Buddhist Civilization in Tibet

Tulku Thondup Rinpoche

BUDDHIST CIVILIZATION IN TIBET B y Tulku Thondup

Published by Maha Siddha Nyingmapa Center, U.S.A. — 1982

1

B U D D H IS T C IV ILIZA T IO N IN TIBET

Table of Contents Preface................................................................................................ uii Key Political and Religious Figures in Tibetan History.............................. ix Key Figures in the Nyingmapa Tradition.............................................. xiii Key Figures in the Kagyudpa Tradition.................................................. Key Figures in the Sakyapa Tradition.................................................. Key Figures in the Gelugpa Tradition.................................................... Map o f India ....................................................................................... Map o f Tibet (showing major monasteries)......................... ................

xu xuii xix xxi xxii

I — The Development of Buddhism in Tibet Introduction ......................................................................................... I.

3

Nyingmapa (the Ancient) S c h o o l................................................. 7 The Transmission of the Nyingmapa Teachings........................

13

1. Long Transmission of Canons................................................14 2. Short Transmission of Discovered Dharma Treasures......... .15 The Nyingmapa Scriptures........................................................ .17 Nyingmapa Doctrine...................................................................19 Important Nyingmapa Monasteries and Institutions.................. .23

Tibetan Buddhist School Which Resulted From The Later Spread o f the Doctrine ............................................................... 24 II.

Kagyudpa School.......................................................................

25

Kagyudpa Doctrine.................................................................... 31 HI.

Sakyapa S ch ool.........................................................................

33

Sakyapa Doctrine....................................................................... 35 IV. Gelugpa School..........................................................................

37

Gelugpa Monasteries.................................................................. 39 V.

Gelugpa Doctrine.......................................................................

41

Some Other Tibetan Buddhist Schools......................................

43

1. Kadampa School................................................................... 43 2. Zhi-Ched-Pa and Chod Schools............................................. 43 1) Pho-Chod.........................................................................

43

2) M o-Chod..........................................................................

44

3. Jonangpa S ch oo l.................................................................. 44

II — The S c o p e o f Tibetan Literature Introduction .......................................................................................

49

I.

51

II.

The Religious Literature............................................................ A ) Religious Literature — According to O rigin ........................

51

1. The Literature Translated from Indian Sources...............

51

(a) The Kajur Collection — The Buddha’s Teachings ....

51

(b) The Tenjur Collection — The Works of Indian Buddhist Scholars.........................................

52

2. The Literature Written by Tibetan Scholars....................

52

(a) The Literature of the Nyingmapa Sch ool.................

53

(i) The Classification of the D harm a..........................

53

(ii) Sutra.......................................................................

53

(iii) Tantra.....................................................................

53

(iv) Study......................................................................

56

(b) The Literature of the Sarm apa.................................

56

(i) The Classification of the D harm a..........................

57

(ii) Major Texts for Study and Practice........................

57

(iii) The Literature of the Kagyudpa S ch ool.................

57

(iv) The Literature of the Sakyapa School....................

58

(v) The Literature of the Gelugpa School....................

59

(vi) The Literature of Some Other Minor Schools........

58

B) Religious Literature — According to Subject.......................

63

1. Religion...........................................................................

63

2. History and Biography.....................................................

63

3. Poetic Composition and Yogic S o n g s .............................

64

4. Music, Dance, and Art and Architecture.........................

64

The Secular Literature................................................................

65

A)

History...............................................................................

65

B)

G ram m ar...........................................................................

66

C)

Poetic Composition, Metrical Literature, and Lexicons.....

67

D)

Logic...................................................................................

67

E)

Astrology...........................................................................

68

F)

Mathematics......................................................................

69

G)

Medicine............................................................................

69

H)

Geography and Cosm ology...............................................

70

I)

Law .....................................................................................

70

J)

Political Writings...............................................................

70

K)

Music and D an ce...............................................................

71

L)

Drama................................................................................

71

M)

Art and Craft......................................................................

71

Glossary ........................................................................................... 73 Index.................................................................................................... 83

PR E F A C E This booklet contains two articles which I wrote a few years ago. The first, "The Development o f Buddhism in Tibet" is a brief account o f the history o f the four major Buddhist schoob in Tibet. It includes a description o f their doctrines and monastic institutions. These four schools are the Nyingmapa (the Ancient Ones), who are followers o f the Old Tantras (those tantras translated into Tibetan before the eleventh century a.d.), the Kagyudpa, Sakyapa, and Gelugpa who are followers o f the New Tantras (those tantras which were translated after the eleventh century a.d.). The account which I have given in this article is the traditional version o f the history o f Buddhism in Tibet as it appears in Tibetan historical texts. The second article, “The Scope o f Tibetan Literature" is a brief outline o f the subject. It presents a general schema o f Tibetan literature, classifying the works on various subjects — secular and religious. I have included the names o f only a few m ajor literanj works as examples o f the literature fedling under each heading. I am grateful to Harold Talbot for editing these articles. My gratitude also goes to the Center for the Study o f World Religions and to Michael Baldwin and the other members o f the Buddhayana Foundation, U.S.A. for their generous sponsorship, which enabled m e to prepare these texts for printing. I am also thankful to Eric Jacobson for editing, proofreading and assembling the glossary and index and to Martha Hamilton for doing the typesetting, artwork and arranging for the texts to be printed. January, 1982 Cambridge, U.S.A.

Tulku Thondup

KEY POLITICAL & RELIGIOCIS FIGURES IN TIBETAN HISTORY Founders of Religious Schools and Translators

K IN G S 2nd cent. Nyathri Tsenpo enthroned in 127 B.C. First king of Tibet Founded Chogyal Dynasty 5th cent. Lha-Thotho-Ri Nyen-Tsen Brought first Buddhist scrip­ tures and religious objects into Tibet in 433 A.D.

Early Spread o f the Doctrine 7th-10th Century A.D. Thonmi Sambhota First Tibetan Buddhist translator. Invented Tibetan script and grammar.

7th cent. Srong-Tsen Gampo (617-698) Directed the development of a written form of Tibetan language. Inaugurated Buddhism as the religion of Tibet.

9th cent. Thri-Song Deu-Tsen Padmasambhava (1*10-844 A.D.) Came from India to teach Invited greatest Indian Buddhism in Tibet. saints and yogis to teach Founded nyingmapa School Buddhism in Tibet. Santirakshita ) Great Indian > scholars who Vimalamitra j visited Tibet.

Bairocana Kawa Paltseg Cheg-Ro Zhang Yeshey De

Directed construction of Samye monastery.

Tibetan Translators

Surendrabodhi Shilendrabodhi Danashila

Indian Scholars

Ratnarakshita Dharmatashila Jnanasena

Tibetan Scholars

9th cent. Tri Ralpa Chan (866-901) Assassinated by pro-Bon ministers.

Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshe Preserved Tantrik tradition

10th cent. Lang Dharma, ruled 901-906 A.D. Persecuted and suppressed Buddhism in Tibet.

La Chen Gangpa Rabsal Re-established Vinaya tradition.

Smrtijnana Last great translator of the Earlier Spread of the Doctrine.

Assassinated by Lha-Lung Pal-Dor. End of Chogyai dynasty. 10th-13th No central authority cent. (906-1253) Gradual return of Buddhist practice in Central Tibet to the end of the 10th century.

Later Spread of the Doctrine 10th-20th Cent. A.D. Rinchen Zang-Po (958-1051) First great translator of the Later Spread of the Doctrine

10th cent.

Atisa (982-1054) 10th cent. Founded Kadampa School Ma rpa (1012-1099) Founded Kagyudpa School

11 th cent.

Kon-Chog Gyalpo (1034-1102) Founded Sakyapa School

11 th-12th cent.

13th cent. Dro Gon Ghogyal Phagpa (1235-1280) Given kingship of Tibet by the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan, 1253. Sakyapa Rule began. 14th cent. Chang Chub Gyaltsen Overthrew Sakyapa rule, 1349. Began Phagtru Kagyudpa rule. Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) Founded Gelugpa School.

Eleven Phagtru kings.

15th cent. Donyod Dorje Overthrew Phagtru rule, 1435. Began Rinpongpa rule. Four Rinpongpa kings. 16th cent. Tsheten Dorje Overthrew Rinpongpa rule 1566. Began Tsangpa rule. Three Tsangpa kings. 17th cent. Gusri Khan, Mongolian king. Defeated Tsangpa rule, 1646. Gave rule over Tibet to the 5th Dalai Lama (1617-82). Beginning Gelugpa rule. Present

14th Dalai Lama (1 9 3 5 -)

Early Spread of the Doctrine — Padmasambhava

9th and 10th century A .D .

(9th cent.)

Santirakshita

”

Vimalamitra

"

Bairochana

”

Kawa Paltseg

”

Came from India to teach Buddhism in Tibet.

Main Tibetan translators am ong the 108.

Chog-Ro Lu’i Gyaltsen ” Zhang Yeshey De

’’ Preserved Tantrik tradition

Nub-Ch’en Sangye Yeshey ”

Later Spread of the Doctrine —

Started from later half of the 10th century A .D .

Lachen Gongpa Rabsal

Re-established/preserved Vinaya

(10th cent. A.D.)

in central Tibet.

Smrtijnana (11th cent. A.D.)

The last translator o f the Old Tantras.

Som e of the great Terton(s) — (Dharma Treasure Discoverers): Nyang-Ral Nyima^Odzer (1124-1192) Guru Chowang ( i l 6 4 - 1270/3) Rig-Dzin God-Dem (1337-1408) Sangye Lingpa (1340-1396) Dorje Lingpa (1346-1405) Ratna Lingpa (1403-1478) Padma Lingpa (1450-?) Rig-Dzin Jatshon Nyingpo (1585-1656) Dud-Dul Dorje (1615-1672) Lha-Tsun Namkha Jigmed (1597-1650?) Ter-Chen Gyurmed Dorje (1646-1714) Rig-Dzin Jig-Med Lingpa (1729-1798) Jam-Yang Khyen-Tse’i W ang-Po (1820-1892) Chog-Kyur Ling-Pa (1829-1870)

Som e of the great Writers: Rong-Zom Cho-Zang (11 cent. A.D.) —

Two Kun-Khyen(s) or

Long-Chen Rab-Jam( 1308-1363)

Omniscient Ones of

—

Nyingmapa. Nga-Ri Pema Wang-Gyal (1487-1542) Lo-Chen Dharmashri (1654-1717/8) Pal-Tul Rinpoche (1808-1887) Ju Mipham Nam-Gyal (1846-1912) Third Dodrup Chen (1865-1926) Zhen-Phen Cho-Kyi Nang-Wa (1871-1927)

.

Khenpo Ngag-W ang Pal-Zang (1879-1941) Jig-Tral Ye-Shey Dorje, the 2nd Dudjom Rinpoche (1 9 0 4 -) the Supreme Head of the Nyingmapa School

xiu

'

IN INDIA:

TILOPA N A R O PA

MAITRIPA

IN TIBET:

M ARPA (1012-1099)

M ILAREPA (1040-1123)

GAM POPA (1079-1153)

Karmapa Du-Sum Khyen-Pa (1110-1193) Founded Karma Kagyud

Phag-Mo Tru Pa, Dor-Je Gyal-Po (1110-1170) Founded Phagtru Kagyud

W on Gom Tshul Thrim Nyingpo (12th cent.)

Zhang-Dar-Ma Trag (1 122-?) Founded Tshalpa Kagyud

Dar-Ma W ang Chug (12th cent.) Founded Barompa Kagyud

Tag-Lung Thang-Pa Tra-Shi-Pal (1142-1210) Founded Tag-Lung Kagyud

Dri-Kung Kyob-Pa (1143-1217) Founded Dri-Gung Kagyud

Tsang-Pa Gya-Re (1161-1211) Founded Dmkpa Kagyud

xu

S o m e o f the G re a t W rite rs Karmapa Rang-Chung Dorje (1284-1334) Karmapa Mi-Kyod Dorje (1507-1554) Pa-W o Tsug-Lag Threng-Wa (1454-1566) Situ Ten-Pa’i Nyin-Ched (1698-?) Kong-Tul Yon-Ten Gyatsho (1813-.1899) Rig-Pa’i Dorje, the 16th Karmapa (1924-1981)

1Oth-11th cent.

Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po (1034-1102) Built Sakya monastery in 1073 A.D. and founded the Sakyapa school.

11th-12th cent.

Sa-Chen Kun-Ga Nying-Po (1092-1158) A great scholar and Siddha

12th cent. Sod-Nam Tse-Mo (1142-1182) Great teacher of Sakya school. 12th-Oth cent.

Trag-Pa Gyal-Tshen (1147-1216) Great teacher of Sakyapa school. Kun-Ga Gyal-Tshen (1181-1251), Sakya Pandita The greatest scholar of Sakyapa lineage, brought Buddhism to Mongolia and created the Mongolian script.

13th cent. Dro-Gon Cho-Gyal Phag-Pa (1235-1280) Became a preceptor of Kublai Khan, the Chinese Mongol Emperor, who gave him rule over Tibet in 1253 A.D. He was the first priest ruler of Tibet. 14th-15th cent.

Rong-Ton She-Cha Kun-Rig (1367-1449) A great scholar who built the Na-Len-Tra monastery in Phan-Po Valley in 1437 A.D. Ngor-Chen Kun-Ga Zang-Po (1382-1456) Built Ngor E-Wam Cho-Den monastery and founded Ngor-Pa sub-school.

15th-16th cent.

Shakya Chog-Den (1428-1507) Great writer. Go-Rab-Jam Sod-Nam Seng-Ge (1429-1489) An outstanding writer, scholar and critic and built Ta-Nag monastery in Tsang in 1414 A.D.

16th cent. Tshal-Chen Lo-Sal Gya-Tsho (1502-1566) Founded Tshal-Ba sub-school. 20th cent. Kun-Ga Thrin-Le Wang-Gyal, Thri Rinpoche (1 9 4 5 -) 41st and present Holder of the Throne of Sakya.

14th cent. Tsong-Kha-Pa, Lob-Zang Trag-Pa (1357-1419) One of the greatest scholars and writers of Tibet. He built Gaden monastery in 1410 A.D., reformed Tibetan monastic discipline and founded the Gelugpa school. 14th-15th cent.

Gyal-Tshab-Je(1364-1432) M . . . . . D Khe-Drub-Je (1385-1438) Mam d ‘SC‘pleS ° f Tson 9 -Kha-Pa Cham-Chen Cho-Je (1354-1435) Built Sera monastery in 1429 A.D. Jam-Yang Cho-Je (1379-1449) Built Dre-Pung monastery in 1419 A.D. Pan-Chen Ge-Dun-Drub (1391-1474), First Dalai Lama Built Tra-Shi Lhun-Po monastery in 1447 A.D.

15th-16th cent.

Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (Ser-Che’i Je-tsun (1469-1546) Great writer and scholar. Pan-Chen Sod-Nam Trag-Pa (1478-1554) Great writer and scholar.

16th cent. Sod-Nam Gya-Tsho (1543-1588), Third Dalai Lama He received the title of Dalai Lama from Mongol king Altan Khan and he built Ku-Bum monastery. 16th-17 th cent.

Lob-Zang Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (1570-1662) First Panchen Lama and was the greatest ritual text compiler of the Gelugpa school.

17th cent.

Ngag-W ang Lob-Zang Gya-Tsho (1617-82), Fifth Dalai Lama. He became the spiritual and temporal head of Tibet in 1642 A.D.

17th-18th cent.

Lob-Zang Ten-Pa’i Gyal-Tshen (1635-1723) First Je-Tsun Dam-pa He was the highest spiritual and temporal authority of Mongolia. He built Ri-Wo Ge-Gye-Ling monastery in Mongolia. Ngag-W ang Tson-Dru, first Jam-Yang Zhed-Pa (1648-1721) He built Tra-Shi-Khyil monastery in 1710 A.D.

18th cent.

Chang-Kya Rol-Wa’i Dor-Je (1717-1786) Chang-Kya successive incarnations were influential teachers in China.

20th cent. Thub-Ten Lung-Tog, Ling Rinpoche (1903- ) The 97th Holder of the Throne of Gaden, or successor of Tsong-Kha-Pa. Ten-Dzin Gya-Tsho (1935-), the 14th Dalai Lama.

50

100

1

200 I

400

300

_J_

500 —J

N am es of M onasteries: N y in gm ap a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 \

\

Samye Min-Trol-Ling Dor-Je-Trag Ka-Thog Pal-Yul Dzog-Chen Zhe-Chen Dodrup Chen Tarthang

K agyu d p a

Gelugpa

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

21

S ak y ap a 17 18 19

i

i \

N._

20 N

' "

Tshur-Phu Dri-Gung Den-Sa-Thil Dag-Lha Gam-Po Pal-Pung Ri-Wo-Che Sang-Ngag Cho-Ling

Sakya Nor-E-Wam Cho-Den De-Ge Gon-Chen (Lhun-Drup Teng) Dzong-Sar

’S N

LADAKH

WEST-CENTRAL TIBET (TSANG)

22 23 24 25 26 27

Gaden Dre-Pung Sera Tra-Shi Lhun-Po Chab-Do Ku-Bum Tra-Shi-Khyil

28 29

Ra-Dreng Jo(Mo-) Nang

VOL. I THE D E V E L O P M E N T O F B UD D H ISM IN TIBET

T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F B U D D H IS M IN T IB E T Introd uction Twelve centuries after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, Buddism crossed the Himalayan ranges and reached Tibet, the Land of Snow, in the 7th century A.D. In the following centuries Buddhism penetrated into all aspects of Tibetan life and culture and the Tibetan people found in the teaching of Lord Buddha a source of deep peace, happiness and fulfillment. Within the structure of Buddhist teaching, various methods were developed which were suited to different types of individuals. These various methods are included within the three principle paths or yanas: Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana. Tibetan Buddhism is unique in that it contains the scriptures, teachings and traditions of practice of all three yanas. Its almost infinite depth and richness make it one of the world’s most profound living traditions. This essay is intended to give a brief account of its development. When Buddhism reached Tibet, it encountered the ancient native religion called Bon. Bon is a type of Shamanism in which the spirits of the sun, moon, mountains and trees are worshipped. The Bon-Pos, as they were called, also sacrificed animals as part of their religious practice. For several centuries Buddhism and Bon were in conflict with one another in Tibet. Buddhism emerged the victor but Bon has remained a living tradition until the present day. As a result of its encounter with Buddhism, Bon underwent deep and lasting changes. Many Bon texts were constructed on Buddhist models and as time passed the content of the Bon scriptures reflected Buddhist influence. Buddhist concepts were expressed in the terminology and language peculiar to the Bon texts. There were even a few great Tibetan Buddhist scholars who translated Buddhist texts into the Bon-Po canon by using the vocabulary employed in the Bon writing. This was done so that the numerous Bon-Pos of Tibet could also benefit from the Buddhist teachings. Buddhism also had a profound effect on the political situation in Tibet. Part of the reason for its dramatic and almost total success within the country was because of the reverence and devotion of some of Tibet's greatest kings toward the teaching and principles of Buddhism, •n giving an account of the development of Buddhism in Tibet we must consider the activities of these kings, because their support and pa­ tronage was crucial to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet. Before the 2nd century B.C. Tibet was not united. There were only small feudal principalities, warring factions and wandering nomads. Towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. an exiled Indian prince reached Tibet and gained control over a substantial portion of the coun­ try. His Tibetan name was Nyathri Tsenpo and in 127 B.C. he was en­ throned as first king of Tibet. He built the first palace in the country, the Yum-Bu La-Gang in Yarlung Valley. He and the lineage of kings that

descended from him extended their control over the whole of Tibet. This lineage came to be known as the Chogyal (Ch’os-rGyal: Dharma King) dynasty. In 433 A.D. the 28th King of the Chogyal Dynasty, Lha-Thotho-RiNyen-Tsen, received some Buddhist scriptures and religious objects. He did not understand the meaning of the scriptures but perceived that they and the sacred objects were things of great value and treated them with great reverence. This was the first appearance of Buddhist scriptures in Tibet. The 33rd king of the Chogyal Dynasty was Srong-Tsen Gampo (617-698) who was the first of the three great Dharma kings of Tibet. Before Srong-Tsen-Gampo’s time the Tibeten language had ho written form. He sent his minister, Thonmi Sambhota, with many attendants to India in order to study the Morth Indian languages. After his return to Tibet, he developed the first Tibetan script on the basis of Indian models. He also wrote the basic grammar books for the Tibetan lan­ guage and translated many Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan. Two of the wives of King Srong-Tsen Gampo also played an important part in the early history of Buddhism in Tibet. He married princess Bhrikuti, daughter of King Amsuvarma of Nepal and Princess Wen Che’n, daughter of the Emperor T a n g T a i Tsung of China. Both of these women were devout Buddhists and they brought many priceless religious objects with them to Tibet. The most famous image of the Buddha in Tibet, the Jo-Wo-Yid-Zhin Nor-Bu, was brought from China by the Princess Wen Che’n. They encouraged and supported the building of many Buddhist temples within the country. The Tsug-LagKhang, the main temple of the capital city of Lhasa, was built under the patronage of King Srong-Tsen Gam po and Princess Bhrikuti. The King also constructed three codes of law for the people of the country based upon the principles and discipline of Buddhism. The reign of King Srong-Tsen G am po marked the beginning o f the practice of Buddhism in Tibet. The 37th Chogyal King, Thri-Song Deu-Tsen (790-844 A.D.) is the second o f the three great kings o f Tibet. He invited hundreds of Indian scholars and yogic masters to Tibet. The most famous were: Shantaraksita, an abbot of Nalanda University; Guru Rinpoche or Padmasambhava, the greatest Indian Tantric Master; and Vimalamitra, a famous scholar and yogi. King Thri-Song built the famous Samye monastery. Work was be­ gun on the monastery in 810 and during his reign the first Tibetans took ordination as Bhiksus (monks). Working under the King’s patronage, the great Indian scholars along with 108 Tibetan translators, such as Bairochana and Kawa Paltseg, translated numerous Sutra and Tantra texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan. During his reign Tibet attained a high degree of both secular power and spiritual development. Until the time of Lang Darma, in the 10th Century A.D., his successors continued to extend and develop the doctrine of Dharma in Tibet. (

