.A. Rams Atlanta

14 8 5 5

2 8 11 11

0 0 0 0

.875 .500 .313 .313

353 274 345 348

239 275 412 365

NFC championship N.Y. Giants 15 at San Francisco 13 Super Bowl XXV N.Y. Giants 20 vs. Buffalo 19, at Tampa, Fla.

Source: The Sporting News, The Sporting News Pro Football Guide, 1998 Edition (St. Louis, 1998), 298, 303, 314.

TABLE 18.42

THE SUPER BOWL, 1967–1990

Having merged in 1966, the AFL and NFL became conferences within a single new NFL. Starting in 1967, the conference champions played each other in what became known as the Super Bowl, one of the major sporting days and television spectacles of the year. Bowl

Date

Winner

Head Coach

Score

Loser

Head Coach

Site

I II III IV V VI

1/15/67 1/14/68 1/12/69 1/11/70 1/17/71 1/16/72

GREEN BAY GREEN BAY NY Jets Kansas City Baltimore DALLAS

Vince Lombardi Vince Lombardi Weeb Ewbank Hank Stram Don McCafferty Tom Landry

35–10 33–14 16–7 23–7 16–13 24–3

Kansas City Oakland BALTIMORE MINNESOTA DALLAS Miami

Hank Stram John Rauch Don Shula Bud Grant Tom Landry Don Shula

Los Angeles Miami Miami New Orleans Miami New Orleans

VII VIII IX X XI XII

1/14/73 1/13/74 1/12/75 1/18/76 1/9/77 1/15/78

Miami Miami Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Oakland DALLAS

Don Shula Don Shula Chuck Noll Chuck Noll John Madden Tom Landry

14–7 24–7 16–6 21–17 32–14 27–10

WASHINGTON MINNESOTA MINNESOTA DALLAS MINNESOTA Denver

George Allen Bud Grant Bud Grant Tom Landry Bud Grant Red Miller

Los Angeles Houston New Orleans Miami Pasadena New Orleans

XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII

1/21/79 1/20/80 1/25/81 1/24/82 1/30/83 1/22/84

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Oakland SAN FRANCISCO WASHINGTON LA Raiders

Chuck Noll Chuck Noll Tom Flores Bill Walsh Joe Gibbs Tom Flores

35–31 31–19 27–10 26–21 27–17 38–9

DALLAS LA RAMS PHILADELPHIA Cincinnati Miami WASHINGTON

Tom Landry Ray Malavasi Dick Vermeil Forrest Gregg Don Shula Joe Gibbs

Miami Pasadena New Orleans Pontiac, Mich. Pasadena Tampa

XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV

1/20/85 1/26/86 1/25/87 1/31/88 1/22/89 1/28/90

SAN FRANCISCO CHICAGO NY GIANTS WASHINGTON SAN FRANCISCO SAN FRANCISCO

Bill Walsh Mike Ditka Bill Parcells Joe Gibbs Bill Walsh George Seifert

38–16 46–10 39–20 42–10 20–16 55–10

Miami New England Denver Denver Cincinnati Denver

Don Shula Raymond Berry Dan Reeves Dan Reeves Sam Wyche Dan Reeves

Stanford New Orleans Pasadena San Diego Miami New Orleans

Source: The 2001 ESPN Information Please Sports Almanac (Boston, 2000), 236.

Sports

535

TABLE 18.43

NO. 1 DRAFT CHOICES, 1946–1990

Year

Team

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949

Boston Yanks Chicago Bears Washington Philadelphia

Frank Dancewicz Bob Fenimore Harry Gilmer Chuck Bednarik

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

Detroit NY Giants LA Rams San Francisco Cleveland

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Position

Year

School

1966

QB HB QB C

N. Dame Okla. A&M Alabama Penn

Leon Hart Kyle Rote Bill Wade Harry Babcock Bobby Garrett

E HB QB E QB

Baltimore Pittsburgh Green Bay Chicago Cards Green Bay

George Shaw Gary Glick Paul Hornung King Hill Randy Duncan

NFL–LA Rams AFL–No choice NFL–Minnesota AFL–Buffalo NFL–Washington AFL–Oakland NFL–LA Rams AFL–Kan.City NFL–San Fran AFL–Boston NFL–NY Giants AFL–Houston

Team

Player

Position

School

1967 1968 1969 1970

NFL–Atlanta AFL–Miami Baltimore Minnesota Buffalo Pittsburgh

Tommy Nobis Jim Grabowski Bubba Smith Ron Yary O.J. Simpson Terry Bradshaw

LB FB DT T RB QB

Texas Illinois Michigan St. USC USC La.Tech

Notre Dame SMU Vanderbilt Georgia Stanford

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

New England Buffalo Houston Dallas Atlanta

Jim Plunkett Walt Patulski John Matuszak Ed “Too Tall’’ Jones Steve Bartkowski

QB DE DE DE QB

Stanford Notre Dame Tampa Tenn. St. Calif.

QB DB QB QB QB

Oregon Colo.A&M N. Dame Rice Iowa

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Tampa Bay Tampa Bay Houston Buffalo Detroit

Lee Roy Selmon Ricky Bell Earl Campbell Tom Cousineau Billy Sims

DE RB RB LB RB

Oklahoma USC Texas Ohio St. Oklahoma

Billy Cannon

HB

LSU

Tommy Mason Ken Rice Ernie Davis Roman Gabriel Terry Baker Buck Buchanan Dave Parks Jack Concannon Tucker Frederickson Lawrence Elkins

HB G HB QB QB DT E QB HB E

Tulane Auburn Syracuse N.C. State Oregon St. Grambling Texas Tech Boston Col. Auburn Baylor

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

New Orleans New England Baltimore New England Buffalo

George Rogers Kenneth Sims John Elway Irving Fryar Bruce Smith

RB DT QB WR DE

S. Carolina Texas Stanford Nebraska Va.Tech

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Tampa Bay Tampa Bay Atlanta Dallas Indianapolis

Bo Jackson V. Testaverde Aundray Bruce Troy Aikman Jeff George

RB QB LB QB QB

Auburn Miami-Fla. Auburn UCLA Illinois

Note: Heisman Trophy winners in bold type. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 238–39.

TABLE 18.44 AMERICAN FOOTBALL CONFERENCE LEADERS (American Football League, 1960–1969) Passing

Pass-Receiving

Player

Team

Atts

Com

YG

TD

Year

Player

Jack Kemp George Blanda Len Dawson Tobin Rote Len Dawson John Hadl Len Dawson Daryle Lamonica

Los Angeles Houston Dallas Kansas City Kansas City San Diego Kansas City Oakland

406 362 310 286 354 348 284 425

211 187 189 170 199 174 159 220

3,018 3,330 2,759 2,510 2,879 2,798 2,527 3,228

20 36 29 20 30 20 26 30

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967

Len Dawson Greg Cook Daryle Lamonica Bob Griese Earl Morrall Ken Stabler Ken Anderson Ken Anderson

Kansas City Cincinnati Oakland Miami Miami Oakland Cincinnati Cincinnati

224 197 356 263 150 260 328 377

131 106 179 145 83 163 213 228

2,109 1,854 2,516 2,089 1,360 1,997 2,667 3,169

17 15 22 19 11 14 18 21

Ken Stabler Bob Griese Terry Bradshaw Dan Fouts Brain Sipe Ken Anderson Ken Anderson Dan Marino

Oakland Miami Pittsburgh San Diego Cleveland Cincinnati Cincinnati Miami

291 307 368 530 554 479 309 296

194 180 207 332 337 300 218 173

2,737 2,252 2,915 4,082 4,132 3,754 2,495 2,210

Dan Marino Ken O’Brien Dan Marino Bernie Kosar Boomer Esiason Boomer Esiason Jim Kelly

Miami N.Y. Jets Miami Cleveland Cincinnati Cincinnati Buffalo

564 488 623 389 388 455 346

362 297 378 241 223 258 219

5,084 3,888 4,746 3,033 3,572 3,525 2,829

536


Team

Ct

YG

TD

Lionel Taylor Lionel Taylor Lionel Taylor Lionel Taylor Charley Hennigan Lionel Taylor Lance Alworth George Sauer

Denver Denver Denver Denver Houston Denver San Diego N.Y. Jets

92 100 77 78 101 85 73 75

1,235 1,176 908 1,101 1,546 1,131 1,383 1,189

12 4 4 10 8 6 13 6

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Lance Alworth Lance Alworth Marlin Briscoe Fred Biletnikoff Fred Biletnikoff Fred Willis Lydell Mitchell Reggie Rucker Lydell Mitchell

San Diego San Diego Buffalo Oakland Oakland Houston Baltimore Cleveland Baltimore

68 64 57 61 58 57 72 60 60

1,312 1,003 1,036 929 802 371 544 770 554

10 4 8 9 7 1 2 3 4

27 22 28 24 30 29 12 20

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

MacArthur Lane Lydell Mitchell Steve Largent Joe Washington Kellen Winslow Kellen Winslow Kellen Winslow Todd Christensen

Kansas City Baltimore Seattle Baltimore San Diego San Diego San Diego L.A. Raiders

66 71 71 82 89 88 54 92

686 620 1,168 750 1,290 1,075 721 1,247

1 4 8 3 9 10 6 12

48 25 44 22 28 28 24

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Ozzie Newsome Lionel James Todd Christensen Al Toon Al Toon Andre Reed Haywood Jeffires Drew Hill

Cleveland San Diego L.A. Raiders N.Y. Jets N.Y. Jets Buffalo Houston Houston

89 86 95 68 93 88 74 74

1,001 1,027 1,153 976 1,067 1,312 1,048 1,019

5 6 8 5 5 9 8 5

Scoring Player

Team

Rushing

TD

PAT

FG

Points

Year

Player

Team

Yards

Attempts

TD

Gene Mingo Gino Cappelletti Gene Mingo Gino Cappelletti Gino Cappelletti

Denver Boston Denver Boston Boston

6 8 4 2 7

33 48 32 35 36

18 17 27 22 25

123 147 137 113 155

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

Abner Haynes Billy Cannon Cookie Gilchrest Clem Daniels Cookie Gilchrest

Dallas Houston Buffalo Oakland Buffalo

875 948 1,096 1,099 981

156 200 214 215 230

9 6 13 3 6

Gino Cappelletti Gino Cappelletti George Blanda Jim Turner Jim Turner

Boston Boston Oakland N.Y. Jets N.Y. Jets

9 6 0 0 0

27 35 56 43 33

17 16 20 34 32

132 119 116 145 129

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Paul Lowe Jim Nance Jim Nance Paul Robinson Dick Post.

San Diego Boston Boston Cincinnati San Diego

1,121 1,458 1,216 1,023 873

222 299 269 238 182

7 11 7 8 6

Jan Stenerud Garo Yepremian, Bobby Howfield Roy Gerela Roy Gerela

Kansas City Miami N.Y. Jets Pittsburgh Pittsburgh

0 0 0 0 0

26 33 40 36 33

30 28 27 29 20

116 117 121 123 93

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Floyd Little Floyd Little O.J. Simpson O.J. Simpson Otis Amstrong

Denver Denver Buffalo Buffalo Denver

901 1,133 1,251 2,003 1,407

209 284 292 332 263

3 6 6 12 9

O.J. Simpson Toni Linhart Errol Mann Pat Leahy John Smith

Buffalo Baltimore Oakland N.Y. Jets New England

23 0 0 0 0

0 49 39 41 46

0 20 20 22 23

138 109 99 107 115

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

O.J. Simpson O.J. Simpson Mark van Eeghen Earl Campbell Earl Campbell

Buffalo Buffalo Oakland Houston Houston

1,817 1,503 1,273 1,450 1,697

329 290 324 302 368

16 8 7 13 19

John Smith Jim Breech Marcus Allen Gary Anderson Gary Anderson

New England Cincinnati L.A. Raiders Pittsburgh Pittsburgh

0 0 14 0 0

51 49 0 38 45

26 22 0 27 24

129 115 84 119 117

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Earl Campbell Earl Campbell Freeman McNeil Curt Warner Earnest Jackson

Houston Houston N.Y. Jets Seattle San Diego

1,934 1,376 786 1,446 1,179

373 361 151 335 296

13 10 6 13 8

Gary Anderson Tony Franklin Jim Breech

Pittsburgh New England Cincinnati

0 0 0

40 44 25

33 32 24

139 140 97

1985 1986 1987

Marcus Allen Curt Warner Eric Dickerson

1,759 1,481 1,288

380 319 283

11 13 6

Scott Norwood David Treadwell Nick Lowery

Buffalo Denver Kansas City

0 0 0

33 39 37

32 27 34

129 120 139

1988 1989 1990

Eric Dickerson Christian Okoye Thurman Thomas

L.A. Raiders Seattle L.A. Rams, Indianapolis Indianapolis Kansas City Buffalo

1,659 1,480 1,297

388 370 271

14 12 11

Note: Atts = attempts; Com = completions; YG = yards gained; TD = touchdowns; CT = catches; PAT = points after touchdown; FG = field goals. Source: Robert Famighetti, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1994 (Mahwah, N.J., 1993), 902.

TABLE 18.45

NATIONAL FOOTBALL CONFERENCE LEADERS

(National Football League, 1946–1969) Rushing, NFL–NFC Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949

Bill Dudley Steve Van Buren Steve Van Buren Steve Van Buren

1950 1951

Marion Motley Eddie Price

1952 1953 1954

Team

Rushing, NFL–NFC Year

Player

Team

Attempts

Yards

Avg.

1966 1967 1968 1969

Gale Sayers Leroy Kelly Leroy Kelly Gale Sayers

Chicago Cleveland Cleveland Chicago

229 235 248 236

1231 1205 1239 1032

5.4 5.1 5.0 4.4

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Larry Brown John Brockington Larry Brown John Brockington Lawrence McCutcheon

Washington Green Bay Washington Green Bay Los Angeles

237 216 285 265 236

1125 1105 1216 1144 1109

4.7 5.1 4.3 4.3 4.7

Jim Otis Walter Payton Walter Payton Walter Payton Walter Payton

St. Louis Chicago Chicago Chicago Chicago

269 311 339 333 369

1076 1390 1852 1395 1610

4.0 4.5 5.5 4.2 4.4

Attempts

Yards

Avg.

Pittsburgh Philadelphia Philadelphia Philadelphia

146 217 201 263

604 1008 945 1146

4.1 4.6 4.7 4.4

140 271

810 971

5.8 3.6

Dan Towler Joe Perry Joe Perry

Cleveland New York Giants Los Angeles San Francisco San Francisco

156 192 173

894 1018 1049

5.7 5.3 6.1

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Alan Ameche Rick Casares Jim Brown Jim Brown Jim Brown

Baltimore Chicago Bears Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland

213 234 202 257 290

961 1126 942 1527 1329

4.5 4.8 4.7 5.9 4.6

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Walter Payton George Rogers Tony Dorsett Eric Dickerson Eric Dickerson

Chicago New Orleans Dallas Los Angeles Los Angeles

317 378 177 390 379

1460 1674 745 1808 2105

4.6 4.4 4.2 4.6 5.6

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Jim Brown Jim Brown Jim Taylor Jim Brown Jim Brown Jim Brown

Cleveland Cleveland Green Bay Cleveland Cleveland Cleveland

215 305 272 291 280 289

1257 1408 1474 1863 1446 1544

5.8 4.6 5.4 6.4 5.1 5.3

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Gerald Riggs Eric Dickerson Charles White Herschel Walker Barry Sanders Barry Sanders

Atlanta Los Angeles Los Angeles Dallas Detroit Detroit

397 404 324 361 280 255

1719 1821 1374 1514 1470 1304

4.3 4.5 4.2 4.2 5.3 5.1

(continued) Sports

537


Passing NFL-NFC

Scoring, NFL–NFC Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949

Ted Fritsch Pat Harder Pat Harder Gene Roberts & Pat Harder Doak Walker Elroy Hirsch Gordy Soltau Gordy Soltau Bobby Walston Doak Walker Bobby Layne Sam Baker & Lou Groza Jim Brown Paul Hornung Paul Hornung Paul Hornung Jim Taylor Don Chandler Lenny Moore Gale Sayers Bruce Gossett Jim Bakken Leroy Kelly Fred Cox Fred Cox Curt Knight Chester Marcol David Ray Chester Marcol Chuck Foreman Mark Moseley Walter Payton Frank Corrol Mark Moseley Eddie Murray Rafael Septien & Eddie Murray Wendell Tyler Mark Moseley Ray Wersching Kevin Butler Kevin Butler Jerry Rice Mike Cofer Mike Cofer Chip Lohmiller

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Team Green Bay Chicago Cards Chicago Cards New York Giants Chicago Cards Detroit Los Angeles San Francisco San Francisco Philadelphia Detroit Detroit Washington Cleveland Cleveland Green Bay Green Bay Green Bay Green Bay New York Baltimore Chicago Los Angeles St.Louis Cleveland Minnesota Minnesota Washington Green Bay Los Angeles Green Bay Minnesota Washington Chicago Los Angeles Washington Detroit Dallas Detroit Los Angeles Washington San Francisco Chicago Chicago San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco Washington

TD

FG

PAT

Pts.

10 7 6 17 8 11 17 7 6 11 7 5 1 0 18 7 15 10 19 0 20 22 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 23 0 0 0

9 7 7 0 3 8 0 6 10 4 9 12 14 15 0 7 15 15 0 18 0 0 28 27 0 26 30 29 33 30 25 0 22 0 29 25 27 27 25 0 33 25 31 28 0 27 29 30

13 39 53 0 45 38 0 34 48 36 27 33 29 32 0 31 41 41 0 52 0 0 29 36 0 43 35 27 29 40 19 0 31 0 31 39 35 40 46 0 62 56 51 36 0 40 49 41

100 102 110 102 102 128 102 94 114 114 96 99 77 77 108 94 176 146 114 106 120 132 113 117 120 121 125 114 128 130 94 132 97 96 118 114 116 121 121 78 161 131 144 120 138 121 136 131

Note: TD = touchdowns; FG = field goals; PAT = points after touchdown. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 230–31.

TABLE 18.46 NATIONAL FOOTBALL CONFERENCE LEADERS, 1946–1990 Passing NFL-NFC Year

Player

Team

Att

Cmp

Yards

TD

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Bob Waterfield Sammy Baugh Tommy Thompson Sammy Baugh Norm Van Brocklin Bob Waterfield Norm Van Brocklin Otto Graham NormVan Brocklin Otto Graham Ed Brown Tommy O’Connell Eddie LeBaron Charlie Conerly Milt Plum Milt Plum Bart Starr Y.A.Tittle Bart Starr Rudy Bukich

Los Angeles Washington Philadelphia Washington Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Cleveland Los Angeles Cleveland Chicago Cleveland Washington New York Cleveland Cleveland Green Bay New York Green Bay Chicago

251 354 246 255 233 176 205 258 260 185 168 110 145 194 250 302 285 367 272 312

127 210 141 145 127 88 113 167 139 98 96 63 79 113 151 177 178 221 163 176

1747 2938 1965 1903 2061 1566 1736 2722 2637 1721 1667 1229 1365 1706 2297 2416 2438 3145 2144 2641

18 25 25 18 18 13 14 11 13 15 11 9 11 14 21 16 12 36 15 20

538


Year

Player

Team

Att

Cmp

Yards

TD

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Bart Starr Sonny Jurgensen Earl Morrall Sonny Jurgensen John Brodie Roger Staubach Norm Snead Roger Staubach Sonny Jurgensen Fran Tarkenton James Harris Roger Staubach Roger Staubach Roger Staubach Ron Jaworski Joe Montana Joe Theismann Steve Bartkowski Joe Montana Joe Montana Tommy Kramer Joe Montana Wade Wilson Don Majkowski Joe Montana

Green Bay Washington Baltimore Washington San Francisco Dallas New York Dallas Washington Minnesota Los Angeles Dallas Dallas Dallas Philadelphia San Francisco Washington Atlanta San Francisco San Francisco Minnesota San Francisco Minnesota Green Bay San Francisco

251 508 317 442 378 211 325 286 167 425 158 361 413 461 451 488 252 432 432 494 372 398 332 599 520

156 288 182 274 223 126 196 179 107 273 91 210 231 267 257 311 161 274 279 303 208 266 204 353 321

2257 3747 2909 3102 2941 1882 2307 2428 1185 2994 1460 2620 3190 3586 3529 3565 2033 3167 3630 3653 3000 3054 2746 4318 3944

14 31 26 22 24 15 17 23 11 25 8 18 25 27 27 19 13 22 28 27 24 31 15 27 26

Yards

Avg.

TD

981 910 698 1013 1116 1495 911 1049 872 830 864 889 757 794 766 959 1298 1092 1384 967 1200 1344 1119 990 994 1015 1026 791 1048 1116 696 691 806 681 704 1156 567 1105 913 1227 1225 1139 1372 1016 1570 1117 1414 1423 1502

15.6 14.2 13.7 13.2 13.3 22.7 14.7 16.7 14.5 13.8 13.9 14.8 14.6 14.2 13.7 14.5 17.5 14.0 19.2 13.2 12.9 16.8 15.5 14.1 14.0 13.9 14.5 13.4 16.9 16.7 11.0 9.5 13.9 13.4 8.0 14.5 6.8 13.0 12.2 15.7 15.7 14.6 12.9 11.0 18.3 12.3 16.4 15.8 15.0

6 10 4 9 7 17 5 10 10 5 7 5 6 9 2 14 10 5 11 10 10 12 12 9 7 7 13 4 4 9 3 9 6 2 5 9 4 4 5 14 8 5 7 6 15 8 10 12 13

Receiving NFL-NFC Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

Jim Benton Jim Keane Tom Fears Tom Fears Tom Fears Elroy Hirsch Mac Speedie Pete Pihos Pete Pihos & Billy Wilson Pete Pihos Billy Wilson Billy Wilson Raymond Berry & Pete Retzlaff Raymond Berry Raymond Berry Red Phillips Bobby Mitchell Bobby Joe Conrad Johnny Morris Dave Parks Charley Taylor Charley Taylor Clifton McNeil Dan Abramowicz Dick Gordon Bob Tucker Harold Jackson Harold Carmichael Charles Young Chuck Foreman Drew Pearson Ahmad Rashad Rickey Young Ahmad Rashad Earl Cooper Dwight Clark Dwight Clark Roy Green Charlie Brown & Earnest Gray Art Monk Roger Craig Jerry Rice J.T. Smith Henry Ellard Sterling Sharpe Jerry Rice

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Team

No

Los Angeles 63 Chicago Bears 64 Los Angeles 51 Los Angeles 77 Los Angeles 84 Los Angeles 66 Cleveland 62 Philadelphia 63 Philadelphia 60 San Francisco 60 Philadelphia 62 San Francisco 60 San Francisco 52 Baltimore 56 Philadelphia 56 Baltimore 66 Baltimore 74 Los Angeles 78 Washington 72 St. Louis 73 Chicago 93 San Francisco 80 Washington 72 Washington 70 San Francisco 71 New Orleans 73 Chicago 71 New York 59 Philadelphia 62 Philadelphia 67 Philadelphia 63 Minnesota 73 Dallas 58 Minnesota 51 Minnesota 88 Minnesota 80 San Francisco 83 San Francisco 85 San Francisco 60 St. Louis 78 Washington 78 New York 78 Washington 106 San Francisco 92 San Francisco 86 St. Louis 91 Los Angeles 86 Green Bay 90 San Francisco 100

Note: Att = attempts; Cmp = completions; TD = touchdowns; No = number of receptions. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Alamanc, 228–29.

TABLE 18.47

NFL MOST VALUABLE PLAYER, DEFENSIVE PLAYER OF THE YEAR, AND ROOKIE OF THE YEAR, 1957–1990

The Most Valuable Player is one of many awards given out annually by the Associated Press. The George Halas Trophy is awarded to the outstanding defensive player of the year, as chosen by a panel of sports experts. Rookie of the Year is one of many awards given out annually by The Sporting News. Many other organizations give out annual awards honoring the NFL’s best players. Most Valuable Player Year

Player

Team

1957 1958 1959 1960

Jim Brown Gino Marchetti Charley Conerly Norm Van Brocklin Joe Schmidt Paul Hornung Jim Taylor Y.A.Tittle John Unitas Jim Brown Bart Starr John Unitas Earl Morrall Roman Gabriel John Brodie Alan Page Larry Brown O.J. Simpson Ken Stabler Fran Tarkenton Bert Jones Walter Payton Terry Bradshaw Earl Campbell Brian Sipe Ken Anderson Mark Moseley Joe Theismann Dan Marino Marcus Allen Lawrence Taylor John Elway Boomer Esiason Joe Montana Joe Montana

Cleveland Baltimore Colts N.Y. Giants Philadelphia Detroit Green Bay Green Bay N.Y. Giants Baltimore Colts Cleveland Green Bay Baltimore Colts Baltimore Colts L.A. Rams San Francisco Minnesota Washington Buffalo Oakland Minnesota Baltimore Chicago Pittsburgh Houston Cleveland Cincinnati Washington Washington Miami L.A. Raiders N.Y. Giants Denver Cincinnati San Francisco San Francisco

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Defensive Player of the Year Year

Player

Team

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

LarryWilson Deacon Jones Deacon Jones Dick Butkus Dick Butkus Carl Eller Joe Greene Alan Page Joe Greene Curley Culp Jerry Sherk Harvey Martin Randy Gradishar Lee Roy Selmon Lester Hayes Joe Klecko Mark Gastineau Jack Lambert Mike Haynes Howie Long Andre Tippett Lawrence Taylor Reggie White Mike Singletary Tim Harris Bruce Smith

St. Louis Los Angeles Los Angeles Chicago Chicago Minnesota Pittsburgh Minnesota Pittsburgh Houston Cleveland Dallas Denver Tampa Bay Oakland N.Y. Jets N.Y. Jets Pittsburgh L.A. Raiders L.A. Raiders New England N.Y. Giants Philadelphia Chicago Green Bay Buffalo

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Rookie of the Year Year

Player

Team

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Charley Taylor Gale Sayers Tommy Nobis Mel Farr Earl McCullouch Calvin Hill (NFC) Bruce Taylor (AFC) Dennis Shaw (NFC) John Brockington (AFC) Jim Plunkett (NFC) Chester Marcol (AFC) Franco Harris (NFC) Chuck Foreman (AFC) Boobie Clark (NFC) Wilbur Jackson (AFC) Don Woods (NFC) Steve Bartkowski (AFC) Robert Brazile (NFC) Sammy White (AFC) Mike Haynes (NFC) Tony Dorsett (AFC) A. J. Duhe (NFC) Al Baker (AFC) Earl Campbell (NFC) Ottis Anderson (AFC) Jerry Butler Billy Sims George Rogers Marcus Allen Dan Marino Louis Lipps Eddie Brown Rueben Mayes Robert Awalt Keith Jackson Barry Sanders Richmond Webb

Washington Chicago Atlanta Detroit Detroit Dallas San Francisco Buffalo Green Bay New England Green Bay Pittsburgh Minnesota Cincinnati San Francisco San Diego Atlanta Houston Minnesota New England Dallas Miami Detroit Houston St. Louis Buffalo Detroit New Orleans L.A. Raiders Miami Pittsburgh Cincinnati New Orleans St Louis Philadelphia Detroit Miami

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Source: Robert Famighetti, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2000 (Mahwah, N.J., 1999), 936

TABLE 18.48 JIM THORPE TROPHY: MOST VALUABLE PLAYER CHOSEN BY NFL PLAYERS ASSOCIATION, 1955–1992 Year

Player

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963

Harlon Hill Frank Gifford John Unitas Jim Brown Charley Connerly Norm Van Brocklin Y.A.Tittle Jim Taylor Jim Brown Y.A.Tittle Lenny Moore Jim Brown Bart Starr John Unitas Earl Morrall Roman Gabriel John Brodie Bob Griese Larry Brown O.J. Simpson Ken Stabler Fran Tarkenton Bert Jones Walter Payton Earl Campbell Earl Campbell

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Team Chicago Bears N.Y. Giants Baltimore Colts Cleveland Browns N.Y. Giants Philadelphia Eagles N.Y. Giants Green Bay Packers Cleveland Browns N.Y. Giants Baltimore Colts Cleveland Browns Green Bay Packers Baltimore Colts Baltimore Colts Los Angeles Rams San Francisco 49ers Miami Dolphins Washington Redskins Buffalo Bills Oakland Raiders Minnesota Vikings Baltimore Colts Chicago Bears Houston Oilers Houston Oilers

(continued) Sports

539

TABLE 18.48

(continued)

Year

Player

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Earl Campbell Ken Anderson Dan Fouts Joe Theismann Dan Marino Walter Payton Phil Simms Jerry Rice Roger Craig Joe Montana Warren Moon Thurman Thomas Steve Young

TABLE 18.49 FIRST AFRICAN AMERICANS ON NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE TEAMS, 1945–1962

Team Houston Oilers Cincinnati Bengals San Diego Chargers Washington Redskins Miami Dolphins Chicago Bears N.Y. Giants San Francisco San Francisco San Francisco Houston Buffalo San Francisco

Year

Team

Player

Position

1946

Los Angeles Rams

1948

New York Giants Detroit Lions

1949 1951 1952 1952

New York Yankees Green Bay Packers Chicago Bears Chicago Cardinals

1952

Philadelphia Eagles

1952 1953

Pittsburgh Steelers Baltimore Colts

1962

Washington Redskins

Kenny Washington Woody Strode Emlen Tunnel Melvin Grooms Bob Mann Sherman Howard Bob Mann Eddie Macon Clifton Anderson Ollie Matson Wally Triplett Ralph Goldston Donald Stevens Jack Spinks Melvin Embree George Taliaferro Claude “Buddy’’Young Bobby Mitchell Ron Hatcher

RB E DB RB E RB E RB E RB RB RB RB G E RB RB RB RB


RB 5 running back E 5 end G 5 guard T 5 tackle DB 5 defensive back C 5 center Source: Arthur Ashe, Jr., A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete Since 1946 (New York, 1988), 398.

TABLE 18.50 NFL LEADERS IN SELECTED OFFENSIVE CATEGORIES, BY RACE, 1940–1989 Passing

Rushing

Years

No. Players

No. Black Americans

1940–49 1950–59 1960–69 1970–79 1980–89

10 10 20 10 10

0 0 0 0 0

No. Players 10 10 20 10 10

Receiving

No. Black Americans

No. Players

0 4 9 10 9

10 10 20 10 10

Field Goals

No. Black Americans 0 0 9 8 7

Punt Returns

No. Players

No. Black Americans

No. Players

No. Black Americans

14 11 20 12 10

0 0 0 0 0

9 10 20 10 10

0 3 12 4 8

Source: Jessie C. Smith and Carrell P. Horton, Statistical Record of Black America (Detroit, 1997), 819–20.

College Football Expansion of the National Football League did not mean that college football passed into obscurity. The Saturday afternoon game remained part of the college setting and of those distinguishing forces that appeared with the arrival of autumn. In many ways the college game paralleled the professionals. The rules remained basically the same. Both levels adopted the principle of unlimited substitution. Protective wearing equipment, especially for the head, became more sophisticated. The colleges served as a training ground, a minor league, for the NFL. College players enjoyed the excitement and recognition of making the varsity, but at major schools they considered their experience a prelude to being drafted in a high round and a huge salary and new life with the pros. College football, as with the NFL, took on national dimension, and even with membership in regional conferences, the Division I teams reached into other geographic areas for preconference and postconference competition. Most four-year colleges had football teams, but 540


most of the attention and nearly all the television revenue went to a shifting circle of 100 or so schools from four or five power conferences and a diminishing number of independent competitors. Notre Dame University, for example, an independent that retained more in mystique than athletic dominance, wrestled a television contract from NBC worth $7 million a year. After the regular season came the bowl games—by 1990 there were 19 major ones—and an invitation to a bowl, which meant more money for the school and its conference, was most likely to go to the Big Ten, Big Eight, Pac 10, Southeastern, or other major athletic league. College teams played nearly as many games as the professionals, and they played them essentially the same way. What they lacked was direct, legal payment of money to the players—but only the players, for other participants were paid; coaches could move interchangeably from one level to the other. The colleges also lacked a superbowl. Unlike the NFL, unlike college baseball and basketball, there was no playoff that produced an unchallenged national champion. The professionals, in fact, already had commandeered the name.

TABLE 18.51 Year

NATIONAL DIVISION I COLLEGE FOOTBALL CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990 Record

Bowl Game

Notre Dame Notre Dame Michigan Michigan Notre Dame Oklahoma

8–0–1 9–0–0 10–0–0 9–0–0 10–0–0 10–1–0

No bowl No bowl Won Rose No bowl No bowl Lost Sugar

Frank Leahy Frank Leahy Fritz Crisler Bennie Oosterbaan Frank Leahy Bud Wilkinson

Tennessee Michigan St Maryland Ohio St UCLA (UPI) Oklahoma

10–1–0 9–0–0 10–1–0 10–0–0 9–0–0 11–0–0

Lost Sugar No bowl Lost Orange Won Rose No bowl Won Orange

Bob Neyland Biggie Munn Jim Tatum Woody Hayes Red Sanders Bud Wilkinson

Oklahoma Auburn Ohio St (UPI) Louisiana St Syracuse Minnesota

10–0–0 10–0–0 9–1–0 11–0–0 11–0–0 8–2–0

No bowl No bowl Won Rose Won Sugar Won Cotton Lost Rose

Bud Wilkinson Shug Jordan Woody Hayes Paul Dietzel Ben Schwartzwalder Murray Warmath

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Alabama Southern Cal Texas Alabama Alabama Michigan St (UPI)

11–0–0 11–0–0 11–0–0 10–1–0 9–1–1 10–1–0

Won Sugar Won Rose Won Cotton Lost Orange Won Orange Lost Rose

Bear Bryant John McKay Darrell Royal Bear Bryant Bear Bryant Duffy Daugherty

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Notre Dame Southern Cal Ohio St Texas Nebraska Texas (UPI)

9–0–1 10–1–0 10–0–0 11–0–0 11–0–1 10–1–0

No bowl Won Rose Won Rose Won Cotton Won Orange Lost Cotton

Ara Parseghian John McKay Woody Hayes Darrell Royal Bob Devaney Darrell Royal

1971 1972 1973

Nebraska Southern Cal Notre Dame Alabama (UPI) Oklahoma Southern Cal (UPI) Oklahoma

13–0–0 12–0–0 11–0–0 11–1–0 11–0–0 10–1–1 11–1–0

Won Orange Won Rose Won Sugar Lost Sugar No bowl Won Rose Won Orange

Bob Devaney John McKay Ara Parseghian Bear Bryant Barry Switzer John McKay Barry Switzer

1979 1980

Pittsburgh Notre Dame Alabama Southern Cal (UPI) Alabama Georgia

12–0–0 11–1–0 11–1–0 12–1–0 12–0–0 12–0–0

Won Sugar Won Cotton Won Sugar Won Rose Won Sugar Won Sugar

Johnny Majors Dan Devine Bear Bryant John Robinson Bear Bryant Vince Dooley

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Clemson Penn St Miami (FL) Brigham Young Oklahoma

12–0–0 11–1–0 11–1–0 13–0–0 11–1–0

Won Orange Won Sugar Won Orange Won Holiday Won Orange

Danny Ford Joe Paterno Howard Schnellenberger LaVell Edwards Barry Switzer

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Penn St Miami (FL) Notre Dame Miami (FL) Colorado Georgia Tech (UPI)

12–0–0 12–0–0 12–0–0 11–1–0 11–1–1 11–0–1

Won Fiesta Won Orange Won Fiesta Won Sugar Won Orange Won Citrus

Joe Paterno Jimmy Johnson Lou Holtz Dennis Erickson Bill McCartney Bobby Ross

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

Champion

Head Coach

Note: Based on vote of Associated Press, 1946–90, and United Press, 1958–90. When the AP vote (of writers) and UPI vote (of coaches) did not agree, both selected teams were listed. Source: Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac, 198.

Sports

541

TABLE 18.52

ALL-TIME DIVISION I-A PERCENTAGE LEADERS

(classified as Division I-A for the last 10 years; record includes bowl games; ties computed as half won and half lost) Bowl Games Team

Years

Won

Lost

Tied

Percentage

Won

Lost

Tied

Notre Dame Michigan Alabama Oklahoma Texas USC

102 111 96 96 98 98

692 712 658 636 671 613

206 236 233 230 257 236

40 33 43 50 31 51

.759 .743 .728 .722 .716 .709

10 10 23 18 16 22

6 12 17 10 16 12

0 0 3 1 2 0

Ohio St. Penn St. Nebraska Tennessee Central Michigan Army

101 104 101 94 90 101

633 646 644 609 464 573

257 282 284 268 242 309

51 41 39 52 32 50

.701 .688 .686 .684 .650 .642

11 16 14 17 3 2

12 9 15 14 1 1

0 2 0 0 0 0

Louisiana St. Miami (Ohio) Arizona St. Georgia Washington Auburn

97 102 78 97 101 98

561 530 426 565 534 537

304 293 240 322 303 324

46 40 24 53 49 45

.641 .637 .635 .630 .630 .618

11 5 9 13 11 12

16 2 5 13 7 9

1 0 1 3 1 2

Florida St. Michigan St. Minnesota Colorado Arkansas UCLA

44 94 107 101 97 72

282 507 547 532 536 414

172 308 334 340 343 268

16 42 43 33 38 37

.617 .616 .615 .606 .605 .602

11 5 2 5 9 9

7 5 3 10 14 7

2 0 0 0 3 1

Note: Statistics through the season of 1990. Source: World Almanac, 1992, 900.

Rose Bowl (Pasadena, Calif.)

TABLE 18.53 NCAA FOOTBALL—MAJOR BOWL GAMES, 1946–1990 Rose Bowl (Pasadena, Calif.) Year

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Year

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

UCLA Southern California Washington Southern Cal. Southern Cal

23 14 27 17 17

Ohio State Michigan Michigan Michigan Ohio State

10 6 20 10 16

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Michigan Washington UCLA UCLA Southern Cal

23 28 24 45 20

Washington Iowa Michigan Illinois Ohio State

6 0 14 9 17

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

UCLA Arizona State Michigan St. Michigan Southern Cal.

45 22 20 22 17

Iowa Michigan Southern Cal. Southern Cal. Michigan

28 15 17 14 10

Score

Loser

Score

Alabama Illinois Michigan Northwestern Ohio State

34 45 49 20 17

Southern Cal. UCLA Southern California California California

14 14 0 14 14

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Michigan Illinois Southern California Michigan State Ohio State

14 40 7 28 20

California Stanford Wisconsin UCLA Southern Cal

6 7 0 20 7

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Michigan State Iowa Ohio State Iowa Washington

17 35 10 38 44

UCLA Oregon State Oregon California Wisconsin

14 19 7 12 8

Year

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Washington Minnesota Southern Cal. Illinois Michigan

17 21 42 17 34

Minnesota UCLA Wisconsin Washington Oregon State

7 3 37 7 7

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Texas Arkansas So. Methodist Southern Methodist Rice

40 0 13 21 27

Missouri Louisiana State Penn State Oregon North Carolina

27 0 13 13 13

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

UCLA Purdue Southern California Ohio State Southern California

14 14 14 27 10

Michigan State Southern California Indiana Southern Cal. Michigan

12 13 3 16 3

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Tennessee Kentucky Texas Rice Georgia Tech

20 20 16 28 14

Texas Texas Christian Tennessee Alabama Arkansas

14 7 0 0 6

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Stanford Stanford Southern Cal. Ohio State Southern Cal.

27 13 42 42 18

Ohio State Michigan Ohio State Southern Cal. Ohio State

17 12 17 21 17

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Mississippi Texas Christian Navy Texas Christian Syracuse

14 28 20 0 23

Texas Christian Syracuse Rice Air Force Texas

13 27 7 0 14

542


Cotton Bowl (Dallas, Tex.)

Orange Bowl (Miami, Fla.)

Cotton Bowl (Dallas, Tex.) Year

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

Year

6 7 0 6 7

1978 1979 1980

Arkansas Oklahoma Oklahama

31 31 24

Oklahoma Nebraska Florida State

6 21 7

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Oklahoma Clemson Nebraska Miami (Fla.) Washington

18 22 21 31 28

Florida State Nebraska Louisiana State Nebraska Oklahoma

17 15 20 30 17

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Oklahoma Oklahoma Miami (Fla.) Miami (Fla.) Notre Dame

25 42 20 23 21

Penn State Arkansas Oklahoma Nebraska Colorado

10 8 14 3 6

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Duke Texas Louisiana State Texas Arkansas

7 12 13 28 10

Arkansas Mississippi Texas Navy Nebraska

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Louisiana State Georgia Texas A&M Texas Texas

14 24 20 36 21

Arkansas Southern Methodist Alabama Tennessee Notre Dame

7 9 16 13 17

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Notre Dame Penn State Texas Nebraska Penn State

24 30 17 19 41

Texas Texas Alabama Texas Baylor

11 6 13 3 20

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Arkansas Houston Notre Dame Notre Dame Houston

31 30 38 35 17

Georgia Maryland Texas Houston Nebraska

10 21 10 34 14

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Alabama Texas Southern Methodist Georgia Boston College

30 14 7 10 45

Baylor Alabama Pittsburgh Texas Houston

2 12 3 9 28

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Texas A&M Ohio State Texas A&M UCLA Tennessee

36 28 35 17 31

Auburn Texas A&M Notre Dame Arkansas Arkansas

16 12 10 3 27

Orange Bowl (Miami, Fla.) Year

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Miami (Fla) Rice Georgia Tech Texas Santa Clara

13 8 20 41 21

Holy Cross Tennessee Kansas Georgia Kentucky

6 0 14 28 13

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Clemson Georgia Tech Alabama Oklahoma Duke

15 20 61 7 34

Miami (Fla) Baylor Syracuse Maryland Nebraska

14 14 6 0 7

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Oklahoma Colorado Oklahoma Oklahoma Georgia

20 27 48 21 14

Maryland Clemson Duke Syracuse Missouri

6 21 21 6 0

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Missouri Louisiana State Alabama Nebraska Texas

21 25 17 13 21

Navy Colorado Oklahoma Auburn Alabama

14 7 0 7 17

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Alabama Florida Oklahoma Penn State Penn State

39 27 26 15 10

Nebraska Georgia Tech Tennessee Kansas Missouri

28 12 24 14 3

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Nebraska Nebraska Nebraska Penn State Notre Dame

17 38 40 16 13

Louisiana State Alabama Notre Dame Louisiana State Alabama

12 6 6 9 11

1976 1977

Oklahoma Ohio State

14 27

Michigan Colorado

6 10

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

Sugar Bowl (New Orleans, La.) Year

Winner

Score

Loser

Score

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Oklahoma State Georgia Texas Oklahoma Oklahoma

33 20 27 14 35

St. Mary’s North Carolina Alabama North Carolina Louisiana State

13 10 7 6 0

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Kentucky Maryland Georgia Tech Georgia Tech Navy

13 28 24 42 21

Oklahoma Tennessee Mississippi West Virginia Mississippi

7 13 7 19 0

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Georgia Tech Baylor Mississippi Louisiana State Mississippi

7 13 39 7 21

Pittsburgh Tennessee Texas Clemson Louisiana State

0 7 7 0 0

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Mississippi Alabama Mississippi Alabama Louisiana State

14 10 17 12 13

Rice Arkansas Arkansas Mississippi Syracuse

6 3 13 7 10

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Missouri Alabama Louisiana State Arkansas Mississippi

20 34 20 16 27

Florida Nebraska Wyoming Georgia Arkansas

18 7 13 2 22

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Tennessee Oklahoma Oklahoma Notre Dame Nebraska

34 40 14 24 13

Air Force Auburn Penn State Alabama Florida

13 22 0 23 10

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Alabama Pittsburgh Alabama Alabama Alabama

13 27 35 14 24

Penn State Georgia Ohio State Penn State Arkansas

6 3 6 7 9

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Georgia Pittsburgh Penn State Auburn Nebraska

17 24 27 9 28

Notre Dame Georgia Georgia Michigan Louisiana State

10 20 23 7 10

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Tennessee Nebraska Syracuse Florida State Miami (Fla.)

35 30 16 13 33

Miami (Fla.) Louisiana State Auburn Auburn Alabama

7 15 16 7 25

Source: John W. Wright, The Universal Almanac, 1995 (New York, 1994), 670.

Sports

543

TABLE 18.54 INDIVIDUAL ACHIEVEMENTS, 1946–1990 Heisman Trophy Winnersa Year

Winner

Team

Outland Award Year

Position

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Glenn Davis John Lujack Doak Walker Leon Hart Vic Janowicz

Army Notre Dame SMU Notre Dame Ohio State

HB QB HB E HB

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Richard Kazmaier Billy Vessels John Lattner Alan Ameche Howard Cassady

Princeton Oklahoma Notre Dame Wisconsin Ohio St.

HB HB HB FB HB

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Paul Hornung John Crow Pete Dawkins Billy Cannon Joe Bellino

Notre Dame Texas A & M Army La. State Navy

QB HB HB HB HB

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Ernest Davis Terry Baker Roger Staubach John Huarte Mike Garrett

Syracuse Oregon State Navy Notre Dame USC

HB QB QB QB HB

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Steve Spurrier Gary Beban O.J. Simpson Steve Owens Jim Plunkett

Florida UCLA USC Oklahoma Stanford

QB QB RB RB QB

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Pat Sullivan Johnny Rodgers John Cappelletti Archie Griffin Archie Griffin

Auburn Nebraska Penn State Ohio State Ohio State

QB RB-R RB RB RB

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Tony Dorsett Earl Campbell Billy Sims Charles White George Rogers

Pittsburgh Texas Oklahoma USC So Carolina

RB RB RB RB RB

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Marcus Allen Herschel Walker Mike Rozier Doug Flutie Bo Jackson

USC Georgia Nebraska Boston College Auburn

RB RB RB QB RB

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Vinny Testaverde Tim Brown Barry Sanders Andre Ware Ty Detmer

Miami Notre Dame Oklahoma St. Houston BYU

QB WR RB QB QB

a Awarded

annually to the nation’s outstanding college football player. Source: World Almanac, 1992, 900.

Outland Awardb Year

Winner

Team

Position

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

George Connor Joe Steffy Bill Fischer Ed Bagdon Bob Gain

Notre Dame Army Notre Dame Michigan St. Kentucky

T G G G T

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Jim Weatherall Dick Modzelewski J. D. Roberts Bill Brooks Calvin Jones

Oklahoma Maryland Oklahoma Arkansas Iowa

T T G G G

Winner


Position

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Jim Parker Alex Karras Zeke Smith Mike McGee Tom Brown

Ohio State Iowa Auburn Duke Minnesota

G T G T G

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Merlin Olsen Bobby Bell Scott Appleton Steve Delong Tommy Nobis

Utah State Minnesota Texas Tennessee Texas

T T T T G

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Loyd Phillips Ron Yary Bill Stanfill Mike Reid Jim Stillwagon

Arkansas Southern Cal Georgia Penn State Ohio State

T T T DT LB

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Larry Jacobson Rich Glover John Hicks Randy White Lee Roy Selmon

Nebraska Nebraska Ohio State Maryland Oklahoma

DT MG G DE DT

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Ross Browner Brad Shearer Greg Roberts Jim Ritcher Mark May

Notre Dame Texas Oklahoma No. Carolina St. Pittsburgh

DE DT G C OT

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Dave Rimington Dave Rimington Dean Steinkuhler Bruce Smith Mike Ruth

Nebraska Nebraska Nebraska Virginia Tech Boston College

C C G DT DT

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jason Buck Chad Hennings Tracy Rocker Mohammed Elewonibi Russell Maryland

BYU Air Force Auburn BYU Miami (Fla.)

DT DT DT G DT

Honoring the outstanding interior lineman, selected by the Football Writers’ Association of America. Source: World Almanac, 1992, 898.

TABLE 18.55

VINCE LOMBARDI AWARD, 1970–1990

Honoring the outstanding lineman, sponsored by the Rotary Club of Houston Year

Winner

Team

Position

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Jim Stillwagon Walt Patulski Rich Glover John Hicks Randy White

Ohio State Notre Dame Nebraska Ohio State Maryland

MG DE MG OT DT

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Lee Roy Selmon Wilson Whitley Ross Browner Bruce Clark Brad Budde

Oklahoma Houston Notre Dame Penn State USC

DT DT DE DT G

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Hugh Green Kenneth Sims Dave Rimington Dean Steinkuhler Tony Degrate

Pittsburgh Texas Nebraska Nebraska Texas

DE DT C G DT

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Tony Casillas Cornelius Bennett Chris Spielman Tracy Rocker Percy Snow Chris Zorich

Oklahoma Alabama Ohio State Auburn Michigan St. Notre Dame

NG DE LB DT LB DL


544

Team

TABLE 18.56 COLLEGE FOOTBALL AWARD WINNERS, BY RACE, 1935–1990 Number Year of Number Awarded First Award of to Black to Black Awards Athletes Athletes

Award/Trophy

Years

Heisman Trophy Outland Trophy Lombardi Award Maxwell Awarda Davey O’Brien Awardb Butkus Awardc Jim Thorpe Awardd Doak Walker Awarde

1935–1990 1946–1990 1970–1990 1937–1990 1981–1990 1985–1990 1986–1990 1990

56 45 21 54 10 6 6 1

17 11 11 12 2 3 6 1

1961 1955 1972 1968 1987 1988 1986 1990

a

Top player award (Maxwell Club). Top quarterback award. c Top linebacker award. d Top defensive back award. e Top junior or senior running back. Source: Horton and Smith, Record of Black America (1993), 841. b

TABLE 18.57

RUSHING, 1946–1990

Individual championship decided on Rushing Yards (1937–1969) and on Yards per Game (since 1970). Year

Player

Team

Car

Yards

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Rudy Mobley Wilton Davis Fred Wendt John Dottley Wilford White

Hardin-Simmons Hardin-Simmons Texas Mines Ole Miss Arizona St

277 193 184 208 199

1262 1173 1570 1312 1502

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Ollie Matson Howie Waugh J.C. Caroline Art Luppino Art Luppino

San Francisco Tulsa Illinois Arizona Arizona

245 164 194 179 209

1566 1372 1256 1359 1313

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Jim Crawford Leon Burton Dick Bass Pervis Atkins Bob Gaiters

Wyoming Arizona St Pacific New Mexico St New Mexico St

200 117 205 130 197

1104 1126 1361 971 1338

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Jim Pilot Jim Pilot Dave Casinelli Brian Piccolo Mike Garrett

New Mexico St New Mexico St Memphis St Wake Forest USC

191 208 219 252 267

1278 1247 1016 1044 1440

1966 1967 1968 1969

Ray McDonald O.J. Simpson O.J. Simpson Steve Owens

Idaho USC USC Oklahoma

259 266 355 358

1329 1415 1709 1523

Year

Player

Team

Car

Yards

P/Gm

1970

Ed Marinaro

Cornell

285

1425

158.3

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Ed Marinaro Pete Van Valkenburg Mark Kellar Louie Giammona Ricky Bell

Cornell BYU Northern Ill Utah St. USC

356 232 291 329 357

1881 1386 1719 1534 1875

209.0 138.6 156.3 153.4 170.5

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Tony Dorsett Earl Campbell Billy Sims Charles White George Rogers

Pittsburgh Texas Oklahoma USC S. Carolina

338 267 231 293 297

1948 1744 1762 1803 1781

177.1 158.5 160.2 180.3 161.9

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Marcus Allen Ernest Anderson Mike Rozier Keith Byars Lorenzo White

USC Okla St Nebraska Ohio St Mich St

403 353 275 313 386

2342 1877 2148 1655 1908

212.9 170.6 179.0 150.5 173.5

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Paul Palmer Ickey Woods Barry Sanders Anthony Thompson Gerald Hudson

Temple UNLV Okla St. Ind Okla St

346 259 344 358 279

1866 1658 2628 1793 1642

169.6 150.7 238.9 163.0 149.3

TABLE 18.58

RECEIVING, 1946–1990

Championship decided on Passes Caught (1973–1969), and on Catches per Game (since 1970). Year

Player

Team

No

TD

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Neil Armstrong Barney Poole Red O’Quinn Art Weiner Gordon Cooper

Okla A&M Ole Miss Wake Forest N. Carolina Denver

32 52 39 52 46

1 8 7 7 8

479 513 605 762 569

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Dewey McConnell Ed Brown John Carson Jim Hanifan Hank Burnine

Wyoming Fordham Georgia California Missouri

47 57 45 44 44

9 6 4 7 2

725 774 663 569 594

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Art Powell Stuart Vaughan Dave Hibbert Chris Burford Hugh Campbell

San Jose St Utah Arizona Stanford Wash St

40 53 61 61 66

5 5 4 6 10

583 756 606 756 881

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Hugh Campbell Vern Burke Lawrence Elkins Howard Twilley Howord Twilley

Wash St Oregon St Baylor Tulsa Tulsa

53 69 70 95 134

5 10 8 13 16

723 1007 873 1178 1779

1966 1967 1968 1969

Glenn Meltzer Bob Goodridge Ron Sellers Jerry Hendren

Wichita St Vanderbilt Florida St Idaho

91 79 86 95

4 6 12 12

1115 1114 1496 1452

Year

Player

Team

No

P/Gm

Yds

TD

Yds

1970

Mike Mikolayunas

Davidson

87

8.7

8

1128

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Tom Reynolds Tom Forzani Jay Miller Dwight McDonald Bob Farnham

S.Diego St Utah St BYU S.Diego St Brown

67 85 100 86 56

6.7 7.7 9.1 7.8 6.2

7 8 8 7 2

1070 1169 1181 1157 701

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Billy Ryckman Wayne Tolleson Dave Petzke Rick Beasley Dave Young

La.Tech W. Carolina Northern Ill Appalach. St Purdue

77 73 91 74 67

7.0 6.6 8.3 6.7 6.1

10 7 11 12 8

1382 1101 1217 1205 917

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Pete Harvey Vincent White Keith Edwards David Williams Rodney Carter

N.Texas St Stanford Vanderbilt Illinois Purdue

57 68 97 101 98

6.3 6.8 8.8 9.2 8.9

3 8 8 8 4

743 677 909 1278 1099

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Mark Templeton Jason Phillips Jason Phillips Manny Hazard Manny Hazard

L. Beach St Houston Houston Houston Houston

99 99 108 142 78

9.0 9.0 9.8 12.9 7.8

2 3 15 22 9

688 875 1444 1689 946

Note: No = number of receptions; TD = touchdowns; Yds = yards; P/Gm = catches per game. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 177.

Note: Car = carries; Yards = rushing yards; P/Gm = yards per game. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 175.

Sports

545

TABLE 18.59

PASSING, 1946–1990

Individual championship decided on Completions (1937–1969), on Completions per Game (1970–1978), and on Passing Efficiency rating points (since 1979)

TABLE 18.60 OTHER MEN’S NCAA CHAMPIONS, 1947–1990 Baseball

Year

Player

Team

Cmp

Pct

TD

Yds

Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Travis Tidwell Charlie Conerly Stan Heath Adrian Burk Don Heinrich

Auburn Ole Miss Nev-Reno Baylor Washington

79 133 126 110 134

.500 .571 .568 .576 .606

5 18 22 14 14

943 1367 2005 1428 1846

1947 1948 1949 1950

California Southern California Texas Texas

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Don Klosterman Don Heinrich Bob Garrett Paul Larson George Welsh

Loyola CA Washington Stanford California Navy

159 137 118 125 94

.505 .507 .576 .641 .627

9 13 17 10 8

1843 1647 1637 1537 1319

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Oklahoma Holy Cross Michigan Missouri Wake Forest

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

John Brodie Ken Ford Buddy Humphrey Dick Norman Harold Stephens

Stanford H-Simmons Baylor Stanford H-Simm.

139 115 112 152 145

.579 .561 .574 .578 .566

12 14 7 11 3

1633 1254 1316 1963 1254

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Minnesota California Southern California Oklahoma State Minnesota

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Chon Gallegos Don Trull Don Trull Jerry Rhome Bill Anderson

S. Jose St Baylor Baylor Tulsa Tulsa

117 125 174 224 296

.594 .546 .565 .687 .582

14 11 12 32 30

1480 1627 2157 2870 3464

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Southern California Michigan Southern California Minnesota Arizona State

1966 1967 1968 1969

John Eckman Terry Stone Chuck Hixon John Reaves

Wichita St N. Mexico SMU Florida

195 160 265 222

.426 .476 .566 .561

7 9 21 24

2339 1946 3103 2896

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Ohio State Arizona State Southern California Arizona State Southern California

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Southern California Southern California Southern California Southern California Texas

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Arizona Arizona State Southern California California State, Fullerton Arizona

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Arizona State Miami (Fla.) Texas California State, Fullerton Miami (Fla.)

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Arizona Stanford Stanford Wichita State Georgia

Year

Player

Team

Cmp

P/GM

TD

Yds

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Sonny Sixkiller Brian Sipe Don Strock Jesse Freitas Steve Bartkowski Craig Penrose

Wash S. Diego St. Va.Tech S. Diego St. Cal S. Diego St.

186 196 228 227 182 198

18.6 17.8 20.7 20.6 16.5 18.0

15 17 16 21 12 15

2303 2532 3243 2993 2580 2660

1976 1977 1978

Tommy Kramer Guy Benjamin Stever Dils

Rice Stanford Stanford

269 208 247

24.5 20.8 22.5

21 19 22

3317 2521 2943

Year

Player

Team

Cmp

TD

Yds Rating

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Turk Schonert Jim McMahon Jim McMahon Tom Ramsey Steve Young Doug Flutie Jim Harbaugh

Stanford BYU BYU UCLA BYU BC Michigan

148 284 272 191 306 233 139

19 47 30 21 33 27 18

1922 4571 3555 2824 3902 3454 1913

163.0 176.9 155.0 153.5 168.5 152.9 163.7

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

V.Testaverde Don McPherson Timm Rosenbach Ty Detmer Shawn Moore

Miami-FL Syracuse Wash. St. BYU Virginia

175 129 199 265 144

26 22 23 32 21

2557 2341 2791 4560 2262

165.8 164.3 162.0 175.6 160.7

Note: Cmp = completions; Pct = percentage of completions; TD = touchdowns; Yds = yards; P/Gm = completions per game. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Alamanac, 176.

546


Ice Hockey Year

Champion

1948 1949 1950

Michigan Boston College Colorado College

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Michigan Michigan Michigan Rensselaer Michigan

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Michigan Colorado College Denver North Dakota Denver

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Denver Michigan Tech North Dakota Michigan Michigan Tech

Ice Hockey

Soccer

Year

Champion

Year

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Michigan State Cornell Denver Denver Cornell

1971 1972 1973 1974

Vacated St. Louis St. Louis Howard

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Boston University Boston University Wisconsin Minnesota Michigan Tech

1975 1976 1977 1978

San Francisco San Francisco Hartwick Vacated

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Minnesota Wisconsin Boston University Minnesota North Dakota

1979 1980 1981 1982

Southern Illinois Univ. at Edwardsville San Francisco Connecticut Indiana

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Wisconsin North Dakota Wisconsin Bowling Green Rensselaer

1983 1984 1985 1986

Indiana Clemson UCLA Duke

1987 1988 1989

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Michigan State North Dakota Lake Superior State Harvard Wisconsin

Clemson Indiana Santa Clara Virginia UCLA

Lacrosse Year

Champion

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Cornell Virginia Maryland Johns Hopkins Maryland

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Cornell Cornell Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

North Carolina North Carolina Syracuse Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

North Carolina Johns Hopkins Syracuse Syracuse Syracuse

Soccer Year

Champion

1959 1960 1961 1962

St. Louis St. Louis West Chester St. Louis

1963 1964 1965 1966

St. Louis Navy St. Louis San Francisco

1967

Michigan State St. Louis Maryland Michigan State St. Louis St. Louis

1968 1969 1970

1990

Champion

Tennis Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Southern California William and Mary William and Mary San Francisco UCLA

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Southern California UCLA UCLA UCLA Southern California

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

UCLA Michigan Southern California Notre Dame Tulane UCLA

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

UCLA Southern California Southern California Southern California UCLA

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Southern California Southern California Southern California Southern California UCLA

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

UCLA Trinity (Tex.) Stanford Stanford UCLA

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Southern California UCLA Stanford Stanford UCLA Stanford

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Stanford UCLA Stanford UCLA Georgia

(continued) Sports

547


Swimming and Diving

Tennis Year 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Year Champion

Stanford Georgia Stanford Stanford Stanford

Volleyball Year

Champion

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

UCLA UCLA UCLA San Diego State UCLA UCLA

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

UCLA Southern California Pepperdine UCLA Southern California

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

UCLA UCLA UCLA UCLA Pepperdine

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Pepperdine UCLA Southern California UCLA Southern California

Water Polo Year

Champion

1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

UCLA Univ. of California, Irvine UCLA UCLA California California California

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Stanford California Stanford Univ. of California, Santa Barbara Stanford Stanford Univ. of California, Irvine

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

California California Stanford Stanford California California California California

Swimming and Diving Year

548

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Ohio State Ohio State Michigan Ohio State Ohio State

1951 1952 1953

Yale Ohio State Yale


Champion

1954 1955

Ohio State Ohio State Michigan

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Ohio State Michigan Michigan Michigan Southern California

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Michigan Ohio State Southern California Southern California Southern California

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Southern California Stanford Indiana Indiana Indiana

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Indiana Indiana Indiana Southern California Southern California

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Southern California Southern California Tennessee California California

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Texas UCLA Florida Florida Stanford

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Stanford Stanford Texas Texas Texas

Wrestling Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Oklahoma State Cornell College Oklahoma State Oklahoma State Northern Iowa

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Oklahoma Oklahoma Penn State Oklahoma State Oklahoma State

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Oklahoma State Oklahoma Oklahoma State Oklahoma State Oklahoma

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Oklahoma State Oklahoma State Oklahoma Oklahoma State Iowa State

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Oklahoma State Michigan State Oklahoma State Iowa State Iowa State

Cross-Country

Wrestling Year

Champion

Year

Champion

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Oklahoma State Iowa State Iowa State Oklahoma Iowa

1989 1990

Iowa State Arkansas

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Iowa Iowa State Iowa Iowa Iowa

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Iowa Iowa Iowa Iowa Iowa

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Iowa Iowa State Arizona State Oklahoma State Oklahoma State

Cross-Country Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Drake Penn State Michigan State Michigan State Penn State

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Syracuse Michigan State Kansas Oklahoma State Michigan State

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Michigan State Notre Dame Michigan State Michigan State Houston

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Oregon State San Jose State San Jose State Western Michigan Western Michigan

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Villanova Villanova Villanova UTEP Villanova

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Oregon Tennessee Oregon Oregon UTEP

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

UTEP Oregon UTEP UTEP UTEP

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

UTEP Wisconsin Vacated Arkansas Wisconsin

1986 1987 1988

Arkansas Arkansas Wisconsin

Outdoor Track Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Illinois Illinois Minnesota Southern California Southern California

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Southern California Southern California Southern California Southern California Southern California

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

UCLA Villanova Southern California Kansas Kansas

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Southern California Oregon Southern California Oregon Oregon Southern California

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

UCLA Southern California Southern California San Jose State Brigham Young Kansas

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

UCLA UCLA UCLA Tennessee UTEP

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Southern California Arizona State UCLA UTEP UTEP UTEP

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

UTEP UTEP Southern Methodist Oregon Arkansas

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Southern Methodist UCLA UCLA Louisiana State Louisiana State

Indoor Track Year

Champion

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

Missouri Kansas Southern California Villanova Kansas

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Kansas Villanova Southern California Manhattan UTEP

(continued) Sports

549


Golf

Year

Champion

Champion

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

UTEP UTEP Washington State UTEP Villanova

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Stanford Louisiana State San Jose State North Texas North Texas

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

UTEP UTEP UTEP Southern Methodist Arkansas

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

North Texas North Texas Stanford Southern Methodist Louisiana State

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas Arkansas

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Houston Houston Houston Houston Houston

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Purdue Houston Oklahoma State Houston Houston

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Houston Houston Florida Houston Houston

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Texas Texas Florida Wake Forest Wake Forest

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Oklahoma Houston Oklahoma State Ohio State Oklahoma State

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Brigham Young Houston Oklahoma State Houston Houston

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Wake Forest Oklahoma State UCLA Oklahoma Arizona

Gymnastics Year

Champion

1948 1949 1950 1951

Penn State Temple Illinois Florida State

1952 1953 1954 1955

Florida State Penn State Penn State Illinois

1956 1957 1958 1959

Illinois Penn State Michigan State Illinois Penn State

1960 1961 1962 1963

Penn State Penn State Southern California Michigan

1964 1965 1966 1967

Southern Illinois Penn State Southern Illinois Southern Illinois

1968 1969

1971

California Iowa Michigan (for trampoline) Michigan Michigan (for trampoline) Iowa State

1972 1973 1974 1975

Southern Illinois Iowa State Iowa State California

1976 1977 1978 1979

Penn State Indiana State Oklahoma Oklahoma Nebraska

1980 1981 1982 1983

Nebraska Nebraska Nebraska Nebraska

1984 1985 1986 1987

UCLA Ohio State Arizona State UCLA

1988 1989 1990

Nebraska Illinois Nebraska

1970

550

Year


Fencing Year

Champion

1947 1949

NewYork University Army Rutgers Navy Columbia Columbia Pennsylvania

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Columbia NewYork University Columbia Illinois NewYork University Illinois Navy

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

New York University New York University Navy Columbia Princeton Columbia

Year

Champion

Year

Champion

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

New York University New York University Columbia Pennsylvania New York University Columbia New York University

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Utah Wyoming Utah Utah Utah Vermont Vermont

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Detroit New York University New York University Wayne State New York University Notre Dame

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Notre Dame Wayne State Wayne State Pennsylvania Wayne State Wayne State

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

Wayne State Wayne State Notre Dame Columbia Columbia Columbia

Men’s and Women’s Rifle Year

Champion

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Tennessee Tech Tennessee Tech Tennessee Tech West Virginia West Virginia Murray State

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

West Virginia Murray State West Virginia West Virginia West Virginia

Men’s and Women’s Skiing Year

Champion

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Denver Denver Denver Denver Dartmouth Colorado

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Colorado Denver Denver Denver Denver Denver

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Denver Denver Wyoming Denver Denver Denver

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Colorado Dartmouth Colorado

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Colorado Colorado Vermont Utah Colorado Utah

Men’s and Women’s Fencing Year

Champion

1990

Penn State

Source: Universal Almanac, 1991, 593–94.

TABLE 18.61 NCAA WOMEN’S MAJOR SPORTS, 1981–1990 Cross Country Year

Champion

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Virginia Virginia Oregon Wisconsin Wisconsin Texas Oregon Kentucky Villanova Villanova

Fencing Year

Champion

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Wayne State Penn State Yale Yale Pennsylvania Notre Dame Wayne State Wayne State Wayne State

Field Hockey Year

Champion

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Connecticut Old Dominion Old Dominion Old Dominion Connecticut Iowa Maryland Old Dominion North Carolina Old Dominion

Golf Year

Champion

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Tulsa Texas Christian Miami (Fla.) Florida Florida San Jose State Tulsa San Jose State Arizona State

(continued) Sports

551

TABLE 18.61

(continued)

Indoor Track

Gymnastics Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Champion Utah Utah Utah Utah Utah Georgia Alabama Georgia Utah

Tennis

Year

Champion

1983 1984 1985 1986

Nebraska Nebraska Florida State Texas

1987 1988 1989 1990

Louisiana State Texas Louisiana State Texas

Outdoor Track Year

Year

Champion

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Stanford Southern California Stanford Southern California Stanford Stanford Stanford Stanford Stanford

1982 1983 1984 1985

UCLA UCLA Florida State Oregon

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Texas Louisiana State Louisiana State Louisiana State Louisiana State

Volleyball

Swimming and Diving Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Champion Florida Stanford Texas Texas Texas Texas Texas Stanford Texas

Soccer Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Champion North Carolina North Carolina North Carolina George Mason North Carolina North Carolina North Carolina North Carolina North Carolina

Softball Year

Champion

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

UCLA Texas A&M UCLA UCLA California State, Fullerton Texas A&M UCLA UCLA UCLA

Lacrosse Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

552

Champion Massachusetts Delaware Temple New Hampshire Maryland Penn State Temple Penn State Harvard


Champion

Year

Champion

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Southern California Hawaii Hawaii UCLA Pacific

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Pacific Hawaii Texas Cal State (Long Beach) UCLA

Source: Universal Almanac, 1999, 595.

Tennis In the postwar period tennis continued to be perceived as an elitist sport that offered respectable exercise for well-heeled people of middle age. It was a varsity sport in major American colleges, and it remained the most regular and continuing forum for international athletic competition between young ladies and gentlemen of interested nations—mostly European, Commonwealth, and the United States. Tennis underwent several changes in the last part of the 20th century, taking on features that enhanced incentive and popular appeal. Starting in 1968, the major tournaments became Open events, permitting participation by professionals and offering prize money that increased far beyond the inflation rate in any participating nation.The late 1960s also brought the introduction of larger steel, aluminum, or fiberglass rackets that carried a larger punch. Stronger, lighter equipment facilitated adoption of the two-handed backhand stroke, popularized by such top-flight American players as Jimmy Connors and Chris Evert. No less than other major sports, tennis was boosted by the development of television and the revolution in telecommunications. Americans thus could watch the U.S. Open in New York in September, but also follow NBC’s “breakfast at Wimbledon’’ live coverage of the British Open in July. Tennis players, both male and female, became objects of adulation to rival the best in any sport, and the prize money earned marked only the beginning of their wealth.

The 1970s and 1980s brought a proliferation of tournaments, most of them in the United States, funded by corporate sponsors.The most prestigious and rewarding events continued to be the four national tournaments: the Australian Open, French Open, the British—best known as Wimbledon—and the U.S. Open.To win any of them constituted a mark of distinction.To win all four in the same year represented the ultimate accomplishment of the sport: this was the Grand Slam. Five players reached this pinnacle during the years

1946–1990: Maureen Connally, an American, in 1955; Rod Laver, an Australian, in 1962 and 1969; Margaret Court, from Australia, in 1970; and Steffi Graf, of West Germany, in 1988. Martina Navratilova, a recently naturalized American, won the four events consecutively, but over a two-year period, in 1983 and 1984. For all her remarkable accomplishments, Navratilova could not claim a Grand Slam.

TABLE 18.62 MEN’S U.S. OPEN WINNERS AND LOSERS, BY NATIONALITY, 1946–1990 Year

Champion

Runner-Up

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Jack Kramer (U.S.) Jack Kramer (U.S) Richard A. Gonzalez (U.S.) Richard A. Gonzalez (U.S.) Arthur Larsen (U.S.)

Tom Brown, Jr. (U.S.) Frank Parker (U.S.) Eric W. Sturgess (South Africa) Fredrick Schroeder (U.S.) Herbert Flam (U.S.)

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Frank Sedgman (Australia) Frank Sedgman (Australia) Tony Trabert (U.S.) E.Victor Seixas, Jr. (U.S.) Tony Trabert (U.S.)

E.Victor Seixas, Jr. (U.S.) Gardnar Mulloy (U.S.) E.Victor Seixas, Jr. (U.S.) Rex Hartwig (Australia) Ken Rosewall (Australia)

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Ken Rosewall (Australia) Malcolm J. Anderson (Australia) Ashley J. Cooper (Australia) Neale Fraser (Australia) Neale Fraser (Australia)

Lewis Hoad (Australia) Ashley J. Cooper (Australia) Malcolm J. Anderson (Australia) Alejandro Olmedo (Peru) Rod Laver (Australia)

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Roy Emerson (Australia) Rod Laver (Australia) Rafael Osuna (Mexico) Roy Emerson (Australia) Manuel Santana (Spain)

Rod Laver (Australia) Roy Emerson (Australia) Frank Froehling, III (U.S.) Fred Stolle (Australia) Cliff Drysdale (South Africa)

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Fred Stolle (Australia) John Newcombe (Australia) Arthur Ashe (U.S.) Rod Laver (Australia) Ken Rosewall (Australia) Stan Smith (U.S.) Ilie Nastase (Romania) John Newcombe (Australia)

John Newcombe (Australia) Clark Graebner (U.S.) Tom Okker (Netherlands) Tony Roche (Australia) Tony Roche (Australia) Jan Kodes (Czechoslovakia) Arthur Ashe (U.S.) Jan Kodes (Czechoslovakia)

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Jimmy Connors (U.S.) Manuel Orantes (Spain) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) Guillermo Villas (Argentina) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) John McEnroe (U.S.)

Ken Rosewall (Australia) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) Bjorn Borg (Sweden) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) Bjorn Borg (Sweden) Vitas Gerulaitis (U.S.)

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

John McEnroe (U.S.) John McEnroe (U.S.) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) Jimmy Connors (U.S.) John McEnroe (U.S.)

Bjorn Borg (Sweden) Bjorn Borg (Sweden) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia)

1985 1986 1987 1988

Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Mats Wilander (Sweden)

John McEnroe (U.S.) Miloslav Mecir (Czechoslovakia) Mats Wilander (Sweden) Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia)

1989 1990

Boris Becker (West Germany) Pete Sampras (U.S.)

Ivan Lendl (Czechoslovakia) Andre Agassi (U.S.)


Sports

553

TABLE 18.63 Year

MEN’S GRAND SLAM CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990 Australian Champion

French Champion

Wimbledon Champion

U.S. Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

John Bromwich Dinny Pails Adrian Quist Frank Sedgman Frank Sedgman

Marcel Bernard Joseph Asboth Frank Parker Frank Parker Budge Patty

Yvon Petra Jack Kramer Bob Falkenburg Ted Schroeder Budge Patty

Jack Kramer Jack Kramer Pancho Gonzales Pancho Gonzales Arthur Larsen

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Richard Savitt Ken McGregor Ken Rosewall Mervyn Rose Ken Rosewall

Jaroslav Drobny Jaroslav Drobny Ken Rosewall Tony Trabert Tony Trabert

Dick Savitt Frank Sedgman Vic Seixas Jaroslav Drobny Tony Trabert

Frank Sedgman Frank Sedgman Tony Trabert E.Victor Seixas Jr. Tony Trabert

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Lew Hoad Ashley Cooper Ashley Cooper Alex Olmedo Rod Laver

Lew Hoad Sven Davidson Mervyn Rose Nicola Pietrangeli Nicola Pietrangeli

Lew Hoad Lew Hoad Ashley Cooper Alex Olmedo Neale Fraser

Ken Rosewall Malcolm Anderson Ashley J. Cooper Neale Fraser Neale Fraser

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Roy Emerson Rod Laver Roy Emerson Roy Emerson Roy Emerson

Manuel Santana Rod Laver Roy Emerson Manuel Santana Fred Stolle

Rod Laver Rod Laver Chuck McKinley Roy Emerson Roy Emerson

Roy Emerson Rod Laver Rafael Osuna Roy Emerson Manuel Santana

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Roy Emerson Roy Emerson Bill Bowrey Rod Laver Arthur Ashe

Tony Roche Roy Emerson Ken Rosewall Rod Laver Jan Kodes

Manuel Santana John Newcombe Rod Laver Rod Laver John Newcombe

Fred Stolle John Newcombe Arthur Ashe Rod Laver Ken Rosewall

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Ken Rosewall Ken Rosewall John Newcombe Jimmy Connors John Newcombe

Jan Kodes Andres Gimeno Ilie Nastase Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg

John Newcombe Stan Smith Jan Kodes Jimmy Connors Arthur Ashe

Stan Smith Ilie Nastase John Newcombe Jimmy Connors Manuel Orantes

1976 1977

Adriano Panatta Guillermo Vilas

Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg

Jimmy Connors Guillermo Vilas

1978 1979 1980

Mark Edmondson Roscoe Tanner Vitas Gerulaitis Guillermo Vilas Guillermo Vilas Brian Teacher

Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg

Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg

Jimmy Connors John McEnroe John McEnroe

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Johan Kriek Johan Kriek Mats Wilander Mats Wilander Stefan Edberg

Bjorn Borg Mats Wilander Yannick Noah Ivan Lendl Mats Wilander

John McEnroe Jimmy Connors John McEnroe John McEnroe Boris Becker

John McEnroe Jimmy Connors Jimmy Connors John McEnroe Ivan Lendl

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Moved to Jan. 1987 Stefan Edberg Mats Wilander Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl

Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl Mats Wilander Michael Chang Andrés Gomez

Boris Becker Pat Cash Stefan Edberg Boris Becker Stefan Edberg

Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl Mats Wilander Boris Becker Pete Sampras

Source: John W. Wright, New York Times 1998 Almanac (New York, 1997), 903–04.

