Career As a Physicist: Studying How the Universe Works and Using Your Knowledge to Play an Integral Part in Future Advances in Medicine, Computers, National Defense, Lasers, Transportation, Energy Efficiency and the Environment

CAREER AS A

PHYSICIST

Institute Research Number 143 ISBN 1-58511-143-0 DOT Number 023.061-014 O*Net SOC Code 19-2012.00

CAREER AS A PHYSICIST STUDYING HOW THE UNIVERSE WORKS AND USING YOUR KNOWLEDGE TO PLAY AN INTEGRAL PART IN FUTURE ADVANCES IN MEDICINE, COMPUTERS, NATIONAL DEFENSE, LASERS, TRANSPORTATION, ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

SOME PEO PLE MAY HAVE AN IM AGE OF THE PHYSICIST-SCIENTIST AS A SHY,

disheveled absent-minded professor who wears socks that don’t match and who would rather talk to a computer than a real person. Nothing could be further from today’s reality. Physicists come from all walks of life, have a wide variety of interests, and are more likely to go to parties and meetings than to lock themselves away in a laboratory and forget what day or year it is. In fact, the most famous scientist the modern world has known, Albert Einstein, was a physicist who had a keen interest in many social issues and questions. 2

Most people enter the field of physics because it is a science that is almost entirely devoted to the exploration of the unknown. Physics and physicists often deal with the big questions, like “Where did the Universe come from?” or “What happens when you travel at the speed of light?” But they are not content with just asking the questions. They want to find the answers. Of course physics does not just deal with cosmic questions. The science of physics is involved in nearly all aspects of technology and science that have become the practical realities of our day-to-day lives. Physics has been integral to many advances in medicine, computers, national defense, lasers, transportation, energy efficiency, and the environment. Physics is a fundamental science because it deals with the fundamental elements of nature and life, like force and motion, gravity, electricity, light and heat, and sound. Physics also deals with the basic particles of life, from atoms, electrons, and protons to the fundamental particles of matter known as quarks, which combine to form composite objects like protons and neutrons. As a result, physics is a basic building block for such sciences as chemistry, biology, medicine, electronics, and geology. In essence, physicists study how the universe works and then take their knowledge and apply it to solving problems. Some have obvious practical applications concerning food and energy supply, or advancing communications technology. Others deal with more theoretical problems such as how space bends or curves. But, even with the more esoteric questions, the physicist is ultimately looking for practical applications that will increase our knowledge about the world around us and improve our lives. Because physics is such a fundamental science, people with physics degrees work in a wide variety of fields and jobs – for private companies, universities, schools, research centers, and governmental agencies. In fact, a complete list of the types of jobs that physicists work in would be very, very long. Here is a sampling of some of the areas and industries a physicist may work in: Aerospace Astronomy Biophysics Computer system engineering

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Research assistance High-tech design Mathematics Medical products design Meteorology Research Administration Data analysis Education Technical consulting There are more than 40,000 physicists working in industry, education, government and medical centers today. Although the majority are active scientists and engineers, some have become lawyers with a technology specialty while others have opted for careers in the military, sales, law, accounting, and medicine. For many years, physics has been the domain primarily of men, but more and more women are entering the field and matching the accomplishments of their male counterparts. In fact, recent statistics show that young women make up nearly half of all high school physics students. If you are inquisitive, have an aptitude for math, and like to tackle the tough problems, physics may be for you. A background in physics can prepare you for many careers and lead you in many directions, including the road less traveled.

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STARTING TO PREPARE EARLY IF YOU ARE IN HIGH SCHOOL AND CONSIDERING A PHYSICS CAREER, YOU CAN

start exploring the career now. Find out as much about the field as you can to make sure that it is the right one for you. Talk to your teachers and guidance counselor. Go to the library and read up on the field; your librarian can point you in the right direction. You can also learn a lot through the Internet. Physicists, after all, have played a major role in developing computer technology. The Web contains vast amounts of information about the field targeting potential students and the general public. Much of it is supplied by top physics organizations, like the American Institute of Physics (AIP) on their Web site http://www.aip.org/. The information you find there can help you determine whether you have the aptitude and commitment needed to pursue a career in physics or a physics-related field. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA, has a Web site at: http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/YBA/yba-intro.html This website is designed to give you the experience of solving a problem that an astrophysicist might face. One good way to find out if physics is for you is to take as many math courses as possible. You should have some aptitude for math, but it is more important that you enjoy it and be willing to work hard on your math skills to improve them. Since physicists do a lot of research and work on many advanced projects in science and industry, you should join a science club at your school. Also volunteer for science fairs and other events that require you to design and complete science projects. You can also read science magazines like Scientific American, which will keep you abreast of the latest advances and give you insights into where science is headed for in the future. Talk to your science teachers and contact the physics department at a local college or university. They can give you some great insights into the field. If you are already in college, you can ask a professor whose work interests you if you can volunteer to help in the research laboratory. Summer fellowships in the field will also provide you with valuable experience to help you decide if physics is right for you. 5