*aSt t^le tllree 9reat Dharma kings was Thri Ralpa Chen -901), the 40th king of the Chogyal Dynasty. His major contribution

was to standardize the methods for translating Buddhist Sanskrit texts into Tibetan. All the texts translated up to this time were retranslated according to the new system. Henceforth, the translation of Buddhist texts was able to proceed with a high degree of accuracy and scholarly excellence. He also invited many great Indian scholars to Tibet and a great number of texts were translated into Tibetan. Unfortunately at the age of 36 he was murdered by his pro-Bon ministers. King Thri Ralpa Chen’s elder brother, Lang Darma, became king in 901 A.D. He was the 41st and last king of the Chogyal Dynasty. Lang Darma was anti-Buddhist and with the help of his pro-Bon ministers he began the systematic destruction of Buddhism in Central Tibet. The persecution fell especially heavily on the Bhiksu Sangha. Many monks were forcibly disrobed or killed. The institutions of Buddhist monasticism disappeared from Central Tibet for more than half a century. However, many Tantriks continued to practice covertly as layman and the powerful Tantric practioner, Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshe extracted a promise from the king not to harm the Tantriks or the Tantric texts. After five years of misrule Lang Darma was killed by a Buddhist priest. After his death his sons fought among themselves for the vacant throne. However, no one of them was able to succeed and for three and a half centuries there was no effective central authority in the land. The different provinces assumed the position of independent states and were ruled by feudal lords. During the time of Lang Darma’s persecution, three great monks fled to the province of Kham in Eastern Tibet and maintained the tradi­ tion of the Vinaya ordination there. The greatest disciple of these three monks was La-Chen Gongpa Rabsal. After half a century of absence, the Vinaya lineage of Bhiksu ordination was brought from Kham back to Central Tibet by ten students who had travelled from Central Tibet to study with La-Chen Gongpa Rabsal. By the end of the 10th century A.D. the monasteries of Central Tibet were able to resume their activities and the work of translation and practice was again carried forward. The great Indian scholar, Smrtijnana, was the most renowned translator of this period o f Tibetan religious history. The period we have been discussing so far down to the end of the 10th century is known in the Tibetan historial works as the period of the Early Spread of the Doctrine (bsTam-Pa sNga-Dar). The Tantric texts that were translated up to the end of this period are known as the Earlier Translated Tantras (gSang-sNgags sNga-a'Gyur) or Old Tantras. Smrti­ jnana was the last great translator of these texts. The lineage of teach­ ing based on these texts is known as the Nyingmapa (The Old Ones). This remained a powerful Buddhist lineage in Tibet up until the present time, and will be discussed in some detail on the following pages. The texts translated after the beginning o f the 10th century are known as the New Tantras (sN gags gSar-Ma). Tibetan religious historians refer to this period o f Tibetan history as the Later Spread (bsTan-Pa Phyi-Dar) o f the Doctrine. The first great translator o f the New Tantras was Rin-Chen Zang-Po (Rin-Ch'en bZang-Po, 958-1051). Marpa Chokyi Lo-Dro (Ch’os-Kyi Blo-Gros, 1012-1099) and Drog-Mi

Shakya Ye-She (a’Brag-Mi Shakya Ye-Shes, 993-1050) were also great translators of this period. Various major and minor schools developed based on different texts within the New Tantras. The Kagyudpa school was founded by Marpa (1012-1099) and the Sakyapa School was founded by KhonKon-Chog-Gyal-Po (dKon-mCh’og rGyal-Po, 1034-1102). The Kadampa School was founded by the renowned Indian scholar of Vikramashila known as Atisha (982,1054). Before discussing the contributions of these various schools to the religious history of Tibet it is necessary to conclude briefly our discussion of Tibetan political history. Increasingly during the period of the Later Spread of the Doctrine, especially after the development of the powerful Gelugpa School in the 14th century, Buddhism exerted a powerful influence and then completely dominated the political life of Tibet. This development began in the 13th century when Dro-Gon ChoGyal-Phag-Pa (a ’Gro-mGon Ch’os-rGyal a’Phag-Pa, 1235-1280) of the Sakyapa School became the spiritual tutor of Kublai Khan, the Mongolian King who eventually became the Emperor of China. The Khan in gratitude for Phag-Pa’s teaching and blessing, made him the ruler of all Tibet in 1253. This was the first time that the supreme secular authority was held by a monk. After Phag-Pa, a series of Sakyapa kings ruled Tibet for almost a hundred years. In 1349 Chang-Chub Gyal-Tshan (Byang-Ch’ub rGyal-mTshan) of the Phag-Tru (Phag-Gru) clan overthrew the Sakyapa rulers and became king of Tibet. Then a succession of eleven Phag-Tru kings ruled Tibet for 106 years. During this period, the celebrated scholar Lobzang Tragpa (BlobZang Grags-Pa, 1357-1419) from Tsongkha, Am do in Eastern Tibet founded the Gelugpa school. Tsongkha-Pa, as he was known, was a great scholar who wrote many works. He and his disciples built many large monasteries. He stressed the importance o f the fundamental teachings of Buddhism and the strict observance of monastic discipline. In time the Gelugpa became one of the most politically powerful of the Tibetan Buddhist Schools. From the 17th century until 1959 the Dalai Lamas of this school were both the spiritual and temporal leaders of Tibet. Before the Gelugpa assumed power, Tibet was ruled by two successive feudal dynasties. In 1435 Don-Yod Dorje of the Rinpung clan overthrew the Phag-Tru king and four succeeding Rinpungpa kings ruled Tibet for 130 years. In 1566 Tshe-Ten Dorje (Tshe-brTan rDo-rJe) of the Tsang-Pa (gTsang-Pa) overthrew the Rinpungpa ruler and three succeeding kings of this dynasty ruled Tibet for 76 years. Then in 1642 the forces of Gusri Khan of the Qosot Mongols de­ feated the Tsangpa rulers and offered the lordship of Tibet to the 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682). The present Dalai Lama is the 14th in this lineage. _ W e will now discuss the various Buddhist Schools that developed in Jibet, beginning with the Nyingmapa School.

I. N yin gm ap a (rN y in g -M a -P a ) School The Ancient Ones This school was founded by the Indian Tantric master, Padmasambhava, during the time of King Thri-Song-Detsen in the 9th century A.D. Various versions of his life are given in the Tibetan scriptures of the Nyingmapa Tradition, of which the following is a general outline. He was born from a lotus blossom in the Milk-Ocean in the country of U-rGyan (Oddiyana) which modern scholars believe to be the Swat Valley of Pakistan. He took birth eight years after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana He attained the deathless Siddhi through Tantric practice and at the age of more than 1000 years went to Tibet in the 9th century. His followers believe that he is still alive in the Rakshas’ land (Srin-Po’i Gling) and can be seen by realized persons. After his lotus birth, King Indrabodhi of Oddiyana found him in the Milk Ocean while he was returning from a successful trip in search of a Wishing-Gem. The king brought him to his palace and as he had no heir, he made him the crown prince. Eventually Padmasambhava married Khadro Od-Chang-Ma (mKha’-a’Gro A ’od-a’Chang-Ma). But he asked the king to allow him to renounce the kingdom in order to lead a life of religious practice. When the king refused, Padmasambhava exercising Skillful Means, killed a wicked minister’s son — who was to die at that time because of his past karmic effects — while they were playing. According to the law of the land Padmasambhava was banished from the country to a cemetary where he took up Tantric teachings and practices. This was in accordance with his wishes and he then visited other cemeteries to receive Tantric teachings and perform Tantric practices and he subdued the male and female spirits of those places. He was blessed by the Wisdom Dakinis Kha-Dro-Ma Zhi-WaTsho (mKha’-a’Gro-Ma Zhi-Ba-a’Tsho) and Vajra-Varahi. He then visited different teachers and studied medicine, astrology, logic, and art. He received Bhikshu (monk) ordination from Acharya Prabhahasti. He studied the Yoga Sastras from Acharya Prabhahasti, Vinaya from Ananda, and Tantra including Dzog-Pa Chen-Po (rDzog-Pa Ch’en-Po — Atiyoga, Skt.) from Prahevajra, Shrisinha, Nagarjuna, Humkara.Vimalamitra and Buddhaguhya, who were all accomplished masters. Through his practice he received the attainments of the various Tantras. A very significant happening in his life occurred when he visited the Sahora Kingdom. He gave teaching to the princess of the kingdom and her 500 ladies in waiting all of whom became nuns. The news reached the king that a very handsome stranger — like the son of the gods — was staying with the princess and her maidens. The king ordered that the Guru be burnt in a mountain valley filled with wood and oil. The Guru was to be wrapped in many cloths and the burning to take place before the people of Sahora. After a few days the Guru was not only unharmed but with the miraculous powers he had transformed the burning oil and wood into a mountain lake. He was sitting on a lotus blossom in the middle of the lake attended by many gods and Dakinis.

Upon seeing this the king and his subjects repented of their evil ways and Padmasambhava was taken to the king’s palace as a guest of honor. The king himself received teachings from him and offered him his kingdom and the hand of the Princess Mandarava. The Guru took Mandarava as his consort and together they went to the Maratika Cave, located in what is now Nepal, in order to do Tantric practice. There they both achieved the Deathless Attainment. Then Padmasambhava with his consort decided to return to the Kingdom of Oddiyana. Upon arriving in the country he was recognized by the evil minister whose son he had killed and the King ordered that he and his consort be burnt in a big fire of sandalwood. After a few days the Guru by his miraculous power had transformed the fire into a beautiful lake and he and his consort were sitting on a lotus blossom in the middle of the lake. The king, ministers and all people had faith in him as a great teacher and he remained in Oddiyana for 13 years as the Chaplain of the Palace. He gave powerful Tantric teachings such as the Ka-Du Cho-Kyi Gya-Tsho (bKa’-a’Dus Ch’os-Kyi rGya-mTsho), a condensed text of sadhanas and many fortunate people of the land including the king attained the Vidyadhara Siddhi. After leaving Oddyiana the Guru went to Nepal in order to do further practice. With the support of the Nepalese Princess Shakya-Devi he achieved the Supreme Attainment through the deep practice of the Sadhanas of Yang-Dag (Vishuddha) and Dor-Je Phur-Ba (rDo-rJe Phur-Ba — Vajrakila) divinities. Through this practice he attained and has remained in the form (body) of Mahamudra Vidyadhara. He then visited many parts of India such as Hurmuja (a small island of Oddiyana), Sikodhara, Dhanakosha, Rukma, Tirahuti, Kamaru, Tharu, Champa, Khasya, Triling (south India), Kanchi and Maghadha (central India). In these places he manifested different forms and subdued the evil spirits wherever he went. He gave various kinds of teachings and many of his disciples attained Siddhis (powers) which result from the successful practice of meditation and yoga. At this time the great Dharma King Thrisong Deutsen (790-844) was ruling Tibet. He was the most powerful ruler in Tibetan history and under his guidance Tibetan forces captured C h’ang-An, the capital of the Tang Dynasty and also penetrated all the way to Maghadha in Central India. King Trisong Deutsen as well as being a powerful secular ruler was also deeply devoted to the cause of Buddhism. He invited the great Indian Buddhist scholar and saint Shantaraksita, an Abbot of Nalanda University, to Tibet. The King and the Abbot launched the building of Samye monastery, the first Buddhist monastery in the country. However, because of the influence of the king’s wicked ministers and the local evil spirits, it was impossible to carry out the building o f the monastery. At the suggestion o f Shantaraksita the king invited Padmasambhava, who by this time had the reputation of being the most powerful Tantric master in India, to Tibet in order to defeat the forces obstructing the construction of the monastery. It was for this reason that Padmasambhava travelled to Tibet. He quickly pacified and subdued all the forces opposed to the construction of Samye Monastery,

as well as defeating all the other forces that were attempting to prevent the teaching of the Dharma in the Land of Snows. He gave both Mahayana and Tantrayana teachings to many fortunate persons. Together

with

his

realized

consort,

Khadro

Yeshe

Tshogyal

(mKha’-a’Gro Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal), he traveled with his miraculous power throughout Tibet doing various Tantric practices, performing miracles, giving teachings and blessing hundreds of caves, mountains, lakes, monasteries and temples as sacred places. Hundreds of Tibetans who received his teaching and blessing attained siddhis. He had 25 principle disciples (rJe-a'Bang Nyer-lNga) including the king. The great Samye with its main temple, twelve smaller temples, four great stupas and 108 smaller stupas all surrounded by a high wall, was completed within five years. It was the center from which Buddhism spread to all corners of Tibet. Many great Indian Pandits were invited to Tibet by the king and they worked with Tibetan scholars on the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan. In one of the smaller temples (sGra-bsGyur rCiya-Gar Gling) of Samye Monastery, one hundred Indian pandits and Tibetan translators worked together on the translations of Sutras and Tantras. Many Tibetan texts were also brought from other lands by the miraculous power of Guru Rinpoche and were translated into Tibetan. Thus when the great Indian Buddhist scholar Atisha who visited Tibet in 1042 A.D. saw the library at Samye Monastery, he was surprised to find so many Tantras which he had never seen in India. “These Tantras,” he said, "may have been brought from the Land of Dakinis by the power of Guru Rinpoche.” In the biography of Atisha it is said that that was one of the three reasons why he realized that there is no end of Tantras. Thus the mission of Guru Rinpoche to Tibet firmly established Buddhism in the Snow Land. He cleared away the forces that were hindering it and taught the Dharma in such a skillful manner that many Tibetans attained realization. The school that grew out of his mission is known as the Nyingma or Nyingmapa and it has survived through an unbroken lineage of masters until the present day. But Padmasambhava’s work in Tibet did not end with the establishment of Buddhism. He told the king that by his meditative power he could transform Tibet into a rich and prosperous land. He transformed barren, rocky lands into pastures and caused water to spring from rocks, Unfortunately some of the king’s ministers were antiBuddhist and they told the king that the Indian Tantrik was turning Tibet into a developed land in order to make it a part of India. The ministers intrigued against him and forced the king to ask him to return to India. The king prostrated before the Guru, made many offerings of gold and with a heavy heart asked him to return to India. Padmasambhava said that he had not come to Tibet for gold. He told the king that for him everything was gold and to prove his point he transformed several ordinary objects into gold. Then he said:

"Good happenings bring misery (ill luck), The old compassion is the cause o f singer. The mind o f the king was changed by the ministers; The ministers and evil-spirits o f Tibet are mischievous. For sentient beings who are experiencing the result o f bad karma, Even the Victorious Ones (Buddhas) are powerless to help them. ” Before leaving for India the Guru gave the teaching of the Man-Ngaglta-Ba’i a ’Phreng-Ba to the king and others. When he left, a large party accompanied him part o f the way to see him off. The wicked ministers sent eighteen men to kill him but when they encountered Padmasambhava, he made them motionless by his miraculous power. There is some dispute among Tibetan scholars about the length of the Guru’s stay in Tibet. Some accounts say that he was forced to leave Tibet because of the influence of the anti-Buddhist ministers. But the Nyingmapa accounts of his mission in Tibet say that only one of his magical emanations left the country and the real Guru remained at the request o f the king. These accounts state that the Guru remained in Tibet for 55 years 6 months. During this time he visited many solitary places with his consort Yeshey Tshogyal and continued to perform powerful Tantric practices in the country. Som e accounts say that he visited Sam ye Monastery and gave teachings there and again was threatened by the king’s ministers. This time these ministers were finally silenced by a display of his Tantric powers. The accounts that support Padmasambhava’s long stay in Tibet (55 years 6 months) agree that he only left Tibet during the reign of King Thri-Song Deutsen’s son, Prince Muthri Tsenpo. He finally left for the Rakshas’ Land in the year 864 with an impressive display of his magical power by riding a horse through the air at a place called Gung-Thang La-Thog before the king, Muthri Tsenpo, his ministers and thousands of people who had gathered to see him off. Guru Rinpoche visited many places in Tibet, snow-peaks, caves, forests, lakes, and temples. He blessed these places and in some of them he concealed various materials, including Dharma texts recording teachings in full or symbolic form, prophesies of the future of Tibet, and sacred objects and images. The Teachings he entrusted to his Disciples and the concealed objects and symbolic scripts to the protection of Dharmapalas, who would hand them over at the appointed times in future ages to the appropriate Ter-Ton(s) (gTersTons — Dharma Treasure Revealers). Before considering the teachings of the Nyingmapa School, we must first round out our account of the activities of King Thri-Song Deutsen (790-844 A.D.) and his immediate successors who contributed to the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. King Thri-Song Deutsen invited many other great Indian scholars and saints to Tibet along with

Padmasambhava and Shantaraksita. Mahapandita Vimalamitra, Dharmakirti, Buddhagupta, Kamalashila, Vishuddhasiddha, Shantagarbha and Manjushri came to Tibet from India, Kashmir and Nepal. Also the Tibetan scholars and translators Bairochana, Kawa Paltseg, Chogro Lu’i Gyaltsen, Zhang Yeshey De went to India and Nepal many times to receive Buddhist teaching and bring back texts to Tibet. During this time hundreds of texts were translated into Tibetan including texts from the Vinaya, Abhidharma, Hinayana and Mahayana Sutras as well as Tantric texts. These special Tantras of the Nyingmapa school — Maha Yoga, Anu-Yoga and Ati-Yoga (rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po) were trans­ lated in Tibetan by Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and Bairochana during this time. It was during this era that the first Tibetans took monastic ordina­ tion. The king wanted to determine whether or not Tibetans were capable of upholding the many (254) and strict vows which fully ordained Bhikshus must maintain. Seven men were selected for a test case and these men are known in Tibetan historical records as the Seven Men of Trial (Sad-Mi Mi-bDun). They were successful in keeping the vows and hundreds of Tibetans followed in their footsteps and became fully ordained monks. Two sanghas (religious communities) were founded: The Sangha of Renounced Ones (Bhikshus) and the Sangha of Tantriks. The succession of kings who followed Thri Song Deutsen until the time of Lang Darma supported and encouraged the spread of Dharma. This period of Tibetan religious history culminated in the reign of King Ral-Pa Chen (866-901). He invited the Indian scholars Jinamitra, Shilendrabodhi, Surendrabodhi and Danashila to Tibet and together with the Tibetan translators they carried on the work of translating the Buddhist scriptures. At this time the Tibetan grammatical systems were revised and strict rules were laid down in order to ensure the accuracy of the translations. These rules were known as the rGyal-Po’s b ’KasbChad, the rules by the order of the king. Unfortunately the king was killed by anti-Buddhist ministers at the age of 36 and his older brother, Lang Darma, who was actively against the Dharma came to power and severely persecuted Buddhism in Central Tibet. He ruled only five years before being killed by a Buddhist priest, but his suppression of Buddhism was so thorough that the Dharma virtually disappeared from Central Tibet for half a century. This ends the period known as the Early Spread of the Doctrine in which the Nyingmapa lineage was firmly established in the Land of Snow.

