Birds in Ireland

BIRDS IN IRELAND

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Birds in Ireland by CLIVE D. HUTCHINSON Illustrated by JOHN BUSBY

Published for the Irish Wildbird Conservancy T & A D POYSER

Calton

First published 1989 byT & AD PoyserLtd Print-on-demand and digital editions published 2010 byT & AD Poyser, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Square, London W1D 3QY © 1989 by Clive D Hutchinson and the Irish Wildbird Conservancy ISBN (print) 978-1-4081-3701-7 ISBN (epub) 978-1-4081-3700-0 ISBN (e-pdf) 978-1-4081-3699-7 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means - photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems - without permission of the publishers. Visit www.acblack.com/naturalhistory to find out more about our authors and their books. You will find extracts, author interviews and our blog, and you can sign up for newsletters to be the first to hear about our latest releases and special offers.

Contents Introdu ction Acknowledgem ents Factors affecting the distribution of birds Ornithology and bird conservation Recent changes in status Background to the species accounts

7 9 11 29 40 44

The species accounts

48

Appendices List of local reports Principal organizations Scientific names of mammals. fishes and plants in the text Bibliography General index Species index

201 202 202 203 208 209

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- - -- '--

Introduction Watching birds is a popular and growing pastime in Ireland as elsewhere in the world and the demand for books about birds seems insatiable. Books on identification. books on birdwatching. books on good places for watching birds are on the shelves of every bookshop. Television and newspapers provide publicity for records of unusual birds and journalists increasingly report campaigns for the conservation of birds and their habitats. The books and the media publicity. however. do not provide much information on the status of birds in Ireland. where and when they occur and in what numbers. This may seem surprising in view of the obvious demand for such material. but the status of Irish birds has been reviewed in depth on only two occasions since the turn of the century (Ken nedy et al 1954. Ruttledge 1966). The most recent book took the story up to 1965. more than twenty years ago. Since then. there has been an explosion in our knowledge of birds: surveys of breeding and wintering birds have taken birdwatchers into every 10 km square of the National Grid to map distribution; surveys of seabirds and waterfowl have resulted in the publication of books which mapped the main concentrations: studies have been carried out on many individual species. Most of this work has been done by the growing army of amateur birdwatchers but. increasingly. professionals have tackled particular problems. especially where conservation requires scientific research. The results of many surveys and single species studies have been published as papers in Irish Birds. th e annual journal founded in 1977 to provide a forum for the publication of work by both scientists and amateurs. and of course observations on scarce and rare birds continue to be published in the annual Irish Bird Report, itself now part of Irish Birds. As well as the research published in Irtsh Birds and the books recording the results of major surveys. a large body of material on bird distribution and numbers has appeared in ephemeral bird reports or . in som e instances. has been transmitted by word of mouth . This book attempts to

gather together from all these sources the results of the activity of birdwatchers since the mid 1960s. to set it on the firm base of the previous works on Irish birds and to summarise the status of all species occurring in the country. I have tried . however. to give more than just a statement of the status of each species . In the first of the introductory chapters I have placed the birds in the context of their environment. Too many birdwatchers are unaware of the habitats in which birds spend their lives and of the reaction of birds to habitat chan ges. Rather few wonder why the number of bird species breeding in Ireland is less than in Britain. but this topic has intrigued severa l distinguished scientists and I have reported the views of severa l of them. In the next chapter I have outlined briefly the history of ornithology and of the conservation movement in Ireland as further background. In many cases apparent changes in bird distribution merely reflect an increase in observers; an understanding of the extent of the new interest in birds in both Northern Ireland and the Republic is therefore essential to an interpretation of the species accounts. Where there have been significant changes in status I have summarized them briefly in a further introductory chapter. The main bulk of the book. however. comprises the systematic list of species. In this I have tried to combine a summary of status with the results of any special studies so the reader will be aware of research which has been publi shed or is in progress. For some groups of birds (wildfowl and seabirds for example) quite a number of studies are in progress but relatively little is known about our common birds of woodland and farmland . Throughout the book I have used the place names adopted by the Ordnance Surveys of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland for the sites within the territory of each state. Hence I have used Lond onderry throughout. where Derry is also in common usage. I have given the county for each placename but. in order to save a little space. I have not used the term 'Co.' before it.

7

8

Introdu ction

My own interest in bird s was stimulated by correspondence from Major R. F. Ruttledge when I was 13 years of age. I eagerly sought his 1966 book Ireland' s Birds when it appeared and I know how wide its influence was among Irish ornithologists of my generation. We were impressed by the material in the book. but we were also encouraged to go into the field to try to fill some of the obvious gaps in knowledge. the principal one being the lack of quantitative on breeding or wintering birds.

Th is gap has been filled in the case of breeding seabirds and wintering wildfowl and wad ers but we still have only a very general knowledge of th e status of ou r passerines and we know virtually nothing of where our seabirds feed at sea . If th is book can provide a baseline on which future workers can plan their research and if readers are stimulated to investigate aspects of bird distribution for which information is lacking. then it will have been a success.

Acknowledgements Writing thi s book has been a joy. Although I have been involved in bird recording for a bout twenty years I had no idea how many people carry out quite intensive studies of birds without telling an yone about their work. It has been a delight to discover people. in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, with hoards of unpublished data on birds and who - without exception - were willing to make their results available. Most of them. I hope, will publi sh their research in due course. though I fear the malaise which affects so many amateur ornithologists when they set about writing up their work will strike a number. In any event. I am grateful for the stimulating correspondence with so many enthusiastic people. From th e beginning the Irish Wildbird Conserva ncy (IWe) reacted positively to my proposal for a new book on Irish birds to coincide with the 21 st anniversary of the foundation of the organization and agreed to make available the results of all IWC surveys. Both Maurice Bryan. the Chairman. and Richard Nairn, the Director. gave their active support. The British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) supplied summaries of ringing recoveries of birds ringed in Ireland and recovered abroad and of birds ringed abroad and recovered in Ireland. The BTO also pro vided summaries of Comm on Birds Census plots surveyed in Ireland. Dr Raymond O'Connor. Director of the BTO when the book was first proposed, gav e every encouragement. lowe a particular debt to the following who read and commented on th e entire species list in drafts: J. S. Furphy, Dr T. C. Kelly. Dr W. M. McDowell, O.J. Merri e. K. Preston and P. Smiddy. Ken Preston in addition checked the rarity records against his own card index and made numerous corrections. Accounts of groups of species were read and commen ted on by D. Norriss (birds of prey ). Dr J. G. Green -

wood (Dunlin and Black Guillemot). R. Nairn (breeding waders), G. C. Noonan (Ravens) , J. R. Sheppard (wildfowl and waders). L. Toal (Merlins) . J. H. Wells (birds of prey and Ravens) and H.J . Wilson (White-fro nted Geese). Jim Wells provided introductions to a number of Northern Ireland observers working on particular specie s. Dr T. C. Kelly. O.J. Mern e and K. Preston commented on the introdu ctory chapters as well as the list of species. Joe Furphy provided valuable comment on the chapter on ornithology and conservation. Needless to add . any errors in the text are my own responsibility and not that of th ose who kindl y advised on earlier drafts. Un published material on particular species wa s pro vided by Susan Cowdy, Bob Davidson . Cliff Daw son, Dr Paul Hillis. Frank King, David Knight. Graham McElwaine. Gabriel Noonan and Larry Toal. Mick Green m ade available the results of his survey of waders of rock y shores of the west of Ireland in advance of publication. Terry Carruthers and Oscar Merne let me see th e unpublished results of their Common Birds Census (CBC) studies in Kerry and Wexford respectively. Dr Karl Partridge of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) provided copies of research report s commissioned from th e RSPB by the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland and whi ch the Department kindly agreed to release . Richard Na irn provided a summary of the results of the IWC's study of the breed ing birds of the Shannon callows in 1987. Hugh Brazier suppli ed proofs of th e 19 8 7 issue of Irish Birds so that material from it could be used in an early dr aft of the species list. Mark Shorten made available his types cript on th e birds of Cork . Pat Smiddy pa ssed on the results of reviews by the Irish Rare Birds Committee of rare bird records right to my final deadline for revision of th e text. 9

10

Acknowledgements

Information on ornithology in Northern Ireland was provided by C. Douglas Deane, Dinah Browne and J. S. Furphy. Archival material on the Irish Ornithologists' Club was supplied by Frank Miller. I am grateful to all the above. Without their help this

NORTH AMERICA

book would never have been completed. Above all, however, I am grateful to the birdwatchers from all parts of the country whose passion for recording what they see in their spare time makes books like this possible.

,

NORTH

ATLANTIC

NORTH AFRICA

Ireland and its location on the western edge of Europe

Factors affecting the distribution of birds The principal factors which determine what bird species occur in Ireland include the location and size of the country. its climate. its topography and the range and diversity of habitats on the island. LOCATION

Ireland is situated on the western edge of the European land mass. out in the North Atlantic. cut off from the larger island of Great Britain and from the Continent by the intervening seas. The Irish Sea to the east. which separates Ireland from Great Britain. varies from 18 to 320 km wide and is less than 200 m deep . The coast of Ireland forms the north-western outpost of Europe. but the shallow seas of the Continental Shelf extend westwards into the Atlantic. south to Spain and north-east to Scotland and Norway.

Seabirds The location of the island of Ireland. projecting into the Atlantic and surrounded by rich and relatively shallow seas, is the main reason why so many seabirds are recorded. At Cape Clear. Cork. observations carried out since 1959 have shown large westerly movements. Fulmars are recorded throughout the year but are scarce in late autumn; Gannets and Kittiwakes are abundant throughout the year: auks are abundant except in late summer when they congregate in sheltered bays: Manx Shearwaters and Storm Petrels occur in very large numbers from March to September and July to September respectively (Sharrock 1975). Some of these birds nest on the Irish coastline. but many come from colonies farther afield.

