Blundering Leadership: Missteps by School Administrators

Education • School Administration “This book should be required reading for all prospective administrators. The situati...

Author: Tamara Arnott

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Education • School Administration

“This book should be required reading for all prospective administrators. The situations that are covered certainly make this a working document for all practicing administrators.” —Kermit Eastman, retired superintendent; school board member, St. Cloud Area School District #742, Minnesota “My first year as a high school principal brought many challenges to which I had never been exposed. By trial and error I made it through—just barely. I could have saved myself many gray hairs and sleepless nights had I read Blundering Leadership before my first school administrative job. Blundering Leadership should be a prerequisite for every education leadership license.” —Jason Ulbrich, education director, Stride Academy Charter School, St. Cloud, Minnesota “The authors take a very close look at excellent leadership skills and how they are essential in a successful school. This is a book that school leaders of all ages and experiences will find helpful and realistic. The authors have written a book that, although very practical, is well seated in current research. The self-assessment tools are invaluable. I was most impressed with the real-life discussion of what school leadership is about. It becomes apparent that seemingly little mistakes can often become dangerously big. Practitioners will find this book very helpful as they reflect on doing their jobs as school leaders.” —Nicholas J. Miller, associate professor, St. Cloud State University; former Met Life MASSP Principal of the Year (1996), Minnesota Association of Student Council’s Administrator of the Year (1990), Minnesota High School Press Association Administrator of the Year (1993) Tamara Arnott is a licensed public school administrator and educator with twenty years of experience in public, private, non-profit, and for-profit K–12 and higher education settings. Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller has more than twenty-five years in education administration leadership positions, including assistant superintendent, high school principal, assistant principal, and post-secondary administrator.

BLUNDERING LEADERSHIP

“A book like Blundering Leadership comes along only once in a decade. An easy-to-read summary gives leaders practical tips on leadership as well as case studies to challenge a leader’s problem-solving skills. This is a pragmatic tool for the novice and the more experienced. You will never think about leadership in the same way again.” —Joane W. McKay, dean of education, University of the Virgin Islands

ARNOTT AND HOLMGREN-HOELLER

“As school leaders, principals are expected to examine issues from a multifaceted perspective. Tamara Arnott and Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller have effectively articulated a fresh yet challenging approach to preparing school leaders for the certain pitfalls they will encounter on the job. I found the reflective questions, scenarios, and activities to be most helpful in exploring the issues presented in each chapter. By exploring how missteps can affect school organization, culture, and effectiveness and then presenting the best practices and alternative viewpoints, Arnott and Holmgren-Hoeller skillfully lead prospective school leaders into better decision-making. Blundering Leadership will be a valuable tool in the training arsenal for future educational leaders or as a resource for current administrators.” —Dick Ofstedal, retired middle school principal, Annandale Public School District #876, Minnesota

BLUNDERING LEADERSHIP MISSTEPS BY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS

Tamara Arnott and Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller

For orders and information please contact the publisher Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.rowmaneducation.com

BlunderingLeadershipPODPBK.indd 1

12/17/09 1:54:44 PM

Blundering Leadership Missteps by School Administrators

Tamara Arnott and Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller

Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.

Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK

Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 http://www.rowmaneducation.com Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom Copyright © 2010 by Tamara Arnott and Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Arnott, Tamara, 1965Blundering leadership : missteps by school administrators / Tamara Arnott and Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-60709-422-7 (cloth : alk. paper)— ISBN 978-1-60709-423-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-60709-424-1 (electronic) 1. Educational leadership—United States. 2. School management and organization— United States. I. Holmgren-Hoeller, Gayla, 1950- II. Title. LB2805.A66 2010 371.2'011—dc22 2009045444

 ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

List of Figures and Tables

v

Preface

vii

Note to Readers

ix

â•‡ 1â•‡â•‡ Introduction

1

â•‡ 2â•‡â•‡ “I Am the Boss and You Are Not”

11

â•‡ 3â•‡â•‡ “Do as I Say, Not as I Do”

29

â•‡ 4â•‡â•‡ Take All the Credit and None of the Blame

47

â•‡ 5â•‡â•‡ Keep the Information Treasure Hidden

63

â•‡ 6â•‡â•‡ Hiding behind Closed Doors

81

â•‡ 7â•‡â•‡ “Sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen”

99

â•‡ 8â•‡â•‡ “My Lack of Planning Is, in Fact, Your Emergency”

117

â•‡ 9â•‡â•‡ “Don’t Diss Me”

135

10â•‡â•‡ Reconnecting and Rebuilding the Bridges Burnt

149

Appendix A: Historical Overview of Leadership

171

Appendix B: Leadership Tips

181

Appendix C: National Standards for Headteachers

189

Bibliography

203

About the Authors

211 iii

List of Figures and Tables

Figures Figure 8.1 PELP Coherence Framework Figure 8.2 Workflow Processing and Organizing

125 133

Tables Table 1.1 Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Table 2.1 Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “I Am the Boss and You Are Not” Table 3.1 Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “Do as I Say, Not as I Do” Table 4.1 Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “Take All the Credit and None of the Blame” Table 5.1 Communication Questionnaire Table 6.1 Hiding behind Closed Doors Survey Table 7.1 Community-Relations Continuum Table 7.2 Collaboration Self-Assessment Tool Table 9.1 Accepting Suggestions and Criticism Rubric Table 10.1 Leadership Learning Plan Table A.1 Leadership-Theory Matrix

v

3 28 45 61 80 96 106 114 148 158 179

Preface

In today’s environment, community members and society at large often perceive the quality of educational programs as substandard. Poor leadership behaviors from novice administrators contribute to this perception and are particularly damaging because students ultimately suffer from the rippledown effect of the new administrator’s missteps. To combat, and reduce the number of, unfortunate leadership choices made by new school administrators, educational-leadership experts study models of effective leadership, write books, and research articles with prescriptions for success. While many of these works offer excellent advice on how to succeed in leading others, some of these works can be frustrating to study. Theories and concepts may be presented in a manner excessively cerebral and can be difficult to understand and apply. Often they are too abstract in nature and not tied to real day-to-day challenges experienced by school administrators. We believe that what these modelsÂ€fail to render is a clear definition of what not to do. Blundering Leadership: Missteps by School Administrators uses current, real-life examples of poor leadership to demonstrate how even little mistakes can make a big difference in a learning community and create dissension and dissatisfaction, ultimately alienating staff members. In schools where poor leadership skills are exercised, the customary goodwill of staff members quickly evaporates; and lack of trust and respect for the leader stifles the innovative thinking that promotes student achievement. Through the use of genuine misstep examples, we reveal what went wrong in an administrative situation and outline how research findings in the fields of leadership, communication, psychology, and organizational theory, applied correctly, can make a positive difference in the success of a new administrator. vii

viii

Preface

Throughout this book, the reader will examine the ideals of leadership. Reflective questions and opportunities to view both the missteps and good examples of leadership are provided by scenarios and vignettes. Each chapter will focus on leadership approaches that are ineffective and demonstrate effective research- and field-based practices, as discussed in the literature. Readers will gain a better understanding of themselves and their leadership practice and beliefs through opportunities to complete exercises that will assist in identifying leadership dispositions, skills, and attitudes. The reader will grow and move toward positive leadership behaviors that benefit, not only the leader, but staff members as well; because the best leadership intentions prove futile if subordinates are alienated in the process.

Note to Readers

As you are reading the scenarios and vignettes included in this text, you may be thinking, No one would be that stupid, incompetent, or mean; these scenarios cannot be real. We would like to assure you that the incidences described are all true. Only the identifying names, places, and noncritical details have been changed to prevent readers from identifying particular administrators or institutions. Readers may be inclined to disassociate themselves from the blunder examples. Incidences were chosen because they represent extreme behaviors and are meant to prompt introspective reflection. Would you behave in the way exhibited in the scenarios? Perhaps you would not. It is our hope that the readers will gain awareness of behaviors, dispositions, or tendencies that may lean toward poor choices or less severe examples of mistakes in their own practice. None of the missteps shared resulted in the administrators being terminated. In a few instances, the leaders portrayed were reprimanded for their mistakes. In most cases consequences were more abstract, such as loss of respect, inability to lead change, high teacher turnover, and a dysfunctional climate.

ix

Chapter One

Introduction

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • Why do you want to be a leader? • How do you define leadership? • Can we learn from both exemplary leaders and weak leaders? Tribulations Challenging Educational Leaders As educators we like to believe that students provided with the best faculty, pedagogy, curriculum, and supplies, will achieve greatness. They will be articulate, intelligent, and knowledgeable will create and support a diverse, highly cultured, and economically sound society. While this sentiment can be applauded, in reality, faculty members and administrators experience challenges and institutional cultures that promote faculty frustration and student failure. Environments that stymie creativity and disenfranchise participants weaken souls. In these environments, leaders and faculty alike become sidetracked and the focus becomes one of survival, instead of one that promotes creativity. Risk taking and openness to change are necessary for the creation of an institutional culture that is truly designed to help students reach their full potential. Leaders in education today must contend with a multitude of trying situations. Educational administrators encounter unbending demands to meet new accountability standards while budgets are slashed. Faculties are unprepared for inevitable challenges, such as economic, demographic, and cultural shifts. Changing generational expectations (student as customer) and cognitive and/or mental health concerns leave many teachers and administrators feeling helpless and overwhelmed. These issues create a pressure-cooker-like environment that 1

2

Chapter 1

strains to the brink the capacity and patience of faculty and staff members. The crushing pressure experienced today by faculty, staff members, and administrators pushes talented professionals away from a career in the field of education. If steadfast and effective leadership skills and dispositions are lacking in administrators, and if attention is shifted from outcomes that really matter, school systems and institutions of higher education will regress instead of progress. Educators will lose their sense of cohesion, and organizational goals will be subjugated or destroyed by outside interests. Exemplary leadership is needed to guide us, as we attempt to overcome these discordant challenges. Why Lead? If you ask some aspiring school administrators why they want to lead a school, they will share that they seek opportunities, including an increase in financial prosperity, personal prestige, and more control (power and authority) over their day-to-day lives. Power and authority is a great motivator for some; others have different reasons fueling their passion to lead. These individuals’ efforts are spurred by a desire to make a difference, in whatever institution they are a part of and in whatever capacity they hold. Some potential leaders reveal that they wish to move into leadership roles because they have a vision they wish to implement and can do so only as a higher-level administrator; others just want the opportunity to have their voices heard and believe that they must hold administrative positions to get close to the ears of the real decision makers. Consummate leaders know themselves, maintain a comprehensive view of the world around them, and understand the underlying motivations that silently guide their actions and decision making. Therefore, when preparing for an educational-leadership role, it is important to seek an understanding about one’s own talents, emotional nature, biases, beliefs, and ethical character. In addition to knowing themselves, strong leaders have developed their skills by studying the theories and best practices exhibited by exemplary leaders. This is accomplished through an active and reflective mind-set that attends to the lessons taught by both good and poor leaders. Activity Whatever the reason an individual might seek to lead, he or she will benefit by completing a comprehensive self-reflection. Identifying one’s own strengths and weaknesses, as related to research-based theories of effective leadership, is key to professional growth in the field of educational leadership and administration.

Introduction

3

The self-inventory in table 1.1 uses the program requirements for all administrative licenses developed by the Minnesota Board of School Administrators. This self-inventory is designed to give you a snapshot of where you perceive your leadership strengths and weaknesses to be, at this time. Please endeavor to objectively rate your current level as accurately as possible. Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable A: Leadership

1

1. Demonstrate leadership by collaboratively assessing and improving culture and climate. 2. Demonstrate leadership by providing purpose and direction for individuals and groups. 3. Model shared leadership and decisionmaking strategies. 4. Demonstrate an understanding of issues affecting education. 5. Through a visioning process, formulate strategic plans and goals with staff and community. 6. Set priorities in the context of stakeholder needs. 7. Serve as a spokesperson for the welfare of all learners in a multicultural context. 8. Understand how education is impacted by local, state, national, and international events. 9. Demonstrate the ability to facilitate and motivate others. 10. Demonstrate the ability to implement change or educational reform. TOTAL

2

3

4

5

N/A

4

Chapter 1

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable B: Organizational Management

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

1. Demonstrate an understanding of organizational systems. 2. Define and use processes for gathering, analyzing, managing, and using data to plan and make decisions for program evaluation. 3. Plan and schedule personal and organizational work, establish procedures to regulate activities and projects, and delegate and empower others at appropriate levels. 4. Demonstrate the ability to analyze need and allocate personnel and material resources. 5. Develop and manage budgets and maintain accurate fiscal records. 6. Demonstrate an understanding of facilities development, planning, and management. 7. Understand and use technology as a management tool. TOTAL C: Diversity Leadership 1. Demonstrate an understanding and recognition of the significance of diversity, and respond to the needs of diverse learners. 2. Create and monitor a positive learning environment for all students. 3. Create and monitor a positive working environment for all staff. 4. Promote sensitivity to diversity throughout the school community. 5. Demonstrate the ability to adapt educational programming to the needs of diverse constituencies. TOTAL

Introduction

5

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable D. Policy and Law

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

1. Develop, adjust, and implement policy to meet local, state, and federal requirements and constitutional provisions, standards, and regulatory applications. 2. Recognize and apply standards of care involving civil and criminal liability for negligence, harassment, and intentional torts. 3. Demonstrate an understanding of state, federal, and case law governing general education, special education, and community education. TOTAL E. Political Influence and Governance 1. Exhibit an understanding of school districts as a political system, including governance models. 2. Demonstrate the ability to involve stakeholders in the development of educational policy. 3. Understand the role and coordination of social agencies and human services. 4. Demonstrate the ability to align constituencies in support of priorities and build coalitions for programmatic and financial support. TOTAL

6

Chapter 1

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable F. Communication

1

1. Formulate and carry out plans for internal and external communications. 2. Demonstrate facilitation skills. 3. Recognize and apply an understanding of individual and group behavior in normal and stressful situations. 4. Facilitate teamwork. 5. Demonstrate an understanding of conflict resolution and problem-solving strategies. 6. Make presentations that are clear and easy to understand. 7. Respond to, review, and summarize information for groups. 8. Communicate appropriately (speaking, listening, and writing) for different audiences—students, teachers, parents, community, and other stakeholders. 9. Understand and utilize appropriate communication technology. TOTAL

2

3

4

5

N/A

Introduction

7

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable G. Community Relations

1

1. Articulate organizational purpose and priorities to the community and media. 2. Request and respond to community feedback. 3. Demonstrate the ability to build community consensus. 4. Relate political initiatives to stakeholders, including parental involvement programs. 5. Identify and interact with internal and external publics. 6. Understand and respond to the news media. 7. Promote a positive image of schools and the school district. 8. Monitor and address perceptions about school-community issues. 9. Demonstrate the ability to identify and articulate critical community issues that may impact local education. TOTAL

2

3

4

5

N/A

8

Chapter 1

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable H. Curriculum Planning and Development for the Success of All Learners 1. Demonstrate the ability to enhance teaching and learning through curriculum assessment and strategic planning for all learners, including pre-K, elementary, middle-school, high-school, special-education, and adult levels. 2. Demonstrate the ability to provide planning and methods to anticipate trends and educational implications. 3. Demonstrate the ability to develop, implement, and monitor procedures to align, sequence, and articulate curriculum and validate curricular procedures. 4. Demonstrate the ability to identify instructional objectives and use valid and reliable performance indicators and evaluative procedures to measure performance outcomes. 5. Appropriately use learning technologies. 6. Demonstrate an understanding of alternative instructional designs, curriculum, behavior management, and assessment accommodations and modifications. 7. Demonstrate an understanding of the urgency of global competitiveness. TOTAL

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

Introduction

9

Table 1.1.â•… Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies Assess your current level: 1 – Limited capacity 2 – Capacity not yet exercised 3 – Capacity exercised with some success 4 – Capacity effectively practiced 5 – Capacity is practiced with mastery and serves as a model for others N/A – I don’t see this as applicable I. Instructional Management for the Success of All Learners 1. Demonstrate an understanding of research of learning and instructional strategies. 2. Describe and apply research and best practices on integrating curriculum and resources to help all learners achieve at high levels. 3. Demonstrate the ability to utilize data for instructional decision making. 4. Demonstrate the ability to design appropriate assessment strategies for measuring learner outcomes. 5. Demonstrate the ability to implement alternative instructional designs, curriculum, behavior management, and assessment accommodations and modifications. 6. Demonstrate the ability to appropriately use information technology to support instruction. TOTAL

1

2

3

4

5

N/A

Chapter Two

“I Am the Boss and You Are Not”

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • Is it important to you to have other people actively recognize your positional authority? Why? Why not? • Do you believe that staff will disrespect your authority and take advantage of you if you allow them to do so? • Do you believe that you can gain power by giving it away? Scenario A: “Remember Your Place” Debra Walberg: Superintendent Sharon Coulter: Middle-School Principal Morning Prairie, a school district of 1,000 students with a staff of over ninety, recently hired Debra Walberg to lead the district. The previous superintendent, who held the position for over fifteen years, retired unexpectedly due to health-related concerns. Walberg, a teacher in the district with her administrative license, was promoted from within the system, at the former superintendent’s recommendation, just before the beginning of the school year. One of Superintendent Walberg’s first responsibilities was to hire an interim principal at Roosevelt Middle School, due to a late-summer resignation. Sharon Coulter, Walberg’s selection, was bright and articulate and had three years of experience as a middle-school principal. I’m pleased with my selection, Walberg reflected, and I trust that Sharon will get the job done. 11

12

Chapter 2

A week later, after completing an extensive district orientation with Coulter, Walberg assured the new principal, “I will be working closely with you. Please consider me your mentor. I’m sure you are aware that I was a teacher at Roosevelt for many years. I know the building, the staff, the parents, and the curriculum. I’ll help you get acclimated, so you can understand the building and school-district culture. My leadership style is collaborative,” the superintendent explained. “I want all administrators in this district to work together as a team in support of each other. We are all a part of this district and its failures and successes.” With a noticeable sigh of relief, Coulter replied, “That’s wonderful. I’m feeling a bit overwhelmed, what with the move to a new community and with the school year about to begin. I really appreciate knowing that I can come to you when I need something.” “Yes. Yes. I have an open-door policy. I am here for you when you need me,” Walberg assured her while showing her to the door. Three weeks later, the school year had begun, teachers were busy in their classrooms, and students were getting comfortable with their schedules. After the initial whirl of getting the school year started and the accompanying administrative activities, Coulter began feeling a little lost. The new principal felt isolated because teachers were whispering together in small groups. Coulter would enter the teachers’ lounge or a department meeting; discussion would stop, and a new topic would be started. In a science-department meeting, teachers had alluded to the fact that there was “history,” problems and concerns that teachers had had with district administration and the school board. Coulter wanted to understand the culture and to identify district controversies, both past and present. She wanted to be instrumental in the process of making the school district successful—to know more about district players, their goals, and their aspirations, both over the short and the long term. Remembering the superintendent’s offer to be her mentor, the following week, Coulter drove to the district office building and asked the secretary if she could see Superintendent Walberg. After waiting for a half hour, while the superintendent spoke in subdued but somewhat angry tones on the telephone, Coulter joined Walberg in her office. The superintendent looked tired. Her face was drawn and her skin was sallow. She had circles under her eyes, and her eyes darted around the room as though she was preoccupied with her just-completed telephone conversation and the numerous tasks she had to do. Attempting to suppress her preoccupation, Walberg asked, “What did you want to see me about?” Leaning forward in her seat and looking directly into the superintendent’s eyes, Coulter enthusiastically began. “Will you tell me about the history, you know, the issues I keep hearing about through faculty members at Roosevelt? I’m noticing some


13

strange behaviors from the teachers, and I’d like to know what all the murmuring is about. It would help me to learn more about the challenges we face as a district. I’d like to learn how you plan to address these ongoing concerns and the role I might play.” Walberg took a deep breath, thinking, I’m too busy for this. I have my own, much more serious district-level problems to deal with, and I am certainly not going to invest my limited time in an interim principal who might not even be here next year. The next words out of the superintendent’s mouth were spontaneous and stunned even her. To Coulter, the words were both hurtful and shocking. The novice superintendent sat up straight in her chair, paused briefly, set her shoulders a little higher, and in an authoritarian tone informed Coulter, “I told you what I want you to accomplish at Roosevelt. You need to focus on that, not on what I’m doing. You are the interim middle-school principal. I am the Superintendent,” she said, holding one hand high in the air, seemingly to make her point. “I don’t have time to give you a district history lesson,” the superintendent concluded, as she picked up the telephone and began to dial, ostensibly dismissing Sharon from her office. (“I Am the Boss and You Are Not”) Scenario B: “This Is Not a Democracy” Sally: Secretary to the High-School Principal Dr. Harper: High-School Principal Mr. Thompson and Mr. Smith: Mathematics Teachers Sally, the high-school principal’s secretary, informed Principal Harper in a whispering tone, “I just overheard Mr. Thompson and Mr. Smith scheming to swap next year’s teaching assignments. They intend to present this alternative schedule to you today at the mathematics-department meeting,” she confided. Harper, the second-year principal of a small, rural high school of 425 students, grabbed his head in frustration and rolled his eyes. He was irritated to hear about this attempt to undermine his authority. Although he’d been told by the previous principal that she would ask the teachers at Hillside Oaks High School for their assignment preferences before setting the schedule, he did not feel any obligation to follow his predecessor’s example. Harper looked at Sally and muttered, “I’m the principal and I set the schedule. The staff just needs to get use to it.” After all, he pondered, I attended six years of graduate school in education administration. “It’s my responsibility to make these decisions,” the principal explained to the nervous office manager. “But thanks for sharing what you heard with me,” he called as she hurried back to her work area.

14

Chapter 2

Harper walked briskly to his office, deep in thought. Last year a couple of parents had complained that their children had first-year mathematics teachers two years in a row. They blamed their children’s lack of success on poor teaching. In the principal’s year-end performance review, the superintendent had made it clear that he was tired of the high-school faculty’s tendency to “dump on” the newly hired teachers, giving them the less-than-desirable classes to teach, along with multiple preparations. The superintendent had also met with the first-year teachers last spring, and the concern regarding multiple preparations was their number one complaint. A first-year mathematics teacher had actually left the school district, complaining of being given only remedial classes to teach and multiple preparations. “Fix it,” the impatient superintendent had barked at Principal Harper. Even more daunting was the fact that mathematics teachers were in scarce supply. Harper had spent a month of his summer reviewing files, checking references, and interviewing mathematics teachers. Harper paced in his office and fumed. If the mathematics faculty have altered my planned class schedule and lightened their load at the expense of the new teacher, I am going to have to set them straight. Don’t they understand that I’m held responsible for the school’s success? Harper was aware that his faculty members were unhappy; grumbling was noted when he’d passed out the assignments at the faculty meeting last week. But too bad—if they want to be in charge, let them get their administrator licenses and their own schools to run, the principal reasoned. My reputation for leadership is on the line. I’m not about to ruin it all by trying to win a popularity contest. I don’t need more complaining parents calling the superintendent and making me look incompetent. It could cost me my job. Harper picked up his leather notebook and the meeting agenda and started toward the door for the mathematics department meeting, pondering what exactly he should say to Mr. Thompson, Mr. Smith, and the others. Maybe they were only planning on swapping classes, and it wouldn’t impact the new teacher, he thought. But if I give them an inch, they will take a mile. They need to learn who is in charge here. Yes, he concluded, I’ll tell them, “Although you might live in a democracy, we don’t vote on the schedule in this school!” (“I Am the Boss and You Are Not”) A Leader Utilizes Power The type of power displayed by a leader, along with the manner of its manifestation, can result in either positive or negative outcomes. The amount of influence that he or she actually has is determined by both how and when a particular approach is employed. The type of power selected, whether con-


15

sciously or unconsciously, and the manner in which it is executed make a difference in the morale of subordinates and the culture of the organization. For example, a direct approach might include asking pleasantly, “Why did you make that choice?” or pointing with a stern finger while shouting, “You made a bad choice, now fix it.” An indirect approach allows employees enough information that they can determine the reasons why a leader made a particular decision, and it might influence their support for the decision. In a faculty meeting, for example, this might involve saying, “Let’s discuss this situation and the limitations we need to work within to solve it.” Harper could also use an indirect approach, telling the mathematics department, “We’re having a problem retaining new mathematics teachers because of the difficult teaching schedule they’ve been given. Parents have been complaining to the superintendent. I’ve tried to address this issue with next year’s schedule.” Likewise, Superintendent Walberg could have better utilized her power by directly telling the new middle-school principal, “This is not a good time to discuss your concerns. I’m in the middle of a small crisis and need to make some phone calls. Please schedule an appointment with my secretary, and I’ll address your questions without any interruptions.” Neither Harper nor Walberg, in these instances, has given up authority; but the flexibility of leaders who use a situational or adaptive leadership approach (see appendix A) in these situations will likely result in better relationships and more support for their leadership. leadership tip

1: Communicate in a manner that encourages input.

2: Share the logic and reasoning behind an unpopular position with other stakeholders.

leadership tip

The outcome of a situation may also be influenced, in part, by staff members’ perception of the leader’s motivation in giving the directive or instruction. Leaders, like Superintendent Walberg, who convey indirectly by expression or deed that “your involvement is not wanted or needed” are likely to experience more difficulties and reduced acceptance from faculty and staff members. Additionally, staff members’ intensity of responsiveness toward the administrator and his or her requests is influenced by the level of skill the administrator has in utilizing his or her positional authority. It is essential to consider not only the position one holds but also one’s own personal/professional dispositions, those personality traits, intuitions, and ways of being that shape how we choose to lead. 3: Be aware of how your verbal and nonverbal messages might be received by others.

leadership tip

Chapter 2

16

4: Communicate with staff respectfully, regardless of your emotional state. If necessary, take time to refocus on your primary goal.

leadership tip

The Leader is the One in Charge The authoritarian leader as portrayed in cartoons, like Mr. Dithers, Dagwood Bumstead’s boss in the “Blondie” comic strip, is probably the most common picture that comes to mind when we consider the boss role. This is the chosen one, the one who has permission to rule, without question, as he or she sees fit. Glasser (2000) ties the word authoritarian with the term manager, which has a different connotation from that of the term leader. A boss-manager is a transactional, rule-enforcing entity, one whose main job is to maintain the status quo. He or she will keep the wheels turning and get the job done, but not set a direction. According to Glasser, authoritarian boss-managers • set the task and standards; • do not compromise; • tell, rather than show; • inspect; • use coercion. (pp. 28–29) Glasser derived his premise from French and Raven’s (1959) social power theory. More recent suppositions regarding power, as expressed by Kezar, Carducci, and Contreras-McGavin (2006), have developed Glasser’s theory further. All contend that influence and control can be and are exhibited in a number of ways. Autocrats use coercive power against those perceived as dissenters and will utilize reward power to positively reinforce employees who are obedient and do not question. This theory holds that it is the position held and/or job title given that legitimizes bosses and their behavior. Both leaders and followers buy into this hierarchical framework. Many autocratic leaders hope to earn promotions and feel a thrill when considering the power and accompanying financial rewards they will receive once elevated. Within educational venues, however, it is just not possible for this type of leader, the autocratic boss-manager, to be successful. In fact, in addition to being ineffective, a boss-management approach will damage the reputation of fine institutions and rather quickly derail reform efforts. 5: It is unrealistic to expect others to support your directives simply because of your position.

leadership tip


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Teachers are individuals who take great pride in their knowledge about their fields of study, the curriculum, teaching methodologies, and child development. Through their professional experiences, they know quite well their community and the children they teach daily. They have dedicated their lives to teaching—accepting lower salaries, helicopter parents, and unruly children as part of the bargain, just to fulfill their wish to improve the lives of others through education. As you can imagine, when authoritarian, bosslike leadership approaches are utilized, teachers tend to react in various ways. We will consider three groups: (1) those who comply, (2) those who stir discontent, and (3) those who walk out. The first group, the compliers, will quietly follow directives, either with enthusiasm or without, but they do not question the authority or knowledge of the administrator. These individuals understand their role to be one of unquestionable support. The second group, much more dangerous to a leader, aggressively work toward derailing the administrator’s efforts and will hold close their resentment, while laboring diligently to achieve their goal—to subvert the reform effort and maintain the status quo. The success of this second group should not be underestimated, as they often achieve their objective. As demonstrated in the article “When Reforms Travel: The Sequel” (Mehan, Hubbard, and Stein, 2005), a crisis took place in a public school in San Diego; and the leadership approach utilized resulted in little else but angry foot-dragging and a nonstop clamoring against the directives. In this example, the San Diego district leaders advocated the formation of learning communities, and set out to do so as fast as possible. Surprisingly enough, the leadership purposefully chose an authoritarian approach. “Leadership was aware that their actions would arouse passions and produce negative reactions. They believed conflict was necessary to move the system forward—one administrator even made the statement, You have to break a few eggs to make an omelet” (Mehan et al., 2005, p. 344). Administrators in San Diego advanced reform directives and designated who, what, where, and how. Discussions with faculty and staff members regarding why these decisions were made or on what empirical basis the changes were founded, or even the best way to integrate and implement the changes in the schools, did not occur. If they did, participants did not find the exercises meaningful. Faculty and staff believed (and rightly so) that schoolreform decisions had already been made. The most important people to recognize in a schoolwide decision-making and implementation process are the teachers, and they were intentionally ignored in the San Diego example. The leaders, in this particular situation, chose to dismiss what they knew in their hearts: teachers should be active

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designers and participants in their learning community, and involvement of this important group of stakeholders is crucial at every step. Because the administration blatantly disregarded faculty members’ knowledge, talents, opinions, and expertise, not once, but twice (first while preparing the reform strategy, and, second, when they put it in play), the reform effort failed. The arrogance of the leadership was to blame (Mehan et al., 2005, pp. 352–53). 6: Provide time to hear comments, concerns, and feedback from subordinates on schoolwide issues.

leadership tip

The third faction of teachers who experience the authoritarian approach just choose to leave the profession in disgust. Freedman (2007) discusses just such a teacher in his article “A Teacher Grows Disillusioned After a ‘Fail’ Becomes a ‘Pass.’” In this article, Freedman introduces a talented mathematics teacher, one who, even when following an extremely liberal grading scale, was unable to fabricate the passing grade needed by a student to graduate. Although the student attended class only once, the principal of this inner-city school district decided to overturn the failing grade. The student graduated, the teacher quit. Ostensibly, the principal’s decision was made because of the overwhelming concern regarding low graduation rates; but at what cost? 7: Allow others to fulfill their responsibilities as assigned without micromanaging.

leadership tip

The warnings about excessive manifestations of authority should not lead to the conclusion that power or authority is always negative. Leaders seek and use legitimate power; this is natural, normal (French and Raven, 1959). Using one’s power and authority does not indicate any level of malevolence on the part of the leader. Persons holding leadership positions must, however, be conscious of the harm that might result if the power they hold is wielded carelessly. Inappropriate leadership approaches may encourage employees to act out and to develop secret subcultures or alliances, whose only goal is to make the life of the leader miserable and to obstruct his or her efforts. Do not underestimate your staff. People can be very creative about retaliation. Teachers at Discovery High School formed an alliance to harass their principal, a new to the community boss-manager who was making unpopular changes in the school. This informal group of teachers set up a schedule and took turns watching the principal’s home and following his wife’s vehicle to intimidate her as she ran errands, in hopes that the principal and his wife would leave the community. It is also important to remember that persons who will thwart the efforts of the boss might not necessarily be blatant and/or open in their attempts. For example, a


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disenfranchised elementary school teacher anonymously had the principal’s car towed from the staff parking lot on the one day that the principal forgot to display his parking permit. Faculty and staff can and do respond in a variety of subtle ways. Many passive-aggressive options for sedition are readily available: forgetting to follow the new procedures; performing to the minimum standard (work to rule); airing the dirty laundry about the district or institution in the community at large; complaining to students and parents alike about the unreasonable demands of the administration; and dishonestly calling in sick are strategies used by faculty to express their discontent. 8: Use your authority with care. Use positional power to make directives during only the most crucial situations.

leadership tip

Autocratic leadership, while ineffective, does the most damage to a school or district when those holding the executive positions exclusively utilize this approach. Faculty and staff simply do not flourish in an environment of “I have you under my thumb.” Coulter, the new interim principal in scenario A, will not flourish after her recent visit to the superintendent’s office and being put in her place. In the future, Coulter will likely not volunteer her participation or provide wholehearted assistance in district initiatives. No doubt, Coulter will stick close to her own building, maintain the status quo, and perhaps even seek different future employment opportunities. Lack of Respect toward Faculty Members According to recent research, a perception that there is an intrinsic lack of respect from administrators towards faculty members is one of the major contributors to the national teacher shortage. According to the U.S. Department of Education’s report Eliminating the Barriers to Improving Teaching (2000), “the high number of teachers who leave the profession (22% within their first 3 years on the job) explains the statistic that between 66% and 75% of annual teacher openings are due to exodus of unhappy educators” (p. 21). This lack of respect for teachers as professionals can take many different forms, including the following: • disregard for teachers’ expertise; forcing teachers to teach out of field • failure to consult teachers on issues that impact the classroom: little respect for professional judgment • micromanagement of teachers and their time • inappropriate administrative and clerical assignments for teachers (p. 24)

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Another by-product of lack of respect from administration is low teacher morale. This is important to note because a depressed state increases the likelihood that staff and faculty performance will also sink. It just becomes too emotionally taxing to keep giving without reward of any kind. Kouzes and Posner (2003) report that “employees who are ‘actively disengaged’ miss more than three times the number of work days than those who feel valued and respected” (p. 283). Because teachers are the most important element of the educational system, when teachers are absent for any reason their absence, over time, negatively shapes students’ educational experiences (academic, emotional, and social). Antagonistic environments also create additional situations that diminish school effectiveness. For example, faculty and staff may present themselves physically, but not emotionally or in spirit (where creativity rests). Going through the motions of one’s work may be acceptable in an industrial factory or in an office; however, in the field of education it is critical that staff are actively engaged in their work—the well-being of children, communities, society, and our future depends on it. The lack of relational leadership skills (see appendix A) and the “I’m the boss” attitude often adopted by the newly promoted damage individuals and the building climate and reduce institutional effectiveness. In fact, research by Learning and Development Roundtable® Meeting Services (2007) found “60% of newly promoted managers underperform in all areas dealing with people management and high employee turnover” (p. 3); this type of underperformance in working with others destroys relationships and dissolves trust. As this occurs, opportunities for productive interactions between faculty, staff members, and administration are also diminished. Lack of trust also contributes to impressions that a work environment is hostile. Mr. Thompson and Mr. Smith, the teachers reprimanded for considering swapping classes, were being challenged because of the previous loss of a new teacher; they aren’t likely to trust Principal Harper in the future. It is also doubtful that they will now want to go that extra mile to assist the new mathematics teacher this year. The authoritarian boss should expect that his or her behavior and communication (verbal and nonverbal) will create predicaments where none originally existed. Remember, subordinates can and will derail plans made by an authoritarian leader. 9: Be open-minded to ideas other than your own. Behave in a way that builds trust and loyalty by listening to subordinates’ reasoning and giving them the benefit of the doubt.

leadership tip


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Giving Away Authority While Gaining Strength Noticeably absent in cartoons and satirical humor are caricatures of the skillful leader. This individual is highly respected and treated with admiration by others. Take a moment to consider the best boss you have ever had—what personality characteristics, behaviors, and/or dispositions earned your appreciation? A skillful leader is transformational by nature (Kirkbride, 2006). This person has a vision and works collaboratively to achieve goals. The main job of the transformational leader is to create change and set a direction that promotes development and growth of the members of the team. According to Glasser (2000), a skillful leader will • engage workers in discussion; • model; • make an effort to fit the job to worker talents and interests; • encourage self-evaluation to promote and ensure quality; • provide a noncoercive, supportive atmosphere. (p. 3) Harper could have better achieved the superintendent’s directive regarding the retention of mathematics teachers by being a situational/adaptive leader (seeÂ€appendix A) and engaging the mathematics department members in a discussion and problem-solving session on the issue. Rather than be coercive, Harper could acknowledge that some mathematics teachers are better skilled in specific classes like calculus, and others are more interested in working with high-risk students in remedial classes. He could explain that all mathematics teachers, especially new professionals, need to have class schedules that ensure their success and students’ achievement. Harper could have acknowledged that he was under a directive from the superintendent and pressure from parents, and he could have admitted that he was not a mathematics expert and did not know the mathematics teachers well enough to know who was best suited to teach specific courses. He could have encouraged the department to problem solve and create a mathematics schedule that would best ensure the retention of skilled teachers and a high-quality program for students. Through giving away some of his authority to set the schedule, Harper could have gained the support of the mathematics team and still addressed the concerns of parents and the superintendent. 10: Model the behaviors and dispositions you desire in your subordinates.

leadership tip

11: Give sincere consideration to suggestions made by subordinates.

leadership tip

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Collaborative Culture An authoritarian approach to leadership hails from philosophies of the past and is simply not effective in today’s more complex environments. Contemporary theories of leadership support a participative or team-leadership approach. Kezar and colleagues (2006) write, “The teams-as-culture concept assumes that differences exist among people; this approach attempts to actively tap into and affirm differences. The purpose of this approach is to enlarge each member’s understandings of other individuals’ views” (p. 63). Kouzes and Posner (2003) support fostering collaboration. They share results of their research on teaming: In the thousands of cases we’ve studied, we’ve yet to encounter a single example of extraordinary achievement that’s occurred without the active involvement and support of many people. We’ve yet to find a single instance in which one talented person leader or individual contributor accounted for most, let alone 100 percent, of the success. (p. 241)

Kevin Anderson, an assistant principal for twenty-five years at Lincoln Senior High School, experienced in his career both the boss-manager and the skilled leader described by Kouzes and Posner. Anderson graduated from Lincoln High School; worked as a hall monitor at Lincoln throughout his college career; and was hired as a social-studies teacher and coach at Lincoln after completing his college degree. After five years as a faculty member, Anderson was promoted to the position of assistant principal. He was popular with faculty and staff and was viewed as very competent in his role. Principal Bower was Anderson's supervisor for many years; and, according to Anderson, Bower demonstrated many boss-manager characteristics. Bower, who had been an assistant principal when Anderson was a high-school student, tried to maintain the administrative/student authoritarian relationship with Anderson. Bower did not appreciate his assistant principal questioning his decisions and would repeatedly put Anderson in his place by just repeating one statement: “I remember when you were a snottynosed brat, running around these halls chasing girls,” he would sneer, dismissing Anderson abruptly. During another chapter of his career, Anderson worked with Principal Jones, who was a reflective and skillful leader; Anderson, however, recalls that their relationship was a little shaky in the beginning. Traditionally, in large high schools, assistant principals see students who break rules and determine the disciplinary consequences, while principals work with curriculum and personnel issues. This had been the case at Lincoln High School since its founding, and Anderson took great pride in “running a tight


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ship.” Lincoln had a phenomenal reputation throughout the state—it was a “first-class act,” a place where students were well behaved and the school was orderly. Early in the fall of Jones’s first year as principal at Lincoln, Anderson returned from lunch early and saw two students sitting with their coats on outside his office. “What are they sitting there for?” Anderson asked the secretary. “They’re going home. Principal Jones suspended them for smoking,” the secretary replied. Anderson’s eyes grew large as he stared at the secretary in disbelief. Walking briskly across the hall into Jones’s office, Anderson demanded, without preamble, “Mr. Jones. Am I in charge of discipline or do you want to do it?” Principal Jones took one look at Anderson’s red face and puffed up chest and realized he had made a mistake. “You are in charge of discipline,” he assured Anderson. “I over-stepped my boundaries.” Over the next seven years, Jones and Anderson worked collaboratively on many tasks, and Jones always gave Anderson dignity, respect, trust, and the authority to do his job. Jones never took on Anderson’s role again without consulting him. Principal Jones became a skilled leader who actively tapped into the talents and skills of his assistant principal and his faculty. He heard Assistant Principal Anderson’s concerns and acted accordingly. Jones’s willingness to act in a cooperative fashion demonstrates the importance of developing a collaborative culture, which is essential to effective leadership. A leader who accepts his or her role as team member and colleague, in truth, is essential to the success of any venture (Kezar et al., 2006). 12: Recognize and encourage the potential of others by providing opportunities for leadership.

leadership tip

Notice we used the phrase “in truth” above. In this circumstance, appearances reflect reality, as opposed to the practice of having things look right, rather than be right. A common, but ineffective, practice some new leaders try is to operate on a belief that if they merely include people in a discussion, this is sufficient collaboration. But it is not, especially if the faculty and staff do not believe they were heard or that their opinions and efforts have been or will be taken seriously by the supervisor. If participants in a process believe that they are there for show or so that the administrator can feel better about being democratic in his or her leadership style, the process is deemed inauthentic. This situation will be easily identified upon hearing the following comment uttered in hushed tones: “Why did they bother asking us our opinion, if the decision has already been made? Why do they

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waste our time with these meetings?” Once this occurs, you will become aware that faculty and staff, previously enthusiastic, will decline to participate; they will begin to disassociate themselves from such “participative” processes in the future. A prime example of this inauthentic leadership approach was experienced by the staff at Webster Elementary as they began the process of hiring a new building principal. This large, urban school district, with 10,000 students and an administrative staff of thirty-five, was led by Superintendent Willow, who instituted the practice of having multiple, large interviewing committees for administrative vacancies. He would set up an interview committee by choosing parents, students, and staff from the building that had the principal opening. Additionally, an administrative team would be established to interview the candidates, and, of course, he and his associate superintendent would also interview the prospective administrators. The committees developed a profile of the ideal principal, screened credentials, and wrote interview questions. At first blush, this looks like a very participatory process; however, the superintendent repeatedly ignored the recommendations of the interview teams and hired a candidate who was not their first choice—and sometimes not even their second choice. Needless to say, within a couple of years Willow was having difficulty finding volunteers for his administrative interviewing teams. In this scenario, everyone lost. Superintendent Willow missed an opportunity to demonstrate servant leadership (see appendix A) and allow others in the organization to share the power to make decisions. When faculty participation ceases, the autocratic and/or authoritarian leader is free to do whatever he or she pleases and point at the lack of interest from subordinates as additional justification for independent decision making; however, the veil of participatory management is quickly stripped away and processes disintegrate. 13: Be willing to accept the team’s recommendation even if it is not your preference.

leadership tip

Relational Leadership The team-leadership model and/or relational-leadership approach (see appendix A) discussed by Kezar et al. (2006) are derived from studies focusing on how female gender roles influence power-style choices and utilization. These studies found that women leaders tend to interact in ways that are based in strong relationship/network-building approaches, in which a culture of teaming is developed. Relational leadership


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• is inclusive; • encourages diverse positions; • empowers participants; • is focused; • is ethical; • is process/system orientated. (Kezar et al., 2006, p. 64) Leaders who encourage and allow for honest discourse and decision making at the lowest possible levels, along with true collaboration, gain strength in innumerable ways. These leaders • build and enhance relationships; • open dialogue to improve processes and strategies; • create an environment in which respect and trust are experienced; • allow for risk taking and creativity; • generate a bond of loyalty with and for the team; • fashion a system that supports quality, shared oversight, and responsibility. Because employees will unite against any effort to change the status quo, if they are treated disrespectfully, exemplary leaders will not attempt to influence process through strong-arm tactics. Finding a Balance Sharing authority can be risky if the leader does not understand his or her role. Caution! It is important to recognize that sharing authority and decisionmaking rights does not mean becoming hands-off—the leader still holds the responsibility and is accountable to all of the stakeholders of his or her educational system. School administrators have obligations that must not be forgotten. Dr. Harper is responsible for the high school’s schedule and is being held accountable for the retention of new mathematics teachers; but by sharing with the mathematics department the challenges and demands involved with assigning classes to teachers, he could gain valuable support and cooperation. Approaching the situation as part of a team, he might find that the mathematics teachers have insight that he is not aware of and solutions that he has not considered. leadership tip 14: Be forthright and open about problems, especially

during times of stress and dissension; it will lessen the frustration and anger that you will encounter.