The Transmission of the Nyingmapa Teachings The transmission or way in which the teachings of a spiritual lineage originate, (particularly if the teachings have mystical and yogic aspects) and are handed down from one generation to the next is very important. It is necessary that the accuracy of the teachings be maintained if they are to be efficacious. Thus all effective spiritual traditions pay great attention to the transmission of their teachings and take great pains to ensure that they are properly communicated from generation to generation. W e will now consider the manner in which the profound body of Nyingmapa teachings was transmitted to the generations of practitioners. Many Sutra teachings of the Buddha and of Buddhist scholars, which were translated in the period of the earlier translation are still present and being practiced in their respective lineages. The Vinaya teachings and the lineage of Bhikshu ordination survived by bringing back the earlier tradition from Kham to central Tibet. Most Tibetan Bhikshus today belong to this tradition from the Earlier Spread. The complete scriptures of the original Abhidharma from the Tripetaka never reached Tibet. The Abhidharma of Asanga and Vasubandhu were translated during the Earlier Spread by Jinamitra and the translator Kawa Paltseg. They taught the Abhidharma to Lha-Lung Paldor and W e (dBas) Yeshe Gyalwa. The latter went to Kham where he spread these teachings. jPrajnaparamita texts were translated and taught by rLang-KhamsPa Qo-Ch’a. Madhyamika texts were translated and taught by Pandit Jnyanagarbha, the translator Chog-Ro Lu’i-Gyaltshen, Shantaraksita, Karrialashila, and others. With the translators Kawa Paltseg, Chogro Lu’i Gyaltshen, and Nanam Yeshe Gyaltshen, Acharyas Danashila and Kamalashila translated the following Sutras: Kon-Tseg (dKon-brTsegs — Ratnakuta), Phal-Wo-Ch’e (Phal-Bo-Ch’e — Avatamsaka), Sher-Ch’in (Sher-Phyin — Prajna-paramita). The Chinese Archarya Kamalashila with the translator Ma Rinch’en Chog (rMa-Rin-Ch’en mCh’og) translated many sutras from the Chinese. Along with the Tibetan translators Shantaraksita translated many texts of the Tripitaka. Padmasambhava with Nub Nam-Kha’i Nying-Po (sNubs-Nam-mKha'i sNying-Po) and others translated many Tantras. With the translator Nyag (gNyags) Jnanakumara, Acharya Vimalamitra translated many Inner and Outer Tantras. The names of the translators are recorded at the end of each text in both the Kagyur and Tangyur. The teachings of the Nyingmapa Tantras are transmitted through two major systems: Ring-Gyud Kama (Ring-brGyud bKa’-Ma — the Long Transmission of the Canons) and Nye-Gyud Ter-Ma (Nye-brGyud gTer-Ma — the Short Transmission through the Discovered Dharma Treasures). The Kama teachings were transmitted by earlier teachers to Jheir disciples through an unbroken lineage of teachers and students. The Ter-Ma teachings were texts concealed at various places by Guru

Rinpoche to be discovered in later times by highly realized lamas known as Tertons (gTer-Tons — Dharma Treasure Discoverers). 1. L o n g T ra n s m is s io n o f C a n o n s These are the Tantric teachings which the Buddha himself taught through the manifestation of various divinities. Most of them were taught by the Primordial Buddha Dharmakaya (Samantabhadra) and transmitted to disciples in various ways. According to the Nyingmapa School the transmission of Tantric teaching occurs in three stages: 1) The Primordial Buddha transmits the teaching to his inseparable disciples, the Sambhogakaya Buddhas, through direct Mind Transmission (dGongs-brGyud) without verbal or physical symbols. 2) The Sambhogakaya Buddhas such as Vajrasattva transmit teaching to Nirmanakaya emanations in different realms including the human realm through Indication Transmission (brDa-br Gyud). This type o f transmission is accomplished by verbal and physical indications. 3) In India and Tibet most teachers transmit teaching to their disciples through Hearing (ear) Transmission (sNyan-brGyud). This method is the most commonly used for ordinary beings. Beginning with Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and other teachers, the Hearing Transmission was started in Tibet and it has continued until the present day. The Mind Transmission and Indication Transmission also still exist among teachers of high Tantric meditational attainment. All of these systems o f transmission are very important because according to the Tantric teaching it is necessary to receive the proper transmission in order to practice. Tantric meditation practiced without receiving the proper transmission is dangerous or unbeneficial. The Nyingmapa system o f teaching has six levels of Tantras: The Three Outer Tantras and The Three Inner Tantras. The Three Outer Tantras are the Kriya Tantra, Charya Tantra and Yoga Tantra. The Three Inner Tantras are the Maha-Yoga, Anu-Yoga and Ati-Yoga. The Three Outer Tantras were brought to Tibet by Acharya Buddhagupta and others. The Three Inner Tantras’reached Tibet as follows: 1) Maha-Yoga: Vajrasattva taught the 18 Great Tantras to King Ja of Sahora in India. This king also received them from Vimalakirti who had received them from Vajrapani at the Malaya mountain (Sripada) in Sri Lanka. After passing through many teachers Buddhaguhya received them and then transmitted them to Vimalamitra. He gave the teachings of Maha-Yoga to the Tibetan translators Ma (rMa), Nyag (gNyag) and others. Padmasambhava also taught some of these Tantras to his disciples, including the Drub-Pa Kagyed, the Eight Sadhanas of Great Mandalas. 2) Anu-Yoga: King Ja also received the teachings of this Yana from Vajrasattva and Vimalakirti. The king then taught them to Siddha Kukuripa and they passed through many teachers finally reaching the .... .ii etan Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshey (gNub-Ch’en Sangs rGyas Ye-Shes) w o was one of the twenty-five principal disciples of Padmasambhava.

He taught them in Tibet and his lineage has survived to the present day. 3) Ati-Yoga: Vajrasattva transmitted these teachings to the Nirmanakaya emanation Garab Dorje (dGa-Rab rDo-rJe — Prahevajra) who passed them to a lineage of teachers including Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and Bairochana who taught them to Tibetans. Ati-Yoga (rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po) has three divisions: Semde (Sems-sDe — Chittavarga), Long-De (Klong-sDe — Abhyantarvarga) and Men-Ngag-De (Man-Ngag sDe — Clpadeshvarga). The first two divisions of the AtiYoga teachings were brought to Tibet by Bairochana, Tibet’s greatest translator. The Man-Ngag De which is also known as the Man-Mgag Nying-Thig (M an-Ngag sNying-Thig — Instructions on the Innermost Essence o f the Heart) are the deepest teachings of the Nyingmapa School. They were brought to Tibet by Padmasambhava and Vimala­ mitra and then passed through two lineages of transmission. The first was taught by Vimalamitra and passed through various teachers until it reached the great Nyingmapa saint and scholar Kun-Khyen Long-Chen Rab-Jam (Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en Rab-a’Byams, 1308-1363). The second lineage of transmission was taught by Padmasambhava to his consort Khadro Yeshey Tsho-Gyal (mKha’-a’Gro Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal) and Princess Pema Sal (Padma gSal). He concealed these teachings to be re-discovered at a later time. A few centuries later a reincarnation of the Princess Pema Sal called Pema Lethro Tsai (Padma Las-a’Phro rTsal) discovered the texts and her incarnation Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en Rab-Jam composed extraordinary commentaries on them. Thus in the figure of Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en Rab-Jam the two Nying-Thig lineages converged. He was the greatest scholar and saint of the middle period of the Nyingmapa tradition. He wrote 200 treatises on various subjects and his writings are some of the most important treasures of the Nyingmapa lineage and especially of the Man-Ngag Nying-Thig transmission. In the later period of the Nyingmapa School, the most important propagator of the teachings was Kun Khyen Jig-Med Ling-Pa (Kun-mKhyen a’Jig- M ed Gling-Pa, 1729-1798) who was a great teacher and writer.

2. Short Transmission of Discovered Dharma Treasures The Terma transmission is referred to as a short transmission because the lineages connected with it are generally very short. For example, if a disciple of Padmasambhava takes rebirth as a Terton in the 20th century, there is no need to have a long lineage of lamas proceeding him. He himself has received the blessing and empower­ ment from Padmasambhava, attained realization, and is thus second to Padmasambhava in the lineage of transmission. At the time of Padmasambhava’s mission in Tibet he and his consort Ye-Shey Tsho-Gyal concealed many texts and religious objects to be discovered by future disciples. The disciples who discovered them were known as Tertons (gTer-sTon). These lamas discovered the texts and objects through their high attainments in meditation and communicated them to disciples who were ready to hear them. Padma

sambhava himself foretold of the people who would become Tertons and gave details of their birth. The First Terton Sangye Lama (Sangs-rGyas Bla-Ma) appeared in the 11th century. Following him, there were hundreds of lamas who specialized in the discovery of these treasures. There were One Hundred Great Tertons and one thousand minor ones. Am ong the One Hundred Tertons there were five great ones who were known as the Five Kings. They were: 1) Nyang-Ral Nyi-Ma Od-Zer (Nyang-Ral Nyi-Ma A ’od-Zer, 1124-1192); 2) Guru Cho-Wang (Ch’os-dBang, 1164-?); 3) Dor-Je LingPa (rDo-rJe Gling-Pa, 1346-1405); 4) Padma-Ling-Pa (Gling-Pa, 1450-?); and 5) Jam-Yang Khyen-Tse (a’Jam-dByangs mKhyen-brTse, 1820­ 1892).

Most of the important Sutra, Abhidharma, Vinaya, Prajnaparamita and Tantric texts are contained in the Ka-Gyur or Kajur (bKa’-a’Gyur) collection of the Buddha’s canons which contains 1046 treatises in 104 volumes. The Nyingmapa also study the works contained in the TenGyur or Tanjur (bsTan-a’Gyur) collection which consists of commen­ taries by Indian Buddhist scholars on the Sutras and Tantras. This collection contains 3863 treatises in 221 volumes. There is also a large body of literature important to the Nyingmapa school which is not included in these two large collections. Som e of the most important texts are given as follows: 1) the Nying-Ma Gyud-Bum (rNying-Ma rGyud-a’Bum) which is a collection of Ancient Tantras in 33 volumes which was recently reprinted in New Delhi; 2) the Terma literature of the One Hundred Great Ter-Ton(s). One of the most important collections of this literature is the Rin-Chen Ter-Dzod (RinCh’en gTer-mDzod) in 60 volumes compiled by Kong-Tul Yon-Ten GyaTsho (rKong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho) (1813-1899). This collection was published under the auspices of Venerable Khyentse Rinpoche (Bhutan) and the Institute of Tibetology, Gangtok, Sikkim; 3) the MenNgag Ta-Treng (Man-Ngag iTa-a’Phreng) and Ma-Mo Sang-Wa Le-Kyi Thig-Le (Ma-Mo gSang-Ba Las-Kyi Thig-Le) by Guru Padmasambhava and 4) the works of Vimalamitra and Bairochana. Som e of the most important works written by Nyingmapa saints and scholars are listed as follows: 1) the works of Rong-Zom Cho-Kyi Zang-Po (Rong-Zom Ch'os Kyi bZang-Po,10th century); 2) the 200 treatises of Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en Rab-Jam (1308-1363); 3) the works of Pal-Tul Rinpoche (dPal-sPrul Rin-Po-Ch’e) 1808-?); 4) the works of MiPham Rin-Po-Ch’e (1846-1912) in 32 volumes; 5) the works of the 3rd Dodrup Chen Rinpoche (rDo-Grub-Ch’en Rin-Po-Ch’e) (1865-1926) in 6 volumes; and 6) the works of Khenpo Zhenga (mKhan-Po gZhan-dGa’, 1871-1927) in 15 volumes.

The Nyingmapa School classifies all of the Buddha’s teachings and paths to enlightenment into Nine Yanas. The first three yanas are called the Hetu-Laksana-Yanas or Yanas of Cause. They are known as the Shravakayana, Pratyeka-Buddhayana and the Bodhisattvayana. The last six yanas are called the six Phala-Vajrayanas or Yanas of Result. These yanas contain the Tantric teachings and are known as the Three Outer Tantras and Three Inner Tantras. W e will now give a brief explanation of each of these yanas. 1) Shravaka-Yana (Vehicle of Listeners; Hinayana): The disciples of this yana accept any one of the eight pratimoksa vows of moral discipline. They accept the selflessness of persons (Pudgala-niratma) but not the selflessness of phenomena (Dharma-niratma). The mind and body is relaxed through the practice o f tranquility meditation. They do insight meditation on the Four Truths and their sixteen aspects and through the perfection of the four paths — Sambharamarga, Prayogamarga, Darshanamarga and Bhavanamarga— they attain peace and happiness for oneself. They attain gradually the four stages of result: Stream Enterer, Once-Returner, Never-Returner, and Arhat. 2) Pratyeka-Buddhayana (Silent Buddha; Hinayana): discipies of this path observe any one of the eight pratimoksa vows as do the Shravakas. They assert the view of Pudgala-niratma, but in regard to the view of Dharma-niratma, they accept the selflessness of objects but they hold the view that the smallest moment of consciousness is true. They practice tranquility meditation, meditation on the Four Truths with their sixteen aspects of interdependent arising (Pratityasamutpada). Through these efforts one can attain the state of Arhathood for oneself. 3) Bodhisattvayana (Mahayana): Disciples of this path assert that all persons and phenoma are without any self or truth. They practice many of the same meditations as in the above two yanas but practice is done with the intention of achieving enlightenment of Buddhahood for the benefit of all living beings. This intention to achieve enlightenment for the benefit of all is known as ‘Bodhicitta’ and is one of the distinctive marks of the Mahayana path. In addition, they practice the Six Per­ fections (paramitas): generosity (dana), ethics (sila), patience (ksanti), strenousness (virya), contemplation (samadhi) and wisdom (prajna). They train in the Four Paths, meditate on the two-fold Niratma and the 37 W ings of Enlightenment (Bodhi-pakshi). After practicing for three countless eons (asankhya-kalpa) they attain the Mahaparinirvana, Supreme Enlightenment. After attaining this state they continue to appear in the world of beings in various forms until all creatures attain enlightenment. The next six yanas of the Nyingmapa are all within the practice of the path of Tantra. A quotation from one of the ancient tantras (TshulgSum-sGron-Me) gives a brief indication of the meaning of the Tantric Path:

The aim is the same, but there is no delusion, There are many skillful means and no difficulties, It is for people o f sharp intellect; Hence, the Tantrayana is supreme. The goal o f all the yanas is the same — enlightenment or Buddhahood — but the way of practice is different. In the lower yanas, one attempts to avoid defilement or uses various means as antidotes against defile­ ment. But in the Tantric paths the defilements themselves are used as a means to attainment. The goal is to see all aspects of existence as perfect and pure. This it is skillful means to attain Buddhahood. A. The Three Outer Tantras (Phyi-rGyud sDe-gSum ) 1) Kriya-Yoga (Bya-rGyud): Disciples of this path concentrate on the purification of body, speech and mind. They live mostly on vege­ tarian foods, sweets and dairy products. They assert that within A bso ­ lute Truth (Parmartha) all things are equal but in the Relative Truth (Samvriti-Satya) they hold that the divinities are lords and the disciples are servants. They visualize the divinity in front of them and make offerings and recite prayers and mantras. Generally, the devotee does not visualize as himself the divinity. By meditating on the body, speech and mind of the divinity the disciple receives the divinity’s blessing. After six or seventeen lifetimes of such practice one will attain the Trikula-vajradhara State. 2) Charya Yoga (also known as (Ipaya Yoga; sPyod-nGyud): The disciples of this path maintain the same philosophical view as in the Yoga-Tantra (below) and practice much as in the Kriya-Yoga Tantra (above). The main difference is that they visualize the divinty as a friend or close relation and concentrate on the stabilization of their contem­ plation. They attain the state of Vajradhara within seven lives. 3) Yoga Tantra (rNal-a’Byor-rGyud): The disciples of this path maintain that within Absolute Truth all existents are free from any conceptualization, are empty and shine with radiant clarity. Within Relative Truth all appearances are regarded as the Mandalas of divinities. They do not pay much attention to the cleaning of the body, speech or mind as these things are automatically purified as a result of meditation. Their meditation has two aspects: with char-acteristics and without characteristics. In the first stage the disciples visualize themselves as the divinity and then invite the wisdom divinity (Ye-ShesPa) and dissolve it into the visualized form (Dam-Tshig-Pa). Then offerings etc. are made. In the second stage, the disciples concentrate on the meaning of Tathata, the non-duality of char-acteristicless absolute nature and all appearances, which are divinities. B. The Three Inner Tantras (Nang-rGyud sDe-gSum): ^ In the Outer Tantras the distinction between the Two Truths is maintained, divinities are not visualized with their female consorts, the five meats are not taken and one does not attain the final result in this lifetime. In the Inner Tantras the Two Truths are held to be inseparable,

all phenomena are equal, the five meats and five nectars are taken, the divinities are visualized with their consorts, and the final result can be attained in this life. The Tantras of these three yanas are the special and distinctive Nyingmapa practices. 1) Maha Yoga: The disciples of this path enjoy all things without being in any way attached to them. Within absolute truth all things are accepted as the essence of the mind and the Dharmakaya. All manifestation, thoughts and appearances are considered to be the sacred aspects of the divinities within relative truth. The disciple purifies all existents as divinities and concentrates on the non-duality of bliss, clarity and no-thought. One can attain enlightenment in this life. 2) Anu Yoga: This practice does not concentrate so much on the visualization of the deities. Rather, the disciple stresses the perfection (rDzogs-Rim) of bliss, clarity and no-thought (bDe-Ba, gSal-Ba and MirTog-Pa). This is done through yogic practices on the veins, semen and energy (rTsa, Thig-Le and rLung) in the body. They assert that all appearances are the three great mandalas which are Spontaneous, Empty and Great Bliss. There are two paths contained within this TantrarThe Path of Liberation (Grol Lam) and the Path of Skillful Means (Thabs-Lam). In the path of liberation one meditates on the no-thought wisdom and sees all appearances as divinities and their Pure Land. In the path of skillful means one attains wisdom by using the four or six chakras of the body. Through these practices one may attain Buddhahood in this life. 3) Ati-Yoga (rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po — Mahasandhi Yoga): This is the highest teaching of the Nyingmapa, and it is exclusively a Nyingmapa teaching and practice. Dzogchenpas assert that all the appearances or apparent phenomena are illusions of the deluded mind. They are false because in reality their nature is free from conceptualizations, in nature all existents are the same and they are pure in the Dharmakaya. In practice there is no acceptance or rejection, rather all existents are accepted as manifestations of the nature, Dharmata. There are three aspects in Dzogchen teachings: Sem-De (Sems-sDe — Chittavarga), Long-De (Klong-sDe — Abhyantarvarga) and MenNgag-De (Man-Ngag sDe — Cipadeshavarga). These teachings are instructions which introduce the student to the nature of the mind or the nature of all existents — the Dharmata (Awareness) by the innermost direct method of practice. After receiving the introduction to this nature, one maintains the practice to make clear and to stabilize this state of Awareness and to attain freedom from worldly defilements forever. When this meditation on the nature of mind is perfected, all existents will dissolve into the vast expanse of Dharmata, the Dharma­ kaya.

Important Nyingmapa Monasteries and Institutions There are about 1000 Nyingmapa monasteries in Tibet. Som e of the major ones are as follows: The Samye monastery built by Guru Padmasambhava and Shan* tarakshita in the 9th century is the most important as it was Tibet’s first major monastic institution. The Tsug-Lag Khang (gTsug-Lag-Khang) and Ra-Mo-Ch’e temples of Lhasa built by King Srongtsen Gam po in the 7th century and many other ancient temples are of Nyingmapa origin. However, in recent centuries most of these temples are o f now administered by the Gelupa Order. Some of the important monasteries of the present day are given as follows: In Central Tibet: Min-Trol Ling (sMin-Grol Gling) monastery built by Ter-Chen Gyur-Med Dor-Je (gTer-Ch’en a’Gyur-Med rDo-rJe, 1646-1714) in 1676. Dor-Je Trag (rDo-rJe Brag) monastery built by RigDzin Ngag-Gi Wang-Po (Rig-a’Dzin Ngag-Gi dBang-Po) in 1659. In Kham: Ka-Thog monastery built by Ka-Dam-Pa De-Sheg (bDegShegs, 1122-1192) in 1159. Pal-Yul (dPal-Yul) monastery built by RigDzin Kun-Zang Shey-Rab (Rig-a’Dzin Kun-bZang Shes-Rab) in 1665. Dzog-Ch’en (rDzogs-Ch'en) monastery built by Padma Rig-Dzin (Rig-a’Dzin, 1625-1697) in 1685. Zhe-Ch’en monastery built by the 2nd Rab-Jam Gyur-Med Kun-Zang Nam-Gyal (Rab-a’Byam a’Gyur-Med KunbZang rfHam-rGyal) in 1735. Khor-Dong (’Khor-gDong) Monastery of Chang-Ter (Byang-gTer) tradition. In Golok and Am do provinces: The Dodrup Chen monastery built by the second Dodrup Chen Rinpoche. Tarthang monastery built by Lhatul Rinpoche. Tung-Kar monastery of Ser-Tha. Rong-Wo Srib-Gon monastery of Re-Kong. Rong-Wo Nyin-Gon of Re-Kong. There are also a large number of Nyingmapa monasteries in Bhutan and some in Sikkim, Ladhakh and parts of Nepal. In recent years there are also a gowing number of Nyingmapa centers and temples in Europe and the United States. In general the Nyingmapa tradition in Tibet did not have one head for the whole school. But since coming to India, the Nyingmapa recognize H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche, the incarnation of the great Terton Dudjom Lingpa, as supreme head with his main seat in Nepal.