Although more observations of seabirds have been documented for Cape Clear than any other Irish site. records have also been kept at other headlands. Together. these have shown that seabird passage on the south coast is predominantly westerly, on the east and west coasts southerly and on the north coast most birds pass west. Many of the movements observed involve feeding birds. For example. the late summer passage of Manx Shearwaters at Cape Clear clearly consists mainly of birds from the Kerry island breeding colonies. Early in the morning some easterly movement is noted and at dusk the largest numbers are seen. moving steadily westwards, returning to their colonies. But the most remarkable movements. those in which southern shearwaters, northern skuas and rarities such as Sabine's Gulls and Leach's Petrels are sometimes seen. appear to result from weather conditions driving birds inshore which are normally out of sight of land. At Cape Clear south-westerly winds and rain. usually associated with the passage of a front. provide the best conditions, as the birds are presumably pushed eastwards: at north facing points. such as Brandon Point in Kerry and Loop Head in Clare. north-westerlies are optimal. Seabirds moving back out to the open sea appear to follow leading lines when they encounter barriers to their movement. so those species which are normally not visible from the mainland can be observed temporarily as they pass headlands or islands. The implication is that there are large numbers of seabirds. feeding well out to sea. which can only be seen

11

12

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

North Harbour and Bird Observatory at Cape Clear. Cork. (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

from the land in exceptional weather conditions. Several boat trips have been made to observe sea birds at sea. the principal one being in 1980. Between mid July and mid October in that year a group of scientists and observers crui sed from Brittany to Cork. round the Irish coast. including a trip 300 km west of Kerry to the edge of the Continental Shelf. north to the Shetlands and back again (Evan s 1981). The highest seabird densities in July and in September/October were found off south-west Ireland. the lowest off the north-west. In July . Gannets. Storm Petrels. Manx Shearwaters and Guillemots predominated; by earl y October the Storm Petrels and Manx Shearwaters had virtually all dispersed but there were many Kittiwakes. Razorbills and Guillemots. Large numbers of auks were found in Clew Bay. Mayo . but the Porcupine Bank. near the edge of the Continental Shelf. had low seabird densities. apart from Fulmars and Storm Petrels. Bourne (1986). in a recent summary of a number of previously unpublished observations of seabirds at sea off the west coast of Europe. emphasized that the important seabird feeding areas are the boundaries where cool and warm waters mix. and where cool upwelling water brings nutrients to the surface. These support plankton growth which provides food for fish and squid populations. which themselves support assemblies of feeding seabirds. Tidal mixing off headlands occurs close to land. upwelling occurs out to sea where deep. cool currents strike the slopes of the Continental Shelf and thermal fronts occur in the eddies along ocean currents. giving rise to changes in temperature in the North Atlantic Drift. Indeed. an infra-red satellite photograph. published by Bourne (1986). shows clearly an area of warm water. bounded by fronts where mixing takes place . in the north-west Irish Sea which is known to support the largest concentrations of feeding seabirds off Northern Ireland (Watson 1980): and Raine (1987) has documented an upwelling of cold water off the Fastnet Rock. Cork. in another seabird rich area.

A great deal remains to be learned about the distribution of seabirds off the Irish coast. Man y more cruises are needed. especially in winter and spring. and research into the food and feeding ecology of seabirds at sea is required. Observations on land have suggested that there is a substantial northerly passage of Pomarine and Long-tailed Skuas off the west coast in May (Daven port 1984). and observations in February and March 1980 have shown that a few southern shearwaters remain off the west coast in winter (Dannen berg 1982 ). W intering Birds Location serves to explain why wlnteringbirds come from such a wide range of breeding areas. Being on the western fringe of Europe. Ireland provides winter quarters for birds from as far west as Arctic Canada. for a number of species which breed in Greenland and Iceland and for birds which breed in northern Europe east to Siberia. Brent Geese ringed on Queen Elizabeth Island. Bathurst Island and Melville Island in northern Canada have been seen in Ireland. The numbers of Great Northern Divers wintering around the coast are far greater than the Icelandic population can account for. and may well include Canadian as well as Greenland breeders. Ireland's wintering Knot population breeds in Canada and Greenland. From Greenland alone come Barnacle Geese and Whitefronted Geese and several wader species. Ireland is the principal wintering area for a number of Icelandic species. particularly Whooper Swans. Golden Plovers. Black-tailed Godwits and Redshanks. From Scandinavia and the Baltic come many ducks. waders and finches. and from as far east as Siberia come our wintering Bewick's Swans. Grey Plovers and Bar-tailed Godwits. Irel and is far indeed from Siberia and Canada. but migratory birds stop off en route in Scandinavia and the Baltic or in Greenland and Iceland respectively. Vagrants Location is also the principal reason for the

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 13 pattern of vagrancy. Being on the western edge of Europe. Ireland is the first landfall for many wanderers from North America. Ducks such as Green-winged Teal and Surf Scoters, waders such as Pectoral and Buff-breasted Sandpipers and gulls such as the Ring-billed Gull are now annual visitors. Passerines from the Nearctic are also recorded in most autumns and it is likely that an increase in observations on the west coast in late autumn would result in a sharp rise in the number of American vagrants recorded. From the east come Yellow-browed Warblers and

other small passerines every autumn. but the proportion of eastern and southern vagrants seen in Ireland is much lower than in Britain. reflecting the extra distance these birds have to travel. AREA

The area of Ireland is 84.421 km ': the greatest length from north to south is 486 krn: the greatest width from east to west is 275 krn , The adjoining island of Great Britain is 2.8 times as large. There is little doubt but that the

-".

Barnacle Geese at Lissadel1. Sligo. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Akeragh Lough in Kerry . the first muddy habitat sighted in Europe by many transatlantic vagrant ducks and waders. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

14

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

smaller size of Ireland is the principal reason for the relatively poor avifauna. A total of 397 species was recorded in Ireland up to the end of 1986, of which 137 were known to breed during 1968-72, the period of the Breeding Atlas. These figures are 67% and 65% respectively of the totals for Britain. It has long been known that there is a statistical relationship between the number of breeding species and area. MacArthur & Wilson (1967) developed an influential theory to explain this relationship. They proposed that the number of species on an island tends to be fairly constant, immigrant species being balanced by extinctions. They argued that the best colonist species tend to arrive first at an island. As more species arrive there is increased competition. The potential colonists either fail to establish themselves or the extra competition increases the likelihood of extinction of existing species with low populations. The rate of immigration is considered to be independent of area and dependent on distance from the source 'pool' of immigrants. The rate of extinction, however, varies with the size of the island. Eventually, an equilibrium is reached between immigration and extinction, and the level is lower on small than on large islands. Critics of MacArthur & Wilson's theory have argued that smaller islands have less diversity of habitat and greater environmental uniformity. Lack (1969), for example, considered that Ireland, though superficially similar to Britain is in fact very different. This island is much smaller, lacks a number of habitats, has a more oceanic climate and extends neither so far north nor so far south. Lack held that the failure of a number of bird species to colonize Ireland was due to their failure to find the right conditions. Later in this chapter we will look at the various Irish habitats and at the end we will consider the most recent views on why the Irish avifauna is less diverse than that of Britain. CLIMATE

Ireland lies in a climatic zone dominated by mild southwesterly winds and is warmed by the North Atlantic Drift. Mean air temperatures in the coldest months, January and February, are between 4°C and 7°C. In the warmest months, July and August, the mean temperature is between 14°C and 16°C, but can reach as high as 25°C. The mildest temperatures in winter are on the south-west coast, in summer the south-east coast has the highest temperature. Rainfall is relatively high, ranging from over 1,200 ern per annum in the west (and up to twice this in the mountains) to 75 em in the east. Snow is infrequent away from high ground. In summer there is an average of between 5.5 and 6.5 hours of sunshine over most of the country.. Wexford has the most sun with an average of about 7.5 hours per day (Rohan 19 75). The impact of climate on bird populations in general is difficult to evaluate, and for Ireland, where so little work has been done on common birds, only a few comments can be made. Firstly, the mild and relatively uniform climate with few hard winters appears to reduce severe winter mortality among resident species and winter immigrants. The Irish Kingfisher population, for example, was thought not to have suffered such high mortality in the 1962/63

Ireland: mean January temperatures

winter as the Kingfishers of other European countries (Ruttledge 1968). Secondly, because the springs and summers are not as hot as in other countries with a less uniform climate, there are insufficient surplus resources for a number of summer migrant species (O'Connor 1986). The implications of these two points are considered at the end of this chapter. Thirdly, the mild winter temperature and high rainfall produce soft soils and flooding in winter, which provide good feeding conditions for wildfowl and inland feeding waders (such as Lapwings, Golden Plovers and Curlews). TOPOGRAPHY

Like climate, the principal effect of topography on bird distribution is its influence on the habitats which cover the landscape. Ireland is a relatively flat country with three-quarters of its surface below the 1 SO m contour and only 5% over 300 m. The hills are grouped around the edge of the island with mountains generally of 600-900 m. The central plain consists mainly of limestone no more than 75 m above sea level. The coastline from south-west Cork round the west coast to Donegal is sharply indented, partly no doubt the result of the unceasing battering by the Atlantic. The best account of Irish topography for the general reader is Professor Frank Mitchell's (1986) The Shell Guide to Reading the Irish Landscape. He describes the origins of the land mass, the glaciations and the development of the environment we see around us nowadays. Mitchell's account is both stimulating and readable, and it provides

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 15

Ireland: mean annual rainfall between 1,000 and 2,000mm (stippled), over 2,000mm (black)

Ireland: land over 150 m (stippled), over 300 m (black) and rivers

an admirable backdrop to any account of Irish natural history. Ireland is believed to consist of two parts, one originally joined to what is now North America and one joined to Europe. During movements of the earth's crust about 400 million years ago the North American plate and the European plate collided and fused together. We know this from the presence in the Irish fossil record of specimens of North American origin in the west and of European origin in the east. Subsequently, the North American and European plates separated again as the earth's crust shifted, and a rift opened west of Ireland where the modern Atlantic Ocean flows. The topography of the country was moulded by events between this period and the end of the last Ice Age, about 13,000 years ago, but the main surface features of Ireland were probably established several million years ago. The oldest Irish rocks are the pre-Cambrian granites and slates of Donegal and west Connemara. These areas are exposed to the Atlantic and the acid rocks are covered with peat-bog. Bird densities are low because of the sparsity and uniformity of the vegetation, but the countryside is wild and beautiful. About 400 million years ago the Wicklow granites were thrust upwards and the Donegal and Connemara mountains were folded. River systems deposited large quantities of sand and gravel and these sediments were cemented into sandstone. Subsequently, some 375 million years ago, the seas warmed up and flooded over the land depositing shell fish and plants which were eventually consolidated into limestone and coal. This period, known

as the Carboniferous, came to an end about 300 million years ago when there were further rock movements which folded the sandstones and limestones of the coast, thus creating shelves and ledges on which seabirds could nest in due course. Erosion exposed the limestone as the coal disappeared over millions of years. Then, about 100 million years ago, it appears that the country was covered by a thin layer of chalk but this has been so thoroughly eroded, except in Antrim where it is protected by a layer of basalt, that until recently many doubted that there had ever been chalk on the Irish surface. From 1.7 million years ago to 13,000 years ago, there was a series of cold and warm periods. During much of the period Ireland was covered with ice and the birds which colonized the country were forced to retreat on several occasions. Our modern breeding avifauna has all been established in the last 13,000 years. The geology of Ireland has formed the basis of the modern landscape, but climate, the effect of erosion by wind and water, and the pattern of plant and animal colonization after the last Ice Age have all played parts in producing the habitats which cover the island nowadays. The principal habitats can conveniently be divided into the broad categories of (a) coast, (b) inland wetlands, (c) mountain and bog, (d) farmland, (e) woodland and (f) urban. Within each category is a number of different habitats. In some the birds have been quite well studied, in others they have been largely ignored.