HISTORY OF THE PROFESSION THE FIELD OF PHYSICS AS IT IS KNOWN TODAY DID NOT BEGIN TO TAKE SHAPE

until the later part of the 19th century. However, the practice of physics, the study of nature, dates back at least to 580 BC in ancient Greece, when Thales of Miletus noted a magnet’s attraction to rubbed amber. Around 440 BC, Leucippus of Miletus originated the concept of the atom. His pupil, Democritus of Abdera, refined and extended the concept. Aristotle also described the workings of celestial bodies and other parts of nature in works called Physics and Metaphysics around 350 BC (although we now know he was mistaken in many of his assumptions). In 240 BC Archimedes developed the principles of hydrostatics (concerning fluids at rest, especially pressure in a fluid.) The field of physics was also developing in other parts of the world. Around 250 BC, the Chinese developed the concept that free bodies move at a constant velocity. Arabian scientists would also play an important role in physics several centuries later. For example, around 1000 AD Ali Al-hazen made great strides in the study of optics, including reflection, refraction, and lenses. He also developed a pinhole camera to demonstrate that light travels in straight lines to the eye. For the most part, however, early physics was largely philosophical and literary in nature and relied little on mathematics, mechanics, and experimentation. Nevertheless, some early physicists were surprisingly accurate in their guesses about aspects of nature, including the atomic theory of Democritus and the heliocentric view of the solar system advanced in 260 BC by Aristarchus, who said that the planets revolve around the sun. For the most part, the teachings of formal physics remained anchored for centuries in Aristotle’s incorrect picture of Earth as the center of movement in the skies and in many of his other erroneous views about dynamics and other aspects of nature. It wasn’t until 1600 and the publication of William Gilbert’s book about magnetism called De Magnete, that the first known extensive report of experiments that were connected and reconfirmed appeared in the history of Western physics. In 1609, Aristotle’s views of mechanics were attacked by Galileo, who said the earth was not the center of the universe. Galileo’s ideas, in turn, were condemned by the Inquisition in 1616 and 1633. In 1644, René Descartes Principles of Philosophy was based on an implicit mathematical scheme involving such natural 6

phenomenon as motion. Descartes also said that real physics should be based on mathematics. Sir Issac Newton was the first to explain many aspects of natural phenomenon in mathematics in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, published in 1687. Newton greatly advanced the science of motion with an emphasis on postulates involving the principles of gravity, mass, and force. He explained the laws of bodies falling to the surface of the earth, the laws that preside over the motion of planets around the sun and of satellites (moons) around the planets, and the laws that govern the high and low tides of the sea. In all, Newton gave science its first unified picture of the universe in terms of space and time. Many advances were made in physics throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The study of electricity, light, and optics were firmly established in the 1700s. Research into heat and thermodynamics also advanced when Joseph Fourier published his theory of heat conduction in 1822 using a series of trigonometry calculations that bear his name (Fourier Analysis). By the end of the 19th century, physics was rapidly advancing into the modern scientific field as it is known today. In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell discovered the electromagnetic nature of light and predicted the existence of radio waves; two years later he proposed the theory that atoms must have a structure. In 1883 George Fitzgerald developed a theory of radio transmission, and in 1892 Hendrick Lorentz came up with the theory that electricity is due to charged particles. Two years later Heinrich Hertz discovered that radio waves travel at the speed of light and can be refracted and polarized. In 1895 Wilhelm Roentgen developed X-rays. Although many credit Albert Einstein with initiating the modern era of physics, an important earlier contributor was Marie Curie, whose discovery of the radioactive element radium was a key to a basic change in the understanding of matter and energy. Curie also formed a crucial hypothesis that the emission of rays by uranium compounds could be an atomic property of the element uranium – something built into the very structure of its atoms. Her hypothesis would prove revolutionary and ultimately contribute to a fundamental shift in scientific understanding. After Curie, scientists realized that the atom was not the most elementary particle of matter, a fact that had already been hinted at by the discovery of the electron by physicist J.J. Thomson. 7

Nevertheless, the birth of modern revolutionary physics is largely associated with Neils Bohr and Einstein. In 1905, Albert Einstein wrote several papers that greatly impacted physics and transformed 20th century scientific thought. He established the special theory of relativity, predicted the equivalence of mass (m) and energy (e) according to the famous equation e = mc2, where (c) represents the velocity of light. Einstein also created the mathematical theory of Brownian motion (the observed movement of small particles as they are randomly bombarded by the molecules of the surrounding medium) and founded the photon theory of light (photoelectric effect) for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1921. By 1920 Einstein had published Relativity, the Special and the General Theory: A Popular Exposition, which profoundly modified the simple concepts of space and time on which Newtonian mechanics had been based. In 1910, Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus of the atom, showing that the atom consisted of a positively charged nucleus with negatively charged electrons in orbit around it. Neils Bohr followed up on this discovery in 1913, with his theory about the structure of the atom. Bohr proposed that electrons travel only in certain successively larger orbits. He suggested that the outer orbits could hold more electrons than the inner ones, and that these outer orbits determine the atom’s chemical properties. Bohr also described the way atoms emit radiation. He suggested that when an electron jumps from an outer orbit to an inner one that it emits light. Others later expanded this theory into quantum mechanics. In the 1920s, the formulation of quantum mechanics occurred, and the 1930s saw the emergence of what became known as “big physics,” that is, the development of expensive and time-consuming experiments supported heavily by industries using optics and electricity. By the 1950s, physicists were among the most respected scientists in terms of public recognition largely because of their extensive research into thermonuclear weapons and satellites. The ensuing years saw the emergence of many new specialties, such as applied electronics. By the late 1950s, physicists such as Richard Phillips Feynman began to emphasize the aesthetic value of their research more than its practical application. Since this time, theoretical physics has gone even further beyond the realm of pure science to raise profound philosophical questions concerning the nature of reality. For example, 8