Chapter 2

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Time, Training, and Thoroughness Another obligation that is often forgotten, due to the “putting out fires” atmosphere found in many schools, is that of providing faculty and staff members with the three Ts: time, training, and thoroughness. A leadership style that allows and encourages strong stakeholder participation requires strong leadership and support. As Rallis and Goldring (2000) suggest, administrators cannot assume that “getting a group of professionals together will result in well-conceived decisions. Training in communication, team building, and conflict resolution prove essential” (p. 43). If this important responsibility of preparing committees is ignored by administrators, then it is likely that the faculty will view this approach as the “whatever” leadership style, otherwise known as the laissez-faire leadership model (Raven, 1992). Allowing for others to make decisions does not mean that the leader abdicates responsibility. The leader remains accountable for the vision, the oversight of strategies and processes, and the facilitation and mediation of people and best practices. Leaders are a sounding board; they provide feedback, ask questions, and make suggestions to assure that decisions made or plans suggested by faculty and staff members are feasible. If valuable suggestions are not feasible, leaders determine how to go about creating a situation in which the ideas can come to fruition. If Superintendent Walberg wants to have a collaborative leadership style where her administrators function as a team, as she told her new middle-school principal, she will need to make time for team building and use a collaborative approach. The timing may not have been perfect when the new principal asked for information about the district’s culture and asked to be involved with setting district goals; but Walberg could be a relational leader (see appendix A) and seize on the opportunity to make these issues the focus of her next administrative team meeting. Working together to identify the communication issues in the middle school and address districtwide needs could be a vital team-building exercise for the administrative team, and also could assist the new superintendent in achieving her goals. If she taps the talents and skills of each member of the team, the job may not be as overwhelming as it seemed on the day the new principal visited the superintendent's office. 15: Do not allow your emotional state to affect how you communicate with staff. The educational leader needs to be a medium who facilitates processes and buoys up faculty and staff members, creating an effective environment for teaching and learning.

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Conclusion The goal of this chapter is that the reader will realize that the “I am the Boss” attitude of Superintendent Walberg, Principal Harper, and others discussed throughout the chapter reaps nothing but destruction. The emotional energy expended by those who work in a climate that is discouraging is energy wasted. The use of emotional capacity in this manner is harmful, and negatively affects employees’ ability to function effectively. Consequences of pessimistic emotions have been researched for years. Hargreaves and Fullan (1998) share with readers that “prolonged stress (as caused by hostile environments) [is] bad for your immune system, your mental health, your capacity to care for yourself and others, and can even be fatal” (p. 55). After significant time working in a hostile and unwelcoming environment, people lose the ability to bounce back from disappointment quickly. Therefore, difficult matters become even more burdensome to rise above. This is observed in veteran teachers who “pooh-pooh” every suggestion for change made. They have been disempowered and no longer exhibit interest in extending themselves in any way, shape, or form. In this type of disrespectful climate, the quality of the work produced by teachers falls rapidly, creativity is stifled, and students bear the brunt of the frame of mind and despondent outlook communicated by the teaching staff. Whitaker (2003) writes, “If you always respond appropriately and professionally, everyone else will be on your team. But the first time you do not, you may lose some of your supporters—and you may never get them back. This makes maintaining a high level of dignity, especially under pressure, a critical skill. Effective principals have this skill; others do not” (p. 22). Activity: “I Am the Boss and You Are Not” In your role as a leader you must empower others to experience success. Reflect on your answers to the prechapter questions. In your leadership journal, write down the dispositions and behaviors you recognize in yourself that will positively or negatively influence your ability to lead in your new role. Self-assess how with your current outlook or approach, you will change or adapt to become more effective. Use the rubric in table 2.1 to appraise your current leadership style. Complete this exercise quarterly.

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Table 2.1.â•… Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “I Am the Boss and You Are Not” Almost Always Communicate in a manner that encourages input Share the logic and reasoning behind your unpopular position with other stakeholders Have awareness of how your verbal and nonverbal messages might be received by others Allow emotional state to influence how you communicate with staff Expect others to demonstrate respect for your position by supporting your directives Provide time to hear comments, concerns, and feedback from subordinates on schoolwide issues Allow others to fulfill their responsibilities as assigned without micromanaging Use positional power to make directives during only the most crucial situations Are open-minded to ideas other than your own Model the behaviors and dispositions you desire in your subordinates Give sincere consideration to a suggestion made by a subordinate Recognize and encourage the potential of others by providing opportunities for leadership Are willing to accept a team’s recommendation other than your preference Are forthright and open during times of stress and dissension

Frequently Occasionally Almost Never

Chapter Three

“Do as I Say, Not as I Do”

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • What is meant by “do as I say, not as I do”? • What is the real message you send with the “do as I say, not as I do” approach? Is there a price you pay when utilizing this approach? • Can you provide leadership when you lack experience successfully performing in a similar role? Scenario A: The Telephone-Use Policy Bob James: Business Manager Diane Hanson: High-School Principal Kelly: Secretary to the Business Manager

Part One: “Do as I Say” Bob James was a novice business manager of a suburban school district in the late 1980s. In the three short years James worked for the Spring Lake School District, the district’s poor financial stability improved. The school district’s fund balance was now in excess of state recommendations. This was due in part to James’s frugal management of funds and keen fiscal scrutiny, including hard-hitting negotiating with all employee groups. When a new expenditure was requested, James would respond: “If you are going to add anything to the budget, what are you going to cut to pay for it? There are only so many pieces of the pie.” For every new cost discussed, it was the same rejoinder: “If 29

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you hire an additional social worker, who or what are you going to cut in its place to pay for it?” Like a broken record he would repeat, “There are only so many pieces of the pie.” A sense of professional ethics was also paramount to the business manager. School funds were used only for student benefit, exclusively and without exception. For example, using taxpayer monies to purchase coffee and rolls for teachers on staff-development days or to provide telephones in teachers’ classrooms was excessive, in his opinion, and did not serve student interests directly enough to justify the expense. Diane Hanson, hired the same year as the business manager, was the principal of one of the two high schools in Spring Lake School District. She was a bit surprised at the memo she received from Business Manager James early in the fall. James’s memo directed district administrators to inform staff in their building to adhere to a new telephone-use policy, regulating district-employee use of school telephones. (Cell phones were not yet common.) The memo read: “You are to use pay telephones in your building for personal phone calls. Since the school district is a tax exempted entity, telephone service invoices exclude federal and state tax charges. Therefore, it is unethical for employees to utilize a school district telephone for a personal phone call and financially benefit for a personal service that is tax exempted.” James was perhaps accurate in his assessment of the tough financial choices that needed to be made; however, while it was commendable to set a high ethical standard for use of taxpayer funding, by communicating with colleagues and subordinates in this manner, he was perceived as being flippant, uncaring, dismissive, and unrealistic. James’s instructions also indicated a lack of insight into building principals’ priorities, the everyday struggles of faculty members attempting to create the best learning environment for students, and the need to have an atmosphere of collaboration and collegiality that supported team building. Colleagues’ perception of James was detrimental to his ability to lead, especially when he appeared to not hold himself to the same strict standard. This double standard was witnessed by James’s colleague, Principal Hanson. Part Two: “Not as I Do” Hanson and James were commuting to a university seventy miles away to work on their doctorates in education administration, in a weekend and evening program. When Hanson dropped by the business manager’s office one morning to discuss who would drive that weekend and what time they should leave, she found Kelly, the business manager’s secretary, engrossed in word


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processing on her computer keyboard. Numerous yellow-lined, handwritten sheets of paper lay in a stack on her desk. At first Kelly didn’t notice Hanson. When she did notice the fidgeting principal, she turned from her computer screen and asked, “What can I do for you? You wanna see James?” “Wow, you’re hard at work,” Hanson noted. “Yeah, it’s a lot of typing. I can’t imagine having to write a dissertation. How’s your writing comin’?” the secretary asked. “Slowly. Very slowly,” Hanson replied. “Is James in?” she asked, thinking, She’s typing his dissertation on school district time? “Yeah, I’ll let him know you’re here,” Kelly replied as she pressed the intercom and announced, “Diane is here to see you.” “Send her in,” James enthusiastically responded. Hanson found him facing a desk covered with the same yellow-lined tablet paper as his secretary’s workstation. Scattered among the sheaves of paper were various textbooks Hanson recognized from the courses she and the business manager had attended over the last two years. “You’re working on your dissertation?” she questioned with surprise and a slightly raised eyebrow. “Yeah. I’m working on chapter 4. As you know, administrators with doctorates are a priority for the superintendent. He’s really pushing me to get it done by the end of the school year.” “Yeah, yeah. He’s been telling me that too. But I’m just not going to have time to write until July and August,” Hanson sighed. After an awkward pause, Hansen explained, “Well, I just stopped by on my way back to my office to see if you want to drive this weekend and what time you want to leave.” “Sure. Sure, anytime—how does 4:00 work?” Seeing her standing by the door, James offered, “Please sit down . . . have a cup of coffee, relax a minute.” “No. I gotta run,” Hanson replied. “It’s hard for me to be out of the building, especially over the lunch hour. I’ll see you on Friday afternoon,” she called over her shoulder as she hurried out the door. “He’s working on his dissertation during work hours. I don’t even have time to read my e-mail,” Principal Hanson mumbled under her breath as she dashed by the secretary. I can’t believe he’s writing his dissertation and Kelly’s typing it on district time. I sure hope teachers don’t hear about this, Hanson thought as she shook her head in disbelief. They’ll have a field day with it. (“Do as I Say, Not as I Do”) Broken Trust In “Broken Trust Happens,” Covey writes that trust can be gained only once and lost once, and, once lost, it’s lost forever (2006, para. 2). Broken trust has

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a harmful long-term impact and does irrevocable damage to an administrator’s reputation and relationship with the persons involved. “It’s not just how we behave that affects trust. It’s also the interpretations people make of those behaviors and the conclusions people draw from them that affect trust" (Covey, 2006, para. 9). The failure to model expectations and behaviors is especially detrimental when administrators destroy trust with their followers through inappropriate behavior. Let’s review how these situations might have been handled differently. When new expenditure requests were presented to James, he could have taken the time to listen and to respond, not shut down colleagues with an overused cliché; he could have asked questions in a way that would have prompted thoughtful reflection by all involved. A process should be in place for fiscal reporting to stakeholders. Faculty and administrators should receive fiscal reports explaining the current district obligations, along with the wide range of expenditure requests. Also, a meeting could be held where all parties would learn more about the priorities of others and the district’s bottom financial line. At this meeting, the stakeholders could begin to reflect on how to work together collaboratively to set priorities for the district. The lack of a jointly developed, cohesive spending plan, based on the district’s mission and goals, created the pressures James felt. Instinctively, he believed funds were not being utilized as efficiently as possible; but his gut reaction, to assume that others could not understand the financial issues or pressures or balance the priorities, was in error. Forcing people into all-or-nothing situations—for example, higher pay or smaller classes—is ignoring the gray area that exists in every disagreement. The best approach would be a relational-leadership approach (see appendix A), where all stakeholders were well informed and provided with opportunities to share their perspectives, working together to form a cohesive financial plan for the district. 16: Invite all stakeholders to participate in the decisionmaking process. This will create cohesive support for the final decision.

leadership tip

James’s weak relational-leadership skills (see appendix A), demonstrated in his approach to fiscal requests, set the stage for his downfall. He tried to promote and ensure the highest ethical use of funds by faculty and staff, while not following the spirit of his own directives. Once the story comes out (and it always does), personnel become extremely frustrated and feel, in a sense, betrayed. At this point in a relationship, people begin to look for ways to hurt, discredit, or demoralize the one they see as the problem. James expected that personnel could and should use pay phones because of tax exemptions on the school lines; but, seemingly, he had no difficulty working on his education on


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school time, as well as having Kelly use her on-the-clock time to be his personal secretary. Even though the superintendent made completion of James’s doctorate a priority, ethically, state funds should not have been utilized in this manner. It was especially hypocritical, seeing as he set the ethical bar so high with telephone use. James could have hired the secretary, with his own money, to type up his work (outside regular work hours); and he could also have asked the superintendent to support the completion of his degree by providing him with professional-development time to write. 17: Maintain high ethical standards for yourself by asking yourself, “Would I support this behavior from a subordinate or colleague? If a newspaper reporter became aware of this behavior, would he or she find it newsworthy?”

leadership tip

Failure to Lead by Example An arrogant attitude, as demonstrated by an “I’m above the law” mentality, reflects negatively on the leader. A less severe interpretation of this type of behavior is a perception that the leader is disrespectful. He or she demonstrates a lack of commitment to the values embedded in the organizational culture, and lacks a steadfast nature to see them through by implementing a policy. This behavior indicates an “I’m different, and better than you” attitude and may be perceived by others as narcissism. It is also possible, even probable, that the leader is not aware of the social cues he or she is sending and/ or not aware of how his or her own emotional state and leadership/follower experiences have influenced the development of his or her leadership style. Unfortunately, this state of affairs is dangerous both to the individual and the institution. When the one in charge puts self above requirements set for others, credibility, trust, and respect are lost. James’s credibility with Principal Hanson was obviously damaged when she witnessed him working on his dissertation on school-district time. Eventually, James will lose credibility with others in the school district as they learn of his transgression, and any respect administrators and faculty had for him will dissipate. Credibility will be greatly reduced as staff members lose respect for the supervisor due to (apparent) arrogance, demonstrated by placing oneself apart. This demonstrated lack of commitment to the culture negatively influences the individual’s effectiveness. Development and maintenance of strong working relationships are crucial to institutional success. Behaviors and attitudes (sometimes called dispositions) that damage relationships create difficulties and situations that hurt and diminish the organization’s productivity

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and success. These may be impossible to resuscitate, especially if this type of behavior goes on too long or goes too far, as in the following example. After a day of professional development, a young, newly hired associate high-school principal arrived back on campus wearing clothing outside the required building dress-code policy. He was on a mission and he moved quickly around the building, picking out faculty and selected staff members to lecture about their (in his eyes) lackadaisical approach to their jobs. He spoke in serious tones about the importance of following his directives. Soon, this individual, with the initials MJL, was referred to by the code name “My Jesus Lord,” since he seemingly considered himself above the rules. Any information shared and demands made by him were derided by his subordinates and, if they could be, discarded as soon as he left the school grounds. 18: Show respect to your subordinates by following the rules you set, without exception.

leadership tip

19: If it feels wrong, it probably is. Ask yourself if you would be completely comfortable having this decision or action publicized. Expend the time necessary to ensure that decisions made and actions carried out are ethical.

leadership tip

The academic literature is replete with research studies on how the social milieu experienced by employees at work influences morale, atmosphere, and performance. For example, Mauro (2002) notes that, especially in times of change and stress, community formation and support by management are significant factors predicting success. “The need to belong and feel supported in the workplace becomes more important as our world becomes more uncertain” (para. 5). In defining a community, we think of common interests, values, goals, a pulling together mentally; emotional and material support help facilitate a group’s success. When leaders place themselves apart from the group, because of their high place in the organizational chart, it damages staff and faculty members’ feelings of mutuality. This behavior or attitude works against community-building efforts and damages communication and organizational effectiveness. In schools where “I’m exempt” leadership dispositions are present, feelings of disregard are prevalent. Under this set of circumstances, resentment exhibited by faculty and staff will develop and settle down to roost for the long term, eroding support for the organization. A prime example is Principal Carol Wilson, who was a fifty-year-old elementary principal recently transferred to a small, close-knit building in a high-poverty neighborhood. Wilson’s staff was made up of thirteen female teachers who had young families. In her new role, Wilson frequently had


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early-morning faculty meetings or individual education plan (IEP) meetings on specific students experiencing difficulties. The new principal was appalled at the high frequency of teachers coming in late to these early-morning meetings. Teachers often covered for each other in the IEP meetings, bringing written feedback on student behaviors from teachers who were absent or late; Wilson was not happy with the less than 100 percent attendance. She concluded that the teachers were probably routinely not getting to school on time either. Her solution to the problem was to announce that she would now be taking attendance at all morning meetings and checking daily on arrival times at school. Wilson wrote in an official memo, “I expect you to be at all meetings on time, and, as the teacher contract indicates, I expect you to be in your classrooms at 7:30 a.m.” True to her word, Wilson now had a sign-in sheet at early morning meetings and began to stand at the entrance to the building with a clipboard, recording the arrival time of each of her teachers. Resentment among teachers was exceedingly high. Most had young children they needed to drop off at day care. Day-care centers had established start times or charged extra when hours were expanded. Sick children also frequently necessitated a change in day-care plans that required additional travel time to relatives who would take care of an ill child. In the past, teachers in the building had enjoyed a positive, community-like relationship. They had helped each other out by attending an IEP meeting or picking up handouts at a faculty meeting when a colleague requested it. This kind of assistance had not often been needed, because the former principal had scheduled meetings at the end of the day, when there was an hour without students in the building. After seeing Wilson with her clipboard and sign-in sheet, the young teachers complained: “Who is she to come and change everything? We all get along and help each other out. Why is she messing with it—if it ain’t broken don’t fix it. And why do all the meetings have to be in the morning?” they questioned. A month later, teacher bitterness doubled when Wilson walked into parent-teacher conferences twenty minutes late. Collectively, the young teachers agreed they were done putting in “one extra moment beyond contract commitments”; and Wilson found herself sitting alone in her office, or walking the halls, with little more than obligatory communication from her staff. There was no point in telling her teachers that she was late because she was responding to an emergency telephone call from an irate parent whose daughter had been sent home with a noncustodial parent. All explanations, justifications, and communication with her teachers would be futile. 20: Pay attention to the needs and requests of your staff. Your willingness to compromise will increase their loyalty and commitment to the institution.

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The name given to the behavior exhibited by Principal Wilson and the “MJL” administrator by sociologists is psychological contract breach (Suazo, Turnley, and Mai-Dalton, 2005). People who work and/or live together interact under a set of social norms that point to how colleagues should behave and communicate. Relational leaders (see appendix A) are cognizant of these norms and acknowledge that relational factors must be recognized and addressed. For example: If you act respectfully toward me, I will, in return, mirror the actions back to you. This widely recognized social contract is crucial and necessary for successful community building. A breach of this convention, even if unintended, can exert far-reaching consequences. Suazo and colleagues (2005) further discuss results that occur if strong interpersonal communication skills are lacking. Included in this list are negative outcomes that include the following: • reduced trust • lower job satisfaction • poorer moods • less organizational commitment • increased turnover • decreased performance of in-role and extrarole work behaviors Scenario B: One of the Boys Jack Tower: Assistant Principal Detective Whitman: Guest Speaker Department Chairs Jack Tower was an assistant principal at Jefferson High School, a 1,600-student building in a suburban school district. Tower had taught social studies and coached ninth-grade football for six years before completing his administrative license at the local college. Support for high-school athletics was paramount in Tower’s life. A former high-school and college football player himself, Tower maintained an “all-American” image by devoting extensive time to weight lifting, running, and frequenting the tanning booth. When Tower was promoted to assistant principal at Jefferson, he continued his friendships with teachers in the building, especially coaching colleagues. Often, Tower and a handful of his former teaching and coaching colleagues went on fishing or hunting excursions; and the group met weekly for “attitude adjustment gatherings” on Thursday nights at the local American Legion Club. At their happy-hour sessions, the friends rehashed the high-school foot-


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ball team’s previous Friday night’s performance and critiqued school-board meetings and recent city-ordinance changes. After his promotion to assistant principal, Tower frequently told his buddies, “I’m still just one of the boys.” Perhaps because he felt he was still just “one of the boys,” Tower was not comfortable directly confronting teachers’ unprofessional behaviors, especially if one of his buddies was involved. However, Tower was comfortable scolding department chairs for their subordinates’ behaviors and insisting that the chairs reprimand the guilty teachers. “At our staff development session on building security, three teachers were reading the newspaper and six, six,” the assistant principal emphasized, “were correcting papers while I talked about lockdown procedures. They didn’t even stop when Detective Whitman from the police department described intruder scenarios. Where’s their professionalism?” he fumed. “What do you imagine the detective thinks of Jefferson High School after that display of disrespect? What do you think he’s going to tell officers in his department downtown? You [department chairs] need to address teachers’ unprofessional behavior in your next department meeting,” he ordered, a vein pulsating in his forehead and his eyes narrowing in a steady glare. (“Do as I Say, Not as I Do”) Because Tower is uncomfortable with the behavior of the teachers, his friends, and because he wants to remain “one of the boys,” he has placed himself in a professionally tenuous situation. As a principal, he can maintain the friendships he has forged over the years, but he needs to recognize that it is his role, not that of the department chairs, to manage the behavior of his staff. Tower needs to be an adaptive leader (see appendix A) and take responsibility for the appropriate interpersonal skills needed in this situation. It is important to note that the best way to handle this type of situation is to avoid it altogether, by taking responsibility for creating the atmosphere of the workshop. When convening workshops, Tower must have the courage to direct adults in regards to their behavior, including his friends. This can be done in a respectful fashion by simply beginning the workshop with some housekeeping reminders: welcoming everyone, reviewing the agenda, and going over standards of decorum for the duration of the session: “Please put all cell phones on ‘vibrate’ and close all materials not related to the topic being discussed.” At this time, Tower should, as any good teacher would, wait for compliance before beginning to speak on the topic or introducing the guest. If Tower acts like a leader, by sharing his reasonable expectations, no friend will fault him. 21: Maintain professional impartiality. This will allow you to switch between informal and formal roles. Separate personal relationships from professional duties and responsibilities.

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Emotional Health and School Leadership One issue of particular importance in avoiding the “I am above the law” mentality is self-awareness. Knowledge of self, an awareness of one’s emotional drivers, is often not recognized by newly promoted administrators. Tower, for example, did not recognize the inner conflict he felt at the behavior of his teacher friends, and he tried to avoid it by calling on others to take on his responsibility to manage. Aspects of emotional intelligence have been correlated with key leadership skills, or, contrarily, their absence. For instance, weakness in interpersonal skills, lack of person-focused attitudes, and ineffective operational management will accelerate career derailment (Center for Creative Leadership, 2003). Although novices in leadership positions may be well-meaning and good people, a lack of understanding of their own emotional triggers and areas of emotional strength dooms them to substandard performance in their new roles. According to the Center for Creative Leadership, specific behaviors or skills, identified by research, that are tied to individuals with excellent leadership include the following: • participative management • putting people at ease • self-awareness • maintaining a balance between personal life and work • straightforwardness and composure • building and mending relationships • doing whatever it takes • decisiveness • confronting problem employees • change management (p. 1) Both scenario antagonists, James and Tower, lacked these leadership skills. James lacked the self-awareness to recognize the double standard in asking teachers to use a pay phone because they were benefiting from school-district telephone rates and then profiting, himself, from using school-district time and resources to complete a doctorate and secure a pay increase. A trigger of anxiety for Assistant Principal Tower was confronting his teacher buddies, and it illustrated his own leadership weakness in interpersonal skills. If the situation was unavoidable, Tower needed to demonstrate leadership through straightforward, honest, and private conversations with those who he believed were behaving badly. Based on various constructs of emotional intelligence examined by researchers Salovey and Mayer (1990) and Bar-On (2000), “Emotional intelli-


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gence competencies linked to successful leadership include the ability to monitor one’s own feelings and emotions while simultaneously recognizing and observing the feelings and emotions of others. Information gathered [through this monitoring] should guide planning and behavior” (Stone, Parker, and Wood, 2005, p. 3). The deeper one’s emotional intelligence, the more likely he or she will be able to demonstrate competence; however, it is necessary to undergo serious reflection of self in order to become an exemplary school leader. This does not mean hours on the couch with a highly trained psychologist, but it does point to serious and honest self-questioning and reflection. The reflection, if facilitated by friends and professional mentors, is invaluable. Without knowledge and awareness of one’s own emotional state, unintended reactions and outbursts exhibited by promising new administrators may quickly tank careers. The Ministry of Education and Training in Ontario funded a research project with the goal of identifying “key emotional and social competencies required by school administrators (principals and vice-principals) to meet the demands and responsibilities of their positions” (Stone et al., 2005, p. 3). The secondary purpose of this study was to develop professional development opportunities for school administrators, to help them to grow in their emotional-intelligence skills. The researchers believe that gaining an understanding of one’s emotional health is possible and recommended raising leadership potential of future leaders through emotional-intelligence training. Bar-On (1997) designed an inventory to assess emotional intelligence. He sought to learn more about how individuals recognized their own strengths and weaknesses and also how others, superiors and subordinates, viewed the emotional abilities of the leader taking the inventory. Participants rated themselves on these particular competencies. This Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), developed by Bar-On (1997), looked at the following: • intrapersonal abilities ºâ•‡ self-regard ºâ•‡ emotional awareness ºâ•‡ assertiveness ºâ•‡ independence ºâ•‡ self-actualization • interpersonal abilities ºâ•‡ empathy ºâ•‡ social responsibility ºâ•‡ interpersonal relationship • adaptability ºâ•‡ reality testing

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ºâ•‡ flexibility ºâ•‡ problem solving • stress management ºâ•‡ stress tolerance ºâ•‡ impulse control • general mood scale ºâ•‡ optimism ºâ•‡ happiness (Stone et al., 2005, pp. 4–5) In addition, participants were rated by at least one superior and three subordinates on task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership abilities, such as coming to meetings prepared or seeking consensus during decision-making processes. Based on these surveys, a total leadership score was determined, and individuals were designated as having above-average (80th percentile or above) or below-average (20th percentile or below) leadership skills. Although no significant differences were found between primary and secondary administrators on the emotional-intelligence and leadership competencies, some differences were noted by role. Vice-principals were perceived by staff as having stronger relationship skills than the principal; while superintendents perceived principals as having stronger skills than vice-principals in all three areas being studied (task orientation, relationship orientation, and total leadership). The results of this study demonstrated that the above-average administrators performed higher than the below-average administrators on the following subscales: • emotional self-awareness: the ability to recognize and understand one’s feelings and emotions • self-actualization: the ability to tap potential capacities and skills in order to improve oneself • empathy: the ability to be attentive to, understand, and appreciate the feelings of others • interpersonal relationships: the ability to establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships • flexibility: the ability to adjust one’s emotions, thoughts, and behavior to changing situations and conditions • problem solving: the ability to identify and define problems and generate potentially effective solutions • impulse control: the ability to resist or delay emotional behavior (Stone et al., 2005, p. 7)


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No difference was noted between above-average and below-average administrators on general mood indicators. All patterns remained constant for above-average administrators, regardless of gender, role, or level of leadership (primary/secondary). The Bar-On study determined that total emotional intelligence is a strong predictor of successful school leadership. Let’s examine a couple of situations that are high stress and require the administrator to have a strong grasp of his or her emotions. The first example is that of having to deny tenure to a faculty member or letting staff go. If it is done with empathy and caring, and if the goal is to problem solve what is in the best interest of the individual as well as the organization, it can be a winwin situation. One seasoned assistant principal, Chuck Orton, often spoke about his supervising principal, Leanne Krueger, and her capacity for addressing personnel issues in a straightforward and caring manner. “It was truly amazing,” the assistant principal exclaimed with disbelief. “Leanne could tell the teacher that he was not going to get tenure. Or that he was going to be put on a probationary plan for improvement. And after a half an hour of dialogue,” Orton explained with astonishment, “they would walk out of Leanne’s office and shake her hand and say ‘thank you.’” In a high-stress situation, Orton’s mentor principal was assertive but also had the ability to monitor her own feelings and emotions and the feelings and emotions of the teacher. On the other end of the spectrum, we can observe a situation not handled nearly as well, due to the weak emotional intelligence of the administrator. A student and parent brought concerns to the attention of the administration regarding a teacher and her sexuality. A fairly new supervising principal confronted the female physical education teacher on her sexual preference. Approaching the teacher in an abrupt manner, the principal shared with the teacher the rumors that were brought to his attention. The principal then demanded to know if they were true and questioned if it was appropriate for her to supervise girls in the locker room. He did not give the teacher an opportunity to refute or discuss these delicate concerns in a calm environment, but kept firing questions at her and not giving her sufficient time to respond. The principal was accusatory, emotionally uncomfortable, and inflexible. The emotional attack caused a good teacher to leave the district at the end of the year. Seek to learn the truth. Do not make assumptions or allow your own insecurities to cause inappropriate reactions. Seek to understand. Often anxieties about people of different races, religions, cultures, and sexuality create instances wherein misunderstandings or miscommunication occur; and situations are blown out of proportion. leadership tip

check.

22: Recognize your personal biases and keep them in

Chapter 3

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Scenario C: “I Deserve It” Bruce Watt: Principal School Colleagues Fully funded attendance at a national conference, every other year, was one of the contract benefits for administrators in Independent School District 494. This was Bruce Watt’s year for a national conference, and he had selected the National Association of Secondary School Principals conference, which started on a Wednesday in February and ran through the following Friday. The conference was made up of keynote speakers and numerous breakout sessions on a variety of topics related to curriculum, student behaviors, building-security issues, and educational trends. Watt flew to San Diego on Monday evening and returned the following Saturday. He was busy catching up on his e-mail and paperwork and did not see his colleagues until the building open house the following Thursday, which staff were required to attend. Deeply tanned and lighthearted, Watt bantered with his teaching colleagues about the conference and the professional baseball game he’d obtained tickets to, which had been a crushing victory for the home team. “That’s some tan,” a physical education teacher curtly observed, winking at the teacher to his right. “Must have been one tough conference.” “It was great,” Watt boomed. “I went to Sea World, toured a Navy submarine, and soaked up some rays. San Diego has some fabulous seafood restaurants— Anthony’s and the Harbor House were great.” Heedless of the raised eyebrows, Watt continued. “I had drinks with principals from Oregon every night, and we went dancing with these APs from Colorado. Those chicks know how to have a good time. I slept in most days and got those free baseball tickets too! You know,” he shared, “my job is very stressful, and I really needed the time to relax and catch up on my sleep. I made it to the two keynote speeches at the conference, but I didn’t have time for any of the breakout sessions,” he boasted. “I really needed this getaway.” (“Do as I Say, Not as I Do”) Character Matters Successful leaders set the pattern for, model, and follow established workplace conventions and policy rules. This is not only because rules are important in the maintenance of a working organization, but also because a leader recognizes that his or her behavior sets the tone. The message Watt relayed to teachers through his boasting is that he is above the rules—he is stressed and therefore deserves a vacation on the school dime. This hurt Watt’s credibility as a


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leader—he demonstrated a great lack of character, not only by abusing the professional development opportunity, but also by sharing that information so freely. Can faculty now assume that as long as no one is looking, any behavior is okay? The setting of double standards is not uncommon, especially for administrators who feel the freedom from the confinement of a classroom for the first time and believe they deserve some additional perks for their hard work. For example, Bob Lake, an assistant principal in a junior high school, continually reminded teachers they needed to be in the halls supervising student behavior between classes and before and after school. “Your responsibilities aren’t just the three Rs,” he would lecture. “You need to be in the halls at the high traffic times of day, confronting student inappropriate behavior. That’s part of your job.” However, a couple times a month Lake would tell his office secretary that he “missed lunch,” so he was leaving early to go on his daily five-mile run. Lake’s actions, while perhaps justifiable, set a double standard in the school. If a teacher missed lunch because a student was making up a test, no doubt Lake would still expect him or her to be in the halls at the end of the day. The double standard will destroy Lake’s relationship with teachers and the school’s sense of community; both factors considered essential to institutional success. The solution, for both Watt’s situation and Lake’s situation, is simple. 23: Recognize that as a leader you hold the responsibility of being a model for subordinates. Take this duty seriously.

leadership tip

24: Communicate with discretion regarding work-related issues. Recognize that colleagues and friends at work now have a different relationship with you. As much as you would like to, do not provide disclosures to them that are inappropriate for sharing.

leadership tip

Maintain Values “Success is about character, respect, integrity, trust, honesty, empowerment, confidence, loyalty, and keeping promises” (Maister, 2001, p. 3). While these factors obviously support organizational achievement, the courage needed to act on and promote these values is sometimes difficult to find. When pressed daily by administrative challenges that demand a quick fix, values are often left by the wayside. This is a mistake made primarily by novice education administrators. For example, leaders in a failing school, struggling with the stringent demands of the No Child Left Behind Act, may make decisions and hurried choices that they know do not model good leadership practice—for example, taking away the autonomy and expertise of the faculty by choosing,

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without input, a new reading series (even if that series has been demonstrated as a best practice elsewhere); or inappropriately admonishing a teacher because of low test scores alone. Such behaviors and decisions lead to ongoing failure. Leaders who know what is right but decline to follow through and support their convictions fall short in achieving goals. It takes courage to stay on the path of school improvement when positive and immediate results are not forthcoming. Understand that staying the course and giving strategies time to work, without giving in to demands to waver in your support of the chosen approach, takes character. “Do as I say” needs to be followed by “practice what you preach.” leadership tip

25: Stay true to your convictions. Conclusion

The phrase “do as I say, not as I do” can be interpreted in several ways. The most common understanding of this phrase points to the practice of behaving in a way that indicates that one is above rules or laws. The leader believes that because his or her position is high on the organizational chart, conventions simply do not apply. Watt in scenario C (“I Deserve It”) believes he is an administrator who works hard and has a lot of stress in his position, so he deserves a district-funded trip to a national conference. Not attending sessions at the district-paid conference is not unprofessional behavior, in Watt’s opinion, because he is above those conventions. Another understanding of this phrase indicates a lack of ability to “walk the talk.” The leader continually expounds specific virtues, behaviors, and expectations to others in the organization but fails to model those attributes. James in scenario A (“The Telephone-Use Policy”) is a prime example of this mentality. Using district dollars for only district-related expenses is a virtue akin to honesty that he passionately attempts to enforce to the letter of the law; however, he fails to model this virtue when he uses school-district salaried time (both his and his secretary’s) to complete his dissertation. Tower in scenario B (“One of the Boys”) wants faculty friends to behave professionally and appropriately, but does not want to involve himself directly and brave the emotional landmines; and so he avoids it altogether, inappropriately directing others to take on his responsibilities. Certainly, as these and other scenarios show, working beyond conventions, deferment of difficult responsibilities, and the willingness to break rules one applies to others are related behaviors. The line between dishonesty and hypocrisy is extremely thin. In the first case, one cheats others; in the second case, one does not fulfill one’s role; and in the third situation, one cheats one’s self.


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Activity: “Do as I Say, Not as I Do” In your role as a leader you must model behaviors you expect of others. Reflect on your answers to the prechapter questions. In your leadership journal, write down the dispositions and behaviors you recognize in yourself that could negatively reflect on you. Use the rubric in table 3.1 to appraise your current leadership style. Complete this exercise quarterly. Table 3.1.â•… Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “Do as I Say, Not as I Do” Almost Always Invite stakeholders to participate in the decision-making process Maintain high ethical standards for self Show respect to subordinates by following the rules you set, without exception Pay attention to the needs and requests of staff Separate personal relationships from professional duties and responsibilities by remaining impartial Recognize personal biases and keep them in check Model the behaviors you expect of subordinates Communicate with discretion regarding work-related issues Stay true to convictions


Chapter Four

Take All the Credit and None of the Blame

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • Has a supervisor ever presented one of your ideas without giving you the credit? Describe the situation. Did it change your attitude toward or support for that person? • Have you ever taken credit for the ideas of someone else, or the work of your team, to promote yourself to superiors? Why do you believe it was justified to do so? • Do you believe that since you supervise the team, all ideas can ultimately be traced back to your leadership? Why? Why not? • When things don’t go as planned or challenges arise, are you willing to take responsibility for what went wrong, or do you point at the failure of others before your own? Scenario A: A Job Well Done Kevin Kramer: High School Principal Betty Schuman: Principal’s Secretary Roger Spellman: Superintendent Betty Schuman had been the principal’s secretary at Benton River High School for twenty years and had worked in the Benton School District for twenty-five years. Betty had worked for four different principals at the high school and was widely viewed, not only as the most knowledgeable person in the building about policies and procedures, but also as the person who really 47

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ran the place. Benton River was a high school of 500 students in a small, rural community of 5,000, which drew students from a large farming community. Most of the teachers in the building had been in Benton for years and were close to retirement. Seven had retired the previous spring, and the high school expected another six retirements after the current school year. Kevin Kramer was a first-year principal who had been an assistant principal for three years in a neighboring community. Kramer had been hired the previous spring and began work on July 15. In his first meeting with the superintendent after starting his new position, Superintendent Spellman discussed summer expectations for the new principal. “We’ve had a lot of retirements lately and have seven new teachers starting in the high school this fall. We’ll have another group next fall. The high school doesn’t have any kind of faculty handbook. Everyone’s been there so long they just know what’s expected of them, or they asked Betty. But last year, some of the new teachers struggled a bit and mentioned that a faculty handbook, with all the emergency procedures, building policies, and expectations for teachers in one document, would be very helpful. Kevin, I’d like you to work on a faculty/staff handbook this summer and have it ready to hand out at the opening workshop for teachers this fall.” “No problem,” the new principal replied. “We had a faculty handbook in my previous school district. I’ll get right to work on it.” Following their conversation, Kramer returned to the high school and found the faculty handbook from his previous district in one of the boxes of materials he’d moved into his new office. He asked Betty to join him in his office. “The superintendent wants us to put a faculty handbook together with all the building policies and procedures and expectations for teachers. This is a sample you can use as a guide. I’m sure you have a lot of these procedures in writing; they’re just not all pulled together in one document,” Kramer suggested. Betty browsed through the sample faculty handbook Kramer gave her and commented, “Yeah, some of this stuff, like tornado emergency procedures and grading policies, we’ve got written documents for; but some of these things, we don’t have in print. Like the dress code for faculty, suggestions for parent-teacher conferences, stuff like that,” the secretary explained. “Pull together everything you have in print,” Kramer suggested, “and then write up drafts for the other areas based on what’s been past practice. I’ll take a look at the drafts and okay them.” “Wow! This is going to be a lot of work,” the secretary sighed as she rubbed her forehead in deep thought. “But it really is needed. New teachers were constantly coming to my office last year and bugging me with questions,” she exclaimed, as she started picking up materials and heading to herÂ€office.