16

Factors affecting the distribution of birds COAST

The Irish coastline is rich and varied in habitat. The cliffs and offshore islands support large populations of breeding seabirds, the estuaries and coastal lagoons hold many wintering and passage wildfowl and waders. The seabirds and waterfowl are the most studied groups of birds in Ireland. This is partly because their habitat is threatened by reclamation. pollution and disturbance. partly because these birds are rather easier to count than passerines skulking in woodland. and partly because many of our species are identified as important in the context of international conservation. Rocky Shores More than 85% of the coast consists of rocky shores. The east coast from Belfast Lough, Antrim. south to Dundalk Bay, Louth. is mainly low cliff. From Dundalk south to Wexford most of the coastline is low drift cliffand sand dune. A few promontories and islands provide breeding sites for seabirds. chiefly Lambay Island. Ireland's Eye and Howth Head in Dublin, and Bray Head and Wicklow Head in Wicklow. From the Saltee Islands off the Wexford coast, west to Cape Clear. there are long stretches of cliff, up to 60 m high, broken only by bays and estuaries. most of them holding breeding colonies of Larus gulls . Kittiwakes. auks and Shags. From Cape Clear round the Kerry coast is a series of deep rias , but apart from the offshore islands where Ireland's largest seabird colonies are situated, there are few steep cliffs to provide breeding sites. The west coast from Kerry north to Donegal has high cliffs interspersed with sandy beaches and one major estuary. that of the Shannon. the largest river in these islands. The many rocky islands and promontories on the west coast show the effect of submergence of the coast during the Ice Age: the heavy Atlantic waves are still eroding the cliffs. From Donegal around the north coast to Belfast are high cliffs at Fair Head and Benbane Head and a scattering of islands, most notably Rathlin which has a large colony of breeding seabirds and a high density of Buzzards. There are about nine seabird colonies with more than 10,000 breeding pairs in each. Of these only Lambay Island off the Dublin coast. Great Saltee off the south Wexford coast and Rathlin Island, Antrim. are away from the west coast. The largest colonies are in Kerry where some tens

Little Skellig off the Kerry coast, from the monastic sett lement on Great Skellig, (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Seabird colonies holding more than 10 .000 pairs (based on Cramp et al 1974. with updating of species numbers) No of species

Saltee Islands. Wexford Skelligs, Kerry Blasket Islands. Kerry Puffin Island, Kerry Inlshglora, Mayo IIIaunmaister, Mayo Horn Head . Donegal Rathlin Island, Antrim Lambay Island. Dublin

12 II 14 12 9 10 9 13 12

Fu

MS

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ +

+

+

+ +

+

SP

+ + + + +

Ga

+ +

Groups present' Co Sh

+ +

+

G/R

Pu

BG

Gulls

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +

'Key: Fu - Fulrnar: MS - Manx Shearwater: SP - Storm Petrel : Ga - Gannet: Co - Cormorant: Sh - Shag; G/R - Guillemot & Razorbill ; Pu - Puffin ; BG - Black Guillemot.

Factors affecting the distribution of birds of thousands of Manx Shearwaters, Storm Petrels, Gannets and Puffins breed on the islands. These are the largest Storm Petrel colonies in the world. The colonies close to the Irish Sea have large numbers of Razorbills, Guillemots and gulls. In short. the colonies of those species which feed farther out to sea are on the more exposed coasts. The inshore feeders concentrate on the fringe of. or close to, the Irish Sea. The seabird colonies have been the subject of a number of studies. mostly ringing and censuslng. Almost all the colonies in the country were visited in 1969 or 1970 as part of the 'Operation Seafarer' survey (Cramp et a119 74). but the research effort has understandably been centred on the more important colonies. The Kerry islands have been visited by ornithologists since the mid nineteenth century. and there were frequent visits from 1964 onwards (Evans & Lovegrove 1974, Evans 1977). Since the mid 1970s, however, there have been few visits and census studies have been concentrated at Puffin Island which Hugh Brazier has been visiting since 1980. Great Saltee's seabirds were censused each year from 1978 to 1980 (Lloyd 1981) and Great Black-backed Gulls were studied there in 1980 (Hudson 1982). Census work is continuing (0. J. Merne). There have been censuses of all seabirds on the Northern Ireland coast (Watson 1980), of breeding terns throughout the country (Whilde 1985), of breeding Cormorants (Macdonald 1987), of cliff-breeding seabirds at sample colonies on the west coast annually (Stowe 1982). of Kittiwakes on the Waterford coast (O'Meara 1975. McGrath & Walsh 1986) and of seabirds at a scattering of other sites. All available data on the Republic's seabird colonies have been incorporated in an inventory

Gannets on Great Sa/tee , Wexford. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Ireland: seabird colonies holding more than 10 ,000 pairs

17

18

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

compiled by Dr C. S. Lloyd in 1982 and held by the Wildlife Service. The rocky shores support wintering populations of Turnstones and a few Purple Sandpipers. Oystercatchers, Curlews, Redshanks and Greenshanks also winter on the rocks or in small inlets on rocky shores. The only counts which have been made of long stretches of these shores have been in Northern Ireland, where the Outer Ards peninsula, Down, has been shown to have up to 1,900 wintering Turnstones (Austin & Leach 1984), and on part of the coast of Donegal, Sligo, Leitrim, Mayo and Clare (M. Green). Soft Shores Less than 15% of the coastline is sandy beach, mudflat or salt marsh. These shores, however, incorporate a large inter.. tidal zone and are important for wintering waders and wildfowl, though only six estuaries the Shannon Estuary, Lough Foyle, Strangford Lough, Dundalk Bay, the North Bull and Cork Harbour - hold more than 20,000 waders regularly. These estuaries, as would be expected, have the largest areas of inter-tidal mudflat. It is now Widely accepted, following rec.. ommendations of the International Waterfowl Research Bureau, that a wetland holding more than 10,000 ducks, geese or swans, more than 20,000 waders or in excess of 1% of the flyway population of a waterfowl species is of international importance (Atkinson-Willes et alI982) and on these criteria 18 Irish coastal wetlands qualify. Ofthese wetlands 11 qualify because of their Brent Goose numbers. Most of the Pale.. bellied Brent Geese which breed in Arctic Canada and west Greenland winter on Irish shores and Whilde (1986) has indicated that Brent Geese have

Coastal wetlands holding internationally important winter populations of wildfowl and waders, 1980-86 (based on Whilde 1986 and Salmon et a11987) Internationally Maximum important species count 1980-86*

Lough Foyle, Londonderry

(56,560)

Strangford Lough, Down

(83,500)

Dundalk Bay, Louth

36,886

Rogerstown Estuary, Dublin Malahide, Dublin North Bull, Dublin

8,722 6,149 35,463

Wexford Harbour and Slobs, Wexford

NC

Tacumshin Lake, Wexford Bannow Bay, Wexford

10,894

Dungarvan Harbour, Waterford Ballymacoda, Cork Cork Harbour, Cork

21,852

Castlemaine Harbour, Kerry Tralee Bay, Kerry Shannon Estuary, Limerick, Kerry, Clare

14,822

9,176

28,904 57,727

3,383 [82,000]

Cummeen Strand. Sligo

2.076

Llssadell, Sligo Lough Swilly, Donegal

1,004 NC

Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Brent Goose, Wigeon. 10.000+ wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Whooper Swan, Brent Goose. Shelduck, Knot. Redshank, 10,000 + wildfowl, 20.000 + waders Shelduck, Wigeon, Black-tailed Godwit, Bartailed Godwit, 20,000 + waders Brent Goose Brent Goose Brent Goose, Knot, Sanderling, 10.000 + wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Bewick's Swan. Whitefronted Goose, Blacktailed Godwit. 10,000 + wildfowl Bewick's Swan, Brent Goose, Grey Plover Brent Goose, Black-tailed Godwit Brent Goose, Black-tailed Godwit Black-tailed Godwit Shelduck, Golden Plover, Lapwing, Black-tailed Godwit. Redshank. 20,000 + waders Brent Goose, Wigeon Brent Goose Brent Goose, Wigeon. Teal, 10,000+ wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Brent Goose Barnacle Goose Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose

* Key: [] peak counts from 1971-75; () - peak counts 1983-

86; NC no full count available. Otherwise totals represent peak counts of all species counted from 1980 to 1986.

Ireland: internationally important wetlands

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

19

IWC commence d its We tlands Enquiry in 19 71 / 72. Monthly coun ts were carried out at m an y estuaries up to 19 74 / 7 5 (Hutchi ns on 19 79 ), but onl y irr egularly from 19 75/ 76 to 19 82 / 8 3, except in Northe rn Irel and where th e major estuar ies ha ve been su rveyed eac h winter. For the three winters to 1986/ 8 7 monthly counts were carried out at many estuaries in th e Republic and th e results up to autumn 198 6 h ave been summ a rized (Whilde 1986). Regular m onthly coun ts co ntin ue in Northern Ireland. There have been rather few studies of individual species or estua ries, th ough there has been research on Oysterca tche r feeding a t Str angford Loug h (O'Connor & Brown 19 77 ). mudfl at utilization at Stra ngford (Pritcha rd 19 8 2 ). th e infauna of th e Shannon est ua ry as a food reso urce for birds (O. }. Merne MSc th esis). th e bird s of Galw ay Bay (Whilde 19 8 3 ) a nd Cork Harbour (Hu tchinson & O'Halloran 19 84). Curren tly Mich eal O'Briain is ca rrying ou t research on Brent Geese, and seve ra l workers are ca tchin g and ringing waders. At the Wexford Slobs a pr ogramme of colour marking White-fronted Geese to study th eir movements is in progress. The sandy sho res on th e west coast are known to su pport quite large winter population s of Ring ed Plo vers a nd Sanderlings: th eir ext ent was not kn own until a survey wa s carried out of sa mple stretches of th is coastline in winter 19 8 7/ 88 (M. Green) . As well as win ter wad ers. sa ndy sho res also support some breedin g terns. th ou gh th e co lonies tend to be sma ll and widely dispersed.