in quantum physics, which deals with discrete and indivisible units of energy called quanta, there is a theory concerning the dual nature of physical entities. Quantum physics describes quantum particles and light as having both wavelike and particle-like characteristics. In essence, a quantum particle that is being measured (or observed) acts like a particle. When it is not being measured it acts like a wave. This leads to the theory that matter does not exist until it is observed! Physics, however, is largely a practical science responsible for much of the technology that is routinely accepted today but would have been thought of as “modern miracles” less than a century ago. Without physics, it is highly unlikely that discoveries in the last half of the 20th century such as the double-helix structure of DNA, the synthesis of complex protein molecules, and developments in genetic engineering would have ever occurred. Physics and physicists have greatly impacted many technological developments in the later part of the 20th century, including contributions to medicine, computers, national defense, countless consumer goods, telecommunications, lasers, medical imaging, space travel, and much more. Most recently physicists have been prime contributors to interdisciplinary efforts in biophysics, solid-state physics, and astrophysics. For example, solid-state physicists pioneered the revolution in information processing. Astrophysicists are also behind new insights into the large-scale structure of the universe and its parts. Today, physics continues to broaden scientific knowledge about basic laws of the physical universe, from the laws governing elementary particles to the irreversibly thermodynamic processes.

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WHERE YOU WILL WORK PERHAPS MORE THAN ANY OTHER GRADUATES WITH A SCIENCE DEGREE,

physicists have an extremely wide range of opportunities from academia to industry to high finance. As a result, you may work in a laboratory, in an office, in the classroom, or a combination of these places. You could even end up on the space shuttle! For the most part, physicists who work for industry or the government spend a lot of time in laboratories. Depending on the size of the project, these laboratories may range from small one-room facilities to large complexes and spaces. For example, physicists who work in such areas as nuclear and high-energy physics often work with enormous expensive equipment, like particle accelerators. Although physicists often spend much of their time in laboratories doing research, they also work in offices, where they plan and develop research projects, proposals, and prepare reports. Depending on your career path, you could end up working on Wall Street or other financial districts, where many financial services companies seek the expertise of physicists in computers. You could also work in a planetarium or even a museum that houses a planetarium. Physics graduates have also gone on to work in the military and even traveled to outer space as astronauts. Many people with physics degrees also become educators, both at the high school and college or university levels. In that case, expect to spend time in the classroom with students imparting to others your own knowledge and excitement about the field. As to geographic location, the sky is literally the limit. (Although some theoretical physicists will likely tell you there are no limits!) Because there are so many opportunities in such a wide variety of fields, you can work almost anywhere in the United States or the world depending on your willingness to relocate and your sense of adventure. Even when located in one geographic area, you may get the opportunity to travel the globe attending conferences and other scientific meetings pertinent to your field. As you can see, where you work will depend a lot on what you ultimately want to do with your degree or degrees. You can work for a small or a large corporation or organization or any size in between depending on your goals and such issues as the need for structure or freedom in the workplace. 10

WHAT PHYSICISTS DO THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS A TYPICAL DAY IN THE WORK LIVES OF ALL PHYSICISTS.

What you will do as a physicist depends largely on the type of physics you get into and your employer, whether it be industry, the government, or academia. In most cases, whatever you do you will be involved with problem solving. Physicists are given situations or problems and are asked to solve them. Your work will most likely involve both experimental investigations and theoretical analysis. Throughout the course of your career, you may perform the duties of a scientist, engineer, mathematician, analyst, and even computer programmer. Physicists are often roughly divided into two kinds: experimental and theoretical physicists. As an experimental physicist, you might design and run thorough investigations on a broad range of natural phenomena, such as the electrical properties of materials when they reach near absolute zero or the characteristics of energy emitted by hot gases. As a theoretical physicist your focus will be more on proposing and developing models and theories to analyze and predict the behavior of the natural world. Of course, the areas of experimental and theoretical physics often overlap. The general duties of physicists are widely varied. You may be developing new products or types of computer hardware and software. As an astrophysicist, you might be looking for new planets and solar systems. Or your duties may be really unconventional, such as developing new golf ball dimple patterns and researching the properties of sporting equipment. What you do and the duties involved will also depend on your education. People who major in physics and get a bachelor’s degree often work in the private sector or in secondary education. They may be computer engineers and even go into management, where they supervise projects and people and manage budgets. Those who hold a master’s degree are more likely to have higher levels of responsibility, from supervising research in laboratories to solving complex problems. With a graduate degree you are also more likely to have management responsibilities. More than half of those who get their doctorate in physics work for colleges and universities. Their duties not only include conducting long-term research projects but also various aspects of teaching and supervision, which may include developing a course of instruction, 11