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During the next four weeks, Betty diligently worked on the faculty handbook and became more and more convinced of the importance of the document, and proud of the extra effort she was taking to make it well organized and professional looking. Betty also had several ideas about things that should be included in the handbook that were not in the sample document; so she checked with Kramer, and he concurred that they would be good additions. Several weeks later, the superintendent, two school-board members, and all of the faculty and staff attended the opening back-to-school workshop where Kramer introduced the faculty/staff handbook. “This summer Superintendent Spellman asked me to put together a faculty/staff handbook,” Kramer told his audience. “It’s been a lot of hard work to bring all these documents together and put policies and procedures in writing that haven’t been in written form before this,” he continued. “But I am really pleased with the outcome, and I think both new and veteran staff will find it very useful.” “Yes, yes,” the superintendent interjected, “it’s a job well done. I wish to thank Principal Kramer for his excellent work on this very important project. Let’s give him a round of applause.” “Thank you, thank you,” Kramer responded, as several veteran teachers looked toward Betty and noted her look of total disbelief. (Take All the Credit and None of the Blame) Scenario B: “But, But—I Have a 30 Percent Special-Education Population” Nancy Wilson: Middle School Principal Jill Riley: Assistant Superintendent Part One: Take All the Credit Nancy Wilson was a second-year principal at Discovery Middle School in the Jackson School District. Discovery was a building of 800 students with a minority population of 40 percent and a free and reduced lunch rate of 75 percent. Discovery students who spoke English as a second language numbered 150, speaking over twenty different languages. The previous year, the Jackson School District had moved sixth graders to Discovery Junior High and implemented the middle-school philosophy. The district had been exploring the middle-school philosophy and moving the sixth graders to the junior high for ten years, but were only able to make the move when the community approved a building referendum for an addition to the juniorhigh building. During those ten years, veteran teachers attended numerous

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trainings on the middle-school philosophy and served on various committees that wrote curriculum and drafted activities for the advisory period that students would attend at the beginning of each day. The move to the middleschool philosophy was not without controversy. Some parents felt the three Rs should have more emphasis, and spending time on character education and teaching respect and responsibility took valuable time away from academics. “Parents should be teaching values at home. It’s not the school’s job. Schools should be teaching the basics, not this soft curriculum,” a vocal minority of parents complained. Despite the criticism, Principal Wilson remained an avid crusader for the middle-school philosophy and took every opportunity to sing its praises, talking to parents at community events and sharing stories in the district newsletter of homeroom projects for the homeless, student volunteering at the humane society, and sponsorship of orphans in Africa. At the completion of her first year at the middle school, Wilson even wrote a letter to the editor of the local newspaper to share statistics on the decrease in student discipline incidents: “My administrative staff and I are very pleased with the implementation of the middle school philosophy,” she wrote. “As a result of it there have been 30 percent fewer discipline incidents, and out-of-school suspensions were down by 40 percent. It is evident that our hard work has paid off and the implementation of the middle school philosophy is responsible for this huge success.” Part Two: None of the Blame Late that summer, statewide middle-school standardized assessment results in mathematics, reading, writing, and science were released. A reporter for the local paper called the Jackson assistant superintendent in charge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment to conduct an interview on the assessment results. “Two schools in the district had assessment scores lower than the previous year and are substantially below the state average,” the reporter shared, “Discovery Middle School and North Elementary. Will you comment on these results?” the reporter asked Assistant Superintendent Jill Riley. “We are not happy with these scores. Being below state averages is not acceptable,” Riley commented, “and we will be putting together an improvement plan in both buildings to assure that students are getting the assistance that they need to bring those scores up.” When Wilson read the assistant superintendent’s comments in the paper, she was livid, and she immediately picked up the phone and demanded to speak to Riley. “I can’t believe you made that statement to the Times,” Wilson stammered. “Why didn’t you tell them we have a 40 percent minority population and a 75 percent free and reduced lunch rate—the highest in the district?


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We are dealing with the most challenging students in the district,” the principal shouted into the phone. “We don’t have parent support—they don’t even speak English. Students come to school hungry. And our special education students number 30 percent. Why didn’t you tell them that! That’s why we’re below state averages,” Wilson angrily concluded. (Take All the Credit and None of the Blame) Research on Team Development In the text Primal Leadership: Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence (2004), authors Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee share their thoughts on teamwork and collaboration as significant factors in leadership success. Leaders who are able team players generate an atmosphere of friendly collegiality and are themselves models of respect, helpfulness, and cooperation. They draw others into active, enthusiastic commitment to the collective effort, and build spirit and identity. The spend time forging and cementing close relationships beyond mere work obligations. (p. 256)

Institutions that operate as learning organizations are institutions where leaders’ actions reflect their comprehension of the development of a fully working team. These are organizations that enact practices grounded in the ideal of consensus building and use of persuasion rather than directive giving. Their approach allows for greater and more active demonstration of commitment by constituents. The consensus approach involves creation of teams made up of faculty and staff members and creates a thorough and inclusive knowledge regarding strategic plans, program initiatives, and challenges facing the institution. A primary benefit of this leadership practice is that isolated practitioners, faculty and staff, will on a daily basis intuitively and seamlessly integrate their knowledge in ways that best represent the interests of the organization (Hartley and Kecskemethy, 2008). Having failed to acknowledge his secretary’s significant contribution to the new faculty handbook, Kramer has isolated Betty and alienated potential staff involvement in future team projects. Likely, Betty will not be enthusiastic about future projects with Principal Kramer and will dispense minimal effort. Veteran staff members definitely know that Betty was the source for the data for the handbook and suspect that she was solely responsible for its creation. Kramer’s lack of integrity sends a message that teamwork under his leadership will only be for the principal’s self-serving purposes. If Kramer were a servant leader (see appendix A), he would have not only given Betty credit for her work on the handbook, but involved staff in its development. Bringing in

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a small team to work on the handbook, prior to the start of the school year, might produce a better handbook, since team members may have additional ideas for content. Also, utilizing a team to help draft the handbook could avoid a “top down” impression and help build support for the document among the staff, instead of creating a situation where persuasion or directives are needed to gain compliance. 26: First and foremost, give credit to faculty and staff for their efforts on a project and minimize or totally omit your own contributions.

leadership tip

Reeves (2006) describes this team building idea with a concept he refers to as architectural leadership (see appendix A). This approach is based on the idea that an architect will use the expertise of the various craftspeople to create a strong and beautiful structure, and not attempt to build it alone. This type of leadership is described as one wherein leadership is “distributed” but not inevitably democratic in nature. Distributed leadership is based on trust, as well as the certain knowledge that no single leader possesses the knowledge, skills, and talent to lead an organization. The challenge of educational organizations is not to make these leaders into perfectly complete beings by filling in their deficiencies, but rather to create an environment in which the leaders are empowered to create complementary teams. Although no single leader will possess every dimension of effective leadership, the team will surely do so (Reeves, 2006). This architect strategy would be effective for Principal Wilson to address the poor assessment scores of students at Discovery Middle School. Pulling together a team and utilizing the knowledge and expertise of her faculty to develop a plan of action could increase student achievement at Discovery and create an empowering environment that transcends to multiple areas. Making the Leader and Organization Stronger: Humility and Resolution Collins (2001) identifies a leadership disposition that he considers critical to the establishment of an organization that not only reaches the highest levels of achievement, but is also able to sustain this success over long periods of time. This heretofore ignored and/or unrecognized characteristic is a surprising leadership disposition tied to the internal and deep-seated value of humility. Research studies conducted by Collins and his team of twenty-two researchers supported recognition of this unique and often discounted aspect of leadership.


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His article “Level 5 Leadership: The Triumph of Humility and Fierce Resolve” (2001, 2005) discusses five levels of leadership. The report shares indisputable research data demonstrating that dispositions of humility plus fierce resolve are, in fact, necessary and required dispositions if sustained levels of exemplary achievement within an organization are to be maintained. In Collins’s model, a leader must demonstrate proficiency in all five levels of leadership competencies, if an institution hopes over time to attain an outstanding degree of performance. Interestingly, it is thought that these levels are not sequential in nature. One is not necessarily required to move through the levels in any particular sequence; but in order to be recognized as an exemplary leader, one must have achieved competence at all levels. Persons at the first level are considered to be highly capable. This is a person with talent, skills, and a strong work ethic. Second-level competencies focus on the ability to be a contributing team member; these individuals are able to develop strong teams that successfully fulfill institutional objectives. Such an individual knows how to, and is able to, work in a team setting. The next level encompasses the skills of transactional, or competent, managers. These supervisors know how to organize people and material resources to get the job done. Level-four competencies are the first place within this model that leadership is recognized as such. This level, called effective leaders, encompasses characteristics such as the ability to promote a mission and vision that stimulates others to reach and achieve the high standards set for them. The final level, which is considered to be a crucial factor in meeting the highest level of leadership, is that of level 5, or executive leadership. The critical element necessary for sustained excellence and institutional performance in level 5 is that of a combination of competence and skill at all other levels plus the professional will and personal humility that comes from within the heart of an individual (Collins, 2001). The yin and yang of these two elements (will and humility) are often underestimated. Without the fierce resolve or will, humility alone is not enough to bring the leadership performance up to exemplary levels; and without humility, fierce resolve can be experienced by others as dictatorial or selfish. Personal humility is recognized when a person demonstrates a compelling modesty; shuns public adulation; is never boastful; acts with quiet, calm determination; relies principally on inspired standards, not inspiring charisma, to motivate; channels ambition into the company, not the self; sets up successors for even more greatness in the next generation; and looks in the mirror, not out the window, to apportion responsibility for poor results, never blaming other people, external factors, or bad luck. It is evident that Principal Wilson has not reached level 5 executive leadership. She seeks public recognition and infers in her letter to the editor that she

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and her administrative staff were responsible for the implementation of the middle-school philosophy and the corresponding improvement in student behavior. She gives no credit to the community efforts to pass the referendum for the building to accommodate the change, or to the teachers who attended workshops and wrote curriculum for several years for the new advisory program. When state assessment scores are below state averages, however, she does not want to take the credit—the blame. In this instance, Wilson is perfectly willing to share the blame with the students themselves, and their deficiencies, and their parents, and their unsupportive cultures. This failure to accept responsibility is a lack of integrity that results in disrespect from subordinates, peers, and stakeholders. 27: Accept the blame when appropriate and take responsibility for your actions. Make changes to your behavior as necessary.

leadership tip

Assessments and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) afford many additional examples of both the overconfident leader and the humble leader. When a school in NCLB that needed an improvement in status climbed back to making satisfactory progress, the overconfident principal often used “I” and “my” statements to explain the school’s successful plan for improvement. He or she may have demonstrated fierce resolve to change the status quo, to identify the necessary interventions, and to motivate the staff to make the changes needed to impact student achievement; but the “I” and “my” statements indicate that he or she has not reached level 5—humility. Leaders at level 5 demonstrate humility by giving credit to the teachers, students, and parents, and by deflecting recognition from themselves. 28: Understand that success will be short-lived without the continued efforts of the team working toward a common goal.

leadership tip

Team effort and executive level 5 leadership were adeptly demonstrated by a superintendent, Larry Larson, in a school district that dealt with a student shooting in their high school. The district had crisis plans in place, which were efficiently implemented. They had conducted drills, and they had contingency plans and a good working relationship with law enforcement and rescue workers. At the time of the crisis, Superintendent Larson repeatedly spoke to the national and local media and the community in an unassuming, calm, caring, factual manner. Throughout the first hours and later days and weeks, Larson acted with quiet determination, utilizing team resources to do what was in the best interest of students and the city’s residents. Lives were lost that day, but lives were also saved. Larson repeatedly recognized teachers


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and first responders for their heroic efforts in a tragic situation. As the school tried to return to “normal,” the superintendent credited the support and caring of a cohesive and compassionate community that greeted students returning to school with a tunnel of human support. Larson received a leadership award from colleagues in his professional organization for his exemplary leadership during these tragic events and the months that followed. His demeanor, when he speaks to administrative groups and prospective principals, however, is always one of great humility. He speaks in an unimposing, subdued manner to professional groups, in an effort to help others learn from his school district’s heartrending experience. Superintendent Larson demonstrates humility regarding his role in handling the shooting crisis and the recovery of his school community; but he also expresses a strong professional drive (will) to lead his students through the healing process and help others learn from his district’s experience. In Collins’s level 5 executive leadership, professional will is recognized when a person creates superb results, acting as a clear catalyst in the transition from good to great; demonstrates an unwavering resolve to do whatever must be done to produce the best long-term results, no matter how difficult; sets the standard for building an enduring, great organization; and settles for nothing less. The level 5 leader looks out the window, not in the mirror, to apportion credit for the success of the company—to other people, external factors, and good luck. For organizations that focus on hiring leaders because of a person’s strong ego and personal charisma, this research should prompt serious reflection. The ideals demonstrated by Collins and his team shatter the old ideals of who a leader is or should be, or how he or she should behave. leadership tip

29: Embrace humility: This is a quality great leaders share.

Promoting New Ideas: The Coach-Leader A leader cannot possibility have all the answers or even expertise in every area of the organization, so it is important to have strategies for utilizing the strengths and talents of all organization members. It is also vital for the leader to develop the capacities in the members of the organization for sound decision making and self-directedness. This will help the organization to achieve goals and prosper. Cognitive coaching was developed in the 1980s by Costa and Garmston (2002) to help administrators understand and apply humanistic principles to the evaluation process of teachers. The Center for Cognitive Coaching was established to provide leadership training

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and to serve as a resource to schools and districts that wanted to implement cognitive-coaching strategies. In this model, the leader becomes a facilitator of self-directed learning, not a “do as I say” advocate. “At one level, Cognitive Coaching is a simple model for conversations about planning, reflecting, or problem resolving. At deeper levels, Cognitive Coaching serves as the nucleus for professional communities that honor autonomy, encourage interdependence, and produce high achievement” (Costa and Garmston, 2002, p. 4). That deeper level of use includes cognitive coaches who are skilled at constructing and posing questions with the intention of engaging and transforming thought. Cognitive coaches paraphrase and probe in a nonjudgmental manner to establish and maintain trust and engage the participant in intellectual reflection. The coach-leader uses nonverbal behaviors to establish and maintain rapport and avoids unproductive patterns of listening, responding, and inquiring. Coaches are trained to use, and become competent in using, mental maps or facilitator guides to engage the speaker in planning, problem resolving, and reflecting. The goal in cognitive coaching is to create self-directed learners who utilize their knowledge and skills to learn from experience and modify practice (Costa and Garmston, 2002). In some aspects, the cognitive coach–leader is similar to Collins’s (2001) level 5 executive leader. Collins’s executive leader possesses professional will and personal humility that comes from the heart of the individual. In addition to a commitment to ongoing learning, the cognitive coach–leader, like the level 5 executive leader, possesses humility and selflessness and is devoted to the growth of the individual and the organization. They [cognitive coaches] continually resist complacency, and they share both the humility and the pride of admitting that there is more to learn. They dedicate themselves to serving others, and they set aside their ego needs, devoting their energies to enhancing others’ resourcefulness. They commit their time and energies to make a difference by enhancing interdependence, illuminating situations from varied perspectives, and striking to ring consciousness to intentions, through feeling, and behaviors and their effect on others and the environment. (Costa and Garmston, 2002, p. 7)

Principal Wilson (scenario B) could be a cognitive coach–leader and set aside her ego, utilizing the strengths and talents of her teachers to design a plan to increase her school’s assessment scores. By posing questions to her team, Wilson could engage her faculty in cognitive reflection and problem solving and overcome students’ obstacles to learning. Through listening and inquiry, Wilson could solicit varying team perspectives on how to engage parents in their efforts to increase students’ assessment scores.


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30: In challenging situations, set aside your ego and use cognitive-coaching skills to engage your team in problem solving.

leadership tip

Costa and Garmston refer to cognitive coach–leaders as renaissance leaders and their schools as renaissance schools. They define renaissance schools as learning organizations, places of rebirth, that are communities collaborating toward a common vision that is in the best interest of students. These are schools that thrive in an atmosphere where all inhabitants are respected as learners and contributing members of the organization. Renaissance leaders value thoughtful collaboration and reflective dialogue. The renaissance leader feels a quasi-spiritual calling to build a better future through an interdependent learning community in which all members are continually seeking ways to trust each other, solve problems, and learn together (Costa and Garmston, 2002). Renaissance leaders strive to live by the renaissance ideals: • They [renaissance leaders] know they can control only their own choices, decisions, and mentor maps. • They transcend their own existence by believing in, revering, and communing with something greater than themselves. • They are honest with themselves and about themselves, and they strive to live by their deepest authenticity. • They choose an active life of service to the community and seek to learn with and from others. • They search for and reflect on their impact on others and the environment, thus continually modifying their own actions. (Costa and Garmston, 2002, p. 364) Costa and Garmston (2002) use Sylvia Robinson’s words to explain the philosophy of the renaissance leader. Robinson wrote, “Some people think you are strong when you hold on. Others think it is when you let go” (p. 363). Creating Community and Assuming Responsibility by Sharing in the Blame Tschannen-Moran (2004) shares three features of a professional learning community. First, people act as, and are treated as, capable contributors; second, the focus remains on students and their learning; and, third, a strong sense of community exists. Without trust between teaching colleagues and among the teachers, staff, and administration, this aspect of strong community cannot be achieved. A cooperative spirit and unity of purpose is necessary

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to facilitate a team effort. Factors that support cooperation in a culture include the following: (1) People are rewarded for collaboration, not competition. (2) Strengths of each individual are valued, as it is to the benefit of all to have another become successful. (3) Actions that appear to be ones that protect turf are perceived to be selfish and isolating. (4) Friendly, authentic, and emotionally supportive interactions among the faculty, staff, and administration, facilitated through interactive face-to-face activities, bolster feelings of community. (5) Dispositions including honesty, openness/sharing of ideas and materials, and reliability are required. The Buck Stops Here According to researchers Gibson and Schroeder (2003), those in leadership positions are most likely to be blamed for errors and least likely to get credit from colleagues and subordinates. In a leadership role, it can become irritating to be blamed when you know very well that it was a subordinate who did not follow through as directed or complete the task the way you would have done. “Judgments that hold CEOs responsible for actions of people presumably under their control are based on the obligations they have in their leadership role rather than their intentionality” (Gibson and Schroeder, 2003, p. 96). This is important because it is this perception of our success or failure in the eyes of others that provides the emotional cue to defend and protect our performance as a leader. It is therefore not surprising that supervisors often become defensive and/or take it on the offense by pointing out the errors of others. As a supervisor, one must understand that those we lead hold us responsible whether we actually acted or abstained from acting. “The perception of a gap between what an actor did and should have done has been shown to significantly affect observer sense of equity and responsibility” (Gibson and Schroeder, 2003, p. 97). The bottom line is this: as leaders we are responsible for everything that happens under our watch. Reilly (2006), in “Accountability Part 2: Moving from Blame to Leadership,” advocates a belief that an “effective leader is always 100% accountable for the desired outcomes” (p. 1). Accountability at this level takes courage and simple frankness regarding one’s performance. It was easy for Principal Wilson to blame low test scores on high special-education and English-language-learner populations and lack of parent support. It is far more difficult to look into the mirror and recognize that, as a leader, you are responsible for the desired outcomes in your organization. Reilly discusses the distinction that needs to be made between blame and accountability. “Blame carries with it a negative judgment; there is some emotional content . . . When someone blames us we can feel our self worth being questioned. In


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our ‘blame-based’ view of accountability, we try to avoid being fully accountable by apportioning it” (p. 1). Apportioning blame to others is what Reilly calls the “blame game.” In high-performing teams, he believes that leaders and all team members should be 100 percent accountable for both successes and failures of the organization. Additionally, when mistakes are made and blaming is the leader’s goal, it has a lasting negative impact on the entire climate of the organization. The Law of Blame described in Proactive Leadership in the Twenty-First Century (1997) is accepting the blame for anything that goes wrong under the realm of one’s leadership. When a leader tries to make others at fault or responsible for failure, he or she is actually giving up a piece of his or her leadership authority or control. This is evidenced in the principal who blames new initiatives or unpopular decisions on the superintendent or school board. These principals are in effect saying that they are not in control of their buildings. Welch and Welch (2007) advocate the position that this approach makes the leader look like a puppet, and team respect and confidence are quickly lost. “You make yourself look like a marionette . . . Very soon, instead of looking to you for direction, your people will be looking around you, searching for signs from the ‘real boss’” (p. 1). This will not only result in followers losing respect for the leader but will also reduce the probability of their support in the future. Even when subordinates are at fault, when they see leaders blame others, it gives them license to absolve themselves of all blame. Conversely, when a leader accepts total (not partial) responsibility and models accountability, Welch and Welch claim it has a reverse effect: “The Law of Blame Rationale: If you try to pass the blame to those being led—even if it is fully deserved—they may not accept any of it. On the other hand, if you try to take all the blame, those being led aren’t likely to let you shoulder all the responsibility—even if it’s your fault” (Welch and Welch, 2007, p. 1). The business world has traditionally been more supportive of the “buck stops here” attitude. Davies (2008), in “Three Hidden Qualities of Great Leaders,” describes the leader that takes responsibility for things that go wrong. “Great leaders do not blame their business conditions on others. They recognize how their behavior affects the corporate vision and how their leadership can affect the bottom line. They don’t wait for things to improve, but act to improve things” (p. 2). Paulson (2008), in “Beating the Blame Game: Real Leaders Take the Blame and Give the Credit,” takes Davies’s attitude a step further, advocating a servant-leadership (see appendix A) approach. He explains that unfortunately, in most situations, many leaders take more than their share of the credit and less than their share of the blame. As a result, they are not respected, and when errors do occur, they are less likely to be supported in the face of potential failure and the associated blame. Real leaders,

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Paulson concludes, “take more than their share of the blame and less than their share of the credit” (p. 1). 31: Take all, or more than your share of, the blame, and give more credit than you take.

leadership tip

Conclusion In this chapter, we explored a wide swath of circumstances that challenge leadership capacity. The activity of assigning blame is not only destructive in team-building and relationship-strengthening efforts; it also erodes subordinates’ faith in their leader. The ability to face adversity with strength and fortitude (accepting the blame regardless), without casting about for scapegoats, is an attribute that is recognized and respected by others. When discussing personal and professional relationships, Loo (2007) uses Covey’s (2008) analogy of making deposits to and withdrawals from a bank account. We make emotional withdrawals in our professional-relationship bank account when we blame others; and when we give others credit, we make emotional deposits, in the form of actions that build trust and deliver value to that person. “If we make too many withdrawals from our relationship account, the other person will eventually close our account with them” (p. 1). Loo describes being accountable and responsible for your actions as a trust deposit and blame as an overdraft. Essentially, trust and good will are generated by positive experiences and interactions over time. Subordinates appreciate the credit given, the praise offered, and the kindness exercised by the leader. Through these interactions, a strong bond is created. In difficult situations, when poor leaders are beaten down, the leader who has shared the glory is given a bit of grace—breathing room or the benefit of the doubt. The power of humility, the capacity to put oneself last and celebrate the accomplishments of others first, is paramount. Humility, along with the ability to cognitively coach those we work with to greater achievements, marks an effective leader. Activity: Take All the Credit and None of the Blame With a mentor or colleague, reflect on your answers to the prechapter questions. Share with a mentor or colleague the results of your self-assessment, and identify three areas of strength and three areas in which you recognize a need for further growth.


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Table 4.1.â•…Leadership Dispositions and Behaviors, “Take All the Credit and None of the Blame” Almost Always


Give credit to faculty and staff for their efforts Recognize that as a leader you are ultimately responsible for the actions of the people you supervise Support the team through your actions, not just words Are modest in the performance of daily responsibilities Are inclined to perform tasks usually performed by subordinates Set aside ego to solve the problem Engage affected constituents in reflection and problem solving Take all or more than your share of the blame Give more credit than credit taken in successful situations

Use the rubric in table 4.1 to appraise your current leadership style. Think broadly about your day-to-day experiences in a particular leadership role. Determine on the rubric where your behaviors most often fall. Complete this exercise quarterly.

Chapter Five

Keep the Information Treasure Hidden

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • What are the benefits of restricting information about the operations of an organization and, conversely, what are the benefits of sharing with staff ideas being discussed by upper-level administration? • What type of information can and should be shared with staff? • What are the barriers that inhibit leaders from sharing with subordinates and constituents? Scenario A: “What the Hell Happened?” and “Where’s My Stuff?” Gary Campbell: Retiring Science Teacher Carol Thompson: Paraprofessional Bryan Brown: Media Specialist Randy Ellison: Work-Experience Teacher Angie Clark: Assistant Principal Gary Campbell had thirty-three days left before retirement. Campbell had taught biology and environmental science and coached volleyball for thirty-five years at Bloomington High School, an eighty-five-year-old comprehensive high school with over 1,600 students. During his tenure, Campbell developed an advanced-placement biology class and an innovative health-career exploration program and was the sole teacher for both classes. He was also well known for his state-caliber volleyball teams, and he kept meticulous statistics and records 63

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on each season. Campbell was counting down the days to retirement when he walked into his classroom one mid-April morning and found his computer, his desk, and everything in and on his desk gone, including the mouse pad with his grandkids’ picture. In alarm, he realized that thirty-five years of files are on that computer—curriculum for all my classes, statistics and records for volleyball, my final tests, today’s PowerPoint. It was then that the science teacher noticed a new laptop sitting on top of his lab-demonstration counter with a note from the building computer technician. The note read, “You’ll need to use your backup disks to load any files from your old computer to your new computer.” What backup disks? Campbell thought in horror. I did not make any backup disks. With great agitation, Campbell hurried toward the main office. On his way, he heard shouting from the media center and walked in to check on the situation. In front of the checkout desk, Campbell found the resource center’s paraprofessional, Carol Thompson, yelling at the media specialist. “Where’s my stuff?” she screamed. “Everything is gone—everything! My office is empty and the door is locked. Where are my personal belongings? Where am I supposed to work? Why did you do this?” she shrieked at the media specialist, Bryan Brown. A crowd of students had gathered around Thompson and stared with mild humor at her public display of anger toward her supervisor. Brown, embarrassed and angry at Thompson’s public confrontation, began shouting back. “I’m not going to accept this kind of behavior. Let’s take this to my office. Calm down. I have no idea why your office is empty and locked. I didn’t do it.” Ah, the veteran science teacher Campbell thought as he continued his excursion to the office, the plot thickens. To his surprise as he entered the administrative center, Campbell encountered another scene. The high school’s work-experience teacher, Randy Ellison, was standing in the doorway of Angie Clark’s office, shouting at the assistant principal who was in charge of building and facilities. “Where are my computer and all my files? What do you mean I have to share a classroom with Mike Arnold? How can I meet individually with students while Arnold has class? There’s no phone in his room; where do I call employers from? This is crazy. What the hell is going on?” Ellison yelled, arms flinging in the air. The exasperated assistant principal put a hand on the work-experience teacher’s shoulder and gently led him into her office. “We had to close down your classroom because of mold in that area of the building. You know you’ve been having health issues and so have students. It was a safety issue,” she explained. “I’m in the newer section of the building. There was no mold in my science classroom,” Campbell interjected as he barged into the assistant principal’s


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office. “Why did you take my desk and computer? I don’t have mold. I need my computer files. I have a health careers speaker coming today, and I can’t access my PowerPoint. This is no way to run a building,” he admonished. Nervously combing her fingers through her hair, the assistant principal quickly stammered, “The fire marshal inspected your wing and said we had to remove your desk. Since the remodeling in your classroom, the desk has been blocking a second exit that is needed in case of emergency evacuation. There was no room for your desk and a desktop computer,” she lamented. “We had no choice.” “Why didn’t you tell us?” the two teachers chorused. (Keep the Information Treasure Hidden) Scenario B: “I Was Counting on Them to Implement It” Mark Peterson: Middle-School Principal Charles Eisenhower: Superintendent Marsha Summerfield: Curriculum Director Mark Peterson was an enthusiastic, dedicated principal at Rushford Middle School, in a rural community with 6,000 residents. He was highly regarded by teachers and community members, who appreciated his innovative approach to issues. Late one spring afternoon, Peterson met with Superintendent Eisenhower for his year-end review. “Mark, you’re doing a good job at the middle school. Things are running smoothly and parents are happy. But there is one area that the board and I feel needs attention. That’s our state assessment scores in reading. They are not just below state averages in the middle school; it is across the board—elementary, middle level, and the high school. Our districtwide goal next year is going to be reading,” the superintendent declared with usual vigor. “We need to work on this as a team.” “Yeah, that is a good idea. You’re right, our scores are low. Our language arts teachers have really been emphasizing reading, but we’ve got a ways to go,” Peterson agreed with a grimace. “Well, meet with the curriculum director and put something together that’s best practice in reading—curriculum and instruction that research shows will improve reading test scores. I’m telling the elementary school and high school principals the same thing. Get those reading scores up! Look at what others schools are doing that’s working,” Superintendent Eisenhower suggested as he stood and led Peterson to the door.

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“I’ll get together with Marsha as soon as possible, and we’ll come up with a plan for this fall,” the principal wholeheartedly promised as he shook hands with the superintendent. A couple of weeks later, Peterson found the summer-workshop brochure for the statewide principals’ conference in his school mail. In the brochure, Peterson discovered registration materials for a full-day preconference workshop on literacy and critical-reading skills. The workshop was being conducted by the previous year’s state secondary principal of the year, who was widely respected for running an exemplary high school with a stellar academic program. I’m going to register for this literacy workshop, and I’m going to invite Marsha, Peterson reflected. Maybe we’ll get some good ideas on how to improve our reading program. The curriculum director, Marsha Summerfield, agreed to attend the literacy workshop with Peterson, and both came back excited about the readingacross-the-curriculum program described in the workshop. Summerfield and the middle-school principal continued to meet and plan over the summer, developing a back-to-school workshop for teachers which included a PowerPoint presentation and a packet of reading instructional materials with content-specific activities and ideas for each teacher. Then, in early September, Summerfield and Peterson passionately co-presented on the reading-acrossthe-curriculum program at the middle-school opening workshop. “This is going to make a difference,” Peterson declared to staff in his animated introduction at the back-to-school workshop. “It’s not just the language arts teachers’ responsibility to teach reading. It’s all of our responsibility. Students need reading skills in social studies, in science, in math, and in all disciplines. So, we all have a responsibility to improve students’ reading skills,” rationalized the passionate principal. “I’m no reading teacher,” grumbled a science teacher. “How do you teach reading in a math class?” questioned a mathematics teacher. “That’s what the packet is for,” the principal clarified. “Marsha has put a packet together for each teacher with ideas on how to teach reading skills in your content area. This is a schoolwide goal. Improving literacy skills is part of our building action plan,” the principal justified as he enthusiastically distributed the packets. “Fine by me,” mumbled an industrial-arts teacher under his breath. The school year got off to an uneventful start; and in late September, at the conclusion of the building’s bimonthly faculty meeting, Peterson announced his intent to conclude faculty meetings differently. “For the rest of the school year, I’d like to end each meeting with a sharing session on literacy activities in your classrooms. Sharing will give all of us additional ideas on how to


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incorporate critical reading skills across the curriculum,” he explained. “Now, who would like to begin?” the principal asked. Twenty-five teachers in the room fidgeted and doodled on notepads. Some looked down at their feet. Others intently scribbled notes on legal pads. No one volunteered. After a poignant silence, Peterson offered, “Okay, okay. I sprung this on you. We’ll start next time. Have good day.” “Sure. I’ll be ready next time,” muttered the industrial-arts teacher. As the year progressed, Peterson continued requesting volunteers to share literacy activities at faculty meetings, but no one would share. He also visited with students as he circulated in the lunch room and questioned them on how they liked the new reading program. He got blank stares and comments asking, “What new reading program?” Over a cup of coffee in mid-November, the disgruntled Peterson confided to Summerfield, “I do not think my teachers are implementing the reading-acrossthe-curriculum skills in their classrooms. I can’t get anyone to share at staff meetings and the kids seem clueless about any building emphasis on reading.” “What are we going to do?” asked the sympathetic curriculum director. “Improving literacy is a districtwide goal.” “Yeah, I know. I put it in my building action plan. I guess I’m going to have to make it a priority to visit classrooms and specifically check if they are teaching critical reading skills. It’s not just the language arts teachers’ responsibility. Don’t they understand that? They are a great group of good and dedicated teachers. What happened? Don’t they know how important this program is to the building, the district? Why aren’t they on board? I was counting on them implementing it.” (Keep the Information Treasure Hidden) Why Administrators Don’t Share: Barriers to Knowledge Sharing It would seem evident, from the perspective of an outsider, that the benefits of communicating and sharing knowledge within an organization are of incalculable worth. This idea is so obvious, in fact, that the process and procedures of sharing information might be considered essential to an organizational culture and ingrained as a standard operating procedure in any enterprise wishing to be successful. Leaders acknowledge, at least to themselves, that with more access to information, they gain the global view needed to think more creatively, take better-calculated risks, make more “correct” decisions, and work more effectively as a team to achieve the vision of the institution. So why is the practice of sharing so very difficult for leaders to apply?

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Donaldson (2001) brings to our attention how different a school culture is from that of a business, and provides a perspective that demonstrates the extreme challenge in communicating information in a typical school environment. In referring to this culture, he describes the “work-life realities” that many leaders, especially novice or inexperienced principals, face while trying to shepherd through change or even manage the status quo. To the leader charged by central office with the responsibility of improving teaching and learning practices, teachers are frustratingly beyond reach, busy with students and other primary responsibilities . . . Even the simplest directive or consultation with a staff person can be difficult to arrange or schedule . . . conversations and consultations snatched . . . Ironically, the very unruliness of school life—this conspiracy of busyness—often convinces classical leaders to become increasingly directive, controlling and bureaucratic. (p. 19)

Principal Peterson’s options for involving teachers in the decision to implement reading across the curriculum in his building were limited, due to the busyness of preparing for the new school year and the fact that most teachers are gone over the summer. Also, after being informed by the superintendent that reading was a district goal for the coming school year and being directed to improve reading scores in his building, Peterson needed to take some action. Because of schools’ complex and varied schedules, information is typically shared by administrators through (1) memos, (2) formal meetings, (3) team or committee meetings, or (4) informal networks. When using memos, leaders are essentially telling others the final decision and giving them the policy with the directive to follow it. In these cases, faculty and staff might ask themselves, How are these decisions made, and why? What is the supporting evidence? Often overworked administrators become angry and find these questions irritating, a challenge to their judgment. I have been directed by the superintendent, have researched best practice, and worked on this all summer. Why are they questioning me? is the question asked by many leaders. 32: Anticipate that staff may be skeptical and have questions and concerns about your actions. It is the leader’s responsibility to prepare his or her staff by educating them regarding the reasons for decisions.

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Formal meetings are an efficient way to share with a larger group; however, one cannot guarantee full attendance of constituents. Often meeting agendas are tightly controlled and information flows only one way. In this case, faculty and staff might feel that the principal does not let them share their concerns and therefore is running a dictatorship. Team and committee groups are


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also often used, but the perceived attitude among other staff might be that “the committee will decide and let us know the outcome.” Administrator-selected committee membership also may be looked at with a dubious eye, with faculty and staff assuming that “teachers were chosen to serve because they are yes-people.” Informal networks can be helpful, but are not effective because knowledge of the situation passed along may or may not be accurate. In informal networks, faculty and staff invent and speculate: I do not know what is going on, but I need to understand; so I will put together the facts I do know and make some assumptions. When these methods of information management fail to achieve the goals of the inexperienced principal, he or she may believe that the faculty and staff are indifferent to the situation at hand or highly resistant to the action. Leaders’ emotional response to these assumptions can include frustration, anger, feelings of obstruction, and exasperation. These feelings might result in decisions being made unilaterally and in isolation, with administrators believing, These teachers are just stuck in a rut and choose not to grow or try new things; so I’ll decide and do what I think is right (after all, I am the boss). It would have been easy for Principal Peterson to make this assumption, after discovering that teachers were not implementing the critical-reading skills program he’d included in his action plan. To begin to resolve this conundrum, it is helpful to look to the field of knowledge management. In the research conducted by Riege (2005), particular barriers to knowledge sharing were identified. He describes over three dozen items within what he calls “a triad of knowledge-sharing barriers.” These barriers are characterized as follows: individual (psychosocial), organizational (cultural), and technological (hardware and software). Although described individually, Riege notes that it is usually a combination of these factors that together prevent effective knowledge sharing. Individual Barriers Riege’s individual barriers include (1) the time barrier, (2) the fear barrier, (3) the awareness barrier, (4) the control and power barrier, (5) the “not like me” barrier, and (6) the competition barrier. The time barrier includes the lack of time to share simple information during the day and to identify which people need or would benefit from the information, and a lack of time to dialogue and interact with the knowledge being shared. A good example is Assistant Principal Clark: she was directed by fire marshals and the district health and safety director to free up the second exit in Campbell’s classroom and close down the classrooms with mold. Meeting with the affected staff members prior to the changes would have been advantageous; however, the timing of

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the notification to administrators and the schedules of the staff members involved may have made personal notification prior to the changes difficult. 33: Make time to communicate, even when you believe you do not have any to spare.

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The fear barrier involves leaders believing that if they make a mistake in judgment and share erroneous information, it could cost them the respect of their peers and subordinates. An additional belief is that the leader is supposed to be all-knowing, and the fear is that “if I am not all-knowing, I will lose face, or I may lose my job.” Sometimes administrators limit communication about state mandates, such as pay-for-performance programs, special education funding, and data privacy issues, because these policies are complicated. 34: Realize and accept that there will be times that you will make mistakes. If this happens, be forthright in sharing the error. Remember that staff members already know that you are not perfect.

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Riege’s third individual barrier, the awareness barrier, revolves around the “need to know” phenomenon of hoarding information. The leader believes that specific information should only be shared with those who really need to know. This philosophy assumes that the leader will always be aware of everyone who needs to know the information; however, realistically, the leader may not be aware of everyone in the organization who could or would value and benefit from having access to this knowledge. The people the leader works with may have sophisticated knowledge about topics under discussion. Individuals may also have a networking system of which we may not be aware. Without sharing knowledge broadly, leaders lose the opportunity to benefit from the expertise of others. 35: Consciously reflect on who would benefit from the sharing of information; err on the side of overcommunication.

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The control and power barrier is Riege’s fourth individual barrier. In this situation, the leader believes that “giving this knowledge will just cause me headaches. If the staff has access to this information, they will get in my way or misuse or misinterpret the information.” Lichtenstein and Hunter (2006) further explored the power and control barrier in interviews with educators about their knowledge-sharing choices. One interviewee confided, “I have found that if you keep people informed along the way, they often try to get


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involved either positively or negatively, so I have found that it is usually better to wait until the end” (p. 35). Business Manager Jim Bower, who oversaw the budget in a small, rural district, exemplifies this philosophy. He only released budget information to principals once a year; that way, he reasoned, I can limit questions and complaints to a finite time period. Bower maintained power and control of the budget by restricting access. 36: Share information early and frequently, before decisions are made.

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The fifth barrier to sharing information identified by Riege is the “not like me” barrier. Differences in educational and experiential levels lead the administrator to believe it would take too long to bring staff or constituents up to speed on an issue. He or she will not waste time communicating this information. Age, gender, or ethnic background or cultural values and beliefs may also influence the leader’s decision that others are not in a position to warrant receiving the information. Not explaining data-privacy rules to teachers when a probationary teacher is let go, or the intricacies of school finance to parents who are questioning building improvements happening at the same time as teacher layoffs, are situations where a leader might use the “not like me” barrier to justify lack of communication. Lichtenstein and Hunter (2006) concur, finding evidence of the “not like me” barrier in their interviews. Said one of their interview subjects, “A person’s prior knowledge limits how much knowledge I will share with them, because if they do not know the basics, then it is pointless for me to share my more advanced knowledge with them” (p. 34). 37: Avoid the assumption that others are not capable of understanding the issues, concepts, information, and values involved. It is the responsibility of the leader to educate staff and constituents on the topic and keep them well informed.

