British Fortifications in Zululand 1879

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B ritish F o rtificatio n s

in Z u lu lan d 18 79

IAN KNIGHT is widely regarded as a leading international expert on the Anglo-Zulu War. He has written, co-written or edited over 30 books. He studied Afro-Caribbean Studies at Kent University, and is an Honorary Research Associate of the Natal Museum and Vice President of the Anglo Zulu War Historical Society. In 2000, he waS the historian advising the Glasgow University team who made the first archaeological survey of the Isandlwana battlefield. He lives in Sussex, UK.

ADAM HOOK studied graphic design and began his work as an illustrator in 1983. He specializes in detailed historical reconstructions and has Illustrated Osprey titles on the Aztecs, the Greeks, the American Civil War and the American Revolution. His work features in exhibitions and publications throughout the world. He lives in Sussex, UK.

Fa rtress · 35

OSPREY PUBLISHING

British Fortifications in Zululand 1879

Ian Knight • Illustrated by Adam Hook Series editors Marcus Cowper and Nikolai Bogdanovic

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First published in 2005 by o.sprey Publishing

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Image credits Cartography: Map Studio. Romsey. H.nts Page layouts by Ken Vall Graphic Design, Cambridge, UK Index by D3vldWorthingtol'l Originated by The Electronic Page Company, Cwmbl"'3n, UK

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FOR A CATALOGUE OF All. BOOKS PUBLISHED BY OsPFlEY MIUTMY AND AVIAnON FUASE CONTACT:

NORTH AMERICA Osp'rey Dire,

• Fort Newdlgale

Fort Melville For1Bromheade

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Rorke's Drift.;;r::;

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1 . . .Fort Marshall

Isandlwana Helpmekaar. . Helpmekaar 10r1

Ladysmith

Fort Bengough •

e FOr1 Alber1 (bullt llOSI·U1undi lor pacifiClltion purposes) e 51 Paul's redoubt (built post·U1undi for paciflcalion PUrposesl

• For1llddle

Eslcourt Greytown.

• For1 Cross

Thring's Post.

Thrtng's Post.

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Euphortlia H'II e redoubt

INDIAN OCEAN

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Pielermarilzburg • A Eshowe Aeliel E,pedition (MarchIAprlI1879) B 1st Divis;on (May-July 18791 C 2nd DIVision (June 18791 o FlYing Column (formerly WOOd's Column, May/June 18791 E Combined 2nd oovislon and FlVlng COlumn (June-July 1879)

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58

The final battle The final battIe of the war took place on the plain close to oNdini (known to the British as Ulundi) on 4 July. Leaving his baggage wagons at Fort olela under guard, helmsford crossed the White Mfolozi with over 5,000 men, including six artillery batteries and a regular cavalry regiment. He formed up in a square, four deep on each side, and manoeuvred onto a grassy rise a mile and a half from 0 dini itself. The men from the Flying Column - veterans of Khambula, who made up two sides of the square - began to construct an entrenchment, but Chelmsford ordered them to stop. The habit of building forts at each temporary halt had led to criticism of Chelmsford being overcautious where he had once been seen as too confident, while the Zulu still clung to the belief that the British could be defeated if only they fought in the open. To silence his critics and destroy any vestige of Zulu hopes, Chelmsford was determined that the only walls around his position would be a wall of troops. The cavalry, auxiliaries and ammunition carts were secured safely in the centre of the square. The Zulu who had concentrated around 0 dini in anticipation of his advance moved to surround the square, and began to attack at about 8.30 am. For 45 minutes they tried to find weak spots in the devastating wall of British fue, advancing in one place as close as ten yards from the lines before being driven back. Chelmsford's judgement had proved correct, however; so overwhelming was his firepower that the Zulu were just as incapable of forcing an entry through the lines as they had been at Rorke's Drift, Khambula or Gingindlovu. As their attacks faltered, Chelmsford ordered his cavalry out from the protection of the square, and a charge by the 17th Lancers drove the Zulus from the field. Over 1,500 Zulu were killed; Chelmsford lost just three officers and 10 men dead, and 69 wounded. Once the battle was over, Chelmsford's cavalry rode round the plain, setting fire to the royal homesteads, including o dini itself. The British remembered the battle by the name Ulundi. Ironically, given Chelmsford's determination not to employ entrenchments, the Zulu knew it for generations as Ocwecweni - 'the battle of the sheet-iron fort'. The sun glinting on the impressive rows of bayonets around the square had given the impression, from a distance, that it was protected by a screen of corrugated iron.