presenting lectures, and grading tests and papers. Often, physics professors also serve as mentors to specific students, helping to guide them in their research projects and in their future careers. If there is one universal aspect of a physicist’s duties, it is the fact that you probably will be working with mathematics. You will have to perform numerous calculations, and you will also do mathematical modeling. As a part of this effort, you may design and perform experiments with lasers, cyclotrons, mass spectrometers, and a host of other equipment. In the course of your investigations you will not only define research problems and develop research models, but also gather and analyze data. Many physicists also work for federally funded research and development centers. You may design equipment and instruments. If you are working in industry, your duties may include inspecting, testing, and conducting quality control procedures for products or other aspects of the particular industry that employs you. Some physicists are self-employed and work as consultants, providing their expertise to a number of clients, including government and industry. If you have your doctorate, you may also specialize in one of many sub-fields, from elementary particle or nuclear physics to optics, acoustics, or plasma physics. The majority of physicists also have non-technical duties, such as developing and writing research proposals, reviewing scientific literature, and summarizing research findings. Even if you are not teaching students, your duties may require you to explain your work to others in a particular industry. You may have to prepare technical reports. Some physicists even write for the general public in newspapers, magazines, and books. For the most part, you can also expect to work with others in a team environment. Although the field of physics encompasses too many careers to outline all of their duties here, the following is a sample of what you might do in various areas of physics.

Astrophysicist As an astrophysicist, you study the nature and behavior of the universe. You may conduct studies applying general relativity to the study of black holes or cosmology. Or you may be using a computer to control satellites or conduct numerical analysis of astronomical data. You may also work on building new instruments or use existing ones to discover new facts about stars, nebulae and galaxies. Your job will usually include data acquisition and research, 12

perhaps concerning the elliptical galaxies that shine brightly in the x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum. To study these extremely hot materials in the galaxy, you may use such instruments as an x-ray telescope. You may even oversee an entire planetarium and oversee all the research that goes on there as well as develop budgets and do other management work.

Biophysicist Biophysicists focus on explaining why the biophysical environment behaves as it does. You may be required to develop research methods to better understand the mechanisms of biological processes by using mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology. Fields of research include how the brain processes and stores information, how muscles contract, how the heart pumps blood, and much more. Biophysicists also study how organisms develop, see, hear, think, and live. Your duties probably will require extensive computer use for data collection and analysis. You will also design experiments using lasers, cyclotrons, mass spectrometers, and other equipment. Research biophysicists also write scientific articles and present their work at international conferences.

Computational Physicist Computational physics is a relatively new branch of physics that lies between theoretical and experimental physics. As a computational physicist you would focus on the practical use of computers in the study of physics questions. You would use the newest technology and have a hands-on approach to scientific computing. For example, you could be developing imaging and spectral analysis software for scientific applications. You could also become an entrepreneur as a growing number of computational physicists start up their own companies. These physicists-entrepreneurs focus primarily on computer code development, computer systems administration, Web development, networking, and other means to solve specific problems needed by private commerce and industry.

Radiation or Health Physicist The primary duties of a radiation or health physicist are to work with shielding designs, radiological considerations, and operational aspects of facilities that use radiation or produce radiation. For example, in the area of hospital radiation therapy, duties involve the investigation, surveillance, inspection and registration of x-ray producing machines. In the nuclear industry, the radiation or health physicist duties include ensuring the protection of 13

persons and their environment from the damaging effects of radiation. Radiation physicists may be employed in nuclear reactor operations, accelerator programs, hospitals, or state public health departments. Your duties could include research in radiobiology, ecology, and radiogeology. These are only a few possibilities of the jobs and duties that might be yours as a physicist. It’s best to remember that there is no one set of duties for someone working in physics or a physics-related field. What you do will depend on where you work, your level of responsibilities, and your drive to succeed.

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PHYSICISTS TELL ABOUT THEIR CAREERS I’m a Research Physicist “I am a research scientist who focuses on space travel. The primary reason that I chose science and a career in physics is because my high school science teacher made the courses both challenging and fun. He made it so interesting that I started to read technical books on my own about physics and math, astronomy, and even quantum theory. When I got into college, I still wasn’t sure that I wanted to be a physicist. But by the time I got my bachelor’s degree I was totally hooked. Going for my master’s degree gave me some extra time to decide exactly what I wanted to specialize in, which ended up being solar energy at the time. I guess you could say that my career plan has been constantly evolving throughout my education and work as a physicist. One of the smartest things I did while in college was to get involved in a co-op program. It allowed me to alternate semesters of standard college courses with semesters where I actually worked on various projects, such as researching solid-state electronics. During the course of my career I have done design work and taught and conducted research at a university, which I really liked. But there are so many opportunities, and I guess I’m sort of like a mental nomad who likes to explore a lot of different areas. So I ended up in industry for a while and then worked in management. But I found that I liked hands-on science work much better. I’m currently interested in space environment effects, that is, how spacecraft and humans interact with their environment in orbit or while on a planet. I work with a team of about five or six people. This team is part of a larger team of about 30 people overall in different parts of the country. Still, much of my work is self-guided and I have plenty of freedom to explore different directions and aspects of my studies. I spend a lot of time working at a computer, including doing computer programming and data analysis.

