Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture - 2 (1985)

BULLETIN ON SUMERIAN AGRICULTURE

Volume I1

Cambridge, U. K . 1985

CONTENTS Traditional husbandry and processing of archaic cereals in recent times: Part 11, the free-threshing cereals............................l-31 G.C. Hillman

..........................................33-37 The husbandry of pulses and oil crops in modern Iraq ................39-62 Pulses and oil crop plants W. van Zeist M.P. Charles Finds of sesame and linseed in Ancient Iraq..........................63-66 J.M. Renfrew 1

Pulses recorded from Ancient Iraq J.M. Renfrew

....................................67-71

A note on the vegetation on the Uruk vase............................73-76 H.E.W. Crawford Olpflanzen und Pflanzencle im 3. Jahrtausend.. H. Waetzoldt

.......................77-96

Cultivation of legumes and mun-gazi plants in Ur 111 Girsu...........97-118 K. Maekawa Remarks on the cultivation of sesame and the extraction of its oi1..119-126 Beans, peas, lentils and vetches in Akkadian texts................. M. St01

127-139

........................141-143 The "oil-plant" in Assyria ..........................................145-152 J.N. Postgate

A note on the pulse crops at Tell Shemshara J. Eidem

The agronomy, production and utilization of sesame and linseed in the Graeco-Roman world.......................................... T.W. Gallant

153-158

Is Fe-giF-3 sesame or flax?.........................................l59-178 D. Bedigian A rental of tools used in processing sesame.........................179-180 M. St01 & R.M. Whiting Illustrations of plants: Broad Bean (facing p. 1) - Chick-pea, Fenugreek and Lentil (p. 32) - Safflower (p. 38) - Flax (p. 72) Sesame (p. 144) F.N. Hepper

Ltd,, Printed in England by A d & Teddinyton Houw, W ~ m h b W#tlhh, &

-

PREFACE

General Editors J.N. Postgate Faculty of Oriental Studies University of Cambridge Sidgwick Avenue Cambridge U.K.

M.A. Powell Department of History Northern Illinois University Dekalb Illinois 60115 U.S.A.

This issue of the Butletin is principally devoted to papers prepared for a meeting of the Sumerian Agriculture Group in Cambridge in June 1984, and concerned with legumes and oil-seed crops. It begins, however, with the second part of Gordon Hillman's survey of traditional cereal processing in Turkey, and some further contributions on legumes have been reserved for the third volume for reasons of space and time. Several of the articles in this volume appear to vindicate F.R. Kraus's spirited defence of sesame against the negative evidence of archaeobotany. The realization that the plant may have been first introduced only in the middle of the 3rd millennium offers a partial explanation of its absence from the archaeological record, raises the intriguing question of its origins, and should underline once again the value of collecting botanical material from historical, and not only prehistoric, sites. With the legumes our meeting, and these papers, have served more to cast doubt on the translations frequently given in the Assyriological literature, than to establish convincing alternatives. It seems likely that the chick-pea should not be the principal pulse crop of the south, and that some form of Broad Bean or of the Field Pea could be considered as alternative translations. In the course of our discussions we became aware of the dearth of information about the traditional processing of legumes, and we hope that it will be possible to present some details in the next volume of the Bulletin. The 1985 meeting of the Sumerian Agriculture Group discussed onions and related plants, Cucurbitaceae, and fruit trees. Articles on these topics will be published in Vol. 3, but as before the Editors will gladly consider other contributions on the general subject of early Mesopotamian agriculture. For bibliographical abbreviations to cuneiform texts not otherwise explained, the reader is referred to the two standard Akkadian dictionaries: W. von Soden, Akkadisches Handwijrterbuch (AHw) and the Chicago ~ s s y r i a n~ictionary(CAD).

ISSN 0267-0658 Orders may be placed through booksellers or direct to the Sumerian Agriculture Group, Faculty of Oriental Studies, Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge CB3 9DA, U.K. Cover design by Christine Nicholls, after the "Warka Vase" (3200-3000 BC).

Once again our thanks go to the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois for their generous help with the production costs, to the C.H.W. Johns Fund, and to Trinity College, Cambridge, for hospitality and other support. We are also grateful to Mrs. Laura Cordy (Trinity College) for help with the setting of this volume, and not least to F. Nigel Hepper for providing his admirable illustrations.

Nicholas Postgate Marvin Powell

October 1985

TRADITIONAL HUSBANDRY AND PROCESSING OF ARCHAIC CEREALS IN RECENT TIMES: THE OPERATIONS, PRODUCTS AND EQUIPMENT THAT MIGHT FEATURE IN SUMERIAN TEXTS PART 11:

THE FREE-THRE3HING CEREALS

Gordon Hillman ( Institute of Archaeology,

University of ond don)

It was stressed in Hillman 1981 that different grain crops require different systems of husbandry and processing, and that this fact has clear implications for any archaeologist attempting to assess the degree of The difsophistication of ~ncient technologies in the rural setting. ferences are obvious even in North European agriculture, but are still more striking in areas where traditional agrarian expertise is still extant, as it is in parts of Turkey, for instance. Even within the cereals, we encounter substantial differences in both the husbandry applied in the field and in the processing applied to the harvested crop back in the settlement. Most striking, however, are the differences between methods applied to glume-wheats and those applied to the free-threshing cereals. It is for this reason that the sequences of operations applied to either class of cereal have here been outlined separately. Part I, dealing with the husbandry and processing of glume-wheats, was Because published in the previous volume of this series (Hillman 1984b). the glume-wheats were the principal wheats of pre- and proto-historic western Eurasia, the glume-wheat sequence was outlined in some detail. In the following outline of the sequence of operations applied to freethreshing cereals, it is therefore necessary to describe only those operations which differ significantly from those already outlined for the glume-wheats in Part I. For all other operations, the details given in Part I apply equally to the free-threshing cereals. Indeed, the reader should be reminded that all the ethno-agricultural papers of other workers which were cited in Part I involved observations of the operations applied t o free-threshing cereals. They were cited in Part I because they represented good additional examples of operations which I had also observed being applied to glume-wheats. Nevertheless, although many of the operations are the same, the composition of the products is always different in free-threshing cereals compared with those of glume-wheats. (Some of the major differences are outlined in Hillman 1981).

Vicia faba

Brood bean

The full sequence of operations applied to free-threshing cereals is summarised in Fig. 1. The ethnographic studies were undertaken primarily in Turkey, and for the Turkish terminology applied to all the early stages of grain processing, the reader is referred to the equivalent stages of Part I.

Hi 1 lman

Free-threshing cereals

Hillman I

I

T H E TRADITIONAL PROCESSING O F FREE-THRESHING CEREALS I N CENTRAL A N D E A S T TURKEY:

24. GRAIN WASHING & RE-DRYING

I

T H E MAJOR OPERATIONS AND PRODUCTS - FROM HARVESTING ONWARDS

Each operation is assigned the same number as that used in the text. Most of the operations which have no effect on the composction of products have been excluded. To further limit the complexity of the diagram, I have omitted any reference to a) differences in processing and product composition arising from ears being harvested separately from the straw, b) the preparation of Frikk6 from dough-ripe grain, c) the sheaf-burning of rip& cereals (see text). U' identifies those which pass identifies those products and by-products which are retained in the sieves; ' identifies that fraction which works its way to the surface tf material retained in the sievc through the sieves; (Adapted from similar diagrams in Hillman 1981 & 1984)

--

C

SIEVING OF SEED GRAIN

(with specially made 'seed sieves')

I

13a. HARVESTING MILK-RIPE CROPS (by uprooting or reaplng low on the straw) *--

HARVESTING MATURE CROPS

[ 1 5

with uprooted crops, the culm bases wlth their roots may be chopped off at this po-ntl

I

I

I

I I

17.

)

I

I

I

"

("

F14 - F1 MILK-RIPE WHEATS I

I

c/d.

I

[18. RAKING

Gathering of the singed ears I

I

I

I

I

I I I

Hand threshing (rubbing) i

Winnowing by blowing I

Hand sorting

II I I

i

STORE for weaving, thatching, etc.

all of the undamaged straw

by trampling or sledging

\

I

I

-

I

it includes many unthreshed ears

\+

/ ' - r l

light chaff (especially from wheats) some light awn fragments + a few very light weed seeds

LIGHT CHAFF for fuel, temper ( & fodder)

1,

I

grain of varying degrees of purity, but almost always including grain-sized weed seeds. Also, occasional grain sized culm nodes/bases, basal part of rachirs, etc. p J

+

31.

1

32. SUN-DRYING OF

'chob' scimmed off surface /

[omitted from thls dlagraml

[omitted from thls dlagram]

C

GRAIN

1 34

WINN~WINGOF BRAN FROM PEELED GRAIN KERNALS

I

I

grain kernals

(inc. some straw nodes, weed heads, etc.)

u

-/

bran

for fodder

C

1

35.

CRACKING OF GRAIN KERNALS

1

46.

SIFTING OF CRACKED GRAIN

4 GRAIN SIEVING unbroken grains - returned to step

u

I

first grade bulgur

*

second grade bulgur

f

u

c. SECOND BULGUR SIEVING -

w

-

d. 'BULGUR DUST' SIEVING -

lowest grade bulgur +TARHANA

flour

( transerred

in wet areas where gr& is sieved indoors on day-today basis)

w

OTHER GRAIN PRODUCTS

PAR-BUILING OF GRAIN

1u

k'

(to ICLEANINGS STORE1 as above, or dlrect onto domestic fires1 or midden)

MILLING (for flour)

lu l"

for domest

(as in "

*

II

I;

1 .

4'

b. FIRST BULGUR SIEVING -

'fine cleanings', ie. small weed seeds, tail F a i n , small bits of rachis and (esp. in oats) small segs. of awn.

grain

grain-sized weed seeds, etc.

BULGUR PREPARATION

a. -

leavings ie. straw nodes, culm bases, weed heads & largest weed seeds

23. SECOND SIEVING with finer sieves (to remove contaminants than the grain)

'lean prime

1 /

7

I

all the lighter fragments of the remaining straw ( + attached rachises), many awns, and lighter bits of broken rachises

22. FIRST SIEVING with medium-coarse sieve -

I

'fine cleanings'

5

20. RE-THRESHING of raked straw whenever -

(to remove contaminants coarser than the grain) U

u

grain, now + clean but including weed rye grains & often edible vetch seeds too.

for fodder, fuel

WINNOWINGS (the first round may be applied to the initial products

grain contaminated with all the denser weed seeds, weed heads, culm nodes, etc.

c h o b l (as in step 23)

grain + grain-sized weed seeds, etc.

! mixture of free grain, fine chaff, weed seeds < and small bits of broken straw, etc. (thereafter scraped into heaps)

HAND SORTING (often omltted)

I

30. HAND-SORTING OF GRAIN -

FIRIG (Tur.) ready for immediate consumption

I

1

to remove the bulk of the broken straw] the bulk of the coarsest traw

'waste' - conslstg of weed rye grains + somL other weed seeds + much more of the tail grain

From this point onwards, batches of grain are taken from the store and processed differently according to which food is being prepared. In each case, however, it is usual to first give th? grain an additional cleaning , as in steps 28-30, below, especially in the case of grain to be prepared as bulgur, though additional cleaning is not usually applied to grain used for I kavurmaE. 28. ADDITIONAL FINE-SIEVING OF GRAIN taken from bulk storage

THRESHING to free the g r a m direct from the ears

a/b. by beating or lashing (today, mainly in areas with wet summers)

SHEAF- BURNING OF

1/3 - 1/12 of grain (depending on anticipated yield ratio)

u

*---.*I

diseased grains, infected seeds of darnel, any remaining florets of wild oats and chaff, etc.

semi-clean grain

to flour bins)--r

u

PREP.-

HUMMELLING OF BARLEY (gen. for fodder) and the DEHUSKING OF BARLEY & OATS (for human consumption1 have been omitted from this diagram through lack of space. --

Hillman

Free-threshing

cereals

WHAT ARE FREE-THRESHING CEREALS? F r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s a r e t h o s e i n which t h e g r a i n s f a l l f r e e when t h e e a r s a r e threshed. ( C o n t r a s t t h e 'glume-wheats' as d e f i n e d i n P a r t I , 146 f o o t n o t e 1 ) . They i n c l u d e m a c a r o n i wheat ( T r i t i c w n durum) , bread wheat Indian (T. a e s t i v u m ) , c l u b wheat (T. a e s t i v w n v a r . aestivo-compactum), dwarf wheat (T. sphaerococcum), a l l t h e r y e s ( S e c a z e cereaze a g g . ) , a l l t h e b a r l e y s ( v a r i o u s ~ o r d e w ns p p . ) and a l l t h e o a t s ( v a r i o u s Avena s p p . ) , f o r which see van Zeist's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n BSA 1 ) .

-

"flakedn and nhuZZedrt g d n s I n t h e most common v a r i e t i e s of b a r l e y and o a t s , t h e g r a i n s f r e e d by t h r e s h i n g a r e s t i l l t i g h t l y e n c l o s e d w i t h i n t h e i n n e r m o s t l a y e r s of husk ( h u l l ) , namely t h e lemma and p a l e a ( f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s s e e C h a r l e s 1984, 28). Such v a r i e t i e s a r e termed " h u l l e d " . There a r e , however, c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s of o a t s and b a r l e y s i n which t h e g r a i n s , when t h e y f a l l from t h e e a r d u r i n g t h r e s h i n g , l e a v e behind t h e i r e n v e l o p i n g Such lemmas and p a l e a s ( i n n e r h u s k s ) a l o n g w i t h a l l t h e r e s t of t h e c h a f f . v a r i e t i e s a r e termed "naked " , and t o d a y a r e r a r e l y grown o u t s i d e T i b e t , p a r t s of China and J a p a n , a l t h o u g h t h e y used t o be grown t h r o u g h o u t t h e Near E a s t and Europe i n t h e N e o l i t h i c a n d , i n some a r e a s , t h r o u g h i n t o l a t e r p e r i o d s as w e l l . The h u l l e d forms d i f f e r i n n e e d i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n t o remove t h e husk. However, t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s not s t r i c t l y a n a l o g o u s t o t h e f r e e i n g of glume-wheat g r a i n s from t h e i r s p i k e l e t s . (Note: a l l t h e f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s a r e naked-grained anyway; t h e r e i s no To s u c h t h i n g a s a f r e e - t h r e s h i n g wheat w i t h a h u l l e d ( h u s k e d ) g r a i n . avoid a d i f f i c u l t " t o n g u e - t w i s t e r " , t h e r e f o r e , f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s can c o n v e n i e n t l y be termed " t h e naked w h e a t s " ) . For a comprehensive r e v i e w of t h e t e r m s used t o d i s t i n g u i s h naked and h u l l e d g r a i n s i n C l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s , s e e M o r i t z 1955. For t h e f a r m e r , t h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e between h u l l e d - and nakedg r a i n e d v a r i e t i e s of b a r l e y and o a t s a r e a s f o l l o w s : a) Hulled forms a r e l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o ( t h o u g h f a r from immune t o ) b i r d damage. b) I f harv e s t e d e a r l y enough t h e r e i s l e s s l o s s of g r a i n d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t from f i e l d t o t h r e s h i n g - y a r d when h u l l e d forms a r e i n v o l v e d . With p r e s e n t - d a y , f r e e t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s i n S y r i a t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Centre f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h i n Dry Areas (Aleppo, S y r i a ) h a s r e c o r d e d t r a n s i t l o s s e s of a s much a s 10-15% of t h e g r o s s y i e l d when h a r v e s t s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d d u r i n g t h e d a y (ICARDA 1980). Ancient f a r m e r s w i l l c e r t a i n l y have been a c u t e l y aware Apart from o f t h e need t o l i m i t t h i s l o s s by any means a v a i l a b l e t o them. n i g h t h a r v e s t i n g ( s e e s t e p 15 i n P a r t I ) , one o b v i o u s counter-measure might have been t o h a r v e s t t h e ears s e p a r a t e l y from t h e s t r a w , s t r a i g h t i n t o b a s k e t s o r s a c k s i n which t h e y could t h e n be t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e t h r e s h i n g y a r d s w i t h o u t l o s s . However, t h i s s o l u t i o n i n v o l v e s i t s own d i s a d v a n t a g e s . l c) To produce h u s k - f r e e g r a i n from h u l l e d o a t s o r b a r l e y , a n a d d i t i o n a l deh u s k i n g o p e r a t i o n i s needed ( s e e below). T h i s i s l i k e l y t o have been a d o m e s t i c o p e r a t i o n and commonly performed by women. I n r e p l a c i n g qaked b a r l e y s and o a t s w i t h t h e i r h u l l e d e q u i v a l e n t s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e f a r m e r s may w e l l have e n c o u n t e r e d some r e s i s t a n c e w i t h i n t h e home. However, h u l l e d b a r l e y ( b u t n o t h u l l e d o a t s ) can be used f o r human consumption w i t h t h e h u l l s s t i l l attached. I n d e e d , I always e a t b a r l e y m u e s l i and p o r r i d g e complete w i t h t h e h u l l s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , most s o c i e t i e s p r e f e r i t d e h u s k e d , and most a r e prepared t o i n v e s t some e f f o r t t o t h i s end ( s e e b a r l e y s e c t i o n

Hillman

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

below). That h u l l e d b a r l e y s and o a t s n e v e r t h e l e s s r e p l a c e d t h e e a r l i e r , naked forms i s t h u s a measure of t h e i r agronomic d i s a d v a n t a g e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e i r e x t r e m e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o b i r d damage. For Sumer, however, any d i s c u s s i o n of naked b a r l e y may w e l l be academ i c , a s Renfrew's (1984) summary of t h e s p a r s e p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d s of p l a n t r e m a i n s from s i t e s i n Mesopotamia r e v e a l s a complete a b s e n c e of any i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s of H. nudurn. ( F o r a c l o s e a n a l y s i s of t h e s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , see Charles, i n prep.). However, i t would be s u r p r i s i n g i f e v i d e n c e of i t s c u l t i v a t i o n i s n o t e v e n t u a l l y r e c o v e r e d from a t l e a s t some N e o l i t h i c s i t e s i n the area.

FIELD OPERATIONS involved i n c u l t i v a t i n g free-threshing STEPS 1-11. c e r e a l s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h o s e b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d f o r glume-wheats i n P a r t I (Hillman 1984b, 115-117). It should n e v e r t h e l e s s be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t c r o p s p e c i e s and v a r i e t i e s o f t e n d i f f e r markedly from e a c h o t h e r i n t h e i r o p t i m a l sowing t i m e s , minimum f r e q u e n c y and d u r a t i o n of i r r i g a t i o n , and i n t h e i r y i e l d - r e s p o n s e s t o any one l e v e l of i r r i g a t i o n . ( F o r a few examples of y i e l d - r e s p o n s e s of t r a d i t i o n a l c r o p s t o e v e n t h e l i g h t i r r i g a t i o n a p p l i e d u n d e r p a r t i a l l y r a i n - f e d systems of E a s t A n a t o l i a , s e e Hillman 1973a, appendix 1 )

.

[An o m i s s i o n from s t e p 3 of P a r t I: Harvey (1980, 5 ) d e s c r i b e s a S y r i a n s y s t e m o f sowing i n which "on d e e p e r s o i l s , one p a s s w i t h t h e [feddan] plough s e t s up r i d g e s ('ayar c u l t i v a t i o n ) ; t h e seed i s t h e n b r o a d c a s t and a second p a s s (rdad) s p l i t s the ridges. B r o a d c a s t seed t e n d s t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n t h e ' a y a r f u r r o w s and t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e seed i s t h e r e f o r e b u r i e d a t maximum d e p t h , Row s p a c i n g i s a b o u t 40 t o 45 cm and row band w i d t h which i s a b o u t 10 cm. 10 t o 15 cm." I n view of t h e sowing i n w i d e l y spaced rows i n d i c a t e d i n some Sumerian t e x t s ( s e e Maekawa 1984, 77-78 and 87; P o s t g a t e 1984, l o o ) , s u c h a s y s t e m f o r producing rows w i t h o u t t h e h e l p of s e e d e r a r d s o r any r e s o r t t o d i b b l i n g i s p e r h a p s of i n t e r e s t t o S u m e r o l o g i s t s . ]

Broadcast sowing i n rows.

12. GUARDING OF RIPENING CROPS The s h e l t e r s used a r e mentioned i n Hillman 1984b, 117. The p r e s e n t - d a y c o s t s of paying f o r t h e g u a r d i n g of f i e l d s of f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s i n t h e Busra a r e a of S y r i a a r e u s e f u l l y summarized With f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c r o p s , t h e r e i s a l s o a by Kadow & Seeden 1983. g r e a t e r need f o r g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t p r e d a t i o n by b i r d s , a s s u c h c e r e a l s a r e v a s t l y more s u s c e p t i b l e t h a n glume-wheats, e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y a r e s l i g h t l y immature. I n e x p e r i m e n t a l p l o t s of c e r e a l s n e a r C a r d i f f we r e p e a t e d l y had our bread wheat and e v e n o u r h u l l e d b a r l e y s t r i p p e d by s p a r r o w s who, by c o n t r a s t , q u i c k l y abandoned t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o e x t r a c t g r a i n from t h e e a r s of Emmer, E i n k o r n and o t h e r glume-wheats growing i n p l o t s n e a r b y . Many v i l l a g e s growing f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s t h e r e f o r e organ i s e t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o parade around t h e f i e l d s making a d i n w i t h c l a p p e r s o r by b e a t i n g c a n s . They a r e a l s o encouraged t o c u l l t h e b i r d s by s l i n g s h o t s o r by c a t c h i n g them i n s n a r e s : a d o z e n sparrows can p r o v i d e meat more t h a n a d e q u a t e f o r a meal f o r two.

13. HARVESTING The same t h r e e methods a r e used f o r f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s a s were d e t a i l e d i n s t e p 1 3 of t h e Emmer sequence i n P a r t I (Hillman 1984b,

Hillman

Free-threshing

cereals

117-120). The d i f f e r e n c e h e r e l i e s o n l y i n t h e r e l a t i v e p o p u l a r i t y of t h e t h r e e p r i n c i p a l method s :

a ) Uprooting

I n t h e p r e s e n t - d a y Near E a s t , u p r o o t i n g i s most commonly the a p p l i e d t o b a r l e y - w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e h e l p of s p e c i a l b l u n t s i c k l e s T u r k i s h kaZzp ( s e e glume-wheats s e q u e n c e , s t e p 1 3 a ) . I n d e e d , i n most p a r t s of Turkey, i t i s u n u s u a l t o s e e i t b e i n g h a r v e s t e d by any o t h e r method. E l s e w h e r e , however, ( e .g. i n n o r t h C h i n a ) , u p r o o t i n g i s e q u a l l y of t e n a p p l i e d t o bread w h e a t s ( L e s e r 1931). P u l s e s a r e a l m o s t always u p r o o t e d .

b) Reaping ears and straw together i s t h e method which, t o d a y , i s most t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s , r y e s and o a t s .

-

-

by c u t t i n g low on t h e s t r a w . T h i s commonly a p p l i e d t o a l l t h e f r e e -

C ) Reaping ears 6epamteZy from the straw. When t h i s method i s a p p l i e d t o d a y , i t i s i n v a r i a b l y t o durwn o r bread wheats. C e r t a i n problems encount e r e d i n t h i s form of r e a p i n g were mentioned under s t e p 13c i n P a r t I , b u t as i n d i c a t e d above ( p . 4 ) , t h i s method c a n r e d u c e t h e heavy g r a i n l o s s e s t h a t a r e o f t e n i n c u r r e d between f i e l d and t h r e s h i n g y a r d . S i g a u t ( i n comment made t o B u t s e r symposium 1984) h a s s t r e s s e d t h a t i t a l s o s a v e s l a b o u r However, t h e d u r i n g t h r e s h i n g and winnowing, when time i s a t a premium. problems of uneven e a r h e i g h t t y p i c a l of many p r i m i t i v e c r o p s (and e v e n some modern v a r i e t i e s i f sown l a t e ) would s u r e l y i n some c a s e s have e n f o r c e d r e a p i n g s o low on t h e s t r a w of a l l t a l l e r e a r s a s b o t h t o pre-empt t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s and s t i l l t o l e a v e s t u b b l e t a l l enough t o j u s t i f y a second N e v e r t h e l e s s , S i g a u t h a s ample h i s t o r i c a l r e a p i n g ( s e e P a r t I , p. 1 1 9 ) . e v i d e n c e of t h e widespread u s e o f t h e "double h a r v e s t " i n m e d i e v a l Europe, b u t c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e h a b i t of c u t t i n g h i g h on t h e s t r a w may, i n North-West Europe a t l e a s t , have been c o n d i t i o n e d a s much by t h e need f o r t h a t c h i n g s t r a w a s by any o t h e r f a c t o r s ( S i g a u t , p e r s . comm., A p r i l 1985). M a u r i z i o (1927, 140-1) a l s o g i v e s a c l u e t o a second d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r : f o r p r o d u c t t y p e s c , d and when g r a i n was c u t i n i t s h a l f - r i p e s t a t e (e.g. i , b e l o w ) , i n a l l t h e w e t t e r p a r t s of Europe t h e e a r s g e n e r a l l y had t o be oven d r i e d and were t h e r e f o r e c u t w i t h o u t t h e i r s t r a w .

d ) Ear stripping R e f e r e n c e was made i n P a r t I ( i n a p o s t s c r i p t t o s t e p 1 3 ) t o d e v i c e s f o r e a r s t r i p p i n g , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e " p l u c k i n g clamp" r e p o r t e d by S i g a u t (1978) a s s t i l l i n u s e i n t h e S p a n i s h p r o v i n c e of A s t u r i a s ( n o t t h e P y r e n e e s a s I had s t a t e d ) under t h e name mesorias and used t h e r e f o r h a r v e s t i n g t h e glume-wheat S p e l t (T. s p e z t a ) . It t r a n s p i r e s t h a t t h i s two s t i c k " p l u c k i n g clamp" h a s i n r e c e n t t i m e s a l s o been used t o h a r v e s t f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s , and S i g a u t ( p e r s . comm. 1985) i n f o r m s m e t h a t , f a r from i t s h a v i n g been observed i n o n l y one r e s t r i c t e d a r e a , e q u i v a l e n t t o o l s have been r e p o r t e d i n use i n G e o r g i a , Armenia, Nepal and Bhutan. He c o n t i n u e s : " I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a r e a s where m e s o r i a s - l i k e t o o l s were used after t h e h a r v e s t p r o p e r , f o r s e p a r a t i n g e a r s o r g r a i n s from t h e c u l m s , a r e much more numerous t h a n t h e [above] a r e a s where t h e mesorias a r e used f o r h a r v e s t i n g p r o p e r " ( S i g a u t , p e r s . comm. 1985). He t h e n g o e s on t o c i t e h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e of o t h e r forms of p o s t - h a r v e s t e a r s t r i p p i n g i n Europe (e.g. i n Wiirttemberg). ( I am g r a t e f u l t o F r a n g o i s S i g a u t f o r s o p a t i e n t l y drawing my a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w e a l t h of h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e from Europe and t h e USSR r e l a t i n g n o t o n l y t o h a r v e s t i n g methods, b u t a l s o t o t i l l i n g and f a l l o w i n g . )

Hillman

e ) Ear plucking

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

S i g a u t ( p e r s . comm., A p r i l 1985) h a s r i g h t l y s t r e s s e d

the importance of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between p l u c k i n g ears and s t r i p p i n g them. P l u c k i n g , i f i t i s t o be s e e n as a v i a b l e method of h a r v e s t i n g a t a l l , seems t o be b e s t s u i t e d t o glume-wheats ( s e e Reynolds 1981) and i s u n l i k e l y t o have been used f o r h a r v e s t i n g f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s on a s c a l e much i n e x c e s s of g l e a n i n g . For t h e b e n e f i t of a r c h a e o b o t - a n i s t s i t should p e r h a p s be mentioned t h a t , i n glume w h e a t s , p l u c k i n g i n v o l v e s b r e a k i n g a r a c h i s i n t e r n o d e below t h e l o w e s t f u l l y formed s p i k e l e t of t h e e a r s , and t h u s l e a v e s behind t h e a b o r t i v e b a s a l s p i k e l e t s . By c o n t r a s t , e a r s t r i p p i n g , e v e n when a p p l i e d t o glume-wheats, seems l i k e l y t o remove t h e e n t i r e ear + t h e t o p of t h e culm i n many c a s e s . I n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e m a i n s of c r o p p r o d u c t s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p r a c t i c e of p l u c k i n g can r e a d i l y be r e c o g n i s e d from a ) t h e complete a b s e n c e of remains of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b a s a l s p i k e l e t s i n e i t h e r c o a r s e o r f i n e ' c l e a n i n g s ' ( i n c l . c h o b ) , a n d , b ) t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n remains of s t r a w . The p r a c t i c e of s i c k l e r e a p i n g , on t h e o t h e r hand, can be e s t a b l i s h e d from t h e o p p o s i t e p a t t e r n of a s s o c i a t i o n s i n c h a r r e d remains of t h e s e same c r o p products. ( F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s , s e e Hillman 1981, 148-153).