TABLE 18.64 U.S. OPEN WINNERS’ PRIZE MONEY, 1968–1990 Singles

Doubles (per team)

Year

Men

Women

Men

Women

Mixed

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

46,000 66,000 90,000 120,000 160,000 187,500

46,000 66,000 90,000 120,000 160,000 187,500

18,500 26,400 36,000 48,000 64,000 65,000

18,500 26,400 36,000 48,000 64,000 65,000

7,100 9,680 14,000 17,000 17,000 19,000

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

210,000 250,000 275,000 300,000 350,000

210,000 250,000 275,000 300,000 350,000

72,800 86,667 95,333 104,000 142,861

72,800 86,667 95,333 104,000 142,861

21,800 26,160 28,800 34,000 42,500

Doubles (per team)

Year

Men

Women

Men

Women

Mixed

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

$14,000 16,000 20,000 15,000 25,000 25,000

$6,000 6,000 7,500 5,000 10,000 25,000

$4,200 3,000 3,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

$1,750 2,000 2,000 1,000 2,000 4,000

– $2,000 2,000 1,000 2,000 2,000

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

22,500 25,000 30,000 33,000 38,000 39,000

22,500 25,000 30,000 33,000 38,000 39,000

4,500 4,500 12,000 13,125 15,500 15,750

4,500 4,500 12,000 13,125 15,500 15,750

2,000 2,000 6,500 6,500 6,500 7,100

554

Singles



TABLE 18.65 Year

WOMEN’S GRAND SLAM CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990 Australian Champion

French Champion

Wimbledon Champion

U.S. Champion

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Nancye Wynne Bolton Nancye Wynne Bolton Nancye Wynne Bolton Doris Hart Louise Brough

Margaret Osborne Patricia Todd Nelly Landry Margaret Osborne duPont Doris Hart

Pauline Betz Margaret Osborne Louise Brough Louise Brough Louise Brough

Pauline Betz Louise Brough Margaret Osborne duPont Margaret Osborne duPont Margaret Osborne duPont

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Nancye Wynne Bolton Thelma Long Maureen Connolly Thelma Long Beryl Penrose

Shirley Fry Doris Hart Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Angela Mortimer

Doris Hart Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Louise Brough

Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Doris Hart Doris Hart

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Mary Carter Shirley Fry Angela Mortimer Mary Carter Reitano Margaret Smith

Althea Gibson Shirley Bloomer Zsuzsi Kormoczy Christine Truman Darlene Hard

Shirley Fry Althea Gibson Althea Gibson Maria Bueno Maria Bueno

Shirley Fry Althea Gibson Althea Gibson Maria Bueno Darlene Hard

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Margaret Smith Margaret Smith Margaret Smith Margaret Smith Margaret Smith

Ann Haydon Margaret Smith Lesley Turner Margaret Smith Lesley Turner

Angela Mortimer Karen Hantze Susman Margaret Smith Maria Bueno Margaret Smith

Darlene Hard Margaret Smith Maria Bueno Maria Bueno Margaret Smith

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Margaret Smith Nancy Richey Billie Jean King Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court

Ann Jones Francoise Durr Nancy Richey Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court

Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Ann Jones Margaret Smith Court

Maria Bueno Billie Jean King Virginia Wade Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Margaret Smith Court Virginia Wade Margaret Smith Court Evonne Goolagong Evonne Goolagong

Evonne Goolagong Billie Jean King Margaret Smith Court Chris Evert Chris Evert

Evonne Goolagong Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Chris Evert Billie Jean King

Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Margaret Smith Court Billie Jean King Chris Evert

1976 1977

Sue Barker

Chris Evert

Chris Evert

1978 1979 1980

Evonne Goolagong Cawley Kerry Melville Reid Evonne Goolagong Cawley Chris O’Neil Barbara Jordan Hana Mandlikova

Mima Jasuovec Virginia Ruzici Chris Evert Lloyd Chris Evert Lloyd

Virginia Wade Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Evonne Goolagong Cawley

Chris Evert Chris Evert Tracy Austin Chris Evert Lloyd

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova

Hana Mandlikova Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Lloyd

Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova

Tracy Austin Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Hana Mandlikova

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Moved to Jan. 1987 Hana Mandlikova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf

Chris Evert Lloyd Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Arantxa Sanchez Monica Seles

Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Martina Navratilova

Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Gabriela Sabatini

Source: New York Times 1998 Almanac, 904.

Sports

555

Princess of the fans and of professional tennis, Chris Evert appears here with Nancy Reagan. (Courtesy Ronald Reagan Library)

TABLE 18.66 WOMEN’S U.S. OPEN WINNERS AND LOSERS, BY NATIONALITY, 1946–1990 Year

Champion

1946 1947 1948

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

Pauline Betz A. Louise Brough Margaret Osborne duPont Margaret Osborne duPont Margaret Osborne duPont Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Doris Hart Doris Hart Shirley J. Fry Althea Gibson Althea Gibson Maria Bueno Darlene R. Hard Darlene R. Hard Margaret Smith Maria Bueno Maria Bueno

1965

Margaret Smith

Australia

1949 1950

556

Country

Runner-Up

Country

United States United States United States

Patricia Canning United States Margaret Osborne United States A. Louise Brough United States

United States

Doris Hart

United States

United States

Doris Hart

United States

United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States Brazil United States United States Australia Brazil Brazil

Shirley J. Fry Doris Hart Doris Hart A. Louise Brough Patricia Ward Althea Gibson A. Louise Brough Darlene R. Hard Christine Truman Maria Bueno Ann Haydon Darlene R. Hard Margaret Smith Carole Caldwell Graebner Billie Jean Moffitt

United States United States United States United States Great Britain United States United States United States Great Britain Brazil Great Britain United States Australia United States


United States

Year

Champion

Country

Runner-Up

Country

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Maria Bueno Billie Jean Moffitt King Virginia Wade Margaret Smith Court Margaret Smith Court Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Margaret Smith Court Billie Jean King Chris Evert Chris Evert Chris Evert Chris Evert Tracy Austin Chris Evert Lloyd Tracy Austin Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Hana Mandlikova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Gabriela Sabatini

Brazil United States Great Britain Australia Australia United States United States Australia United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States United States Czechoslovakia United States United States West Germany West Germany Argentina

Nancy Richey Ann Haydon Jones Billie Jean King Nancy Richey Rosemary Casals Rosemary Casals Kerry Melville Evonne Goolagong Evonne Goolagong Evonne Goolagong Evonne Goolagong Wendy Turnbull Pam Shriver Chris Evert Lloyd Hana Mandlikova Martina Navratilova Hana Mandlikova Chris Evert Lloyd Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Helena Sukova Steffi Graf Gabriela Sabatini Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf

United States Great Britain United States United States United States United States Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia United States United States Czechoslovakia United States Czechoslovakia United States United States United States Czechoslovakia West Germany Argentina United States West Germany

Source: Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1087–88.

TABLE 18.67 MEN’S TOUR PRIZE MONEY LEADERS, 1968–1990

Women Year

Year

Player

Prize

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973

Tony Roche Rod Laver Rod Laver Rod Laver llie Nastase llie Nastase

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Jimmy Connors Arthur Ashe Raul Ramirez Guillermo Vilas Eddie Dibbs Bjorn Borg

$285,490 $326,750 $484,343 $766,065 $575,273 $1,008,742

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

John McEnroe John McEnroe Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl John McEnroe Ivan Lendl

$972,369 $991,000 $2,028,850 $1,747,128 $2,026,109 $1,971,074

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl Mats Wilander Ivan Lendl Pete Sampras

$1,987,537 $2,003,656 $1,726,731 $2,344,367 $2,900,057

$63,504 $124,000 $201,453 $292,717 $176,000 $228,750


TABLE 18.68 WOMEN’S TOUR PRIZE MONEY LEADERS, 1974–1990 Year

Player

Prize

1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

Chris Evert Chris Evert Chris Evert Chris Evert Chris Evert Martina Navratilova

$107,485 $347,227 $319,565 $316,045 $454,486 $618,698

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova

$749,250 $865,437 $1,475,055 $1,456,030 $2,173,556

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf

$1,328,829 $1,905,841 $1,063,785 $1,378,128 $1,963,905 $1,921,853


TABLE 18.69 ANNUAL NUMBER-ONE RANKED TENNIS PLAYERS, 1946–1990 Women Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Pauline Betz Margaret Osborne Margaret duPont Margaret duPont Margaret duPont

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Doris Hart Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Maureen Connolly Louise Brough

Player

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Shirley Fry Althea Gibson Althea Gibson Maria Bueno Maria Bueno

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Angela Mortimer Margaret Smith Margaret Smith Margaret Smith Margaret Smith

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Billie Jean King Margaret Court Margaret Court

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Evonne Goolagong Billie Jean King Margaret Court Billie Jean King Chris Evert

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Chris Evert Chris Evert Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Chris Evert Lloyd

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Chris Evert Lloyd Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova Martina Navratilova

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Martina Navratilova Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf Steffi Graf

Men Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Jack Kramer Jack Kramer Frank Parker Pancho Gonzalez Budge Patty

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Frank Sedgman Frank Sedgman Tony Trabert Jaroslav Drobny Tony Trabert

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Lew Hoad Ashley Cooper Ashley Cooper Neale Fraser Neale Fraser

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Rod Laver Rod Laver Rafael Osuna Roy Emerson Roy Emerson

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Manuel Santana John Newcombe Rod Laver Rod Laver John Newcombe

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

John Newcombe llie Nastase llie Nastase Jimmy Connors Jimmy Connors

(continued)

Sports

557

TABLE 18.69

(continued)

TABLE 18.70 GOLF TOURNAMENT WINNERS, 1946–1990 Men

Year

Player

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Jimmy Connors Jimmy Connors Jimmy Connors Bjorn Borg Bjorn Borg

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

John McEnroe John McEnroe John McEnroe John McEnroe Ivan Lendl

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Ivan Lendl Ivan Lendl Mats Wilander Ivan Lendl Stefan Edberg

Note: Rankings by London Daily Telegraph, 1946–1972; since then rankings computed by men and women’s tours. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 714–15.

Golf As befit a society fashioned by growing incomes, increased time for leisure and entertainment, and a penchant for imitating behavior of cultural leaders, the United States took readily to golf in the postwar era. By 1990 some 20 million males and females were chasing the little white ball, and the number of courses had zoomed to 12,000. Virtually all the presidents played and some, notably Dwight Eisenhower and Gerald Ford, made a major point of it.The arrival of golf as a flourishing professional enterprise and a mass-market spectator sport corresponded with placement in virtually every household of a television set. Arnold Palmer, leader—and beneficiary—of the wedding of golf and television, was the best and most popular player of the 1950s and early 1960s. In the 1960s Jack Nicklaus emerged as the competitor and eventual successor to Palmer as the nation’s foremost golfer. By the 1980s the Professional Golf Association (PGA) sanctioned a tournament nearly every week in season, many of them covered on television. Waning of the Nicklaus era left the field open to a body of native competitors that included Tom Watson, John Miller, Curtis Strange, Fred Couples, and many other fine golfers.The PGA tour also had taken on a marked international complexion, with such foreign competitors as Greg Norman, Seve Ballesteros, Nick Faldo, and Bernard Langer. Six of the coveted Masters tournament championships of the 1980s went to golfers from abroad. Women’s professional golf also had become a national sport.The purses were smaller, the tournaments less likely to be televised, the heroines slightly slower to catch on, but a female counterpart to the PGA, the LPGA, did evolve. Kathy Whitworth, Nancy Lopez, Beth Daniel, and others did become national sports figures, and by 1990s women’s earnings were rapidly catching up. With all its evenly matched competitors, it might have appeared at the start of the 1990s that professional golf was waiting for a messiah, someone to break free, and some people swore they knew who he was: Still playing in the amateur ranks, a rare black man in a game of whites, a truly exquisite craftsman known as Tiger Woods.

558


United States Open Winners Year

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Lloyd Mangrum L.Worsham Ben Hogan Cary Middlecoff Ben Hogan

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Ben Hogan Julius Boros Ben Hogan Ed Furgol Jack Fleck

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Cary Middlecoff Dick Mayer Tommy Bolt Billy Casper Arnold Palmer

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Gene Littler Jack Nicklaus Julius Boros Ken Venturi Gary Player

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Billy Casper Jack Nicklaus Lee Trevino Orville Moody Tony Jacklin

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Lee Trevino Jack Nicklaus Johnny Miller Hale Irwin Lou Graham

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Jerry Pate Hubert Green Andy North Hale Irwin Jack Nicklaus

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

David Graham Tom Watson Larry Nelson Fuzzy Zoeller Andy North

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Ray Floyd Scott Simpson Curtis Strange Curtis Strange Hale Irwin

Professional Golfer’s Association Championship Winners Year

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Ben Hogan Jim Ferrier Ben Hogan Sam Snead Chandler Harper

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Sam Snead James Turnesa Walter Burkemo Melvin Harbert Doug Ford

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Jack Burke Lionel Hebert Dow Finsterwald Bob Rosburg Jay Hebert

Professional Golfer’s Association Championship Winners Year

Winner

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Jerry Barber Gary Player Jack Nicklaus Bob Nichols Dave Marr

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Al Geiberger Don January Julius Boros Ray Floyd Dave Stockton

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Jack Nicklaus Gary Player Jack Nicklaus Lee Trevino Jack Nicklaus

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Dave Stockton Lanny Wadkins John Mahaffey David Graham Jack Nicklaus

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Larry Nelson Ray Floyd Hal Sutton Lee Trevino Hubert Green

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Bob Tway Larry Nelson Jeff Sluman Payne Stewart Wayne Grady

Masters Golf Tournament Winners Year

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Herman Keiser Jimmy Demaret Claude Harmon Sam Snead Jimmy Demaret

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Ben Hogan Sam Snead Ben Hogan Sam Snead Cary Middlecoff

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Jack Burke Doug Ford Arnold Palmer Art Wall Jr. Arnold Palmer

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Gray Player Arnold Palmer Jack Nicklaus Arnold Palmer Jack Nicklaus Jack Nicklaus Gay Brewer Jr. Bob Goalby George Archer Billy Casper Charles Coody Jack Nicklaus Tommy Aaron Gary Player Jack Nicklaus

Masters Golf Tournament Winners Year

Winner

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Ray Floyd Tom Watson Gary Player Fuzzy Zoeller Seve Ballesteros Tom Watson Craig Stadler Seve Ballesteros Ben Crenshaw Bernhard Langer Jack Nicklaus Larry Mize Sandy Lyle Nick Faldo Nick Faldo

British Open Winners Year 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Winner Sam Snead Fred Daly Henry Cotton Bobby Locke Bobby Locke Max Faulkner Bobby Locke Ben Hogan Peter Thomson Peter Thomson Peter Thomson Bobby Locke Peter Thomson Gary Player Kel Nagle Arnold Palmer Arnold Palmer Bob Charles Tony Lema Peter Thomson Jack Nicklaus Roberto de Vicenzo Gary Player Tony Jacklin Jack Nicklaus Lee Trevino Lee Trevino Tom Weiskopf Gary Player Tom Watson Johnny Miller Tom Watson Jack Nicklaus Seve Ballesteros Tom Watson Bill Rogers Tom Watson Tom Watson Seve Ballesteros Sandy Lyle Greg Norman Nick Faldo Seve Ballesteros Mark Calcavecchia Nick Faldo

Source: Robert Famighetti, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 2000 (Mahwah, N.J., 1999), 923.

Sports

559

TABLE 18.71 PGA LEADING MONEY WINNERS, 1946–1990 Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Ben Hogan Jimmy Demaret Ben Hogan Sam Snead Sam Snead

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

TABLE 18.73 PGA LEADING CAREER-MONEY WINNERS

Dollars

Rank

Player

Amount

42,556 27.936 36,812 31,593 35,758

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tom Kite Tom Watson Curtis Strange Jack Nicklaus Ben Crenshaw

$5,867,189 5,311,598 5,195,485 5,159,964 4,384,348

Lloyd Mangrum Jullus Boros Lew Worsham Bob Toski Julius Boros

26,088 37,032 34,002 65,819 65,121

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Payne Stewart Lanny Wadkins Ray Floyd Greg Norman Lee Trevino

4,241,323 4,323,138 3,847,674 3,847,231 3,474,916

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Ted Kroll Dick Mayer Arnold Palmer Art Wall Jr Arnold Palmer

72,835 65,835 42,407 53,167 75,262

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Gary Player Arnold Palmer Arnold Palmer Jack Nicklaus Jack Nicklaus

64,540 81,448 128,230 113,284 140,752

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Billy Casper Jack Nicklaus Billy Casper Frank Beard Lee Trevino

121,944 188,988 205,168 175,223 157,037

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Jack Nicklaus Jack Nicklaus Jack Nicklaus Johnny Miller Jack Nicklaus

244,490 320,542 308,362 353,201 323,149

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Jack Nicklaus Tom Watson Tom Watson Tom Watson Tom Watson

266,438 310,653 362,429 462,636 530,808

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Tom Kite Craig Stadler Hal Sutton Tom Watson Curtis Strange

375,699 446,462 426,668 476,260 542,321

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Greg Norman Curtis Strange Curtis Strange Tom Kite Greg Norman

653,296 925,941 1,147,644 1,395,278 1,165,477

Note: As of May 20, 1990. Source: Universal Almanac, 1991, 623.

TABLE 18.74 WOMEN’S PROFESSIONAL GOLF— MAJOR CHAMPIONSHIPS, 1946–1990 U.S. Women’s Open


TABLE 18.72 Player

MAJOR GOLF CHAMPIONSHIP LEADERS

U.S. British U.S. Open Open PGA Masters Am.

British Am. Total

Jack Nicklaus Bobby Jones Walter Hagen Ben Hogan Gary Player John Ball Arnold Palmer

4 4 2 4 1 0 1

3 3 4 1 3 1 2

5 0 5 2 2 0 0

6 0 0 2 3 0 4

2 5 0 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 0 8 0

20 13 11 9 9 9 8

Tom Watson Harold Hilton Gene Sarazen Sam Snead Harry Vardon Lee Trevino

1 0 2 0 1 2

5 2 1 1 6 2

0 0 3 3 0 2

2 0 1 3 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

0 4 0 0 0 0

8 7 7 7 7 6

Note: Tournaments: U.S. Open, British Open, PGA Championship, Masters, U.S. Amateur, and British Amateur. Records reach through year 1990. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 738.

560


Year

Player

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Patty Berg Betty Jameson Babe Zaharias Louise Suggs Babe Zaharias

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Betsy Rawls Louise Suggs Betsy Rawls Babe Zaharias Fay Crocker

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Kathy Cornelius Betsy Rawls Mickey Wright Mickey Wright Betsy Rawls

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Mickey Wright Murle Lindstrom Mary Mills Mickey Wright Carol Mann

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Sandra Spuzich Catherine Lacoste Susie M. Berning Donna Caponi Donna Caponi

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

JoAnne Carner Susie M. Berning Susie M. Berning Sandra Haynie Sandra Palmer

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

JoAnne Carner Hollis Stacy Hollis Stacy Jerilyn Britz Amy Alcott

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Pat Bradley Janet Anderson Jan Stephenson Hollis Stacy Kathy Baker

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jane Geddes Laura Davies Liselotte Neumann Betsy King Betsy King

Year

LPGA Championship Year

Player

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Beverly Hanson Marlene Hagge Louise Suggs Mickey Wright Betsy Rawls Mickey Wright

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Mickey Wright Judy Kimball Mickey Wright Mary Mills Sandra Haynie Gloria Ehret

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Kathy Whitworth Sandra Post Betsy Rawls Shirley Englehorn Kathy Whitworth Kathy Ahern

Player

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Sandra Post Sandra Post Donna Caponi Nancy Lopez Sally Little Amy Alcott

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Juli Inkster Alice Miller Pat Bradley Betsy King Amy Alcott Juli Inkster Betsy King

du Maurier Classic

1973 1974

Mary Mills Sandra Haynie

1975 1976 1977 1978

Kathy Whitworth Betty Burfeindt Chako Higuchi Nancy Lopez

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Donna Caponi Sally Little Donna Caponi Jan Stephenson Patty Sheehan Patty Sheehan

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Nancy Lopez Pat Bradley Jane Geddes Sherri Turner Nancy Lopez Beth Daniel

Formerly known as La Canadienne in 1973 and the Peter Jackson Classic from 1974–83, this Canadian stop on the LPGA Tour become the third designated major championship in 1979.

Year

Player

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Jocelyne Bourassa Carole Jo Skala JoAnne Carner Donna Caponi Judy Rankin JoAnne Carner Amy Alcott Pat Bradley Jan Stephenson Sandra Haynie Hollis Stacy Juli Inkster Pat Bradley Pat Bradley Jody Rosenthal Sally Little Tammie Green Cathy Johnston

Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 739–40.

Nabisco Dinah Shore Year

Player

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Jane Blalock Mickey Wright JoAnn Prentice Sandra Palmer Judy Rankin Kathy Whitworth

TABLE 18.75

MAJOR GOLF CHAMPIONSHIP LEADERS U.S. Open

LPGA

duM

Dinah

Title Holders

Western

U.S. Am

Brit Am

Total

Patty Berg Mickey Wright Louise Suggs Babe Zaharias Betsy Rawls

1 4 2 3 4

0 4 1 0 2

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

7 2 4 3 0

7 3 4 4 2

1 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 1 0

16 13 13 12 8

JoAnne Carner KathyWhitworth Pat Bradley Juli Inkster Glenna C.Vare

2 0 1 0 0

0 3 1 0 0

0 0 3 1 0

0 0 1 2 0

0 2 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

5 0 0 3 6

0 0 0 0 0

7 6 6 6 6

Player

Note: Tournaments included are U.S. Open, LPGA Championship, du Maurier Classic, Nabisco Dinah Shore, Titleholders (1937–72), Western Open, (1937–67), U.S. Amateur, and British Amateur. Table covers tournaments through 1990. Source: 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac, 741.

Sports

561

TABLE 18.76 LPGA LEADING MONEY WINNERS, 1954–1990 Year

Player

Dollars Year

Player

Dollars

TABLE 18.77 LPGA LEADING CAREER-MONEY WINNERS Rank

Player

Dollars

Pat Bradley Nancy Lopez Betsy King Amy Alcott JoAnne Carner

3,099,584 2,794,665 2,668,029 2,417,197 2,348,956

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

Patty Berg Patty Berg Marlene Hagge Patty Berg Beverly Hanson

16,011 16,492 20,235 16,272 12,629

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

Kathy Whitworth JoAnne Carner Sandra Palmer Judy Rankin Judy Rankin

82,854 87,094 94,805 150,734 122,890

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963

Betsy Rawls Louise Suggs Mickey Wright Mickey Wright Mickey Wright

26,774 16,892 22,236 21,641 31,269

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

Nancy Lopez Nancy Lopez Beth Daniel Beth Daniel JoAnne Carner

189,813 215,987 231,000 206,977 310,399

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Beth Daniel Patty Sheehan Ayako Okamoto Jan Stephenson Kathy Whitworth

2,272,233 2,265,445 1,915,779 1,810,792 1,716,458

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968

Mickey Wright Kathy Whitworth Kathy Whitworth Kathy Whitworth Kathy Whitworth

29,800 28,658 33,517 32,937 48,379

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

JoAnne Carner Betsy King Nancy Lopez Pat Bradley Ayako Okamoto

291,404 266,771 416,472 492,021 466,034

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Hollis Stacy Donna Caponi Jane Blalock Sandra Palmer Sally Little

1,433,199 1,387,920 1,290,944 1,277,018 1,272,825

1969 1970 1971 1972

Carol Mann Kathy Whitworth Kathy Whitworth Kathy Whitworth

49,152 30,235 41,181 65,063

1988 1989 1990

Sherri Turner Betsy King Beth Daniel

347,255 654,132 863,578


Note: As of May 20, 1990. Source: Universal Almanac, 1991, 626.

TABLE 18.78 TEAMS IN THE NATIONAL HOCKEY LEAGUE, 1946–1990

Hockey For 20 years the National Hockey League (NHL) stood stagnant. In the 1960s it had only six teams: four in large northern cities in the United States and two from Canada’s largest metropolitan areas, Montreal and Toronto.To most Americans hockey was a foreign sport: Offside meant being in the opponent’s territory, and icing was something that went on cakes.Almost without exception the hockey players were Canadian, and they included some of the best in the history of the game: Maurice Richard of Montreal, Frank Mahovlich of Toronto, Gordie Howe and Ted Lindsay of the Detroit Red Wings, the “Golden Jet’’ Bobby Hull, “Boom, Boom’’ Geoffrion, and many others.A period of expansion began in 1968, and it lasted approximately 10 years. First the league doubled its numbers, adding five teams from the United States and one from Canada. In 1972 a new league, the World Hockey Association, came on line and entered into bidding wars with the NHL for the most prized performers.A rivalry of seven years that destroyed some franchises and taxed resources of the others ended in 1979 officially in a merger, but in fact the NHL agreed to absorb the four most solid franchises of the WHA. After movements and mergers, failures and additions, the league by the 1980s ended up with a very respectable 21 teams located in most regions of the United States and seven cities in Canada. Three major features did much to characterize professional hockey in that decade. First was emergence in the NHL of two semidynasties: the New York Islanders in the first part of the period and the Edmonton Oilers, Wayne Gretzky’s team, in the last half. Second was shifting of the personnel base: A majority of players still were Canadian, but absolute domination had become a feature of the past. Improved college programs had brought several Americans into the league, and it became abundantly clear that the Europeans—most strikingly the Russians—had learned to play hockey very well. A few Europeans entered the league in the 1980s and, pending political developments in the Eastern bloc, many others were poised to make the trek West. Finally, a desire to keep pace with rapidly rising salaries in other professional sports in the United States reached the hockey players, prompting the first signals of labor unrest. Hockey might be Canadian but it needed American money—the sort of television payoffs being tendered to the big three team sports in the United States. 562


1945–46

1966–67

Standings

Standings

Team

Team

Montreal Boston Chicago Detroit Toronto New York

Chicago Montreal Toronto New York Detroit Boston

1970–71 Final Standings East Division Team

W

L

T

PTS

GF

GA

Boston NewYork Montreal Toronto Buffalo Vancouver Detroit

57 49 42 37 24 24 22

14 18 23 33 39 46 45

7 11 13 8 15 8 11

121 109 97 82 63 56 55

399 259 291 248 217 229 209

207 177 216 211 291 296 308

Chicago St. Louis Philadelphia Minnesota Los Angeles Pittsburgh California

49 34 28 28 25 21 20

20 25 33 34 40 37 53

107 87 73 72 63 62 45

277 223 207 191 239 221 199

184 208 225 223 303 240 320

West Division 9 19 17 16 13 20 5

1989–90 Final Standings Prince of Wales Conference Adams Division Team

W

L

T

PTS

GF

GA

Boston Buffalo Montreal Hartford Quebec

46 45 41 38 12

25 27 28 33 61

9 8 11 9 7

101 98 93 85 31

289 286 288 275 240

232 248 234 268 407

Clarence Campbell Conference Patrick Division New York R. New Jersey Washington New York I. Pittsburgh Philadelphia

36 37 36 31 32 30

Chicago St. Louis Toronto Minnesota Detroit

41 37 38 36 28

31 34 38 38 40 39

13 9 6 11 8 11

85 83 78 73 72 71

279 295 284 281 318 290

267 288 275 288 359 297

88 83 80 76 70

316 295 337 284 288

294 279 358 291 323

99 90 85 75 64

348 315 298 338 245

265 283 290 337 306

Norris Division 33 34 38 40 38

6 9 4 4 14

Smythe Division Calgary Edmonton Winnipeg Los Angeles Vancouver

42 38 37 34 25

23 28 32 39 41

15 14 11 7 14

Source: Zander Hollander, The Complete Encyclopedia of Hockey (Detroit, 1993), 67, 107, 117, 172).

TABLE 18.79

HOCKEY STANLEY CUP CHAMPIONS, 1946–1990

Year

Winner

Head Coach

Series

Loser

Head Coach

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Montreal Toronto Toronto Toronto Detroit

Dick Irvin Hap Day Hap Day Hap Day Tommy Ivan

4–1 (WWWLW) 4–2 (LWWWLW) 4–0 4–0 4–3 (WLWLLWW)

Boston Montreal Detroit Detroit NY Rangers

Dit Clapper Dick Irvin Tommy Ivan Tommy Ivan Lynn Patrick

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Toronto Detroit Montreal Detroit Detroit

Joe Primeau Tommy Ivan Dick Irvin Tommy Ivan Jimmy Skinner

4–1 (WLWWW) 4–0 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–3 (WLWWLLW) 4–3 (WWLLWLW)

Montreal Montreal Boston Montreal Montreal

Dick Irvin Dick Irvin Lynn Patrick Dick Irvin Dick Irvin

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal

Toe Blake Toe Blake Toe Blake Toe Blake Toe Blake

4–1 (WWLWW) 4–1 (WWWLW) 4–2 (WLWLWW) 4–1 (WWLWW) 4–0

Detroit Boston Boston Toronto Toronto

Jimmy Skinner Milt Schmidt Milt Schmidt Punch lmlach Punch Imlach

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Chicago Toronto Toronto Toronto Montreal

Rudy Pilous Punch Imlach Punch Imlach Punch Imlach Toe Blake

4–2 (WLWLWW) 4–2 (WWLLWW) 4–1 (WWLWW) 4–3 (WLLWLWW) 4–3 (WWLLWLW)

Detroit Chicago Detroit Detroit Chicago

Sid Abel Rudy Pilous Sid Abel Sid Abel Billy Reay

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Montreal Toronto Montreal Montreal Boston

Toe Blake Punch Imlach Toe Blake Claude Ruel Harry Sinden

4–2(LLWWWW) 4–2 (LWWLWW) 4–0 4–0 4–0

Detroit Montreal St. Louis St. Louis St. Louis

Sid Abel Toe Blake Scotty Bowman Scotty Bowman Scotty Bowman

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Montreal Boston Montreal Philadelphia Philadelphia

Al MacNeil Tom Johnson Scotty Bowman Fred Shero Fred Shero

4–3(LLWWLWW) 4–2 (WWLWLW) 4–2 (WWLWLW) 4–2 (LWWWLW) 4–2 (WWLLWW)

Chicago NY Rangers Chicago Boston Buffalo

Billy Reay Emile Francis Billy Reay Bep Guidolin Floyd Smith

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal NY Islanders

Scotty Bowman Scotty Bowman Scotty Bowman Scotty Bowman Al Arbour

4–0 4–0 4–2 (WWLLWW) 4–1 (LWWWW) 4–2 (WLWWLW)

Philadelphia Boston Boston NY Rangers Philadelphia

Fred Shero Don Cherry Don Cherry Fred Shero Pat Quinn

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

NY Islanders NY Islanders NY Islanders Edmonton Edmonton

Al Arbour Al Arbour Al Arbour Glen Sather Glen Sather

4–1 (WWWLW) 4–0 4–0 4–1 (WLWWW) 4–1 (LWWWW)

Minnesota Vancouver Edmonton NY Islanders Philadelphia

Glen Sonmor Roger Neilson Glen Sather Al Arbour Mike Keenan

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Montreal Edmonton Edmonton Calgary Edmonton

Jean Perron Glen Sather Glen Sather Terry Crisp John Muckler

4–1 (LWWWW) 4–3 (WWLWLLW) 4–0 4–2 (WLLWWW) 4–1 (WWLWW)

Calgary Philadelphia Boston Montreal Boston

Bob Johnson Mike Keenan Terry O’Reilly Pat Burns Mike Milbury


Sports

563

TABLE 18.80

ART ROSS TROPHY, 1945–1990

Season

(leading scorer) Season

Player

Team

Points

1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50

Max Bentley Max Bentley Elmer Lach Roy Conacher Ted Lindsay

Chicago Chicago Montreal Chicago Detroit

61 72 61 68 78

1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55

Gordie Howe Gordie Howe Gordie Howe Gordie Howe Bernie Geoffrion

Detroit Detroit Detroit Detroit Montreal

86 86 95 81 75

1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60

Jean Beliveau Gordie Howe Dickie Moore Dickie Moore Bobby Hull

Montreal Detroit Montreal Montreal Chicago

88 89 84 96 81

1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65

Bernie Geoffrion Bobby Hull Gordie Howe Stan Mikita Stan Mikita

Montreal Chicago Detroit Chicago Chicago

95 84 86 89 87

1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70

Bobby Hull Stan Mikita Stan Mikita Phil Esposito Bobby Orr

Chicago Chicago Chicago Boston Boston

97 97 87 126 120

1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75

Phil Esposito Phil Esposito Phil Esposito Phil Esposito Bobby Orr

Boston Boston Boston Boston Boston

152 133 130 145 135

1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80

Guy Lafleur Guy Lafleur Guy Lafleur Bryan Trottier Marcel Dionne

Montreal Montreal Montreal N.Y. Islanders Los Angeles

125 136 132 134 137

1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky

Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton

164 212 196 205 208

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Mario Lemieux Mario Lemieux Wayne Gretzky

Edmonton Edmonton Pittsburgh Pittsburgh Los Angeles

215 183 168 199 142

Source: Craig Carter, George Puro, Kyle Veltrop, eds., The Sporting News Complete Hockey Book, 1995–96, (St. Louis, 1995), 121.

TABLE 18.81 HART MEMORIAL TROPHY, 1945–1990 (most valuable player) Season

564

Player

Team

1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50

Max Bentley Maurice Richard Buddy O’Connor Sid Abel Chuck Rayner

Chicago Montreal N.Y. Rangers Detroit N.Y. Rangers

1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55

Milt Schmidt Gordie Howe Gordie Howe Al Rollins Ted Kennedy

Boston Detroit Detroit Chicago Toronto

1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60

Jean Beliveau Gordie Howe Gordie Howe Andy Bathgate Gordie Howe

Montreal Detroit Detroit N.Y. Rangers Detroit


1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

Player

Team

Bernie Geoffrion Jacques Plante Gordie Howe Jean Beliveau Bobby Hull Bobby Hull Stan Mikita Stan Mikita Phil Esposito Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Clarke Phil Esposito Bobby Clarke Bobby Clarke Guy Lafleur Guy Lafleur Bryan Trottier Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Wayne Gretzky Mario Lemieux Wayne Gretzky Mark Messier

Montreal Montreal Detroit Montreal Chicago Chicago Chicago Chicago Boston Boston Boston Boston Philadelphia Boston Philadelphia Philadelphia Montreal Montreal N.Y. Islanders Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Edmonton Pittsburgh Los Angeles Edmonton

Source: Sporting News Hockey Book, 1995–96, 121–22.

TABLE 18.82

JAMES NORRIS MEMORIAL TROPHY, 1954–1990

(outstanding defenseman) Year 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Player Red Kelly Doug Harvey Doug Harvey Doug Harvey Doug Harvey Tom Johnson Doug Harvey Doug Harvey Doug Harvey Pierre Pilote Pierre Pilote Pierre Pilote Jacques Laperriere Harry Howell Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Bobby Orr Denis Potvin Larry Robinson Denis Potvin Denis Potvin Larry Robinson Randy Carlyle Doug Wilson Rod Langway Rod Langway Paul Coffey Paul Coffey Ray Bourque Ray Bourque Chris Chelios Ray Bourque

Team Detroit Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal N.Y. Rangers Chicago Chicago Chicago Montreal N.Y. Rangers Boston Boston Boston Boston Boston Boston Boston Boston N.Y. Islanders Montreal N.Y. Islanders N.Y. Islanders Montreal Pittsburgh Chicago Washington Washington Edmonton Edmonton Boston Boston Montreal Boston

Source: Mark S. Hoffman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1991 (New York, 1990), 871.

TABLE 18.83

VEZINA TROPHY, 1945–1990

Boxing

(outstanding goaltender) Season

Player

Team

GAA

1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50

Bill Durnan Bill Durnan Turk Broda Bill Durnan Bill Durnan

Montreal Montreal Toronto Montreal Montreal

2.60 2.30 2.38 2.10 2.20

1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55

Al Rollins Terry Sawchuk Terry Sawchuk Harry Lumley Terry Sawchuk

Toronto Detroit Detroit Toronto Detroit

1.75 1.98 1.94 1.85 1.94

1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60

Jacques Plante Jacques Plante Jacques Plante Jacques Plante Jacques Plante

Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal

1.86 2.02 2.09 2.15 2.54

1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65

Johnny Bower Jacques Plante Glenn Hall Charlie Hodge Terry Sawchuk Johnny Bower

Toronto Montreal Chicago Montreal Toronto Toronto

2.50 2.37 2.51 2.26 2.56 2.38

1965–66

Lorne Worsley Charlie Hodge Glenn Hall Denis DeJordy Lorne Worsley Rogatien Vachon Glenn Hall Jacques Plante Tony Esposito

Montreal Montreal Chicago Chicago Montreal Montreal St. Louis St. Louis Chicago

2.36 2.58 2.38 2.46 1.98 2.48 2.17 1.96 2.17

Ed Giacomin Gilles Villemure Tony Esposito Gary Smith Ken Dryden Bernie Parent Tony Esposito Bernie Parent

N.Y. Rangers N.Y. Rangers Chicago Chicago Montreal Philadelphia Chicago Philadelphia

2.15 2.29 1.76 2.41 2.26 1.89 2.04 2.03

Ken Dryden Ken Dryden Michel Larocque Ken Dryden Michel Larocque Ken Dryden Michel Larocque Bob Sauve Don Edwards

Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Montreal Buffalo Buffalo

2.03 2.14 2.09 2.05 2.67 2.30 2.84 2.36 2.57

1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85

Richard Sevigny Michel Larocque Denis Herron Billy Smith Pete Peeters Tom Barrasso Pelle Lindbergh

Montreal Montreal Montreal N.Y. Islanders Boston Buffalo Philadelphia

2.40 3.03 3.50 2.97 2.36 2.84 3.02

1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90

John Vanbiesbrouck Ron Hextall Grant Fuhr Patrick Roy Patrick Roy

N.Y. Rangers Philadelphia Edmonton Montreal Montreal

3.32 3.00 3.43 2.47 2.53

1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81

Source: Sporting News Hockey Book, 1995–96, 122.

Professional boxing had high points in the decades following the Second World War, but much of the time it was a sport on the defensive. Attitudes varied, of course, but many people found the enterprise controlled by unprincipled operators, laden with corruption, and simply a brutal activity. Long a magnet for aggressive young men from ethnic minority groups, boxing could be viewed as an agent of deliverance or of exploitation. After 1945, origins of the competitors changed; young Irish, Jews, and Italians steadily vanished from the scene. The retirement in 1956 of Rocky Marciano as undefeated heavyweight champion probably marked an end of an era. Boxing thereupon became largely the domain of young black men, and nonblack fighters were likely to be Hispanic, leaving the sport with clear markings of race and class. For all its perceived or real shortcomings, however, boxing continued to attract an audience. The “gate’’ might decline on the local circuit, but it remained large for major matches, and a new technological arrangement called closed-circuit television opened new opportunities. Champions or top contenders could demand a “purse’’ of millions for a few minutes in the ring.The postwar decades also produced some splendid athletes and intense rivalries.There was Tony Zale, Rocky Graziano, and Sugar Ray Robinson in the middleweight classes, and later came Thomas Hearns, Marvin Hagler, Roberto Duran, and Sugar Ray Leonard. The most exciting heavyweight since the retirement of Joe Louis in 1949 was Cassius Marcellus Clay, who, on winning the title in 1964, announced his conversion to Islam and change of name to Muhammad Ali. Ali would fight a long series of matches in the ring, winning most of them; he faced other struggles in the courts, with racism and failing health with determination and courage. Connected to a sport noted for shady deals and spoiled reputations, he became perhaps the most popular sports personality of his era and one of the most respected people in sports.

TABLE 18.84 BOXING CHAMPIONS IN MAJOR CLASSES, 1946–1990 Heavyweights (heavier than 195 lb) Year

Fighter

1937–1949 1949–1951 1951–1952 1952–1956 1956–1959 1959–1960 1960–1962 1962–1964 1964–1967 1970–1973 1973–1974 1974–1978

Joe Louis Ezzard Charles Joe Walcott Rocky Marciano Floyd Patterson Ingemar Johansson Floyd Patterson Sonny Liston Cassius Clay (Muhammad Ali) Joe Frazier George Foreman Muhammad Ali

1978–1979 1978 1979 1980 1982 1983 1984

Leon Spinks (e), Muhammad Ali Ken Norton (WBC), Larry Holmes (WBC) John Tate (WBA) Mike Weaver (WBA) Michael Dokes (WBA) Gerrie Coetzee (WBA) Tim Witherspoon (WBC); Pinklon Thomas (WBC); Greg Page (WBA) Tony Tubbs (WBA); Michael Spinks (IBF) Tim Witherspoon (WBA);Trevor Berbick (WBC); Mike Tyson (WBC); James (Bone-crusher) Smith (WBA) Mike Tyson (WBA) James “‘Buster’’ Douglas (WBA,WBC, IBF) Evander Holyfield (WBA,WBC, IBF)

1985 1986 1987 1990 1990

(continued) Sports

565

TABLE 18.84

(continued)

Welterweights (147–153 lb)

Light Heavyweights (175–194 lb) Year

Fighter

1941–1948 1948–1950 1950–1952 1952–1960 1961–1962 1962–1963 1963–1965 1965–1966 1966–1968 1968–1974 1975–1977

Gus Lesnevich, Freddie Mills Freddie Mills Joey Maxim Archie Moore vacant Harold Johnson Willie Pastrano Jose Torres Dick Tiger Bob Foster, John Conteh (WBA) John Conteh (WBC), Miguel Cuello (WBC), Victor Galindez (WBA)

1978

Mike Rossman (WBA), Mate Parlov (WBC), Marvin Johnson (WBC) Victor Galindez (WBA), Matthew Saad Muhammad (WBC) Eddle Mustava Muhammad (WBA) Michael Spinks (WBA), Dwight Braxton (WBC) Michael Spinks Marvin Johnson (WBA); Dennis Andries (WBC) Thomas Hearns (WBC); Leslie Stewart (WBA); Virgil Hill (WBA); Don Lalonde (WBC) Ray Leonard (WBC) Jeff Harding (WBC) Dennis Andries (WBC)

1979 1980 1981 1983 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Middleweights (160–174 lb) Year

Fighter

1941–1947 1947–1948 1948 1949–1951 1951 1953–1955 1955–1957 1957 1958 1959 1960

Tony Zale Rocky Graziano Tony Zale, Marcel Cerdan Jake LaMotta Ray Robinson, Randy Turpin, Ray Robinson Carl (Bobo) Olson Ray Robinson Gene Fullmer, Ray Robinson, Carmen Basilio Ray Robinson Gene Fullmer (NBA); Ray Robinson (N.Y.) Gene Fullmer (NBA); Paul Pender (New York and Mass.) Gene Fullmer (NBA);Terry Downes (New York, Mass., Europe) Gene Fullmer, Dick Tiger (NBA), Paul Pender (New York and Mass.)

1961 1962

Middleweights (160–174 lb) Year

Fighter

1963 1963–1965 1965–1966 1966–1967 1967 1967–1968 1968–1970 1970–1977 1977–1978 1978–1979 1979–1980

Dick Tiger (universal) Joey Giardello Dick Tiger Emile Griffith Nino Benvenuti Emile Griffith Nino Benvenuti Carlos Monzon Rodrigo Valdez Hugo Corro Vito Antuofermo

1980 1987

Alan Minter, Marvin Hagler Ray Leonard (WBC);Thomas Hearns (WBC); Sumbu Kalambay (WBA) Iran Barkley (WBC) Mike McCallum (WBA); Roberto Duran (WBC) Julian Jackson (WBC)

1988 1989 1991

Year

Fighter

1954–1955 1955 1956 1957 1958–1960 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964–1966 1966–1969 1969–1970

Johnny Saxton Tony De Marco, Carmen Basilio Carmen Basilio, Johnny Saxton, Basilio Carmen Basilio Virgil Akins, Don Jordan Benny Paret Emile Griffith, Benny Paret Emile Griffith Luis Rodriguez, Emile Griffith Emile Griffith Curtis Cokes Jose Napoles, Billy Backus

1971–1975 1975–1976 1976–1979 1979

Jose Napoles John Stracey (WBC), Angel Espada (WBA) Carlos Palomino (WBC), Jose Cuevas (WBA) Wilfredo Benitez (WBC), Sugar Ray Leonard (WBC) Roberto Duran (WBC),Thomas Hearns (WBA), Sugar Ray Leonard (WBC) Sugar Ray Leonard Donald Curry (WBA); Milton McCrory (WBC) Donald Curry Lloyd Honeyghan (WBC) Mark Breland (WBA); Marlon Starling (WBA); Jorge Vaca (WBC) Tomas Molinares (WBA); Lloyd Honeyghan (WBC) Marlon Starling (WBC); Mark Breland (WBA) Maurice Blocker (WBC); Aaron Davis (WBA)

1980 1981–1982 1983 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Lightweights (131–135 lb) Year

Fighter

1945–1951 1951–1952 1952 1953–1954 1954 1955 1956 1956–1962 1962–1965 1965 1965–1968 1968–1969 1969–1970 1970 1971 1972–1979 1972

Ike Williams (NBA: later universal) James Carter Lauro Salas, James Carter James Carter Paddy De Marco, James Carter James Carter; Bud Smith Bud Smith, Joe Brown Joe Brown Carlos Ortiz Ismael Laguna Carlos Ortiz Teo Cruz Mando Ramos Ismael Laguna, Ken Buchanan (WBA) Mando Ramos (WBC), Pedro Carrasco (WBC) Roberto Duran (WBA) Pedro Carrasco, Mando Ramos, Chango Carmona, Rodolfo Gonzalez (all WBC)

1974–1976 1976–1977 1979 1980 1981 1982–1984 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990

Guts Ishimatsu (WBC) Esteban De Jesus (WBC) Jim Watt (WBC), Emesto Espana (WBA) Hilmer Kenty (WBA) Alexis Arguello (WBC), Sean O’Grady (WBA), Arturo Frias (WBA) Ray Mancini (WBA) Edwin Rosario (WBC) Livingstone Bramble (WBA); Jose Luis Ramirez (WBC) Hector (Macho) Camacho (WBC) Edwin Rosario (WBA); Jose Luis Ramirez (WBC) Julio Cesar Chavez (WBA) Edwin Rosario (WBA); Pernell Whitaker (WBC) Juan Nazario (WBA): Pernell Whitaker (WBC)

Featherweights (126–129 lb) Year

Fighter

1942–1948 1948–1949 1949–1950 1950–1957 1957–1959 1959–1963 1963–1964

Willie Pep Sandy Saddler Willie Pep Sandy Saddler Hogan (Kid) Bassey Davey Moore Sugar Ramos

Welterweights (147–153 lb) Year 1941–1946 1946–1946 1946–1950 1951 1951–1954

566

Fighter Fred Cochrane Marty Servo; Ray Robinson Ray Robinson Johnny Bratton (NBA) Kid Gavilan


Featherweights (126–129 lb) Year 1964–1967 1968–1971 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1980 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990

Fighter Vicente Saldivar Paul Rojas (WBA), Sho Saijo (WBA) Antonio Gomez (WBA), Kuniald Shibada (WBC) Ernesto Marcel (WBA), Clemente Sanchez (WBC), Jose Legra (WBC) Eder Jofre (WBC) Ruben Olivares (WBA), Alexis Arguelle (WBA), Bobby Chacon (WBC) Ruben Olivares (WBC), David Kotey (WBC) Danny Lopez (WBC) Rafael Ortega (WBA) Cecilio Lastra (WBA), Eusebio Pedrosa (WBA) Salvador Sanchez (WBC) Juan LaPorte (WBC) Wilfredo Gomez (WBC); Azumah Nelson (WBC) Barry McGuigan (WBA) Steve Cruz (WBA) Antonio Esparragoza (WBA) Jeff Fenech (WBC) Marcos Villasana (WBC)

Note: Various sanctioning bodies include the NBA: National Boxing Assn.; WBC: World Boxing Council; WBA: World Boxing Assn.; IBF: International Boxing Federation. Source: World Almanac, 1992, 871–73.

TABLE 18.85

HISTORY OF WORLD HEAVYWEIGHT CHAMPIONSHIP FIGHTS, 1937–1990

(bouts in which a new champion was crowned) Date

Where Held

Winner

Weight

Age

Loser

Weight

Age

Rounds

Jun. 22, 1937 Jun. 22, 1949 Sep. 27, 1950 Jul. 18, 1951 Sep. 23, 1952 Nov. 30, 1956 Jun. 26, 1959 Jun. 20, 1960

Chicago Chicago New York Pittsburgh Philadelphia Chicago New York New York

Joe Louis Ezzard Charles Ezzard Charles Joe Walcott Rocky Marciano Floyd Patterson Ingemar Johansson Floyd Patterson

197 1/4 181 3/4 184 1/2 194 184 182 1/4 196 190

23 27 29 37 29 21 26 25

Jim Braddock Joe Walcott Joe Louis Ezzard Charles Joe Walcott Archie Moore Floyd Patterson Ingemar Johansson

197 195 1/2 218 182 196 187 3/4 182 194 3/4

31 35 36 30 38 42 24 27

KO 8 15 15 KO 7 KO 13 KO 5 KO 3 KO 5

Sept. 25, 1962 Feb. 25, 1964 Mar. 4, 1968 Apr. 27, 1968 Feb. 16, 1970 Jan. 22, 1973 Oct. 30, 1974 Feb. 15, 1978

Chicago Miami Beach, Fla. New York Oakland, Calif. New York Kingston, Jamaica Kinshasa, Zaire Las Vegas, Nev.

Sonny Liston Cassius Clay Joe Frazier Jimmy Ellis Joe Frazier George Foreman Muhammad Ali Leon Spinks

214 210 204 1/2 197 205 217 1/2 216 1/2 197

28 22 24 28 26 24 32 25

Floyd Patterson Sonny Liston Buster Mathis Jerry Quarry Jimmy Ellis Joe Frazier George Foreman Muhammad Ali

189 218 243 1/2 195 201 214 220 224 1/2

27 30 23 22 29 29 26 36

KO 1 KO 7 KO 11 15 KO 5 KO 2 KO 8 15

Jun. 9, 1978 Sept. 15, 1978 Oct. 20, 1979 Mar. 31, 1980 Dec. 10, 1982 Sept. 23, 1983 Mar. 9, 1984 Aug. 31, 1984 Nov. 9, 1984

Las Vegas, Nev. New Orleans Pretoria, S. Africa Knoxville,Tenn. Las Vegas, Nev. Richfield, Ohio Las Vegas, Nev. Las Vegas, Nev. Las Vegas, Nev.

Larry Holmes Muhammad Ali John Tate Mike Weaver Michael Dokes Gerrie Coetzee Tim Witherspoon Pinklon Thomas Larry Holmes

212 221 240 207 1/2 216 215 220 1/2 216 221 1/2

28 36 24 27 24 28 26 26 35

Ken Norton Leon Spinks Gerrie Coetzee John Tate Mike Weaver Michael Dokes Greg Page Tim Witherspoon James Smith

220 201 222 232 209 1/2 217 239 1/2 217 227

32 25 24 25 30 25 25 26 31

15 15 15 KO 15 KO 1 KO 10 12 12 KO 12

Dec. 1, 1984 Apr. 29, 1985 Sept. 21, 1985 Jan. 17, 1986 Nov. 23, 1986 Dec. 12, 1986 Mar. 7, 1987 Feb. 10, 1990 Oct. 25, 1990

Sun City, S. Africa Buffalo, N.Y. Las Vegas, Nev. Atlanta, Ga. Las Vegas. Nev. New York, N.Y. Las Vegas, Nev. Tokyo Las Vegas, Nev.

Greg Page Tony Tubbs Michael Spinks Tim Witherspoon Mike Tyson James Smith Mike Tyson James “Buster’’ Douglas Evander Holyfield

236 229 200 227 217 230 217 231 1/2 208

25 26 29 28 20 33 20 29 28

Gerry Coetzee Greg Page Larry Holmes Tony Tubbs Trevor Berbick Tim Witherspoon James Smith Mike Tyson James “Buster’’ Douglas

217 239 1/2 221 229 220 218 230 220 246

29 26 35 27 29 29 33 23 30

KO 8 15 15 15 KO 2 KO 1 12 KO 10 KO 3

Note: KO5Knock out; other winners a result of judges’ decision. Source: Information Please Almanac, 1992, 916.

Sports

567

TABLE 18.86

MUHAMMAD ALI’S PROFESSIONAL RECORD

Born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr., on January 17, 1942, in Louisville; Amateur record of 100–5; won light-heavyweight gold medal at 1960 Olympic Games; Pro record of 56–50 with 37 KOs in 61 fights. 1960 Date Oct. 29 Dec. 27

Result

Mar. 8

Joe Frazier New York (for World Heavyweight title)

Location

Result

Jun. 28

U.S. Supreme Court unanimously reverses Ali’s 1967 conviction saying he had been drafted improperly.

Miami Beach Miami Beach Miami Beach Louisville Las Vegas Louisville Louisville Louisville

TKO 3 TKO 1 TKO 7 KO 2 Wu 10 Wu 10 TKO 6 TKO 7

Jul. 26

Jimmy Ellis Houston (won vacant NABF Heavyweight title) Buster Mathis Houston Jurgen Blin Zurich

Location

Result

New York Miami Beach Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles Los Angeles

TKO 4 TKO 4 TKO 4 TKO 7 KO 5 KO 4

Location

Result

Pittsburgh New York London

KO 3 Wu 10 TKO 5

Location

Result

Miami Beach

TKO 7

Opponent Sonny Banks Don Wamer George Logan Billy Daniels Alejandro Lavorante Archie Moore Opponent

Jan. 24 Mar. 13 Jun. 18

Charlie Powell Doug Jones Henry Cooper

1964 Opponent Sonny Liston

(won World Heavyweight title) After the fight, Clay announces he is a member of the Black Muslim religious sect and has changed his name to Muhammad Ali.

1965 Date

Opponent

May 25 Nov. 22

Sonny Liston Floyd Patterson

Location

Result

Lewiston, Me Las Vegas

KO 1 TKO 12

Location

Result

Toronto London London Franfurt Houston

Wu 15 TKO 6 KO 3 TKO 12 TKO 3

1966 Opponent George Chuvaolo Henry Cooper Brian London Karl Mildenberger Cleveland Williams

1967 Opponent

Location Houston New York

Result

Feb. 6 Mar. 22

Ernie Terrell Zora Foiley

Apr. 28

Refuses induction into U.S. Army and is stripped of world title byWBA and most state commissions the next day. Found guilty of draft evasion in Houston; fined $10,000 and sentenced to 5 years; remains free pending appeals, but is barred from the ring.

568

Location

1971 Opponent

Date

June. 20

TKO 3 TKO 15

Date

1963

Date

Atlanta New York

Wu 6 TKO 4

1962

Mar. 29 May 21 Aug. 6 Sept. 10 Nov. 12

Result

Louisville Miami Beach

Tony Esperti Jim Robinson Donnie Fleeman Lamar Clark Duke Sabedong Alonzzo Johnson Alex Miteff Willi Besmanoff

Date

Announces retirement Jerry Quarry Oscar Bonavena

Location

Tunney Hunsaker Herb Siler

Jan. 17 Feb. 7 Feb. 21 Apr. 19 Jun. 26 Jul .22 Oct. 7 Nov. 29

Feb. 25

Feb. 3 Oct. 26 Dec. 7

Opponent

Result

Opponent

Date

Date

Location

Date

Feb. 10 Feb. 28 Apr. 23 May 19 Jul. 20 Nov. 15

1970

Opponent

1961

Date

1968–69 (Inactive)


Wu 15 KO 7

Nov. 17 Dec. 26

Lu 15

TKO 12 Wu 12 KO 7

1972 Date

Opponent

Location

Result

Apr. 1 May 1 Jun. 27 Jul. 19 Sept. 20 Nov. 21

Mac Foster George Chuvalo Jerry Quarry Al (Blue) Lewis Floyd Patterson Bob Foster

Tokyo Vancouver Las Vegas Dublin, Ire New York Stateline, Nev

Wu 15 Wu 12 TKO 7 TKO 11 TKO 7 TKO 8

Location

Result

1973 Date

Opponent

Feb. 14 Mar. 31

Joe Bugner Las Vegas Ken Norton San Diego (lost NABF Heavyweight title) Ken Norton Inglewood, Calif (regained NABF Heavyweight title) Rudi Rubbers Jakarta, Indonesia

Sept. 10 Oct. 20

Wu 12 Ls 12 Ws 12 Wu 12

1974 Date

Opponent

Location

Jan. 28 Oct. 30

Joe Frazier New York George Foreman Kinshasa, Zaire (regained World Heavyweight title)

Result Wu 12 KO 8

1975 Date

Opponent

Location

Result

Mar. 24 May 16 Jun. 30

Chuck Wepner Ron Lyle Joe Bugner

TKO 15 TKO 11

Sept. 30

Joe Frazier

Cleveland Las Vegas Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Manila

Result

Wu 15 TKO 14

1976 Date

Opponent

Location

Feb. 20 Apr. 30 May 24 Sept. 28

Jean-Pierre Coopman Jimmy Young Richard Dunn Ken Norton

San Juan Landover, Md Munich New York

KO 5 Wu 15 TKO 5 Wu 15

1977 Date

Opponent

Location

Result

May 16 Sept. 29

Alfredo Evangelista Earnie Shavers

Landover New York

Wu 15 Wu 15

Location

Result

1978 Date

Opponent

Feb. 15

Leon Spinks Las Vegas (lost World Heavyweight title) Leon Spinks New Orleans (regained World Heavyweight title)

Sept. 15

Ls 15 Wu 15

Automobile Racing

1979 Date June 27

Announces retirement

1980 Date

Opponent

Oct. 2

Larry Holmes

Location Las Vegas

Result TKO by 11

1981 Date

Opponent

Location

Dec. 11

Trevor Berbick

Nassau

Result Lu 10

Note: Wu5winner, unanimous decision; TKO5Technical knockout; KO5Knockout; Lu5loser, unanimous decision; Ls5loser, split decision. Source: 1993 Information please Sports Almanac, 788.

TABLE 18.87

Automobile racing came to encompass many types of races and classes of equipment, but as continuing competition and as a spectator sport, most attention in the United States focused on two categories: Indianapolis-type racers and stock cars. Both would be shaped by revolutions in finance and technology. Indy cars came into being for no reason other than competition, specifically in the Indianapolis 500 Race on Memorial Day weekend. Technology concentrated on producing a well-handling ride, a chassis that would stick to the surface when rounding turns at nearly top speed, and of course engines that would run fast. Until the 1960s most Indianapolis cars were roadsters powered by a four-cylinder Offenhauser engine mounted in the front.The early 1960s brought a new design—a V-8 engine mounted in the rear—that would dominate the remainder of the era. Top speeds, which began the period at around 125 mph (pole position speed for

INDIANAPOLIS 500, 1946–1990

First held in 1911, the Indianapolis 500—200 laps of the 2.5-mile Indianapolis Motor Speedway Track (called the Brickyard in honor of its original pavement)—grew to become the most famous auto race in the world. Held on Memorial Day weekend, it annually drew the largest crowd of any sporting event in the world. Year Winner Start Position Car Avg MPH Pole Winner MPH 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

George Robson Mauri Rose Mauri Rose Bill Holland Johnnie Parsons

15 3 3 4 5

Thorne Engineering Special Blue Crown Spark Plug Special Blue Crown Spark Plug Special Blue Crown Spark Plug Special Wynn’s Friction Proofing

114.820 116.338 119.814 121.327 124.002

Cliff Bergere Ted Horn Rex Mays Duke Nalon Walt Faulkner

126.471 126.564 130.577 132.939 134.343

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Lee Wallard Troy Ruttman Bill Vukovich Bill Vukovich Bob Sweikert

2 7 1 19 14

Belanger Special Agajanian Special Fuel Injection Special Fuel Injection Special John Zink Special

126.244 128.922 128.740 130.840 128.209

Duke Nalon Fred Agabashian Bill Vukovich Jack McGrath Jerry Hoyt

136.498 138.010 138.392 141.033 140.045

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Pat Flaherty Sam Hanks Jim Bryan Rodger Ward Jim Rathmann

1 13 7 6 2

John Zink Special Belond Exhaust Special Belond AP Parts Special Leader Card 500 Roadster Ken-Paul Special

128.490 135.601 133.791 135.857 138.767

Pat Flaherty Pat O’Connor Dick Rathmann Johnny Thomson Eddie Sachs

145.596 143.948 145.974 145.908 146.592

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

A. J. Foyt Rodger Ward Parnelli Jones A. J. Foyt Jim Clark

7 2 1 5 2

Bowes Seal-Fast Special Leader Card 500 Roadster Agajanian-Willard Special Sheraton-Thompson Special Lotus Ford

139.130 140.293 143.137 147.350 150.686

Eddie Sachs Parnelli Jones Parnelli Jones Jim Clark A.J. Foyt

147.481 150.370 151.153 158.828 161.233

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Graham Hill A. J. Foyt Bobby Unser Mario Andretti Al Unser

15 4 3 2 1

American Red Ball Special Sheraton-Thompson Special Rislone Special STP Oil Treatment Special Johnny Lightning 500 Special

144.317 151.207 152.882 156.867 155.749

Mario Andretti Mario Andretti Joe Leonard A. J. Foyt Al Unser

165.899 168.982 171.559 170.568 170.221

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Al Unser Mark Donohue Gordon Johncock Johnny Rutherford Bobby Unser

5 3 11 25 3

Johnny Lightning Special Sunoco McLaren STP Double Oil Filters McLaren Jorgensen Eagle

157.735 162.962 159.036 158.589 149.213

Peter Revson Bobby Unser Johnny Rutherford A. J. Foyt A. J. Foyt

178.696 195.940 198.413 191.632 193.976

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Johnny Rutherford A. J. Foyt Al Unser Rick Mears Johnny Rutherford

1 4 5 1 1

Hy-Gain McLaren/Goodyear Gilmore Racing Team FNCTC Chaparral Lola The Gould Charge Pennzoil Chaparral

148.725 161.331 161.361 158.899 142.862

Johnny Rutherford Tom Sneva Tom Sneva Rick Mears Johnny Rutherford

188.957 198.884 202.156 193.736 192.256

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

Bobby Unser Gordon Johncock Tom Sneva Rick Mears Danny Sullivan

1 5 4 3 8

Norton Spirit Penske PC-9B STP Oil Treatment Texaco Star Pennzoil Z-7 Miller American Special

139.084 162.026 162.117 163.612 152.982

Bobby Unser Rick Mears Teo Fabi Tom Sneva Pancho Carter

200.546 207.004 207.395 210.029 212.583

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Bobby Rahal Al Unser Rick Mears Emerson Fittipaldi Arie Luyendyk

4 20 1 3 3

Budweiser/Truesports/March Cummins Holset Turbo Penske-Chevrolet Penske-Chevrolet Domino’s Pizza Chevrolet

170.722 162.175 144.809 167.581 185.981

Rick Mears Mario Andretti Rick Mears Rick Mears Emerson Fittipaldi

216.828 215.390 219.198 223.885 225.301

Source: Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac, 507–08.

Sports

569

turning one 2.5-mile lap), went to 150 in 1962, 200 in 1978, and 225 in 1990—a total increase of 100 mph. A small fraternity of Indy car drivers that included such names as Rodger Ward, A. J. Foyt, the Unser family, the Andrettis, and Rick Mears, was well known in the world of sports. Popularity of Indianapolis type, open-wheel racing did not grow in accordance with the advance in technology, but the Indianapolis 500 remained not only the “greatest spectacle in racing’’ but also the best-attended single sporting event in the world. The development of stock-car racing or the size of it came as a surprise. Long considered an expression of a coarse, crude, and impoverished southern society, racing in the south moved quickly from ol’ boys driving souped-up personal cars to a structured and profitable racing organization called NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing), under the firm hand of a man named Bill France. Growing popularity of the races attracted interest from outsiders, including the automobile manufacturers. The Daytona Speed-

way, a paved, steeply banked, 2.5-mile oval, opened in 1959. Everywhere in the South the tracks were being paved; in the 1970s the circuit expanded to Michigan, Pennsylvania, Maryland, California, and Arizona. Other states were planning new speedways, hoping the “big boys,’’ now called the Winston Cup Series, would come to race. Southern pioneers of stock-car racing—the Pettys, the Allisons, the Yarboroughs, and the Pearsons—were being joined by competent drivers from the North and West. CBS and ESPN took the lead in offering national television coverage of specified races. The stock cars had stolen the show in automobile competition, and evolution of the stock-car race surely was one of the two or three most remarkable developments in sports in the last third of the 20th century.

TABLE 18.89

RACING AT DAYTONA—THE EARLY YEARS, 1949–1958

(4.1 mile beach/road course)

TABLE 18.88 SPEEDWAY MONEY—THE PAYOUT AT INDY, 1946–1990 Year

Purse

Winner

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

$115,450 137,425 171,075 179,050 201,135

$42,550 31,450 42,800 51,575 57,458

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

207,650 230,100 246,300 269,375 270,400

63,612 61,743 89,496 74,934 76,138

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

282,052 300,252 305,217 338,100 369,150

93,819 103,844 111,327 105,805 110,000

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

400,000 426,152 494,030 506,575 628,399

117,975 125,015 148,513 153,650 186,621

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

691,808 734,634 712,269 805,127 1,000,002

156,297 171,227 177,523 205,727 271,697

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

1,001,604 1,011,848 1,006,105 1,015,686 1,001,321

238,454 218,767 236,022 245,031 214,031

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1,037,755 1,116,807 1,145,225 1,271,954 1,503,225

256,121 259,791 290,383 270,401 318,819

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1,609,375 2,067,475 2,411,450 2,795,899 3,271,025

299,124 290,609 385,886 434,061 517,662

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4,001,450 4,490,375 5,025,400 5,723,725 6,325,803

581,062 526,762 809,853 1,001,604 1,090,940


570


Year

Winner

Type Car

Laps

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

Red Byron Harold Kite Marshall Teague Marshall Teague Bill Blair Lee Petty Tim Flock Tim Flock Cotton Owens Paul Goldsmith

Oldsmobile Lincoln Hudson Hudson Oldsmobile Chrysler Chrysler ‘56 Chrysler ‘57 Pontiac Pontiac

49 39 36 39 39 39 39 39 39

Source: Old Cars Publications, Standard Catalogue of American Cars, 1946–1975 (Iola, Wisc., 1976), 782.

TABLE 18.90 DAYTONA 500 WINNERS, 1959–1990 (2.5-mile paved, banked oval) Year

Driver

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Lee Petty Junior Johnson Marvin Panch Fireball Roberts Tiny Lund Richard Petty Fred Lorenzen Richard Petty

Oldsmobile Chevrolet Pontiac Pontiac Ford Plymouth Ford Plymouth

135.521 124.740 149.601 152.529 151.566 154.334 141.539 160.627

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Mario Andretti Cale Yarborough Lee Roy Yarborough Pete Hamilton Richard Petty A. J. Foyt Richard Petty Richard Petty Benny Parsons

Ford Mercury Ford Plymouth Plymouth Mercury Dodge Dodge Chevrolet

146.926 143.251 160.875 149.601 144.456 161.550 157.205 140.894 153.649

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

David Pearson Cale Yarborough Bobby Allison Richard Petty Buddy Baker Richard Petty Bobby Allison

Mercury Chevrolet Ford Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Buick Buick

152.181 153.218 159.730 143.977 177.602 169.651 153.991

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Cale Yarborough Cale Yarborough Bill Elliott Geoff Bodine Bill Elliott Bobby Allison Darrell Waltrip Derrike Cope

Pontiac Chevrolet Ford Chevrolet Ford Buick Chevrolet Chevrolet

155.979 150.994 172.265 148.124 176.263 137.531 148.466 165.761


Car

Avg. MPH

TABLE 18.91

WINSTON CUP NASCAR CHAMPIONSa, 1949–1990

Year

Driver

Car

Wins

Poles

Winnings ($)

1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

Red Byron Bill Rexford Herb Thomas Tim Flock Herb Thomas Lee Petty

Oldsmobile Oldsmobile Hudson Hudson Hudson Dodge

2 1 7 8 11 7

0 0 4 4 10 3

5,800 6,175 18,200 20,210 27,300 26,706

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Tim Flock Buck Baker Buck Baker Lee Petty Lee Petty Rex White

Chrysler Chrysler Chevrolet Olds Plymouth Chevrolet

18 14 10 7 10 6

19 12 5 4 2 3

33,750 29,790 24,712 20,600 45,570 45,260

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966

Ned Jarrett Joe Weatherly Joe Weatherly Richard Petty Ned Jarrett David Pearson

Chevrolet Pontiac Mercury Plymouth Ford Dodge

1 9 3 9 13 14

4 6 6 8 9 7

27,285 56,110 58,110 98,810 77,966 59,205

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

Richard Petty David Pearson David Pearson Bobby Isaac Richard Petty Richard Petty

Plymouth Ford Ford Dodge Plymouth Plymouth

27 16 11 11 21 8

18 12 14 13 9 3

130,275 118,824 183,700 121,470 309,225 227,015

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

Benny Parsons Richard Petty Richard Petty Cale Yarborough Cale Yarborough Cale Yarborough

Chevrolet Dodge Dodge Chevrolet Chevrolet Oldsmobile

1 10 13 9 9 10

0 7 3 2 3 8

114,345 299,175 378,865 387,173 477,499 530,751

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Richard Petty Dale Earnhardt Darrell Waltrip Darrell Waltrip Bobby Allison Terry Labonte

Chevrolet Chevrolet Buick Buick Buick Chevrolet

5 5 12 12 6 2

1 0 11 7 0 2

531,292 588,926 693,342 873,118 828,355 713,010

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Darrell Waltrip Dale Earnhardt Dale Earnhardt Bill Elliott Rusty Wallace Dale Earnhardt

Chevrolet Chevrolet Chevrolet Ford Pontiac Chevrolet

3 5 11 6 6 9

4 1 1 6 4 4

1,318,735 1,783,880 2,099,243 1,574,639 2,247,950 3,083,056

a

The ultimate mark of success in the major league of stock-car racing. Scoring is based largely on individual finish in each of the series’ races. Source: Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac, 512.

Horse Racing While horse racing could never be in the United States the “sport of kings,’’ the racing establishment did play close heed to bloodlines, and it acknowedged a form of aristocracy. The bloodline, of course, existed totally with the horses, and a suggestion of an upper crust pertained to a cast of racing characters that included traders, breeders, trainers, stablehands, and jockeys. The top, the aristocracy, involved the horse or stable owners. Year after year, horse racing attracted an on-site audience far greater than all major league baseball games combined or any other sporting series. People went to the track to experience the thrill of competition in the race—really a series of races—compounded by the fact that spectators probably had a stake in the outcome. Horse racing stood as a familiar outlet for a popular

impuse for gambling—a practice that could entail a make-or-break situation with serious amounts of money involved, or it could be passed off as another expression of sporting behavior. Otherwise, the general populace paid at best passing attention to horse racing. Many people might regard the most famous race, the Kentucky Derby, as one of the few national rites of spring, note the name of the winning horse and jockey, and if by chance a horse seemed truly exceptional, the sporting public paid closer attention, and insiders of the sport perhaps identified the makings of a legend, a point of past and future reference for their enterprise. To the extent that any animal fit these characteristics during the years 1946–1990, it would have to be the red stallion that burst on the scene in the early to mid-1970s then retired to a long life of siring new race horses. But none of them would be a match for Secretariat.

Sports

571

TABLE 18.92

TRIPLE CROWN OF HORSE RACING, 1946–1990 Kentucky Derby

Preakness Stakes

Belmont Stakes

Churchill Downs; 3-year-olds; 11/4 miles

Pimlico; 3-year-olds; 13/16 miles

Belmont Park; 3-year-olds; 11/2 miles

Year

Winner

Jockey

Wt

Win. Val ($)

Year

Winner

Jockey

Wt

Win. Val ($)

Year

Winner

Jockey

Wt

Win. Val ($)

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Assault Jet Pilot Citation Ponde Middleground

W. Mehrtens E. Guerin E. Arcaro S. Brooks W.Boland

126 126 126 126 126

96,400 92,160 83,400 91,600 92,650

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Assault Faultless Citation Capot Hill Prince

W. Mehrtens D.Dodson E. Arcaro T. Atkinson E. Arcaro

126 126 126 126 126

96,620 98,005 91,870 79,985 56,115

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Assault Phalanx Citation Capot Middleground

W. Mehrtens R. Donoso E. Arcaro T. Atkinson W. Boland

126 126 126 126 126

75,400 78,900 77,700 60,900 61,350

1951

C. McCreary

126

98,050

1951

Bold

E. Arcaro

126

83,110

1951

126

82,000

E. Arcaro H. Moreno

126 126

96,300 90,050

1952 1953

C. McCreary E. Guerin

126 126

86,135 65,200

1952 1953

E. Arcaro E. Guerin

126 126

82,400 82,500

R.Yofk W. Shoemaker

126 126

102,050 108,400

1954 1955

Blue Man Native Dancer Hasty Road Nashua

J. Adams E. Arcaro

126 126

91,600 67,550

1954 1955

Counter point One Count Native Dancer High Gun Nashua

D. Gorman

1954 1955

Count Turf Hill Gail Dark Star Determine Swaps

E. Guerin E. Arcaro

126 126

89,000 83,700

1956 1957 1958 1959

Needles Iron Liege Tim Tam Tomy Lee

D. Erb W. Hartack I.Valenzuela W. Shoemaker

126 126 126 126

123,450 107,950 116,400 119,650

1956 1957 1958 1959

Fabius Bold Ruler Tim Tam Royal Orbit

W. Hartack E. Arcaro I.Valenzuela W. Harmatz

126 126 126 126

84,250 65,250 97,900 136,200

1956 1957 1958 1959

D. Erb W. Shoemaker P. Anderson W. Shoemaker

126 126 126 126

83,600 77,300 73,440 93,525

1960

Venetian Way

W. Hartack

126

114,850

1960

Belly Ache

R. Ussery

126

121,000

1960

Needles Gallant Man Cavan Sword Dancer Celtic Ash

W. Hartack

126

96,785

1961

Carry Back Decidedly Chateauguay Northern Dancer Lucky Debonair

J. Sellers

126

120,500

1961

Carry Back

J. Sellers

126

126,200

1961

Sherluck

B. Baeza

126

104,900

W. Hartack B. Baeza

126 126

119,650 108,900

1962 1963

Greek Money J. Rotz Candy Spots W. Shoemaker

126 126

135,800 127,500

1962 1963

Jaipur Chateauguay

W. Shoemaker B. Baeza

126 126

109,550 101,700

W. Hartack

126

114,300

1964

W. Hartack

126

124,200

1964

Quadrangle

M.Ycaza

126

110,850

W. Shoemaker

126

112,000

1965

Northern Dancer Tom Rolfe

R.Turcotte

126

128,100

1965

Hail to All

J. Sellers

126

104,150

Kauai King Proud Clarion Forward Pass Majestic Prince Dust Commander

D. Brumfield

126

120,500

1966

Kauai King

D. Brumfield

126

129,000

1966

Amberoid

W. Boland

126

117,700

R. Ussery

126

119,700

1967

Damascus

W. Shoemaker

126

141,500

1967

Damascus

W. Shoemaker

126

104,950

I.Valenzuela

126

122,600

1968

Forward Pass

I.Valenzuela

126

142,700

1968

H. Gustines

126

117,700

W. Hartack

126

113,200

1969

W. Hartack

126

129,500

1969

B. Baeza

126

104,050

M. Manganello

126

127,800

1970

Majestic Prince Personality

E. Belmonte

126

151,300

1970

Stage Door Johnny Arts and Letters High Echelon

J. Rotz

126

115,000

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Canonero II Riva Ridge Secretariat Cannonade Foolish Pleasure

G. Avila R.Turcotte R.Turcotte A. Cordero, Jr J.Vesquez

126 126 126 126 126

145,500 140,300 155,050 274,000 200,600

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Canonero II Bee Bee Bee Secretariat Little Current Master Derby

G. Avita E. Nelson R.Turcotte M. Rivera D. McHargue

126 126 126 126 126

137,400 135,300 129,900 156,000 158,100

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Pass Catcher Riva Ridge Secretariat Little Current Avatar

R. Blum R.Turcotte R.Turcotte M. Rivera W. Shoemaker

126 126 126 126 126

97,710 93,540 90,120 101,970 116,160

1976 1977 1978 1979

Bold Forbes Seattle Slew Affirmed Spectacular Bid Genuine Risk

A. Cordero, Jr. J. Cruguet S. Cauthen R. Franklin

126 126 126 126

165,200 214,700 186,900 228,650

1976 1977 1978 1979

J. Lively J. Cruguet S. Cauthen R. Franklin

126 126 126 126

129,700 138,600 136,200 165,300

1976 1977 1978 1979

Bold Forbes Seattle Slew Affirmed Coastal

A. Cordero, Jr. J. Cruguet S. Cauthen R. Hernandez

126 126 126 126

117,000 109,080 110,580 161,400

I.Vasquez

121

250,550

1980

Elocutionist Seattle Slew Affirmed Spectacular Bid Codex

A. Cordero

126

180,600

1980

Temperence Hill

E. Maple

126

176,220

Pleasant Colony Gato del Sol Sunny’s Halo Swale Spend a Buck

J.Velasquez

126

317,200

1981

J.Velasquez

126

270,800

1981

Summing

G. Martens

126

170,580

E. Delahoussaye E. Delahoussaye L. Pincay, Jr. A. Cordero, Jr.

126

417,600

1982

J. Kaenel

126

209,900

1982

159,720

426,000

1983

D. Miller

126

251,200

1983

Conquistador L. Pincay, Jr. Cielo Caveat L. Pincay, Jr.