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Overall, the working conditions are great and very relaxed. I make a good living and have great benefits. But most of all, I love what I do.”

I’m an Industrial Physicist “I’m a vice president of research for a major science company and oversee some of the most creative scientific minds I have known. The people I work with have been responsible for discoveries leading to more than 1,000 patents and many life-changing inventions. I joined the company right out of college after receiving my PhD in physics. My mentor in college thought that I would also go into academia, but a summer placement program at this company impressed me so much that I decided that’s what I wanted to do. I knew there was so much that I could accomplish here. I began my career working on light-scattering experiments on complex fluids, surfaces and other condensed matter. I won’t go into the details, but it was fascinating. Over the course of the years, the research I participated in became quite diverse – from plastic superconductors to DNA to dark matter. Although I’m now in management, I still conduct research, which now focuses on optical systems. It makes up about ten percent of my duties. I try to maintain an extremely creative atmosphere in the research labs. And the people who work on product development tell me that such an atmosphere has dramatically benefitted their work. Yes, there are pressures because the company I work for deals with telecommunications and the technology is changing rapidly. We’re expected to produce world-class research, both in the short and long terms. Still, I’ve learned many ways to balance my life. I play the piano and do Tae Bo aerobics, both of which help me to relax. As a woman I have had some tough times advancing up the scientific or corporate ladder in a traditionally male dominated field. But I always loved a challenge. In fact, part of the reason I became a physicist is because my older brother, who was studying mathematics in college when I was still in high school, told me that I couldn’t handle the course work to become a physicist.

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Today, I think it’s very easy for women to make a name for themselves in industry. In the end, most employers only care about results, not your background. As a result, I wouldn’t hesitate to encourage my daughter to go into physics if that’s what she wanted to do.”

I’m a Consultant Engineer “I’m a building services consulting engineer and provide expertise in the design of innovative construction projects. I’ll never forget what one of my college professors told me. He said that a good physicist always makes an excellent engineer but that an engineer seldom makes a good physicist. My primary expertise is in areas of heating and lighting and various other systems that control a building’s internal environment. I often work with architects and structural engineers and also advise them on ways to minimize environmental impact in such areas as acoustics and energy management. One of the best things I like about the job is that I’m not in the office all of the time. I get to travel to different parts of the United States, and I am often on-site drawing up specifications. It’s great when you design something and then get to see it up and running efficiently. When I tell people what I do and that I majored in physics in college, they are quite surprised. Most of them never would have guessed that my job is something someone with a background in physics would end up doing. The fact is physicists work in every aspect of the economy and in every area of technology that you can think of. It’s not always the specific subjects that we were taught in college physics that make us so valuable. It’s the whole way we are trained to think that’s important. Actually, most of the people I graduated with are not in mainstream physics jobs. Some work in government and management, and I have one friend who even works in finance. I guess what I’m trying to say is that physics is more of a discipline than a career. The only thing that I know that all people in physics have in common is that they have an inquisitive mind. Well, they’re pretty good at math, too.” 17

I’m a Freelance Science Writer “When I started out studying physics, I wanted to go into academia, be a college professor. But by the time I got my master’s degree, I no longer wanted to follow the traditional career path of the Physicist with a capital P. One of the turning points was when my college adviser pointed out that there were many ways for me to go with a degree in physics. At the time, it was difficult to get an academic appointment, and I was told I needed to open up my vistas a bit. Even though I got my PhD, which is pretty much a requirement for a physics career in a major college or university, I focused my efforts on getting a job in industry. I had no experience and a little bit of a tough time finding a job because the economy was in a slump at the time. Although my primary work in college focused on infrared sensors, I also worked with my professors on a variety of other projects doing little odd-job types of things, including developing software programs for laboratory experiments. I ended up working for a software development firm in product development. It was a small firm so I also was asked to assist the marketing department to gain a better understanding of our products. At one point, I started working on the company’s newsletters and marketing brochures to make sure all the technical material was presented correctly. In the end, I found that I had a real knack for writing technical and advertising materials, and it wasn’t long before I went into marketing full time, eventually becoming the company’s marketing manager. I love communicating science to the general public and eventually decided to strike out on my own as a freelance science writer. The contacts I had made while I worked as a physicist and in marketing helped me get a good start. You’d be surprised how much demand there is for someone who can write about complicated science in a way that’s understandable by almost anybody. I’m currently writing a physics textbook and have co-authored a children’s book about physics. I write for several science magazines and even have an idea for a science fiction novel based on some really extraordinary theories in physics.” 18

PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS ALTHOUGH PHYSICISTS SHARE MANY COMMON TRAITS, PERHAPS THE MOST

important of all is a fascination with the world around them and an intense curiosity about why the world works as it does. They also tend to have good imaginations and the desire to make new discoveries. On the more practical side, someone who wants to become a physicist should have a strong interest in science in general. An aptitude for mathematics is essential since the language of physics is mathematics. As a result, many physicists, especially theoretical physicists, like to solve problems. They have the ability to concentrate on a problem and get deeply involved in it – sometimes over months and years. In other words, good problem-solving skills are essential. Physicists tend to be analytical, creative, and persistent. They are also willing to take the initiative, asking questions that no one has asked before and putting in the effort to answer these questions. Often, the physicist is able to see relationships among various factors that are not immediately apparent to others. It may surprise you to know that physicists should also be good communicators. Gaining knowledge about something doesn’t do much good for anyone else unless you can communicate your knowledge to them. You should be able to inform, explain, and instruct so that you and others can draw meaningful conclusions about your work. Good spoken and written communication skills are also handy because physicists often work with other scientists as a team, not only in the laboratory but also writing research papers and proposals for funding research. Many physicists work in industry and business environments, meaning that while being able to focus is important it is also valuable to be able to work on many different tasks simultaneously. Good communication skills come into play so you can communicate with those around you who may not have your scientific background. Many physicists also oversee other workers. They should be good people managers who can build relationships based on trust. You must be willing to continue studying throughout your career. Physicists can enter a variety of fields and work on many different types of problems. As a result, they are willing to broaden their educational background beyond the realm of physics.

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Few people possess all of the qualities described, especially as students and early in their careers. But with the right education, a willingness to learn, and a desire to succeed, you can improve upon the personal qualities that you already possess.

ATTRACTIVE FEATURES ONE OF THE MOST REWARDING ASPECTS OF BEING A PHYSICIST IS THAT YOU ARE

building a base of scientific knowledge that ultimately enriches everyone’s lives. For example, many of the high-tech medical advances that have saved countless lives have resulted from the work of physicists. Many people choose to study physics because they are fascinated by the world around them. A career in physics will enable you to get paid for pursuing this fascination and finding answers to your questions. Trained in physics, you can go in a lot of different directions once you graduate and throughout your career. The problem-solving skills developed through your education are useful in many professions. As a result, your career will have an inherent flexibility not often found in other professions. This flexibility also offers a type of job security in that your skills will almost always be in demand in some sector of government, industry, or academia. In many physics-related careers, you have the best of both worlds in that you often get to work quite independently while, at the same time, being part of a team. Working with smart colleagues also enables you to bounce ideas off them that can put you that much closer to reaching your goals in research and product development. For a physicist, no two days are the same. Most physics and physics-related jobs offer a lot of flexibility and variety. Often physicists also develop their own consulting businesses or start companies based on new products or processes that they develop. In many cases, physicists have the opportunity to do whatever they think is necessary to achieve their goals. In the process, you are often on the cutting-edge of science and business.

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UNATTRACTIVE FEATURES ALTHOUGH PHYSICISTS GET PAID RELATIVELY WELL, THE PAY IS NOT AS HIGH AS IN

many other equivalent professional careers, such as medicine, accounting, and law. You may also face stiff competition at times for a specific job. For example, job availability at government funded research and development centers is highly dependent on budgets allotted to these centers. These budgets are developed and approved by politicians and bureaucrats and often depend on the current economy as well as many political factors. You may also face considerable pressure on the job, especially in the industrial and commercial sectors. For example, you may have to bear major responsibility for developing a new product or process that will impact the future of your company and fellow workers. As a result, you may also work long hours and have to put up with organizational politics. Sometimes you may have difficulty in finding a niche that is suitable for you. Being prepared for different types of work is a good thing. However, unless you are committed to a specific area of physics, it could take you several years to find what you really want to do with your career and where you fit in. This is especially true for physicists with only a bachelor’s degree. Finally, although your peers and employers will respect you, many people may never quite understand what it is you do. In fact, in many cases, including both government and private sector jobs, you won’t be able to tell them what you’re working on because it has to be kept a secret.

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EDUCATION AND TRAINING MANY OPTIONS ARE AVAILABLE IN HIGHER EDUCATION FOR GETTING A DEGREE IN

physics and the training to work in a physics-related field. Often you can apply for physics related jobs in industry right after obtaining your bachelor’s degree. But better paying jobs, especially those in basic research and academia, usually require at least a master’s degree and often a doctorate. The level of education you should seek depends a lot on your career goals. Many colleges and universities are beginning to offer professional master’s degree programs that prepare students for a specific physics-related job in private industry. Even with a bachelor’s degree you can work in many engineering-related areas, software, and other computer-related positions. However, for the high-level research jobs in almost any field, a doctorate is required. Part of your decision in pursuing an education will also depend on your willingness to make a long-term commitment. For example, you can get a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in physics in four years. It usually takes another two years to get a master’s degree (MS). It can require another two to four years to get a doctoral degree (PhD). Degree programs will often vary from college to college but the following will give you a general idea of the requirements you will have to fulfill for each degree level.

Bachelor’s Degree The standard four-year curriculum in physics will involve many science-based classes, starting with first-year physics courses. Even though these courses cover the fundamentals of physics in such areas as mechanics, electricity, and magnetism, they are often very difficult and are designed to weed-out physics candidates. Even if you don’t excel early on in your physics courses, you should persevere. Many successful physicists did not start out by doing well in these courses. Your physics courses will progress into such areas as intermediate mechanics and theories of energy and mass. You may also take courses in optics, thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and eventually elementary quantum mechanics. Some undergraduate programs may offer an opportunity to specialize somewhat in such areas as astrophysics, geophysics, and biophysics. But specialization usually begins during masters and doctoral programs.