14. TEMPORARY FIELD STORAGE OF HARVESTED SHEAVES Today, a t l e a s t , proi s r a r e l y r i s k e d w i t h t h e naked-grained cereals longed f i e l d - s t o r a g e ( s u c h a s t h e f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s ) on a c c o u n t of t h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o b i r d damage. However, prolonged f i e l d - s t o r a g e i s n o t uncommon w i t h h u l l e d b a r l e y and o a t s , e x c e p t i n t h e s m a l l e s t f a r m s where ( o r i n d r o u g h t y e a r s when) t h e r e a r e o n l y s m a l l h a r v e s t s t o be p r o c e s s e d . By c o n t r a s t , i n damp a r e a s and a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s , e v e n f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o prolonged f i e l d - s t o r a g e - u n l e s s i n d o o r d r y i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e . With f r e e - t h r e s h i n g 15. TRANSPORT OF HARVESTED CROP TO THRESHING YARDS c e r e a l s , t h i s o c c u r s e x a c t l y a s d e s c r i b e d f o r glume-wheats i n P a r t I. However, t h e g r a i n l o s s e s d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a r e h e r e even g r e a t e r . Thus, f o r b a r l e y and f r e e - t h r e s h i n g wheats grown i n p r e s e n t - d a y S y r i a under t r a d i t i o n a l h u s b a n d r y , ICARDA 1980 h a s r e c o r d e d l o s s e s of 10-15% of g r o s s grain yield. Evidence of t h e s e heavy l o s s e s c a n be observed d u r i n g summer i n t h e Near E a s t a l o n g any t r a c k c o n n e c t i n g f i e l d s and t h r e s h i n g y a r d s : t h e ground i s s t r e w n w i t h f a l l e n g r a i n d e s t i n e d t o end up i n r o d e n t burrows, a n t n e s t s and t h e g i z z a r d of s p a r r o w s o r p i g e o n s . [ S t e p s 15a and 16: p r e c i s e l y a s d e s c r i b e d i n P a r t I (BSA Vol. l ) ] 17. THRESHING P r e c i s e l y t h e same methods can be a p p l i e d t o f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s a s t h o s e o u t l i n e d f o r glume-wheats under s t e p 17 i n P a r t I. However, t h e r e s u l t s of t h r e s h i n g are a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t . On b e i n g t h r e s h e d , t h e g r a i n s of f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s q u i c k l y f a l l f r e e from t h e e a r s , w i t h o u t need of any of t h e p a i n s t a k i n g p r o c e d u r e s f o r p a r c h i n g and pounding t h e t h r e s h e d s p i k e l e t s . A s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e glume-wheats, t h e h a r v e s t e d culms o r u n t i e d s h e a v e s a r e spread on t h e t h r e s h i n g y a r d s e i t h e r ( i ) d i r e c t from t h e c a r t s , o r ( i i ) from heaps formed a t t h e s i d e of t h e y a r d s o r ( i i i ) from h e a p s

Hillman

Free- t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s

b u i l t a t t h e c e n t r e of e a c h y a r d . T h i s l a s t s y s t e m i s most u s u a l when o n l y small q u a n t i t i t e s a r e b e i n g t h r e s h e d , and i s u s e f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n Koyay 1956 from a n example a t KarahByiik V i l l a g e n e a r Kiiltepe: t h e kesmik i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y added t o t h e c i r c u l a r dbaek ( l i t . a m a t t r e s s ; i.e t h e l a y e r b e i n g t h r e s h e d ) from a l a r g e c e n t r a l heap ( t z T ) . P r e c i s e l y t h e same s y s t e m i s d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e . J e b e 1 Alawi i n W. S y r i a by Amr E l Azm 1985. To t h e r e f e r e n c e s g i v e n i n P a r t I c i t i n g a c c o u n t s of t h e 6 p r i n c i p a l methods of t h r e s h i n g should now be added a few more, a l l of them concerned w i t h t h r e s h i n g by s l e d g e ( T u r . dbven) o r t r i b u l u m l t h r e s h i n g wain (Tur. cercer). F i r s t l y , W i l l i a m s 1972 c i t e s t h e use of t h e c e r c e r armed w i t h wood o r m e t a l p a d d l e s i n t h o s e s o u t h e a s t e r n a r e a s of Turkey around G a z i a n t e p and Mardin which, i n t h e p a s t , e x p e r i e n c e d s t r o n g A r a b i c and Syriac influence. (To my knowledge, t h e cercer i s a b s e n t from t h e Anatolian Plateau). S e c o n d l y , A m r E l Azm 1985 b r i n g s a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t from t h e J e b e l Alawi of t h e c o n t i n u e d use of t h r e s h i n g wains f i t t e d w i t h sharp-toothed s t e e l d i s k s of t h e s o r t which, i n most S y r i a n v i l l a g e s , a r e now found o n l y i n t h e form of s t r a y s e t s of r u s t i n g d i s k s d i s c a r d e d on middens. ( I n t h e E l Koum a r e a , f o r example, we n o t i c e d t h a t no v i l l a g e midden seemed complete w i t h o u t them). It i s of some i n t e r e s t , however, t h a t E l Azm s u g g e s t s t h a t , i n t h e J e b e l Alawi , t h e s t e e l - d i s k e d t h r e s h i n g wain o n l y r e c e n t l y r e p l a c e d t h r e s h i n g s l e d s w h i c h , i n t h a t a r e a ( a s i n p a r t s of P a l e s t i n e ) w e r e f i t t e d w i t h rough b a s a l t i c p e b b l e s a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Kadour On t h e o t h e r hand, C h r i s t i a n 1917-18 i n d i c a t e s and Seeden 1983, p l a t e 23. t h a t t h e s t e e l - d i s k e d t h r e s h i n g wain was w i d e l y used around Aleppo i n h i s d a y , a s i t was i n P a l e s t i n e a t t h e t i m e of Dalman (1924-42). Finally, a p a r t i c u l a r l y f i n e example of a n I r a n i a n t h r e s h i n g wain w i t h wooden p a d d l e s a p p e a r s i n f i g . 26 of Lerche and S t e e n s b e r g 1983. [ S t e p s 1 8 and 19: p r e c i s e l y a s d e s c r i b e d f o r glume-wheat

H i 1lman

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

threshed e a r s . T h i s a p p e a r s t o be e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of c r o p s t h r e s h e d by trampling. (Compare s t e p 21 of t h e glume-wheat sequence i n P a r t I ) . So, once t h e g r a i n a l r e a d y s e p a r a t e d i n t h e f i r s t round of primary winnowing h a s been c o a r s e - s i e v e d ( t h o u g h g e n e r a l l y b e f o r e i t i s f i n e - s i e v e d ) , t h e keamik i s once a g a i n s p r e a d a c r o s s t h e y a r d , r e - t h r e s h e d and t h e n r e winnowed. K o ~ a y1951 d e s c r i b e s p r e c i s e l y t h e same p r a c t i c e a t Alaca HByiik v i Llage : "d6'g'ende eziZmeden kurtuZan kelZeZer k a t z r s a , y a b a iZe s u g a r , t e k r a r diigen koqarzk" ( " I f , on t h e t h r e s h i n g y a r d , t h e r e remain e a r s which have escaped b e i n g c r u s h e d , [ t h e n t h e y a r e ] raked up w i t h a winnowing f o r k , and a t h r e s h i n g s l e d g e i s a g a i n p u t t o work.") P a l e s t i n i a n p a r a l l e l s f o r r e - t h r e s h i n g f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s were c i t e d under s t e p 21 of t h e glume-wheat sequence i n P a r t I.

....

....

[ S t e p s 22-26 and 28-32 of t h e glume-wheat n o t a p p l i e d t o any f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l . ]

sequence o u t l i n e d i n P a r t I a r e

This operation i s g e n e r a l l y 22. FIRST SIEVING with medium coarse r i d d l e . undertaken a t t h e t h r e s h i n g yards. The s i z e of t h e mesh v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o the g r a i n being sieved: w i t h w h e a t , t h e y g e n e r a l l y u s e t h e sizmaz g z z e r , w h i l e w i t h b a r l e y t h e y g e n e r a l l y u s e a sarat. I n both cases, the s i e v e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o j u s t a b o u t a l l o w t h e g r a i n t o p a s s and t h u s t o remove a l l c o n t a m i n a n t s c o a r s e r t h a n t h e g r a i n , i n c l u d i n g weed h e a d s and most of t h e r e m a i n i n g s t r a w nodes and r a c h i s f r a g m e n t s ( t r a d . Eng. "cavings"). T h i s one o p e r a t i o n t h u s combines t h e e f f e c t s of s t e p s 23 and 34 of t h e glume-wheat sequence o u t l i n e d i n P a r t I , b u t t h e w a s t e f r a c t i o n h e r e l a c k s t h e o c c a s i o n a l ( o f t e n a b o r t i v e ) s p i k e l e t s found i n t h e e q u i v a (Compare l e n t w a s t e f r a c t i o n from s t e p 34 of t h e glume-wheat sequence. f i g . 1 of P a r t I w i t h t h a t of P a r t 1 1 ) .

i n Part I.]

With f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s t h e r e i s o n l y a s i n g l e e p i s o d e 20. WINNOWING of winnowing, and b o t h s t r a w and l i g h t c h a f f a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e g r a i n i n t h e one s e t of o p e r a t i o n s a l o n g w i t h a l l l i g h t e r p i e c e s of t h e r a c h i s . A s a r e s u l t , l i g h t c h a f f , f a l l i n g as a t h i n s p r e a d a t a d i s t a n c e from t h e winnowing and admixed w i t h much of t h e s t r a w , i s r a r e l y s c r a p e d t o g e t h e r and s t o r e d a s a s e p a r a t e p r o d u c t a s i t i s i n glume-wheats, u n l e s s , of c o u r s e , t h e e a r s have been reaped s e p a r a t e l y from t h e s t r a w , i n which c a s e t h e winnowing can be u n d e r t a k e n on a s m a l l e r s c a l e w i t h l i g h t e r winds s u c h t h a t t h e l i g h t c h a f f i s r e t r i e v a b l e and s t o r e a b l e a s a s e p a r a t e p r o d u c t f o r l a t e r u s e a s e i t h e r t i n d e r o r f i n e temper. It should be s t r e s s e d , however, t h a t t h i s one e p i s o d e of winnowing of f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s i n v a r i a b l y i n v o l v e s a t l e a s t two winnowings i n q u i c k s u c c e s s i o n and i s g e n e r a l l y t h e r e a f t e r supplemented by re-winnowing a f t e r t h e r e - t h r e s h i n g of i n c o m p l e t e l y t h r e s h e d e a r s d e s c r i b e d below. ( F o r a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of t h e h a n d l i n g of winnowing f o r k s and t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of winnowing w i t h r e g a r d t o w i n d - s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n , s e e Dalman 1933, 111, 128). 21. RE-THRESHING AND RE-WINNOWING OF KESMIK Unlike glume-wheats, t h e h e a p s of kesmik ( = l i g h t s t r a w from t h e f i r s t round of p r i m a r y winnowing) from f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s i n v a r i a b l y c o n t a i n l a r g e numbers of i n c o m p l e t e l y

23. SECOND SIEVING with grain s i e v e s with mesh f i n e r than i n s t e p 22. This o p e r a t i o n i s a l s o u s u a l l y undertaken o u t a t t h e t h r e s h i n g yards and, a g a i n , d i f f e r e n t s i e v e s a r e g e n e r a l l y used f o r wheat and b a r l e y ( a b u g d ~ ~kya t b u r u and a r p a kaZburu r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . However, when t h e b a r l e y i s i n t e n d e d o n l y f o r animal consumption, t h e n t h i s second s i e v i n g i s sometimes o m i t t e d I n d e e d , e v e n when t h e b a r l e y i s i n t e n d e d f o r human consumption, t h e y o f t e n d i s p e n s e w i t h buying i n s p e c i a l b a r l e y s i e v e s and s i m p l y make use of t h e i r wheat s i e v e s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e w o r s t of t h e small c o n t a m i n a n t s . ( F o r ment i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m a n u f a c t u r e of s i e v e s , s e e P a r t I , BSA 1 ) .

.

T h i s o p e r a t i o n performs t h e same f u n c t i o n a s s t e p 35 of t h e glume-wheat sequence i n P a r t I , i n t h a t t h e meshes a r e woven c l o s e enough t o r e t a i n a l l t h e prime g r a i n b u t a l l o w s m a l l weed s e e d s , s h o r t awn segments, s m a l l s t o n e s and t a i l g r a i n ( " o f f a l c o r n " ) t o f a l l through. I n contrast t o the " f i n e c l e a n i n g s " of glume-wheats, however, s p i k e l e t f o r k s a r e a b s e n t . A second w a s t e f r a c t i o n i s a l s o s e p a r a t e d a t t h i s s t a g e , namely t h e "chob" ( t r a d . Eng.) c o n s i s t i n g of f r a g m e n t s of l i g h t m a t e r i a l which work t h e i r way t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e g r a i n where t h e y can be skimmed o f f . E l Azm 1985 f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e s how t h e women s i e v i n g g r a i n i n t h e J e b e l Alawi, by s i e v i n g s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s a t a time and by s k i l f u l o p e r a t i o n of t h e s i e v e c a n produce t h r e e s e p a r a t e a g g r e g a t i o n s on t h e mesh s u r f a c e : prime g r a i n , chob and g r a i n - s i z e d s t o n e s . By a d e f t f l i c k of t h e s i e v e t h e y a r e a b l e

Hillman

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

t o t o s s up j u s t t h e s t o n e s , c a t c h them i n t h e o t h e r hand, and t h u s e l i m i n a t e them. N e i l 1913, 112, o f f e r s a c l o s e l y observed account of p r e c i s e l y t h e same o p e r a t i o n s i n a c t i o n i n p a r t s of P a l e s t i n e . Yet a n o t h e r u s e f u l account of b o t h s i e v e s and s i e v i n g i s given by C h r i s t i a n 1917-18, who a g a i n d e t a i l s t h e d i f f e r e n t waste f r a c t i o n s (complete w i t h t h e i r Arabic names) and, l i k e Dalman (111, 142) and Kadour & Seeden 1983, s t r e s s e s the d i f f e r e n c e between the s i e v e s used f o r wheat and b a r l e y .

Free-threshing

TRANSPORT OF STRAW AND CHAFF FROM THRESHING YARDS TO BULK STORAGE. CLASSIFICATION OF STRAW TYPES E x a c t l y a s i n s t e p 27 of P a r t The d e t a i l s of s t r a w c l a s s e s given i n P a r t I were, i n any c a s e , based axamples taken p r i m a r i l y from the f r e e - t h r e s h i n g wheats. ]

- THE

I

The v a r i o u s waste f r a c t i o n s e a c h have t h e i r u s e s ( s e e f i g . 1 of t h i s p a p e r , and s t e p 37b of P a r t I ) . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e c o a r s e r c l e a n i n g s a r e used t o feed "biiyiik hayvan" ( p r i n c i p a l l y c a t t l e ) , and t h e " f i n e c l e a n i n g s " and "hand s o r t i n g s " t o feed e i t h e r c a t t l e o r , more u s u a l l y , domestic fowl. (When amalgamated, a s t h e y o f t e n a r e , t h e mixture i s used f o r e i t h e r group A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n of use of waste f r a c t i o n s i s a l s o recorded of a n i m a l s ) . f o r Europe: an e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t Hillman ( 1 7 1 0 ) , commenting on Tussar 1573, d e s c r i b e s " r i s k " (seemingly a combination 0.' o u r " c a v i n g s " , "chob" and perhaps " f i n e c l e a n i n g s " ) being fed t o hogs, and r e f e r s t o " p i c k i n g s " (seemingly "hand s o r t i n g s " w i t h , perhaps, " f i n e c l e a n i n g s " ) being fed t o p o u l t r y . ( I am g r a t e f u l t o Paul Halstead and G l y n i s Jones f o r b r i n g i n g t h e Hillman t e x t t o my n o t i c e ) . For a l t e r n a t i v e s t o f i n e - s i e v i n g , s e e s t e p 35 of P a r t I.

24. GRAIN WASHING (AND SUBSEQUENT SUN-DRYING) T h i s o p e r a t i o n may be undertaken e i t h e r a t t h i s s t a g e o r , i n a s l i g h t l y more piecemeal f a s h i o n , (The a s a prelude t o buZgur p r e p a r a t i o n and g r a i n m i l l i n g f o r f l o u r . l a t t e r s t r a t e g y i s g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d a s i t r e l i e v e s t h e p r e s s u r e of work d u r i n g bulk g r a i n c l e a n i n g on t h e t h r e s h i n g y a r d s and washed g r a i n intended f o r buZgur can go s t r a i g h t i n t o the c a u l d r o n s w i t h o u t having t o be d r i e d first). The r e a s o n s f o r washing t h e g r a i n were o u t l i n e d i n s t e p 36 of P a r t I. Of t h e s e , t h e most important i s the e l i m i n a t i o n of t o x i c "bunted" g r a i n s i n f e c t e d w i t h and e n t i r e l y r e p l a c e d by t h e b l a c k , f o e t i d s p o r e s of T i Z Z e t i a caries and T. f o e t i d a . Grain washing i s a common f e a t u r e of a c t i v i t i e s around s p r i n g s , s t r e a m s and w e l l s of Turkish v i l l a g e s i n h i g h summer, a p o i n t r e i n f o r c e d by Balaman 1969 and K o ~ a y1951, 14. It must, of c o u r s e , be followed by v e r y thorough sun-drying, g e n e r a l l y on t h e f l a t rooves (hububat serme'g'i ve s e r i t e r e k kurutma'g'z).

In f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s , t h e g r a i n i s g e n e r a l l y 25. GRAIN STORAGE s t o r e d i n o n l y a semi-clean s t a t e ( a s i n d i c a t e d i n f i g . I ) , and i t i s generally in t h i s s t a t e that it is sold. (For d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h i s regard between d i f f e r e n t c e r e a l s , s e e d i s c u s s i o n ' u n d e r s t e p 37 i n the glume-wheat sequence, and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the p r e s e n t s e c t i o n on f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s , p. 4 above). For mention of systems of measuring g r a i n f o r s a l e , s e e s t e p 37.A i n P a r t I , and f o r a r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n of such proced u r e s i n the Old Babylonian period see Veenhof, forthcoming [Ed . I .

cereals

87.

Doughty 1924, 11, 417-8 GRAIN RECOVERY PROM THRESHING YARD ANTS d ~ o c r i b e s a t h r e s h i n g yard i n Saudi Arabia where the women were s i f t i n g m t r ' n e s t s f o r the g r a i n " s t o l e n " by them. H i s purple prose d e s e r v e s and drew b r i d l e t o q u o t a t i o n : " I n t h a t yard-side I saw many a n t - h i l l s ; g o n r i d e r the l a b o u r of c e r t a i n i n d i g e n t hareem t h a t were s i t t i n g b e s i d e them. I saw t h e emmets' l a s t confusion (which they s u f f e r e d a s r o b b e r s ) , t h e i r a n t c o l o n i e s s u b v e r t e d , and caught up i n t h e womens' meal s i e v e s that ( c a r e f u l o n l y of t h e i r d e s o l a t e l i v i n g ) tossed sky-high t h e pismire g e n e r a t i o n , and mingled people and musheyikh i n a homicide r u i n of sand and g r a i n . - And e a c h needy wife had a l r e a d y some h a n d f u l s l a i d on h e r opread k e r c h i e f , of t h i s g l e a n i n g corn". ( I am g r a t e f u l t o Tony Legge f o r b r i n g i n g t h i s r e f e r e n c e t o my n o t i c e , and f o r e x p l a i n i n g the a r c h a i c English). It cannot be claimed t h a t the winnowing and s i f t i n g of a n t s ' n e e t s i s standard a g r a r i a n p r a c t i c e . Nevertheless, i t i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Sumerologists snould perhaps b e a r i n mind i n t r a n s l a t i n g a g r a r i a n texts.

-

That

ants are

capable

of

carrying

s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s of

grain

down t o t h e i r underground n e s t t o feed t h e i r l a r v a e i s supported by observ a t i o n s of t h e a u t h o r : more than 250 T r i t i c w n durum g r a i n s per hour were observed being c a r r i e d from a newly sown f i e l d i n t o t h e e n t r a n c e t o an The roba n t s ' n e s t n e a r t h e s i t e of Cayijnii, N. of Diyarbaklr (Turkey). bery of newly sown g r a i n u n d e r l i n e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of timing sowing t o c o i n c i d e w i t h the a r r i v a l of autumn ( o r s p r i n g ) r a i n s , t h u s e n s u r i n g the i n s t a n t germination which a l o n e can pre-empt t h e p r e d a t i o n s of a n t s , b i r d s and r o d e n t s . However, i t should be added t h a t we have observed a n t s r a i d i n g even a s t a n d i n g c r o p of b a r l e y n e a r T e l l Kaya ( S y r i a ) : whole segments of head were b i t t e n o f f and c a r r i e d away by a n t s swarming up t h e

-

I

[28. ADDITIONAL SIEVE-CLEANING OF ALL GRAIN DRAWN FROM BULK-STORAGE, 29. ADDITIONAL WINNOWING, 30. HAND-SORTING OF GRAIN (PRIOR TO FOOD PREPARATION) A s i n s t e p s 38-40 of P a r t I ]

I have y e t t o observe sheaf-burning of mature f r e e SHEAF-BURNING? t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l s a s o u t l i n e d f o r glume-wheats i n pp. 141-3 of P a r t I , a l t h o u g h j u s t such a p r a c t i c e i s r e p o r t e d f o r some b a r l e y c r o p s i n t h e On the o t h e r o t h e r hand, sheaves of immaShetland I s l e s by Fenton 1978. t u r e , naked wheats a r e r e g u l a r l y burned t o produce s p e c i a l g r a i n p r o d u c t s In t h e s e such a s fzrzg and f r i k k k ( s e e g r a i n foods c ) and d ) , below). c a s e s , however, t h e purpose i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h e sheaf-burning (See f i g . 1 f o r t h e b a s i c s t e p s of t h e d e s c r i b e d i n P a r t I , 141-143. sheaf-burning sequence).

H i 1 lman

Free-threshing

cereal

Free-threshing

FOODS PRODUCED FROM GRAINS OF FREE-THRESHING CEREALS

This f l o u r i s u s u a l l y boiled i n water o r t o produce a g r u e l of t h e same name. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , k a v u t i s sometiuoed t o produce b r e a d , though w i t h o u t need of f u r t h e r baking ( s e e food

UCO

I: FROM FREE-THRESHING WHEATS a ) Roasted g r a i n (Tur. k a v u m & kavunnag , o r l o c a l l y k a v u r g a t r k ) . So f a r , I have s e e n o n l y t h e f l o u r y - g r a i n e d forms of naked w h e a t s (and occas i o n a l l y t h e b a r l e y s ) used f o r r o a s t i n g . The r e a s o n i s t h a t f l o u r y g r a i n s p u f f up more r e a d i l y on h e a t i n g and a r e l e s s g r i t t y t o e a t . The u s u a l c a n d i d a t e s i n c l u d e t h e many s o f t - g r a i n e d v a r i e t i e s o f T. aestivm ( b r e a d w h e a t ) and t h e somewhat less common s o f t - g r a i n e d v a r i e t i e s of T. turgidurn ( r i v i t wheat) and T. durum ( m a c a r o n i w h e a t ) . (The f l i n t y g r a i n s o f Emmer would p o s s i b l y be t o o g r i t t y ) . Grain i s t a k e n from b u l k s t o r a g e and s u b m i t t e d t o t h e same a d d i t i o n a l c l e a n i n g o p e r a t i o n s a s t h o s e t h a t p r e c e d e buZgur p r o d u c t i o n from glumew h e a t s , d e s c r i b e d i n s t e p s 3 4 , 35 and 36 of P a r t I. To t h e c l e a n wheat g r a i n a r e then commonly added a h a n d f u l of t h e flavoursome f r u i t l e t s o f P i s t a c i a t e r e b i n t h u s ( t e r e b i n t h t r e e ; Tur. mavi m e r l e n g e g ) o r P. atlantica (which i s g e n e r a l l y picked in i t s s l i g h t l y u n r i p e s t a t e ) . In addition, l e n t i l s , cannabis seeds, barley t h e y o f t e n t o s s i n a few c h i c k - p e a s , g r a i n s o r even a few of t h e s p i c e y a n t i - f l a t u l e n t s e e d s of f e n n e l (FoenicuZum v u z g a r e ) The m i x t u r e , t o g e t h e r w i t h a s p r i n k l i n g of s a l t , i s now h e a t e d i n an i n v e r t e d sag! u n t i l most of t h e c e r e a l g r a i n s have s w o l l e n and s p l i t open.3 A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e m i x t u r e (kavu-) i s emptied i n t o bowls r e a d y f o r immediate consumption. Any c h a r r e d g r a i n s ( t h e r e a r e Dalman 1931, 111, 60 o f t e n q u i t e a few) a r e picked o u t and d i s c a r d e d . q a z i j e ) being prepared i n t h e f i e l d a l s o d e s c r i b e s r o a s t e d g r a i n (Ar. from whole bunches o f r i p e e a r s f o r t h e b e n e f i t of r e a p e r s , n e i g h b o u r s a n d , above a l l , t h e poor.

.

The e f f e c t of r o a s t i n g i s n o t m e r e l y t o r e n d e r t h e g r a i n s s o f t and floury, but a l s o t o p a r t i a l l y convert the s t a r c h t o sweet-tasting dextrins. This conversion occurs a t ca. 200' C ( T y l e r 1962). R o a s t i n g c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e s i m p l e s t and q u i c k e s t way of r e n d e r i n g g r a i n p a l a t a b l e and d i g e s t i b l e , though t o d a y , a t l e a s t , r o a s t e d g r a i n , l i k e t h e even more p o p u l a r r o a s t e d c h i c k - p e a s (ZebZebi) , r a r e l y p r o v i d e s On t h e o t h e r hand, kauumna'g' i s o f t e n t h e t h e major meal of t h e d a y . f i r s t food o f f e r e d t o g u e s t s on a r r i v a l i n t h e homes o f T u r k i s h v i l l a g e r s , and s e r v e s a s a s n a c k w h i l e t h e d a u g h t e r s bake t h e bread t h a t w i l l form t h e c e n t r e of t h e meal t h a t i s t o f o l l o w . b ) F l o u r from r o a s t e d g r a i n (Tarkzna and k a v u t ) . Pounded kavumna'g' i s o f t e n added t o y o T u r t t o produce t h e d e l i c i o u s t a r k z n a which i s e a t e n f r e s h ( c o n t r a s t t a r h a n a , d e s c r i b e d below under f and i n s t e p 46d of P a r t I). For a d e s c r i p t i o n of e q c i v a l e n t p r o d u c t s i n P a l e s t i n e , s e e A v i t s u r 1977, 230. That t h e combination of pounded, parched g r a i n w i t h y o g h u r t o r b u t t e r m i l k was p o p u l a r w e l l beyond t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e Near E a s t i s a t t e s t e d i n Fenton 1978 f o r t h e S h e t l a n d I s l e s and i t was r e g u l a r l y e a t e n by t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r i n r u r a l p a r t s of F i n l a n d where i t was c a l l e d virkuna. I n some p a r t s of Turkey, however, kavurma'g' i s o c c a s i o n a l l y prepared i n g r e a t e r b u l k , t h e n ground i n a r o t a r y quern ( e l de'g'imneni) t o

cr r r r l a

a special f l o u r (kavut).

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e f r i k k 6 of S y r i a scorched, milk-ripe g r a i n . P a l e s t i n e ( s e e b e l o w ) , t h e A n a t o l i a n fzrzg i s p r e p a r e d on o n l y a s m a l l 1s from g r a i n a t an even l e s s advanced ( m i l k - r i p e ) s t a t e of m a t u r i t y . the s i m p l i c i t y of i t s p r e p a r a t i o n i t p a r a l l e l s kavurmag, a n d , l i k e Urn*, i s consumed o n l y a s a snack. With f z r z g , however, t h e s n a c k s g e n e r a l l y prepared and e a t e n o u t i n t h e f i e l d s r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e om,. p- r i m a r i l y by t h o s e engaged i n weeding t h e c r o p s ( s e e s t a g e 10 i n t h e g p r sequence above, P a r t I ) .

bmg:

I

So f a r , I ' v e s e e n fzrzg prepared o n l y from naked wheats s u c h a s T. and T. a e s t i v u m . a ) E a r s a r e plucked o r c u t ( o r t h e whole p l a n t u p r o o t e d ) when t u r n i n g from g r e e n t o y e l l o w , a t which s t a g e t h e g r a i n s a r e somewhere between "milk-ripe" and "dough-ripe". (In both s t a t e s the grain i s s t i l l s o f t , b u t i n t h e former i t i s p o s s i b l e t o squeeze o u t a milky j u i c e w h i l e i n t h e l a t t e r it is not). b ) The e a r s a r e t h e n l a i d on t o p of a s m a l l , open heap of s t r a w a n d / o r d r y weeds which a r e t h e n i g n i t e d . The f i r e q u i c k l y b u r n s i t s e l f o u t l e a v i n g l i g h t l y s i n g e d e a r s l y i n g among t h e a s h e s . c ) The s i n g e d e a r s a r e t h e n picked o u t and broken ( t h r e s h e d ) by rubbing them between t h e hands o v e r a bowl i n t o which f a l l s t h e m i x t u r e of g r a i n s , l i g h t c h a f f , and r a c h i s e s . d) The c h a f f i s n e x t winnowed away by t h e fzrzg-maker simply by blowing i n t o t h e bowl. Any r a c h i s e s remaining w i t h t h e g r a i n are picked out and d i s c a r d e d a l o n g w i t h any c h a r r e d g r a i n s . e ) The half-cooked, h a l f - r i p e g r a i n i s then e a t e n w h i l e i t i s s t i l l warm. The sweet f l a v o u r and j u i c y t e x t u r e make fzrzg v e r y p a l a t a b l e , a l t h o u g h f o r c e r t a i n of o u r c o l l e a g u e s i t proved t o have d r a m a t i c a l l y purgative p r o p e r t i e s . The o n l y equipment used t o d a y i s a bowl and cigarette lighter.

durum

A v i t s u r 1977 d e s c r i b e s what a p p e a r s t o be an i d e n t i c a l p r o c e s s i n P a l e s t i n e and names t h e p r o d u c t karmel (Heb.). He a l s o d e s c r i b e s an "intensive" , village-based v e r s i o n of k a m e 2 p r o d u c t i o n i n which t i e d b u n d l e s of e a r s a r e " s i n g e d " by b e i n g passed back and f o r t h o v e r t h e f l a mes and t h e n t h r e s h e d by b e i n g rubbed a g a i n s t an upturned r i d d l e i n a t u b I t should however be n o t e d t h a t o r s i m i l a r r e c e p t a c l e (see h i s Fig. 3). t h e t e r m "karmeZ" i s a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h e p r o d u c t d e s c r i b e d below under t h e A r a b i c name of f r i k k 6

.

E q u i v a l e n t t r a d i t i o n s a p p e a r t o have e x i s t e d i n r e c e n t t i m e s w e l l Thus, Gunda 1983, 151, r e c o r d s ( a l b e i t f o r Emmer beyond t h e Near E a s t . a glume-wheat) t h a t i n Hungary " t h e h a l f - r i p e e a r s a r e s c o r c h e d , t h e g r a i n s rubbed o u t between t h e palms and w i l l t h u s be e a t e n i n an a l m o s t p r e h i s t o r i c way". For r e f e r e n c e t o f o o d s prepared from mashed f z r z g , s e e p r o d u c t i) ( i i ) below.

Hillman

Free-threshing

cereals

F r e e - t h r e s h i n g ce r e a l 8

.

d ) ~ r i k k k(Ar ) : s c o r c h e d , c u r e d , d ough-ripe g r a i n . Unlike f zrzg, f r i k k e i s g e n e r a l l y produced i n b u l k a n d , a p p a r e n t l y , always from dough-ripe Today, a t l e a s t , t h e o n l y wheat used i s , g r a i n ( c o n t r a s t fzrzg, a b o v e ) . apparently, durum. For t h e f o l l o w i n g rough o u t l i n e of t h e p r o c e s s I am v e r y g r a t e f u l t o P h i l W i l l i a m s ( p e r s . comm. 1982) of t h e Grain Research Lab., Manitoba, who i s c u r r e n t l y p r e p a r i n g a f i r s t - h a n d d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of frikk6 production for the forthcoming issue of Rachis (see bibliography). ( I have n o t y e t w i t n e s s e d t h e p r o c e s s i n p e r s o n ) . T O

a ) The c r o p i s h a r v e s t e d w h i l e t h e g r a i n i s s t i l l dough-ripe and b ) t h e h a r v e s t e d mate r i a l f i r e d C) he r e s i d u e i s t h e n winnowed and c o a r s e - s i e v e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e s i n g e d e a r s from t h e mass of a s h and c h a r r e d p i e c e s of s t r a w . dl Next, t h e e a r s a r e a p p a r e n t l y t h r e s h e d by r u b b i n g bunches of t h e m a g a i n s t a r i d d l e p l a c e d o v e r a r e c e p t a c l e of some k i n d . (Compare A v i t s u r ' s d e t a i l s , above). el The s i n g e d , t h r e s h e d g r a i n i s f i n a l l y " c u r e d " by s p r e a d i n g i t on

.

i n d o o r s u r f a c e s and l e a v i n g i t i n t h e d a r k f o r t h r e e d a y s . thoroughly d r y , the g r a i n i s stored i n sacks. f ) It i s cooked by b o i l i n g - as p e r b u t g u r , b u t f o r l o n g e r .

Once

~ r i k k 6 can be bought i n most S y r i a n and P a l e s t i n i a n m a r k e t s a n d , i n our experience , r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l hand-sorting t o remove s m a l l s t o n e s b e f o r e cooking. This precaution i s necessary w i t h a l l g r a i n products ( o t h e r t h a n t h o s e based on s i f t e d f l o u r ) , b u t w i t h f r i k k 6 , t h e n e c e s s i t y of c u r i n g i t by s p r e a d i n g i t on f l o o r s , e t c . , seems t o expose i t t o an additional risk of contamination with small stones depending ( p r e s u m a b l y ) on t h e c u r i n g s u r f a c e used.