Wigeon and other waterfowl at the North Bull. Dublin. with the Bull Island Interpretive centre in the background. (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

been recorded in internationally important numbers at 20 additional sites. but has recommended that. because of the abundance of Brent Geese in Ireland, these sites do not warrant internationally important status. Several sites qualify principally because of their Black-tailed Godw it numbers. Much of the Icelandic breeding population winters on Irish shores. Th e interpretation of internat ional criteria. however, is fraught with difficulty and th e cu rrent inventory of th e Wildlife Ser vice includes seve n additional sites holding more th an 1% of th e Brent Goose population of the Republic: Carlingford Lough in Louth , The Cull in Wexford, Tramore Bay in Waterford. Galway Bay in Galway. and Blacksod Bay, Broadhaven and Killaia Bay in Mayo (O.}. Merne). The wildfowl wintering on Irish estuaries were first counted in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Midwinter counts were made at many estuaries from 19 6 7 onwards, but only du cks. geese and sw an s were cou nted until th e

Above th e High Tide Line Th e cliff top s pro vide feeding habitat for Choughs from Wexford west to Kerr y and north to Donegal and Antrim. Bullock et aI (1983 ) h ave shown that regular gr azing of pasture on clifftops and th e absence of fertilizers provide an a bu ndance of inv ert ebrates ac cessible to a long-billed corvid. Choug hs have not declined in numbers over th e pa st 90 yea rs except in Northern Ireland wh ere fencing of the coastal strip, iron ica lly by th e Na tion al Trust for Nort he rn Ireland. has led to a reduction in th e number of pairs from 2 1-22 to 9- 10 ove r th e 20 years from 196 3 to 19 8 2 . On the west coast. grassy islands ar e th e main wintering ground for Barnacle Geese wh ich breed in north-east Greenland. The Inishkea Islands. Mayo . hold nearly half th e Irish winter population and these birds have been studied since 1961 (Cabot & West 1973, 1983). Many of these islands also provide secure ne sting sites for Arct ic. Common and Sandwich Terns, A few hold Little Terns as well. Th ere is a small amount of sand dune ma ch air in th e west. Machair comprises stable dune grassland with san ds enriched by ca lca reo us shell fragments. It is he a vily grazed and frequently in cludes wet pools and m arshes. This habitat is thinly distributed in Donegal. Sligo, Mayo and Galway. A survey of 51 machair sites in summer 19 85 found 604 breeding pairs of wad ers (Na irn & Sheppard 19 85 ). Pure sand dune is an important coa st al habitat in Donegal, Kerry and Wexford but it tends to be poor for birds except on the edge where scrub provides cover. Detailed cen su s studies have been carried out in Down (Nairn & Wh atmough 1978 ) and Wexford (O. }. Merne).

20

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

INLAND WETLANDS

In winter the open waters of the inland wetlands provide feeding and relative security from predation for ducks and geese, mainly from breeding areas to the north-west and north-east. The damp edges provide grazing for the wildfowl and also attract Lapwings, Golden Plovers and Curlews which can locate food more easily on soft than on hard ground. In summer ducks and grebes nest on the larger waters, Little Grebes, Moorhens, Dippers, Kingfishers

Inland wetlands holding internationally important populations of wildfowl or waders. 1980-86 (based on Whilde 1986. Salmon et al 1987 and 0.]. Merne) Maximum count*

Internationally important species

Rahasane, Galway

13.865

Lough Corrlb, Galway River Shannon, Athlone-Portumna, Galway, Offaly, Roscommon. Tipperary, Westmeath Little Brosna, Offaly, Tipperary

18,956

Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Wigeon, Teal. 10,000+ wildfowl Pochard, 10,000 + wildfowl White-fronted Goose, Wigeon, Black-tailed Godwit

River Suck, Galway, Roscommon Lough Gara, Roscommon, Sligo Ballyallia Lake. Clare River Foyle. Carrlgans-St. Johnstown, Donegal, Londonderry Sheskinmore Lough, Donegal Loughs Neagh & Beg, Antrim, Armagh, Londonderry. Tyrone Lough Iron and Glen Lough, Westmeath Lough Owel, Westmeath Stabannan, Louth River Blackwater, Waterford

10,000

NC

28,502

2,000 13,956

NC

1,350 (36,900)

6.480

Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose, Wigeon, Shoveler, Golden Plover, Black-tailed Godwit Bewick's Swan Bewick's Swan Shoveler Whooper Swan. Whitefronted Goose

White-fronted Goose. Barnacle Goose Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Teal, Pochard, Tufted Duck, Scaup, Goldeneye Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose

3.062

White-fronted Goose

NC 6,336

Whooper Swan Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Blacktailed Godwit

Key: ( ) - peak counts 1983-86: NC no full count available. Otherwise totals represent peak counts of all species counted from 1980 to 1986.

and Grey Wagtails on the rivers, and ducks, Lapwings and Snipe on the marshes.

Lakes The largest areas of open water are Lough Neagh and the adjoining Lough Beg in the north-east, the Lough Erne lakes in the north-west, Loughs Corrib, Mask and Conn in Connacht, a scattering of lakes in the midlands Loughs Derravaragh, Ennel, Owel, Ramor, Gara, Sheelin. Gowna and Oughter - and a series of lakes on the Shannon system from Lough Allen to Lough Derg. There are numerous smaller lakes and in total they comprise 2% of the land area of the country. In Northern Ireland it has been estimated that there are over 1,100 lakes, though only 119 exceed 10ha in area (Wood 1982). The south-east third of the country has very little standing water of any size. Much the largest lake is Lough Neagh which has a surface area of 383 km-, In summer it holds well above 750 pairs of Great Crested Grebes, approximately half the total breeding population for the country, but in winter it is of European importance for the huge numbers of wintering waterfowl it holds. The flocks of up to 1,700 Scaup are much the largest inland concentration in Europe; the numbers of Goldeneye (5,000-9,000) are among the largest in Europe and the flocks of Pochard (up to 17,000) and Tufted Ducks (up to 8,900) are much lower in recent years than the gatherings of 30,000 each which were recorded in the mid 1960s (Hutchinson 1979), but are still by far the largest in Ireland or Britain. Lough Corrib, Galway, with an area of some 170 km', is the second largest lake and it too is a shallow lake with a large diving duck population in winter. In the 1970s it was known to have a flock of up to 22,000 Pochard in late autumn, presumably completing their moult, and in winter there were up to 12,000 Coots at peak. Numbers appear to have declined somewhat in recent years, but aerial censuses are required to assess the status of the ducks more accurately. These two lakes are much the most important for birds, principally because they are so shallow. The other large lakes Laughs Derg (116 km-), Lower Lough Erne are deeper and of less (140 km 2 ) and Conn (50 km 2 ) importance in winter. However, a number of the midland lakes, especially Loughs Iron, Owel and Derravaragh, have sizeable winter duck populations. In summer Great Crested Grebes, Mallard and Tufted Ducks nest on most lakes. Common Scoters nest on the Lough Erne system, on Lough Conn and increasingly in small numbers on other lakes. There are large colonies of Black-headed Gulls, Common Gulls and Lesser Blackbacked Gulls on the western lakes and smaller numbers of Great Black-backed and Herring Gulls (Whilde 1978, 1983). Common Terns are the most widespread terns breeding on lake islands (Whilde 1984) but Arctic and Sandwich Terns also nest on islands some distance from the sea, though in small numbers (73 and 242 pairs respectively in 1984). Flooded meadows and marshes The water table in the midlands and west of Ireland rises with winter rain, the slower flowing rivers flood and the remaining turloughs

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

fill with water. This flooding produces large areas of water where ducks. geese and swans can graze, relatively safe from predators; it drives invertebrates up to the surface where Lapwings. Golden Plovers and Curlews search in the soft ground for prey; and it covers such large tracts of country that startled birds can find feeding again after a short flight.

21

The callows or flood meadows on both sides of the River Shannon between Athlone and Portumna. on either side of the River Suck in Roscommon and Galway, and on either side of the Little Brosna in Offaly and Tipperary are the finest examples. though the Blackwater callows in Waterford are also superb. Here Wigeon graze on the edge of the water in great flocks of several thousand birds.

Rahasane in Galway . an example of a turlough. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

22

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

..

Ot; .

-

' \.

Whooper Swans graze out in the middle of the flood and large flocks of Golden Plovers wheel about. Black-tailed Godwits probe in the soft alluvium as well as the more common Curlews and Lapwings which can be seen in most fields. At some of these sites flocks of White-fronted Geese winter. feeding on the callows and usually roosting on the surrounding bogs. The feeding appears to be very rich in spring. for numbers of Wigeon and Black-tailed Godwits normally reach a peak in March on the Little Brosna , apparently because many birds of Icelandic origin assemble here before departing to their breeding grounds. The callows are also important breeding sites for Lapwings. Redshanks and Snipe. and they hold significant numbers of breeding Corncrakes. Turloughs - shallow limestone depressions which flood when the water table rises after autumn and winter rainfall - also provide rich feeding for wildfowl and waders in the west. but a number of them have been drained. Rahasane. Galway. is the finest remaining example. Much of the west of Ireland is termed unimproved agricultural land and this is archetypical Snipe country. Snipe breed in quite small numbers. though widely. but in winter the damp pastures, flooded water meadows. marshes and bogs are filled with immigrants from Britain, Iceland and the Baltic states.