Tibetan Buddhist Schools Which Resulted From The Later Spread of the Doctrine The persecution o f the Dharma by the anti-Buddhist King Lang Darma marks the end o f the Earlier Spread o f the Doctrine in Tibet Towards the end o f the 10th century Buddhism began to reappear in Central Tibet. The 11th century in Tibetan religious history was a time o f great progress and development o f Buddhism in Tibet Many new teachers and texts arrived from India during this period and many Tibetans went to India to study. The texts which were translated during the 1 1th century and afterwards are known as the New Tantras. These texts and teachers who had mastered the teachings founded new Buddhist schools in Tibet These schools are generally known as the Sar-Ma or New Ones. We begin our survey o f these schools with the Kagyudpa S chool

II. K agyu dp a S ch o o l (b K a ’-brG y u d -P a) Transmission of the Oral Teaching The Kagyudpa School has two main schools and many minor ones. The two main school are: Shangpa Kagyudpa (Shangs-Fa bKa’-brGyud) and Dagpo Kagyudpa (Dvags-Po bKa’-brGyud-Pa). A . Shangpa Kagyudpa: This school was established by the great yogi and Siddha KhyungPo Nal-Jor (rNal-a’Byor — the yogi of Khungpo, 978-1079). He spent 50 years studying Sutra and Tantra in India, Nepal and Tibet. He had many teachers including Sukhasidha, Rahulagupta and the rainbow body form of Nigu, the consort of Mahasiddha Naropa. The Zhang-Zhong monastery in Shang valley was his principal monastery. In addition, he built 100 other monasteries. He taught for 30 years and had 80,000 disciples. His main teaching were on the five tantras: Sambhara, Haivajra, Mahamaya, Guhyasamaja and Vajrabhairava. He also transmitted the teachings of Nigu, Sukhasiddha and the doctrine of Mahamudra. This lineage has survived until the present time but it is not very well known at present. B. Dagpo Kagyudpa: 'Dagpo Kagyudpa’ translated literally means transmission of the order (canon) of Dagpo (Dvags-Po). Dagpo is one of the names for the great scholar and yogi Gampopa who lived in the Dagpo valley and played a decisive role in the establishment of this school in Tibet. The founder of the school was Mar-Pa Lo-Tsa-Ba (also known as Ch’os-Kyi BIo-Gros, 1012-1099). He first studied with Drog-Mi Lo-TsaW a (a’Brog-Mi-Lo-Tsa-Ba) (993-1050) in Tibet and he then went to India three times and Nepal four times. He took teachings from 108 teachers. His two principal teachers were the Indian Mahasiddhas Maitripa and Naropa, both of whom were among the 84 Mahasiddhas of Buddhist India. He learned many Tantric teachings including the doctrine of Mahamudra from these realized teachers. Through the teaching and blessing of Mahasiddha Maitripa he accomplished the absolute reali­ zation of Mahamudra. Upon returning to Tibet he transmitted the teachings of Sambhara, Guhyasamaja, Haivajra, Mahamaya and others tantrasto his disciples. His four principal disciples were known as the Four Pillars. They were: Ngog-Ton Cho-Ku Dor-Je (rNgog-sTon Ch’ossKu-rDo-rJe), Tshur-Ton W ang-Ngo (mTshur-Stong dBang-Ngo), MeyTon Tshon-Po (Mes-sTon Tshon-Po) and Milarepa (mi-La Ras-Pa). Milarepa (1040-1123) was Marpa’s greatest disciple and much of the teaching of this school passed through him. He was one of the most famous yogis and poets in Tibetan religious history. When he was young he took up the practice of black magic in order to take revenge on the enemies of his family. Through the powers he gained practicing black magic he destroyed his enemies’ crops and killed 37 people. Then he realized the consequences o f the evil deeds he had committed

and decided to practice the Dharma in order to purify himself. He studied with different teachers and then m et Marpa who becam e his root lama. Marpa subjected him to six years o f arduous labor in order that he m ight be purified o f the bad karma he acquired through practicing black m agic. A t the end o f this period o f trial Marpa initiated him into the Tantric Mandalas. He then practiced in mountain caves som etim es living for months on a diet o f herbs. Because o f the power o f his Tum -M o (gTum -M o — Heat Y o g a ) he wore on ly a cotton cloth in the dead o f the Himalayan winter. He had many disciples who attained realization. His two main disciples w ere Dag-Po Lha-Je (Dvags-Po LharJe) and Re-Chung-Pa (Ras-Chung-Pa). D agpo Lhaje (the doctor from D agpo valley and also known as G am popa) was born in 1079. His w ife died when he was in his twenties and he decided to renounce the world and b ecom e a monk. He received the teachings o f the Kadampa tradition and o f M ilarepa and these two traditions m erged within him. He obtained the suprem e realization and becam e a great scholar. He wrote many scholarly texts, the most fam ous being the Dag-Po'i Thar-Gyen (D vags-Po'i Thar-rGyan) in which the teachings o f the Kadampa tradition and those o f M ilarepa are com bined. Because o f the renown o f D ag-Po Lha-Je's scholarship this school becam e known as the D agpo Kagyud. From this original school, Four M ajor Sub-Schools and Eight M inor Sub-Schools developed. The Four M ajor Sub-Schools o f the Kagyudpa are: Karma Kargyu (or Kamtshang Kagyud), Phagtru Kagyud, Tshalpa Kagyud and Barom Kagyud. 1) Karma K agyud (Kar-Ma bKa’-rGyud): This school grew out o f the disciples o f Karmapa Du-Sum Khyeh-Pa (Dus-gSum mKhyen-Pa) (1110-1193). He studies with many teachers including Gam popa and Rechungpa, attained the supreme realization and built monasteries at Karma Lha-Ding (ID in g) and Tshur-Phu (mTshur-Phu). His incarnation was known as Karmarpa Pakshi and he was the first recognized incarnation (Tulku) in Tibet. He visited the court o f the M ongols who at that tim e ruled China and he becam e the Chaplain o f the Em peror, who bestowed the title ‘Karmapa Pakshi’ on him. T h e Karmarpa lineage is the head o f this school and now is generally recognized as the head o f the whole Kagyudpa lineage. The present Karmarpa, the XVIth, Rig-Pa’i Dor-Je (Rig-Pa’i rDo-rJe) who was born in 1924 presently lives in Sikkim and has traveled to many countries throughout the world. He has established over 100 m editation centers in the West. The Karmarpas are also known as the Black Hat Lamas because from the first or second Karmarpa (there is a scholarly dispute on this point) they have worn a black hat m ade from the hair o f 10,000,000 dakinis. This hat which is worn on cerem onial occasions has been passed through the entire lineage o f the Karmarpas. In Tibet the main m onastery o f this lineage is Tshur-Phu m onastery located in the center o f the country. Th e third Karmapa, Rang-Chung Dor-Je (Rang-Byung rDo-rJe), was a great Siddha and scholar and the eighth Karmarpa MiK yod Dor-Je (M i-bsKyod rDo-rJe), was a renowned writer. This school produced many other great lamas. One o f the most

famous was Situ Cho-Kyi Nyin-Ched (Ch’os-Kyi Nyin-Byed) who built the great Kagyudpa monastery o f Pal-Pung (dPal-sPung) in Dege, Kham. He was also a great scholar and wrote 15 texts including the famous commentary to the Tibetan grammatical roots texts. While living in Pal-Pung monastery the great 19th century scholar and writer Kong-Tul Yon-Ten Gya-Tsho (rKong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho) (1813-1899) wrote and compiled 100 volumes of both Nyingmapa and Kagyudpa teachings. His works are known as the Dzod-Nga (mDzodN ga) — the Five Treasures of Kontrul.

The other lineages o f highly attained reincarnations of the Karma Kagyud are: Zha-Mar-Pa (Zha dMar-Pa) or Red Hat, Gyal-Tshab (rGyalTshab), Situ and Ne-Nang Pa-Wo (gNas-Nang dPa’-Bo) Lamas. 2) Phagtru Kagyud (Phag-Gru bKa’-brGyud): This school was founded by Phag-Mo Tru-Pa Dor-Je Gyal-Po (Phag-Mo Gru-Pa rDo-rJe rGyal-Po) who was bom in 1110. He took teachings from many teachers including Gampopa who taught him the Mahamudra doctrine. He built a monastery at a place known as Phag-Mo (now called gDan-Sa mThil) in Southern Tibet and his tradition came to be known as Phagtru Kagyud. He had many disciples. Som e of them were Tag (sTag)-Lung Thang-Pa, Na (sNa)-Phu-Pa, Ling-Re Pema Dorje (Gling-Ras Padma rDorJe), Tsang-Pa, Gyal-Re Cho-Je Jig-Ten Gon-Po (gTsnag-Pa rGya-Ras C h’os-eJe a’Jigs-rTen mGon-Po), Kal-Den Ye-Shey Sengye (sKal-IDan Ye-Shes Senge), Ye-Phug-Pa, Kyer Gom-Pa (Gyer-bsGom-Pa) and Gyal (rGyal)-Tsha Rin-Po-Ch’e Kun-Dan (IDan) Re (Ras)-Pa. Many sub-schools developed from the disciples of Phagm o Trupa. In 1349 Chang-Chub Gyal-Tshen (Byang-Ch’ub rGyal mTshan) of this school became ruler of Tibet which helped to spread the influence of this tradition. 3) Tshalpa (Tshal-Ba) Kagyud- This school was founded by Zhang Dar-Ma Trag (Grags) who was born in 1122. His main teacher was WonGom Tshul-Thrim Nying-Po (dBon bsGom Tshul-Khrims sNying-Po) who was a close disciple of Gampopa. He built the Gung-Thang monastery and had many disciples. 4) Barom Kagyud (a ’Ba-Rom bKa’-brGyud): This school was founded by Dar-Ma Wang-Chug (dBang-Phyug) o f Barom in Northern Tibet. He was a close disciple of Gampopa and attained great realization as a result of his teachings. He built the Barom monastery and thus his tradition is known as the Barom Kagyud. The Eight Minor sub-schools of the Kagyud lineage all developed from the Phagtru Kagyud School. They were founded by disciples of Phagmo Trupa. They are outlined as follows: 1) Drikung Kagyud (a’Bri-Gung bKa’-brGyud): This school wa founded by Kyura Rinpoche (sKyu-Ra Rin-Po-Che, 1143-1192). He received the highest Kagyudpa teachings from Phagmo Trupa and became a great scholar and famous Bhikshu. W hen he gave teachings 55,000 people sometimes attended including 10,000 monks. He built a Tionastery in the Drikung valley in Central Tibet and his tradition is known as the Drikungpa. He wrote a series of scholarly volumes called the Gong-Chig (sGongs-gChig). The most famous scholar and writer in the later history of this tradition was Rin-Ch’en Phun-Tshogs who wrote

on aspects of both Nyingmapa and Kagyudpa teaching. There are still a large number of Drikung Kagyud followers and monasteries in Ladakh. 2) Taglung Kagyudpa (sTag-Lung bKa’-brGyud-Pa): Tra-Lung Thang-Pa Tra-Shi Pal (bKra-Shis dPal) who was born in 1142 founded this school. He was an attendant to Phagmo Trupa, received the complete teachings and attained the realized state of meditationless Mahamudra. He built a monastery in the Taglung valley and his tradition was named after the valley. He had 3,000 students. The famous scholar Ngag-W ang Trag-Pa (Nga-dBang Grags-Pa) was also instrumental in the development o f this tradition. Sang-Gyal W on TragPa Pal (Sangs-rGyal dBon Grags-Pa dPal), a nephew o f Gampopa built the Riwoche monastery in Kham. The monastery is noteworthy in that it contains different colleges for the study of the different schools in Tibetan Buddhism. 3) Yamzang Kagyud (gYam-bZang bKa’-brGyud): This school was founded by Phagmo Trupa’s disciple Ye-Shes (Shes) Senge. He received the highest realization just by seeing the Guru and listening to the introductory instructions in meditation. His chief disciple Ya-Zang-Pa (gYa’-bZang-Pa) who was born in 1169 and built the Yazang monastery. The tradition took its name from this monastery. 4) Throphu Kagyudpa (Khro-Phu bKa’-brGyud-Pa): This tradition was founded by Rin-Po-Ch’e Gyal (rGyal)-Tsha and Kun-Den Re-Pa (KunlDan Ras-Pa) who were brothers (som e accounts say nephew and uncle) and disciples of Phagmo Trupa. Rin-Po-Ch’e Gyal-Tsha built the Throphu monastery. They had a nephew called Throphu Lotsawa — the translator from Throphu valley. He took teachings and the Bhikshu vows from his uncles and then went to Nepal and studied with many Indian teachers including the great Pandita Shakyashri of Kashmir. He built an 80 foot statue of Maitri Buddha within the Throphu monastery and wrote many important texts. 5) Shugseb Kagyud (Shugs-gSeb bKa’-brGyud): This tradition was founded by Pagm o Trupa’s disciple Cho (C h ’os)-Kyi Senge who built Nye-Phu Shug-Seb (sNye-Phu Shugs-gSeb) monastery. The school is named after this monastery. 6) Yepa Kagyud (Yel-Ba bK a’-brGyud-Pa): This tradition was established by Yel-Wa Ye-Shey Tseg (Yel-Ba Ye-Shes-brTsegs). He built the Shar Dor-Je Dang (Shar rDo-rJe rDangs), Lho Yel-Phug and Chang Ta-Na (Byang rTa-rNa) monasteries. 7) Martshang (sMar-Tshang) Kagyud: This tradition was started by Marpa Richen Lodro (sMar-Pa Rin-Chhen Blo-Gros) of Mar-Shod in Kham. 8) Drukpa Kagyud (aBrug-Pa bKa’-brGyud): This tradition was established by Phagm o Trupa’s highly realized disciple Ling-Re-Pa (Gling-Ras-Pa) and the latter’s disciple Tsangpa Gyare (gTrang-Pa rGyaRas) (1088-1158). This school eventually divided into three subschools known as the Middle (or Central) Drukpa, Lower Drupka and Upper Drupka Kagyud. Each of these three branches is briefly discussed below. a) The Par-Druk (Bar-a’Brug) — Middle Drukpa Kagyud: Ling-Re-

Pa (1248-1308) was a highly realized disciple of Phagmo Trupa who had many disciples and who constructed a monastery at Na (sNa)-Phur. His disciple Tsang-Pa Gya-Re (gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras) (1161-1211) became a famous teacher whose teachings were sometimes attended by as many as 50,000 people. After building the Long-Bol (Klong-rBol) and RaLung monasteries he went to a place called Nam (gNam)-Gyi Phu to build a monastery. When he and his party reached Nam-Gyi Phu they saw nine roaring dragons flying in the sky. The Tibetan word for dragon is “a’Brug” which is being pronounced as “Druk”. The flying dragons were taken to be an auspicious omen and the monastery and the lineage which sprang from it came to be known as the Drukpa. This school eventually became very popular in Tibet. Its followers were simple people, content with few material possessions who were known for their deep practice of the Dharma. There is a Tibetan proverb which says:

Half o f the people are Drukpa Kagyudpas, Half o f the Drukpa Kagyudpas are beggars, And half o f the beggars are Drub Thobs (Siddhas). Later in this tradition many great scholars appeared including Sang-Gye Dor-Je (Sangs-rGyas rDo-rJe), Pod Khe-Pa (Bod-mKhas-Pa) and Padma Kar-Po (dKar-Po). Padma Kar-Po (1527-?) was a famous scholar whose collected works covers fouteen volumes. Am ong the Drukpa Kagyudpas he is known as Kun-Khyen (Kun-mKhyen — All Knowing). He was the fourth Druk-Ch’en incarnation of Tsang-Pa GyaRe (gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras). He founded the Sang-Ngag Cho-Ling (gSangsNgags Ch’os-Gling) monastery near the Tibetan-Assamese (an Indian State) border. This monastery became the residence of the Druk-Ch’en incarnations. Two lineages of incarnations came from him — Pag-Sam Wang-Po (dPag-bSam dBang-Po) and Ngag-W ang Nam-Gyal (NgagdBang rNam-rGyal) (1594-1651). The latter went to Bhutan and became both the spiritual and temporal head of the country. Eventually this school became very powerful in Bhutan and in the Tibetan and Bhutanese languages Bhutan is known as “Druk” (a'Brug) or country of the dragon. The greatest Siddhas of this school are Tsang-Nyon (gTsang sMyon) (1452-1507), Druk-Nyon Kun-Leg (a’Brug-sMyon Kun-Legs) (1455-?), Wu-Nyon (dBus-aMyon, 1458-?). b) The Med-Drufc(sMad-a’Brug) — Lower Druk-Pa Kagyud: This sub school was founded by Lo-Re-Pa Dar-Ma Wang-Chug (Lo-Ras-Pa Dar-Ma dBang-Phyug) who was a disciple o f Tsang-Pa Gya-Re. He lived a very humble and strictly disciplined life. He built the Wu-Ri (dBu-Ri) and Senge-Ri monasteries. The tradition he founded is known as Med-Druk. c) The Tod-Druk (sTod-a’Brug) — Upper Druk-Pa Kagyud: This sub school was founded by God-Tsang-Pa Gon-Po Dor-Je (rGod-Tshang-Pa mGon-Po rDo-rJe) who was also an important disciple of Tsang-Pa GyaRe. He was very highly realized, led a simple and austere life and had many disciples. His main disciples were O-Gyen-Pa (O-rGyan-Pa),

Yang-Gon-Pa (Yang-dGon-Pa), Chil-Kar-Pa (sPyil-dKar-Pa) and Ne-RingPa. Ba-Ra-Wa Gyal-Tshen Pal-Zang (a’Ba’-Ra-Ba rGyal-mTshan dPalbZang) (1255-1343) was one of the greatest scholars of this lineage. Ogyenpa Rin-Chen-Pal (1230-?) who was a disciple of God-Tshang-Pa became a great Siddha and visited Bodhagaya, Jalandara, Oddiyana and China. He wrote many works including a famous guide to the Oddiyana country. He had many disciples including the Karmapa RangChung Dor-Je (Rang-Byung rDo-rJe), Khar-Chu-Pa (mKhar-Chhu-Pa) (1284-1339) and Tog-Den Da-Seng (rTogs-lDan Zla-Seng). At the present time the most well known of these sub-schools are the Karma Kagyud (or Karma Kam-tshang), Drukpa Kagyud and Drikung Kagyud.

The Kagyudpa teachings are based on the Kadampa tradition and the Tantras of the New Translation. The special teachings of this school are A ) the Naro-Cho-Trug (Na-Ro Ch'os-Trug — Six Yogas of Naropa) from the Indian Mahasiddha Naropa and B ) the Mahamudra teachings of Mahasiddha Maitripa. A ) The Haro Chodruk (Six Yogas of Naropa): There are six aspects of this advanced Vajrayana meditation practice. They are briefly described as follows. 1) Tummo (gTum-Mo: Heat Yoga): This is the basic practice of the Six Yogas o f Naropa in which the veins, air, heat and semen are used to produce the four kinds of bliss and to actualize the wisdom o f the union o f bliss and emptiness. The union of bliss and emptiness is known as the Mahamudra. 2) Gyulu (sGyu-Lus: Maya Body): The purpose of this practice is to make further progress on the path of realization. Through the practice of this yoga the meditator is taught to see all appearance as the illusory body of the deities. 3) Milam (rMi-Lam: Dream): This yoga is used to test the strength o f the practice. The meditator is trained to maintain awareness during sleep and dream states. 4) Odsal (a’od-gSal: Radiant Clarity): This practice is the essence of the path. The meditator practices until he achieves the State of the Cinbom Radiant Clarity Samadhi in which all of existence becomes the spontaneously arising body of clarity and emptiness. 5) Bardo (Bar-Do: Intermediate state between death and rebirth): This practice is used to actualize the union of clarity and emptiness in the intermediate state through the experience o f the Maya-Body and Radiant Clarity. 6) Phowa (a’Pho-Ba: Transference): This practice is used to maintain the continuity of the path throughout one’s life. If the meditator should die before perfecting the path through this practice he is able to continue his practice into the next life. By this practice the meditator can enter the Pure State through the door of the Mahamudra. There is another type of Phowa called “a’Pho-Ba Grong-a’Jug” which enables the practitioner to transfer his consciousness into another body. The lineage of this teaching came from the celestial Buddha Vajradhara, Mahasiddha Tilopa, Mahasiddha Naropa, The Great Translator Marpa, Milarepa and Gampopa, etc. B ) Mahamudra (Phyag-rGya-Ch’en-Po): The Mahamudra teachings have two aspects: The Mahamudra of the Sutra and Mahamudra of Tantra. In the Mahamudra of Sutra it is taught that the nature of mind is Radiant Clarity and undefiled. The meditator meditates directly on Unmodified mind which is inseparable from appearances and empti-

ness. The Relative Truth is the sudden defilements and the Absolute Truth is the Buddha Nature. In reality, all existents are free from all con­ ceptualization and are emptiness. In the Mahamudra of Tantra the meditator is introduced to the nature of mind and concentrates on that one pointedly. A s a result, the Lung (rLung) (air or energy) enters the Wu-Ma (dBu-Ma — central vein) and generates the Tum-Mo (gTum-Mo, heat — Chandali, Skt.) and develops the four kinds of bliss. The meditator then concentrates on the union o f bliss and emptiness in order to attain the final goal of the Mahamudra state. The lineage of the Mahamudra teachings came from the Indian Mahasiddha Maitripa and was introduced into Tibet by the translator Marpa who passed it to Milarepa who passed it to Gampopa. These teachings have been passed through an unbroken lineage of masters down to the present day. The fundamental teachings o f the various schools of the Kagyudpa tradition are the same. However, the different schools had, slightly different methods of practice and interpretation.