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You can also expect to take a lot of math courses, including calculus. Of course, the idea of an undergraduate education is to produce a well-rounded graduate, so you will have to take courses in social studies, English, and composition. Some of these courses will be electives that you can choose from.

Master’s Degree Most master’s degree programs require two years following an undergraduate degree in physics or a related field, such as chemistry. Many will offer you a choice of a thesis-based program or a non-thesis program. In the thesis-based program you will have to pick a topic or research area and write extensively about it in addition to your classroom work. A non-thesis program requires additional classroom work and will usually include completing some type of project and a final examination. A master’s degree can prepare you for many fields in industry and research and teaching at the community college level. You will most likely take courses in classical mechanics, electrodynamics, and quantum mechanics. Research is also an important part of any master’s degree program in physics, and nearly all programs offer hands-on research as part of the master’s education. If you enter a professional master’s degree program, it will prepare you for a non-academic career in the field. This type of education provides not only fundamental training that all physicists receive but also specialized skills targeting specific industries and government research positions.

Doctoral Degree Most people working in colleges and universities and in the higher levels of government and industry have a PhD in physics. Earning a doctorate requires a high level of commitment and devotion since it can take three to six years to complete. Most doctoral programs require students to have demonstrated a high-level of ability during their undergraduate and master’s education. To be admitted, you probably will have to take both a written exam focusing on your knowledge of undergraduate physics and a preliminary oral exam on graduate-level physics. Doctoral students usually specialize in one area of physics, such as astrophysics, atmospheric physics, mathematical physics, general relativity, and so on. In addition to about 50 or so credit hours of graduate and upper-division course work in physics, math, and other 23

areas approved by committee, you will be required to choose an area of research and then write a comprehensive dissertation about your findings. You will get help with this research through your advisor. If you cannot come up with your own idea for a research project, your advisor will often assign you a research problem or include you in his or her own ongoing research.

Financial Aid College can be expensive, and going on to graduate school could put a serious dent in almost anybody’s budget. You should start talking early with your high school guidance counselor and colleges of your choice about financial aid programs, using the federal and state government, grants, and scholarships. Search the Web, including the US Department of Education and specific college Web sites. You’ll find a wealth of information about getting aid for your undergraduate education. Almost all graduate physics students can receive financial assistance in one form or the other. Fellowships, teaching assistantships, and research assistantships are common ways that graduate students help to finance their graduate education. Teaching assistantships are the most common form of support offered to new graduate students. This is because research work can take up a lot of time and colleges want to make sure that students have plenty of time for their classroom work and to adapt to their new level of study. As you progress in your graduate education, research assistantships become much more common and offer you not only financial assistance but also real-world experience in the laboratory.

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EARNINGS THE AMOUNT OF MONEY YOU CAN EARN AS A PHYSICIST DEPENDS ON MANY

factors. For example, people with a doctoral degree generally earn more than someone with a master’s degree, who generally earns more than someone with only a bachelor’s degree. According to a recent survey by the American Institute of Physics (AIP), the overall median annual salary for AIP-member physicists (ages 35 to 44) is: Doctoral (PhD or equivalent) – $100,000 Master’s degree – $90,000 Bachelor’s degree – $80,000 Experience is also another important factor. Doctoral physicists who have worked for less than five years typically earn around $85,000 a year in an industry setting. By the time they have gained more experience, the average median salary increases to around $100,000 a year. Salaries also depend on where you work. Typically, doctoral physicists who work in federally funded research and development (R&D) centers make more than those who work for the federal government or a university. This is particularly true early on in the physicist’s career. Doctoral physicists entering the industrial and the federally funded R&D center work forces earn around $65,000 to $80,000 a year, compared to government employed physicists, whose earnings start at around $50,000 to $70,000 a year. On the other end of the scale, physicists with bachelor’s degrees typically earn starting salaries from $25,000 a year to $40,000. The top three median salaries per year earned by doctoral physicists according to work sector are: $110,000 – hospitals and medical services sectors $105,000 – federally funded research and development sectors $100,000 – industry sectors Starting salaries in the university setting typically range from $40,000 a year in a 10-month position to $60,000 a year in a 12-month position. The salary of those who attain a doctoral degree and pursue a full-time career in academia also depends on their level of academic appointments. Typical salaries are: 25

Full professor – $100,000 to $150,000 a year Associate professor – $70,000 to $95,000 Assistant professor – $55,000 to $75,000. Physicists’ salaries typically fare well in terms of keeping up with inflation. For example the annual salary of around $100,000 a year earned by the typical experienced industrial physicist is a significant increase from the $80,000 a year reported only a few years earlier. An AIP study found that salaries for physicists have increased over 10 percent since 1998, far higher than the approximate six percent inflationary increases overall. And those who worked for federally funded R&D centers have netted about a 15 percent pay increase since 1998. Salaries and future earning potential vary widely according to education level attained, work sector, experience and even geographic location. Many physicists also make much more money than the reported averages through supplemental sources such as consulting, summer research projects, or summer teaching positions, each of which can add an average of $15,000 a year to the incomes described.