-

A v i t s u r 1977 a l s o d e s c r i b e s f r i k k 6 p r o d u c t i o n on a commercial s c a l e i n P a l e s t i n i a n v i l l a g e s s o u t h of Hebron. (Again, he a p p l i e s t h e Hebrew name kamel). P r e c i s e d e t a i l s a r e n o t o f f e r e d , though one c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e i s i n t h e use of s l e d g e s t o t h r e s h t h e g r a i n from t h e e a r s . However, t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t e r m k a m e 2 d o e s n o t c a u s e t h e same d e g r e e of c o n f u s i o n a s i t s a p p l i c a t i o n ( c i t e d a b o v e ) f o r a p r o d u c t t h a t a p p e a r s (from A v i t s u r 1977) t o be t h e P a l e s t i n i a n e q u i v a l e n t of t h e T u r k i s h fzrzg. In t h e a p p a r e n t a b s e n c e of A r a b i c ( o r Hebrew) t e r m i n o l o g y which c o n v e n i e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e two p r o d u c t s , we can p e r h a p s r e f e r t o one as t h e " ~ u r k i s hfzrzg", t h e o t h e r a s t h e "Arabic f r i k k 6 " , t h i s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e common o r i g i n of t h e two words, a s n o t e d by P o s t g a t e 1984, 105. For C l a s s i c a l t i m e s , P l i n y ( H i s t . Nut. x v i i i , 298) d e s c r i b e s t h e h a r v e s t i n g of u n r i p e g r a i n , though he d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e how i t was processed o r on what s c a l e - whether a s fzrzg o r f r i k k 6 . E q u i v a l e n t t r a d i t i o n s a g a i n e x i s t w e l l o u t s i d e t h e Near E a s t . The ~ c h w a b i a n l ~ a v a r i a nGrunkern i s p r e p a r e d and consumed i n s i m i l a r form ( p r o f . ~ S r b e r - G r o h n e, p e r s comm. ) , and a l t h o u g h produced o n l y from S p e l t , Emmer and Einkorn , may, e l s e w h e r e , have been prepared from f r e e - t h r e s h i n g wheats too.

.

h i l e d , whole g r a i n s (from r i p e e a r s ) A,

w i t h glume-wheats,

whole g r a i n t h a t h a s j u s t

been b o i l e d

i n the

r w of buZgur p r e p a r a t i o n i s r e g u l a r l y consumed a s a s n a c k o r a s a mida at en by (@y r n l by t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e work ( s e e s t e p 38, P a r t I ) . ) ~ B t r i t i s h s t u d e n t s , T. durum g r a i n consumed i n t h i s form proved even

mm

p u r g a t i v e t h a n b o i l e d g r a i n s of Emmer).

(44)

Aqure.

Boiled whole g r a i n of T . durwn, i s a l s o used a s t h e b a s i s of a ( a q u r e ) which h a s p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e r e l i g i o u s C a r e f u l l y c l e a n e d whole g r a i n s @ @ l e n d e rof t h e A l e v i o r d e r of d e r v i s h e s . he u s e d , b u t more commonly t h e y use g r a i n s which have had t h e i r p e r i Oarpa ( b r a n ) removed i n s t a g e 40 of t h e b u t g u r sequence a s o u t l i n e d i n

@@mplex d i s h

They a r e t h e n b o i l e d u n t i l t h e y a r e v e r y thorough)art I f o r emmer wheat. l y cooked and g e l a t i n o u s , bean f l o u r and some whole beans a r e a d d e d , t o g o t h e r w i t h honey, some sesame, broken n u t s , cinnamon a n d , a s t h e m i x t u r e Today, s u g a r i s s e n e r a l l y used i n p l a c e of honey, though i n t h e i s o l a t e d r e g i o n of ~ e r s i m i n the S. Munzur m o u n t a i n s , t h e y s a y t h e y used t o use pounded w h i t e

cooks, h a n d f u l s of t h e f l e s h y s e e d s of pomegranates.

m u l b e r r i e s a s t h e s o l e s w e e t e n e r i n t h i s a s i n a l l o t h e r sweet d i s h e s . On c o o l i n g , i t s e t s a s a sweet j e l l y and i s d e l i c i o u s . ur 1977, 231, c i t e s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of what may be aI n st ri imgiul ianr g lpyr,o dAuvc it t s on "festive and mourning occasions" amongst Christian communities i n Palestine. 4 Of t h e f r e e Buzgur and tarhana (from f r e e - t h r e s h i n g w h e a t s ) . t h r e s h i n g wheats o n l y macaroni wheat (T. durum) i s r e g u l a r l y used t o prodtlce b u t g u r . Bread wheat i s q u i t e u n s u i t a b l e , though i t can n e v e r t h e l e s s he used t o produce v a r i o u s forms of g r o a t s o r p o r r i d g e ( s e e below). f)

Following a d d i t i o n a l c l e a n i n g ( a s i n s t e p s 38-40 i n P a r t I ) , a n d , Rometimes, g r a i n washing d e f e r r e d from s t e p 24 ( p . 8 a b o v e ) , p r o d u c t i o n from T. durum g r a i n f o l l o w s p r e c i s e l y t h e same sequence a s t h a t a p p l i e d t o Emmer g r a i n ( s e e s t e p s 41 t o 47 i n P a r t I ) . BuZgur p r o d u c t i o n from T. dururn g e n e r a t e s t h e same t h r e e g r a d e s of g r i t s a s Emmer, and t h e y a r e p u t t o p r e c i s e l y t h e same u s e s . These i n c l u d e ( i n some v i l l a g e s ) t h e ~ r o d u c t i o n of d r i e d b a l l s of t a r h a n a ( s e e s t e p 45d i n P a r t I ) which p r o v i d e an i n v a l u a b l e means of p r e s e r v i n g t h e e a r l y summer s u r p l u s of m i l k p r o d u c t s , a s w e l l as of u t i l i z i n g a low-grade c e r e a l by-product. (1n Sumer, t h e s u r p l u s of m i l k would presumably have climaxed i n t h e s p r i n g ) . The econornic a d v a n t a g e s of d o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n of t a r h a n a i n even urban comm u n i t i e s i s touched on by B e n e d i c t 1974, 164, and t h e w i n t e r s t o r a g e of t a r h a n a i s d e s c r i b e d by Balaman 1969, 268. g) Crushed g r a i n ( g r o a t s ) , made i n t o p o r r i d g e o r g r u e l , Tur. zWMany g r o u p s s h o r t c u t even t h e most a b b r e v i a t e d buzgur-making sequence by s i m p l y c r u s h i n g (pounding) t h e i n t a c t g r a i n s i n a m o r t a r and b o i l i n g them i n w a t e r t o produce p o r r i d g e which t h e y e a t w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e a d d i t i o n o f milk p r o d u c t s a n d / o r f l a v o u r i n g s such a s honey. T h i s p r a c t i c e was, a p p a r e n t l y , e s p e c i a l l y p r e v a l e n t amongst g r o u p s s u c h a s t h e ~ e d o u i nwhose mobility r e q u i r e d them t o r e s t r i c t t h e amount of heavy s t o n e equipment

Hillman

Free-threshing

cereals

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

t h a t t h e y c a r r i e d around ( s e e Musil 1928a & b; H i i t t e r o t h 1959). Indeed, Musil c i t e s crushed g r a i n (Ar. d e r s h i s h 6 ) a s h a v i n g been t h e p r i n c i p a l f a r i n a c e o u s food of t h e Ruwala and o t h e r Bedouin. For e q u i v a l e n t f o o d s consumed by s e d e n t a r y f a r m i n g g r o u p s , see Kogay and ~ l k i i c a n 1961. According t o A v i t s u r 1977, b o t h g r o a t s and t h e urban g u i l d of g r o a t s m a k e r s a r e c i t e d i n Talmudic s o u r c e s . It should a g a i n be s t r e s s e d t h a t p o r r i d g e c a n , i f r e q u i r e d , be produced from buZgur by prolonged b o i l i n g i n ample w a t e r . Indeed, the princ i p a l f a r i n a c e o u s food of Latium seems t o have been puZs based on Emmer b u l g u r ( s e e P a r t I , p. 141).

W p l i n g s (stewed dough) from r i p e g r a i n s . 1i n g s r e p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n v e n i e n t way of r e n d e r i n g c e r e a l f l o u r

l a , and t h e many r e f e r e n c e s t o them by M a u r i z i o 1927 and o t h e r a u t h a u g g e s t s t h a t , i n some p a r t s of c e n t r a l and n o r t h e r n Europe a t l e a s t , once r e p r e s e n t e d one of t h e p r i n c i p a l forms i n which c e r e a l p r o d u c t s eaten. Normally, mature g r a i n w a s used ( c o n t r a s t i ) ( i i i ) above). I have n o t knowingly e n c o u n t e r e d dumplings i n t h e Near E a s t , t h e a i b i l i t y of t h e i r h a v i n g played a p a r t i n i t s e a r l i e r c u l i n a r y h i s t o r y not a l t o g e t h e r be e x c l u d e d .

b)

h ) A f u r t h e r form o f mashed wheat k e r n e l s (Tur. Akdene). Balaman 1969, 268, d e s c r i b e s t h e kzg hazzrZzkZarz ( p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r wint e r ) i n t h e v i l l a g e of G r e n c i k as i n c l u d i n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of akde;ze. In h i s l i s t of l o c a l t e r m s used i n d a i l y l i f e a t t h e v i l l a g e ( p . 2 8 8 ) , he d e f i n e s a k d e n e as buydayzn d i b e k t e dijgiilerek kabuyundan pzkarztrnzg h a Z i ("wheat g r a i n s i n a s t a t e i n which t h e i r bran h a s been removed, pounded It would a p p e a r t h a t t h i s p r o d u c t u s e s par-boiled g r a i n i n a mortar"). k e r n e l s t a k e n from s t e p 4 of t h e b u l g u r sequence ( s e e f i g . I ) , i . e . from t h e e q u i v a l e n t of s t e p 44 of t h e glume-wheat p r o c e s s i n g sequence o u t l i n e d i n P a r t I. I have n e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d a k d e n e m y s e l f , and p r e c i s e l y how i t i s f i n a l l y p r e p a r e d f o r human consumption i s n o t c l e a r . Nevertheless, it i s y e t one more g r a i n p r o d u c t which may have some a n t i q u i t y and be c i t e d in e a r l y texts.

Paeta/Noodles (Tur. makamra) i s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g t o t h e o r i g i n s of t h e s y s t e m of mixing #lour and e g g s t o make a p a s t a - l i k e p r o d u c t which could be d r y - s t o r e d f o r l a t e r use. More c e r t a i n i s t h e f a c t t h a t bread wheat i s q u i t e u n s u i t a b l e md, t o d a y , o n l y T. dururn i s used. The u n s u i t a b i l i t y of bread wheat was 811 t o o a p p a r e n t from an e p i d e m i c of w i f e - b e a t i n g i n I t a l y i n t h e 1960s YIYn p a s t a m a n u f a c t u r e r s r a n o u t of T. durum and c o v e r t l y used T. aestivurn (bread wheat) i n s t e a d , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t , on c o o k i n g , t h e p a s t a d i r s o l v e d i n t o a g l u t i n o u s mass. The economic importance of s u c h p r o d u c t s l i e s i n t h e i r p r o v i d i n g a m a n s of s t o r i n g s u r p l u s e g g - p r o d u c t s i n r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e form. It i s no c o i n c i d e n c e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t we f i n d A n a t o l i a n h o u s e h o l d s p r e p a r i n g n o o d l e s whenever e g g s are p l e n t i f u l and cheap. The economics a r e b r i e f l y Balaman 1969, 268, a l s o c i t e s p a s t a proo u t l i n e d by B e n e d i c t 1976, 164. d u c t i o n as one of t h e s t a n d a r d p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r w i n t e r a t t h e v i l l a g e of Orencik n e a r Klzilcahamam.

i ) Foods p r e p a r e d from crushed o r ground g r a i n h a r v e s t e d in i t s milk- o r dough-ripe state. A t l e a s t t h r e e such foods a r e reported i n the ethnog r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e a n d , a l t h o u g h n o t r e p o r t e d from t h e Near East, may w e l l have been consumed t h e r e i n t i m e s p a s t .

1) Stewed dough-cheese m i x t u r e (Tur

( i ) F i r s t , t h e SchwabianIBavarian GriinkemmehZ i s p r e p a r e d from d r i e d , ground, ' h a l f - r i p e ' g r a i n s and t h e n c e used t o make t h e "uorziigZiche" Griinkemsuppe a s w e l l a s o t h e r d i s h e s ( M a u r i z i o 1927, 141). While, i n Schwabia, a t l e a s t , t h i s food was (and i s ) p r e p a r e d o n l y from S p e l t , Emmer and E i n k o r n , M a u r i z i o a l s o q u o t e s T r e i c h e l 1885, 216, who n o t e s t h a t t h e Kasubians used h a l f - r i p e r y e ( a f r e e - t h r e s h i n g c e r e a l ) den s i e am Ofen d i j r r e n und auf d e r Handmiihle mahlen". No d o u b t naked wheats have sometimes been used i n j u s t t h e same way.

"...

( i i ) S e c o n d l y , Gunda 1983, 151, q u o t e s P i n t 6 r 1909, 244, a s o b s e r v i n g t h a t .) t h e n o t y e t f u l l y ripe, "Among t h e P o l o c z (Hungarian e t h n i c g r o u p m i l k y r y e e a r s a r e scorched on t h e f l a m e , t h e g r a i n s a r e crushed i n a wooden m o r t a r , and t h e p u l p i s baked on embers i n f i s t - s i z e d lumps o r as c a k e s " ( I am g r a t e f u l t o Mark N e s b i t t f o r b r i n g i n g t h e Gunda paper t o my notice). S i m i l a r f o o d s have e l s e w h e r e d o u b t l e s s been prepared from naked w h e a t s , t o o , e s p e c i a l l y i n a r e a s n o t s u i t e d t o rye c u l t i v a t i o n .

...

f i i i ) T h i r d l y , M a u r i z i o (1927, 140) c i t e s y e t a n o t h e r food " d i e a u s u n r e i f e m Korn b e r e i t e t wurde", namely t h e P o l i s h and Bohemian prazmo which, under t h e name p r a z n o , Gunda 1983, 151 d e s c r i b e s a s " a knoedeZ-like meal" i . e . dumplings of some s o r t . - 16 -

-re

.

.

pirohu, p i r o f u ) Some v i l l a g e s produce a n o t h e r d r y - s t o r e a b l e p r o d u c t by mixing wheat f l o u r w i t h t h e d r y powdered form of t h e c h e e s e of s h e e p and g o a t s . They are mixed wet and allowed t o d r y o u t i n b a l l s o r lumps which a r e s t o r e d f o r l a t e r consumption a s a stewed cheese-dough d i s h c a l l e d p i r o h u . Thus, while n o t used t o produce a s o u p , as T a r h a n a , i t p r o v i d e s a v e r y s i m i l a r means of c o n s e r v i n g s u r p l u s m i l k - p r o d u c t s i n a h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t form. Balaman 1969 d e s c r i b e s p i r o f u p r o d u c t i o n as one of t h e s t a n d a r d p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r w i n t e r a t 0 r e n c i k v i l l a g e , and a seemingly i d e n t i c a l p r o d u c t i s d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e Turan a r e a of NE I r a n by M a r t i n 1980, where i t i s apparently called a r i s h a .

m) Unbaked bread A s mentioned under food b) above, t h e f l o u r ( k a v u t ) prepared from r o a s t e d g r a i n (kavurmay) i s sometimes used t o p r e p a r e b r e a d , s i m p l y by t h e a d d i t i o n of w a t e r and w i t h o u t need of f u r t h e r baking. Such f l o u r h a s p a r t i c u l a r l y good k e e p i n g p r o p e r t i e s and t h i s , w i t h t h e absence of any need of baking f a c i l i t i e s , h a s i n t h e p a s t made i t t h e p r e f e r r e d food of many t r a v e l l e r s , s h e p h e r d s and o t h e r s w i t h o u t r e a d y a c c e s s t o ovens. T h i s advantage i s s t r e s s e d by b o t h Musil 1928a & b and A v i t s u r 1977.

HilLman

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

n) Bread (ekmek) S e v e r a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e involved i n making b r e a d , but a s s o much i s a l r e a d y published on t h e s u b j e c t , o n l y t h e b r i e f e s t o u t l i n e i s included h e r e .

f i l Grain washing (buzday y z k a m a ~ z ) , d r y i n g and r e s a c k i n g . This s t e p i s o f t e n omitted and may, i n any c a s e , have a l r e a d y been undertaken a t an e a r l i e r s t a g e ( s e e s t e p 24 above, f o r d e t a i l s ) . Normally, once washed and d r i e d , t h e g r a i n intended f o r m i l l i n g i s immediately sewn i n t o c l o s e l y woven woollen s a c k s ( s i n g . buyday p u v a l z ) of one k i l e ( c a . 100 l i t r e s ) c a p a c i t y , a l l r e a d y f o r e v e n t u a l t r a n s p o r t t o t h e m i l l ( i f n o t hand-milled a t home). These g r a i n s a c k s a r e o f t e n r i c h l y ornamented, e i t h e r w i t h t h e p a t t e r n woven ( i n k i l i m s t y l e ) o r embroidered ( c i c i m s t y l e ) , o r w i t h a more o r n a t e p a t t e r n i n c o r p o r a t e d by double weaving w i t h i n p a n e l s (swnak s t y l e ) . However, Kogay 1951, 14, a l s o d e s c r i b e s t h e washed and d r i e d g r a i n being t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e m i l l s t i t c h e d up i n s i d e e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e " c a r t - s a c k s " (ka'hz 9uvaZz) of 400-450 l i t r e c a p a c i t y and moun ted on s o l i d -wheel c a r t s . These a r e g e n e r a l l y of d a r k g o a t - h a i r . ( i i ) Grain measuring (buyday b'tpemeyi) , g e n e r a l l y by volume u s i n g a wooden perik, pinik o r s i n i k . Today, i n communal w a t e r - m i l l s , e a c h measure i s poured d i r e c t i n t o t h e s q u a r e wooden hopper which f u n n e l s t h e g r a i n down i n t o the hole i n the t o p millstone. C l e a r l y , t h e g r a i n i s measured a t Today, a t l e a s t , t h i s p o i n t o n l y i f i t i s being m i l l e d o u t s i d e t h e home. i t i s u s u a l f o r the m i l l e r of a community water-mill t o take 1/20 of e i t h e r t h e g r a i n o r t h e r e s u l t i n g f l o u r a s payment f o r h i s s e r v i c e s ( s e e K o ~ a y& ~ l k i i c a n 1961). f i i i ) M i l l i n g fdeyirmende b'ziitmeyi). The d i v e r s e range of methods and equipment f o r m i l l i n g g r a i n a r e w e l l summarised elsewhere. For c l a s s i c a l t i m e s , Moritz 1958 p r o v i d e s a remarkably thorough s u r v e y , though, a s he himself s t r e s s e s , much of t h e equipment was used o n l y i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d urban c e n t r e s and i s u n l i k e l y t o have been found i n Sumer. C e r t a i n l y t h e y a p p e a r t o have been more s o p h i s t i c a t e d than t h o s e now found i n t h e s m a l l e r v i l l a g e s of r u r a l Turkey. To produce f i n e r f l o u r , t h e g r i s t i s re-milled. ( i v ) F l o u r s i f t i n g f u n elemegi). The r e s u l t i n g f l o u r i s sieved - f i r s t l y t o remove s m a l l p i e c e s of g r i t which a r e sometimes shed by t h e m i l l s t o n e s , s e c o n d l y (and sometimes i n c i d e n t a l l y ) t o remove a l l t h e l a r g e r f l a k e s of bran. In p r e s e n t d a y Turkey, t h e f l o u r s i e v e s a r e woven from f i n e w i r e though t h e o l d e r v i l l a g e r s r e c a l l t h e use of s i e v e s of woven wool. For c l a s s i c a l t i m e s , P l i n y ( H i s t . Nut. x v i i i , 108) r e p o r t s t h a t " G a l l i c provinc e s invented a kind of b o l t e r ( c r i b r o r w n g e n e r a ) made of h o r s e h a i r " , t h a t i n Spain t h e y "made s i e v e s and meal s i f t e r s of f l a x " , and i n Egypt of "papyrus and r u s h " . Moritz 1958 concludes t h a t two d i f f e r e n t g r a d e s of f l o u r s i e v e were used i n sequence : t h e c r i b r w n p o l z i n a r i u m and t h e c r i b r w n excussariwn. (Within t h i s l a s t grade he i n c l u d e s t h e c r i b r w n farinoswn.) Both g r a d e s were made of l i n e n , which i n n o v a t i o n P l i n y a t t r i b u t e s t o Spain. P o l l u x a p p a r e n t l y s u g g e s t s t h a t e f f e c t i v e s i e v i n g of f l o u r i n c l a s s i c a l t i m e s f i r s t became p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e replacement of reed s i e v e s by s i e v e s woven from l i n e n , though Moritz 1958 s u g g e s t s t h a t the f i n e s t s i e v e ( t h e name of which, he n o t e s , r a r e l y a p p e a r s i n e a r l y t e x t s ) was probably used o n l y i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d urban c o n t e x t s .

lli1lman

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

It must be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e modem o b s e s s i o n w i t h " p u r e " , chalkd u l t e r a t e d , white bread b e r e f t of t h e f i b r e n e c e s s a r y i n h e a l t h y d i e t was first adpoted by t h e s e l f - s t y l e d e l i t e of urban c e n t r e s of the Roman Empire. But from G a l e n ' s f r a n k commentary on t h e v i r t u e s of v i l l a g e b r e a d s of r u r a l Pamphylia and Thrace, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e maladies c o n d i t i o n e d by d i e t s of f i b r e l e s s pap were r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e towns.5 Those of us working i n r u r a l a r e a s of t h e Near E a s t can be g r a t e f u l t h a t t h e s t i l l e x t a n t fad k q u e a t h e d by t h e Roman f a s h i o n a b l e s h a s y e t t o b e g u i l e t h e p a l a t e s of t h e m a j o r i t y of Near E a s t e r n v i l l a g e r s .

(u) Leavening fmayatandzmna)

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t a n d a r d present-day p r a c t i c e of simply u s i n g soured dough r e t a i n e d from a few d a y s p r e v i o u s l y , P l i n y ( H i s t . Nut. x v i i i , 68-69 and 102-4) o u t l i n e s a number of o t h e r leavens used i n h i s d a y : a ) Foam from t h e v a t s i n which g r a i n was being ateeped i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r m a l t i n g ; b) m i l l e t dipped i n unfermented wine c ) c a k e s of wheat bran a g a i n ( a v a i l a b l e o n l y d u r i n g wine-making s e a s o n ) ; d ) b a r l e y leaven which soured q u i c k l y dipped i n unfermented white wine; onough n o t t o need d i p p i n g i n wine; e ) f l o u r ( ? s o u r e d ) of b i t t e r v e t c h o r chick-peas ( c i c e r c u z a e ) used t o leaven b a r l e y bread; f ) wheat f l o u r b o i l e d down i n t o a p o r r i d g e and allowed t o go s o u r .

( v i ) Bread baking fekmezin p i p i r m e g i ) Many ( b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t a l l ) of t h e b a s i c systems of bread baking used i n P a l e s t i n e a r e c o n v e n i e n t l y summarised md c l a s s i f i e d by A v i t s u r 1977. More e x t e n s i v e d e t a i l s of s p e c i f i c forms of baking and t h e equipment used a r e published -- f o r Turkey by Oral 1956 and 1957, Ongan 1958, Kogay & ~ l k i i c a n 1961, and Giikoglu 1966; for P a l e s t i n e by Wilson 1906, Dalman 1928-39, v o l s . 2 and 7; f o r some of t h e Dedouin by Musil 1928a & b; f o r some Kurdish f a m i l i e s by Hansen 1961; f o r the 2-layered f l a t bread of n o r t h S y r i a , Williams & E l Haramein 1982; and for t h e Near E a s t i n g e n e r a l , Lerche 1980?. A u s e f u l summary of t h e prep a r a t i o n of unleavened bread i n t h e Near E a s t , Europe and elsewhere i s a l s o given i n Maurizio 1916. For evidence of t h e use i n Mesopotamia a l r e a d y by the 3rd millennium B.C. of a range of t h e baking systems d e s c r i b e d by t h e above a u t h o r s , see Crawford 1981. o) Sprouted g r a i n ( m a l t ) p r o d u c t s . These can be e i t h e r r o a s t e d o r a i r - d r i e d p r i o r t o p r e p a r a t i o n a s soup, p o r r i d g e , bread o r a s t h e base f o r f e r m e n t a t i o n i n b e e r p r o d u c t i o n , e t c . (see P o s t g a t e 1984, 106).

11: FOODS FROM BARLEY

In t h e Near E a s t , most of t h e b a r l e y i s today grown a s f o d d e r , p r i m a r i l y f o r sheep and g o a t s . (Of t h e g r a i n f e e d s , c a t t l e respond b e t t e r t o t h e p u l s e s s u c h a s b i t t e r v e t c h ( V i c i a e r v i ' l i a ) , common v e t c h ( V i c i a s a t i v a ) and cow ve t c h l i n g ( L a t h y r u s s a t i v u s ) ) N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n Turkey, a t l e a s t , b a r l e y i s s t i l l used i n s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s a s a t h i c k e n e r f o r soups and i n kavurmag

.

.

Hillman

Free-thre shing c e r e a l s Free-thre shing c e r e a l s

As s t r e s s e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n above, t h e 6-rowed naked b a r l e y s grown i n t h e Near E a s t d u r i n g t h e n e o l i t h i c have l o n g s i n c e been r e p l a c e d by t h e However, b e f o r e t h e s e h u l l e d h u l l e d e q u i v a l e n t s - b o t h 6- and 2-rowed. b a r l e y s are p r e p a r e d as f o o d , t h e y have a t l e a s t t o be hummelled ( u n l e s s t h e y a r e o f t h e rare, a w n l e s s t r i f u r c a t w n v a r i e t i e s ) a b u t are g e n e r a l l y ( b u t n o t always) dehulled a s w e l l . ( D e h u l l i n g o b v i a t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of p r i o r hummelling).

Hummezling i s t h e removal of t h e b a s a l b i t of t h e awn, g e n e r a l l y complete w i t h t h e t o p of t h e l e m m a . It i s o f t e n a p p l i e d t o b a r l e y i n t e n d e d a s a n i m a l f o o d , as w e l l as t o g r a i n i n t e n d e d as food f o r humans. Most of t h e d a n g e r o u s l y r o b u s t awn of e a c h g r a i n w i l l have been broken o f f and fragmented d u r i n g t h r e s h i n g , b u t t h i s l e a v e s t h e l o w e s t m i l l i m e t r e o r two p r o t r u d i n g from t h e g r a i n apex. T h i s p r o t r u d i n g awn base would be d a n g e r o u s i f i n g e s t e d , a s , p r e s e n t e d as a broken e n d , i t i s w e l l a b l e t o p e n e t r a t e t h e f l e s h , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e most common v a r i e t i e s o f 6-rowed b a r l e y which have p a r t i c u l a r l y r i g i d awns. Hummelling i s g e n e r a l l y done w i t h a m o r t a r and p e s t l e ( o r m a l l e t ) o r , i n t h e NW European t r a d i t i o n , w i t h a "hummeller" c o n s i s t i n g of a rod w i t h , a t t a c h e d t o i t , a t r a n s v e r s e p l a t e composed of a chequerboard of v e r t i c a l " b l a d e s " o f wood o r i r o n . The g r a i n i s poured i n t o a f l a t - b o t t o m e d t r o u g h and stamped w i t h t h e hummeller. No d o u b t many o t h e r d e v i c e s can be (and have b e e n ) used t o a c h i e v e t h e same e n d . Once removed, t h e awn b a s e s ( g e n e r a l l y w i t h a p i e c e of lemma a t t a c h e d ) a r e e l i m i n a t e d from t h e g r a i n by winnowing and / o r s i f t i n g

.

I

The use of m a l l e t s and m o r t a r s t o d e - h u l l

barley i s clearly not k a t r i c t e d t o Turkey. Under t h e name of "knocking s t o n e s " , b r o a d - r i m e d #Cane m o r t a r s and wooden m a l l e t s have i n r e c e n t t i m e s been used t o d e h u s k b e l e y a s f a r a f i e l d a s Orkney and S h e t l a n d (Fenton 1 9 7 8 ) , and Maurizio i t 2 7 r e c o r d s s i m i l a r p r a c t i c e s i n c e n t r a l and east Europe. On t h e o t h e r b d , Axel S t e e n s b e r g , d r a w i n g on h i s r i c h memories of l i f e on h i s f a m i l y ' s gatm and l a t e r a s a farm-hand i n Zealand, r e p o r t s t h e f o l l o w i n g : "My t@therd i d n o t have a m o r t a r and pestle; i n f a c t , t h e s e t o o l s were unknown h Denmark f o r t h e p r o c e s s i n g o f b a r l e y (de-husking). He used t h e f l a i l upon t h e b a r l e y u n t i l t h e h u s k s were o f f . It r e q u i r e d some time and Ntience. But i n w i n t e r he had time enough." ( S t e e n s b e r g , p e r s . comm. 1984). [ I am g r a t e f u l t o Axel S t e e n s b e r g a ) f o r s o g e n e r o u s l y making t h i s md s o much o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o me, and b ) f o r k i n d l y g i v i n g pIrmissionforme toquote fromhisletters.] Onceremoved ( b y w h a t e v e r I f barley ayrtem) t h e h u l l s are e l i m i n a t e d by winnowing a n d / o r s i f t i n g . # r a i n i s t o be d e - h u l l e d , i t w i l l n o t g e n e r a l l y be hummelled.

p) Roasted b a r l e y This sometimes forms a component of kavurma'g' ( s e e above, p. 10 under a ) ) b u t 1, today r a r e l y e a t e n on i t s own. The h u l l s are n o t removed p r i o r t o roasting. P l i n y ( H i s t . N a t . x v i i i , 74) n o t e s t h a t the " I t a l i a n s bake i t ( b a r l e y ] w i t h o u t s t e e p i n g i t i n water" which may p e r h a p s a l s o r e f e r t o some r o r t of b a r l e y kavurma'g'. He a l s o r e f e r s ( x v i i i , 73) t o r o a s t e d b a r l e y being m i l l e d and used t o m a k e p o r r i d g e .

q ) Barley porridge

De-huzzhg ( t o remove lemmas and p a l e a s , which, i n t h e h u l l e d b a r l e y s , are f u s e d t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e g r a i n ) . B a r l e y d o e s n o t have t o be d e - h u l l e d i f t h e g r a i n i s e a t e n i n r o a s t e d form o r as raw, c r u s h e d ( " r o l l e d " ) g r a i n s mixed w i t h , s a y , m i l k i n t h e form of a m u e s l i o r cooked as p o r r i d g e ( s e e p. 4 above). For most o t h e r c l a s s e s of f o o d , however, t h e h u l l s a r e g e n e r a l l y s t r i p p e d o f f and t h e r e s u l t i n g "pearl b a r l e y " used i n s t e a d . That e a r l i e r p o p u l a t i o n s a l s o p r e f e r r e d t h e i r b a r l e y t o be peeled i s i m p l i e d i n P l i n y ' s and i t a p p e a r s t h a t p o t t a g e [from comment ( H i s t . N a t . x v i i i , 8 4 ) E m e r ] was as much unknown t o Greece a s p e a r l [ = p e e l e d ] b a r l e y w a s t o Rome". The i m p l i c a t i o n i s r e i n f o r c e d f o r n e a r b y P h r y g i a by t h e r e c o v e r y of a p o t o f b a r l e y p e e l i n g s from one of G o r d i o n ' s p a l a c e - q u a r t e r megara i n which s e v e r a l s t e p s o f g r a i n - p r o c e s s i n g a p p e a r t o have been i n p r o g r e s s when t h e c i t y was a t t a c k e d and burned i n t h e e a r l y 7 t h c e n t u r y B.C. ( H i l l m a n , unpub.).