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Riege’s sixth and final individual barrier to communication is the competition barrier. When there is competition between departments and school buildings for limited resources, it may increase secret-keeping behaviors. Tom Mullen, a new superintendent in a large school district with sixteen buildings, advocated competition between school buildings for what he called “innovation resources.” In the past, building principals had shared new curriculum and instruction ideas from workshops and personal research in informal administrative settings. Under the new superintendent’s competitive

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policy for funds for innovations, principals submitted proposals for special purchases. As a result of the competition, principals and staff kept goals and curriculum changes secret from other buildings. They hoped to win the approval of the superintendent and school board for the limited innovation funds before others did. Inequities between building programs and parent complaints ultimately ended this competitive practice. 38: Collaboration enhances the educational environment; competition may encourage secrecy and the hoarding of information.

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Organizational Barriers Culturally, within an organization, we have multiple networks and groups of individuals who must overcome the aforementioned individual barriers. An additional difficulty is the organizational context, which allows or disallows sharing by (consciously or unconsciously) supporting a culture in which sharing is not valued. The organizational barriers Riege (2006) identifies include the following: (1) the common vision/goal barrier, (2) the questioning the value of communication barrier, (3) the physical barrier, and (4) the “no benefit to me” barrier. In the case of the common vision/goal barrier, there is a lack of communication regarding goals and strategic approaches. In this setting, information regarding the school’s mission and strategic plan is unclear, or it has not been developed cooperatively or thoroughly shared with staff and constituents. Principal Peterson experienced this barrier when he did not take the time to in-service his middle-school staff on the need for the critical-reading skills program and involve them in the decision to include the reading goal in his building action plan. 39: Keep the staff rowing in the same direction by sharing information regarding goals and manner of implementation.

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A second organizational barrier is the questioning the value of communication barrier. In this case, there is a lack of understanding by leaders that knowledge sharing is driven within a social network that values and supports communication. Communication and knowledge in these buildings flow in one direction, and administration does not promote sharing as part of the school culture. Assistant Principal Clark informed teachers that their classrooms had been moved because of mold. She did not engage the work-experience teacher, who was moved, or the classroom teacher to whose room he was assigned in dialogue. They did not have an opportunity to assist


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with solving the problem. Had she done so, the teachers might have found a classroom that better met the work-experience teacher’s needs, and likely he would have been less negative about the move. In the questioning the value of communication barrier, there is often an assumption that information should be shared on a need-to-know basis. On one hand, it makes sense that departments are independent agents operating as they see fit without input from others outside the unit; however, great opportunities for identifying areas of overlap or similarity of function may be lost. Silos result when groups within an organization are insulated from the inner workings of other divisions. This creates an unnecessary barrier to improvement and coordination of efforts. We should not assume that because the information is outside the scope of a job role that the knowledge would not be useful to others (Lichtenstein and Hunter, 2006). This was the case with Fred Gilman, an experienced principal of a large, suburban high school. Principal Gilman asked department chairs to submit capital outlay budgets and then met with them individually. Typically, department requests would be ten times the total dollar amount that Gilman had been allocated for the entire building. In his individual meetings with department chairs, Gilman would approve some items and cut other items. He did not feel there was a need for department chairs to see other departments’ budget requests or final allocations. Thus, when it became known to building teachers that the industrial-arts department had received funding for new computers and computer-aided drafting (CAD) software, many believed it was because the environmental and technology studies department chair was a fishing buddy of Principal Gilman’s. 40: Unless the information is damaging to others in the community or should be kept confidential for legal reasons, the benefits of sharing outweigh the potential problems caused by secrecy. Share when appropriate.

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Additional organizational barriers that Riege documents include the physical barrier and the “no benefit to me” barrier. The physical barrier is evidenced in the physical structure of an institution or building that does not make space available for staff to gather—where sharing, discussing, and reflecting on information or knowledge could take place. The physical size of departments or divisions may also make communication unmanageable, preventing dialogue. This was a contributing factor in Principal Clark’s difficulty in notifying staff of the pending changes to their classrooms due to fire codes and mold. Clark’s high school had multiple buildings and levels within buildings, making quick notification more difficult.

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41: Proactively assess the physical limitations of communication in your facility, discuss the limitations with those impacted, and compensate creatively.

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The final organizational barrier is the “no benefit to me” barrier. In this situation, there is a lack of motivation to share. The attitude is, “Why should I bother sharing? They won’t listen anyway.” The interview team in chapter 2, whose recommendation for a new hire was ignored, provides a prime example of a situation where staff might develop the “no benefit to me” attitude. An added challenge in the “no benefit to me” barrier is when the system does not promote sharing by positively recognizing those who do share. Teachers may feel that administrators or committees get the credit for their ideas, or their work on a new curriculum goes unnoticed. Lichtenstein and Hunter (2006) advocate practices that include formal recognition processes and public displays of appreciation that would enhance sharer participation. They found that a sense of personal satisfaction in sharing was an important component; but whereas many gain personal satisfaction from the exercise of sharing, in general, we cannot count on the altruistic nature of others to increase dialogue. 42: Provide acknowledgement and recognition to those who share, giving credit when due.

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Information Technology Barriers Riege’s final major category of barriers to communication is that of information technology barriers, or “information technology systems do not work” barriers. This barrier category includes scenarios in which a lack of integration among technology systems prevents useful sharing of information, such as the merging of assessment results, district demographics, and classroom progress. Lichtenstein and Hunter (2006) found that use of an intranet to store information and procedural processes was helpful to people when they wanted to double-check their knowledge; however, using this method to encourage knowledge acquisition was not found to be beneficial. With an intranet, there are no reciprocity or exchange possibilities available to the receivers to assist in a deeper understanding of the topics. The information technology barrier may also involve personnel’s lack of knowledge regarding how to use information technology systems. Even today there are senior teachers who refuse to use e-mail or insist on using their personal e-mail only. Other individuals consider taking computer workshops a waste of valuable time. These teachers miss important updates and notices


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from administrators and the opportunity to communicate and learn from peers through commonly used methods of communication like e-mails, blogs, and discussion boards. Frequently, these individuals are also not comfortable accessing information from their organizations’ Web pages and studentmanagement systems. 43: Realize that using technology may seem intuitively to be the best way to communicate; however, electronic communication is easily misunderstood and may be impersonal.

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44: Determine the best way to compensate for technology systems that do not integrate well.

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Another barrier in the technology area that we believe it would be helpful to discuss concerns attitudes about using data for informing decision making. We have titled this barrier the skeptical preceptor barrier. How data is used to inform practice within an educational environment is vital. Accuracy and reliability of data collected and how and when it is shared may influence decision making and school success. Within schools, it is not uncommon to have systems in place that do not allow for easy access by those most in need of the information to best serve students. Petrides and Guiney (2002) explain, “The school student management system often does not share data with the health office system or with the system that is in place to collate enrichment services for children” (p. 1708). When data is difficult to access, compile, and analyze, and/or when data is believed to be faulty and imprecise, there is a general reluctance by many to participate in data-based decision-making processes. An example of this would be use of a new curriculum, where the testing records are kept confidential and full disclosure of information about the student achievement is not shared with the classroom teacher or not shared in a timely manner. In these cases, the teacher may choose to compile his or her own data to inform decision making and planning. This in turn may lead to redundant or ineffective strategies being put in place, or a passiveness about implementing adopted curriculum or instructional strategies, as in the case of the Rushford Middle School teachers who were asked to implement reading across the curriculum. When information is not easily accessible for reporting purposes, these individual databases may also contribute to incomplete or inaccurate performance reporting to the greater community. Petrides and Guiney (2002) suggest four steps that are needed to create an “ecological framework for knowledge management”:

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• evaluating the current availability of information • determining information needed to support decision making • operating within the context and perspective of the school’s organizational processes • assessing the schools information culture and politics (p. 1711) 45: When encountering skepticism about information used for decision making, stop and provide the needed data to ensure understanding of, and support for, your decision or course of action. Be sure to choose research from reliable sources to support your view.

leadership tip

What Works / Why Share Knowledge of your audience is essential when making choices about the method used to communicate. Do individuals prefer face-to-face interaction? Teachers Campbell and Ellison, who had their desktop computers taken and classrooms closed due to mold, obviously preferred in-person notification. A memo or e-mail would likely not have been desired in these situations. What are teachers’ preferred modes of communications? Size of the audience and urgency of the timing will influence the decision regarding communication medium chosen. Petrides and Guiney (2006) suggest that administrators be more accommodating with information sharing: Information needs and strategies must be openly discussed in the school and school district. Teachers and staff need to be aware of the information that is available to them. Teachers and administrators need to feel that information is accessible, and not guarded internally by a select few. 46: Find out what methods of communication are preferred by staff members and use them, making desired information readily available.

leadership tip

The ideas posed by Petrides and Guiney are also reflected in the twenty-one performance domains identified by the National Policy Board for Educational Administrators. In The Emerging Principalship, Skrla, Erlandson, Reed, and Wilson (2001) examine the twenty-one performance domains and identify them as critical to school leadership success. The public-relations domain is found within the contextual domain of philosophical and cultural values; and the public-relations principles are grounded in the belief that all aspects of leadership within a school must exemplify democratic principles. The leader who


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utilizes democratic principles will listen to and empower teachers, developing mutual trust and shared attitudes and beliefs. Soder (1999), in Leadership for Educational Renewal, identifies eleven conditions that are a requisite to a leader developing a healthy democratic environment: • trust • exchange • social capital • respect for equal justice under law • respect for civil discourse • recognition of the need for e pluribus • free and open inquiry • knowledge of rights • freedom • recognition of the tension between freedom and order • recognition of the difference between a persuaded audience and a more thoughtful public (pp. 51–52) Hester (2003) incorporates into this discussion the ideals of ethical leadership. The first behavior found in his formula for leadership success is “listening, discussing, and applying various kinds of information” (p. 96). To do this effectively, there must be a level of trust between administrators and faculty, staff, and other constituents. Each person’s vision and beliefs about the direction the school community should take must be valued. Like ideas, our visions are social; they require other people for their development and actualization. Schools, to be successful, must become communities of learners where educators, parents, and students remain connected through a common goal (Hester, 2003, p. 98). In terms of decision making within this framework, one should look to how information about factors that influence policy direction and other choices is shared (or hoarded) and how managing information that has guided the leader is utilized. Harris (2006) ties this leadership behavior to the responsibility of empowering others—sharing power. This is accomplished through expressing confidence in others and is demonstrated by sharing, and by involving constituents in the deciding process. Leaders need to include others by sharing knowledge. We let them know why we are doing what we are doing. This practice builds a climate of mutual trust and respect. If Principal Clark had notified the affected teachers of the pending changes to their classrooms and the reasons for the changes, their respect for her and trust level would be much stronger. Principals must be willing to trust the wisdom and abilities of teachers, students, and community leaders. They show trust in community leaders

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when they invite them onto the school campus to participate in planning and enriching school activities. Principals actively show trust in students when they listen to, and act on, their input regarding school issues. Principals show trust in teachers when they involve them in educational decisions, treat them professionally, and give them the freedom to teach. They also establish trust with teachers through delegating responsibility (Harris, 2006, p. 6). If Principal Peterson had shared information with his teachers about students’ reading scores and the superintendent’s directive and had involved his teachers in the decision-making process on how to improve reading scores, teachers’ commitment to the implementation of the curriculum would be much stronger. Lichtenstein and Hunter (2006) examine this sharing of knowledge within a social context. A strong relationship among knowledge exchangers and the availability of opportunities to share increases the likelihood that knowledge will be given and received. This positive and trusting relationship and familiarity within groups is also a determining factor regarding the method or medium of communication selected. A lack of related or historical knowledge of the topic by those receiving information may lead to an inaccurate understanding of the situation. Furthermore, differing agendas among the population may cause different interpretations of the information and increase conflict. The receiver-based theory of knowledge sharing promotes the belief that “feedback from receivers at different stages of the knowledge sharing process can influence sharer perceptions of receiver needs and shape sharer attitudes and behaviors” (Lichtenstein and Hunter, 2006, p. 25). These leaders recognize that knowledge sharing is more than giving information or creating knowledge. 47: Share knowledge to teach and develop others. Information will help others work toward achieving the institution’s mission.

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Conclusion We are living in an information age, which means that a plethora of information is available to any who seek it. Constituents and staff have high expectations in terms of being kept well informed and having the information they seek be readily accessible. As public entities, schools have an obligation to provide information on policy, finance, curriculum, strategic planning, and personnel. Only in a few instances does data privacy prohibit the sharing of information. In a democracy, the public has the right to information about their schools. Delaying the sharing of information or creating obstacles to the acquisition of desired information will be counterproductive, in the long run. Faculty and constituents’ level of trust in the leader will decline. Often the


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leader will need to backtrack and delay decisions on the course of action until he or she is able to gain widespread support While it may not be possible to always anticipate all instances in which people will have a desire or need to have information shared with them, it is advisable to err on the side of overcommunication. Overcommunication will build more trust on the part of faculty and parents and greater support. If the leader reflects and places him- or herself in the shoes of others, less difficulty will arise. Would I want to know or have this information if I were in this person’s position? Even if you believe you would not want the information, ethically, in a democracy, the leader has a responsibility to provide information relevant to public schools. Keeping the information treasury hidden is often motivated by the desire to keep others from being involved in the decision making. Soder (1996), in Democracy, Education and the Schools, calls involving others a responsibility, even a burden for leaders in a democratic society. He advocates not just the sharing of information but also discussion as central to democratic education. Discussion needs to be constrained by norms of civility; listening as well as talking, taking turns, criticizing ideas rather than persons, supporting claims with reasoning. Furthermore, it needs to be constrained by traditional canons of inquiry such as double-checking the facts, suspending judgment, questioning positions one has taken early in the inquiry, subjecting claims to peer scrutiny, and in general allowing positions to develop through discussion rather than only defending positions held before (Soder, 1996, p. 200). Sharing the information treasure will enrich public schools and create ethical leaders who are trusted by their faculties. Activity: Information Sharing—Communication Questionnaire Track communication each evening for one week, using the communication questionnaire in table 5.1. At the end of the week, tally your results and reflect on the following: • whom • how broadly • what topics • what methods you used to communicate or not Additionally, consider how you motivated others to share. Which communication barriers did you encounter, if any?

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Table 5.1.â•… Communication Questionnaire A. Who have you shared information with during this day? Community members

Administrators

Parents

Teachers

Administrative assistants

My supervisor

Students

Other (please specify)

Process/ procedures

B. What types of information have you shared? Policy

Assessment results

Feedback

Updates

Operations management

Curriculum ideas

C. If you did not share information with someone (and, upon reflection, see a missed opportunity), list the individual organizational and/or technological barriers you encountered. D. What methods of communication did you use? Paper memo

E-mail

Informal chat/ network

Formal meeting

Post to Web/ Internet

Newsletter

Delegation of communication to others

Other (please specify)

E. How do you know if your communication was received and understood? F. Did you encourage and motivate others to share information with you to assist in your decision-making process? Yes

No

What method did you use to encourage others to share with you? G. Did you request knowledge or information from others to better inform your decision making? Yes, broadly

No

Only from a select group of individuals

H. Did you discount information you received from an individual(s)? Yes

No

If yes, why?

I. Are you confident that the information you used to make decisions was valid and reliable? Yes

No

Not Sure

Chapter Six

Hiding behind Closed Doors

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • How often do you get to visit with your supervisor? Would you like the number of visits to stay the same, increase, or decrease? Why? • How available should a supervisor be to his or her staff member? • How do you deal with stressful situations? Do you tend to avoid difficult conversations with colleagues, even when you know an issue needs to be discussed? Scenario A: “You’ll Get in Trouble” Deb Hansen: Administrative Assistant Chuck Olson: High-School Principal Renee Hays: Bookkeeper Amanda Miller: Angry Parent It was the anniversary of Columbine, the deadliest student shooting in school history. Every teacher, student, parent, and principal knew the date, April 20. For Chuck Olson, principal of a large metro high school, the day began like any other. “Morning, Debra. Is the coffee ready?” Olson asked his secretary, as he strolled through the outer-office area with his newspaper under his arm. “Yes, the coffee is ready,” confirmed the secretary, as she grabbed the coffee pot and poured him a mug. “You’ve had several phone calls already this morning from anxious parents concerned about the anniversary of Columbine and . . .” “I’ve told you a hundred times, no phone calls and no interruptions until 8:00 a.m.,” said the principal, cutting his secretary off. “This first forty-five 81

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minutes is my quiet time to read the paper and enjoy my coffee,” Olson snapped, adding cream and sugar to his coffee. “Yes, but these parents are very upset and want to speak to you immediately. They say there are rumors of students bringing guns to school today,” the secretary hurriedly explained. “No exceptions—forty-five minutes,” Olson reiterated, as he hurried by Hansen and the building bookkeeper who sat next to her. “Here, take the callback slips,” urged Hansen. “Mrs. Miller has already called twice.” “Give the callbacks to the assistant principals. Discipline is their responsibility,” Olson reminded the secretary. “But—but they want to talk to the principal, not an assistant,” Hansen stammered. “Calm them down. That’s your job. Then transfer them to one of the APs,” Olson instructed, as he closed his office door. Grabbing her head as though in pain, Deb lamented to the bookkeeper, Renee Hays, “Now, what am I going to do?” “Just give the call slips to the assistant principals like he said,” shrugged Hays. “It’s not your problem.” “Yes, it is. I know some of these parents personally; and they specifically asked to speak to the principal, because he’s in charge of the building.” Hansen sighed with exasperation. “And I have a son who goes to school here. I don’t want him here if something is going to happen.” “There’s the phone. It’s your line,” the bookkeeper announced. “Arlington High School, principal’s office, Deb speaking,” the secretary droned in monotone. “This is Amanda Miller. Is the principal in yet?” she demanded. “Yes, he is in, Mrs. Miller, but he’s tied up right now,” the secretary tepidly replied. “Well, get him untied up,” Miller demanded sarcastically. “This is important. I need to speak to him now!” “He asked that I transfer your call to the assistant principals,” explained the secretary. “They usually deal with discipline matters,” she added. “I want to speak to the principal, not an assistant principal. I told you that,” shouted the angry parent. “If you don’t get him on the phone, my next call will be to the superintendent.” “Just a minute, please,” Hansen quickly replied. Then, holding the phone’s earpiece close to her chest, Hansen whispered to the bookkeeper in a hushed tone, “I’m going to interrupt him and send this call through.” “You’ll get in trouble,” proclaimed the bookkeeper, as she physically distanced herself from her colleague.


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“I know I will. But I have to do it,” sighed the frustrated secretary. (Hiding behind Closed Doors) Scenario B: “No Comment” John Cummings: Superintendent Bruce Kellogg: Lincoln Elementary Principal Richard Mallory: Newspaper Reporter Superintendent Cummings was an experienced administrator from an urban area who was new to the superintendence in Summerfield, a community with a population of 50,000 and another 5,000 in small, rural areas surrounding the city. Summerfield had its own daily newspaper, the Summerfield Tribune, which competed with two statewide newspapers from the major urban centers of the state. Newspaper coverage on the local school district had high community interest in Summerfield and was a major component of the Tribune’s daily news. Richard Mallory had been the Tribune’s education reporter for fifteen years and was known as an aggressive journalist, who knew how to “get the scoop” before deadline. Teachers and principals in the school district frequently talked openly to Mallory, and he had some favorite sources in the schools. In addition to the facts involved in a news story, Mallory’s writings were often filled with interviews that included minority opinions on the topic. Summerfield’s school-population numbers and corresponding state funding were dropping, and the school board and administrators were exploring budgetcutting options for the following year. In an early-December weekly administrative meeting, Superintendent Cummings engaged district administrators in a brainstorming session to explore possible money-saving options. “Brainstorming rules apply,” he told his administrative team. “Anything is fair game to add to the list of possibilities. We’re just generating ideas,” he reminded them. Numerous ideas were generated in the meeting and included in the growing list of possibilities. Then the superintendent suggested, “What about closing a school?” “Lincoln Elementary has just over two hundred students and the building is over seventy years old. It’s a costly building to run,” the high-school principal commented. “Madison and Kennedy Elementary are both much larger and newer and have room for those two hundred Lincoln students,” the principal noted. “Yes,” added the curriculum director, “and it’s difficult to provide an equitable program at Lincoln, because we can’t afford a full-time media specialist or computer technician for so few students.”

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“But there are lots of advantages to a small school,” argued Lincoln’s principal, Bruce Kellogg. “My students are the poorest in the district and have lots of needs. And a smaller . . .” “Bruce, we’re just brainstorming here,” interjected the superintendent. “Just getting ideas. We’ll create a list and then later weigh the pros and cons of each of the suggestions.” “I just want to go on record that closing Lincoln is a poor idea,” Kellogg complained, as he slumped down in his chair and withdrew from any further participation. At the close of the meeting, the superintendent announced that the brainstormed list would be e-mailed to each of them the following day. “Come prepared to discuss the pros and cons of each item at next Monday’s meeting,” the superintendent explained, “and we’ll whittle the list down to a few items that we can discuss with the school board.” The following Wednesday afternoon the superintendent took a phone call from Tribune reporter Richard Mallory. “Rich. What can I do for you?” the superintendent asked. “Yeah, well I’d like a comment from you regarding your proposal to close Lincoln Elementary.” “What? What?” shouted the superintendent. “Who told you that?” “I’m not at liberty to tell you who my sources are,” the reporter retorted quickly. “I didn’t say I wanted to close Lincoln Elementary. I suggested closing a school in an administrative brainstorming session as a possibility,” the superintendent explained, emphasizing “brainstorming” with increased volume and enunciation. “Can you tell me your reasons for suggesting that an elementary be closed?” continued the reporter. “It was one of many ideas on cost savings we looked at to decrease the budget due to declining enrollment. None of the brainstorming items were more or less important. It was just brainstorming,” reiterated the now redfaced superintendent. “The Lincoln teachers and parents I’ve interviewed are very upset,” Mallory interjected. “They are saying you don’t have the right values for a small school district. Would you care to respond to these concerns?” questioned Mallory. “No. I am finished with this conversation,” Cummings barked as he slammed down the receiver. The Summerfield Tribune’s headlines the next day read, “Superintendent Cummings Suggests Closing Lincoln Elementary.” Mallory’s article went on to say that it was the superintendent’s suggestion that the district close Lin-


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coln Elementary, and quoted the superintendent as saying, “Lincoln Elementary is not that important to the community.” The school-board chair and a principal were also interviewed in the article and explained that administration was just beginning the process of exploring ideas for reducing the budget. “This is just a discussion. No decisions have been made,” the school-board chair emphasized. Quotes from parents challenging the values of urban administrators and questioning if Cummings was the appropriate superintendent for a community of their size concluded the front-page article. The next day when Mallory stopped by the superintendent’s office to interview him for a follow-up article, Cummings met the reporter at the office door and said, “No comment!” For the duration of Cummings’s three-year superintendence in Summerfield, repeated telephone calls and personal interview requests from Mallory—or any Tribune reporter, on any topic—were met with the same response from Superintendent Cummings: No comment. (Hiding behind Closed Doors) Missing in Action: “Where Is the Principal?” Principals can be missing in action even when they have a record of perfect attendance. Teachers and other staff experience frustration with leaders when they are typically unavailable. This is felt even more keenly when staff members know (even though the principal’s car is in the parking lot) that he or she cannot, or will not, make him- or herself available. Principal Olson, in scenario A, is a prime example. Obviously, teachers trying to catch the principal for a quick question before classes begin will know that on a daily basis he is behind closed doors. Other common experiences include the door to the administrator’s office remaining closed (seemingly most of the day); e-mails that are either unanswered or replied to with noncommittal or incomplete responses; and a secret schedule to which even the office secretary is not privy. When one is lucky enough to actually run into these administrators, they appear rushed or too busy with important administrative duties to talk. For some “hiders,” the behavior of being difficult to find is a coping mechanism. The behavior of being unavailable is a critical misstep demonstrated by novice and experienced administrators. The damage to progress within an educational environment resulting from this type of behavior is enormous. Both new and tenured teachers need the feedback, guidance, and encouragement that only a principal can offer. As they enter this new field, novice teachers look to the principal for guidance regarding their performance. The expe-

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rienced, professional teacher will also benefit from conversations with the principal. Through dialogue, respect for teachers’ expertise is established. Experienced teachers want to be asked their opinions and share their concerns. Without this type of interaction, teacher burnout is accelerated (Grady, 2004). Hester (2003), in Ethical Leadership for School Administrators and Teachers, concurs with Grady and identifies additional repercussions: “Leaders—especially superintendents and principals—who isolate themselves . . . send other educators a message that their knowledge is not valued and their input unwanted. In such situations, levels of accomplishment and innovation soon wither away” (p. 98). Some reasons for hiding behavior, such as having poor time-management skills or a basic lack of personal organization, can be relatively simple to fix. Moderately difficult issues, which require more effort to overcome, include having an introverted personality type or a working style that requires long periods of processing or reflecting time alone. The most complicated reasons that leaders resort to isolation include the following: (1) fear of failure; (2) not wanting to be seen as incompetent or unfit to lead; and (3) apprehensiveness about conflict, resulting in avoidance. These are the most difficult to rise above, because these feelings are most often unrecognized by the person experiencing them. Unfortunately, these emotions contribute most heavily to the tendency of a leader to become unavailable. 48: Make yourself available to your staff. It is important for relationship building, teachers’ professional growth, and school effectiveness.

leadership tip

Introverted Personality According to Kahnweiler (2009), introverted leaders experience more difficulty than the extrovert with the following challenges: • stress • perception gaps • career derailers • invisibility Stress Levels Lack of assertiveness in communication can encourage people to take advantage of an administrator. This leader’s anxiety in challenging the views of others may allow subordinates to shift the focus of the organization for self-


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serving reasons. For introverted leaders, being around a lot of people for long periods of time is emotionally exhausting. Becoming an actor, playing the part of an outgoing personality, adds to stress. An introverted high-school principal described feelings of stress she experienced due to the expectations that she attend numerous extracurricular activities. One especially busy week, I had a site council meeting on Monday night, attended a girls basketball game on Tuesday night, parent-teacher conferences on Wednesday night, the school play on Thursday night, a hockey game on Friday night, and a forensic competition on Saturday afternoon. I needed some time for myself; but Monday morning, three students came into my office and complained that I hadn’t attended the choir’s holiday concert on Sunday afternoon.

An extroverted personality might have found attending the extracurricular functions as invigorating and enjoyable; but to the introverted principal they were stressful. She needed time to herself to reflect and recharge. Invisibility Difficulty in group situations, and not speaking out or presenting ideas in a way that engages others in the vision, creates an impression of invisibility. In leading a school, the principal must be visible. An educational leader should be available and visible to all constituents, both in the school and in the community. He or she should be doing walk-throughs in the classrooms and should be in the halls and cafeteria mingling with students. Likewise, it is important for principals and superintendents to be available to parents at parent-teacher conferences, school plays, and athletic events, not just as a presence but engaging others in significant dialogue. Joining local service organizations and serving on community committees also are vital to the principal being a recognized leader in the school district and the community. In fact, Barley and Beesley (2007) report that schools and principals that have a close relationship with their larger community have higher expectations and are more successful. Some introverts, Kahnweiler (2009) discovered, avoid those close relationships by communicating mainly through e-mail, rather than by phone or in person. E-mail communications, however, are fraught with danger. It is difficult to tell tone in e-mails; and some people do not read e-mails carefully, and therefore may miss a question or directive. Kahnweiler recommends, “For introverts, becoming more competent at demonstrating your emotions and reading others’ facial expressions may be a way to close the perception gap, reduce stress, and be present” (p. 54).

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49: It is vital to have a verbal conversation, if the communication (issue, message, or decision) is really important.

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Perception Gaps According to Kahnweiler (2009), “People who listen first are seen as not being able to think on their feet” (p. 12). Extroverted people tend to perceive the quiet and reflective nature of the introverted person as being withdrawn, unfriendly, perhaps rude, or socially incompetent. Additionally, there are perceptions that introverts are procrastinators and indecisive; we don’t know what they are doing, because they don’t share; therefore, we assume they must not be doing anything. Introverted leaders may not tell us what decisions have been made; therefore, we assume they are procrastinating and are indecisive. There is also a perception that, if absent, the administrator is not competent and does not have the necessary expertise to hold the position of instructional leader. Brubaker and Coble’s (1997) Staying on Track provides an excellent example: An assistant principal commented: I shouldn’t say this but teachers in our school refer to the principal as “The Ghost.” He simply doesn’t spend any time in classrooms but assigns all evaluation to assistant principals. His excuse is that he simply doesn’t have time, but I suspect that he wouldn’t know how to talk about curriculum and instruction, even if he wanted to do so. (p. 19)

Career Derailers Creating real collegial relationships with staff and other administrators is critical to creating a culture of trust. Those informal conversations where you hear about family struggles and achievements, or where you work together to solve a problem, help to cement trust among the people that make up a learning community. The extra effort of moving physically out of the office to talk with others in the faculty lounge, at recess, and in the gym or classroom will help build rapport and develop positive relationships. One error in implementation that one author has observed is the misunderstanding of the “management by walking around” (MBWA) philosophy exhibited by a former colleague. This leader, criticized widely for staying in his office all the time, was given marching orders (literally) by the superintendent. “Get out of your office and be seen!” the superintendent ordered. The administrator followed the superintendent’s directive to the letter. He walked around and entered classrooms, staring expressionless for a few moments, or walking past and waving, but no conversations took place during these MBWA exercises. This leader lost teachers’ respect because he failed to engage with students and faculty. Some teachers actually began to feel threat-


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ened by the behavior: “He keeps checking up on me, does he think I’m doing a poor job? Since he is not telling me, it must be bad. I don’t know what he is thinking . . . should I start looking for another job?” teachers whispered. 50: If you are an introverted leader, you will have to make extra efforts to step out of your comfort zone and be more interactive with others.

leadership tip

Extroverts Hide Too Sometimes the leader does not need to actually hide. This type of leader sets the stage to be left alone by bullying, tantrum throwing, and responding to others with inappropriate or mean-spirited joking and teasing behaviors. Frank Voigt, an experienced principal in a middle school, exhibited a bullying behavior that intimidated staff and inhibited teachers’ desire to discuss any issue with him. Voigt’s first reaction to most requests or suggestions was to blow up about the issue in a loud and seemingly angry tone. Most teachers backed off and dealt with the issue without his input or dropped the new idea they were advocating. A headmaster, Thomas Thornton, with similar behavior in a private Christian school was well known for sporadic volatile outbursts, depending on his mood that day. His secretary devised a system to communicate the administrator’s mood to faculty and staff. She would place a green angel on her desk when he was in a good mood, a yellow angel warning staff to “enter at their own risk,” and a red angel telling staff to avoid the office: He’s in a foul mood. Another example of an administrator with unapproachable behavior is elementary principal Dick Foster. When encountering a request from a teacher, Foster would call the teacher a troublemaker or sarcastically accuse him or her of asking for special privileges and then say, “Just kidding.” After a few encounters with leaders like Voigt, Thornton, and Foster, teachers will not bring ideas forward or seek feedback and guidance from their leader. In order to survive, staff members will consciously avoid contact, as much as possible, without crossing the insubordination line. After reflection, Principal Voigt often contacted teachers and responded favorably to their requests or suggestions (that he had initially responded to gruffly); however, in many instances, the damage had been done. The teacher would think twice about approaching the principal in the future. leadership tip 51: If you have a tendency to be moody or sarcastic, or to have

emotional outbursts, take time to process the situation before responding. It’s all right to say, “Let me think about it. I’ll get back to you.”

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Wanting to Be Seen as Competent and Fit to Lead The need to maintain the facade of the “all-knowing leader” is very stressful and may also contribute to a leader’s becoming inaccessible to staff. Jentz and Murphy (2008) claim that shame, panic, and feelings of incompetence or incapacitation result when leaders encounter situations where they do not know what to do. They call these times “Oh, no” moments. Secretiveness or silent behaviors demonstrated by leaders may lead to serious repercussions, including abject failure. If the leader is consistently unavailable, it is difficult, if not impossible, for him or her to be seen as competent by subordinates (Najar, Holland, and Van Landuyt, 2004). It is important to keep in mind that Najar’s leadership research found support for the hypothesis that cautious behaviors demonstrated by a leader add to a perception that the leader is incapable. Jentz and Murphy suggest (though it is often not the case) that feelings of confusion or uncertainness in a leader should be embraced as a resource instead of being taken as a sign of failure. At these times a reflective, inquiring process needs to take place. In the 21st century, as rapid change makes confusion a defining characteristic of management, the competence of managers will be measured not only by what they know but increasingly by how they behave when they lose their sense of direction and become confused. Organizational cultures that cling to the ideal of an all-knowing, Omni-competent executive will pay a high cost in time, resources, and progress. Managers can be confused yet still be able to exercise competent leadership by structuring a process of reflective inquiry and action. (RIA, pp. 16–17)

52: Acknowledge that you do not have an answer for every problem. Create opportunities for reflection and dialogue on potential solutions within your learning community.

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Fear of Failure / Avoiding Decision Making Other aspects that feed into hiding behaviors are lack of decision-making skills and fear of failure. According to Najar and colleagues (2004), in Individual Differences in Leadership Derailment, one common misstep taken by executive leaders who fail is that they choose to not face obvious problems. Issues are ignored or avoided. Principal Olson displayed this behavior in his avoidance of dealing with Mrs. Miller and her demand to speak to the principal about potential problems in the building on the anniversary of Columbine.


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Rasch, Shen, Davies, and Bono’s (2008) taxonomy of ineffective leadership behaviors includes nine elements, three of which point to conduct that epitomizes risk avoidance, leading to seclusion behaviors. These elements are avoiding conflict and people problems; poor planning, organization, and communication; and procrastination. Avoiding conflict was a factor for a junior-high principal who scheduled building leadership meetings at times he knew would conflict with the schedule of the science-department chairperson. The science chairperson was confrontational in meetings and continually challenged the principal, playing the devil’s advocate role on every topic. This made the principal very uncomfortable, and in response to these feelings, the novice leader chose to avoid the situation through creative scheduling of meetings. Kohlrieser (2006) also believes that some leaders will, in unconscious ways, block dialogue, practicing denial. This strategy is sometimes used when there is illness within a family: It does not become real to us until we talk about it. This may have been a factor in Principal Olson’s avoidance of the Columbine-like rumors in his building: The chance that a student will bring a gun to school is remote, so why give credence to this rumor by talking about it. Leaders, however, must overcome this fear by increasing, not decreasing, dialogue and by making an extra effort to develop relationships with others, rather than avoid them. Without working associations with our colleagues and extended community and strong communication about the issues, it becomes increasingly difficult for individuals to engage. It takes courage to make the difficult choices (often the lesser of two evils). When you make decisions, you are taking a stand and putting your own reputation at risk. This can be personally challenging, especially when you have a personality that tends toward people-pleasing behaviors. These feelings are understandable; there are not many who thrive on conflict. The third element, procrastination, may result from apprehension about making a wrong decision. It is, however, important to remember that in not making a decision, you are making a decision to not make a decision, or you are, in fact, choosing to let someone or some group make the decision for you. If you allow this to occur, you no longer are captain of your vessel. You have demoted yourself to the position of seaman apprentice. Principal Olson is a prime example: he is abdicating leadership to his assistant principals on a grave issue. Perhaps this is because he is fearful of making a wrong decision, or maybe he is in denial and just does not believe a shooting could happen in his school. 53: Have the fortitude to actively face the tough decisions, reflecting, engaging others in discussion, and determining solutions. Not making a decision, or delaying one, often exacerbates the situation.

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Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski (2007) discuss the values involved when leaders make decisions, calling it values based decisiveness. Making decisions is hard. There is always the risk of failure, ridicule, or negative consequences. That is why leaders are often indecisive. They put decisions off and wait until they are made by default; the time period passes, the opportunity goes away, or the candidate takes another job. Decision making requires courage to make tough decisions, to know when to stop assessing, and make a yes-no call. A distinguishing characteristic of a good leader is the ability to make informed decisions in a timely manner. (p. 98)

The values of the institution should be incorporated into the process of decision making. For example, if the institution’s values include being a student-centered institution, you may ask which of the options you are considering benefits students the most. “Which of these choices provides the most benefit to students?” Values-based discussion is a crucial step in the decision-making process. 54: In your career, you will undoubtedly make some poor decisions. When this happens, acknowledge and learn from these mistakes. Try to forgive yourself.

leadership tip

Conflict and Avoidance Behaviors Some individuals embrace conflict as an opportunity to grow, and believe that conflict will result in better decisions. Others feel threatened by the different perspectives shared by colleagues and constituents and want people to like them, above all else. They may be unprepared for the emotions that present themselves in these often highly charged situations. Conflict is all about emotions, and conflict competent leaders are emotionally intelligent. They know when their emotions are rising and are attentive when dealing with people whose behaviors might trigger their hot buttons. They are wary of speculating about the motives of others and use constructive behaviors to slow responses when emotions are running high and later work to determine what is really behind the other person’s actions. These skills take time to develop. Building self-awareness is a first step. This is followed by practice . . . mistakes will be made. They always do whenever we are learning new skills . . . If others sense we are trying, they will be willing to give us the benefit of the doubt. (Runde and Flanagan, 2007, p. 64)

Although it may appear counterintuitive to embrace conflict (for many of us it is a personally disquieting experience), there are benefits to conflict. In


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Becoming a Conflict Competent Leader, Runde and Flanagan (2007) outline gains to individuals and organizations that embrace conflict. These gains include increased innovation, teamwork, reflective thinking, communication, and greater comprehension of the state of affairs. Additionally, disagreements within an organization are signs that change is necessary or is taking place. Noncombative arguments provide a vehicle for the expression of opinions and reduce tension by allowing different parties to vent differences. The benefits Runde and Flanagan cite are reaped if the conflict is handled in a mature and professional manner. For this to occur, one must know how to manage and “harness the power of conflict” (Runde and Flanagan, 2007, p. 2). Unfortunately, the behaviors and dispositions necessary to effectively work through conflicts are not innate to our species and must be learned if a leader is to ward off feelings that conflict is negative, emotionally charged, and stressful. Runde and Flanagan discuss four destructive behaviors that exacerbate conflict: (1) avoiding, (2) yielding, (3) hiding emotions, and (4) self-criticizing. The impact of these destructive behaviors on individuals or organizations may be damaging and long-lasting. Avoiding (turning away from a problem) is not effective. If the problem is not dealt with, the conflict or issue may in the future “fester and flare up again” (Runde and Flanagan, 2007, p. 52); often the problem will be larger in size and more difficult to manage. Superintendent Cummings (scenario B) exhibited an extreme level of conflict avoidance when he cut off all interviews with the local newspaper for the duration of his tenure in Summerfield. It would have been much better for his school district and his relationship with staff members and the community if he had addressed the Tribune reporter’s bias and inaccurate portrayal of the potential closing of Lincoln Elementary. Ultimately, the repercussions from Cummings’s refusal to speak to the press contributed to his early departure from the school district. Yielding (deferring to the wishes of another person) is also seldom effective and “can create a defeatist sense” (Runde and Flanagan, 2007, p. 52) in the leader. This was the case with a principal in a large, suburban high school who in mid-October yielded to teacher complaints about too many faculty meetings. The principal canceled all faculty meetings for the balance of the school year but sent frequent e-mails. By early January, staff morale was low and the school climate had been detrimentally impacted. Teachers again complained, this time saying they felt uninformed and devalued. The principal now assumed there was nothing he could do to please the staff. Hiding emotions (tamping them down or keeping them inside) may also be detrimental. This approach is one of the more dangerous, as resentment will build as the person holds feelings private. Be assured, these emotions will eventually surface—often in a surprisingly negative manner that we do not

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expect (emotional explosions, for example). Chuck Olson, the principal who deflected phone calls about rumors on a Columbine-like threat in his high school, may have been hiding his emotions. Perhaps he felt inadequate and not competent enough to make a judgment call on the seriousness of the potential threat. His reputation for emotional outbursts and blaming his clerical staff for problems may have been by-products of his resentment and frustration from hidden emotions of inadequacy. Runde and Flanagan’s final destructive behavior, self-criticizing (endless second guessing), may sap leaders’ energy and prevent schools from moving forward. Nancy Anderson, a second-year principal in a parochial elementary school, is a prime example. Anderson had a parent who worked at the YMCA and volunteered to make arrangements for the school’s fifth-graders to take swimming lessons at the facility, at no cost to the school. Anderson was excited about the opportunity and, initially, committed to the arrangement. Soon, she began to worry about the possibility of a drowning “on her watch.” Even though the YMCA had lifeguards, swimming instructors, and the appropriate liability insurance, Anderson worried about the impact a drowning would have on the school and on her career. She called the YMCA and put the decision on hold while she consulted with some of her parents. Most parents were very positive about the proposed swimming lessons, but Anderson vacillated regarding what to do for several weeks. Eventually, the YMCA withdrew their offer. 55: Be courageous. If you adopt conflict-avoidance behaviors (avoiding, yielding, hiding your emotions, or self-criticizing), it is likely the situation will worsen and be more difficult to manage.