III. Sakyapa (Sa-sKya-Pa) School Grey Earth School Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po (a’Khon dKon-mChhog rGyal-Po, 1034-1102) was the founder of this school. In 1073 he built a monastery in tipper Tsang. At the place where he built this monastery the color of the earth was grey. ‘Sa-Kya’ means grey earth and the monastery and the tradition that came from it are known as Sakyapa. The earlier generation of the Khon clan were noted followers of the Nyingmapa. But Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po went to the great translator Drog-Mi Ye-Shey (a’Brog-Mi Ye-Shes, 993-1050) and received the teachings and initiations of the New Tantra (gSar-Ma). He was instructed in the Lam-Dre (Lam-a’Bras — the path and result) teachings which had been expounded by the Indian Mahasiddha Bairupa. Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po’s son, Sa-Chen Kun-Ga Nying-Po (Sa-Ch’en Kun-dGa’-sNying-Po, 1092-1158) became a great scholar and Siddha. He received the special Lam-Dre teachings from Mahasiddha Bairupa himself who came to the Sakya monastery by his miraculous power and stayed and taught for one month. Two of Sa-Chen Kun-Ga Nying-Po’s sons Sod-Nam Tse-Mo (bSod-Nam s rTse-Mo, 1142-1182) and Trag-Pa Gyal-Tshen (Grangs-Pa rGyal-mTshan, 1147-1216), became great scholars and Siddhas. Their younger brother’s son, KunGa Gyal-Tshen (Kun-dGa’ rGyal-mTshan, 1181-1251), became the greatest scholar of the Sakyapa school. He was recognized as the highest authority on the teachings of the lineage. He became a Bhikshu and wrote many scholarly volumes. Later he became known as the Sakya Pandita. He defeated the great South Indian Pandit, HariNanda, in a debate in the Kyirorig valley between Tibet and Nepal. He was invited to the Chinese court by the Mongolian Emperor of China, Gotan who was the grandson of Gengis Khan. He became the supreme teacher at the Chinese court and devised the script and grammar for the Mongolian language. The Sakya Pandita’s younger brother’s older son, Dro-Gon ChoGyal Phag-Pa (a’Gro-mGon Chhos-rGyal a'Phags-Pa, 1235-1280) was a great teacher and became the first Lama Ruler of Tibet. He studied under his uncle’s guidance and became a highly realized Lama. After his uncle’s death he became the guru to the Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan. In return for receiving Abhishekha (initiation) the Emperor offered him central, western and southern Tibet. At the time o f his second visit to China the emperor offered him additional areas of Tibetan territory. He thus became the ruler of Tibet and the Sakyapas controlled the country for a century after 1253 A.D. The Sakyapa school produced many great scholars throughout its long history in Tibet. Its five greatest scholars are known as the Sa-Kya Gong-Ma Nam -Nga (Sa-sKya Gong-Ma rNam-lNga): The Five Supreme Ones of the Sakyapa. They were the Sakya Pandit, Sa-Chen, Sodnam, Trak Pa and Phag-Pa. Som e of the other great scholars of the school are ^ agT ru g (gYag-Phrug), Rong-Ton (Rong-sTon), Ngor-Pa, Dzong-Pa

(rDzong-Pa), G o Rab-Jam (G o Rab-a’Byams) and Sakya Chog-Den (m Ch’og-IDan). Go Rab-Jam-Pa Sod-Mam Senge (bSod-Nam s Senge) who was bom in 1429 is one of the most famous writers o f the Sakyapa. He is known as Kun-Khyen (Sarvajna, Skt.) which means All Knowing. He wrote 15 famous books and built the Ta-Nag Thub-Ten Ling (rTaN ag Thub-bsTan Gling) monastery in Tsang. In addition to the main Sakyapa school there are two subschools of this lineage: Ngor-Pa and Tshar-Ba. Ngor-Chen Kun-Ga Zang-Po (MgorCh’en Kun-dGa’ bZang-Po) (1382-1456) built the N gor E-W am Choden (E-W am Ch’os-lDan) monastery and it eventually became the second greatest Sakyapa monastery and a subschool of the main lineage. The followers of another great teacher, Tshal-Chen Lo-Sal Gya-Tsho (TshalCh’en Blo-gSal rGya-mTsho) (1502-1566) established another subschool which became known as the Tshar-Ba. Since the lineage was founded the primacy o f the Sakyapa lineage has been passed through the Khon clan. They are also the heads of the main Sakya monastery. The present head of the Sakyapa school is Thri Rinpoche Kun-Ga Thrin-Le Wang-Gyal (Khri Rin-Po-Cher Kun dGa’ a’Phrin Las dBang-rGyal) who was born in 1945 and lives in India. In addition to the Sakya and N gor monasteries in Tsang, the other important monasteries are: Lhun-Drub-Teng (Lhun-a’Grub sTeng) in Dege (sDe-dGe) province, Dzong-Sar Tra-Shi Lha-Tse (rDzong-gSar bKra-Shis Lha-rTse) in Kham, Nalentra in Phen-Yul, Ta-Nag (rTa-Nag) and Nyen-Yod (mNyan-Yod) in Central Tibet and Deur Cho-De (lDeur Ch’os-sDe) in Am do.

Sakyapa Doctrine The special teaching of this school is the Lam-Dre teachings or the Path and Result. The view o f Lam-Dre is said to be “Clarity and Emptiness without grasping” or ‘T h e undifferential nature of Samsara and Nirvana”. Within the Lam-Dre teachings there are two aspects: A ) Sutra and B) Tantra. A ) Sutra: Within the Sutric aspect there are two traditions: l)N agarjuna and 2) Maitrinatha. 1) Nagaijuna: This tradition teaches the three Dog-Pa (bZIog-Pa) practices. Dog-Pa means to reverse. These three practices are: a) By meditating on the suffering of Samsara, the difficulties of obtaining a human birth, the law of Karma and Maitri (compassion) one will reverse oneself from unvirtuous actions. b) First, reflecting on the grasping of one’s own body, to examine as follows: if the body is real, then it should be real from the beginning and independent of any causes and conditions. But the body has developed and functions only because of causes and conditions. By knowing this one will develop the certainty that the body is without reality. By meditating on this, one will cease to take the conceptualizations o f grasping self as truth (Satyagrahana) and will reverse the concept of Self-Grasping (grasping self or ego as true). c) Then one ceases to reflect on no-truth (Asatya): one will reverse the view of no-truth by recognizing that emptiness is free from grasping at an object; by recognizing that whether phenomena exist or do not exist is beyond the conception of the mind; and by dwelling in the state free from conceptualization and grasping. 2) Maitrinatha: This tradition teaches that the natural ClarityWisdom of the Basis is the foundation of both Samsara and Nirvana. By not recognizing this it we are in delusion and are grasping as true the dual appearances of subject and object. This delusion is the root of Samsara and the purpose of the path this to destroy this ignorance by dissolving that duality into the Dharma-Space Pharmadhatu). B) Tantra: The tantric aspect of the Lam-Dre teachings is used for the realization o f the nature of the mind. First, one should recognize the ordinary mind and then meditate on the union of clarity and emptiness. From this practice one can find the Mind of natural wisdom spontaneously arisen and meditate on the meaning of it. Through this Practice the mind will not be distracted by delusions. All appearances then arise as the play of wisdom. If deluded reflections still arise, then by recollection and mindfulness the delusory appearances transform themselves into the Nature of Wisdom. The lineage of the Lam-Dre teachings came through the Indian teachers Bairupa, Purva-Krisna, Damaupa, Avadhutipa and Gayadhara

monastery (dGa’IDan Khri-Pa) was Gyal-Tshab-Je and then Khe-DrubJe. Since that time the throne-hoiders o f Gaden have been the seniormost scholars and they are the heads of the Gelugpa School. The present Ga-Den Thri-Pa is Ling Rinpoche, senior tutor to the Dalai Lama, who is now living in India.

G e lu g p a M o n aste rie s The Gelugpas constructed huge monastic establishments in many parts of Tibet. Som e of the most important ones were: 1) Ga-Den (dGa-lDan) Monastery: This monastery was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa himself in 1409. It is located 25 miles from Lhasa and has residences for 4,000 monks. It had two major colleges (GraTshangs) for study of both Sutra and Tantra. 2) Dre-Pung (a’Bras-sPung) Monastery: This monastery was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s disciple Jam-Yang Cho-Je, in 1416. It is located three miles west of Lhasa and has accomodation for 9,000 monks. It has three colleges for the study of Sutra and one college for the study and practice of Tantra. 3) Se-Ra Monastery: This monastery was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s disciple, Cham Chen Cho-Je in 1419. It is located IV 2 miles north of Lhasa and has accomodation for 7,000 minks. It has two colleges for Sutra study and one for Tantra. 4) Tra-Shi Lhun-Po (bKra-Shis Lhun-Po): This monastery was built by Pen-Chen Ge-Dun-Trub, the first Dalai Lama, in 1447. It has residences for 4,000 monks and three colleges for Sutra study and one for Tantra. It was the seat of the Dalai Lamas until the first Panchen Lama became head of the monastery. The first Panchen Lama, LobZang Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (Blo-bZang Ch’os-Kyi rGyal-mTshan) (1570-1662), was one of the greatest Gelugpa scholars and the tutor of the fifth Dalai Lama. Since his time this monastery has been the seat of the Panchen Lamas. The present Panchen Lama was born in 1938 and is now in China. 5) Gyud-Med Tra-Tshang (rGyud-sMad Gra-Tshang — Lower Tantric Training College): This monastic college is located in Lhasa and was founded by Shey-Rab Senge (Shes-Rab Senge), a disciple of TsongKha-Pa, in 1440. It has accomodation for 500 Tantric Bhikshus. 6) Gyud-Tod Tra-Tshang (rGyud-sTod Gra-Tshang — Upper Tantric Training College): This monastic college was founded by KunGa Don-Trub (Kun-dGa’ Don-Grub), a disciple of Shey-Rab Senge, in 1474. It is a training college for 900 Tantric Bhikshus. < 7) Chab-Do (Ch’ab-mDo) Monmastery: This monastery is located ■n the Kham province of Eastern Tibet. It was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s disciple, Cham-Chen Choje in 1437. , 8) sKu-a’Bum Monastery: This monastery is located in the Amdo Province of Eastern Tibet at the birthplace of Tsong-Kha-Pa. It was built ,With the advice and blessing o f the third Dalai Lama, Sod-Nam GyaTsho (bSod-Nams rGya-mTsho) (1543-1588). It has residences for 3700 j£onks and has three colleges. One of the colleges is for medicine and p*® other two are for Sutric and Tantric study and practice. ;* 9) Tra-Shi Go-Mang (bKra-Shis sGo-Mang) Monastery: This fftonastery was built by Jam-Yang Zhed-Pa Ngag-W ang Tson-Dru Jam-dByangs bZhad-Pa Ngag-Bang brTson-a’Grus, 1648-1721), a

disciple o f the fifth Dalai Lama, in 1710. It is located in the Amdc province of Eastern Tibet and has residence for 3700 monks. Manj great scholars have come from this monastery such as Gong-Thanc Ten-Pa’i Dron-Me (Gong-Thang bsTan-Pa’i sGron-Me). It has foui colleges: one for Sutra, two for Tantra and one for medicine. 10) dGon-Lung Monastery: This monastery was built by Don-Yoc Cho-Kyi Gya-Tsho (Chhos-Kyi rGya-mTsho) in the Am do province ol Eastern Tibet in 1592. From this monastery the great Chang-Kyj (Chang-sKya) and Tho-Kvan (Thos-bKvan) incarnations spread the Gelugpa teachings into Mongolia and parts of China. Many Buddhisl scriptures were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian and Chinese al this monastery. 11) Ri-Wo Ge-Gye-Ling (Ri-Bo-dGe-rGyas-Gling or Ta-Khu-Ral] Monastery: This monastery was located in Hal-Ha, Outer Mongolia and was founded by the first Je-Tsun Dam-Pa, Lob-Zang Ten-Pa’i GyalTshen (rJe-bTsun-Dam-Pa, Blo-bZang bsTan-Pa’i rGyal-mTshan] (1635-1723) who was an incarnation of Taranath. The Jetsun Dampa was the highest lama in Mongolia and occupied a position comparable to that of the Dalai Lama in Tibet. This monastery was his residence. It had 27,000 monks and 11 colleges. ; There were also hundreds of smaller Gelugpa monasteries in Mongolia before the coming of the Communists. In addition there were also a few Gelugpa monasteries in China before 1949. |

The

G e lu g p a s

are

within

the

P rasan gik a-M adh yam ik a

philosophical tradition and they largely adopted the method of practice taught by Atisha in the Kadampa system. Their Tantric teachings, from the New Translation of the Tantras, are the Kriyayoga Tantra, Charyayoga Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Anuttarayoga Tantra. The method Of the Kadampa School is summarized in the following passage:

“To accept all the doctrines (o f Buddha) as instructions. To understand that all the instructions are the main path (or part o f the path) that leads a person to the attainment o f Buddhahood, and to practice the three stages o f the path (higher, middle and lesser) according to one’s own capacity. The Gelugpas stress the teaching on interdependent arising to prove that all things are empty and free from conceptualization. According to the doctrine of interdependent arising, all phenomena are without self-nature and arise because of mutually interdependent causes and conditions. Thus phenomena are empty in that they lack self-nature and do not function independently of one another. The Gelugpas practice both the Sutras and Tantras according to the method of the “Stages of the Path” which is a gradual method beginning with the Preliminary Practices and ending with the Perfection of Transcendental Wisdom. In their Tantric practice they use two stages (Rim-gNyis): development (bKyed-Rim) and perfection (rDzogs-Rim). Through the use of this method they realize emptiness through the spontaneously arising bliss and attain the fully perfected Sambhogakaya. The deep and intensive study of the Buddhist scriptures is strongly emphasized by the Gelugpa school. For the study o f Sutra the following texts are mainly used: 1) the Nyaya texts of Dignaga and Dharmakirti; 2) Prajnaparamita of Maitrinatha and Asangha; 3) the Madhyamika texts of Nagarjuna and Chandrakirti; 4) the Abhidharma of Vasubandhu and Asangha; and 5) the Vinaya text o f Gunaprabha. In addition to the original texts, many commentaries by both Indian and Tibetan scholars are studied. For example, just considering Dre-Pung monastery alone, each Tra-Shang (college) has a different Yig-Cha (commentarial texts) Written by Gelugpa scholars o f their own Tra-Tshang. The study of the 0riginal texts is done on the basis of these commentaries. The following

Tantras are mainly studied: Guhyasamaja, Chakrasamvara, Vajrabhairava> Haivajra, Kalachakra and Vajrayogini. _

The following quotations from the works of Tsong-Kha-Pa give an

lndication of the main points of the Gelugpa teachings. In Drang-Ngey

Leg-Shed Nying-Po (Drangs-Nges Legs-bShad sNying-Po) he says:

By the assertion o f the inevitable interdependent arising o f o f Samsara and Nirvana, Destroy all the characteristic conceptualizations; By the moon-like teachings o f Chandrakirti, When the Kumud garden-like mind and eyes have opened, By seeing the path shown by Buddhapalita, Who will not hold the excellent philosophy o f Nagaijuna as supreme? In the Lam-Tso Nam-Sum (Lam-gTso rNam-gSum — the Three Principal Aspects of the Path), he says:

If you do not have the wisdom o f realizing the nature (real state), Even if you have gained the experience o f revulsion from the Samsara and have generated Bodhicitta, ' You cannot cut the root o f Samsara; So try the means o f understanding interdependent arising (pratitya-samutpada). > Whoever sees that the functioning o f cause and result O f all the existents o f Samsara and Nirvana is inevitable And destroys all conceptualization, Enters the path "Pleasing to the Buddha”. S '

A s long as you see the two — Appearances, the inevitable interdependent arising, And emptiness, the non-assertion (o f its existence) — as separate, You still do not understand the vision o f the Buddha. When simultaneously without alternative, You ju s t see that interdependent arising is inevitable, It destroys all grasping at the oblects o f conception, Then the analysis o f the Darshan (view) is complete.

IV . S o m e O th er Tibetan B uddhist S ch o o ls 1. Kadampa (bKa’-gDams-Pa) School: The great Indian scholar Atisha Dipamkarashirijnan (982-1048) founded this school. He was an abbot of Vikramashila Monastic University which was one of the three greatest centers of Buddhist learning during his time in India. He was invited to Tibet in 1042 by Ye-She Od (Ye-Shes A ’od) and Chang-Chub O d (A ’od) who were closely related to the dynasty o f the early Dharma Kings of Tibet. He gave many teachings on the Buddhist Sutras and instructions for correctly practicing the teachings. He wrote the famous text, “The Light of the Path”. In this short work he explained all the Buddha’s teachings as one path dividing it into three parts for persons of higher, middle and lesser intelligence. He lived and taught in Tibet until the time of his death. His renowned disciple, Drom-Ton (a’Brom-sTon) (1004-1064) built the Ra-Dreng (Ra-bsGreng) monastery to the north of Lhasa and it became the source of the Kadampa teachings. Drom-Ton’s three principal disciples were Po-To-Ba, Phu-Ch’ung-Ba and Chen-Nga-Wa (sPyan-sNga-Ba).The Kadampas emphasized strict and earnest practice and full understanding of the meaning o f the teachings. Their teachings are simple and mostly in local dialects but are deep and full of meaning and inspiration. A separate Kadampa school did not survive but their teachings and examples deeply influenced the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism. This is because the original Kadampas were all hermits and did not build monasteries. Their followers, however, did construct monasteries iand these became the foundation of the Kagyur and Gelugpa sects. The Gelugpas call themselves the New Kadampa and the Kagyudpas say that their teachings are the confluence of the Mahamudra and Kadampa. 2. Zhi-Ched-Pa (Zhi-Byed-Pa) and Chod (gChod): Zhi-Ched-Pa means “pacification” or the "doctrine which pacifies suffering.’This lineage was founded in Tibet by the great South Indian Saint Pha-DamPa Sang-Gye (Sangs-rGyas). He visited Tibet on five occasions, the last time being in 1098 after his return from China. His teachings were based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras and the philosophy of Nagarjuna. The distinctive aspect o f Pha-Dam-Pa SangGyes’ teaching was the method he used to pacify suffering. In most types of teaching the defilements which are the cause of suffering are first purified then the suffering is dissolved. But in this method the suffering is first purified and then the defilements which are its cause are eliminated. In this practice the suffering itself is used as a practice. The teaching of this lineage went through three periods of development Marked by Pha-Dam-Pa Sang-Gyes’ different visits to Tibet. The teachings o f Chod are a major practice of this school. Chod ^eans ‘to cut off, specifically to cut off the ego and defilements which are the root of samsara. There are two types of Chod: a) Pho-Chod (male '■hod) and b ) Mo-Chod (female Chod). The practice of Mo-Chod is the m°st popular.

a) Pho-Chod: This teaching was transmitted by Pha-Dam-Pa SangGyes to Kyo-Ton Sod-Nam (sKyo-sTon bSod-Nam s) and Ma-Ra Ser-Po (sMa-Ra Ser-Po) who in turn transmitted it to Nyon-Pa Se-Rang (sMyonPa Se-Rong), Tse-Ton (rTse-sTon) and Sum-Ton (Sum-sTon). b ) Mo-Chog: This lineage was transmitted by Kyo-Ton-Sod-Nam to the great frmale saint Ma-Chig Lab-Dron (sGron) (1031-1124). She is recognized by all Tibetan schools as a Wisdom-Dakini in human form. Because of her influence the Chod teachings were established in the different schools in all parts o f Tibet and have been passed down to the present time. There were numerous Chod texts and teachings that came from her in different forms. Many of them were discovered as Dharma Treasures (gTer). She spent the last years of her life in a cave at Zang-Ri Khar-Mar (Zangs-Ri mKhar-dMar) in Southern Tibet. Both Chod teachings are based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras. The basic practice is to purify the defilements by completely cutting off grasping at self which is the root of samsara. The Six Paramitas (per­ fections) are practiced by giving away one’s own body and possessions to all including the most fearful beings in dangerous places without attachment, fear or doubt. Ma-Chig Lab-Kyi Dron-Ma divided the Chod into three aspects: ‘To travel to dangerous and solitary places is the

Outer-Chod, ' To transform the body as food for demons is the Irmer-Chod, To cut o ff the single thing (grasping) from the root is the Actual-Chod. Whoever practices these three Chods is a y o g i ’’

A t present there is no separate lineage of this tradition but its teachings are practiced in all the schools, especially in the Nyingmapa and Kagyudpa. 3. Jonangpa (jo-Nang-Pa) School: This lineage was founded in Tibet by Yu-Mo Mi-Kyod Dor-Je (Yu-Mo Mi-bsKyod rDo-rJe) who was a great teacher of the Kalachakra Tantra. He attained a profound realization of the meaning of emptiness which is called Zhen-Tong (gZhan-sTong). Kun-Pang Thug-Je Tshan-Dru (Kun sPang Thugs-rJe brTson-a’Grus) (1243-?) who was a holder of this lineage built a monastery at Jo-Mo-Nang and it became the source of the Jo-Nang-Pa teachings. His great disciple, Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-Tshen (Dol-Bo Shes-Rab rGyal-mTshan) (1292-1361) became a very famous scholar of his time. He expounded the Zhen-Tong philosophy in his Ri-Cho NgeyDon Gya-Tsho (Ri-Ch’os Nges-Don rGya-mTsho) and Ka-Du Zhi-Pa (bKa’-bsDu bZhi-Pa). According to his teaching the Kun-gZhi (Alaya — universal ground or basis) has two parts: wisdom and sense. Wisdom is the absolute truth of Buddha nature which is true, pure, eternal and exists in all beings. But because of the delusion of the senses, this undifferentiated, pure natural state is obscured. Through the practice of the 'Six Yogas’ taught by the Jo-Nang-Pa the obscurations o f the senses

are removed and the absolute state is attained. The disciples of this school mainly rely on Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-Tshen’s works for study and practice. His most famous disciples were Sa-Zang Ma-Ti Rin-Chen (Sa-bZang Ma-Ti Rin-Ch’en) and Po-Tong Chog-Le Nam-Gyal (PoTongs-Phyogs-Las rNam-rGyal, 1306-1386). In later centuries Kun-Ga were great teachers and scholars of this lineage. However, in the 17th century because of political difficulties this school ceased to function actively in Central Tibet but it remained powerful in Eastern Tibet until recent times. The Shar Dzam-Thang (Shar-a’Dzam-Thang) monastery built by Ka-Zhi-Pa Rin-Chen-Pal (Ka-bZhi-Pa Rin-Ch’en-dPal), a great disciple of Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-mTshen, in Golok province became the center of the Jo-Nang-Pa doctrine in recent centuries. The scriptures and meditation practices o f the Tibetan lineages differ from one another according to their origins in the various transmissions from India and the varying needs of their disciples in Tibet. Yet all these schools are the same in the crucial sense o f directly or indirectly leading to the same goal, Enlightenment. Similarly, different medicines are the same in the sense that they all make people healthy.