Rivers Because the central plain is so flat most Irish rivers are slow and sluggish in their upper courses. but they tend to run much more rapidly as they come close to the sea . Fifteen rivers collect 65% of the surface drainage (Drew 1979). but very little is known of the birds of these major rivers. Studies of the birds of three rivers have been published. Chris Bailey has been surveying 10 km of the River Lagan near Belfast since 1974 and the results of his breeding censuses up to 1980 showed that Moorhens were the most

numerous waterfowl with a density of about five pairs per km. Kingfishers. Dippers. Grey Wagtails and Reed Buntings all bred. but a number of species had decreased over the period. apparently because of the effects of cold weather. pollution and. most importantly. the arrival of mink (Bailey 1982). In Kerry . a 4 .5 km stretch of the River Flesk was censused in 1983 and 1984 (Carruthers 1986). but only five species were found to breed. though Dipper density at 6.6-8 .8 pairs per 10 km was higher than at most other Irish sites where they have been counted. The paucity of species on the Flesk appears to be largely due to it being a fast flowing river with a steep gradient. In Northern Ireland. Watson (1984) surveyed the birds of sections of the River Blackwater and its tributaries in Armagh and Tyrone. Dippers have been studied at several sites in the north of Ireland and the highest density recorded has been on the River Bann, Down, where 12 pairs per 10 km were found (perry 1986). MOUNTAIN AND BOG

In the Republic of Ireland it has been estimated by the National Soil Survey that marginal land occupies 45% of the total land area. 22% being mountain and hill. 12% low level peat and 11 % wet mineral lowland (Gardiner 1979). In Northern Ireland such marginal land occupies 31 % of the surface area . 9% being blanket peat and high ground over 300 m, 17% being peaty soils on higher hills and 5% lowland bog (Cruickshank 1982). Some of this land has been drained and is under crops but the statistics indicate the proportion of poor agricultural soils.

Mountain Only 20% of the land area is over 150 m. five per cent over 300 m and only 240 km -' over 600 m. There are 45 peaks reaching over 750 m. Ireland clearly has relatively little mountain land.

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

The birds of high ground have been little studied. though the breeding waders of Northern Ireland's moorlands have been censused (Partridge 1988) and several individuals have carried out unpublished studies of birds of prey and Ravens. Golden Plovers once nested on moorland in the south, east and midlands but now only remain as breeding birds in the north and west. Ring Ouzels almost certainly continue to nest in small numbers in most of the mountain ranges in the country. though persistence is required to track them down. Ravens were once true montane birds but have increased and spread into the lowlands. The principal birds of high ground are Meadow Pipits. At Glenveagh, Donegal, the birds of upland heath and bog were censused in 1980 and a very limited range of breeding species was found (MacLochlainn 1984). Meadow Pipits, Skylarks, Wrens and Wheatears were present up to the summits. A few Golden Plovers and Red Grouse also nested and there were scatterings of Kestrels , Merlins , Peregrines, Ravens and Ring Ouzels. In winter most birds leave the mountains though Snow Buntings are known to occur at this season in the mountains of Donegal (MacLochlainn 1984), Kerry (K. Preston) and Northern Ireland O. S. Furphy). BoglandSome 17% of the land surface ofIreland consists of bog , a higher percentage than any other European country except Finland. This includes fens, raised bogs and blanket bogs . Fens are shallow bogs, fed continually by mineral-rich waters. Raised bogs are the typical bogs of the central plain where shallow lakes were overgrown by vegetation and turned into bog as plant debris accumulated

23

to form peat. Blanket bog is characteristic of mountain ranges and of the west of Ireland and occurs where pine woodland died otT and an increasingly wet climate led to the development of bog vegetation. Blanket bog has somewhat similar vegetation to raised bog , but peat moss is scarcer and a number of mountain plants occur. Raised bogs are known to be of considerable importance in winter as Snipe habitat and, in certain areas, they support roosts of White-fronted Geese. Unfortunately, they are declining rapidly in extent as Bord na Mona (stateowned peat development board) crops the turf. Only 21 % of ra ised bogs remained intact in 1979. though as much as 74% of blanket bog had not been modified (Doyle 1983). Conservation of a representative sample of bogs has been widely sought because of the scarcity of the habitat. The results of only two studies of birds on Irish bogland have been published, one each on blanket and raised bog. Watson and O'Hare (1979d) sampled Mayo blanket bog in 1968-71 by using pointing dogs to flush birds. They found that Meadow Pipits were the most abundant birds, dominating in heathery areas. Skylarks were numerous on flat bog and Snipe on well grazed wet areas with rushes and bog myrtle. Species diversity was low and bird densities appeared to be much lower than on a similar area in Britain. The same authors recorded passing birds in spring and August (Watson & O'Hare 1979a). They found Whitefronted Geese in spring each year on bogland lakes or flying towards them. Golden Plovers were seen on one occasion and a few raptors were seen . Overall numbers of birds were clearly very low , though it was evident that the availability

24

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

of dead sheep in spring supported a high population of scavengers. Ravens and Hooded Crows were the seventh and eighth commonest bird or mammal seen on the bog (Watson & O'Hare 1980). Madden (198 7b) visited an intact raised bog and an adjacent area of cutaway bog in Offaly on ten occasions over a period of about a year, in 1985/86, and found only 12 species on the intact bog and 36 on cutaway bog. Only four species were proved to breed on the intact bog and another was suspected of nesting; 19 species bred on the cutaway bog. The greater diversity of species on the cutaway bog reflected a wider range of vegetation. Madden considered that the bird community of raised bog is poorer than that of western blanket bog. FARMLAND

Just under 70% of the land area of the Republic and more than 80% of the area of Northern Ireland is improved land under crops and pasture, though some is land of poor agricultural quality. The current agricultural regime, with its emphasis on grassland, was not always in place. In the middle of the last century the Famine marked a turning point for agricultural practices. Before the Famine, Ireland was very different from what it looks like today. The country was a net exporter of grain and livestock, so large areas of the country, where cattle are raised today, would have been under tillage. However, the high human population, dependent on the potato for subsistence, was vulnerable to the failure of their basic food and the Famine not only decimated the population but led to some fundamental changes in the landscape, which must have had (and in some cases can be shown to have had) a marked effect on wildlife in the countryside. Frank Mitchell (1986) has described Ireland in 1850 as a ruined landscape, almost destitute of any woody growth, due to the need of the huge population for fuel, and with soil fertility severely depleted by endless repetition of potato crops. This depressingly bleak landscape was relieved by islands of habitat where large estates survived behind great walls. However, one has to consider, in examining Mitchell's picture of the landscape after the Famine, that the area of tillage and root crops was still extensive. The area under grain crops was 7.8 millionha in 1851 having been 8.7 million in 1845; there were 3.7 millionha under root crops in 1851 having been 7.0 million in 1845. The 1845 area was about four times the current level. After 1850 there were several changes which were to have an impact, albeit a slow one, on the landscape. Firstly, the system of land tenure was changed under the successive Land Acts and the total number of farm holdings was reduced from 685,000 in 1841 (64% of 38 ha or less) to 570,000 in 1851 and 362,000 in 1960. At the same time, the size of holdings increased as the population declined. Secondly, there was no increase in the land under cultivation. Up to the Famine attempts were made to cultivate marginal land on mountain sides and there was some slight continued expansion of the cultivated area up to the 18 70s. After that, the amount of land under cultivation remained stationary overall and in western counties declined. Thirdly, there was a sudden decline in the proportion of

Ireland: tillage as a percentage of crops and pasture in 1970: 1525% (stippled) and over 25% (black)

land under tillage, which must have produced a noticeable change in the appearance of the country. The acreage of tillage declined by 4% between 1851 and 1859 and by a further 14% between 1861 and 1868 as corn prices fell. From the 1870s to the 1950s there was little change in the appearance of the Irish agricultural landscape. The area under grain crops continued in slow decline. In the Republic there were just over 2.5 million ha under grain in 1921 but only 1.9 million by 1931 and 2.18 million in 1974. There were increases in tillage during both World Wars but they were not maintained. At the same time, the number of livestock on pasture was relatively static. The total of 4.9 million livestock units in the 26 counties in 1922 was not exceeded until 1960. So, we have a picture of a relatively conservative agricultural regime from the 1870s to the 1960s. There was then a further significant change which resulted from the injection of capital into agriculture from the 1960s onwards. The Irish admission to the BEe in 1973 added to the impact. Mechanization of Irish farming took off in the 1960s. One indication of the rate of mechanization is the number of tractors, which increased in the Republic from 2,100 in 1939 to 43,700 in 1960, 84,300 in 1970 and 145,100 in 1980. Fertilizer usage was negligible until recent years. Annual applications of lime in the Republic were less than 100,000 tonnes before 1951 but had reached 2 million tonnes by

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 25 1970. The annual application of nitrogen was 29.000 tonnes in 1961/62,48,000 tonnes in 1966/67, 98.000 tonnes in 1971/72 and 275,000 tonnes in 1981/82. The use of herbicides in the Republic increased from 495,000 tonnes in 1965 to 1.5 million tonnes in 1980. The amount of silage made in the Republic increased fourfold between 1969 and 1981. Hedgerow destruction, although measured in only one survey in the Republic (D. Hickie cited in Cabot 1984), increased. These developments were aimed at increasing yields of farm products, but they have had a significant effect on the environment and on its wildlife. which is difficult to measure but which is on a larger scale than just the drainage of famous wetlands. The effect of agricultural change can be seen in the changes in numbers of Quail and Partridges. Quail are believed to have been common in Ireland in the eighteenth century and certainly increased in the first half of the nineteenth century. By the Famine it was a common breeding species in most parts of the country. At Easky, Sligo, the normal bag for a day's shooting would be five to ten brace. After the Famine numbers declined and by 1880 none were believed to nest in Ireland (Ussher & Warren 1900). There were occasional revivals and Quail have bred in small numbers in parts of Ireland, particularly Louth and Kildare, at intervals this century but they have never returned in numbers. The decline was attributed at the end of the nineteenth century to the structural change in agriculture after the Famine as the amount of land under tillage collapsed. Quail nested in the cultivated smallholdings which covered the country before the Famine and, it was argued, the change in habitat was so marked after the Famine that Quail disappeared. Partridges are now rare breeding birds, nesting sparsely in the south-east, midlands, east and north. In 1900 they were reported as having been long in decline as a result of the decline in wheat growing and an increase in shooting pressure. In the early 1960s they were considered to be holding their own but there has been a recent, marked decline and in the early 1980s Partridges could only be found in the midlands and at a scattering of locations in the north and east. The reduction in cereal growing after the Famine appears to be the principal cause of decline. More recently, changes in farming methods since the early 1960s have probably caused the further decline. Partridges need good nesting cover, low predation levels and an abundance of insects. In Britain modern farming methods have been shown to have reduced the numbers of these insects, thus reducing chick survival rates (Potts 1980). The effect of land use on two commoner species can be shown in the case of the Stock Dove and Rook. Stock Doves feed largely on weed seeds and newly sown grain on ploughed land. They are recent colonists, having first bred in Ireland in 1877, and increased steadily until the 1960s. The breeding distribution is centred on the tillage counties but not restricted to them, and the arrival of the species post-dated the decline in tillage after the Famine. However. survey work for the Winter Atlas in 1981/82

to 1983/84 shows a more restricted distribution than in the early 1970s, with the largest numbers not unexpectedly concentrated in the cereal growing areas. This contrasts with the British position where Stock Doves are less dependent on the cereal growing areas. apparently because the intensified use of herbicides has reduced the availability of weed seeds and Stock Doves now favour areas of mixed pasture and tillage. The apparent decline in numbers since the early 1970s may be real or may just reflect the increased difficulty in locating the birds at low densities in winter. Rooks occur at higher densities in most parts of Ireland than in Britain. This reflects their requirement for mixed farming with a preponderance of pasture. In England they require a mix of cereal and pasture and the large numbers in the north of Ireland reflect the dominance of this farming regime there. Good grassland is required to provide food for the young in the summer and grain is needed in autumn when the number of insects declines in grassland. Cowpats are an important food source because of the number of invertebrates they attract. WOODLAND