"...

The methods of b a r l e y p e a r l i n g i n p r e s e n t - d a y h a t o l i a are p r e c i s e l y t h e same as t h o s e a p p l i e d i n removing t h e bran from p a r - b o i l e d wheat g r a i n i n t h e t h i r d s t e p of b u t g u r p r o d u c t i o n ( s e e s t e p 4 3 i n P a r t I ) , namely, t h e y u s e e i t h e r t h e heavy s e t e n o r e l s e a d i b e k ( m o r t a r ) t o g e t h e r w i t h With b a r l e y p e e l i n g , however, t h e g r a i n d o e s e i t h e r mallets o r pestles. n o t have t o be b o i l e d and d r i e d b e f o r e h a n d , though my i n f o r m a n t s ( e .g. a t Mecitijzii kijyii) were c a r e f u l t o stress t h e i m p o r t a n c e of a ) t h e b a r l e y g r a i n b e i n g p r o p e r l y r i p e n e d and d r i e d , b l s p r i n k l i n g t h e g r a i n w i t h w a t e r immed i a t e l y p r i o r t o pounding i t i n t h e d i b e k o r r a s p i n g i t i n t h e s e t e n . However, p r i o r p a r c h i n g a l s o h e l p s , a p o i n t a l s o n o t e d by Hopf 1962. 20 -

-

Today p e a r l ( i . e . p e e l e d ) b a r l e y i s o f t e n m i l l e d , crushed and e a t e n as p o r r i d g e , and t h e p r a c t i c e c l e a r l y h a s r e s p e c t a b l e a n c e s t r y , Pliny (Hist. Nat. x v i i i , 7 2 ) c l a i m s t h a t " t h e Greeks p r e f e r i t t o any o t h e r g r a i n f o r p o r r i d g e " and t h a t t h e y added t o i t " l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of r o a s t e d l i n s e e d l a l a x a t i v e ] and c o r i a n d e r " [an a n t i - f l a t u l a n t ] Perhaps t h e l a r g e - s c a l e import of c o r i a n d e r d i s t r i b u t e d i n minimum u n i t s of 17 l i t r e s by t h e Mycenaeans r e p r e s e n t s an e a r l i e r example of t h e same b a r l e y - e a t i n g t r a d i t i o n ( s e e Chadwick 1976 f o r h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e L i n e a r B t a b l e t s concerned). For C l a s s i c a l G r e e c e , M o r i t z 1958 c o n c l u d e s t h a t b a r l e y p o l e n t a ( p o r r i d g e o r g r u e l ) was prepared d i r e c t from t h e unmilled g r a i n , but whether t h e ' m i l l i n g ' can be t a k e n t o imply d e h u s k i n g i s n o t c l e a r . P l i n y ( x v i i i , 71) n o t e s i t s consumption i n I n d i a a s w e l l .

.

r) "Kneaded t h i n g s " (Greek &a) M o r i t z 1958, 149-50 a l s o d i s c u s s e s t h e Greek use of b a r l e y t o produce "kneaded t h i n g s " which, i n t r i g u i n g l y , were n o t baked. He n o t e s t h a t " t h e 'kneaded t h i n g s ' (mzza) were t h e e v e r y d a y food of t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e Greek p o p u l a t i o n , f o r a s l o n g a s b a r l e y r e t a i n e d i t s importance". Sumer l i k e w i s e seems t o have consumed l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of b a r l e y , and i t i s c l e a r l y o f i n t e r e s t t o know i f e q u i v a l e n t p r o d u c t s e v e r formed p a r t of t h e i r regular d i e t .

Hillman

s ) B a r l e y d u m p l i n g s (stewed dough) I t seems t h a t f l o u r of a n y c e r e a l i n c l u d e d ( s e e p r o d u c t j) a b o v e ) .

Free-thre shing c e r e a l s

ll I l 1 man

Free-thre shing c e r e a l s

CONCLUDING COMMENTS: A NOTE OF CAUTION can

be

eaten

as d u m p l i n g s ,

barley

t ) B a r l e y bread (Tur. arpa ekmezi) B a r l e y bread i s s t i l l w i d e l y e a t e n , though i t a p p e a r s r a r e l y t o have r i v a l l e d wheaten bread i n p o p u l a r i t y . For r e c e n t p a t t e r n s of consumption and modes of p r e p a r a t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y i n c e n t r a l and E a s t Europe) s e e M a u r i z i o 1916 and 1927. P l i n y ( x v i i i , 71) a g a i n n o t e s i t s consumption i n I n d i a ; b u t f o r a r e a s n e a r e r home s t a t e s ( 7 4 ) t h a t " b a r l e y bread w a s much used i n e a r l i e r d a y s , b u t h a s been condemned by e x p e r i e n c e and i s now f e d t o a n i m a l s " . He l a t e r a d d s ( 1 0 3 ) t h a t b a r l e y bread was leavened by t h e use of t h e [ f e r m e n t e d ? ] f l o u r of Vicia ervilia ( b i t t e r v e t c h ) and C i c e r arietinwn ( c h i c k - p e a ) . That b a r l e y bread was r e g u l a r b a s i c f a r e i n P a l e s t i n e a t t h e time of J e s u s i s s u g g e s t e d by S t . John t h e E v a n g e l i s t ' s r e c o r d of t h e m i r a c u l o u s f e e d i n g of t h e f i v e thousand (John 6 , 91, and i t s more a n c i e n t use i s i n d i c a t e d i n E z e k i e l 4 , 12.

u ) Foods from t h e m i l l e t s The m i l l e t s s h o u l d , p e r h a p s have been i n c l u d e d i n t h e same s e c t i o n as t h e glume-wheats. Like t h e glume-wheats a l t h e g r a i n c a n n o t be p r e p a r e d f o r b) t h e husks comprise b o t h glumes and food u n t i l t h e husks a r e removed, lemmas. ( F o r d e t a i l s of t h e de-husking of m i l l e t g r a i n w i t h m o r t a r s , wooden hand-mills and f o o t p e s t l e s , s e e Gunda 1983, 150 & 160-162.) N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t must be s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e y a r e q u i t e u n r e l a t e d : the m i l l e t s belong t o an e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e sub-family ( t h e P a n i c o i d e a e ) of t h e g r a s s mega-f a m i l y ( t h e Gramineae o r Poaceae)

.

I n p r e s e n t - d a y Turkey, m i l l e t s a r e , t o my knowledge, grown p r i m a r i l y ( i ) a s a n i m a l f e e d , t i i ) A; t h e s o u r c e of t h e d e l i c i o u s , m i l d l y fermented d r i n k c a l l e d boza. T h i s d r i n k i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by i t s t h i c k t e x t u r e and e f f e r v e s c e n t t a s t e , and i s g e n e r a l l y s o l d i n w i n t e r - t i m e However, P r o f . David O a t e s r e c a l l s t h a t i n t h e Cukurova of S. Turkey ( C i l i c i a ) , he was t o l d t h a t cracked m i l l e t was used t o make t h e b e s t q u a l i t y of b u l g u r ( p e r s . comm. t o t h e e d i t o r , t o whom I am g r a t e f u l f o r b r i n g i n g i t t o my n o t i c e ) . E l s e w h e r e , m i l l e t g r a i n i s ( o r was) used t o p r e p a r e many of t h e o t h e r f o o d s l i s t e d f o r wheat and b a r l e y , and f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r range and modes of p r e p a r a t i o n t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o M a u r i z i o 1927 and Gunda 1983. M i l l e t s a r e of a more t r o p i c a l o r i g i n t h a n o u r o t h e r Near E a s t e r n c e r e a l s , a r e a summer c r o p (sown and h a r v e s t e d w e l l a f t e r t h e o t h e r s ) , r e q u i r e e i t h e r i r r i g a t i o n o r h i g h w a t e r t a b l e , and a r e sown a t low d e n s i t y g e n e r a l l y by d i b b l i n g o r t r i c k l i n g ( s e e P a r t I , s t e p 7 ) . Regrettably, I have n e v e r observed t h e i r p r o c e s s i n g f o r human food and can o f f e r n o f i r s t hand i n f o r m a t i o n .

.

TI#* o u t l i n e of o p e r a t i o n s , t h e i r p r o d u c t s and t h e a s s o c i a t e d t o o l s g i v e n i n I'nrt I and i n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r i n e v i t a b l y r e p r e s e n t s a g r o s s s i m p l i f i c a I l o n of t h e broad s p e c t r u m of p r a c t i c a l r e a l i t i e s . For example, t h e r i c h ngriirian and c u l i n a r y t r a d i t i o n s of even a c o u n t r y a s d i v e r s e a s Turkey c q l C n r l y encompass o n l y a segment of t h e f u l l range o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s . (The gcbographic and temporal l i m i t s t o t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of Near E a s t e r n e t h n o a g r a r i a n models have been d i s c u s s e d e x h a u s t i v e l y e l s e w h e r e , e . g . i n Hillman 1981, 130-139; 1984a, 7-11). Even w i t h any one t r a d i t i o n , many a d a p t a t i o n s nrcn p o s s i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s h a s been s t r e s s e d by I'rof. Axel S t e e n s b e r g ( p e r s . comm. 1984) who g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g example I r o m h i s e a r l y f a r m i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n Denmark: " my f a t h e r d i d n o t r~lways use t h e same methods of [ c r o p ] p r o c e s s i n g s t r i c t l y i n e a c h c a s e . I t depended, of c o u r s e , v e r y much o n , f o r example, t h e c o n d i t i o n s of h a r vvsting [with r e s p e c t t o wetness] Even t h e t r e a t m e n t s i n t h e barn c.ould v a r y , a s w e l l a s t h e c l e a n i n g p r o c e s s e s . "

....

....

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e a r e e v e n t u a l l i m i t s on t h e range of e f f e c t i v e , conv v n i e n t ways of u n d e r t a k i n g any one t a s k u s i n g t r a d i t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g i e s , cBven i f t h e t o o l s used may l o o k v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s of t h e world. For example, throwing a m i x t u r e of s t r a w , c h a f f and g r a i n i n t o t h e r ~ l rmoved by a c r o s s - b r e e z e i s r e g a r d e d by a l m o s t a l l c u l t u r e s a s one of I 11e b e s t ways of s e p a r a t i n g t h e t h r e e components. But t h e t o o l s used t o propel the mixture i n t o the a i r o f t e n e x h i b i t s t r i k i n g v a r i a t i o n s i n e a c h r e g i o n . A s f o r t h e s e q u e n c e of t h e d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s , t h i s a p p e a r s more inviolate. For example, most of t h e s t r a w must be s e p a r a t e d from t h e g r a i n hefore t h e l a t t e r i s s i e v e d t o remove s m a l l - s i z e d c o n t a m i n a n t s , a s , o t h e r w i s e , t h e s t r a w would c l o g t h e s i e v e . So w i t h most of t h e r e s t of t h e sequences o u t l i n e d h e r e and i n P a r t I. And of c o u r s e , when a p p l y i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c a l l y based i n t e r p r e t i v e models i n t h e a n a l y s i s of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l / t e x t u a l d a t a , we d o a t l e a s t know t h a t t h e models r e p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s which a r e (and presumably were) a g r i c u l t u r a l l y f e a s i b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , we must n e v e r f o r g e t t h a t o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t i e s w i l l o f t e n have e x i s t e d f o r t h e p e o p l e s concerned

.

POSTSCRIPT: Additional references The f o l l o w i n g works came t o my n o t i c e t o o l a t e f o r t h e i r c o n t e n t s t o be a d e q u a t e l y c i t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t paper o r i n P a r t I. However, t h e y c l e a r l y d e s e r v e t o be b e t t e r known amongst t h o s e involved i n s t u d i e s of e a r l y a g r i culture: S i g a u t 1977; Lerche & S t e e n s b e r g 1983; Gunda 1983; S i g a u t , i n p r e s s ; and t h e c o l l e c t i o n of p a p e r s i n t h e volume L e s Hommes e t L e u r S o l s ( s e e under S i g a u t 1977). Each work h a s an e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y . The r e a d e r s h i p of t h e B u l l e t i n i n c l u d e s a r c h a e o l o g i s t s concerned w i t h r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a s t p a t t e r n s of a g r a r i a n l i f e from e x c a v a t e d r e m a i n s , and i t i s t h e r e f o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f i n a l l y t o c i t e a new and e x c i t i n g s t u d y which a d d r e s s e s t h i s o b j e c t i v e i n a way which p a r a l l e l s and e x t e n d s t h a t developed by a r c h a e o b o t a n i s t s f o r a ) i n t e r p r e t i n g c h a r r e d remains of c r o p s and weeds i n terms of a n c i e n t a g r a r i a n p r a c t i c e , and b ) i d e n t i f y i n g p a s t func-

Free-threshing Hillman

cereals

Free-thre s h i n g c e r e a l s

NOTES t i o n s of excavated s t r u c t u r e s . 6 I n h e r ' A g r i c u l t u r a l equipment and a g r a r i a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ' , t h e e t h n o a r c h a e o l o g i s t Valen t i n Roux ( i n p r e s s ) h a s e x p l o r e d ( i n present-day v i l l a g e s ) t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between - on t h e one hand - v a r i o u s components of a g r a r i a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , and - on t h e o t h e r hand - t h e t y p e s and abundance of a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s , and t h e i r patt e r n s of d i s t r i b u t i o n r e l a t i v e t o v i l l a g e s t r u c t u r e s of known f u n c t i o n . Her o b j e c t i v e i n d e v e l o p i n g h e r e t h n o - a g r a r i a n model i s t h u s t o provide a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w i t h t h e means of i n t e r p r e t i n g remains of t o o l assemblages (and t h e a s s o c i a t e d s t r u c t u r e s ) i n terms of p a s t p a t t e r n s of a g r a r i a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . The recovery of i n f o r m a t i o n on a g r a r i a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e i s one of t h e concerns of the Sumerian A g r i c u l t u r e Group, and Roux's work t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s y e t a n o t h e r a r e a of s t u d y w i t h which t h e Group must attempt t o maintain contact.

I. There a r e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e of h u l l e d g r a i n t o These e x c e p t i o n s involve the many c r o p s of 6-rowed transport losses. b a r l e y which, f o l l o w i n g i n t r o g r e s s i o n of ' b r i t t l e - r a c h i s genes ' from neighbouring p o p u l a t i o n s of wild b a r l e y , produce e a r s which p a r t l y o r wholly #hatter a t maturity. T h i s phenomenon can be encountered i n many p a r t s of the Near E a s t today and was d o u b t l e s s even more common i n t h e p a s t - when wild b a r l e y was c e r t a i n l y more abundant than i t i s today. 2. I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t , i n the p a s t , g r a i n may a l s o have been regul a r l y r e t r i e v e d from t h e n e s t s of r o d e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n the Near E a s t where r o d e n t numbers and d i v e r s i t y a r e g r e a t e r than i n Europe. Peter In D. C h a n d l e r ' s Rowley-Conwy k i n d l y brought t h e f o l l o w i n g t o my n o t i c e : Marlborough as a m i l i t a r y commander (London: B a t s f o r d , 1973), 282, Col. Sterne i s a p p a r e n t l y quoted a s r e p o r t i n g t h a t "During the s i e g e of Aire ( F r a n c e ] , p r o v i s i o n s were v e r y s c a r c e ; but one t h i n g gave the s o l d i e r s r e l i e f and i t i s almost i n c r e d i b l e - and i t was the hoards of corn which the mice l a i d up i n t h e s t o r e h o u s e s i n the e a r t h , which our men found, and came home d a i l y loaded w i t h corn which they g o t o u t of t h e s e hoards".

3. A sa9 i s a concave s h e e t of m e t a l , g e n e r a l l y 50-60 cm. a c r o s s and, w i t h the convex s i d e up, used f o r baking two of the major t y p e s of f l a t bread.

4.

The word a p u r e d e r i v e s from the Arabic 'a's'urah, which r e f e r s f i r s t t o the f e a s t on t h e 1 0 t h d a y of Muharram, and then t o a d i s h t r a d i t i o n a l l y e a t e n then. In Egypt t h i s d i s h i s made of r i c e , milk and duck ( s e e M. Hinds & S. Badawi, D i c t i o n a r y of Egyptian A r a b i c , forthcoming, s .v. ) , but the word a l s o r e f e r s t o a "sweet pudding based on whole wheat". Similar d i s h e s a r e found a s f u n e r a r y food i n modern Greece, and i n modem I r a q t h e d i s h 'a's'uriyah i s composed of a mixture i n c l u d i n g wheat, b a r l e y , l e n t i l s , green gram, o a t s ( h u r t m a n ) , d r i e d kidney beans, cow pea ( l u b y e ) and r i c e (Sabah A. J a s i m , p e r s . comm.) [Ed . I .

5. I am indebted t o D r . Stephen M i t c h e l l f o r t r a n s l a t i n g the passages of Galen from the o r i g i n a l Greek.

relevant

6 . For the a r c h a e o b o t a n i c a l methodology, s e e Hillman 1973b, 1981 & 1984a; Jones 1981 & 1984; and, f o r some complicating f a c t o r s , Bottema 1984 and M i l l e r 1984.

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cereals

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Anadolu yemekleri ve Tiirk. mutfa'g'z. Turkish kitchen; i n Turkish).

L e r c h e , G. 1980(?)

( = A n a t o l i a n f o o d s and t h e Ankara.

"Khubz Tannur: F r e s h l y consumed f l a t bread i n t h e Near E a s t " i n A. Fenton & T.M. Owen (ed s .), Food i n ~ e r s p e c t i v e( p r o c e e d i n g s of t h e 3rd I n t . Conf. on E t h n o l o g i c a l Food Research. C a r d i f f , Wales; 1977). Edinburgh: John Donald.

L e r c h e , G. & S t e e n s b e r g , A. 1983 "Tools and t i l l a g e i n I r a n . O b s e r v a t i o n s made i n 1965 i n t h e p r o v i n c e of Kermgn", Tools and Tillage 4 ( 4 ) , 217-248.

des

Pf liiges

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Miinster:

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Verbreitung

111, 3.

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study",

Z e i t s c h r i f t fiir Archiiologie 15, 105-112.

und

"An FmBir: a s t r a w rope g r a n a r y " , Gwerin 1 ( I ) , 2-20. ( I am g r a t e f u l t o D r . M. Monk, U n i v e r s i t y of Cork, Eire, f o r b r i n g i n g t h i s t o my n o t i c e .)

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Anthropos-Bibliothek,

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" P o s t - h a r v e s t p r o c e s s i n g of w i n t e r c r o p s i n NW S y r i a " ICARDA ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e f o r A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h i n Dry A r e a s ) Discussion Document No. 4 . Aleppo. Pp. 18.

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H i i t t e r o t h , W.-D. 1959 Bergnomaden und Yaylabauern i m m i t t l e r e n kurdischen Taurus. (Marburg Geographische S c h r i f t e n , 11; S e l b s t v e r l a g d e s Geog. I n s t . d e r k i v . Marburg). Note: v e r y e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y on t r an shuman c e

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Hillman

Mercer, R. 1981

" V e r a r b e i t u n g d e s G e t r e i d e s zu Fladen s e i t den u r g e s c h i c h t l i c h e n Z e i t e n " , Anz. Schweis. AZtertumskunde 1 8 , 1-30.

Die Geschichte unserer Pflanzennahrung von den Urzeiten b i s zur Gegenwart. B e r l i n : Parey. (ed .)

Farming practice i n B r i t i s h prehistory.

Ed i n b u r g h U n i v e r s i t y

Press. Miller, N. 1984

"The

interpretation

of

some

carbonized

cereal

remains",

B u l l e t i n on Sumerian Agriculture 1, 45-47. M o r i t z , L.A. 1955

"

Husked

'

and

'naked

'

grain"

CZassicaZ Quarterly, New Series,

and "Corn", both i n 5 (=Vol. 4 9 ) , 129-134

The and

135-141. 1958

Grain m i l l s and flour i n classicai! a n t i q u i t y .

Oxf ord Uni-

v e r s i t y Press. Musil, A. 1928a

1928b

Palmyrena:

a topographic i t i n e r a r y . New York: American Geographical Society. ( D e a l s w i t h t h e R w a l a , 'Umur, Fwa're, Bani Khalid , Mwali, S b a ' a and Had i d i y i n Bedouin .)

The manners and customs o f the Rwala Bedouins.

.

New York:

"Nigde'de ekmek ve klgekmegi 'winter-bread ' i n d u s t r i e s i n ~thno'g'rafyaDergisi 3 , 67-77.

f a a l i y e t l e r i " (="Bread and Nigde"; i n T u r k i s h ) , Tiirk

American G e o g r a p h i c a l S o c i e t y

Ongan, H. 1958

Hillman

O r a l , Z. 1956-57

Free-threshing

" S e l ~ u k Devri

yemekleri

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Ethnozrafya Dergisi 1 , 73-76; P i n t e ' r , S. 1909

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&

11,

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"Cereals cultivated i n ancient Iraq", Agriculture 1 , 32-44.

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S i g a u t , F. 1977

"Agricultural equipment and ( p l a c e o f p u b l i c a t i o n unknown).

agrarian

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T u s s a r , T. c. 1523 e t c .

structure"

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Republished 1984 by

Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . T y l e r , C. 1962

Organic chemistry for students of agriculture. London: A l l e n and Unwin.

Van Z e i s t , W. & C a s p a r i e , W.C. ( e d s . ) Plants and Ancient 1984 Rotterdam: Balkema. Veenhof, K.R. forthcoming

"Modern a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g y i n Agvan", 23, 277-279.

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" T a r i m s a l Teknoloj i", i n D.H. French e t a l . , "Agvan K a z l l a r l 1971N, O D T ~ ~ Keban Projesi Yayznlarz: Seri 1, 4: 1971 gatzqmatarz (=METU Keban P r o j e c t P u b l i c a t i o n s : 1971 a c t i v i t i e s , s e r i e s 1 No. 4 ) . Ankara: TBrk T a r i h Kurumu Baslmevi.

Man:

studies

Williams, P.C. forthcoming ( A r t i c l e on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n S y r i a ) , i n a f o r t h c o m i n g i s s u e of Rachis.

of

Frikke

in

NW

oven a t ICARDA",

in

Rachis: Barley, Wheat and Triticale Newsletter 1 , 16-18.

"Quelques n o t i o n s d e b a s e e n matie're d e t r a v a i l d u s o l d a n s i n Les Hommes et l e s anciennes a g r i c u l t u r e s euro+ennes",

Five hundred points of good husbandry.

Anatolian Studies

1973

Williams, P.C. & El-Haramein, F. J a b y 1982 "The b u i l d i n g of a Khobz f u r n a c e - t y p e

Zeurs Sols: Les techniques de prSparation du champ dans Ze fonctionnement et dans Z'histoire des systBmes de culture (=Journal d'Agriculture Traditionnelle et de Botanique AppZiquSe, 24) 140-170. 1978

Free-threshing c e r e a l s

W l 1 1 iams, D.E. 1972 "Agricultural technology" (under "Recent. archaeological r e s e a r c h i n T u r k e y " ) , AnatoZian Studies 22, 19-20.

( a s c i t e d by Gunda 1983).

Reynolds, P.J. "Deadstock and l i v e s t o c k " , i n Mercer 1981, 97-122. 1981 ROUX, V. i n press

III l lman

Nsprajzi Muzeum ~rtesitb'je(Buda-

P o s t g a t e , J.N. 1984 " P r o c e s s i n g of c e r e a l s i n t h e c u n e i f o r m r e c o r d " , Sumerian Agriculture 1 , 103-113. Renfrew, J.M. 1984

cereals

in palaeoethnobotany.

" s a g . i l . l a = saggilz, " d i f f e r e n c e a s s e s s e d " . On measuring and a c c o u n t i n g i n some Old Babylonian t e x t s " ( i n p r e s s ) .

PULSES AND OIL CROP PLANTS W . van Zeist

(Groningen)

In continuation of the lists of cereal crop plants published in a previous issue of this bulletin, leguminous crop plants and plants grown because of the oleaginous seeds are treated in the present paper. The information is again presented in a very concise manner, viz. in tabular form. For further particulars the reader is referred to the literature cited below. It should be emphasized that not all the species listed in the tables have been demonstrated for Near Eastern archaeological sites. The discrepancy between the archaeobotanical and linguistic evidence for the use of resame in ancient times is one of the problems we are left with. The absence of opium poppy in the Near Eastern archaeobotanical record is another curious fact.

Cicer arietinwn

TrigoneZZa foenwn-graecum Chick-pea

Fenugreek

In addition to Table 1 the following should be mentioned. A number of beans not listed in this table are reported for early historical India (150 B.C. - A.D. 200): pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.)Millsp.), black gram ( Vigna mungo (L. )Hepper , syn. Phaseotus mungo L. ) , green gram (Vigna radiata (L.)Wilczek, syn. PhaseoZus aureus Roxb.) and hyacinth bean (Labtab purpureus (L.)Sweet, syn. DoZichos ZabZab L.). Various leguminous species are at present grown as green fodder, e.g. black medic (Medicago ZupuZina L.), white melilot (MeZiZotus aZbus Medik.), field melilot (MeZiZotus officinaZis Lam.), red clover (Trifozium pratense L.) and white clover ( TrifoZiwn repens L )

..

linseed

sesame

5 mm

0

Lens escuzenta

5m r

Fig. 1 Lentil

Pulses & oil crop plants

van Zeist

vm Zeist

Pulses & oil crop plants

TABLE 1 : PULSES LITERATURE CONSULTED Ben-Ze'ev, N. & Zohary, D. "Species relationships in the genus Pisum L.", Israel Journal 1973 of Botany 22, 73-91. Duke, J.A. 1981

andb book of Legumes of World Economic Importance.

Mansfeld, R. 1959

Crops and Man.

English, German, French, Arabic I

ouZinaris Medik. (-Lens escutenta Moench

Plenum

Press, New ~ork-andLondon. Harlan, J.R. 1975

bt!n name

t o p . microsperma Barul. t o p . macrospewna Barul.

I

lentil Linse lentille 'adas small-seeded lentil large-seeded lentil

American Society of Agronomy, Madison.

Vorliiufiges verzeichnis landwirtschaftlich oder giErtnt7risch kultivierter Pflanzenarten. Akademie Verlag, Berlin.

Purseglove, J.W. 1977 Tropical Crops, Dicoty Zedons third impression).

.

Longman, London (reprinted

Now sativum L. t o p . hortense Aschers.et

Graebn.

Renfrew, J.M. 1973 Palaeoethnobotany.

East and Europe.

The prehistoric food plants of the Near

t o p . arvense (L.)Poir.

Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.

garden pea Saaterbse pois rond field pea Felderbse pois gris bazille

Schultze-Motel, J. 1979 "Die

urgeschichtlichen Reste des Schlafmohns (Papaver somniferum L.) und die Entstehung der Art", KulturpfZanze 27,

207-215. Zeven, A.C. & Zhukovsky, P.H. 1975 Dictionary of cultivated plants diversity. ~udoc,Wageningen. Zohary, D. 1972

"The wild cultivated 326-332.

and

their

centres

progenitor and the place of origin of lentil: Lens cutinaris", Economic Botany

Distribution, origin and other particulars Lentil is cultivated in most subtropical and warm temperate regions of the world. Smallseeded lentil (3-6 mm) was widely cultivated in ancient times; it formed part of the crop-plant assortment of the earliest farmers. The largeseeded subspecies (6-9 mm) is not known from archaeological sites. Lens orientalis (Boiss.) Hand.-Mazz., with a Near Eastern distribution, is at present regarded as the wild ancestor of domestic lentil. Size of orientatis lentils: 2.5-3.0 mm. The only distinction between wild and domestic lentil in archaeological sites is the size of the seeds. If the seeds are all less than 3 mm in diameter, it is likely that the wild lentil is represented. Garden pea has white flowers and green to yellow spherical seeds. Field pea has pink or purple flowers; the seeds are globose or angular with one or two flat faces, brownish to grey in colour, often mottled. Peas are widely grown in regions with a cool and relatively humid climate. They were among the crop plants of the early Neolithic farmers in the Near East. In archaeological finds, spherical and angular forms occur Pisum humile Boiss. et Nos, with a together. Near Eastern distribution, is the probable wild ancestor of domestic pea. The latter has a smooth seed coat, whereas in wild pea the seed coat is rough. Unfortunately, in charred (archaeological) peas the seed coat is mostly no longer present.

of #@or arietinum L.

chick-pea, gram Kichererbse pois-chiche hummus

Chick-pea is widely cultivated in India, the Near East, the Mediterranean area and Ethiopia since antiquity. The species requires a cool and dry climate. Small numbers of chick-peas have been recovered on Near Eastern Neolithic sites: wild or cultivated? Certainly cultivated in Bronze Age times. The ancestry of domestic chick-pea is not yet known with certainty. Cicer reticulatum Ladizinsky, which is round in SE Turkey, is at present regarded as the wild progenitor.

Woia ervitia (L. )Willd. (-Ervum ervilia L.)

bitter vetch Linsenwicke ervilier kirsanna

At present grown only for stock feed. Archaeobotanical evidence suggests that in ancient times bitter vetch was also consumed by man. The seeds are toxic and should be soaked in water before cooking. In Vicia ervizia, wild forms, weedy races and cultivated varieties occur. Truly wild forms are known from Anatolia. Indications of the intentional growing of bitter vetch date back to the sixth millennium B.C.

the 26,

Zohary, D. & Hopf, M. 1973 "Domestication of Pulses in the Old World", Science 182, 887-894.

Pulses & oil crop plants

van Zeist

Van Zeist

TABLE 1 : PULSES ( c t d . )

English, German, French, Arabic

Latin name

v i c i a faba L. var. minor Beck var. equina Pers.

tick bean Kleine Ackerbohne feverole horse bean Pferdebohne ?

var

. major Harz.

broad bean Puffbohne feve

TABLE 2 : OIL CROPS

Distribution, origin and other particulars

Only small-seeded beans (var. minor) are known from prehistoric and early-historical sites. The culti.vation of V i c i a faba must have started in the fourth millennium B.C. It became an important crop plant (Celtic bean) in prehistoric Europe. In the Near East, its cultivation may have been confined to the Levant. The ancestry of Vicia faba is still somewhat problematical. Vicic narbonensis L. has long been considered the wild ancestor, but now Vicia gatitea F'litm. et Zoh., with a Near Eastern distribution, is proposed as the most likely candidate.