OPPORTUNITIES PHYSICS IS THE BASIS OF MANY ENDEAVORS IN ENGINEERING AND NATURAL

science. As a result, studying physics opens up numerous opportunities for employment in private companies, universities, schools, research centers, and governmental agencies. Like most careers, opportunities and job outlook for physics majors have fluctuated over the years, largely depending on economic downturns and upswings. Nevertheless, the employment rate for physicists has remained among the highest for any science majors and has been consistently above the national average. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, many physicists work on defense-related projects for the government. Because spending on defense is expected to increase over the next decade, the outlook for physicists in this field is good.

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Federal budgets have also increased for physics research at federally funded research and development (R&D) centers and at agencies such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Although short-term budget government issues often cause fluctuations in funding, continued increases in research and development funding are expected over the long haul and should mean increased job opportunities for physicists. Employment opportunities have also been good in the college and university settings. The number of full-time physics faculty employed in academia has increased in the last few years, and the number of faculty members which physics departments are recruiting remains high. This outlook is further bolstered by the fact that more physics faculty members are over the age of 60 than under the age of 40, meaning that there should be a higher rate of retirement and more opportunities within academia in the years to come. A survey by the American Institute of Physics (AIP) found that only three percent of students who earn a master’s degree in physics are not working within six months. Within that time, over 70 percent find full-time employment, and almost all the rest begin pursuing another graduate degree and working part time. In fact, opportunities actually may be better for master’s degree physicists in areas of applied research and development, product design, and other manufacturing industry jobs. The job market for physicists in the earth and space sciences also remains good. Physics graduates are in demand in a wide variety of industries, including information technology, semiconductor technology, and computer software and engineering companies. Those with a bachelor’s degree seldom work in high-level research jobs. Nevertheless, they do qualify for openings in jobs related to engineering, mathematics, and computers. They also can become high school teachers if they meet a state’s certification requirements, and recent reports indicate a high demand in many school districts. The bottom line is that a degree in physics at any level prepares the student for many different job opportunities and diverse careers, which translates into a variety of opportunities.

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GETTING STARTED IF YOU ARE THINKING ABOUT A CAREER IN PHYSICS, FIRST AND FOREMOST, THINK

math, math, math. Start tailoring your education now so you can reach your goal. Take all the math-related classes that you possibly can, from simple algebra to geometry to calculus courses. A strong background in math and other high school sciences, especially chemistry, will prepare you for the far more advanced studies in college. Physicists also work with many types of advanced equipment. As a result, you should gain as much familiarity with electronics and machinery as you can. Your high school industrial arts or shop classes can provide you with valuable experience in how to build and repair equipment. Of course, you’ll also want to be experienced in the use of computers. Although science courses should be your emphasis, it is also important to be well rounded. Remember, you want to be able to communicate your ideas, goals, and solutions to others. So take all your courses seriously, including English and those in the social sciences. If you are already in college, now is the time to start seriously planning your future in physics and physics-related careers. Start as a freshman to investigate the many opportunities open to you. Talk to your guidance counselor. Talk to the staff in your college’s career center. They can give you a lot of information and other sources where you can gain information. Ask them if there is some way you can talk to a working physicist outside the academic center or if there is a company nearby that employs physics majors. Call the company up and ask if you can talk with someone or shadow a physicist on the job. If possible, attend physics education seminars if any are offered in your area. Look into summer internships and fellowships in physics and physics-related areas. Your school’s career center will probably be able to help you. If not, search the Web for companies and organizations that do research in those areas that you’re interested in. Contact them and tell them you are eager to learn and have a lot to offer. If you show enough enthusiasm and energy, you may be able to create your own opportunities. But be patient and persistent, it may take contacting a dozen people before you get any positive responses.

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Since your school probably has a physics department, talk to as many instructors in the department as you can, from master’s degree students to full professors who have been in the field for years. Find out about the difference between experimental and theoretical physics so you can decide which area you would like to concentrate on. Or perhaps you are thinking about other physics-related fields or teaching physics in high school. Start investigating these possibilities with your guidance counselor and college career center. Do it now; don’t wait. Contrary to popular belief, you don’t have to be an Einstein to be a successful physicist. What you do have to do is work harder on the areas that you need to work on, including math. Develop good study habits and think about joining or starting a study group with members of your class. Physicists often work in teams so this will not only help you with your studies but also prepare you to work with others in the future. Remember, the field of physics is wide open with a variety of different opportunities in many fields. How far you go depends partly on how far you progress in your education, from a bachelor’s degree to a master’s or to a doctorate. But you can have a career in a physics-related field with any degree level in physics. It is ultimately up to you.

ASSOCIATIONS n American Center for Physics n American Institute of Physics n American Physical Society n Institute of Physics n International Association of Mathematical Physics n Geophysical Union

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PERIODICALS n Computers in Physics n Computing in Science and Engineering n Industrial Physics n Journal of Applied Physics n Journal of Chemical Physics n Journal of Mathematical Physics n Physics Today

WEBSITES n American Institute of Physics http://www.aip.org n Careers with Physics (Institute of Physics) http://careers.iop.org/ n National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) http://www.nasa.gov/NASA_homepage.html n Physics Central http://www.physicscentral.com n Physics Web http://physicsweb.org/

COYRIGHT 2007 Institute For Career Research CHICAGO CAREERS INTERNET DATABASE www.careers-internet.org

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