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Managing Conflict Research conducted by Capobianco, Davis, and Kraus (2005) suggests that successful leaders actively engage in managed conflict and do not avoid it. Their research confirms that leaders who practiced conflict-management behaviors were more highly respected and effective than those who did not. Conflict-management practices are outlined in The Dynamic Conflict Model by Runde and Flanagan (2007). They explain that there are active and passive ways to engage in conflict management. Both are beneficial, but the active methods are perceived as more effective by subordinates. Techniques considered active by Runde and Flanagan (2007) include perspective taking, creating solutions, expressing emotions, and reaching out. Leaders use these approaches to calm a situation. Passive techniques include reflective thinking, delay responding, and adapting. These methods work to


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diffuse hostility and stress, bringing to the situation a new balance that enables the discussion to continue. Perspective taking is looking at the problem from a variety of viewpoints. Having discussions with people holding diverse viewpoints allows a leader to see the situation in ways he or she may not understand or even comprehend, but still needs to consider. Related closely to perspective taking is reflective thinking, taking time to process all sides of the issue. Sharing feelings, or expressing emotions, in an honest and authentic way is also an important active strategy. By sharing feelings, the leader may succeed in getting his or her perspective heard by others who may be themselves too emotional to share their similar feelings. Additionally, sharing your personal stake, along with your understanding of the problem and potential solutions, may increase others’ understanding of the issue from your perspective. A related active approach to managing conflict, if emotions are running high, is to delay responding. In these situations, Runde and Flanagan (2007) advocate holding off on responding for a short time, waiting until the emotions of all involved are in check. Runde and Flanagan (2007) also suggest that reaching out with “conciliatory gestures, such as apologizing” (p. 48) may have a positive influence on the way people view you as a person or leader. Being flexible and open in your interactions, Runde and Flanagan believe, will lead to greater trust and stronger relationships; but sometimes leaders need to adapt, by maintaining a positive attitude and trying to “make the best” (p. 49) of a bad situation. Last, Runde and Flanagan advocate creating solutions in a democratic style, working in concert or cooperatively with others to determine options to best meet the needs of the organization. 56: Embrace conflict and understand that it is a necessary part of change and growth in any organization.

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Conclusion Hiding behind closed doors never solves a problem. Often the avoidance of dealing with a problem actually inflames the situation, and chronic absenteeism damages relationships with staff and constituents. Both introverts and extroverts may exhibit avoidance behaviors, reacting to situations differently, but with equal ineffectiveness. Introverts, struggling with hiding behaviors, will need to make conscientious efforts to engage with others and share reflections on an ongoing basis. Extroverts, with avoidance behaviors, will need to deliberate more on issues and assess the impact of any unproductive communication traits.

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To be competent leaders, both will need to manage, not avoid, conflict and realize that courageously facing conflict increases the respect of others, even when they disagree. Skilled leaders also realize that through dealing with adversity, they become stronger and more resilient and their organizations flourish. Readers may say they would never deal with a situation like the leaders in scenarios A and B; but if you have ever avoided taking an unpleasant phone call, procrastinated on a controversial decision, or circumvented a colleague with a problem, perhaps you have “hidden behind closed doors.” It takes courage to open the door and keep it open. Activity: Hiding behind Closed Doors survey Complete the “Hiding behind Closed Doors” survey in table 6.1. Table 6.1.â•… Hiding behind Closed Doors Survey A.â•‡Candidly respond yes or no to the statements below, as relevant to your behavior at work. Tally the number of your “Yes” answers, and then respond to part B. â•‡ 1.â•‡I have asked a family member or colleague to take a phone call and say I wasn’t there.

Yes

No

â•‡ 2.â•‡ I have sent an e-mail to avoid talking to someone in person.

Yes

No

â•‡ 3.â•‡ I have barked at someone to avoid discussing a topic.

Yes

No

â•‡ 4.â•‡I need long periods of uninterrupted time to complete professional tasks.

Yes

No

â•‡ 5.â•‡ I have delegated a task to avoid specific people I disliked.

Yes

No

â•‡ 6.â•‡I usually socialize with the same people at work and avoid encounters with people who impose on me or might ask something of me.

Yes

No

â•‡ 7.â•‡ I sometimes ignore my phone at work when it rings.

Yes

No

â•‡ 8.â•‡ I sometimes use sarcasm to deflect conversation.

Yes

No

â•‡ 9.â•‡I don’t voluntarily leave my office or classroom, unless I need to or I am required to leave.

Yes

No

10.â•‡ I join or volunteer for things to get out of my building.

Yes

No

11.â•‡ I have trouble relating to people who are different from me.

Yes

No

12.â•‡ I procrastinate when I have to make difficult decisions.

Yes

No

13.â•‡I find it almost impossible to balance all my professional responsibilities.

Yes

No


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Table 6.1.â•… Hiding behind Closed Doors Survey 14.â•‡I often feel unprepared and anxious about accomplishing my professional responsibilities.

Yes

No

15.â•‡ It’s difficult for me to articulate my vision and ideas about issues.

Yes

No

16.â•‡ Approval by my staff or colleagues is very important to me.

Yes

No

Totals Scoring Number of ”Yes” answers: 11–16 = You are hiding behind closed doors. 4–10 = You need to get out more. 1–3 = You tend to be available physically and emotionally—keep up the good work. B.â•‡ I make these choices because of (check all that apply) Poor time management

Apprehensiveness about or dislike of conflict

Lack of personal organization

Difficulty in making decisions

My personality type

Lack of assertiveness

A need for long processing time

Discomfort in group situations

Fear of failure

The fact that I am a people pleaser

Confusion; I don’t know what to do C.â•‡Reflect on your responses, and set a personal goal for improvement that addresses any identified weaknesses.

Chapter Seven

“Sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen” or “I Would Love to Hear Your Thoughts, Concerns, and Suggestions (but Not Really)”

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • How do you know when someone listens to what you share and values your input? • How extensive a voice should faculty and staff members have in policylevel decision making? • Should it matter what your staff thinks? Why? Why not? Scenario A: The Biggest Mistake of My Career Art Gordon: Retired Middle-School Principal Larry Warren: Mayor of New Haven Parents: New Haven Residents “What was the biggest mistake of your career?” one of the authors asked a colleague and friend who had recently retired after thirty-three years in K–12 education. “That would be not building the new 7–12 school in New Haven,” replied Art Gordon, a middle-school principal who spent seven years in a consolidated school district in a recreational resort area. “Tell me about it.” “I was principal in an elementary school in Consolidated School District 845. The district was made up of students from three small towns: Long Lake, Saint James, and New Haven. New Haven was the smallest of the three. Our enrollment was growing and the junior/senior high school was seventy-five years old, so we proposed a building referendum for a new grade 7–12 building,” Gordon 99

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explained. “Our parents worked really hard to pass the building referendum, especially the parents from New Haven. Over 50 percent of the population, in all three communities, was senior citizens or seasonal residents, who didn’t have students in the school district; so it took a lot of work to convince voters. The referendum passed by a narrow margin, and we were ecstatic.” “That’s quite a feat, Art. Tell me more.” “We had public meetings in all three communities to discuss where we should build the new elementary,” Gordon continued. “The old junior/senior high was in Long Lake, but we thought it best to build the school between Long Lake and Saint James—because most of the students came from Long Lake and Saint James,” he clarified. “The New Haven parents, however, were adamantly opposed to the site between Long Lake and Saint James. Their children had a twenty minute bus ride to the old school and the proposed site for the new school would increase their bus ride to thirty minutes,” the retired principal explained. “At least twenty-five parents spoke at the public hearing in New Haven, including their mayor,” Gordon said as he remembered the scene. “‘We’ve been the forgotten child for too many years,’ New Haven Mayor Larry Warren lamented. ‘It’s always been our children who had the extensive bus ride and our parents who had to make the trip into Long Lake for parentteacher conferences, sports, school plays, and meetings,’ Warren argued. ‘There’s a great school site just outside New Haven, and actually kids from Long Lake and Saint James won’t be riding the bus any longer than our elementary students ride to the K–6 building in Saint James,’ Mayor Warren justified.” “‘That’s right! That right!’ parents chorused, shaking their heads in agreement.” “There wasn’t one parent who spoke in favor of the building site between Long Lake and Saint James,” Gordon reminisced, staring into space in deep thought. “What happened?” “Well, we didn’t listen to the New Haven input on the school’s location. We went ahead with what we thought was best—building between the two larger towns. In hindsight,” Gordon reflected, “there really wasn’t much opposition from Long Lake and Saint James to building the school near New Haven. But we just thought it made more sense to build the school between the two larger communities.” “And why was it such a big mistake?” “Well, you know we have open enrollment in this state?” “Yes.” “We built the 7–12 building, between Long Lake and Saint James, and the following fall, sixty students from New Haven enrolled in a neighboring school district. Sixty students!” he repeated.

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“That’s a lot of students in a small district.” “It was 20 percent of the students from New Haven,” revealed the former principal. “We lost so much state revenue because of those sixty students that we had to close one of our two elementary buildings. And it meant longer travel distances for Long Lake elementary school students and their parents. Financially the loss of those sixty students was devastating for the school district. It wasn’t very great for school-district morale either,” Gordon suggested. “Wow! That’s a serious mistake.” “Yeah. We should have listened. We should have listened,” he whimsically reiterated. (“Sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen, or I Would Love to Hear Your Thoughts, Concerns, and Suggestions [but Not Really]”) Scenario B: “They Did What?” Mike Hanson: Superintendent of Schools Julie Lawrence: Curriculum Director Paul McKay: High School Teacher Tom Truman: Middle School Teacher Rockford River was a school district of 3,500 students, just across the river from a larger metropolitan city. Mike Hanson had been superintendent in Rockford for ten years. Following a string of short-lived superintendents with weak leadership skills, Hanson enjoyed an outstanding reputation in the community as a strong leader who encouraged participatory decision making. All six schools in the district had site councils, and curriculum teams were formed with K–12 teachers and parents in every content area. Paul McKay and Tom Truman, mathematics teachers in the high school and junior high, respectively, served on the mathematics curriculum team and were having lunch in the faculty lounge early one afternoon. “We’ve been meeting with the math curriculum team for three months now, I’m glad we’re wrapping it up,” confessed McKay. “It will be nice to have my Monday evenings back,” Truman agreed. “We’ve put a lot of thought and research into this math decision, and we all agree, especially the parents on the committee.” “Yeah, we got consensus. The traditional track mathematics program is clearly the best curriculum for our students,” McKay replied. “It’s more aligned with state standards, and I think we’ll see an improvement in our state assessments.” “Initially a few of the elementary teachers liked that integrated math curriculum, but parents sure didn’t like it,” Truman reminisced. “And the elementary teachers eventually got on board.”

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“It is good to have that decision done,” McKay admitted as he stuffed his sandwich wrapping into his brown paper sack and left the faculty lounge. Two weeks later, McKay rushed into Truman’s seventh-grade classroom at the end of the day. “Did you hear the news?” “What news?” Truman inquired as he tidied up his classroom. “The district has decided to purchase the integrated math curriculum, not the traditional track curriculum the mathematics team recommended,” McKay shared. “They did what?” Truman bellowed. “I just talked to the curriculum director, and she said the administrative team has decided to go with the integrated math program, despite the curriculum team’s recommendation for the traditional track program,” said McKay, clearly irritated and angry. “What did we spend three months of our time for if they are just going to do whatever they want?” Truman demanded, swinging his arms in the air for emphasis. “Curriculum Director Lawrence said that she and the elementary principals really believe the integrated approach, teaching a little bit of each kind of math every year, will give students a better foundation coming into the middle school and high school,” McKay explained. “And the superintendent agreed with them.” “If that’s the way things are run in this district, that’s the last district committee I’m serving on,” Truman proclaimed. “And I’m keeping my old books even if they buy those integrated math books.” (“Sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen, or I Would Love to Hear Your Thoughts, Concerns, and Suggestions [but Not Really]”) Contrived Collaboration For some time now, researchers in models of school leadership have spoken of the need to be democratic and less autocratic. In reality, however, inclusive actions by administrators are still perceived by many to be insincere and/or ineffective when implemented. For teachers and staff, there are few behaviors exhibited by administrators more irritating than being asked to participate in a decision-making process, only to see and/or feel that efforts and opinions have been ignored. An element critical to any effective shared decision-making process is trust, due to its relationship to morale and any motivation staff members may have to participate. Tschannen-Moran (2004), the author of Trust Matters, describes a model of mutual decision making that epitomizes times


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when an invitation clearly lacks authenticity. She identifies this insincere process of inclusion as contrived collaboration. This leadership choice is based in the philosophy that asking for input from others is an expedient way to gain grassroots support; however, in this model there is little confidence that staff members actually have anything of value to offer. In fact, the decision(s) have likely already been made. This may have been the case in the Rockford River School District, when administrators disregarded the curriculum team’s recommendation for the traditional-track mathematics program. Perhaps administrators had predetermined the mathematics curriculum they wanted and assumed the curriculum team would come to the same conclusion. Unfortunately, some leaders delude themselves into thinking that faculty and staff members are unaware of this attempt at psychological manipulation. 57: Clarify staff’s role in the decision-making process up front. Are they providing information, or making the decision, or giving recommendations?

leadership tip

A disingenuous attempt to involve others by endeavoring to dupe staff members into believing they indeed participated in the process will not succeed and, in fact, creates distrust, lowered morale, and lack of interest in participating in future processes. Tschannen-Moran (2004) suggests, “In a climate of distrust, teachers are unlikely to give their best efforts to the school and its mission. In such a climate, shared decision making is often a sham” (p. 85). After giving up their Monday nights to participate in curriculum-team meetings, mathematics teachers McKay and Truman are, obviously, extremely aggravated that their recommendation is being disregarded, and they likely will not participate in the future. 58: If you ask professionals to participate in a decisionmaking process, respond by incorporating suggestions/recommendations, or explain why the input was not accepted and share your rationale.

leadership tip

To decrease dissatisfaction of subordinates caused by this perception, leaders must recognize and act on the knowledge that motivation to participate derives from three factors: personal interests, values, and needs (McCoy, Krumpe, and Cowles, 1994). Strong leaders take the time to provide others with sufficient background on the issues to clearly explain the context within which a decision must be made. By completing this step, they give members of the constituency an opportunity to consider the problem in full and in light of their own interests.

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Giving them the ability to consider the matter in this way, along with the opportunity to share views through a genuine feedback loop, is an effective way to acknowledge personal concerns. Attention to the values of the learning community must also be acknowledged and attended to as challenges are met. Solutions that may be the most cost-effective or convenient, but that stand against the values held by constituents, will not be accepted. If the school administrator decides to push an unsupported decision on the learning community, he or she will quickly be dealing with a different set of problems. 59: Before making final decisions, reflect on the congruence between proposed actions and constituents’ values, organizational goals, and strategic initiatives.

leadership tip

Administrators in Consolidated School District 485 learned this lesson when they did not take into account what was of high importance and value for the stakeholders from New Haven. If they had actively listened and considered the perspective of the parents from New Haven, they might have made a different decision on the location of their new school. Instead they are faced with a new and more challenging financial problem, further reduced revenues, and the closing of an elementary. The New Brighton School District, a large district with 10,000 students, was in a situation similar to the New Haven school district but experienced a much different outcome. The New Brighton School District was also made up of several small communities. Most of the communities within the school district had their own K–6 buildings and sent students to two different junior high schools in the largest city in the district. The junior highs were not at full capacity. One of the feeder schools to the junior highs, Jefferson Elementary, was in the Ellington community. The building was outdated and overpopulated. Administrators planned to build a new K–6 in Ellington, but residents were adamant about wanting a K–8 building. The Ellington population had in the past voted no on several failed operations referendums, so the administration took their time discussing the issue with parents and reflecting on the possibilities. Eventually, the superintendent proposed a K–8 school in Ellington, the school board accepted the proposal, and the building referendum was supported by parents and passed by a narrow margin. If administration had proceeded with the K–6 proposal, it is likely the referendum would have failed. 60: Ensure that all participants fully understand the challenge, are aware of the possible options and outcomes, and have time to consider the issue from their own and multiple perspectives.

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Managing Discourse Often leaders pretend to listen and then do otherwise to avoid conflict. A much better choice is to manage discourse. In managing discourse, it is helpful for those leading collaborative projects to be aware of McCoy, Krumpe, and Cowles’s (1994) Community Relations Continuum. The continuum depicts, at various points during the decision-making process, the interests, attitudes, values, and needs of collaboration participants. McCoy, Krumpe, and Cowles’s (1994) continuum demonstrates a full range of behaviors that community participants may exhibit during the change process. The spectrum ranges from those in crisis to persons or groups who are feeling cooperative about the process. Those in crisis have perhaps become disenfranchised because they believe the process is insincere. These individuals or groups will be striving for significant change in the way matters are solved and will not be shy in promoting their agenda. This may manifest itself in many ways, such as in protest demonstrations, interruptions at board meetings, and widely “bad-mouthing” persons associated with, and decisions made by, the majority group. On the other end of the range are those groups who are cooperating with the process as it has been designed. They take a positive stance that includes a willingness to come together with respect and to develop a set of commonly held values (see table 7.1). 61: The more transparent and inclusive a process is, the closer a leader will come to creating an environment of cooperation rather than crisis.

leadership tip

Collaboration and Shared Decision Making Chrislip and Larson (1994), in Collaborative Leadership, define collaboration as “a mutually beneficial relationship between two or more parties who work toward common goals by sharing responsibility, authority, and accountability for achieving results” (p. 33). During the past twenty-five years, this level of collaboration has been evidenced in the strong school-reform efforts for site-based or participatory decision making. Rodriguez and Slate (2005) indicate that in the mid-1990s, decision-making committees with constituent representatives were used in over 50 percent of schools in the United States. Some states, such as Illinois, Kentucky, and Texas, have enacted legislation that mandates the consultant school-management approach. Federal support for a participatory decision-making model is also evident in Title I programs. Legislation prescribes that democratic procedures will be followed by schools

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Table 7.1.â•… Community-Relations Continuum Cooperation

Competition

Heightened Tension

Conflict

Crisis

Interest groups engage in:

Interest groups:

Interest groups engage in:

Interest groups:

Interest groups:

Resource trade-off

Challenge the status quo

Angry exchanges through media & public forums

View the status quo as not representative

Attack the status quo

Creating values

Disagree over resource allocation

Boisterous public meetings

Pursue lawsuits Disrupt public order & demonstrations

Agreement on process

Test & stretch existing processes

Positional, claiming stances

Regard public processes as unfair

Mutual respect

Challenging public processes

Traumatize policy Feel public processes are illegitimate

Stakeholders are always moving along this continuum. Source: McCoy, Krumpe, and Cowles, 2004.

receiving Title funds (Rodriguez and Slate, 2005). There is a basic belief by governing bodies that those who work with students each day are most qualified to make school-management decisions, such as defining the mission, designing school-improvement goals, choosing curricular and pedagogical approaches, making personnel decisions, and setting budgeting priorities (Gips and Wilkes, 1993; Hill and Bonan, 1991; Wohlstetter and Odden, 1992). By virtue of being out of the classroom, the leader (many believe) may no longer be in touch with the day-to-day details that challenge educators. 62: The best decisions are made with the input of those in the trenches.

leadership tip

Levels of Participation Arnstein (1969) described eight levels or degrees of inclusion enacted by public bodies when they are attempting to utilize democratic principles that call for increasing constituent involvement in decision making. This philosophy, summarized by the article “A Ladder of Citizen Participation,” remains


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a potent description of effective and ineffective practices of inclusion. Each level of this ladder is assigned a value representing the leadership’s sincerity in their effort to include others in the process. The bottom rungs of the ladder are actions that Arnstein considered to be of a nonparticipatory nature. The middle rungs were noted as tokenism; while the uppermost levels of the ladder were considered to be ones that embrace the ideal of true empowerment of citizens or stakeholders. The lowest step on the ladder is labeled manipulation. In manipulation, a committee may be formed to sanction decisions that have already been made. Members of this committee are also responsible for drumming up support within the group they purport to represent (teachers, parents, or community partners). The second step on the ladder is called therapy. This rung of the ladder speaks to the attempt by an administration to reeducate stakeholders, with the goal of bringing them philosophically to accept the rightness of the view held by the group holding the power. This is done by controlling the topics, direction of efforts, and the manner in which plans are implemented. Participants are inclined to change their thinking and attitudes regarding the change because they are part of the group enacting the change. The interests, concerns, and questions of the group are in essence diverted from their course. This was illustrated in an elementary-school site council that was bombarded with statistical and philosophical information about the need to send their sixth graders to a seven-eight building. Despite many parental concerns, the elementary-school principal succeeded in getting his site council’s recommendation for the sixth-graders’ move he desired. The site council’s “decision,” however, was not implemented because it lacked support from the seven-eight building, the district administration, and the school board. The next three rungs, informing, consultation, and placation, were viewed by Arnstein (1969) as a form of tokenism, because they look on the surface like participatory governing. She warned: Informing citizens of their rights, responsibilities, and options can be the most important first step toward legitimate citizen participation. However, too frequently the emphasis is placed on a one-way flow of information—from officials to citizens—with no channel provided for feedback and no power for negotiation. Under these conditions, particularly when information is provided at a late stage in planning, people have little opportunity to influence the program designed “for their benefit.” The most frequent tools used for such one-way communication are the news media, pamphlets, posters, and responses to inquiries. Meetings can also be turned into vehicles for one-way communication by the simple device of providing superficial information, discouraging questions, or giving irrelevant answers. (sec. 3.3)

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Consultation, rung four, is defined as allowing people to share their opinions. Often surveys are used to give the impression that opinions of stakeholders are valued. The main downfall of this effort is when survey results are not shared and/or followed up with action. Another identified detractor of this approach is that, intentionally or unintentionally, the surveys themselves are incomplete, perhaps hiding by omission all of the possible options for consideration. Placation is the highest level of tokenism and is the first level that does allow participants to begin, however minimally, to influence process. Tokenism is demonstrated through the practice of placing handpicked citizens to sit at the table with actual holders of power. Diverse voices are able to speak, share, participate in dialogue, and suggest solutions. This is not considered truly participatory, because the citizens do not necessarily represent their constituents, nor the teachers or paraprofessionals the school district; and because generally, they are outnumbered by the deciders, who generally hold the majority view. The Lewis Middle School building council functioned at Arnstein’s placation level of inclusion. The seven handpicked teachers (deciders) outnumbered the five parents on the building council at Lewis Middle School, in the Morrison School District. The building council was voting on a proposal to request that the school board allow them to add three professional-development days to the school calendar, by eliminating three student-contact days. Most working parents of the middle-school students wanted to see their students in school as many days as possible, preferring that teachers conduct professional development evenings or in the summer. Arranging for supervision of middleschool students was also a major issue for working parents; but faculty outnumbered parents on the building council, and teachers preferred training days within the school-year calendar. Another factor that affected the eventual successful vote for the proposal for three additional mid-year professionaldevelopment days was the fact that two of the five parents on the building council were from families with stay-at-home moms; and the other three parents were from middle- to upper-income families. 63: Strong leaders make efforts to increase their own awareness and acknowledge the degree of collaboration in which they are most comfortable.

leadership tip

The highest levels on Arnstein’s degree-of-inclusion ladder are partnership, delegated power, and citizen control. Partnership is noted when the policy boards are made up of individuals who represent their stakeholders. In terms of process, ground rules are established that create a structure of shared power, and these procedures are agreed to and maintained by all participants. When disagreements arise, negotiation is used to mediate the impasses. If the


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curriculum team in Rockford River School District had functioned as a partnership, district administrators would have engaged the committee in a discussion on their role. The leadership would have articulated to the curriculum team, before their work began, whether the committee was making the decision on the mathematics curriculum or making a recommendation to the administration. With that information, teachers McKay and Truman could have opted to participate or not. Delegated power exists when citizens hold the majority positions and seats on a council. Under this structure, the traditional power holders will begin the decision-making process in concert with the other members, from square one of the effort. Contrast the delegated-power functioning of North High School to Lewis Middle School (placation level, described above) when dealing with the same proposal to add three professional-development days in lieu of three instructional days in the Morrison School District. North’s site council’s membership was over 50 percent parents, representing the diverse population of the school. Teachers and support staff on the council were elected by their peers. The proposal to add professional-development days was presented and thoroughly discussed at a site-council meeting. Parents, teachers, and supportstaff members all were given an opportunity to voice their opinions. Initially, support staff and teachers were in favor of additional professional-development days; and parents were opposed to eliminating student-contact days. After hearing arguments pro and con, parents were able to convince some staff that it was not in the best interest of students to reduce instructional days. The council overwhelming rejected the proposal to seek school-board approval for adding three professional-development days. In delegated power (the seventh rung of Arnstein’s eight-rung ladder), citizens on boards are given broad authority and often are paid to fulfill responsibilities, including policy making, personnel decisions, and operations management. The aspect of this level that keeps it from being one of complete citizen control is that there is a higher board, agency, or person that still holds veto power over the group. Citizen control (rung 8) is recognized when “a degree of power (or control) guarantees that participants or residents can govern a program or an institution, be in full charge of policy and managerial aspects, and be able to negotiate the conditions under which ‘outsiders’ may change them” (Arnstein, 1969, sec. 3.8). Today we often see citizen control in the proliferation of the charter-school movement. 64: Involve constituents to the greatest level possible, with the knowledge that different types of decisions require different levels of participation and decision-making authority.

leadership tip

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Discussion and Democracy Brookfield and Preskill (2005), in Discussion as a Way of Teaching, share their belief that “discussion . . . exemplifies the democratic process” (p. 3). They advocate the viewpoint that the strongest benefit of conversation and dialogue in supporting democracy is that a variety of noteworthy perspectives are uncovered. In explaining the use of democratic principles to influence pedagogy in the classroom, Brookfield and Preskill identify eight factors, which they believe also influence the success or failure of school leaders’ democratic collaborative efforts. These factors—hospitality, mindfulness, humility, mutuality, deliberation, appreciation, hope, and autonomy—are essential dispositions that leaders should adopt when facilitating collaborative approaches to problem solving or decision making. Hospitality is a genuine acceptance of differences and openness to ideas, viewpoints, and understandings different from our own. Hospitality allows the collaboration process to start on an even footing. All participants in a partnership should feel welcomed and heard. For contributors to feel participation is authentic, it must be experienced as a sense of empowerment. This happens when individuals and groups see that their piece, in some form, is integrated into the final action plan. People want to make a difference and feel their efforts and time were well spent. Mindfulness, Brookfield and Preskill’s (2005) second element, is paying attention, actively listening, and engaging in listening to others. Costa and Garmston (2002) describe active listening as devoting all your mental energies to the other person’s verbal and nonverbal communication. They assert that “there is no effective communication without listening. Listening is the tool that turns words into communication” (p. 107). Brookfield and Preskill’s (2005) third factor that impacts democratic principles in the collaborative process is humility. Humility is necessary because, if we are honest with ourselves, we do not and cannot possibly have all of the knowledge and experience that would be needed in order for us to assume that our option was the best and only possible choice. Brookfield and Preskill explain that humility “means acknowledging that others in the group have ideas to express that might teach us something new or change our mind about something significant” (p. 12). The mutuality factor speaks to a relationship steeped in respect and reciprocity that engages in the process of deliberation (factor 6), by utilizing data-informed decision making. Remaining steadfast and evidence based when faced with difficult choices is critical to successful outcomes in a collaboration employing democratic principles. During effective collaboration practices, competent leaders also show and encourage appreciation (factor 7) toward membership for contributing valuable and useful ideas. This practice increases trust and brings relationships


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even more into sync. Hope, Brookfield and Preskill’s (2005) eighth factor, is a key disposition; because if one does not believe that there can be a solution, why should anyone even try? Autonomy, the final attribute that is key to the democratic process, is defined by Brookfield and Preskill as a kind of “provisional resting place” where an individual can claim that “this is what I believe in and stand for at this particular point in time” (p. 17). At the particular moment, this is what the person believes; however, he or she may change this viewpoint in the future if presented with additional information, or upon reflection. 65: The success or failure of collaborative efforts is grounded in the use of democratic principles.

leadership tip

Conclusion It may seem somewhat unfair that leaders are expected to be highly educated, knowledgeable, and experienced, and are expected to come to the position with strong vision and organizational skills—and then they are not allowed to truly lead. Senge (1990) suggests that “leaders may start by pursuing their own vision, but as they learn to listen carefully to others’ visions, they begin to see that their own personal vision is part of something larger” (p. 352). It is critically important that school leaders note that failing to empower members of the learning community can lead to anger, depression, despondency, and apathy. As a result, a culture of cynicism is born, causing great harm to an institution. The organization’s culture will be filled with skepticism, mistrust, and suspicion, embedding deeply within the core of the institution’s tradition. Like the coating on a pearl used to smooth and cover the irritating piece of sand, there are many layers to peel back if cooperation and participation are to become the norm rather than the exception. A culture shift to a democratic approach, using collaboration and partnership, is essential in today’s world. Chrislip (2002), in The Collaborative Leadership Fieldbook: A Guide for Citizens and Civic Leaders, describes what he calls realizing the promise of collaboration: Collaboration can be likened to building a wheel: assembling a number of disparate parts creates a powerful tool. New working assumptions lead to new ways of making public decisions, and new concepts and tools . . . Stakeholders reflect the makeup of the broader community so that they cannot be mistaken for another special interest group or coalition. A fair and constructive process engages stakeholders as peers. The creative use of good information helps avoid bias. This

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powerful constituency for change leads to real results because of its capacity to hold implementing organizations accountable for action. Like a well-built wheel, a carefully crafted collaborative process is a powerful tool. (pp. 47–48)

We hope that this chapter has convinced you of the importance of listening to and learning from others. For your continued leadership growth, we recommend reading, learning, and reflecting on cooperative and democratic approaches to leadership. This concept is basic to successful school leadership. Activity: Collaboration Self-Assessment Tool (CSAT); Teacher Quality Enhancement Grant, St. Cloud, Minnesota This is a tool that can be useful in assessing your own collaboration skills. True collaboration creates a shared vision with joint strategies when working on a problem, issue, or goal. It is a team effort and a team agenda, which goes beyond the individual (Chrislip and Larson, 1994). Collaboration is different from cooperation. Cooperation is doing what is asked or required when working together to achieve a common goal. It stresses the product of your work rather than the process (Myers, 1991). Collaboration, on the other hand, is a philosophy of interactions with the focus on the process of working together. It is often assumed that people know how to collaborate. However, collaboration skills are not innate and are rarely identified, let alone taught. This particular self-assessment is designed to identify eleven specific skills critical to successful collaboration. As you begin to use the CSAT, it is important to think about how you interact with others, not how you would like to interact or how you think you are supposed to interact. If you are not honest with yourself, this exercise will not be useful to you. The benefit you get is directly related to how honest you are when rating yourself. (You do not have to share your scores.) Directions: Complete the CSAT in table 7.2. • Think of a specific collaborative relationship or team with which you are involved. Your score may differ depending on the setting you are thinking of, so it is important to remain focused on one specific collaborative enterprise or group. • For each category there are four narrative descriptors; read them thoughtfully, and honestly identify the one that best describes you. If you are not sure what is meant by a certain word or specific terminology, define it in the way that makes most sense to you.


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• Your rating should reflect where you are today. There is no right or wrong answer. After you determine which description best fits you, place the corresponding score in the box to the right. • Use the explanation box at the end of each category to jot down the thoughts you might have about your rating in that category. • When you have completed each item, total your score. Reflection Questions (Following CSAT): • What have you learned about yourself by completing this rubric? • What can make collaboration ineffective? Some commonly cited factors are: 1.â•‡ personal style; 2.â•‡ size of the group; 3.â•‡ designated role in the group (facilitator, recorder, etc.); 4.â•‡ group history. Have these or other issues been a factor in your collaborative efforts? What did you identify today that could help make you a better collaborator?

2

4

My work reflects my best efforts. I continuously make small changes to improve the quality of my work.

My work reflects a strong effort. I self-monitor to improve the quality of my work.

I usually use time well to I routinely use time well ensure that things are done to ensure things are done so others do not have to on time. adjust deadlines or work responsibilities.

My work reflects some effort but occasionally needs to be checked and/or redone by others to ensure quality. I tend to procrastinate, meaning others may have to adjust deadlines or work responsibilities.

My work reflects very little effort and often needs to be checked and/or redone by others to ensure quality.

I rarely get things done by the deadline, and others Time often have to adjust deadManagement lines or work responsibilities.

Explanation

July 2007: Use by permission only: Ofstedal, Dahlberg, Mann, and Wellik, 2007—St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, Minnesota 56301 (320-308-4874).

Quality of Work

I can be relied on to participate and remain engaged even when a project moves away from my own immediate interests.

I often make an effort to participate and remain engaged even when a project moves away from my own immediate interests.

I usually share ideas, infor- I freely share ideas, inmation, and resources. formation, and resources.

3

I sometimes make an effort to participate and remain engaged when a project moves away from my own immediate interests.

I tend not to share ideas, I share ideas, information, and resources information, or reupon request. sources.

1

I tend not to participate or remain engaged when a Motivation/ project moves away from Participation my own immediate interests.

Contribution

Category

Table 7.2.â•… Collaboration Self-Assessment Tool SCORE

2

Occasionally I am critiI am often critical of the cal of the team or the team or the work of felwork of fellow group low group members when members when I am in I am in other settings. other settings.

1

4 I represent the team and the work of fellow group members in a positive manner when I am in other settings.

3 I usually represent the team and the work of fellow members in a positive manner when I am in other settings.

Team Dynamics

Explanation


I consistently know how I often know how to gauge to gauge my own impact my own impact on the on the group, and am group, and am generally routinely aware of team aware of team dynamics. dynamics.

I occasionally know how to gauge my own impact on the group and, am somewhat aware of team dynamics.

I do not know how to gauge my own impact on the group, and am generally unaware of team dynamics.

Problem Solving

I consistently participate in group problem solving with an open mind, sharing thoughts and ideas without inhibiting the contributions of others.

I usually participate in group problem solving with an open mind, sharing thoughts and ideas without inhibiting the contributions of others.

I make an effort to participate in group problem solving with an open mind. I generally share my thoughts and ideas, but I sometimes inhibit the contributions of others.

I usually do not participate in group problem solving with an open mind. I either tend not to share my thoughts and ideas or I inhibit the contributions of others.

I make an effort to bring I usually bring needed ma- I consistently bring I forget or lose materials or find materials needed terials and come ready to needed materials and Preparedness to work, but often misneeded to work. come ready to work. work. place things.

Team Support

Category

Table 7.2.â•… Collaboration Self-Assessment Tool SCORE

I can easily move beI can assume both roles tween leader and fol(leader and follower) but lower, assuming either am more comfortable in role as needed to acone role than the other. complish the task. Self-reflection usually ocI consistently use self-recurs after collaborative acflection after collaborativities, but most often tive activities. when things don’t go well.

I am uncomfortable with role flexibility, but attempt to move outside my perceived role. Self-reflection occurs after collaborative activities when prompted or reminded by others.

I like to either lead or follow but am uncomfortable when functioning outside my perceived role. I rarely engage in self-reflection after collaborative activities but tend to focus on the behavior of others.

Interactions with Others

Role Flexibility

Reflection

Explanation

SCORE


Personal reflection: What have you learned about yourself by completing this rubric? What skill area do you want to target for personal improvement? What one thing could you do tomorrow to begin your skill enhancement? Interpersonal vs. intrapersonal skills: Shaded boxes represent interpersonal skills, clear score boxes represent intrapersonal skills. If there is a significant discrepancy between the two, what could you do to better balance these two factors? Interpersonal score Intrapersonal score

10–25:â•… Collaboration skills are emerging 26–34:â•… Collaboration skills are developing 35–44:â•… Collaboration skills are established.

I consistently listen to, respect, acknowledge, and support the efforts of others.

I rarely listen to, respect, acknowledge, or support the efforts of others. I allow conflict or personal differences to interfere with communication.

Total Score: Guide to Scoring: Maximum score: 44 points

4

3 I usually listen to, respect, acknowledge, and support the efforts of others. I occasionally allow conflict or personal differences to interfere with communication.

2 I sometimes listen to, respect, acknowledge, and support the efforts of others, but at times allow conflict or personal differences to interfere with communication.

1

Category

Table 7.2.â•… Collaboration Self-Assessment Tool

Chapter Eight

“My Lack of Planning Is, in Fact, Your Emergency”

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • Would you consider yourself to be well organized? If yes, what methods do you use to manage your projects? If no, what prevents you from achieving organization? • Discuss the best, and the worst, organizational system you have observed in a school setting. • Is it important for leaders to have good organizational skills? Why or why not? Scenario A: “This Is an Emergency of Sorts” Nancy Wheeler: Elementary Principal Kathy Spelling: Administrative Assistant Betty Franklin: Attendance Secretary Nancy Wheeler was a principal at a large elementary school in an outer-ring suburban school district. Dr. Wheeler and Inglewood Elementary were known for their involvement in cutting-edge initiatives. Inglewood had recently received two federal grants, and the building was the district pilot site for new science and social-studies curricula. Because of the school’s stellar reputation, Dr. Wheeler was frequently asked to speak at education conferences and in school districts looking at replicating Inglewood’s programs. It was on the return leg of one of these trips, as she waited for her plane to begin boarding, that Wheeler remembered, Oh, no. I almost forgot. I’m supposed to speak to the faculty at Bridgewater Elementary on the new science curriculum tomorrow morning at 7:15 a.m. 117

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Grabbing her cell phone, Wheeler quickly called her administrative assistant, Kathy Spelling, and began giving orders. “Kathy, thank goodness you’re in. I have a presentation to do at Bridgewater Elementary tomorrow morning, and I don’t have anything ready for it.” “Yeah. Principal Douglas called this morning to remind you it’s at 7:15 a.m., not 7:30 a.m. He said last time you got that mixed up, and they had to wait for you,” Spelling recalled. “Yeah. Yeah. I remember it’s at 7:15 a.m.,” Wheeler hurriedly droned. “Kathy, I need you to get the science curriculum file from my office and make copies of all the things I usually hand out when I do these presentations on the pilot science program.” “What do you need copies of and how many copies?” asked the administrative secretary with a sigh. “I need you to find the folder. It’s somewhere in my office. Maybe on the desk or maybe in that pile of stuff on the window sill. I’ll need 100 copies of all the science curriculum activities. I think there are about forty of them,” Wheeler continued. “They’re numbered, but they are not in order; so you’ll have to check the entire folder. If you are missing any of the science activities, check in my file tray on the floor next to my desk. I was reviewing some of them with the science grade-level chair; and they might be in the file folder titled ‘grade-level chair/science’ or maybe just ‘science,’” clarified the out-ofbreath principal, as she pulled the cell phone away from her ear to listen to an airport departure announcement. “If you still are missing any of the forty activities, then ask Lou Geyer,” Wheeler instructed. “He’s the science grade-level chair, and he should have copies,” she explained. “Geyer is not in the building today,” the administrative assistant reported. “His class had that field trip to the wildlife management area today.” “Oh, I’m sure you’ll find all of the activities.” Without taking a breath, Wheeler continued. “I also need you to find the PowerPoint presentation on the network drive and update it with the latest test scores in science and add science activities #39 and #40 to the slide that discusses the active engagement and lab exercises. You can get the fall test results from the counseling office. And don’t forget to change the date and school name on the first slide,” the principal reminded Spelling. “Oh, and I’ll need you to make 100 copies of the PowerPoint,” added Wheeler. “Put just three slides on a page, so they have room for note taking,” she instructed. “Dr. Wheeler. I was planning on leaving at 1:00 today to relieve my mother at the hospital,” Spelling quickly explained. “Remember, I told you before you left that I wanted to take some vacation time this afternoon,” Spelling


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reminded her supervisor, “because my mom needed a break from sitting with my father in cardiac care. Someone has to be with him at all times until he’s well enough to be moved to general care. And she’s been up there for three days,” the exasperated assistant lamented. “I’m sure this won’t take you very long. And I really need your help. Your dad’s doing better isn’t he? You said he’s out of the woods now, right?” Wheeler quickly inquired. “Yes. Dad is better but . . .” “Principal Douglas and the Bridgewater faculty are expecting these materials and the latest statistics. This is an emergency of sorts,” Wheeler interjected. “I’m sure your mother will understand if you are a bit late,” reasoned the principal. “Well, I hope the copy machine is working okay today,” Spelling retorted. “Don’t forget, when you do the copies, the lab exercises are on yellow paper, the field trips are on green, the activities on beige, and the teacher instructions are on white paper.” Just then the loudspeaker in the airport began blasting again. “Oh, oh, they are beginning to board the airplane,” Wheeler cried. “I’ll have to go soon. “When you have all the changes made to the PowerPoint and have all the copies made, put all of it into one of those big boxes behind the door in my office,” the principal instructed. Getting her bags and walking toward the boarding gate, Wheeler added, “Kathy, I’d like you to take the box of handouts and an updated disk with the PowerPoint and drop it off at Bridgewater this afternoon. I won’t have time tomorrow to pick up the copies and get to Bridgewater by 7:15 a.m. It’s clear across town,” she justified to her charge, “and it’ll be rush hour traffic. “Got to run, my plane is leaving. Thanks Kathy. You’re a peach,” called the principal as she dashed for her plane. Kathy hung up the phone and turned to the attendance secretary, snapping, “I can’t believe it. I’m supposed to leave in an hour and Wheeler’s just given me four hours’ worth of work.” “Leave it for tomorrow,” the attendance secretary, Betty Franklin, suggested. “Your mother is expecting you. It’s been a tough few days for both your mom and you.” “I can’t leave it for tomorrow,” Spelling retorted as she dropped her head into her hands. “Wheeler needs it for her 7:15 a.m. presentation at Bridgewater.” (“My Lack of Planning Is, in Fact, Your Emergency”)

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Scenario B: “It’s an Emergency . . . Again” Monica Rowe: Assistant Superintendent Ryan McKay: Elementary Principal Sarah Leonard: Elementary Principal Sandy and Angie: Clerical Staff Independent School District 456 was a growing school district in Centerville, with 13,000 students and fifteen buildings. Citizens of Centerville would vote on a referendum for a new middle school in January. Assistant Superintendent Rowe was in charge of preparing the written publications to inform the public about the proposed referendum, including statistics on projected enrollments, specifics about the building design and costs, increased tax levels for property owners, and probable results if the building referendum were not to be approved. Rowe and her staff were preparing brochures, flyers, and a PowerPoint presentation for building principals to use to inform their building staff members and parent groups about the proposed referendum. Principals in Centerville had also been assigned to conduct presentations on the proposed referendum to various service clubs and community organizations. The superintendent made it clear to principals in September that he wanted a consistent message given to the public. “All stakeholders need to hear the same message,” the superintendent informed administrators at an all-administrators meeting. “We don’t want any misunderstandings because everyone is not receiving the same information,” he explained. “Assistant Superintendent Rowe will be putting together the materials, and all presenters will present the same information to our constituents.” Principals had been waiting to receive the PowerPoint and print materials from Rowe for weeks. Many had presentations scheduled and were nervously waiting to receive the needed materials. Most had faculty meetings on the first Tuesday of the month but had not received the information to include at their November meetings. Just after lunch on a Monday afternoon, Centerville principals received an e-mail from Assistant Superintendent Rowe, which read as follows: “There will be an emergency mandatory meeting for all administrators at 4:00 p.m. this afternoon in the district office conference room. Plan to attend.” Just a couple of minutes after four o’clock, Principal Ryan McKay arrived at the emergency meeting and sat down next to his colleague Sarah Leonard. “I miss anything yet?” he asked Leonard. “Are you kidding?” Leonard responded. “Rowe is late as usual.” “What’s the emergency this time?” McKay asked with sarcasm. “Who knows,” Leonard replied, shrugging her shoulders, “but it probably has to do with the building referendum.”