126

126

126

215,100

126 126

537,400 406,800

1984 1985

Pleasant Colony Aloma’s Ruler Deputed Testamony Gate Dancer Tank’s Prospect

A. Cordero P. Day

126 126

243,600 423,200

1984 1985

Swale Creme Fraiche

L Pincay, Jr. E. Maple

126 126

310,020 307,740

1986

Ferdinand

W. Shoemaker

126

609,400

1986

Snow Chief

A. Solis

126

411,900

1986

C. McCarron

126

338,640

1987 1988

Alysheba Winning Colors Sunday Silence Unbridled

C. McCarron G. Stevens

126 121

618,600 611,200

1987 1988

Alysheba Risen Star

C. McCarron E. Delahoussaye

126 126

421,100 413,700

1987 1988

Danzig Connection Bet Twice Risen Star

C. Perret E. Delahoussaye

126 126

329,160 303,720

P.Valenzuela

126

574,200

1989

P.Valenzuela

126

438,230

1989

Easy Goer

P. Day

126

413,520

C. Perret

126

581,000

1990

Sunday Silence Summer Squall

P. Day

126

445,900

1990

Go And Go

M. Kinane

126

411,600

1952 1953

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1989 1990

Note: Wt = weight; Win. Val ($) = amount of purse ($). Source: Time Almanac, 2001, 951–53.

572


TABLE 18.93 Year

HORSE OF THE YEAR, 1946–1990 Horse

Owner

Trainer

Breeder

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

Assault Armed Citation Capot Hill Prince

King Ranch Calumet Farm Calumet Farm Greentree Stable C.T. Chenery

Max Hirsch Jimmy Jones Jimmy Jones John M. Gaver Sr. Casey Hayes

King Ranch Calumet Farm Calumet Farm Greentree Stable C.T. Chenery

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

Counterpoint One Count Tom Fool Native Dancer Nashua

C.V.Whitney Mrs.W.M. Jeffords Greentree Stable A.G.Vanderbilt Belair Stud

Syl Veitch O.White John M. Gaver Sr. Bill Winfrey James Fitzsimmons

C.V.Whitney W. M. Jeffords D.A. Headley A.G.Vanderbilt Belair Stud

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

Swaps Bold Ruler Round Table Sword Dancer Kelso

Ellsworth-Galbreath Wheatley Stable Kerr Stables Brookmeade Stable Bohemia Stable

Mesh Tenney James Fitzsimmons Willy Molter Elliott Burch C. Hanford

R. Ellsworth Wheatley Stable Claiborne Farm Brookmeade Stable Mrs. R.C. duPont

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

Kelso Kelso Kelso Kelso Roman Brother

Bohemia Stable Bohemia Stable Bohemia Stable Bohemia Stable Harbor View Stable

C. Hanford C. Hanford C. Hanford C. Hanford Burley Parke

Mrs. R.C. duPont Mrs. R.C. duPont Mrs. R.C. duPont Mrs. R.C. duPont Ocala Stud

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Buckpasser Damascus Dr. Fager Arts and Letters Fort Marcy

Ogden Phipps Mrs. E.W. Bancroft Tartan Stable Rokeby Stable Rokeby Stable

Eddie Neloy Frank Y.Whiteley Jr. John A. Nerud Elliott Burch Elliott Burch

Ogden Phipps Mrs. E.W. Bancroft Tartan Farms Paul Mellon Paul Mellon

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

Ack Ack Secretariat Secretariat Forego Forego

E. E. Fogelson Meadow Stable Meadow Stable Lazy F Ranch Lazy F Ranch

Charlie Whittingham Lucien Laurin Lucien Laurin Sherrill W.Ward Sherrill W.Ward

H.F. Guggenheim Meadow Stud Meadow Stud Lazy F Ranch Lazy F Ranch

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Forego Seattle Slew Affirmed Affirmed Spectacular Bid

Lazy F Ranch Karen L.Taylor Harbor View Farm Harbor View Farm Hawksworth Farm

Frank Y.Whiteley Jr. Billy Turner Jr. Laz Barrera Laz Barrera Bud Delp

Lazy F Ranch B.S. Castleman Harbor View Farm Harbor View Farm Mmes. Gilmore and Jason

1981

John Henry

Dotsam Stable

Golden Chance Farm

1982 1983 1984 1985

Conquistador Cielo All Along John Henry Spend a Buck

H. de Kwiatkowski Daniel Wildenstein Dotsam Stable Hunter Farm

Ron McAnally and Lefty Nickerson Woody Stephens P.L. Biancone Ron McAnally Cam Gambolati

1986 1987 1988 1989

Lady’s Secret Ferdinand Alysheba Sunday Silence

1990

Criminal Type

Mr. & Mrs. Eugene Klein Mrs. H.B. Keck D. & P. Scharbauer Gaillard, Hancock, & Whittingham Calumet Farm

D.Wayne Lukas Charlie Whittingham Jack Van Berg Charlie Whittingham D.Wayne Lukas

L.E. Landoli Dayton Golden Chance Farm Irish Hill Farm & R.W. Harper R.H. Spreen H.B. Keck Preston Madden Oak Cliff Thoroughbreds Calumet Farm

Source: Sports Illustrated 2000 Sports Almanac, 488–89.

Sports

573

TABLE 18.94 Year

TRIPLE CROWN WINNERS

Horse

Jockey

Owner

Trainer

1946 1948 1973 1977

Assault Citation Secretariat Seattle Slew

Warren Mehrtens Eddie Arcaro Ron Turcotte Jean Cruguet

King Ranch Calumet Farm Meadow Stable Karen L.Taylor

1978

Affirmed

Steve Cauthen

Harbor View Farm

Max Hirsch Jimmy Jones Lucien Laurin William H. Turner Jr. Laz Barrera

Source: Sports Illustrated 2000 Sports Almanac, 488.

TABLE 18.95 TOP MONEY-WINNING JOCKEYS, 1946–1990 Year

Jockey

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

I. Atkinson D. Dodson E. Arcaro S. Brooks E. Arcaro

1,036,825 1,429,949 1,686,230 1,316,817 1,410,160

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

W. Shoemaker E. Arcaro W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker E. Arcaro

1,329,890 1,859,591 1,784,187 1,876,760 1,864,796

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

W. Hartack W. Hartack W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker

2,343,955 3,060,501 2,961,693 2,843,133 2,123,961

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker W. Shoemaker B. Baeza

2,690,819 2,916,844 2,526,925 2,649,553 2,582,702

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

B. Baeza B. Baeza B. Baeza J.Velasquez L. Pincay, Jr.

2,951,022 3,088,888 2,835,108 2,542,315 2,626,526

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

L. Pincay, Jr. L. Pincay, Jr. L. Pincay, Jr. L. Pincay, Jr. B. Baeza

3,784,377 3,225,827 4,093,492 4,251,060 3,674,398

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

A. Cordero, Jr. S. Cauthen D.G. McHargue L. Pincay, Jr. C.J. McCarron

4,709,500 6,151,750 6,188,353 8,183,535 7,666,100

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

C.J. McCarron A. Cordero, Jr. A. Cordero, Jr. C.J. McCarron L. Pincay, Jr.

8,397,604 9,702,520 10,116,807 12,038,213 13,415,049

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

J.A. Santos J.A. Santos J.A. Santos J.A. Santos G.L. Stevens

11,329,297 12,407,355 14,877,298 13,847,003 13,881,198


574

Amount Won ($)


The Most Exciting Sporting Event of the Era In a quest for the most striking single sporting event of the last half of the 20th century, it is difficult to believe that anything could surpass the victory of the American hockey team against the Soviet Union in the Olympic Games on February 22, 1980. At least, many people in the world of sports reached that conclusion. All the elements favoring a national celebration were present. The game was on home ice, at Lake Placid, New York. It was an upset of the first magnitude, a game that pitted young, inexperienced American college players against the vaunted Soviets, in truth professionals who could hold their own against the very best Canadians in the N.H.L. Only one week before the game the United States had lost to the same Soviet team, 10–3. It was a genuine national victory; there were no losers among the Americans, and it could not have come at a better time.The economy seemingly had gone haywire and with a hostage crisis with Iran that had brought absolute humiliation, the United States was in desperate need of a boost—a reminder of the country’s competence and promise, a spark to ignite national pride and the collective spirit. The Americans won the gold medal, but the 4–3 victory over the Russians, which came in a semifinal game, did not accomplish that deed. In fact, had the Americans not defeated Finland in the final, there would have been no medal of any kind for the United States. It probably would not have mattered. A loss to the Finns could not have erased the magic of the moment or prevented the spontaneous national celebration that erupted or the retrospective thrill years later in a mental recreation of that February evening in 1980.

CHAPTER 19 Crime and Punishment The national government assumed responsibility for assembling and publishing crime statistics on all levels in the United States. Numerous agencies published many kinds of special reports, but the responsibility for arranging general statistics in a consistent and usable form fell on two agencies, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which each year published a volume entitled Uniform Crime Reports, and the Bureau of Justice Statistics—as with the FBI, a part of the Department of Justice—which, beginning in 1973, issued an annual publication, Sourcebook of Criminal

TABLE 19.1

ESTIMATED NUMBER AND RATE OF OFFENSES KNOWN TO POLICE, BY OFFENSE, 1960–1990

Number of Year Offenses 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Justice Statistics. The FBI divided the most serious crimes (crime index offenses) into two groups: violent crimes (murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and crimes of property (arson, burglary, larceny, theft, and motor vehicle theft). The first generalization about crime in cold war United States during this period was that it increased markedly—in absolute numbers, of course, but also in crime rate, and the numbers went up nearly every year. Between 1960 and 1990 the total crime index decreased

179,323,175 182,992,000 185,771,000 188,483,000 191,141,000 193,526,000 195,576,000 197,457,000 199,399,000 201,385,000 203,235,298 206,212,000 208,230,000 209,851,000 211,392,000 213,124,000 214,659,000 216,332,000 218,059,000 220,099,000 225,349,264 229,146,000 231,534,000 233,981,000 236,158,000 238,740,000 241,077,000 243,400,000 245,807,000 248,239,000 248,709,873

Total Crime Index

Violent Crime

Property Crime

3,384,200 3,488,000 3,752,200 3,109,500 4,564,000 4,739,400 5,223,500 5,903,400 6,720,200 7,410,900 8,098,000 8,588,200 8,248,800 8,718,100 10,253,400 11,256,600 11,349,700 10,984,500 11,209,000 12,249,500 13,408,300 13,423,800 12,974,400 12,108,600 11,881,800 12,430,000 13,210,800 13,508,700 13,923,100 14,251,400 14,475,600

288,460 289,390 301,510 316,970 364,220 387,390 430,180 499,930 595,010 661,870 738,820 816,500 834,900 875,910 974,720 1,026,280 1,004,210 1,029,580 1,085,550 1,208,030 1,344,520 1,361,820 1,322,390 1,258,090 1,273,280 1,327,440 1,488,140 1,484,000 1,566,220 1,646,040 1,820,130

3,095,700 3,198,600 3,450,700 3,792,500 4,200,400 4,352,000 4,793,300 5,403,500 6,125,200 6,749,000 7,359,200 7,771,700 7,413,900 7,842,200 9,278,700 10,230,300 10,345,500 9,955,000 10,123,400 11,041,500 12,063,700 12,061,900 11,652,000 10,850,500 10,608,500 11,102,600 11,722,700 12,024,700 12,356,900 12,605,400 12,655,500

Murder and Nonnegligent Man- Forcible slaughter Rape 9,110 8,740 8,530 8,640 9,360 9,960 11,040 12,240 13,800 14,760 16,000 17,780 18,670 19,640 20,710 20,510 18,780 19,120 19,560 21,460 23,040 22,520 21,010 19,310 18,960 18,980 20,610 20,100 20,680 21,500 23,440

Robbery

Aggravated Assault

107,840 106,670 110,860 116,470 130,390 138,690 157,990 202,910 262,840 298,850 349,860 387,700 376,290 384,220 442,400 464,970 427,810 412,610 426,930 480,700 565,840 592,910 553,130 506,570 485,010 497,870 542,780 517,700 542,970 578,330 639,270

60.1 58.3 59.7 61.8 68.2 71.7 80.8 102.8 131.8 148.4 172.1 188.0 180.7 183.1 209.3 218.2 199.3 190.7 195.8 218.4

17,190 17,220 17,550 17,650 21,420 23,410 25,820 27,620 31,670 37,170 37,990 42,260 46,850 51,400 55,400 56,090 57,080 63,500 67,610 76,390 82,990 82,500 78,770 78,920 84,230 87,340 90,430 91,110 92,490 94,500 102,560

Burglary

Larceny —Theft

Motor Vehicle Theft

154,320 156,760 164,570 174,210 203,050 215,330 235,330 257,160 286,700 311,090 334,970 368,760 393,090 420,650 456,210 484,710 500,530 534,350 571,460 629,480 672,650 663,900 669,480 653,290 685,350 723,250 834,320 855,090 910,090 951,710 1,054,860

912,100 949,600 994,300 1,086,400 1,213,200 1,282,500 1,410,100 1,632,100 1,858,900 1,981,900 2,205,000 2,399,300 2,375,500 2,565,500 3,039,200 3,252,100 3,108,700 3,071,500 3,128,300 3,327,700 3,795,200 3,779,700 3,447,100 3,129,900 2,984,400 3,073,300 3,241,400 3,236,200 3,218,100 3,168,200 3,073,900

1,855,400 1,913,000 2,089,600 2,297,800 2,514,400 2,572,600 2,822,000 3,111,600 3,482,700 3,888,600 4,225,800 4,424,200 4,151,200 4,347,900 5,262,500 5,977,700 6,270,800 5,905,700 5,991,000 6,601,000 7,136,900 7,194,400 7,142,500 6,712,800 6,591,900 6,926,400 7,257,200 7,499,900 7,705,900 7,872,400 7,945,700

328,200 336,000 366,800 408,300 472,800 496,900 561,200 659,800 783,600 878,500 928,400 948,200 887,200 928,800 977,100 1,000,500 966,000 977,700 1,004,100 1,112,800 1,131,700 1,087,800 1,062,400 1,007,900 1,032,200 1,102,900 1,224,100 1,288,700 1,432,900 1,564,800 1,635,900

86.1 85.7 88.6 92.4 106.2 111.3 120.3 130.2 143.8 154.5 164.8 178.8 188.8 200.5 215.8 227.4 233.2 240.0 262.1 286.0

508.6 518.9 535.2 576.4 634.7 662.7 721.0 826.6 932.3 984.1 1,084.9 1,163.5 1,140.8 1,222.5 1,437.7 1,525.9 1,448.2 1,419.8 1,434.6 1,511.9

1,034.7 1,045.4 1,124.8 1,219.1 1,315.5 1,329.3 1,442.9 1,575.8 1,746.6 1,930.9 2,079.3 2,145.5 1,993.6 2,071.9 2,489.5 2,804.8 2,921.3 2,729.9 2,747.4 2,999.1

183.0 183.6 197.4 216.6 247.4 256.8 286.9 334.1 393.0 436.2 456.8 459.8 426.1 442.6 462.2 469.4 450.0 451.9 460.5 505.6

Rate per 100,000 Inhabitants 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1,887.2 1,906.1 2,019.8 2,180.3 2,388.1 2,449.0 2,670.8 2,989.7 3,370.2 3,680.0 3,984.5 4,164.7 3,961.4 4,154.4 4,850.4 5,281.7 5,287.3 5,077.6 5,140.3 5,565.5

160.9 158.1 162.3 168.2 190.6 200.2 220.0 253.2 298.4 328.7 363.5 396.0 401.0 417.4 461.1 481.5 467.8 475.9 497.8 548.9

1,726.3 1,747.9 1,857.5 2,012.1 2,197.5 2,248.8 2,450.9 2,736.5 3,071.8 3,351.3 3,621.0 3,768.8 3,560.4 3,737.0 4,389.3 4,800.2 4,819.5 4,601.7 4,642.5 5,016.6

5.1 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.9 7.3 7.9 8.6 9.0 9.4 9.8 9.6 8.8 8.8 9.0 9.7

9.6 9.4 9.4 9.4 11.2 12.1 13.2 14.0 15.9 18.5 18.7 20.5 22.5 24.5 26.2 26.3 26.6 29.4 31.0 34.7

(continued)

575

TABLE 19.1

(continued)

Number of Year Offenses

Total Crime Index

Violent Crime

Murder and Nonnegligent Man- Forcible slaughter Rape

Property Crime

Robbery

Aggravated Assault

298.5 289.7 289.2 279.2 290.2 302.9 346.1 351.3 370.2 383.4 424.1

Burglary

Larceny —Theft

Motor Vehicle Theft

1,684.1 1,649.5 1,488.8 1,337.7 1,263.7 1,287.3 1,344.6 1,329.6 1,309.2 1,276.3 1,235.9

3,167.0 3,139.7 3,084.8 2,868.9 2,791.3 2,901.2 3,010.3 3,081.3 3,134.9 3,171.3 3,194.8

502.2 474.7 458.8 430.8 437.1 462.0 507.8 529.4 582.9 630.4 657.8

Rate per 100,000 Inhabitants 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

5,950.0 5,858.2 5,603.6 5,175.0 5,031.3 5,206.5 5,479.9 5,550.0 5,664.2 5,741.0 5,820.3

596.6 594.3 571.1 537.7 539.2 556.0 617.3 609.7 637.2 663.7 731.8

5,353.3 5,263.9 5,032.5 4,637.4 4,492.1 4,650.5 4,862.6 4,940.3 5,027.1 5,077.9 5,088.5

10.2 9.8 9.1 8.3 7.9 7.9 8.6 8.3 8.4 8.7 9.4

36.8 36.0 34.0 33.7 35.7 36.6 37.5 37.4 37.6 38.1 41.2

251.1 258.7 238.9 216.5 205.4 208.5 225.1 212.7 220.9 233.0 257.0

Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics—1991 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 372.

TABLE 19.2

TOTAL ARRESTS BY RACE, 1970

(6,208 agencies; 1970 population 142,474,000) Total Arrests Offense Charged Total Criminal homicide Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter Manslaughter by negligence Forcible rape Robbery Aggravated assault Burglary—breaking or entering Larceny—theft Auto theft Violent crime Property crime Subtotal for above offenses Other assaults Arson Forgery and counterfeiting Fraud Embezzlement Stolen property; buying, receiving, possessing Vandalism Weapons; carrying, possessing, etc Prostitution and commercialized vice Sex offenses (except forcible rape and prostitution) Narcotic drug laws Gambling Offenses against family and children Driving under the influence Liquor laws Drunkenness Disorderly conduct Vagrancy All other offenses (except traffic) Suspicion Curfew and loitering law violations Runaways


White

Black American

Indian

Chinese

Japanese

White

6,257,104

4,373,157

1,688,389

130,981

2,582

3,882

69.9

27.0

2.1

...

0.1

11.847

4,503

7,097

76

6

...

38.0

59.9

.6

.1

...

2,930

2,238

613

25

1

3

76.4

20.9

.9

...

.1

14,419 74,484 114,153 270,498

7,260 24,770 59,567 174,512

6,900 48,282 52,323 91,305

103 545 1,138 1,908

5 34 67 102

8 43 43 170

50.4 33.3 52.2 64.5

47.9 64.8 45.8 33.8

.7 .7 1.0 .7

... ... .1 ...

.1 .1 ... .1

590,660 120,082 214,903 981,240

392,769 73,687 96,100 640,968

186,720 43,341 114,602 321,366

4,167 1,205 1,862 7,280

547 76 112 725

753 125 94 1,048

66.5 61.4 44.7 65.3

31.6 36.1 53.3 32.8

.7 1.0 .9 .7

.1 .1 .1 .1

.1 .1 ... .1

1,199,073 269,716 8,826 40,145

739,306 162,074 6,403 27,422

436,581 102,955 2,295 12,307

9,167 2,018 59 236

838 63 5 27

1,145 66 7 14

61.7 60.1 72.5 68.3

36.4 38.2 26.0 30.7

.8 .7 .7 .6

.1 ... .1 .1

.1 ... .1 ...

75,098 7,653 49,028

56,180 5,702 30,130

18,378 1,904 18,283

308 19 241

15 1 29

10 4 23

74.8 74.5 61.5

24.5 24.9 37.3

.4 .2 .5

... ... .1

... .1 ...

105,518

82,280

21,540

653

43

28

78.0

20.4

.6

...

...

96,127 42,283

46,040 14,616

48,436 27,210

463 158

29 23

45 22

47.9 34.6

50.4 64.4

.5 .4

... .1

... .1

46,706

35,705

10,111

247

20

44

76.4

21.6

.5

...

.1

291,600 70,170 55,940

226,779 20,527 38,924

61,223 46,550 16,386

710 56 337

167 204 4

314 470 7

77.8 29.3 69.6

21.0 66.3 29.3

.2 .1 .6

.1 .3 ...

.1 .7 ...

415,024 218,142 1,496,414 572,211 66,671

333,950 190,001 1,101,612 363,998 47,940

69,307 22,812 298,826 191,282 16,630

4,872 4,004 87,908 7,484 1,386

126 44 246 156 22

311 59 245 132 45

80.5 87.1 73.6 63.6 71.9

16.7 10.5 20.0 33.4 24.9

1.2 1.8 5.9 1.3 2.1

... ... ... ... ...

.1 ... ... ... .1

781,305 69,142

564,318 47,934

203,339 20,588

7,047 440

342 63

533 34

72.2 69.3

26.0 29.8

.9 .6

... .1

.1 ...

103,955 176,357

82,415 148,901

18,806 22,640

1,188 1,980

39 76

174 150

79.3 84.4

18.1 12.8

1.1 1.1

... ...

.2 .1

Total

Source: F.B.I., Crime in the United States: Uniform Crime Reports—1970 (Washington, D.C., 1971), 131.

576


Black American Indian Chinese Japanese

only in 1972, 1977, and 1981–84, and for the general period the crime index multiplied more than three times. The murder rate reached a peak in 1980 at 10.2, exactly double what it had been in 1960. In the 1980s the rate declined slightly, but by 1990 it stood at 9.4 per 100,000 population. Some of the largest increases could be TABLE 19.3

seen in motor-vehicle theft (roughly five times), forcible rape (six times), and aggravated assault (seven times). Needless to say, criminal offenses as measured by arrests and sentencing to jail or prison were not evenly distributed throughout the population. In sheer numbers the categories most likely to commit

TOTAL ARRESTS, DISTRIBUTION BY RACE, 1990

(10,110 agencies; 1990 population 192,939,000)

Total Arrests

Offense Charged Total Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter Forcible rape Robbery Aggravated assault Burglary Larceny—theft Motor vehicle theft Arson Violent crime Property crime Crime Index Total Other assaults Forgery and counterfeiting Fraud Embezzlement Stolen property; buying, receiving, possessing Vandalism Weapons; carrying, possessing, etc. Prostitution and commercialized vice Sex offenses (except forcible rape and prostitution) Drug abuse violations Gambling Offenses against family and children Driving under the influence Liquor laws Drunkenness Disorderly conduct Vagrancy All other offenses (except traffic) Suspicion Curfew and loitering law violations Runaways

Black

Percent Distribution American Indian or Alaskan Native


Total

White

Black

American Indian Asian or or Alaskan Pacific Native Islander

Total

White

11,151,368

7,712,339

3,224,060

122,586

92,383

100.0

69.2

28.9

1.1

18,190

7,942

9,952

132

164

100.0

43.7

54.7

.7

.9

30,802 135,904 373,872

16,973 51,229 223,952

13,309 83,165 143,540

249 482 3,549

271 1,028 2,831

100.0 100.0 100.0

55.1 37.7 59.9

43.2 61.2 38.4

.8 .4 .9

.9 .8 .8

338,096 1,231,255 167,908

230,310 827,860 99,821

101,855 374,968 64,526

3,001 13,359 1,264

2,930 15,068 2,297

100.0 100.0 100.0

68.1 67.2 59.4

30.1 30.5 38.4

.9 1.1 .8

.9 1.2 1.4

14,833 558,768

11,154 300,096

3,410 249,966

162 4,412

107 4,294

100.0 100.0

75.2 53.7

23.0 44.7

1.1 .8

.7 .8

1,752,092

1,169,145

544,759

17,786

20,402

100.0

66.7

31.1

1.0

1.2

2,310,860

1,469,241

794,725

22,198

24,696

100.0

63.6

34.4

1.0

1.1

795,907 73,127

510,552 47,330

269,560 24,839

9,594 434

6,201 524

100.0 100.0

64.1 64.7

33.9 34.0

1.2 .6

.8 .7

273,499 11,906 129,698

180,671 7,900 74,517

90,708 3,816 53,482

1,091 53 697

1,029 137 1,002

100.0 100.0 100.0

66.1 66.4 57.5

33.2 32.1 41.2

.4 .4 .5

.4 1.2 .8

253,273 174,331

191,269 102,228

57,253 69,331

2,520 878

2,231 1,894

100.0 100.0

75.5 58.6

22.6 39.8

1.0 .5

.9 1.1

90,898

54,345

35,398

450

705

100.0

59.8

38.9

.5

.8

83,611

65,798

16,271

796

746

100.0

78.7

19.5

1.0

.9

860,016

503,315

349,965

2,935

3,801

100.0

58.5

40.7

.3

.4

15,349 64,606

7,251 42,469

7,294 19,602

21 801

783 1,734

100.0 100.0

47.2 65.7

47.5 30.3

.1 1.2

5.1 2.7

1,371,236

1,227,221

118,729

15,406

9,880

100.0

89.5

8.7

1.1

.7

548,292 713,599 576,626

478,873 566,075 379,324

52,831 130,226 186,671

13,478 15,518 7,904

3,110 1,780 2,727

100.0 100.0 100.0

87.3 79.3 65.8

9.6 18.2 32.4

2.5 2.2 1.4

.6 .2 .5

30,994 2,555,503

17,617 1,619,001

12,644 886,880

620 24,602

113 25,020

100.0 100.0

56.8 63.4

40.8 34.7

2.0 1.0

.4 1.0

17,746 64,260

7,462 50,721

10,125 11,379

87 724

72 1,436

100.0 100.0

42.0 78.9

57.1 17.7

.5 1.1

.4 2.2

136,031

109,159

22,331

1,779

2,762

100.0

80.2

16.4

1.3

2.0

.8

Source: F.B.I., Uniform Crime Reports for the United States—1990 (Washington, D.C., 1991), 192.

Crime and Punishment

577

crimes were: people under 25, male as opposed to female (by a large margin), white rather than any other color, simply because there were many more white people to commit crimes.To use the year 1987 as an example, in that year people under age 25 were arrested for 57 percent of all index crime offenses; 82 percent of the people arrested (89 percent for violent crimes) were male. Women were most likely to be arrested for theft or larceny. Of all people arrested 69 percent were white, 30 percent were black—a number that was disproportionately high for black people, who made up approximately 12 percent of the population. Using records of 1970 and 1990 as examples, the highest percentage for blacks was in robbery (61.2 percent of all arrests in 1990) and TABLE 19.4

Males Year

Total

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

212,953 220,149 218,830 217,283 214,336

117 119 117 114 111

205,265 212,268 210,823 209,538 206,632

230 234 229 225 219

7,688 7,881 8,007 7,745 7,704

8 8 8 8 8

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

210,895 199,654 194,896 187,914 196,007

108 102 98 94 97

203,327 192,703 188,661 182,102 189,413

213 201 195 187 192

7,568 6,951 6,235 5,812 6,594

8 7 6 6 6

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

196,429 198,061 196,092 204,211 218,466

96 95 93 96 102

190,794 191,732 189,823 197,523 211,077

191 189 185 191 202

5,635 6,329 6,269 6,004 7,389

5 6 6 6 7

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

240,593 262,833 285,456 294,396 301,470

111 120 129 132 133

231,918 252,794 274,244 282,813 289,465

220 238 255 261 264

8,675 10,039 11,212 11,583 12,005

8 9 10 10 10

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

315,974 353,167 394,374 419,820 443,398

138 153 170 179 188

303,643 338,940 378,045 402,391 424,193

274 302 336 352 ...

12,331 14,227 16,329 17,429 19,205

11 12 14 14 ...

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

480,568 522,084 560,812 603,732 680,907

200 216 228 244 271

458,972 497,540 533,990 573,587 643,643

... ... ... ... ...

21,296 24,544 26,822 30,145 37,264

... ... ... ... ...

1990

738,894

292

698,410

...

40,484

...

NUMBER AND RATE OF PRISONERS IN STATE AND FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS ON DECEMBER 31, BY SEX, 1946–1990

(rate per 100,000 population) Males

Females

Year

Total

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

1946 1947 1948 1949

140,079 151,304 155,977 163,749

99 105 106 109

134,075 144,961 149,739 157,663

191 202 205 211

6,004 6,343 6,238 6,086

8 9 8 8

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

166,123 165,680 168,233 173,579 182,901

109 107 107 108 112

160,309 159,610 161,994 166,909 175,907

211 208 208 211 218

5,814 6,070 6,239 6,670 6,994

8 8 8 8 8

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

185,780 189,565 195,414 205,643 208,105

112 112 113 117 117

178,655 182,190 188,113 198,208 200,469

217 218 221 229 228

7,125 7,375 7,301 7,435 7,636

8 9 8 8 8

TABLE 19.5

Year

Females

Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Statistics—1991, 636.

PERSONS ADMITTED TO STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONS, BY RACE AND SELECTED YEARS, 1946–1986

Number of AdmisPercent of State Number sions to and Federal of AdmisPercent of State State and Prison Admissions sions to Prison Admissions Federal State Prisons Total White Black Other Prisons Total White Black Other

Number of AdmisPercent of Federal sions to Prison Admissions Federal Prisons Total White Black Other

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1960 1964

56,432 51,016 49,834 54,370 57,988a 84,068a 81,099a

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

66 69 70 70 69 66 65

33 30 29 29 30 32 33

1 1 1 1 1 2 2

43,679 40,601 39,899 43,941 46,496 69,235 67,879

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

64 68 68 69 69 65 63

35 31 31 30 30 34 35

1 1 1 1 1 1 2

12,753 10,415 9,935 10,429 11,492 14,833 13,220

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

73 75 76 74 70 71 73

25 23 22 24 28 25 25

2 2 2 2 2 4 2

1970 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

48,497a 52,245 42,351 69,746 72,183 95,502 94,828

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

61 59 64 61 61 58 60

39b 38 35 35 38 41 39

... 3 1 4 1 1 1

37,437 37,064 25,796 51,035 54,023 77,017 79,535

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

57 54 60 58 59 55 58

43b 41 38 37 40 44 41

... 5 2 5 1 1 1

11,060 15,181 16,555 18,711 18,160 18,485 15,293

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

73 71 70 71 70 69 73

27b 29b 30b 29b 30b 31b 27b

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

134,634 135,611 131,617 122,575 137,583 166,743 183,769

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

58 57 55 58 58 56 55

41 42 44 41 41 43 44

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

117,251 121,211 114,391 103,588 119,042 146,862 167,474

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

57 55 53 55 55 54 53

42 44 46 44 44 45 46

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

17,383 14,400 17,226 18,987 18,541 19,881 16,295

100 100 100 100 100 100 100

73 74 75 76 77 76 77

27b 26b 25b 24b 23b 24b 21

... ... ... ... ... ... 2

a

No statistics available for 1951–59, 1961–63, 1965–69, 1971–73. Includes “other’’ nonwhite races as well as blacks. Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Statistics—1991, 644.

b

578


murder and nonnegligent manslaughter (59.9 percent in 1970). For whites the highest percentages came in vandalism, sex offenses (other than rape or prostitution), and laws dealing with use of alcohol. The government did not do an effective job during much of this period in identifying Hispanic people, but jail statistics of the 1980s suggested that the arrest rate was higher than the proportion of Hispanics in the population. Other racial groups did not leave a distinct mark in criminal statistics (their numbers and rates in most areas were very low, which perhaps was distinctive in itself), but Native Americans did record a disturbing tendency toward drunkenness and liquor-law violations, and Asian Americans revealed a curious inclination for gambling. If males committed most of the crimes in the United States, males also constituted most of the victims, at least in most categories. With

TABLE 19.6

respect to murder and nonnegligent manslaughter victimization, males outnumbered females by a rate of approximately three-to-one for nearly every year. Male victims of aggravated assault surpassed females by two to three times; in simple assault men’s numbers also were higher but less strikingly so. The statistics suggested that the people most in danger of violent attack were black males by a considerable margin; next came black females.The safest category was white females. Such a conclusion would be qualified but probably not contradicted by introduction of numbers on forcible rape, the victims of which were overwhelmingly (but not exclusively) female. Of course a rape statistic also could be an assault or a murder statistic. A contention, doubtless true, that many assaults never were reported (by neither female nor male victims) could not be measured.

INMATES IN STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONS, BY STATE AND RACE/ETHNICITY, 1990

Region and Jurisdiction

Total

U.S. total Federal State Northeast Connecticut Maine Massachusetts New Hampshire New Jersey NewYork Pennsylvania Rhode Island Vermont Midwest Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Michigan Minnesota Missouri Nebraska North Dakota Ohio South Dakota Wisconsin South Alabama Arkansas Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Kentucky Louisiana Maryland Mississippi North Carolina Oklahoma South Carolina Tennessee Texas Virginia West Virginia West Alaska Arizona California Colorado Hawaii Idaho Montana Nevada New Mexico Oregon Utah Washington Wyoming

715,649 56,821 658,828 117,865 9,577 1,503 8,282 1,441 16,721 56,251 20,822 2,460 808 141,726 26,712 12,618 4,522 5,500 31,812 3,239 14,600 2,390 557 31,808 1,247 6,721 253,453 12,433 6,455 3,449 7,290 42,306 18,540 6,900 13,939 17,057 6,852 18,346 10,449 15,091 8,333 49,815 14,649 1,549 145,784 2,414 13,903 92,604 5,593 2,569 1,767 1,273 5,620 3,118 5,994 2,799 7,036 1,094

Asian/Pacific Islander 6,871 461 6,410 270 23 0 63 4 7 134 19 20 0 428 230 8 20 23 34 20 3 13 1 31 0 45 506 19 0 3 12 378 4 1 2 8 4 30 7 2 2 14 17 3 5,206 19 26 3,586 13 1,350 12 0 65 10 21 32 69 3

White NonHispanic

Black NonHispanic

Hispanic

331,880 15,597 316,283 57,873 4,647 29 2,367 61 10,242 28,473 11,423 653 14 69,810 16,156 4,687 900 1,825 18,711 923 6,708 790 9 16,476 42 2,583 146,293 7,924 3,459 2,038 7,012 23,397 11,737 2,413 9,970 12,695 5,003 10,887 3,573 9,707 3,643 23,266 9,346 223 42,307 286 2,228 33,542 1,342 131 22 21 1,913 305 840 238 1,388 69

95,498 14,346 81,152 25,705 2,306 13 1,552 67 2,790 17,824 824 328 1 4,392 2,289 209 75 268 521 95 55 108 12 395 1 364 14,359 1 17 138 173 2,437 97 6 56 60 14 163 246 34 35 10,823 54 5 36,696 53 3,867 26,987 1,455 167 186 36 422 1,742 415 449 786 131

274,929 25,553 249,376 33,535 2,571 1,439 4,286 1,306 3,673 9,473 8,541 1,455 791 65,857 7,993 7,698 3,466 3,301 12,465 1,938 7,812 1,388 403 14,897 909 3,587 91,109 4,489 2,977 1,268 93 16,004 6,700 4,480 3,911 4,291 1,824 6,819 6,014 5,333 4,651 15,711 5,227 1,317 58,875 1,297 7,241 28,181 2,717 917 1,487 1,006 3,131 953 4,586 2,020 4,516 823

American Indian/ Alaskan Native 6,471 864 5,607 482 30 22 14 3 9 383 15 4 2 1,239 44 16 61 83 81 263 22 91 132 9 295 142 1,186 0 2 2 0 90 2 0 0 3 7 447 609 15 2 1 5 1 2,700 777 541 308 66 4 60 210 89 108 132 60 277 68

Source: Susan B. Gall and Timothy L. Gall, Statistical Record of Asian Americans (Detroit, 1993), 111–12.


579

TABLE 19.7 NUMBER AND PERCENT OF HOUSEHOLDS EXPERIENCING CRIME IN PREVIOUS 12 MONTHS, 1975–1990 Crime Victims

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

Households, total (in thousands) Households touched by crime (in thousands) Percent of households touched by: Any NCVS crime Rape Robbery Assault Personal theft Burglary Household theft Motor vehicle theft

73,123 74,528 75,904 77,578 78,964 80,622 82,797 85,178 86,146 87,791 88,852 90,014 91,391 92,892 94,553 95,461 23,377 23,504 23,741 24,277 24,730 24,222 24,863 24,989 23,621 22,806 22,191 22,201 22,404 22,844 23,221 22,652 32.1 0.2 1.4 4.5 16.4 7.7 10.2 1.8

31.5 0.2 1.2 4.4 16.2 7.4 10.3 1.6

31.3 0.2 1.2 4.7 16.3 7.2 10.2 1.5

31.3 0.2 1.1 4.6 16.2 7.2 9.9 1.7

31.3 0.2 1.2 4.8 15.4 7.1 10.8 1.6

30.0 0.2 1.2 4.4 14.2 7.0 10.4 1.6

30.0 0.2 1.3 4.7 13.9 7.4 10.2 1.6

29.3 0.2 1.4 4.5 13.9 6.9 9.6 1.6

27.4 0.1 1.1 4.2 13.0 6.1 8.9 1.4

26.0 0.2 1.0 4.1 12.3 5.5 8.5 1.4

25.0 0.1 0.9 4.0 11.5 5.3 8.1 1.4

24.7 0.1 0.9 3.8 11.2 5.3 8.0 1.4

24.5 0.1 1.0 3.8 11.1 5.2 8.0 1.5

24.6 0.2 0.9 4.0 11.2 5.4 7.7 1.5

24.6 0.1 1.0 3.9 11.2 5.0 8.0 1.6

23.7 0.1 1.0 3.8 10.5 4.8 7.5 1.9


TABLE 19.8

NUMBER AND RATE OF ASSAULT VICTIMS, BY SEX AND RACE, 1973–1990

(rate per 1,000 persons age 12 and older) Sex of Victim Male Total

Female

Aggravated

Simple

Total

Aggravated

Simple

Year

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

2,697,900 2,790,200 2,738,600 2,764,500 3,128,800 3,135,600

34.3 34.9 33.7 33.6 37.5 37.2

1,205,400 1,285,100 1,150,800 1,185,900 1,289,700 1,240,500

15.3 16.1 14.2 14.4 15.5 14.7

1,492,400 1,505,200 1,587,800 1,578,700 1,839,100 1,895,100

19.0 18.8 19.6 19.2 22.1 22.5

1,389,200 1,358,100 1,533,200 1,578,900 1,535,200 1,596,000

16.2 15.6 17.3 17.6 16.9 17.4

449,400 450,300 480,600 509,300 448,200 467,500

5.2 5.2 5.4 5.7 4.9 5.1

939,900 907,500 1,052,700 1,069,700 1,087,300 1,128,600

11.0 10.4 11.9 11.9 12.0 12.3

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

3,114,300 3,099,500 3,229,600 3,083,400 2,900,140 2,961,500

36.5 35.2 36.2 34.2 31.8 32.2

1,272,300 1,243,700 1,278,800 1,229,100 1,067,520 1,186,860

14.9 14.1 14.4 13.6 11.7 12.9

1,841,800 1,855,700 1,950,900 1,854,300 1,832,620 1,774,640

21.6 21.0 21.9 20.6 20.1 19.3

1,737,000 1,647,700 1,794,200 1,889,500 1,699,950 1,782,980

18.7 17.1 18.5 19.2 17.1 17.8

496,300 463,100 516,900 525,000 449,800 540,440

5.3 4.8 5.3 5.3 4.5 5.4

1,240,700 1,184,600 1,277,200 1,364,400 1,250,150 1,242,540

13.4 12.3 13.1 13.9 12.6 12.4

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

2,964,970 2,710,790 2,867,400 2,808,350 2,837,190 2,912,550

31.9 28.8 30.2 29.3 29.3 29.8

1,131,230 1,094,480 1,102,190 1,153,770 1,151,120 1,126,310

12.2 11.6 11.6 12.0 11.9 11.5

1,833,740 1,616,310 1,765,210 1,654,580 1,686,060 1,786,230

19.7 17.2 18.6 17.3 17.4 18.3

1,734,380 1,665,560 1,734,250 1,925,840 1,796,600 1,816,250

17.2 16.3 16.9 18.6 17.2 17.2

473,950 448,390 485,270 587,610 513,580 474,350

4.7 4.4 4.7 5.7 4.9 4.5

1,260,430 1,217,160 1,248,980 1,338,220 1,283,010 1,341,890

12.5 11.9 12.2 12.9 12.3 12.7

Race of Victim White Total

Black

Aggravated

Simple

Total

Aggravated

Simple

Year

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

Number

Rate

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

3,574,100 3,651,300 3,702,400 3,749,300 4,079,800 4,149,500

24.7 24.8 24.8 24.9 26.8 26.9

1,371,000 1,473,300 1,331,500 1,379,600 1,459,200 1,431,600

9.5 10.0 8.9 9.2 9.6 9.3

2,203,200 2,178,000 2,370,900 2,369,600 2,620,600 2,717,900

15.2 14.8 15.9 15.7 17.2 17.6

479,300 420,700 509,600 543,600 538,200 531,900

27.4 23.5 27.6 28.9 27.9 27.1

279,600 235,000 267,200 292,900 268,100 261,500

16.0 13.1 14.5 15.6 13.9 13.3

199,700 185,700 242,500 250,700 270,100 270,400

11.4 10.4 13.1 13.3 14.0 13.8

1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

4,220,100 4,115,900 4,276,800 4,298,700 3,971,830 4,052,600

27.1 25.6 26.4 26.3 24.1 24.5

1,475,600 1,403,400 1,470,900 1,422,100 1,237,720 1,401,100

9.5 8.7 9.1 8.7 7.5 8.5

2,744,400 2,712,500 2,805,900 2,876,700 2,734,110 2,651,500

17.6 16.9 17.3 17.6 16.6 16.0

540,900 516,000 642,400 593,700 555,390 606,800

27.5 25.5 31.2 28.3 26.0 27.9

253,300 253,400 296,800 307,700 262,280 283,900

12.9 12.5 14.4 14.7 12.3 13.1

387,700 262,500 345,600 286,100 293,110 322,870

14.6 13.0 16.8 13.6 13.7 14.9

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

4,048,110 3,750,940 3,871,460 3,921,600 3,981,210 3,989,480

24.2 22.2 22.8 23.0 23.1 23.0

1,324,940 1,261,780 1,248,780 1,348,510 1,384,730 1,277,520

7.9 7.5 7.4 7.9 8.0 7.4

2,723,170 2,489,170 2,622,670 2,573,080 2,596,480 2,711,960

16.3 14.8 15.4 15.1 15.1 15.7

564,420 529,640 621,550 681,620 516,590 617,670

25.5 23.6 27.4 29.6 22.1 26.0

238,250 238,570 288,920 338,160 233,770 288,850

10.8 10.6 12.7 14.7 10.0 12.2

326,180 291,070 332,620 343,460 282,820 328,820

14.8 13.0 14.6 14.9 12.1 13.9

Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Statistics—1992, 270–71.

580


TABLE 19.9

AGE-ADJUSTED HOMICIDE RATES, BY RACE AND GENDER, 1946–1990

MURDER RATE, SELECTED COUNTRIESa, MID-1970S

(rate per 100,000 population)

(rate of offender per 100,000 population) White

TABLE 19.10

Nonwhite

Year

Male

Female

Male

Female

Overall

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

4.9 4.7 4.5 4.1 3.9

1.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4

56.4 53.9 53.9 48.9 49.1

12.4 12.1 11.9 11.7 11.5

6.4 6.1 6.0 5.5 5.4

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

3.6 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.5

1.4 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.3

45.3 50.4 46.5 46.2 42.6

11.1 11.3 10.2 10.3 10.3

5.0 5.4 5.1 5.1 4.8

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

3.5 3.5 3.6 3.8 3.9

1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5

43.2 43.1 41.6 42.3 41.9

11.3 10.3 10.5 10.7 11.2

5.0 4.9 4.9 5.1 5.2

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.8

1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.7

41.5 44.4 44.8 47.1 50.7

10.1 10.3 10.5 10.6 11.7

5.2 5.4 5.5 5.7 6.2

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

4.9 5.9 6.5 6.6 7.3

1.9 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.2

54.8 62.7 68.9 72.4 72.8

12.4 14.0 13.6 13.8 13.7

6.7 7.7 8.2 8.6 9.1

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

7.9 8.2 8.7 9.3 9.4

2.3 2.4 2.8 2.9 2.9

81.6 83.1 77.1 77.9 71.6

16.0 14.8 16.0 15.5 14.7

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

8.6 8.8 9.2 10.1 10.9

2.7 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.2

63.3 60.1 58.1 62.9 61.3

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

10.3 9.5 8.4 8.2 8.1

3.1 3.1 2.8 2.9 2.9

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

8.4 7.7 7.7 8.1 8.9

2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8

Rank

Country

Rate

2. 6. 11. 17. 18.

Bahamas Iraq United States Venezuela Netherlands

22.9 11.9 9.6 7.2 7.2

27. 31. 32. 34. 40.

West Germany Libya Egypt Sweden France

4.5 3.8 3.5 3.4 2.7

45. 47. 50. 58. 59.

England & Wales Japan Zaire Spain Norway

2.2 1.7 1.2 0.7 0.5

a

From a list of 59 ranked countries, not including communist states. Exact year unidentified. For the U.S. it was 1975. Source: George Kurian, The New Book of World Rankings (New York, 1984), 386.

TABLE 19.11

MURDER RATE, SELECTED COUNTRIESa, 1988

(rate per 100,000 population) Rank

Country

Rate

10.0 10.3 10.5 10.8 10.5

2. 7. 15. 20. 24.

Philippines Netherlands United States Canada Sweden

42.5 12.3 7.9 6.3 5.7

13.2 12.5 12.1 12.8 12.2

9.5 9.6 9.6 10.4 10.8

26. 28. 32. 54. 63.

Italy France West Germany Israel Egypt

5.6 4.6 4.5 1.3 1.5

58.5 52.2 45.2 42.2 41.4

11.4 10.5 9.8 9.6 9.3

10.4 9.7 8.6 8.4 8.3

64. 66. 68. 74. 78.

Japan United Kingdom Saudi Arabia Norway Togo

1.5 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.2

46.1 44.0 47.4 49.8 53.9

10.2 10.5 10.8 10.7 10.7

9.0 8.6 9.0 9.4 10.2

Source: Adam Dobrin, et al., Statistical Handbook on Violence in America (Phoenix, 1996), 22.

Multiple Murders and Multiple Murderers Violence, as civil-rights activist H. Rap Brown put it, was as American as cherry pie. Seeking violent means as a way of dealing with, or manifesting, real or perceived problems has not been unique to the United States. However, when it came to murder of multiple victims by one, occasionally more than one, individual for reasons that were at best vague or hypothetical, no nation has surpassed the United States. Suggested explanations abound: General factors likely were grounded in a highly competitive American economic and social system, a focus on the individual rather than the group, easy availability of firearms or other agents of destructive behavior, and a communi-

a

From a list of 78 ranked countries, not including communist states. Source: George Kurian, The New Book of World Rankings (New York, 1991), 254–55.

cation media that stood ready and willing to supply the attention that many a perpetrator otherwise had been unable to obtain. The American multiple killer came in two forms: the mass murderer who out of anger, frustration, or other emotion killed several people at one time.The mass murderer commonly used a gun or guns, although occasionally one found other means. It was over in a few minutes or hours, the killer often making himself (it was almost always a man) the final victim.The event received national press coverage and except for families of the people involved, almost as suddenly was dropped until the next one came along. The other type of multiple murderer was the repeat killer, an individual who engaged in homocide one person at a time over a period that differed with the amount of time it took to apprehend the perpetrator. The individual usually established a pattern, received from the press a name appropriate to modus operandi or other peculiarity and seemed to feed on the attention the deeds had attracted. Seeking to find a way to identify or categorize this different type of killer, an FBI Crime and Punishment

581

agent recalled a type of movie he had watched as a child that told a story one episode at a time, usually weekly.They were called serials. In this fashion a label for the episodic murderer was born. He became known as a serial killer. In fact, the serial killer might be male or female of one of several different races, but overwhelmingly the people involved had been white males.The story of a serial killer would build TABLE 19.12

over weeks, months, or in a few cases even years. The murderer’s name, not known, of course, until time of apprehension, probably would soon be forgotten. It would be the label—the Boston Strangler, for example, or the Night Stalker—that would live on in infamy. The multiple murderer became a far-too-familiar aspect of American society in the half-century after 1946.

PROMINENT SERIAL KILLERS, 1942–1990 Media Label

Victim Traits

Location

Number of Victims

Year

Name

1942–47 1949 1957–60 1962–64 1965

Jake Bird Harvey Carigan Melvin Rees Albert DeSalvo Posteal Laskey

Tacoma Axe Killer Want Ad Killer Sex Beast Boston Strangler Cincinnati Strangler

Tacoma,Wash. Northwest United States Maryland Boston, Mass. Cincinnati, Ohio

Females Females Young Females Females Elderly Females

10 6–100 9 13 7

1967–69 1971 1964–73 1972–78 1974–78

John N. Collins Juan Corona Edmund Kemper John Wayne Gacy Ted Bundy

Coed Murderer ... Coed Killer Killer Clown Ted

Michigan Yuba City, Calif. Santa Cruz, Calif. Chicago area, Ill. Northwest, Florida

Coeds Male Farmers Coeds Young Males Y. Females

7 25 12 33 19–36

1975–77 1976–77 1977–78 1977–78 1980

Wayne Kearney David Berkowitz Carlton Gary Angelo Buono Douglas Clark

Trashbag Murders Son of Sam Stocking Strangler Hillside Strangler Sunset Strip Killer

California New York City, N.Y. Columbus, Ga. Los Angeles, Calif. Hollywood, Calif.

Males Females Elderly Females Females Prostitutes

32 6 7 10–23 7–50

1980–81 1973–83 1985 1987 1989–90

Wayne Williams Robert Hanson Richard Ramirez Richard Angelo Danny Rolling

... ... Night Stalker ... Campus Killer

Atlanta, Ga. Alaska Los Angeles, Calif. New York, N.Y. Florida

Y. Black Males Prostitutes Varied Hosp. Patients Coeds

2–28 17 8–15 10–25 8

Sources: Eric W. Hickey, Serial Murderers and Their Victims (Belmont, Calif., 1997), 133–34; Ronald M. Holmes and James DeBurger, Serial Murder (Newbury Park, Calif., 1988), 22.

TABLE 19.13 VICTIMS OF MURDER AND NONNEGLIGENT MANSLAUGHTER, PERCENT DISTRIBUTION BY SEX AND RACE, 1964–1990 Sex of Victim Male

Female

White

Black

1964 1965 1966

74 74 74

26 26 26

45 45 45

54 54 54

1 1 1

100 100 100

7,990 8,773 9,552

1967 1968 1969

75 78 78

25 22 22

45 45 44

54 54 55

1 1 2

100 100 100

11,114 12,503 13,575

1970 1971 1972

78 79 78

22 21 22

44 44 45

55 55 53

1 2 1

100 100 100

13,649 16,183 15,832

1973 1974 1975

77 77 76

23 23 24

47 48 51

52 50 47

1 2 2

100 100 100

17,123 18,632 18,642

1976 1977 1978

76 75 76

24 25 24

51 52 54

47 45 44

2 2 2

100 100 100

16,605 18,033 18,714

1979 1980 1981

77 77 77

23 23 23

54 53 54

43 42 44

2 4 2

100 100 100

20,591 21,860 20,053

1982 1983 1984

76 76 75

24 24 25

55 55 56

42 42 41

2 3 3

100 100 100

19,485 18,673 16,689

1985 1986 1987

74 75 74

26 25 26

56 53 52

42 44 45

3 3 3

100 100 100

17,545 19,257 17,859

1988 1989 1990

75 76 78

25 24 22

49 48 48

48 49 49

3 3 3

100 100 100

18,269 18,954 20,045

Year


582

Total Number of Murders and Nonnegligent Manslaughters

All Other (including race unknown)


Total

TABLE 19.14 PERCENT DISTRIBUTION OF MURDERS AND NONNEGLIGENT MANSLAUGHTERS, BY WEAPON USED, 1964–1990 Type of Weapon Used

Year

Firearm

Cutting or Stabbing Instrument

Blunt Object (club, hammer, etc.)

Personal Weapons (hands, feet, fists, etc.)

Unknown or Not Stated

Other

Total

Total Number of Murders and Nonnegligent Manslaughters

1964 1965 1966

55 57 59

24 23 22

5 6 5

10 10 9

3 3 2

2 1 1

100 100 100

7,990 8,773 9,552

1967 1968 1969

63 65 65

20 18 19

5 6 4

9 8 8

2 2 3

1 1 1

100 100 100

11,114 12,503 13,575

1970 1971 1972

66 66 66

18 19 19

4 4 4

8 8 8

3 2 2

1 1 1

100 100 100

13,649 16,183 15,832

1973 1974 1975

66 67 65

17 17 17

5 5 5

8 8 9

2 1 2

2 1 2

100 100 100

17,123 18,632 18,642

1976 1977 1978

64 62 64

18 19 19

5 5 5

8 8 8

2 2 2

3 3 3

100 100 100

16,605 18,033 18,714

1979 1980 1981

63 62 62

19 19 19

5 5 5

8 8 7

2 2 2

3 4 3

100 100 100

20,591 21,860 20,053

1982 1983 1984

60 58 59

21 22 21

5 6 6

8 9 8

2 2 3

3 3 4

100 100 100

19,485 18,673 16,689

1985 1986 1987

59 59 59

21 20 20

6 6 6

8 9 8

3 2 2

4 4 4

100 100 100

17,545 19,257 17,859

1988 1989 1990

61 62 64

19 18 18

6 6 5

8 7 7

2 2 2

4 4 4

100 100 100

18,269 18,954 20,045


TABLE 19.15

RISK OF BEING MURDERED, 1985

Group

1 out of:

All Americans All men White men Black men All women White women Black women

133 84 131 21 282 369 104

Source: American Demographics, October, 1987, 10.

Capital Punishment Capital punishment has had a varied history in the United States, particularly in the postwar period. Although challenged as ghastly and inhumane, an expression of cruel and unusual punishment (thus a violation of the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution), the death penalty was broadly accepted as appropriate punishment for the most grievous crimes (normally deliberately causing death), although at times other offenses—rape, for example—had been deemed equally heinous. As the postwar period began, executions proceeded almost as a matter of course; except for the year 1950 when there were 82, more than 100 executions took place each year between 1946 and 1951. A substantial percentage of persons under the sentence of death

were indeed executed. In 1955 it was nearly 61 percent. Statistics suggested, however, that considerable selectivity went into the practice. The bulk of the executions went on in the southern states, and a large portion of the people executed were black. Between 1946 and 1960, in only three years did the number of whites executed exceed the number of blacks. In the 1960s and early 1970s the death penalty continued to be assailed in debate and in the courts. Enforcement became such a lengthy and costly process that the states gradually declined to go to the trouble. Only one person was executed in 1967 and in 1968 there were none. In 1972 the Supreme Court ruled that as applied in the case being considered, capital punishment violated the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments. The Court never ruled that capital punishCrime and Punishment

583

ment was in principle unconstitutional, but the issue had become almost moot. No executions took place between 1968 and 1976. The moratorium of nearly a decade came to an end in 1977 when Utah executed Gary Gilmore by firing squad. Gilmore wanted no appeals of his sentence.Thereafter, the states, or a few of them, went back into the business of execution. By the mid-1980s a pattern had developed that in one respect differed from and in other ways resembled old practices in the application of capital punishment. The number was much smaller—about 20 a year—than it had been in the 1940s and 1950s. Most states executed no one, whether they had a death penalty statute or not. Once again the southern states took the

TABLE 19.16

lead in putting prisoners to death. Of 104 executions between 1977 and 1988, only seven took place outside the South. Between 1977 and 1990, 87 whites and 56 blacks died on death row—a considerable distance, one must say, from the numbers of 1947 when there were 111 blacks and 42 whites, but the number for black people still remained disproportionately high in terms of the percentage of the total U.S. population of that race.The debate went on. Polls showed that a substantial majority supported the principle of the death penalty, but the opposition mounted a challenge on all fronts, adding a reminder that of all the Western democracies, only the United States insisted upon keeping the death penalty.

PERSONS EXECUTED, BY RACE AND OFFENSE, 1946–1990 Totala

Whitea

Year

Total

1946 1947 1948 1949 1950

131 153 119 119 82

107 129 95 107 68

22 23 22 10 13

2 1 2 2 1

1951 1952 1953 1954 1955

105 83 62 81 76

87 71 51 71 65

17 12 7 9 7

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

65 65 49 49 56

52 54 41 41 44

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

42 47 21 15 7

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Murder

Rape

Other

Total

Blacka

Murder

Rape

Other

46 42 35 50 40

45 40 32 49 36

0 2 1 0 4

1 0 2 1 0

1 0 4 1 4

57 36 30 38 44

55 35 25 37 41

2 1 1 1 1

12 10 7 8 8

1 1 1 0 4

21 34 20 16 21

20 32 20 15 18

33 41 18 9 7

8 4 2 6 0

1 2 1 0 0

20 28 13 8 6

1 2 0 0 0

1 2 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1971 1972 1973 1974 1975

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

0 1 0 2 0

0 1 0 2 0

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

1 2 5 21 18

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

18 25 11 16 23

Murder

Rape

Other

84 111 82 56 42

61 89 61 10 32

22 21 21 1 9

1 1 0 2 1

0 0 4 0 2

47 47 31 42 32

31 36 25 33 24

15 11 6 8 6

1 0 0 1 2

0 2 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 3

43 31 28 33 35

31 22 20 26 26

12 8 7 7 8

0 1 1 0 1

18 26 12 5 6

1 2 0 3 0

1 0 1 0 0

22 19 8 7 1

15 15 6 4 1

7 2 2 3 0

0 2 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 2 0

0 1 0 2 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 2 5 21 18

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 4 13 11

1 1 4 13 11

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 8 7

0 1 1 8 7

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

18 25 11 16 23

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

11 13 6 8 16

11 13 6 8 16

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

7 12 5 8 7

7 12 5 8 7

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

a Ten persons classified as neither black nor white also were executed. Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics—1997 (Washington, D.C., 1998), 713.

584


Total

TABLE 19.17

PRISONERS EXECUTED, BY STATE—1930–1988, 1977–1988, AND 1988 Number Executed

Systema

Since 1930

Since 1977

In 1988

Georgia New York Texas California North Carolina Florida

379 329 326 292 266 189

13 0 29 0 3 19

1 No death penalty statute 3 0 0 2

Ohio South Carolina Mississippi Pennsylvania Louisiana Alabama

172 164 157 152 151 138

0 2 3 0 18 3

Arkansas Kentucky Virginia Tennessee Illinois New Jersey

118 103 99 93 90 74

Maryland Missouri Oklahoma Washington Colorado Indiana

On Death Row 1988

Method of Execution

91

Electrocution

284 299 80 295

Injection Gas Injection; gas Electrocution

0 0 0 0 3 0

88 36 48 98 40 97

Electrocution Electrocution Injection; gas Electrocution Electrocution Electrocution

0 0 7 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0

27 32 39 70 118 21

Injection Electrocution Electrocution Electrocution Injection Injection

68 62 60 47 47 43

0 0 0 0 0 2

0 0 0 0 0 0

14 68 92 7 3 51

Gas Gas Injection Injection; hanging Injection Electrocution

West Virginia District of Columbia Arizona Federal system Nevada Massachusetts

40 40 38 33 31 27

No death penalty statute No death penalty statute 0 0 2 0

0 0 0 No death penalty statute

82 0 44

Gas Method of state of execution Injection

Connecticut Oregon Iowa Utah Kansas Delaware

21 19 18 16 15 12

0 0 0 3 No death penalty statute 0

0 0 No death penalty statute 1

1 15

Electrocution Injection

New Mexico Wyoming Montana Nebraska Vermont Idaho

8 7 6 4 4 3

0 0 0 0 0 0

South Dakota New Hampshire Rhode Island North Dakota Michigan

1 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 No death penalty statute No death penalty statute

0 0 No death penalty statute

104

11

Total U.S.

3,963

8

Injection; firing squad

0

7

Injection

0 0 0 0 0 0

2 2 7 13 0 15 0 0

Injection Injection Injection; hanging Electrocution Electrocution Injection; firing squad Injection Injection

2,124

a

Alaska, Hawaii, Minnesota, and Wisconsin did not have a death penalty statute during these years. Source: John Wright, The Universal Almanac 1991 (Kansas City, 1990), 248.


585

TABLE 19.18 NUMBER OF PEOPLE SENTENCED TO DEATH COMPARED WITH NUMBER EXECUTED, 1953–1990

TABLE 19.20 FEMALES EXECUTED UNDER CIVIL AUTHORITY, 1946–1990 Offense

Year

Number of Persons Under Sentence of Death

Number of Executions

Percentage of Death Sentence Population Executed

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957

131 147 125 146 151

62 81 76 65 65

47.3 55.1 60.8 44.5 43.0

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962

147 164 210 257 267

49 49 56 42 47

33.3 29.9 26.7 16.3 17.6

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967

297 315 331 406 435

21 15 7 1 2

7.0 4.8 2.1 0.2 0.5

1968 1969 1970 1971 1972

517 575 631 642 334

0 0 0 0 0

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977

134 244 488 420 423

0 0 0 0 1

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2

1978 1979 1980 1981 1982

483 595 697 863 1,073

0 2 0 1 2

0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1 0.2

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987

1,216 1,421 1,589 1,800 1,964

5 21 18 18 25

0.4 1.5 1.1 1.0 1.3

1988 1989 1990

2,111 2,232 2,346

11 16 23

0.5 0.7 0.1

Source: Timothy L. Gall and Daniel M. Lucas, eds., Statistics on Crime and Punishment (Detroit, 1996), 180.

TABLE 19.19 DEATH SENTENCES PRONOUNCED UPON FEMALES, 1976–1990

Year

Total Death Sentences

Female Death Sentences

Percentage

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

234 138 186 154 175

3 1 4 4 2

1.3 0.7 2.1 2.6 1.1

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

229 269 254 287 271

3 5 4 8 5

1.3 1.8 1.6 2.8 1.8

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

305 290 295 264 252

3 5 5 11 7

1.0 1.7 1.7 4.2 2.7

Source: Mark Grossman, Encyclopedia of Capital Punishment (Santa Barbara, 1998), 269.

586


Year

Race

Total Murder Other White

Black

Jurisdiction

1946 1947 1951 1953 1954

1 2 1 3 2

1 2 1 1 1

0 0 0 2 0

0 1 1 3 1

1 1 0 0 1

Pennsylvania Calif., South Carol. New York Ala., 2 federal Ohio

1955 1957 1962 1984 1985–90

1 1 1 1 0

1 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

California Alabama California North Carolina ...

Totals 1946–90

13

11

2

10

3

...


TABLE 19.21 PUBLIC OPINION ON THE DEATH PENALTY, 1953–1990 (in percent) Date

Favor

Oppose

Don’t Know

Oct. 1953 Apr. 1956 Sept. 1957 Mar. 1960 Feb. 1965 Jul. 1966

68 53 47 53 45 42

26 34 34 36 43 47

6 13 18 11 12 11

Jun. 1967 Jan. 1969 Oct. 1971 Feb. 1972 Mar. 1972 Nov. 1972

54 51 48 51 53 60

38 40 41 41 39 30

8 9 11 8 8 10

Mar. 1973 Mar. 1974 Mar. 1975 Mar. 1976 Apr. 1976 Mar. 1977

60 63 60 66 67 67

35 32 33 30 27 26

5 5 7 5 7 6

Mar. 1978 Jul. 1979 Mar. 1980 Mar. 1981 Mar. 1982 Jun. 1982

66 65 67 66 74 71

28 27 27 25 21 20

6 8 6 9 6 9

Mar. 1983 Mar. 1984 Jan. 1985 Mar. 1985 Nov. 1985 Jan. 1986

73 70 72 76 75 70

22 24 20 19 17 22

5 6 8 5 8 8

Mar. 1986 Mar. 1987 Mar. 1988 Sept. 1988 Mar. 1989 Mar. 1990

71 70 71 79 74 75

23 24 22 16 20 19

5 6 7 5 6 6

Note: Polls 1953 through February 1972, November 1972, April 1976, January 1981, January 1985, November 1985, and September 1988 are from Gallup surveys; the rest are from General Social Science Survey. Source: Howard W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, Vital Statistics on American Politics (Washington, D.C., 1992), 33.

Drugs and the Law

illegal drug activity increased substantially at the end of the 1960s and that in the 1970s the numbers took off. After that point the number of arrests declined modestly, although the level of usage remained fairly high. Even though the late 1960s and 1970s were noted for proliferation in kinds of drugs in use, most of the activity continued to be in marijuana, that is, until the mid-1980s when crack cocaine hit the streets. Expansion of the market and the lure of quick, easy, and exceptional profit led to creation of an extensive international mechanism, designed to keep the drug traffic flowing and growing.

The most common illegal drug in the United States was marijuana. Alcohol, it should be added, although subject to being used illegally, was in fact a legal drug. Proceedings in the district courts suggested that in the 1940s and 1950s, there existed, if not a war, at least a skirmish with breakers of the drug laws. The national courts heard more drug cases each year in the 1950s than in the 1960s at least until the very end of the decade. Nearly all relevant evidence confirmed that

TABLE 19.22 DISPOSITION OF DEFENDANTS CHARGED WITH VIOLATION OF DRUG LAWS, U.S. DISTRICT COURTS, 1945–1990 Not Convicted

Convicted and Sentenced

Acquitted by

Convicted by

Average Sentence of Imprisonment Total (in months)

Average Sentence to Probation (in months)

Court

Jury

Total

Plea of Guilty or Nolo Contendere

197 305 153 237 148

5 13 17 14 14

26 31 40 57 46

1,185 1,338 1,670 1,482 1,598

1,062 1,218 1,517 1,324 1,404

35 37 57 48 59

88 83 96 110 135

861 949 1,128 1,048 1,187

22.2 18.7 19.7 18.6 18.9

... ... ... ... ...

264 304 252 333 310

184 234 184 237 239

28 25 29 30 28

52 45 39 66 43

2,136 2,028 1,869 2,003 1,910

1,907 1,745 1,523 1,589 1,491

61 105 109 121 107

168 178 237 293 312

1,654 1,659 1,551 1,586 1,483

21.9 27.1 35.2 38.4 41.3

... ... ... ... ...

2,166 1,835 1,910 1,942 1,742

363 314 256 301 364

279 221 184 217 267

32 36 28 25 40

52 57 44 59 57

1,803 1,521 1,654 1,641 1,378

1,386 1,168 1,264 1,138 1,005

95 93 91 129 112

322 260 299 374 261

1,457 1,258 1,432 1,351 1,151

43.5 45.8 66.0 69.4 74.2

... ... ... ... ...

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

1,846 1,828 1,643 1,689 1,679

340 313 240 283 271

263 248 175 222 205

38 20 29 34 32

39 45 36 27 34

1,506 1,515 1,403 1,406 1,408

1,155 1,171 1,022 1,040 1,039

93 74 113 112 112

258 270 268 254 257

1,232 1,258 1,173 1,085 1,076

72.8 74.0 70.5 70.1 63.7

... ... ... ... ...

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

2,078 2,223 2,250 2,692 3,545

323 349 428 563 836

257 280 363 466 716

41 36 34 49 50

25 33 31 48 70

1,755 1,874 1,822 2,129 2,709

1,384 1,469 1,424 1,664 2,239

132 119 119 138 123

239 286 279 327 347

1,257 1,272 1,180 1,368 1,581

60.3 61.3 62.0 64.4 63.7

... ... ... ... ...

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

3,420 5,366 6,848 9,983 10,989

959 2,204 1,600 2,169 2,744

886 2,080 1,396 1,905 2,430

48 43 52 83 80

45 81 152 181 234

2,461 3,162 5,248 7,814 8,245

2,030 2,682 4,391 6,297 6,666

97 94 228 393 437

334 386 629 1,124 1,142

1,283 1,834 3,050 5,097 5,125

64.8 58.5 46.4 45.5 43.7

... ... ... ... ...

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

10,901 10,762 9,741 7,860 6,609

2,750 2,721 2,106 2,043 1,542

2,454 2,404 1,754 1,729 1,297

62 73 53 37 34

234 244 299 277 211

8,151 8,041 7,635 5,817 5,067

6,531 6,324 5,970 4,440 3,662

393 446 387 290 240

1,227 1,271 1,278 1,087 1,165

4,887 5,039 5,223 4,119 3,641

45.3 47.6 47.3 51.3 50.8

... ... ... 38.6 37.8

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

6,343 7,008 7,981 9,164 9,191

1,594 1,662 1,645 1,674 1,732

1,337 1,385 1,360 1,393 1,421

32 29 51 36 28

225 248 234 245 283

4,749 5,346 6,336 7,490 7,459

3,450 3,757 4,798 5,774 5,793

236 308 342 363 218

1,063 1,281 1,196 1,353 1,448

3,479 3,856 4,586 5,449 5,756

54.5 55.5 61.4 63.8 65.7

38.7 36.6 34.1 33.7 43.2

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

11,208 12,934 15,130 15,750 16,834 19,271

1,977 2,170 2,431 2,588 2,695 3,083

1,609 1,811 2,047 2,168 2,299 2,610

56 63 49 45 49 53

312 296 335 375 347 420

9,231 10,764 12,699 13,162 14,139 16,188

7,511 8,888 10,655 11,044 11,686 13,067

223 159 203 170 161 148

1,497 1,717 1,841 1,948 2,292 2,973

6,914 8,152 9,907 9,983 11,626 13,838

64.8 70.0 73.0 78.0 73.8 79.3

36.1 38.7 39.9 33.4 32.8 32.3

Year Ending June 30

Total Defendants

Total

1945 1946 1947 1948 1949

1,413 1,687 1,880 1,790 1,806

228 349 210 308 208

1950 1951 1952 1953 1954

2,400 2,332 2,121 2,336 2,220

1955 1956 1957 1958 1959

Dismissed

Court

Jury

Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Statistics—1990, 494–95.


587

To meet this challenge, thousands of local officials and successive presidential administrations beginning with Richard Nixon committed themselves to winning the war on drugs. The national government moved to confront the problem from perspective of both supply and demand, although it appeared that the supply side took precedence. The Department of Justice in 1968 created a Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, which in 1975 was changed to the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act in 1970 that classified drugs and prescribed penalties for illegal use of them.The government increased drug enforcement personnel, broadened interdiction activity, brought in the military forces, tried to persuade (or to bribe) such governments as Colombia or Mexico into curbing production and movement of marijuana and

cocaine. In 1989 the president even sent the army to seize the leader of a foreign nation, General Manuel Noriega of Panama, spiriting him back to the United States for trial on drug charges. Even though the war on drugs had a part in the program of every national politician and absorbed larger appropriations of national funds, the burden of enforcing the drug laws fell on state and local government. Of 742,687 drug arrests in 1986, only 21, 188 (2.9 percent) were by the national agencies—the FBI or the DEA.The 1980s did produce a decline in use of marijuana and selected other drugs, but traffic in crack cocaine soared. Critics increasingly became convinced that governments should focus less on supply and more on demand—education programs to prevent young people from starting to use drugs and to persuade individuals already involved to stop.

TABLE 19.23

TABLE 19.25 PRIOR DRUG USE BY JAIL INMATES, 1983 AND 1989

JUVENILE DRUG ARREST RATES, BY RACE, 1965–1990a

(rate per 100,000 population) Year

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

Percent of Inmates Who Had Ever Used Drugs

1990 Type of Drug

Marijuana White Black Other

6.9 31.0 18.2

181.8 100.8 163.4

436.1 312.8 246.5

393.5 379.8 128.0

284.7 378.2 160.0

131.0 199.5 25.5

19.4 31.0 2.8

42.4 120.8 7.2

68.0 766.1 6.3

11.6 4.9 6.0

7.7 7.7 1.7

7.6 12.1 1.3

Heroin/Cocaine White Black Other

1.3 4.0 6.8

18.2 53.0 11.3

14.1 36.4 21.3 Synthetic Drug

White Black Other

3.7 2.8 9.9

44.8 54.4 47.7

14.4 7.0 8.0

1983

Any drug

77.7

76.1

Major drug Cocaine or crack Heroin LSD PCP Methadone

55.4 50.4 18.2 18.6 13.9 4.8

46.2 38.0 22.4 22.3 15.6 6.9

Other drug Marijuana Amphetamines Barbiturates Methaqualone T’s and bluesa

71.9 70.7 22.1 17.2 14.7 11.0

74.5 73.0 32.8 27.8 23.0 10.9

a

A combination of amphetamines and barbiturates Source: Department of Justice, Drugs and Crime Facts, 1991, 8.

a

Juvenile in this context meant ages 10–17. Source: F.B.I., Uniform Crime Reports—1991, 286–87.

TABLE 19.24 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF ADULT ARRESTS FOR DRUG VIOLATIONS REPORTED BY STATE AND LOCAL POLICE, 1981–1990 Year

Sale/Manufacture

Possession

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985

93,143 119,309 128,948 137,218 170,307

374,913 465,541 454,526 486,501 548,290

468,056 584,850 583,474 623,719 718,597

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

186,414 219,176 287,858 404,275 318,638

556,273 630,345 762,718 843,488 689,709

742,687 849,521 1,050,576 1,247,763 1,008,347

242.1

84.0

115.4

Percent change 1981–90

1989

Total

Source: Department of Justice, Drugs and Crime Facts, 1991 (Rockville, Md., 1992), 8.

TABLE 19.26 COCAINE USE AMONG HIGH SCHOOL SENIORS, 1975–1990 (in percent) Used Cocaine Within the Last Year

12 Months

30 Days

1975 1976 1977 1978

5.6 6.0 7.2 9.0

1.9 2.0 2.9 3.9

1979 1980 1981 1982

12.0 12.3 12.4 11.5

5.7 5.2 5.8 5.0

1983 1984 1985 1986

11.4 11.6 13.1 12.7

4.9 5.8 6.7 6.2

1987 1988 1989 1990

10.3 7.9 6.5 5.3

4.3 3.4 2.8 1.9

Including the last 30 days. Source: Department of Justice, Drugs and Crime Facts, 1991, 6.