In the Republic of Ireland there are about 268,000 ha of state-owned woodland and 82,000 ha of private woodland, representing about 5% of the land surface. The state forests are 95% coniferous with two North American species, Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine, accounting for 85% of current planting. The private woodlands are about 40% broadleaf forest, 40% scrub and 20% coniferous. The private woods

Ireland: distribution of woodland

26

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

Oakwood in Killarney. Kerry. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

are all small. only three estates having more than 500 ha of forest (McEvoy 1979). In Northern Ireland there are about 60.000 ha of planted woodland with Sitka spruce predominating. and there are a small number of mixed deciduous woods (Tomlinson 1982). This represents a similar proportion of land area under afforestation as in the Republic. There have been surprisingly few studies of the bird communities of Irish woodlands. particularly when the scarcity of species as compared with Britain is con sidered. Batten (1976) reported on an intensive survey of several woodland types in Killarney. Kerry . in 1973 and Wilson (1977) discussed studies of bird communities of sessile oak woodlands. using some of the data from Batten. Simms (19 71) carried out some transect studies in Irish woods as well. More recently. repeat studies have been carried ou t in oakwood and yewwood in Killarney to draw comparisons with the 1973 survey (T. Carruthers). Deciduous Woodland At the end of the sixteenth century 12.5% of Ireland was forested ; by 1800 only 2% wa s covered by trees (McCracken 1971). Since parts ofIreland were covered by bog or lakes. or are too high for woodland. the percentage of available land under trees in 1600 was much higher than 12.5%. Oak was the most widespread species in the early seventeenth century. ash was less common except on limestone. hazel occurred in association with oak. and birch was also quite common. There were virtually no hedges until the early eighteenth century and. while yews and elms occurred. they appear to have been scattered thinly. Many of the woods were felled in the seventeenth century so that the timber could be used in shipbuilding. house building and iron smelting. From about

1700 onwards there was some planting of deciduous trees on estates. bu t this declined in the mid nineteenth century. The census work carried out in the early 19 70s (Batten 1976. Wilson 19 77) showed that the most numerous species in oakwoods, three of which were censused in Kerry and two in Wick low. were Chaffinch. Robin . Goldcrest, Blue Tit. Coal Tit and Wren. these six comprising 75-85% of the breeding bird communities. Comparison with results from Welsh and Scottish oakwoods which had a somewhat similar history of management and utilization highlighted some differences . Willow Warblers. Garden Warblers and Blackcaps, all of which breed in Welsh and Scottish woods. were absent from the Irish plots. though they breed in other parts of Ire land . Batten suggested that the absence of Willow Warblers was due to the occupation of their niche by Goldcrests; Wilson suggested that the absence of pioneer growth in the Irish plots . especially of birch. militated against Willow Warblers. It was suggested by Wilson that the absence of the two other species was due to a scarcity of dense undergrowth. In two yewwoods visited in Kerry the six most abundant species were the same as in the oak woods. However. Coal Tits were less common and Blackbird s more common in the yew. More recent census studies in Kerry have shown that the number of territories in yewwood had declined from 113 of 16 species in 1973 to 101 in 1982. and 74 of 15 species in 1986. In oakwood the decrease was from 100 territories in 1973 to 53 in 1985 and 1986 (T. Carruthers). The decline appears to be due to the effect of weather conditions. A series of mild winters preceded the 1973 census and the density of some species appears to have been exceptionally high. In contrast. several cold spells occurred in winters 1981 /82.1984/85 and 1985/86 and

Factors affecting th e distribution of birds they appear to have led to sharply increased mortality (T. Carruthers). The sharp changes between th e results in 1973 and the 1980s. on the same census plots. shows the difficulty of generalising about Irish bird den sities from a very small body of data. The complete absence as breeding birds from Ireland of Tawny Owls. Green Woodpeckers. Great Spotted Woodpeckers. Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers. Marsh Tits. Willow Tits and Nuthatches. and the extreme rarity of Pied Flycatchers. Tree Pipits. Redstarts and Wood Warblers has puzzled many ornithologists, particularly since most of them have a widespread or predominantly westerly distribution in Britain and the last four named species are annual passage migrants. The traditional explanation ha s been that because Ireland is a smaller island than Britain it supports fewer species as ecological factors restrict colonization (Lack 1969). Wilson (1976) in contrast has pointed out that larger woods support more species and has suggested that the small size of Irish woods, coupled with the extent of grazing in the woods. which has restricted regeneration. has caused the extinction of many woodland birds which formerly bred in Ireland. Sharrock (1979). in a discussion of the rarity of Tree Pipits. has supported this argument and speculated that the destruction of the wood s led to th e extinction of Tree Pipits. The difficulty about this theory is that the only evidence that any of these species formerly occurred Widely in Ireland is the discovery of sub-fos sil remains of two Great Spotted Woodpeckers (Kennedy et al 1954). There is not even any evidence that woodpeckers were breeding in Ireland in medieval tim es. It can be argued that medieval records are sparse. but the unrecorded extinction of so many species seems less likely than the counter argument that they have been excluded by other generalist species which colonized after the last glaciation and occupied the niches which the woodpeckers and other. specialist species required . Coniferous Plantation The development of state afforestation is the greatest change in land use on the island of Ireland at present. Between 6.000 and 10.000 ha in the Republi c and about 1.000 ha in Northern Ireland are planted annually. This has had a noticeable effect on Hen Harrier numbers which increased from the early 1950s to a peak in the mid 19 70s, the spread corresponding with the development of plantations on hillsides throughout much of the country. Hen Harriers nest in young plantations. and the. maturing of many forests and the clearance of marginal land following Ireland's admittance to the European Economic Community were believed by O'Flynn (19 8 3) to be responsible for some decline in the late 1970s. The onl y publi shed census study of breeding birds in Irish conifer plantations is that of Batten (19 76) who surveyed Norway spruce and Sitka spruce woods in Kerry in 19 73 as well as deciduous wood s. He found the highest density of birds on any survey plot in the Norway spruce wood where there were 180 pairs per 10 ha, of which 59 were Goldcrests, though the number of species at 14 was very low. Goldcrest densities were much the highest recorded in any habitat in Britain or Ireland. The Sitka spruce wood had 100 pairs per 10 ha but only eight specie s were found. Again. Goldcrests were the most numerous species with

27

Chaffinch and Robin in second and third place as in Norway spruce. Batten pointed out that Sitka spruce is an American species and seems less suitable for European birds. At least Norway spruce is a European species and pre sumably more suited to Irish birds . URBAN AND SUBURBAN HABITATS

Population density is low in both the Republic and Northern Ireland. In the Republic 58 % of the population of 3.443 million in 1981 lived in towns of more than 1.00 0 people . The major centres of population are Dublin (9 15.0 0 0 ), Cork (150.000). Limerick (76 .000). Galway (4 2 .0 0 0) . Dundalk (2 9.00 0) . Drogheda (2 4. 0 0 0) and Bray (2 3.00 0) . In Northern Ireland the population in 1981 was 1.562 million. The major population centres are Belfast

Pied Wagtail roost outside the General Post Office. O'Connell Street. Dublin. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

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Factors affecting the distribution of birds

(327,000), Londonderry (93,000), Craigavon (72,000) and Newtownabbey (72,000). So, 36% of the population of the entire island lives in these 11 centres. The features of Irish towns which have drawn most attention in the ornithological literature have been the roosts of Pied Wagtails and the increase in urban Magpies, though there have also been studies of birds at a Cork municipal dump (N.J. Buckley and T. C. Kelly) and at four sites in Dublin (D. Keating and J. Whelan), and of Mute Swans in Cork O. O'Halloran) and Dublin (R. Collins). The Pied Wagtail roost at O'Connell Street, Dublin, has been known since 1929 and up to 3,600 birds have been counted there, though numbers in recent years have been lower at 600-1,000 (Cotton & Lovatt 1985). In recent years urban roosts have been located at Cork, in two other parts of Dublin and no doubt they occur in other towns and cities. It is clear that urban roosting is a widespread phenomenon. Magpies have been known to breed in Dublin since at least the mid nineteenth century and they are now so widespread that their depredations on nestlings of other species drive onlookers to write despairing letters to the Dublin newspapers every summer. In a recent study (Kavanagh 1987) it was estimated that Magpies were nesting at a density of 16.6 pairs per km 2 and had been increasing at an annual rate of 12-13% since 1970. At the Cork municipal refuse dump, gull and corvid attendance was studied in 1984 and 1985. Herring Gulls were noted as having declined sharply since 1982/83 and Black-headed and Common Gulls had increased considerably. Of the corvids only Rooks occurred consistently and in large numbers (N. J. Buckley, T. C. Kelly). The Dublin study by D. Keating and J. Whelan was of the bird communities of two parks, an urban wilderness and a residential area in the city and was carried out from January to August 1982. The highest density of birds was found in the urban wilderness, but this had the lowest species diversity. Diversity was highest in the parks. WHY ARE THERE FEWER SPECIES IN IRELAND?