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Ten minutes later, the assistant superintendent hurried into the room with her arms full of stacks of copies. “Hello everyone. Thanks for being here. We have a serious potential problem,” she began, “that we need to address quickly. We’ve learned that the Centerville Times is considering doing an editorial on the building referendum, criticizing the lack of information being provided and suggesting that we should postpone the vote.” “We can’t postpone the vote,” interrupted McKay. “If we wait we’ll never get the building built before those large classes hit the middle school.” “Yes. I know we can’t delay the vote. We need to get information out to our faculty and parents as soon as possible,” agreed Rowe. “My staff and I have been working long hours to get the PowerPoint presentation and brochures and flyers ready. We’re going to go over all the materials with you tonight. We’re having sandwiches brought in,” she added. “Not again,” whispered Leonard to McKay. “It’s my daughter’s thirteenth birthday. We have plans to take her out to dinner.” “I’ve got a choir concert in the building tonight I should be at,” McKay confided in a hushed tone. “And it would have been nice to have some flyers ready to hand out instead of sitting here tonight,” he quietly suggested. Oblivious to the whispering, Rowe continued: “We need you to schedule faculty meetings in your building this week and share the referendum information with your teachers and support staff,” Rowe directed, emphasizing “this” week. “I just met with them this morning,” Leonard announced to the group. “They are going to love two faculty meetings in one week.” Ignoring the principal’s comment, Rowe added, “We also need you to schedule parent-group meetings with PTAs and site councils as soon as possible to get them on board.” “I’m sure my PTA turnout will be terrible with the last minute notice,” McKay commented under his breath. Continuing her monologue, Rowe instructed the principals, “Um, those of you who are assigned to present at a service club or community organization, be sure to get on their agenda at their next scheduled meeting.” “Yeah, I was on Rotary’s agenda but had to cancel because she didn’t have the PowerPoint ready,” Leonard whispered to her colleague. “Okay, okay, everyone, I’m going to need your full attention when we go through the property-tax increases,” the assistant superintendent chided, staring directly at Leonard and McKay. “Sandy and Angie are going to pass out the handouts, and we’ll go through them first, before the sandwiches arrive.” “You get to stay late too,” McKay commented to Sandy, the assistant superintendent’s secretary, as Sandy handed him a mound of handouts to pass around the table.

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“You don’t know the half of it,” Sandy quipped, rolling her eyes. “Angie and I were here all weekend getting this stuff put together. I had to cancel family plans to go away for the weekend because ‘it’s an emergency’ . . . again,” mimicked the secretary, rolling her eyes as she passed him the next stack of copies. (“My Lack of Planning Is, in Fact, Your Emergency”) Management Skills and Successful Schools Kaser, Mundry, Stiles, and Loucks-Horsley (2006) write, “Leadership is doing the right thing; management is doing things right. Managers direct the hacking of a new path through the jungle; leaders make sure that they are in the right jungle” (p. 49). However much we want to be leaders and not managers, it remains necessary for school principals to be managers too. Instructional leadership cannot occur in a school environment that is in anarchy. Effective principals and other school administrators recognize that good old-fashioned management skills, exhibiting operationally focused administrative skills, and possessing the ability to think systematically are essential. Distinctions between management and leadership are useful for theorist and help to clarify and sort various activities and behaviors of principals. For practical purposes, however, both emphases should be considered as necessary and important aspects of a principal’s administrative style. The choice is not whether a principal is a leader or manager but whether the two emphases are in balance and, indeed, whether they complement each other. (Sergiovanni, 1991, p. 16)

A disorganized approach to school leadership is more than just a messy desk; it is a chaotic mindset that can lead to confused, irritated, and dissatisfied staff and the creation of an atmosphere where students are likely to fail. “Without some minimum level of control no organization can survive; thus, control is a managerial imperative” (Sergiovanni, 1991, p. 57). 66: Understand the value of organizational management as part of effective leadership. Get organized or get help.

leadership tip

Marzano, Water, and McNulty (2005), in School Leadership That Works: From Research to Results, identify twenty-one responsibilities that administrators deal with that positively influence student achievement. Those who seek to lead effective schools are obligated to provide discipline and order. Faculty members expect their school leaders to protect instructional time from interruptions. This requires a level of discipline and commitment to


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maintaining the instructional focus in the face of many competing and valuable interests (Marzano, Water, and McNulty, 2005). Organizational behaviors exhibited by effective school leaders include the establishment of routine processes for faculty, staff members, and students. These procedures, rules, and expectations should be shared broadly to provide a context for how business gets done. Setting an expectation that procedures be followed, along with opportunities for training, will allow for greater response. 67: Effective school leaders have solid, defined rules, procedures, and expectations for students, staff members, and visitors.

leadership tip

In response to the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future report (1996), the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory conducted a comprehensive review of three failing schools to determine and address issues that negatively influence the learning environment. This effort, called Facilitating Implementation of Reform Strategies and Tactics (FIRST), found a variety of concerns common to these three schools, including problems with the organizational structures, the focus (or lack thereof) of improvement work, personal and social dynamics, contextual influences, and poor leadership. For the purposes of this chapter, we focus on organizational structures and leadership. In failing schools, the researchers found widespread lack of cohesion, exacerbated by a complete lack of an administrative system’s thinking approach. Even simple managerial tasks, such as having enough supplies on hand, were not accomplished effectively. More seriously, Morrissey (2000) explains, “Office personnel and administrators had not designed an efficient system for filing or accessing pertinent information, whether it was a state mandate regarding curriculum, personnel information, or student records” (p. 3). The manner and basic structures of communication within the schools were unclear, were disruptive to the learning environment, endangered students, and inadvertently acted to push away the community. At one school site, it was not unusual for administrators to be unaware of a student’s location during the day, since no system existed for accessing students’ class schedules. If a parent came to pick up his or her child, or the administrator wanted to talk to a particular student, school office personnel would have to interrupt instructional time by making a call over the PA system asking the child to report to the office. (Morrissey, 2000, p. 3)

In the failing schools, a calendar of events did not exist; and information on, and invitations to, sporting events, concerts, and information sessions were unavailable. Emergency procedures and weather-initiated school-closing

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processes were also unclear. In this type of atmosphere, student welfare is at risk. Consider the possibility that a noncustodial parent could pick up a child. In this scattered, uncontrolled environment, how would the office staff know if they were releasing the child to a legitimate guardian? Additionally, it was obvious that time was used inefficiently: No times or structures were designated specifically to facilitate collaboration among teachers. The inability to find time and/or the inefficient use of time greatly affected staffs’ opportunities to discuss issues regarding their vision, their goals, the school, the students, and the curriculum. The result was “a disconnection of purpose, intent, and action.” (Morrissey, 2000, p. 3)

It is apparent that lack of organization and the manner in which these three schools were managed will negatively influence classroom performance of teachers and students. Public Education Leadership Project Formed in 2003, the Public Education Leadership Project (PELP) team (Childress, Elmore, Grossman, Higgins, Johnson, Mapp, Thomas, and Marietta) of Harvard University created a framework on which effective urban school leadership could rest. The PELP Coherence Framework (see figure 8.1) sought to promote leadership and the effective implementation of strategies to advance the cause of operational success within complex school environments. The PELP’s framework configuration, illustrated through the use of a circle with three rings, “help[s] leaders recognize the interdependence of various aspects of their school district and to understand how they reinforce one another to support the implementation of an improvement strategy” (Childress, Elmore, Grossman, and Johnson, 2007, p. 2). The most important concept in the three-ring diagram is the value of instruction, located at the center. The concept of strategy surrounds the core (instruction), depicting coherent actions that align processes supporting the core value (instruction). Encircling strategy is ring 3, which is made up of six elements necessary for sustaining organizations with an educational mission: stakeholders, culture, structure, systems, resources, and environment. It is significant to note that three of the six factors (structures, systems, and resources) point to administrative processes. Structure, for example, points to roles, responsibilities, and the corresponding levels of accountability; systems includes standardization of policy, processes, and procedures; and resources is broadly defined to include funds, personnel, materials, and technology (Childress et al., 2007).


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Figure 8.1. PELP Coherence Framework

Childress, Elmore, Grossman, and Johnson, 2007. Used by permission of Harvard Educational Press.

68: Instructional leaders sustain focus on student learning and implement systems that support a culture of learning.

leadership tip

Strategic Planning In A Guide to Strategic Planning (2008), the office of Organization and Human Resource Consulting at Ohio State University defines strategic planning as “a systematic process through which an organization agrees on and builds commitment to priorities that are essential to its mission and responsive to the operating environment” (p. 3). Components of a strategic plan include the following: • statements outlining the mission • vision and values • a situational analysis • identification of strategies (priorities, initiatives) • action plans • performance measures Through a strategic plan’s mission statement, others learn the purposes of the organization, constituents that are supported, and expected outcomes. A vision statement will motivate internal stakeholders and answer the questions,

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“What do we want to create?” and “How do we want to be known?” (Organization and Human Resource Consulting, 2008, p. 18). Values are principles that anchor and align constituent group thinking about the organization’s vision. Values create a common set of beliefs. The strategic plan’s environmental scan and situational analysis is a determination of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT). The situational analysis helps to focus planning and strategy efforts; and then action plans and performance measures are developed and implemented. The value of strategic planning can be seen in a comparison of two similar communities and their approach to planning. Garrison School District has a high school that will soon be ninety years old. Garrison’s high school has had three major building additions and numerous remodeling projects; but classrooms are too small, science labs are outdated, energy costs are high, and outside facilities are sorely lacking. About every five years, as student enrollment increases in Garrison, a facilities committee is formed to review district building needs; and the facilities committee makes recommendations on new elementary schools and additions to the middle school, but the issue of replacing the aging high school is placed on a long-term planning list. Building a new high school has been placed on the long-term planning list by three separate facilities committees, over fifteen years. One of the prohibitive issues cited by each of the committees is that public support for building an expensive high school is lacking. Garrison’s building plans are reactive, not proactive. Cloverdale School District also had an aging high school that needed to be replaced. Cloverdale, however, utilized a strategic-planning process; and their ten-year strategic plan included plans for additional elementary buildings based on enrollment projections, remodeling of the high school for middle-school students, and the building of a new high school. The ten-year strategic plan was created through the development of a vision, a mission statement, and a situational analysis. Constituents were continually kept informed about the development and implementation of the strategic plan. Action plans were developed by subcommittees focusing on keeping the public informed and gaining support for all of the building projects included in the plan. In the seventh year of the plan, the strategic plan was reviewed and updated based on enrollment projections and demographic changes; and, when the high school was slated to be replaced, constituents had been hearing about the proposal for several years. When taken to the voters, the high-school building referendum was successful, and the Cloverdale School District built their new high school on schedule. 69: Use the strategic plan as a guide in all decision making. Successful organizations create and use strategic plans that outline vision, mission, values, and action plans.

leadership tip


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Process Thinking Administrative project management is planning and designing structures that coordinate processes; gathering resources; implementing plans; and evaluating the results. Accomplishing goals outlined in the strategic plan with efficiency is both an art and science. Accomplishing goals is an art because bringing disparate groups with differing values and goals to a common, shared vision requires excellent mediation, facilitation, and interpersonal skills. Accomplishing goals is a science because it requires a systematic approach. One process-thinking method common to business and industry is referred to as LEAN management. The process-thinking approach LEAN is an outgrowth of Deming’s (1950– 1980s) work on total-quality management. Dubbed “LEAN management” by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, this method of operations management (otherwise known as the problem-solving approach) is used extensively in many industry fields. In recent years, service enterprises such as health care and education have begun to adopt this approach to improve organizational performance. LEAN focuses on streamlining processes and procedures to increase efficiency, thus improving internal and external customer satisfaction, enhancing quality, and reducing cost (Ziskovsky and Ziskovsky, 2007). In their work Doing More with Less—Going Lean in Education: Applying Process Improvement to K–12 Education, Ziskovsky and Ziskovsky provide a list of twenty-eight school processes that may be improved through use of the LEAN approach. These include the following: accounting/business management/ payroll tasks budgeting certification communications community education conferences custodial/maintenance tasks due process emergency procedures field trips/activities food service fundraisers grade level/team/classroom learning

mentoring negotiations office work parent/community involvement personnel/human resources tasks referrals/child study report-card/student-data management reporting special education student registration teaching and instruction technology implementation testing transportation (p. 11)

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A study conducted by Ziskovsky and Ziskovsky (2007) explained how through the use of LEAN principles, teachers in one middle school were able to identify multiple reasons why they were unable to teach the complete curriculum within the time frame of a single school year. Through use of intentional-data collection exercises over the course of an academic year, the teachers discovered that they each were losing the equivalent of five weeks of instructional time (eight hours a day) to classroom interruptions. They discovered most of these interruptions were unplanned and impacted classroom instruction with less than twenty-four hours’ notice. Using the data collected, team members categorized and prioritized the types of invasions based on the value they added to meeting curricular goals for student learning. Four categories were identified under which all interruptions could be classified: 1) those that are completely aligned with and add value to the curriculum—e.g. some (but not all) field trips, curricular fairs (some dependent upon grade level); 2) necessary but non value-adding activities—e.g. government or district mandated achievement testing, fire and tornado drills; 3) activities that are unnecessary but somewhat support the curriculum—e.g. club competitions, some field trips and visiting speakers; 4) activities that may add value to the learning community but are not curricular in nature or do not directly support the curriculum—e.g. student pictures, fundraising events. The teaching team found that the majority of interruptions fell within categories 3 and 4. (Ziskovsky and Ziskovsky, 2007, p. 14)

With this data in hand, a middle-school committee was formed to determine how and by whom interruptions were approved and scheduled. It was found that the school principal authorized activities that interrupted the school day based on his own authority, without input from faculty and staff. Additionally, it was found that teachers and staff members would also schedule activities (field trips, rehearsals, speakers) during the class periods of other teachers, without discussion or making plans to return the time to the classrooms affected. With this in mind, a new set of procedures for considering, planning, and scheduling interruptions was proposed. With these changes in place, it was determined that teachers could potentially reclaim three full weeks of instructional time, thus allowing for more instructional time and potentially higher student achievement. It is significant, with implications applicable to other chapters of this text (“I Am the Boss and You Are Not” and “Sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen”), that this teacher-designed proposal, though data driven, was not approved by the principal. The changes in process were denied by the principal for the following reasons: (1) “That’s not how we do things,” and (2) “It would take too much work” (Ziskovsky and Ziskovsky, 2007, p. 15).


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Scenario B (“It’s an Emergency . . . Again”) also provides an example of a missed opportunity to use process thinking. Assistant Superintendent Rowe was responsible for informing her community about the critical newbuilding referendum. Although the assistant superintendent knew what information to share, clearly she did not have a strategic work plan or process in place. A systematic approach to information sharing, like LEAN process mapping, should have been employed to support the referendum project. Additionally, process thinking should have been utilized during the development phase of strategic planning, when the need to open a new facility was identified. A process plan to inform the public about the need for a new building would have outlined a sequence of steps to achieve the goal. This processthinking plan would have identified who was responsible for completing particular tasks, and within what time frame. Deliverables or final products, such as brochures, press releases, PowerPoint presentations, budget reports, and other crucial information, would have been assigned to specific personnel to complete. This process, if delineated by the number of weeks until the referendum vote, could have made certain that a sustained information and media effort to get out the vote and bring out supportive voters would have taken place, without the need for an emergency meeting. The Columbus Public School District is an example of a district that did use process thinking. In 2005, Columbus adopted LEAN process-mapping and value-stream-mapping methods to improve process districtwide (Taninecz, 2006). The administrators and teachers at Linmoor Middle School were particularly interested in streamlining the student-assessment process, and becoming more proactive in meeting student learning needs. Process mapping [was used] in an effort to improve the test scores of short-cycle assessments, diagnostic tests administered every five to six weeks to students that enable staff to revise and improve teaching methods and better prepare students for Ohio Achievement Tests—tests that ultimately determine academic improvement. Myles and staff developed process-flow maps (current and future state) that define the entire assessment process, from getting students to show up, to placing test books into rooms, to analyzing results in order to swiftly address student learning gaps. (Taninecz, 2006, p. 2)

Through this LEAN-management effort, school personnel in Columbus were able to identify processes to condense the grading procedures, providing teachers with timely feedback on student strengths and weaknesses. This allowed for additional time and more focused student remediation. Also significant was the fact that the process allowed all individuals in the school to understand each other’s roles in the process.

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For the first time everybody involved in the testing process shared a common understanding of the process. Consequently, steps in preparation (e.g., reconciling the frequently changing roster in an urban school, developing pre-test and post-test classroom activities) were better planned and improved. (Taninecz, 2006, p. 3)

70: Engage in process thinking, analyzing data and collaboratively streamlining processes to efficiently reach desired goals.

leadership tip

Time Management—Stuff Management— Self Management It’s one thing for your mental focus to get a higher-level job, and it’s quite another for it to keep that job. Your mind can stay at the new horizon only if the levels below it continue to be handled effectively. (Allen, 2003, p. 88)

Prioritizing, managing materials, and delegation of responsibilities are methods leaders use to manage time and work tasks. Successful school administrators use systematic approaches to organization that assist them in maintaining focus, demonstrating follow-through, and meeting obligations. Some administrators consider taking the time to organize things a wasteful exercise, believing that the important stuff will naturally float to the top of the radar screen. This perception can result in catastrophes when a deadline is missed or a decision is not made in a timely manner. Other administrators may be very organized but find themselves in chaotic work environments that demand managerial skills before leadership. An example involves the new high-school principal and assistant principal in Centerville, an outer-ring suburban school district. During the hiring process, the new administrators learned that Centerville High School’s students were out of control. There were food fights in the cafeteria on a daily basis. Students roamed the halls during class time, and numerous physical altercations occurred in the building and on school grounds. Vandalism to the building, broken windows, graffiti, and thefts occurred every weekend. Teachers rarely left their classrooms, even when there were fights and disturbances outside their doors. The superintendent informed the new principal and assistant principal during their orientation that improving order and discipline in the high school was their first priority. By setting clear expectations and consequences for inappropriate behavior (lots of out-of-school suspensions), the administrative duo, with the support of the school board and the superin-


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tendent, were able to substantially improve the behavior expectations for students. Within two years, the school climate had totally reversed, and the high school was a model school, well disciplined and academically focused. The administrators in this high school needed to manage the environment before they could focus on higher-level goals—instruction, academic achievement, process thinking, or a continuous improvement process. Five Phases of Work-Flow Mastery In keeping with the frame of mind “everything in moderation,” Allen (2003), in Ready for Anything: Fifty-Two Productivity Principles for Getting Things Done, suggests five steps to use that will achieve organization of self, ideas, information, and projects, while allowing for freedom and flexibility. Allen advises that when dealing with the abundance of stuff that crosses one’s desk, organized leaders will (1) collect, (2) process, (3) organize, (4) review, and (5) do. Allen’s “Workflow Processing and Organizing” diagram (see figure 8.2) is a visual on how to handle the volume of tasks a leader is expected to accomplish. Collection, Allen’s first step, involves grabbing information from e-mails, voice mails, and other sources and putting that information somewhere that makes sense to the leader, a place where he or she can easily retrieve it and do something with it later. Process, as defined by Allen, is deciding what action is required on the collected stuff. If the item does not need to be acted on immediately, Allen recommends tossing it or filing it for later action. Sometimes information is a cue to a future project or need. This information, Allen suggests, should be saved and filed to provide ideas for future projects. If it is something that needs imminent action, Allen suggests, act on it, delegate it, or defer it (putting it on a reminder list or in a “to do” file). Allen’s (2003) third step is to organize: group the results of processing your input into appropriately retrievable and reviewable categories. The four key action categories are • projects (projects you have commitments to finish); • calendar (actions that must occur on a specific day or at a specific time); • next actions (actions to be done as soon as possible); • waiting for (projects and actions others are supposed to be doing, which you care about). (p. 158) Subcategory files are developed within each of Allen’s (2003) four categories, and goals and checklists are written. Step 4 in processing and organizing workflow is reviewing. The leader needs to develop a daily routine of review-

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ing the calendar and action lists and a weekly routine of reviewing the longer lists of goals and projects. The final phase in the “Workflow Processing and Organizing” chart is doing. According to Allen, in this final stage, you should “make choices about your actions based upon what you can do (context), how much time you have, how much energy you have, and then your priorities” (p. 159). Allen also stresses being flexible, trusting your intuition, and focusing on priorities (see figure 8.2). When leaders fail to acknowledge and improve their own poor organizational skills, it can often lead to damaged relationships with subordinates. The principal who is chronically unprepared for faculty meetings (forgot the handouts, didn’t get the PowerPoint done) wastes teachers’ valuable time and loses teachers’ respect. One of the authors has known leaders who have asked subordinates to print labels for Christmas cards; update personal address books; take the leader’s spouse for medical treatment; fix a home computer; pick up dry cleaning; and teach a university evening class for the leader. Often administrators made these requests because they lacked time-management, organizing, and planning skills. These unethical requests will further erode staff members’ respect for the leader. 71: Appreciate the significance of time management and the negative impact lack of planning has on the school community. If you are not innately an organized person, seek training in this area and hire an administrative assistant with these skills to help you get organized.

leadership tip

Conclusion Being transactional in our approach to work as leaders can be boring, frustrating, and disheartening. As a leader, it may sometimes feel like you must act in the role of police officer or parent to those you supervise, as opposed to the great sage or visionary. However, without proactive attention to the organizational aspects of leadership, institutional visions will not likely be met. In ignoring the nuts-and-bolts aspects inherent in the supervision of institutional processes, the leader is making a choice and will be perceived as one who has little active concern for the staff and students. Leaders who do not provide a well-structured, disciplined environment and who are not prepared for meetings and other tasks assigned to them are seen as incompetent, apathetic, or out of touch with the community at large. This management style is referred to as laissez-faire. In this case, the leader’s role is peripheral, giving up control to individuals in the organization who may or


Figure 8.2. Workflow Processing and Organizing Used by permission.

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may not have ideas, skills, and abilities to support the organization’s vision effectively or efficiently. Activity: Deeper Understanding of Strategic Planning, LEAN Process Thinking, or Time Management In this chapter, three main themes have been discussed: strategic planning, process thinking, and time management. Chose one of the three themes to examine more thoroughly by exploring one of the following websites: 1.â•‡Strategic planning: hr.osu.edu/index.aspx. (Go to Services/Publications, click “publications,” scroll down to Strategic Planning, retrieve A Guide to Strategic Planning.) 2.â•‡Process thinking: langfordlearning.com. (Click on tool examples.) 3.â•‡Time management: www.davidco.com. (Click on “Five Phases of Mastery Overflow” and other free articles.)

Chapter Nine

“Don’t Diss Me” Taking Suggestions as a Personal Criticism

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • When someone challenges something you have said or makes suggestions, how does this make you feel? • Describe a time when someone “dissed” you. Did you interpret the interaction as one of disrespect? What were your thoughts about the criticism? • Could you, perhaps, have a tendency toward narcissism? Scenario A: “I Don’t Want to Hear Anything More about It” Ryan Lundgren: Dean of Students Dan Rapp: Headmaster David Stone: Diocese President Amy Green: School Counselor Walter Hilliard, Jr.: Student Holy Angels Academy is a private, tuition-based high school with a population of students from the wealthiest homes in Newport, a community of 300,000. The Newport diocese is made up of two elementary buildings, two middle schools, and one large high school, all of which are overseen by the Newport diocese president, David Stone. Ten percent of Holy Angels’ students attend the school on a scholarship program. The remaining students pay expensive tuition and fees. Due to the recent downward trend in the economy, enrollment at Holy Angels and throughout diocese schools is declining. In mid-March, President Stone informed all his building principals, “We are going to have to reduce your 135

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budgets because of a reduction in student numbers. We can’t afford to lose any more students,” Stone explained. “I need you to maintain your enrollments and actively recruit students for next school year.” A few weeks later, Walter Hilliard, Jr., an eleventh-grader at Holy Angels, was caught red-handed downloading pornography on a school computer. Further investigation, by Dean of Students Ryan Lundgren, revealed that Walter had created a secret file of pornography on a media-center computer and was selling the file name to other students in the school. Printed copies of the pornography were shared with potential customers as an illustration of what their money could buy. When Lundgren initially confronted Walter on the pornography, the dean of students told Walter, “Your days at Holy Angels are done. This is in clear violation of our student conduct code and is morally reprehensible. You are suspended today, pending further action. Count on being expelled and start looking for a different school for your senior year,” Lundgren advised the less-than-remorseful student. Immediately after disciplining Walter, Lundgren marched into Headmaster Rapp’s office and shared the details regarding Walter’s behavior and the outcome of the disciplinary meeting. Much to Lundgren’s surprise, the headmaster appeared annoyed at the dean of students. “Whoa, whoa,” the headmaster began. “What Walter Junior did is appalling and inappropriate. We cannot accept this behavior,” he continued. “Yes, suspend him for a few days, but we need to rethink expelling.” “What? What? Are you kidding?” the dean of students asked with disbelief. “Ryan, you know our student numbers are down and the diocese has already cut our budget twice,” Rapp reminded the novice dean. “We can’t afford to lose any more students. And Walter Junior comes from a great family with a tradition of attendance at this school,” the headmaster justified, as he motioned for Lundgren to sit down. “Sure, suspend Walter for three days, and have him meet with the school counselor before he returns to school,” Rapp agreed. “When he comes back from suspension, keep a short leash on him. Have him meet with the counselor a couple of times a week,” the headmaster suggested. “But, but,” stammered Lundgren. “Ryan,” interrupted the headmaster, “you know teenage boys do this kind of thing. Holy Angels doesn’t like to expel students. It’s bad for our reputation.” “But the student conduct code says . . .” began Lundgren. “Walter Senior will not take expulsion very well—Walter Junior missing his whole senior year and all. And Walter Senior is a huge supporter of Holy Angels. Ryan, you need to slow down and think this through,” instructed Rapp. “Take a couple of days. Cool down a bit, and then you’ll see it my way.”

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“Yeah. Well, I doubt I’ll change my mind,” the dean of students replied. “But I’ll go talk to Amy Green about meeting with Walter Junior.” Dean of Students Lundgren did ask Holy Angels school counselor Amy Green to meet with Walter Junior regarding his viewing of pornography on the school computer; but Green was very apprehensive. “Ryan, I’m very uncomfortable at the prospect of talking to Walter about his pornography viewing. You recall that I confided in you that I was a victim of sexual assault when I was in college. I really don’t want to discuss this with Walter,” exclaimed the young school counselor, barely twenty-six years old. “The thought of even talking to Walter about the pornography, or even his college plans, makes me sick to my stomach,” she explained. “Amy, give it a try. Do your best,” asked Lundgren. “It might go better than you think.” Counseling Walter did not go well for Green. Following the session with Walter, Dean of Students Lundgren encountered Green in the hallway as she rushed into the women’s restroom. When she emerged, she was chalky white and shaking. “Are you okay?” asked Lundgren. “What’s going on?” “I was upchucking. I just met with Walter,” Green explained. “I’ve been a basket case all day just thinking about meeting with Walter. I can’t stand being in the same room as him. Why is he here? Why aren’t you expelling him? What kind of message is this giving the rest of the students? Please don’t make me meet with him again,” the counselor pleaded. “I know. I know. I’ll talk to Headmaster Rapp,” Lundgren promised. “He needs to rethink this decision.” Lundgren immediately rushed to the headmaster’s office, catching Rapp just as he hung up the telephone. “Dan, I need to talk to you about Walter Junior,” a breathless Lundgren spluttered. “We really need to expel him. We can’t have him in the building. What kind of message does that send to our female students and staff?” “We’ve been over this,” interrupted the headmaster with obvious irritation. “Walter served his three-day suspension, and we are not going to expel him,” the headmaster ordered. “He can meet with his school counselor a couple times a week for the balance of the year; and by next fall, all will be forgotten.” “Amy can’t continue to meet with Walter. She’s a sexual-assault victim herself and gets physically ill when she is in the same room as Walter,” Lundgren quickly explained. “I really think we should reconsider and expel him. It would send a clear message that we don’t approve of this kind of behavior.” “Ryan, that’s enough,” admonished the headmaster as he stood towering over the five-foot-eight-inch administrator. “Are you questioning my judgment?” Rapp boomed. “I’ve been headmaster here for fifteen years, and under

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my leadership we’ve become the most prestigious high school in the area,” the headmaster shouted. “We are not, I repeat, not expelling Walter Junior. I don’t want to hear anything more about it,” warned the red-faced headmaster. “Now, I have work to do.” Sighing quietly, the dean of students slowly walked to the doorway and then turned as the headmaster called his name. “Ryan, I want you to accompany students on the field trip to the science museum Saturday morning,” Rapp instructed the exiting dean of students. “I thought you said teacher supervisors were sufficient, that I didn’t need to chaperone the field trip,” Lundgren questioned with obvious confusion. “Well, I changed my mind,” the headmaster clarified with a wave of his hand. “I think they need an administrator chaperoning the field trip. Plan on it, Ryan!” (“I Don’t Want to Hear Anything More about It”) Scenario B: “Don’t Call 911” Sheri Britain: School Nurse Scott Larson: Principal Kari Keller: Health Secretary Sheri Britain was a licensed school nurse with a register nursing degree (RN) who traveled between two elementary schools and a middle school, providing nursing services to approximately 900 students. In each of the three buildings, Britain also trained and supervised health secretaries/aides, who operated the health office in her absence. This is Britain’s firsthand account: The health secretary/aide in one of my elementary buildings called me about a young child who was carried into the office, unresponsive, with his eyes rolled back. The child did not have a known seizure disorder or heart condition. He was, however, developmentally impaired and living in a neglectful home. I instructed the secretary/aide to call 911 (I was fifteen miles away). I said I would call her back in five minutes, but that I could not get to the school in time to help the child or before the ambulance. The child was breathing and not blue. My concern was accidental ingestion of something or possibly a head injury. We did not know what happened to the child before he arrived late to school that day. I called the health secretary/aide back in five minutes and asked if the ambulance was there yet. The secretary/aide said she didn’t call the 911 because the principal said not to call. The principal wanted to call the parents first. When the principal called the parent, they said they did not want the ambulance called; and the principal did not want to override them, so instructed the health secretary/aide not to call 911. I demanded that the secretary call the ambulance immediately, which she did.


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The next day I met with the principal regarding emergency procedures. Needless to say I also communicated this event to the superintendent. Following the incident, the principal seemed to question my judgment on every little thing, especially when a parent disagreed with school board approved health policies. This suspicion eventually spread to the other principals and superintendent. I felt like I was being blackballed (for lack of a better word). Sometime after that I intercepted a negative e-mail that the principal wrote about me to several teachers and secretaries. The e-mail said the principal had health information regarding a student that she did not want shared with me because she wanted to have “a common-sense approach” to the situation. I filed a grievance but left the district shortly thereafter for a different position in a neighboring school district. I have often wondered what would have happened if that child was the son of the superintendent? No doubt, 911 would have been called immediately. Was 911 not called because the child was handicapped already or because of an incidence of abuse that the parents wanted to conceal? [“Don’t Call 911”]

High Self-Esteem Leaders who exhibit narcissistic tendencies are perceived by others to be conceited, arrogant, defensive, and egotistical. Suffering from the malady of a self-esteem that is too high, some leaders’ attitudes and behaviors bring about a work environment that is stressful and stifling, a climate where faculty- and staff-member alienation is common. This type of administrator experiences the act of questioning or the expression of doubt from subordinates as a stab to the ego and a sign of disrespect. Operating under a delusion that they must be right in all things and knowledgeable about all aspects of school leadership, these administrators become self-protective, critical, or hostile when others, particularly subordinates, share new ideas or suggestions. Leaders in both scenarios A and B became angry and hostile when their judgment was questioned. Headmaster Rapp shouted at Dean of Students Lundgren and then gave Lundgren an extra duty assignment on Saturday morning. The principal, Larson, in scenario B was more subtle, going behind the back of School Nurse Britain and planting suspicion that the nurse was incompetent, thus, reinforcing the principal’s judgment in not calling 911. Negative reactions from the leader are expressed, in particular, when the positional leader hears suggestions contrary to the ideas or plans he or she has put or would like to put into place. This was the case with Christine Meeks, a curriculum director who responded to every idea and suggestion brought up in curriculum meetings with “yeah but.” The only ideas that were not “yeahbutted” were those she presented. Meeks also often talked about “putting the frog on the table.” Putting the frog on the table meant participants should

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openly voice their opposition and bring up the obstacles regarding the topic being discussed; however, if the opinions presented were contrary to Meeks’s views, she became sullen and withdrawn. Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, and Vohs (2003), in their work on selfesteem as related to performance, interpersonal success, happiness, and healthy lifestyles, assert that while a healthy self-esteem may enhance leadership abilities, through the willingness and confidence to express thoughts and ideas to a group, too much of this good thing becomes detrimental. The results of studies on group behavior do not provide a ringing endorsement of the importance of self-esteem. High self-esteem does not appear to have much to contribute to leadership, especially after controlling for other variables. High self-esteem appears to foster a small but significant tendency toward greater voice behavior in work groups. This tendency to speak up may also be responsible for people with high self-esteem receiving somewhat higher ratings for contributing to the group, compared with people with low self-esteem. In groups, people with high self-esteem are more willing than those with low selfesteem to speak up to criticize the group or propose directions for action . . . Findings suggest that self-esteem may have value in promoting initiative . . . Narcissists (many of whom have high self-esteem) exhibit a variety of interpersonally problematic and alienating behaviors. (pp. 20–21)

Gregory (1999), in his work to support the Tahoe Center for a Sustainable Future organization, wrote about narcissism and how narcissistic behaviors block change. He discussed how to recognize and work with and around those who exhibit narcissistic behaviors: NARCISSISM is distinguished from true leadership (which shares attention) by narcissism’s use, abuse and exploitation of people, as opposed to enhancing and facilitating the value of others. Sustainability is dependent on collaborative, mutually complementary group efforts that seek to maximize benefits for the largest amount of people without exploiting each other or the integrity of the environment. This is offensive to narcissism because it is in direct contradiction to narcissism’s values of dominance, exploitation and control. (par. 14)

As in community efforts of any sort, the field of education requires leaders who are inclusive in their approach to leadership, leaders who can rise above self-protective defensive predispositions. Demonstration of narcissistic tendencies, in our thoughts and actions, may happen unconsciously and may result from the pressures of the position. Many times the head administrator does indeed have the “right” answer. The leader may feel it is more expedient to just tell people what to do and how to do it, but it may also be that the leader is acting from a sense of fear. In writing a secret memo to the nurse’s


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colleagues, claiming that School Nurse Britain lacked a “common sense approach” to student health care, Principal Larson in scenario B may have been acting on a fear that others would be critical of his “lack of common sense approach” in a medical emergency. Instead he decided to point the spotlight on Nurse Britain’s competency. This is the fear of being found to be less competent than we may consider ourselves to be, in terms of intelligence, knowledge, and relational expertise. Underneath the surface narcissism is fragile. Disappointment and frustration threaten its grandiosity, leaving it vulnerable to feelings of shame and humiliation exacerbated by its harsh, punitive component. Along with the shame and humiliation come deep fears of annihilation which are fueled by the black and white, rigid thinking component: “If I am not perfect and all powerful, then I am nothing.” The extreme fear of being found out to not be omnipotent requires the narcissism to resort to hiding its deeper nature. This act of hiding ultimately leaves the narcissistic self vulnerable to forces that have trust at their core, not fear. (Gregory, 1999, par. 7)

Principal Hogan was a middle-school principal who tended to have a narcissistic attitude, especially when it involved his writing ability. Hogan’s secretary had been the secretary for five principals who preceded him in the middle school. The secretary was accustomed to proofreading and improving the written drafts of her supervisors; but she was reprimanded several times by Hogan when she altered his writing. Hogan prided himself on being an articulate writer; so it was with a lot of irritation, and a little spite, that the secretary did not proofread and change the building newsletter that was sent to parents and staff with the superintendent’s name clearly misspelled. 72: It is possible to think too highly of yourself. Don’t let ego interfere with taking input, feedback, and/or suggestions from others.

leadership tip

Humility, Criticism, and Communication Lawrence (2008), in her article “Neohumility/Humility and Business Leadership: Do They Belong Together?” explores old and new definitions of humbleness, as it relates to leadership success. In previous eras, the image of a humble person being correlated with the ideals of leadership would have been unthinkable. Today, acts of humility are not perceived as weakness, but as strengths. True leadership is having the strength, awareness, and ability to put aside one’s own ego; listening and valuing the opinions of others, being willing to compromise or change direction based on new information; working

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within a cooperative model of governing; empowering others; and listening to hard truths. Humility also includes willingness to hear the truth, however unpleasant it might be and having the courage to admit one’s mistakes or, in other words, implies that a person is willing to learn and change. It is neither a sign of personal weakness nor a term of condescension. It does not mean shy, meek, diffident, insecure, lacking confidence, self-deprecating, reserved, reticent, or timid, even though people often associate humility with such characteristics. It also does not mean having a low estimate of oneself, shying away from the center of attention or lacking the ability to inspire others. It simply involves taking an “objective” look at oneself, recognizing one’s limitations and valuing others, particularly dissenters, and being able to admit one’s mistakes. (Lawrence, 2008, p. 10)

If Principal Larson in scenario B had admitted he’d made a mistake in not immediately calling 911, likely the incident would have been quickly forgotten—especially since most people would expect the school nurse to have greater expertise in handling a medical emergency. As much as we know, in an intellectual sense, that we as leaders must accept and respond to criticism, it can be very difficult to swallow in reality. However, if we want to encourage an open exchange of ideas and an environment that promotes trust and respect, along with creative and innovative approaches to school success, a receptive attitude that embraces criticism is required. Lesmeister (1992) writes, “Criticism and the way we react to it can block communication and opportunities to work together. Hurt feelings and resentment do not foster a positive or cooperative environment” (p. 1). Lesmeister also identifies three possible responses to criticism: (1) to distract, (2) to admit the truth, or (3) to ask for feedback. In all instances, it is important to allow the other person to have his or her say, regardless of the accuracy of what is being shared. The distracting technique, Lesmeister suggests, is used when the criticism is patently untrue. This method allows you to listen without getting caught up emotionally. Recognize, however, that if there is a complaint or criticism being shared, whether true or not, there is a perception floating around regarding your actions that is different from your own. These perceptions will need addressing. Responding with anger or defensiveness is often taken by the criticizer as proof that what he or she is saying is true. The leader should take the time to listen and respond with statements such as I appreciate your point. Thank you for letting me know. I need to think about this some more and get back to you. Afterward, you should determine if there is some nugget of truth in what was shared and seek to learn more about why this perception is held.