588


TABLE 19.27 PERCENT OF HIGH SCHOOL SENIORS REPORTING THAT THEY COULD OBTAIN DRUGS FAIRLY EASILY OR VERY EASILY, 1990 Marijuana Amphetamines Cocaine powder

84.4 59.7 49.0

Barbiturates Crack Tranquilizers

45.9 42.4 44.7

LSD Heroin PCP

40.7 31.9 27.7

Source: Department of Justice, Drugs and Crime Facts, 1991, 17.

TABLE 19.28

AGREEMENT WITH STATEMENTS ABOUT MARIJUANA, BY AGE, 1971 Adults by Age (Percent) Statement

Agree that (a) Marijuana makes people want to try stronger things like heroin

All Adults

18 to 25

26 to 34

35 to 49

50 plus

70

52

68

76

78

(b) Using marijuana is morally offensive

64

45

59

69

73

(c) It makes people lose their desire to work

59

46

52

63

66

(d) Many crimes are committed by persons who are under the influence of marijuana

56

35

49

59

69

(e) Some people have died from using it

48

35

42

56

51

(f) It is often promoted by people who are enemies of the United States

45

26

37

46

58

(g) It increases enjoyment of things like music and art

45

63

46

42

37

(h) Marijuana helps to relieve some of the tensions of modern life

43

50

47

43

37

(i) While people are smoking marijuana they tend to become more sociable

39

43

45

38

34

(j) Marijuana increases sexual pleasure

24

33

24

19

23

(k) Most people who use marijuana lead a normal life Total Number of Adults

23

49

29

19

9

2,405

741

659

457

548

Source: Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics—1975 (Washington, D.C., 1976), 294.


589

CHAPTER 20 Selected Documents This chapter offers a highly selective sample of basic materials that form a backbone of history of the period. The items selected are mostly public documents—speeches, laws, constitutional amendments, and other materials—that reflect and reveal changes in policy, themes, expressions of attitude from the years 1946 to 1990. All the materials included in this unit are crucial to an understanding of this period, but—to remake a point—they stand only as examples. The post–Second World War era was laden with such documents. Some documents appear in full, but most of them, for purposes of space, have had portions deleted.They thus constitute samples of samples.

Amendments to the Constitution (Twenty-Second–Twenty-Seventh)

A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XXIV (PASSED AUGUST 27, 1962; RATIFIED JANUARY 23, 1964)

Amendment to the United States Constitution was designed to be—and was—a difficult process. Between the 1950s and 1980s some 5,400 amendments were proposed, but only five became part of the Constitution and a sixth one was working its way through the ratification process.The five new amendments did not involve public policy; two of them, the 22nd and the 25th, related to the office of the presidency—the term of office and filling of a vacancy.Three amendments pertained to voting: the 23rd allowed residents of Washington, D.C., to vote for the presidency; the 24th banned the poll tax as a prerequisite for voting; the 26th extended suffrage to citizens aged 18 through 20.The 27th amendment, a measure that passed Congress in 1989, pertained to compensation for legislators, an issue that was determined by the legislators themselves. It was not unusual for amendments to originate in swings in opinion caused by exceptional circumstances.The 22nd Amendment followed Franklin Roosevelt’s being elected president four times; the 25th was boosted by the vicepresidency being vacant during the presidency of Harry Truman and Lyndon Johnson; the 23rd and 24th carried markings of the Civil Rights movement; and the 26th extended the vote to 18-year-olds at a time when young men of that age were being required to enter military service and perhaps fight and die inVietnam. AMENDMENT XXII (PASSED MARCH 12, 1947; RATIFIED MARCH 1, 1951)

Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term. Section 2. This Article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress. AMENDMENT XXIII (PASSED JUNE 16, 1960; RATIFIED APRIL 3, 1961)

Section 1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct: 590

Section 1.The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XXV (PASSED JULY 6, 1965; RATIFIED FEBRUARY 11, 1967)

Section 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress. Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President. Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President. Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-

eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by twothirds vote of both houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office. AMENDMENT XXVI (PASSED MARCH 23, 1971; RATIFIED JULY 5, 1971)

Section 1.The right of citizens of the United States who are eighteen years of age or older to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. AMENDMENT XXVII (PASSED SEPTEMBER 25, 1989; NOT YET RATIFIED IN 1990)

No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. Source: John C. Vile, Encyclopedia of Constitutional Proposed Amendments and Amending Issues, 1789–1995 (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1996), 359–62.

National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC–68) April 1950 National Security Council Paper Number 68 represented a review of American foreign policy ordered by President Harry S.Truman at the start of the year 1950, a formative time—needless to say—for dealings of the United States in Europe and Asia. Prepared largely by Paul Nitze, a state department official, the paper constituted one of the most formidable statements of the cold war in terms of the character and scope of the Soviet threat and of the U.S. effort needed to face that challenge. Not all officials agreed with all aspects of the report, and it remained classified for nearly a quarter-century, but NSC–68 was adopted by the Truman administration in summer 1950. Within the past thirty-five years the world has experienced two global wars of tremendous violence. It has witnessed two revolutions—the Russian and the Chinese—of extreme scope and intensity. It has also seen the collapse of five empires—the Ottoman, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Italian and Japanese—and the drastic decline of two major imperial systems, the British and the French. During the span of one generation, the international distribution of power has been fundamentally altered. For several centuries it had proved impossible for any one nation to gain such preponderant strength that a coalition of other nations could not in time face it with greater strength.The international scene was marked by recurring periods of violence and war, but a system of sovereign and independent states was maintained, over which no state was able to achieve hegemony. Two complex sets of factors have now basically altered this historical distribution of power. First, the defeat of Germany and Japan and the decline of the British and French Empires have interacted with the development of the United States and the Soviet Union in such a way that power has increasingly gravitated to these two centers. Second, the Soviet Union, unlike previous aspirants to hegemony, is animated by a new fanatic faith, antithetical to our own, and seeks to impose its absolute authority over the rest of the world. Conflict has, therefore,

become endemic and is waged, on the part of the Soviet Union, by violent or nonviolent methods in accordance with the dictates of expediency.With the development of increasingly terrifying weapons of mass destruction, every individual faces the ever-present possibility of annihilation should the conflict enter the phase of total war. On the one hand, the people of the world yearn for relief from the anxiety arising from the risk of atomic war. On the other hand, any substantial further extension of the area under the domination of the Kremlin would raise the possibility that no coalition adequate to confront the Kremlin with greater strength could be assembled. It is in this context that this Republic and its citizens in the ascendancy of their strength stand in their deepest peril. . . . The fundamental design of those who control the Soviet Union and the international communist movement is to retain and solidify their absolute power, first in the Soviet Union and second in the areas now under their control. In the minds of the Soviet leaders, however, achievement of this design requires the dynamic extension of their authority and the ultimate elimination of any effective opposition to their authority. The design, therefore, calls for the complete subversion or forcible destruction of the machinery of government and structure of society in the countries of the non-Soviet world and their replacement by an apparatus and structure subservient to and controlled from the Kremlin.To that end Soviet efforts are now directed toward the domination of the Eurasian land mass. The United States, as the principal center of power in the nonSoviet world and the bulwark of opposition to Soviet expansion, is the principal enemy whose integrity and vitality must be subverted or destroyed by one means or another if the Kremlin is to achieve its fundamental design. . . . The same compulsion which demands total power over all men within the Soviet state without a single exception, demands total power over all Communist Parties and all states under Soviet domination.Thus Stalin has said that the theory and tactics of Leninism as expounded by the Bolshevik party are mandatory for the proletarian parties of all countries. A true internationalist is defined as one who unhesitatingly upholds the position of the Soviet Union and in the satellite states true patriotism is love of the Soviet Union. By the same token the “peace policy’’ of the Soviet Union, described at a Party Congress as “a more advantageous form of fighting capitalism,’’ is a device to divide and immobilize the non-Communist world, and the peace the Soviet Union seeks is the peace of total conformity to Soviet policy. . . . The assault on free institutions is worldwide now, and in the context of the present polarization of power a defeat of free institutions anywhere is a defeat everywhere.The shock we sustained in the destruction of Czechoslovakia was not in the measure of Czechoslovakia’s material importance to us. In a material sense, her capabilities were already at Soviet disposal. But when the integrity of Czechoslovak institutions was destroyed, it was in the intangible scale of values that we registered a loss more damaging than the material loss we had already suffered. . . . Our overall policy at the present time may be described as one designed to foster a world environment in which the American system can survive and flourish. It therefore rejects the concept of isolation and affirms the necessity of our positive participation in the world community. This broad intention embraces two subsidiary policies. One is a policy which we would probably pursue even if there were no Soviet threat. It is a policy of attempting to develop a healthy international community.The other is the policy of “containing’’ the Soviet system.These two policies are closely interrelated and Selected Documents

591

interact on one another. Nevertheless, the distinction between them is basically valid and contributes to a clearer understanding of what we are trying to do. The policy of striving to develop a healthy international community is the long-term constructive effort which we are engaged in. It was this policy which gave rise to our vigorous sponsorship of the United Nations. It is of course the principal reason for our long continuing endeavors to create and now develop the Inter-American system. It, as much as containment, underlay our efforts to rehabilitate Western Europe. Most of our international economic activities can likewise be explained in terms of this policy. . . . As for the policy of “containment’’, it is one which seeks by all means short of war to (1) block further expansion of Soviet power, (2) expose the falsities of Soviet pretensions, (3) induce a retraction of the Kremlin’s control and influence and (4) in general, so foster the seeds of destruction within the Soviet system that the Kremlin is brought at least to the point of modifying its behavior to conform to generally accepted international standards. . . . It was and continues to be cardinal in this policy that we possess superior overall power in ourselves or in dependable combination with other like-minded nations. One of the most important ingredients of power is military strength. In the concept of “containment,’’ the maintenance of a strong military posture is deemed to be essential for two reasons: (1) as an ultimate guarantee of our national security and (2) as an indispensable backdrop to the conduct of the policy of “containment.’’ Without superior aggregate military strength, in being and readily mobilizable, a policy of “containment’’—which is in effect a policy of calculated and gradual coercion—is no more than a policy of bluff. At the same time, it is essential to the successful conduct of a policy of “containment’’ that we always leave open the possibility of negotiation with the U.S.S.R. . . . Our position as the center of power in the free world places a heavy responsibility upon the United States for leadership. We must organize and enlist the energies and resources of the free world in a positive program for peace which will frustrate the Kremlin design for world domination by creating a situation in the free world to which the Kremlin will be compelled to adjust. Without such a cooperative effort, led by the United States, we will have to make gradual withdrawals under pressure until we discover one day that we have sacrificed positions of vital interest. It is imperative that this trend be reversed by a much more rapid and concerted build-up of the actual strength of both the United States and the other nations of the free world.The analysis shows that this will be costly and will involve significant domestic financial and economic adjustments. Source: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States 1950, Vol. I: National Security Affairs; Foreign Economic Policy (Washington, D.C., 1977), 237–38, 240, 252–53, 290.

Advice to the Working Girl, 1951 The exchange that follows appeared in the advice column of Ruth Millett, a regular offering of the Kalamazoo, Michigan, Gazette. Published in the newspaper’s edition of January 4, 1951, the “working woman’s’’ letter and Millett’s response suggested what it took for women to get along in the male-dominated workplace of the 1950s, or was it not more broadly, an expression of what it took for women to get along with men? GIRLS, DON’T HOLD YOUR IQ UP TO MEN — THEY RESENT IT

Writes a working woman: “When I first started out in my career I got along exceptionally well with my men associates. 592


“After a few years I realized I wasn’t on as good terms with the men I worked with as I had once been, and I tried to figure out why. “It finally dawned on me that in the beginning I didn’t strive to impress a man with how smart I was. But gradually as I took on more responsibility I became eager to have men respect my brains. “In trying to make them respect my mind I forgot it was even more important to show them how much I respected their opinions and ideas. Since then I’ve noticed a lot of other career women are making the same mistake. Maybe you could show them how wrong they are.’’ There doesn’t need to be much added to that letter. The writer has made her own point. Once a woman gets to thinking that she has a pretty good mind and wants to be sure every man she meets recognizes the fact, she is well on her way to losing her femininity. She is repelling rather than attracting the men she works with and the men she meets socially. Men don’t really want to admire a woman’s brains. If forced to acknowledge that a woman has a goodly supply of them, they’ll do so—reluctantly. That’s why it is such a poor idea for a woman to force a man to acknowledge how smart she is. The best way is to make him think first what a pleasant, charming woman she is. Then when he notices of his own accord that she is far from dumb he’ll admit without any reluctance at all: “By George, she’s got a pretty good head on her shoulders, too.’’ Source: Kalamazoo Gazette, January 4, 1951, 10.

Supreme Court Case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, 1954 Racial relations in the southern states for more than a half-century had been based on segregation of blacks from whites,a system sustained by the United States Supreme Court in its doctrine of “separate but equal’’ handed down in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson of 1896. Subsequent court cases had qualified the Plessy decision—essentially by probing the reality of “equal’’—but had allowed the basic decision to stand. In the Brown case of May 1954, the court attacked the Plessy ruling head on:overturned the decision,declared that “separate’’conditions never could be “equal,’’that segregation in southern public schools—and by implication in other areas of society—was unconstitutional. In so doing, the Supreme Court started—or at least gave a solid foundation to—the Civil Rights movement in the South and changes in national racial relations still underway when the century ended.The Brown decision deserved to be ranked in the half-dozen most important rulings by the Supreme Court. Chief Justice Earl Warren: as appointee of Dwight Eisenhower, wrote the majority opinion: CHIEF JUSTICE WARREN: These cases come to us from the states of Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, and Delaware. They are premised on different facts and different local conditions, but a common legal question justifies their consideration together in this consolidated opinion. In each of the cases, minors of the Negro race, through their legal representatives, seek the aid of the courts in obtaining admission to the public schools of their community on a nonsegregated basis. In each instance, they have been denied admission to schools attended by white children under laws requiring or permitting segregation according to race. This segregation was alleged to deprive the plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment. In each of the cases other than the Delaware case, a three-judge federal district court denied relief to the plaintiffs on the so-called “separate but equal’’ doctrine announced by this Court in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

Under that doctrine, equality of treatment is accorded when the races are provided substantially equal facilities, even though these facilities be separate. . . . The plaintiffs contend that segregated public schools are not “equal’’ and cannot be made “equal,’’ and that hence they are deprived of the equal protection of the laws. Because of the obvious importance of the question presented, the Court took jurisdiction. . . . Reargument was largely devoted to the circumstances surrounding the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868. It covered exhaustively consideration of the Amendment in Congress, ratification by the states, then existing practices in racial segregation, and the views of proponents and opponents of the Amendment. This discussion and our own investigation convince us that, although these sources cast some light, it is not enough to resolve the problem with which we are faced. At best, they are inconclusive. The most avid proponents of the post-[Civil] War Amendments undoubtedly intended them to remove all legal distinctions among “all persons born or naturalized in the United States.’’Their opponents, just as certainly, were antagonistic to both the letter and the spirit of the Amendments and wished them to have the most limited effect. What others in Congress and the state legislatures had in mind cannot be determined with any degree of certainty. An additional reason for the inconclusive nature of the Amendment’s history, with respect to segregated schools, is the status of public education at that time. In the South, the movement toward free common schools, supported by general taxation, had not yet taken hold. Education of white children was largely in the hands of private groups. Education of Negroes was almost nonexistent, and practically all of the race were illiterate. In fact, any education of Negroes was forbidden by law in some states. Today, in contrast, many Negroes have achieved outstanding success in the arts and sciences as well as in the business and professional world. It is true that public education had already advanced further in the North, but the effect of the amendment on Northern States was generally ignored in the congressional debates. Even in the North, the conditions of public education did not approximate those existing today. The curriculum was usually rudimentary; ungraded schools were common in rural areas; the school term was but three months a year in many states; and compulsory school attendance was virtually unknown. As a consequence, it is not surprising that there should be so little in the history of the Fourteenth Amendment relating to its intended effect on public education. In the first cases in this Court construing the Fourteenth Amendment, decided shortly after its adoption, the Court interpreted it as proscribing all stateimposed discriminations against the Negro race. The doctrine of “separate but equal’’ did not make its appearance in this Court until 1896 in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, involving not education but transportation. . . . In approaching this problem, we cannot turn the clock back. . . . We must consider public education in the light of its full development and its present place in American life throughout the Nation. Only in this way can it be determined if segregation in public schools deprives these plaintiffs of the equal protection of the laws. Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory schools attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society. It is required in the performance of our most basic public responsibilities, even service in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values, in prepar-

ing him for later professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms. We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other “tangible’’ factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does. In Sweatt v. Painter, in finding that a segregated law school for Negroes could not provide them equal educational opportunities, this Court relied in large part on “those qualities which are incapable of objective measurement but which make for greatness in a law school.’’ In McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, the Court, in requiring that a Negro admitted to a white graduate school be treated like all other students, again resorted to intangible considerations: “. . . his ability to study, to engage in discussions and exchange views with other students, and, in general, to learn his profession.’’ Such considerations apply with added force to children in grade and high schools.To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone. The effect of this separation on their educational opportunities was well stated by a finding in the Kansas case by a court which nevertheless felt compelled to rule against the Negro plaintiffs: “Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the race is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group.A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to retard the educational and mental development of Negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racially integrated school system.’’ Whatever may have been the extent of psychological knowledge at the time of Plessy v. Ferguson, this finding is amply supported by modern authority. Any language in Plessy v. Ferguson contrary to this finding is rejected. We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of “separate but equal’’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment. . . . Source: Norman Dorsen, Paul Bender, Burt Neuborne, Sylvia Law, Political and Civil Rights in the United States, Vol. II, Law School Edition (Boston, 1979), 67–71.

Origins of the Domino Theory, April 7, 1954 A quest for an explanation of how and why the United States became involved in a devastating war in Vietnam would include the domino theory as one of the early factors. This rationale emerged as President Dwight Eisenhower’s explanation of why control of former French Indochina by native communists would be harmful to the United States.The strategy was to make what appeared to be a small issue become very large.The purpose was to justify U.S. Selected Documents

593

assistance to friendly forces in part of the area that would be called South Vietnam.The theory surfaced as Eisenhower’s answer to a question in a news conference of April 7, 1954. Q. Robert Richards, Copley Press: Mr. President, would you mind commenting on the strategic importance of Indochina to the free world? I think there has been, across the country, some lack of understanding on just what it means to us. The President: You have, of course, both the specific and the general when you talk about such things. First of all, you have the specific value of a locality in its production of materials that the world needs. Then you have the possibility that many human beings pass under a dictatorship that is inimical to the free world. Finally, you have broader considerations that might follow what you would call the “falling domino’’ principle.You have a row of dominoes set up, you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound influences. Now, with respect to the first one, two of the items from this particular area that the world uses are tin and tungsten. They are very important. There are others, of course, the rubber plantations and so on. Then with respect to more people passing under this domination, Asia, after all, has already lost some 450 million of its peoples to the Communist dictatorship, and we simply can’t afford greater losses. But when we come to the possible sequence of events, the loss of Indochina, of Burma, of Thailand, of the Peninsula, and Indonesia following, now you begin to talk about areas that not only multiply the disadvantages that you would suffer through loss of materials, sources of materials, but now you are talking about millions and millions and millions of people. Finally, the geographical position achieved thereby does many things. It turns the so-called island defensive chain of Japan, Formosa, of the Philippines and to the southward: it moves in to threaten Australia and New Zealand. It takes away, in its economic aspects, that region that Japan must have as a trading area or Japan, in turn, will have only one place in the world to go—that is, towards the Communist areas in order to live. So, the possible consequences of the loss are just incalculable to the free world. Source: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954 (Washington, D.C., 1955), 382–83.

John F. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961 John F. Kennedy’s inaugural address in 1961 was perhaps the best of any president in the post–Second World War era. Delivered with excellent timing and rhythm, marked with inspiring phrases, optimism, and grand objectives, it did indeed seem to herald the beginning of a new age for America.Within no more than six or eight years, however, the same words and ideas would have different meaning. We observe today not a victory of party but a celebration of freedom—symbolizing an end as well as a beginning—signifying renewal as well as change. For I have sworn before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our forebearers prescribed nearly a century and three-quarters ago. The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebearers fought are still at issue around the 594


globe—the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God. We dare not forget today that we are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans—born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage—and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world. Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. This much we pledge—and more. To those old allies whose cultural and spiritual origins we share, we pledge the loyalty of faithful friends. United there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do—for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. To those new states whom we welcome to the ranks of the free, we pledge our word that one form of colonial control shall not have passed away merely to be replaced by a far more iron tyranny.We shall not always expect to find them supporting our view. But we shall always hope to find them strongly supporting their own freedom—and to remember that, in the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside. To those people in the huts and villages of half the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery, we pledge our best efforts to help them help themselves, for whatever period is required—not because the Communists may be doing it, not because we seek their votes, but because it is right. If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich. To our sister republics south of our border, we offer a special pledge—to convert our good words into good deeds—in a new alliance for progress—to assist free men and free governments in casting off the chains of poverty. But this peaceful revolution of hope cannot become the prey of hostile powers. Let all our neighbors know that we shall join with them to oppose aggression or subversion anywhere in the Americas. And let every other power know that this hemisphere intends to remain the master of its own house. To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support—to prevent it from becoming merely a forum for invective—to strengthen its shield of the new and the weak—and to enlarge the area in which its writ may run. Finally, to those nations who would make themselves our adversary, we offer not a pledge but a request: that both sides begin anew the quest for peace, before the dark powers of destruction unleashed by science engulf all humanity in planned or accidental self-destruction. We dare not tempt them with weakness. For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed. But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course—both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war. So let us begin anew—remembering on both sides that civility is not a sign of weakness, and sincerity is always subject

to proof. Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms—and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors. Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce. Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah—to “undo the heavy burdens . . . [and] let the oppressed go free.’’ And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion, let both sides join in creating a new endeavor, not a new balance of power, but a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved. All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin. In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course. Since this country was founded, each generation of Americans has been summoned to give testimony to its national loyalty.The graves of young Americans who answered the call to service surround the globe. Now the trumpet summons us again—not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need —not as a call to battle, though embattled we are—but a call to bear burden of a long twilight struggle, year in and year out, “rejoicing in hope, patient in tribulation’’—a struggle against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself. Can we forge against these enemies a grand and global alliance, North and South, East and West, that can assure a more fruitful life for all mankind? Will you join in that historic effort? In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility—I welcome it. I do not believe that any of us would exchange places with any other people or any other generation.The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that fire can truly light the world. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you.With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God’s work must truly be our own. Source: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1961 (Washington, D.C., 1962), 1–3.

The Cuban Missile Crisis: President John F. Kennedy’s Report to the Nation, October 22, 1962 President Kennedy’s report ended several days of rumor about Soviet military activity in Cuba. The message confirmed the worst suspicions: that the Soviet

Union was installing some ninety or so miles from the United States missiles capable of carrying nuclear warheads that had a range of 2,000 miles. Kennedy’s explanation of a response was stunning: besides demanding that the missiles be removed, he reported that in the event of a missile striking an American target the United States would retaliate against the USSR; to use the vernacular, Kennedy openly and publicly threatened to “nuke’’ the Soviets.The issue would be resolved through diplomacy, but the Cuban missile crisis of October 1962 would go down as the most threatening and harrowing public episode of the cold war era. Good evening, my fellow citizens: This Government, as promised, has maintained the closest surveillance of the Soviet military buildup on the island of Cuba. Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western Hemisphere. . . . The characteristics of these new missile sites indicate two distinct types of installations. Several of them include medium range ballistic missiles, capable of carrying a nuclear warhead for a distance of more than 1,000 nautical miles. Each of these missiles, in short, is capable of striking Washington, D.C., the Panama Canal, Cape Canaveral, Mexico City, or any other city in the southeastern part of the United States, in Central America, or in the Caribbean area. Additional sites not yet completed appear to be designed for intermediate range ballistic missiles—capable of traveling more than twice as far—and thus capable of striking most of the major cities in the Western Hemisphere, ranging as far north as Hudson Bay, Canada, and as far south as Lima, Peru. In addition, jet bombers, capable of carrying nuclear weapons, are now being uncrated and assembled in Cuba, while the necessary air bases are being prepared. This urgent transformation of Cuba into an important strategic base—by the presence of these large, long-range, and clearly offensive weapons of sudden mass destruction—constitutes an explicit threat to the peace and security of all the Americas, in flagrant and deliberate defiance of the Rio Pact of 1947, the traditions of this Nation and hemisphere, the joint resolution of the 87th Congress, the Charter of the United Nations, and my own public warnings to the Soviets on September 4 and 13. This action also contradicts the repeated assurances of Soviet spokesmen, both publicly and privately delivered, that the arms buildup in Cuba would retain its original defensive character, and that the Soviet Union had no need or desire to station strategic missiles on the territory of any other nation. . . . Only last Thursday, as evidence of this rapid offensive buildup was already in my hand, Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko told me in my office that he was instructed to make it clear once again, as he said his government had already done, that Soviet assistance to Cuba, and I quote, “pursued solely the purpose of contributing to the defense capabilities of Cuba,’’ that, and I quote him, “training by Soviet specialists of Cuban nationals in handling defensive armaments was by no means offensive, and if it were otherwise,’’ Mr. Gromyko went on, “the Soviet Government would never become involved in rendering such assistance.’’That statement also was false. Neither the United States of America nor the world community of nations can tolerate deliberate deception and offensive threats on the part of any nation, large or small. We no longer live in a world where only the actual firing of weapons represents a sufficient challenge to a nation’s security to constitute maximum peril. Nuclear weapons are so destructive and ballistic missiles are so swift, that any substantially increased possibility of their use or any sudden change in their deployment may well be regarded as a definite threat to peace. . . . Selected Documents

595

In that sense, missiles in Cuba add to an already clear and present danger—although it should be noted the nations of Latin America have never previously been subjected to a potential nuclear threat. But this secret, swift, and extraordinary buildup of Communist missiles—in an area well known to have a special and historical relationship to the United States and the nations of the Western Hemisphere, in violation of Soviet assurances, and in defiance of American and hemispheric policy—this sudden, clandestine decision to station strategic weapons for the first time outside of Soviet soil—is a deliberately provocative and unjustified change in the status quo which cannot be accepted by this country, if our courage and our commitments are ever to be trusted again by either friend or foe. . . . Our policy has been one of patience and restraint, as befits a peaceful and powerful nation, which leads a worldwide alliance. We have been determined not to be diverted from our central concerns by mere irritants and fanatics. But now further action is required—and it is under way; and these actions may only be the beginning. We will not prematurely or unnecessarily risk the costs of worldwide nuclear war in which even the fruits of victory would be ashes in our mouth—but neither will we shrink from the risk at any time it must be faced. Acting, therefore, in the defense of our own security and of the entire Western Hemisphere, and under the authority entrusted to me by the Constitution as endorsed by the resolution of the Congress, I have directed that the following initial steps be taken immediately: First: To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation or port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers.We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948. Second: I have directed the continued and increased close surveillance of Cuba and its military buildup.The foreign ministers of the OAS, in their communique of October 6, rejected secrecy on such matters in this hemisphere. Should these offensive military preparations continue, thus increasing the threat to the hemisphere, further action will be justified. I have directed the Armed Forces to prepare for any eventualities; and I trust that in the interest of both the Cuban people and the Soviet technicians at the sites, the hazards to all concerned of continuing this threat will be recognized. Third: It shall be the policy of this Nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union. Fourth: As a necessary military precaution, I have reinforced our base at Guantanamo, evacuated today the dependents of our personnel there, and ordered additional military units to be on a standby alert basis. Fifth: We are calling tonight for an immediate meeting of the Organ of Consultation under the Organization of American States, to consider this threat to hemispheric security. . . . Sixth: Under the Charter of the United Nations, we are asking tonight that an emergency meeting of the Security Council be convoked without delay to take action against this latest Soviet threat to world peace. . . . Seventh and finally: I call upon Chairman Khrushchev to halt and eliminate this clandestine, reckless, and provocative threat to world peace and to stable relations between our two nations. 596


I call upon him further to abandon this course of world domination, and to join in an historic effort to end the perilous arms race and to transform the history of man. He has an opportunity now to move the world back from the abyss of destruction—by returning to his government’s own words that it had no need to station missiles outside its own territory, and withdrawing these weapons from Cuba—by refraining from any action which will widen or deepen the present crisis—and then by participating in a search for peaceful and permanent solutions. This Nation is prepared to present its case against the Soviet threat to peace, and our own proposals for a peaceful world, at anytime and in any forum. . . .We have no wish to war with the Soviet Union—for we are a peaceful people who desire to live in peace with all other peoples. But it is difficult to settle or even discuss these problems in an atmosphere of intimidation. That is why this latest Soviet threat—or any other threat which is made either independently or in response to our actions this week—must and will be met with determination. Any hostile move anywhere in the world against the safety and freedom of peoples to whom we are committed—including in particular the brave people of West Berlin—will be met by whatever action is needed. Finally, I want to say a few words to the captive people of Cuba, to whom this speech is being directly carried by special radio facilities. I speak to you as a friend, as one who knows of your deep attachment to your fatherland, as one who shares your aspirations for liberty and justice for all. And I have watched and the American people have watched with deep sorrow how your nationalist revolution was betrayed—and how your fatherland fell under foreign domination. Now your leaders are no longer Cuban leaders inspired by Cuban ideals. They are puppets and agents of an international conspiracy which has turned Cuba against your friends and neighbors in the Americas—and turned it into the first Latin American country to become a target for nuclear war—the first Latin American country to have these weapons on its soil. These new weapons are not in your interest.They contribute nothing to your peace and well-being.They can only undermine it. But this country has no wish to cause you to suffer or to impose any system upon you.We know that your lives and land are being used as pawns by those who deny your freedom. Many times in the past, the Cuban people have risen to throw out tyrants who destroyed their liberty. And I have no doubt that most Cubans today look forward to the time when they will be truly free—free from foreign domination, free to choose their own leaders, free to select their own system, free to own their own land, free to speak and write and worship without fear or degradation. And then shall Cuba be welcomed back to the society of free nations and to the associations of this hemisphere. My fellow citizens: let no one doubt that this is a difficult and dangerous effort on which we have set out. No one can foresee precisely what course it will take or what costs or casualties will be incurred. Many months of sacrifice and self-discipline lie ahead—months in which both our patience and our will will be tested—months in which many threats and denunciations will keep us aware of our dangers. But the greatest danger of all would be to do nothing. The path we have chosen for the present is full of hazards, as all paths are—but it is the one most consistent with our character and courage as a nation and our commitments around the world. The cost of freedom is always high—but Americans have always paid it.And one path we shall never choose, and that is the path of surrender or submission.

Our goal is not the victory of might, but the vindication of right—not peace at the expense of freedom, but both peace and freedom, here in this hemisphere, and, we hope, around the world. God willing, that goal will be achieved. Thank you and good night. Source: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John F. Kennedy, 1962 Washington, D.C., 1963), 806–09.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 After a decade of reformist activism and determined resistance to change in the postwar South, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 marked the point of culmination of the Civil Rights movement. Designed generally to strike at the bastions of segregation and discrimination in the southern states, the law’s major provisions dealt specifically with the right to vote, desegregation of privately owned public facilities and of the public schools, equal employment opportunities, and the national government’s intervention on behalf of people whose rights had been violated.Amidst great upheaval in Washington and in the South,having attracted enormous national attention, the measure passed in July 1964. An Act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes. TITLE I—VOTING RIGHTS

“(2) No person acting under color of law shall— “(A) in determining whether any individual is qualified under State law or laws to vote in any Federal elections, apply any standard, practice, or procedure different from the standards, practices, or procedures applied under such law to other individuals within the same county, parish, or similar political subdivision who have been found by State officials to be qualified to vote; “(B) deny the right of any individual to vote in any Federal election because of an error or omission on any record or paper relating to any application, registration, or other act requisite to voting, if such error or omission is not material in determining whether such individual is qualified under State law to vote in such election; or “(C) employ any literacy as a qualification for voting in any Federal election unless (i) such test is administered to each individual and is conducted wholly in writing, and (ii) a certified copy of the test and of the answers given by the individual is furnished to him within twenty-five days of the submission of his request. . . . TITLE II—INJUNCTIVE RELIEF AGAINST DISCRIMINATION IN PLACES OF PUBLIC ACCOMMODATION

Sec. 201. (a) All persons shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, and accommodations of any place of public accommodation, as defined in this section, without discrimination or segregation on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin. (b) Each of the following establishments which serves the public is a place of public accommodation within the meaning of this title if its operations affect commerce, or if discrimination or segregation by it is supported by State action: (1) any inn, hotel, motel, or other establishment which provides lodging to transient guests, other than an establishment

located within a building which contains not more than five rooms for rent or hire and which is actually occupied by the proprietor of such establishment as his residence; (2) any restaurant, cafeteria, lunchroom, lunch counter, soda fountain, or other facility principally engaged in selling food for consumption on the premises, including, but not limited to, any such facility located on the premises of any retail establishment; or any gasoline station; (3) any motion picture house, theater, concert hall, sports arena, stadium or other place of exhibition or entertainment. . . . (d) Discrimination or segregation by an establishment is supported by State action within the meaning of this title if such discrimination or segregation (1) is carried on under color of any law, statute, ordinance, or regulation; or (2) is carried on under color of any custom or usage required or enforced by officials of the State or political subdivision thereof; or (3) is required by action of the State or political subdivision thereof. Sec. 202. All persons shall be entitled to be free, at any establishment or place, from discrimination or segregation of any kind on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin, if such discrimination or segregation is or purports to be required by any law, statute, ordinance, regulation, rule, or order of a State or any agency or political subdivision thereof. Sec. 206 (a) Whenever the Attorney General has reasonable cause to believe that any person or group of persons is engaged in a pattern or practice of resistance to the full enjoyment of any of the rights secured by this title, and that the pattern or practice is of such a nature and is intended to deny the full exercise of the rights herein described, the Attorney General may bring a civil action in the appropriate district court of the United States. . . . TITLE IV—DESEGREGATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION SUITS BY THE ATTORNEY GENERAL

Sec. 407. (a) Whenever the Attorney General receives a complaint in writing — (1) signed by a parent or group of parents to the effect that his or their minor children, as members of a class of persons similarly situated, are being deprived by a school board of the equal protection of the laws, or (2) signed by an individual, or his parent, to the effect that he has been denied admission to or not permitted to continue in attendance at a public college by reason of race, color, religion, or national origin, and the Attorney General believes the complaint is meritorious . . ., the Attorney General is authorized . . . to institute . . . a civil action. . . . TITLE VI—NONDISCRIMINATION IN FEDERALLY ASSISTED PROGRAMS

Sec. 601. No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. . . . TITLE VII—EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY DEFINITIONS

Sec. 701. For the purposes of this title — (a) The term “person’’ includes one or more individuals, labor unions, partnerships, associations, corporations, legal representatives, mutual companies, joint-stock companies, trusts, unincorporated organizations, trustees, trustees in bankruptcy, or receivers. Selected Documents

597

(b) The term “employer’’ means a person engaged in an industry affecting commerce who has twenty-five or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year, and any agent of such a person. . . . DISCRIMINATION BECAUSE OF RACE, COLOR, RELIGION, SEX, OR NATIONAL ORIGIN

Sec. 703. (a) It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employer — (1) to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; or (2) to limit, segregate, or classify his employees in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. (b) It shall be an unlawful employment practice for an employment agency to fail or refuse to refer for employment, or otherwise to discriminate against, any individual because of his race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, or to classify or refer for employment any individual on the basis of his race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. (c) It shall be an unlawful employment practice for a labor organization — (1) to exclude or to expel from its membership, or otherwise to discriminate against, any individual because of his race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; (2) to limit, segregate, or classify its membership, or to classify or fail to refuse to refer for employment any individual, in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of employment opportunities. . . . Source: United States Code: Congressional and Administration News, 88th Congress— Second Session 1964 (St. Paul, Minn., 1965), 287–319.

Kerner Commission Report on Racial Violence in American Cities, 1968 In the mid-1960s the focus on racial issues in the United States shifted from south to north, as virtually every northern city experienced some form of racial disturbance and several had major race riots. After especially destructive riots in Detroit and Newark in 1967,President Lyndon Johnson appointed a special commission headed by Otto Kerner,governor of Illinois,to investigate the problem.The Kerner Commission’s report, in truth a fairly substantial book,appeared in 1968. It described exceptionally complex and deeply rooted problems in the area of race relations, the solution of which would take an enormous national effort. INTRODUCTION

. . . This is our basic conclusion: Our Nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal. Reaction to last summer’s disorders has quickened the movement and deepened the division. Discrimination and segregation have long permeated much of American life; they now threaten the future of every American. This deepening racial division is not inevitable. The movement apart can be reversed. Choice is still possible. Our principal task is to define that choice and to press for a national resolution. To pursue our present course will involve the continuing polarization of the American community and, ultimately, the destruction of basic democratic values. 598


The alternative is not blind repression or capitulation to lawlessness. It is the realization of common opportunities for all within a single society. This alternative will require a commitment to national action—compassionate, massive, and sustained, backed by the resources of the most powerful and the richest nation on this earth. From every American it will require new attitudes, new understanding, and, above all, new will. The vital needs of the Nation must be met; hard choices must be made, and, if necessary, new taxes enacted. Violence cannot build a better society. Disruption and disorder nourish repression, not justice.They strike at the freedom of every citizen. The community cannot—it will not—tolerate coercion and mob rule. Violence and destruction must be ended—in the streets of the ghetto and in the lives of people. Segregation and poverty have created in the racial ghetto a destructive environment totally unknown to most white Americans. What white Americans have never fully understood—but what the Negro can never forget—is that white society is deeply implicated in the ghetto. White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it. . . . THE BASIC CAUSES

These factors are complex and interacting; they vary significantly in their effect from city to city and from year to year; and the consequences of one disorder, generating new grievances and new demands, become the causes of the next. Thus was created the “thicket of tension, conflicting evidence, and extreme opinions’’ cited by the President. Despite these complexities, certain fundamental matters are clear. Of these, the most fundamental is the racial attitude and behavior of white Americans toward black Americans. Race prejudice has shaped our history decisively; it now threatens to affect our future. White racism is essentially responsible for the explosive mixture which has been accumulating in our cities since the end of World War II. Among the ingredients of this mixture are: ■ Pervasive discrimination and segregation in employment, education, and housing, which have resulted in the continuing exclusion of great numbers of Negroes from the benefits of economic progress. ■ Black in-migration and white exodus, which have produced the massive and growing concentrations of impoverished Negroes in our major cities, creating a growing crisis of deteriorating facilities and services and unmet human needs. ■ The black ghettos, where segregation and poverty converge on the young to destroy opportunity and enforce failure. Crime, drug addiction, dependency on welfare, and bitterness and resentment against society in general and white society in particular are the result. At the same time, most whites and some Negroes outside the ghetto have prospered to a degree unparalleled in the history of civilization. Through television and other media, this affluence has been flaunted before the eyes of the Negro poor and the jobless ghetto youth. Yet these facts alone cannot be said to have caused the disorders. Recently, other powerful ingredients have begun to catalyze the mixture: ■ Frustrated hopes are the residue of the unfulfilled expectations aroused by the great judicial and legislative victories of the civil rights movement and the dramatic struggle for equal rights in the South. ■ A climate that tends toward approval and encouragement of violence as a form of protest has been created by white terrorism directed against nonviolent protest; by the open defiance of law and Federal authority by state and local officials resisting desegregation; and by some protest

groups engaging in civil disobedience who turn their backs on nonviolence, go beyond the constitutionally protected rights of petition and free assembly, and resort to violence to attempt to compel alteration of laws and policies with which they disagree. ■ The frustrations of powerlessness have led some Negroes to the conviction that there is no effective alternative to violence as a means of achieving redress of grievances, and of “moving the system.’’ These frustrations are reflected in alienation and hostility toward the institutions of law and government and the white society which controls them, and in the reach toward racial consciousness and solidarity reflected in the slogan “Black Power.’’ ■ A new mood has sprung up among Negroes, particularly among the young, in which self-esteem and enhanced racial pride are replacing apathy and submission to “the system.’’ ■ The police are not merely a “spark’’ factor. To some Negroes police have come to symbolize white power, white racism, and white repression. And the fact is that many police do reflect and express these white attitudes. The atmosphere of hostility and cynicism is reinforced by a widespread belief among Negroes in the existence of police brutality and in a “double standard’’ of justice and protection—one for Negroes and one for whites. . . . Recommendations for National Action INTRODUCTION

No American—white or black—can escape the consequences of the continuing social and economic decay of our major cities. Only a commitment to national action on an unprecedented scale can shape a future compatible with the historic ideals of American society. The great productivity of our economy, and a Federal revenue system which is highly responsive to economic growth, can provide the resources. The major need is to generate new will—the will to tax ourselves to the extent necessary to meet the vital needs of the Nation. We have set forth goals and proposed strategies to reach those goals. We discuss and recommend programs not to commit each of us to specific parts of such programs, but to illustrate the type and dimension of action needed. The major goal is the creation of a true union—a single society and a single American identity. Toward that goal, we propose the following objectives for national action: ■ Opening up opportunities to those who are restricted by racial segregation and discrimination, and eliminating all barriers to their choice of jobs, education, and housing. ■ Removing the frustration of powerlessness among the disadvantaged by providing the means for them to deal with the problems that affect their own lives and by increasing the capacity of our public and private institutions to respond to these problems. ■ Increasing communication across racial lines to destroy stereotypes, halt polarization, end distrust and hostility, and create common ground for efforts toward public order and social justice. We propose these aims to fulfill our pledge of equality and to meet the fundamental needs of a democratic and civilized society—domestic peace and social justice.

. . . The Commission recommends that the Federal Government: Undertake joint efforts with cities and states to consolidate existing manpower programs to avoid fragmentation and duplication. ■ Take immediate action to create 2 million new jobs over the next 3 years—1 million in the public sector and 1 million in the private ■

sector—to absorb the hard-core unemployed and materially reduce the level of unemployment for all workers, black and white. We propose 250,000 public sector and 300,000 private sector jobs in the first year. ■ Provide on-the-job training by both public and private employers with reimbursement to private employers for the extra costs of training the hard-core unemployed, by contract or by tax credits. ■ Provide tax and other incentives to investment in rural as well as urban poverty areas in order to offer to the rural poor an alternative to migration to urban centers. ■ Take new and vigorous action to remove artificial barriers to employment and promotion, including not only racial discrimination but, in certain cases, arrest records or lack of a high school diploma. Strengthen those agencies such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, charged with eliminating discriminatory practices, and provide full support for Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act allowing Federal grant-in-aid funds to be withheld from activities which discriminate on grounds of color or race. . . . Source: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Washington, D.C., 1968), 1, 5, 11.

President Lyndon Johnson Explains and Defends American Involvement in Vietnam, April 1965 In the early weeks of 1965 Lyndon Johnson took the first steps in the establishment of an American war in Vietnam. Faced with the fact that the American client in the area, South Vietnam, was losing in its effort to remain a separate entity, Johnson moved to protect the South Vietnamese regime by sending in the first Americans openly identified as combat forces and by start of a bombing campaign of the North, known as Rolling Thunder.At this time when the American role was growing but still being formed, when opposition in the United States was not widespread but beginning to have a voice, Johnson appeared at Johns Hopkins University to offer an explanation of his actions that he would need to repeat many times in the future. Tonight Americans and Asians are dying for a world where each people may choose its own path to change.This is the principle for which our ancestors fought in the valleys of Pennsylvania. It is a principle for which our sons fight tonight in the jungles of Vietnam. Vietnam is far away from this quiet campus.We have no territory there, nor do we seek any. The war is dirty and brutal and difficult. And some 400 young men, born into an America that is bursting with opportunity and promise, have ended their lives on Vietnam’s steaming soil. Why must we take this painful road? Why must this nation hazard its ease, its interest, and its power for the sake of a people so far away? We fight because we must fight if we are to live in a world where every country can shape its own destiny, and only in such a world will our own freedom be finally secure. . . . The world as it is in Asia is not a serene or peaceful place. The first reality is that North Vietnam has attacked the independent nation of South Vietnam. Its object is total conquest. Of course, some of the people of South Vietnam are participating in attack on their own government. But trained men and supplies, orders and arms, flow in a constant stream from north to south. This support is the heartbeat of the war. And it is a war of unparalleled brutality. Simple farmers are the targets of assassination and kidnapping.Women and children are strangled in the night because their men are loyal to their government. And helpless villages are ravaged by sneak attacks. Large-scale raids are conducted on towns, and terror strikes in the heart of cities. Selected Documents

599

The confused nature of this conflict cannot mask the fact that it is the new face of an old enemy. Over this war—and all Asia—is another reality: the deepening shadow of Communist China.The rulers in Hanoi are urged on by Peking. This is a regime that has destroyed freedom in Tibet, attacked India, and has been condemned by the United Nations for aggression in Korea. It is a nation that is helping the forces of violence in almost every continent. The contest in Vietnam is part of a wider pattern of aggressive purposes. Why are these realities our concern? Why are we in South Vietnam? We are there because we have a promise to keep. Since 1954 every American president has offered support to the people of South Vietnam.We have helped to build, and we have helped to defend.Thus, over many years, we have made a national pledge to help South Vietnam defend its independence. And I intend to keep that promise. To dishonor that pledge, to abandon this small and brave nation to its enemies, and to the terror that must follow, would be an unforgivable wrong. We are also there to strengthen world order. Around the globe, from Berlin to Thailand, are people whose well-being rests in part on the belief that they can count on us if they are attacked. To leave Vietnam to its fate would shake the confidence of all these people in the value of an American commitment and in the value of America’s word. The result would be increased unrest and instability, and even wider war. We are also there because there are great stakes in the balance. Let no one think for a moment that retreat from Vietnam would bring an end to conflict.The battle would be renewed in one country and then another.The central lesson of our time is that the appetite of aggression is never satisfied. To withdraw from one battlefield means only to prepare for the next. We must say in Southeast Asia—as we did in Europe—in the words of the Bible: “Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further.” . . . Our objective is the independence of South Vietnam and its freedom from attack. We want nothing for ourselves—only that the people of South Vietnam be allowed to guide their own country in their own way. We will do everything necessary to reach that objective, and we will do only what is absolutely necessary. In recent months attacks on South Vietnam were stepped up. Thus it became necessary for us to increase our response and to make attacks by air. This is not a change of purpose. It is a change in what we believe that purpose requires. We do this in order to slow down aggression. We do this to increase the confidence of the brave people of South Vietnam who have bravely borne this brutal battle for so many years with so many casualties. And we do this to convince the leaders of North Vietnam— and all who seek to share their conquest—of a simple fact: We will not be defeated. We will not grow tired. We will not withdraw, either openly or under the cloak of a meaningless agreement. . . . We will never be second in the search for . . . a peaceful settlement in Vietnam. We have stated this position over and over again fifty times and more to friend and foe alike.And we remain ready with this purpose for unconditional discussions. And until that bright and necessary day of peace we will try to keep conflict from spreading.We have no desire to see thousands die in battle—Asians or Americans.We have no desire to devastate that which the people of North Vietnam have built 600


with toil and sacrifice.We will use our power with restraint and with all the wisdom that we can command. But we will use it. Source: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965 (Washington, D. C., 1966), 394–96.

A Vietnam Veteran Speaks Against the War, 1971 On April 23, 1971, John Kerry appeared before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee to give his impressions about the conflict inVietnam.A member of Vietnam Veterans Against the War, he described a war much different from the one Lyndon Johnson had defended on many occasions, and during this time of Richard Nixon’s program of Vietnamization, he urged that the United States immediately disengage from this disgraceful undertaking. Kerry later would become United States senator from Massachusetts. I am not here as John Kerry. I am here as one member of the group of 1,000, which is a small representation of a very much larger group of veterans in this country, and were it possible for all of them to sit at this table they would be here and have the same kind of testimony. . . . I would like to talk to you a little bit about what the result is of the feelings these men carry with them after coming back from Vietnam. The country doesn’t know it yet but it has created a monster, a monster in the form of millions of men who have been taught to deal and to trade in violence and who are given the chance to die for the biggest nothing in history; men who have returned with a sense of anger and a sense of betrayal which no one has yet grasped. As a veteran and one who feels this anger I would like to talk about it.We are angry because we feel we have been used in the worst fashion by the administration of this country. In 1970 at West Point Vice President Agnew said “some glamorize the criminal misfits of society while our best men die in Asian rice paddies to preserve the freedom which most of those misfits abuse,’’ and this was used as a rallying point for our effort in Vietnam. But for us, as boys in Asia whom the country was supposed to support, his statement is a terrible distortion from which we can only draw a very deep sense of revulsion, and hence the anger of some of the men who are here in Washington today. It is a distortion because we in no way consider ourselves the best men of this country; because those he calls misfits were standing up for us in a way that nobody else in this country dared to; because so many who have died would have returned to this country to join the misfits in their efforts to ask for an immediate withdrawal from South Vietnam; because so many of those best men have returned as quadruplegics and amputees—and they lie forgotten in Veterans Administration Hospitals in this country which fly the flag which so many have chosen as their own personal symbol— and we cannot consider ourselves America’s best men when we are ashamed of and hated for what we were called on to do in Southeast Asia. In our opinion, and from our experience, there is nothing in South Vietnam which could happen that realistically threatens the United States of America.And to attempt to justify the loss of one American life in Vietnam, Cambodia or Laos by linking such loss to the preservation of freedom, which those misfits supposedly abuse, is to us the height of criminal hypocrisy, and it is that kind of hypocrisy which we feel has torn this country apart. . . . We found that not only was it a civil war, an effort by a people who had for years been seeking their liberation from any colonial influence whatsoever, but also we found that the Vietnamese whom we had enthusiastically molded after our own

Defoliation mission in the Mekong River delta in South Vietnam (National Archives)

image were hard put to take up the fight against the threat we were supposedly saving them from. We found most people didn’t even know the difference between communism and democracy.They only wanted to work in rice paddies without helicopters strafing them and bombs with napalm burning their villages and tearing their country apart. They wanted everything to do with the war, particularly with this foreign presence of the United States of America, to leave them alone in peace, and they practiced the art of survival by siding with whichever military force was present at a particular time, be it Viet Cong, North Vietnamese or American. We found also that all too often American men were dying in those rice paddies for want of support from their allies. We saw first hand how monies from American taxes were used for a corrupt dictatorial regime.We saw that many people in this country had a one-sided idea of who was kept free by our flag, and blacks provided the highest percentage of casualties. We saw Vietnam ravaged equally by American bombs and search and destroy missions, as well as by Viet Cong terrorism, and yet we listened while this country tried to blame all of the havoc on the Viet Cong. We rationalized destroying villages in order to save them. We saw America lose her sense of morality as she accepted very cooly a My Lai and refused to give up the image of American soldiers who hand out chocolate bars and chewing gum.

We learned the meaning of free fire zones, shooting anything that moves, and we watched while America placed a cheapness on the lives of orientals. We watched the United States falsification of body counts, in fact the glorification of body counts. We listened while month after month we were told the back of the enemy was about to break. . . . We are here in Washington also to say that the problem of this war is not just a question of war and diplomacy. It is part and parcel of everything that we are trying as human beings to communicate to people in this country—the question of racism, which is rampant in the military, and so many other questions such as the use of weapons; the hypocrisy in our taking umbrage in the Geneva Conventions and using that as justification for a continuation of this war when we are more guilty than any other body of violations of those Geneva Conventions; in the use of free fire zones, harassment interdiction fire, search and destroy missions, the bombings, the torture of prisoners, the killing of prisoners, all accepted policy by many units in South Vietnam.That is what we are trying to say. It is part and parcel of everything. . . . We wish that a merciful God could wipe away our own memories of that service as easily as this administration has wiped away their memories of us. But all that they have done and all that they can do by this denial is to make more clear than ever Selected Documents

601

our own determination to undertake one last mission—to search out and destroy the last vestige of this barbaric war, to pacify our own hearts, to conquer the hate and the fear that have driven this country these last ten years and more, so when 30 years from now our brothers go down the street without a leg, without an arm, or a face, and small boys ask why, we will be able to say “Vietnam’’ and not mean a desert, not a filthy obscene memory, but mean instead the place where America finally turned and where soldiers like us helped it in the turning. Source: Hearings of Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, April 23, 1971, Congressional Record, Vol. 117 (Washington, D.C., 1972), 11738–40.

The War Powers Act, 1973 In the wake of the unheroic American departure from Vietnam in 1973, Congress moved to pass what became known as the War Powers Act.The measure was an attempt to resolve a conflict in the Constitution that the war had dramatized (while only Congress can declare war, the president as commander-inchief can place the armed forces in a war-making situation), but it also represented the most obvious expression of revulsion for the war, at least the American part, now ending and an envisioned guide for policy in the future. The act did not carry the words, but the message was there nonetheless: the Americans will have “no more Vietnams.’’ CONSULTATION

tion, but in no event shall he report to the Congress less often than once every six months. CONGRESSIONAL ACTION

(b) Within sixty calendar days after a report is submitted or is required to be submitted pursuant to section 4(a) (1), whichever is earlier, the President shall terminate any use of United States Armed Forces with respect to which such report was submitted (or required to be submitted), unless the Congress (1) has declared war or has enacted a specific authorization for such use of United States Armed Forces, (2) has extended by law such sixty-day period, or (3) is physically unable to meet as a result of an armed attack upon the United States. Such sixty-day period shall be extended for not more than an additional thirty days if the President determines and certifies to the Congress in writing that unavoidable military necessity respecting the safety of United States Armed Forces requires the continued use of such armed forces in the course of bringing about a prompt removal of such forces. (c) Notwithstanding subsection (b), at any time that United States Armed Forces are engaged in hostilities outside the territory of the United States, its possessions and territories without a declaration of war or specific statutory authorization, such forces shall be removed by the President if the Congress so directs by concurrent resolution.

Sec. 3.The President in every possible instance shall consult with Congress before introducing United States Armed Forces into hostilities or into situations where imminent involvement in hostilities is clearly indicated by the circumstances, and after every such introduction shall consult regularly with the Congress until United States Armed Forces are no longer engaged in hostilities or have been removed from such situations.

Source: U.S. Statutes at Large, 1st Session, 93rd Congress, 1973, Vol. 87 (Washington, D.C., 1974), 555–56.

REPORTING

This document contains excerpts of testimony before a United States Senate subcommittee pertaining to passage of an Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution.The amendment would pass both houses of Congress but would fail to receive approval from a sufficient number of state legislatures.Agents of the woman’s movement,however,would find other devices to achieve essentially what the amendment had been designed to do.The following testimony byWilma Scott Heide, chair of the Board of Directors of the National Organization for Women (NOW), thus constitutes an endorsement of the amendment, and also a statement of her perception of the status of women in the United States at the start of the 1970s.

Sec. 4. (a) In the absence of a declaration of war, in any case in which United States Armed Forces are introduced — (1) into hostilities or into situations where imminent involvement in hostilities is clearly indicated by the circumstances; (2) into the territory, airspace or waters of a foreign nation, while equipped for combat, except for deployments which relate solely to supply, replacement, repair, or training of such forces; or (3) in numbers which substantially enlarge United States Armed Forces equipped for combat already located in a foreign nation; the President shall submit within 48 hours to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and to the President pro tempore of the Senate a report, in writing, setting forth — (A) the circumstances necessitating the introduction of United States Armed Forces; (B) the constitutional and legislative authority under which such introduction took place; and (C) the estimated scope and duration of the hostilities or involvement. (b) The President shall provide such other information as the Congress may request in the fulfillment of its constitutional responsibilities with respect to committing the Nation to war and to the use of United States Armed Forces abroad. (c) Whenever United States Armed Forces are introduced into hostilities or into any situation described in subsection (a) of this section, the President shall, so long as such armed forces continue to be engaged in such hostilities or situation, report to the Congress periodically on the status of such hostilities or situation as well as on the scope and duration of such hostilities or situa602


The Women’s Movement: Senate Hearings on an Equal Rights Amendment, May 7, 1970

I will testify in favor of the equal rights amendment hopefully so that the next great moment in history—although I think we perhaps should say her story—may be ours. It is with considerable ambivalence that I do testify today. All of my social conditioning teaches me to be grateful for the opportunity to speak in a public forum convened by Senators.Yet I am really outraged to even consider gratitude as an appropriate response for a chance to plead for what is the birthright of every male in the United States. My credentials for testifying today were scrutinized; yet perhaps the only relevant credential is that I am a person denied my personhood by law, by legal interpretation, and by practice.This, of course, is not to deny my sex but to affirm my personhood which transcends gender. To demand to be equal to men under the law is not to state or imply sameness of biology; but biology is not relevant to human equity. Interestingly, I was asked to quantitatively document especially the educational inequities to women that a ratified equal rights amendment would rectify. And certainly, I can quote statistics if that is necessary, to establish communications. . . . In 1930, women earned 40 percent of the master’s degrees, in 1969, women earned 34 percent of the master’s degrees; in

1930, women earned 15 percent of the doctoral degrees, in 1969, women earned only 12 percent of doctoral degrees; in 1930 women formed 30 percent of college faculties and at higher ranks than the mere 22 percent of women on college faculties in 1969. Significantly, women’s participation in the “prestigious’’ professions reflects this loss of ground: 3 percent of lawyers, 7 percent of physicians, less than 10 percent of scientists and token numbers of executives are women in the United States. In other countries, propagandized in the United States to be less advanced, actually have women represented in these professions in percentages ranging from 25 to 75 percent. . . . We must put the need for this amendment precisely in its place and stop trying “to keep women in their place,’’ as decided by someone else. Its place should be at the top of the congressional agenda for immediate positive action.That top priority is necessary because this society, this Nation is antifemale in its laws, its expressions, its value systems, its language, everything. Ours is an androcentric, that is, male-oriented, male-dominated—culture, however subtle, and never mind the mythology to the contrary. Any society so structured, biased and value-oriented is unhealthily balanced. It takes enormous individual and national resources to support and sustain the fragile male ego that male supremacy values dictate. The psychological crippling of most girls and women from their inferior legal, political, educational, religious, familial, economic status, will never be cured by consumership, more sexist Freudian psychotherapy, or one more child. The fact that some women do not want equal rights is some measure of the depth of their psychological enslavement. . . . The sex role stereotyped socialization of boys is such that they must exhibit “masculine’’ traits or be branded sissy or effeminate and pretend to characteristics that presume unchallenged virility. Well, there are no social-psychological traits that are “feminine’’ or “masculine,’’ whatever that is. Feminity is often a euphemism for immaturity. Masculinity is often an excuse for brutality.There are only human traits.There are no men’s roles or women’s roles beyond the biological. There are no women’s interests and men’s interests. There are only human interests and human roles. My possession of a uterus does not uniquely qualify me for child care, housework, secretarial work or nursing. Men’s biology does not disqualify them for child care and housework or qualify them for leadership or scientific analysis or any particular courage. The continuation of sex-stereotyped, sex-caste laws that deny the individuality and humanity of women and men to the distinct mutilation of women is simply intolerable. . . . This women’s liberation, actually human liberation is, I think, the most profound social movement ever. It promises to inject some massive new insights into the bloodstream of our culture, not because women are so different, but because it will bring the life experience of the other half of the population to bear on our common problems and opportunities. Source: Catharine Stimpson, ed., Women and The “Equal Rights’’ Amendment: Senate Subcommittee Hearings on the Constitutional Amendment, 91st Congress (New York, 1972), 192–96.

Supreme Court Case of Roe v. Wade, 1973 In the case of Roe v. Wade the Supreme Court invalidated a Texas law, and by implication several other state laws, that had banned virtually all

forms of abortion. By a 7–2 vote, the Court found the right to abortion absolute in the first trimester of pregnancy, a guarantee provided by a right of privacy implied in 14th Amendment. In effect the Court ruled that an unborn fetus was a part of a woman’s body and not a separate being with rights of its own. Rather than settling abortion once and for all, however, the decision set the stage for perhaps the most heated political issue for the rest of the century. Justice Harry A. Blackmun, an appointee of Richard Nixon, wrote the majority opinion: We forthwith acknowledge our awareness of the sensitive and emotional nature of the abortion controversy, of the vigorous opposing views, even among physicians, and of the deep and seemingly absolute convictions that the subject inspires. One’s philosophy, one’s experiences, one’s exposure to the raw edges of human existence, one’s religious training, one’s attitudes toward life and family and their values, and the moral standards one establishes and seeks to observe, are all likely to influence and to color one’s thinking and conclusions about abortion. . . . The Texas statutes that concern us here are Arts. 1191–1194 and 1196 of the State’s Penal Code. These make it a crime to “procure an abortion,’’ as therein defined, or to attempt one, except with respect to “an abortion procured or attempted by medical advice for the purpose of saving the life of the mother.’’ Similar statutes are in existence in a majority of the States. . . . Jane Roe, a single woman who was residing in Dallas County, Texas, instituted this federal action in March 1970 against the District Attorney of the county. She sought a declaratory judgment that the Texas criminal abortion statutes were unconstitutional on their face, and an injunction restraining the defendant from enforcing the statutes. The principal thrust of appellant’s attack on the Texas statutes is that they improperly invade a right, said to be possessed by the pregnant woman, to choose to terminate her pregnancy. Appellant would discover this right in the concept of personal “liberty’’ embodied in the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause; or in personal, marital, familial, and sexual privacy said to be protected by the Bill of Rights . . . or among those rights reserved to the people by the Ninth Amendment, . . . The Constitution does not explicitly mention any right of privacy. In a line of decisions, however, . . . the Court has recognized that a right of personal privacy, or a guarantee of certain areas or zones of privacy, does exist under the Constitution. . . . This right of privacy, whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment’s concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment’s reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman’s decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy. . . . We . . . conclude that the right of personal privacy includes the abortion decision, but that this right is not unqualified and must be considered against important state interest in regulation. . . . In view of all this, we do not agree that, by adopting one theory of life,Texas may override the rights of the pregnant woman that are at stake.We repeat, however, that the State does have an important and legitimate interest in preserving and protecting the health of the pregnant woman, whether she be a resident of the State or a nonresident who seeks medical consultation and treatment there, and that it has still another important and legitimate interest in protecting the potentiality of human life.These interests are separate and distinct. Each grows in substantiality as the woman approaches term and, at a point during pregnancy, each becomes “compelling.’’ . . . Selected Documents

603

Measured against these standards, Art. 1196 of the Texas Penal Code, in restricting legal abortions to those “procured or attempted by medical advice for the purpose of saving the life of the mother,’’ sweeps too broadly. The statute makes no distinction between abortions performed early in pregnancy and those performed later, and it limits to a single reason, “saving’’ the mother’s life, the legal justification for the procedure. The statute, therefore, cannot survive the constitutional attack made upon it here. . . . To summarize and to repeat: 1. A state criminal abortion statute of the current Texas type, that excepts from criminality only a lifesaving procedure on behalf of the mother, without regard to pregnancy stage and without recognition of the other interests involved, is violative of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. (a) For the stage prior to approximately the end of the first trimester, the abortion decision and its effectuation must be left to the medical judgment of the pregnant woman’s attending physician. (b) For the stage subsequent to approximately the end of the first trimester, the State, in promoting its interest in the health of the mother, may, if it chooses, regulate the abortion procedure in ways that are reasonably related to maternal health. (c) For the stage subsequent to viability, the State in promoting its interest in the potentiality of human life may, if it chooses, regulate, and even proscribe, abortion except where it is necessary, in appropriate medical judgment, for the preservation of the life or health of the mother. . . .

This holding, we feel, is consistent with the relative weights of the respective interests involved, with the lessons and examples of medical and legal history, with the lenity of the common law, and with the demands of the profound problems of the present day. . . . Source: Eva R. Rubin, The Abortion Controversy: A Documentary History (Westport, Conn., 1994), 131–37.

President Reagan Describes the Soviet Union at the Start of His Presidency, 1981, and at the End, 1989 When Ronald Reagan became president, the cold war continued and probably intensified, partly because of Reagan’s military policies and his rhetoric. He called the USSR, for example, an evil empire; the attitude prevailed through the first administration. By the time Reagan was prepared to leave office, his tune had changed considerably. He found different Soviet leadership and different objectives. Many forces had fostered the change, but the most important was the emergence of Mikhail Gorbachev as Soviet leader, who set in motion remarkable changes in Soviet policy. Reagan’s remarks at the end thus represented a response to new forces he faced.They also constituted a clear signal in January 1989 that the cold war was coming to an end. REAGAN’S NEWS CONFERENCE, JANUARY 29, 1981

The President. Well, so far détente’s been a one-way street that the Soviet Union has used to pursue its own aims. I don’t have to think of an answer as to what I think their intentions are; they have repeated it. I know of no leader of the Soviet Union since the revolution, and including the present leader-

The first McDonald’s restaurant opens in Moscow, 1990. (Used with permission from McDonald’s Corporation)

604


ship, that has not more than once repeated in the various Communist congresses they hold their determination that their goal must be the promotion of world revolution and a one-world Socialist or Communist state, whichever word you want to use. Now, as long as they do that and as long as they, at the same time, have openly and publicly declared that the only morality they recognize is what will further their cause, meaning they reserve unto themselves the right to commit any crime, to lie, to cheat, in order to attain that, and that is moral, not immoral, and we operate on a different set of standards, I think when you do business with them, even at a détente, you keep that in mind. REAGAN’S FAREWELL ADDRESS TO THE NATION, JANUARY 11, 1989

Nothing is less free than pure communism—and yet we have, the past few years, forged a satisfying new closeness with the Soviet Union. I’ve been asked if this isn’t a gamble, and my answer is no because we’re basing our actions not on words but deeds. The détente of the 1970’s was based not on actions but promises. They’d promise to treat their own people and the people of the world better. But the gulag was still the gulag, and

the state was still expansionist, and they still waged proxy wars in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Well, this time, so far, it’s different. President Gorbachev has brought about some internal democratic reforms and begun the withdrawal from Afghanistan. He has also freed prisoners whose names I’ve given him every time we’ve met. . . . We must keep up our guard, but we must also continue to work together to lessen and eliminate tension and mistrust. My view is that President Gorbachev is different from previous Soviet leaders. I think he knows some of the things wrong with his society and is trying to fix them. We wish him well. And we’ll continue to work to make sure that the Soviet Union that eventually emerges from this process is a less threatening one.What it all boils down to is this: I want the new closeness to continue.And it will, as long as we make it clear that we will continue to act in a certain way as long as they continue to act in a helpful manner. If and when they don’t, at first pull your punches. If they persist, pull the plug. It’s still trust but verify. It’s still play, but cut the cards. It’s still watch closely.And don’t be afraid to see what you see. Source: The statement of 1981 is in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan, 1981 (Washington D.C., 1982), 57; the second statement is in Public Papers . . . Reagan, 1988–89, Book II (Washington, D.C., 1991), 1721.

Selected Documents

605

Selected Bibliography Publications of the National Government Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. ———. Martial Status and Living Arrangements: March 1990. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991. ———. Marital Status and Living Arrangements: March 1993. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994. ———. Statistical Abstracts of the United States, annual editions, 1946–1997. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946–97. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Business Statistics, 1963–91. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Drug and Crime Facts. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment, Hours and Earnings, United States, 1909–90, Volume II.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991. ———. Handbook of Labor Statistics, 1989. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1989. Civil Aeronautics Board. Handbook of Airline Statistics, 1973 Edition. Washington, D.C.: Civil Aeronautics Board, 1974. Council of Economic Advisers. Economic Report of the President, 1992. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Statistics, annual editions, 1946–91. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946–91. Department of Commerce. U.S. Foreign Trade Highlights, 1990. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Printing Office, 1991. Department of Health and Human Services. Health, United States, annual editions, 1970–92. Hyattsville, Md.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970–92. ———. Vital Statistics of the United States, Vol. I. Natality, 1990. Hyattsville, Md.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1994. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. 100 Years of Marriage and Divorce Statistics, United States, 1867–1967. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. Department of Justice. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics, annual editions,1973–97.Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974–98. ———. Drugs and Crime Facts, 1991. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992. Department of Labor. CPI Detailed Report Data for January 1990. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990. Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1950, Vol. I: National Security Affairs; Foreign Economic Policy. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. Department of Transportation. Annual Energy Review, annual editions, 1980–91. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981–92. ———. FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation, annual editions, 1980–91. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981–92. ———. National Transportation Statistics, 1980. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980. Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Progress and Challenge: EPA’s Update. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988. 606

Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States, annual editions, 1946–90. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1947–91. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation. Statistics on Banking: Historical, 1934–1994. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1995. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968. National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics, annual editions, 1980–92. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980–92. ———. 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, for the following presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1955; John F. Kennedy, 1961. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962; Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966; Ronald W. Reagan, 1981. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982; Ronald W. Reagan, 1988–89. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.

Almanacs, Encyclopedias, and General Reference Works Aerospace Industries Association of America. Aerospace Facts and Figures, annual editions, 1964–93. Washington, D.C.: Aero Publishers, 1964–93. Aircraft Industries Association of America. Aviation Facts and Figures, annual editions, 1946–60. Washington, D.C.: Aero Publishers, 1946–60. Alsop, Ronald J. The Wall Street Journal Almanac, 1998. New York: Ballantine Books, 1997. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures—1991. Atlanta, Ga.: American Cancer Society, 1991. American Council on Education. The Fact Book on Higher Education: 1997 Edition. Phoenix: American Council on Education, 1998. American Hospital Association. Hospital Statistics, 1994–95 Edition. Chicago: American Hospital Association, 1994. Automobile Manufacturers Association. Automobile Facts and Figures, annual editions 1957–77, renamed Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures, 1978–92. Detroit: Automobile Manufacturers Association, 1957–92. Bronson, Fred. Billboard’s Hottest 100 Hits. New York: Billboard Books, 1995. Brooks,Tim, and Marsh, Earle. The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946–Present, editions for 1988, 1994, 1995, 1997. NewYork: Ballantine Books, 1988, 1994, 1995, 1997. Brown, Les. Les Brown’s Encyclopedia of Television. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1992. Brunner, Borgna. Time Almanac 2001 with Information Please. Boston: Family Education Company, 2000. Carruth, Gorton. The Encyclopedia of American Facts and Dates. New York: HarperCollins, 1997. Chadwick, Bruce A., and Wheaton, Tim B. Statistical Handbook on the American Family. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1992. Chronicle of Higher Education. The Almanac of Higher Education, 1991. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Congressional Quarterly, Inc. American Leaders, 1789–1991. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1994. ———. Presidential Elections, 1789–1992. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1995. Cook, Allan, R. The New Cancer Sourcebook. Detroit, Mich.: Omnigraphics, 1996. Cook, Chris, and Stevenson, John. The Longman Handbook of the Modern World: International History Since 1945. New York: Longman, 1998. Darnay, Arnsen J. Economic Indicators Handbook. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1994. Dorgan, Charity Anne. Statistical Record of Health and Medicine. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1995. Douchant, Mike. Encyclopedia of College Basketball. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1994. Dupuy, Trevor N. International Military and Defense Dictionary. New York: Brassey’s Publications, 1993. The ESPN Information Please Sports Almanac. Boston: Hyperion ESPN Books, 2000. Ferrell, Robert H., and Hoff, Joan. Dictionary of American History, Supplement, Parts I and II. New York: Scribner’s, 1996. Franks, Don. Entertainment Awards: A Music, Cinema, Theatre and Broadcasting Reference, 1928 through 1993. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1996. Gall, Susan B., and Gall, Timothy L. Statistical Record of Asian Americans. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1993. Gall, Timothy L., and Lucas, Daniel M. Statistics on Crime and Punishment. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1996. Garraty, John A., and Carnes, Mark C. American National Biography. 24 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Garwood, Alfred N. Black Americans: A Statistical Sourcebook, 1992 edition. Boulder, Colo.: Numbers and Concepts, 1992. Gertner, Richard. 1975 International Motion Picture Almanac. NewYork: Quigley Publications, 1975. Grossman, Mark. Encyclopedia of Capital Punishment. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 1998. Heatley, Michael. The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Rock. New York: Harper Perennial, 1993. Hischak,Thomas S. The Theatregoers Almanac. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1997. Hollander, Zander. The Complete Encyclopedia of Hockey. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1993. ———. The Encyclopedia of Sports Talk. New York: Corwin Books, 1976. Horton, Carrell P., and Smith, Jessie C. Statistical Record of Black America, editions of 1990, 1993, 1997. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1990, 1993, 1997. Hoyle, Russ. Gale Environmental Almanac. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1993. Jacobs, Eva E. Handbook of Labor Statistics. Lanham, Md.: Bernan Press, 1997. Johnson, Otto. The 1991 Information Please Almanac, Atlas & Yearbook. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991. Juliussen, Egil, and Juliussen, Karen. The Computer Industry Almanac, editions for 1989 and 1993. New York and Austin, Tex.: Computer Industry Almanac Company, 1988, 1993. Kingsbury, Paul. The Encyclopedia of Country Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Kurian, George Thomas. Datapedia of the United States, 1790–2000: America Year byYear. Lanham, Md.: Bernan Press, 1994. Laur, Timothy M., and Llanso, Steven L. Encyclopedia of Modern U.S. Military Weapons. NewYork: Berkley Books, 1995. Leonard, Thomas. Day By Day: The Forties. New York: Facts On File, 1977.

Leonard,Thomas, Crippen, Cynthia, and Aronson, Marc. Day By Day: The Seventies. New York: Facts On File, 1988. Light, Jonathan Fraser. The Cultural Encyclopedia of Baseball. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997. Littman, Mark C. A Statistical Portrait of the U.S., Social Conditions and Trends. Lanham, Md.: Bernan Press, 1998. Mabunda, L. Mpho. The African-American Almanac. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1997. Meltzer, Ellen, and Aronson, Marc. Day By Day:The Eighties. New York: Facts On File, 1995. Merritt, Jeffrey. Day By Day:The Fifties. NewYork: Facts On File, 1979. Meserole, Mike. The 1993 Information Please Sports Almanac. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992. Michael, Paul. The American Movies Reference Book:The Sound Era. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1969. Monush, Barry. International Motion Picture Almanac, editions for 1991, 1992, 1993. New York: Quigley Publications, 1991, 1992, 1993. Morris, Richard R., and Morris, Jeffrey B. Encyclopedia of American History. New York: HarperCollins, 1996. Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association. Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures, editions of 1981 and 1991. Detroit, Mich.: American Automobile Manufacturers Association, 1981, 1991. National Collegiate Athletic Association. NCAA Basketball: The Official 1998 Men’s College Basketball Records Book. Overland Park, Kans.: NCAA, 1997. National Council of Churches of Christ. Yearbook of American Churches, annual editions, 1946–72. New York: Round Table Press, 1946–72. ———. Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, annual editions, 1973–92. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1973–92. National Safety Council. Accident Facts, annual editions, 1962–98. Chicago: National Safety Council, 1962–98. New York Stock Exchange. Fact Book, annual editions, 1960–98. New York:The Exchange, 1960–98. The New York Public Library African American Desk Reference. New York: Wiley, 1999. The NewYork Public Library Book of Chronologies. NewYork: Prentice Hall, 1990. The New York Public Library History Desk Reference. New York: Prentice Hall, 1997. Parker, Thomas, and Nelson, Douglas. Day By Day: The Sixties. New York: Facts On File, 1983. Pendergast, Tom, and Pendergast, Sara. St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 5 vols. Detroit, Mich.: St. James Press, 2000. Reddy, Marlita A. Statistical Record of Hispanic Americans. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1993. ———. Statistical Record of Native North Americans. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1995. Sachare, Alex. The Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia. New York: Villard Books, 1994. Schwartz, Danny, Ryan, Steven, and Wostrock, Fred. The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows. NewYork: Facts On File, 1995. Schlesinger, Arthur, M., Jr. The Almanac of American History. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1993. Schneider, Stephen H. Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Sports Illustrated. Sports Illustrated 1997 Sports Almanac. New York: Bishop Books, 1996. ———. Sports Illustrated 2000 Sports Almanac. New York: Bishop Books, 1999. The Sporting News. The Sporting News Complete Baseball Record Book, 1993 Edition. St. Louis, Mo.: Sporting News Publishing, 1992. ———. The Sporting News Complete Hockey Book, 1995–96 edition. St. Louis, Mo.: Sporting News Publishing, 1995. ———. The Sporting News Pro Football Guide, 1998 Edition. St. Louis, Mo.: Sporting News Publishing, 1998. Selected Bibliography

607

Taeuber, Cynthia M. Statistical Handbook on Women in America. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 1991. Tax Foundation. Facts & Figures on Government Finance, editions for 1991, 1993, 1999.Washington, D.C.:Tax Foundation, 1991, 1993, 1999. Thorn, John, and Palmer, Pete. Total Baseball. New York: Warner Books, 1991. Tucker, Spence C. Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War. 3 vols., Santa Barbara: ABC–CLIO, 1998. Ward’s Communications. Ward’s Automotive Yearbook, 1992. Detroit, Mich.:Ward’s Communications, 1992. Warren Publishing. Television & Cable Factbook, 1995. New York:Warren Publishing, 1995. Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Book of Top 40 Albums. New York: Billboard Books, 1991. ———. The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits. New York: Billboard Books, 1996. Williams, Jack. The USA Today Weather Almanac Book. New York: Vintage Original, 1992. Wood, Richard. The Weather Almanac. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1996. The World Almanac and Book of Facts, annual editions, 1969–92. New York:World Almanac Books, 1969–91. The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1999. Mahwah, N.J.: World Almanac Books, 1998. Wright, John. The Universal Almanac, annual editions, 1990–95. NewYork: Andrews and McMeel, 1989–94. Wright, John. The New York Times 1998 Almanac. New York: Penguin Books, 1997. Zia, Helen, and Gall, Susan B. Notable Asian Americans. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research, 1995. Specialized Studies Ambry, Margaret, and Russell, Cheryl. The Official Guide to the American Marketplace. Ithaca, N.Y.: New Strategist Publications, 1992. Ashe, Arthur, Jr. A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete Since 1946. New York:Warner Books, 1993. American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel. Giving USA, 1996 edition. NewYork:American Association of Fund-Raising Counsel, 1996. Baskir, Lawrence M., and Strauss, William A. Chance and Circumstance: The Draft, The War and the Vietnam Generation. New York: Vintage Books, 1978. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962. Christian, Spencer. Spencer Christian’s Weather Book. New York: Prentice Hall, 1993. Cole, Barry. After the Breakup:Assessing the New Post AT&T Divestiture Era. New York: Columbia University Press, 1991. Clodfelter, Michael. Vietnam in Military Statistics 1772–1991. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1995. Cook, David A. American Cinema in the Shadow of Watergate and Vietnam 1970–1979. New York: Scribner’s, 2000. Daniels, Roger. Coming to America:A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. NewYork: HarperCollins, 1990. Dern, Daniel P. The Internet Guide for New Users. New York: McGrawHill, 1994. Douglas, Deborah G. United StatesWomen in Aviation 1940–1985.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. DuVall, Nell. Domestic Technology: A Chronology of Developments. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1988. Friedl, Vicki L. Women in the United States Military, 1901–1995. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996. Gross, Lynne S. Telecommunications: An Introduction to Electronic Media. Dubuque, Iowa:W.C. Brown, 1988.