V O L. II THE S C O P E O F TIBETAN LITERATURE

THE SCOPE OF T IB E T A N L IT E R A T U R E In trod u ction For many centuries the teachings of Buddhism deeply influenced all aspects of Tibetan life and culture. Many monks and high lamas meditated on the teachings of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and Siddhas and wrote extensively on all facets of the Buddha’s Dharma. Eventually the discipline of Buddhism permeated all levels of Tibetan society and "set the tone for the whole life of the people. Thus, any discussion about the life, history, culture, and literature of Tibet must take Buddhism into account as a predominating factor. This is especially true for Tibetan literature because literary Tibetan was developed mainly in the 7th century A.D. for the purpose of translating the Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan. In the intellectual world beyond the confines of Tibetan society, the Tibetan language is important because of the richness and vastness of the Buddhist literature contained within its scope. It is one of the four major Buddhist languages. The others are Sanskrit, Pali and Chinese. The main treasury of Buddhist literature in India until the 12th century A.D. was written in Sanskrit. It is an especially important source for the Mahayana, unfortunately, due to historical circumstances many of these priceless original Sanskrit texts, were lost. Pali, the ancient language of Magadha, was the major medium and source for Hinayana Buddhist literature. In later centuries the rich treasury of Hinayana scripture was preserved in the Theravadin countries. Especially important are the Tripitaka and the Atthakatha, the huge commentary on the Tripitaka written by Acarya Buddhaghosha. Beginning in the early centuries of our era, many Buddhist texts were translated into Chinese, and on this foundation Chinese became a major source of Buddhist literature. But compared to Tibetan Buddhist literature, Prof. Nalinaksa Dutt has written: “The Tibetan collections of translations of Indian texts is much larger than the Chinese. In a comparison made by Prof. Sakai Shinten between the Tibetan and Chinese versions of the Indian texts, he finds the Chinese translations are wanting in 670 texts of the Kajur and 3452 of the Tenjur.” He further ; said “One of the most outstanding contributions made by Tibetan scholars was the preservation of Sanskrit texts in literal and accurate Tibetan translations, in which they surpassed the Chinese in accuracy : and volume.” Thus it can be said that the Tibetan language contains the richest collection of Buddhist literature in the world today. All aspects of the Buddhist tradition — Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana — are contained within its scope. The translation and exposition of the Buddha’s Dharma formed the basis of literary Tibetan. Buddhism

became the fountainhead of Tibetan literature and the main source of Tibetan cultural life.

TIBETAN LITERATURE W e will classify Tibetan Literature into two broad divisions: (I) Religious and (II) Secular. Although there was very little literature that was not influenced by religious concepts, there are many texts whose main subject matter deals with non-religious subjects such as grammar, medicine and law. These works are classified within the secular literature. Only works which deal primarily with religious themes are placed in the category of religious literature.

I. T H E R E L IG IO U S L IT E R A T U R E The religious literature can be classified in two ways: (A ) according to origin and (B) according to subject. According to origin, there is first of all (1) a large body of literature translated from Indian sources into Tibetan. Secondly, (2) there is the enormous volume of religious works written by Tibetan scholars. According to subject, the religious literature falls into four divisions: 1. Religion, 2. History and Biography, 3. Poetic Composition and Yogic Songs and 4. Art, Music and Dance.

A ) Religious Literature — According to Origin 1. The Literature Translated from Tibetan Sources

(a) The Kajur Collection— The Buddha’s Teachings The Kajur contains the scriptures of both Sutras and Tantras. Although many of the Sutras were translated in the period of the Later Spread of the Doctrine (bsTan-Pa Phyi-Dar), most of them were translated into Tibetan during the Earlier Spread of the Doctrine (bsTan-Pa sNga-Dar) and revised during the period of the Later Spread. Most of the tantras contained in the Kajur are New Tantras (gSangsNgags gSar-Ma) but there are also a few scriptures of the Old Tantra in this collection. The New Tantras are those which were translated beginning with Lo-Ch’en Rin-Ch’en bZang-Po (958-1051). The Old Tantras are the tantric scriptures translated from the 7th century A.D. until the time of Acharya Smrtijnana at the beginning of the 11th century. Most of the Old Tantras are contained in the rNying-Ma rGyud-’Bum collection. The contents of the Kajur are as follows:

No. Title o f the Sub-Dlvislons

1. 2. 3.

rGyud (Tantra) Sher-Phyin (Prajnaparamita) dKon-brTsegs (Ratnakuta)

4. 5. 6.

Phal-Ch’en (Avatamsaka) mDo (Sutra) a ’Dul-Ba (Vinaya)

7.

The Collection of rNying-Ma rGyud-a’Bum (Pracin-Tantras)

* These figure based on Peking Edition.

+ These figures based on Delhi publication

No. o f No. of Vol.* Treatises*

24 23

729 30

6 6

1 1

32 13

269 16

104

1046

+ 33

+ 375

(b) The Tenjur Collection — The Works of Indian Buddhist Scholar^' The Tenjur (bsTan-a’Gyur) is the collection of commentarial text& written by ancient Indian Buddhist scholars on the Hinayana Mahayana, and Tantra and translated into Tibetan. The Tenjur also contains texts on secular subjects and these are included within the secular literature section. The Dharma literature of the Tenjur is classified according to the following subdivisions: No. Title o f the Sub-Dtvlslons 1. bs Tod-Tshogs (Stotras) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

rGyud-a’Grel (Tantra-tika) Sher-Phyin (Prajnaparamita) dBu-Ma (Madhyamika) mDo-a’Grel (Sutra-tika) Sems-Tsam (Citamatra-Yogacarya) mNgon-Pa (Abhidharma) a’Dul-Ba (Vinaya) sKyes-Rabs (Jatakamala) sPring-Yig (Lekha) Thun-Mong and Ngo-mTshar bsTan-bChos (Sadharana Shastra) 1

No. of No. of Vol Treatises* Vz 85 y2 16 17 10 18 11 18 , 3Vz ’/2

63 3120 40 257 40 45 19 66 8 42

5 (out of

(out of

86

121/2)

143)

185

3786

2. The Literature Written by Tibetan Scholars There is vast literature written by thousands of learned Tibetan scholars and sages on various aspects o f Buddhism. This literature pri­ marily concerns itself with the interpretation and explanation of the Sutras, Tantras and commentaries written by great Indian scholars. In order to understand this indigenous literature, it is necessary to know something about the Buddhist schools which developed in Tibet. These schools developed from the experience and wisdom of renowned Tibetan scholars and sages,and from the literary expression of their understanding. In Tibet four major and many minor Buddhist schools developed. The four major schools are: Nyingmapa, Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and Gelugpa. The main division between these schools is in relation to the Tantras, although there were also different interpretations of the Sutras am ong these schools. The followers of the Old Tantras or EarlierTranslation (sN ga’-a’Gyur) are known as the Nyingmapa or O ld Ones. The followers of the later translated tantras (Phyi-a’Gyur) are known as the Sarma or New Ones. The Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and Gelugpa lineages are all within the Sarma tradition of Tantra. In the following discussion of the literature produced by these schools, a few of the special features of each are pointed out. * These figures based on Peking Edition. 52

(i) The Classification o f the D h arm a The Nyingmapa classifies the whole Buddhist doctrine into Nine Yanas: The Three Yanas of Paramita or Sutra are: (a) Sravakayana (Hinayana) (b) Pratyeka-Buddhayana (Hinayana) (c) Bodhisattva (Mahayana) The Three Outer Tantras of Vajrayana are: (a) Kriyayoga (b) Caryayoga (c) Yogatantra The Three Inner Tantras of Vajrayana are: (a) Mahayoga (b) Anuyoga (c) Atiyoga

(ii) Sutra The original texts and commentaries are contained in the Kajur and Tenjur.

(iiii) Tantra There are some tantras contained in the Kajur and Tenjur from both the Earlier and Later periods of translation which are common to all schools. But the different schools would emphasize certain tantras, and these scriptures became special aspects of practice for a particular lineage. The special tantras of the Nyingmapa are the scriptures of the Mahayoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga (or rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po). Most of these teachings are contained within the O ld Tantra collection (rNyingMa rGyud-a’Bum). The three major divisions of the Old Tantra are: :bKa’-Ma (Canon), gTer-Ma (concealed Dharma Treasures), and DagsNang (Pure Vision). y: 1) Kam a (b K a ’-M a) — These tantras are the Three Inner Tantras translated into Tibetan by Guru Padmasambhava, Pandit Vimalamitra, and others (in the 9th century A.D.), and transmitted through an unbroken lineage of lamas to the present day. Some of the major works within this division of Tantra are: Mahayoga: (a) Tantra — The Mayajala Tantra (sGyu-a’Phrul-DrvaBa) and 18 Great Tantras (Tantra Ch’en-Po sDe bCho-brGyad) and (b) Sadhana — Scriptures o f Sadhanas of Eight Great Mandalas Anuyoga:

The Tantras o f a’Dus-Pa mDo

Ati-Yoga:

The 18 Tantras (Sems-sMad bCho-brGyad) of SemssDe, 9 Tantras (Klong-dGu) of Klong-sDe, and 17 Tantras (bChu-bDun rGyud) of Man-Ngag sDe.

Compiled Kama texts: sMin-Gling gTer-Ch’en, aMin-Gling Lo-Ch’en and rGyal-Sras gZhan-Phan mTha’-Yas compiled many of the Kama

texts. Later in some monasteries annual Sadhana rituals of the Thirteen bKa’-Ma sadhanas (bK a’-Ma’i mCh-od-Khag bC hu-gSum ) were performed in assembly. The 13 Sadhanas are: (1) a’Dus-Pa mDo, (2) sGyu-a’Phrul Zhi-Khro, (3) Sangs-rGyas mNyam-sByor, (4) rTa-mCh’og. Rol-Ba, (5) Na-Rag Dong-sPrugs, (6) gShin-rJe gShed Ru-mTshon dMarMag, (7 ) Yang-Dag So-Lugs and Sa-Lugs, (8 ) Phur-Pa Rong-Lugs, Rog. Lugs and Sa-Lugs, (9) Lung-Lugs Tshe-sGrub, (10) Guru Drag-dMar A oBran-Lugs, (11) rGyud-mGon Legs-lDan, (12) sMin-Gling rDor-Sems and (13) Ch’a-gSum (the last two are additional texts). •;

2) Terma (gTer-Ma) — Many tantric scriptures and teachings of Guru Rinpoche were concealed in different sacred places (gTer-gNas) by the mystic power of Guru Rinpoche, Dakini Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal, and others, to be discovered by future disciples. They were discovered in later centuries by the Hundred Great Tertons (Dharma Treasure Dis­ coverers) and many other gTer-sTons. The discovery of these texts began with Terton Sans-rGyas Bla-Ma (1000?-1080?) and Grva-Ba mNgon-Shes-Chan (1012-1090) and has continued until the present day. There are two kinds of Termas: Sater and Gong Ter. a. Sater (Sa-gTer) — These texts were discovered by Tertons in material objects such as mountains, lakes, temples and rocks. Most of the important Sa-gTer scriptures fall into two major categories. First, there is the important gTer-Ch’os literature which is in three parts: Bla-Ma, rDzogs-Ch’en, and Thugs-Je Ch’en-Po.

Bla-Ma: The peaceful and Wrathful Guru Sadhanas: 1 Bla-Ma gSang-a’Dus

of Guru Ch’os-dBang ■" (1212-1270) 2 Thugs-sGrub of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-IDem (1337-1408) 3 Bla-Ma Nor-Bu rGya-mTsho of Padma Gling-Pa (1450-?) 4 Thugs-sGrub of Ratna Gling-Pa 5 Guru Drag-dMar 6 Guru Drag dMar

(1403-1478) o f Nyang Nyi-Ma Od-Zer (1124-1193) of Ratna Gling-Pa

rDzogs-Ch’en: The scriptures on rDzogs-Ch’en teachings: 1 Vima sNying-Thig Its commentary Bla-Ma Yang-Tig 2 mKha’a’Gro sNying Thig, Its commentary mKha’ a’Gro Yang-Tig 2a Zab-Mo Yang-Tig, a com­ mentary of both Vima sNying-Thig and mKha’­ a’Gro Yang-Tig

of IDang-Ma Lhun-rGyal by Kun-mKhyen KlongCh’en-Pa (1308-1367) of Padma Las-a’Brel-rTsal (1291-1315?) by Kun-mKhyen KlongCh’en-Pa

by Kun-mKhyen KlongC h’en-Pa

3 dGongs-Pa Zang-Thal 4 Kun-bZang dGongs-a’Dus

of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-lDem of Padma Gling-Pa

Thugs-rJe Ch'en-Po: Avalokiteshvara scriptures: 1 Mani bKa’-a’Bum

of Grub-Thob Ngos-Grub and Nyang

2 Yang-sNying a’Dus-Pa

of Guru Ch’os-dBang

3 bDe-gShegs a’Dus-Pa

of sMin-Gling gTer-Ch’en (1646-1714)

Secondly, there is another important gTer-Ch’os with three parts: bKa’-brGyad, dGongs-’Dus, and Phur-Pa.

bKa'-brGyad: There are three major texts: 1 bKa’-brGyad bDe-bSgegs a’Dus-Pa

of m N ga’-bDag Nyang

2 bKa’-brGyad gSang-Ba Yongs-rDzogs 3 bKa’-brGyad Drag-Po Rang-Byung Rang-Shar

of Guru Ch’os-dBang of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-lDem

dGongs-a'Dus 1 Bla-Ma dGongs-a’Dus

of Sangs-rGyas Gling-Pa (1340-1396)

Phur-Pa: (Vajrakila)

b.

1 sPu-Gri

of Guru Ch’os-dBang

2 Yang-gSang Bla-Med

of Ratna Gling-Pa

Gong Ter (dGong-gTer) — These texts were discovered within

the Realized Mind of Tertons in which they recalled teachings given by Guru Rinpoche and others, which were then written down. Some of them are: 1 mDzod-bDun (the seven treasures) 2 gNam -Ch’os 3 Klong-Ch’en sNying-Thig

of Kun-mKhyen KlongCh’en-Pa of Mi-a’Gyur rDo-rJe of Kun-mKhyen a’Jigs-Med Gling-Pa (1729-1798)

3)

Dag-N ang (Dag-sNang) — These are scriptures received from

divinities and Gurus by Tertons in pure meditative vision. 1 sNying-Thig texts

of gYu-Thog Yon-Tan

2 Rig-a’Dzin Srog-sGrub

of Lha-bTsun Nam-mKha’ a’Jigs-Med (1597-1650?)

mGon-Po

Collection of Ter-Ch’os (gTer-Ch’os) and Dag-Nang: rKong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho (1813-1899) brought together many of the important Ter-Ch’os in a collection of 61 volumes called the Rin-Ch’en gTer-mDzod. It was printed in dPal-sPung monastery (Kham), mTshurPhu monastery (central Tibet) and in Delhi, India.

(iv ) Study The main texts for study o f the Sutra root texts and commentaries are: the Phar-Phyin (Prajnaparamita), dBu-Ma (Madhyamika), a’Dul-Ba (Vinaya) and mNgon-Pa (Abhidharma). The main Tantras to be studied are: the Guhyagarbha Tantra with commentaries, the mDzod-bDun of Kun-mKhyen Long-Ch’en-Pa (1308-63), sDom -gSum (three precepts) of N g a ’-Ris Pan-Ch'en (1487-1542) and the texts on Kama and Terma by. sMin-GIing gTer-Ch’en, Lo-Ch’en Dharmashri and others. j In the present century the major works on Sutra to be studied are the texts of the gZhung-Ch’en bChu-gSum (Thirteen Great Texts) and the commentaries written on them by dPal-sPrul Rin-Po-Ch’e (1808-1887) (6 Volumes), Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912) (32 Volumes) and especially the commentaries of gZhan-Phan Ch’os-Kyi sNang-Ba. The gZhung-Ch’en bChu-gSum (Thirteen Great Texts) are: 1 So-Sor Thar-Pa’i mDo (Pratimoksa-sutra)

by Sakyamuni Buddha

2 a’Dul-Ba mDo-rTsa-Ba (Vinayasutra) 3 mNgon-Pa Kun-bTus (Abhidharmasamuccaya) 4 mNgon-Pa mDzod (Abhidharmakosha) ! 5 dBu-Ma rTsa-Ba Shes-Rab (Prajna nama mula madhyamika) '

by Gunaprabha

6 dBu-Ma-La a’Jug-Pa (Madhyamikavatara) 7 bBu-Ma bZhi-brGya-Pa

by Asangha by Vasubandhu by Nagarjuna by Chandrakirti

(Catuhsatakasastra) by Aryadeva 8 Byang-Ch’ub Sems-dPa’i sPyod-Pa-La a’Jug-Pa (Bodhicaryavatara) by Shantideva 9 Phar-Phyin mNgon-rTogs-rGyan (Abhisamayalankara nama Prajnaparamita) 10 Thegs-Pa Ch’en-Po’i rGyud-Bla-Ma’i (Mahayanasutralankara) 11 bBus-mTha’ rNam-’Byed (Madhyantavibhanga) 12 Ch’os-Dang Ch’os-Nyid rNam-a’Byed (Dharmadharmatavibhanga) 13 Thegs-Pa Ch’en-Po’i rGyud-Bla-Ma’i bsTan bChos (Mahayanottaratantrasutra)

by Asangha by Asangha by Asangha by Asangha

by Asangha

(b) The Literature of the Sarmapa The other three major Buddhist schools— Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and Gelugpa— are within the Sarma (gSar-Ma, New Tantra) tradition. The Sarma schools have many o f the same original texts for study and practice. The differences am ong them result from different lineages of teaching and different interpretations of the subtle meanings of the scriptures by Tibetan scholars and commentators. Also, some of the

jfschools have their own special teachings transmitted from Indian ' Siddhas such as the Phyag-rGya Ch’en-Po (Mahamudra) of the Kag­ yudpa and the gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras (teaching on the Path and Result) of the Sakyapa. The teachers who first translated and spread the Sarma literature were the great Tibetan translators, Rin-Ch’en bZang-Po jp58-1051), a’Brog-Mi (993-1050), Mar-Pa (1012-1099), and others.

(i) The Classification of the Dharma Three Sutric Yanas: (a) Sravakayana (Hinayana) (b) Pratyeka-Buddha Yana (Hinayana) (c) Bodhisattvayana (Mahayana) Four Vajrayanas: (a) Kriyayoga (b) Caryayoga (c) Yogatantra (d) Anuttarayogatantra (1) Pitrtantra (2) Matrtantra (3) Advitiyatantra

(ii) Major Texts for Study and Practice The basic texts are the literature from the Canon of the Buddha and the works o f great Indian scholars in the Kajur and Tenjur collections. But the numerous commentaries written by both Indian and Tibetan scholars contained slightly different interpretations of the basic works. These differences influenced the development of the various schools in Tibet, as indicated above. In some of the larger monasteries, different monastic colleges (Grva-Tshangs) had their own commentarial texts (Yig-Ch’a) to study, practice and uphold. Som e of the major texts for Sutra study are: Pramanasamuccaya of Dignaga. Seven Treatises on Logic by Dharmakirti, Six Treatises by Nagarjuna on Madhyamika, Five Treatises by Maitrinath and Asangha on Mahayana Philosophy, Abhidharmasumucaya by Asangha and Abhidharmakosa by Vasubandhu on Abhidharma, and the Vinayasutra by Gunaprabha on Vinaya. Som e of the root tantras are: Guhyasamaja and Vajrabhairaba of the Pitrtantra; Cakrasamvara, Mahamaya and Haivajra of the Matrtantra; and the Kalacakra and Manjusrimulatantra of Advitiya­ tantra. (7(7)

The Literature of the Kagyudpa School

The founder of the Kagyudpa (bKa’rGyud-Pa) school was the great translator and sage Mar-Pa Ch’os-Kyi Blo-Gros (1012-1099). He visited India three times and received the Tantric Teachings from Mahasiddha Naropa, Maitripa and others. He then transmitted and expounded these doctrines in Tibet. The other renowned scholars and sages in the Kagudpa lineage are the great yogi Mi-La Ras-Pa (1040-1123), the

famous scholar sGam-Po-Pa (1079-1153), the First Karmapa Dus-gSum m Khyen-Pa (1110-1193), a’Bri-G ung a ’Jig-rTen gSum -m G on (1143-1217), gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras (1161-1211), Situ bsTan-Pa’i NyinByed (1698-?) and Kong-sPrul Yen-Tan rGya-mTsho (1813-1899). Study — The basic literature for study is the same as for the general Sarma Tradition. The highest philosophical teaching of the Kagyudpa is the Mahamudra (Phyag-rGya Ch’en-Po) which is a special teaching of this school. Marpa received this teaching from the Indian Mahasiddha Maitripa. It has two aspects: Sutric Mahamudra and Tantric Mahamudra. Another important special teaching of this school is the Six Yogas of Naropa. These Six Yogas are: Heat Yoga (gTum-Mo), Illusory Body (sGyu-Ma), Dream (rMi-Lam), Clear Light (Od-gSal), Intermediate State (Bar-Do) and Consciousness Transference (Pho-Ba). The Kagyudpa school emphasizes the basic practice of all three yanas: the practice of Revulsion (Nges-a’Byung) from Samsara of the Sravakayana, Developing the Bodhi-Mind (Byang-Sems) of the Maha­ yana, and Observing the Vows (Dam-Tshig) of the Vajrayana. Som e of the Kagyudpa works for study are: 1 mGur-a’Bums and rNam-Thars of Mar-Pa and Mi-La Ras-Pa 2 gSung-a’Bums of sGam-Po-Pa (3 Volumes) and Pag-Mo Gru-Pa (1110-1170) (6 Volumes) 3 bKa’-aB um s of Karmapa Dus-gSum mKhyen-Pa (1110­ 1193), Rang-Byung rDo-rJe (1284-1334) and Mi-bsKyod rDo-rJe (1507-1554) 4 gSung-a’Bums of Glang-Ras-Pa, gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras (1161-1211) (1 Volume), a'Bri-Gung a’Jigs-rTen mGenPo (1143-1217), a’Brug-Pa Kun-Legs (q455-?), Padma dKar-Po (1527-1592) (14 Volumes), dBang-Phyug rDorJe (1554-1603), Zhva-dMar mKha’-sPyod dBang-Po (1350-1405), dK on-m Ch’o g Yon-Tan, gTshug-Lag Phreng-Ba (1454-?) (9 Volumes), Situ Ch’os-a’Byung (1700-1774) (12 Volumes) and Kong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho (90 Volumes).