Pacification The battle of Ulundi effectively broke up the Zulu army, and Lord Chelmsford promptly withdrew back across the White Mfolozi, and up onto the Mthonjaneni heights. But if the war was won, it was not quite over, for King Cetshwayo himself had not been captured, and some of his most loyal supporters refused to accept defeat until his fate was resolved. As a result, a number of forts were built in the closing weeks of the war, to protect the withdrawing columns, to serve as bases for parties sent out to hunt for the king, or intimidate chiefs who refused to surrender.

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Visiting the forts today

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The fortunes of the forts built by the British during the war of 1879 have been decidedly mixed. All of them were constructed as temporary work, intended to last for the duration of the campaign at best, and not to house a long-term army of occupation. Although one or two sites were later revived during Zululand's subsequent troubled history, most had been abandoned by September 1879, and left to the mercy of the elements. The degree to which they have survived has largely depended on the use to which the land was put follOWing the opening of Zululand to white settlement a the end of the 19th century. Inland, white farmers found the land best suited to cattle ranching, and apart from the occasional appropriation of surviving stone walls to make cattle pens, this often had little impact on any surViving remains. In the coastal sector, however, both climate and soil were more suited to the intensive cultivation of sugarcane, a crop which requires frequent heavy ploughing, to the detriment of all but the most robust entrenchments. For a century, however, many of the inland forts survived in a good state of preservation, although ironically some are now fast disappearing even as interest in their history grows. The proliferation of roads built to serve the rural African community since the 1990s has endangered some, while the increase in visitors, which has come with improved tourist facilities, has affected others. Anyone hoping to visit the site should go armed with a copy of either The Field uide To The War In Zululand and the Defence ofNatal 1879, by John Uiband and Paul Thompson (University of atal Press, first published in 1979, and in revised form in 1983 and 1987), or the rather more glossy hardback equivalent, The Illustrated Guide to the Anglo-Zulu War (U P, 2000), which exhaustively maps the sites. Visitors should, however, be aware that while public access to some sites is good, others are on private farmland, and the advice of a local gUide is always adVised, if only to prevent getting lost! Of the forts featured most heavily in this book, Fort Pearson, at the Thukela mouth, is in a good state of preservation, with the trenches still visible and regularly cleared of bush. The grave of Captain Warren Wynne, who had such an impact on the engineering of the war, lies in a small cemetery in the Euphorbia Hill Redoubt nearby. A modern bridge now spans the river where Pearson once crossed, and Wynne's work at Fort Tenedos can only be reached along farm roads. While the trenches along part of the site remain, the remainder has been destroyed by ploughing. The site of the fort at Eshowe now known as Fort KwaMondi, after the Zulu name for the Norwegian missionary, Ommund Oftebro - lies on the outskirts of the modern town. The site is in relatively good repair, with most of the perimeter ramparts and trenches still remaining, although the ramparts in one area have been destroyed by encroaching settlement, and the local heritage bodies struggle to keep the site free of bush. In 2000 a team from the University of Glasgow's archaeology department excavated the site. They found the foundations of the original church and some of the outbUildings - but also discovered that the interior of the fort had been used at a much later date as a cemetery by the local African population. Of the 1st Division's principal depots, considerable traces of Fort Crealock have survived, but nothing whatsoever remains of Fort Chelmsford beyond a memorial beside the road to the troops who died there of disease. Of the Centre Column's base at Helpmekaar, little remains but a faint trace in the ground, visible only when the grass is burnt in Winter, and a small