608


Alan Guthmacher Institute. Sex and America’s Teenagers. New York: Alan Guthmacher Institute, 1994. Halberstam, David. The Fifties. New York: Fawcett-Columbine, 1993. Kane, Joseph N. Facts About the Presidents. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1993. Krantz, Les. American Architects. New York: Facts On File, 1989. ———. American Artists: An Illustrated Survey of Contemporary Americans. New York: Facts On File, 1985. Ludlum, David M. The American Weather Book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982. Miller, E. Willard and Miller, Ruby M. Energy and American Society. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 1993. Miller, William H. The Last Transatlantic Liners. London: Conway Maritime Press, 1985. ———. Transatlantic Liners 1945–1980. New York: Dover Publications, 1981. Old Cars Publications. Standard Catalogue of American Cars 1946–1975. Iola,Wis.: Old Cars Publications, 1976. Osborne, Robert A. 65Years of the Oscars:The Official History of the Academy Awards. New York: Abbeville Press, 1994. Phillips, Kevin. Boiling Point: Democrats, Republicans and the Decline of the Middle Class. New York: Random House, 1993. ———. The Politics of the Rich and Poor. New York: Random House, 1990. Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1993. Maddocks, Melvin. The Seafarers: The Great Liners. Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books, 1978. Prevention Magazine. Prevention’s Giant Book of Health Facts. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press, 1991. Norback, Craig T. Chilton’s Complete Book of Automotive Facts. Radnor, Pa.: Chilton Book Co., 1981. Prince, Stephen. A New Pot of Gold: Hollywood Under the Electronic Rainbow 1980–1989. NewYork: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2000. Princeton Religion Research Center. Religion in America, 1990. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990. Rubin, Eva R. The Abortion Controversy, A Documentary History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994. Schatz, Thomas. Boom and Bust:The American Cinema in the 1940s. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1997. Schwartz, Bernard. A History of the Supreme Court. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Stimpson, Catharine. Women and the “Equal Rights’’ Amendment: Senate Subcommittee Hearings on the Constitutional Amendment, 91st Congress. New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1972. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. SIPRI Yearbook, 1991: World Armaments and Disarmament. NewYork: Humanities Press, 1991. Summers, Harrison B. A Thirty Year History of Programs Carried on National Radio Networks in the United States, 1926–1956. New York: Arno Press, 1971. Stanley, Harold W., and Niemi, Richard G. Vital Statistics on American Politics.Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1992. Wood, Paul, Frascina, Francis, Harris, Jonathan, and Harrison, Charles. Modernism in Dispute: Art Since the Forties. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1993. Utter, Glenn H., and Storey, John W. The Religious Right. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC–CLIO, 1995. Von Bencke, Matthew J. The Politics of Space: A History of U.S.—Soviet/Russian Competition and Cooperation in Space. Boulder, Colo.:Westview Press, 1997. Zimbalist,Andrew. Baseball and Billions. NewYork: Basic Books, 1992.

APPENDIX: List of Tables

1.1

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21

Estimated Population (in Thousands) of the United States by Sex and by Color, 1946–1990 Population Density and Area of Residence, 1940–1990 U.S. Resident Population, by Region and Division, 1960–1990 United States Population by State, 1940–1990 U.S. Population Abroad, by Selected Country, 1989 Resident Population by Race, 1940–1970 Resident Population by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1980–1990 Resident Population of the States by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1990 Minority Population of the 50 Largest Metropolitan Areas by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1990 NewYork City—Population Distribution, by Race/Ethnicity, 1980 and 1987 Miami/Dade County—Hispanic Population Distribution, 1988 Los Angeles—Population Distribution, by Race/Ethnicity, 1990 African-American Population Totals Regional Distribution of the Black Population, 1940–1990 Percentage of Population Living in Urban Territory, 1940–1990 Black Population Change in 14 Central Cities and Their Suburbs, 1960–1980 Thirty Cities with Largest Proportion of Black Population, 1980 Twenty U.S. Cities with Largest Black Populations, 1990 Ten States with the Largest Black Population Ten States with Highest Percentage of Black Population, 1990 Black Population of Metropolitan Areas, 1980–1990

1.22 1 3

1.23 1.24

4 4

1.25 1.26

6 6

1.27

7

1.28

7

1.29 1.30

8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13

1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 1.37 1.38 1.39 1.40 1.41 1.42

Population of American Indians and the Total United States Population, 1940–1980 American Indian Population, by State, 1940–1980 Percentage of the American Indian Population in the United States Who Are Urban, 1940–1980 American Indian Population, 1990 American Indian Population Growth Compared with Other Groups, 1980–1990 Population of the United States by Asian Ethnicity, by Decade, 1940–1990 Asian/Pacific Islander Population Increase, 1980–1990 Asian and Pacific Population of Metropolitan Areas, 1980–1990 California and Hawaii Cities and Places Ranked by Asian/Pacific Islander Population, 1990 Hispanic Population, by State and Ethnicity, 1990 Metropolitan Areas with Large Numbers of Hispanic Origin Population, 1990 Immigration by Region of Last Residence, 1941–1990 Immigration Rate by Decade, 1941–1990 Immigration as Percent of Population Growth, 1945–1990 Immigration by Region and Last Country of Residence, 1940–1980 Immigration by Region and Selected Country of Last Residence, 1981–1990 Asian Immigration by Country of Origin, 1941–1990 Immigration from Mexico, Central America, and Caribbean, 1941–1990 Refugee Status Granted by Country of Origin, 1980–1990 Persons Admitted as Refugees, 1948–1980 Southeast Asian Refugee Arrivals by Nationality, 1975–1990

14 14

14 14

15 15 16 17

17 18 19 21 21 21 22 22 23 24 24 25 25 609

1.43 1.44

1.45 1.46 1.47 1.48 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11

2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 610

Asylum Grantees, 1984–1990 Total Population and Estimated Illegal Population for the 10 States with the Greatest Number of Illegals, 1987 Aliens Expelled, 1946–1990 Border-Patrol Activities, 1984–1990 Foreign-Born Population, by Place of Birth,1980 and 1990 Five States with Highest Percentage of Foreign-Born Population, 1990 Wind-Chill Table Heat Index Normal Daily Mean Temperature— Selected Cities Sunshine, Average Wind Speed, Mean Number of Days with Minimum Temperature Below 32 Degrees Fahrenheit, and Average Relative Humidity—Selected Cities Normal Monthly and Annual Precipitation— Selected Cities Snow and Ice Pellets—Selected Cities Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale Ranges Most Intense Atlantic Coast Hurricanes, 1946–1990 Most Destructive North Atlantic Hurricanes, 1946–1990 Tornadoes That Caused Outstanding Damage, 1947–1989 National Tornadoes,Tornado Days, Deaths, and Resulting Losses, by Year, 1946–1990 The Beaufort Scale for Measuring Wind Strength Record U.S. Blizzards and Snowstorms, 1946–1983 Casualties from Lightning The Odds of a White Christmas Some Major Floods in the United States, 1947–1980 Gross National Product, 1946–1990 Gross Domestic Product, 1946–1990 Gross National Product—A National Comparison, 1986 Gross National Product Per Capita—A National Comparison, 1986 New Housing Starts and Mobile Homes Shipped, 1945–1990 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

25

4.6 4.7

26 26 26

4.8 4.9

27 28 30 30 30

32 33 34 36 36 37 40

4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23

41

4.24

42

4.25

42 43 44

4.26

47 70 70 71

4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32

71 4.33 71

Expenditures for New Plants and Equipment, 1950–1990 Business Formations and Failures, 1950–1990 Business Cycle Expansions and Contractions Corporate Profits and Capital Adjustments, 1959–1990 Recorded Mergers in Manufacturing and Mining, 1946–1990 Largest Corporate Mergers or Acquisitions in the United States Largest American Businesses, 1990 Top 50 Franchises, 1989 Ten Fastest-Growing Industries, 1990 Significant Historical Dates, New York Stock Exchange, 1952–1990 New York Stock Exchange Shares Traded, 1946–1990 Dow Jones Industrial Average—Highs and Lows, 1961–1990 Common Stock Prices and Yields, 1952–1990 NewYork Stock Exchange Membership Prices, 1945–1990 Fifty Leading Stocks in Market Value, 1990 Defined Bull Markets, 1947–1990 Defined Bear Markets, 1946–1990 Energy Production by Source, 1949–1990 Energy Consumption by Source, 1949–1990 Type of Heating in Occupied Heating Units, 1950–1989 United States Coal Production and Consumption, 1950–1990 United States Natural Gas Production and Consumption, 1950–1990 U.S. Nuclear Generation of Electricity, 1957–1990 Nuclear Reactors—Leading Countries, 1986 Coal Reserves—Leading Countries, 1990 Petroleum Products—Amount and Sources, 1949–1990 Petroleum Products Supplied, by Type, 1949–1990 Leading Exporters of Petroleum to the United States, 1960–1990

71 72 72 73 73 73 74 75 76 77 77 77 78 79 79 80 80 81 81 82 83 84 84 84 84 84 85 85

4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45

4.46 4.47 4.48 4.49 4.50

4.51 4.52 4.53 4.54 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58 4.59

Average Wellhead Price of U.S. Crude Oil, 1946–1990 Estimated Proved Crude Oil Reserves, by Area, 1950–1990 Oil Spills Banks in the United States, by Number and Deposits, 1945–1990 Branch Banking: Commercial Banks and Trust Companies, 1946–1990 Money Market Interest Rates and Mortgage Rates, 1950–1990 Bank Failures, 1947–1990 Money in Circulation, 1945–1990 Gold Reserves of Central Banks and Governments, 1973–1996 U.S. International Transaction, 1946–1990 Foreign Exchange Rates, 1967–1990 Exchange Rates—Indexes of Value of Foreign Currency Relative to U.S. Dollar, 1970–1990 Value of Exports and Imports by Areas, 1946–1983 Top 20 Partners in Total U.S.Trade 1984–1990 Foreign Investment in the United States and U.S. Investment Abroad, 1950–1989 Direct Foreign Investment in the United States, by Area and Country, 1980–1990 U.S. Merchandise Exports and Imports by Principal End-Use Category, 1965–1990 U.S. Reliance on Foreign Supplies of Minerals Japanese-Owned Manufacturing Plants in the United States, by State, 1989 U.S. Investment Abroad by Country, 1980–1990 Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population, 1947–1990 Employees on Nonagricultural Payrolls, by Major Industry, 1946–1990 Women in the Labor Force, 1940–1990 Mothers Participating in the Labor Force, 1955–1990 Marital Status of Women in the Civilian Labor Force, 1960–1990 Percent of Female Workers in Selected Occupations, 1975–1990

4.60 86 86 87

4.61

88

4.62

88

4.63

89 89 89

4.64 4.65

90 91 92

93

4.66 4.67 4.68

4.69

93 94 94 94

4.70 4.71 4.72 4.73

95 95 96

4.74 4.75

96 4.76 98 4.77 99 101

4.78

101 101 102

4.79

Women as a Percentage of All Civilian Employees in Selected Occupations, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1990 Annual Indexes of Manufacturing Productivity and Related Measures, 12 Countries Civilian Unemployment Rate by Demographic Characteristic, 1948–1990 U.S. Unemployment Rates Compared with Eight Industrial Countries, 1975–1990 Trade-Union Membership, 1945–1990 States with Right-to-Work Laws, 1953–1982 Membership in Major AFL-CIO Unions, 1955–1989 Work Stoppages of 1,000 Workers or More, 1947–1990 Workers Killed or Disabled on the Job, 1960–1990, and by Industry Group, 1990 Average Hourly Earnings of Production or NonsupervisoryWorkers on Private Nonagricultural Payrolls by Industry, 1946–1990 Average Weekly Earnings in Current Dollars, by Group, 1947–1990 Average Weekly Earnings in Constant (1977) Dollars, by Group, 1947–1990 Manufacturing Production Worker Statistics, 1955–1990 Comparison of Median Earnings of Year-Round, Full-Time Workers 15 Years and Over, by Sex, 1960–1990 Effective Federal Minimum Hourly Wage Rates, 1950–1990 Median Earnings by Women and Men Who Work Full-Time,Year-Round, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1960–1990 Per Capita Income and Personal Consumption Expenditures, 1950–1990 Per Capita Money Income in Current and Constant (1990) Dollars, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1970–1990 Money Income of Households—Median Household Income in Current and Constant (1990) Dollars, by Race and Hispanic Origin of Householder, 1970–1990 Personal Income Per Capita in Current and Constant (1982) Dollars, by States, 1980–1989 Appendix: List of Tables

102

103 103 104 105 105 105 106

106

107 108 108 108

109 109

109 110

110

110

111 611

4.80 4.81 4.82

4.83 4.84 4.85 4.86

4.87 4.88 4.89 4.90 4.91 4.92 4.93 4.94 4.95 4.96 4.97 4.98 4.99 4.100 4.101 4.102 4.103 4.104 4.105 4.106 612

Economic Gain in 1980s 112 Share of Aggregate Income Received by Highand Low-Income Households, 1967–1990 112 Approximate Numbers of Millionaires, Decamillionaires, Centimillionaires, and Billionaires in the United States, 1953–1988 112 Persons Below the Poverty Level, Calendar Years 1960–1990 113 Persons Below the Poverty Level, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1959–1990 114 Average Income Cutoffs for a Nonfarm Family of Four, 1960–1990 114 Families Below Poverty Level and Below 125 Percent of Poverty Level, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1960–1990 114 Poverty Rate and Families with Female Householders, 1959–1990 115 Recipients of Social Insurance Programs, 1987 115 Aid to Families with Dependent Children Versus the Poverty Line, 1945–1990 115 Basic Farm Characteristics, 1945–1990 116 Farms—Numbers and Acreage, by State, 1980 and 1990 116 U.S. Farms—Classification by Tenure of Operator, 1945–1987 116 Land in U.S. Farms—Classification by Tenure of Operator, United States, 1945–1987 116 Farms—Number, 1974–1987, and Acreage, 1978–1987, by Size of Farm 117 Farm Input Use, Selected Inputs, 1947–1990 118 Farm Output and Productivity Indexes, 1947–1990 119 Livestock on Farms 119 Agricultural Output by States, 1990 Crops 120 Production Efficiency—Corn and Wheat, 1946–1990 122 Average Prices Received by U.S. Farmers, 1940–1990 122 Farm Income, 1946–1990 123 Farm Income—Marketings and Government Payments, by State, 1989 and 1990 124 Indexes of Prices Received and Prices Paid by Farmers, 1950–1990 125 Farm-to-Retail Price Spreads, 1951–1975 126 Index of Farm-to-Market Price Spreads, 1976–1990 126 The Value of a Dollar, 1860–1990 126 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

4.107 Consumer Price Indexes, Selected Groups, and Purchasing Power of the Consumer Dollar, 1946–1990 4.108 Consumer Price Indexes, by Major Groups, 1960–1990 4.109 Consumer Price Indexes—Percent Change in Major Groups, 1960–1990 4.110 Consumer Price Index—Change by Year in Percent, 1946–1990 4.111 Annual Percent Changes in Consumer Prices, United States and OECD Countries, 1970–1990 4.112 Tuition and Fees for Academic Year at Public Four-Year Colleges and Universities, 1959–1990 4.113 Median Sales Price for New Homes, 1950–1990 4.114 Average Price of Residential Electricity, 1946–1990 4.115 Wholesale Price of Sugar, 1946–1990 4.116 Advertised New-Car Prices, 1946–1990 4.117 Cost of Miscellaneous Goods, 1946–1989 4.118 Federal Individual Income Tax Rates and Exemptions, 1946–1990 4.119 Tax-Rate Schedules, 1989 4.120 Federal, State, and Local Tax Receipts, Per Capita and Percent Distribution 4.121 Total Taxes as a Percentage of Total Income 4.122 Social Security Tax Rates 4.123 Benefactors of Tax Changes in 1980s 4.124 Declining Importance of Personal Exemption— Federal Income Tax Personal Exemption as a Percent of Individual Income, 1948–1990 4.125 “Tax Freedom Day’’ and “Tax Bite in Eight-Hour Day’’ 5.1 World Motor Vehicle Production 5.2 Motor-Vehicle Retail Sales in the United States, 1949–1990 5.3 Yearly U.S. Motor-Vehicle Registrations and Passenger-Car Scrappage, 1946–1990 5.4 New-Car Prices and Consumer Expenditures per New Car, 1950–1990 5.5 Optional Equipment Purchased, 1957 5.6 Factory-Installed Equipment in U.S. Cars, 1949–1990 5.7 Top-Selling U.S. Cars,Trucks, and Sport Utility Vehicles, 1990

127 128 128 129

129

130 130 130 130 130 131 131 132 132 133 134 134

134 135 137 138 139 139 140 140 141

5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35

Domestic Car Engine Production, 1956–1990 Volkswagen Sales in the United States, 1949–1990 U.S. New-Car Registrations, Foreign and Domestic, 1955–1990 Mile per Gallon and Gasoline Prices, 1945–1990 Top 10 Foreign Car Registration— 1966, 1978, and 1990 Japanese Transplant Car Production in the United States, 1982–1990 Import New-Car Market Penetration Hourly Compensation for Motor Vehicle Production Workers, 1975 and 1980–1990 Motor-Vehicle Deaths and Death Rates, 1944–1990 Roads, Streets, and Highways, 1945–1990 Rural and Urban Road Mileage, by State, 1989 Scheduled Air Transportation, Domestic and International, 1946–1990 Airports, Aircraft, and Pilots, 1946–1990 Major Aircraft in Evolution of Commercial Air Travel, 1946–1990 Air Transportation Accidents on Domestic Scheduled Air Carriers, 1946–1990 Busiest U.S. Airports, Enplaning (Boarding) Only, 1988 Busiest U.S. Airports, All Operations, 1988 Top 25 U.S. Airlines, 1988 Top 15 U.S. Cargo Airlines, 1988 Railroad Freight and Passenger Traffic, 1946–1990 Annual Railroad Carloadings, 1945–1990 Railroad Mileage and Equipment, 1946–1990 Amtrak Operations, 1974–1990 U.S. Railroads and Train-Miles Operated, 1987 Commuter Rail Systems in the United States, 1988 Intercity Passenger Miles by Mode, 1945–1990 Domestic Freight Traffic by Major Carriers, 1945–1990 Passenger Deaths and Death Rates, 1950–1990

5.36 142 5.37 142 5.38 142 143 143 143 144

5.39 5.40 5.41 5.42 5.43

145 145 146 147 149 149 150

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

151 6.8 152 152 153 153 154 154 155 155 155 155

6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18

156 6.19 156 156

6.20 6.21

Public-Transit Equipment and Passengers, 1946–1990 Exports and Imports, by Method of Transport, 1950 to 1968 Vessels Entered and Cleared in Foreign Trade—Net Registration Tonnage, by Flag of Carrier Vessels, 1946–1990 Merchant Vessels Launched and Owned— World and United States, 1950–1990 Commerce at Major U.S. Ports, 1988 Major Merchant Fleets of the World by Tonnage and Number of Ships, 1988 25 Largest Transatlantic Liners from 1945 Mode of Transport Between the United States and Europe—United States and Foreign Carriers Combined, 1949–1972 First Class Mail Rates, 1946–1990 Operations of the Postal Service, 1946–1990 Postal Traffic, by Class of Mail, 1946–1990 Domestic Airmail Rates, 1946–1975 International Air Mail Rates from the United States, 1961–1990 Sources of Postal Revenue, 1950–1990 American Telephone Service Before Divestiture of American Telephone and Telegraph (Bell Telephone), 1945–1980 The Baby Bells (Regional Bell Operating Companies Emerging from Reorganization of AT&T in 1984) Competition for Long-Distance Market— Market Share by Corporation, 1984–1990 Cost of Unlimited Local Telephone Service, 1946–1990 Cellular Telephones, 1984–1990 Sales of Selected Equipment, 1983–1990 U.S. Radio Stations, 1946–1990 Radio Sales by Category, 1954–1990 Television Stations on the Air, 1946–1990 Households with Television, 1950–1990 Television Sales, 1959–1990 Basic Cable TV Systems and Subscribers, 1952–1990 Videocassette Recorders in Use, 1975–1990 Top 10 Cable Networks, 1988 The Electronic Home, 1990 Appendix: List of Tables

157 158

158 159 159 160 160

161 164 164 164 165 165 165

166

166 167 167 167 167 168 169 169 169 170 170 170 170 171 613

6.22

6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11

7.12

7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 614

U.S. Unit Sales of and Revenues From Micro-, Mini-, and Mainframe Computers, 1960–1990 E-mail Communications, 1980–1990 Number and Circulation of Daily and Sunday Newspapers, 1946–1990 Newspapers and Periodicals, 1946–1990 Largest Daily Newspapers, 1974 Top 100 Daily Newspapers in the United States, 1989 Top 100 Magazines Ranked by Circulation, 1989 Top 50 Magazines Ranked by Revenues, 1989 New Books and New Editions Published, by Subject, 1950–1990 Live Births by Sex, Sex Ratio, and Race, 1945–1990 Birthrates and Fertility Rates by Race, 1946–1990 Fertility Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1945–1990 Illegitimate Live Births and Birthrates, by Race, 1946–1990 Percentage of Births to Unmarried Women, 1940–1990 Births to Unmarried Mothers by Age— Number and Percent, 1940–1990 Illegitimate Births as Percent of All Births, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1970–1990 Births by Cesarean Section by Age of Mother,1965–1990 Infant Mortality Rate, 1940–1990 Methods of Contraception: Married Users by Religion, 1955 and 1960 Contraception: Married White Women, 15–44 Years, by Religion—1965, 1973, and 1976 Methods of Contraception: All Users, Age 15–44, 1988, and Married Users— by Percentage, 1973–1988 Abortions: Estimated Number, Rate, and Ratio, by Race—1972–1990 Abortions by Selected Characteristics, 1973–1988 Legal Abortions, a Country Comparison, 1988 Public Opinion and Abortion, 1965–1990 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

7.17 171 171 172 172 173

7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21

173 7.22 174 175 175 178

7.23 7.24 7.25 7.26 7.27

179 7.28 180 7.29 180 7.30 181 7.31 181 7.32 181 181 182 183

183

7.33

7.34 7.35

183

7.36 7.37

184

7.38

185

7.39

185

7.40 7.41

186

Pregnancies by Outcome, Age of Woman, and Race, 1988 Ideal Number of Children, 1945–1990 Percentage of Men and Women Who Have Had Intercourse by Age 18, 1956–1988 Women Age 15–19 Who Have Ever Had Intercourse, by Selected Characteristics, 1988 Adults Reporting Sexual Partners in Past 12 Months, by Marital Status, Sex, and Age, 1988 Sexual Frequency by Selected Characteristics, 1988–1989 Attitudes Toward Sexual Issues Marriages and Marriage Rates, 1945–1990 Median Age at First Marriage, by Sex, 1947–1990 Interracial Married Couples, 1960–1990 Divorce and Annulments and Rates, 1946–1990 Divorced Persons per 1,000 Married Persons, by Sex and Race, 1960–1990 Marital Status of the Population 15 Years and Older by Sex and Race, 1950–1990 Percentage Distribution of Households, by Type, 1947–1990 Families Maintained by Women,With No Husband Present, 1960–1990 Family and Nonfamily Households, by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Type, 1970–1990 Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 years, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1960–1990 Unmarried-Couple Households, by Presence of Children, 1960–1990 Balance of Males and Females 85 Years and Older, 1940–1990 Growth of Older Population, 1940–1990 Living Arrangements of the Elderly, 1980 and 1990 Expectation of Life, by Race and Sex, 1946–1990 Life Expectancy at Birth, According to Sex—Selected Countries, 1984 and 1989 Death Rates by Sex and Race, 1940–1990 Death Rates for Selected Causes, by Sex, 1950–1990

186 187 188 188

188 189 190 191 191 191 192 192 192 193 193

194

194 195 195 195 195 196 196 197 197

7.42 7.43 7.44 7.45 7.46 7.47 7.48 7.49 7.50 7.51 7.52 7.53 7.54 7.55 7.56 7.57 7.58

7.59 7.60

7.61

7.62 7.63 7.64 7.65

Death Rates for Suicide, by Race and Sex, 1950–1990 Death Rates for Homicide and Legal Intervention, by Race and Sex, 1950–1990 Principal Classes of Accidental Deaths, 1946–1990 Reported Cases of Common Infectious Diseases, 1950–1990 Trends in Cancer Survival, by Race and Site, 1960–1990 AIDS Cases Reported, by Patient Characteristic, 1981–1990 Transmission of AIDS, 1981–1989 AIDS Cases and Deaths in the United States, 1981–1993 Hospital Statistics, 1946–1990 Hospital Expense per Day, 1946–1990 Physicians in the United States—Selected Characteristics, 1950–1990 Physicians by Sex, Education, and Specialty, 1970–1990 Dentists and Nurses, 1946–1990 Organ Transplants and Grafts, 1981–1990 Medical Device Implants, by Age, Sex, and Race, 1988 Cost of Brand Names Compared with Generic Equivalent, 1990 Personal Health-Care Expenditures and Percent Distribution, by Source of Funds, 1940–1990 U.S. Health Expenditures by Type of Service, 1960–1990 National Health Expenditures as a Portion of Gross National Product and Federal Government Expenditures, 1940–1990 U.S. Health Expenditures Compared with Other Countries in Percent of Gross Domestic Product and Per Capita Expenditure Selected Nations and Date They Adopted Universal Health-Care Systems Medicare Enrollment and Expenditures, 1967–1990 Medicare Spending per Beneficiary, 1970–1990 Operations of Medicare Hospital Insurance Trust Fund, 1970–1990

7.66 198 7.67 198 199 200 200 200 202 202 204 205 205 205 206 206 207

7.68 7.69 7.70 7.71 7.72 7.73 7.74

7.75 7.76 7.77 7.78 7.79 7.80

208 7.81 208

7.82

209 7.83 209

8.1 8.2

210 211 211 212 212

8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8

Operations of Medicare Supplementary Medical Insurance Fund, 1970–1990 Persons Without Health Insurance Coverage, by Selected Characteristic, 1989 U.S. Cigarette Consumption, 1940–1990 Tobacco Smoking by Race, Age, Residence, and Sex, 1955 Current Cigarette Smoking, by Sex, Age, and Race, 1965–1990 Drug Use Among Young People, 12–17 and 18–25, 1974–1990 Drug Use Among Adults, 1974–1990 Commonly Abused Drugs Drugs Mentioned Most Frequently in Emergency-Room Situations—Estimates of Selected Hospitals, 1972–1988 Minimum Age for Purchase of Alcoholic Beverages—1965, 1975, and 1989 U.S. Alcohol Consumption, 1940–1990 U.S. Consumption of Alcohol, Compared with Other Countries, 1990 Deaths and Death Rates for Alcohol-Induced Causes, by Race and Sex, 1980–1990 Alcoholism Deaths and Mortality Rates— American Indians and All Races, 1969–1986 Alcohol-Related Traffic Crash Fatalities as a Portion of All Traffic Crash Fatalities, 1977–1987 Alcohol-Related Fatalities, by Age, 1977–1987 Trends in Selected Behavior and Perceptions Among U.S. High School Seniors, 1975–1990 Current Users of Cigarettes, Alcohol, Marijuana, and/or Cocaine, 1988 Percent of Americans Who Believe in God or a Universal Spirit, 1944–1986 Percent of Americans Who Believe in Life after Death, 1944–1988 The Last Judgment Opinion Polls of Religious Preference— Major Faiths, 1947–1989 Religious Population of the United States, 1940–1990 Church Membership Statistics, 1940–1989 Major Religious Affiliations, 1985–1990 Attendance atWorship Service, 1947–1990 Appendix: List of Tables

213 213 214 215 215 217 217 218

218 218 219 219 219 220

220 220

220 221 223 223 223 223 223 224 225 226 615

8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19

9.20

9.21 9.22 9.23 616

Women Members of the Clergy, 1940–1986 Denominations with Largest Number of Female Clergy, 1986 Roman Catholic Clergy, Deacons, and Members of Religious Orders, 1950–1990 Percentage of Americans Who Regard Themselves “Born-Again,’’ 1988 Influence of Religion—Opinion Polls, 1957–1989 American Presidential Elections, 1944–1988 The Presidents and Their Cabinets, 1945–1989 Party Strength in Congress, 1946–1990 Speaker of the House, 1945–1991 Leaders of the House, 1946–1990 Leaders of the Senate, 1946–1990 Incumbents to the U.S. House or Senate— How They Fared, 1946–1990 Losses by President’s Party in Midterm Elections, 1946–1990 Campaign Spending for Winning Congressional Candidates, 1975–1990 Number of Women Members in Congress, 1947–1991 Women in Congress, a Roster, 1946–1990 Women in Elective Offices, 1975–1989 Number of Black Members in Congress, 1947–1990 Black Members of Congress, a Roster, 1946–1990 Hispanics in Congress, 1946–1990 Growing Franchise in the United States, 1946–1990 Voter Registration in 11 Southern States, 1960–1971 Percentage of Persons Who Reported Voting, by Age, 1964–1990 Percentage of Persons Who Reported Voting, by Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1964–1990 Number of Civilian Federal Government Employees and Percent under Merit Civil Service, 1946–1990 Bills, Acts, and Resolutions, 1947–1990 Presidential Vetoes, 1945–1990 Justices of the Supreme Court, 1946–1990 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

226 226 228 229 230 233 234 239 239 240 240 241 242 242 242 242 243 244 244 244 245 245 246

246

247 247 248 250

9.24

Measures Held Unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, 1940–1989 9.25 National Government Receipts, Outlays, and Surpluses or Deficits (-) by Fund Group, 1945–1990 9.26 Federal Expenditures by Function— Selected Fiscal Years, 1946–1990 9.27 Federal Receipts by Source, by Fiscal Year, 1945–1990 9.28 Federal Receipts by Source—Percentages, 1945–1990 9.29 Federal Debt at the End of Year, 1945–1990 9.30 Federal, State, and Local Tax Revenue by Source—A Summary and Comparison, 1957–1988 9.31 State Expenditures by Function—Selected Fiscal Years, 1946–1990 9.32 Social Welfare Expenditures, by Category, 1950–1988 9.33 Social Welfare Expenditures, 1950–1988 9.34 Social Security Taxes and Benefits, 1945–1990 9.35 Social Security–Covered Workers and Beneficiaries, 1945–1990, with Projections to 2050 10.1 Marshall Plan Aid Allotments by Country, April 3, 1948–December 31, 1951 10.2 NATO 10.3 NATO Armed Forces,Total Military Personnel, 1981–1990 10.4 Makers of American Foreign Relations, 1945–1990 10.5 Ambassador to UN, Dates, and Administration, 1945–1990 10.6 Director of Central Intelligence, 1946–1990 10.7 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1942–1990 10.8 Public Opinion on U.S. Involvement in World Affairs, 1945–1990 10.9 Military Contributions to the United Nations Command in the Korean War 10.10 Battle Casualties of Korean War 10.11 Military Forces of the United States, 1945–1990 10.12 Military Personnel on Active Duty, by Location, 1970–1990

252

253 254 255 256 256

257 258 259 260 260

262 265 265 265 266 266 267 267 267 269 270 273 273

10.13 National Defense Outlays and Veterans Benefits, 1945–1990 10.14 Federal Budget Outlays for National Defense Functions, 1970–1990 10.15 Total Calls, Deliveries, and Inductions of Selective Service Registrants by Fiscal Year, 1949–1974 10.16 Number of Registrants Classified as Conscientious Objectors, 1952–1973 10.17 Legal Conscientious-Objector Exemptions in the Vietnam Period in Comparison to World War I and World War II Rates 10.18 Disposition of Defendants Charged with Violation of Selective Service Acts, Showing Type of Sentence, 1945–1971 10.19 Female Active-Duty Military Personnel, 1965–1990 10.20 Women in Uniform, 1988 10.21 U.S. Active-Duty Forces, by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1965–1990 10.22 Minorities in Uniform, 1988 10.23 U.S. Armed Forces Worldwide, 1989 10.24 Military Forces, Ranked by Country, 1989 10.25 Select U.S., Soviet, and French Ballistic Missiles Tested and Deployed 10.26 Nuclear Arsenals—Strategic Delivery Systems of the Superpowers, 1960–1990 10.27 Commissioned Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1945–1990 10.28 Aircraft Carriers—Early Years 10.29 Aircraft Carriers—The Modern Era 10.30 Strategic-Missile Submarines— “Lafayette’’ Class (Poseidon) 10.31 Nuclear-Propelled Strategic-Missile Submarines—“Ohio’’ Class (Trident) 10.32 U.S./Soviet Military Comparison, 1960 10.33 Strategic Offensive Forces of the Superpowers, 1990 10.34 Examples of U.S.Weapon System Costs 10.35 U.S. Military Personnel in South Vietnam, 1960–1973 10.36 Republic of Vietnam Military Strength, 1955–1972 10.37 Comparative Military Casualty Figures, 1960–1974 10.38 Casualties, January 1, 1961– January 28, 1973 10.39 Statistical Portrait of U.S. Casualties in Indochina

274 274

276 276

10.40 10.41 10.42 10.43 10.44 10.45 10.46 10.47

276 10.48 276 277 277 278 278 278 279

10.49

10.50 10.51 10.52 10.53 12.1

282 282 283 283 284 285 286 287 287 288 292

12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 14.1

14.2 14.3

292 293 293 294

14.4 14.5

U.S. Casualties by Military Service Casualties by Age Causes of Combat and Noncombat Deaths U.S. Air Sorties in South Vietnam, 1966–1973 Total Aircraft Losses, 1962–1973 U.S. Aircraft Losses in Vietnam, 1966–1973 U.S. Foreign Economic and Military Aid Programs, 1946–1990 Principal Recipients of U.S. Foreign Aid, 1962–1989 U.S. Military Sales and Assistance to Foreign Governments, 1950–1990 Principal Recipients of U.S. Military Sales and Military Assistance to Foreign Governments, 1950–1989 Leading Exporters of Conventional Weapons, 1986–1990 U.S.-Soviet Summits Nuclear Explosions since 1945 Estimated Number of Nuclear Explosions, July 16, 1945–December 31, 1990 Population of 100 Largest U.S. Cities, 1950–1990 Former Top 10 Cities, 1950 Cities, by Population Size, 1960–1990 Fastest-Growing Cities, 1980–1990 Cities with Largest Percentage Loss in Population, 1980–1990 75 Largest Metropolitan Areas—Racial and Hispanic Origin Populations, 1990 The Most Promising 50 Counties The Least Promising 20 Counties Enrollment in Regular Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Grade Level, 1946–1947 to Fall 1990 High School Graduates, by Sex and Control of Institution, 1946–1990 Percent of Population with Less Than 12 Years of School and with Four Years of College or More, by Race and Hispanic Origin, 1970–1990 Persons 25 and Older Who Have Completed High School, 1947–1990 Ages for Compulsory School Attendance and Compulsory Provision of Services for Special Education Students, by State, 1989–1990 Appendix: List of Tables

294 294 294 294 294 295 297 298 298

299 299 300 301 301 326 328 328 329 330 330 332 333

358 359

359 360

360 617

14.6

14.7

14.8

14.9

14.10

14.11

14.12 14.13

14.14

14.15

14.16

14.17

14.18

14.19 14.20

618

Percentage of High School Dropouts Among Persons 16 to 24 Years Old, by Sex and Race/Ethnicity, October 1967– October 1990 Children Served in Special Education Programs, by Type of Disability, 1947–1948 to 1989–1990 Total and Current Expenditures and Expenditure per Pupil in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Purpose, 1945–1946 to 1989–1990 Current Expenditure per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by State, 1959–1960 to 1989–1990 Revenues for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Source of Funds, 1945–1946 to 1989–1990 Median Annual Income of Year-Round Full-Time Workers 25 Years Old and Older, by Years of School Completed and Sex, 1970–1990 Selected Characteristics of Public School Teachers, Spring 1961–Spring 1986 Average Starting Salaries of Public Schoolteachers Compared with Salaries in Private Industry, by Selected Position, 1975–1990 Average Annual Salary of Instructional Staff in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by State, 1939–1940 to 1988–1989 Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Teachers and Pupil-Teacher Ratios, by Level, Fall 1955–Fall 1990 Microcomputers for Student Instruction in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 1981–1990 Private Elementary and Secondary Enrollment and Schools, by Amount of Tuition, Level, and Orientation of School, 1987–1988 Summary Statistics on Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Level, 1949–1950 to 1989–1990 Scholastic Aptitude Test Score Averages, by Race/Ethnicity, 1975–1976 to 1989–1990 Pupils per Teacher in Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools— Selected Countries, 1970–1989 Cold War America, 1946 to 1990

361

361

362

363

364

364 365

366

367

368

369

369

370 370

371

14.21 Elementary and Secondary Enrollment and Current Expenditures—Selected Countries, 1980 and 1989 371 14.22 Public Expenditures for Education as a Percentage of Government Expenditures for all Purposes—Selected Countries, 1960–1989 372 14.23 Public Expenditures for Education as a Percent of Gross National Product— Selected Countries, 1960–1989 372 14.24 Science Test Scores for 10- and 14-Year-Olds, Percentage of Age Groups in School, and Mean Ages of Students Tested in Selected Countries, 1983–1986 372 14.25 International Mathematics Test Scores and Percentage of Age Group Taking Tests in the 12th Grade—Selected Countries, 1981–1982 373 14.26 Mean Number of Areas Correctly Identified in a Test of Geography Knowledge, by Country and Age, 1988 373 14.27 Average Grade That the Public Would Give the Schools in Their Community and in the Nation at Large, 1974–1990 373 14.28 Items Most Frequently Cited by the General Public as a Major Problem Facing the Local Public Schools, 1970–1990 374 14.29 Gallup Poll on School Integration, September 19–24, 1957 375 14.30 Percentages of Black Elementary and Secondary Students Going to School with Any Whites, in 11 Southern States, 1954–1973 375 14.31 Years of School Completed, by Age, Race, and Ethnic Origin, 1940–1989 376 14.32 Public Opinion of Whites on School Integration, by Racial Composition of School, 1958–1990 376 14.33 Public Opinion of Whites on School and Neighborhood Integration, 1942–1990 376 14.34 School Desegregation, by Region, 1968–1988 377 14.35 Institutions of Higher Education, by Control and Type of Institution, 1949–1950 to 1989–1990 380 14.36 Enrollment in Institutions of Higher Education, by Sex, Attendance Status, and Type and Control of Institution, Fall 1946–Fall 1990 381 14.37 College Enrollment Rates of High School Graduates, by Race/Ethnicity, 1960–1990 382

14.38 College Freshmen—Summary Characteristics, 1970–1990 14.39 Higher Education Registrations in Foreign Languages, 1960–1990 14.40 Enrollment of the 120 Largest College and University Campuses, Fall 1990 14.41 Foreign Students’ Countries of Origin, 1989–1990 14.42 Institutions Enrolling the Most Foreign Students, 1989–1990 14.43 Average Undergraduate Tuition and Fees and Room and Board Rates Paid by Students in Institutions of Higher Education, by Type and Control of Institution, 1964–1990 14.44 Average Salary of Full-Time Instructional Faculty in Institutions of Higher Education, by Academic Rank and Sex, 1972–1973 to 1989–1990 14.45 Women as Percent of Full-Time Faculty— 1962–1963, 1972–1973, and 1979–1980 14.46 College Faculty by Sex, Academic Rank, and Institutional Type, 1984 14.47 Female College Faculty by Selected Field, 1990 14.48 Average Faculty Salaries, 1989–1990 14.49 Faculty Attitudes and Activities, 1988–1989 14.50 Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education, by Sex and Level, 1945–1946 to 1989–1990 14.51 Percentage Distribution of Bachelor and Higher Degrees, by Gender, 1948–1990 14.52 Persons 25 or Older Who Have Completed Four or More Years of College 1947–1990 14.53 Bachelor’s Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education, by Field of Study, 1959–1960 to 1989–1990 14.54 Master’s Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education, by Field of Study, 1959–1960 to 1989–1990 14.55 Doctor’s Degrees Conferred by Institutions of Higher Education, by Field of Study, 1959–1960 to 1989–1990 14.56 First-Professional Degrees in Dentistry, Medicine, and Law, by Sex, 1949–1950 to 1989–1990 14.57 Barron’s Top 50 American Colleges, 1990 15.1 Research and Development (R&D)— Expenditures, 1960–1990

15.2 382 383 385 387 387

15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

15.7 389

15.8

391 392 392 392 393 393

15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14

394 15.15 395 395

396

15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 15.20

397 15.21 398 15.22 399 399 15.23 400

Research and Development (R&D)— Source of Funds and Performance Sector, 1970–1990 Patents and Trademarks, 1946–1990 Foreign Recipients of United States Patents, 1990 Top 74 Corporations Receiving U.S. Patents in 1990 Nobel Prize Laureates in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology/Medicine— Selected Countries, 1901–1990 Federal Space Activities Budget Authority, by Fiscal Year, 1955–1990 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Budget Authority in Constant Dollars, by Fiscal Year, 1963–1990 U.S. Spacecraft Record Worldwide Space Launchings That Attained Earth Orbit or Beyond Notable U.S. Planetary Science Missions Manned Soviet and U.S. Spaceflights, 1961–1990 Domestic Shipments of Micro-, Mini-, and Mainframe Computers Nations with Most Computing Power, 1988 Nations with Most Computing Power per Capita, 1988 Major U.S. Missiles Major Indoor Pollutants Health Effects of the Regulated Air Pollutants National Air Pollutant Emissions, 1940–1990 Air Pollutant Emissions, by Pollutant and Source, 1970–1990 Pollution Abatement and Control Expenditures, in Current and Constant (1987) Dollars, 1972–1990, and by Media, 1990 Air and Water Pollution Abatement Expenditures in Constant (1987) Dollars, 1980–1990 Air Quality Trends in Selected U.S. Urban Areas, 1985–1990 Appendix: List of Tables

401 401 402 402

403 404

405 405 405 407 408 414 414 414 415 418 419 420 420

421

422 422 619

15.24 Metropolitan Areas Failing to Meet National Ambient Air-Quality Standards for Carbon Monoxide—Number of Days Exceeding Standards, 1989 and 1990 15.25 Acid-Rain Trouble Areas, 1990 15.26 Some Common Hazardous Chemicals 15.27 Major Toxic Chemical Laws Administered by EPA, 1988 15.28 U.S. Commercial Pesticide Use, by Sector and Type, 1979–1990 15.29 Pesticide Residues in Domestic Surveillance Food Samples, 1978–1990 15.30 Pesticides Taken Off the Market by 1988 15.31 Generation and Recovery of Selected Materials in Municipal Solid Waste, 1960–1990 15.32 Superfund Hazardous Sites, 1981–1990 15.33 Activity at Toxic-Waste Sites, 1990 15.34 The Worst Toxic-Waste Sites, 1990 15.35 Hazardous-Waste Sites on the National Priority List, by State, 1990 15.36 Major Sources of Groundwater Contamination Reported by States, 1986 15.37 Endangered and Threatened Species and Recovery Plans 15.38 Some Endangered Species in North America 15.39 Number and Percent of Wired Homes with Major Electrical Appliances, Selected Years, 1960–1979 15.40 Households with Selected Appliances, Selected Years, 1978–1990 15.41 Apparent Civilian per Capita Consumption of Meat, Fat, and Fruit, 1946–1990 15.42 Apparent Civilian per Capita Consumption of Vegetables, Dairy, Poultry, and Other, 1946–1990 15.43 Nutrition—Nutrients in Foods Available for Civilian Consumption per Capita per Day and Percent Change, 1955–1988 15.44 Eating Out, 1950–1990 15.45 Take-Out Food Business, by Specialty, 1987 and 1990 15.46 Top 25 Restaurant Companies, 1990 16.1 Giving to the Arts, 1965–1990 16.2 Total Corporate Contributions to the Arts, 1975–1985 620


16.3 423 423 423 424 424 425 425

16.4

16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9

427 427 427 428

16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13

429 429 430 430

432 433

16.14 16.15 16.16 16.17 16.18 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4

434

435

435 435 436 436 438 438

17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11 17.12

Percentage Dollar Allocation Among Beneficiaries of Corporate Support for the Arts, 1984 Financial Support of the Arts by Private Corporate Business—Summary, 1984–1988 Selected Major Private Gifts to the Arts Federal Aid—National Endowment for the Arts, 1970–1990 Budget—National Endowment for the Arts, 1983 and 1984 State Arts Agencies Legislative Appropriations, Fiscal Years 1983 and 1984 Major American Painters, Active During 1946–1990 Major Art Museums in the United States Top Works of Art at Auction, to 1990 Performing Arts—Selected Data, 1955–1969 Performing Arts—Selected Data, 1970–1990 Attendance at Arts Activities, 1987 Major American Architects, Active During 1946–1990 American Institute of Architects Gold Medalists, 1947–1990 Tallest Buildings in the United States, 1990 Longest American Bridges, 1969 Broadway over the Years, 1945–1991 Broadway Season Statistics, 1959–1990 Record Long-Run Broadway Plays, as of 1990 Tony Awards—Best Plays and Musicals, 1947–1990 Best Actress—Plays, 1947–1990 Best Actor—Plays, 1947–1990 Best Actress—Musicals, 1947–1990 Best Actor—Musicals, 1947–1990 Motion Picture Statistics—Admissions, 1946–1990 Number of Theaters and Average Admission Price, 1945–1990 Top Five Most Popular Motion Picture Stars, by Year and Rank, 1946–1990 Cowboy Stars—Ten Most Popular Performers in Grade B Western Movies, by Year and Rank, 1946–1954

439

439 439 439 440 440 443 443 444 444 445 446 448 448 449 449 453 453 453 454 454 454 455 455 456 456 457

459

17.13 Top Earning Films by Year, 1947–1990 17.14 Top Five Moneymaking Films by Decade, 1940s–1980s 17.15 Best-Selling Prerecorded Videos, 1989 17.16 Top-Renting Prerecorded Videos, 1989 17.17 Best-Selling Prerecorded Videos of All Time 17.18 The Academy Awards, 1946–1990 17.19 Films Nominated for the Most Oscars, to 1990 17.20 Films That Won the Most Oscars, to 1990 17.21 Most Popular Network Radio Programs, Season of 1946–1947 17.22 Most Popular Network Radio Programs, Season of 1955–1956 17.23 Record of Radio-Station Growth since Television Began, 1946–1990 17.24 Radio and Television Ownership—A Comparison, 1949–1990 17.25 Radio Facts, 1989 17.26 Radio Stations in the United States, by Format, 1990 17.27 Television Households in the United States, 1949–1990 17.28 TV Viewing per Household, 1949–1990 17.29 U.S. Cable Systems, by Subscriber Size, as of April 1, 1988 17.30 Top-Ranked Television Programs—Selected Seasons, 1950–1990 17.31 Highest Ranking Network Series, by Year, 1950–1990 17.32 Top 50 TV Series of All Time,Through the Season of 1987–1988 17.33 Top-Rated Individual Network Programs 17.34 Top-Rated Network Sports Events, Through the Year 1990 17.35 Super Bowl Rating History, 1967–1990 17.36 Longest-Running Television Game Shows, Through the Year 1990 17.37 The Emmy Awards, 1948–1990 17.38 Most Popular American Singers, 1950 17.39 Selected Popular Songs from the Postwar, Pre–Rock and Roll Era, 1946–1954 17.40 Top Five Single Records, by Year, 1955–1990 17.41 The Top 10 Artists by Decade 17.42 Top Artist Achievements—Single Records, 1955–1990

460 462 462 462 462 463 465 465 466 466 467 467 467 468 469 469 469 470 471 472 473 474 474 474 475 479 479 480 482 483

17.43 Top Artists of the Rock Era: Album Sales During the Years, 1955–1990 17.44 Top Artist Achievements—Albums, 1955–1990 17.45 Top 50 Albums of the Rock Era, 1955–1990 17.46 The Top 10 Artists by Decade 17.47 The Top 50 Songs of Elvis Presley 17.48 Some Casualties from the Age of Rock, in Order of Their Death 17.49 100 Greatest Rock ’n’ Roll Songs— An Opinion Poll 17.50 Grammy Awards, 1958–1990 17.51 Top 100 Country Singles, 1944–1990 17.52 Top Country Artists by Decade, 1940s–1980s 17.53 Country Music Association Awards, 1967–1990 17.54 Country Music’s Share of the Recorded Music Market, 1973–1990 17.55 Full-Time Country Radio Stations in the United States, 1961–1990 17.56 Best-Sellers in America, 1946–1990 17.57 The National Book Awards, 1950–1990 17.58 Pulitzer Prize for Meritorious Public Service, 1946–1990 17.59 Pulitzer Prize in Reporting, 1946–1990 17.60 Pulitzer Prize in National Reporting, 1946–1990 17.61 Pulitzer Prize in International Reporting, 1946–1990 17.62 Pulitzer Prize in Editorial Writing, 1946–1990 17.63 Pulitzer Prize for Criticism (1) or Commentary (2), 1970–1990 17.64 Pulitzer Prize in Editorial Cartooning, 1946–1990 17.65 Pulitzer Prize in Spot News Photography, 1947–1990 17.66 Pulitzer Prize Special Citation, 1947–1987 17.67 Pulitzer Prize in Feature Photography, 1968–1990 17.68 Pulitzer Prize in Feature Writing, 1979–1990 17.69 Pulitzer Prize in Explanatory Reporting, 1985–1990 Appendix: List of Tables

484 484 485 486 487 487 488 489 491 492 493 493 493 494 496 497 497 498 498 499 499 499 500 500 500 500 500 621

17.70 Pulitzer Prize in Specialized Reporting, 1985–1990 17.71 Pulitzer Prize in Fiction, 1947–1990 17.72 Pulitzer Prize in Drama, 1946–1990 17.73 Pulitzer Prize in General Nonfiction, 1962–1990 17.74 Pulitzer Prize in (U.S.) History, 1946–1990 17.75 Pulitzer Prize in Biography or Autobiography, 1946–1990 17.76 Pulitzer Prize in American Poetry, 1947–1990 17.77 Pulitzer Prize Special Citations, 1957–1984 17.78 American Winners of the Nobel Prize in Literature, 1949–1990 17.79 The Oldest Authors to Reach No. 1 on the NewYork Times Best-Sellers List, to 1990 17.80 Authors Who Reached No. 1 on the New York Times Best-Sellers List Before They Were 35, to 1990 18.1 Most Popular Sports—A Gallup Poll, 1948 18.2 Most Popular Sports, 1986 18.3 Racial Composition of Major Professional Sports Teams, 1989 and 1990 18.4 Most Popular Sports on Television, 1985 18.5 Racial Composition of Major Professional Coaches and Managers, 1989 and 1990 18.6 Major League Teams—1946, 1965, and 1990 18.7 Major League Attendance, 1950–1990 18.8 Average Baseball Ticket Prices, 1950–1990 18.9 American League Pennant Winners, 1946–1990 18.10 National League Pennant Winners, 1946–1990 18.11 League Championship Series, 1969–1990 18.12 The World Series, 1946–1990 18.13 Batting Champions, 1946–1990 18.14 Home-Run Leaders, 1946–1990 18.15 Runs-Batted-In Leaders, 1946–1990 18.16 Cy Young Award, 1956–1990 18.17 Most Valuable Player, 1946–1990 18.18 Major League Players’ Salaries—Minimum and Mean, 1950–1990 18.19 Highest-Salary Milestones: 1947–1990 18.20 Salary Share in Team Revenues, 1946–1989 622


500 501 501 501 502 502 503 503 503 503

504 506 506 506 506 507 508 509 509 510 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 516 517 518 518

18.21 First Dates on Which a Black Player Played for Each Major League Baseball Team 18.22 Percentage of Black Players on Major League Teams, 1960–1971 18.23 Little League World Series Champions, 1947–1990 18.24 National Collegiate Men’s Basketball Championship—NCAA Division I Men’s Basketball Final-Four Results, 1946–1990 18.25 NCAA Men’s Division I Season Leaders, 1948–1990 18.26 Career Records 18.27 NCAA Women’s Final Four, 1982–1990 18.28 Annual Individual Awards, 1977–1990 18.29 Coach of the Year Award, 1983–1990 18.30 Other Women’s Champions, 1972–1990 18.31 Evolution of the National Basketball Association, 1951–1990 18.32 National Basketball Association Champions, 1946–1990 18.33 NBA Scoring Leaders, 1947–1990 18.34 Selected Individual NBA Leaders, 1946–1990 18.35 NBA Career Leaders 18.36 NBA Most Valuable Players, 1955–1990 18.37 Professional Basketball Draft, Rosters, and Coaches—Number of Black Americans, 1989–1990 18.38 American Basketball Association, 1968–1976 18.39 American Basketball Association Leaders, 1968–1976 18.40 National Football League Champions, 1946–1966 18.41 Evolution of the National Football League, 1946–1990 18.42 The Super Bowl, 1967–1990 18.43 No. 1 Draft Choices, 1946–1990 18.44 American Football Conference Leaders 18.45 National Football Conference Leaders 18.46 National Football Conference Leaders, 1946–1990 18.47 NFL Most Valuable Player, Defensive Player of the Year, and Rookie of the Year 18.48 Jim Thorpe Trophy: Most Valuable Player Chosen by NFL Players Association, 1955–1992

518 518 520

522 523 524 526 526 526 527 528 529 530 530 531 532

532 533 533 534 534 535 536 536 537 538 539

539

18.49 First African Americans on National Football League Teams, 1945–1962 18.50 NFL Leaders in Selected Offensive Categories, by Race, 1940–1989 18.51 National Division I College Football Champions 18.52 All-Time Division I-A Percentage Leaders 18.53 NCAA Football—Major Bowl Games, 1946–1990 18.54 Individual Achievements, 1946–1990 18.55 Vince Lombardi Award, 1970–1990 18.56 College Football Award Winners, by Race, 1935–1990 18.57 Rushing, 1946–1990 18.58 Receiving, 1946–1990 18.59 Passing, 1946–1990 18.60 Other Men’s NCAA Champions, 1947–1990 18.61 NCAA Women’s Major Sports, 1981–1990 18.62 Men’s U.S. Open Winners and Losers, by Nationality, 1946–1990 18.63 Men’s Grand Slam Champions, 1946–1990 18.64 U.S. Open Winners’ Prize Money, 1968–1990 18.65 Women’s Grand Slam Champions, 1946–1990 18.66 Women’s U.S. Open Winners and Losers, by Nationality, 1946–1990 18.67 Men’s Tour Prize Money Leaders, 1968–1990 18.68 Women’s Tour Prize Money Leaders, 1974–1990 18.69 Annual Number-One Ranked Tennis Players, 1946–1990 18.70 Golf Tournament Winners, 1946–1990 18.71 PGA Leading Money Winners, 1946–1990 18.72 Major Championship Leaders 18.73 PGA Leading Career-Money Winners 18.74 Women’s Professional Golf—Major Championships, 1946–1990 18.75 Major Championship Leaders 18.76 LPGA Leading Money Winners, 1954–1990 18.77 LPGA Leading Career-Money Winners 18.78 Teams in the National Hockey League, 1946–1990

540 540 541 542 542 544 544 545 545 545 545 546 551 553 554 554 555 556 557 557 557 558 560 560 560 560 561 562 562 562

18.79 Hockey Stanley Cup Champions, 1946–1990 18.80 Art Ross Trophy, 1945–1990 18.81 Hart Memorial Trophy, 1945–1990 18.82 James Norris Memorial Trophy, 1954–1990 18.83 Vezina Trophy, 1945–1990 18.84 Boxing Champions in Major Classes, 1946–1990 18.85 History of World Heavyweight Championship Fights, 1937–1990 18.86 Muhammad Ali’s Professional Record 18.87 Indianapolis 500, 1946–1990 18.88 Speedway Money—The Payout at Indy, 1946–1990 18.89 Racing at Daytona—The Early Years, 1949–1958 18.90 Daytona 500 Winners, 1959–1990 18.91 Winston Cup NASCAR Champions, 1949–1990 18.92 Triple Crown of Horse Racing, 1946–1990 18.93 Horse of the Year, 1946–1990 18.94 Triple Crown Winners 18.95 Top Money-Winning Jockeys, 1946–1990 19.1 Estimated Number and Rate of Offenses Known to Police, by Offense, 1960–1990 19.2 Total Arrests by Race, 1970 19.3 Total Arrests, Distribution by Race, 1990 19.4 Number and Rate of Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions on December 31, by Sex, 1946–1990 19.5 Persons Admitted to State and Federal Prisons, by Race and Selected Years, 1946–1986 19.6 Inmates in State and Federal Prisons, by State and Race/Ethnicity, 1990 19.7 Number and Percent of Households Experiencing Crime in Previous 12 Months, 1975–1990 19.8 Number and Rate of Assault Victims, by Sex and Race, 1973–1990 19.9 Age-Adjusted Homicide Rates, by Race and Gender, 1946–1990 19.10 Murder Rate, Selected Countries, Mid-1970s 19.11 Murder Rate, Selected Countries, 1988 Appendix: List of Tables

563 564 564 564 565 565 567 568 569 570 570 570 571 572 573 574 574 575 576 577

578

578 579

580 580 581 581 581 623

19.12 Prominent Serial Killers, 1942–1990 19.13 Victims of Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter, Percent Distribution by Sex and Race, 1964–1990 19.14 Percent Distribution of Murders and Nonnegligent Manslaughters, by Weapon Used, 1964–1990 19.15 Risk of Being Murdered, 1985 19.16 Persons Executed, by Race and Offense, 1946–1990 19.17 Prisoners Executed, by State— 1930–1988, 1977–1988, and 1988 19.18 Number of People Sentenced to Death Compared with Number Executed, 1953–1990 19.19 Death Sentences Pronounced upon Females, 1976–1990 19.20 Females Executed under Civil Authority, 1946–1990

624


582

582

583 583 584 585

586 586 586

19.21 Public Opinion on the Death Penalty, 1953–1990 19.22 Disposition of Defendants Charged with Violation of Drug Laws, U.S. District Courts, 1945–1990 19.23 Juvenile Drug Arrest Rates, by Race, 1965–1990 19.24 Estimated Number of Adult Arrests for Drug Violations Reported by State and Local Police, 1981–1990 19.25 Prior Drug Use by Jail Inmates, 1983 and 1989 19.26 Cocaine Use Among High School Seniors, 1975–1990 19.27 Percent of High School Seniors Reporting That They Could Obtain Drugs Fairly Easily or Very Easily, 1990 19.28 Agreement with Statements about Marijuana, by Age, 1971

586

587 588

588 588 588

589 589

Index

This index is arranged alphabetically letter by letter. Page numbers in italic indicate illustrations or captions. Page numbers followed by t indicate tables, by m indicate maps, by n indicate notes, and by b indicate biographical profiles.

A AAFC. See All American Football Conference Aalto, Alvar 448t Aaron, Henry (“Hank”) 61, 304, 506 ABA. See American Basketball Association Abbott Laboratories 79t ABC television network 65, 74t, 230, 468 Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem 520, 522 Abel, Hazel H. 242t Abenaki Indians 312 Abercrombie, Sir Patrick 448t ABM (antiballistic missile) 281 ABM (Antiballistic Missile Systems) Treaty 301 abortion 178, 184, 184t–186t chronology 59, 60, 64 politics and government 232 religion 227 Roe v.Wade 251 Abraham Lincoln (aircraft carrier) 284t Abramovitz, Max 448t abstract expressionism 441 Abzug, Bella S. 243t Academy Awards 462–465 Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 462 Acadians 311 acetaminophen 218t acetic acid 423t acetone 423t Acheson, Dean G. 49, 234t, 266t, 268, 354 acid rain 29, 418, 423t acquired immune deficiency syndrome. See AIDS “Acres of Diamonds” (Russell Conwell) 177 acrilan 431 Acrobate et Jeune Arlequin (Pablo Picasso) 444t action painting 351, 441 actors and actresses. See entertainment; theater acts, federal 247t Acuff, Roy 321 Adams, Brock 235t Adams, Maude 322 Adams, Sherman 54 administration, government expenditures for 254t, 258t Adventist Churches 226t

advertising 60, 468, 478, 495 Advice to the Working Girl, 1951 592 Aegean Captain oil spill 87t aerosol spray cans 431 affirmative action 98, 248 Afghanistan 24t, 27t, 290, 303 AFL 104. See also AFL-CIO AFL-AFC. See American Football League/Conference AFL-CIO 105t–106t Africa 21t–23t, 27t, 86t, 97t, 297t–298t. See also specific countries African Americans. See also Civil Rights movement in armed forces 278t chronology 58, 67, 68 crime assault victims 580t; drug arrests 588t; executions 584, 584t; murder/ manslaughter victims 582t; prisoners 578t; prison inmates 579t; risk of murder 583t; total arrests 576t–577t economy below poverty level 114t; earnings and income 107; median earnings of 109t; median household income of 110t; per capita income of 110t; poverty 113; unemployment rate 98, 103t–104t; women employed 102t education 356 college completion 395t; college enrollment 382t; desegregation 374–377; level of 359t–361t, 376t; SAT scores 370t literature by 495 in metropolitan populations 330t–331t in movies 456 politics and government 231 in Congress 244t; southern states voter registration 245t–246t; voting by 246t population 1t–2t, 3, 6t–13t, 9, 10t religion 223t, 229t as sharecroppers 10

in sports 505–507 baseball 518t–519t; basketball 521, 522, 532t; football 534, 540, 545t; as professional managers/coaches 507t; on professional teams 506t urban enclaves 12 vital statistics and health care abortions 184t–185t; AIDS cases 200t; alcohol-related deaths 219t; birth rates 178, 179t; cancer survival trends 200t; children’s living arrangements 194t; cigarette/drug use by 221t; death rates 197t, 198t; divorce 191, 192t; family and nonfamily households 194t; female householders with families 193t; fertility rates 179t, 180t; illegitimate births 179, 180t, 181t; infant mortality rate 181, 182t; interracial marriage 190, 191t; life expectancy 196t; live births 178t; marital status 192t; medical device implants 207t; persons without health insurance 213t; sexual behavior and attitudes 188t–189t; singlefamily households 193; tobacco smoking 215t, 216t African Methodist Episcopal Church 225t African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church 225t Agassi, Andre 315 age arts attendance 446t crime 578 education 356 college completion 395t; college students’ ages 378; compulsory school ages 360t; level of 376t and marijuana opinions 589t of NewYork Times best-selling authors 503t–504t politics and government 245t–246t

religion 229t religious beliefs 223t Vietnam War casualties 294t vital statistics and health care abortions 186t; AIDS cases reported 200t; alcoholrelated deaths 220t; births by cesarean section 181t; births to unmarried mothers 181t; cigarette/ drug use 221t; divorce rates 191; female householders with families 193t; first marriage 190, 191t; illegal use of drugs 217t; legal alcohol use 218; medical device implants 207t; pregnancy outcomes 186t; sexual behavior/attitudes 189t; tobacco smoking 215t–216t Agee, James 321 Agnew, Spiro T. 312 chronology 58, 60, 61 politics and government 231, 234t, 236, 237 agricultural chemicals 118t agricultural products 95t. See also specific states agriculture Cesar Chavez 340 college degrees awarded in 396t–398t economy 115–126 employment in 98t; minimum hourly wage rates 109t; workers killed/injured on job 106t in Iowa 310 in Kansas 311 in Montana 315 in Nebraska 315 in North Dakota 318 in Pennsylvania 319 pesticide use 424t AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) 182, 200t–202t, 204 chronology 64, 66, 67 and sexual behavior/attitudes 187 Ryan White 355b Aid to Families with Dependent Children 115t

625

AIM. See American Indian Movement Ainge, Danny 521 Airbus Industries 150t air conditioners and air conditioning 431, 432t, 433t aircraft. See also air transportation chronology 49, 54 engines and engine parts 76t as a fastest-growing industry 76t lost in Vietnam War 294t–295t military 280, 281 aircraft carriers 280, 283t–284t Air Force Academy 51, 307 airmail rates 165t air pollution 416–423 air transportation 136, 148–153 accidents 151t airports, aircraft, pilots 149t busiest U.S. airports 152t chronology 49, 53, 54, 60, 62, 64, 65, 67, 68 deregulation of industry 148–149 domestic freight traffic 156t of exports and imports 158t intercity passenger miles 156t major aircraft models 150t passenger deaths 156t and professional sports 505 scheduled domestic/international 149t top U.S. airlines 153t top U.S. cargo airlines 153t transatlantic liners vs. 160 between United States and Europe 161t Air Wisconsin 153t Aisin Seiki K.K. 402t Akers,Thomas D. 411t Akron, Ohio 328t, 330t Akron Beacon Journal 173t Akron-Canton, Ohio 46t Alabama 55, 57, 304 African-American population 12t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t

626

prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 374, 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t Alabama (submarine) 286t Alamosa, Colo. 44t Alaska 54, 304 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t Asian-American population 16m economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t ExxonValdez spill 87 hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t U.S. armed forces in 278t voter registration 245t–246t Alaska (submarine) 286t Alaska Airline 153t Alaska Natives alcohol-related deaths 220t illegitimate births 181t prison inmates 579t total arrests 577t Alaskan pipeline 87 Albania 24t Albany, Ga. 11t Albany, N.Y. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Albany-Schenectady-Troy metropolitan area 9t, 331t Albers, Josef 443t Albert, Carl 239t, 240t Albertson’s 74t Albuquerque, N.Mex. population 327t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Albuquerque metropolitan area 19t, 423t Alcatraz Island 59 alcohol 217t–221t, 218–221, 587 Alda, Alan 452 Aldrin, Edwin (“Buzz”) 58, 403, 411


Aldrin, Edwin W. (“Buzz”), Jr. 408t Aldrin (pesticide) 425t Aldus Corporation 414 Aleksandrov, Aleksandr Pavlovich 409t, 411t Aleut 7t–8t, 304, 330t–331t Alexander Hamilton (submarine) 285t Alexandr Pushkin (transatlantic liner) 162 Algeria 85t aliens. See illegal immigration Ali, Muhammad 60, 61, 62, 311, 565, 568t–569t Alka Seltzer 478 All American Football Conference (AAFC) 533, 534t Allegheny County, Pa. 333t Allen, Fred 53 Allen, Joseph 409t Allen, Maryon Pittman 242t Allen, Paul 414 Allen, Richard 266t Allen,Woody 452 Allende, Salvador 290 Allentown, Pa. 46t Allentown-Bethlehem metropolitan area 331t Allentown Morning Call 174t Alliance for Progress 55 alliances 288–289 Allied Bank Plaza (Houston) 449t Allied Corp. 73t Allied-Lyons, PLC 436t Allied Signal Inc. 74t, 402t Allied Stores 73t Alliluyeva, Svetlana 57 All-Volunteer Force (AVF) 275, 277 Almond Joy candy bars 48 Aloha Airline 153t Alpena, Mich. 45t alpha interferon 204 alprazolam 218t al-Saud, Prince Sultan Salman 409t alternative schools 357 alumina 95t Aluminum Co. of America 74t aluminum foil 431 aluminum sulfate 423t Ambassador Bridge 449t amendments to the Constitution of the United States 590–591. See also specific amendments America (aircraft carrier) 161, 284t America (transatlantic liner) 162 American Airlines 153t American Apostolic Church of America 225t American Bandstand 50 American Baptist Association 225t American Baptist Churches 226t

American Baptist Churches in the USA 225t American Basketball Association (ABA) 522, 533 American Cyanamid Co. 402t American Export Lines 160t, 162 American Football League/ Conference (AFL-AFC) 533, 535t–537t American Health 174t American Hoechst 74t American Home Products 79t American Hospital 73t American Hunter,The 174t American Independent Party 233t American Indian Movement (AIM) 61, 321 American Indians. See Native Americans; specific tribes American Information Technologies (Ameritech) 79t, 166t American Institute of Architects gold medalists 448t American International Building (New York) 449t American International Group 79t American International Rent-aCar 75t American League (baseball) 61, 507, 509 African-American players in 519t batting champions 513t championship series 511t home-run leaders 514t most valuable player 517t pennant winners 510t runs-batted-in leaders 515t team standings 508t American Legion Auxiliary National News 174t American Legion Magazine,The 174t American Medical Association (AMA) 202, 216 American Medical International 74t American Motors 136 American Rifleman,The 174t American Samoa 363t, 440t American stores 74t Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) 68 American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T) 79t, 166 Corporate Center (Chicago) 449t market share 167t patents received by 402t reorganization of 166t television commercial 478

Americas. See also Central America; North America; South America export/import values 93t immigration from 21t–23t America’s Cup 65 America West Airline 153t Ameritech. See American Information Technologies Amherst College 399t amitriptyline 218t ammonia 423t Amoco Cadiz oil spill 62, 87t Amoco Corp. 73t, 74t, 79t, 402t, 449t amphetamines 218t amphibious ships 283t AMP Inc. 402t Amtrak (National Railroad Passenger Corporation) 60, 155t Anaconda Copper 315 Anacortes,Wash. 159t Anaheim, Calif. 327t Anaheim Angels 509 analgesics 217t Anchorage, Alaska 44t, 328t Anchorage metropolitan area 423t Anders,William A. 58, 408t Anderson, Clinton P. 234t Anderson, Dillon 266t Anderson, John 64 Anderson, Marian 319 Anderson, Robert B. 234t Anderson, Sparky 321 Andrea Doria (transatlantic liner) 53, 161 Andretti family 570 Andrew Jackson (submarine) 285t Andrews, Elizabeth B. 243t Andropov,Yuri 64, 65 Andrus, Cecil D. 235t Angelo, Richard 582t angioplasty 204 Angola 24t, 296 Anheuser-Busch 74t, 79t Annenberg,Walter 439t answering machines 167t Antabuse 203 antiballistic missile (ABM) 281 Antiballistic Missile Systems (ABM) Treaty 301 anticommunism 348 Antietam (aircraft carrier) 283t Antigua-Barbuda 27t Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America 225t antitrust suits 166 antiwar movement 57, 59, 291 ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, U.S. pact) (1951) 289m Apache Indians 304, 310, 316, 318 Apalachee Indians 307 Apollo-Saturn space missions 408t, 409t

Apollo space missions 57, 60, 409t, 411 Apollo space program 403 Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East 225t apparel and upkeep, prices of 127t, 128t Apple Computer 163, 412, 414 apples 122t Aquitania (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 Arab-Israeli wars 61 Arab oil embargo 80 Arapaho Indians 306, 325 Arbenz Guzmán, Jacobo 52, 289 Arby’s restaurants 75t, 437t Arcadia (transatlantic liner) 160t Architectural Digest 175t architecture 396t–398t, 446–450 Arends, Leslie C. 240t Argentina 22t, 23t, 27t, 97t, 289m, 387t Argo Merchant oil spill 87t Arizona 304–305 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education expenditures per pupil 363t; public school instructional staff income 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t American Indian 13, 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t Arizona State University 385t, 387t Arkansas 305 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education expenditures per pupil 363t; public school instructional staff income 367t floods 47t

hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t Arlington,Tex. 327t, 329t Arlington Rangers 509 Armas,Tony 507 armed forces 272–288. See also veterans programs; specific branches, e.g.: U.S. Army economy 91t in Hawaii 308 inductions to 275 NATO 265t Colin Powell 351b in Vietnam 292t, 293t weapons/equipment of 279–288 women in 277 armed interventions 290 Armenian churches 223t Armenian Church of America, Diocese of the 225t arms race 281–282. See also weapons Armstrong, Louis 311, 478 Armstrong, Neil 58, 318, 403, 408t, 411 Arnaz, Desi 214 Arnold, Eddie 478 ARPAnet 171 arsenic 419t artificial hearts 57, 64, 204 artificial joints 207t artificial sweeteners 433 Art Institute of Chicago 443t Art Ross Trophy 564t arts 48, 438–446 funding for 438–441 Jackson Pollock 351b trends in 441–445 asbestos 418t, 419t Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act 424t Asbestos School Hazard Act 424t Asbury Park Press 173t aseptic meningitis, reported cases of 200t Ashbrook, Jean 243t Ashe, Arthur 58 Asheville, N.C. 45t Ashtabula, Ohio 159t Asia. See also specific countries export/import values 93t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t

foreign policy in 271. See also specific wars immigration from 21t–23t U.S. investments in 97t Asian Americans immigration of 21 in metropolitan populations 330t–331t population 6, 7t–8t, 9t, 15, 15t–17t prison inmates 579t SAT scores 370t total arrests 577t vital statistics and health care death rates 197t; family and nonfamily households 194t; fertility rates 180t; illegitimate births 181t Asian Indian Americans 15t, 16t aspartame 64 Aspen Airline 153t aspirin 218t Asroc missiles 415t assassinations/attempted assassinations by CIA 61 Gerald Ford 61 John F. Kennedy 34, 231 Martin Luther King, Jr. 249, 321, 346 Malcolm X 249, 347 politics and government 231 Ronald Reagan 64 Anwar Sadat 64 Assemblies of God churches 222, 224t, 225t, 226t, 230 Associated-Dry Goods 74t Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women 527t Astaire, Fred 315, 452 As theWorld Turns 53 Astoria, Oreg. 46t Astrodome 57 asylum 24, 25t–26t Atchison,Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Co. 155t Atkov, Oleg 409t Atlanta, Ga. 308 politics and government 231 population 11t, 327t, 330t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t Atlanta Braves 509 Atlanta Constitution 173t Atlanta International airport 152t Atlanta Journal 173t Atlanta metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 330t, 422t Atlantic Center (IBM) (Atlanta) 449t Atlantic City, N.J. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Atlantic Coast hurricanes 36t Atlantic Empress oil spill 87t Atlantic Richfield 74t, 79t, 315 Index