Latin name

English, German, French, Arabic

& m u m indicum L. (-!;esamum orientate L. )

sesame Sesam sesame simsim

Cultivated in Asia (particularly China and India) and NW Africa. Origin in doubt. Reported for Chalcolithic (2250-1750 B.C.) Harappa in Indus Sesamwn pollen has been extracted from valley. 7th mill. B.C. layers at Ali Kosh, in SW Iran. Sesame seeds have so far not been found in SW Asian archaeological sites. It is unlikely that they would have escaped attention; the seeds are large enough to be recovered, even with rather "primitive" sampling methods. Confusion with linseeds may be ruled out. Sesame seeds can easily be distinguished from linseeds (see Fig. 1).

linseed, flax Leinsamen 1in kittan

One of the most ancient crop-plant species. Cultivation dates back to the late 7th mill. B.C. Frequently reported from archaeological sites in the Near East and Europe. The wild ancestor, Linum bienne Mill. (Linwn angustifoliwn Huds.), has a Mediterranean - Near Eastern distribution. Modern fibre flax has been selected for long, unbranched stems (with few flowers); oil flax is rather much-branched, producing many flowers (and seeds).

opium POPPY Schlafmohn pavot noir

At present the main areas of cultivation are Papaver China, India, Turkey and the Balkans. setigerum DC., with a West-Mediterranean distribution, is the wild progenitor of Papaver somniferwn. Opium poppy seeds have been recovered from a great number of prehistoric sites in Europe, starting in the 5th mill. B.C. This crop plant has not (yet) been attested for Near Eastern archaeological sites.

rape Raps navette

At present an important oil plant, cultivated in temperate regions,particularly in Eurasia (India, China). Nothing is known about its possible cultivation in ancient times. Moreover, (charred) Brassica napus seeds may be difficult to distinguish from those of other Brassica and of Sinapis species. A few more Brassica species are grown Brassica oteracea L. for the oleaginous seeds. is the ancestor of all forms of cabbage. Turnip is also a Brassica species ( B . rapa L.). The seeds of Sinapis alba L. are the source of white mustard, those of Brassica nigra L. of black mustard

---

baqilla

Lathyrus sativus L.

grass-pea, chickling vetch Saat-Platterbse gesse cultivee hurtuman, julban

Cultivated in India and the Near East. The consumption of grass-pea seeds over a long period causes a paralytic disease known as "lathyri Seeds are not toxic if soaked in water for 24 hours before cooking. Lathyrus cicera L., wit1 a Mediterranean-Near Eastern distribution, is regarded as the wild ancestor of domestic grassArchaeobotanical evidence for the cultivapea. tion of Lathyrus sativus dates back to the end of the third millennium B.C.

Lupinus albus L.

white lupin Weisse Lupine lupin blanc

Cultivated around the Mediterranean, particularly as animal fodder. Fresh seeds are poisonous to man, but boiling in water removes the bitter a1 kaloids. Of Near Eastern - SE European origin. No archaeobotanical evidence of lupin cultivation in the ancient Near East.

fenugreek Bockshornklee fenugrec hulba

This leguminous species is cultivated as a condiment crop. The seeds contain coumarin. No records of fenugreek from Near Eastern sites.

Vicia sativa L .

common vetch Futterwicke vesce commun dharrat

Cultivated as animal fodder. Vicia seeds are reportc?d from various archaeological sites in Sh Only if the hilum (the scar of Asia and Europe. attac:hment of the seed) has been preserved, can vic&z sativa seeds be distinguished from other large-sized vetch seeds.

Medicago sativa L.

alfalfa, lucerne Luzerne sainfoin jatt

Medicago seeds have been Grown for stock feed. recovered from Near Eastern sites, but a species determination of the archaeological plant remains is still problematical.

Pulses & oil crop plants

-

Distribution, origin and other particulars

.-

1,lnurn usitatissimwn L.

.

I

Pulses & o i l crop plants

van Z e i s t

TABLE 2 : OIL CROPS (ctd,) AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LEGUMES AND OIL PLANTS OF MESOPOTAMIA Latin name

English, German, French, Arabic

Distribution, origin and other particulars

Carthamus tinctorius L.

safflower Saflor saf ran b3tard qurtum

The dried florets were the source of the red dye, safflower carmin. It is now grown mainly as an oil-seed crop. Occasional finds of carthamus fruits in Near Eastern archaeological sites are not yet proof of the cultivation of safflower.

Cannabis sativa L.

hemp Hanf chanvre qunnab

The plant provides fibre from the stems, oil from the seeds and narcotics from the leaves and flowers (of the female plants). Cannabis sativa is a native of Central Asia and is said to be of very ancient cultivation in Asia and Europe. Archaeobotanical evidence of Cannabis in Europe dates back to the last centuries B.C. and the species has not (yet) been recorded for the ancient Near East.

I 1 I

M.P,

Charles

(Institute of Archaeology, University of London)

QeneraZ introduction

In a t t e m p t i n g t o draw t o g e t h e r some b a s i c d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c r o p husbandry of t h e p u l s e s and o i l p l a n t s i n Mesopotamia ( I r a q and S y r i a ) , i t q u i c k l y became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e was i n s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e on such t o p i c s as sowing and h a r v e s t i n g f o r t h e a r e a . So i t was d e c i d e d t o include d a t a from o t h e r , b r o a d l y s i m i l a r , r e g i o n s t o produce a r e a s o n a b l y complete p i c t u r e . I n d i a , China and t h e Middle E a s t a r e t h e a r e a s most commonly c i t e d , a l t h o u g h i n a few c a s e s i t proved n e c e s s a r y t o use d a t a from the U.S.A., u s u a l l y C a l i f o r n i a , and i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e much h i g h e r , i n h a r v e s t y i e l d e s p e c i a l l y , t h a n would be e x p e c t e d f o r ksopotamia.

I

O f t h e s p e c i e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s u r v e y t h e r e a r e f i v e which a r e n o t believed t o have o r i g i n a t e d i n S.W. A s i a , b u t which I f e e l may have reached k s o p o t a m i a a t a f a i r l y e a r l y d a t e . These a r e : GZycine m a x (Soya b e a n ) , a n a t i v e of E. A s i a , Vigna unguicuZata (Cow p e a ) , t h o u g h t t o have o r i g i n a t e d i n A f r i c a b u t h a v i n g a l a r g e c e n t r e of d i v e r s i t y i n I n d i a , PaseoZus a u r e u s (Mung b e a n ) , p r o b a b l y from I n d i a , R i c i n u s communis ( C a s t o r o i l ) , o r i g i Prunus n a t i n g i n A f r i c a o r I n d i a , and Vicia sativa, a n a t i v e of Europe. m@gdaZus, t h e almond t r e e , which was an o i l s o u r c e , w i l l be t r e a t e d w i t h the f r u i t trees i n t h e n e x t i s s u e of t h e BuZZetin; t h e r e i s n o record of Lupinus aZbus L. i n I r a q , s o i t h a s been omitted from t h i s a r t i c l e .

f i e pulses

i

I I

.. 2 cm

Carthamus t i n c t o r i u s

-

38

-

The p u l s e as d e f i n e d by P u r s e g l o v e 1968 i s t h e " d r i e d e d i b l e seed of a c u l t i v a t e d legume". The p l a n t s a r e members of t h e leguminous g r o u p , one of the l a r g e s t and e c o n o m i c a l l y most i m p o r t a n t g r o u p s of t h e f l o w e r i n g p l a n t kingdom w i t h a l m o s t 700 g e n e r a and 18,000 s p e c i e s worldwide, numbers o n l y axceeded by t h e Compositae. The legumes may e i t h e r be c o n s i d e r e d a s a family, t h e Leguminosae , d i v i d e d by P u r s e g l o v e 1968 i n t o t h r e e subf a m i l i e s , o r as i n t h e F l o r a of Iraq, a f t e r Hutchinson 1959, be promoted t o an o r d e r , t h e Leguminales, w i t h t h r e e f a m i l i e s : 9 genera i n I r a q , 1 n a t i v e I. C a e s a l p i n i a c e a e 5 genera i n I r a q , 2 n a t i v e 11. Mimosaceae 111. P a p i l i o n a c e a e 46 g e n e r a i n I r a q , 30 n a t i v e A l l t h e c u l t i v a t e d p u l s e c r o p s i n Mesopotamia a r e members of t h e P a p i l i o n a c e a e , t h e o t h e r two f a m i l i e s b e i n g of c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e economic importance and n o r m a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e t r o p i c s .

Charles

Although we a r e p r i m a r i l y concerned h e r e w i t h t h e use of t h e p u l s e s a s seed c r o p s , two o t h e r i m p o r t a n t u s e s should be mentioned as t h e y have a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e v a l u e of t h e p u l s e s as c r o p p l a n t s , i.e. t h e i r r o l e I . S o i l e n r i c h i n g p l a n t s The p u l s e s l i k e t h e o t h e r leguminous p l a n t s as: a r e a b l e t o f i x a t m o s p h e r i c n i t r o g e n which i s b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e s o i l a s i t i n c r e a s e s the n i t r o g e n a v a i l a b l e f o r subsequent crops. T h i s makes them an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of a n y c r o p r o t a t i o n scheme, b e i n g e i t h e r c u t and ploughed i n t o t h e s o i l b e f o r e m a t u r i n g and s e t t i n g seed ( i . e . a s a g r e e n m a n u r e ) , o r allowed t o f r u i t and h a r v e s t e d , t h e s t a l k s b e i n g used a s f o d d e r o r ploughed in. They have a l s o been used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n s o i l r e c l a m a t i o n p r o j e c t s on t h e s a l i n i s e d land of Southern I r a q (Dielman 1 9 6 3 ) , and t h e s e q u a l i t i e s could w e l l have been a p p r e c i a t e d i n Sumerian t i m e s . 2. Fodder p l a n t s The whole p l a n t , w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e s e e d s a r e g e n e r a l l y good feed f o r l i v e s t o c k and can be grazed w h i l e growing, c u t f o r f o d d e r , o r t h e s t a l k s l e f t a f t e r h a r v e s t i n g t h e seed a s f o r a g e . These two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s combined w i t h t h e h i g h p r o t e i n c o n t e n t of t h e s e e d , which i s s u f f i c i e n t t o make up f o r t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f a c e r e a l - b a s e d d i e t l a c k i n g m e a t , make t h e p u l s e s a v e r y v a l u a b l e c r o p . Yet t h e y seem t o be o f l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e i n modem I r a q w i t h t h e two major p u b l i s h e d s u r v e y s of I r a q i a g r i c u l t u r e b a r e l y m e n t i o n i n g them. Poyck 1962 r e c o r d s o n l y two s p e c i e s i n h i s t a b l e of t h e m a j o r c r o p p l a n t s , Vicia f a b a , grown on 0.3% of t h e t o t a l winter-cropped l a n d , and P h a s e o l u s a u r e u s on 0.2% of t h e t o t a l summer-cropped l a n d . The D i y a l a and Middle T i g r i s P r o j e c t s (1959) r e c o r d s "broad beans" a s an i r r i g a t e d w i n t e r c r o p , and p u l s e s as summer i r r i g a t e d o n e s . The legumes a r e recommended as a p a r t of t h e s u g g e s t e d c r o p r o t a t i o n programme f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o a c t a s a s o i l - e n r i c h i n g b r e a k , producing s e e d s o r a n i m a l f e e d , w h i l e a t t h e same time r e p l e n i s h i n g r a t h e r t h a n depleting the s o i l ; t h i s may be c o n s i d e r e d an improvement on a l l o w i n g t h e land t o be l e f t f a l l o w f o r a y e a r i n a more i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r a l regime.

The biology o f the pulses a. Chromosome number a n d p l o i d y level

The cytotaxonomy of t h e p u l s e s under s t u d y h e r e i s much s i m p l e r t h a n t h a t of c e r e a l s l i k e t h e wheats and o a t s , b e i n g "uncomplicated by p o l y p l o i d y " ( S t e l e , i n Simmonds 1976, 183, r e f e r r i n g t o t h e cytotaxonomy of Vigna s p . ) . A l l the species a r e d i p l o i d , usually self-pollinating p l a n t s , i n which t h e p r o c e s s e s of s p e c i e s i n t e r c r o s s i n g and chromosome m u l t i p l i c a t i o n have played l i t t l e p a r t . That s a i d , t h e a n c e s t r a l p l a n t s , t h e manner and l o c a t i o n o f t h e i r c u l t i v a t i o n and , where a p p l i c a b l e , d o m e s t i c a t i o n , a r e o f t e n l e s s w e l l understood than f o r the cereals. The movement of t h e s p e c i e s o u t of t h e i r n a t i v e a r e a s r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r widespread i n t r o d u c t i o n and c u l t i v a t i o n , combining w i t h a d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of forms and c u l t i v a r s t o confuse t h e sequence of e v e n t s p e r h a p s t o s u c h an e x t e n t t h a t t h e y can n e v e r be r e t r a c e d . b. Morphology

The f r u i t The most c o n s p i c u o u s f e a t u r e s h a r e d b y a l m o s t a l l t h e Leguminosae f a m i l y i s t h e f r u i t c a l l e d a pod o r legume; a s d e f i n e d by Guest (-1966, 149) a legume " c o n s i s t s of a s i n g l e c a r p e l , u s u a l l y opening round

Cfhrrl e s

Cha margin a l o n g b o t h s u t u r e s i n t o two h a l v e s " .

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

The pod of t h e c u l t i v a t e d

~ I H C Si s t y p i c a l l y oblong and n a r r o w i n s h a p e , l a c k i n g t i s s u e between t h e

1

mods. I n o t h e r members i t may be c u r v e d , b l o a t e d , s p i r a l l y c o i l e d (e.g. llhdicago sp.) o r f l a t t e n e d d o r s o - v e n t r a l l y , i n a few c a s e s t h e f r u i t i s i n tha form of a lomentum, i . e . a legume " c o n t r a c t e d between t h e s e e d s and brerlking t r a n s v e r s e l y i n t o p a r t s when r i p e " (Guest 1966, 151). The seed pcrl of P r o s o p i s farcta, of t h e Mimosaceae f a m i l y , i s " p u r p l i s h , s h o r t and t a t " , w i t h a l e a t h e r y t e x t u r e and f l e s h y p a r t i t i o n s between t h e s e e d s ; i t 4 0 non-dehiscent and seed d i s p e r s a l i s e f f e c t e d by g r a z i n g a n i m a l s conatbrnfng t h e p o d s , t h e s e e d s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e g u t a l m o s t undamaged. Once t h e mature s e e d s have d r i e d t h e pod d e h i s c e s , b r e a k i n g i n t o two v a l v e s , a l o n g t h e d o r s a l and v e n t r a l s u t u r e s ; t h i s p r o c e s s may be v i o l e n t wltll the s e e d s b e i n g f o r c i b l y e j e c t e d o r f l i c k e d some d i s t a n c e from t h e plant, e.g. i n t h e Bladder Senna where t h e pod i n f l a t e s and e x p e l s t h e m a d s t h r o u g h t h e apex. I n o t h e r c a s e s i t i s t h e r e s u l t of t h e v a l v e s t w i s t i n g o r j e r k i n g a s t h e y d r y unevenly. Non-violent d e h i s c e n c e of t h e pad means t h e s e e d s d o n o t t r a v e l f a r from t h e p a r e n t p l a n t b u t i n some canes t h e whole pod i s modified t o be blown by t h e wind o r t o c a t c h i n a n i M I h a i r s , e t c . i n c r e a s i n g t h e d i s t a n c e of d i s p e r s a l . In s e v e r a l of t h e c u l t i v a t e d p u l s e s seed-pod

d e h i s c e n c e h a s been l o s t

In the p r o c e s s of d o m e s t i c a t i o n , e .g. L e n s c u l i n a r i s , C i c e r a r i e t i n w n and

Vigna u n g u i c u l a t a , and h e r e i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t t h e pods be picked and m e d s sown f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e c r o p .

7he seed ( T a b l e 1 )

A s i n g l e seed pod may c o n t a i n between one and twenty s e e d s , e a c h borne on a s i n g l e f u n i c l e o r s t a l k , when d r i e d t h e y arc r e f e r e d t o a s a " p u l s e " . Seed s i z e can v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , t h e s m a l l e s t of the c u l t i v a t e d s p e c i e s b e i n g . t h a t of Vicia sativa, 0.2-0.4(-06) cm. i n dimmeter, t h e l a r g e s t Vicia f a b a v a r . m a j o r , r e a c h i n g 3.0 x 2.5 cm. ( o r more)

The seed i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h i c k o u t e r seed-coat o r t e s t a which a c t s Iwrh a s a p r o t e c t i v e l a y e r and a s a mechanism c o n t r o l l i n g g e r m i n a t i o n . Tlrls l a t t e r r o l e i s performed by p r e v e n t i n g t h e u p t a k e of w a t e r t o t h e rntlicle and plumule u n t i l t h e t e s t a i s broken ( e i t h e r by p h y s i c a l cond l t t o n s such a s f r o s t c r a c k i n g o r s o i l a b r a s i o n , o r by chemical a c t i o n , s . ~ . t h e g u t enzymes of s h e e p and g o a t s ) . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c makes t h e ~ * c ? d ,once m a t u r e , e m i n e n t l y s t o r a b l e , and i t can remain e d i b l e f o r conr t d e r a b l e p e r i o d s of t i m e , s e v e r a l y e a r s a t l e a s t . Within t h e t e s t a a r e two l a r g e c o t y l e d o n s , t h e seed l e a v e s , t h e p r i n t-lpal e n e r g y s t o r i n g o r g a n s of t h e p u l s e s which l a c k t h e l a r g e s t a r c h - r i c h e~ldospermic t i s s u e t y p i c a l of t h e c e r e a l s ( s e e C h a r l e s BSA 1 (1984) 2 1 ) . The major food r e s e r v e s u b s t a n c e s of t h e c o t y l e d o n s a r e p r o t e i n , s t a r c h , atrd o c c a s i o n a l l y o i l , e .g. G l y c i n e m a x and A r a c h i s hypogaea. The seed proLvin c o n t e n t r a n g e s from 17 t o 50%, t h e l a t t e r v a l u e b e i n g a t t a i n e d i n acbcds of G l y c i n e m a x , t h e r i c h e s t p r o t e i n s o u r c e i n t h e p l a n t kingdom. It I r ; t h e h i g h p r o t e i n c o n t e n t of t h e s e s e e d s t h a t makes them s o i m p o r t a n t t o t l ~ ehuman d i e t , s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e c e r e a l s which a r e a l m o s t t o t a l l y l a c k i n g 111 p r o t e i n s , and s u p p l y i n g s e v e r a l aminoacids e s s e n t i a l t o human me tabol ism.

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Sowing and harvest methods a s t h e y r e l a t e t o p l a n t morphology ( T a b l e 1 ) The method of sowing i s g e n e r a l l y d e t e r m i n e d by seed s i z e ( H i l l m a n , p e r s . comm.), t h e l a r g e r s e e d s b e i n g sown i n rows by d r i l l i n g o r d i b b l i n g , t h e s m a l l e r o n e s b e i n g b r o a d c a s t o n t o a f i n e seed bed and t h e n l i g h t l y c o v e r e d :

Seeds i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s i z e c a t e g o r y can be sown by e i t h e r method. It h a s been d i f f i c u l t t o assemble i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g how sowing was done b e f o r e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of mechanized equipment i n Mesopotamia, and s~ t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o Lens c u l i n a r i s b e i n g sown by b o t h d r i l l i n g and broad c a s t m g , a s w e l l as C i c e r a r i e t i n u m , may o n l y a p p l y t o modem p r a c t i c e . For Vicia f a b a v a r . e q u i n a sowing by b o t h methods i s r e c o r d e d f o r I r a q by Guest 1930 ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) b u t t h i s i s f o r t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t i o n a t Rustam r z t h e r t h a n an o b s e r v a t i o n of any t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s . bed p r e p a r a t i o n i s a f f e c t e d by seed s i z e , a f i n e r t i l t h b e i n g f o r t h e smaller-seeded p l a n t s and c a r e f u l c o v e r i n g of t h e seed a few c e n t i m e t r e s of s o i l i s needed t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e p l a n t can and d e v e l o p s u c c e s s f u l l y . The p u l s e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y sown i n w i t h wheat and b a r l e y , t h e l a t t e r g e n e r a l l y b e i n g c u t o u t f o r t h e c r o p grows.

Crop h a r v e s t i n g depends on a number of f a c t o r s , some of which r e l a t e t o t h e t y p e of pod d e h i s c e n c z and p l a n t h e i g h t . They may be b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d as : 1. End p r o d u c t r e q u i r e d : when grown f o r t h e g r e e n s e e d s t h e pods a r e picked by hand when s t i l l immature; a s a p u l s e t h e pods a r e p i c k e d , o r t h e whole p l a n t c u t o r u p r o o t e d ; t o s e r v e a s f o d d e r t h e p l a n t i s c u t regularly. 2. Type of pod d e h i s c e n c e : i f t h e pod i s d e h i s c e n t then t h e h a r v e s t i n g must be done b e f o r e t h e s e e d s a r e d i s p e r s e d ; i n a c r o p where pod r i p e n i n g i s uneven t h i s may have t o be done by p i c k i n g t h e pods a s t h e y mature. 3 . P l a n t h e i g h t a n d straw u s e : t h e s m a l l e r p l a n t s tend t o be u p r o o t e d , f o r t h e t a l l e r p l a n t s i t i s u s u a l t o r e a p h i g h up t h e s t a l k where t h e s t r a w can be l e f t t o be grazed a s f o r a g e ; i f the straw i s required a s f o d d e r o r f o r f u e l t h e n r e a p i n g low on t h e p l a n t i s t h e b e s t method. Sowing r a t e s and h a r v e s t y i e l d s a r e g i v e n i n Table 1: ween t h e two r a n g e s from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7: 1 t o 50: 1 o r more.

Lathyrus s a t i v u s V. f a b a v a r . e q u i n a V. f a b a v a r . m a j o r

Sowing r a t e 39-45 k g / h a 135-168 kg/ha 100-128 kg/ha

Harve s t y i e l d 1059-1121 k g / h a 2017-2690 kg/ha 700-880 kg/ha

the r a t i o betRatio 25-27 : 1 15-16: 1 7:l

The l a s t s e t of f i g u r e s a r e a v e r a g e s from Poyck 1962, and compare v e r y p o o r l y w i t h r e c o r d e d y i e l d s of Vicia f a b a v a r . major i n B r i t a i n of up t o

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

5021 kg/ha, and an a v e r a g e of o v e r 3000 kg/ha (sowing r a t e s f o r t h e s e ranging from 224-447 k g / h a ) , b u t a r e r e a s o n a b l e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r y i e l d s g i v e n f o r wheat, b a r l e y , c o t t o n e t c . i n t h e same r e p o r t .

80aeonatity

.

a. Large seed s o v e r 1.0 cm. d iam. , Vicia f a b a ( a l l 3 v a r ) and C i c e r arietinum b. Medium s e e d s , 0.5-1.0 cm. diam., e .g. Pisum satiuum, L a t h y r u s sativus, G l y c i n e mm, Lens c u l i n a r i s . c . Small s e e d s under 0.5 cm diam., t h e small-seeded Lens c u l i n a r i s , Vicia e r v i l i a , P h a s e o l u s a u r e u s , Vicia sativa and Vigna u n g u i c u l a t a .

Seed recorded with j u s t germinate admixture fodder a s

Charles

( T a b l e 1)

The legumes l i s t e d by van Z e i s t a r e a l l a n n u a l winter-growing p l a n t s , sown

In autumn ( l a t e September t o November) and h a r v e s t e d i n l a t e s p r i n g t o r a r l y summer, from A p r i l t h r o u g h t o J u n e . Three of t h e s p e c i e s I have d d e d a r e summer-growing a n n u a l s , Vigna u n g u i c u l a t a , P h a s e o l u s a u r e u s and G l ~ c i n emm, t h e f o u r t h , V. sativa i s autumn-sown i n I r a q . Sowing d a t e s t o r t h e summer c r o p s a r e March and A p r i l , t h e s e e d s b e i n g h a r v e s t e d i n J u l y , August and o c c a s i o n a l l y as l a t e as September. One f a c t o r t h a t must be borne i n mind when e x t r a p o l a t i n g from t h e modern a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m and c u l t i v a r s i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of changes t h a t nny have t a k e n p l a c e i n t h e s p e c i e s d u r i n g s e v e r a l thousand y e a r s of c u l t i vation. Ramanujan ( i n Simmonds 1976) d e s c r i b e s two d i s t i n c t , though i n t e r f e r t i l e c u l t i v a r s of C i c e r a r i e t i n u m : ( 1 ) a s p r i n g - g r o w form: l a r g e p l a n t s w i t h "owl-head s h a p e d , l i g h t c o l o u r e d s e e d s w i t h l i t t l e w r i n k l i n g of tlw seed c o a t " ( 2 ) a winter-gram form: " r a i s e d i n t h e c o o l d r y s e a s o n " o f I n d i a , e t c . , t h e s e a r e quick-growing, s m a l l e r p l a n t s w i t h " s m a l l , t y p i c a l l y w r i n k l e d , ram-head shaped and d a r k c o l o u r e d " s e e d s . The d a t e of t h i s development, and t h e p o s s i b l e r o l e t h a t e i t h e r c u l t i v a r may have had i n t h e past i s n o t known, and t h e c a s e i s by n o means u n i q u e : there a r e , f o r oxample, w i n t e r and spring-grown forms of Vicia sativa. We must a l s o remember t h a t t h e development of t h e t h r e e Vicia f a b a and two Pisum satiuum v a r i e t i e s a r e shrouded i n u n c e r t a i n t y ; it i s l i k e l y t h a t it was the horse bean ( V i c i a f a b a v a r e q u i n a ) t h a t was t h e p r i n c i p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e Faba g r o u p and n o t t h e broad bean (V. f a b a v a r . m a j o r ) , which may not have been known t i l l much l a t e r ( s e e Renfrew, t h i s volume, p.

.

***).

The ecology of the pulses O r i g i n s a n d ancestral p l a n t s

(Table 1 )

The n a t i v e a r e a s of t h e a n c e s t r a l p u l s e s g e n e r a l l y f a l l i n t o t h e West Asian Mediterranean Europe r e g i o n and t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o have been p r e s e n t i n the " f e r t i l e c r e s c e n t " of t h e Near E a s t , i n c l u d i n g Northern Mesopotamia. Their a n c e s t r y i s n o t always known, b u t where p o s s i b l e t h e l i k e l y p r o g e n i t o r s a r e l i s t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e a r e a of o r i g i n on Table 1. Three of t h e a d d i t i o n a l s p e c i e s seem t o have o r i g i n a t e d i n more t r o p i c a l a r e a s , y e t t h e y tire n o t o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n s occupied by t h e p r o g e n i t o r s of s p e c i e s connidered t o have reached Mesopotamia a t an e a r l y d a t e , e .g. C i c e r a r i e t i n u m . Obviously a r c h a e o - b o t a n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n could be v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n h e l p i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e a r l y sequence of i n t r o d u c t i o n and d o m e s t i c a t i o n .

-

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Habitat and d i s t r i b u t i o n

1

(Table 1 )

I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a good a r c h a e o - b o t a n i c a l r e c o r d , we must be v e r y c a r e f u l when c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s p e c i e s c u l t i v a t e d i n a n c i e n t Mesopotamia, u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n based on t h e modern d i s t r i b u t i o n , h a b i t a t and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e p u l s e s . The i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d h a s s e e n t h e e v o l u t i o n of a number of new c u l t i v a r s which may have f e a t u r e s q u i t e d i s t i n c t from t h e i r predecessors'. There i s a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of minor f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e c l i m a t e of t h e r e g i o n , which may have had an a p p r e c i a b l e impact on t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l system. The o v e r r i d i n g f a c t o r s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and s e a s o n a l i t y of t h e v e g e t a t i o n a r e t h e e x t r e m e c l i m a t e and low r a i n f a l l of s o u t h e r n Mesop o t a m i a , which impose c e r t a i n , s e e m i n g l y unchanged , r e s t r i c t i o n s on a g r i culture. Thus t h e r e can be n o e x t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e ( o f w i n t e r o r summer c r o p s ) on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n s of s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia w i t h o u t i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r t o supplement t h e n a t u r a l r a i n f a l l , and even w i t h s u f f i c i e n t w a t e r t h e h i g h s p r i n g and summer t e m p e r a t u r e s can p r e v e n t t h e growth of many species. To p l a n t s t o l e r a n t of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , however, t h e r e g u l a r h o t sunny c l i m a t e i s good f o r s u c c e s s f u l g r o w t h , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n of s e e d s . I n n o r t h e r n Mesopotamia c o n d i t i o n s tend t o be c o o l e r , r a i n f a l l h i g h e r and above t h e 300 mm i s o h y e t s u f f i c i e n t f o r w i n t e r ( t h o u g h n o t f o r summer) c r o p s , and t h e f a c t o r s of h a b i t a t and a l t i t u d e become much more i m p o r t a n t t h a n i n t h e s o u t h , where h a b i t a t t y p e s are few. On t h e b a s i s of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n Table 1, t h e p u l s e s may be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s e x t r a p o l a t e d from t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n I r a q : 1.

S p e c i e s n o t found

V i c i a erviZia

.

i n s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia

-

Cicer arietinum and

2.

S p e c i e s r e s t r i c t e d t o s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia - Pisum sativurn v a r s . hortense and aruense, Lathyrus sativus, GZycine m m , Vigna unguicuZata, PhaseoZus aureus.

3.

S p e c i e s found i n n o r t h e r n & s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia v a r s ) , Vicia sativa.

.

-

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Chnrle s

N.B.: The major s o u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e c u l t i vated p u l s e s was Kew Gardens c o l l e c t i o n , from where t h e FZora of I r a q ' s n o t e s a r e d e r i v e d . On l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h i s m a t e r i a l i t w a s v e r y n o t i c e a b l e how few examples of t h e cultivated p l a n t s t h e r e were: - - 3 Vicia faba, 8 CCcer arietinum, 3 Pisum sativum v a r . hortense ( = v a r . sativurn i n t h e FZora of I r a q ) , 9 Lathyrus sativus examples. T h i s i s n o t a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e i r a c a r c i t y , a l l b e i n g commonly c u l t i v a t e d i n I r a q , b u t r a t h e r of t h e low p r i o r i t y g i v e n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n of c u l t i v a t e d p l a n t s , which i t i s g e n e r a l l y assumed a r e a d e q u a t e l y mapped o u t a l r e a d y . T h i s problem i s a c c e n t u a t e d by t h e number of t h e s e p l a n t s picked a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n s , e.g. Abu Ghraib and Rustam, which t h u s d o n o t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t t h e " n a t u r a l " d i s t r i b u t i o n , a s t h e y may have been e x p e r i m e n t a l p l a n t s which though u n s u c c e s s f u l were s t i l l p r e s e n t and r e c o r d e d . ]

The u s e s of t h e leguminosae can be summarized t h u s : P u l s e s - d r y s e e d s , a good s t o r a b l e p r o t e i n - r i c h food s o u r c e Green v e g e t a b l e - t h e u n r i p e pods and s e e d s e a t e n raw o r a s a vegetable P o t h e r b s - t h e l e a v e s and s h o o t s of c e r t a i n s p e c i e s Forage - whole p l a n t grazed while growing Fodder - whole p l a n t , w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e s e e d s , c u t and fed t o a n i m a l s ; i n c l u d e s t h e s t a l k s o r haulms l e f t a f t e r h a r v e s t of p u l s e s and t h e s t r a w and husks r e s i d u a l from t h r e s h i n g and winnowing Cover c r o p s - whole p l a n t a s s i l a g e o r a g r e e n manure 'ploughed i n ' S o i l e n r i c h i n g - a b i l i t y t o f i x n i t r o g e n makes them v e r y u s e f u l i n crop r o t a t i o n systems Land r e c l a m a t i o n - e.g. of s a l i n i z e d s o i l s i n s o u t h e r n I r a q Oil-seed p l a n t s - s e e d s of GZycine max and Arachis hypogaea ( p e a n u t from S. America) r i c h i n o i l a s w e l l a s p r o t e i n Other u s e s i n c l u d e - t i m b e r , r e s i n s , condiments, f i b r e , m e d i c i n e s , gums, tanning a g e n t s , d y e s , p o i s o n s , f u e l , o r n a m e n t a l and shade t r e e s .