military cemetery, which lies behind the modern police station. At Rorke's Drift, nothing is left of the original mission or of Fort Bromhead, although the building built when the missionaries returned to the spot in the 1880s now serves as a church and a battleneld museum. Rorke's old road across the river fell into disuse with the advent of motor transport, and for half a century it was possible only to follow Chelmsford's route on horseback or on foot. In the last decade, however, a new road has been built with a concrete bridge spanning the Drift; the trenches of Fort Melvill can be explored on the rise immediately above the crossing on the old Natal side. The base of Wood' northern column at Khambula is in good repair, apart from a wattle grove that straddles part of the main laager site. The ramparts of the redoubt have long since crumbled, but their traces can still easily be recognised. Most of the site is still open grassland, and Khambula remains one of the easiest ba ttlenelds of the war to interpret. Many traces of the old 2nd Division and Flying Column forts still remain, particularly forts ewdigate, Marshall and Evelyn, although it is often necessary to hunt for them in the long grass. Many visitors today are surprised at how small they seem, and how flimsy, now that all that remains of them are a few shallow trenches and scattered stones which do little to convey the bustle of camp life that surrounded them when they were in use. Fort Nolela has benefited from work to pile up fallen stones and restore the walls to their original height.

The interior of 'Fort Mistake', a small redoubt built in 1881 - see the caption overleaf for a detailed description.

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'FOrt Mistake', a small redoubt built in 1881 - after the Transvaal Rebellion - to command the road between Dundee and Newcastle.Although built after the Anglo-Zulu War. the fort is a fine example of what could be achieved using dry-stone building techniques. and incorporated many features which were to be found in the stone bastions and civilian laagers of the Zulu campaign, including a narrow and carefully screened doorway and rows of loopholes and firing steps. The site is popularly known as 'Fort Mistake' because of the supposed difficulty of holding it for a protracted period without access to water. However, like many Zululand forts it was probably only ever intended to serve as a temporary bastion during an attack, RIGHT AND PREVIOUS PAGE

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Select bibliography There is an extensive body of literature on the AngloZulu War, although much of it is inevitably preoccupied with the warring sides and the main battles, and neglects the role of fortifications. The following is a select list of books that include material on military engineering during the war. Alan Baynham Jones and Lee Stevenson, Rorke's Drift; By Those Who Were There (Chichester, 2003) Ian Castle and Ian Knight, Fearful Hard Times: The Siege and Reliefof Eshowe 1879 (London, 1994) Robin Drooglever, The Road to [sandlwana: Col. Anthony Dumford in Natal and Zululand (London, 1992) Ian Knight, The National Army Museum Book oftl1e Zulu War (London, 2003) Ian Knight, Nothing Remains But To Fight: The Defence of Rorke's Drift (London 1993)

Ian Knight and Ian Castle, The Zulu War: Then and Now (London, 1993) John Laband and Paul Thompson, Kingdom and Colony at War (Pietermaritzburg, 1990) John Laband and Paul Thompson, Field Guide to the War in Zululand and the Defence of Natal 1879 (Pietermaritzbrg, 1979, 1983, 1987) John Laband and Paul Thompson, Tile Illustrated Guide to the Anglo-Zulu War (Pietermaritzburg, 2000) John Laband and Paul Thompson, War Comes to Umvoti (Durban, 1980) John Laband and Paul Thompson, The BuffalO Border (Durban, 1983) Howard Whitehouse, A WidOW-Making War: The Letters and Diaries of Major Warren Wynne RE (Nuneaton, 1995)

Glossary Banquette A raised step on the inside of a rampart, from which the defenders can fire on the enemy. Bastion A stronghold that when linked together with other bastions forms an enclosure around a defended place. Breach An opening made in the wall or rampart of a fortified place. Caponier A covered passage across a ditch. Chevaux·de·(rise Large pieces of wood full of spikes, sword blades or long nails. These could be used to block up breaches and to prevent access to enemy troops. Cordon A course of stones where the parapet meets the rampart. Counterscarp The sloping edge of a ditch nearest to the besiegers. Cunette A trench along the middle of a ditch, serving as an obstacle or a drain. Curtain A wall that joins together two bastions. Ditch A hollow channel made beyond the rampart, which extends all the way around the fortifcation. The edges of the ditch are made to slope, with the slope nearest the fortification called the scarp and the slope nearest the besiegers called the counterscarp. Embrasure An opening made in a fortification through which guns or rifles are fired. Fascine An object made of bundles of branches like faggots, some 6ft long and tied in two places. Used to strengthen or replace walls of trenches or other places. Faussebraie An artificial mound or wall erected in front of the main rampart.