627

Atlantis space mission 409t, 410t Atlas Shrugged (Ayn Rand) 504 atomic bomb 49, 264 AT&T. See American Telephone & Telegraph attorney, right to 252 attorney general office holders 234t–235t Auburn University 386t Augusta metropolitan area 13t Au Lapin Agile (Pablo Picasso) 444t Aurora, Colo. 328t, 329t Austin,Tex. 327t, 329t Austin,Warren R. 266t Austin American-Statesman 173t Austin Community College 386t Austin metropolitan area 331t Austin–San Marcos metropolitan area 19t Australasia 86t Australia alcohol use 219t ANZUS 289m computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; coal reserves 84t; as trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t–372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t in Korean War 269t, 270t life expectancy 196t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t population 6t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t Australia, New Zealand, U.S. pact (ANZUS) (1951) 289m Australian Open 553, 554t, 555t Australis ex-America (transatlantic liner) 160t Austria alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t educational comparisons 371t and end of cold war 303 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t life expectancy 196t

628

Marshall Plan aid 265t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. patents granted to 402t autobiography, Pulitzer Prize in 502t automobile industry chronology 53, 64 in Detroit, Mich. 337 in Indiana 310 in Michigan 313 in Ohio 318 in Tennessee 321 automobile racing 505, 569–571 automobiles 49, 61, 68 air pollution 418 economy 69, 70, 75, 130t radios in 167, 169t, 466 transportation 136, 138, 141–142 domestic engine production 142t; factory-installed equipment 140t; foreign car registrations 143t; gas prices/miles per gallon 143t; import market penetration 144t; intercity passenger miles 156t; Japanese transplant production in United States 143t; new car prices/ expenditures 130t, 139t; new-car registrations 142t; optional equipment 140t; passenger deaths 156t; registrations 139t; retail sales 138t; scrappage 139t; top-selling 141t automotive products, import/export of 95t Autoportrait (Vincent van Gogh) 444t Autry, Gene 319, 459 AVF. See All-Volunteer Force AV Holdings 73t AZT 204

B Babbitt, Bruce 305 Baby Bells 166t baby boom 178 baby boom generation divorce 191 education 356 illegal drugs 216 sexual behavior and attitudes 187 vital statistics and health care 180g Bacall, Lauren 451, 452 bachelor’s degrees 394t–396t Badillo, Herman 244t Bahamas foreign-born U.S. population from 27t murder rate 581t


Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Bahrain 97t, 279t Baker, Ellen S. 411t Baker, Howard H., Jr. 240t Baker, Irene B. 243t Baker, James A., III 235t Baker, Russell 312 Bakersfield, Calif. 44t, 328t, 329t Bakersfield metropolitan area 19t, 331t Baker v. Carr (1962) 252 Bakker, Jim 67, 229, 230 Bakker,Tammy-Faye 229, 230 Baldridge, Malcolm 235t Ball, George W. 266t Ball, Lucille 214 Ballesteros, Seve 558 ballistic missiles 281 balloon angioplasty 204 “Ballot or the Bullet,The” (Malcolm X) 176 ballpoint pens 431 Ball State University 386t Baltimore, Md. 312 population 11t, 327t, 328t, 330t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Baltimore Colts 533 Baltimore County, Md. 333t Baltimore Evening Sun 173t Baltimore metropolitan area 13t, 330t, 422t, 423t Baltimore Orioles 509 Baltimore Sun 173t Bancroft, Anne 452 Bandstand 50 Bangladesh 387t Bankhead,Tallulah 214, 304 banking 88–90. See also finance(s) Bannock Indians 309 Baptist Bible Fellowship International 225t Baptist Churches 222, 225t Baptist General Conference 224t, 225t Baptist Missionary Association of America 225t Barbados 27t Barbie doll 54 barbiturates 218t Bareen, John 413 barite 95t Barkley, Alben W. 48, 234t, 240t barley 122t Barnaard, Christian 204 Barnes and Noble 495 Barnet, J. Ross 248 Barron’s top 50 American colleges 399t Barrow, Alaska 44t Barry, Marion 68

Barry, Rick 533 Barrymore, Ethel 54 Bartles & Jaymes 478 Baruch, Bernard 48, 263 Baryshnikov, Mikhail 61 baseball 507–520 chronology 48, 49, 53, 54, 55, 61, 64, 67, 68 Cy Young Award 516t integration of 48, 507 Little League 520 men’s college 546t night games 432 professional 505, 507–519 World Series 512t baseballs, cost of 131t BASF A.G. 402t Basie, Count 316, 478 basketball 520–533 chronology 61, 63, 68 college 521–522 in Indiana 310 major NCAA rules changes 527–528 professional 505, 520–522, 528t–533t women’s 525–527 Baskin-Robbins Ice Cream 75t, 431, 436t B.A.T. Industries 73t Baton Rouge, La. 159t, 328t Baton Rouge metropolitan area 13t, 331t Batory (transatlantic liner) 161 batteries, flashlight 131t battery (baseball term) 519 battleships 280, 283t Baudry, Patrick 409t bauxite 95t Baxter Travenol 73t Bayer A.G. 402t Bayh, Evan 355 Bay of Pigs 55, 289 Bayonne Bridge 449t BCE Inc. 79t B. Dalton 495 Beame, Abe 333 Bean, Alan L. 408t, 409t Bear markets 80t Bear Mountain Bridge 449t Beatles 58, 59, 478, 488 Beatrice Foods 73t, 74t Beaufort Scale 42t Beaulieu, Priscilla 57 Beaumont,Tex. 159t Begin, Menachem 62, 63 Belgium alcohol use 219t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t exchange rates 92t, 93t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors in 84t;

as trade partner 94t; U.S. investments in 96t; educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. patents granted to 402t Belize, foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Bell, Griffin 235t Bell,Terrel H. 235t Bell Atlantic 79t, 166t Bell Laboratories 49, 166, 353 Bellow, Saul 309 BellSouth Corporation 79t, 166t Bell Telephone. See American Telephone & Telegraph Belluschi, Pietro 448t Belmont Stakes 572t Belridge Oil 73t Belushi, John 65 Belyayev, Pavel I. 408t Benale Holding Corp. 437t Bench, Johnny 319, 517 Ben Franklin Stores, Inc. 76t Ben-Hur (film) 54 Benin 24t Benjamin Franklin (submarine) 285t Benjamin Franklin Bridge 449t Bennett,Tony 452, 478 Bennett,William J. 235t Bennigan’s 437t Bennington (aircraft carrier) 283t Benny, Jack 214, 452, 466 Benson, Ezra T. 234t Bentley, Helen Delich 243t Bentsen, Lloyd 67 benzene 419t, 423t Bergland, Robert 235t Bergman, Ingrid 49, 465 Berkowitz, David 582t Berlin (transatlantic liner) 161 Berlin, Irving 67, 452 Berlin airlift 48, 265 Berlin Wall 55, 68, 303, 344 Bermuda 71t, 97t, 279t Bernardin, Joseph L. 227 Bernstein, Carl 236 Bernstein, Leonard 68, 313, 452 Berra,Yogi 314 beryllium 419t

Best and the Brightest,The (David Halberstam) 60 Bethel, Alaska 44t Better Homes & Gardens 172, 174t, 175t B-58 “Hustler” supersonic bomber 281 B-47 bomber 51 B-grade westerns 459 Bias, Len 66 Bible 55, 65, 504 bicycles, cost of 131t Big Boy (restaurants) 437t Big Three auto makers 136 Bikini Atoll 48 bikinis 431 Bilandic, Michael 335 bilateral defense treaties 289m bilingual education 377 Billboard magazine 478 Bill Haley and His Comets 53 Billings, Mont. 45t billionaires, numbers of 112t bills, federal 247t Binghamton, N.Y. 45t Binh Thai, South Vietnam 151 biography, Pulitzer Prize in 502t biological pollutants 418t Bird, Jake 582t Bird, Larry 63, 310, 521, 522 birds, state. See specific state Birmingham, Ala. 11t, 44t, 327t, 330t Birmingham metropolitan area 13t, 331t Birmingham News 173t birth control 182–183, 183t contraceptive pills 54, 432, 433 Norplant approval 204 births and birth rates 1, 66, 178–182, 179t–182t, 180g Bishop, Bernice 308 Bishop, Calif. 44t Bismarck, N.Dak. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 46t bit (computers) 413 Black, Hugo L. 250 Black Americans. See African Americans Black & Decker 74t Blackboard Jungle,The (film) 53 Black Hills, S.Dak. 47t black-lung program 258 Black Monday 67 Blackmun, Harry A. 59, 250 Black Panthers 249 Black Power movement 248 bladder cancer 200t Blake, Eubie 312 Blitch, Iris F. 243t blizzards 42, 42t, 62 Block, John 235t Block Island, R.I. 37t, 38t, 46t Blount,Winton M. 234t

Blue Poles (Jackson Pollock) 351 Bluford, Guion 65, 409t, 411t Blumenthal,W. Michael 235t Bobko, Karol J. 409t Boeing Aircraft Co. 136, 148, 150t, 324 largest American businesses 74t as leading market value stock 79t patents received by 402t Boeing 707 150 Boesky, Ivan 66 Bogart, Humphrey 53, 214, 317 Boggs, Corinne C. 243t Boggs, Hale 240t Boise, Idaho 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Boland II amendment 65 Bolden, Charles F., Jr. 411t Bolivia 27t, 289m, 387t Bolton, Frances P. 242t Bonanza (restaurants) 437t Bon Appetit 174t Bon Homme Richard (aircraft carrier) 283t Book of Mormon,The 504 books 175t, 494–504 best-selling 494t most influential 504 National Book Awards 496 bookstore chains 495 boom boxes 466 boot (baseball term) 519 Boothville, La. 387t Bophal, India 65 border patrol 21, 24, 26t Borders (bookstores) 495 border states of United States, school desegregation in 377t. See also specific states Borg-Warner 73t Bork, Robert 67, 237 Borman, Frank 58, 408t, 411 born-again Christians 228, 229, 229t Bosone, Reva Z. B. 243t Boston, Mass. population 327t, 328t school desegregation 374 water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Boston Braves 509 Boston-Brockton-Nashua metropolitan area 8t, 19t Boston Celtics 521, 522 Boston College 399t Boston Globe 173t Boston Herald 173t Boston Herald-American 173t Boston-Lawrence-Salem metropolitan area 13t, 330t Boston Logan airport 152t Boston Marathon 62

Boston metropolitan area 422t, 423t Boston University 385t, 387t Bowdoin College 399t Bowen, Otis R. 235t Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) 252 Bowring, Eva K. 242t Boxer (aircraft carrier) 283t Boxer, Barbara 243t boxing 56, 61, 62, 505–506, 565–569 Boyd, Alan S. 234t Boyd,William 459 Boy George 452 Boys’ Life 174t Bradbury, Ray 309 Brademas, John 240t Bradley, Bill 316 Bradley, Omar 267t, 314, 354 Bradley,Tom 334, 335 Brady, James 64 Brady, Nicholas F. 235t brain and nervous system cancers 200t Brand,Vance 409t Brandeis, Louis D. 311 Brandenstein, Daniel 409t brand-name drugs, cost of generic vs. 208t Brando, Marlon 315, 452, 462 Braniff International Airlines 64, 153t Brannan, Charles F. 234t Brattain,Watler 413 Brawley,Twana 67 Brazil armed forces in 279t computing power 414t educational comparisons 371t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t gross national product 71t merchant fleets 160t motor vehicle production wages 145t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t breast cancer 197t–198t, 200t, 204 breast implants 207t, 432 Bremen (transatlantic liner) 160t Bremer, Arthur 60 Brennan, Peter J. 234t, 235t Brennan,William J. 68, 250 Brethren Churches 226t Breuer, Marcel 448t Brezhnev, Leonid 63, 64, 299 Brezhnev Doctrine (1968) 303 Bride’s magazine 175t Bridgeport, Conn. 38t, 45t bridges 449, 450 Index

629

Bridges, Styles 240t Bridgestone 74t Brigham Young University 385t Brinegar, Claude 235t Brink’s robbery 49 Bristol,Tenn. 46t Bristol-Myers 68, 73t Bristol-Myers Squibb 74t, 79t Britannic (transatlantic liner) 161 British Airways/Aerospatiale 150t British Amateur (golf) 560t British colonies merchant fleet 160t British Indian Ocean, U.S. armed forces in 279t British Open (golf) 559t, 560t British Open (Wimbledon) 552, 553, 554t, 555t British Petroleum 73t Broadway stage. See theater Brock,William E. 235t Broderick Award 526t broilers (chickens) 122t Brokaw,Tom 321 Bronx Whitestone Bridge 449t Brooke, Edward R. 57 Brooke, Edward W. 244t Brooklyn Bridge 449, 449t Brooklyn Dodgers 507, 509 Brooklyn Museum of Art 443t Brooks, Albert 452 Brother Kogyo K.K. 402t Broward Community College 386t Brown, George S. 267t Brown, Harold 235t, 266t Brown, Louise 204 Brown, Ronald 67 Brown II 52 Brownell, Herbert, Jr. 234t Brownsville,Tex. 38t Brownsville–Harlingen–San Benito metropolitan area 19t Brown University 399t Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) 52, 248, 252, 374, 592–593 brucellosis, reported cases of 200t Brunei 71t Brussels (Belgium) 151 Bryn Mawr College 399t Brynner,Yul 214 Brzezinski, Zbigniew 266t Buchanan,Vera D. 243t Buck, Pearl 324 Buddhism 222, 223t Buddhist Churches of America 226t budget, national. See national budget Budget Rent A Car 75t Budweiser 478 Buffalo, N.Y. population 327t, 330t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 42, 45t Buffalo News 173t

630

Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t bug (computers) 413 buildings, tallest 449t. See also architecture Bulgaria alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t asylum grantees 25t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t refugees 24t bull markets 80t bullpen (baseball term) 519 Bullpup missiles 415t Bunche, Ralph 313 Bundy, McGeorge 266t Bundy,Ted 582t Bunker Hill (aircraft carrier) 283t Bunshaft, Gordon 448t bunt (baseball term) 519 Buono, Angelo 582t Burbank, Calif. 44t Burger,Warren C. 250, 313 Burger Court (Supreme Court) 250–252 Burger King, Inc. 75t, 433, 436t Burke,Yvonne B. 243t, 244t Burlington, Iowa 45t Burlington,Vt. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t Burlington Northern Inc. 155t Burma, foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Burmah Agate oil spill 87t Burnette, Carol 321 Burnette, Smiley 459 Burnley, James H., IV 235t Burroughs 73t Burstyn, Ellen 452 Burton, Harold H. 250 Burton, Richard 55 Burton, Sala 243t Busch-Reisinger Museum (Cambridge, Mass.) 443t buses 139t, 156t, 157t Bush, Barbara 355 Bush, George H.W. 303, 322 cabinet members 235t chronology 64, 65, 67, 68 director of Central Intelligence Agency 267t and end of cold war 303 party strength in Congress 239t presidential election votes 233t in Reagan’s cabinet 235t Supreme Court justices appointed 250 as UN ambassador 266t Bushfield,Vera C. 242t business(es) of American Indians 13 formations and failures 72t


international 90–97 largest American 74t business and management degrees awarded 396t–398t Business Committee for the Arts 438 business cycle 72t BusinessWeek 174t, 175t busing (school integration) 374 Bustamante, Albert G. 244t Butterfield, Alexander 61, 237 Butz, Earl L. 234t, 235t Bykovsky,Valery F. 408t Byrd, Robert C. 240t, 324 Byrne, Jane 335 Byrnes, James F. 234t, 266t, 320 Byron, Beverly 243t byte 413

C Cabana, Robert D. 411t Cable News Network (CNN) 64, 167, 170t, 468–469 Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN) 167, 170t cable television systems 170t, 468–469 Caddo Indians 305 cadmium 95t Cage, Nicolas 452 Cairo, Ill. 45t Cajun Joe’s 437t Cajuns 311 Calcite, Mich. 159t Calder, Alexander 319, 442 Caldwell, Erskine 308 Califano, Joseph A. 235t California 305–306 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t cattle ranch 306 economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 1, 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 13, 14t; Asian-American 16m; Asian/Pacific Islander– American 15, 17t; foreign-born 28t; Hispanic origin 7t, 17, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t

prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t California Angels 509 California Institute of Technology 399t California Raisin Board 478 California State University, Fullerton 386t California State University, Long Beach 385t California State University, Los Angeles 387t California State University, Northridge 385t California State University, Sacramento 386t Callas, Maria 452 Calley,William 60 Calusa Indians 307 Calvert County, Md. 332t calves (veal) 122t Cambodia 24t, 27t, 59, 296 Cambodian Americans 16t Camden, N.J. 11t Camelot (play) 54 camera film 131t cameras 48 Cameroon 24t, 298t, 387t Campbell, Glen 305 Camp David Accords 62 Camp David Summit 300t Campeau 73t Canada acid rain 418 chronology 53, 67 computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; direct investments in United States 94t; estimated proved crude oil reserves 86t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; gross national product 71t; investments in United States by 94t; as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors in 84t; as trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t hockey 562 immigration from 22t, 23t Korean War 269t, 270t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t

military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production 137t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Canadian Pacific Line 162 Canberra (transatlantic liner) 160t cancer deaths from 197t–198t survival trends 200t and tobacco use 214 can of corn (baseball term) 519 Canon K.K. 402t Canseco, Jose 507 Cape Hatteras, N.C. 45t capital adjustments 73t Capital Cities Communications 74t capital goods (except automotive), import/export of 95t capitalism 69–71 capital punishment 60, 62, 252, 583–586 Capone, Al 48 Capote,Truman 311 Captain D’s 436t Captain Kangaroo 53 Captopril 204 Car and Driver 174t, 175t carbon monoxide 418t, 419t, 420t, 423t Carew, Rod 507 Caribbean. See also specific countries foreign-born U.S. population from 27t hurricanes 38t immigration from 22t, 23t, 24t Caribou, Maine 45t Carigan, Harvey 582t Carleton College 399t Carlson Companies, Inc. 437t Carlucci, Frank C. 235t, 266t CarlVinson (aircraft carrier) 284t Carmichael, Hoagy 310 Carmichael, Stokeley 248, 249 Carnation 74t Carnegie, Dale 504 Carnegie Institute (Pittsburgh, Pa.) 443t Carnegie Mellon University 399t Carol Burnett Show,The 58 Caronia (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 Carpenter, Scott 306, 404, 408t

carpeting 431 Carr, Gerald P. 409t Carroll, Diahann 58 Carroll County, Md. 332t cars. See automobiles Carson, Johnny 55, 315 Carson, Rachel 55, 339b, 417 Carter, James E. (Jimmy) 63, 69, 237, 308 chronology 62, 63, 64 foreign policy 266t politics and government 231, 236; cabinet members 235t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t post-Vietnam mentality 236 Carter, Rosalynn 232, 237 Carter Doctrine (1980) 272 Casey,William J. 267t, 289 Cash, Johnny 305 Casimir Pulaski (submarine) 285t Casper,Wyo. 46t Castillo Armas, C. 289 Castillo de Bellver oil spill 87t Castro, Fidel 54, 55, 289, 290 Caterpillar 74t catheters 207t Catholicism. See Roman Catholicism Catholic Vatican Council of 1962–65 222 Cat in the Hat,The 53 Cats (musical) 64 CAT (computerized axial tomography) scans 204 cattle 118t, 120t–121t, 122t Caudill,William 448t Cavazos, Lauro F. 235t CB (citizens band) radio 62 CBS television network 49, 230, 468 CD-ROM 413 Ceausescu, Nicolae 303 Celanese 74t Celebrezze, Anthony J. 234t cellular telephones 65, 166, 167t Cenker, Robert J. 411t censorship 184, 457 centimillionaires, numbers of 112t Central America. See also specific countries foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t, 23t, 24t U.S. investments in 97t Central American–origin Americans 181t Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 62, 289–290, 296 directors of 267t central processing unit (CPU) 413

Century 21 Real Estate 75t Cepeda, Orlando 507 cerebrovascular diseases, deaths from 197t–198t Cernan, Eugene A. 408t, 409t cervical cancer 200t Cesarean section, births by 181 Chad 298t Chadwick, Florence 49 Chaffee, Roger 57, 403 Challenge Air Cargo 153t Challenger disaster speech (Ronald Reagan) 176 Challenger space shuttle 65, 66, 403, 409t, 410t, 411 Chamberlain,Wilt 319, 522 Chambers,Whittaker 48 Chamorro,Violeta 68 Chandris Lines 160t Chaney, Lon 306 Chang-Diaz, Franklin R. 411t Changing Times 174t Channing, Carol 57 Chaparral missiles 415t Chapin, Dwight 238, 238 Chapman, Oscar L. 234t charismatic movement 228 Charles, Ray 308, 478 Charles County, Md. 332t Charleston, S.C. 11t, 38t, 46t Charleston,W.Va. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t Charleston metropolitan area 13t, 331t Charlotte, N.C. population 327t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Charlotte Douglas airport 152t Charlotte–Gastonia–Rock Hill metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Charlotte Observer 173t charter schools 357 Chattanooga,Tenn. 46t, 330t Chavez, Cesar 305, 339, 339–340b Chavez, Dennis 244t Checchi Group 73t Checker, Chubby 54, 452 “Checkers Speech” (Richard M. Nixon) 50, 176 Chem-Dry 75t chemical contaminants 423–425 chemistry, Nobel Prizes in 403t Cheney, Richard 235t, 240t, 325 Cher 452 Chernenko, Konstantin 65 Chernobyl (USSR) 87, 417, 418 Cherokee County, Ga. 332t Cherokee Indians 308, 317, 318, 321, 324 Chesapeake Bay Bridge 38t Chesapeake,Va. 329t Chesapeake County,Va. 332t Chesebrough-Pond’s 74t

chess championship 60 Chesterfield County,Va. 332t Chevrolet 141 Chevron Corp. 73t, 74t, 79t chewing gum 433 Cheyenne,Wyo. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t Cheyenne Indians 306, 310 Chiang Kai-shek. See Jiang Jieshi Chicago, Ill. 309, 310, 335 airplane accident 151 communications 166 commuter rail systems 155t population 11t, 327t, 330t Washington as mayor of 250 water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 42t, 43t, 45t Chicago and North Western 155t Chicago Bulls 522 Chicago Cubs 432, 507 Chicago Daily-News 173t Chicago-Gary-Kenosha metropolitan area 8t, 19t Chicago–Gary–Lake County metropolitan area 13t, 17t, 330t Chicago metropolitan area 422t, 423t Chicago O’Hare International airport 152t Chicago 7 59 Chicago Sun-Times 173t Chicago Tribune 173t Chi-Chi’s 437t Chickasaw Indians 305, 318 chickens 118t, 122t children AIDS transmission in 202t below poverty level 113t in families maintained by women 193t ideal number of 187t living arrangements of 194t in unmarried-couple households 195t Chile CIA covert activity in 290 educational comparisons 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Chili’s 436t China 49, 62, 65. See also People’s Republic of China; Republic of China (Taiwan) coal reserves 84t educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t foreign policy 271 gross national product 71t Index

631

China (continued) immigration 22t, 23t, 24t merchant fleets 160t nuclear explosions 301t as trade partner 94t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t China “White paper” 268 Chinese Americans illegitimate births 181t population 6t, 15, 15t, 16t total arrests 576t–577t Chinese Civil War 267–268, 270 Chippewa Indians 313 Chisholm, Shirley 58, 243t, 244t chlordane 425t chlorine 423t Choctaw Indians 305, 318 Christian and Missionary Alliance 224t, 226t Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) 224t, 225t, 226t Christian Churches and Churches of Christ 225t Christian Congregation 226t Christianity 222–230, 226t Christian Methodist Episcopal Church 225t Christian Reformed Church in North America 225t Christian Science Monitor 174t Christmas, odds of white 44t–46t chromium 95t chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, deaths from 197t–198t Chrysler Building (New York) 449t Chrysler Motors Corporation 63, 64, 74t, 136, 141, 402t Chryssa 441 Chula Vista, Calif. 329t Church, Frank 61, 266t, 309 Church, Marguerite S. 243t Churchill,Winston 48, 314 Churches of Christ 225t Church of Christ, Scientist 226t Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) 224t, 226t Church of God (Cleveland,Tenn.) 224t, 225t Church of God in Christ 225t Church of God in Christ, International 225t Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints 224t, 225t Church of the Brethren 224t, 226t Church of the Nazarene 224t, 226t Church of the Scientology 222 church-related schools 393t Church’s Fried Chicken 437t CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency Ciba-Geigy Corp. 402t

632

cigarettes 203, 214, 214t–216t, 221t chronology 56, 60 high school senior survey on 220t Cincinnati, Ohio population 327t, 330t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 46t Cincinnati Art Museum 443t Cincinnati Enquirer 173t Cincinnati-Hamilton metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Cincinnati Redlegs 509 Cincinnati Reds 509 CinemaScope 51 CIO 104. See also AFL-CIO Cisneros, Henry G. 338 Citicorp Center (New York) 449t cities and urban areas 326–338. See also metropolitan areas; suburban areas; specific cities air pollution 418 population 3t, 10t, 11t, 14t sexual behavior/attitudes 188t in specific states. See specific state tobacco smoking 215t transportation 147t, 157 women in elective offices 243t Cities Services 73t citizens band (CB) radio 62 City Art Museum (St. Louis, Mo.) 443t City College of San Francisco 386t City Spire (New York) 449t Civil Aeronautics Board 148 Civiletti, Benjamin R. 235t Civil Rights Act (1964) 56, 249, 597–598 Civil Rights movement 248 education 374 and employment 98 Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) 252 United States v. Weber and other cases (1979) 252 voting rights 245 Civil Rights Act (1965) 245, 248 Civil Rights movement 9, 248–250 on campuses 379 chronology 53, 55, 56, 57, 68 Martin Luther King, Jr. 345–346b Malcolm X 347b Thurgood Marshall 347–348 in Mississippi 314 in North Carolina 54, 317 politics and government 231, 232 Jackie Robinson 352b and school segregation 374


in Tennessee 321 George C.Wallace 355b civil service 247t Claremont McKenna College 399t Clark, Barney 64, 204 Clark, Douglas 582t Clark, Mark W. 269 Clark, Ramsey 234t Clark,Tom C. 234t, 250 Clark,William P., Jr. 235t, 266t Clark County, Nev. 332t Clay, Cassius Marcellus 56, 565. See also Ali, Muhammad Clay,William L. 244t Clay County, Fla. 332t Clayton, N.Mex. 45t Clean Air Act (1963) 417, 418 Clean Air Act (1972) 418, 424t Clean Water Act (1987) 418, 424t Cleave, Mary L. 411t Clements, Earle 240t clerical workers 127t Cleveland, Ohio population 11t, 327t, 328t, 330t school desegregation 374 water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 46t Cleveland-Akron-Lorain metropolitan area 13t, 330t Cleveland-Akron metropolitan area 8t Cleveland Browns 533 Cleveland metropolitan area 422t, 423t Cleveland Museum of Art 443t Cleveland Plain Dealer 173t Cleveland Press 173t Cliburn,Van 53 Clifford, Clark 234t, 266t Clift, Montgomery 452, 456 clock radios, sales of 169t closed-circuit television 565 clothes washers and dryers 131t, 431, 432t, 433, 433t CNN. See Cable News Network Coach of the Year Award (women’s basketball) 526t Coahuiltec Indians 338 coal 80, 81t–82t, 82t, 83t, 84t mining 86 strip-mining 83, 426 Coast to Coast Total Hardware 76t Coats, Michael L. 409t cobalt 95t Cobb County, Ga. 332t Coca-Cola 131t, 433 chronology 62, 65 largest American businesses 74t as leading market value stock 79t television commercial 478

cocaine 66, 216, 217t, 218t, 221t, 587, 588 Coelho, Anthony Lee 240t, 244t Coeur d’Alene Indians 309 coffee 435t Cohan, George M. 320 Cohen,Wilbur, J. 234t coke oven emissions 419t Colby,William E. 267t Cold Bay, Alaska 44t cold war 222, 263–264, 302–303. See also foreign policy Cole, Nat “King” 49, 57, 214, 304, 478 Coleman,William T. 235t collar (baseball term) 519 College of Du Page 385t College of William and Mary 399t colleges and universities 378–399 costs of 388, 389t–392t degrees conferred by 388, 394t–399t faculty of 388, 392t–393t fields of study 388 rules of conduct in 383–384 tuition and fees 130t college sports 505 baseball 546t basketball 521–522 champions 546t–551t, 551t–552t cross country 549t, 551t fencing 550t–551t, 551t field hockey 551t football 540–546 golf 550t, 551t gymnastics 550t, 552t ice hockey 546t–547t indoor track 549t–550t, 552t lacrosse 547t, 552t outdoor track 549t, 552t rifle 551t skiing 551t soccer 547t, 552t softball 552t swimming and diving 548t, 552t tennis 547t–548t, 552t volleyball 548t, 552t water polo 548t wrestling 548t–549t Collier’s 172, 495 Collin County,Tex. 332t Collins, Cardiss R. 243t, 244t Collins, George W. 244t Collins, John N. 582t Collins, Michael 58, 408t Collins Foods Intl., Inc. 437t Colombia foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t, 23t in Korean War 269t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m

U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t colon cancer 200t Colorado 306–307 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t Hispanic origin population 20m import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t rural/urban road mileage 147t Colorado Springs, Colo. 44t, 327t, 329t Colorado Springs metropolitan area 423t Colorado State University 385t colorectal malignancies, deaths from 197t–198t Colson, Charles 238 Colt, Samuel 307 Columbia, Mo. 45t Columbia, S.C. 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Columbia Center (Seattle) 449t Columbia metropolitan area 13t Columbia Pictures 74t Columbia space shuttle 64, 403, 409t, 410t Columbia State (newspaper) 173t Columbia University 58, 379, 387t, 399t columbium 95t Columbus, Ga. 328t Columbus, Ohio 30t, 33t, 35t, 46t, 327t Columbus Dispatch 173t Columbus metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Comanche Indians 310, 316 Comet Cleanser 53 comfort, measuring (weather) 30 comic books 172, 495 command ships 283t commentary, Pulitzer Prize for 499t commercial banks 88t

commercial pesticide use 424t commercial printing 76t Committee to Reelect the President (CRP or CREEP) 236, 238 commodities (consumer price index) 128t Commodore J. Barry Bridge 449t common stock 78t communications 163–177 degrees awarded in 396t–398t Internet 171–172 postal service 163–165 print media 172–175 radio and television 167–171 speeches 176–177 telephones 165–167 communism 49, 51, 53, 263, 267–268, 290 Community College of Allegheny County 386t Community College of the Air Force 385t compact discs 65 Compound 1080 425t Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980) 418, 424t, 427–428 Compton, Calif. 11t computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans 204 computers chronology 49, 54 communications 163, 171, 171t desktop 432 in domestic technology 431 as a fastest-growing industry 76t science and technology 412–414 terminology related to 413 in weather forecasting 29 computer science degrees awarded 396t–398t Conagra 74t Concepcion, David 507 Concord, N.H. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Concordia, Kans. 45t condoms 67 Condor missiles 415t Coney Island, N.Y. 326 Confessions of Nat Turner (William Styron) 58 Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) 249 Connally, John B. 234t Connally, Maureen 553 Connally,Tom 266t Conneaut, Ohio 159t Connecticut 307 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t

arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t Hispanic origin population 20m import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Connecticut General 73t Connolly, Maureen 51 Connor, “Bull” 248 Connor, John T. 234t Connors, Jimmy 64, 340, 552 Connors, Michael 452 Conoco 73t Conrad, Charles, Jr. 408t, 409t Conrad, Pete 411 conscientious objectors 276t conscription. See draft, military conservation. See environmentalism Conservative Baptist Association of America 225t conservative Christianity 222, 228–229 Consolidated Rail Corp. (Conrail) 155t Constable, John 444t constant dollars 107 Constellation (aircraft carrier) 284t Constitution (transatlantic liner) 160t Constitution of the United States, amendments to 590–591. See also specific amendments chronology 67 construction industry 99t, 106t–108t, 107 consumer dollars, purchasing power of 127t consumer price indexes 127t, 128t, 129t consumer prices, changes in 129t Consumers Digest 174t contact lenses 433 container ships 157 containment policy 264, 265, 344 Contel 73t Continental Airline 153t Continental Group 74t contraception. See birth control

Contras 65, 290 Convair 150t Conwell, Russell 177 Conyers, John, Jr. 244t Cook County, Ill. 333t Cooley, Denton 204 Coolidge, Calvin 322 Cooper, Alice 452 Cooper, Gary 214, 315, 465 Cooper, L. Gordon 404, 408t Copeland, A., Enterprises 437t Copeland’s 437t Copland, Aaron 68 copper industry 315 Coptic Orthodox Church 225t Corbusier, Le (Charles Edouard Jeanneret-Gris) 448t Corcoran Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) 443t Cordova, Alaska 44t CORE. See Congress of Racial Equality Corelle dinnerware 432 corn 120t–121t, 122t cornea grafts 206t Cornell University 387t, 399t Corona, Juan 582t coronary bypass 204 Corporation for Public Broadcasting 57 corporations contributions to arts 438, 438t–439t corporate profits 73t income taxes 255t–257t, 256 patents received by 402t Corpus Christi,Tex. 38t, 159t, 327t Corpus Christi metropolitan area 19t Cosby, Bill 319, 471 Cosby Show,The (TV show) 65 Cosmopolitan 174t, 175t Costa Rica foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t life expectancy 196t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t cost-of-living provision (social insurance) 258 cotton 120t–121t cotton, upland 122t Cotton Bowl 542t–543t cottonseed 122t Country Home 174t Country Kitchen 437t Country Living 174t, 175t country music 478, 491–493 Country Music Association Awards 493t Index

633

county governing boards 243t Couples, Fred 558 Court, Margaret 553 covert activity (CIA) 289–290 Covey, Richard O. 411t cows. See cattle Cox, Archibald 237 CPU (central processing unit) 413 crack cocaine 65, 68, 587–588 Cranapple juice 432 Cranston, Alan 240t Crawford, Joan 452 credit cards 49, 54 Creek Indians 304, 318 CREEP. See Committee to Reelect the President Creighton, John O. 409t Creole 311 Crest toothpaste 53, 432 Crick, Francis 203 crime and punishment 575–589 capital punishment 583–586 drugs 587–589 murders and murderers 581–583 Crippen, Robert L. 409t Cristoforo Colombo (transatlantic liner) 160t criticism, Pulitzer Prize for 499t Crockett, George W., Jr. 244t Crock-Pot 432 Cronkite,Walter 64, 314, 319 crops. See also specific crops cash marketing receipts for 123t cropland harvested 117t farm marketings 124t farm output 119t prices received for 125t Crosby, Bing 324, 478 cross country (sport) 549t, 551t Crowe,William J., Jr. 267t Crow Indians 314, 325 Crown (bookstores) 495 CRP. See Committee to Reelect the President crude oil 81t, 86t Cruise,Tom 67, 452 cruise missiles 281 cruisers 283t cruise ships 160 C-SPAN. See Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network CSX Transportation 155t Cuba armed forces in 279t chronology 54, 63 CIA covert activity in 289 covert activity in 290 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 23t asylum grantees 25t; refugees 24, 24t

634

legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. armed forces in 279t Cuban Americans 17, 18t, 181t, 359t Cuban Missile Crisis: President John F. Kennedy’s Report to the Nation, October 22, 1962 595–597 Cumberland Presbyterian Church 224t cumene 423t Cunard Line 160, 160t, 161 Cunningham, R.Walter 408t CUNY, Hunter College 386t Cuomo, Andrew 317 Cuomo, Mario 177 Currier Gallery of Art (Manchester, N.H.) 443t cursor 413 Cushing, Richard Cardinal 313 customs, government revenue from 257t Cutler, Robert 266t Cuyahoga Community College district 386t Cuyahoga County, Ohio 333t Cyprus 160t, 387t CyYoung Award 516t Czechoslovakia alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 24t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t as USSR satellite 263 weapons exported by 299t

D Daddy-O’s Express 437t dairy industry 324 dairy products 425t, 435t Dairy Queen 75t, 436t Dakota County, Minn. 332t Dakota Indians 317, 320, 325. See also Sioux Indians Daley, Richard J. 62, 335 Daley, Richard M. 335 Dallas (TV show) 62 Dallas,Tex. 11t, 327t, 337 Dallas Cowboys 322 Dallas–Fort Worth metropolitan area 330t population 8t, 13t, 19t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t Dallas Fort Worth Regional airport 152t Dallas metropolitan area 422t Dallas Morning News 173t Dallas Museum of Art 443t Dallas News 173t


Dallas Times Herald 173t Dalts 437t Daly City, Calif. 17t Damadian, Raymond V. 204 dance. See arts Daniel, Beth 558 Daniel Boone (submarine) 285t Daniel Webster (submarine) 285t Dans la Prairie (Claude Monet) 444t Darin, Bobby 452 Darrow, Clarence 177 Dartmouth College 399t Darvon 53 database 413 Datsun 141 Dauphin Island, Ala. 38t Davidson College 399t Davis, Bette 313 Davis, Clarissa 525 Davis, Miles 309 Davis, Richard 434 Davis, Sammy, Jr. 214 Davis, Stuart 443t Dawson,William L. 244t Day, Doris 452, 478 Day, J. Edward 234t Days Inn of America Franchising, Inc. 76t Dayton, Ohio 46t, 328t, 330t Daytona 500 570t Daytona Speedway 570 Dayton Daily News 173t Dayton Hudson 74t Dayton-Springfield metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t DBCP (dibromochloropropane) 425t DDT 60, 418, 425t DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration) 588 deaf-blind students 361t deaf students 361t Dean, Dizzy 305 Dean, James 53, 310 Dean, John 61, 236–238 De Anza College 386t death penalty. See capital punishment deaths and death rates 197t–199t alcohol-related 219t–220t on the job 106t from lightning 42, 43t from Mount St. Helens eruption 47 of rock music artists 487t from smog 417, 418 from tornadoes 41t transportation airplane accidents 151, 151t motor-vehicle 145t passenger 156t in Vietnam War 293t–294t vital statistics and health care 197t–199t

DeBakey, Michael 57, 311 debt, national. See national debt DEC. See Digital Equipment Corporation decamillionaires, numbers of 112t Decorating Den 76t Deere, John 322 defense spending 255 defense treaties 288, 289m. See also alliances deflation 126 dehumidifiers 433t de Kooning,Willem 441, 441, 443t, 444t de la Garza, E. (“Kika”), III 244t Delano,Williams Adams 448t Delaware 307 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japaneseowned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m Delaware and Hudson Railway 155t Delaware Indians. See Lenni Lenape Indians Delaware Memorial Bridge 449t delivery vehicles 281 Dellums, Ronald V. 244t Deloria,Vine, Jr. 340b Delta airline 153t DeMille, Cecil B. 54 Democratic Party and abortion 184 chronology 48, 50, 54, 58, 60, 62, 65, 66, 67 politics and government 231–232 losses as president’s party 242t; presidential election votes 233t;Watergate scandal 236 taxes 131–132 Dempsey, Jack 306 Denmark alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t

computing power 414t educational comparisons 371t exchange rates 93t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t manufacturing productivity measures 103t Marshall Plan aid 265t motor vehicle production wages 145t NATO 265t, 289m universal health-care system 211t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. patents granted to 402t Dennis the Menace 49 Dennis v. United States (1951) 49, 252 Denny’s Restaurants 436t Dent, Frederick B. 234t, 235t dental implants 207t dentistry, degrees in 399t dentists 206t Denton County,Tex. 332t Denver, Colo. population 327t, 330t school desegregation 374 weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 43t, 44t Denver, John 452 Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad Co. 155t Denver Art Museum 443t Denver-Boulder-Greeley metropolitan area 8t, 19t Denver-Boulder metropolitan area 331t, 423t Denver County, Colo. 333t Denver metropolitan area 422t Denver Post 173t Denver Rocky Mountain News 173t Denver Stapleton International airport 152t deployment 281 deregulation of airline industry 148–149 of banking practices 88 Derwinski, Edward J. 235t DeSalvo, Albert 582t desegregation. See segregation and desegregation desertion (in Vietnam War) 295 Desert Shield/Desert Storm 68 Des Moines, Iowa 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Des Moines, La. 328t Des Moines Register 173t destroyers 283t

Detroit, Mich. 336–337 airplane accident 151 chronology 57 Civil Rights movement 249 population 11t, 327t, 330t school desegregation 374 water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Detroit–Ann Arbor–Flint metropolitan area 8t, 19t Detroit–Ann Arbor metropolitan area 13t, 330t Detroit Free Press 173t Detroit Institute of Arts 443t Detroit Lions 505 Detroit metropolitan area 422t Detroit Metro Wayne County airport 152t Detroit News 173t developed nations, U.S. investments in 96t–97t developing nations 69 Devils Lake, N.Dak. 46t Devine, Andy 459 DeVries,William 204 Dewey, George 322 Dewey, John 322 Dewey,Thomas E. 233t, 317 Dewey,Thomas L. 49 diabetes mellitus, deaths from 197t–198t Diablo Valley College 386t dialysis machines 203 diamonds (industrial) 95t diapers 131t dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 425t Dickinson, Angie 318 Dieldrin 425t Diem, Ngo Dinh 53 diet. See nutrition Diet Center 75t Diggs, Charles C., Jr. 244t Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 74t, 402t, 413 Dillon, C. Douglas 234t DiMaggio, Joe 49, 52, 305, 349 Dineh (Navajo) Indians 304, 316 Diner’s Club 49 Dinkins, David 68, 250, 333 Dinoseb 425t diphtheria, reported cases of 200t Dirksen, Everett McKinley 240t “Dirty Harry” films 340 disability insurance 258 disability insurance trust fund (Social Security) 261t–262t disabled students 361t, 377 disco dancing 57, 62 disco music 478 Discover magazine 174t Discovery Channel,The 170t Discovery magazine 174t

Discovery space shuttle 67, 403, 409t, 410t discrimination. See Civil Rights movement diseases 200t–202t death rates from 197t–200t, 202t sexually transmitted 182 dishwashers 432t, 433t Disney,Walt 214, 314 Disneyland 53 “displaced persons” 25 disposable bibs 434 disposable personal income 110t distillate fuel oil 82t, 85t District of Columbia. See Washington, D.C. diversity in publications 494–495 and tolerance toward homosexuals 187 divorce 113, 190–191, 192t, 227 Dixiecrat Party 48 Dixon, Julian C. 244t D-lysergic acid diethylamide 218t DNA 203 Dobrovolskiy, Georgi T. 408t Dobson, James 230 Doctor’s Associates, Inc. 437t doctor’s degrees 394t, 398t Dodge City, Kans. 45t Dole, Elizabeth Hanford 235t Dole, Robert 62, 240t, 311 dollar(s) constant 107 purchasing power of 127t value of 90, 126t. See also inflation Dollar Rent A Car 75t Dome Petroleum 73t domestic technology 431–434 Dominican Republic chronology 57 foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t, 23t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. armed intervention in 290 U.S. investments in 97t Domino, Fats 311 Domino’s Pizza, Inc. 75t, 436t domino theory 51, 593–594 Donahue, Phil 355 Donaldson, Jesse M. 234t Donora, Penna. 417, 418 Donovan, Raymond J. 235t Doonesbury cartoon 59 Doppler Radar 29 Dorsey, Jimmy 214 Dorsey,Tommy 53 Douglas (aircraft manufacturer) 148, 150t

Douglas, Emily T. 242t Douglas, Helen G. 243t Douglas, Kirk 452 Douglas,William O. 61, 250, 324 Douglas County, Colo. 332t Douglas County, Ga. 332t Dow Chemical Co. 74t, 79t, 402t Dow Corning Corp. 402t Dow Jones Industrial Average 76, 77t, 78t, 80t download 413 draft, military 48, 53, 272, 275 draft resistors 60, 62 Dragon missiles 415t drama, Pulitzer Prize in 501t Drexel, Burnham Lambert 67 drought 67 Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 588 drugs alcohol 218–221 cholesterol-lowering 432 chronology 52, 65, 66, 68 cost of generic vs. brand-name 208t crime and punishment 587–589 Florida trade in 308 high school senior survey on 220t illegal 216–218, 217t–218t Vietnam War and use of 295 Duarte, José 64 Dubuque, Iowa 45t Dudok,Willem Marinus 448t dugout (baseball term) 519 Dukakis, Michael S. 67, 233t Duke, Charles M., Jr. 409t Duke University 399t Dulles, Allen W. 267t Dulles, John Foster 52, 54, 234t, 266t Dulles Airport 55 Duluth, Minn. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Duluth metropolitan area 423t Duluth Superior, Minn. 159t du Maurier Classic (golf) 561t Dumont, S. Dak. 42t Dunaway, Faye 308 Dunbar, Bonnie J. 411t Duncan, Charles W. 235t Dunkin’ Donuts 75t, 436t Dunlop, John T. 235t duPont. See E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. DuPont, E. I. 307 DuPont, Pete 307 durable goods, personal expenditures on 110t durable goods industries 99t, 107t Duran, Roberto 565 Durham, N.C. 329t Durham, N.D. 11t Index

635

Durkin, Martin P. 234t dust storms 42 “Duty, Honor, Country” (Douglas MacArthur) 177 DWG 437t Dwight D. Eisenhower (aircraft carrier) 284t Dwyer, Florence P. 243t Dwyer, R. Budd 320 Dylan, Bob 57, 313, 478 Dymally, Mervin M. 244t Dzhanibekov,Vladimir A. 409t

E Eagleton,Thomas 60 Early Bird (satellite) 166 earnings and income 107–112 arts attendance by 446t of baseball players 508, 509 and “born-again” status 229t cities and urban areas. See specific cities economy farm 123t–124t; inflation 127; minimum hourly wage rates 109t; prices paid by farmers for 125t; taxes as percentage of 133t and entertainment 451 of Major League baseball players 517t–518t in metropolitan counties 332t–333t of new public school teachers 366t and persons without health insurance 213t in professional sports 505 of public school instructional staff 367t and sexual behavior/attitudes 188t state. See specific states by years of school completed 364t–365t Earth, space photograph of 357 earth art (earthworks) 441, 442 Earth Day 417, 418 earthquakes 68, 306 ear vent tubes 207t East Asia, foreign aid to 297t–298t East Cleveland, Ohio 11t Eastern airline 149, 153t Eastern Europe. See also specific countries after World War II 263–264 economy 71 and end of cold war 303 U.S. armed forces in 278t Eastern Michigan University 385t eastern United States. See also specific states and “born-again” status 229t

636

cities 326 floods 47t hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t population 3 record snow 42t, 43t tornadoes 40t East Germany. See German Democratic Republic Eastman Kodak Co. 74t, 79t, 402t, 478 East Orange, N.J. 11t East St. Louis, Ill. 11t Eastwood, Clint 66, 340b Eaton Corp. 402t Ebbetts Field (Brooklyn, N.Y.) 54 Ebony 174t, 175t, 495 Echo I (satellite) 166 Eckert, J. Presper 412, 413 economy 69–135. See also specific states agriculture 115–126 banking and finance 88–90 employment 97–112 energy 80–87 international business 90–97 politics and government 231–232 poverty 113–115 prices and inflation 126–131 stock market 76–80 taxes 131–135 Ecuador 22t, 23t, 27t, 97t, 289m, 387t EDB (ethylene dibromide) 425t Eddy, Nelson 320 Edge of Night 53 editorial cartooning, Pulitzer Prize for 499t editorial writing, Pulitzer Prize for 499t Edmonton Oilers 462 Edsel 53 education 356–399 advanced degrees 388 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) 252 chronology 48, 54, 55, 60, 64 colleges and universities 378–399 degrees awarded in 396t–398t federal expenditures for 254t, 259t and greater American society 377–378 international comparisons 370–373, 373t–372t level of 356 by age 376t; and arts attendance 446t; and “born-again” status 229t; and college enrollment 382t; by ethnic origin 376t; and income 364t–365t; by race 359t–360t, 376t


of persons without health insurance 213t physicians’ places of 205t and racial segregation 374–377 and sexual behavior/attitudes 189t sports in 505 state expenditures for 258t, 259t Education Amendments Act (1972) 378 Edwards, Elaine S. 242t Edwards, James B. 235t eggs 122t, 425t egg substitutes 432 Egypt armed forces in 279t educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 24t murder rate 581t population 6t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. 73t, 74t, 79t, 402t Eielson, Carl Ben 304 Eighth Amendment 583 Einstein, Albert 49, 52, 316 Eisele, Donn F. 408t Eisenhower, David 59 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 233, 269, 311 chronology 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58 Dwight Eisenhower Museum and Library 311 Farewell Address 177 foreign policy 266t golf 558 Helen Keller 203 and Korean War 270 as NATO commander 265t politics and government cabinet members 234t; Civil Rights movement 248; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250 and Vietnam War 290 Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) 53, 272 Eisenhower jackets 48 Ekofisk oil field spill 87t El Camino College 385t elderly below poverty level 113t and Medicare 210

vital statistics and health care 195t, 210 electric frying pan 431 electricity consumer price index 128t in domestic technology 431 heating by 82t residential, average price of 130t electric toothbrushes 55 electric utilities, air pollution from 420t electronic communications equipment 163, 171t. See also specific items Electronic Data Systems 74t Electronic Mall 433 Electronic Realty Associates 75t Elf Aquitaine 73t Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway Co. 155t Elias Brothers Restaurants, Int. 437t Eli Lilly 79t Elizabeth, N.J. 151 Elkins,W.Va. 46t Elko, Nev. 45t Elks Magazine,The 174t Elle 174t, 175t Ellington, Duke 214 Elliott, Cass 61 Ellison, Ralph 319 Ellsburg, Daniel 60 El Monte, Calif. 329t El Niño 29 El Paso,Tex. 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 327t El Paso metropolitan area 19t, 331t, 422t, 423t El Pollo Loco 436t El Salvador chronology 64 foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 23t asylum grantees 25t; refugees 24t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t El Torito 437t Ely, Nev. 45t e-mail communications 163, 171, 171t Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 424t Emmy Awards 475t–478t emotionally disturbed students 361t Empire State Building 447, 449t employment 97–112 discrimination in. See Civil Rights movement

earnings and income 107–112 economy civilian noninstitutional employment 98t; farms 118t; nonagricultural, by industry 99t; women 101t; workers killed/ injured on job 106t and gender 100–102 in hospitals 204t and labor unions 104–106 under merit civil service 247t of persons without health insurance 213t postal service 163 United States v. Weber and other cases (1979) 252 endangered species 429–430 Endangered Species Act 429 Endrin 425t energy 80–87 consumer price index 128t consumption by source 81t–82t energy crises 69, 80 prices paid by farmers for 125t production by source 81t energy crises chronology 61, 62 environmentalism 418 transportation 136 air transport 148; motor vehicles 141 Engel v. Vitale (1962) 252 engineering degrees awarded 396t–398t England 196t, 372t, 581t Engle, Joe H. 409t ENIAC computer 412, 413 Entac missiles 415t Enterprise (aircraft carrier) 284, 284t Enterprise (space shuttle) 403 entertainment 451–504. See also sports Academy Awards 462–465 Broadway stage 452–456 Clint Eastwood 340b Emmy Awards 475t–478t Ella Fitzgerald 341b Grammy Awards 489–491 Bob Hope 341–342b and illegal drug use 216 James Michener 348b Marilyn Monroe 348–349b motion pictures 456–465 National Book Awards 496 original names of people in 452 popular music 478–493 Elvis Presley 352b Pulitzer Prizes 496–503 radio 167–169, 466–468 reading 494–504 Ronald Reagan 352b Charles M. Schulz 353b

sexual behavior/attitudes 184 Frank Sinatra 353–354b television 167–171, 468–478 Tony Awards 454–456 Entertainment and Sports Programming Network. See ESPN environment and energy 86–87 and motor vehicles 136 environmental design degrees awarded 396t–398t environmentalism 416–430 air pollution 418–423 Rachel Carson 339 chemical contaminants 423–425 endangered species 429–430 hazardous waste 427–429 in Oregon 319 solid municipal waste 425–427 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 339, 417, 418 and hazardous wastes 427, 428 laws administered by 424t Episcopal Church 222, 224t, 225t, 226t Epoxy glue 48 Equal Employment Opportunity Act (1972) 248 Equal Housing Law 250 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) 60, 64, 602–603 Erickson, Arthur 448t Erie, Pa. 46t, 330t Erlichman, John 61, 236–238, 238 Ernhat 74t Erving, Julius (“Doctor J.”) 522, 533 Ervin, Sam 61, 236, 237 Escanaba, Mich. 45t Escondido, Calif. 329t escort ships 283t Esherick, Joseph 448t Eskimos 7t–8t, 330t–331t Esmark 74t esophagus cancer 200t espionage 49, 65, 66 ESPN (Entertainment and Sports Programming Network) 170t, 505 Espy, Mike 244t Esquire 175t Essence 174t, 495 Essex (aircraft carrier) 283t Esso Building (NewYork, N.Y.) 334 Ethiopia 24t, 27t, 269t, 387t ethnic groups. See also specific groups in cities 326. See also specific cities earnings and income 107

education college enrollment by 382t; higher education 378–379; level of 356, 376t; SAT scores by 370t employment 98 politics and government 232 population 3, 6, 15t and poverty 69 in states. See specific states ethylene dibromide (EDB) 425t ethylene dichloride 423t ethylene oxide 423t Eugene, Oreg. 46t Eureka, Calif. 44t Europe. See also Eastern Europe; Western Europe containment policy 264, 265 economy 69 annual changes in consumer prices 129t; direct investments in United States 94t; export/import value 93t; investments in United States by 94t; U.S. investments in 96t foreign aid to 297t–298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 20, 21t–23t, 24 motor vehicle production 137t European Body Wrap 76t European Space Agency 405t evangelical Christianity 228 Evangelical Covenant Church of America 224t Evangelical Free Church of America 226t Evangelical Lutheran Church in America 224t, 225t Evans, Dale 452, 459n Evans, Ronald E. 409t Evansville, Ind. 45t evaporative coolers 433t Evers, Medgar 248, 249 Evert, Chris 340–341, 552, 556 Evita (play) 62 evolution, retrogressive 353 excise taxes, federal receipts from 255t–256t executions. See capital punishment explanatory reporting, Pulitzer Prize for 500t exports 90, 91t by end-use category 95t transportation 158t value of 93t Exxon Corp. 74t, 79t Exxon Research & Engineering Co. 402t ExxonValdez oil spill 67, 87, 87, 87t, 304, 418 eye lens implants 207t eye surgery 203

F Fabian, John M. 409t fabrics 431, 432 fabric softeners 432 face-lifting 432 Fairbanks, Alaska 44, 44t Fairbanks, Douglas 306 Fairbanks metropolitan area 423t Falcon missiles 415t Faldo, Nick 558 fallout shelters 55 Falwell, Jerry 63, 184, 222, 229, 230, 323 families and households 192–195. See also marital status family households 192, 193 female householders 115t, 193t, 194t income 110t, 111t male householders 193t, 194t with televisions 169t vital statistics and health care 193t–195t Family Channel,The 170t Family Circle 174t, 175t Family Handyman,The 174t family households 192, 193 Fancu Ltd. 402t fans 433t Fantastic Sam’s 75t Fargo, N.Dak. 46t Faris, Mohammed 411t Farmers Group 73t farms. See also agriculture acreage of 116t corporation 121 economy 116t–119t, 123t–126t equipment for 120 number of 115, 116t parallel terraces 117 tobacco smoking and residence on 215t Farnsworth, Philo 322 Farr, Jamie 452 Farrow, Mia 57 Far West Dinnerhouses 437t fashion chronology 48, 53, 57, 58, 62, 65 domestic technology 431, 432 fats, consumption of 434t Faubus, Orval 53, 248, 305, 374 Faulkner,William 49, 314 Favaloro, Rene 204 fax machines 163, 167t Fayette County, Ga. 332t FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) 62 FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) 88 feature writing, Pulitzer Prize for 500t Federal Aviation Agency 148 Index

637

federal budget. See national budget Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 62 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) 88 Federal Express 60, 153t, 163, 478 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 424t federal government. See also politics and government arts funding 438, 439t–440t budget of. See national budget education funding by 364t employment in 99t medical costs paid by 207 Medicare 207 payments to other governments by 254t unionization of employees 105 war on drugs 588 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 424t federal prisons 578t, 579t, 585t Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) airplane accident in 151 armed forces in 279t chronology 64 computing power 414t economy coal reserves 84t; gross national product 71t; nuclear reactors 84t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t health-care expenditures 210t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m Nobel Prize laureates in 403t population 6t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) 88 Federated Department Stores 73t feed grains 119t feed purchases 118t “Feelin’ Groovy” 57 females Advice to the Working Girl, 1951 592 in armed forces 277 arts attendance by 446t

638

athletic scholarships for 61 in clergy 62 in college sports 525–527, 551t–552t, 552t in Congress 242t–243t crime 578 assault victims 580t; executions 596t; homicides 581t; murder/manslaughter victims 582t; prisoners 578t; risk of murder 583t economy 69 earnings and income 107–108; employment 98, 101t, 102t; as householders, poverty rate and 115t; marital status of employed 101t; median earnings of 105t, 109t; poverty 113; unemployment rate 103t–104t education college completion 395t; degrees conferred 394t–395t; enrolled in higher education 381t; faculty 391t–393t; higher education 388; level of 359t–361t in elective offices 243t as householders 193t, 194t literature by 495 in Little League 520 in military academies 61 in movies 456 as percent of airplane pilots 149t popular names for 179 population 1, 1t–2t in professional sports basketball 520; golf 558, 560t–562t; tennis 552–557 religion “born-again” 229t; last judgment beliefs 223t; members of clergy 226t; in priesthood 227 in Rotary Clubs 67 sports most popular with 506t vital statistics and health care abortions 184t–185t; AIDS cases 200t;AIDS transmission 202t; alcoholrelated deaths 219t; cigarette/drug use by 221t; contraception methods 183t; death rates 197t–198t; divorce 191; elderly living arrangements 195t; at first marriage 190; infant mortality rate 182t; life expectancy 196t; live


births 178t; marital status 192t; median age at first marriage 191t; medical device implants 207t; persons without health insurance 213t; as physicians 202, 205t; pregnancy outcomes 186t; sexual behavior and attitudes 188t–190t; tobacco smoking 215t, 216t females householders, poverty rate and 115t Feminine Mystique,The (Betty Friedan) 55, 341, 504 fencing 550t–551t Fenwick, Millicent 243t Feoktistov, Konstantin P. 408t Fermi, Enrico 309 Fernandez, Antonio Manuel 244t Ferraro, Geraldine 65, 231, 232, 243t fertility rates 179t, 180t fertilizer 125t F-4 “Phantom” fighter-bomber 291 fiber-optic networks 163, 166 fiction best-selling 494t National Book Awards for 496t Pulitzer Prize in 501t Fiedler, Bobbi 243t Field & Stream 174t, 175t field hockey 551t Fiji, foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Filipino Americans 15, 15t, 16t, 181t film-rating system 58, 65, 457 films. See motion pictures finance(s) economy 88–90 direct foreign investment in 94t; employment in 99t; hourly earnings in 107t; U.S. investments abroad in 96t–97t; weekly earnings in 108t government federal 253t–257t; local 257t; state 257t–258t Finch, Robert H. 235t Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco 443t Finland alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t life expectancy 196t U.S. patents granted to 402t

Firestone Tire 74t First Amendment 252 first-class mail rates 164t First Interstate Bank (Los Angeles) 449t First Interstate Center (Los Angeles) 449t First National Bank (Chicago) 449t first strike 281 Fischer, Bobby 54, 60 Fisher, Anna L. 409t Fisher, Eddie 54, 55, 478 Fitzgerald, Ella 341b fixation devices 207t Fixx, Jim 65 flag burning 68 Flag Day 49 flagships 283t Flagstaff, Ariz. 44t Flake, Floyd H. 244t Flanigan, Peter 411 flash floods 46–47 flashlight batteries 131t Flathead Indians 314 Flavin, Dan 441 Flemming, Arthur S. 234t Flint, Mich. 45t, 330t Flipchenko, Anatoly V. 408t floods 46–47, 47t, 324 floppy disk 413 Florence, S.C. 46t Florida 307–308 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t population 3, 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; foreign-born 28t; Hispanic origin 7t, 17, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m voter registration 245t–246t Florida (submarine) 286t Florida East Coast Railway Co. 155t Florida Express Airline 153t Florida International University 386t

Florida State University 385t flowers, state. See specific state Fluor 74t fluorescent lighting 431 fluorspar 95t Flying Tiger Airline 153t Foley,Thomas S. 239t, 240t folk-rock 478 Folsom, Marion B. 234t Fonda, Henry 315 F-117 Nighthawk Stealth fighter plane 288 Food & Wine 174t Food Lion 74t Foodmaker, Inc. 437t foods and food products. See also nutrition economy consumer price index 128t; farm output of grains 119t; farm-toretail price spreads 126t; and purchasing power of dollar 127t pesticide residues in 425t food stamps 258 football chronology 59, 64 college 540–546 professional 505, 533–540 foot-in-the-bucket (baseball term) 519 Forbes 175t Ford, Ernie 321 Ford, Gerald R. 313 chronology 61, 62 foreign policy 266t golf 558 politics and government cabinet members 235t; House floor leader 240t; in Nixon’s cabinet 234t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250;Watergate scandal 236, 237, 238 post-Vietnam mentality 236 and presidential doctrine 272 Ford, Harold E. 244t Ford, Harrison 222 Ford, Henry 48, 313 Ford Motor Co. 74t, 79t, 136, 402t forecasting, weather 29 foreign economic/military aid 296–301 foreign exchange rates 92t, 93t foreign investments 90, 94t, 94t foreign languages degrees awarded in 396t–398t higher education registrations in 383t

foreign policy 263–303 alliances 288–289 and armed forces 272–288 armed interventions 290 in Asia 271 Chinese Civil War 267–268, 270 cold war 263–264, 302–303 covert activity 289–290 foreign economic/military aid 296–301 and immigration 15 Korean War 269–271 presidential doctrines 272 strategic arms agreements 299–301 summit conferences 297, 299, 300t Vietnam War 290–296 foreign trade. See international trade forest fires 67 formaldehyde 418t, 423t Forrestal, James V. 234t, 266t Forrestal, USS 57, 284t Forsyth County, Ga. 332t Fortas, Abe 250, 343 Fort Bend County,Tex. 332t Fort Collins metropolitan area 423t Fort Howard Paper 74t Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel 173t Ft. Myers 38t Fort Pierce, Fla. 38t Fortran 53 Fort Smith, Ark. 44t Fortune 175t Fort Wayne, Ind. 45t, 328t Fort Worth,Tex. 327t FortWorth Star-Telegram 173t 40 Wall Tower (New York) 449t Fosse, Bob 214 Four Aces 478 Four Freshmen 478 Four Lads 478 Fourteenth Amendment 252, 583 Fowler, Henry H. 234t Fox Indians 324 Fox television network 469 Foyt, A. J. 570 fragging (Vietnam War) 295 France alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t ballistic missiles 282t chronology 52 computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; gross national product 71t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors in 84t; as

trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m Nobel Prize laureates in 403t nuclear explosions 301t population 6t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m summit conferences 300t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t France (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 France, Bill 570 franchises 75t–76t Francis, Arlene 452 Francis, Connie 452 Francis Scott Key (submarine) 285t Frank Church Committee. See Senate Intelligence Committee Frankenthaler, Helen 443t Frankfurter, Felix 250 Franklin (aircraft carrier) 283t Franklin, Aretha 313, 321 Frankl,Viktor 504 Frazier, Joe 61 Frederick, Md. 45t Frederick County, Md. 332t Freed, Alan 49 Freed, James 448t Freedom Flotilla 63 Freedom Forum 230 freedom of the press 252 freedom rides 55, 249 Freeman, Orville L. 234t, 314 Free Methodist Church of North America 224t Freeport,Tex. 159t Freer Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) 443t Free Will Baptists, National Association of 225t freezers 431, 432, 432t, 433t freight transportation by air 149t, 153t, 157 by railroad 153, 154t, 156t by water 157 Fremont, Calif. 328t, 329t

French Line 160t French Open 553, 554t, 555t Fresno, Calif. 17t, 44t, 327t, 329t Fresno Bee 173t Fresno metropolitan area 19t, 331t, 423t Frick Collection (New York, N.Y.) 443t Friedan, Betty 55, 341b, 504 Friendly (restaurant) 437t Friends (Quaker) churches 226t frigates 283t Frisbees 53, 432 Fromme, Lynette (“Squeaky”) 61 Frost, Robert 316 fruits 425t, 434t FSLIC. See Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation Fuchs, Klaus 49 fuels 80 fuel oils 85t consumer price index 128t; distillate 82t; heating by 82t; residual 85t jet 85t prices paid by farmers for 125t Fugue (Wassili Kandinsky) 444t Fuji Jukogyo K.K. 402t Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. 402t Fujita Scale (tornadoes) 40 Fujitsu Ltd. 402t Fulbright,William 266t, 305 Fuller, Richard Buckminster 448t Fulmer,Willa L. 242t fundamentalism (religion) 228 fungicides 424t Furrer, Richard 411t

G Gable, Clark 54, 318 Gacy, John Wayne 582t Gagarin,Yuri A. 54, 408t Galileo spacecraft 407t Gallup, George 310 Galveston,Tex. 35, 159t Galvin, John R. 265t gambling 315, 316 game shows,TV 474t Gandhi (film) 64 Gannett Company 172 garbage. See solid municipal waste Garbo, Greta 68 Garcia, Robert 244t gardens, pesticide used for 424t Gardner, Ava 68, 317 Gardner, Dale 409t Gardner, John W. 234t Gardner Museum (Boston) 442 Garfield (comic cat) 62 Garfunkel, Arthur 57 Garland, Judy 58, 313, 452 Garland,Tex. 328t, 329t Garn, Jake 409t Index

639

Garneau, Marc 409t Garriott, Owen K. 409t Gary, Carlton 582t Gary, Ind. 11t, 330t gases liquefied 82t liquefied petroleum 85t motor gasoline 85t natural gas 80 energy consumption by 81t–82t; energy production by 81t; heating by 82t; production and consumption 84t natural gas plant liquids 81t organic 418t piped 128t gasoline 69, 85t, 141, 143t Gas Pipe Line Bridge 449t Gates, Bill 414 Gates,Thomas S., Jr. 234t, 266t Gateway Arch (St. Louis) 57, 314 Gatorade 432 GDP. See gross domestic product G. D. Searie 74t Geisel,Theodore (Dr. Seuss) 53 Gemini space program 403 Gemini-Titan space missions 408t gender. See also females; males and armed forces 278t discrimination in education 378 economy earnings and income 107; employment 98, 102; and employment 98; median earnings and earnings gap 105t; median earnings by race and Hispanic origin 109t education college/university faculty 388; higher education 378; level of 356 income by 364t–365t and military service 272, 275 politics and government 231, 232 population 1, 1t–2t vital statistics and health care AIDS cases reported 200t; balance of elderly males and females 195t; death rates 197t; divorce 192t; infant mortality rate 182t; life expectancy 196t; marital status 192t; medical device implants 207t; persons without health insurance 213t General Association of Regular Baptist Churches 225t General Dynamics 74t General Electric Corporation 51, 66, 73t, 74t, 79t, 402t

640

General Foods 73t General Mills Restaurant Group 436t General Motors Corp. chronology 48 largest American businesses 74t as leading market value stock 79t mergers 73t, 74t patents received by 402t transportation 136, 141 generic drugs, cost of brand-name vs. 208t genes, synthetic 62 Geneva Summit 300t Genie missiles 415t Gentlemen’s Quarterly 175t Geoffrion (“Boom, Boom”) 562 geographic knowledge international comparisons 373t U.S. students’ ranking in 370 George,Walter F. 266t George Bancroft (submarine) 285t George C. Marshall (submarine) 285t George Halas Trophy 539t George Mason University 386t George State University 386t Georgetown University 399t GeorgeWashington (aircraft carrier) 284t George Washington Bridge 449t George Washington Carver (submarine) 285t George Washington University 387t Georgia 308 abortion 184 African-American population 12t AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 38t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t


Georgia (submarine) 286t Georgia Institute of Technology 399t Georgia-Pacific 74t Gephardt, Richard A. 240t Gere, Richard 222 German Democratic Republic (East Germany) armed forces in 279t coal reserves 84t and end of cold war 303 life expectancy 196t Germany alcohol use 219t East. See German Democratic Republic economy 69 annual changes in consumer prices 129t; direct investments in United States 94t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; export/import value 93t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; as trade partner 94t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t motor vehicle production wages 145t reunification of 68 Soviet occupation of 263, 264 universal health-care system 211t U.S. patents granted to 402t West. See Federal Republic of Germany Gernreich, Rudi 432 GE Rockefeller Center (New York) 449t Gershwin, George 317 Getty, John Paul 439t Getty Estate 439t Getty Museum (California) 442 Getty Oil 73t Gettysburg, Pa. 418 Ghana 24t, 27t, 387t Giamatti, Bart 68 Gibbon, John H., Jr. 203 Gibbs, Florence R. 242t G.I. Bill of Rights 378 Gibson, Althea 320 Gibson, Edward G. 409t Gibson, Robert 409t, 411t Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) 55, 252 Gifford, Kathie Lee 452 Gift from the Sea,A (Anne Morrow Lindbergh) 504 gigabyte 413 G.I. Joe doll 56 Gillespie, Dizzy 320 Gilmore, Gary 62, 584 Gingrich, Newt 240t

Ginsberg, Allen 53, 57 Giuliani, Rudolph 333–334 Giurgola, Romaldo 448t Glamour 174t, 175t Glasgow, Mont. 45t Glassboro Summit 300t Gleason, Jackie 214 Glendale, Ariz. 329t Glendale, Calif. 328t Glenn, John 55, 318, 404 global economy 90 globalization 136 global warming 29 Globe magazine 174t glossolalia 228 God, belief in 223t Godfather,The (film) 60 Godfrey, Arthur 214 Godspell (musical) 452 Goetz, Bernard 65 Goldberg, Arthur J. 234t, 250, 266t Golden Gate Bridge 449, 449t Golden Skillet 436t gold reserves 90t Goldschmidt, Neil E. 235t Goldwater, Barry 56, 233t, 305 Goldwyn, Samuel 61 golf 550t, 551t, 558–562 Golf Digest 174t, 175t Golf Magazine 174t Gone with theWind (Margaret Mitchell) 504 gonorrhea, reported cases of 200t Gonzalez, Henry B. 244t Goode,W.Wilson 336 Good Housekeeping 174t, 175t Goodland, Kans. 45t Goodpaster, Andrew J. 265t goods-producing industries, employment in 99t Goodyear Tire & Rubber 74t Gorbachev, Mikhail 65, 67, 302, 302–303, 303, 352 Gorbatko,Viktor V. 408t Gordon, Richard F., Jr. 408t government(s). See also politics and government education 356, 377 employment in 97, 99t federal. See federal government gold reserves 90t health-care expenditures by 208t–210t local. See local governments payments to farms by 124t pesticide use by 424t state. See state governments workers killed/injured on job 106t Grabe, Ronald J. 409t, 411t Grable, Betty 214 Graf, Steffi 553

Graham, Billy 49, 229, 230, 317, 341b Graham, Bruce 448t grain products, pesticide residues in 425t grains 119t. See also specific grains Grammy Awards 54, 489–491 Granahan, Kathryn E. 243t Grand Coulee Dam 49 Grand Island, Neb. 45t Grand Junction, Colo. 44t Grand Metropolitan, PCL 73t, 436t Grand Rapids, Mich. 45t, 328t, 442 Grand Rapids metropolitan area 331t Grand Rapids–Muskegon– Holland metropolitan area 9t Grand Rapids Press 173t grand slam (baseball term) 519 Grand Slam (tennis) 553, 554t, 555t Grand Trunk Western Railroad Co. 155t Grant, Cary 452 Grant, Lee 452 Grant Pass metropolitan area 423t graphite 95t Grasso, Ella T. 243t Gray, Gordon 266t Gray, L. Patrick 236 Gray,William H. 244t Gray,William H., III 240t Graziano, Rocky 565 Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea 74t Great Britain. See also England; Scotland;Wales chronology 52, 55 Korean War casualties 270t summit conferences 300t Greater New Orleans Bridge 449t Great Falls, Mont. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Great Plains states dust storms 42 population 3 record snow 43t Great Society 210, 232, 343, 356 Great Wall of China 60 Grechko, Georgiy M. 409t Greece annual changes in consumer prices 129t cold war years 288 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration 22t, 24t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t

merchant fleets 160t military sales and assistance to 299t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t Greek Line 162 Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North and South America 225t Green, Edith 243t Green,Theodore F. 266t Green Bay,Wis. 45t greenhouse effect 417 Greenland 185t, 278t Greenpeace 60 Greensboro, N.C. 45t, 248, 317, 328t Greensboro–Winston-Salem– High Point metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t Greensboro–Winston-Salem metropolitan area 423t Greenspan, Alan 67 Greenville, S.C. 46t Greenville-Spartanburg metropolitan area 13t, 331t Gregg v. Georgia and other cases (1976) 252 Grenada 27t, 65, 290 Gretzky,Wayne 462 Greyhound bus line 105 Griffin, Robert P. 240t Griffiths, Martha W. 243t Griggs, S. David 409t grills 433t Grissom,Virgil 57, 403, 404, 408t Gromyko, Andrei 302 Gronouski, John A. 234t Gropius,Walter 448t gross domestic product (GDP) 70t, 210t, 256t gross national product (GNP) economy 70t, 71t, 110t education expenditures as percent of 370 and health-care expenditures 209t–210t increase in 69 gross state product. See specific states groundwater contamination 429t Gruening, Ernest 304 Gruenther, Alfred M. 265t GTE Products Corp. 73t, 79t, 402t Guam 278t, 363t, 429t, 440t Guamanian Americans 16t Guatemala asylum grantees 25t CIA covert activity in 52, 289

foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Gubarev, Aleksei A. 409t Guevara, Che 58 Guggenheim Museum 54 guided missiles. See missiles Guideposts 174t Gulf Coast of United States, hurricanes on 37t, 38t Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 56 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution repeal (1973) 296 Gulf Oil 73t Guthrie,Woody 58 Guyana, foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Guys and Dolls (play) 453 Gwinnett County, Ga. 332t gymnastics 550t, 552t

H Häagen-Dazs 436t Hackensack Record 173t hacker (computer term) 413 Haggard, Merle 218 Hagler, Marvin 565 Hahn, Jessica 67 Haig, Alexander M. 235t, 265t Haig, Alexander M., Jr. 266t Hair (musical) 58, 453 hair spray 432 Haise, Fred W., Jr. 408t Haiti 22t, 23t, 24, 27t, 289m, 387t Halcion 64 Haldeman, H. R. 61, 236–238, 238, 411 Hale, Sarah, Buell 316 Haley, Bill 478 Haleyville, Ala. 166 Hall, Katie 243t, 244t Halleck, Charles A. 240t Halley’s comet 66 Hallmark television commercial 478 hallucinogens 217t halogen lamps 433 Hamburg-Atlantic 160t Hamilton County, Ind. 332t Hamilton County, Ohio 333t Hammerstein, Oscar 452 Hancock (aircraft carrier) 283t handicapped students 361t, 377 H & R Block 75t Hannegan, Robert E. 234t Hanseatic (transatlantic liner) 160t Hansen, Alvin 321 Hansen, Julia B. 243t Hanson, Robert 582t Happy Land social club fire 68

hard drive 413 Hardee’s 75t, 436t Harden, Cecil M. 243t Hardin, Clifford M. 234t hard-of-hearing students 361t hardware 413 Hardy, James 203 Hardy, Oliver 53 Harford County, Md. 332t Harlan, John M. 250 Harlem, N.Y. 249 Harriman,W. Averell 234t, 354 Harris, Jean 63 Harris, Patricia R. 63, 235t Harrisburg, Pa. 46t Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle metropolitan area 331t Harrison, Rex 452 Harrison,Wallace K. 448t Harry S.Truman (aircraft carrier) 284t Hart, Gary 67 Hart,Terry J. 409t Hartford, Conn. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Hartford Courant 173t Hartford metropolitan area 8t, 423t Hartford–New Britain–Middletown metropolitan area 331t Hart Memorial Trophy 564t Hartsfield, Henry W. 409t, 411t Harvard University 386t, 387t, 388, 399t Harvey Mudd College 399t hashish 217t Hatcher, Richard 57 Hatfield, Mark 319 Hathaway, Stanley K. 235t Hauck, Frederick 409t, 411t Haverford College 399t Havre, Mont. 45t Hawaii 308–309 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t chronology 48, 54 economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Asian/Pacific Islander– American 15; Asian/ Pacific Islander Americans in 17t; foreign-born 28t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t Index