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73: Humility is a vital trait for effective leaders. Being humble enough to recognize that you do not need to have all the answers to every situation that may arise will create opportunity for greater collaboration and better decision making.

leadership tip

Admitting the truth is also a way to defuse anger and to move the situation in a positive direction. Often telling an angry parent that the situation wasn’t handled as well as it should have been or admitting that a decision was made too quickly results in a de-escalation of the situation. On reflection, Headmaster Rapp in scenario A could have admitted that it wasn’t a good idea to ask a school counselor who was a victim of rape to counsel Walter Junior. Admitting the truth moves the leader quickly to the third technique—seeking feedback. Seeking feedback is an important time to ask questions, to seek to understand, and to listen actively to a variety of divergent perspectives. With all options on the table, better decisions and choices are likely. Headmaster Rapp did not seek feedback or other possible options. He simply demanded: “You will not expel Walter Junior.” Brainstorming together, the headmaster and the dean of students might have come up with a better solution to the situation: a solution that was sensitive to the needs of the school community. 74: To prevent escalation in challenging situations, give everyone an opportunity to be heard, and acknowledge the value of others’ perspectives. Being right is not always what is most important.

leadership tip

Emotional Intelligence Gaining a greater understanding of ourselves and our emotional capacities is essential to leadership success. It is these attributes that separate the good administrator from the great leader. When an individual is hired to lead a school or district, it is evident that he or she is smart, at least in the traditional sense of how we measure intelligence—academic achievement and a high intelligence-quotient (IQ) score. However, skills in productively managing one’s own and others’ emotions are equally important, but are often ignored in leaders’ academic preparation. Goleman (2006) wrote widely on the subject of emotional intelligence. His works influenced how the world views emotions in the workplace and their importance to organizational success. At a certain point in human development, our IQ becomes fairly well established, unlikely to change over time. Our emotional quotient, or EQ, conversely, is something that we can improve with hard work and dedication to change. This is important because individuals who augment their emotional-intelligence

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capacity may enjoy greater efficacy and more success, both personally and professionally. With maturity, individuals can and do learn to maximize their EQ abilities, not to be confused with suppression of emotions. Goleman (2006) defined emotional intelligence as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships” (p. 317). In his text Working with Emotional Intelligence, Goleman outlined five competencies necessary for a healthy EQ: • Self-awareness: Knowing what we are feeling in the moment and using those preferences to guide our decision making; having a realistic assessment of our own abilities and a well-grounded sense of self-confidence. • Self-regulation: Handling our emotions so that they facilitate rather than interfere with the task at hand; being conscientious and delaying gratification to pursue goals; recovering well from emotional distress. • Motivation: Using our deepest preferences to move and guide us toward our goals, to help us take initiative and strive to improve and to persevere in the face of setbacks and frustrations. • Empathy: Sensing what people are feeling, being able to take their perspective, and cultivating rapport and attunement with a broad diversity of people. • Social skills: Handling emotions in relationships well and accurately reading social situations and networks; interacting smoothly; using these skills to persuade and lead, negotiate and settle disputes, for cooperation and teamwork. (p. 318) Leaders in scenarios A and B lacked some of the emotional intelligences Goleman (2006) outlined. Headmaster Rapp illustrated his lack of empathy in assigning the school counselor, a victim of rape, to counsel an unremorseful student who not only viewed pornography on a school computer but also sold the password to others. Rapp also lacked the self-awareness to recognize that he was negatively reacting to being told what to do by a subordinate; and his ego was getting in the way of making a realistic assessment of the situation. The principal in scenario B lacked self-regulation. Principal Larson let his emotions (perhaps embarrassment and anger over being contradicted) affect his behavior with subordinates in the school by writing the negative e-mail about Nurse Britain. Larson may also have lacked the social skills to repair the damaged relationship with the nurse by admitting that he had made a mistake. Leaders in both scenarios also appear to lack the “with-it-ness” and motivation needed to improve and to persevere in the face of setbacks and frustrations.


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leadership tip 75: Become familiar with the theory of emotional intelligence.

Knowledge of emotional intelligences will help you gain better insight into your own and others’ emotions, creating opportunities for improved performance and stronger leadership throughout the organization. In Primal Leadership: Learning to Lead with Emotional Intelligence, Goleman, Boyatzis, and McKee (2004) share their theory on emotional intelligence and self-directed learning. This theory outlines how to sustain change until the change is set as a new pattern in the way we operate. The process involves five discoveries. Each of the discoveries is considered a tool, supporting growth toward achieving emotional competency. Goleman and colleagues’ first selfdiscovery is determining your ideal self and answering the question, who do I want to be? Goleman and colleagues suggest allowing yourself to imagine leading your ideal life, fifteen years hence. The objective of this discovery is to identify your values and envision a future different from your present. The second discovery question in this emotional intelligence process explores the real self and asks the question, who am I? Participants explore their strengths and where their ideal and real selves overlap, and then they examine the gaps where the ideal and real self differ. This discovery exercise suggests that the participants need to recognize instances where they may have deluded themselves; Goleman and colleagues (2004) refer to these instances as vital lies. At this second point in the process, talents are examined: “What are we really good at? Where are our strengths? Where are the weaknesses to which we need to attend?” The Arbinger Institute, in Leadership and Self-Deception: Getting Out of the Box discusses this same concept and describes it as a lack of honesty about ourselves, who we are, our values, and how we live or do not live our principles. One of the best ways to go about this second level of discovery is to have others evaluate you. For some, evaluating a colleague is a difficult prospect. Rarely do others relish the prospect of telling someone else how they perceive him or her, especially if the opinion is negative or less than stellar. A study of almost 400 executives showed that, for one thing, they use their selfawareness and empathy, both to monitor their own actions and to watch how others react to them. They are open to critiques, whether of their ideas or their leadership. They actively seek out negative feedback, valuing the voice of a devil’s advocate. By contrast, less effective leaders most often solicit confirming feedback. (Goleman et al., 2004, p. 133)

76: Recognize that you cannot be totally aware of others’ perception of you. For this reason it is important to seek this information through a formal process.

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77: When reflecting on input (formal and informal) provided by subordinates, colleagues, or supervisors, act objectively and consider new truths.

leadership tip

The third self-discovery that Goleman and colleagues (2004) recommend is developing a learning agenda, building on strengths while reducing gaps. They suggest that a performance-improvement plan be eliminated, in favor of a learning plan with goals tied closely to the ideals identified in the “who do I want to be?” and “who am I?” exercises. Goals in a learning plan • should build on one’s strengths, not on one’s weaknesses; • must be a person’s own, not goals someone else has imposed; • should flexibly allow people to plan for the future in different ways; • must be feasible, with manageable steps. (Goleman et al., 2004, p. 144) The fourth and fifth steps in the self-discovery of emotional intelligences are experimenting with the new behaviors, thoughts, and feelings, and practicing the new behavior in order to build new neural pathways through mastery. Goleman and colleagues (2004) state that learning goals are best met when practiced in a way that meets the learning style of each individual, such as through concrete experiences, reflection, model building, and/or trial-and-error learning. This aspect of trying a new approach through practice before implementation is crucial in preventing old habits from taking over, especially when under stress. Also, at each step of the process, the aspect of developing trusting relationships that are supportive and encouraging is crucial. These relationships, based in open and honest dialogue, are recognized as being of great importance in supporting growth and change. Goleman and colleagues also strongly suggest having a coach or mentor to challenge and guide growth. Leadership Tip 78: Based on input from others, set personal performance goals building on your strengths. Additionally, determine safe times and places to practice new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving— perhaps with family or close, trusted colleagues. Conclusion Being able to accept and positively respond to criticism is vital to creating a climate that is conducive to an open exchange of ideas. Strong leaders will rise above self-protective, defensive reactions and be aware of and regulate their own emotions and those of their colleagues. In some instances, regulating emo-


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tions will involve sharing attention and allowing others to be recognized; this was the case with a high-school principal who had his picture in the newspaper with the high school’s award-winning choir. The principal was poignantly asked by his assertive spouse, “What’s your picture doing in the paper with the choir? How many songs did you teach them?” This principal took the subtle suggestion, building on his emotional intelligences, and developed the practice of stepping back and giving teachers credit for accomplishments. In other instances, successful leaders will need to rise above self-protectiveness and acknowledge the truth, perhaps admitting to a parent, “We should have notified you earlier that your son was failing.” Admitting the truth will often defuse a situation, increase others’ respect for the administrator, and precipitate moving the situation forward. At other times, a leader may want to apologize. The power of a sincere apology is that it fosters cooperation and future relationships. It is through greater understanding of one’s emotional capacities that a leader’s personal growth is sustained and an environment of respect and collaboration is established. Of utmost importance to a successful leader is humility, not ego. Activity: Accepting Suggestions and Criticism Give the “Accepting Suggestions and Criticism Rubric” survey in table 9.1 to colleagues, subordinates, and supervisors with whom you work. Review survey results and write a reflective summary, identifying strengths and opportunities for improvement. Sample Letter for Survey Participants Dear Staff Member: I am working to improve my leadership skills and would appreciate your honest feedback regarding my performance. Surveys are anonymous. Please do not write your name on this form. Your opinions will remain confidential. It is through your comments that I will grow and learn more about my leadership style. Please place these surveys in the box located [fill in location]. Thank you. [signature] Survey Directions: For questions 1 through 10, please use the range of numbers to indicate your answers. Number 1 in the range represents an absolute no, and number 5 indicates an absolute yes. Use N/A if, for example, you have never needed to consult with me on a problem. Circle the best answer. If you would like to further assist me, please write an explanation for your answer(s) on the back of the page and use the back of this form for comments. Thank you very much for helping me to improve my leadership skills.

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Table 9.1.â•… Accepting Suggestions and Criticism Rubric â•‡ 1.â•‡ Do I provide opportunities for you to give input? â•‡ 2.â•‡ Do you feel comfortable sharing constructive criticism with me? â•‡ 3.â•‡Do I readily accept and incorporate others’ suggestions in my work? â•‡ 4.â•‡ Do I give an impression that I think I am better than others? â•‡ 5.â•‡ Do you perceive me to be intimidating to others? â•‡ 6.â•‡ Does my verbal language make others feel inferior to me? â•‡ 7.â•‡ Does my body language invite others to communicate with me? â•‡ 8.â•‡ Do I project a sense of humility in my interactions with others? â•‡ 9.â•‡Do you feel encouraged and motivated to continue to work with me? 10.â•‡Do I treat my colleagues and subordinates with empathy and compassion? 11.â•‡ Do I express myself in an emotionally appropriate manner?

1 2 3 4 5 N/A 1 2 3 4 5 N/A 1 2 3 4 5 N/A 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5

N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

1 2 3 4 5 N/A 1 2 3 4 5 N/A

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Reconnecting and Rebuilding the Bridges Burnt

Prechapter Questions for Reflection and Discussion • If I messed up in my administrative role, should I pack up and go home, or is there hope? • Is it possible to recover from leadership missteps? • Describe a time when a leader you respected made a mistake. How did he or she make it right? Leadership and Practice We, the authors of this text, do not believe that any school administrator purposefully sets out to behave badly or perform poorly as a leader. School leaders work very hard to earn their administrative licenses. The honor of being permitted to serve as the leader of an educational institution is often a lifelong goal. Preparation for this type of role is rigorous. One must complete a minimum of a master’s degree in educational leadership and pass stringent competency requirements, indicating a high level of knowledge in administrative practices. One would imagine that with these standards in place, administrators would truly know everything they need to know and be able to successfully “hit the ground running.” Unfortunately, however, there is a significant difference between reading about/discussing leadership theory in a classroom and effectively implementing leadership concepts, while also experiencing the stress of operating a school. It is often when we are under stress that our worst selves are revealed. Outstanding school administrators make mistakes too, perhaps fewer than most; but this alone is not what differentiates outstanding leaders from less149

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accomplished leaders. Successful leadership requires reflective practice and active commitment to continuous improvement and growth. There are numerous reasons why some leaders are more effective and successful than others. Reasons include the following: 1.â•‡Successful leaders focus on learning from each and every misstep they experience and commit themselves to doing a better job the next time. 2.â•‡These leaders are humble enough to recognize that they can be wrong and are open to suggestions. 3.â•‡Extraordinary leaders seek and truly value a collaborative approach to decision making. 4.â•‡Successful administrators are transparent in their practice and communicate effectively. Everyone in the organization knows where the school is headed (vision); what is happening (mission) and why (values); and how goals will be achieved (action plans). 5.â•‡Exceptional leaders are self-aware and able to recognize when they have perhaps behaved badly or said things in a way that lacked compassion; and they apologize, pledging to do better in the future. A state-recognized “secondary principal of the year” shared with us two incidents regarding mistakes he made and apologies he gave: I used to fly off the handle at kids. I once physically backed a kid into the corner of my office and was yelling at him when the kid shouted, “Go ahead and hit me. My old man does.” I apologized. Another time, I was in my fifth or sixth year of being a high school principal; and I suspended a kid for three days but told him he could finish out the school day. I was having a bad day. Later, I called the kid back into my office and told him I was wrong. I ripped up the suspension notice and the kid said, “You got to be kidding.”

All leaders make mistakes. Quality leaders apologize and grow and learn from their mistakes. Transitioning to a Leadership Position Jentz and Murphy (2005) discuss the ideas of transition and entry into a new position in their article “Starting Confused: How Leaders Start When They Don’t Know Where to Start.” When one moves from an instructionally focused role to a role that places the individual firmly into an administrative capacity, such as lead teacher, department chair, dean of students, or principal, it suggests that new types of learning need to take place. Individuals new to leadership need


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to learn about their new workplaces (culture, expectations); about themselves (continual self-awareness—emotional quotient); and about new and varied ways of meeting challenges and problems (remaining current in the field). Jentz and Murphy (2005) share the following vignette that vividly illustrates a common experience shared by many individuals new to school administration: It wasn’t supposed to be like this. I was the enthusiastic first choice of the search committee and was warmly welcomed by the staff. In fact, a lot of people acted as if I could walk on water. Everybody was open to change and so hopeful about the future. It looked like I had found my dream job, and I was really excited about getting a chance to implement my vision of instructional improvement. What a wonderful start to a honeymoon! But nine months later, everybody— including me—was disappointed. My brilliant vision was in the trash bin. Conflict had replaced consensus. Trust had disappeared. After such a promising start, all I heard were complaints about process. In the meantime, I was exhausted, overwhelmed, and bewildered. I just didn’t know what to do. Honeymoon? My dream job had turned into a nightmare. (p. 736)

Educational Leadership Standards The United States’ educational leadership standards differ slightly from Great Britain’s headteacher standards, outlined by the National College of School Administrators (NCSA). Lytle (2009) explains that England’s leadership standards (see appendix C) view school leadership from a contextual perspective. The National Standards for Headteachers (2004) state that “effective headteachers [principals] are responsive to the context of the school and maintain an overview that integrates their work into a coherent whole” (p. 4). The research compiled by NCSA indicates that “the first priority for new principals (heads) needs to be learning and understanding [about] the organization one is to lead and the context in which it operates. Leaders need to be ‘contextually literate,’ that is able to read organizational culture, history and micropolitics” (par. 8). After contextual literacy is achieved, the British headteacher standards align with the United States’ approach, which advocates (1) developing administrator proficiency in creating and implementing a school mission and vision; (2) having expertise and extensive knowledge of measurement and assessment; (3) having the wherewithal to recognize issues impacting student achievement and to reorganize as necessary to improve student performance; (4) knowing how to provide for teacher development; and (5) demonstrating a comprehensive understanding of instructional leadership. These five concepts are accepted as primary and are essential elements making up the school-administrator skill sets in the United States.

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Lytle (2009) stresses that administrator training in the United States typically ignores training new school leaders in how to transition into a new role; specifically, most programs do not pay attention to the critically important exercise of learning about and understanding the context (circumstances or condition) in which the school finds itself at the time of a new administrator’s entry. “Yet,” Lytle writes, “learning the context has everything to do with whether leaders succeed or fail in the long term” (par. 9). In other words, it is very important—and, ultimately, key to administrator success—to gain knowledge about the district or school environment; to learn about the values, history, and political relationships of the community; to understand the nature of conflicting agendas and other challenges; and to become aware of common goals. Principal Art Gordon, in chapter 7’s scenario “The Biggest Mistake of My Career,” failed to learn about the community of New Haven and the value these constituents placed on the new elementary school being built in their community. This lack of understanding resulted in a costly loss of students to other school communities. One way to approach learning the context is to follow the steps outlined in the Entry Plan Handbook by Jentz and Wofford (2006). When one is beginning in a new position, Jentz and Wofford suggest making a transitional plan that begins by (1) deciding with whom the new leader wants to speak to about the school and community—the purpose being to gain a better understanding of situations facing the school or district. Next, Jentz and Wofford recommend that the new leader (2) create questions to ask the identified individuals, and (3) determine a timeline for completing the interviewing process. Once arriving at the school or in the community, the administrator would then (4) publicly share his or her transition plan and the ground rules, and begin implementation. At this juncture, the new leader would take time to meet with individuals and groups for the purpose of learning and asking questions. Seeking to learn and understand, not to do something, is the first and primary goal during this entry period. There is no better time to be confused and unsure of what direction to take. After the interviews, Jentz and Wofford (2006) suggest that the leader (5) decide if a moratorium should be placed on certain types of change until he or she understands the circumstances of the school or district, and, if so, for how long. The leader should also decide if there will there be any exceptions to the moratorium on change. After the new leader has gathered and synthesized the information, Jentz and Wofford (2006) indicate, the next step is to (6) share the findings with others in group meetings, and seek feedback on the perceptions of what was heard and learned from the various stakeholders. The leader likely would have heard conflicting opinions and stories regarding the situations at hand. Holding sense-making meetings is one way to have the groups gain a more


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inclusive perspective. Furthermore, this process assists the leader in establishing a strategic plan, grounded in the context of the school environment, and in determining how she or he will work with others to set priorities and to design solutions for overcoming the challenges identified. New principal Dr. Harper, in chapter 2 (scenario B, “This is Not a Democracy”), would likely have fared better in his new high-school principal position if he had taken time to learn the context of the school’s environment. He assumed that the high-school mathematics teachers were switching classes to “dump on” the new teacher. If Harper had taken the time to talk to the teachers and ask questions, he might have learned that the proposed switching of classes would not increase the workload of the new teacher; or, perhaps, he would have learned that the swapping of classes was done to lessen the load of the new teacher. At the very least, teachers would have had the opportunity to discuss past practice and the reasons for the alleged changes, which likely would have positively impacted on Harper’s relationship with teachers. Sergiovanni (2000), in The Lifeworld of Leadership, also embraces knowledge of the context within which a school operates. He shares his thoughts regarding the importance of allowing a school to have the opportunity to develop its own unique culture. This, he suggests, is best developed through autonomy. Sergiovanni argues that freedom to have local control allows for greater student success—because parent, community, and student values are mirrored each day in the school. In other words, schools flourish by being able to express their values and beliefs unfettered. Sergiovanni writes: School character cannot develop sufficiently in a decontextualized environment in which all schools look the same and the ideology of “one best way” provides the same standards, curriculum, teaching and assessment for everyone. A “one best way” may make sense on the assembly line, but what is a good idea in the world of manufacturing is a bad idea in the diverse world of politics and people . . . School effectiveness requires authentic leadership, leadership that is sensitive to the unique values, beliefs, needs, and wishes of local professionals and citizens who best know the conditions needed for a particular group of students in a particular context. (pp. viii–ix)

Sergiovanni’s philosophy presents a strong argument for beginning leaders’ focus being on really getting to know the learning community as a whole. Regulating Emotions Ginsberg (2008), in his article “Being Boss Is Hard: The Emotional Side of Being in Charge,” shares his belief that new administrators are unprepared for

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the emotional toll of leadership. In the past, Ginsberg writes, leaders were expected to hide or bury their emotions. The prevailing attitude regarding leadership was “don’t let them see you sweat.” Ginsberg discusses the importance of recognizing that having emotions is part of the human experience, and that, as a leader, one must understand that it is impossible to divorce oneself from expressing emotions—and that trying is ill advised. Ginsberg and Davies (2007) published their research on school administrators’ emotions in The Human Side of Leadership: Navigating Emotions at Work. They studied how school administrators managed experienced emotions. From their research, as cited in the Phi Delta Kappan article (December 2008), Ginsberg and Davies learned how successful leaders cope with and utilize emotions effectively. Ginsberg and Davies identify six important lessons for leaders: 1.â•‡Accept that leadership involves emotional experiences. Realize that these are inevitable. 2.â•‡Prepare yourself. Without some forethought, you likely will get caught off guard and potentially behave in ways that exacerbate problems. Think about your intuitive reaction to varying situations and understand how others may interpret those reactions. Your gut reaction may prove appropriate in some situations and totally wrong in others. Consider how you react to different situations and also how your colleagues or employees may react to your behavior. 3.â•‡Take care of yourself. There are dysfunctional ways to behave (e.g., drinking excessively, overeating) and healthy ways (e.g., exercising, talking things out, journaling). Find healthy strategies that work for you. 4.â•‡Become emotionally mature. Understand others’ emotions, understand your own emotions, and learn how to regulate those emotions in constructive and appropriate ways. Without this sort of understanding and maturity, you will continually make decisions and take actions that cause problems. 5.â•‡Understand your expressions. People react to leaders. Learn that how you express your emotions makes a difference. Here again, not overreacting is probably a useful caution. 6.â•‡Learn not to panic. Sometimes, immediate responses are necessary. But in most instances, learning not to panic (remember the idea of not hitting the “send” button on an inflammatory e-mail response) and taking time to consider various options will pay dividends. (p. 297) Middle-school principal Nancy Wilson, in chapter 4 (scenario B, “But, But—I Have a 30 Percent Special-Education Population”), could have benefited from Ginsberg and Davies’s advice about preparing yourself. Wilson was not emotionally prepared for criticism from the local newspaper on her


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school’s low test scores. As a leader, one needs to be prepared to take criticism from the community; every leader will face situations in which constituents are displeased with their school and its administrators. Leaders need to be emotionally prepared for these incidences, understand parents’ emotions and concerns, and regulate others’ and their own emotions in a constructive manner. Principal Wilson needed to stifle her gut reaction and acknowledge parents’ and the press’s concerns, and not blame (“the assistant superintendent shouldn’t have said . . .”) or make excuses (“we have a high specialeducation population”). In a nonemotional manner, Wilson needed to acknowledge that test scores were below state averages and address plans to improve them. Likewise, Headmaster Rapp (“I Don’t Want to Hear Anything More about It”) and Principal Larson (“Don’t Call 911”) in chapter 9, “Don’t Diss Me,” needed to get their emotions in check. Rapp did not want to take suggestions/ criticism on his decision to not suspend the student for viewing pornography, and Larson did not want to be criticized for his unwillingness to call 911. Both of these leaders demonstrated their resentment of being criticized by engaging in subtle retaliation. Several administrators interviewed for this text discussed supervisors whose grudges were physically evident in their body language. As Ginsberg and Davies (2007) indicate, how you express your emotions makes a difference. One administrator even revealed to us that after being questioned and challenged, an emotionally injured administrative colleague used pins to stab stuffed miniature figurines in frustration. As previously mentioned, being prepared for emotionally charged situations and having an emotional plan in place is essential. In order to develop the best strategies for you to counteract emotional overreactions, you must first identify your “hot button” issues. What types of situations push you over the edge emotionally? Is it a tone of voice? Is it working with an extremely demanding or high-maintenance individual or a self-serving, overbearing, or whiny person? Do long-winded people irritate you, or do certain phrases set you off? For instance: “We’ve always done it this way.” Decide ahead of time how you will respond when hot buttons are pressed, and rehearse your reactions mentally. Making Amends In the foreword of Blanchard and McBride’s The One Minute Apology, Johnson (2003) writes the following words of wisdom: “Few things are more powerful than having the common sense, wisdom, and strength to admit when you’ve made a mistake and to set things right” (p. x). Note that saying one is sorry is not sufficient: there also needs to be a change in behavior—actions

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are more powerful than words. Following is additional advice from The One Minute Apology regarding managing one’s own poor conduct: 1.â•‡“At the core of most problems is a truth you don’t want to face” (Blanchard and McBride, 2003, p. 17). A typical response when an apology is due is avoidance; avoidance, without a doubt, will make the problem worse. 2.â•‡“The one minute apology begins with surrender and ends with integrity.” (Blanchard and McBride, 2003, p. 20) The one-minute apology involves being completely honest with yourself regarding the mistake or failure. The leader must let go of being right and admit such to those who were hurt. Successful leaders decide to behave differently the next time, make a plan for how they will do this, and move on with their lives and work. They also recognize that mistakes are a part of learning. 3.â•‡“The longer you wait to apologize, the sooner your weakness is perceived as wickedness.” (Blanchard and McBride, 2003, p. 26) Blanchard and McBride (2003) believe that it takes courage and humility to promptly face the issue. Who, after all, wants to admit a mistake was made? It is also essential when apologizing to share specifically what one is apologizing for; this is the glue that supports the authenticity of the act of contrition. Note that if the leader waits too long or does not address the issue at all, the positive relationships and trust that have been developed over time will be destroyed. It is in the hearts of those wounded that grudges are fashioned; expressions of remorse and an apology are necessary to prevent longterm damage. Remember, it is primarily through positive relationships that things get done. Assistant Principal Clark, in chapter 5’s scenario A, “What the Hell Happened?” and “Where’s My Stuff?”, would have benefited from heeding Blanchard and McBride’s (2003) advice about apologizing. When teachers arrived at school with no advance warning that their classrooms had been closed down and students moved to different locations, a simple heartfelt apology and a promise to do better in the future would have made a significant difference. Clark may have had little advance notice from fire marshals herself, but she should have realized that teachers would want to know about the change before walking into the building to begin classes. Apologizing would have prevented long-term damage to her relationship with the teachers involved. 4.â•‡“The legacy you leave is the legacy you live.” (Blanchard and McBride, 2003, p. 36)


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Successful leaders are compassionate and pay attention to the feelings of others with whom they work. Remember, subordinates and colleagues are human, as well, and also make mistakes. The way a leader reacts to the mistakes of others reflects upon his or her leadership and ultimate success. Strong leaders ask themselves how they want to be remembered and how they would want to be treated if the roles were reversed. Activity: Leadership Learning Plan Refer back to chapter 1’s Self-Inventory of Core Administrative Competencies and determine which areas you would like to improve upon. Complete the Leadership Learning Plan (table 10.1), outlining the standards you wish to work on, and include your task plan and how you plan to evaluate your success.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic A.â•‡ Leadership Standards: The leader will

Learning Plan

Standard #

Professional â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate leadership by Goal: collaboratively assessing and improving culture and climate; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate leadership by providing purpose and direction for individuals and groups; â•‡ 3.â•‡model shared leadership and Tasks: decision-making strategies; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of issues affecting education; â•‡ 5.â•‡through a visioning process, formulate strategic plans and goals with staff and community; â•‡ 6.â•‡set priorities in the context of stakeholder needs; â•‡ 7.â•‡serve as a spokesperson for the welfare of all learners in a multicultural context; â•‡ 8.â•‡understand how education is impacted by local, state, national, and international events; â•‡ 9.â•‡demonstrate the ability to facilitate and motivate others; 10.â•‡demonstrate the ability to implement change or educational reform.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic B.â•‡ Organizational Management Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of organizational systems; â•‡ 2.â•‡define and use processes for gathering, analyzing, managing, and using data to plan and make decisions for program evaluation; â•‡ 3.â•‡plan and schedule personal and organizational work, establish procedures to regulate activities and projects, and delegate and empower others at appropriate levels; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate the ability to analyze need and allocate personnel and material resources; â•‡ 5.â•‡develop and manage budgets and maintain accurate fiscal records; â•‡ 6.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of facilities development, planning, and management; â•‡ 7.â•‡understand and use technology as a management tool.

Professional Goal:

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic C.â•‡ Diversity Leadership Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate an understanding and Professional Goal: recognition of the significance of diversity, and respond to the needs of diverse learners; â•‡ 2.â•‡create and monitor a positive learning environment for all students; Tasks: â•‡ 3.â•‡create and monitor a positive working environment for all staff; â•‡ 4.â•‡promote sensitivity to diversity throughout the school community; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate the ability to adapt educational programming to the needs of diverse constituencies.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic D.â•‡ Policy and Law Standards: The leader will

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Professional â•‡ 1.â•‡develop, adjust, and implement Goal: policy to meet local, state, and federal requirements and constitutional provisions, standards, and regulatory applications; â•‡ 2.â•‡recognize and apply standards of care involving civil and criminal Tasks: liability for negligence, harassment, and intentional torts; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of state, federal, and case law governing general education, special education, and community education.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic E.â•‡ Political Influence and Governance Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡exhibit an understanding of school Professional districts as a political system, Goal: including governance models; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate the ability to involve stakeholders in the development of educational policy; â•‡ 3.â•‡understand the role and Tasks: coordination of social agencies and human services; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate the ability to align constituencies in support of priorities and build coalitions for programmatic and financial support.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic F.â•‡ Communication Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡formulate and carry out plans for Professional Goal: internal and external communications; â•‡ 2.â•‡ demonstrate facilitation skills; â•‡ 3.â•‡recognize and apply an understanding of individual and group behavior in normal and Tasks: stressful situations; â•‡ 4.â•‡ facilitate teamwork; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of conflict resolution and problemsolving strategies; â•‡ 6.â•‡make presentations that are clear and easy to understand; â•‡ 7.â•‡respond to, review, and summarize information for groups; â•‡ 8.â•‡communicate appropriately (speaking, listening, and writing) for different audiences—students, teachers, parents, community, and other stakeholders; â•‡ 9.â•‡understand and utilize appropriate communication technology.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic G.â•‡ Community Relations Standards: The leader will

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Professional â•‡ 1.â•‡articulate organizational purpose Goal: and priorities to the community and media; â•‡ 2.â•‡request and respond to community feedback; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to build community consensus; Tasks: â•‡ 4.â•‡relate political initiatives to stakeholders, including parental involvement programs; â•‡ 5.â•‡identify and interact with internal and external publics; â•‡ 6.â•‡understand and respond to the news media; â•‡ 7.â•‡promote a positive image of schools and the school district; â•‡ 8.â•‡monitor and address perceptions about school-community issues; â•‡ 9.â•‡demonstrate the ability to identify and articulate critical community issues that may impact local education.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic H.â•‡ Curriculum Planning and Development for the Success of All Learners Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate the ability to enhance Professional Goal: teaching and learning through curriculum assessment and strategic planning for all learners, including pre-K, elementary, middle-school, high-school, special-education, and adult levels; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate the ability to provide Tasks: planning and methods to anticipate trends and educational implications; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to develop, implement, and monitor procedures to align, sequence, and articulate curriculum and validate curricular procedures; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate the ability to identify instructional objectives and use valid and reliable performance indicators and evaluative procedures to measure performance outcomes; â•‡ 5.â•‡appropriately use learning technologies; â•‡ 6.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of alternative instructional designs, curriculum, behavior management, and assessment accommodations Documentation: and modifications; â•‡ 7.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of the urgency of global competitiveness.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic I.â•‡ Instructional Management for the Success of All Learners Standards: The leader will

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Professional â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of Goal: research of learning and instructional strategies; â•‡ 2.â•‡describe and apply research and best practices on integrating curriculum and resources to help all learners achieve at high levels; Tasks: â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to utilize data for instructional decision making; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate the ability to design appropriate assessment strategies for measuring learner outcomes; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate the ability to implement alternative instructional designs, curriculum, behavior management, and assessment accommodations and modifications; â•‡ 6.â•‡demonstrate the ability to appropriately use information technology to support instruction.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic J.â•‡ Human-Resource Management Standards: The leader will

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â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate knowledge of effective Professional Goal: personnel recruitment, selection, and retention; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate an understanding of staff development to improve the performance of all staff members; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to select and apply appropriate models for Tasks: supervision and evaluation; â•‡ 4.â•‡describe and demonstrate the ability to apply the legal requirements for personnel selection, development, retention, and dismissal; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate understanding of management responsibilities to act in accordance with federal and state constitutional provisions, statutory and case law, regulatory applications toward education, and local rules, procedures, and directives governing humanresource management; â•‡ 6.â•‡demonstrate understanding of labor relations and collective bargaining; â•‡ 7.â•‡demonstrate understanding of the Documentation: administration of employee contracts, benefits, and financial accounts.

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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic K.â•‡ Values and Ethics of Leadership Standards: The leader will

Learning Plan

Standard #

â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate understanding of the Professional role of education in a democratic Goal: society; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate understanding of and model democratic value systems, ethics, and moral leadership; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to balance complex community demands in Tasks: the best interest of learners; â•‡ 4.â•‡help learners grow and develop as caring, informed citizens; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate understanding and application of the [Minnesota Board of School Administrators] Code of Ethics for Administrators.

Documentation:

Learning Plan

Standard #

Professional Goal:

Tasks:

Documentation:


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Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic L.â•‡ Judgment and Problem-Analysis Standards: The leader will

Learning Plan

Standard #

â•‡ 1.â•‡identify the elements of a problem Professional Goal: situation by analyzing relevant information, framing issues, identifying possible causes, and reframing possible solutions; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate adaptability and conceptual flexibility; Tasks: â•‡ 3.â•‡assist others in forming opinions about problems and issues; â•‡ 4.â•‡reach logical conclusions by making quality, timely decisions based on available information; â•‡ 5.â•‡identify and give priority to significant issues; â•‡ 6.â•‡demonstrate understanding of and utilize appropriate technology in problem analysis; â•‡ 7.â•‡demonstrate understanding of different leadership and decisionmaking strategies, including but not limited to collaborative models, and model appropriately their implementation.

Documentation:

Learning Plan

Standard #

Professional Goal:

Tasks:

Documentation:

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Chapter 10

Table 10.1.â•… Leadership Learning Plan Name:__________________ Leadership Topic M.â•‡ Safety and Security Standards: The leader will

Learning Plan

Standard #

â•‡ 1.â•‡demonstrate the ability to develop Professional Goal: and implement policies and procedures for safe and secure educational environments; â•‡ 2.â•‡demonstrate the ability to formulate safety and security plans to implement security procedures, including an articulated emergency Tasks: chain of command, safety procedures required by law, obtaining law-enforcement assistance, communication with the public, and evacuation procedures; â•‡ 3.â•‡demonstrate the ability to identify areas of vulnerability associated with school buses, buildings, and grounds and formulate a plan to take corrective action; â•‡ 4.â•‡demonstrate understanding of procedural predictabilities and plan variations, where possible; â•‡ 5.â•‡demonstrate the ability to develop plans that connect every student with a school adult, eliminate bullying and profiling, and Documentation: implement recommended threatassessment procedures.

Learning Plan

Standard #

Professional Goal:

Tasks:

Documentation:

Appendix A

Historical Overview of Leadership

What is Leadership? How has society acknowledged and portrayed leadership through history? How does a leadership disposition—or more precisely a lack thereof—cause smart and knowledgeable people to wreck professional relationships and fall short in meeting institutional goals? There are numerous theories to be considered, including the following: traditional leadership approaches, including variations of the “great man” theory; trait-leadership theory; servant leadership; and fullrange leadership, to name just a few. Traditional leadership theories focus on the leadership rights a person inherits through birth, expression of particular personality traits, or illustration of certain identified behaviors, and situational/contingency approaches seek to put leadership into context. Contemporary theories of leadership seek to highlight styles that focus on leaders as change agents and move away from attitudes of “supremacy” customarily tied to leadership. Born to Lead The great-man theory proposed by Thomas Carlyle (1888) set the stage for later philosophers who identified particular personality traits as indicators of leadership potential. “Great Men” (or women) may have certain traits that they display; however, Carlyle posited that the basis of their fit as a leaders is tied directly to their genealogy. Certain persons are simply born to lead. These individuals hail from noble families or emerge from other powerful and influential lineages. Some recent American “royalty” include the Roosevelts, Eleanor and Franklin Delano; the Kennedys, John F. and Jacqueline; and 171

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Lyndon and Lady Bird Johnson. These families, along with a history of authority plus resources (money and influence), were and continue to be recognized as icons, having influenced our society in an immeasurable fashion. Made to Lead Recently Parks (2005), as well as Kouzes and Posner (2003), have shared their belief that leaders are, in fact, made—the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of leadership can be taught and learned. Parks (2005) promotes a theory referred to as adaptive leadership in her book Leadership Can Be Taught: A Bold Approach for a Complex World. This is both a teaching and a leadership approach that is used by Ronald Heifetz, a distinguished professor of leadership at Harvard University; this approach is couched in active learning and real-time situational experiences that promote the development of reflective leaders. Critical thinking, adaptive problem solving, and flexible intra- and interpersonal communications skills are developed in leaders so that they can “mobilize” people in times of change and uncertainty. Kouzes and Posner (2003) discuss concepts related to leading in a post–9/11 world in their text The Leadership Challenge. These authors espouse the view that while the nuts and bolts of the characteristics that effective leaders share haven’t changed much over the past twenty years, the context has changed dramatically. We must now look at what exemplary leaders actually do in these uncertain times. How do exemplary leaders create cultures that sustain achievement and focus when situations change frequently and fluidly? These scholars, and others, believe that leadership skills are malleable: if we study, and practice, and if we assume flexible attitudes, creative problem solving, and people-focused behaviors demonstrated by successful leaders, we can become skilled in the art of leadership. Kouzes and Posner (2003) recognize the following behaviors as most indicative of effective leaders: • modeling the way: show others what you want them to do, develop goals that are attainable • inspiring a shared vision: know what you wish to accomplish, recruit and solicit support • challenging the process: seek occasions and take the risk • enabling others to act: create an environment of participative governance, providing others with opportunities to recognize their talents and grow their skills • encouraging the heart: individually provide recognition for accomplishments, taking time to commemorate (p. 13)


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Trait Theory In this theory, leadership ability is positioned to ultimately develop via one’s psychological and even physiological makeup. The belief that leaders are born with, or polish, the necessary personality characteristics of leaders is referred to as the trait theory of leadership. Trait theory speaks to the requirement that certain qualities of a person’s nature are a gauge of leadership aptitude. This theory holds that all leaders evidence certain traits, and that these dispositions present naturally, as innate skills—such as high intelligence. These traits, if not fully awarded through the advantage of a pedigreed bloodline, are cultured in the earliest years of a child’s development. Today, a version of this view is espoused by John C. Maxwell, a well-respected author and speaker in the field of leadership. He approaches the concept of trait theory from a perspective that one can grow these traits within oneself. He refers to this process of development as “seasoned” (Maxwell, 2002, p. 13). Observable traits or attributes that Maxwell assigns to great leaders include “boundless enthusiasm, self-discipline, demonstration of initiative, being efficient in designing and implementing processes, and having “competence, [being] connected and [having] character” (p. 47). Being smart and having awareness of facts and figures is one small element of being a strong leader as well. It is not, by far, the most essential. Content-area expertise is necessary for the success of educational institutions, in terms of having qualifications to instruct others; however, this does not mean that the intellectually gifted individual has the ability to communicate a vision, plan strategically, manage processes, and/ or create an environment in which faculty, departments, and institutions thrive. These aspects of leadership are a bit more abstract and difficult to pin down; however, they are critical pieces of the effective-leadership puzzle. Western society specifically recognizes certain traits—such as charisma, skills of persuasion, an ability to galvanize and motivate, having confidence, demonstrating authority, and displaying unstoppable energy—as essential for persons holding positions of leadership. While this list of traits may seem reasonable, questions about this theory proliferate. If one is not born with those characteristics, might a person with a willing heart cultivate these qualities to achieve success? Is it necessary to have all of these traits to be successful? Are some traits more accessible and necessary for leaders? When? In what situations might these particular traits be required? Additional concerns in this regard include the consideration that these particular terms are now recognized as being somewhat gender biased, highlighting traits most commonly found in males and descriptions of male-oriented leadership throughout history (Takala and Aaltio, 2006). Because some leaders do not have some or all of these characteristics and, in others, abilities are demon-

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Appendix A

strated in a wide range, the premise of trait leadership as the complete answer to achieving the means to outstanding leadership is weak. Contingency / Adaptive and Situational Leadership Contingency theory, the idea that there are particular situations in which all persons will have either a greater or lesser skill in leading, primarily due to their task or relationship orientations and the particular situations they are working to unravel, was promoted initially by Fiedler (1967). Parks (2005) extended this theory into adaptive/situational leadership theory. The perceived effectiveness of the leader is influenced not only by what he or she does in a particular situation. It is also essential to consider the nature of the particular circumstance itself, plus the talent of each person. Situational leadership describes a person’s flexibility in reacting to various situations by adapting his or her approach or style. The charge then for executive leadership is to determine which situations specific leaders will be most successful in, and to place them appropriately. This approach, while reasonable in the “ivory tower,” is extremely difficult to implement in our educational systems as we cannot pick up and move leaders as if they were isolated toys. We need to develop leaders who are generalists, those who have enough knowledge and leadership skill to know when to bring in others to assist and to feel comfortable in asking for help when needed. Chaos Leadership Theory Chaos leadership theory, promoted by Wheatley (1999), examines how the innate complexity and corresponding ephemeral nature of today’s institutional concerns challenge administrators to use a new leadership approach, one that is focused on “systems thinking” rather than a more traditional approach. Conventional leadership attitudes and strategies attempt to paint diverse problems with a standardized “solution for all situations” brush. Unfortunately, this approach is ineffectual. Within chaos theory, main factors include recognition that the • framework itself, that is the context within which the issues themselves arise, is dynamic in nature and shifts continually; • organizational structures of educational institutions have changed over time and leadership practices are unique to context, as outlined above.