Vicia faba ( 3

The a p p a r e n t a b s e n c e of Cicer arietinum from s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia i s i n t e r e s t i n g a s i t i s commonly i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e " l a r g e legume" found i n t h e cuneiform t e x t s . P u r s e g l o v e 1968 d e s c r i b e s t h e chick-pea as a "cold w e a t h e r p l a n t " p r e f e r r i n g a c o o l d r y c l i m a t e w i t h c o o l o r cold n i g h t s . One p o s s i b l e s u b s t i t u t e f o r C. arietinum i s Vicia faba v a r . equina which h a s a s i m i l a r s i z e d s e e d , grows w e l l i n Lower I r a q , and even e x h i b i t s a d e g r e e of s a l t t o l e r a n c e , a f e a t u r e unique i n t h e p u l s e s on which work h a s been c a r r i e d o u t , and a s mentioned a b o v e , i t was p r o b a b l y t h i s , and n o t V . faba v a r . major t h a t was grown i n Sumerian t i m e s . One o t h e r s p e c i e s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s problems i n s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia, t h i s time as a r e s u l t of t h e h o t summer wind c a u s i n g t h e f l o w e r s t o be shed b e f o r e f e r t i l i z a t i o n had been a c h i e v e d , i s GZycine max, though i t can w i t h c a r e f u l c u l t i v a t i o n be grown q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l l y (Guest 1930, u n p u b l i s h e d ) .

The oil plants

Table 2

'rhe major o i l seed p l a n t s of Mesopotamia form a d i v e r s e g r o u p , w i t h a s many families represented a s there a r e species. Though t h e y a r e m o s t l y a n n u a l h e r b s , two, OZea europaea and Prunus amygdalus, a r e t r e e s , and a t h i r d , Ir'icinus communis, i s a s h o r t - l i v e d p e r e n n i a l , c a p a b l e t o growing t o 7 metres. The a n n u a l h e r b s d i v i d e e q u a l l y i n t o w i n t e r and summer c r o p s : a . w i n t e r c r o p s - Linum usitatissimum, Papaver somniferum, Brassica napus and Carthamus t i n c t o r i u s

.

b. summer c r o p s - Sesamum indicum, Cannabis sativa, Ricinus communis and GZycine m m .

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

o l i v e (Ozea europaea) f r u i t s i n l a t e summer/autumn, and t h e almond (Prunus amygdatus) i n s p r i n g l e a r l y summer.

The

iii. a fruit

1 A l l p l a n t s c o n t a i n some o i l , u s u a l l y a s a form of e n e r g y s t o r a g e . It i s u s u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p l a n t and used a s r e q u i r e d by the various tissues. O c c a s i o n a l l y , however, i t i s c o n c e n t r a t e d in a s t o r a g e o r g a n s u c h a s a r o o t t u b e r o r t h e s e e d ; i n t h e l a t t e r i t a c t s a s a highy i e l d i n g e n e r g y s t o r e u t i l i s e d when t h e seed g e r m i n a t e s . The c l i m a t e of Mesopotamia i s w e l l s u i t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of h i g h seed o i l y i e l d , w i t t i t s warm s p r i n g and h o t , d r y summer months, a h i g h number of s u n s h i n e hours of t e n b e i n g e s s e n t i a l f o r s u c c e s s f u l seed development. Guest (1930) recommended t h a t t h e a r e a of Linum usitatissimum, Brasica iicpus, Ricinus cornmunis and Sesamum indicum c u l t i v a t i o n should be i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y in I r a q , and a s t h e s e a r e much more p r o f i t a b l e t h a n c e r e a l c r o p s i t i s perhaps s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h i s h a s n e v e r been d o n e . For a few s p e c i e s t h e extreme t e m p e r a t u r e s and t h e h o t b u r n i n g winds of summer can p r e v e n t s e e d - s e t t i n g , e.g. i n GZycine max and Papaver somniferum, b u t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y , given s u f f i c i e n t i r r i g a t i o n water, c o n d i t i o n s would seem t o w a r r a n t a g r e a t e r a r e a of l a n d t h a n i s p r e s e n t l y d e v o t e d t o o i l p l a n t s .

Examination of t h e two p r i n c i p a l r e p o r t s on t h e economy o f I r a q shows t h a t , a s f o r t h e p u l s e s , t h e r e i s l i t t l e mention made of t h e o i l seed c r o p s , Poyck r e c o r d i n g t h a t 1.2% of t h e t o t a l farmland c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e summer i s under Sesamum indicum (1962, 39). The o n l y o t h e r o i l p l a n t t o One p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r t h e a p p a r e n t be r e c o r d e d i s Linum usitatissimum. u n d e r - c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e s e p l a n t s may be t h e l a c k of s u i t a b l e marketing r o u t e s f o r t h e produce.

The biotogy o f the o i l plants a. Chromosome number and ptoidy ZeveZ There i s l i t t l e p o l y p l o i d y , Ricinus communis h a s t r i p l o i d and t e t r a p l o i d [There a r e f o r m s , and t h e r e a r e t e t r a p l o i d forms of Papaver somniferum. two s u b s p e c i e s of poppy, P. somniferum s s p . somniferum - t h e Opium poppy, grown f o r opium, and P. somniferum s s p . hortense, which i s grown f o r i t s o i l seed ] The v a r i o u s Brassica s p e c i e s a r e l i s t e d on Table 5 .

.

i

- OZea europaea

and Prunus amygdalus.

iv. a siliqua

- Brassica napus.

v . an achene

- Cannabis sativa

I

and Carthamus tinctorius.

t t u i t d e h i s c e n c e c h a r a c t e r v a r i e s n o t o n l y between s p e c i e s and w i t h i n spe-

(la8 ( d o m e s t i c and wild f o r m s ) , b u t a l s o between d o m e s t i c c u l t i v a r s , as ,human s e l e c t i o n can push them 'mating. The two p r e d o m i n a n t l y oil-seed s u b s p e c i e s ) and GZycine t o the f r u i t - f l e s h s p l i t t i n g a t until considerably l a t e r .

towards n o n - d e h i s c e n c e a s an a i d t o h a r d e h i s c e n t s p e c i e s a r e P. somniferum ( t h e m m ; i n Prunus amygdaZus d e h i s c e n c e r e f e r s m a t u r i t y ; seed d i s p e r s a l i s n o t e f f e c t e d

Both d e h i s c e n c e and n o n - d e h i s c e n c e can have good and bad p o i n t s : d o h i s c e n t c u l t i v a r s of Sesamum indicum must be c u t between seed m a t u r i t y md t h e o n s e t of seed d i s p e r s a l , b u t , once c o l l e c t e d , t h r e s h i n g of t h e cap# u l e s i s u n n e c e s s a r y , t h e p l a n t s b e i n g i n s t e a d hung on r a c k s above mats o r When h a r v e s t i n g t h e n o n - d e h i s c e n t c l o t h t o c o l l e c t t h e seed a s i t f a l l s . c u l t i v a r p r e c i s i o n i n t h e timing i s n o t s o e s s e n t i a l , but t h e subsequent t h r e s h i n g , winnowing and s i e v i n g p r o c e s s e s r e q u i r e d t o g i v e c l e a n seed s a r e A s t h e c a p s u l e s of Ricinus communis may much more time-consuming. d i e c h a r g e t h e i r s e e d s v i o l e n t l y , t h e y a r e s p r e a d on t h e ground o r on a m a t a f t e r h a r v e s t i n g t o r e s t r i c t seed l o s s , and a f t e r a week o r s o , when t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e s e e d s have been d i s p e r s e d , t h e c a p s u l e s are pounded t o T h r e s h i n g i s e s s e n t i a l f o r Linum usitatissimum, reduce any r e s i d u a l ones. Carthamus tinctorius and Cannabis sativa. It can be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h w i t h any c e r t a i n t y a t what s t a g e i n a p l a n t ' s e v o l u t i o n n o n - d e h i s c e n t c u l t i v a r s were s u c c e s s f u l l y s e l e c t e d f o r , and s o a t p r e s e n t we can o n l y c o n j e c t u r e a s t o whether t h e s p e c i e s c u l t i v a t e d i n Sumerian t i m e s e x h i b i t e d seed d e h i s c e n c e o r n o t .

The seed Seed s i z e r a n g e s from c a . 0.1 cm. d i a m e t e r i n Brassica napus t o t h a t of which i s up t o 2.0 cm. i n l e n g t h and 1.5 crns. broad.

Prunus amygdazus

b. Morphology The o i l p l a n t s of Mesopotamia s h a r e few common f e a t u r e s o u t s i d e t h e p o s s e s s i o n of o i l - r i c h t i s s u e , u s u a l l y i n t h e seed b u t i n t h e c a s e of t h e o l i v e t h e f l e s h y p a r t of t h e f r u i t . I n t h e b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n s below I have t r i e d t o f i n d f e a t u r e s t h a t may be u s e f u l i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p l a n t s from t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n s i n c u n e i f o r m t e x t s .

The fruit The f i v e t y p e s of f r u i t a r e :

- Sesamurn indicum, Linwn usitatissimum, Papaver somniferum and Ricinus communis.

i. a c a p s u l e

ii. a pod -

GZycine m m .

Sowing practice and harvest method The small-seeded Linum usitatissimum i s t y p i c a l l y b r o a d c a s t o n t o a seedbed w i t h a f i n e t i l t h , and t h e n l i g h t l y c o v e r e d . T h i s i s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of r e p o r t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e sowing of Sesamum indicum, b u t t h e r e i s R r e c o r d s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i t may n o t be s o p a r t i c u l a r i n i t s r e q u i r e m e n t s : "an e x c e l l e n t c r o p of sesame was r e c e n t l y s e e n on an e s t a t e n e a r Suwairah where t h e seed had m e r e l y been s c a t t e r e d among b a r l e y s t u b b l e w i t h o u t any f u r t h e r c u l t i v a t i o n " (Guest 1930). Another small-seeded c r o p , Papaver somniferum i s sown i n rows a p p r o x i mately 70 crns a p a r t . Carthamus tinctorius and Cannabis sativa may be b r o a d c a s t o r sown i n rows by d r i l l i n g ( p r e v i o u s l y d i b b l e d ) , t h e former i s a

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

w i n t e r sown c r o p and i s sometimes grown i n an a d m i x t u r e w i t h wheat and b a r l e y , when i t i s b r o a d c a s t sown. H a r v e s t i n g i s by:

lta t. I (> s

*~I~ tabrn II

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Mesopotamia,

a l t h o u g h Sesamum indiczuri and GZycine m m a r e com-

41s1IIL Lvely d r o u g h t - t o l e r a n t . Only s m a l l a r e a s of land a r e c u l t i v a t e d i n I I W summer, w a t e r b e i n g i n s h o r t s u p p l y , and t o w a r r a n t i t s p l a n t i n g t h e

must be f a i r l y c e r t a i n of growing s u c c e s s f u l l y and of t h e produce a s a l e a b l e commodity. Only Sesamum indicum seems t o be sown on Ilc+ ltls where c e r e a l c r o p s have been grown t h a t w i n t e r and h a r v e s t e d , a s v r l l a s on w i n t e r f a l l o w l a n d , t h e r e s t b e i n g sown i n t h e l a t e s p r i n g on Cannabis sativa may be sown a s l a t e a s June fa1 low l a n d , u s u a l l y i n A p r i l . acrl I s n o t h a r v e s t e d u n t i l November o r December. (Among t h e legumes, !'l~ctr~r?olus aureus i s sown a f t e r a w i n t e r c r o p of wheat o r b a r l e y ) . ,101) fw 111):

a . c u t t i n g o r r e a p i n g - Sesamum indicum, Linum usitatissimum, Ricinus communis and GZycine m m . b. p u l l i n g o r u p r o o t i n g ( a l s o known a s p l u c k i n g ) - Carthamus tine torius and GZycine m a . c. picking (of f r u i t )

(

- OZea europaea

and Prunus amygdaZus.

f l u ecology of the oil-plants ( t h e c a p s u l e s of Ricinus communis a r e c u t , r a t h e r t h a n t h e whole p l a n t , and t h i s may be c o n s i d e r e d a s coming w i t h i n t h e l a s t c a t e g o r y ) . Use of t h e s t r a w seems r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e b u r n i n g of Sesamum indicum s t a l k s f o r f u e l ( t h e a s h i s c o n s i d e r e d a good f e r t i l i z e r ) , w h i l s t t h a t of some Brassica s p e c i e s and GZycine m m a r e r e a s o n a b l e f o d d e r o r f o r a g e c r o p s . R i c i n , a t o x i c s u b s t a n c e p r e s e n t i n s e e d s and v e g e t a t i v e p a r t s of Hicinus communis, means t h e s t r a w must n o t be fed t o l i v e s t o c k .

Sowing rates and harvest yields Sowing r a t e s f o r t h e o i l - p l a n t s tend t o be low compared w i t h t h o s e f o r the c e r e a l s , a r e f l e c t i o n of growth form, i . e . p l a n t s f a r a p a r t , much b r a n c h e d , g i v i n g a h i g h seed y i e l d p e r p l a n t ; w i t h h i g h e r sowing r a t e s t h e p l a n t s grow t a l l e r , a r e l e s s branched and c o n s e q u e n t l y have a lower seed y i e l d ( c f . f l a x and l i n s e e d forms of Linum usitatissimwn). R a t e s from I r a q a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e from o t h e r s i m i l a r a r e a s .

;rri(gins & ancestraZ plants ( T a b l e 2) k'tom t h e modern d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e o i l - p l a n t s a n d , where h o w n , t h e i r wild nc~c-clstors, i t seems t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y of t h o s e concerned h e r e had t h e i r I g i n s i n and around t h e Near E a s t e r n and M e d i t e r r a n e a n c e n t r e s . The nxc.ca p t i o n s a r e Cannahis sativa and Prunus amygdaZus - i n C e n t r a l A s i a , ~;l!ycinem m - E a s t A s i a , and Ricinus comrnunis - I n d i a l A f r i c a , a l l of which , . ~ ) t ~ lhave d a r r i v e d i n Mesopotamia q u i t e e a r l y on. The d i s c o v e r y of a wild crrl Hame i n I n d i a (Bed i g i a n , t h i s volume), p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t o be l i m i t e d ~ I I tropical A f r i c a i n i t s n a t u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , emphasizes t h a t o u r kc~owledge of t h e n a t u r a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and e v o l u t i o n of t h e major c r o p ~ t l i i n t s i s n o t w i t h o u t i t s gaps.

N,rbitat & distribution ( T a b l e 2) ,I.

p l a n t s apparently r e s t r i c t e d t o southern I r a q

Papaver somniferum, Brassica sativa and GZycine m a .

napus,

- Linum usitatissimum,

Ricinus

communis,

Cannabis

Yield f i g u r e s , where a v a i l a b l e f o r Mesopotamia, a r e low, o n l y t h o s e f o r Ricinus communis comparing f a v o u r a b l y w i t h o t h e r c o u n t r i e s It i s d i f f i c u l t t o e s t i m a t e t h e y i e l d p o t e n t i a l of Mesopotamia i n t h e p a s t from t h e s e modern f i g u r e s , remembering t h e c o n t i n u i n g s o i l f e r t i l i t y d e p l e t i o n and t h e worsening s a l t problem.

I ) . p l a n t s r e s t r i c t e d t o s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia - a l t h o u g h grown i n s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia Prunus amygdaZus i s c h i e f l y o r n a m e n t a l t h e r e , i t s f r u i t production being g r e a t l y reduced.

Seasonality

,.. p l a n t s

.

of b o t h n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n Mesopotamia

-

Sesamum indicum and

OZea europaea.

a. The winter crops These , Linum usitatissimum, Papaver somniferum, Brassica napus and Carthamus tinctor<us, r e c e i v e n o mention i n e i t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l s u r v e y , and i t seems t h a t t h e i r c u l t i v a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e l o c a l l y on a s m a l l s c a l e . Guest (1930a) i n an a r t i c l e on l i n s e e d c u l t i v a t i o n g i v e s us a v e r y d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t of t h i s s p e c i e s , s e r v i n g t o emphasise t h e l a c k of p u b l i s h e d m a t e r i a l on o t h e r s p e c i e s . He recommends t h a t sowing be done i n O c t o b e r , t h e y i e l d b e i n g halved i f sown i n December, and reduced t o one q u a r t e r of t h e autumn c r o p ' s y i e l d i f p l a n t e d i n t h e s p r i n g . [Compare t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t f l a x a s grown i n B r i t a i n i s a non-frost-hard y p l a n t which must be sown i n t h e s p r i n g ( G i l l & Vear 1980). I

b. The summer crops, Sesamum indicum, Cannabis sativa, Ricinus communis and GZycine m m , can o n l y be grown w i t h i r r i g a t i o n , whether i n n o r t h e r n o r

'I'ile p r e s e n c e of Ricinus communis, Cannabis satiua and Gzycine marc seems t o t h e r e s u l t of e x p e r i m e n t a l work c a r r i e d o u t a t t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l S t a t i o n s (,I' Rustam and Abu Ghraib. Guest (1930) i n an unpublished r e p o r t on t h e work conducted a t Rustam p r i o r t o h i s a r r i v a l , s t a t e s t h a t t h e c u l t i v a t i o n O F GZycine max and Carthamus tinctorius had proved u n s u c c e s s f u l and t h a t I l ~ e s es p e c i e s could n o t be recommended f o r Southern I r a q . S a l t t o l e r a n c e measurements a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r many of t h e o i l - p l a n t s ; Sesamum indicum h a s a low t o l e r a n c e and r e q u i r e s w a t e r w i t h a low s a l t c o n t e n t , o t h e r w i s e i t i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o d i s e a s e , w h i l e Linum usit;atissimum h a s moderate s a l t t o l e r a n c e .

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

@har l e s

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

F r o s t can a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t OZea europaea, t e m p e r a t u r e s of l e s s than 2' C can damage t h e f r u i t and below -9" C t h e tree. Ricinus comrnunis i s a l s o susceptible t o f r o s t injury.

a2 extraction

Oiz type8

I , Rendering S u i t a b l e o n l y when t h e o i l i s s t o r e d i n t h e f l e s h y p a r t of the f r u i t r a t h e r t h a n t h e s e e d , e.g. i n Olea europaea, whose f r u i t i s picked i n w i n t e r a f t e r i t h a s turned b l a c k , i n d i c a t i n g maximum o i l c o n t e n t . the f r u i t i s heaped i n t o p i l e s on c l o t h and l e f t i n t h e s u n , and t h e exuded o i l i s c o l l e c t e d on t h e c l o t h , which can t h e n be "washed o u t " t o e x t r a c t the o i l . ( O l i v e s are a l s o p r e s s e d ) .

F a t s and o i l s appearance a t p o i n t becomes above 300" C.

Table 3 a r e s i m p l y terms a p p l i e d t o t h e same c h e m i c a l , based on i t s room t e m p e r a t u r e ( c a . 25" C); a f a t heated t o i t s meltingan o i l . O i l s n o r m a l l y s t a r t t o decompose a t t e m p e r a t u r e s There a r e two t y p e s of o i l of economic importance :

1. The fixed o i l s - g r e a s y , n o n - d i s t i l l a b l e s u b s t a n c e s , n o n - v o l a t i l e and o b t a i n e d from o i l - r i c h s e e d s . They a r e used f o r c o o k i n g , i l l u m i n a t i o n , soapmaking, e t c . ( s e e s e c t i o n on u s e s below). 2. The essential o i l s - non-greasy, v o l a t i l e , o f t e n s t r o n g l y a r o m a t i c . These a r e g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t , i n low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , i n t h e v e g e t a t i v e p a r t s of t h e p l a n t ; t h e r e a r e s m a l l amounts of p u n g e n t , v o l a t i l e e s s e n t i a l o i l s T h e i r u s e s tend t o be i n t h e s e e d s of c e r t a i n Brassica s p . ( T a b l e 5 ) . r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e f i e l d s of m e d i c i n e and c o s m e t i c s , though some a r e food flavourings.

T b r e a r e two b a s i c methods of o i l e x t r a c t i o n , r e n d e r i n g and Wlich i s used d e p e n d s on how t h e o i l i s s t o r e d by t h e p l a n t .

20 Pressing

a . drying o i l s - u n s a t u r a t e d , h i g h ' i o d i n e v a l u e s ' o v e r 150; s u i t a b l e f o r p a i n t s and v a r n i s h e s - l i n s e e d . b. semi-drying o i l s - i o d i n e v a l u e s 100-150; cooking and s a l a d o i l s , s o a p s and a s p a i n t s and v a r n i s h e s - sesame, poppy, rape o r c o l z a , s a f f l o w e r and s o y a o i l s . c . non-drying o i l s - f a i r l y s a t u r a t e d , low i o d i n e v a l u e below 100; s a l a d o i l s , v e h i c l e s f o r m e d i c i n e s and perfumes, o c c a s i o n a l l y a s i l l u m i n a n t s - o l i v e , c a s t o r and almond. Prone t o r a n c i d i t y .

a . Cold pressing ( F i g . l a ) :

The s e e d s a r e f i r s t broken up by pounding, m i l l i n g o r g r i n d i n g t o produce an u n e x t r a c t e d meal. T h i s i s t h e n p r e s s e d , the e x p r e s s e d o i l b e i n g f i l t e r e d o f f l e a v i n g t h e cake of crushed husks and need k e r n e l s . F i l t e r i n g i s t h r o u g h a c l o t h o r f i n e mesh s i e v e . The r e s i d u a l cake i s s t i l l o i l - r i c h (3-15%) and may be f u r t h e r processed by a n o t h e r a hot pressing treatment is applied. cold pressing or instead A l t e r n a t i v e l y i t can be fed t o l i v e s t o c k , b e i n g r i c h i n p r o t e i n and a v a l u a b l e f e e d , o r i n d e e d , i n t h e c a s e of sesame, t o humans. When cont a i n i n g a t o x i n o r of poor q u a l i t y i t i s used as a f e r t i l i s e r .

Fig. la.

Cold pressing sequence

SEED

crushing

1

' V I R G I N OIL' q u a n t i t y of v. h i g h q u a l i t y o i l )

"smla

1 pressing

&

filtering1 l i v e s t o c k feed ( o i l & protein rich)

I

I

i

I

(3-15% o i l )

OIL

human consumption ( r a r e : sesame & ( ? ) p o p p y )

processing/ refining I

Soya o i l can be c o n v e r t e d from a n o n - d r y i n g t o a d r y i n g o i l by d e h y d r a t i o n .

pressing.

either cold or hot.

We a r e h e r e concerned o n l y w i t h t h e f i x e d o i l s . The h i g h e s t q u a l i t y o i l s a r e sesame and s a f f l o w e r , two s e m i - d r y i n g o i l s w i t h a l a r g e range of u s e s from food o i l s t o s o a p s ( s e e Table 3 ) . I n b o t h c a s e s t h e p r i n c i p a l o i l s c o n t a i n e d a r e t h e same, i.e. O l e i c , L i n o l e i c and P a l m i t i c . O l i v e and hemp o i l a r e a t t h e o t h e r end of t h e q u a l i t y s p e c t r u m w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y fewer p o t e n t i a l uses. One of t h e most i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s of an o i l i s i t s d r y i n g , t h i s r e f l e c t s t h e l e v e l of s a t u r a t i o n and i s measured by i t s p o t e n t i a l of i o d i n e u p t a k e (which i s e q u a l t o a i r u p t a k e ) :

Figs. la & b

CLEAN OIL (cold-drawn, high quality o i l )

Q

~

~

i

~

LOW OIL (hot-drawn, high impurity content May be cleaned / r e f i n e d t o remove n o n - g l y c e r i d e s )

~

~

b. Hot pressing ( F i g . l b ) : T h i s can be a p p l i e d t o e i t h e r t h e u n e x t r a c t e d meal o r , as mentioned above, t o meal a l r e a d y cold-pressed Hot p r e s s i n g i s much more e f f i c i e n t t h a n cold p r e s s i n g , g i v i n g an i n c r e a s e d y i e l d , b u t w i t h a c o n c o m i t a n t i n c r e a s e i n i m p u r i t i e s , g i v i n g t h e o i l a much more pronounced c o l o u r . The o i l t h u s produced i s r e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o i n tended use - 51 -

.

.

Charles

Legumes and o i l p l a n t 8

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Fig.

l b . Hot p r e s s i n g s e q u e n c e

SEED grinding I

MEAI,

filtered

OIL ( s m a l l q u a n t i t y of v. h i g h q u a l i t y o i l )

heated

011 s t o r a g e I'roviding t h e o i l i s s t o r e d c o r r e c t l y , i n a r e a s o n a b l y c o o l p l a c e o u t of d l r c c t s u n l i g h t i n s e a l e d c o n t a i n e r s , i t w i l l keep f o r f a i r l y l o n g p e r i o d s ( w v e r a l months a t l e a s t ) . When exposed t o a i r t h e d r y i n g o i l s t a k e up n l r and harden t o a f i l m o r c o a t i n g . Semi-drying o i l s t h i c k e n and event r ~ i ~ l lhya r d e n , a t a r a t e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e i r i o d i n e v a l u e and how t h i n l y wpread t h e y a r e . Non-drying o i l s r a n c i f y a s t h e g l y c e r i d e s b r e a k down ( b y h y d r o l y s i s ) i n t o g l y c e r o l and f a t t y a c i d s .

MEAL+OIL

I

I

Fig.

pressing & f i l t e r i n g

lc.

MELTED FATIOIL

I

OIL hot-drawn, low q u a l i t y d e p e n d i n g on t e m p e r a t u r e of t r e a t m e n t

I I CAKE ( a s above)

Heat t r e a t m e n t = b o i l i n g w a t e r , h e a t i n g o v e r f i r e , i n p o t s (C. t i n c t o r i u s ) given s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o i l i s exuded d i r e c t from meal, o r s e e d s .

+

I

ALKALINE SOLUTION (e.g. c a u s t i c s o d a / p o t a s h ) boiling [SAPONIFICATION]

+

The p r o c e s s of e x t r a c t i n g hot-drawn o i l from Carthamus t i n c t o r i u s , which y i e l d s a t h i c k , b l a c k v i s c o u s m a t e r i a l used f o r w a t e r p r o o f i n g , i s t h e o n l y one d e s c r i b e d i n any d e t a i l f o r I r a q , and i t i s w o r t h o u t l i n i n g t h e proced u r e s h e r e ( a f t e r C h a k r a v a r t y 1976):

SALT ( b r i n e ) [LIXIVIATION] I

+ +

1. s e e d s p l a c e d i n a n e a r t h e n p o t i n v e r t e d o v e r s i m i l a r p o t b u r i e d i n the earth. A s i e v e o r p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e o v e r mouth of f i r s t p o t p r e v e n t s seeds f a l l i n g out.

LYE

I M P U ~ E SOAP SAPONIFIED FAT COLOURINGS e t c .

s a l t water + g l y c e r o l (recovered )

+

ALKALINE SOLUTION boiling

2. u p p e r p o t i s h e a t e d . 3. exuded o i l d r i p s i n t o lower p o t . A f t e r 2 h o u r s a t 300" C t h e o i l produced i s poured i n t o c o l d w a t e r , forming a t h i c k b l a c k g e l a t i n o u s mass, s u i t a b l e a s a n a d h e s i v e f o r g l a s s and o r n a m e n t a l s t o n e s .

SOAP SOLUTION

s a l t w a t e r washing ( t o remove f r e e a l k a l i ) b o i l i n g with water

A f t e r 24 h o u r s a t 307" C t h e hot-drawn o i l d e s c r i b e d above i s g e n e r a t e d . An o i l y i e l d of 20-38% i s r e c o r d e d by C h a k r a v a r t y f o r Carthamus t i n c t o r i u s , presumably of t o t a l d r y s e e d w e i g h t , though t h i s i s n o t s p e c i f i e d .

The s e e d s of R i c i n u s cornmunis c o n t a i n a h i g h l y t o x i c s u b s t a n c e , r i c i n , and t o e n s u r e t h a t i t i s l e f t i n t h e meal a f t e r t h e o i l i s e x t r a c t e d t h e p r o c e s s must be done c a r e f u l l y . S i m i l a r l y i n Linum u s i t a t i s s i m w n p r u s s i c a c i d (hydrogen c y a n i d e ) can be g e n e r a t e d i f t h e c y a n o g e n e t i c g l u c o s i d e i n t h e s e e d s b r e a k s down, and t o a v o i d t h i s b o i l i n g w a t e r s h o u l d be used i n the o i l preparation. F o r t h e e x t r a c t i o n of o i l from sesame, s e e t h e p a s s a g e quoted by B e d i g i a n , p. 160 below.

Soap making

I

SOAP m i l led/pressed i f necessary

SOAP

+

IMPURITIES

O i l uses

1. E d i b l e food o i l , e .g. a s a s a l a d o i l

-

o l i v e and sesame

2. Cooking o i l , d e p e n d s on r e s p o n s e t o h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s - s a f f l o w e r and sesame. Bread and c a k e s may be coated p r i o r t o baking. 3 . P a i n t s & v a r n i s h e s ( p r o t e c t i v e c o a t i n g s ) , d r y i n g and s e m i - d r y i n g o i l s w i t h h i g h i o d i n e v a l u e s - l i n s e e d , poppy & s a f f l o w e r . - 53 -

Charles

Legumes and oil plants

I

4. Illurninant - hemp and rape. 5. Soap-making or for fulling

!

-

most oils suitable to some extent (Fig. lc)

6. Perfwnery (cosmetics), as medium for scents etc. for anointing.

-

Legumes and oil plants

Charles

MarDonald, Sir M. & Partners Diyala and Middle Tigris Projects. 1959 Payck, A.P.G. I962

sesame & almond, also

"Farm studies in Iraq", Mededelingen van de ~andbouwhogeschool te Wageningen - ~ederland62, 1-99.

7. Medicine, either as a medium or vehicle of application, or as a remedy castor oil as purgative, linseed for suppurations.

Yur~eglove,J.W. 1968 Tropical crops, Dicotyledons (Longman; London)

8. Leather softening/dressing and as an aid to weaving.

#lmmonds, N.W. Evolution of crop plants (Longman; London) 1976

9. Other uses - lubricant, vehicle for various chemicals, resins and water-proofing.

Townsend, C. C. & Guest , E. I966 Flora of Iraq, Vol. 11 (Min. of Ag., Baghdad). 1974

Flora of Iraq, VoZ. 111: Leguminales (Min. of Ag. & Agricultural Reform, Baghdad).

BIBLIOGRAPHY vrr~i Dam, J.G.C.

Bernstein, L. 1981 "Effects of salinity and soil water regime on crop yields", in D. Yaron (ed.), Salinity in irrigation and water resources (Dekker) Bland, B.F. Crop production: cereals and legumes 1971

1955

.

"Examination of soils and crops after the inundations of 1st of February 1953, Pt. 11: The influence of salt on the chief vegetable crops", etherl lands Journal of Agricultural Science 3/i, 2-14.

Chakravarty, H.L. Plant wealth of Iraq (A dictionary of economic plants). 1976 Baghdad: Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform.

TABLES 1 TO 5

Dielman, P.J. et al. Reclamation of salt affected soils in Iraq. (Soil hydro1963 logical and agricultural studies. Publication No. 11, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI).

Table 1 : Distribution, ecology & agronomic details of the legumes Table 2 : Distribution, ecology & agronomic details of the oil plants

Gill, N.T. & Vear, K.C. Agricultural Botany, I: Dicotyledonous Crops. 1980 Guest, E. 1930a 1930b

Table 3 : Characteristics of the different oils Table 4 : Oil plant fruits

The cultivation and marketing of linseed in Iraq (Department of Agriculture, Iraq: Bulletin, 21).

Table 5 : Brassicas

"Notes on miscellaneous crops in Iraq" (unpublished manuscript).

Hillman, G.C. 1973 "Agricultural productivity and past population potential at Aqvan", in Anatolian studies 23, 225-240. Hutchinson, J. The families of 1959 (Oxford; 2nd ed.)

flowering

plants,

VoZ.

I.

Dicotyledons

II

The tables are intended to give the characteristics of the plants as may be relevant to their identification in the cuneiform sources; they are by no means complete, and I would be grateful for any more information concerning their cultivation in Mesopotamia.