641

Hawaii (continued) prison inmates 579t transportation airplane accident 151; import cars 144t; rural/ urban road mileage 147t U.S. armed forces in 278t Hawaiian Airline 153t Hawaiian Americans 16t Hawaiian Patriot oil spill 87t Hawkins, Augustus F. 244t Hawkins, Paula 242t Hawk missiles 415t Hawley, Steven A. 409t, 411t hay 122t Hayes, Charles A. 244t Hayes, Gabby 459 Hays,Will 457 Hayward, Susan 214 hazardous waste 418, 427–429 HBO. See Home Box Office health care 202–221, 203, 207 and air pollutants 419t consumer price index 128t costs of 202–203, 207–210 diseases 200t–202t expenditures on 208t–210t, 259t federal expenditures for 254t medical care/providers 202–207 Medicare 210–213 state expenditures for 258t substance use and abuse 214–221 health foods 433 health impaired students 361t Health magazine 174t health science degrees awarded 396t–398t hearing aids 431 Hearns,Thomas 565 Hearst, Patricia 61 Hearst newspapers 172 heart diseases 54, 197t–198t heart-lung machine 203 heart-lung transplants 206t Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964) 252 heart transplants 204, 206t heart valve implants 207t heat index 30t heating, type of 82t heavy metal bands 478 Heckler, Margaret 235t, 243t Heimlich maneuver 61 Heisman Trophy 544t Helena, Mont. 45t helicopters, military 280, 294t, 295t Hellman, Lillian 214 Hell’s Canyon 309 Helms, Jesse 317 Helms, Richard M. 267t Helmsley, Leona 68

642

Helsinki Summit 300t Hemingway, Ernest 55, 309 Hendrix, Jimi 324 Henkel KGAA 402t Henry Clay (submarine) 285t Henry County, Ga. 332t Henry L. Stimson (submarine) 285t Henry M. Jackson (submarine) 286t Henson, Jim 53, 68 hepatitis B 204 Hepburn, Katharine 307 Heptachlor 425t herbicides 424t Hernando County, Fla. 332t heroin 217t, 218t Herrington, John S. 235t Hershey, Barbara 452 Hershey, Lewis B. 275 Herter, Christian A. 234t, 266t Hewlett-Packard Co. 74t, 402t Hialeah, Fla. 328t Hickel,Walter 234t, 304 Hicks, Louise Day 243t higher education. See colleges and universities High Museum of Art (Atlanta, Ga.) 443t high school dropouts 361t high school seniors behavior/perception trends in 220t and drug use 588t–589t Highway Beautification Law (1965) 418 highways. See roads, streets, and highways Hillary, Edmund 51 Hillenkoetter, Roscoe H. 267t Hill, Lister 240t Hills, Carla A. 235t Hillsboro Light, Fla. 37t Hilmers, David C. 409t, 411t Hilo, Hawaii 17t Hinckley, John, Jr. 64 hip-hop 478 hip joints, artificial 207t Hirshhorn, Joseph 57 Hispanic Americans 19, 69 AIDS cases 200t in armed forces 278t birth rates 178 “born-again” status of 229t children’s living arrangements 194t cigarette/drug use by 221t in Congress 244t divorce 192t economy below poverty level 114t; earnings and income 107; employment of women 102t; median earnings of 109t; median household income of


110t; per capita income of 110t; poverty 113 education 356 college completion 395t; college enrollment 382t; level of 359t–361t, 376t family and nonfamily households 194t fertility rates 180t illegitimate births 178, 181t immigration 21 interracial marriages 191t literature by 495 marital status 192t in metropolitan populations 330t–331t population 6, 7t–9t, 17, 17t–18t, 20m as prison inmates 579t sexual behavior and attitudes 188t–189t in sports 506t, 507, 507t voting by 246t Hiss, Alger 48 historic preservation 447 history pre–cold war. See specific cities; specific states Pulitzer Prize in 502t Hitachi 402t HIV infection, deaths from 197t–198t Hmong Americans 16t Ho, Don 308 Hobby, Oveta Culp 51, 234t Hobby Airport (Texas) 38t hockey 64, 562–565, 574 Hodel, Donald P. 235t Hodges, Luther H. 234t Hodgkin’s disease 200t Hodgson, James D. 234t Hoechst A.G. 402t Hoechst Celanese Corp. 402t Hoffa, James 53, 61 Hoffman, Dustin 67 Hoffman, Jeffrey A. 409t Hofmann, Hans 443t hogs and swine 118t, 120t–121t, 122t Hohokam Indians 337 Holden,William 452 Holiday, Billie 54, 312 Holiday Inns 50, 75t Holiness Churches 226t Holland-America Line 160t, 162 Holliday, Judy 214 Hollings, Ernest 320 Holly, Buddy 54 Holt, Marjorie S. 243t Holtzman, Elizabeth 243t Home & Away 174t Home Box Office (HBO) 60, 163, 468

home health agencies, Medicare and 212t Home Lines 161 Home magazine 174t Home Mechanix 174t home pesticide use 424t homes deaths in 199t electronic equipment in 171t median sales price 130t home-schooling 357 homicide 197t–198t chronology 57, 64 crime 575t, 581–583, 581t–583t, 584t homosexuality 187, 190t Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) 252 chronology 61, 62 defined as mental illness 61 in literature 495 Honda Motor Co., Ltd. 64, 141, 402t Honduras 27t, 97t, 279t, 289m, 298t, 387t Honest John missiles 415t Honeywell Inc. 402t Hong Kong educational comparisons 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 23t, 24t life expectancy 196t population 6t as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Honolulu, Hawaii 17t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 159t, 327t Honolulu airport 152t Honolulu metropolitan area 17t, 331t hook (baseball term) 519 Hoover, Herbert 310 Hoover, J. Edgar 60 Hope, Bob 318, 341–342b, 466 Hope Diamond 54 Hopewell County,Va. 333t Hopi Indians 304 Hopper, Dennis 311 Hopper, Edward 443t Horizon Air Airline 153t Hormel Meatpacking 105 Hornet (aircraft carrier) 283t horse racing 61, 311, 561–574 hospices, Medicare and 212t hospitals federal expenditures for 254t Medicare spending and 212t vital statistics and health care 202, 204t–205t cost of care 207; drugrelated emergencies 218t hostage crisis, Iran 63, 64, 66, 236, 296 hot box (baseball term) 519

hot corner (baseball term) 519 “hot line” 55 Hot ’N Now Hamburgers 436t Hot Rod 174t Hound Dog missiles 415t Hour of Decision 230 Hour of Power 230 House Beautiful 174t households. See also families and households experiencing crime 580t family vs. nonfamily 192 with television 469t House of Representatives. See U.S. House of Representatives housing architecture 446 and domestic technology 431 federal expenditures for 254t social welfare expenditures on 259t Houston,Tex. 335–336 Manned Space Center 322 population 11t, 327t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t Houston Astros 509 Houston Chronicle 173t Houston Colt 45s 509 Houston Community College System 385t Houston-Galveston-Brazoria metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 17t, 19t, 330t Houston Intercontinental Airport 152t Houston metropolitan area 422t Houston Post 173t Howard, Moe 214 Howard County, Md. 332t Howe, Gordie 562 “Howl” (Allen Ginsberg) 53 How the Grinch Stole Christmas! 53 How toWin Friends and Influence People (Dale Carnegie) 504 Hubble space telescope 68, 403 Hudson, Rock 66, 187 Hufstedler, Shirley M. 235t Hughes, Howard 62 Hughes, Langston 314 Hughes Aircraft Co. 73t, 402t hula hoops 432 Hull, Bobby (“Golden Jet”) 562 Hull, Cordell 321 humidity, average relative 32t–33t Humphrey, George M. 234t Humphrey, Hubert H. 313, 314, 342b chronology 56, 58 politics and government 234t presidential election votes 233t Senate whip 240t Humphrey, Muriel Buck 242t

Hungary alcohol use 219t chronology 53 educational comparisons 372t and end of cold war 303 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 24t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Hunt, E. Howard 238 Hunterdon County, N.J. 332t Huntington,W.Va. 46t, 151, 159t Huntington Beach, Calif. 328t Huntington Library and Gallery (San Marino, Calif.) 443t Huntley, Chet 214, 315 Huntley-Brinkley Report 53 Huntsville, Ala. 40t, 44t Huron, S.Dak. 46t Huron Indians 313 hurricanes 35, 36t–38t Agnes 46 Audrey 53 Camille 35, 46, 58 Elena 37 and flooding 46 Hazel 52 Hugo 68, 320 Hush Puppies 432 Hussein, Saddam 68 Hyatt Hotel (Kansas City) 64 hydrochloric acid 423t hydroelectric power 81t–82t hydrogen bomb 49, 50, 58

I Iberia (transatlantic liner) 160t IBM Corp. 402t, 412, 413, 414 ibuprofen 218t ICBM. See intercontinental ballistic missile ice hockey, men’s college 546t–547t Iceland 71t, 210t, 265t, 278t, 289m ice pellets 34t–35t “Ich bin ein Berliner” (John F. Kennedy) 177 Ickes, Harold L. 234t Idaho 309 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t, 20m American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; per-

cent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Idaho Falls, Idaho 45t Iditarod 66 Idlewild Airport 48 “I Have a Dream” Speech (Martin Luther King, Jr.) 55, 176, 249 Ile de France (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 illegal drugs 216–218 illegal immigration 24, 26, 26t illegitimate births 178–179, 180t–181t Illinois 309–310 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t illegal population 26t population 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; illegal 26t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Illinois Central Gulf Railroad Co. 155t Illinois Indians 309 Illinois State University 386t illiteracy 356–357 IMA Holdings 74t Imasco, Ltd. 436t immigration 1, 20–28 Asian-Pacific Islanders restrictions 15 chronology 57, 66, 67 exemptions to visa limitations 24 to Florida 308 illegal 24, 26 naturalization 28 Preference system Immigration Act (1965) 23 refugees and asylum 24–26 Imperial Chemical Industries PLC 402t

imports 90, 91t by end-use category 95t transportation 158t value of 93t INA 73t Inaugural Address(es) as best speeches 176 of John F. Kennedy, January 20, 1961 594–595 Inc. 175t income. See earnings and income income taxes federal 131, 256 per capita distribution 132t–133t; personal exemptions 134t; rates and exemptions 131t; receipts from 255t–256t; revenue from 257t; taxrate schedules 132t local 257t state 257t Independence (aircraft carrier) 283t, 284t Independence (transatlantic liner) 160t India. See also Asian Indian Americans armed forces in 279t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t gross national product 71t immigration from 22t, 23t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t nuclear explosions 301t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Indiana 310 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Indiana, Robert 443t Indiana Harbor, Ind. 159t Index

643

Indianapolis, Ind. 11t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t, 327t Indianapolis 500 569–570 Indianapolis metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Indianapolis Star 173t Indiana University, Bloomington 385t, 387t Indiana University basketball champions 521 Indiana University–Purdue University at Indianapolis 385t Indians. See Asian Indian Americans; Native Americans; specific tribes individual income taxes, government revenue from 257t Indochina 271, 299t. See also specific countries Indonesia armed forces in 279t economy coal reserves 84t; as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t; U.S. investments in 97t educational comparisons 371t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t U.S. students from 387t indoor track (sport) 549t–550t, 552t industrial supplies and materials, export/import of 95t industries. See also specific industries; specific states direct foreign investment in 94t fastest-growing 76t hourly earnings by 107t nonagricultural employment in 99t pesticide use by 424t weekly earnings by 108t workers killed/injured on job 106t infant mortality rate 181, 182t infectious diseases 200t inflation 67, 69, 107, 126–131 influenza, deaths from 197t–198t information science degrees awarded 396t–398t INF Treaty. See Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987) Inglewood, Calif. 11t inhalants 217t injuries deaths from 197t–198t on the job 106t from lightning 42, 43t–44t Ink Spots 478 inland waterways, freight traffic on 156t, 157

644

Inouye, Daniel K. 15, 308, 342, 342b insecticides 424t insurance direct foreign investment in 94t employment in 99t health care 207, 208t, 213t. See also Medicare hourly earnings in 107t malpractice 207 weekly earnings in 108t insurance trusts federal expenditures for 254t state expenditures for 258t integrated circuits 413 Integrated Electronics Corp. (Intel) 413, 414 integration. See segregation and desegregation Intel. See Integrated Electronics Corp. Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance 289m Interchange (Willem de Kooning) 444t intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) 53, 281, 282t interest on federal debt 254t interest rates 70 Interfirst Plaza Tower (Dallas) 449t Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987) 67, 281, 301 international air mail rates 165t international banking 88 international business 90–97 International Business Machines 74t, 79t International Church of the Foursquare Gospel 225t, 226t International Confederation of Community Churches 226t International Correspondence Schools 386t International Dairy Queen, Inc. 436t international educational comparisons 371t–373t International Falls, Minn. 44, 45t International Paper 74t International Style (architecture) 447 international trade economy 90–97 top U.S. partners in 94t transportation 136, 138, 157, 158t–159t Internet 163, 171–172 interracial marriages 57, 190, 191t interstate highway system 53, 146m Intrepid (aircraft carrier) 283t


Inuit 304 investment income (international transactions) 91t Iowa 310 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Iowa (battleship) 67 Iowa City, Iowa 42t Iowa State University 385t, 387t Iran armed forces in 279t asylum grantees 25t chronology 51, 67 CIA covert activity in 289, 290 educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t hostage crisis 63, 64, 66, 236, 296 immigration from 22t, 23t military sales and assistance to 299t 1979 revolution in 296 refugees 24t U.S. students from 387t Iran-Contra scandal 67, 290 Iraq 24t, 27t, 64, 67, 68, 279t, 581t Ireland alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t computing power 414t educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t motor vehicle production wages 145t

population 6t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t Irises (Vincent van Gogh) 444t iron curtain 48, 264 iron lung 201 irons (appliance) 131t, 432 Iroquois Indians 317 irradiation (of food) 432 Irvine, Calif. 329t Irving,Tex. 329t Irwin, James B. 409t Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum (Boston) 68 ischemic heart disease, deaths from 197t–198t Islam 222, 226n, 226t Israel armed forces in 279t chronology 48, 64 educational comparisons 372t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t, 23t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t military sales and assistance to 299t murder rate 581t population 6t space launchings 405t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. protection for 288 U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Issel, Dan 533 Italian Line 160t, 162 Italy alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; gross national product (GNP) 71t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; as trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t merchant fleets 160t

military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t “I’ve Been to the Mountaintop” (Martin Luther King, Jr.) 177 Ixtoc I oil well spill 87t

J Jabbar, Kareem Abdul 68 Jack in the Box 437t Jackson, Henry 324 Jackson, Jesse 177, 317 Jackson, Mahalia 311 Jackson, Maynard 231, 308 Jackson, Michael 310, 355 Jackson, Miss. 11t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 249, 328t Jackson, Robert H. 250 Jackson,William H. 266t Jackson metropolitan area 13t Jacksonville, Fla. 11t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 159t, 327t Jacksonville metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t Jacksonville Times-Union 173t Jaguar Motor Company 68 Jamaica 22t, 23t, 27t, 97t, 298t, 387t James City County,Va. 332t James K. Polk (submarine) 285t James Madison (submarine) 285t James Monroe (submarine) 285t James Norris Memorial Trophy 564t Jani-King International 75t Japan bilateral defense treaty with 289m chronology 49, 54, 64 computing power 414t economy 69, 70 annual changes in consumer prices 129t; banking 88; direct investments in United States 94t; economy 94t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; export/import value 93t; gross national product 71t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors in 84t; as trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t; U.S. plants owned by 96t

educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t foreign policy 271 health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t, 23t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t murder rate 581t Nobel Prize laureates in 403t population 6t space launchings 405t transportation automobiles 141–142; merchant fleets 160t; motor vehicle production 137t; motor vehicle production wages 145t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. patents granted to 401, 402t U.S. students from 387t Japanese Americans apology to 67 chronology 54 illegitimate births 181t population 6t, 15, 15t, 16t total arrests of 576t–577t Jarvis, Gregory 410t, 411 Javits, Jacob 317 Javits Center 443 Jaworski, Leon 237, 238 jazz 478 Jazzercise 75t J.C. Penney 74t Jefferson,Thomas 323 Jehovah’s Witnesses 223n, 224t, 226t Jersey City, N.J. 328t Jerusalem 6t Jesse Jones Memorial Bridge 449t Jesus Christ Superstar (musical) 452–453 jet fuel 85t Jet magazine 49, 174t jet planes. See air transportation Jews. See Judaism Jiang Jieshi (Chaing Kai-shek) 267, 268 Jiffy lube 76t Jimmy Swaggart Telecast,The 230 Jim Thorpe Trophy 539t–540t Jobs, Steven P. 412 jockeys (horse racing) 574t John XXIII (pope) 227 John, Elton 355, 452 John Adams (submarine) 285t John C. Calhoun (submarine) 285t John C. Stennis (aircraft carrier) 284t John F. Kennedy (aircraft carrier) 284t

John F. Kennedy International Airport 152t John F. Kennedy Library (Boston) 447 John Hancock Building (Chicago) 309, 335, 447, 449t John Herron Art Museum (Indianapolis, Ind.) 443t John Paul II (pope) 63, 67 Johns, Jasper 441, 443t Johns Hopkins University 399t Johnson, Earvin (“Magic”) 63, 522 Johnson, Louis A. 234t, 266t Johnson, Lyndon B. 56, 321, 322, 343, 343b chronology 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60 Explains and Defends American Involvement in Vietnam, April 1965 599–600 foreign policy 266t politics and government 232 cabinet members 234t; in Kennedy’s cabinet 234t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Senate floor leader 240t; Senate whip 240t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250;Vietnam War 236 and poverty 113 and televised space flight 163 and Vietnam War 290 Voting Rights Bill speech 177 Johnson, Nancy L. 243t Johnson, Paul 337 Johnson, Philip 448t Johnson & Johnson 74t, 79t Johnson Doctrine (1965) 272 Johnston Atoll 278t Johnstown, Pa. 47t joint chiefs of staff, chairmen of 267t Jones, David C. 267t Jones, Fay 448t Jones, James Earl 314 Jones, Jim 62 Jones, Spike 214 Joplin, Janis 321 Jordan 27t, 298t, 387t Jordan, Barbara 176, 243t, 244t, 250, 321, 343b Jordan, Michael 317, 522 Jordan, Mimi 54 Jorgensen, George/Christine 50 J.T. Acquisition 73t Judaism 183t, 222, 223, 223t, 226t Jugolinija 162 Juneau, Alaska 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t, 151 junk (baseball term) 519

K Kahn, Louis 448t Kahului, Hawaii 17t Kailua, Hawaii 17t Kaiser-Fraser 136 Kaiulani,Victoria 308 Kalispell, Mont. 45t Kalmbach, Herbert 238 Kamehameha (submarine) 285t Kandinsky,Wassili 444t Kaneohe, Hawaii 17t Kansas 310–311 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Kansas City, Kan. 330t Kansas City, Mo. 49 floods 47t population 327t school desegregation 374 weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Kansas City Athletics 509 Kansas City metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t, 422t Kansas City Royals 509 Kansas City Southern Railway Co. 155t Kansas City Star 173t Kansas City Times 173t Kansas State University of Agriculture and Applied Sciences 386t Kaptur, Marcy 243t Karankawa Indians 335 Karmel Korn 436t Karp, Haskell 204 Kaskaskia Indians 309 Kassebaum, Nancy Landon 242t, 311 Katzenbach, Nicholas 234t K.C. Masterpiece Barbeque Sauce 434 Kearney,Wayne 582t Kearsarge (aircraft carrier) 283t Index

645

Keaton, Buster 214 Kee, Maude E. 243t Kefauver, Estes 53 Keillor, Garrison 313 Keller, Helen 203 Kellogg Co. 79t Kelly, Edna F. 243t Kelly, Grace 53, 65 Kemp, Jack F. 235t Kemper, Edmund 582t Kennan, George F. 264, 343–344b Kennedy, Anthony M. 67, 250 Kennedy, David M. 234t Kennedy, Edward M. (Ted) 58, 240t, 313 Kennedy, Jacqueline 55, 56, 58, 163, 251 Kennedy, John F. 69, 163, 251, 313, 344–345b at Berlin Wall 344 best speeches 176, 177 chronology 54, 55, 56 Cuban Missile Crisis Report to the Nation 595–597 foreign policy 266t inaugural address 594–595 and labor unions 105 Marilyn Monroe 349 politics and government assassination of 231; cabinet members 234t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250 and poverty 113 presidential debates 168 and presidential doctrine 272 religion 227 Kennedy, Robert F. 58, 177, 234t, 317, 340, 349 Kennedy Center (Washington, D.C.) 60 Kennelly, Barbara B. 243t Kent State University 59, 318, 379, 386t Kentucky 311 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t

646

prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t Kentucky (submarine) 286t Kentucky Derby 571, 572t Kentucky Fried Chicken 53, 75t, 436t, 437t Kenya 27t, 298t, 387t Keo oil spill 87t Kepone 425t Kerner Commission 58, 250 Kerner Commission Report on Racial Violence in American Cities, 1968 598–599 kerosene heating 82t, 433t Kerouac, Jack 313 Kerry, John 601–602 Kerwin, Joseph P. 409t Kevorkian, Jack 68 Keys, Martha E. 243t Key West, Fla. 38t Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 62 Khrunov,Yevgeny V. 408t Khrushchev, Nikita 54, 55 Kickapoo Indians 310 kidney and renal pelvis cancer 200t kidney transplants 203, 206t Kiewit-Murdock 74t Killebrew, Harmon 309 Killing Fields,The (film) 65 Kim Il-Sung 270 King, B. B. 478 King, Billie Jean 61 King, Coretta Scott 304 King, Larry 452, 466 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 176, 176, 345, 345–346b assassination of 249, 321 best speeches 176, 177 chronology 55, 56, 58 Civil Rights movement 248, 249 King Salmon, Alaska 44t Kings County, N.Y. 333t Kinsey, Alfred 49, 178, 187 Kiowa Indians 310, 318 Kirby, Jack 413, 414 Kirby, Rollin 315 Kirkpatrick, Jeane J. 266t Kissinger, Henry A. 346–347b foreign policy 266t politics and government 234t, 235t post-Vietnam mentality 236 and Vietnam War 291, 296 Kitt, Eartha 320 Kitty Hawk (aircraft carrier) 284t Kizim, Leonid 409t, 411t Klamath County (Oreg.) metropolitan area 423t Kleenex 432


Kleindienst, Richard 236, 238 Kleppe,Thomas 235t Kline, Franz 443t Klutznick, Philip M. 235t K-Mart 55, 74t Knebel, John A. 235t knee joints, artificial 207t Knight,Ted 452 Knight-Ridder newspapers 172 Knotts, Don 324 Knowland,William F. 240t Knoxville,Tenn. 46t, 330t Knoxville metropolitan area 331t knuckler (baseball term) 519 Knutson, Coya G. 243t Koch, Ed 333 Kohnberg Kravis Roberts 73t Komarov,Vladimir M. 408t Konica Corp. 402t Kopechne, Mary Jo 58 Koppel,Ted 64 Kopperston,W.Va. 100 Korea. See also Korean War educational comparisons 371t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t foreign policy 271 immigration from 22t, 23t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t North. See Korean People’s Democratic Republic South. See Republic of Korea Korean Americans 15t, 16t Korean People’s Democratic Republic (North Korea) 58, 269–271, 279t Korean War 49, 50, 50, 51, 269–271, 290 armed forces in 275 weapons/equipment of 280 women in 277 Kosygin, Aleksei 57 Kotzebue, Alaska 44t Koufax, Sandy 516 Kraft 73t Kramer, Jerry 309 Kreps, Juanita M. 235t Kroc, Ray 53, 347b, 432 Kroger 74t Krough, Egil 238 Krug, Julius A. 234t Kubasov,Valery N. 408t, 409t Kuchel,Thomas H. 240t Kumeyaay Indians 336 Kunin, Madeleine 322 Kurland, Bob 521 Kushner, Harold 504 Kuwait 68, 71t, 196t, 387t Kwik-Kopy Printing Centers 76t

L labor. See employment laboratories, Medicare spending and 212t labor force, women in 101t labor strikes 333 labor unions. See unions lacrosse 547t, 552t LaCrosse,Wis. 46t Ladd, Alan 305 Ladd, Cheryl 321 Ladies’ Home Journal 174t, 175t Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) 558, 561t–562t Lady Chatterley’s Lover 54 Lafayette (submarine) 285t Laffler, Arthur 69, 70 La GrandeVitesse (Alexander Calder) 442, 442 LaGuardia Airport 152t Laird, Melvin R. 235t, 266t Lake Champlain (aircraft carrier) 283t Lake Charles, La. 159t “lake-effect” snow 42 Lake Tahoe S. Shore metropolitan area 423t Lakota Indians 317, 320, 325. See also Sioux Indians lambs 122t L’Amour, Louis 318 Lance, Bert 62 Lance missiles 415t land area. See specific cities; specific states Lander,Wyo. 46t landfills 426 L & N Seafood 437t Landon, Michael 452 Landrieu, Moon 235t Langer, Bernard 558 languages computer 413 foreign degrees awarded in 396t–398t; higher education registrations in 383t Lansing, Mich. 45t Lansing Community College 386t Laos 24t, 27t Laotian Americans 16t laptop computer 413 Laredo,Tex. 329t Laredo metropolitan area 19t Larsen, Don 53 LaRue, Fred 238 larynx cancer 200t lasers (eye surgery) 203 Laskey, Posteal 582t last judgment, belief in 223t Las Vegas, Nev. 45t, 327t, 329t Las Vegas McCarren Airport 152t

Las Vegas metropolitan area 331t, 423t LasVegas Review-Journal 174t Latin America. See also specific countries estimated proved crude oil reserves 86t foreign aid to 297t–298t immigration 21, 24 U.S. investments in 97t Latino/as. See Hispanic Americans Latter-day Saints churches 223n, 225t Latvia, foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Laugh-In 58 Laurel, Miss. 40t Laurel, Stan 57 Laveikin, Aleksandr I. 411t Laver, Rod 553 law, degrees in 399t lawn mowers 131t, 431, 432 Laxalt, Paul 315 lead 418t, 419t, 420t Leahy, Patrick 322 Leahy,William D. 267t learning disabilities 361t Lebanon asylum grantees 25t chronology 54, 64, 65 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t refugees 24t U.S. armed intervention in 290 U.S. students from 387t Led Zeppelin 478 Lee, Bruce 452 Lee, Harper 504 Lee, Mark C. 411t Lee, Peggy 318, 452 Lee’s Famous Recipe 436t Leestma, David C. 409t legal homicide interventions, deaths from 197t–198t Legionnaire’s disease 62, 204 legionnellosis, reported cases of 200t Leigh,Vivien 58 Leland, George T. 244t LeMay, Curtis 58 Lemnitzer, Lyman L. 265t, 267t Lenni Lenape (Delaware) Indians 318, 324 Lennon, John 64 Lenoir,William 409t Leonard, Sugar Ray 565 Leonardo daVinci (transatlantic liner) 160t Leonov, Aleksei A. 408t, 409t Leopole and Loeb trial summary (Clarence Darrow) 177 leprosy, reported cases of 200t Lerner, Alan Jay 214, 452 Lescaze,William 448t

Lesotho 24t Letterman, David 310 letters degrees awarded 396t–398t leukemia 200t Levchenko, Anatoly 411t Levi, Edward 235t Levittown, Pa. 3 Levittowns 48, 446 Lewis, Drew 235t Lewis, Jerry Lee 311, 452 Lewis, John 244t, 248, 249, 310 Lewis and Clark (submarine) 285t Lewiston, Idaho 45t Lexington (aircraft carrier) 283t Lexington, Ky. 45t Lexington-Fayette, Ky. 328t Lexington Herald-Leader 174t Leyte (aircraft carrier) 283t Liberace, Guy 187, 324 Liberia 24t, 157, 160t Liberté (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 Liberty Baptist Fellowship 225t library science degrees awarded 396t–398t Librium 203 Libya 24t, 25t, 66, 97t, 581t Lichtenberg, Byron 409t Lichtenstein, Roy 441, 443t Liddy, G. Gordon 238 Lieberman, Nancy 525 life after death, belief in 223t Life cereal television commercial 478 life expectancy 196t, 202 Life Is Worth Living 230 Life magazine 60, 174t, 175t, 495 life sciences degrees awarded 396t–398t lightning 42, 43t–44t Lillehei, Clarence W. 203 Limbaugh, Rush 466 Limited,The 74t Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963) 301 Lin, Maya Ying 443 LIN Broadcasting 74t Lincoln, Nebr. 45t Lincoln, Nev. 328t Lindane 425t Lindbergh, Anne 504 Lindbergh, Charles 313 Linden, Hal 452 Lindsay, John 334 Lindsay,Ted 562 liposuction 64 Lippmann,Walter 61 liquefied gas 82t liquefied petroleum gases 85t literature. See books literature, Nobel Prize in 503t lithium 59 Lithuania 27t, 68 Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc. 436t

Little Caesars Pizza 75t Little John missiles 415t Little League baseball 520 Little Rock, Ark. 305 chronology 53 Civil Rights movement 248 population 328t school segregation 374 weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t Little Rock Gazette 173t Little Rock–North Little Rock metropolitan area 13t, 331t liver diseases 197t–198t, 200t liver transplants 203, 206t livestock and livestock products cash marketing receipts for 123t farm marketings 124t farm output 119t on farms 115, 118t livestock purchases 118t prices received for 125t Lloyd, John 340 Lloyd, Marilyn 243t local governments. See also specific cities employment in 97, 99t social welfare expenditures 259t, 260t unconstitutional ordinances of 252t local taxes per capita distribution 132t–133t revenue from 257t Locke, Sandra 340 Lockerbie, Scotland 67, 151 Lock,The (John Constable) 444t Lockheed 74t, 148, 150t Lodge, Henry Cabot, Jr. 54, 266t Loesser, Frank 452 Loewe, Frederick 452 Loma Prieta earthquake 306 Lombard, Carole 310 Lombardi,Vince 317 Long, Cathy 243t Long, Jill 243t Long, Russell 240t Long Beach, Calif. 17t, 44t, 159t, 327t Long Beach Press-Telegram 174t Longfellow, HenryWadsworth 312 Long Island, N.Y. 38t, 147 Long Island Newsday 173t Long Island Press 173t Long John Silver’s 437t Long John Silver’s Holdings, Inc. 437t Longmont (Colo.) metropolitan area 423t long-range bombers (LRBs) 282t Look magazine 60, 495 Lopez, Nancy 316, 347b, 558

Lorain Harbor, Ohio 159t Lord of the Rings,The (J.R.R. Tolkien) 504 Loren, Sophia 452 Los Alamos research center 317 Los Angeles, Calif. 334–335 Civil Rights movement 249 floods 47t population 327t African-American 11t; Asian/Pacific Islander Americans in 17t; by race/ethnicity 9t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t Los Angeles–Anaheim–Riverside metropolitan area 13t, 17t, 330t Los Angeles Angels 509 Los Angeles County Museum of Art 443t Los Angeles Daily News 173t Los Angeles Dodgers 509 Los Angeles Herald-Examiner 68, 173t Los Angeles International Airport 152t Los Angeles Lakers 522 Los Angeles metropolitan area 422t, 423t Los Angeles Rams 534 Los Angeles–Riverside–Orange County metropolitan area 8t, 19t Los Angeles Times 173t Lott,Trent 240t Loudoun County,Va. 332t Louis, Joe 313, 565 Louis, Morris 443t Louisiana 53, 311–312 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 36t, 38t population 4t, 12t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 374, 375m Index

647

Louisiana (continued) tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t Louisiana (submarine) 286t Louisiana and Arkansas Railway Co. 155t Louisiana State University & Ag. & Mech & Herbert Laws Center 385t Louisville, Ky. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 39, 45t, 327t, 330t Louisville Courier-Journal 173t Louisville metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t Lounge, John M. 411t Loury, Glenn 495 Lousma, Jack R. 409t Love Canal (New York) 418, 427 Lovelette, Clyde 521 Lovell, James A. 58, 408t Lovett, Robert A. 234t, 266t Loving v. Virginia 57 Lowey, Nita M. 243t Loy, Myrna 315 LPGA. See Ladies Professional Golf Association LRBs (long-range bombers) 282t LTV Corporation 66 Lubbock,Tex. 328t Lubin, Charles 431 Lucas, Scott 240t Luce, Clare Boothe 242t Luce, Henry 263 Lucid, Shannon W. 409t, 411t Lugar, Richard G. 266t Lujan, Manuel, Jr. 235t, 244t lung and bronchus cancer 200t lung cancer 48, 214 Lunt, Alfred 324 Lusk, Georgia L. 243t Lutheran churches 222, 225t Lutheran Church in America 226t Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod 224t, 225t Lutheran Hour, The 230 Luxembourg alcohol use 219t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; gross national product per capita 71t; as trade partner 94t; U.S. investments in 96t health-care expenditures 210t Marshall Plan aid 265t NATO 265t, 289m Lyakhov,Vladimir A. 409t Lyme disease 61 Lynchburg,Va. 46t Lyndon B. Johnson Center. See Manned Space Center Lyng, Richard E. 235t Lynn, James T. 235t

648

M MacArthur, Douglas 49, 177, 305, 354 Macau 24t machinery, farm 115, 125t Mackinac Bridge 53, 148, 449, 449, 449t Macmillan 74t Macomb Community College 385t Macon, Ga. 11t, 330t Mademoiselle 174t, 175t Madison, James 323 Madison,Wis. 46t, 328t MAD (mutual assured destruction) 292 Mad magazine 50, 172 Madonna 65, 313, 452, 478 magazines 172, 174t–175t, 495 Magellan spacecraft 407t Magic Markers 431 Maginnis, Charles Donagh 448t magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 62, 204 magnet schools 357 Magruder, Jeb Stuart 238 Mahican Indians 322 Mahovlich, Frank 562 Maier,Walter 229, 230 mail 164, 164t–165t. See also U.S. Postal Service Mail Boxes Etc. 76t Maine 312 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Maine (submarine) 286t mainframe computers 171t, 413, 414t Major League baseball 506t, 507–519 Majors, Lee 452 malaria, reported cases of 200t Malawi 24t Malaysia 27t, 94t, 97t, 387t Malcolm X 57, 176, 248, 249, 347b male householders 193t


males arts attendance by 446t in college sports 540–546, 546t–547t, 546t–551t, 547t–548t, 548t–549t, 549t–550t, 550t–551t, 551t crime assault victims 580t; homicides 581t; murder/ manslaughter victims 582t; prisoners 578t; risk of murder 583t economy median earnings of 105t, 109t; unemployment rate 103t–104t education college completion 395t; degrees conferred 394t–395t; faculty 391t–393t; in higher education 381t, 388; level of 359t–361t popular names for 179 population 1, 1t–2t in professional sports. See professional sports religion 223t, 229t sports most popular with 506t vital statistics and health care AIDS cases 200t; AIDS transmission 202t; alcohol-related deaths 219t; cigarette/drug use by 221t; death rates 197t–198t; divorce 191, 192t; elderly living arrangements 195t; at first marriage 190; infant mortality rate 182t; life expectancy 196t; live births 178t; marital status 192t; median age at first marriage 191t; medical device implants 207t; persons without health insurance 213t; as physicians 205t; sexual behavior and attitudes 188t–190t; tobacco smoking 215t Mall of America 314 Malone, Moses 61 malpractice insurance 207 Malta Summit 300t Malyshev,Yury 409t mammography 204 Manarov, Muso 411t Manassas County,Va. 332t M&M candy 431 Manet, Edouard 444t manganese 95t Mankin, Helen D. 243t Manned Space Center (Houston) 322, 336

Mansfield, Mike 240t, 315 Mansfield, Ohio 46t Manson, Charles 58 Man’s Search for Meaning (Viktor Frankl) 504 Mantle, Mickey 319 manufacturing 97 direct foreign investment in 94t earnings and income 107 employment in 99t hourly earnings in 107t Japanese-owned U.S. plants 96t labor unions 104–105 mergers 73t new plant and equipment expenditures 71t productivity measures 103t U.S. investments abroad in 96t–97t weekly earnings in 108t workers killed/injured on job 106t worker statistics 108t Manville Corporation 64 “Man with the Muckrake,The” (Theodore Roosevelt) 177 Mao Zedong 49, 267, 268, 271 Marathon Oil 73t “March Madness” (basketball) 521t March on Washington 176 Marciano, Rocky 565 Marcus Hook, Pa. 159t Mardian, Robert C. 61, 238 Mariano G. Vallejo (submarine) 285t Marichal, Juan 507 Mariel Boatlift 24 marijuana 216, 587, 588 agreement with statements about 589t effect of 218t names used for 218t use of 217t, 221t Marilyn Monroe 52 Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act 424t Mariner spacecraft 407t Maris, Roger 55 marital status and abortion 184, 186t contraception methods 183t in family and nonfamily households 193t, 194t of female householders with families 193t and sexual behavior/attitudes 184, 188t–189t markets, bull and bear 80t Markham, Edwin 319 Marquette, Mich. 45t marriage and marriage rates 63, 190–191, 191t. See also divorce

married-couple households 193 Marshall, F. Ray 235t Marshall, George C. 48, 234t, 266t, 319, 354 Marshall,Thurgood 57, 249, 250, 312, 347–348b Marshall Plan 265 Martin (aircraft manufacturer) 150t Martin, Dean 318, 452 Martin, Joseph W., Jr. 239t, 240t Martin, Lynn M. 243t Martinez, Matthew G. 244t Martin Luther King, Jr., Day 65 Maryland 312 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t illegal immigration 26t population 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t rural/urban road mileage 147t Maryland (submarine) 286t M*A*S*H (film) 65 Massachuset Indians 312 Massachusetts 312–313 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t Asian-American population 16m economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 387t, 399t, 402t master’s degrees 394t, 397t Masters Golf Tournament 559t, 560t Maternité (Pablo Picasso) 444t mathematics degrees awarded in 396t–398t international test score comparisons 373t SAT scores on 370t U.S. ranking in 370 Mathews, Forrest D. 235t Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. 73t, 402t Matthau,Walter 452 Mattingly,Thomas K., 2nd 409t Mauchly, John 412, 413 Mauldin, Bill 316 Mauretania (transatlantic liner) 160t Maverick missiles 415t Maxwell Communications 74t Maxwell House television commercial 478 May, Catherine D. 243t Mayaguez (ship) 61 Maybeck, Bernard Ralph 448t May Department Stores 74t Mays,Willie 505 Mazda Motor Corp. 402t MCA 73t McAllen-Edinburg-Mission metropolitan area 19t McAuliffe, Christa 66, 410t, 411 McBride, Jon A. 409t McCall’s 174t, 175t McCandless, Bruce 409t, 411t McCarran, Pat 315 McCarran-Walter bill 50 McCarthy, Eugene 58, 314 McCarthy, Joseph R. 49–53, 324, 348b McCarthyism 49, 348 McCartney, Paul 59 McCaw Cellular 74t McCone, John A. 267t McCormack, John W. 239t, 240t, 313 McCormick, Katherine 182 McCulley, Michael J. 411t McDivitt, James A. 408t McDonald’s Corp. 346, 431, 432, 436t, 603 chronology 49, 53 Ray Kroc 347b largest American businesses 74t as leading market value stock 79t top 50 franchises 75t McDonnell-Douglas 74t, 150t McElroy, Neil H. 234t, 266t McEnroe, John 64 McFall, John J. 240t

McFarland, Ernest W. 240t McFarlane, Robert C. 266t McGee, Gale 325 McGinnis, George 533 McGovern, George 60, 233t, 321 McGranery, James P. 234t McGrath, Alaska 44t McGrath, J. Howard 234t McGuire, Mark 305 McHale, Kevin 521 McHenry, Donald F. 266t MCI Corporation 166, 167t McIntire, Reba 319 McKay, Douglas 234t McKim, Charles M. 448t McLaughlin, Ann Dore 235t McNair, Ronald 409t, 410t, 411 McNally, Dave 508 McNamara, Robert S. 234t, 266t McPherson, Aimee Semple 229 McQueen, Steve 214 MDMA 218t Mears, Rick 570 meats, consumption of 434t mechanical power and machinery (farms) 118t Medford, Oreg. 46t Medford metropolitan area 423t Media (transatlantic liner) 161 Medicaid 203 medical care. See health care medical device implants 207t Medicare 57, 203, 210–213, 211t–213t, 258 medicine degrees in 399t Nobel Prizes in 403t Jonas Salk 352–353b Medicine Shoppe,The 76t Meese, Edwin A., III 235t megabyte 413 melanoma of skin 200t Mellon, Paul 439t Melnick, Bruce E. 411t Melville 74t memory, computer 413 Memphis,Tenn. Martin Luther King’s assassination 249 population 11t, 327t, 330t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Memphis Commercial Appeal 173t Memphis International airport 152t Memphis metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t, 423t Memphis State University 386t men. See males Mencken, H. L. 53 meningococcal infections, reported cases of 200t Mennonite churches 224t, 226t Menominee Indians 313

mentally retarded students 361t menu (computers) 413 Merbold, Ulf 409t merchant shipping 157, 159t, 160t Merck & Co., Inc. 79t, 402t mercury 418t, 419t Mercury (pesticide) 425t Mercury-Atlas space missions 408t Mercury-Redstone space missions 408t Mercury space program 403 Meredith, James 55, 248, 249 mergers 73t–74t, 136, 163, 172 meritorious public service, Pulitzer Prize for 497t Merryman, Jerry 414 Mesa, Ariz. 327t, 329t mescaline 218t Mesquite,Tex. 329t Messerschmid, Ernst 411t Messersmith, Andy 508 Metcalfe, Ralph H. 244t methanol 423t Methodist churches 222, 225t Metromedia 437t metropolitan areas and counties. See also specific areas income 330t–333t population 330t–333t African-American 13t; Asian/Pacific Islander– American 17t; Hispanic origin 8t–9t, 19t; by race 8t–9t Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) 442, 443t Mexican Americans 17, 18t, 181t, 359t, 370t Mexico educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t–24t, 24 as leading exporter of petroleum to U.S. 85t motor vehicle production wages 145t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Meyers, Ann 525 Meyers, Jan 243t Meyner, Helen S. 243t Mfume, Kweisi 244t Miami, Fla. airplane accident 151 airport 152t Civil Rights movement 250 hurricanes 38t population 17, 327t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t Index

649

Miami-Dade Community College 38t, 385t Miami/Dade County 9t Miami–Fort Lauderdale metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 19t, 330t Miami Herald 173t Miami Indians 310, 318 Miami International Airport 152t Miami metropolitan area 422t mica (sheet) 95t Michel, Robert H. 240t Michelangelo (transatlantic liner) 160t Michener, James 348b Michigan 313 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t Mackinac Bridge 148 population 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Michigan (submarine) 286t Michigan Living 174t Michigan State University 385t, 387t microchips 54 microcomputers 171t, 369t, 413, 414t, 433 microprocessors 60, 413 Microsoft 324, 414 microwave ovens 431, 432, 433t Midas Muffler & Brake Shops 75t Mid-Atlantic region 4t, 43t. See also specific states MidCon 74t Middlebury College 399t middle class 69 Middle East. See also specific countries estimated proved crude oil reserves 86t U.S. investments in 97t

650

Mid-Island Little League parade 520 Midler, Bette 308 Midway (aircraft carrier) 283t Midway Airline 153t midwestern United States. See also specific states arts attendance in 446t “born-again” status 229t cigarette/drug use in 221t cities 326 floods 47t population 3, 4t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t, 43t school desegregation 374, 377t tornadoes 40t Midwest Express Airline 153t Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig 447, 448t Mikan, George 521 Mikhail Lermontov (transatlantic liner) 162 Mikulski, Barbara 242t, 243t Milford, Utah 45t Mililani, Hawaii 17t military. See armed forces military budget 236 milk 122t, 425t milk cows 122t Milken, Michael 66 Mill, Andy 341 Milland, Ray 452 Miller, Cheryl 525, 525 Miller, G.William 235t Miller, John 558 Miller, Marvin 508 Miller,William 56 Millett, Ruth 592 Millikan,William 313 millionaires, numbers of 112t Milwaukee,Wis. 11t, 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t, 327t Milwaukee Area Voc/Tech. District 386t Milwaukee Art Center 443t Milwaukee Braves 509 Milwaukee Brewers 509 Milwaukee County,Wis. 333t Milwaukee Journal 173t Milwaukee-Racine metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Milwaukee Sentinel 173t minerals 95t. See also specific states minicomputers 171t, 413, 414t minimum wage 49, 109t mining and quarrying 86 earnings and income 107 employment in 99t hourly earnings in 107t Kopperston,W.Va. 100 mergers 73t weekly earnings in 108t in West Virginia 324


workers killed/injured on job 106t in Wyoming 325 miniskirts 57 Mink, Patsy T. 243t Minneapolis, Minn. 45t, 327t Minneapolis Institute of Art 443t Minneapolis Star 173t Minneapolis Star Tribune 173t Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minn. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport 152t Minneapolis–St. Paul metropolitan area 8t, 330t, 422t, 423t Minneapolis Tribune 173t Minneapolis Twins 509 Minnesota 313–314 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing 74t, 79t Minnesota Twins 509 Minolta Camera Co., Ltd. 402t Minton, Sherman 250 Minuteman missiles 415t Minuteman Press International 76t Minute Rice 49 Miranda v. Arizona (1966) 57, 251, 252 Mirex 425t Miroir, Le (Pablo Picasso) 444t Mir space missions 410t MIRV (multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle) 292 Miss America Pageant 316 missiles 279, 415–416, 415t ballistic 282t experimental (MX) 292, 415n on submarines 280–281

Mississippi 314 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 36t, 38t import cars 144t population 4t, 12t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 374, 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t Mississippi Freedom Summer 249 Missoula, Mont. 45t Missoula County (Mont.) metropolitan area 423t Missouri alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 120t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t Missouri Indians 314 Missouri-Kansas Texas Railroad Co. 155t, 314 Mister Donut 436t Mitchell, Edgar D. 408t Mitchell, George J. 240t, 312 Mitchell, James P. 234t

Mitchell, John 61, 234t, 236–238 Mitchell, Margaret 308, 504 Mitchell, Parren J. 244t Mitchum, Robert 307 Mitsubishi Denki K.K. 402t Mobile, Ala. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t, 159t, 328t mobile homes shipped 71t Mobile metropolitan area 13t Mobil Oil Corporation 73t, 74t, 79t, 402t modems 167t Modern Bride 175t Modern Maturity 174t, 175t, 495 Modesto, Calif. 329t Modesto metropolitan area 423t Mohegan Indians 307 Molinari, Susan 243t Moline, Ill. 45t Mondale,Walter F. 313, 314 chronology 62, 64, 65 politics and government 231, 233t, 235t Monet, Claude 444t money in circulation 89t in politics 241–242 value of U.S. dollar 92t Money 174t Money magazine 175t money market interest rates 89t Mongolia 84t monitors, computer 413 Monroe, James 323 Monroe, Marilyn 51, 55, 348–349b, 452, 458 Monroe Doctrine 272 Monsanto 74t Montana 314–315 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t–8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Monterey Park, Calif. 17t Montgomery, Ala. 44t, 53, 248, 328t Montgomery metropolitan area 13t

Montgomery Ward 65 Montoya, Joseph Manuel 244t Montreal Expos 509 Moon landings 58, 60, 403, 406, 411 Moore, Demi 452 Moore, Francis 203 Moore, Gordon 413 Moore, Sara Jane 61 Moorer,Thomas H. 267t Moral Majority 63, 184, 229, 230 Morella, Constance A. 243t Moreno Valley, Calif. 329t Morgan, J. P. 307 Morgan Stanley Group 74t Morioka, Japan 151 Mormon Church 322 Morocco 27t, 298t, 387t morphine 218t Morrison, Inc. 437t Morrison, Samuel E. 313 Morrison’s Cafeterias 437t Morse,Wayne 319 mortgage rates 89t Morton, Rogers 234t, 235t Mosbacher, Robert A. 235t Moscow, first McDonald’s in 604 Moscow Summit 300t Moses, Grandma 55, 443t Mossadegh, Mohammad 289 mothers, employment of 101t Motherwell, Robert 443t Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) 457 motion pictures 456–465 Academy Awards 462–465 B-grade westerns 459 chronology 49, 50, 61 most popular stars 457t–458t rating system 58, 65, 457 top-earning 460t–462t motor gasoline 85t Motorland 174t Motorola Inc. 74t, 402t motor vehicles 136–148. See also automobiles; buses; trucks air pollution from 418, 419, 420t economy 87 transportation 136 hourly wages of production workers 145t; new car prices/expenditures 139t; passenger-car scrappage 139t; production of 137t; registrations 139t; retail sales 138t vital statistics and health care alcohol-related accidents 218; alcohol-related deaths 220t; deaths from injuries in 197t–198t, 199t

mottos, state. See specific state Moulin de la Galette, Le (PierreAuguste Renoir) 444t mound builders (Indians) 310 mountains. See specific states Mount Everest 51 Mount Palomar 49 Mt. Rainier 323 Mount St. Helens 47, 47, 64, 324 Mount San Antonio College 386t Mount Shasta, Calif. 42 Mount Vernon, N.Y. 11t Mt.Washington,Vt. 43t mouse (computers) 65, 413 movies. See motion pictures Moyer, Gerald 432 Moynihan, Daniel P. 266t, 317 Mozambique 24t MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America) 457 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 204 Ms. magazine 60 MTV (Music Television) 64, 170t, 469 Mueller, Frederick H. 234t Mullane, Richard M. 409t multiculturalism 374, 378 multihandicapped students 361t multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) 292 multiple myeloma 200t mumps, reported cases of 200t muppets 53 murals 442 murder. See homicide Murphy, Audie 321 Murphy, Frank 250 Murray, Joseph 203 Murrow, Edward R. 57, 214, 317, 324 Museum of Contemporary Art (Los Angeles, Calif.) 443t Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, Mass.) 443t Museum of Modern Art (New York, N.Y.) 443t Museum of the City of New York 443t museums. See arts music. See arts; entertainment musicals. See theater Music Television. See MTV Muskegon, Mich. 43t, 45t Muskie, Edmund 58, 235t, 266t, 312 Muslims. See Islam Mustang (car) 56 mutual assured destruction (MAD) 292 MX (missile experimental) 292, 415n Myers, Francis 240t My Fair Lady 53 My Lai (South Vietnam) 60

N Nabisco 73t Nabisco Dinah Shore (golf) 561t Nader, Ralph 136 Nagel, Steven R. 409t, 411t Naismith Trophy 526t Nakota Indians 317, 320, 325. See also Sioux Indians names original, of celebrities 452 popular 179 Namibia 24t Nantucket, Mass. 45t narcotics. See drugs Narragannsett Indians 320 NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASCAR (National Association for Stock Auto Racing) 570, 571t Nashville,Tenn. 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Nashville-Davidson,Tenn. 327t Nashville metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t Nashville Network,The (TNN) 170t Nashville Tennessean 174t Nassau, Bahamas 160t Nassau Community College 386t Nasser, Gamel A. 59 Nathanael Greene (submarine) 285t Nathan Hale (submarine) 285t National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences 489 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 403, 404t, 405t National Amusements 74t National Baptist Convention of America 225t National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. 225t National Basketball Association (NBA) African-American players in 521 career leaders 531t champions 529t evolution of 528t–529t individual leaders 530t–531t most valuable players 532t racial composition coaches and managers 507t teams 506t scoring leaders 530t National Book Awards 496 national budget 67, 69, 70, 253–256 deficits in 64, 67 national defense/veterans benefits 274t space activities 404t National Collection, Fine Arts (Washington, D.C.) 443t Index

651

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) major basketball rule changes 527–528 men’s basketball championship 522t men’s basketball leaders 523t–524t men’s champions 546t–551t women’s basketball 525–526 women’s champions 551t–552t National Council of Churches 222 national debt 254t, 255, 256t national defense 254t, 274t National Defense Act (1947) 280 National Defense Education Act (1958) 54, 356 National Education Association 357 National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) 438, 439t–440t, 442 National Enquirer 174t, 495 National Examiner 174t National Football League/Conference (NFL-NFC) 506t, 533–534, 534t–535t, 537t–540t National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.) 350, 442, 443t National Geographic 172, 174t National Hockey League (NHL) 505, 562–563 National Hurricane Center 35 National League (baseball) 507, 509 African-American players in 518t batting champions 513t championship series 511t home-run leaders 514t most valuable player 516t–517t pennant winners 510t runs-batted-in (rbi) leaders 515t team standings 508t national medical program 207, 211 National Museum of Women in the Arts (Washington, D.C.) 67 National Organization for Women 520 National Primitive Baptist Convention Inc. 225t National Railroad Passenger Corporation 153. See also Amtrak National Science Foundation 171 National Security Act (1947) 48 national security affairs assistants 266t National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC-68) 591–592

652

national weather channel 29 National Weather Service 35 Nation’s Business 174t Native Americans. See also specific tribes alcohol-related deaths 220t chronology 59 crime prison inmates 579t; total arrests 576t–577t death rates 197t Vine Deloria, Jr. 340b fertility rates 180t illegitimate births 179, 181t literature by 495 in metropolitan populations 330t–331t population 6, 6t, 7t–8t, 13, 14t–15t. See also specific cities SAT scores 370t NATO. See North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO Pact (1949) 288 natural gas 80, 81t–82t, 82t, 84t natural gas plant liquids 81t naturalization 28 natural resources degrees awarded in 396t–398t federal expenditures for 254t Nautilus, USS 50, 52, 53 Navajo (Dineh) Indians 304, 316 Navratilova, Martina 553 NBA. See National Basketball Association NBC television network 66, 230, 468 NCAA. See National Collegiate Athletic Association Near East 297t–298t. See also specific countries NEA Today 174t Nebraska 315 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t


Nebraska (submarine) 286t NEC Corp. 402t needs-based education 356 Nelson, Bill 411t Nelson, George D. 409t, 411t Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Mo.) 443t Neri, Rodolfo 411t Nervi, Pier Luigi 448t Nestle 74t Netherlands alcohol use 219t computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; direct investments in United States 94t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; as trade partner 94t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Netherlands Antilles 97t Neuberger, Maurine B. 242t Neutra, Richard Joseph 448t neutron bomb 292 Nevada 315 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 3, 4t American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t

prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t Nevada (submarine) 286t Newark, N.J. 316 Civil Rights movement 249 commuter rail system 155t population 11t, 327t, 330t weather and climate 45t Newark airport 152t Newark Star-Ledger 173t New England 4t, 36t, 38t, 40t, 42t. See also specific states Newfoundland 22t, 23t New Frontier program 345 New Hampshire 316 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t New Haven, Conn. 45t New Haven–Meriden metropolitan area 331t new housing starts 71t New Jersey 316 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t hurricanes 37t, 38t illegal population 26t population 4t American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; foreign-born 28t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t

prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t New Jersey Institute of Technology 387t New Jersey Turnpike 49 New Left 231, 263 Newman, Barnett 443t Newman, Paul 452 New Mexico 316–317 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t, 13, 20m American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t rural/urban road mileage 147t New Orleans, La. 11t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 159t, 327t, 330t New Orleans metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t New Orleans Times-Picayune 173t new plant and equipment expenditures 71t Newport Bridge 449t Newport News,Va. 159t, 328t New River Gorge Bridge 449, 449t, 450 newspapers 172, 172t–174t, 494, 495 news photography, Pulitzer Prize for 500t Newsweek 174t, 175t, 495 Newton, Huey 249 New Ulm, Minn. 227 new-wave music 478 NewWoman 174t New York (state) 317 abortion 184 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t Coney Island 326 economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t

education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t hurricanes 37t immigration 26t population 1, 4t African-American 12t; American Indian 14t; Asian-American 16m; Asian/Pacific Islander– American 15; foreignborn 28t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t, 20m; illegal 26t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t, 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t smog 417 tornadoes 40t New York City 317, 326, 333–334 airplane accident 151 bankruptcy of 61 chronology 48, 49, 54, 62, 67 commuter rail systems 155t Dinkins mayor of 250 Esso Building 334 as fifty-first state 54 hurricanes 37t LaGuardia Airport 152t 911 emergency phone number 166 population 327t African-American 11t; Hispanic origin 17; by race/ethnicity 9t stock market 76 water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t NewYork Daily News 173t NewYorker,The 175t New York Giants 509, 533 New-York Historical Society 443t New York Islanders 562 NewYork Magazine 175t New York marathon 59 NewYork metropolitan area 422t, 423t NewYork Mets 507, 509 New York–Northern New Jersey– Long Island metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 17t, 19t, 330t NewYork Post 173t NewYork Stock Exchange 76, 77t, 79t New York Stock Exchange indexes 78t NewYork Times 173t, 503t–504t NewYork Times v. Sullivan (1964) 252 New York University 385t, 387t

New York Yankees 507 New Zealand alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t ANZUS 289m educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t Korean War 269t, 270t life expectancy 196t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m universal health-care system 211t U.S. investments in 96t Nez Perce Indians 309 NFL-NFC. See National Football League/Conference NHL. See National Hockey League Nicaragua asylum grantees 25t chronology 65 CIA covert activity in 290 foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t refugees 24t revolution in 296 Rio Treaty 289m U.S. students from 387t Nicholson, Jack 316 nickel 95t Nickelodeon/Nick at Nite 170t Nicklaus, Jack 558 nicknames, state. See specific state Nielsen ratings 467n Nieuw Amsterdam (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 Nigeria educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Night-Line 64 Nike-Hercules missiles 415t, 478 Nikolayev, Andrian G. 408t Nimitz (aircraft carrier) 284t Nimitz, Chester 321 900 North Michigan Avenue (Chicago) 449t 911 emergency phone number 166 Nintendo video games 65 Nipmuc Indians 312 Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. 402t nitric acid 423t nitrogen dioxide 418t, 419t

nitrogen oxides 420t Nix, Robert N. C. 244t Nixon, Julie 59 Nixon, Patricia 60 Nixon, Richard M. 60, 238, 271, 305, 349b, 486 best speeches 176, 177 chronology 48, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61 foreign policy 266t illegal drugs 216 and military draft 275 and Moon landing 411 politics and government 231 cabinet members 234t–235t; in Eisenhower cabinet 234t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250;Vietnam War 236;Watergate scandal 236–238 post-Vietnam mentality 236 presidential debates 168 and SALT I 299 United States v. Nixon (1974) 252 and Vietnam War 290 Watergate scandal 60, 61, 236–238 Nixon Doctrine (1969) 272 Nobel, Alfred B. 403 Nobel Prizes Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho 291 in literature 503t in sciences 403 NoCal (soft drink) 431 Noces de Pierrette, Les (Pablo Picasso) 444t Nome, Alaska 44t nonagricultural industries employment in 98t, 99t minimum hourly wage rates for 109t nonagricultural products, export of 95t nondurable goods, personal expenditures on 110t nondurable goods industries employment in 99t hourly earnings in 107t nonfamily households 192, 193 nonfiction best-selling 494t National Book Awards for 496t Pulitzer Prize in 501t non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma 200t nonmanufacturing industries, workers killed/injured in 106t non-white Americans “born-again” status 229t population 1t–2t, 6t Index

653

non-white Americans (continued) poverty 113 tobacco smoking 215t NORAD (North American Air Defense Command) 53 Norfolk, Nebr. 45t Norfolk,Va. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t, 159t, 327t Norfolk County,Va. 333t Norfolk Southern Corp. 155t Norfolk–Virginia Beach–Newport News metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 331t Norfolk Virginian Pilot 173t Norgay,Tenzing 51 Noriega, Manuel 68, 290, 588 Norman, Greg 558 Normandie (transatlantic liner) 160t Norplant 68, 204 Norrell, Catherine D. 243t Norstad, Lauris 265t North, Oliver 67, 290 North America, emigration from 22t, 23t North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) 53 North American Baptist Conference 224t North American Old Roman Catholic Church 226t North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 49, 265, 288, 289m North Carolina 317 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t population 4t, 12t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t North Carolina State University at Raleigh 385t north central United States 10t. See also specific states

654

North Dakota 317–318 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t northeastern United States. See also specific states African Americans living in 10t arts attendance in 446t cigarette/drug use in 221t floods 47t population 4t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t school desegregation 377t Northeastern University 385t, 387t Northern Illinois University 386t Northern Ireland 196t Northern Marianas 363t northern United States 374. See also specific states NorthernVirginia Community College 385t North German Lloyd 160t, 162 North Korea. See Korean People’s Democratic Republic North Platte, Nebr. 45t Northwest Airlines 49, 153t Northwestern University 399t Norton, Mary T. 242t Norway annual changes in consumer prices 129t computing power 414t educational comparisons 371t, 372t exchange rates 93t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t gross national product per capita 71t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t


life expectancy 196t manufacturing productivity measures 103t Marshall Plan aid 265t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t Norway (cruise ship) 162 Notre Dame University 388, 540 Nowruz oil field spill 87t Noyce, Robert 413 NRTA-AARP News Bulletin 174t NSC-68. See National Security Council Paper Number 68 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (1968) 301 nuclear power 80 accidents 62 Chernobyl 87, 417, 418; Three Mile Island 62, 87, 416, 417, 418 economy electricity generation 84t; energy consumption by 81t–82t; energy production by 81t; and environment 86–87 environmentalism 417 reactor plants 417m environmentalism 417, 418; leading countries having 84t;Three Mile Island 416 nuclear research 317 nuclear weapons 279 atomic bomb 49, 264 explosions since 1945 301t freeze on 292 hydrogen bomb 49, 50, 58 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties 299–301 test-ban treaty 55 Nuremburg Trials 48 nurses 206t nursing homes, Medicare and 212t Nutrasweet 57 nutrients 435t Nutri-System 76t nutrition 434–437 NWA 73t nylon fiber 431 NYNEX Corp. 79t, 166t

O Oakar, Mary Rose 243t Oakland, Calif. 11t, 17t, 44t, 159t, 327t Oakland Athletics 509 Oakland Community College 385t Oakland Tribune 174t Oak Ridge,Tenn. 46t oats 122t

Obata, Gyo 448t O’Brien, Lawrence F. 234t Occidental Petroleum 73t, 74t occupations of AFL-CIO membership 105t–106t of women 98, 100, 102t Ocean County, N.J. 332t Oceania 22t, 23t, 27t, 297t–298t. See also specific countries Oceanside, Calif. 329t Ockels,Wubbo J. 411t O’Connor, Bryan D. 411t O’Connor, Maureen 336 O’Connor, Sandra Day 64, 231, 250, 305, 349, 349–350b OECD 129t Ogden (Utah) metropolitan area 423t Oh! Calcutta (musical) 453 Ohio 318 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t, 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Ohio (submarine) 286, 286t Ohio State University 385t, 387t oil crops 119t oil industry 61, 62, 70, 80. See also energy crises; petroleum and petroleum products in Alaska 304 Arab oil embargo 80 crude oil 81t, 86t distillate fuel oil 82t, 85t fuel oil 82t, 85t, 128t in Houston,Tex. 335, 336 oil pipelines 156t oil spills 62, 67, 87t, 417, 418 in Oklahoma 319 residual fuel oil 85t oil pipelines 156t oils (edible) consumption of 434t oil crops 119t

oil spills 62, 67, 417, 418 Ojibway Indians 313, 324 O’Keeffe, Georgia 316, 443t Oklahoma 318–319 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 440t chronology 54 economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t population 4t, 13 American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t Oklahoma! (play and film) 319 Oklahoma City, Okla. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 46t, 327t Oklahoma City Daily Oklahoman 173t Oklahoma City metropolitan area 9t, 331t old-age and survivors insurance trust fund (Social Security) 260t–261t Old Catholic church 223t Oldenburg, Claes 441 Old Order Amish Church 226t Oldsmobile Rocket 88 137, 141 Olive Garden 436t Olsen, Ken 413 Olsen, Merlin 322 Olympia,Wash. 46t Olympic Games 60, 64, 65, 525, 574 Olympus Optical Co., Ltd. 402t Omaha, Nebr. 315 population 327t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Omaha metropolitan area 331t Omaha World-Herald 174t Omni 174t Onassis, Aristotle 58 on deck (baseball term) 519 One Hour Martinizing 76t O’Neill,Thomas P. (“Tip”) 239t, 240t, 313 One Liberty Place (Philadelphia) 449t 1,001 Home Ideas 174t Onizuka, Ellison 410t, 411

Ontario, Calif. 329t op art 441 OPEC countries 85t open-pit coal mining 83, 86 open shops (unions) 104 opera. See arts oral cavity and pharynx cancer 200t Orange Bowl 543t Orange Coast College 386t Orange County, Fla. 332t Orange County–Santa Ana Register 173t Orange Julius of America 436t orchestras. See arts Oregon 319 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t environmentalism 416 floods 47t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t, 16m American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Oregon State University 387t Organic Gardening 174t organic gases 418t organ transplants and grafts 206t Oriana (transatlantic liner) 160t Origins of the Domino Theory, April 7, 1954 593–594 Oriskany (aircraft carrier) 283t Orlando International Airport 152t Orlando metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 19t, 331t Orlando Sentinel 173t Orleans County, La. 333t Orlon 431 Ortega, Daniel 65 Orthodox Church in America 225t Orthodox (Eastern) churches 223t, 225t Orthodox Judaism 222 orthopedically handicapped students 361t Ortiz, Solomon P. 244t Osage County, Okla. 333t Osage Indians 310 Osborne Computer 414

Oscars. See Academy Awards Osceola County, Fla. 332t Osmond, Donny 322 Osmond, Marie 322 Oswald, Lee Harvey 55, 56 Othello oil spill 87t Ottawa Indians 337 Outdoor Life 174t outdoor track (sport) 549t, 552t Outer Banks, N.C. 38t Outland Award 544t outpatient hospital services 202, 212t ovarian cancer 200t ovens 432, 433t Overland Park, Kan. 329t Overmyer, Robert 409t Owens, Major R. 244t Owens-Illinois 73t Owings, Nathaniel A. 448t Oxnard, Calif. 329t Ozark, Ala. 38t ozone layer 418, 419t

P Pace, Frank 354 pacemakers 203, 207t Pacific Coast states 47t. See also specific states Pacific countries, U.S. investments in 97t Pacific Gas & Electric 79t Pacific-Islander Americans death rates 197t family and nonfamily households 194t fertility rates 180t illegitimate births 181t in metropolitan populations 330t–331t population 6, 7t–8t, 15, 16t–17t prison inmates 579t total arrests 577t Pacific Telesis Corp. 79t, 166t Packard 136 Packwood, Bob 319 Packy the Shipper 75t Pac-Man games 64 PACs. See Political Action Committees Page, Patti 478 Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza 62 Pailes,William A. 409t painting. See arts Paiute Indians 322 Pakistan armed forces in 279t educational comparisons 371t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m U.S. students from 387t

palimony suits 63 Palm Beach County, Fla. 332t Palmer, Arnold 558 Pampers 53 Panama asylum grantees 25t chronology 62, 68 control of canal 296 foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m transportation merchant fleets 160t; vessel registrations 157 U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. armed intervention in 290 U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Pan American airline 149, 153t pancreas transplants 206t pancreatic cancer 200t pandas 60 Panhandle Eastern 74t Paraguay 289m Parents Magazine 174t, 175t Paris Summit 300t parity (farm prices) 124–125 Parker, Charlie 311 Parker, Robert 409t Parkersburg,W.Va. 46t Parks, Rosa 53, 248 particles (soot) 418t particulate matter 419t, 420t Parton, Dolly 321 Pascagoula, Miss. 159t Pasco County, Fla. 332t Pass,Tex. 37t Passages (Gail Sheehy) 504 Passamaquoddy Indians 312 password (computers) 413 patents 400–401, 401t–402t Patriot missiles 415n Patsayev,Viktor I. 408t Patterson, Elizabeth J. 243t Patterson, Robert P. 151, 234t Patton, George, Jr. 305 Paulding County, Ga. 332t Pauley, Jane 310 Pauling, Linus 319 Paulsboro, N.J. 159t Pawnee Indians 310, 315 payments to other governments 254t Payne, Donald M. 244t payola 54 PCP 218t PCs. See personal computers Peace Corps 55 Peacekeeper missiles 415n peanuts 122t, 435t Peanuts cartoon 49, 353 Pearl, Minnie 452 Index

655

Pearl City, Hawaii 17t Pearl Harbor 308 Pearl River 47t Peck, M. Scott 504 Pedersen,William 448t Pei, Ieoh Ming 350–351b, 448t Pell, Claiborne 266t Pelosi, Nancy 243t Pendleton, Oreg. 46t Pennacook Indians 316 Pennsylvania 319–320 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; coal mining in 83; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t; Three Mile Island 87 education 363t, 367t floods 47t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t population 4t, 16m American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t, 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t strip-mining 426 tornadoes 40t Pennsylvania (submarine) 286t Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (Philadelphia, Pa.) 443t Pennsylvania State University 385t, 387t Pennsylvania Station (New York, N.Y.) 57 Pennzoil Place (Houston) 447 Penobscot Indians 312 Pensacola, Fla. 38t “Pentagon Papers” 60 pentecostal, definition of 228 Pentecostal churches 225t Pentecostal Holiness Church International 225t Penthouse magazine 59, 65, 172, 174t People’s Republic of China 70, 71 armed forces in 279t asylum grantees 25t Chinese Civil War 267–268, 270 chronology 49, 60, 62 Korean War casualties 270t recognition of 296 space launchings 405t U.S. investments in 97t

656

People Weekly 174t, 175t Peoria, Ill. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t, 330t Peoria Indians 309 PepsiCo Food Service 436t PepsiCo Inc. 74t, 79t, 432 Pequot Indians 307, 312 Percy, Charles 266t Perdue University 387t Pereira,William 448t Perez,Tony 507 performing arts. See arts; entertainment performing arts degrees awarded 396t–398t periodicals 172t, 174t–175t Perkins Family Restaurants 437t Perret, Auguste 448t Perry, Antoinette 454 Perry, Matthew 320 Pershing missiles 415t Persian Gulf 151 Persian Gulf War 68, 236, 290 personal computers 163, 412, 414, 433, 433t personal consumption expenditures 110t personal income 110t, 111t personal income taxes, federal 255t–256t pertussis, reported cases of 200t Peru asylum grantees 25t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t refugees 24t Rio Treaty 289m U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Peru, Miss. 42t pesticides 339, 418t, 424t, 425t Peterson, Peter G. 234t petrochemical industry 311–312 petroleum and petroleum products amount and sources of 84t direct foreign investment in 94t energy consumption by 81t–82t and environment 87 import of 95t leading exporters of, to U.S. 85t by type 85t U.S. investments abroad in 96t–97t Pettis, Shirley N. 243t Petty, Richard 317 Peyton Place (novel) 53 Pfizer Inc. 79t Pfost, Gracie B. 243t PGA. See Professional Golf Association pharmaceutical preparations 76t


phenol 423t Philadelphia, Pa. 336 chronology 65 commuter rail system 155t population 11t, 327t, 330t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Philadelphia Athletics 509 Philadelphia Bulletin 173t Philadelphia County, Pa. 333t Philadelphia Daily News 173t Philadelphia Inquirer 173t Philadelphia International Airport 152t Philadelphia metropolitan area 422t, 423t Philadelphia Museum of Art 443t Philadelphia–Wilmington– Atlantic City metropolitan area 8t, 19t Philadelphia-Wilmington-Trenton metropolitan area 13t, 17t, 330t Philip Morris Co. 73t, 74t, 79t, 439t Philippines 27t bilateral defense treaty with 289m chronology 48 educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign aid to 298t immigration 22t, 23t, 24t in Korean War 269t merchant fleets 160t murder rate 581t population 6t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Phillips Petroleum Co. 74t, 402t Phoenix, Ariz. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t, 327t, 337–338 Phoenix Arizona Republic 173t Phoenix-Mesa metropolitan area 8t, 19t Phoenix metropolitan area 330t, 422t, 423t Phoenix missiles 415t Phoenix Sky Harbor International airport 152t phonograph records 49 phosphoric acid 423t physical sciences degrees awarded 396t–398t physicians 202, 205t–206t, 212t physics, Nobel Prizes in 403t physiology, Nobel Prizes in 403t Picasso, Pablo 64, 444t Pickering,Thomas R. 266t pick off (baseball term) 519 picturephone service 166

Piedmont Airline 153t Pierce, Franklin 316 Pierce, Samuel R., Jr. 235t pill, birth control 182, 203 Pillsbury 73t pilots, airplane 149t Pima Community College 385t pinch hitter (baseball term) 519 Pincus, Gregory 182 Pioneer Electronic Corp. 402t Pioneer spacecraft 407t PIP Printing 75t pitchout (baseball term) 519 Pittman, Key 315 Pittsburgh, Pa. communications 166 population 327t, 330t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Pittsburgh–Beaver Valley metropolitan area 13t, 330t Pittsburgh International Airport 152t Pittsburgh metropolitan area 8t, 422t Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 173t Pittsburgh Press 173t Pittsfield, Mass. 45t Pius XII (pope) 227 Pizza Hut 432, 436t plague, reported cases of 200t Plains Indians 313, 325 planetary science missions 407t Plano,Tex. 329t plastic bags 432 plastics 431 plastics products (except bottles) 76t platinum group 95t Playboy magazine 51, 172, 174t, 175t, 349, 495 Play Doh 53 pneumonia, deaths from 197t–198t Pocatello, Idaho 45t poetry, Pulitzer Prize in 503t Pogue,William 409t Poindexter, John M. 67, 266t Poitier, Sidney 57, 308 Poland airplane accident 151 armed forces in 279t coal reserves 84t educational comparisons 371t, 372t and end of cold war 303 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t asylum grantees 25t; refugees 24t life expectancy 196t as USSR satellite 263 U.S. students from 387t