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Some terms used to assist our understanding of this theory include global consideration (systems), networks, partnering, collaboration, and sitebased decision making (Kezar, Carducci, and Contreras-McGavin, 2006). Flexibility, open-mindedness, and the ability to comprehensively view the entire situation—including the relationships to and with the junior functions of the organization—are critical to successful leadership within the chaos theory. Leaders are called on to operate at the systems level, focusing on the connections between organizational roles and tasks, as well as fostering interdependent relationships inside and outside the organization (Kezar et al., 2006). Transformational Leadership Bass and Avolio (1999) take a middle-of-the-road position, indicating that leaders are both born and made. If a person has certain dispositions with which he or she is born, the skills and knowledge of leadership may be learned during his or her experiential journey through life. Transformational leadership, according to Bass and Avolio’s Full Range Leadership (1997) model, encompasses four leadership attributes that advance change-oriented leadership: individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence. Individualized consideration speaks to the concept that it is necessary to have empathy, and to recognize individuals as being unique and having individual talents and potential. Specifically, paying attention to the talents, desires, and coaching needs of each person is important. Intellectual stimulation considers the ability of the leader to create critical thinkers, to help others see situations in a new light. Inspirational motivation is the vision piece. Not only do these leaders articulate the goal, but they are able to bring into line needs common to both institution and staff via idealized influence, considered the most important idea in this model. Bass and Avolio write that persuasive leaders are acknowledged as authentic, credible, and ethical in the use of their positional authority. These leaders develop others rather than suppressing talent, and promote the ideals of responsibility and opportunity for those with whom they work. Cognitive Leadership Similar in focus to Bass and Avolio’s (1997) intellectual-stimulation concept is the theory of cognitive leadership. This theory focuses on intellectual processes—specifically, those based in the value of reflective deliberation of

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Appendix A

multiple perspectives. “Cognitive leaders are said to utilize their critical thinking and problem analysis skills as they seek, take in and consider information and data from diverse sources. It is also important to recognize that this metacognition process is influenced by the leader’s own cognitive lens, be it political, symbolic and/or structural” (Kezar et al., 2006, p. 50). The ability of the leader to learn how to become critically reflective in decision making is crucial to this approach. Relational Leadership The relational-leadership model has been around for a long time and is based on leader-subordinate relationships. The relational leader is cognizant of inter- and intrapersonal relationships and how they influence the organization. Relational leadership is about people and their perspectives on how a leader treats colleagues and subordinates in the organization. Dyer (2001) writes that “the ABC’s and XYZ’s of leading organizations come down to how you connect with others” (p. 1). Dyer cites six competencies of an effective relational leader: 1.â•‡ leading employees 2.â•‡ interpersonal savvy 3.â•‡ work-team orientation 4.â•‡ conflict management 5.â•‡ managing change in others 6.â•‡ effectively confronting problem employees Relational leadership is more than being a “people person” and is not being a “touchy-feely” person. It is about recognizing that an organization’s greatest asset is its people, and responding accordingly (Dyer, 2001). Schwahn and Spady (2001) discuss their “Total Leader,” a synthesis of the leadership theories of one hundred authors on leadership. One of five domains for Schwahn and Spady’s Total Leader is the cultural leadership domain. “Cultural leadership is people-oriented and creates an optimistic, inclusive, participatory, and healthy organizational climate” (p. 26). Cultural leaders, like relational leaders, involve all staff in the transformation process and promote an environment that encourages innovation, develops positive associations among constituents, and brings about a change process that is meaningful for all stakeholders. The cultural leader possesses dispositions that include integrity and commitment; he or she works within a context of inclusiveness.


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Servant Leadership Within the full-range leadership model one can also find the concepts and ideas espoused by proponents of servant leadership. Steven Covey outlines the “core” of this servant-leadership philosophy in his discussion on conscience through the “four dimensions of moral authority” (Greenleaf, 2002, pp. 6–10). This includes the following points: • The essence of moral authority or conscience is sacrifice. The act of inhibiting of the ego, whose focus is defensiveness and selfcentered ambition, will create a sphere of ethical influence. • Conscience inspires us to become part of a cause worthy of our commitment. Instead of following our own goals blindly, we need to ask instead what the right thing is for us to do; it if feels wrong, it probably is so. • Conscience teaches us that ends and means are inseparable. Intentions, if implemented harmfully, lose their worth. In other words, the end does not justify the means. • Conscience introduces us into the world of relationships . . . Conscience also transforms passion into compassion. Rapport building and authentic relationships are essential elements of successful leadership practice. Servant leadership is also one of the domains of Schwahn and Spady’s (2001) Total Leader. Servant leaders empower subordinates to achieve the organization’s purpose and vision. Servant leaders create collaborative opportunities for others to utilize their talents and skills for the organization’s success. Flexible procedures, resources, and organizational structures are used by the servant leader to assist others in reaching personal and institutional goals. The servant leader focuses on • supporting and managing the organization’s purpose and vision; • restructuring to achieve intended results; • rewarding positive contributions to productive change. Risk taking and teamwork are core values for the servant leader in an environment where no one person has special status or takes credit. Often servant leaders take on added tasks in the team working process or “by nature choose to do the ‘heavy lifting’ without the glory or headlines” (Schwahn and Spady, 2001, p. 107). “Total leaders openly acknowledge that ‘no one of us is as smart as all of us,’ and they know that the complex tasks of today’s organizations usually require the efforts of an effective team” (p. 108).

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Covey (2008) asserts that the team effort is especially vital in today’s environment, where the expectation is to produce more for less. That can only be accomplished and maintained through the utilization of the talents and skills of the entire team—empowerment—and empowerment can only be realized through a high-trust culture where bosses are servant leaders and coaches. “Leaders are learning that this kind of empowerment, which is what Servant Leadership represents, is one of the key principles that, based on practice, not talk, will be the deciding point between an organization’s enduring success or its eventual extinction” (par. 5). Conclusion In ending this discussion on leadership, it is necessary to consider how “leadership” differs from “management.” The common understanding is that a manager organizes people, resources, and processes with the goal of carrying out the institutional mission. “Management is not something you do to other people. You manage your inventory, your checkbook, and your resources. You can even manage yourself. But you do not manage other human beings. You manage things, you lead people” (Hunter, 1998, p. 28). A leader must have management skills; however, a manager may not demonstrate leadership dispositions. Leaders are able to articulate their vision and use every available talent and skill to influence, pull, push, and persuade others to join them in making change and realization of the vision possible. This, however, is easier said than done. The highly educated workforce today, interacting in complex and fastpaced institutional environments, requires that leadership operate in a manner that is philosophically different from a traditional leadership model. Approaches that are strictly hierarchical in structure, standardized in process, and predictable in practice lead to, at best, retention of the status quo, a lack of growth, and disintegration of our programs, schools, and higher education institutions at worst. Today, people are primarily knowledge workers, and leadership models that may have worked in factories during the early 1900s do not produce quality results with an educated workforce. A leader must have more than personality traits, access to money, and political associations if he or she wants to be more than a figurehead. To be effective and to hold positions of authority for any length of time, leaders must be flexible problem solvers and critical thinkers. They must recognize their own humanness and the humanness of those with whom they work. Leaders see themselves as a member of the team, a part of the solution, rather than the solitary solution bringer. Today’s leader is not only a visionary, but one who can facilitate rather than direct, juggle mul-


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tiple and complex issues, and adapt quickly to change rather than providing the same answer for every concern. Table A.1.â•… Leadership-Theory Matrix

Theory

Scholars

Elements

Born or Made

Adaptive Leadership / Situational Leadership (Developed from Contingency Leadership from the 1960s) Chaos-Leadership Theory

Parks Heifetz Posner Lindsky Fiedler

• Leadership fitness can be developed by strengthening critical thinking, adaptive problem solving, and flexible intra/interpersonal communication skills.

Made

Heifetz Marion Uhl-Bien Wheatley Benisimon Birnbaum Griffin Neumann Costa Garmston Bowden Binghan Carlyle Kilbourne Covey Greenleaf Max De Pree Schwahn & Spady Drucker Blanchard

• Systems thinking is utilized to create effective solutions.

Made

• Leading is about critical reflection of multiple perspectives.

Made

• Fitness is earned by lineage and family money.

Born

• Leaders let go of ego, allowing those at lower levels of the organization to have power and decision-making authority.

Made

Elements

Born or Made

Cognitive-Leadership Theory

“Great Man” Theory

Servant-Leadership Theory

Theory

Scholars

Relational Theory

Dryer Schwahn & Spady Covey Sergiovanni Deal

• Collaborative • Inter- and intra-relationships • How to treat people • Vary perspectives • People person

Born & Made

Appendix A

180

Table A.1.â•… Leadership-Theory Matrix Trait Theory

Gardener Maxwell

TransformationalLeadership Theory/ Full-Range Leadership

Bass Avolio Barnard

• Personality characteristics (e.g., charisma, intelligence, energy) indicate leadership fitness.

• Leaders are fit when they promote change through developing/coaching staff; encouraging others to think critically; tying the vision to both the needs of staff and that of the institution; & being authentic and honest in approach.

Born (and if you have the dispositions they can be further developed) Made

Appendix B

Leadership Tips

Chapter 2: “I Am the Boss and You Are Not” Leadership Tip 1: Communicate in a manner that encourages input. Leadership Tip 2: Share the logic and reasoning behind an unpopular position with other stakeholders. Leadership Tip 3: Be aware of how your verbal and nonverbal messages might be received by others. Leadership Tip 4: Communicate with staff respectfully, regardless of your emotional state. If necessary, take time to refocus on your primary goal. Leadership Tip 5: It is unrealistic to expect others to support your directives simply because of your position. Leadership Tip 6: Provide time to hear comments, concerns, and feedback from subordinates on schoolwide issues. Leadership Tip 7: Allow others to fulfill their responsibilities as assigned without micromanaging. Leadership Tip 8: Use your authority with care. Use positional power to make directives during only the most crucial situations. Leadership Tip 9: Be open-minded to ideas other than your own. Behave in a way that builds trust and loyalty by listening to subordinates’ reasoning and giving them the benefit of the doubt. Leadership Tip 10: Model the behaviors and dispositions you desire in your subordinates. Leadership Tip 11: Give sincere consideration to suggestions made by subordinates. Leadership Tip 12: Recognize and encourage the potential of others by providing opportunities for leadership. 181

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Leadership Tip 13: Be willing to accept the team’s recommendation even if it is not your preference. Leadership Tip 14: Be forthright and open about problems, especially during times of stress and dissension; it will lessen the frustration and anger that you will encounter. Leadership Tip 15: Do not allow your emotional state to affect how you communicate with staff. The educational leader needs to be a medium who facilitates processes and buoys up faculty and staff members, creating an effective environment for teaching and learning. Chapter 3: “Do as I Say, Not as I Do” Leadership Tip 16: Invite all stakeholders to participate in the decisionmaking process. This will create cohesive support for the final decision. Leadership Tip 17: Maintain high ethical standards for yourself by asking yourself, “Would I support this behavior from a subordinate or colleague? If a newspaper reporter became aware of this behavior, would he or she find it newsworthy?” Leadership Tip 18: Show respect to your subordinates by following the rules you set, without exception. Leadership Tip 19: If it feels wrong, it probably is. Ask yourself if you would be completely comfortable having this decision or action publicized. Expend the time necessary to ensure that decisions made and actions carried out are ethical. Leadership Tip 20: Pay attention to the needs and requests of your staff. Your willingness to compromise will increase their loyalty and commitment to the institution. Leadership Tip 21: Maintain professional impartiality. This will allow you to switch between informal and formal roles. Separate personal relationships from professional duties and responsibilities. Leadership Tip 22: Recognize your personal biases and keep them in check. Leadership Tip 23: Recognize that as a leader you hold the responsibility of being a model for subordinates. Take this duty seriously. Leadership Tip 24: Communicate with discretion regarding work-related issues. Recognize that colleagues and friends at work now have a different relationship with you. As much as you would like to, do not provide disclosures to them that are inappropriate for sharing. Leadership Tip 25: Stay true to your convictions.

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Chapter 4: Take All the Credit and None of the Blame Leadership Tip 26: First and foremost, give credit to faculty and staff for their efforts on a project and minimize or totally omit your own contributions. Leadership Tip 27: Accept the blame when appropriate and take responsibility for your actions. Make changes to your behavior as necessary. Leadership Tip 28: Understand that success will be short-lived without the continued efforts of the team working toward a common goal. Leadership Tip 29: Embrace humility: This is a quality great leaders share. Leadership Tip 30: In challenging situations, set aside your ego and use cognitive-coaching skills to engage your team in problem solving. Leadership Tip 31: Take all, or more than your share of, the blame, and give more credit than you take. Chapter 5: Keep the Information Treasure Hidden Leadership Tip 32: Anticipate that staff may be skeptical and have questions and concerns about your actions. It is the leader’s responsibility to prepare his or her staff by educating them regarding the reasons for decisions. Leadership Tip 33: Make time to communicate, even when you believe you do not have any to spare. Leadership Tip 34: Realize and accept that there will be times that you will make mistakes. If this happens, be forthright in sharing the error. Remember that staff members already know that you are not perfect. Leadership Tip 35: Consciously reflect on who would benefit from the sharing of information; err on the side of overcommunication. Leadership Tip 36: Share information early and frequently, before decisions are made. Leadership Tip 37: Avoid the assumption that others are not capable of understanding the issues, concepts, information, and values involved. It is the responsibility of the leader to educate staff and constituents on the topic and keep them well informed. Leadership Tip 38: Collaboration enhances the educational environment; competition may encourage secrecy and the hoarding of information. Leadership Tip 39: Keep the staff rowing in the same direction by sharing information regarding goals and manner of implementation.

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Leadership Tip 40: Unless the information is damaging to others in the community or should be kept confidential for legal reasons, the benefits of sharing outweigh the potential problems caused by secrecy. Share when appropriate. Leadership Tip 41: Proactively assess the physical limitations of communication in your facility, discuss the limitations with those impacted, and compensate creatively. Leadership Tip 42: Provide acknowledgement and recognition to those who share, giving credit when due. Leadership Tip 43: Realize that using technology may seem intuitively to be the best way to communicate; however, electronic communication is easily misunderstood and may be impersonal. Leadership Tip 44: Determine the best way to compensate for technology systems that do not integrate well. Leadership Tip 45: When encountering skepticism about information used for decision making, stop and provide the needed data to ensure understanding of, and support for, your decision or course of action. Be sure to choose research from reliable sources to support your view. Leadership Tip 46: Find out what methods of communication are preferred by staff members and use them, making desired information readily available. Leadership Tip 47: Share knowledge to teach and develop others. Information will help others work toward achieving the institution’s mission. Chapter 6: Hiding behind Closed Doors Leadership Tip 48: Make yourself available to your staff. It is important for relationship building, teachers’ professional growth, and school effectiveness. Leadership Tip 49: It is vital to have a verbal conversation, if the communication (issue, message, or decision) is really important. Leadership Tip 50: If you are an introverted leader, you will have to make extra efforts to step out of your comfort zone and be more interactive with others. Leadership Tip 51: If you have a tendency to be moody or sarcastic, or to have emotional outbursts, take time to process the situation before responding. It’s all right to say, “Let me think about it. I’ll get back to you.” Leadership Tip 52: Acknowledge that you do not have an answer for every problem. Create opportunities for reflection and dialogue on potential solutions within your learning community.

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Leadership Tip 53: Have the fortitude to actively face the tough decisions, reflecting, engaging others in discussion, and determining solutions. Not making a decision, or delaying one, often exacerbates the situation. Leadership Tip 54: In your career, you will undoubtedly make some poor decisions. When this happens, acknowledge and learn from these mistakes. Try to forgive yourself. Leadership Tip 55: Be courageous. If you adopt conflict-avoidance behaviors (avoiding, yielding, hiding your emotions, or self-criticizing), it is likely the situation will worsen and be more difficult to manage. Leadership Tip 56: Embrace conflict and understand that it is a necessary part of change and growth in any organization. Chapter 7: “sure, I’ll Pretend to Listen” Leadership Tip 57: Clarify staff’s role in the decision-making process up front. Are they providing information, or making the decision, or giving recommendations? Leadership Tip 58: If you ask professionals to participate in a decisionmaking process, respond by incorporating suggestions/recommendations, or explain why the input was not accepted and share your rationale. Leadership Tip 59: Before making final decisions, reflect on the congruence between proposed actions and constituents’ values, organizational goals, and strategic initiatives. Leadership Tip 60: Ensure that all participants fully understand the challenge, are aware of the possible options and outcomes, and have time to consider the issue from their own and multiple perspectives. Leadership Tip 61: The more transparent and inclusive a process is, the closer a leader will come to creating an environment of cooperation rather than crisis. Leadership Tip 62: The best decisions are made with the input of those in the trenches. Leadership Tip 63: Strong leaders make efforts to increase their own awareness and acknowledge the degree of collaboration in which they are most comfortable. Leadership Tip 64: Involve constituents to the greatest level possible, with the knowledge that different types of decisions require different levels of participation and decision-making authority. Leadership Tip 65: The success or failure of collaborative efforts is grounded in the use of democratic principles.

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Appendix B

Chapter 8: My Lack of Planning Is, in Fact, Your Emergency Leadership Tip 66: Understand the value of organizational management as part of effective leadership. Get organized or get help. Leadership Tip 67: Effective school leaders have solid, defined rules, procedures, and expectations for students, staff members, and visitors. Leadership Tip 68: Instructional leaders sustain focus on student learning and implement systems that support a culture of learning. Leadership Tip 69: Use the strategic plan as a guide in all decision making. Successful organizations create and use strategic plans that outline vision, mission, values, and action plans. Leadership Tip 70: Engage in process thinking, analyzing data and collaboratively streamlining processes to efficiently reach desired goals. Leadership Tip 71: Appreciate the significance of time management and the negative impact lack of planning has on the school community. If you are not innately an organized person, seek training in this area and hire an administrative assistant with these skills to help you get organized. Chapter 9: “Don’t Diss Me” Leadership Tip 72: It is possible to think too highly of yourself. Don’t let ego interfere with taking input, feedback, and/or suggestions from others. Leadership Tip 73: Humility is a vital trait for effective leaders. Being humble enough to recognize that you do not need to have all the answers to every situation that may arise will create opportunity for greater collaboration and better decision making. Leadership Tip 74: To prevent escalation in challenging situations, give everyone an opportunity to be heard, and acknowledge the value of others’ perspectives. Being right is not always what is most important. Leadership Tip 75: Become familiar with the theory of emotional intelligence. Knowledge of emotional intelligences will help you gain better insight into your own and others’ emotions, creating opportunities for improved performance and stronger leadership throughout the organization. Leadership Tip 76: Recognize that you cannot be totally aware of others’ perception of you. For this reason it is important to seek this information through a formal process. Leadership Tip 77: When reflecting on input (formal and informal) provided by subordinates, colleagues, or supervisors, act objectively and consider new truths.

Leadership Tips

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Leadership Tip 78: Based on input from others, set personal performance goals building on your strengths. Additionally, determine safe times and places to practice new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving—perhaps with family or close, trusted colleagues.

Appendix C

National Standards for Headteachers

Date of issue: 10/2004 Ref: DfES/0083/2004 Contents* Introduction Shaping the Future Leading Learning and Teaching Developing Self and Working with Others Managing the Organisation Securing Accountability Strengthening Community Introduction to the National Standards for Headteachers This revision to the National Standards for Headteachers is published following widespread consultation within the profession. It reflects the evolving role of headship in the early 21st century and incorporates current government thinking and guidance. The Standards recognise the key role that headteachers play in engaging in the development and delivery of government policy and in raising and maintaining levels of attainment in schools in order to meet the needs of every child. * PSI license number C2009002291. Used by permission.

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Appendix C

190

The Standards embody three key principles, namely that the work of headteachers should be: learning-centred, focused on leadership and reflect the highest possible professional standards. These principles have guided this development and underpin the core purpose and key areas of headship. The Core Purpose of the Headteacher The core purpose of the headteacher is to provide professional leadership and management for a school. This will promote a secure foundation from which to achieve high standards in all areas of the school’s work. To gain this success a headteacher must establish high quality education by effectively managing teaching and learning and using personalised learning to realise the potential of all pupils. Headteachers must establish a culture that promotes excellence, equality and high expectations of all pupils. The headteacher is the leading professional in the school. Accountable to the governing body, the headteacher provides vision, leadership and direction for the school and ensures that it is managed and organised to meet its aims and targets. The headteacher, working with others, is responsible for evaluating the school’s performance to identify the priorities for continuous improvement and raising standards; ensuring equality of opportunity for all; developing policies and practices; ensuring that resources are efficiently and effectively used to achieve the school’s aims and objectives and for the dayto-day management, organisation and administration of the school. The headteacher, working with and through others, secures the commitment of the wider community to the school by developing and maintaining effective partnerships with, for example, schools, other services and agencies for children, the LEA, higher education institutions and employers. Through such partnerships and other activities, headteachers play a key role in contributing to the development of the education system as a whole and collaborate with others to raise standards locally. Drawing on the support provided by members of the school community, the headteacher is responsible for creating a productive learning environment which is engaging and fulfilling for all pupils. The key areas The Standards are set out in six key non-hierarchical areas. These six key areas, when taken together, represent the role of the headteacher. • Shaping the Future • Leading Learning and Teaching


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• Developing Self and Working with Others • Managing the Organisation • Securing Accountability • Strengthening Community Within each of these key areas, the knowledge requirements, professional qualities (skills, dispositions and personal capabilities headteachers bring to the role) and actions needed to achieve the core purpose are identified. Whilst particular knowledge and professional qualities are assigned to one of the six key areas, it is important to emphasise that they are interdependent and many are applicable to all key areas. Headteachers will attach relative importance to the actions, and add others, as they define the strategic and operational priorities within their own diverse contexts. Effective headteachers are responsive to the context of the school and maintain an overview that integrates their work into a coherent whole. Using the Standards The National Standards for Headteachers are generic and are applicable to headteachers irrespective of phase and type of school. They are intended to provide a framework for professional development and action and to inform, challenge and enthuse serving and aspiring headteachers. The Standards, therefore, have a range of uses. They will assist in the recruitment of headteachers and in performance management processes. They provide guidance to all school stakeholders in what should be expected from the role of the headteacher and are also used to identify threshold levels of performance for the assessment framework within the National Professional Qualification for Headship (NPQH). This document is advisory and is part of a suite of resources (including, for example, Schoolteachers’ Pay and Conditions, Ofsted Framework for Inspection; GTC Code of Professional Values and Practice) which inform and govern professional practice. Shaping the Future Critical to the role of headship is working with the governing body and others to create a shared vision and strategic plan which inspires and motivates pupils, staff and all other members of the school community. This vision should express core educational values and moral purpose and be inclusive of stakeholders’ values and beliefs. The strategic planning process is critical to sustaining school improvement and ensuring that the school moves forward for the benefit of its pupils.

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Knowledge Knows about: • Local, national and global trends • Ways to build, communicate and implement a shared vision • Strategic planning processes • Strategies for communication both within and beyond the school • New technologies, their use and impact • Leading change, creativity and innovation Professional Qualities Is committed to: • A collaborative school vision of excellence and equity that sets high standards for every pupil • The setting and achieving of ambitious, challenging goals and targets • The use of appropriate new technologies • Inclusion and the ability and right of all to be the best they can be Is able to: • Think strategically, build and communicate a coherent vision in a range of compelling ways • Inspire, challenge, motivate and empower others to carry the vision forward • Model the values and vision of the school Actions: • Ensures the vision for the school is clearly articulated, shared, understood and acted upon effectively by all • Works within the school community to translate the vision into agreed objectives and operational plans which will promote and sustain school improvement • Demonstrates the vision and values in everyday work and practice • Motivates and works with others to create a shared culture and positive climate • Ensures creativity, innovation and the use of appropriate new technologies to achieve excellence • Ensures that strategic planning takes account of the diversity, values and experience of the school and community at large


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Leading Learning & Teaching Headteachers have a central responsibility for raising the quality of teaching and learning and for pupils’ achievement. This implies setting high expectations and monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of learning outcomes. A successful learning culture will enable pupils to become effective, enthusiastic, independent learners, committed to life-long learning. Knowledge Knows about: • Strategies for raising achievement and achieving excellence • The development of a personalised learning culture within the school • Models of learning and teaching • The use of new and emerging technologies to support learning and teaching • Principles of effective teaching and assessment for learning • Models of behaviour and attendance management • Strategies for ensuring inclusion, diversity and access • Curriculum design and management • Tools for data collection and analysis • Using research evidence to inform teaching and learning • Monitoring and evaluating performance • School self evaluation • Strategies for developing effective teachers Professional Qualities Is committed to: • The raising standards for all in the pursuit of excellence • The continuing learning of all members of the school community • The entitlement of all pupils to effective teaching and learning • Choice and flexibility in learning to meet the personalized learning needs of every child Is able to: • Demonstrate personal enthusiasm for and commitment to the learning process • Demonstrate the principles and practice of effective teaching and learning • Access, analyze and interpret information

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• Initiate and support research and debate about effective learning and teaching and develop relevant strategies for performance improvement • Acknowledge excellence and challenge poor performance across the school Actions: • Ensures a consistent and continuous school-wide focus on pupils’ achievement, using data and benchmarks to monitor progress in every child’s learning • Ensures that learning is at the centre of strategic planning and resource management • Establishes creative, responsive and effective approaches to learning and teaching • Ensures a culture and ethos of challenge and support where all pupils can achieve success and become engaged in their own learning • Demonstrates and articulates high expectations and sets stretching targets for the whole school community • Implements strategies which secure high standards of behaviour and attendance • Determines, organizes and implements a diverse, flexible curriculum and implements an effective assessment framework • Takes a strategic role in the development of new and emerging technologies to enhance and extend the learning experience of pupils • Monitors, evaluates and reviews classroom practice and promotes improvement strategies • Challenges underperformance at all levels and ensures effective corrective action and follow-up Developing Self and Working with Others Effective relationships and communication are important in headship as headteachers work with and through others. Effective headteachers manage themselves and their relationships well. Headship is about building a professional learning community which enables others to achieve. Through performance management and effective continuing professional development practice, the headteacher supports all staff to achieve high standards. To equip themselves with the capacity to deal with the complexity of the role and the range of leadership skills and actions required of them, headteachers should be committed to their own continuing professional development.


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Knowledge Knows about: • The significance of interpersonal relationships, adult learning and models of continuing professional development (CPD) • Strategies to promote individual and team development • Building and sustaining a learning community • The relationship between managing performance, CPD and sustained school improvement • The impact of change on organisations and individuals Professional Qualities Is committed to: • Effective working relationships • Shared leadership • Effective team working • Continuing professional development for self and all others within the school Is able to: • Foster an open, fair, equitable culture and manage conflict • Develop, empower and sustain individuals and teams • Collaborate and network with others within and beyond the school • Challenge, influence and motivate others to attain high goals • Give and receive effective feedback and act to improve personal performance • Accept support from others including colleagues, governors and the LEA Actions: • Treats people fairly, equitably and with dignity and respect to create and maintain a positive school culture • Builds a collaborative learning culture within the school and actively engages with other schools to build effective learning communities • Develops and maintains effective strategies and procedures for staff induction, professional development and performance review • Ensures effective planning, allocation, support and evaluation of work undertaken by teams and individuals, ensuring clear delegation of tasks and devolution of responsibilities

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• Acknowledges the responsibilities and celebrates the achievements of individuals and teams • Develops and maintains a culture of high expectations for self and for others and takes appropriate action when performance is unsatisfactory • Regularly reviews own practice, sets personal targets and takes responsibility for own personal development • Manages own workload and that of others to allow an appropriate work/life balance Managing the Organisation Headteachers need to provide effective organisation and management of the school and seek ways of improving organisational structures and functions based on rigorous self-evaluation. Headteachers should ensure that the school and the people and resources within it are organised and managed to provide an efficient, effective and safe learning environment. These management responsibilities imply the re-examination of the roles and responsibilities of those adults working in the school to build capacity across the workforce and ensure resources are deployed to achieve value for money. Headteachers should also seek to build successful organisations through effective collaborations with others. Knowledge Knows about: • Models of organisations and principles of organisational development • Principles and models of self-evaluation • Principles and practice of earned autonomy • Principles and strategies of school improvement • Project management for planning and implementing change • Policy creation, through consultation and review • Informed decision-making • Strategic financial planning, budgetary management and principles of best value • Performance management • Personnel, governance, security and access issues relating to the diverse use of school facilities • Legal issues relating to managing a school including Equal Opportunities, Race Relations, Disability, Human Rights and Employment legislation


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• The use of new and emerging technologies to enhance organisational effectiveness Professional Qualities Is committed to: • Distributed leadership and management • The equitable management of staff and resources • The sustaining of personal motivation and that of all staff • The developing and sustaining of a safe, secure and healthy school environment • Collaborating with others in order to strengthen the school’s organisational capacity and contribute to the development of capacity in other schools Is able to: • Establish and sustain appropriate structures and systems • Manage the school efficiently and effectively on a day-to-day basis • Delegate management tasks and monitor their implementation • Prioritise, plan and organise themselves and others • Make professional, managerial and organisational decisions based on informed judgements • Think creatively to anticipate and solve problems Actions: • Creates an organisational structure which reflects the school’s values, and enables the management systems, structures and processes to work effectively in line with legal requirements • Produces and implements clear, evidence-based improvement plans and policies for the development of the school and its facilities • Ensures that, within an autonomous culture, policies and practices take account of national and local circumstances, policies and initiatives • Manages the school’s financial and human resources effectively and efficiently to achieve the school’s educational goals and priorities • Recruits, retains and deploys staff appropriately and manages their workload to achieve the vision and goals of the school • Implements successful performance management processes with all staff • Manages and organises the school environment efficiently and effectively to ensure that it meets the needs of the curriculum and health and safety regulations

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• Ensures that the range, quality and use of all available resources is monitored, evaluated and reviewed to improve the quality of education for all pupils and provide value for money • Uses and integrates a range of technologies effectively and efficiently to manage the school Securing Accountability With values at the heart of their leadership, headteachers have a responsibility to the whole school community. In carrying out this responsibility, headteachers are accountable to a wide range of groups, particularly pupils, parents, carers, governors and the LEA. They are accountable for ensuring that pupils enjoy and benefit from a high quality education, for promoting collective responsibility within the whole school community and for contributing to the education service more widely. Headteachers are legally and contractually accountable to the governing body for the school, its environment and all its work. Knowledge Knows about: • Statutory educational frameworks, including governance • Public services policy and accountability frameworks, including self evaluation and multi-agency working • The contribution that education makes to developing, promoting and sustaining a fair and equitable society • The use of a range of evidence, including performance data, to support, monitor, evaluate and improve aspects of school life, including challenging poor performance • The principles and practice of quality assurance systems, including school review, self evaluation and performance management • Stakeholder and community engagement in, and accountability for, the success and celebration of the school’s performance Professional Qualities Is committed to: • Principles and practice of school self evaluation • The school working effectively and efficiently towards the academic, spiritual, moral, social, emotional and cultural development of all its pupils


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• Individual, team and whole-school accountability for pupil learning outcomes Is able to: • Demonstrate political insight and anticipate trends • Engage the school community in the systematic and rigorous self-evaluation of the work of the school • Collect and use a rich set of data to understand the strengths and weaknesses of the school • Combine the outcomes of regular school self-review with external evaluations in order to develop the school Actions: • Fulfils commitments arising from contractual accountability to the governing body • Develops a school ethos which enables everyone to work collaboratively, share knowledge and understanding, celebrate success and accept responsibility for outcomes • Ensures individual staff accountabilities are clearly defined, understood and agreed and are subject to rigorous review and evaluation • Works with the governing body (providing information, objective advice and support) to enable it to meet its responsibilities • Develops and presents a coherent, understandable and accurate account of the school’s performance to a range of audiences including governors, parents and carers • Reflects on personal contribution to school achievements and takes account of feedback from others

Strengthening Community Schools exist in a distinctive social context, which has a direct impact on what happens inside the school. School leadership should commit to engaging with the internal and external school community to secure equity and entitlement. Headteachers should collaborate with other schools in order to share expertise and bring positive benefits to their own and other schools. They should work collaboratively at both strategic and operational levels with parents and carers and across multiple agencies for the well-being of all children. Headteachers share responsibility for leadership of the wider educational system and should

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be aware that school improvement and community development are interdependent. Knowledge Knows about: • Current issues and future trends that impact on the school community • The rich and diverse resources within local communities—both human and physical • The wider curriculum beyond school and the opportunities it provides for pupils and the school community • Models of school, home, community and business partnerships • The work of other agencies and opportunities for collaboration • Strategies which encourage parents and carers to support their children’s learning • The strengths, capabilities and objectives of other schools Professional Qualities Is committed to: • Effective team work within the school and with external partners • Work with other agencies for the well-being of all pupils and their families • Involvement of parents and the community in supporting the learning of children and in defining and realising the school vision • Collaboration and networking with other schools to improve outcomes Is able to: • Recognise and take account of the richness and diversity of the school’s communities • Engage in a dialogue which builds partnerships and community consensus on values, beliefs and shared responsibilities • Listen to, reflect and act on community feedback • Build and maintain effective relationships with parents, carers, partners and the community, that enhance the education of all pupils Actions: • Builds a school culture and curriculum which takes account of the richness and diversity of the school’s communities


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• Creates and promotes positive strategies for challenging racial and other prejudice and dealing with racial harassment • Ensures learning experiences for pupils are linked into and integrated with the wider community • Ensures a range of community-based learning experiences • Collaborates with other agencies in providing for the academic, spiritual, moral, social, emotional and cultural well-being of pupils and their families • Creates and maintains an effective partnership with parents and carers to support and improve pupils’ achievement and personal development • Seeks opportunities to invite parents and carers, community figures, businesses or other organisations into the school to enhance and enrich the school and its value to the wider community • Contributes to the development of the education system by, for example, sharing effective practice, working in partnership with other schools and promoting innovative initiatives • Co-operates and works with relevant agencies to protect children You can download this publication or order copies online at www.teachernet. gov.uk/publications. Search using the ref: DfES/0083/2004 Copies of this publication can also be obtained from: DfES Publications PO Box 5050 Sherwood Park Annesley Nottingham NG15 0DJ. Tel: 0845 60 222 60 Fax: 0845 60 333 60 Textphone: 0845 60 555 60 email: [email protected] Please quote ref: DfES/0083/2004 ISBN: 1-84478-314-6. PPAPG/D(Eng)/1004/34 © Crown copyright 2004 Produced by the Department for Education and Skills Extracts from this document may be reproduced for noncommercial education or training purposes on the condition that the source is acknowledged.

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About the Authors

Dr. Tamara Arnott is director of program development for Anoka Ramsey Community College, a member of the Minnesota State Colleges and University system. Arnott has twenty years of experience as a licensed public-school administrator and educator, with a demonstrated track record working collaboratively with faculty and staff and sharing with faculty “best practices” in regard to program/curriculum development, assessment, and pedagogical methods in face-to-face and online environments. Her professional practice benefits from a unique combination of experience: she has served in leadership posts in public, private, nonprofit, and for-profit K–12 and higher-education settings. Her interests lie in educational and instructional leadership, crucial for the development and success of today’s students. Dr. Gayla Holmgren-Hoeller is the Minnesota State Director for North Central Association (NCA), Commission on Accreditation and School Improvement (CASI), AdvancED and works with pre-K–12 school accreditation and school improvement for public, private, charter, for-profit, and Bureau of Indian Affairs schools. Holmgren-Hoeller was a public-school educator for thirty-four years and has twenty-five years in education-administration leadership positions, including assistant superintendent, high-school principal, assistant principal, and postsecondary administrator. In addition, she has supervised numerous multimillion-dollar federal grants and has taught education-administration classes for future principals and superintendents for over ten years. HolmgrenHoeller has also mentored numerous new principals throughout her career. Her many years of experience working with veteran and new administrators have given Holmgren-Hoeller a wealth of knowledge to draw from in relating actual “missteps” relevant to the chapter themes in this book. 211

Blundering Leadership: Missteps by School Administrators

School District Leadership Matters

School Leadership for the 21st Century (School Leadership)

School Administrators and Technology: Meeting the Standards

Current issues in school leadership

The Art of School Leadership

The Ethical Dimensions of School Leadership (Studies in Educational Leadership)

Improving School Leadership: The Promise of Cohesive Leadership Systems

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Catholic School Leadership: An Invitation to Lead

Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Building Leadership Capacity for School Improvement

Data Driven Decisions and School Leadership

Reframing Teacher Leadership To Improve Your School

Nine Lessons Of Successful School Leadership Teams

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Negotiating Individualized Education Programs: A Guide for School Administrators

Leading Schools During Crisis: What School Administrators Must Know

Getting lead-bottomed administrators excited about school library media centers

Negotiating Individualized Education Programs: A Guide for School Administrators

Strategic Direction and Development of the School: Key Frameworks for School Improvement Planning (School Leadership Series)

Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns

Copyright for Administrators

Network Administrators Survival Guide

Driven by Time: Time Orientation and Leadership

Linux Network Administrators Guide

Linux Network Administrators Guide

Linux system administrators' guide

Leadership

Blundering Leadership: Missteps by School Administrators

School District Leadership Matters

School Leadership for the 21st Century (School Leadership)

School Administrators and Technology: Meeting the Standards

Current issues in school leadership

The Art of School Leadership

The Ethical Dimensions of School Leadership (Studies in Educational Leadership)

Improving School Leadership: The Promise of Cohesive Leadership Systems

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Catholic School Leadership: An Invitation to Lead

Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Building Leadership Capacity for School Improvement

Data Driven Decisions and School Leadership

Reframing Teacher Leadership To Improve Your School

Nine Lessons Of Successful School Leadership Teams

Leadership Capacity for Lasting School Improvement

Negotiating Individualized Education Programs: A Guide for School Administrators

Leading Schools During Crisis: What School Administrators Must Know

Getting lead-bottomed administrators excited about school library media centers

Negotiating Individualized Education Programs: A Guide for School Administrators

Strategic Direction and Development of the School: Key Frameworks for School Improvement Planning (School Leadership Series)

Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns

Copyright for Administrators

Network Administrators Survival Guide

Driven by Time: Time Orientation and Leadership

Linux Network Administrators Guide

Linux Network Administrators Guide

Linux system administrators' guide

Leadership

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