Charles

Legumes and oil plants

Ohrrles Table 1 (ctd.) SOWING

FLOWER

HARVEST DETAILS yield (kglhectare)

I

I

I I

I

em.0.30.6; lg. 0.6-0.9

brd. & dr. 60 [56-135 Feb Turkey//1 dr. ?aut [67-112 fr. 0.5-0.8 200-335 dry* 1 brd. & dr. ca. [34-45 India* aut 0.5-1.2 30 Turkey//] brd ?aut ca. 0.35 [ 70 Turkey//I L. ca.1.5 brd. & dr. 3.0x2.5 90-155, ca.56 midL. ca.1.C mix w. cereal Oct brd ?aut 0.6-0.7 [40-45*]

.

.

1.0x0.8

1

0.4-0.6 x 0.2-0.4 0.4 x 0.3

I

dr. 45-67 [3950 E.Asia*] brd. & dr. [15-30 T.Africa & USA*] brd. ( ? ) [95-180 ~urkey// ,GB] brd

.

0.2-0.6

Apr-Jun

1000 [400-1680*]

I

D

I I [2508 fresh;

+

2240 dry*]

Apr-Jun Feb-Apr

D

?

1

I / N1 +1 1

MarApr ?spr

Jun-Oct

(700-)

+ 1120-2240 1

I

D

£1 JunJul; fr D Jul-Aug

[450-1800 India*] [700 Turkey//]

?

I Mar-Apr

I

I

N + +

May-Jun (-Jul )

1

+

I I

~605-2400

1 [450-672 Trop. Africa*, 1000-2800 USA*]

+

(May-) June- (Aug-) Sept July

Turkey//,GB]

I £1 Mar115-25 Apr; fr I Oct Apr-May

0.3-0.5 X

0.2-0.3 brd. dr. L.= length

=

=

£1 fr

broadcast drilled aut spr

= =

= =

1

l

.

I I I I l

l

flowering period fruiting period

autumn spring

[ (

)

]

=

l

l

*=J.W. Purseglove //=G. C. Hillman

figures from outside Iraq

figures for crop sown with cereals

Legumes and o i l p l a n t s

Char Les Table 2

brd. = b r o a d c a s t dr. = drilled [

(ctd.)

£ 1 = flowering period f r = f r u i t i n g period ]

f i g u r e s from o u t s i d e I r a q

*=J.W.

Purseglove

Charles

Legumes and oil plants

Legumes and oil plants

Clrrr les

Table 4 : Oil plant fruits Table 3 : Characteristics of the different oils Fruit type capsule S. indicum capsule 1,. usitatissimum capsule P . somniferum siliqua R . napus achene C. tinctorius achene C. sativa drupe 0 . europaea capsule R. comrnunis Name

-

-I;.

max -P . amygdaZus

pod fruit

Size 7.0 x 2.0 1.0 x 0.75 2.0-6.0 diam. 5.0-11.0 long ca.l.0 x 0.4-0.5 0.5-0.6 x 0.4 1.3-5.0 x 0.6-2.0 2.5-8.0 x 0.8-1.5 3.0-4.0 x 2.0-2.5

Dehiscence dehiscent & non-deh. indehiscent dehisc. (non-deh. cvs) ? dehisc. non-shattering non-shattering non-dehiscent some cvs deh., most non-dehiscent dehiscent splits at maturity cvs

=

cultivars

Table 5 : Brassicas

& +--Itrassica

I,.

0 = Oleic

L = Linoleic P = Palmitic E = Erucic Ln = Linolenic

COMMENTS

OIL TYPE

LATIN NAME

&

1

NAMES Field mustard

campestris

I

fixedoil

I

1 Flowers yellow.

I

x0.2-0.3 Cooking I ' kg/ha.; 30-38% fixed oil Flowers (?)India Indian + a volatile oil 0.3 cm. or mustard 1 Cooking 1 Near East (

ssp. sarson

I-I

I

Fruit siliqua 4-8 cm. Annua1,50-80 cm tall. oil. Sowing rate: 4.5-5.5 yield 878-1380 kg/ha. yellow. Siliqua 3-5.5x0.2Annua1,30-80 cm tall. oil.

2n=20 self-sterile itrassica juncea (L.) Czern .-.--& Cross ssD. s e r e ~ t a n a I I 2n=36 self-fertile / Eurasia 1 28% fixed oil 1 Flowers yellow. Siliqua 1-2x0.15Black Hrassica nigra (L. ) Koch 1I +a small % of Oil used in medicine, as a preparation for KHARDAL mustard 2n=16 self-sterile I volatile oil (I%)/many cooked/pickled foods. Sinavis aZba L. I White I Mediter- 130% fixed oil 1 Flowers yellow. cm long. Annual, 25-100 cm. mustard ranean ( Oil ground with B . nigra for table I I I mustard. 2n=24 self-sterile I I 1 Near East1 30.7% fixed oil I Oil similar to mustard oil. Wild Brassica toumefortii I turnip ( ( ? ) I

I

I

I

I

I

I

FINDS OF SESAME AND LINSEED IN ANCIENT IRAQ Jane M. Renfrew

(Lucy Cavendish Cot Zege, Cambridge) 'I'hc most frequently found oil-bearing seeds from ancient Iraq belong to

cultivated flax, but the most common description on the cuneiform tablets rclfers to ~~ma>~&ammu, usually translated as "sesame". Could there be an vrror in the translation or is it possible that sesame seeds have been r~r~der-representedin the archaeological record? This is the main hub of Llle discussion. My main purpose here is to draw together the evidence for L11e cultivation of both species in this area in ancient times. Flax, Linurn usitatissirnurn L., appears to have been domesticated from the wild Kurdish pale flax, Linurn bienne Mill. (formerly known as L. angustifolium Huds.) in the foothill region north and east of the TigrisEuphrates plain, where it still grows wild today at altitudes of 1,8003,000 feet (600-1,000 m) above sea level. It appears to have been domestcated shortly after 6,000 B.C. The following finds are recorded in the literature: Site Nimrud

Date ca. 600 B.C.

Khafajah B Khafajah A Ur

Old Bab. 'Ubaid ' Ubaid

Arpachiyah Choga Mami

Halaf Samarran

T. es Sawwan

5,800 B.C.

Preservation

Seed measurements in mm.

L. 4.41 (3.66-5.31)

[50 seeds] B. 2.29 (1.83-2.75) Chalk replica L. 4.76; B. 2.75 Carbonized (no measurements) Seed impressions L. 4.21; B. 2.20 L. 4.39; B. 2.56 L. 4.39; B. 2.38 Carbonized L. 3.84; B. 1.83 Carbonized "largest on record; no measurements" Carbonized L. 4.0; B. 1.83 Carbonized

(Note: It should be remembered that when comparing carbonized seed measurements with those of impressions and chalk replicas, a shrinkage in length of about 13% should be taken into account).

In Iraq today flax varieties are preferred which develop several stems and a strong root. The seeds are sown in late October and irrigated during dry spells. The harvest takes place at the beginning of May, before the scorching summer heat can cause emergency ripening which would threaten the quality of the crop. In Iraq the crop is cut at harvest, not pulled as in Egypt (Guest 1930). In areas of limited rainfall it has been shown that the oil-seed varieties do better than those grown for their linen fibres: fair yields can be obtained with an annual rainfall of 300-350 mm. For successful storage the seeds must contain less than 10% moisture. They normally contain 30-40% oil and 20-25% protein. A little cold-

Renfrew

Finds of sesame and linseed

pressed oil is produced and used for cooking. The seeds are normally heated before pressing and the resulting hot-pressed oil is a drying oil which will keep indefinitely in air-tight containers, but forms a hard film on exposure to the air. It is chiefly used in paints and varnishes. Seed residues from hot pressing contain 33-43% protein and can be used for cattle feed. Those from cold pressing contain cyanogenic glucosides which make them poisonous. The whole seeds were used as food by the Greeks and Romans; in ancient Egypt linseed oil was only used for lighting Nowadays it is used for seasoning Vicia faba (Darby et al. 1976, 783f beans.

.).

It is important to note that linseed contains cyanogenetic glucoside, and if seeds are allowed to soak in cold water enzymes will break down the glucoside, resulting in the production of poisonous hydrogen cyanide (prussic acid). For this reason it is important that linseed gruel should be prepared with boiling water (Gill & Vear 1958, 143). There are very few palaeoethnobotanical finds of sesame seeds. Most relevant is the find reported by Piotrovsky of Urartian pots full of carbonized sesame seeds and cuneiform tablets at Karmir Blur, dating to between 1,000 and 600 B.C. (see Bedigian, this volume, pp. 168-70). Other early, finds of sesame, Sesamum indicum, come from further east. A lump of sesame seeds was found at Harappa (Vats 1940, 466-7), and sesame has also been reported from Ch'ien Shan Yang, a Late Neolithic Lung Shan culture site in Chekiang Province, China (Chekiang 1960). There are no detailed accounts of these finds. Recently G. Willcox has identified sesame in 2nd millennium levels at Shortugai, Northern Afghanistan (pers. comm.). Wild sesame does not grow in the Middle East today. Nayar & Mehra 1970 consider that it must have originated as a crop plant either in India or in Ethiopia, or in both areas. The most likely wild ancestors of the cultivated form are either Sesamum capense or Sesamum schenckii both of which occur in Africa, India and the Far East, and both of which have proOn balance they consider S. duced viable F1 hybrids with S. indicum. schenkii to be the most likely ancestral species. Sesame is important as an edible-oil crop of traditional agriculture in dry climates, and is grown widely in India, Pakistan, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Sudan, Egypt and the more humid tropical regions of Africa. It has high heat and light requirements. Growth and fruiting are best at temperatures It is a drought-resistant crop in areas with a winter rainaround 27" C. fall of 400 mm. The seeds mature 90-100 days after the first appearance of the seedlings. Seed maturity is uneven: the same plant may still be flowering at the top when the seeds at the base have ripened in their upright pods. In the Near East sesame is sown in the late spring after the last rainfall. It may be grown as a single crop - planted through a funnel attached to a native "nail" plough in rows 50 cm apart, or it may be grown as a mixed crop, as in India with the seeds of both crops being sown broadcast and lightly covered with a harrow. Harvest starts when the lower pods

nf rew

Finds of sesame and linseed

ve ripened, and the plants are left to dry before threshing. The seeds ntain 45-60% oil. The most useful property of the oil is its high stality, so that it does not turn rancid. The seeds are used in baking and Oonfectionery. They may be pressed to extract the bland, edible oil. The 011 cake remaining after pressing is a valuable concentrate for feeding to domestic animals, being rich in protein (20% or more) calcium, phosphorus and miacin (Arnon 1972, 381f.).

Renfrew

Finds of sesame and linsee

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PULSES RECORDED FROM ANCIENT IRAQ

Crop production in dry regions, 2, 381-387.

(Lucy Cavendish CoZZege, Cambridge)

Jane M. Renfrew

Arnon, I. 1972 Chekiang 1960

Chekiang Province Cultural Properties Control, 1960: Report on the first and second seasons of excavations at the site of Ch'ien Shan Yang in Wu-hsinghsien, Chekiang, K'ao ku hsue pa6 2, 84-7.

/1 1 t

Darby et al. 1976 Delougaz, P. 1940

W.J. Darby, P. Ghalioungui & L. Grivetti, Food: the Gift o Osiris, Vo1. 2, 783-4. &

Jacobsen, T. The Temple Oval at Khafajah, (Oriental Institute Publication8 LII, Chicago) (report on seeds by E. Schiemann).

1

Lentils, Peas, Grass Pea/Blue Vetchling, Chick-pea, Horse-bean and Bitter Vetch all appear to have been cultivated in Iraq in antiquity, though none

are found as frequently as cereals in the early deposits. In addition on the earliest sites in this area, as in Khuzistan in neighbouring Iran, @@ads of a number of small wild legume species have also been found: in particular the seeds of small vetches, Trigonella, Medicago, Astragalus and Coronilla have been identified, but not in such quantities as to suggest ellat they were being grown or collected on a significantly large scale. The following finds have been recorded: 22

Gill, N.T. & Vear, K.C. 1958 Agricultural Botany (Duckworth; London). Guest, E. 1930 Helbaek, H. 1959

.rl U

G a

Site The cultivation and marketing of Baghdad )

linseed (Govt.

Press,

"Notes on the evolution and history of Linum", in Kuml 103-129. "Ecological effects of irrigation in Ancient Mesopotamia", in Iraq 22, 192. "Early Hassunan vegetable food at Es-Sawwan near Samarra", in Swner 20, 45-48. "The plant remains", in M.E.L. Remains, 11, 613-618.

Mallowan, Nimrud and it8

"Samarran irrigation agriculture at Choga Mami", in Iraq 34, 39. Nayar, N.M. 1976' Vats, N.S. 1940

Simmonds, "Sesame", in N.W. (Longman; London & New York).

Evolution

Excavations at Harappa, I (Calcutta), 466-7.

of

crop

Date

plants

Nehrwan Canal T, Bazmosian N Lmrud T. Bazmosian T. ed-Der Tcll Taya Tell Yelkhi T.Bazmosian T, Qurtass Ilr (Royal Gr.) T, Chragh Choga Mami Jurmo

Islamic Islamic 700-600 BC ca.1500 BC 19-18th C BC 2300 BC 2200-1800 BC 2100-1800 BC 2100-1800 BC 2500 BC 3500 BC Samarra 6700 BC

r

d ,

: -U 3- "d a,, b uh;u

c

O

.

d

I J ! % c J u x m

I

I

( Publication

I Helbaek 1965a Helbaek 1965a Helbaek 1966 Helbaek 1965a van Zeist 1985 Waines 1973 Costantini 1985 Helbaek 1965a Helbaek 1960c Ellison et al. 1978 Helbaek 1960c Helbaek 1973 Helbaek 1960a,1965a

1. Lentils - Lens esculenta Moench./Lens culinaris Medic. Lentils appear to have been domesticated from the wild Lens orientalis which, at present, has a wide distribution from Turkey, Syria, Palestine, North Iraq, to West and North Iran. They belong to the spectrum of crops tirst domesticated together with cereals at the beginning of agriculture in As a crop they are not very hardy, the Near East (Hopf & Zohary, 1973). although they can withstand a certain amount of heat and drought, but they are very sensit-ive to excess soil-moisture. The pods split open on maturity (70-100 days after sowing) revealing one to three lens-shaped tieeds. The seeds have a high protein content and are more easily digested than animal protein. They are often eaten in soups and stews. The following measurements are available for the early finds of lentil, and

Renfrew

Pulses from Ancient Ira

nf rew

show that most of them belong to ssp. microspemna, the small-seeded variety. Some, however, from Nimrud are larger and may be classed as ssp. macrospemna.

occurred in an early 2nd millennium oven and in an Akkadian oven, in both cases associated with naked and hulled wheats and barley, and in the Akkadian examples also with peas and lentils. They were found with Bitter Vetch in the deposit from Fort Shalmaneser, Nimrud.

Lentil measurements Site

Date

Nimrud T. Bazmosian

Assyrian Hurrian Isin-Larsa Ur 111 3500 BC Samarra 6500 BC

T. Qurtass T. Chragh Choga Mami Jarmo

This is one of the hardiest of the legumes, being drought-resistant and also withstanding waterlogging better than the other pulses. Because of its drought-resistance, it is a famine crop and will survive in seasons when the cereals fail. In Iraq it occurs as a weed in cereal crops especially in irrigated fields. It is used in much the same way as the other pulses, but it will cause the disease lathyrism if eaten in large quantities, and this results in partial paralysis of the lower limbs.

Measurement diam. diam. diam. diam. diam. diam. diam.

up to 5 mm 1.83-4.94 mm 2.42-4.58 mm 3.34 (2.38-3.84) mm 2.93 mm 3.13-3.75 mm (+ some 2.0 mm) 2.5-3.0 mm

4. Chick-pea - Cicer arietinum Three finds of chick-peas are reported from Iraq: some were found in a rilver water-pot with an attached gold drinking tube in Queen Pu-abi's grave at Ur. Here they were preserved as mud impressions (Ellison et al. 1978). Carbonized chick-peas were found in the Isin-Larsa levels at Tell Bazmosian, with a diameter of 4.56 mm, and in the later Hurrian levels at At Nimrud there the same site they measured 4.03-4.60 mm (Helbaek 1965). was a greater range in size from 3.67 to 5.44 mm in diameter (Helbaek 1966). Chick-peas are widely cultivated in the warm, semi-arid areas around the Mediterranean and Near East. They prefer medium to heavy soils. The plant is susceptible to excess humidity and will not thrive on poorly drained soils. They are the most tolerant of pulse crops to soil salinity, and are extremely sensitive to frost. They form an important human food eaten raw, boiled, salted or sugared, roasted, or in soups or as a purge. They can also be used as a pot herb. The green parts of the plant and the haulms are toxic and so are unsuitable for use as fodder.

In some of the early finds they are associated with other crop plants. At Tell Taya they occurred in an Akkadian oven together with Hordeurn vuZgare (principal component), Triticum dicoccum, T. aestiuum, Lathyrus sativus, The find from Tell Qurtass (end of 3rd millennium and Pisum satiuum). B.C.) consisted chiefly of lentils found in a pot, and not much puffed by the carbonization process. A single lentil was found in a deposit of tworow barley at the 4th millennium site of Tell Chragh. The lentils at Tell ed-Der occurred with both cereals and other pulse crop seeds. At Nimrud lentils formed the chief pulse crop found with chick-peas in the citadel and with bitter vetch and grass peas in deposits from Fort Shalmaneser.

2. Peas - Pisum sp. Field peas have been reported from Jarmo, Choga Mami, Queen Pu-abi's grave at Ur and in the Early Dynastic and Akkadian deposits at Tell Taya, and at Tell ed-Der. They are usually found with wheat and barley, and occasionally with other pulses. Those found at Ur were very small, measuring 2.4-3.5 mm in diameter, average 2.9 mm. Those from the Early Dynastic levels at Tell Taya measured 3.0 x 3.0 mm and 3.5 x 2.7 mm respectively. The cultivated pea, pisum sativum appears to have been domesticated from its closely related wild forms piswn eZatius and/or Pisum humite. clearest indicator of domestication is the replacement of the rough seedIn regions of mild winters coat with a smooth one (Hopf & Zohary 1973). and low rainfall peas are grown as a winter crop. A minimum precipitation of 300 mm is needed, and they are best suited by light to medium soils with a high calcium content. Irrigation at the beginning of flowering is highly beneficial, in dry regions, and may increase the yield by 30%; if it is continued whilst the pods are swelling it may again increase the yield (Arnon 1972). 3. Grass pea/Blue vetchling - Lathryus sativus This is another pulse crop of great antiquity in this area, having been found at Jarmo and Choga Mami. At Tell Bazmosian it formed the chief component of one deposit with a small admixture of lentils. At Tell Taya it

Pulses from Ancient Iraq

I

I

I

5. Broad bean - Vicia faba L. So far this species has not been found in the earliest contexts in Iraq, but it is known that the beginnings of its cultivation go back to about 6000 B.C. at Jericho. Helbaek reported the earliest finds known to him in Iraq as from the excavations of 1957-1958 of the large weir on the Nahrwan Canal east of Khafajah (Safar 1960), where the seeds had a maximum length of 18 mm (Helbaek 1965). The Islamic broad beans from Tell Bazmosian measured: , Length 8.0-14.0 mm av. 10.5 mm Breadth 6.0-10.0 mm av. 7.3 mm Thickness 3.8-7.0 mm av. 5.0 mm All these finds are of the large-seeded broad bean. One seed is reported by Giles Waines from inside an Akkadian oven at Tell Taya (Waines 1973). It measured 13.0 x 8.0 mm. It was found together with Lathyrus sativus, Vitis vinifera, Triticum dicoccum, Hordewn vuZgare, OZea europaea and Quercus sp. They are probably the least drought-resistant of all the pulses and are best suited to medium and heavy soils, and respond well to a high calcium content. Irrigation is of great benefit during flowering, podset and seed formation in dry areas (Arnon 1972).

Renfrew

Pulses from Ancient Ir

6. Bitter or Camel Vetch - Vicia ervizia In the Ur 111 period at Tell Qurtass 40 Bitter Vetch seeds were found in pot which was chiefly filled with lentils. Helbaek described the seeds a being angular-roundish and often having small depressions about the hilum while the radicle is situated in a triangular, almost flat surface (Helbae 1960). They measured 2.93-4.03 mm in diameter with an average of 3.48 mm The only other find of this species from Iraq comes from a deposit in For Shalmaneser, Nimrud, where they occurred with Grass Peas and lentil8 (Helbaek 1966). This species was probably first domesticated in Anatolia where it i r commonly found on early farming sites, and became very popular in late Neolithic times in the southern Balkans. Very few palaeoethnobotanical finds occur to the east of Anatolia. It is used as a fodder plant especially for sheep, and may be used as an excellent green manure. Because of its bitter taste it is used as human food only by the very poor or in timee of famine.

Pulses from Ancient Iraq

lanl rew

BIBLIOGRAPHY hrnon, I. Crop production in dry regions, 2.

1972

I 1

(:OH tantini

, L.

1985

"Le piante de Yelkhi", contribution to Ezio Quarantelli (ed.), La terra tra i due Fiumi (I1 Quadrante Edizioni, Torino), 57-60.

I

Kllison et al. 1978 R. Ellison, J.M. Renfrew, D. Brothwell & N. Seeley, "Some food offerings from Ur, excavated by Sir Leonard Woolley and previously unpublished", in JourmaZ of ArchaeoZogicaZ Science 5, 167-177. Ilc 1 baek ,

H.

1960a

"The palaeoethnobotany of the Near East and Europe", in R.J. Braidwood & B. Howe, prehistoric Investigations in Iraqi ~urdistan (Chicago).

1960b

"Ancient crops in the Shahrzoor Valley in Iraqi Kurdistan", Sumer 16, 79-81.

1965

"Isin Larsa and Horian food remains at Tell Bazmosian in the Dokan Valley", Sumer 19, 27-35.

1966

"The plant remains from Nimrud", Appendix Mallowan, flimrud and its Remains, 11, 613-618.

1973

"Samarran irrigation agriculture at Choga Mami", Iraq 34, 39.

7. Small legumes Seeds of wild leguminous plants have been found at Choga Mami in the Samarran levels (Helbaek 1973). They belong to the Ray-podded Medick Medicago hispida, clover Trifoliurn, Milk Vetch Astragazus, and a number of vetch and vetchling species. Seven seeds of unidentified vetches were found at Tell Bazmosian, together with a single seed of CoroniZZa scorpiurus, crown vetch. These small legumes do not appear to have played a significant role in the economy of the settlements in which they were found.

I in M.E.L.

Hopf, M. & Zohary, D. 1973 "Domestication of pulses in the Old World", Science 182, 887-893. Safar, F. 1960

"Excavations on the weir of the Nahrwan canal" (in ~rabic), Sumer 16, 3.

van Zeist, W. & Vynckier, J. 1985 "Palaeobotanical investigations of Tell ed-Der", in L. de Meyer (ed ) , Tell ed-~erIV.

.

Waines, J.G. 1973

"Plant remains from Tell Taya, Iraq", Iraq 35, 185-187.

A NOTE ON THE VEGETATION ON THE URUK VASE Harriet Crawford

(Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge) Tha cover of this bulletin is decorated at the top with the frieze of ani-

m a l ~shown on the Uruk vase; at the bottom is the frieze of plants which forms the lowest register of decoration on the vase. The vase is usually dated to the end of the Uruk period and was found in Level I11 of the great Ralrna precinct at Warka. It is made of alabaster and stands about lm high. I L is undoubtedly one of the outstanding examples of early art anywhere in the world, and the ancient repairs indicate how highly it was prized at the tlrnc. The theme of the decoration is clear, even if some of the details arc obscure. It shows the presentation of harvest offerings to Inanna, or ttrc. priestess who represented her. The figure of the main human parl lcipant is unfortunately missing, only an attendant, a "page-boy", survlves, holding what seems to be a great tassel, apparently part of the rrgalia. The figures are arranged in horizontal bands running round the vase; helow each of the bands with figures is a blank register; below these is a f 1 le of animals, sheep or goats, the males with great horns and beards. l'l~c lowest band depicts two types of plant apparently growing on the edge 0 1 a watercourse. Although this part of the vase was extensively damaged wllcn it was found, enough remains to substantiate the reconstruction shown on the cover where what are plainly ears of corn, either wheat or barley, c~lternatewith another plant. The ears of corn are very stiff and styl ised as are the representations of grain on other artefacts, such as the mttcehead from the Iraq Museum. This macehead may also depict the second of our pair of but the photograph is inadequate for definite [dentification.Tlandns seals too, where corn is shown as an offering , as an rtppurtenance of grain gods/goddesses and in at least one case over the hticks of a file of handsome cattle, there is little attempt at realism. An exception to this can be seen on the fine steatite vase from Ur which ctlso s2ows a file of cattle with ears of what is apparently six-row barley .l

Fig. 1 Flax The second plant on the vase has a tall, thick stem with pairs of leaves growing from it; near the top it divides into three smaller stems

Crawford

Vegetation on the Uruk vasa

each topped with a flower or seedcase. Frankfort interpreted this second plant as a date palm, but it lacks the great sagging bunches of fruit on either side of the trunk which usually characterise the palm in Sumerian art, as shown for example on a stone plaque from ~ello.3 As with the ears of corn, this plant is clearly stylized, and allowing for this, it seems reasonable to compare it with a drawing in Gill and Vear's AgricuZtural Botany, I, of Linum usitatissirnum L. , flax or linseed which has the same tall stem, short leaves and smaller branches at the top (see also p. 72). E. Strommenger in an article on a stele fragment from Uruk has already tentatively suggested that this second plant on the Uruk vase should be idenShe also illustrates a cylinder seal tified as hemp or flax (Fig. 1) .5 from Jemdat Nasr, which although badly damaged shows three different plants of which two appear to be our pair and the third resembles Prosopis, or some other fodder plant, thus if the identifications are correct, representing the three main types of plant on which the Sumerian farmer depended (Fig. 2) .6 Another representation of this same pair of plants occurs on a seal impression from the Stampflehmgebiiude in the Eanna precinct (Fig. 3)j stylistically this impression appears to be of the same date as the vase. The impression also shows two men, apparently in a watch-tower or similar building, perhaps watching over the crops.

Crnwf ord

I

a tllfferent plant with pods or buds growing from a stylized m~untain.~ In

cases the artist seems to be trying to convey the generalised idea of "fodder" rather than any specific plant. The same may be true of another I r o u p of seals showing animals eating eight-petalled flowers, a form which Ir virtually unknown in nature. The eight-petalled flower is closely simiIrr to the stone and clay flowers which are typical architectural decorat Lon around 3,000 B.C. It is perhaps significant that at A1 Ubaid, allghtly later, they are found associated with the great frieze depicting t hc temple herds. It seems possible that the artist may even be convoying the idea of the feeding of the temple herds on some kind of celestial food. Certainly it is no ordinary feeding: on two of the seals In question the symbol of Inanna is prominent in the design and in another wc4 see the fasade of two temples. lo The herdsmen in the first two seals urder discussion are wearing the curious net skirt which seems to have some ritual significance, but which was certainly not the everyday wear of farhotti

mcrs.

Even a superficial review of the decorative art of the late 4th/early Ird millennia seems to show that in general stylization rather than natura-

Ii~mwas the fashion in depicting plants. The artists seem to have wished - grain, fodder or reeds - rather than a particular variety; the same convention can be seen on the Jemdat Nasr painted pottery and on the slightly later Scarlet wares. This tendency towards rtylization strengthens the case for identifying the second plant on the lowest register of the Uruk vase as Linwn, probably grown for its fibre rt~ther than oil, and explains any botanical inadequacy in its portrayal. I t was not necessary according to the prevailing artistic canons to attempt n naturalistic rendering. It seems entirely logical that two such economically important plants as corn and flax should complete the decoration on this great vase with its theme of the offering of the fruits of the earth L O the great goddess. to portray classes of plants

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

If this second plant is indeed Linum, we have another shred of evidence for its cultivation in the Uruk period, in spite of its absence from the archaeological record at this period. It is interesting to note that in all the examples quoted the emphasis is on the tall, thick stem, suggesting perhaps that the plant was being grown for flax fibre rather than for oil. Today denser sowing, when growing for flax fibre rather than linseed oil, produces a taller plant with a thicker stem. There is no mention of oil extraction as early as this in the textual material, but from Uruk I11 there are references to gada or linen fabric (see Hartmut Waetzoldt, this volume, p. 77). The tendency towards a stylized representation of plants rather than a naturalistic one, can also be seen on a number of cylinder seals from the Protoliterate period which show different sorts of animals being hand fed. One seal from Khafaje shows two cervids being offered a spiky branching plant by a mythical creature standing on its hind legs. The charming seal, also from Khafaje, with two goats or deer grazing, shows them eating

Vegetation on the Uruk vase

1

Crawford

Vegetation on the Uruk va

NOTES Macehead is illustrated in Faraj Basmachi, Treasures of the Iraq Muse (Baghdad 1972), fig. 28.

ÖLPFLANZEN UND PFLANZENÖLE IM 3. JAHRTAUSEND Hartmut Waetzoldt

(~eideZberg)

This Vase is illustrated in Basmachi, op. cit., fig. 27. H. Frankfort, Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient (Peiican), p 25. N.T.

Gill & K.C. Vear, AgricuZturaZ Botany I (Duckworth 1969), fig. 38

P. 145. After E. Strommenger, "Zu ein Frühsumerischen Stelenfragment aus UrukM, in Archäologischer Anzeiger, 1967, Heft I, Abb. 1 on p. 2. After E. Strommenger, ibid., Abb. 4 on p. 5. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Uwe Finkbeiner for a drawing of thie impression (W 24012, 15), which is to be published in UVB 33/34, and to Prof. J. Schmidt for permission to make use of it. Scale 1:l. H. Frankfort, ~tratified CyZinder Seals from the Diyala Region (Chicago 1955), P1. 6, no. 34 and P1. 10, no. 71. H. Hall, A Sseason's Work at Ur (London 1930), p. 249 and fig. 231, and H. Hall & C.L. Woolley, Ur Excauations I: AZ 'Ubaid (Oxford 1927), pp. 118-9. E. Strommenger, Art of Mesopotamia (London 1964), P1. 17, and H. Frankfort, Stratified CyZinder Seals from the DiyaZa Region, P1. 6, no. 31.

Pie älteste in den Texten bezeugte Ölpflanze ist nicht etwa Lein oder Iream, sondern der Ölbaum. Texte aus Ebla, die aus der Zeit kurz nach 2500 V, Chr. stammen, zählen tausende dieser Bäume auf. So wachsen auf 2260 gana-keFda.KI 1000 Bäume, auf 1100 gana-keHda.KI 500 oder auf 600 gsna-keFda.KI 500 ~äumel. Demnach stehen durchschnittlich Leider wissen wir nicht, wie 2,2 oder nur 1,2 6lbäume auf 1 gana-keZda.KI. aross dieses Flächenmass ist, um feststellen zu können, wie dicht die Bäume mchsen. Die Bezeichnung für diesen Baum ist giX-Z-gix, seltener auch abgekürzt giF-i2. Wörtlich kann man das übersetzen mit "Baum des Baumöls", brw. "Ölbaumw. Das Olivenöl wird I - ~ ~ E also ~ , wörtlich wohl "Baumöl" Eine andere Ölsorte ist m.W. in den Ebla-Texten nicht bezeugt. 'enannt. In Mesopotamien begegnet Olivenöl erst rund 400 Jahre später in Texten aus ~ i r s u ~ .Interessanterweise gibt es dafür kein sumerisches Wort, sondern es wird das akkadische, nämlich serdu (AHw 1037) verwendet. In den sehntausenden von Ur-111-Texten ist Olivenöl m.W. nicht bezeu t. Erst in den rund 250 Jahre jüngeren Mari-Texten finden wir es häufiger Das Holz des Olivenbaumes lässt sich allerdings früher in Mesopotamien nachweisen als das Öl. Daraus wurden nach einem altakkadischen Text (BIN 8, 260:4) die Füsse eines Bettes angefertigt. Die Seltenheit der Belege spricht eindeutig für Import sowohl des Ölbaumholzes als auch des Olivenöls.