(iu) The Literature of the Sakyapa School a’Khon dKon-mCh’og rGyal-Po (1034-1102) founded the Sakyapa (Sa-sKya-Pa) school and built the Sakya monastery in 1073 A.D. The great scholar and translator a’Brog-Mi Sakya Ye-Shes (993-1050) after studying for many years at Nalanda Mahavihara and other places in India, received many teachings from Siddha Shantipa, Naropa. Guhyagarbha and others, and translated them into Tibetan. a’Brog-Mi also translated the scriptures of gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras (the teachings of the Path and Result) which he received from Gayadhara and transmitted them to his disciple a’Khon dKon-mCh’og rGyal-P° (1034-1102). There were five famous scholars of this school known as the Five Supremes (Gong-Ma rNam-lNga). They were: Sa-Ch'en KundG a’sNying-Po (1092-1158), bSod-Nam s rTse-Mo (1142-1182), Grags-

Pa rGyal-mTshan (1147-1216), Sakya Pandita Kun-dGa’ rGyal-mTshan (1181-1251) and a’Gro-mGon Ch’os-rGyal a’Phags-Pa (1235-1280). Some of the other great Sakya scholars were: Rong-sTon Shes-Bya Kun-Rig (1367-?), Ngor-Ch’en Kun-dGa' bZang-Po (1382-1456), gYagPhrug Sangs-rGyas dPal (1348-?), and Go Rab-a’Byams-Pa bSod-Nams Seng-Ge (1429-1489). Study — The main texts for study are those for the Sarma Tradition. The major texts for Sutra study are the Six Great Volumes (Pod-Ch’en Drug). They are: Tshad-Ma Rig-gTer by Sakya Pandita and Pramanavartika by Dharmakirti on logic, Vinayasutra by Gunaprabha, Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandhu, Abhisamayalankara nama Prajnaparamita of Asangha, Madhyamikavatara by Chandrakirti and the general texts for sutra and tantra. The special teachings of this school are: The Teaching of the Path and Result and the Thirteen Golden Doctrines. The Teaching o f the Path and Result (gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras) has both sutric and tantric aspects for realizing the indivisibility of Samsara and Nirvana (a’KhoraDas dByer-Med). The Thirteen Golden Doctrines are: Three Doctrines of mKa’-aPyod-Ma, Three Doctrines of dMar-Ch’en divinities, Three Doctrines of dMar-Ch’ung divinities and the doctrines of Seng-gDong sNgon-Mo, aJam-dPal Nag-Po, Ch’i-Med rDo-rJe Lha-Mo and Jambhala dMar-Po. Some of the Sakyapa literary works are: 1 The gSung-a’Bum (Collections of Works) of Gong-Ma rNamlNga (The Five Supreme Teachers) (15 Volumes). 2 The Works of Ngor-Ch’en Kun-dGa’ bZang-Po (1382-1456) (4 Volumes). 3 gSung-a’Bum of Go Rab-a’Byams bSod-Nam s Seng-Ge (1429­ 3 1489) (15 Volumes). 4 a’Jam-dByangs mKhyen-brTse’i dBang-Po (1820-1892) (10 Volumes).

(u)

The Literature of the Gelugpa School

The eminent scholar rje Tsong-Kha-Pa Blo-bZang Grags-Pa (1357-1419) is the founder of the Gelugpa school. This lineage is in the tradition of the bKa’-gDams-Pa school of Atisha Dipamkarasrijnana (982-1054) of India. Je Tsong-Kha-Pa expounded and wrote renowned texts and commentaries on Sutras, Shastras and Tantras, and founded the dGa’IDan monastery in 1409. Som e of the numerous scholars and writers of this school are: mKhas-Grub dGe-Legs dPal-bZang (1385-1438), rGyal-Tshab Dar-Ma Rin-Ch’en (1364-1432), the 1st Dalai Lama dGe-a’Dun-Grub (1391-1474), who built the bKra-Shis Lhun-Po monastery in 1447 A.D., a’Jam-dByangs Ch’os-rJe (1379- 1449) who built the aBras-sPungs monastery in 1416, Byams-Ch’en Ch’os-rJe, who built the Se-Ra monastery in 1419 and Ch’ab-mDo monastery in 1437, Shes-Rab Seng-Ge, who built the rGyud-sMad Gra-Tshang (Lower Tantric College) in 1440, Kun-dGa’ Don-Grub who built the rGyud-sTod ; Gra-Tshang (Upper Tantric College) in 1474, Pan-Ch’en Ch’os-Kyi rGyal-mTshan (1570-1662), rGyal-dBang bSod-Nam s rGya-mTsho

(1617-1682), and a’Jam-dByang bZhad-Pa Ngag-dBang brTson-a’Grus (1648-1721), who built bKra-Shis sGo-Mang monastery in 1710 A.D. Study — The texts for study are the same as mentioned for Sarma. Their main emphasis for study and practice are: the strict observance of monastic discipline, the study of the texts through reasoning of logical expression, adherance to the philosophical doctrine of Prasangika Madhyamika, practice of Dharma in the system of "Three Stages of Path”, and accomplishing the Spontaneous Wisdom (lHan-sKyes-Kyi Ye-Shes) and Illusory-Body (sGyu-Lus) through the practice of two stages (Rim-gNyis) of Guhyatantra, Cakrasamvara, Vajrabhairaha and other Tantras. Som e of the enormous literary works of Gelugpa scholars are: 1 The gSung-a’Bum of rJe Tsong-Kha-Pa (20 Volumes, 210 Treatises) " mKhas-Grub-dGe-Legs dPal-bZang (10 2 Volumes). / " rGyal-Thab Dar-Ma Rin-Ch’en (8 Volumes) 3 4 " a'Dul-a’Dzin Grags-Pa rGyal-mTshan (1374-?) (2 Volumes). 5 " Pan-Ch’en dGe-a’Dun Grub (5 Volumes). 6 " Pan-Ch’en bSod-Grags 7 " rJe-bTsun Ch’os-Kyi rGyal -mTshan (1469-1546) 8 " Pan-Ch’en Blo-bZang Ch’os-Kyi rGyal9 10 11 12

" " " "

mTshan (5 Volumes). rGyal-dBang INga-Pa (30 Volumes). IChang-sKya Rol-Ba’i rDo-rJe (1717-?) (5 Vols.) a’Jam-dByangs bZhad-Pa (1648-1721) (15 Vols.) Klong-rDol Bla-Ma (1719-1794).

(ui) The Literature of Some Other Minor Schoob 1. Zhi-Byed-Pa — A great Siddha o f India, Pha Dam-Pa Sangs rGyas, visited Tibet five times (last time in 1098 A.D .) and taught the Zhi-Byed (Pacifier of Suffering), the teachings of Transcendental Wisdom (Prajnaparamita). His tradition is known as Zhi-Byed-Pa. In this tradition the most famous Yogini of Tibet, Ma-Chig Lab-Kyi sGron-M a (1031-1129), taught the Prajnaparamita through practice of gChod (terminating the defilements). There are many gChod texts of both Kama and Terma traditions and they are practiced in both Kagyudpa and Nyingmapa schools. 2. Jo-Nang-Pa — Kun-sPang Thugs-rJe brTson-a’Grus (1243-?) founded a monastery at a place called Jo-Nang and his tradition is known as the Jo-Nang-Pa. In this tradition both Kun-mKhyen Dol-Bu Shes-Rab rGyal-mTshan (1292-?), a great scholar (especially of Kalacakratantra) and the well-known historian, Taranath, wrote many famous literary works on various subjects. 3. Shang-Pa bKa'-brGyud-Pa — The Great Siddha, Khyung-PP rNal-a’Byor (978-1079), received the teachings of Six Yogas of Nigu, and Five Tantras from Nigu, Maitripa and Sukhasiddhi in India and he

taught them in Tibet. 4. Zhva-Lu-Pa — The celebrated Tibetan scholar Bu-sTon Rin-Ch’en Grub (1290-1364) became a great master of Kalacakratantra and 70 other doctrines. He edited and put into present form the Kajur and Tenjur Collections. His tradition is known as Bu-Lugs. 5. Bo-Dong-Ba — Bo-Dong Phyogs-Las rNam-rGyal (1375-1451) who was a great scholar and writer founded this tradition. He wrote 132 volumes of texts and commentaries on various subjects. Most of the minor schools functioned as distinctive schools when their teachers were living, but at present many of them have merged into one of the major schools or are a sub-school of one of the major schools. Although they have not retained their identity as separate schools, the works of their great scholars are still studied.

B) Religious Literature — According to Subject The religious literature of Tibet can be divided into four categories: Religion; History and Biography; Poetic composition and Yogic Songs; and Music, Dance, Art and Architecture. Religion comprises the main body of the literature and the other categories are branches of it.

1. Religion There are various ways of arranging this vast body of literature but all of its works fall into three categories: the view, the practice and the conduct. Som e of the texts on View (ITa-Ba Darshan) are: 1 Hinayana: Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandhu 2 Mahayana: Six Treatises on Madhya­ mika by Nagarjuna 3 Vajrayana: Man-Ngag ITa-a’Phreng by Padmasambhava Some o f the texts on Practice (bsGom-Pa) are: 1 Sutra: Bodhipathapradvipa by Dipamkarasrijnana 2 Tantra: sNgags-Rim Ch’en-Mo by rJe Tsong-Kha-Pa Som e of the texts on Conduct (sPyod-Pa) are: 1 Pratimoksa: Vinaya-sutra by Gunaprabha 2 Bodhisattva: Bodhicaryavatara by Shantideva 3 Tantra: sNgags-sDom from sDomgSum rNam-Nges

by Dharmasri

2. History and Biography The Ch’os-a’Byung (Religious History) works recount the major events in the transmission of the teaching and the activities of the teachers and their disciples. Some of the major Ch’os-a’Byung texts are: 1 Ma-Ni bKa’-a’Bum by Grub-Thob Ngos-Grub and Nyang (1124-1192) 2 Padma-bKa’-Thang and by O-rGyan Gling-Pa O-rGyan bKa’-Thang (1450 ?) 3 Thub-bsTan gSal-Bar Byed-Pa’iby Klong-Ch’en RabNyi-A'od Byams (1308-1363) 4 Ch’os-aByung Rin-Po-Ch’e’i mDzod 5 Sa-sKya’i gDung-Rabs 6 Padma rGyas-Pa'i Nyin-Byed 7 mKhas-Pa’i dGa’ sTon 8 dGos-a’Dod Kun-a’Byung 9 Bai-Dur Ser-Po

by Bu-sTon (1290-1364) by Kun-dGa’ bSod-Nams by Padma dKar-Po (1527-1592) by gTshug-Lag a'PhrengBa (1454-?) by Taranatha (1575-?) by Sangs-rGyas rGyamTsho (1653-1705)

10 a’Dzam-GIing Tha-Gru KhyabPa’i rGyan 11 Lha-dBang gYul-Las rGyalBa’i rNga-Bo-Ch'e

by a’Jigs-Med Gling-Pa (1729-1798) by a’Jigs-Bral Ye-Shes rDo-rJe (1 9 0 4 -)

Som e of the rNam-Thar (Biography) texts are: Padma bKa’Thang — the biography of Padmasambhava, Bai-Ro’i a’Dra-a’Bag, and biographies of Jo-Bo Atisha, Mar-Pa, Mi-La Ras-Pa, SasKya Pandit, Ch’os-rGyal a’Phag-Pa, Klong-Ch’en Rab-a’Byams, rJe Tsong-Kha-Pa, rGyal-dBang INga-Pa and Ngos-Kyi Yul-Dang Ngos-Kyi Mi-Mang of the 14th Dalai Lama.

3. Poetic Composition and Yogic Songs There are two major aspects of Tibetan religious poetry: Poems (sNyanN gag) and Yogic Songs (mGur). The religious poems in the Tenjur are: 1 Bodhisattvavadana Kalpalata by Ksemendra 2 Buddhacarita by Asvaghosha 3 Jatakamala by Aryasura Som e of the Tibetan works are: The poetic literature written by Karmapa Mi-sKyod rDo-rJe, Taranatha, dPa’Bo gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba, rGyal-dBang INga-Pa Ch’en-Po, sMin-GIing Lo-Ch’en, Gung-Thang sTan-gGron, mDo-mKhar-Ba, and Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal. Som e 1 2 3 4 5 6

of the Yogic Songs are: Doha-Kosa-Giti x Dohas of other Mahasiddhas mGur-’aBum bKa’-rGyud mGur-mTsho mGur-a’Bum mGur

7 mGur

by Saraha from the Tenjur of Mi-La-Ras-Pa of Mi-sKyod rDo-rJe of a’Brug-Pa Kun-Legs of IChang-sKya Rol-Pa’i rDo-rJe of Lha-bTsun Nam-mKha’ a’Jigs-Med

4. Music, Dance, Art and Architecture Music and Dance — In the Sutric Tradition, musical instruments (Rol-Mo or Rol-Ch’a) and vocal music (dByang), are used to accompany religious ceremonies, but in the Tantra they are an important part of the practice itself. Sacred dances are also performed in order to transform oneself into the divinity and show this aspect to others. There are many texts on music (dByang-Yig) and dance (a’Ch’am-Yig) that contain instructions for this aspect of religious practice. Art and Architcture — In the Vinaya and Tantric texts there is a body of literature which is comprised of manuals of instructions for th? architecture of temples, monastic residences and stupas. There' is also an extensive literature that gives detailed instructions for the proper proportions and design of Mandalas, Cakras and Images.

II. T H E S E C U L A R L IT E R A T U R E Except for some texts in the Tenjur Collection, there is little Tibetan literature that was not influenced by religious conceptions. The Tenjur texts whose subject matter is predominantly secular are: 67 treatises (21 volumes) on logic; 28 treatises (2 volumes) on grammar; 7 treatises (5 volumes) on medicine; 18 treatises ( V2 volume), on art; and 57 treatises (JV 2 volumes) on other general subjects. On the basis of subject matter, there are a number of other important Tibetan literary works which are considered within the secular literature. They are included under the following headings: History; Grammar; Poetic-Composition; Metrical Literature and Lexicons; Logic; Astrology; Mathematics; Medicine; Geography and Cosmology; Law; Political Writings; Music and Dance; Drama; and Arts and Crafts.

A ) History (rGyal Rabs) In Tibetan literature there are two major aspects of history (Lo-rGyus): Secular history (rGyal-Rabs) and Religious history (Ch’os-a’Byung). The secular history mainly relates the events in the succession of kings and other political and social happenings. There are works dealing with both the older period of Tibetan history and works concerned with more recent times. Som e major works of historical literature are: 1 bKa’Ch'en Ka-Khol-Ma 2 3 4 5 6 7

Will of King Srong-bTsan sGam-Po rBa-bZhed Zhabs-bTags-Ma by rBa gSal-sNang and rBa Sang-Shi rBa-bZhed gTsang-Ma " Deb-Ther dMar-Po (1346) by Tshal-Pa Kun-dGa’ rDo-rJe rGyal-Po, Blon-Po and by O-rGyan Gling-Pa bTsun-Mo bKa’-Thang (gTer-Ma) (1323-?) Deb-Ther dMar-Po (gSar-Pa) by bSod-Nams Grags-Pa Deb-Ther sNgon-Po by a’Gos-Lo gZhon-Nu dPal

8 Bod-Kyi rGyal-Rabs from by gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba mKhas-Pa’i dGa’-sTon (1454-?) 9 Bod-Kyi rGyal-Rabs gSal-Ba’i by Sakya bSod-Nams rGyal Me-Long mTshan (1312-1375) 10 Bod-Kyi Deb-Ther dPyid-Kyi by 5th Dalai Lama (1617-82) rGyal-Mo’i Glu-dByangs 11 Deb-Ther rGya-Tsho by Brag-dGon Zhabs-Drung (1801-?) 12 Deb-Ther dKar-Po by dGe-a'Dun Ch’os-a'Phel (1905-1951) 13 Bod-Kyi Srid-Don rGyed-Rabs by W .D. Shakab-Pa (1907- )

B) Grammar Tibetan grammatical literature contains both texts and commen­ taries on Sanskrit grammar translated from Indian sources and gram ­ matical texts for the Tibetan language itself. It was important for scholars to know Sanskrit grammar because so much literature was translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and the Tibetan alphabet, grammar, and literary forms were formed on the basis of Sanskrit models. Som e of the important Sanskrit grammar texts translated into Tibetan are: 1 2 3 4

Panini-vyakarana Sutra Candra-vyakarana Sutra Kalapa-vyakarana Sutra Sarasvata-vyakarana

by by by by

Panini Candragomi Saptavarma Anubhuti

In addition to the commentaries on Sanskrit grammars by Indiari scholars which are in the Tenjur Collection, there are also many commentaries by Tibetan scholars. Commentaries on the CandraVyakarana were written by Lo-Ch'en Thugs-rJe dPal, Zhva-Lu Ch’ossKyong bZang-Po and Situ Ch’os-a’Byung. dPang-Lo wrote a commen­ tary on the Kalapa and Taranath wrote one on the Sarasvata. Som e of the Tibetan grammar texts are: 1 2 3 4

Lung-Ston-Pa Sum-Chu-Pa rTags-Kyi a’Jug-Pa sMa-Ba’i sGo mTshen-Ch’a gNas-brGyad Ch’en-Po’i

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The first two texts, Sum-Chu-Pa and rTags-a’Jug, are root gram­ mar texts for the Tibetan language. There are many works on these two texts and some of them are: 1 Sum-rTags a’Grel-Ba 2 " " 3 4

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by sMar-Thang Lo-Tsa-Ba by Zhva-Lu Lo-Tsa-Ba Ch’os-sKyong bZang-Po (1441-?) by Pan-Ch’en bSod-Nam s rNam-rGya by Lo-Ch’en Nam-mKha’ bZang-Po (1400-?) by O-Phrung-Pa Karma Rab-rGyas by Zur-mKhar Blo-Gros rGya-mTsho by dPa’-Bo gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba (1454-?) by sBra-Ti dGe-bShes Rin-Ch’en Don-Grub

9 Sum-rTags a’GrelCh’en mKhas-Pa’i mGul rGyan Mu-Tig a’Phreng-mDzes

by Situ Ch’os-Kyi sNang-Ba (1700-1774)

C) Poetic Composition, Metrical Literature and Lexicons 1. Poetic Literature There is vast poetic literature in the Tibetan language. There are also a number of works that deal with the rules and system of ancient Indian poetry. Especially important are the Kavyadarsha by Dandin and the Maghduta by Kalidasa. Som e o f the well-known Tibetan Commentaries on Kavyadarsha are: the commentaries written by dPang-Lo, a’Jam-dByangs Kha-Ch’e, Rin-sPung-Pa, dPa’-Bo, 5th Dalai Lama, Bod-mKhas-Pa, sMin-Gling LoCh’en, Kham-Pa Ch’os-Kyi Nyi-Ma, Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal and u-rGyan Kun-bZang bsTan-a’Dzin. Som e of the great Tibetan poems are contained in the works of: Sa-sKya Pandit, Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en-Pa, rJe-Tsong-Kha-Pa, Karmapa Mi-bsKyog rDo-rJe, 5th Dalai Lama, mDo-mKhar-Pa and KunKhyen a’Jigs-Med Qling-Pa.

2. Metrical Literature The major text for metre (sDeb-sByor) is the Chandaratnakara by Ratnakarashantipada. Som e of the important Tibetan works on metre are the commentaries written by Mi-bsKyod-rDo-rJe, sMin-Gling Lo-Ch’en and a’Gyur-Med bsTan-a’Dzin.

3. Lexicons The principle lexicon texts (mNgon-brJod) are: the bilingual (Tibetan-Sanskrit) lexicon Bye-Brag-Tu rTogs-Par Byed-Pa by Tibetan scholars; the Amarkosha (a’Ch’i-Med mDzod) by Amarsimha and its commentary, Kamadhenu (A ’Dod-a’Joi Ba); Adhidhanamuktamala (mNgon-brJod Mu-Tig-Phreng-Ba) by Aridharasena. The last three works are translated from Sanskrit. The important Tibetan works are: mNgon-brJod Tshig-Gi gTer by Sakya Pandita and Prajna (Shes-Rab) by Sa-sKya-Pa bsTan-a’Dzin rGyal-mTshan.