Gabion A kind of basket c.3ft high and usually of the same diameter, filled with earth. Glacis The sloping ground immediately before the ditch, over which attacking forces would pass before descending into it. Lunette A work placed on both sides of a ravelin to defend it; or, simply, a small fort. Palisades Strong wooden stakes c.9ft long, driven into the ground, and usually covered, and situated about a yard from the parapet of the glacis. Parallel A deep trench in which the troops working on the approaches to a fortified place can be supported. Parapet A bank of earth raised upon the outer edge of a rampart. Used to protect the besieged and to give cover to the defenders to enable them to fire down into the ditch. Rampart A masonry wall or a great bank of earth around a fortified place. Ravelin A work placed in front of a curtain wall and used to cover the flanks of a bastion. Retrenchment A fortification consisting of a trench and a parapet; usually, an inner line of defence within a large work. Saps Trenches made under cover of gabions, fascines. etc. and pushed forward from the main parallel to establish batteries and other parallels. Scarp The sloping edge of a ditch nearest to the fortification. Talus The sloping side of a wall or earthwork. Terreplein A sloping bank of earth behind a parapet.

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Index

Figures in bold refer to illustrations abattis 46,48,54,55 ammunition boxes/carts 45, 49, 59 auxiliary units 5, 6, 10, 10, I I, 13, 24, 25, 31, 32, 36, 37,40,41, 42, 43, 44, 48 banquettes 20,25,37,45,54 bastions 8, 13, 20, 26, 37, 40, 42, 44, 54, 57 biscuit-box barricades 35, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,40 'blindages' 26,42 Camp Khambula 47-8, 48, 49, 50, 51, 51, 56,61 'caponiers' 26,26 cattle kraals/laagers 23,27,35,37,38,39, 40,44,48,48,49,51,51 Centre Column 24-5, 34-8, 39,40-6,47, 52,60-1 Chard RE,Lt.John 10,19,36,37,38,40,43, 44,57 Chelmsford, Lt. Gen. Lord 5, 6, 10, 14, 21, 25,31-2,34,35,42,43,44,45,48,52,59 Chief Sihayo kaXongo 34 civilian laagers 4,5,12-14,12,47,47 Coastal Column 9, 10, 16, 19, 20, 21, 24-33,28,29,48 defensive laagers 50 disease, outbreaks of 32-3,54 ditches 12, 17, 18, 19,20,21,25,26,27,33, 46,48,57 drainage 26, 28, 53, 54 drawbridges 23,25 Durnford RE, Col. Anthony 10, 13, 19 earthworks 10, 12, 16-17, 16, 17, 19,36, 47,47,54,56 Eshowe fort (Fort KwaMondi) 6,8,9, 15, 21, 24, 24, 25--6, 26, 27, 27, 28-31, 28, 32-3,33,60 siege of 5,27-8,28, 30, 32,48,51 Eshowe mission station 5, ~ 1,22-3,24-7, 24,28,30,35,35 Eshowe Relief Column 31-2,32,52

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field guns 17, 17,23,43,48,49 Flying Column 56,57,59,61 Fort Argyll 53 Fort Benough 43,44 Fort Bromhead 36, 37,43-5,61 Fort Buckingham 12 Fort Chelmsford 53, 54, 56, 60 Fort Crealock 52,53,54,60 'Fort Durnford' 13 Fort Evelyn 57, 61 Fort Jones 15 Fort Marshall 57, 61 Fort Melvill ('Revenge') 44, 45--6, 45, 46, 61

'Fort Mistake' 61, 62 Fort Napoleon 53,54,56 Fort Newdigate ('Fort Funk') 54,55,56-7, 61 Fort Nolela 57,59,61 Fort Pearson 8,16-17, 16, 17, 18, 19,20, 21, 30, 52, 60 Fort Pine 6, 13 Fort Richards 53 Fort Tenedos 9, 18, 19-21, r9, 20, 25, 30, 31,52,60 Fort Thinta 34,47 Fort Whitehead 56 Fort Williamson I 2, 16 Frere, Sir Henry Bartle 4-5,8, 16 gabions 17, 21 Gatling guns 17, 17,25, 28, 32 Gingindlovu battle of 32, 33, 52, 59 defensive features 31-2,33,48 glacis 14, 16. I 7 Greytown 5,12,14 gun pladormslpositions 20, 23, 25, 26,42 Helpmekaar (camp/fort) 36.40,40.41,41, 42-3,42,44-5,60-1 Isandlwana, battle of 13,34,36,40,44,45, 47 British losses 5,24-5,27,35,36,42 lack of fortification 34 survivors of 36,37,40-1 Zulu attacks 34-5, 48 Jones RE, Capt. Walter 10,42 Khambula, battle of 48,49,51,5/,52 King Cetshwayo kaMpande 5,6, 16,27,48, 49,56,59 King Sekhukhune of the Pedi 47