5.

Ein anderer Baum, dessen Früchte ab der altakkadischen Zeit zur Ölgewinnung benutzt werden konnten, scheint aber im babylonisch-assyrischen Raum gewachsen zu sein. Dafür könnte die relative grosse Zahl der Belege sprechen. Es handelt sich um den Mandel-Baum, dessen Holz zu verschiedenen Gegenständen6 und aus dessen ölhaltigen ~ r ü c h t e nÖl ~ gewonnen wurde8. Die genannten Mengen sind aber stets gering. Der Vollständigkeit halber sei auch noch das Vorkommen von Zedernöl erwähnt. Hierbei ist allerdings unklar, ob es sich um Öl handelt, das aus den Samen gewonnen wurde oder um irgendein Öl, das 2.B. mit Zedernharz 'parfümiert' wurde9 Nach dieser kurzen Einleitung nun aber zum Hauptteil, zu Lein und Sesam: Flachs lässt sich archäologisch m.W. etwa seit dem Ende des 6. Jahrtausends nachweisenlO, in den Keilschrifttexten ab der Schicht Uruk 111, also etwa der Jemdet Nasr-~eitll. Die Pflanze und die Fasern, bzw. die daraus gefertigten Fäden heissen sumerisch gu, Leinengewebe gada. Das Akkadische unterscheidet dagegen nicht zwischen der Pflanze, den Fasern und Leinsamen findet nur dem Leinenstoff , alles wird mit kitii bezeichnet 12. sehr selten Erwähnung, Leinöl fehlt m.W. sowohl in den sumerischen als auch ~ in den akkadischen ~ e x t e n lvöllig.

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Waet zoldt

In altakkadischen ~ e x t e n lbegegnet ~ eine Brotsorte ninda-gu, doch musr offen bleiben ob es sich um Leinsamenbrot oder um ein Brot aus einer u l ~ Mehlsorte handelt. später ~ l - ~ genannte

der Zahl der Belege für die Felder und besonders nach den verbuchten Ölmengen grösser gewesen zu sein als bei Flachs. In einem Text werden über 5% der gesamten Feldfläche als ki-giX-3 bezeichnet (HLC 111 141, 373.111.7).

Die Ernte des Flachses erfolgte in LagaX im x11.16, in Umma im I. ~ o n a t l ~das , entspricht etwa Aprill~ai. In dieser Zeit wird auch die Gerste geerntet. Da Flachs eine Wachstumszeit von 3-4 Monaten hat, muss er etwa DezemberIJanuar gesät worden sein. Flachs war also in Mesopotamien eine ~intersaatl~~.

2. gab es Spezialschiffe für den Transport dieser Pflanze: r n ~ - ~ i X - P ~ ~ .

Die Bauern, welche Flachs anbauen, werden engar(oder 16-gu) genannt. Manchmal bezeichnete man sie auch als Gärtner1$ was sicher als Hinweis gewertet werden kann, dass Flachs relativ kleinflächig angebaut wurde. Dafür spricht auch die verhältnismässig geringe Menge des geernteten Flachses. Die Anbau-fläche machte nur einen Bruchteil der Getreideanbaufläche aus. So werden nach einem Text (CT 9, 47, 20015:l-13) von insgesamt Ca. 579 Hektar Fläche nur 4,2 Hektar oder 0,7% als I ~ i - ~ u l ~ , also als Flachsland, ausgewiesen. Die Deutung von gu als FlachsILein ist m.W. in den letzten Jahrzehnten nicht mehr in Zweifel gezogen worden. Dazu bestand auch keinerlei Anlass. Auf einige Punkte des gerade Gesagten werde ich später aber noch zurückkommen müssen. Soviel sei aber jetzt schon zu Leinöl gesagt: In vielen Kulturen wurde Flachs nur als Faserpflanze angebaut, ohne dass man Öl aus den Samen gewonnen hätte20. Es spricht alles dafür, dass dies in Mesopotamien auch der Fall war. Aus dem Samen, der je nach Sorte und Standort zwischen 30 und 44% Öl enthält21, kann man ein Öl gewinnen, das rasch ranzig wird und an der Luft relativ schnell trocknet. Die heutigen Verfahren zur Herstellung eines stabiles Leinöls für Speisezwecke, waren in so früher Zeit wohl noch nicht bekannt. Technisch ist Leinöl als Grundmaterial für Lacke und Firnisse bestens geeignet22.

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4. wird in TU 114 I1 llf. und V 25f. die Wertrelation zwischen Datteln und

giX-i angegeben.

5. nannte man die Frauen, die das Öl aus den Samen pressten, gerne-giXt-sur-sur (CT 3, 20.VII.28-VIII.3, STA 2.1V.4, TU 101.1V.15) oder abgekürzt gerne-giX-3 (MVN 6, 492 Rs. 2,5).

7. in einer Abrechnung über Sesam (TLB 3, 152) heisst es als Schlussvermerk "Abrechnung über giX-3" (ni-kasx-aka giX-P), nicht Xe-giX-3. Zusammenfassend lässt sich feststellen, dass mit giX-3 hauptsächlich die Pflanze, aber auch als Abkürzung für Xe-giX-3 der Samen bezeichnet werden konnte. Schwierigkeiten für eine Interpretation als Sesam werden auch in den Wörtern giX-3 und 3-giX selbst gesehen. Dies liegt an dem Element giX, das Est trifft selbstmeist mit "Holz" oder "Baum" zu übersetzen ist31. verständlich zu, dass giX in der Regel Hölzer und Bäume bezeichnet, doch dient es im Sumerischen ebenso zur Benennung von kleinen verholzten Gewächsen.

Die Körner, bzw. Samen der hier zu diskutierenden Pflanze werden in den Texten mit sumerisch Xe-giX-P und das daraus gewonnene Öl mit 3-giX bezeichnet. Nur in Texten aus der Akkad-Zeit findet man dafür auch ~ - ~ i 3 - 3 ~ 3 .F. R. Kraus vertritt in seinem gerade zitierten Artikel (S. 115a) die Meinung, es gäbe keine Pflanze mit dem zu rekonstruierenden Namen giX-3. Dies trifft jedoch nicht zu: Pflanze bestellte Felder als ki-gi~-324 Flachs- oder Zwiebelfelder als ki-gu oder Feldern sind Leute bei Arbeiten an den eingesetzt (BIN 5, 272:194) oder beseitigen MVN 12, 15:3). Die Anbaufläche scheint nach

3. werden die Pflanze, bzw. deren Samen beim Verkauf häufiger gis-3 genannt27. Dies verdeutlicht besonders ein rief 28. Darin werden erst 135 Kor Xe-giX-3 erwähnt und dann, als es um den Verkauf geht, steht nur aig-3. Ähnlich auch in Amherst 117 :lff. : Bei der Einlieferun tragen die Kirner die Bezeichnung Xe-giX-P, danach nur noch einfach giX-3

6. hiessen die Bauern, die diese Pflanze anbauten engar-giX-330 oder ongar-Xe-giX-3 (MVN 1, 208:2, UET 3, 1129 Rs. llff., 1443:17).

Über Sesam und ob es sich bei Xe-giF-3 wirklich darum handelt, wurde schon viel diskutiert. Zitieren möchte ich nur die grundlegende Arbeit von F.R. Kraus in JoumaZ of the American Orientat Society 88, 112-119. Dort sind sehr viele Argumente zusammengetragen, die für eine Interpretation als Sesam sprechen. In diesem Artikel wurden allerdings die Quellen aus dem 3. Jahrtausend nur in geringem Masse berücksichtigt. Hier soll versucht werden, diese Lücke zu schliessen.

1. werden mit dieser bezeichnet, ähnlich wie ki-sum25. Auf diesen Bewässerungseinrichtungen Unkraut ( ? ) (giX gi 6 26,

Ölp£lanzen und Pflanzenöle

I

Die Ebla-Texte könnten aber ein völlig neues Licht auf die Herkunft des Wortes giX-3, bzw. 3-giX werfen. Dort verwendete man - wie wir gesehen haben - die Sumerogramme giX-3-giX, bzw. abgekürzt giX-i für den Olivenbaum und 3-giE für Olivenöl. Nun die provokative Frage: Sollte man in Mesopotamien diese Bezeichnung eines Pflanzenöls von der Olive einfach auf den Sesam übertragen haben? Dann würde sich das Wort von selbst erklären und es wäre auch verständlich, warum in Mesopotamien das Olivenöl mit dem semitischen Namen bezeichnet wurde und nicht etwa mit einem sumerischen, denn das beste dafür mögfiehe sumerische Wort war schon für eine andere Ölpflanze verbraucht. Eine gewisse Parallele liegt möglicherweise bei der Bezeichnung für Silber k3:babbar vor. In Mesopotamien wurde Silber in der präsargonischen Zeit kil-luh-ha genannt, das in Ebla übliche ku-babbar taucht nur selten und dann vorwiegend in literarischen Texten auf32. In der Akkad-Zeit hat dann die aus Ebla schon lange bekannte Bezeichnung k3:babbar das mesopotamische k3-luh-ha völlig verdrängt33. Wie ich erst

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nachträglich bemerkte, nachdem ich diese Zeilen bereits geschrieben hatte vermutet auch Kraus (JAOS 88, 115) in seinem Artikel über Sesam, dass 2-gi bzw. Fe-giF-3 Entlehnungen aus einer dritten, nicht-mesopotamische Sprache sein könnten.

Ölpflanzen und Pflanzenöle

l a t damit gemeint, dass Unkraut auf diesem Feld beseitigt wurde, um den Boden für die kommende Saat vorbereiten zu können.

Eine gewisse Bestätigung für die oben aufgestellte These könnte man auch in der zeitlichen Stellung der Texte sehen. Die Ebla-Texte lassen sich in die Zeit um 2500 V. Chr. datieren. Die frühesten Belege für dia Bezeichnungen giF-T, Fe-giF-i und i-giF in Mesopotamien stammen aber erst aus der Akkad-Zeit. Besonders etwa seit der Zeit NaramsZns gibt es relativ . liegen also rund 250 Jahre zwischen den viele ~ r w ä h n u n ~ e n ~ ~ Es Ebla-Texten und dem häufigeren Vorkommen dieser Bezeichnungen in Mesopotamien.

Die Saat erfolgte in der Provinz LagaS nach den Texten aus der Zeit kurz vor 2000 v.Chr. also in den Monaten Mai/Juni, selten erst Anfang Juli.

/ /

!

i

Die Pflanze giF-i und ihr Öl sind also in mesopotamischen Texten nicht Bei Ausgrabungen kann man folglich vor etwa 2250 V. Chr. na~hweisbar~~. erst in Schichten aus dieser Zeit Samen dieser Pflanze in nennenswerteren Mengen finden. Wo und auf welche Weise die Mesopotamier diese neue Pflanze kennenlernten, muss derzeit offen bleiben. Möglich wäre, dass man sie während der Kriegs- und Beutezüge Sargons und seiner Nachfolger irgendwo im syrischassyrischen ~ a u oder m ~ ~in Elam vorfand. Doch könnte sie, bzw. ihre Samen auch aus einem anderen Gebiet zusammen mit anderen Dingen importiert worden sein. Auffällig bleibt aber, dass, wenn in der Zeit kurz vor 2000 v.Chr. Fe-giS-3 importiert wurde, dieses in der Regel aus dem Gebiet von Karhar stammt37. Diese Stadt Karhar wird in das Ost-Tigris-Land zwischen Arrapha und dem Dijala-Fluss lokalisiert38. Interessanterweise war dieses Gebiet nach freundlicher Auskunft von K. Deller - auch noch in der Zeit der Nuzi-Texte, also rund 600 Jahre später, eines der bedeutendsten Auf Importe aus Susa, bzw. dem elamischen Anbaugebiete für Fe-giF-3. Gebiet dürfte RT 22, 1900, 153, 2 hinweisen. Der Transport erfolgte auf 6 Schiffen mit je 60 Kor ~ra~fähi~keit~'.

Zusammenfassend lässt sich zu Saat und Ernte sagen, dass im Mai/Juni, relten später gesät wurde. Wir haben es also - im Gegensatz zu Flachs eindeutig mit einer Sommerfrucht zu tun. Auch im heutigen Iraq ist Sesam eine ~ommerfrucht~~.Das Datum der Ernte nennt m. W. bisher kein Text ausdrücklich, doch konnte der 5. Monat (August/September) für die Provinz LagaS wahrscheinlich gemacht werden.

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Über die einzelnen Arbeitsgänge, die nach der Ernte notwendig sind, also über die Nachreife, Ausklopfen und schliesslich das Reinigen durch Sieben und vielleicht auch berichten die Texte leider nichts. Nur die letzte Arbei;, das sieben? (und worfeln?) ist einmal belegt (s. oben). Ob die mit BUR bezeichnete Arbeit an Fe-giF-i hierher gehört (MVN 1, 208:5), lässt sich derzeit nicht entscheiden.

Die aus Karhar angelieferten Mengen sind mit 135 Kor oder rund 34.100 Litern40 recht beträchtlich. Die sonst in den Texten genannten Mengen liegen mehrfach in diesem Bereich, nur selten höher41. Die grösste Quantität erwähnt ein Text aus Ur mit insgesamt 470 Kor oder Ca. 118.720 ~itern~~. Die Einsaat ist nicht direkt bezeugt, dafür aber die Ausgabe von Saatgut. Diese erfolgte in der Provinz LagaS in der Regel im 2. ~ o n a t ~ ~ , nur einmal ist der 3. Monat bezeugt44. Die erwähnten Mengen an Saatgut sind,mit Ca. 126 bis 505 Litern relativ gering. Ein einziger Text nennt 10 Kor oder Ca. 2526 ~iter45. Wieviel Feld man damit einsäen konnte, muss wegen fehlender Textangaben aus dieser Zeit offen bleiben. Legt man den Wert aus einem altbabylonischen rief^^ mit einer Saatmenge von 7 sila je iku (ca. 5,894 Liter je 3528 m2 oder Ca. 16,704 Liter je Hektar) zugrunde, so hätte man mit diesen Ca. 2526 Litern rund 151,2 Hektar oder Ca. 1,5 km2 bestellen können. Ebenfalls aus dem 2. Monat stammt ein ~ e x über t ~ ~Arbeiter, die auf einem 'Sesam'feld Sträucher, Rohr und (Un)kraut ausschnitten. Vielleicht

Die Erntezeit lässt sich anhand der Texte weniger genau festlegen, da .W. kein datierbarer Text direkt von der Ernte berichtet. Überblickt man jedoch die einschlägigen Texte aus der Provinz Laga'ES, so fällt auf, dass auffällig viele in den 5. ~ o n a t ~etwa ~ , August/September datiert sind. Dies legt die Vermutung nahe, dass in diesem Monat die Ernte stattfand, wir folglich mit einer Wachstumszeit von gut 3 Monaten zu rechnen haben. In der Nachbarprovinz Umma war Fe-giF-i im 11. Monat versandfertig49, müsste also vorher geerntet, getrocknet, gedroschen und gereinigt worden sein. Wenn man für all diese Arbeiten 2 Monate ansetzt, käme man für die Ernte atwa in den Monate November/Dezember. Dies scheint etwas spät, da Sesam meist nach gut 3 Monaten, höchstens nach 6 Monaten reif ist50. Der einzige Text (TU 16410:2f.), der von gesiebtem? ~ e - ~ i F - i ~spricht, l ist leider undatiert. Spezielle Siebe sind einige Male bezeugt (Salonen 1965,72e).

1

I

Leider ebensowenig sind wir über die Einzelheiten der Ölgewinnung informiert. Wir erfahren nur aus mehreren Texten, dass man in LagaS aus 300 sila Fe-giF-3 60 sila ~ - ~ i F - ö presste53. l In Umma erreichte man nach einem unveröffentlichten Text Ca. 66 sila. In Liter umgerechnet heisst das, aus 252 Litern Samen gewann man in Laga'ES 50,5 Liter Öl, in Umma einmal 56 Liter. Die Ölausbeute betrug folglich nur 20 bis 22%. Interessanterweise wird auch in einem Buch aus dem Jahre 1 8 0 6 ~berichtet, ~ dass man aus Die ÖlgewinnungsSesamsamen zwischen 22,2 und 25% Öl gewinnen könne. methode scheint sich demnach in der langen Zwischenzeit nicht verbessert zu haben, denn Sesam enthält nach W. ~ i s c h e r ~zwischen 5 47-57% Fett. Die Ölausbeute wäre damals also nicht sehr hoch gewesen. Der Terminus für die Ölgewinnung ist sumerisch sur. Er kommt besonders und Ln der Berufsbezeichnung der Ölpresserinnen (gerne-(giF-)i-sur-(sur) in der Gebäudebezeichnung 6-3-s~r-ra~~, sonst aber selten vor58. Einige Aufschlüsse geben auch die Preise für Fe-giS-i. Für 1 Sekel Die Texte sind ~~ Silber konnte man zwischen 60 und 100 sfla ~ ö r n e rkaufen. Leider nicht nach Monaten datiert, so dass man nicht feststellen kann, ob es saisonale Schwankungen gab ob Qualitätsunterschiede den Preis bestimmen. - 81 -

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Wae t zoldt

Der Preis des 3-giF-Öls betrug in LagaX und Nippur 1 Sekel Silber für bis 12 sila Ö160. In Umma erhielt man für 1 Sekel Silber nach eine ~ e x t ~rund l 10 sila Öl. Ein Dokument unbekannter..Herkunft weist auf eine Wertrelation von einem Sekel Silber zu 12,8 sila 0 1 ~ ~ .In Notzeiten, alb die Hauptstadt Ur von der Versorgung durch die anderen Provinzen abgeschd.h. das Öl nitten war, erhielt man für 1 Sekel Silber nur 2,5 sila war 4,8 mal so teuer wie sonst.

1. In der Textilindustrie benutzte man das 3 - Ö l , selten auch das "gute 1-~iH-Ö1"73 neben Alkali-haltiger Asche zum Walken und Waschen der fertig gewebten Wollstoffe. Das 3-giF-Öl muss sich also zur Herstellung von Seifen bestens eignen, denn es wird besonders für Stoffe bester Qualität verwendet. Billigere Stoffe behandelte man dagegen mit #chweineschmalz. Beim Walken wurde der Stoff in einer Seifenlauge behandelt, die aus 1 Teil Öl und 4 bis 5 Teilen Alkali hergestellt worden war. Beim anschliessenden Waschen bestand die Seife aus 1 Teil Öl und 8 bis 10 Teilen Alkali. In letzterem Fall war die fettlösende Wirkung also deutlich 8tärker74.

Vergleicht man nun den Preis der Körner mit dem des Öls, so ergibt sich meist eine Relation von 1:5 oder 20%. Das bedeutet, dass die Körner nur 115 des Öls kosten oder anders ausgedrückt, der Wert der Körner bestimmte sich durch den Ölgehalt, denn wir haben ja gerade festgestellt, dass man aus den Körnern Ca. 20% Öl gewinnen konnte. Die Preisunterschiede des Öls dürften zum Teil durch Qualitätsiinterschiede, zum Teil auch durch jahreszeitliche Preisschwankungen bedingt sein. Um den Preis des 2-giH richtig bewerten zu können, hier noch einige Preise für andere Öle und Fette. Für 1 Sekel Silber konnte man in der Regel folgende Quantitäten kaufen: 15 sfla Schweineschmalz, 20 sila Schaffett, 30 sila Fischöl, aber nur 10 sila 'Butterschmalz' (X-nun) oder ~ ~ .Preis des T - H - 1 s liegt 5 sila "gutes Öl/~ett*'( ~ - d u ~ ~ - ~ a )Der folglich zwischen dem des 'Butter1- und des Schweineschmalzes. Wichtig für die Bedeutungsbestimmung von He-giH-i und 3-giH ist aber weniger der Preis als die Verwendung des Öls. Grosse Mengen dieses Öls ~ , muss also annehmen, werden zu Nahrungszwecken und Opfer ~ e r b r a u c h t ~man dass es ein gutes Speiseöl war. Gegessen wurden übrigens auch die Pressrückstände66 und die ~ ö r n e r ~ ~Die . Körner konnten auch in Brot verbacken68 und das Öl bei der Herstellung von Früchtekuchen verwendet werden69. Das Fe-giF-% besass eine gute Lagerfähigkeit, denn es wurde ganzjährig für die Weiterverarbeitung ausgegeben und daraus Öl gepresst. Auch konnte es offenbar ohne Qualitätsverlust über grössere Strecken (z.B. von Susa in die Provinz LagaE (Transportzeit wahrscheinlich etwa einen Monat) transporDie Lagerfähigkeit des i-giH-Öls scheint tiert werden (RT 22, 153:2). ebenfalls recht gut gewesen zu sein, denn die Vorratshaltun erfolgte in grossen Tongefässen mit Ca. 84 bis 174 Litern Fassungsvermögen5 0 Auch gab es keinerlei Schwierigkeiten, das Öl über grössere Strecken mit dem Schiff zu transportieren so z.B. von Ur nach ~ i ~ ~ u r Diese ~ l . Strecke beträgt rund 150 km und zu Schiff konnte man sie damals in 10 bis 11 Tagen bewältigen72. Schätzt man die Zeit von der Herstellung des Öls bis zum Verbrauch in diesem Fall auf 15 Tage, so wäre Leinöl kaum noch zum menschlichen Verzehr geeignet gewesen.

.

Von besondere Wichtigkeit scheint mir auch der technische Gebrauch des ~-~iH-Öls.Und zwar sind 4 Bereiche zu unterscheiden: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Textilindustrie und 'Seifen' Lederindustrie Holzindustrie Sonstige Verwendungen

Das 3-giF-Öl wurde sicher auch zu 'Seifen' für die Körperpflege verarbeitet, wenn dies auch bisher nicht mit Sicherheit anhand der Texte nachcuweisen ist. Aus Mari stammen einige Texte, die über die Lieferung von 1-giH zum Baden von Gottheiten (U-na PU-mu-uk GN, RA 69, 24ff.) berichten. Da in einigen Fällen danach noch Zedernöl (i-giH-eren) genannt wird, ergibt die Lieferung des 2-giH m.E. nur Sinn mit der Annahme, dass es - zu Seife 'verarbeitet' - zum Reinigen der Götterstatuen und das Zedernöl zum anschliessenden 'Parfümieren' (und 'Glanz-Geben') verwendet wurde. Diese Deutung wird durch ARM 21, 117 :6ff bestätigt: "~-~iH-öl zum Waschen (U-na me-si-i) der Füsse der Götter (giri-dingir).

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2. Leder wird nach den Texten aus der frühen Isin-Zeit mit 3-giF oder auch Schweineschmalz (3-Hah) behandelt. Es handelt sich dabei höchstwahrscheinlich nicht um Fettgerbung, sondern um Einfetfsn des Leders, um es für den Gebrauch haltbarer und geschmeidiger zu machen Aus der Zeit der 3. Dynastie von Ur ist mir derzeit nur JCS 29, 122,4:4 und Nik I1 438:lff. bekannt. Danach wird Ö11~ett ( 3 ) und i-giH bei der Herstellung von Leder oder Ledergegenständen verbraucht. [Durch MVN 13, 895 lässt sich die Fettgerbung mit Sicherheit ausschliessen, da ein 'Lederarbeiter' (aHgab) in 6 Monaten nur 10 sila 3-giH-Öl für die Lederverarbeitung (kuH-aka) verbraucht. Diese Menge würde für die Fettgerbung bei weitem nicht ausreichen.]

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3. In den holzverarbeitenden Industrien verwendeten sowohl die Schreiner als auch die Schiffsbauer i-giF. Der Schreiner benutzte es z.B. bei ' Stühlen' $,gi3gu-za)76 für nicht näher bezeichnete Gerätschaften (giHFu-k~r) , Wagen (iiHgigir ) l8 oder besonders häufig für Türen von ~ ~Schiff . bau wird i-giH (einmal "gutes 3-gix", UET Palästen und ~ e m ~ e l n Im von Lastschiffen und des 3, 76.Rs.II.3ff .) für die Querbalken (gixh~rn)~~ königlichen Schiffs verwendet. Diese Querbalken mussten besondere Beanspruchungen aushalten und an ihnen wurde der Mast befestigt. Ob sie mit dem Öl eingerieben wurden, oder ob das Öl zum Tränken des Dichtmaterials , das zwischen die Ritzen gedrückt wurde, diente, muss offen bleiben. Beide Verwendungsweisen lassen sich nach Salonen 1965, 149f., nachweisen. Ausser 3-giF und Schweineschmalz konnte auch Fischtran beim Schiffbau benutzt werden (ibid., 149). 4. Zwei weitere Verwendungsweisen des 3-giH seien hier der Vollständigkeit halber erwähnt, auch wenn sie bisher m.W. nicht in Texten aus dem 3. Jahrtausend, sondern erst ab etwa 1800 v.Chr. nachweisbar sind. Danach wird 3-giF als Öl für Lampen ebenso gebraucht wie als Basis für Parfum (ARM 21, S. 127; ARM 23, S.416ff.). Beide Verwendungsweisen verlangen ein länger haltbares Öl, das nicht so rasch eintrocknet wie Leinöl.

Waetzold t

Fasst man die technischen Verwendungsweisen des 2-giF-Öls zusammen, so ergibt sich Folgendes: Die technischen Eigenschaften des f-giF scheinen dem Schweineschmalz ähnlich, denn es kann sowohl in der Textilindustrie, als auch in der Leder- und Holz-verarbeitenden Industrie durch Schweineschmalz ersetzt werden.

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Bevor ich zur Diskussion übergehe, ob Fe-giF-i wirklich Sesam(körner) und I-giF Sesamöl sind oder nicht, müssen noch die vorkommenden Qualitäten besprochen werden. Se-giF-i wird erst ab etwa 1800 v.~hr.~lin Qualitäten eingeteilt, nicht aber m.W. in den Texten des 3. Jahrtausends. Die normale Bezeichnung des Öls ist f-giz. Das "gute i-giF" (2-giFdul0-ga) begegnet In den weitaus seltener und kommt nur in relativ geringen Mengen vor82. Texten findet man die beiden Qualitäten in der Regel in folgender ~ n o r d n u :n ~ ~ ~ 3-nun-dulo-ga 3-giF-dulo-ga T-nun i-giF

Nur ein geringer Teil des Fe-giF-3 wurde ganz offensichtlich dem b6rarka genannten Ölgewinnungsverfahren unterzogen, denn die höchste genannte Quantität ist 39 sila (C. 32,8 Liter, s. Text 2 BM 14297:l-8) dafür ausgegeben. Die höchste Menge an 2-giF-b6ra-aka beträgt nur 3,5 sila (ca. 2,9 Liter, AfO 24 Tf. XIX Truro 4:l). Nach Text 2 erhalten Frauen wohl täglich (der Text ist auf den Tag datiert, was in LagaX äusserst selten und daher von besonderer Bedeutung ist) 5 oder 6 sila Fe-giF-3. Mehr konnten sie offenbar nicht an einem Tag erarbeiten^^. Die weitaus grösste Menge des Be-gig-3 wurde dem normalen Ö~~ewinnungsverfahren,das wohl mit sur bezeichnet wurde, zugeführt. Interessanterweise gibt es auch - wie M. Stol gezeigt hat - nach den altbabylonischen Texten zwei Gewinnungsverfahren: Nach YOS 2, 58 = AbB 9, das seltenere haZäl;u und das übliche gahätu. 58:8f f könnte es sogar sein, dass die Ölsamen beiden Verfahren nacheinander unterzogen werden konnten (erst haZäl;u, dann sahätu). In diese Richtung lässt sich wohl auch CT 8, 8e:lf. und 9f. (9 gur Fe-giF-T, b6ra-ga Ya-Zu-U'S-ti I-giF; U-na itu-1-kam Fe-giF-i i-ga-ha-tu-ma) interpretieren.

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"gutes Butterschmalz" "gutes 3-giF-Öl" "Butterschmalz" **~-~i~-öl

Nach den Texten aus der Zeit der 3. Dynastie von Ur gibt es noch Als Beispiel weitere Qualitätsbezeichnungen bei I-giF und 2-giF-dulo-ga. sei UET 3, 1017:7ff. aufgeführt; in diesem Text findet man Öle und Fette in folgender ~ e i h e n f o l ~ e ~ ~ :

I*

Nach dieser Einordnung zu urteilen, wird Butterschmalz höher eingeschätzt Für 1 Sekel als 2-giF. Dies wird durch die Preise bestätigt (s. oben). Silber konnte man meist 12 sila 3-giF, aber nur 10 sila Butterschmalz und sogar nur 5 sila "gutes Ö1/I?ettw erwerben. Da das "gute P-giF" nur in geringen Mengen anfällt und sicher von höherem Wert war, handelt es sich dabei wahrscheinlich um das erste Öl, das bei der Ölgewinnung abtropft. Man könnte dazu das 'olio vergine', das "Jungfernöl", vergleichen, das nach dem Mahlen der Oliven abläuft. Leider geht aus den Texten des 3. Jahrtausends nicht hervor, auf welche Weise man die Körner zerkleinerte und das Öl herauslöste. Die Zerkleinerung der Körner könnte in einem Mörser mit Hilfe eines Stössels oder in einer Handmühle erfolgt sein (vgl. dazu den Beitrag von M. Stol). Für das Trennen des Öls von den festen Kornteilen gibt es wiederum zwei Möglichkeiten: 1. durch Pressen des entstandenen Öl- reis z.B. durch ein Tuch oder 2. durch das Hinzufügen von warmem Wasser, wobei nach dem Kneten der Masse das Öl aufsteigt und abgeschöpft wird. Diese Methode hat G. Dalman in palästinaE14 beobachtet. Auf ein Pressen durch ein Tuch könnte möglicherweise der Terminus b6ra-aka oder b6ra-ga hinweisen85, der mehrfach auf T-giF, bzw. Fe-giF-i folgt. Dieses b6ra-aka/ga ist in lexikalischen Listen mit h a Z ~ ugeglichen, was W. von Soden in AHw (313 haZsu I 1-2) als "ausgepresst" und CAD (H 50) mit "pressed out (said of sesame seeds)" deuten (s. dazu ausführlicher den Beitrag von M. Stol). Man könnte sich vorstellen, dass man den Brei in einen ~ a c koder ein Tuch füllte und dann so lange presste, bis kein Öl mehr abtropfte. Die Ölausbeute dürfte bei diesem Verfahren nicht allzu gross gewesen sein. Das mit b6ra-aka/ga bezeichnete Öl erfreute sich ganz offensichtlich hoher Wertschätzung, denn einmal quittiert der Stadtfürst selbst den Empfang, das andere Mal ist das Öl für das königliche Fest des 'Bierausgiessens' in Tummal bestimmt86. Worin sich das I-giF-b6ra-aka von dem T-giF-dulo-ga unterscheidet, lässt sich derzeit nicht feststellen. Mit ziemlicher sicherheit scheint i-giF-dulo-ga kein anderer Terminus für I-giF-b6ra-aka.

Ölpflanzen und Pflanzenöle

Wae t zoldt

Ölpflanzen und Pflanzenöle

I-giF-dulo-ga giF a-r6-6

6mal (benutzt ) " 3mal (benutzt)"

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