Polaris missiles 415t police protection, expenditures for 254t, 258t poliomyelitis 52, 200t, 203, 204, 352–353 Polish National Catholic Church of America 226t Polish National Church 223t Political Action Committees (PACs) 241–242 politics and government 231–262 air transportation 148 civil rights 248–250 finances 253–258 Hubert H. Humphrey 342b Daniel K. Inouye 342b Lyndon B. Johnson 343b Barbara Jordan 343b George F. Kennan 343–344b John F. Kennedy 344–345b Henry A. Kissinger 346–347b Joseph R. McCarthy 348b money and politics 241–242 Richard M. Nixon 349b presidents and administrations 232–235 Ronald Reagan 352b Religious Right 222 social insurance programs 258–262 Supreme Court 250–252 Harry S.Truman 354–355b Vietnam War 290–291 voting 245–246 George C.Wallace 355b Watergate scandal 236–238 Pollard, Jonathan Ray 66 Pollock, Jackson 48, 53, 325, 351b, 441, 443t Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) 422n pollution. See environmentalism Pomona, Calif. 329t Pomona College 399t Ponderosa (restaurant) 437t Pont de Trinquetaille, Le (Vincent van Gogh) 444t Pontormo 444t P&O-Orient 160t pop art 441 Popeye’s Fried Chicken 437t Popovich, Pavel R. 408t Popular Mechanics 174t popular music 478–493 from Broadway musicals 452 country music 491–493 Grammy Awards 489–491 Elvis Presley 486–487 rock music 487–488 Popular Science 174t population 1–28. See also vital statistics; specific cities; specific states cities 327t–330t on farms 115, 118t

metropolitan areas 330t–333t and voting 245 Porsche, Ferdinand 141 portable radios, sales of 169t Port Arthur,Tex. 159t Port Authority Bus Terminal (New York) 49 Porter, Cole 310, 452 Porter, Katherine Anne 321 Port Everglades, Fla. 159t Portland, Maine 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Portland, Oreg. population 327t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Portland Community College 386t Portland metropolitan area 423t Portland Oregonian 173t Portland-Salem metropolitan area 8t Portland-Vancouver metropolitan area 331t Port Lavaca,Tex. 38t Portman, John C. 448t Port Mansfield,Tex. 38t Portrait du Dr. Gachet (Vincent van Gogh) 444t Portrait of Duke Cosimo I de Medici (Pontormo) 444t ports 158t–159t Portsmouth,Va. 11t Portsmouth County,Va. 333t Port Sulphur, La. 38t Portugal alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t motor vehicle production wages 145t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. investments in 96t Poseidon missiles 415t postal service. See U.S. Postal Service Postal Service Act of 1969 163 Post-it notes 64 Postmaster General 234t postmodernist style (architecture) 447 post-Vietnam syndrome 296 potash 95t

potatoes 120t–121t, 122t Potawatomi Indians 313, 335 poultry 435t poultry slaughtering and processing 76t Pound, Ezra 309 poverty 69, 113–115 and sexual behavior/attitudes 188t from WWII destruction 236 poverty level persons below 113t by race and Hispanic origin 114t by year 114t Powell, Adam C., Jr. 57, 244t Powell, Colin L. 68, 266t, 267t, 351, 351b Powell, Dick 214 Powell, Lewis F. 250 power mowers 131t Powers, Gary Francis 54, 55 Powers, Stefanie 452 Pratt, Eliza J. 243t prayer in school 55, 252 Preakness Stakes 572t precipitation acid rain 29 monthly and annual 33t–34t with tornadoes 39 Preference System Immigration Act (1965) 23 pregnancies, outcome of 186t pregnancy tests 433 prerecorded videos 462t Presbyterian Church (USA) 224t, 225t Presbyterian churches 222, 225t, 226t Presbyterian Church in America 225t preschool handicapped students 361t Prescott, Ariz. 44t presidency Vietnam War 236 Watergate scandal 236 presidential administrations 232–235, 234t–235t Presidential airline 153t presidential campaigns and elections 233t, 245t 1968 342 chronology 48–50, 53, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 67 financing 241 presidential doctrines 272 President Lyndon Johnson Explains and Defends American Involvement in Vietnam, April 1965 599–601 President Reagan Describes the Soviet Union at the Start of His Presidency, 1981, and at the End, 1989 604–605

presidents 231 and Billy Graham 341 presidential elections 233t, 245t religious affiliation of 232 vetoes, presidential 248t Presley, Elvis 314, 352b, 486 chronology 52, 53, 57, 62 popular music 478, 486–487 top 50 songs of 487t Presque Isle, Mich. 159t press, freedom of 252 Prevention 174t Price (business) 74t prices and inflation 126–131 price spreads, farm-to-market 126t price supports, farm 124–125 Prichard, Ala. 11t Pride, Charlie 314 Priest, Ivy Baker 322 Priest, J. Percy 240t prime interest rate 69 Princeton (aircraft carrier) 283t Princeton University 388, 399t Prince William County,Va. 332t print media 172–175, 494–504 National Book Awards 496 Pulitzer Prizes 496–503 prisoners 578t, 588t private schools 357, 358t, 368t–369t, 369t, 388, 393t Procter & Gamble Co. 74t, 79t, 402t production codes (movies) 456, 457 productivity farm 115, 119t manufacturing 103t professional degrees 394t, 399t Professional Golf Association (PGA) 558, 558t–560t professional sports 505 African Americans in 505–506 baseball 507–519 basketball 520–522, 528t–533t boxing 565–569 football 533–540 golf 558–562 hockey 562–565 tennis 552–558 progressive education 356 Progressive National Baptist Convention Inc. 225t property taxes 256, 257t Proposition 13 (California) 62 prostate cancer 197t–198t, 200t, 204 Protestantism 183t, 188t, 222, 223t, 228, 229t conservative 222 Evangelicals 184, 223t fundamentalist 188t non-Evangelical 223t Index

657

Providence, R.I. 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Providence–Fall River–Warwick metropolitan area 9t Providence Journal 173t Providence–Pawcatucket–Fall River metropolitan area 331t Provo-Orem (Utah) metropolitan area 423t Proxmire,William 325 Prozac 67, 204, 432 PSA airline 153t PSI (Pollutant Standards Index) 422n psychology degrees awarded 396t–398t Psychology Today 174t PTL Club,The 229, 230 public affairs degrees awarded 396t–398t public aid, expenditures on 259t public art 442–443 public education. See education; public schools Public Museum of Grand Rapids (Mich.) 443t public nonmotor vehicles, deaths in 199t public schools 357 expenditures per student 362t–363t faculty salaries 393t higher education institutions 381t instructional staff income 367t problems facing 374t pupil-teacher ratios 368t–369t sources of funds 364t special education in 361t starting teacher salaries 366t teacher characteristics 365t–366t public utilities consumer price index 128t employment in 99t hourly earnings in 107t weekly earnings in 108t workers killed/injured on job 106t public welfare. See welfare publishing industry 494–495 Publix Super Markets 74t Pueblo, Colo. 44t Pueblo Indians 306 Puerto Rican Americans 17, 18t, 181t, 359t, 370t Puerto Rico arts funding 441t education expenditures per pupil 363t hazardous waste sites 429t as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t

658

life expectancy 196t U.S. armed forces in 278t Pulitzer, Joseph 496 Pulitzer Prizes 496–503 pulmonary diseases, deaths from 197t–198t pumps (well water) 433t pupil-teacher ratios 368t–369t, 370 purchasing power of consumer dollars 127t Purdue University 385t Pyle, Howard 307

Q Qaddafi, Muammar 66 Quail missiles 415t Quaker (Friends) churches 226t Quality Inns International 76t Quapaw Indians 305 Quayle, Dan 67, 235t, 520 Queen Anne’s County, Md. 332t Queen Elizabeth (transatlantic liner) 160, 160t, 161–2 Queen Elizabeth 2 (transatlantic liner) 58, 160, 160t Queen Latifah 452 Queen Mary (transatlantic liner) 160, 160t, 161, 162 Queens County, N.Y. 333t Quincy’s Family Steakhouse 436t Quinlan, Karen Anne 62

R rabies, reported cases of 200t Raborn,William F., Jr. 267t race riots chronology 57, 64 Kerner Commission Report on Racial Violence in American Cities, 1968 598–599 racial groups. See also Civil Rights movement; specific racial groups and “born-again” status 229t in cities 326. See also specific cities economy earnings and income 107; and employment 98; employment of women by 102t; median earnings by 109t; median household income by 110t; per capita income by 110t; persons below poverty level by 114t; unemployment rate 103t–104t education college enrollment 382t; higher education 378– 379; level of 356, 359t– 361t, 376t; SAT scores 370t politics and government 232


population 1t–2t, 3, 6, 6t, 7t–8t and poverty 69 in specific states. See specific state vital statistics and health care; and abortion 184, 184t; AIDS cases reported by 200t; alcohol-related death by 219t–220t; birthrates/ fertility rates 179t; children’s living arrangements by 194t; cigarette/drug use by 221t; death rates by 197t, 198t; and divorce 191; family and nonfamily households by 194t; and female householders with families 193t; illegitimate births 181t; infant mortality rate by 182t; interracial marriages 191t; life expectancy by 196t; live births 178t; marital status by 192t; medical device implants by 207t; persons without health insurance 213t; pregnancy outcomes by 186t; tobacco smoking by 215t, 216t racing automobile 569–571 horse 61, 561–574 radar 29 Radford, Arthur W. 267t radio 167–169, 466–468 country stations 493t religion 229, 230 rock and roll 478 sales of 169t stations on air 168t radioactive waste 86 radio communication equipment 76t radionuclides 419t Radio Shack 75t radon 418t Raffaello (transatlantic liner) 160t railroad retirement account 260t–262t railroads 136, 153–157 Amtrak 60, 155t annual carloadings 154t chronology 48 commuter systems 155t domestic freight traffic 156t equipment and passengers 157t freight and passenger traffic 154t intercity passenger miles 156t

mileage and equipment 155t passenger deaths 156t train-miles per railroad 155t Railway Trainmen and Engineers 48 “Rainbow Coalition” (Jesse Jackson) 177 Rainbow International 75t Rainier, Prince of Monaco 53 Rain Man (film) 67 Raleigh, N.C. population 328t, 329t tornadoes 40t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t Raleigh–Durham–Chapel Hill metropolitan area 9t Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area 13t, 331t, 423t Raleigh News & Observer 173t Ralston Purina 79t Ramirez, Richard 582t Rancho Cucamonga, Calif. 329t Rancho Santiago College 386t Rand, Ayn 214, 504 Randall,Tony 319, 452 R&D. See research and development Randolph (aircraft carrier) 283t Randolph, A. Philip 308 Rangel, Charles B. 244t Ranger (aircraft carrier) 284t Ranger spacecraft 407t ranges 432t, 433t Rapid City, S.Dak. 46t, 47 rap music 478 rapture (Christianity) 228 Rare and Endangered Species Act (1966) 418 Rather, Dan 321 Raton, N.Mex. 45t Rauschenberg, Robert 443t Rawhide (TV series) 340 Ray, James Earl 58 Rayburn, Ray 55 Rayburn, Sam 239t, 240t, 322 razor blades 431 razors, disposable 433 RCA 66, 73t Reader’s Digest 172, 174t, 175t, 214, 495 reading. See books Reading, Pa. 46t Readsboro,Vt. 42t Reagan, Nancy 66, 216, 490, 556 Reagan, Ronald 66, 69, 302, 349, 352b, 490 air-traffic controllers 149 best speeches 176, 177 chronology 64, 65, 66, 67 Describes the Soviet Union at the Start of His Presidency, 1981, and at the End, 1989 604–605

economy 70 labor unions 105; taxes 132 and end of cold war 302 foreign policy 266t politics and government 236 cabinet members 235t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; Supreme Court justices appointed 250 post-Vietnam mentality 236 Religious Right 229 Reagan Doctrine (1985) 272 Reaganomics 70, 71 real estate employment in 99t farm 118t, 125t hourly earnings in 107t weekly earnings in 108t Realpolitik 346 Realty World 75t rectal cancer 200t recycling 66, 426–427 Red Bluff, Calif. 44t Redbook 174t, 175t Red China. See People’s Republic of China Redeye missiles 415t Red Lobster 436t Red River 47t Red Scare 48 Reece, Louise G. 243t Reed, John 319 Reed, Stanley F. 250 Reed College 399t Rees, Melvin 582t Reform and Control Act of 1986 26 Reformed churches 225t Reformed Church in America 224t, 225t refrigerators 432t refugees 24, 24t–25t Regan, Donald 235t R.E.G. Coffee Shops 437t regional Bell operating companies (Baby Bells) 166t Rehnquist,William H. 66, 250–251 Rehnquist Court (Supreme Court) 251 Reid, Charlotte T. 243t Reinhardt, Adolph (Ad) 443t relative humidity, average 32t–33t religion 222–230. See also specific groups church membership 224t contraception methods 183t Billy Graham 341b prayer in school 252 presidents’ religious affiliation 232 Religious Right 222, 229–230

Roman Catholic Church 227–228 sexual behavior/attitudes 188t television evangelists 229–230 women in priesthood 227 Religious Right 222, 229–230 RE/MAX 75t Remek,Vladimir 409t Reno, Nev. 30t, 32t, 33t, 35t, 45t, 329t Renoir, Pierre-Auguste 444t Reno metropolitan area 423t renters’ costs 127t Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints 224t, 225t reporting, Pulitzer Prize for 497t–498t, 500t Reprisal (aircraft carrier) 283t Republican Party abortion 184 chronology 48, 50, 54, 57, 58, 65, 67 politics and government 231, 232; losses as president’s party 242t; presidential election votes 233t Religious Right 229 taxes 131–132 Republic of China (Taiwan) armed forces in 279t bilateral defense treaty with 289m Chinese Civil War 267–268, 270 chronology 62 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t foreign policy 271 military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t Republic of Korea (South Korea) 269t, 387t armed forces in 279t bilateral defense treaty with 289m educational comparisons 372t Korean War 269–271 merchant fleets 160t population 6t as trade partner 94t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. patents granted to 402t research and development (R&D) 400, 400t, 401t residual fuel oil 85t

Resnik, Judith 409t, 410t, 411 resolutions, federal 247t Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 424t respiratory system malignancies, deaths from 197t–198t restaurant companies 436t–437t Restaurant Enterprises Group 437t retail trade 99t, 107t, 108t retrogressive evolution 353 Retrovir 204 Reuther,Walter 324 reverse discrimination 62 revival (Christianity) 228 Reykjavik Summit 300t Reynolds, Debbie 54 Rhee, Syngman 270 R.H. Macy 73t, 74t Rhode Island 320 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 4t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 7t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t recycling policy 66 rural/urban road mileage 147t Rhode Island (submarine) 286t Rhodes, John J. 240t Rhodes Scholarships 62 rhubarb (baseball term) 519 rhythm and blues 478 rhythm method (birth control) 182, 183 Ribicoff, Abraham A. 234t rice 122t Rice, Donna 67 Rice University 399t Richard, Maurice 562 Richards, Richard N. 411t Richardson, Elliot 234t, 235t, 237, 266t Richardson,William B. 244t Richmond, Calif. 11t, 159t Richmond,Va. 330 population 11t, 328t, 330t weather and climate 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t Richmond County,Va. 333t Richmond-Petersburg metropolitan area 9t, 13t, 331t

Richmond Times-Dispatch 173t Ricoh Co., Ltd. 402t Riddle, Libby 66 Ride, Sally K. 65, 409t Ridgway, Matthew 265t rifle (college sport) 551t Riggs, Bobby 61 right-to-die cases 62 right-to-work laws 104, 105t Riley, Corinne B. 243t rings, wedding 131t Rio Pact 288 Rio Treaty (1947) 289m rivers. See specific rivers; specific states Riverside, Calif. 328t, 329t Riverside County, Calif. 332t Riverside Press-Enterprise 173t Rivers, Larry 443t Rizzo, Frank 336 R.J. Reynolds 73t RJR Nabisco 73t RJR Nabisco Holdings 74t Road & Track 175t Road Less Traveled,The (M. Scott Peck) 504 roads, streets, and highways federal expenditures for 254t interstate highway system 146m mileage/surfaced mileage 146t state expenditures for 258t Roanoke,Va. 46t Robert Bosch GmbH 402t Roberts, Kenneth 312 Roberts, Oral 229, 230, 319 Robertson, Pat 222, 229, 230 Robeson, Paul 316 Robinson, Bill 323 Robinson, Edward G. 452 Robinson, Jackie 48, 308, 352b, 506, 507 Robinson, Sugar Ray 565 ROCAP 298t Roche, Kevin 448t Rochester, Minn. 45t Rochester, N.Y. 45t, 328t Rochester Democrat and Chronicle 174t Rochester metropolitan area 9t, 331t rock and roll 49, 53, 57 100 greatest songs 488t most popular albums 484t–485t most popular artists 484t, 486t popular music 478, 487–488 Elvis Presley 486–487 Rockdale County, Ga. 332t Rockefeller, John D., Jr. 48 Rockefeller, John D., IV 324 Rockefeller, Nelson 61, 231, 235t, 312, 317 Index

659

Rockford, Ill. 45t Rockwell, Norman 443t Rockwell International Corp. 74t, 402t Rocky Mountain National Park 47 Rocky Mountains 307 Rodgers, Bill 62 Rodgers, Richard 317, 452 Roe v. Wade (1973) 60, 184, 251, 252, 603–604 Rogers, Benard 265t Rogers, Edith N. 242t Rogers, Ginger 314 Rogers, Roy 318, 459, 459n Rogers,William P. 234t, 266t rollerblades 64 Rolling, Danny 582t Rolling Stone 57, 174t, 175t Roman Catholicism 49, 52, 57 religion 222–223, 223t, 225t, 227–228 “born-again” 229t; church membership 224t; clergy/ deacons/brothers/sisters 228; Holy Days of Obligation 228; last judgment beliefs 223t vital statistics and health care abortion 184; birth control 182, 183; contraception methods 183t; and sexual behavior/attitudes 188t Roman Catholic schools 369t, 370t Romanenko,Yuri V. 409t, 411t Romania 185t alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 24t, 25t life expectancy 196t Roman Rite Churches 226t Romney, George 235t, 313 Ronald Reagan (aircraft carrier) 284t Ronstadt, Linda 305 Roosa, Stuart A. 408t Roosevelt, Eleanor 55, 317 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 176, 233t, 250, 317 Roosevelt,Theodore 177 Roosevelt administration 416 Roosevelt Dam 338 Roosevelt Roads, P.R. 38t Root, John W. 448t Roots (TV show) 62 Rose, Pete 68, 509 Roseanne (TV show) 67 Rose Bowl 542t Roseburg, Oreg. 46t Rosenbalm Airline 153t Rosenberg, Ethel and Julius 51

660

Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana 243t, 244t Ross, Diana 313 Ross, Jerry L. 411t Ross, Nellie Tayloe 325 Rossellini, Roberto 49 Rostow,Walt W. 266t Roswell, N.Mex. 45t ROTC programs 379 Rothko, Mark 443t Rotterdam (transatlantic liner) 160t, 161 Roukema, Marge 243t Royal Dutch Petroleum 79t Royall, Kenneth C. 234t Roybal, Edward R. 244t Roy Rogers 436t RU-486 (mifepristone) 64 rubber arm (baseball term) 519 rubella 59, 200t Ruby, Jack 55, 56 Ruby Tuesday 437t Ruckelshaus,William 237 Rudolph, Paul 448t Rudolph,Wilma 54 “Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer” 49 Rue Mosnier aux Drapeaux, La (Edouard Manet) 444t Rukavishnikov, Nikolay N. 408t Rumsfeld, Donald 235t, 266t rural areas. See also specific states population 3t road mileage 147t sexual behavior/attitudes 188t tobacco smoking 215t Rusk, Dean 234t, 266t Russell, Bill 57, 522 Russell, Charles 315 Rutgers University 387t Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. 385t Ruth, Babe 312 Rutherford County,Tenn. 332t Rutledge,Wiley B. 250 Ryndam (transatlantic liner) 161

S Saarinen, Eero 447, 448t Saarinen, Eliel 447, 448t Sabin, Albert B. 203, 353 Sabine,Tex. 37t Sacramento, Calif. 17t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t, 327t, 329t Sacramento Bee 173t Sacramento metropolitan area 13t, 331t, 423t Sacramento-Yolo metropolitan area 8t, 19t sacrifice (baseball term) 519 Sadat, Anwar 59, 62, 63, 64 Safe Drinking Water Act 424t safety issues (motor vehicles) 136 Safeway Stores 73t, 74t Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale 35, 36t


Safire,William 411 Saigon,Vietnam 151 Saiki, Patricia 243t St. Augustine, Fla. 38t St. Charles County, Md. 332t St. Cloud, Minn. 45t St. George, Katherine P. C. 243t St. Joe Minerals 74t St. Johns County, Fla. 332t St. Joseph, Mo. 45t St. Lawrence Seaway 54 St. Louis, Mo. 314 population 11t, 327t, 328t, 330t record snow 43t water transport 159t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t St. Louis Browns 509 Saint Louis Community College 385t St. Louis County, Mo. 333t St. Louis Globe-Democrat 173t St. Louis International Airport 152t St. Louis metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 330t, 422t St. Louis Post-Dispatch 173t St. Louis Southwestern Railway Co. 155t St. Paul, Alaska 44t St. Paul, Minn. 327t St. Paul Pioneer Press Dispatch 173t St. Petersburg, Fla. 327t St. Petersburg Times 173t salaries. See earnings and income Salem, Oreg. 46t sales, government revenue from 257t sales taxes 256 Salinas, Calif. 329t Salinas metropolitan area 19t Salk, Jonas 203, 317, 352–353b SALT. See Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties Salt Lake City, Utah 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t Salt Lake City metropolitan area 331t Salt Lake City–Ogden metropolitan area 9t Saltonstall, Leverett 240t Salvation Army 224t, 226t Salyut space missions 408t SAM (surface-to-air missile) 292 Samoan Americans 16t Sam Rayburn (submarine) 285t San Antonio,Tex. 327t, 338 San Antonio Light 173t San Antonio metropolitan area 8t, 19t, 331t San Antonion Express-News 173t San Bernardino, Calif. 329t Sandburg, Carl 309 Sander, Bernie 322 Sanders, Harlan 53, 311

San Diego, Calif. 336 airplane accident 151 airport 152t population 17t, 327t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t San Diego Mesa College 386t San Diego metropolitan area 330t air pollution 422t, 423t population African-American 13t; Asian/Pacific Islander– American 17t; Hispanic origin 8t, 19t; by race 8t San Diego Museum of Art 443t San Diego Padres 507, 509 San Diego State University 385t San Diego Tribune 174t San Diego Union 173t Sandusky, Ohio 46t San Francisco, Calif. 17t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 44t, 155t, 327t San Francisco International Airport 152t San Francisco Chronicle 173t San Francisco County, Calif. 333t San Francisco Examiner 173t San Francisco Forty-Niners 533 San Francisco Giants 509 San Francisco metropolitan area 422t, 423t San Francisco Museum of Modern Art 443t San Francisco–Oakland–San Jose metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 17t, 19t, 330t San Francisco State University 386t Sanger, Margaret 182 San Jose, Calif. 17t, 327t San Jose Mercury News 173t San Jose State University 385t San Juan, P.R. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 159t Santa Ana, Calif. 327t, 329t Santa Clarita, Calif. 329t Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands 151 Santa Fe Railroad 73t Santa Maria (transatlantic liner) 161 Santa Maria, Calif. 44t Santa Rosa, Calif. 329t Santa Rosa Junior College 386t Santee Dakota (Sioux) Indians 313 Sanyo Electric Co., Ltd. 402t Saragosa,Tex. 40t Sara Lee 74t Saratoga (aircraft carrier) 284t SAT. See Scholastic Aptitude Test satellites 54, 57, 403 for cable TV feeds 468 communication 166, 167 weather 29

Saturday Evening Post,The 59, 172, 495 Saturday Night Live 61 Saturnia (transatlantic liner) 161 Saudi Arabia chronology 68 foreign-born U.S. population from 27t as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t military sales and assistance to 299t murder rate 581t population 6t as trade partner 94t U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Sauk Indians 324 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Savage, Gus 244t Savannah, Ga. 11t, 159t savings and loan institutions (thrifts) 88 Savinykh,Viktor 411t Savitskaya, Svetlana Y. 409t Sawyer, Charles W. 234t Sawyer, Diane 311 Saxbe,William 234t, 235t Sayers, Gale 311 SCAD missiles 415t Scalia, Antonin 66, 250 Scali, John A. 266t scanners (grocery stores) 61, 432, 434 Schenectady, N.Y. 45t Schering-Plough Corporation 79t Schirra,Walter 316, 404 Schirra,Walter M., Jr. 408t Schlafly, Phyllis 243 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. 236 Schlesinger, James R. 235t, 266t, 267t Schlumberger Ltd. 79t Schmitt, Harrison 406, 409t Schneider, Claudine 243t Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) 357, 370t Schroeder, Patricia 243t Schuller, Robert 230 Schulz, Charles M. 49, 313, 353b Schuttleworth, Fred 248 Schweickart, Russell L. 408t Schweiker, Richard S. 235t Schwellenbach, Lewis B. 234t science and technology 400–437 and automobile racing 569 computers 412–414. See also computers diet and nutrition 434–437 domestic technology 431–434 environmentalism 416–430

international science test score comparisons 372t and military forces 272 Nobel Prizes 403 and popular music 478 and publishing industry 494 space program 403–411 and television 468 U.S. students’ science ranking 370 Wernher von Braun 355b weapons 415–416 Scobee, Francie R. 409t, 411t Scobie, Dick 411 Scotland 196t, 372t Scott, David R. 408t, 409t Scott, George C. 323, 462 Scott, Hugh 240t, 320 Scottsbluff, Nebr. 45t Scottsdale, Ariz. 329t Scottsdale Center for Arts (Ariz.) 443t Scouting 174t Scowcroft, Brent 266t Scrabble 49 Scranton, Pa. 46t Scranton,William W. 266t Scranton–Wilkes-Barre metropolitan area 331t screwball (baseball term) 519 Scripps-Howard newspapers 172 Scully-Power, Paul D. 409t sculpture. See arts Scutt, Der 448t SDI. See Strategic Defense Initiative SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) 58 Sea Around Us,The (Rachel Carson) 339 Seabrook nuclear power plant 316 Seale, Bobby 249 seaports 158t–159t Searle Pharmaceutical Corporation 182 Sears Roebuck 74t Sears Tower (Chicago) 61, 310, 335, 447, 449t Sea Star oil spill 87t SEATO. See Southeast Asia Treaty Organization Seaton, Fred A. 234t Seattle,Wash. 46t, 159t, 327t Seattle Mariners 509 Seattle metropolitan area 422t Seattle Pilots 509 Seattle Post-Intelligencer 173t Seattle-Tacoma International Airport 152t Seattle-Tacoma-Bremerton metropolitan area 8t Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area 330t

African-American population 13t air pollution 423t Asian/Pacific Islander Americans in 17t weather and climate 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t Seattle Times 173t Seaway Skyway Bridge 449t Seawise University 160, 162 second strike 292 Second Vatican Council of 1962–65 227 Secretariat 61, 571 secretary of agriculture 234t–235t secretary of commerce 234t–235t secretary of defense 234t–235t, 266t secretary of education 235t secretary of energy 235t secretary of health and human services 235t secretary of health, education, and welfare 234t–235t secretary of housing and urban development 234t–235t secretary of interior 234t–235t secretary of labor 234t–235t secretary of navy 234t secretary of state 234t–235t, 266t secretary of transportation 234t–235t secretary of treasury 234t–235t secretary of veterans affairs 235t secretary of war 234t secular humanism 228 sedatives 217t Seddon, M. Rhea 409t seed purchases (farm) 118t segregation and desegregation 53, 55, 62. See also Civil Rights movement in armed forces 272 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) 252 de jure vs. de facto 374 in education 374–377, 375t–377t in southern schools 375m in sports 505–507 Segretti, Donald 238 Seinfeld (TV show) 68 Seitz, Peter 508 Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator 413 Selective Service System 275, 276t–277t Self magazine 174t, 175t Selleck,Tom 313, 520 Selma, Ala. 249 semiconductors 413

Seminole County, Fla. 332t Seminole Indians 307, 318 Senate. See U.S. Senate Senate Intelligence Committee 296 Senegal 298t separate-but-equal doctrine 374 Sergeant missiles 415t serial killers 62, 582t Serling, Rod 214 Serra, Richard 443 Serrano, José E. 244t Sert, Josep 448t service industries 97 employment in 99t hourly earnings in 107t international transactions 91t weekly earnings in 108t workers killed/injured on job 106t Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (1944) 378. See also G.I. Bill of Rights Servicemaster 75t services personal expenditures on 110t prices paid by farmers for 125t Sesame Street Magazine 174t Sevareid, Eric 318 Sevastyanov,Vitaliy I. 408t 7-Eleven Store 75t 700 Club,The 230 Seventeen 174t, 175t Seventh-Day Adventist Church 224t, 226t 7Up television commercial 478 Seward,William F. 304 sewing machines 431 sex-change operation 50 sexual behavior and attitudes 178, 187–190, 188t–190t Sexual Behavior of the Human Female (Alfred Kinsey) 187 Sexual Behavior of the Human Male (Alfred Kinsey) 187 sexually transmitted diseases 182 Shahn, Ben 443t Shangri-La (aircraft carrier) 283t Sharma, Rakesh 409t Sharp Corp. 402t Shatalov,Vladimir A. 408t Shaw, Brewster, Jr. 409t, 411t Shawnee Indians 324 Sheehy, Gail 504 Sheeler, Charles 443t Sheen, Fulton 229, 230 Sheen, Martin 452 sheep 118t, 122t Shelby County, Ala. 332t Shell Oil Co. 73t, 74t, 402t shelter (consumer price index) 128t Shepard, Alan B., Jr. 55, 316, 404, 408t Index

661

Shepherd,William M. 411t Sheridan,Wyo. 46t Shevardnadze, Eduard 302 Shillelagh missiles 415t ships. See water transportation Shockley,William B. 353b, 413 Shoney’s 436t Shonin, Georgi S. 408t Shooting Star (jet fighter) 268 shopping malls 314, 432 Shore, Dinah 321 Shoshone Indians 322 Shreveport, La. 328t Shreveport metropolitan area 13t Shrike missiles 415t Shriver, Loren J. 411t Shultz,George P. 67,234t,235t,266t shunts 207t Sidewinder missiles 415t Siemens A.G. 402t Signal Cos. 73t “Silent Majority” (Richard M. Nixon) 177 Silent Spring (Rachel Carson) 55, 339, 417, 429 silicon chips 413 silicone implants 207t silver 95t Silver Spoon 437t Silvex 425t Simon, Paul 57, 478 Simon,William E. 234t, 235t Simon and Garfunkel 478 Simon Bolivar (submarine) 285t Simpson, Alan K. 240t, 325 Simpson, Edna O. 243t Simpson Act 26 Sinatra, Frank 57, 316, 353–354b, 478, 490 Singapore computing power 414t educational comparisons 372t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t merchant fleets 160t as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t Singer Corporation 66 singers Grammy awards 489t–490t most popular country 492t most popular rock 479t single-parent households 192 singles (records) most popular country 491t–492t most popular rock 480t–483t Sino-Soviet pact 49, 268 Sioux City, Iowa 45t Sioux Falls, S.Dak. 30t, 32t, 34t, 35t, 46t Sioux Indians 313, 317, 318, 320, 321, 325 Sirhan, Sirhan 58

662

Sirica, John 236 “sit-ins” 54 Sizzler 437t skateboards 57 Skidmore, Louis 448t skiing 551t Skinner, Samuel K. 235t Sky Harbor International Airport 152t skyjackings 148 Skylab space missions 409t skyscrapers 447 Slaney, Mary Decker 319 Slaughter, Louise M. 243t Slayton, Donald 404, 409t SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missile) 292 slump (baseball term) 519 Smilies 60 Smith, Adrian 448t Smith, Cyrus R. 234t Smith, Margaret Chase 242t Smith, Michael J. 410t, 411 Smith,Virginia 243t Smith,Walter Bedell 267t Smith,William F. 235t Smithson, Robert 441 Smithsonian 174t, 175t smog 416, 417 smoking. See cigarettes; tobacco use SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) 249 Snowe, Olympia 243t snowfall 34t–35t, 42t–46t snowstorms 42, 42t–43t Snyder, John 234t, 354 Soap Opera Digest 174t soccer 547t, 552t social insurance programs 115t, 258–262, 259t social insurance taxes 255t–256t social science degrees awarded 396t–398t Social Security politics and government 253, 255, 260 taxes and benefits 260t–262t; workers/ beneficiaries covered by 262t poverty 113 tax rates for 134t Social Security Act (1935) 258 social welfare, expenditures on 259t, 260t sodium hydroxide 423t softball 552t soft drinks 50, 431, 432, 433 software, computers 413 Solano County, Calif. 332t solid municipal waste 425–427 Solovyev, Anatoly 411t Solovyov,Vladimir 409t, 411t Somalia 24t, 25t, 298t


Somerset County, N.J. 332t Somoza, Anastasio 296 Sondheim, Stephen 452, 453 songs Grammy awards 489t–490t most popular rock 479t–482t state. See specific states Sonic Drive In Restaurants 76t Sony Corp. 74t, 402t Soo Line Railroad Co. 155t sorghum 122t Souers, Sidney W. 267t sound barrier 48 Sound of Music,The (play) 54 Souter, David M. 68, 250, 316 South Africa 66 coal reserves 84t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t in Korean War 269t refugees 24t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t South America. See also specific countries foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration from 22t, 23t U.S. investments in 97t South American–origin Americans 181t South Asia 297t–298t. See also specific countries South Bend, Ind. 45t South Carolina 320 African-American population 12t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t population 4t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t South Dakota 320–321 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t

economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Southeast Asia 25t, 271. See also specific countries Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty (1954) 289m Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) 52, 271 southeastern United States 36t, 43t. See also specific states Southern Baptist Convention 224t, 225t Southern Illinois University, Carbondale 386t, 387t Southern Living 174t, 175t Southern Pacific Transportation Co,. 73t, 155t southern United States 231. See also specific states arts attendance 446t “born-again” status 229t cigarette/drug use 221t cities 326 hurricanes 37t, 38t population 4t, 10t prison inmates 579t record snow 43t school segregation 374, 375m, 377t tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t South Korea. See Republic of Korea Southland 73t, 74t South Vietnam 53, 288 Southwest airline 153t Southwestern Bell Corp. 79t, 166t Southwestern United States 40t, 326. See also specific states Southwest Texas State University 386t Soviet Union. See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

soybeans 122t Soyuz space missions 408t, 409t, 410t space program chronology 53, 54, 55, 59, 65, 66, 67 science and technology 403–411 space shuttles 62, 64, 65, 403, 407 Spain alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t armed forces in 279t educational comparisons 371t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t, 23t life expectancy 196t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m nuclear reactors in 84t population 6t universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Spanish Line 162 Sparkman, John J. 50, 240t, 266t Sparrow missiles 415t Spartan missiles 415t Spassky, Boris 60 Speakers of the House 239t special citation, Pulitzer Prize for 500t, 503t special education programs 361t Specialty Dinnerhouses 436t Speck, Richard 57 speeches 176–177 speech-impaired students 361t Spellman, Gladys Noon 243t Sperry 73t Spielberg, Steven 318 Spinks, Leon 62 “Spiral Jetty” (Robert Smithson) 441 Spitz, Mark 60 Spock, Benjamin 57 Spokane,Wash. 30t, 33t, 34t, 35t, 46t, 328t Spokane metropolitan area 423t Sport magazine 174t sports 505–574 automobile racing 569–571 baseball 507–520 basketball 520–533 boxing 565–569 Civil Rights movement 248

college football 540–546 Chris Evert 340–341b golf 558–562 hockey 562–565 horse racing 561–574 Nancy Lopez 347b most exciting event 574 most popular 506t NCAA men’s champions 546t–551t NCAA women’s champions 551t–552t professional football 533–540 Jackie Robinson 352b on television 474t tennis 552–558 Sports Illustrated 52, 174t, 175t, 495 sports utility vehicles 141t spreadsheets 413 Spring, Sherwood C. 411t Springfield, Ill. 45t, 167t Springfield, Mass., metropolitan area 331t Springfield, Mo. 45t Springfield Terminal Railway Co. 155t Sprint missiles 415t Sprite 432 Sputnik satellites 403 Squibb 68, 73t Squibb, Edward 307 SRAM missiles 415t Sri Lanka 387t SS-11B1 missiles 415t Stafford,Thomas P. 408t, 409t Stafford County,Va. 332t Stalin, Joseph 50, 270 Stamos,Theodore 443t Stampede Pass,Wash. 42t Standard & Poor’s 500 76 Standard & Poor’s Composite Index 78t Standard ARM missiles 415t Standard Oil 73t Standard Oil Building (Chicago) 335 Stanford University 387t, 399t Stanley,Winifred C. 242t Stanley Cup champions (hockey) 563t Stans, Maurice 234t, 238 Star 174t Starr, Ringo 452 START (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) 301 Star Trek 59 Star Wars. See Strategic Defense Initiative Starzl,Thomas 203 state governments arts funding 440t–441t education funding by 364t employment in 97, 99t expenditures 258t

payments to other governments by 258t social welfare expenditures 259t, 260t unconstitutional laws 252t women in elective offices 243t statehood, dates of. See specific states state prisons 578t–579t state taxes 132t–133t, 257t State University of New York at Buffalo 385t, 387t Statue of Liberty 66 Stavangerfjord (transatlantic liner) 161 Steak N Ale 437t steal (baseball term) 519 Steele, Shelby 495 steel industry 55 Steiger, Rod 456 Stein, Clarence S. 448t Steinbeck, John 305 Steinbrenner, George 508 Stella, Frank 443t Stengel, Casey 314 Stern, Howard 466 Stettinius, Edward R., Jr. 234t, 266t Stevens, John P. 250 Stevens,Ted 240t Stevenson, Adlai E. 50, 53, 57, 233t, 266t Stewart, Bennett McVey 244t Stewart, Potter 250 Stewart, Robert 409t Stilwell, Joseph 308 stimulants 217t Sting (entertainer) 452 Stinger missiles 415n stock-car racing 570 Stockholm (transatlantic liner) 161 stockings (women’s) 432 stock market 76–80 chronology 53, 60, 67 leading stocks in market value 79t prices and yields of stocks 78t Stockton, Calif. 17t, 328t, 329t Stockton-Lodi metropolitan area 19t Stockton metropolitan area 423t Stokes, Carl 57 Stokes, Louis 244t stomach cancer 200t Stone, Harlan F. 250 Stonewall Jackson (submarine) 285t storms 35. See also specific types, e.g.: tornadoes stoves. See ranges Strange, Curtis 558 strategic arms agreements 299–301 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT) 63, 296, 299–301

Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) 301 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 65, 292, 301 strategic warfare 279 strategic weapons 292 Strauss, Annette 337 Strauss, Lewis L. 234t streaking 61 Streep, Meryl 316 streetcars 157 streets. See roads, streets, and highways Streisand, Barbra 57 Strekalov, Gennady 409t strikes 105 strip-mining (coal) 83, 86, 426 Strode,Woody 534 strontium (Celestite) 95t strychnine 425t Studebaker 75, 136, 310 student activism 58, 379 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) 249 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) 58 student-teacher ratios. See pupilteacher ratios stuff (baseball term) 519 Styne, Jule 452 styrene 423t submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) 282t, 292 submarines 52, 280–281, 283t, 285t, 286t Subroc missiles 415t substance use and abuse 214–216, 214–221, 221 suburban areas African-American population 11t transportation 136 Subway Sandwiches 437t Subway Sandwiches & Salads 75t Sudan 24t, 298t Suez crisis 53 sugar 130t Sugar Bowl 543t suicide, deaths from 62, 197t–198t sulfur dioxide 419t sulfuric acid 423t sulfur oxides 420t Sullivan, Ed 61, 214 Sullivan, Kathryn D. 409t, 411t Sullivan, Leonor K. 243t Sullivan, Louis W. 235t Sumitomo Chemical Co., Ltd. 402t Sumitomo Electric Industries 402t Summerfield, Arthur E. 234t summit conferences 52, 297, 299, 300t Summitt, Pat 525 Sumner, Jessie 242t Index

663

Sun (company) 74t sunbelt 326 Sunflowers (Vincent van Gogh) 444t Sun Myung Moon 64 Sunset 175t sunshine, average percentage of 32t–33t Sunstrand 402t Sununu, John 316 Super Bowl 474t, 533, 535t superconductors 413 Super Falcon missiles 415t Superfund. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980) Super Glue 49 Superior Oil 73t Supermarkets General Holdings 74t Superstation TBS 170t supply-side economics 69 Supreme Court. See U.S. Supreme Court surface-to-air missile (SAM) 292 surgical and medical instruments 76t surgical appliances and supplies 76t Surveyor spacecraft 407t Susan B. Anthony silver dollar 63 Swaggart, Jimmy 67, 229, 230 Swanson, Gloria 309 Swarthmore College 399t Sweden annual changes in consumer prices 129t computing power 414t educational comparisons 371t, 372t exchange rates 92t, 93t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t in Korean War 269t life expectancy 196t manufacturing productivity measures 103t Marshall Plan aid 265t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t nuclear reactors in 84t unemployment rate 104t universal health-care system 211t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t Swedish-American Line 162 Sweet-N-Low 54 Swigart, John L., Jr. 408t

664

swimming and diving 49, 60, 548t, 552t swimming pool pumps 433t swine. See hogs and swine Switzerland alcohol use 219t annual changes in consumer prices 129t computing power 414t direct investments in U.S. 94t educational comparisons 371t exchange rates 92t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t gross national product per capita 71t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t, 23t life expectancy 196t population 6t as trade partner 94t universal health-care system 211t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t synthetic fabrics 431 syphilis, reported cases of 200t Syracuse, N.Y. 45t Syracuse metropolitan area 331t, 423t Syracuse University 386t Syria 24t, 25t, 27t, 279t, 387t

T table radios, sales of 169t table-tennis 60 tabloid newspapers 495 Taccoa, Ga. 47t Taco Bell 76t, 436t Tacoma,Wash. 159t, 323, 328t Tacoma Morning News-Tribune 174t Tacoma Narrows Bridge 449, 449t tactical nuclear weapons 292 tactical weapons 279 Taft, Robert A. 51, 240t, 318 Taft-Hartley Act (1947) 48, 104 Taiwan. See Republic of China take-out food business 436t “Tale of Two Cities, A” (Mario Cuomo) 177 Tallahassee, Fla. 329t Talos missiles 415t Tampa, Fla. 159t, 327t Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater metropolitan area 8t, 13t, 19t, 331t Tampa Tribune 173t Tange, Kenzo 448t tanks 280 tantalum 95t Tanzania 24t Tarawa (aircraft carrier) 283t Tarnower, Herman 63


Tarr, Curtis 275 Tarrant County Junior College District 385t Tartar missiles 415t Tate, Sharon 58 Tax Bite in the Eight-Hour Day 135t taxes 64, 66 economy 131–135 federal receipts from 255t–256t government revenue from 257t paid by farmers 125t politics and government 256 budget deficits 253; Social Security 260t–262t Proposition 13 (California) 62 Tax Freedom Day 135t taxis 156t Taylor, Elizabeth 54, 55 Taylor, Maxwell D. 267t Taylor, Robert 452 TCBY Yogurt 75t teachers 356 in higher education 388, 391t–393t labor unions 105 public school 365t–366t starting salaries 366t tea, instant 431 technology. See science and technology Tecumseh (submarine) 285t Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles 68 Teen magazine 174t Teflon 53, 431, 432 telephone services 165–167, 167t before AT&T divestiture 166t Baby Bells 166t cellular 167t consumer price index 128t local service costs 167t long-distance competition 167t televised space flight 163 television(s) 167–171, 168, 431, 433t, 468–478 cable 170t chronology 49, 52, 53, 57, 59, 61, 62, 65 closed-circuit 565 color 432t Emmy Awards 475t–478t football coverage 533 game shows 474t households with 169t and professional sports 505 and radio 466, 467t sales of 170t sports on 474t college football 540; most popular 506t; tennis 552

stations on air 169t and theater 456 top commercials on 478t top-ranked programs 470–474, 470t–473t television evangelists 229–230 Telstar 166 Tempe, Ariz. 329t temperature 30t–33t Temple, Shirley 305 Temple University 385t Ten Commandments,The (film) 53 Tenneco 74t Tennessee 321 African-American population 12t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m tornadoes 40t voter registration 245t–246t Tennessee (submarine) 286t Tennessee Restaurant Co. 437t tennis 61, 64, 552–558 college 547t–548t, 552t Grand Slam 51 Tereshkova,Valentina V. 408t Terrier missiles 415t terrorism 60, 62, 65, 67, 148 Test-Ban Treaty (1963) 417 testicular cancer 200t test-tube baby 204 tetanus, reported cases of 200t Texaco 67, 73t, 74t, 79t, 402t Texarkana, Ark. 44t Texas arts funding 441t chronology 53 economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t

hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t illegal population 26t population 3, 5t African-American 12t; American Indian 15t; Asian-American 16m; Asian/Pacific Islander–American 15; Hispanic origin 8t, 17, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m vital statistics and health care abortion 184; AIDS cases reported 201t; alcoholic purchase age 218t voter registration 245t–246t weather and climate floods 47t; hurricanes 36t, 37t, 38t; record snow 42t; tornadoes 40t Texas A&M University 385t, 387t Texas City,Tex. 159t, 321–322 Texas Commerce Tower (Houston) 449t Texas Eastern 74t Texasgulf 73t Texas Instruments, Inc. 402t, 413, 414 Texas Oil and Gas 74t Texas Tech University 385t TGI Friday’s 437t Thagard, Norman 409t, 411t Thai Americans 16t Thailand armed forces in 279t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t in Korean War 269t military sales and assistance to 299t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m U.S. armed forces in 279t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t theater 48, 57, 452–456, 453t. See also arts Theodore Roosevelt (aircraft carrier) 284t Third World. See developing nations Tho, Le Duc 291 Thomas, Danny 452 Thomas, Lera M. 243t Thomas, Lowell 306

Thompson, David 533 Thompson, Polly 203 Thompson, Ruth 243t Thompson Canyon, Colo. 47t Thomson, Bobby 49 Thomson—CSF 402t Thornburgh, Richard L. 235t Thornton,William 409t Thousand Oaks, Calif. 329t threatened species 430t 3-D movies 50 333 South Wacker Drive (Chicago) 449t 3M Corp. 402t Three Mile Island (Pennsylvania) 62, 87, 416, 417, 418 Thresher 55 thrifts (savings and loan institutions) 88 Throgs Neck Bridge 449t thunderstorms 42 Thurmond, J. Strom 48, 233t, 320 thyroid cancer 200t Ticonderoga (aircraft carrier) 283t Tide soap powder 48 Tilted Arc (Richard Serra) 443 Time (company) 73t “Time for Choosing, A” (Ronald Reagan) 177 Time magazine 163, 174t, 175t, 495 Times Beach, Mo. 65, 418 Time-Warner 163 Timucua Indians 307 tin 95t tires, automobile 48, 51 Tiros I weather satellite 29 Titanic 65 Titan missiles 415t Titov, Gherman S. 408t Titov,V. 411t TNN (The Nashville Network) 170t tobacco 120t–121t tobacco use 214–216, 214t–216t, 221t. See also cigarettes on air flights 68 as air pollutant 418t high school senior survey on 220t Tobin, Maurice J. 234t Today Show 50 Togo 581t Tohono O’odham Indians 304 To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee) 504 Tokyo, Japan 151 Toledo, Ohio 46t, 159t, 327t, 330t Toledo Blade 173t Toledo metropolitan area 331t Toledo Museum of Art 443t Tolkien, J.R.R. 504 toluene 423t

Tone, Franchot 214 Tonga 27t Tonight Show 52 Tony Awards 454–456 toothbrushes 432 toothpaste 131t Topeka, Kans. 45t Top Hat (restaurant) 437t tornadoes 39, 40, 40t–41t, 52, 61 Toronto BlueJays 509 Torres, Esteban E. 244t Torrey Canyon oil spill 87t Toshiba Corp. 402t, 414 TOW missiles 415t Town & Country 175t Towns, Edolphus 244t toxaphene 425t Toxic Substances Act (1976) 418 Toxic Substances Control Act 424t toxic waste. See hazardous waste Toyota 141 Toyota Jidosha K.K. 402t Toys “R” Us 74t tractors 125t Tracy, Spencer 324 trade direct foreign investment in 94t economy international 90–97; top 20 partners in 94t; workers killed/injured on job 106t major U.S. ports 159t transportation 136, 138, 157, 158t–159t trade deficit 90 trademarks 401t trade unions. See unions tranquilizers 217t, 218t Trans Alaska Pipeline 418 Transamerica Building (San Francisco) 447 Transamerica Pyramid (San Francisco) 449t transatlantic passenger liners 160–162, 160t Transbay Bridge 449t Transco Tower (Houston) 449t transistor radio 50 transistors 49, 412–413, 413 transportation 136– 162 air transport 148–153 economy consumer price index 128t; employment 99t; hourly earnings 107t; international transactions 91t; new plant and equipment expenditures 71t; weekly earnings 108t; workers killed/injured on job 106t

motor vehicles 136–148 railroads 153–157 water transport 157–162 Trans World Airline (TWA) 149, 153t Travel & Leisure 174t, 175t travel industry 91t Travolta, John 62, 222 treaties, defense 288, 289m. See also alliances trees, state. See specific state Trenton, N.J. 11t, 45t triad 292 trichinosis, reported cases of 200t Trident missiles 415t Trieste 265t Trinidad and Tobago 27t, 97t, 289m, 387t Triple Crown (horse racing) 572t, 574t Trivial Pursuit 63 trolleys 157, 157t tropical storms 35 Trowbridge, Alexander B. 234t trucks 136, 138t, 139t, 141t, 156t Trudeau, Gary 59 True Story 174t Truly, Richard H. 409t Truman, Harry S. 314, 354, 354–355b, 451 on aid to China 268 chronology 48, 49, 50 foreign policy 266t and Korean War 270 national medical program 207 politics and government cabinet members 234t; party strength in Congress 239t; presidential election votes 233t; revised reputation of 236; Supreme Court justices appointed 250 taxes 131 Truman Library and Museum 314 Truman Doctrine (1947) 48, 265, 272 trust companies 88t trust funds, government 253, 255 tsunami 48 Tubb, Ernest 214 tuberculosis, reported cases of 200t Tucson, Ariz. 44t, 327t Tucson metropolitan area 19t, 331t Tufts University 399t Tuileries, Les (Pablo Picasso) 444t tularemia, reported cases of 200t Tulsa, Okla. 46t, 327t Tulsa metropolitan area 331t TulsaWorld 174t Index

665

tungsten 95t Turkey annual changes in consumer prices 129t armed forces in 279t cold war years 288 educational comparisons 371t foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration 22t, 23t, 24t in Korean War 269t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t NATO 265t, 289m population 6t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. investments in 96t U.S. students from 387t turkeys 118t, 122t Turner, Lana 309 Turner, Stansfield 267t Turner,Ted 64, 308, 468, 508 TV dinners 51, 431 TV Guide 51, 174t, 175t TWA. See Trans World Airline Twain, Mark 307 Twentieth Century Limited train 154, 157 Twenty-fifth Amendment 231, 590–591 Twenty-fourth Amendment 56, 590 Twenty-second Amendment 49, 590 Twenty-seventh Amendment 591 Twenty-sixth Amendment 60, 231, 591 Twenty-third Amendment 590 Twining, Nathan F. 267t twin-killing (baseball term) 519 “Twist,The” (song) 54 2,4,5,-T 425t Two Liberty Place (Philadelphia) 449t Two Prudential Plaza (Chicago) 449t TW Services, Inc. 436t Tylenol 432, 433 typewriters 53, 55, 431, 432 typhoid fever, reported cases of 200t typhus fever (tick-borne), reported cases of 200t

U UCLA basketball team 521 Udall, Stewart L. 234t UFW (United Farm Workers) 340 Uganda 24t Ukraine 303 ultrasound 62, 203

666

Ulysses S. Grant (submarine) 285t UN. See United Nations unconstitutional statutes/ laws/ordinances 252t unemployment 67, 69, 70 during 1980s 69 for African Americans 98 compared with other countries 104t by demographic characteristics 103t–104t rates of 97 UNESCO. See United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Unilever N.V. 74t Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) airplane accident 151 armed forces in 279t asylum grantees 25t ballistic missiles 282t chronology 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 60, 63, 65, 68 cold war 263–264, 302–303 educational comparisons 371t, 372t estimated proved crude oil reserves 86t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t Kennan’s “long telegram” on 344 legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t manned space flights 408t merchant fleets 160t military power of United States vs. 287t Nobel Prize laureates in 403t nuclear explosions 301t nuclear reactors in 84t nuclear weapons 282t politics and government 231 President Reagan Describes the Soviet Union at the Start of His Presidency, 1981, and at the End, 1989 604–605 refugees 24t SALT II arms limitation agreement 296 space launchings 405t space program 403 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties 299–301 strategic delivery systems 282t summit conferences 300t Vietnam War 290 weapons exported by 299t Union Pacific Railroad Co. 155t unions. See also specific unions baseball 508 economy 104–106


AFL-CIO membership 105t–106t; right-to-work laws 105t; trade-union membership 105t; work stoppages 106t higher education faculty 388 sports 505, 508 Unisys 74t Unitarian Universalist Association 226t United Airline 153t United Arab Emirates 71t, 84t, 97t, 387t United Auto Workers 48, 64 United Church of Christ 224t, 225t, 226t United Farm Workers (UFW) 340 United Kingdom. See also specific countries alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t computing power 414t economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; direct investments in United States 94t; exchange rates 92t, 93t; export/import value 93t; gross national product 71t; as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors in 84t; as trade partner 94t; unemployment rate 104t; U.S. investments in 96t educational comparisons 371t, 372t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t health-care expenditures 210t immigration from 22t, 23t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t Marshall Plan aid 265t military sales and assistance to 299t motor vehicle production wages 145t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m Nobel Prize laureates in 403t nuclear explosions 301t population 6t Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty 289m universal health-care system 211t U.S. armed forces in 278t U.S. patents granted to 402t U.S. students from 387t weapons exported by 299t

United Methodist Church 222, 224t, 225t, 226t United Mine Workers 48 United Nations (UN) 317, 333 ambassadors to 266t buildings 447 chronology 48, 49, 54 in Korean War 269t, 270 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 48 United Parcel Service (UPS) 163 United Pentecostal Church International 225t United States. See also individual states alcohol use 219t armed forces in 279t ballistic missiles 282t computing power 414t defense treaties 289m economy annual changes in consumer prices 129t; coal reserves 84t; estimated proved crude oil reserves 86t; exchange rates 93t; foreign investments 94t; gross national product 71t; gross national product per capita 71t; investments abroad 90, 96t–97t; manufacturing productivity measures 103t; nuclear reactors 84t; unemployment rate 104t educational comparisons 371t–373t health-care expenditures 210t in Korean War 269t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t military power of USSR vs. 287t murder rate 581t NATO 265t, 289m Nobel Prize laureates in 403t nuclear explosions 301t nuclear weapons 282t Rio Treaty 289m space launchings 405t strategic delivery systems 282t summit conferences 300t transportation merchant fleets 160t; motor vehicle production 137t; motor vehicle production wages 145t weapons exported by 299t United States (transatlantic liner) 50, 160, 160t, 161 United States Lines 162

United States Steel Workers Union 48 United States v. Nixon (1974) 252 United States v. Weber and other cases (1979) 252 United Technologies Corp. 74t, 402t UNIVAC computer 413 universal health care 211t. See also Medicare universities. See colleges and universities University of Akron 385t University of Alabama 248 University of Arizona 385t, 387t University of California, Berkeley 385t, 387t, 399t University of California, Davis 386t University of California, Irvine 399t University of California, Los Angeles 385t, 387t, 399t, 522 University of Central Florida 386t University of Chicago 399t University of Cincinnati 385t University of Colorado, Boulder 385t University of Connecticut 385t University of Delaware 386t University of Florida 385t, 387t University of Georgia 385t University of Hawaii, Manoa 387t University of Houston, University Park 385t, 387t University of Illinois, Chicago 385t University of Illinois, Urbana 385t University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign 387t, 399t University of Iowa 385t, 387t University of Kansas 385t, 387t University of Kentucky 248, 386t University of Louisville 386t University of Maryland, College Park 385t, 387t University of Massachusetts, Amherst 385t University of Miami 61 University of Michigan 505 University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 385t, 387t, 399t University of Minnesota 385t University of Minnesota–Twin Cities 387t University of Mississippi 249 University of Missouri, Columbia 385t University of Nebraska, Lincoln 386t University of New Mexico 386t University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 386t, 399t

University of North Texas 385t University of Notre Dame 399t University of Oklahoma, Norman Campus 386t University of Pennsylvania 386t, 387t, 399t, 412, 413 University of Pittsburgh 385t University of South Carolina, Columbia 385t University of Southern California 385t, 387t University of South Florida 385t University of Tennessee, Knoxville 385t University of Texas, Arlington 386t University of Texas, Austin 385t, 387t, 399t University of Toledo 386t University of Utah 385t University of Virginia 386t, 399t University of Washington 385t University of Wisconsin, Madison 385t, 387t University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 385t unmarried-couple households, children in 195t unmarried mothers. See illegitimate births Unocal 74t Unsafe at Any Speed (Ralph Nader) 136 Unser, Al 316, 570 Unser, Bob 316, 570 Unsoeld, Jolene 243t Upjohn,William 313 upland cotton 122t UPS (United Parcel Service) 163 urban areas. See cities and urban areas urban consumers 127t Urquiola oil spill 87t Uruguay 27t, 289m USAir 153t U.S. Air Force 272, 273t Korean War casualties 270t location of personnel 278t–279t minorities in 278t in Vietnam War 292t, 294t weapons/equipment of 280 women in 277t U.S. Amateur (golf) 560t USA Network 170t U.S. Army 51, 52, 272, 273t drafted enlisted men in 275 Korean War casualties 270t location of personnel 278t–279t minorities in 278t in Vietnam War 292t, 294t weapons/equipment of 279–280 women in 277t

USA Today 64, 172, 173t, 494 U.S. Coast Guard 294t U.S. Congress 51, 231, 239t–244t, 243t. See also U.S. House of Representatives; U.S. Senate U.S. Department of Commerce 404t U.S. Department of Defense 404t U.S. Department of Energy 62, 404t user friendly (computers) 413 Usery,W. J. 235t U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 429 U.S. House of Representatives African-American members 244t campaign spending 242t Hispanic members 244t leaders of 240t losses by president’s party 242t party strength 239t voting for 245t women members of 242t–243t US Lines 160t US magazine 174t U.S. Marine Corps 273t location of personnel 278t–279t minorities in 278t in Vietnam War 292t, 294t women in 277t U.S. Navy 272, 273t commissioned ships of 283t Korean War casualties 270t location of personnel 278t–279t minorities in 278t in Vietnam War 292t, 294t weapons/equipment of 280 women in 277t U.S. News &World Report 174t, 175t, 495 U.S. Open (golf) 558t, 560t, 561t U.S. Open (tennis) 553, 553t–556t, 558t U.S. Philips Corp. 402t U.S. Postal Service 53, 163–165, 254t U.S. Senate African-American members 244t campaign spending 242t Foreign Relations Committee chairs 266t Hispanic members 244t leaders of 240t losses by president’s party 242t party strength 239t women members of 242t

USSR. See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics U.S. Steel 73t U.S. Supreme Court 250–252. See also specific cases chronology 51, 52, 55, 57, 60, 64, 66, 67 Thurgood Marshall 348 Sandra Day O’Connor 350 politics and government 231 and school segregation 374 US WEST 79t, 166t U.S.Women’s Open (golf) 560t, 561t USX Corp. 74t USX Tower (Pittsburgh) 449t Utah 322 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t Ute Indians 322 uterine cancer 200t utilities. See public utilities U-2 incident 54

V vaccines polio 52, 203, 204 rubella 59 Valdez Harbor, Alaska 159t Valenti, Jack 457 Valentine, Nebr. 45t Valenzuela, Fernando 507 Valium 203, 432 Vallee, Rudy 322 Vallejo, Calif. 329t Vance, Cyrus R. 235t, 266t, 324 Vandenberg, Arthur H. 266t Vandenberg, Hoyt S. 267t Vanderbilt University 399t Van Fleet, James 269 van Gogh,Vincent 444t van Hoften, James D. 409t Vanity Fair 175t vans 141t Van Tassel,Tim 414 Vassar College 399t Index

667

Vatican 65 Vatican II 227, 228 VCRs. See videocassette recorders vegetables 425t, 435t velcro 432 venereal disease 200t, 295 Venezuela foreign-born U.S. population from 27t as leading exporter of petroleum to United States 85t murder rate 581t population 6t Rio Treaty 289m as trade partner 94t U.S. investments in 97t U.S. students from 387t verbal skills, SAT scores on 370t Verde 27t Vereen, Ben 308 Verity, C.William, Jr. 235t Vermont 322 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Verrazano-Narrows Bridge 449, 449t Vessey, John W., Jr. 267t veterans programs 258 college housing 378 costs of 274t education 378 government expenditures on 254t, 259t Vezina Trophy 565t VFW Magazine 174t Viacom 74t Vicious, Sid 452 Victoria magazine 174t videocassette recorders (VCRs) 62, 170t, 457 videos 462t Vieil If, Le (Vincent van Gogh) 444t Vienna Summit 300t Vietnam armed forces in 279t chronology 52

668

foreign aid to 298t foreign-born U.S. population from 27t immigration 22t, 23t, 24t military sales and assistance to 299t U.S. armed intervention in 290 U.S. students from 387t Vietnamese Americans 15t, 16t Vietnam Veterans Memorial 64 Vietnam Veteran Speaks Against the War, A, 1971 601–602 Vietnam War 58, 59, 290–296, 292–294 armed forces in 275 chronology 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61 defoliation mission 601 economy 69 and Johnson’s presidency 343 politics and government 231, 236 President Lyndon Johnson Explains and Defends American Involvement in Vietnam, April 1965 599–601 Vietnam Veteran Speaks Against the War, A, 1971 600–602 weapons/equipment of 280 women in 277 Vietnam War Memorial 443 Viking spacecraft 62, 407t Vildorenko, Aleksandr 411t Vince Lombardi Award 544t Vincent Astor Foundation 439t Vinson, Fred 48, 234t, 250, 311 Vinson Court (Supreme Court) 250, 252 vinyl chloride 419t, 423t vinyl floor tiles 431 Virginia 322–323 arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 36t, 38t illegal population 26t population 5t African-American 12t; American Indian 15t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t


right-to-work laws 105t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 374, 375m vital statistics and health care AIDS cases reported 201t; alcoholic purchase age 218t; interracial marriage 190 voter registration 245t–246t Wilder as governor of 250 Virginia Beach,Va. 327t, 329t Virginia Commonwealth University 386t Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond,Va.) 443t Virginia Polytechnic Institute 385t Virgin Islands 85t, 363t, 441t virus (computers) 413 Visalia-Tulare-Porterville metropolitan area 19t Vista USA 174t visual arts degrees awarded 396t–398t visually handicapped students 361t vital statistics 178–202 abortion 184–186 birth control 182–183 births 178–182 death rates 197t–199t diseases 200t–202t divorce 191–192 families and households 192–195 life expectancy 196t marriage 190–191 sexual behavior and attitudes 187–190 Vladivostok Summit 300t Vogue 174t, 175t Voice of America 49 Vol, Igor P. 409t volatile organic compounds 420t volcano (Mount St. Helens) 47, 47, 324 Volcker, Paul 67 Volkov,Vladislav N. 408t Volkswagen 62, 141, 142t, 144 volleyball 548t, 552t Volpe, John A. 235t Volyanov, Boris V. 408t von Braun,Werner 355b, 403 Vonnegut, Kurt 310 Vons 74t Von Steuben (submarine) 285t Vostok space missions 408t voting 245–246 Baker v. Carr (1962) 252 chronology 59 politics and government Mississippi Freedom Summer 249; presidential elections 233t, 245t;

representatives 245t; voting age 231 Voting Rights Act (1965) 57, 320 Voting Rights Bill speech (Lyndon B. Johnson) 177 voucher system (education) 357 Voyager spacecraft 407t Vucanovich, Barbara 243t

W Wade Trophy 526t Wadsworth, James J. 266t wages. See earnings and income Wahiawa, Hawaii 17t Waimalu, Hawaii 17t Waipahu, Hawaii 17t Wake County, N.C. 332t Wake Forest University 399t Waldon, Alton R., Jr. 244t Wales 196t, 372t, 581t Walgreen 74t Walker, Charles D. 409t, 411t Walker, David M. 409t, 411t Walker, Frank C. 234t Walker, John and Michael 65 Walker, Ralph 448t Walker Art Center (Minneapolis, Minn.) 443t Walkmans 63, 466 Wallace, George 304, 312, 355b chronology 55, 58, 60 Civil Rights movement 248, 249 presidential election votes 233t Wallace, Henry A. 48, 234t Walla Walla,Wash. 46t Walleye missiles 415t Wall Street Journal 173t Wal-Mart stores 55, 74t, 79t, 305 Walt Disney 79t Walt Disney World 60 Walters, Barbara 62 Walters,Vernon A. 266t Walton, Bill 525 Walt Whitman Bridge 449t Wank, Roland A. 448t Ward, Rodger 570 warhead 292 Warhol, Andy 67, 319, 441, 443t war messages Roosevelt, Franklin D. 176 Wilson,Woodrow 177 warmup (baseball term) 519 Warner Brothers 163 Warner Communications 73t Warner-Lambert Company 79t War on Poverty 56, 113 War Powers Act (1973) 61, 236, 296, 602 Warren, Earl 51, 61, 250, 305 Warren, Mich. 330t Warren, Robert Penn 66, 311 Warren Commission 56

Warren Court (Supreme Court) 250, 252 Warsaw, Poland 151 Warsaw Pact 264 warships 280 Washington (state) 323–324 AIDS cases reported 201t alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t illegal population 26t import cars 144t Mt. Rainier 323 population 5t American Indian 15t; Asian-American 16m; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Washington, Craig 244t Washington, D.C. age for alcoholic purchases 218t AIDS cases reported 201t arts funding 440t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t import cars 144t Japanese-owned manufacturing plants in 96t National airport 152t National Gallery of Art 350 personal income 111t population 4t, 327t, 328t African-American 11t; American Indian 14t; Hispanic origin 7t, 18t population loss 330t prisoners executed 585t rural/urban road mileage 147t weather and climate 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Washington, D.C.–Baltimore metropolitan area 8t, 19t, 312 Washington, D.C., metropolitan area 13t, 17t, 330t, 422t, 423t Washington, George 323 Washington, Harold 65, 67, 244t, 250, 335 Washington, Kenny 534 Washington and Lee University 399t

Washington County, D.C. 333t Washington County, Minn. 332t Washington National airport (Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport) 152t Washington Post 172, 173t, 236 Washington Public Power Supply Company 324 Washington Redskins 534 Washington Senators 509 Washington Star 173t Washington Summit 300t Wasp (aircraft carrier) 283t Waste Management (company) 79t watches 431, 432, 433 waterbeds 58, 432, 433t Watergate scandal 60, 61, 236–238 Waterloo, Iowa 45t Water-Pik 432 water pollution 67, 422t, 429t water polo 548t Water Quality Act (1970) 418 water shortages 306, 335 Water Tower Place (Chicago) 449t water transportation 157–162, 162t Watkins, James D. 235t Watson, James 203 Watson, Marvin 234t Watson,Tom 558 Watt, James G. 235t Watts riot 57 Wayne, John 63, 310, 452, 456, 459 Wayne County, Mich. 333t Wayne State University 385t weapons. See also nuclear weapons ban of handgun sales 64 military 279–282 missiles 279, 415–416, 415t ballistic 282t; on submarines 280–281 murders by type of 583t science and technology 415–416 weather and climate 29–47. See also specific cities acid rain 29 floods and flash floods 46–47 hurricanes 35–38 monthly and annual 33t–34t storms 42–46 tornadoes 39–41 volcano eruption 47 Weathermen 59 weather satellites 29, 54 Weaver, Robert C. 234t, 249 Webber, Andrew Lloyd 453 Webster,William H. 267t wedding rings 131t WeeklyWorld News 174t Weeks, Sinclair 234t

Weight Watchers International Incorporated 55 WeightWatchers Magazine 174t Weinberger, Casper 235t, 266t Weis, Jessica McC. 243t Weitz, Paul J. 409t Welch,W.V. 5 Weldon, James 308 welfare 255, 256 federal expenditures for 254t state expenditures for 258t Welk, Lawrence 318 Welles, Orson 324 Wellesley College 399t Wendover, Utah 46t Wendy’s International Inc. 436t Wendy’s (restaurant) 75t, 478 Wesleyan Church 226t Wesleyan University 399t West, Alston-Roberts 269 West, Jerry 324 Westair Airline 153t Westerdam (transatlantic liner) 161 Western Auto 75t Western Electric 166 Western Europe 86t. See also specific countries Western Living 174t Western Michigan College 378, 379 Western Michigan University 385t westerns, B-grade 459 Western Samoa 27t western United States. See also specific states arts attendance in 446t “born-again” status 229t cigarette/drug use 221t cities 326 population 4t, 10t prison inmates 579t school desegregation 377t West Germany. See Federal Republic of Germany Westinghouse Electric Co. 74t, 79t, 402t West Palm Beach–Boca Raton– Delray Beach metropolitan area 13t, 331t West Palm Beach–Boca Raton metropolitan area 9t West Palm Beach Post 173t West Virginia 324 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t hurricanes 38t

population 3, 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t record snow 42t, 43t rural/urban road mileage 147t school segregation 375m WestVirginia (submarine) 286t West Virginia University 386t Wexelblat, Richard L. 413 Wheat, Alan 244t wheat 120t–122t wheat flour, consumption of 435t Wheeler, Earle G. 267t When Bad Things Happen to Good People (Harold Kushner) 504 Wherry, Kenneth 240t “Whiskey-a-Go-Go” 57 White, Byron 250, 306 White, Edward 57, 403 White, Edward H., 2d 408t White, Ryan 355b White,Wallace H., Jr. 240t white Americans abortions 184t–185t AIDS cases 200t alcohol-related deaths 219t birthrates/fertility rates 179t cancer survival trends 200t children’s living arrangements 194t cigarette/drug use by 221t contraception methods 183t crime 578 assault victims 580t; drug arrests 588t; executions 584, 584t; homicides 581t; murder/manslaughter victims 582t; prisoners 578t; prison inmates 579t; risk of murder 583t; total arrests 576t–577t death rates 197t, 198t divorce 191, 192t economy below poverty level 114t; earnings and income 107; median earnings of 109t; median household income of 110t; per capita income of 110t; poverty 113; unemployment rate 103t–104t; women employed 102t education college completion 395t; college enrollment 382t; level of 359t–361t; SAT scores 370t; school integration opinions 376t Index

669

white Americans (continued) family and nonfamily households 194t female householders with families 193t fertility rates 180t illegitimate births 178–179, 180t, 181t infant mortality rate 182t interracial marriage 190, 191t life expectancy 196t live births 178t marital status 192t medical device implants 207t persons without health insurance 213t population 1t–2t, 3, 6, 6t–10t pregnancy outcomes 186t in professional sports 506t, 507t religious beliefs 223t, 229t sexual behavior and attitudes 188t–189t southern states voter registration 245t–246t tobacco smoking 215t, 216t voting by 246t white Christmas, odds of 44t–46t Whitman, Charles 57 Whitmire, Katherine 335 Whitney Museum of American Art (New York, N.Y.) 443t Whittaker, Charles E. 250 Whitworth, Katy 558 wholesale trade earnings in 107t, 108t employment in 99t Wichita, Kans. 30t, 32t–34t, 45t, 327t Wichita Eagle 174t Wichita metropolitan area 331t Wiesel, Elie 66 Wiggins, James Russell 266t Wilder, L. Douglas 68, 250 Wilderness Act (1964) 418 Wiley, Alexander 266t William H. Fogg Art Museum (Cambridge, Mass.) 443t Williams, Donald E. 409t, 411t Williams, Hank 304, 478 Williams,Tennessee 314 Williams,Vanessa 65 Williams,Wayne 64, 582t Williamsburg Bridge 449t Williams College 399t Williamson County,Tenn. 332t Williamson County,Tex. 332t Williamsport, Pa. 46t, 520 Williston, N.Dak. 46t Will Rogers (submarine) 285t

670

Wilmington, Del. 11t, 30t, 32t, 33t, 34t, 45t Wilmington, N.C. 37t, 45t Wilmington News Journal 174t Wilson, Charles E. 234t, 266t Wilson,Woodrow (War Message) 177 Wimbledon. See British Open wind-chill 30t wind speed 32t–33t, 42t wind strength 42t Winecoff Hotel (Atlanta, Ga.) 48 wine coolers 433 Winfrey, Oprah 314 Winn-Dixie 74t Winnebago Indians 324 Winnemucca, Nev. 45t Winslow, Ariz. 44t Winston, Harry 54 Winston Cup Series 570, 571t Winston-Salem, N.C. 45t Wirtz,W.Willard 234t Wisconsin 324–325 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 428t, 429t import cars 144t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t tornadoes 40t Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod 224t, 225t Wm. Preston Lane Jr. Bridge 449t Wolff, Nelson 338 Woman and Bicycle (Willem de Kooning) 441 Woman’s Armed Forces Integration Act (1948) 277 Woman’s Day 174t, 175t Woman’s World 174t women. See females Women’s Basketball Coaches Association awards 526t women’s movement abortion rights 184 Betty Friedan 341b politics and government 231


Senate Hearings on an Equal Rights Amendment, May 7, 1970 602–603 and sexual behavior/attitudes 187 Wonder, Stevie 55 wood 82t Wood, Grant 310 Wood, Natalie 64, 452 Wood, Robert C. 234t Wood, Sam 465 Wooden, John 521, 522, 525, 525 Woodhouse, Chase G. 243t WoodrowWilson (submarine) 285t Woodstock music festival 58 Woodward, Bob 236 Woodward, Joanne 308, 452 wool 122t Woolworth 54, 74t, 248, 249 Worcester Art Museum (Mass.) 443t Worcester, Mass. 45t Worcester Telegram & Gazette 174t Worden, Alfred M. 409t word processor 413 Workbasket,The 174t Workbench 174t WorkingWoman 174t work-related deaths 199t work stoppages (labor) 106t Worldcom 167t World Glory oil spill 87t World Heavyweight Championships 567t World Hockey Association 562 World Series 512t World Series, Little League 520 World Trade Center (New York) 59, 447, 449t Wounded Knee, S.D. 61, 321 Wozniak, Stephen 412, 414 wrestling 548t–549t Wright, Frank Lloyd 54, 324, 442, 448t Wright, Jim 239t, 240t Wrigley Field (Chicago) 67 Wurster,William 448t Wyandot Indians 318, 335, 337 Wyeth, Andrew 442, 443t Wyoming 325 alcoholic purchase age 218t arts funding 441t economy agricultural output 121t; farm income 124t; farms 116t; Japanese-owned manufacturing plants 96t; personal income 111t; right-to-work laws 105t

education 363t, 367t hazardous waste sites 429t population 5t American Indian 15t; Hispanic origin 8t, 18t, 20m; percent increase in 2m; by race 8t prisoners executed 585t prison inmates 579t rural/urban road mileage 147t Wyoming (submarine) 286t

X Xerox Corp. 74t, 402t

Y Yakima,Wash. 46t Yale University 59, 388, 399t Yamasaki, Minoru 448t Yankee 174t Yeager, Chuck 48, 324 Yegorov, Boris B. 408t Yeliseyev, Aleksei S. 408t Yellowstone National Park 325 Yeltsin, Boris 68 Yeutter, Clayton K. 235t YM 174t Yonkers, N.Y. 328t Yo Picasso (Pablo Picasso) 444t Yorktown (aircraft carrier) 283t Yost, Charles W. 266t Young, Andrew 244t, 266t, 308 Young, Coleman A. 337 Young, John W. 408t, 409t Young, Loretta 322 Youngstown, Ohio 46t Youngstown-Warren metropolitan area 331t Yugoslavia educational comparisons 371t, 372t immigration 22t, 23t, 24t legal abortions 185t life expectancy 196t Marshall Plan aid 265t U.S. students from 387t Yuma, Ariz. 44t yuppies 65

Z Zaire 24t, 298t, 581t Zale,Tony 565 Zambia 298t Zantop Airline 153t Zimbabwe 298t Zim Lines 162 zip code system 163

Cold War America, 1946 to 1990 (Almanacs of American Life)

Civil War America (Almanacs of American Life)

Colonial America to 1763 (Almanacs of American Life)

Civil War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Revolutionary War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Revolutionary War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Civil War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Korean War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Vietnam War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

The Cold War and Postwar America 1946-1963

World War I Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

The History Of Science From 1946 To 1990's

The Vision of Anglo-America: The US-UK Alliance and the Emerging Cold War, 1943-1946

Experiment in Occupation: Witness to the Turnabout ; Anti-Nazi War to Cold, War 1944-1946

The Vision of Anglo-America: The US-UK Alliance and the Emerging Cold War, 1943-1946

Cold War: Building for Nuclear Confrontation 1946-1989

Pursuing Privacy in Cold War America

America goes to war

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War America, 1946 to 1990 (Almanacs of American Life)

Civil War America (Almanacs of American Life)

Colonial America to 1763 (Almanacs of American Life)

Civil War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Revolutionary War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Revolutionary War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Civil War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Korean War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

Vietnam War Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

The Cold War and Postwar America 1946-1963

World War I Almanac (Almanacs of American Wars)

The History Of Science From 1946 To 1990's

The Vision of Anglo-America: The US-UK Alliance and the Emerging Cold War, 1943-1946

Experiment in Occupation: Witness to the Turnabout ; Anti-Nazi War to Cold, War 1944-1946

The Vision of Anglo-America: The US-UK Alliance and the Emerging Cold War, 1943-1946

Cold War: Building for Nuclear Confrontation 1946-1989

Pursuing Privacy in Cold War America

America goes to war

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Cold War

Recommend Documents