Pearson, Col. C.K. 5,6,8,9, 10, 16, 19,20, 21,24-33,47,48,52-4,60 Prince Dabulamanzi kaMpande 27,38 ramparts 8, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19,20,25,26,27, 28,31,32,33,36.37,38,40,42,42,48, 54,56,60 redoubts 17, 17, 18, 19,34,35,40,47-8, 48,49,50,51,51,54,55,56,57 rocket troughs and rockets f 7, 28 Rorke's Drift (improvised fort) 5, 27. 34, 35,35,36-7, 36, 38,38,39,40,41, 42. 43-4,52,54,61 Rorke's Drift, battle of 35,37-8,40,45,59 Royal Engineers: forts design and construction 13, 16, 17, 19, 20,26,33,36,42,43,45,57 5appers 10, 19,24,36 settler communities 4,8, 12-13 sheds 25,41, 41, 43, 48,53,56 square laagers 31, 32, 32 stakes 18, 19,20,21,25,26,29,30 supply depots 8, 14, 15,21,24,34, 47, 48, 52-3,52,53,56 tents 28, 28, 34, 36,41, 43,44,48,49, 50, 53,57 temporary march laagers 54 traditional laagers 13 trenches 5, 14, 16, 16, 17, 17,24,26,26,27, 31,32,40,41,42,45,46,48,53,54.56. 60,61 trous-de-Ioups 18, 19, 19,21 Ulundi (oNdini), battle of 5, 6, 56, 59 Utrecht, fort at 47,48 vedettes 24,28,29

wagons, use in defences f 3, 25, 26, 31, 32. 32,34,36,38,39,41,41,42,47,48,49, laagers 31,32,48,48,49,50,51,51 50,50,54,55,57 Landman's Drift (fort) 54,56,57 wire entanglements 5, 14, 18, 19, 19,21,28 Left Flank Column 47,48-9,52 WolfTrap Fort 10 loopholes 12, 13,25,26,26,28,37,40,42, Wood, Col. H.E. 5,6, 34, 48,49,5 I 43,44,62 Wynne RE, Maj.Warren R.C. 9, 10, 17, 19, 20,24,27,28,29,30,32-3,47,60 Martini-Henry rifle 15, 38, 49 mea lie bagslsacks 35,35,36,37,38,39,40, Zulu army 42,45,48 deployment under fire 27, 32 military engineering, origins 8-9 inability to breach defences 59 musketeers 36, 38, 40, 49 Natal 4, 6, 8, 10-1 I , 53 over-confidence of 49 tactics ('horns') 48,49,51 civilian laagers 4, I I, 12 defensive posts 10, 12-13, 58 weakening and break-up 56, 59 tensions with Zululand 12 Zulu kingdomlZululand Zulu army crosses into 35 British ultimatum to 16 Northern Column 47-9,51,61 civilian 'Iaagers' in (1879) I I fom in (1879) 58 royal homesteads 5, 6, 3 I, 52, 59 palisades 48,50 parapets 18, 19,25,31 white settlement of 60

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Em pirew entto warw ith the independentkingdom of Zululand.TheBritish anticipated aswiftand decisivevictory, placing greatfaith in m odern firepower;no planswere made forproviding defensivepositions from w hich to occupy Zulu territory.H ow ever,thelosses suffered atlsandlw anaand Rorke'sDriftquickly altered the British approach;throughout therestofthew ar,the British

fortified alm ostevery position they occupied in Zululand,from perm anentcolum n depots ttatem porary halts.'I' hisbook exploresBritish defensive techniqtles,contem porary cngineeringtheory,and key sites

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