4. Logic There are a large number o f texts on logic written by both Indian and Tibetan logicians. The famous works of Buddhist logic such as those of Dignaga and Dharmakirti were written in order to refute nonBuddhist philosophies and to defend Buddhist teaching. The method of argument was based upon logical reasoning rather than an appeal to scripture or faith. Logic is classified as a common or secular subject by Buddhist scholars, including Dignaga, and the works on this subject are not regarded as religious scripture. Some of the principal Indian works are: 1 Pramanasamuccaya by Dignaga 2 Pramanavartika Karika, etc. the Seven Treatises by Dharmakirti

3 Tattva-samgraha Karika

by Shantaraksita

Some of the main Tibetan works are: 1 Tshad-Ma bsDus-Pa Yid-Kyi by Phyva-Pa Ch’os-Seng (1109-?) Mun-Sel 2 Tshad-Ma Rig-gTer by Sa-sKya Pandita (1181-1251) by Bo-Dong Phyogs-Las 3 Tshad-Ma Rig-sNang rNam-rGyal (1375/6-1451) Som e o f the major commentaries on logical texts written by Tibetan authors are the works o f rGyal-Tshab-rJe, Rong-sTon, Go-Raba’Byams Pa and Mi-Pham rNam-Gyal.

5. Astrology The major text for Tibetan astrology is the Kalacakratantra (in the Kajur Collection) and its famous commentaries. The Lalitavistara and mKha’a-Gro rGya-mTsho Tantra in the Kajur also contain some material on astrology. The calendar of Sixty-year cycles (Rab-Byung) was introduced in Tibet in 1027 A.D. as a result o f the introduction of the Kalacakratantra. The eminent scholars, Bu-sTon (1290-1364) and Dol-Po (1292-?) wrote many treatises on the Kalacakratantra. In later centuries four main traditions o f astrology developed:

(a ) Phug-Lugs (tradition of Phug-Pa): This is the tradition of those who followed the astrological texts of Pad-dKar Zhal-Lung and the supplementary texts written by Nor-bZang rGya-mTsho (1423-1513) and Phug-Pa Lhun-Drub rGya-mTsho. x

(b ) mTshur-Lugs (the tradition o f mTshur): The tradition of the followers of the astrological literature written by mTshur-Phu Don-Grup Od-Zer.

(c ) Phug-Lugs Grub-rTsts: This is a later astrological tradition based on the texts Bai-Dur dKar-Po by sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas rGya-mTsho (1653-1705) and the Nyin-Byed sNang-Ba by sMin-Gling-Lo-Ch’en.

(d ) mTshur-Lugs Grub-rTsts: This tradition is based on the text NyermKho Bum-bZang by Nges-Legs bsTan-a’Dzin. Som e of the other important texts written by Tibetan astrologers are: 1 rTsis-Kyi bsTan-Chos mKhas-Pa dG a’-Byed 2 INga-bDus Lag-Len and others 3 Dus-a’Khor a’Grel-Ch’en 4 rTsis-Kun bsDus-Pa 5 Pad-dKar Zhal-Lung 6 Dus-a'Khor a’Grel-Ch’en and others

by Bu-sTon (1290-1364) by Dol-Bo (1292-?) by mKhas-Grub rJe (1385­ 1438) by Rang-Byung rDo-rJe (1284-1339) , by Nor-bZang rGya-mTsho (1423-1513) by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912)

7 rTsis-gZhung Rig-lDan sNying-Thig

by mKhyen-Rab Nor-Bu (1890-1962)

6. Mathematics A s mathematics is an elementaiy and essential part of astrology the traditional source of mathematics has been the commentaries on the Kalachakratantra. The Abhidharmakosha and Lalitavastara also contain some material on numerical systems. But there are no modern texts of mathematics. It is important to develop such texts in order for Tibetan speaking people to keep abreast o f educational developments.

7. Medicine There were some Indian and a large number of Tibetan works in the field of medicine. There are also some methods of medical treatment in the Vinaya Sutras. The other major Indian medical texts translated into Tibetan are the Astangahrdaya-samhita by Mahavaidyavagohata and the Yoga-sataka by Magarjuna. The greatest Tibetan physician was the later gYu-Thog Yon-Ton mGon-Po who lived in the 12th century. (There was another great Tibetan physician by the name o f gYu-Thog who lived in the 8th century). The main textual source for Tibetan medicine is the sMan-Gyi rGyud-bZhi (the Four Tantras of Medicine). The Four Tantras are: rTsagGyud; bShad-rGyud; Man-Ngag-rGyud; and rGyud-Phyi-Ma. The authorship of the Four Tantras is disputed but they are generally believed to be Canons translated by Bairocana from Sanskrit into Tibetan and then concealed as Hidden Treasures at Samye monastery. In the 11th century, the great gTer-sTon, Grva-Ba mNgon-Shes-Chan (1012-?) discovered and transmitted them to the later gYu-Thog YonTan mGon-Po. He practiced and taught the Four Tantras and wrote about 20 treatises on them and other aspects o f medicine. The two major traditions which developed from this lineage are (a) Byang-Pa and (b ) Zur.

(a) Byang-Pa: The tradition was founded by Byang-Pa Rig-lDan and his followers who wrote many treatises on medicine.

(b )Z u r: This tradition was established by the great physician Zur-mKhar mNyam-Nyid-rDo-rJe who edited the Four Tantras. He and his followers wrote extensively on medical subjects. sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas rGya-mTsho (1653-1705) wrote the famous Bai-Dur sNgon-Po and other texts. He also founded a medical college at Lhasa. Som e of the other Tibetan medical texts are: 1 sMan-gZhung Ch’a'-Lag bCho-brGyad 2 Treatises on the Tantra

by gYu-Thog Yon-Tan Gon-Po by Byang-Pa Rig-lDan Ch’en-Po

3 Bye-Ba Ring-bSrel 4 Mes-Po’i Zhal-Lung 5 gChes-bDus 6 bKa’rGya-Ma 7 Bai-Dur sNgon-Po and Lhan-Thabs

by Zur-mNyam-Nyid rDo-rJe by Zur-mKhar Blo-Gros-rGyamTsho (1508-?) by aBri-Gung by Dar-Mo sMan-Ram-Pa by sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas rGya-mTsho (1653-1705)

8. Geography and Cosm ology The traditional Tibetan geographical and cosmological texts are contained within religious works. There is no separate literature for them. The texts in which these subjects are discussed are: the Kalacaktatantra (1st chapter); a’Jigs-rTen gZhag-Pa from the Kajur; Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandu (3rd chapter); Yid-bZhin Rin-Po-Ch’e’i mDzod by Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en-Pa (1308-1363); and the various commentaries on these works. , A later work on the geography of Tibet is the a'Jam-Gling rGyasbShad by bTsan-Po Bla-Ma.

9. Law The judicial and common law of Tibet was developed by King Srong-bTsen sGam-Po in the 7th century. The judicial law was enlarged under King Phag-Mo-Gru-Pa. Until recently these were the only written laws of the state. On March 10, 1963 H.H. the 14th Dalai Lama promulgated a new constitution. ^ The literature of the laws of the state are:

(a) Common Law

—

1 Lha-Ch’os-dGe-Ba bChu (the 10 virtuous laws) 2 Mi-Ch’os gTsang-Ma bChuDrug (the 16 pure laws)

(b ) Judicial Law

by King Srong-bTsan sGam-Po (629-710) by

"

"

—

1 Khrims-Yig Zhal-lChe bChu gSum (the law text of 13 codes of judicial judge­ ments) 2 Krims-Yig Zhal-lChe bCholNga-Pa (the law text of 15 codes of judgements)

(c ) N ew Constitution

"

"

by King Phag-Mo Gru-Pa

—

1 The Constitution o f Tibet

Promulgated by the 14th Dalai Lama

10. Political Writings Som e of the Indian works are: 1 Prajnasataka

by Nagarjuna

2 Nitisastra-prajna-danda 3 Rajaparikatharatna-vali (4th chapter) 4 Nitisastra-jnaposana-bindu 5 Aryakosa 6 Satagatha 7 Vimalaprasnottararatnamala 8 Canakya Rajanitishastra 9 Nitisastra

by Nagarjuna by " by " b y Ravigupta by Vararuci by Amoghavarma by Canakya by Masuraksa

Som e o f the Tibetan works are: 1 Legs-Par-bShad-Pa Rin-PoCh’ei gTer 2 Lugs-gNyis-Kyi bSlab-Bya Mu-Thu-Li a ’Phreng-Ba 3 rGyal-Po Lugs-Kyi bsTanbChos Sa-gZhi sKyong-Ba’i rGyan

by Sa-sKya Pandit (1181-1251) by the 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682) by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912)

11. Music There are different traditions of Tibetan vocal (GIu-dByangs) and instrumental (Rol-Ch'a) music. However, most of this music was orally communicated from generation to generation. There is probably little written literature on it. N ow it is important that it be preserved in writing and on records for the benefit of future generations.

12. Drama Two dramatic works from the Tenjur are listed below as well as some native Tibetan dramas. As with music and dance it is important to translate this dramatic literature into contemporary dramatic forms and to expand it with new works. From the Tenjur: 1 Lokanandanataka 2 Nagananda-nama-nataka

by Candragomin by Harsadeva

Som e Tibetan works are: 1 2 3 4

gZugs-Kyi Nyi-Ma Dri-Med Kun-lDan a’Gro-Ba bZang-Mo Pad-Ma’i Tshal-Gyi Zlos-Gar by dPal-sPruI Rin-Po-Ch’e (1808-1887)

13. A rts and Crafts There are many craft traditions in Tibet such as drawing, painting, writing, weaving, stitching, sculpture, metal work, carpentry and construction. There are some texts of instructions such as the bZo’i-PaKhra by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912), but they are mostly taught through oral and practical demonstration.

Tibetan literature is a vast accumulation of works written over thir­ teen centuries by authors who addressed themselves to an encyclo­ pedic range o f subjects. While it is impossible to cover this entire body of literature, I have tried to impart its general structure for English speaking readers who are interested in expanding their knowledge of Tibetan culture.

G L O S S A R Y O F B U D D H IS T T E R M S A B H ID H A R M A One o f the three divisions of Buddhist canonical writings. It sets forth the teachings of the Buddha according to logic and analysis. A B S O L U T E TRUTH (Paramartha, S k t) See Two Truths A C H A R Y A (Skt.) A spiritual Master. ARHAT One who has subdued emotional defilement. The fourth and final attainment of the Shravakyana. “Foe-Subduer” is the traditional Tibetan meaning for this term. “Worthy O ne” is the common Theravadin meaning. B H IK SH U (Skt.) A fully ordained Buddhist monk who observes the the 254 rules of conduct. BODH ICITTA (Skt.) Enlightened Mind; an attitude intentionally directed toward benefiting all sentient beings. B O N (Tib.) The native religion of Tibet before the advent of Buddhism. B U D D H A (Skt.) A fully Enlightened Being. C H A K R A S (Skt.) Energy centers within the human body, the understanding and control of which constitute an essential part of the esoteric path of Buddhism. In the esoteric teachings of Buddhism there are systems of three, four and five chakras or more. C H O D (Tib.) Cutting off the ego. A special practice based on the Prajna-Paramita texts. It was taught by Pha Dam-Pa and then by Ma-Chig Lap-Kyi DronMa for cutting through attachment to phenomena. C H O G Y A L (Tib.) Dharma King. This is also the name of the dynasty of the earliest rulers of Tibet (2nd century B.C. - 10th century A.D.). D H A R M A (Skt.) Buddhism, or the Buddhist scriptures, practices and attainments. D H A R M A K A Y A (S k t) The Absloute Body o f the Enlightened One. This aspect o f the Buddha is represented symbolically in the Nyingma Tradition as Samanta Bhadra, the Primordial Buddha (Adibuddha) who resides in a condition free from all elaboration.

D H A R M A -N IR A T M A (Skt.) The non-substantive nature of phenomena, realization of which is synonomous with the realization of Shunyata {Skt., voidness) and is the special realization of a Bodhisattva. By contrast, the Arhat realizes only the non-substantive nature of the human personality (PudgalaNairatmya, Skt.). D H A R M A P A L A S (Skt.) Spiritual forces which protect and preserve the Dharma. D ZO G -R IM (Tib.) (Sampanna Krama, Skt.) The Completion Stage. A method o f Tantrik meditation in which one visualizes the energy channels (rTsa, Tib.), energy flow (rLung, Tib.) and energy-essence (Thig-Le, Tib.) within the human body. Also a method of spiritual attainment by means of meditation on the Tsa, Lung and Thig-Le which dissolves all phenomena into the meditative state. E IG H TY-FO U R M A H A S ID D H A S (Skt.) A group of famous Indian Buddhist masters of meditation traditionally noted for their esoteric attainments. F IV E CER TAINTIES The certainties o f teachers, disciple, teachings, time and place. FOUR TRUTHS

1) 2) 3) 4)

The The The The

truth truth truth truth

o f suffering o f the origin o f suffering o f cessation o f suffering o f the path to the cessation of'suffering.

The Four Truths cover the whole o f the Buddhist teachings. The Four N oble Truths were the first teaching which the Lord Buddha delivered in his sermon given at Deer Park near Varanasi. FOUR PATHS

1) 2) 3) 4)

Sambharamarga — path o f accumulation Prayogamarga — path o f application Darshanamarga — path o f insight . Bhauanamarga — path o f meditation.

These are the stages of the practice through which a Buddhist practitioner attains the goal of Buddhahood. FOUR STAG ES OF R ESULT

1) 2) 3) 4)

Stream-Enterer Once-Retumer Never-Returner Arhat

These stages refer to the four degrees of spiritual maturation accord­ ing to the Hinayana tradition: (1) Having merely entered the “stream” of the Buddhist teachings, (2) Having progressed to the point that one will only be reborn in Samsara one more time (3) Never having to be reborn in Samsara, and (4) Having achieved a final victory over the defiling forces Kleshas, Skt.) of Samsaric existence.

GCIRCI (Skt.) Source of spiritual guidance and teaching. (See Lama) H EAR ING T R A N S M IS S IO N

See Transmission

H IN A Y A N A (Skt.) The Lesser Path, so-called because, in contrast to the Greater Path (Mahayana, Skt), it does not stress the cultivation of an Enlightened Mind (Bodhicitta, Skt.). Nowadays the followers of this path are known as Thervadins (The Elders). IND ICATIO N T R A N S M IS S IO N

See Transmission.

IN SIG H T M E D ITATIO N (Vipashyna, Skt.) Meditation whose purpose is the progressive realization essentially empty nature of all phenomena.

of the

KAJUR (Ttb.; It is the collection o f canonical writings o f the Buddha translated into Tibetan. It was collected together by Bu-Ton (1290-1364) in 108 volumes. K A R M A (Skt.) The process of cause and effect. The inexorable fact of retribution: That every action of body, speech or mind has a definite result though perhaps delayed and subtle. Contemplation of this truth is conducive to spiritual maturation. KARCINA (Skt.) Strong compassion toward sentient beings, perceiving their suffering along with the ardent wish that they can be free from suffering. K L E S H A (Skt.) Emotional defilements. K YED — RIM (Tib.) The Developing Stage of meditative practices which involve the visualization and contemplation of Enlightened Awareness in the form of deities for the ultimate purpose of realizing the essential purity of all phenomena. LAM -DRE (Tib.) The highest esoteric teachings of the Sakya school, traditionally associated with the Mahasiddha Virupa. L A M A (Tib.) The highest one, a spiritual master or teacher. L U N G (rLung, Tib.) The subtle energy flow within the energy channels (Tsa) o f the human body. The understanding and control of this flow constitutes part of the training in esoteric Buddhist teachings. M A D H Y A M IK A (Skt.) The Middle Way. One of the major Buddhist philosophical schools whose primary tenets were composed by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva. Through its methods all philosophical views are shown to be vacuous,

thereby helping to establish the central notion of this school — that all phenomena are inherently void (Shunyata). M A H A M U D R A (Skt.) The highest and main esoteric practices of the Kagyudpa school of Tibetan Buddhism. M A H A P A R IN IR V A N A (Skt.) The Great Cessation or Transcendence of Sorrow, Also refers to the physical death of Shakyamuni Buddha. M A H A Y A N A (Skt.) The Greater Vehicle, because it stresses the great importance of cultivating an Enlightened Mind (Bodhicitta). A long with others, the Tibetan Buddhists are followers of the Mahayana. M AITRI (Skt.) The strong wish that all sentient beings have happiness and loving­ kindness. This is one o f the Four Immeasurables (Apramada, Skt.); so called because there is no limit to the benefits of cultivating this attitude. M A N D A L A (Skt.) An assemblage of many things. In Tantrik Buddhism this often refers to the circular assemblage of deities, their retinues, and the pure land in which they dwell. M A N T R A S (S k t); sN gags (Tib.) Sacred syllables which express the essential nature of deities. These are used as a medium to receive esoteric transmission and powers. M A N T R A Y A N A (Skt.) Esoteric teachings. This term refers especially to the mystic syllables in esoteric practice. M AYA BODY Illusory Body. Through certain esoteric practices the meditator comes to see all phenomena as the Mandalas of the Tantrik deities, which appear like an illusory body. M ILK O C E A N (Dhanakosa, Skt.) The milky-white lake from which Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) was miraculously born. M IN D -T R A N S M IS S IO N

See Transmission.

N A L A N D A U N IV E R SITY An ancient and great seat of Buddhist learning in Northern India, in the state of Bihara. Nagarjuna was one of its many famous scholars. Naropa was one o f its abbots. Both exoteric and esoteric studies were taught there. N IR M A N A K A Y A (S k t) The form-body o f Enlightened Mind which is visible to ordinary people.

See Tulku.

NO-THOUGHT Mind free from conceptualization. Through Tantrik practice one achieves a wisdom which has the qualities o f uninterrupted bliss, clarity and no-thought.

PARAMITAS

(Skt.)

The six perfections: 1) Dana — generousity 2) Shila — moral conduct 3 ) Kshanti — patience 4 ) Virya — perseuerence 5 ) Samadhi — meditation 6) Prajna — wisdom These perfections are practiced by Bodhisattvas for the benefit of all sentient beings. P R A J N A (Skt.) Discriminating Insight. This term includes three kinds of wisdom:

1) The wisdom o f hearing 2 ) The wisdom o f pondering 3) The wisdom o f meditation. This last is the wisdom which has the insight that all phenomena have the absolute nature of Shunyata.

PRASANGIKA MADHYAMIKA

(Skt.)

A school of Madhyamika doctrine expounded by Buddhapalita and Candrakirti which uses the philosophical techniques of forcing the advocates of opposing views to the absurd limits implied by their assertions.

PRATIMOKSHA VOWS

(Skt.)

Vows regarding conduct conducive to spiritual maturation, of which there are eight types:

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Precepts kept on lunar observance days (CJpauashatha) Precepts fo r laymen (Upasaka) Precepts fo r laywomen (Upasika) Precepts for novice monks (Shramanera) Precepts fo r novice nuns (Shramanerika) Training precepts for women probationers (Shikshamana) F o r monks (Bhikshu) F o r nuns (Bhikshuni)

PRATITYAS AM UT PADA

(Skt.)

Interdependent Arising. The fact that no facet of experience is isolated, singular, self-sufficient, or due to a single causal factor. Everything arises due to and owes its existence to a multitude of interdependently working factors.

PUDGALA NIRATMA

(Skt.)

The realizations of the stage of Arhat, that the human personality is non-substantive and empty in nature.

PURE L A N D The naturally resplendent lands in which completely Enlightened Buddhas continuously teach for the benefit of all sentient beings. There are two kinds o f pure lands:

Manifested Pure Lands Pure Lands with Five Certainties. R ELATIVE TR U TH (Samvriti-Satya, Skt.)

See Two Truths.

S A D H A N A (Skt.) The ritualized practice of contemplation using the Mandalas o f Tantrik deities. S A M A N T A B H A D R A (Skt.) The Primordial Buddha (Adibuddha). The Dharmakaya from which the Dzog-Chen teachings emanate. S A M B H O G A K A Y A (Skt.) The Enjoyment Body or Spiritual Rapture Body of Enlightened Awareness which appears with Five Certainties and is iconographically represented by the Five Buddha Families. This is the pure form-body of the Buddhas. S A N G H A (Skt.) The community of like-minded people who adhere to the teachings of Lord Buddha. S A N S K R IT (Skt.) The major northern Indian literary language which gradually became the medium of expression for both Buddhist and Hindu philosophers up until the 12th century when Moslems conquered India. Most of the original Buddhist scriptures now preserved in Tibetan texts were translated from Sanskrit. S A R M A (Tib.) The “new” as opposed to the “old” (Nyingm a) translations of Buddhist Tantras from Sanskrit sources. The distinction arose at the time of RinChen Zang-Po (958-1005 A .D .) and applies only to Tantrik scriptures. S H R A V A K A S (Skt.) Listeners. Pious listeners to Buddha’s teachings, who follow the doctrine of Hinayana Buddhism. S H R A V A K A Y A N A (S k t) ' The vehicle or practice of the Shravakayana, or Listeners. SHUNYATA According to Mahayana doctrine, all phenomenal existence is inherently free from conceptualization in its true nature and is therefore empty or void of conceptual meaning. S ID D H A Accomplished One. An esoteric practitioner who has achieved a high level o f mystic accomplishment.