Why, therefore, does Ireland not have a number of species which breed in Britain or on the Continent? The reasons appear to be several. Firstly, it appears likely that a number of summer migrants have not colonized Ireland because they are at a competitive disadvantage from year round residents. O'Connor (1986) has shown that only 16 of the 46 migrant species (35%) regularly breeding in Britain also breed in Ireland, but that 86 of the 125 resident species (69%) do so. O'Connor identified several reasons for the disadvantages which migrants have in establishing themselves. He showed that migrant species in general are distributed in seasonal areas where food resources peak in summer to levels beyond the capacity of the residents to exploit. He also emphasized the advantage which resident

species have in being on the breeding grounds earlier, being able to start nesting earlier and to produce more young, and he pointed out how resident individuals that survive winter adversity can be expected to be more competitive than migrants that have wintered in a more favourable climate. The mild oceanic Irish climate, with few extremes, would appear therefore to provide less resources for migrants and to permit greater survival of residents, and earlier nesting by them, than the British climate with its greater seasonality. Secondly, the absence from Ireland of sedentary species such as Tawny Owls, woodpeckers, Nuthatches, Marsh Tits and Willow Tits is likely to be due to their lack of ability to reach Ireland at all. Only the Green and Great Spotted Woodpecker have been recorded as vagrants. The Green Woodpecker has not been recorded this century and most of the Great Spotted Woodpecker records are believed to be of the irruptive Continental race rather than of British origin. Lack (1969) considered that the difficulties of dispersal over the Irish Sea were not responsible for the reduced Irish avifauna, but the absence from Ireland of this group of birds supports MacArthur & Wilson's hypothesis that immigration rates are dependent on distance from the source pool. If conditions in Ireland are in fact suitable for these species, but competition or failure to cross the Irish Sea has prevented colonization, one would expect reduced species diversity in an Irish habitat together with higher densities of those species which are present. Unfortunately, there have been rather few studies, but Common Bird Census study plots at Irish farmland show higher densities of Blue Tits and Goldcrests than do British studies (BTO data). Census studies at Irish sessile oakwoods have shown that diversity is lower than in Scottish or Welsh oakwoods but that Coal Tits, Blue Tits and Goldcrests occur at much higher densities (Wilson 1977). Presumably they occupy some of the niches occupied in Britain by the woodpeckers, Nuthatches, Pied Flycatchers and Redstarts. Thirdly, a number of habitats which occur in Britain are not represented in Ireland. The lowland heath and chalk downland of southern England and the high mountains and Caledonian Scots pine woodlands of Scotland are good examples. The absence of these habitats helps to explain why Woodlarks, Dartford Warblers, Stone-curlews and Crested Tits do not breed in Ireland and why Dotterels and Greenshanks have only been found once. The reasons why small islands in general have fewer species than large islands are still debated among scientists and Ireland has been used as an example by several. The current thinking indicates that there is not just one simple explanation but that several factors are involved. The only certainty at this stage is that much more remains to be said on the subject.

Ornithology and bird conservation The traditional attitude to birds in Ireland has been typical of rural communities throughout Europe. Birds are part of the environment in which people live and. like other features of this environment. are divided into categories based upon their usefulness to man. The game species. for example. are valuable as food or for sport. Certain other birds. such as Woodpigeons and Magpies. which feed on farmland. are widely perceived as vermin and deserving of persecution. Small garden birds. such as Robins and Song Thrushes. are regarded as useful foragers after slugs and other pests of growing vegetables. Until recently. birds have not been regarded as worthy of observation or admiration in their own right. Indeed. there is still an attitude that an unusual bird is something to be collected as an interesting object. and several rare and colourful species, including the first two Irish examples of the American Belted Kingfisher, have been shot. There have always been exceptions to these generalizations but the development of the idea that man should share the natural world with birds. rather than subjugate them. came much later in Ireland than in England. Thomas (1983) has described the replacement. in eighteenth century England. of the notion that the world was made for man alone. and that all other species were subordinate to his wishes, by new ideas of the balance of nature and of the value of the countryside and the wild creatures which inhabit it. These ideas were developed by the middle and upper classes and so were slow to travel to a largely peasant Ireland . There is a very limited literature of peasant Ireland. but the books written by several inhabitants of the Blasket Islands in Kerry give a vivid picture of a rural community and of attitudes to life. They contain few references to wildlife. Tomas O'Crohan, for example. who lived on the Great Blasket from 1856 to 1937. apparently did not con-

sider the seabird colonies of the Kerry islands. which are now so famous. as in any way remarkable. referring only to the food value of young Gannets on the Skelligs (O'Crohan 1937). And there is a substantial literature on shooting and fishing in the Irish countryside in the nineteenth century. in which it is clear that birds are best divided into game. which are useful. and vermin. which should be destroyed. In the latter category are included eagles and other birds of prey (e.g. Maxwell 1832). The popular idea that birds should be admired as wild and undisturbed creatures owes much to the steady growth in interest since the mid 1960s in the scientific study of birds (as ornithology is defined) . and in recent times to the influence of television as a medium for bringing the excitement of wildlife into people 's homes. ORIGINS OF ORNITHOLOGY IN IRELAND

All the standard texts on Irish ornithology consider Giraldus Cambrensis, the Welsh monk who visited Ireland in the twelfth century. as the first Irish ornithologist. He was in Ireland in 1183 and 1185. travelling in Cork and Waterford on the first occasion and from Waterford to Dublin on the second. Based on these visits he wrote his History and Topography of Ireland which was read publicly at Oxford in 1188. His book has been widely criticized by historians as unreliable and it is difficult to know what to make of his accounts of Irish birds. He was clearly very gullible. For example. he describes cranes (presumably Grey Herons) taking turns by night to keep guard while standing on one leg with a stone held in the other claw. They do this. he reported. so that if they should go to sleep they will be wakened again by the fall of the stone and can continue to keep watch. Yet he noticed that the Irish crows were not black but of different colours and he described

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Ornithology and bird conservation

their practice of breaking open shellfish by dropping them onto stones, behaviour familiar to anyone who has watched Hooded Crows at the coast. He describes convincingly Ospreys, Peregrines and Dippers (though incorrectly called the last Kingfishers) and he refers to the absence of Pheasants, Partridges, Magpies and Nightingales. Partridges are believed to be indigenous, though it has been remarked in justification of Giraldus that there is no Irish name for them (O'Meara 1982), but Pheasants were introduced in Elizabethan times and Magpies are later colonists. Nightingales are still absent, apart from occasional vagrants in spring or autumn. So much of Giraldus rings true and yet he appears to have believed such extraordinary fables that caution must be observed in quoting him. Nevertheless, he is one of the very few sources of information on Irish birds before the nineteenth century. Later references to birds by writers on Ireland, right up to the late eighteenth century, tend to concentrate on game birds and are extremely few. John Hall, in an assessment of the evidence for the Capercaillie being an Irish bird, reviewed a number of seventeenth and eighteenth century sources and his paper (Hall 1981) provides an invaluable list of references. A book on the natural history of Dublin by John Rutty, an English born medical doctor, published in 1772 was a pioneering but apparently isolated work. The book provides fascinating accounts of a number of bird species, far more than just the game birds, and while Rutty includes such interesting information as an opinion on the flavour of each species when cooked, his text reads as a consistent and apparently reliable work. To put his book into perspective one must remember that Carl von Linne of Sweden published the tenth volume of his System of Nature in 1758, only fourteen years before Rutty's book appeared. The real origins of Irish ornithology lie, however, in the upsurge of interest in science in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Royal Dublin Society had been founded as early as 1 731; the Royal Irish Academy was founded in 1771. In 1821 the extremely influential Belfast Natural History Society was formed. William Thompson, author of the first book on the birds of Ireland, Natural History of Ireland (Vols 1-3, 1849-51), read his first zoological paper to this body in 1827 on 'The Birds of the Copeland Islands'. According to Robert Lloyd Praeger (1949) the membership was about 60 by then and each member in turn was required to read a paper. There was a fine for failing to do this and a member who did not attend a meeting for three months was ejected in the absence of sufficient apology. Such a system has much to commend it and it certainly did not discourage Thompson who spent much of his short life (he died in 1852 at the age of 47) conducting an extensive correspondence and taking the notes which were to be incorporated in due course into his Natural History of Ireland. In 1838 the Natural History Society of Dublin was formed and had a membership in its heyday of about 250; it died out about 1871. In Cork the Cuvierian Society of Cork, founded about 1845, published a Contribution towards a fauna and flora of the County of Cork which had been prepared for the 1843 meeting in Cork of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

1850- 19 I 5 The middle of the nineteenth century marked a real turning point. In Britain the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU) was founded in 1859, and the field club movement in Ireland gradually supplanted the earlier natural history societies. The Belfast Naturalist's Field Club was founded in 1863, shortly after the Belfast Natural History Society became the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, its change of name signifying a broadening of its scope. The Dublin Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1885 and the Cork Naturalists' Field Club in 1892. Alone of the three, the Cork club did not survive, transferring its activities in 1923 to the newly formed Cork Camera and Field club. The first two of these frequently had large memberships and for many years they were the centres of the exchange of information on ornithological matters. The years from 1850 to about 1915 were the golden years of Irish ornithological discovery. The publication of Birds of Ireland by R. J. Ussher and R. Warren in 1900 marked one of the high points; even a rapid survey of the book shows what an enormous amount of work had been done in discovering the distribution and migratory status of Irish birds. There were correspondents in many counties, many of them apparently professional men, some landlords and some Church of Ireland clergy. These were presumably people with the leisure to get out into the field and make observations. But as well as the network of correspondents which Usher built up there were several outstanding individual ornithologists. R. M. Barrington, born in 1849 at Fassaroe near Bray in Wicklow, produced work of outstanding importance. He was called to the Bar but preferred the outdoor life that he got as a land valuer and farmer. His interests were broad and he was an excellent botanist, but his enduring work was the creation of a virtual bird observatory network from the Irish lighthouse and lightship keepers. He knew the importance of regular publication to keep enthusiasm going among those participating in a scientific enquiry, and his great The Migration of Birds as observed at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships published in an edition of only 350 copies in 1900 is a remarkable account of bird migration around our coast. Indeed it provided the basis for the information on migration in Kennedy, Ruttledge and Scroope's Birds of Ireland published in 1954, over half a century later. Barrington was a tough man. He climbed in Switzerland and Canada and visited many remote places, including Rockall in 1896, but the story which typifies his spirit is one which Praeger quotes in his classic account of his travels around Ireland, The Way that I Went (Praeger 1937). Apparently Barrington and H. C. Hart went to Powerscourt one very wet day hoping to hear Wood Warblers and to search for plants. It rained all day and Hart, in order to show his contempt for the conditions, walked through the longest grass and the briars close to the edge of the stream. Barrington reacted to this move by stepping into the water and sitting down on a submerged stone to eat his lunch. Without a word, Hart joined him. All rivalry ceased forthwith. How could one not admire such a man. A. G. More, though an Englishman, was a most influential ornithologist in Ireland, not least because he acted as DEVELOPMENTS:

Ornithology and bird conservation a stimulus to many younger men, including R. M. Barrington. His most enduring work was a study of the geographical distribution of birds in Britain as analysed from letters from a network of correspondents. This was published in the Ibis before he came to Ireland in 1867 as Assistant in the Dublin Museum. He progressed to become Keeper of the Natural History Division in 1881 but was forced by illness to retire in 1887. After his death, a detailed account of his life, together with his letters and scientific papers, was published by C.B. Moffat (Moffat 1898). In a period of outstanding individuals, Richard John Ussher of Waterford stands out. He was the real author of Birds of Ireland; Robert Warren was a collaborator but wrote only small sections of the book. Ussher was a big, energetic, blue-eyed, red-bearded figure who visited at one time or other almost every cliff, lough, hill and wood in Ireland. Praeger (1949) has described how he settled down after some years abroad to live in the family home at Cappagh and took up 'vigorously that destructive and rather meaningless branch of zoology - if it can be dignified by such a phrase - egg-collecting, and the nests of the rarer birds such as Peregrine Falcons were harried year after year by him or through his agency; but in later years he atoned by relinquishing the collecting of eggs, by helping energetically the work of the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds, and by widespread explorations of the cliff-bound shores of the west coast and the bogs and lakes of the midlands to determine the breeding range in Ireland of rarer species'. In an obituary notice in the Daily Express on 16 October 1913 it is reported that the writing of the new standard book was originally to be done by A. G. More, R. M. Barrington, R. Warren and R.J. Ussher, but that it was soon decided to place the work almost solely in Ussher'shands. His own particular interests were cliff-breeding birds and the country is richer for the vast series of notes which he bequeathed to the Royal Irish Academy. After a survey of breeding Choughs in 1982 Ian Bullock, the organizer of the survey, was able to compare the location of current breeding sites with those which Ussher knew at the turn of the century (Bullock et a11983). As well as being a great ornithologist, Ussher was an outstanding explorer of caves, an activity in which he was greatly encouraged by finding Great Auk bones in coastal kitchen-middens. These men were chiefly. interested in bird distribution, an emphasis which is understandable at a time when very little was known about the status of Irish birds. Publications on behaviour were scarce indeed, but there was an interest in broader research which is best evidenced by Barrington's massive investigation into migration. These two strands intermingled, however, in a manner which was not to be typical of Irish ornithology in the twentieth century. Barrington co-operated closely with Ussher and the tiny ornithological community was perhaps closer knit, possibly because of the eminence of these two figures, than it was to be later. Among the general public there was clearly some interest in birds, although it appears to have been restricted to the small middle and professional classes and to some landlords. In 1902 or 1903 the Belfast Society for the Protection of Birds was founded with the Countess of

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Shaftesbury as first president, but the organization did not survive for more than a year or two. The Irish Society for the Protection of Birds was founded on 29th April 1904 in Dublin, and in the following July was successful in having withdrawn from the newspapers an advertisement for a supply of terns for millinery purposes. One recalls that the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, now the largest bird protection organization in the world, was founded in 1891 as a response to the popular fashion of attaching plumes of herons and egrets to women's hats, and it seems likely that the Irish bodies took their cue from the early success of the British body. Bird protection was not a popular cause in Ireland, however, in the early years of the present century and the Irish Society was a low profile body. INTO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 19 I 954 The years between the First World and 1954, the year in which Kennedy, Ruttledge and Scroope published Birds of Ireland, their successor to Ussher and Warren's book of 54 years earlier, appear at this remove to have been less exciting in terms of ornithological achievement than the previous fifty years or the next thirty-five. If the 1954 book is compared with its predecessor it is clear that what is new was less revolutionary than the material which Ussher and Warren had to hand. This is not surprising. A comparison of the number of correspondents referred to in the two books indicates that there was no increase in the number of amateur ornithologists in the country during the early twentieth century. The relative scarcity of keen ornithologists in Ireland contrasts with the development of a strong amateur ornithological movement in Britain, and perhaps reflects the insularity and conservatism of both Northern Ireland and the then Irish Free State, now the Republic, from the 1920s to the 1950s. During this period there was a small but active bird protection movement. In Belfast the Ulster Society for the Protection of Birds was founded in 1921, and in Dublin the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds, with C.B. Moffat as Secretary for over twenty years up to his death in 1945, secured the safety of the long-standing Mayo breeding colony of Red-necked Phalaropes by purchasing the land where the birds nested and appointing a summer warden. These societies were largely concerned with bird protection and not with habitat conservation. The threats to birds came from egg-collectors (as at the phalarope colony) or from indiscriminate shooting; land-use changes had not yet had a perceptible effect on bird populations. The Ulster Society secured Swan Island in Larne Lough as a bird sanctuary in the late 1930s. Watchers were appointed to protect seabird colonies on Rathlin Island and in Strangford Lough from egg-collectors, and perches were erected for tired migrants on the Maidens Lighthouse in 1936. Douglas Deane was involved in one of the Ulster Society's major successes, in' 1946, when 177 crates packed with over 7,000 wild birds were found in cold storage plants in Belfast. He and Dr J. A. Sinclair examined the birds and found that they included 5,509 birds of 19 species which were protected by law. The most numerous were Lapwings (1,880), Razorbills (1,501) and Guillemots (1,466),

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Ornithology and bird conservation

but also found were scarcer species such as Grey Phalarope and Leach's Petrel (C. Douglas Deane). Both societies were successful in promoting legislative protection for birds and this was unquestionably their most important achievement. In what is now the Republic, the Irish Society provided assistance in the preparation of the 1930 Wild Birds Protection Act, and in Northern Ireland the Ulster Society provided substantial input to the 1931 Wild Birds Protection Act. Towards the end of this period the Irish Ornithologists' Club was formed in Dublin in 1950. It brought together a number of men in Dublin who were interested in studying birds and was the first purely ornithological society in the country, providing a forum for meetings and discussion, and organising regular field trips. Its principal rule was that it should have no rules or keep no minutes. Women were excluded in the early years and it was considered that junior birdwatchers were adequately catered for by the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club. Meetings were held in The Stag's Tail and later in The Dolphin bars in Dublin (F. Miller). The organization received no mention in Birds in Ireland published in 1954, but it was to be notable in due course for its foundation of the first bird report. Among the ornithologists, although an egg-collector and disapproved of by the protectionists. George Humphreys, who was born in Anglesey in 1886, was a link between the dominant figures of the late nineteenth century and those of recent years. He knew Barrington and Ussher personally and was a wonderful source of anecdotes up to his death in 1980. He came to live in Dublin in 1904 when he was appointed to the staff of the then London and North Western Railway at the North Wall. Because of his job with the railway company he had concessionary travel rates around Ireland and he used these to get to know Connemara well. He described on a number of occasions how he obtained his first pair of binoculars in 1 911 and how in the same year he became what must have been Ireland's first ringer by placing rings provided by H. F. Witherby on Little Terns at the North Bull. He was a very keen ornithologist and perhaps even more enthusiastic oologist. In the 1930s he reorganized the scheme of correspondence with lightkeepers which Barrington had conducted so successfully and reports were published in the Irish Naturalists' Journal for several years. He wrote the 1937 edition of the National Museum's List of Irish Birds, following a series of distinguished authors of previous editions, including both A. G. More and Richard Ussher, but was not included among the authors of the new Birds of Ireland published in 1954, in his view because his egg-collecting enthusiasm was not frowned upon. Nevertheless, he was a kind and generous man to those who knew him, always willing and keen to discuss developments in ornithology. The best known ornithologists of this period were of course the authors of the new standard textbook published in 1954: Rev P. G. Kennedy S.J., Major R. F. Ruttledge and Col C. F. Scroope. Father Kennedy, as he was widely known, .was the man who popularized the North Bull in broadcasts on Radio Eireann, articles in Studies and the Irish Naturalists' Journal and eventually, in 1953, in a little book named An Irish Sanctuary - birds of the North Bull. In 1931

he persuaded Dublin Corporation to apply to the Minister for Justice to sign an Order establishing the area as a sanctuary. But there were various plans over the years to turn the North Bull channel into a boating marina and to build a cinema and dance-hall on the site. He died in 1967, but he would surely have enjoyed the enormous public enthusiasm nowadays for the 'Open Days' organized at the Bull by the Irish Wildbird Conservancy and Dublin Corporation. Major R. F. Ruttledge, or 'the Major' as he has been known to generations of birdwatchers, had quite different interests from the urban dwelling Father Kennedy. He was born in Carlow in 1899 but moved to Mayo at an early age where he concentrated on studies of the distribution of birds in the west of Ireland. His contribution to Irish ornithology in the first half of the twentieth century is notable for the care with which he documented his observations on the distributions of birds. His particular interests were seabirds breeding on the islands off the west coast and the geese which wintered on the midland and western bogs. A major paper on the birds of Galway and Mayo (Ruttledge 1950) was the first modern county avifauna produced in Ireland and his paper on the numbers and distribution of geese with Mrs Hall Watt (Ruttledge & Hall Watt 1958) was the summary of many years of goose observations. These were simply the highlights of his publishing: from 1916 onwards he published a series of notes and short papers which had no parallel in Irish ornithology at the time, either in number of publications or in scope of topic. The culmination of these publications was his joint authorship of the 1954 Birds of Ireland with Kennedy and Scroope, and his editing of the Irish Bird Report from 1953, the first national bird report produced in these islands and a forerunner by eight years of the British Birds Rarities Report. The Major's work in the early 1950s was responsible for a new interest in documenting bird records and it had a vital impact on new generations of birdwatchers. The last member of the triumvirate which wrote the 1954 book, Lt-Col Scroope, was not a prolific author, but he was an excellent field ornithologist who in his early years came under the influence of Robert Warren. He served in the Indian Army and had a remarkable diversity of interests, which included shooting big game in the Himalayas, playing tennis for Ireland in the Davis Cup, and reaching a high standard as golfer and fisherman. When on leave in Ireland, and during his retirement, he watched birds mainly in Dublin, Wicklow and Cork. He probably knew more than anybody else about breeding Hen Harriers in Ireland during the 19 50s, but his publications were very few. These ornithologists of the first half of the twentieth century were all interested primarily in the distribution of birds. But the most original ornithologist of the period, and perhaps the most influential Irish ornithologist of any period, was a man little known to the public. a man who was so little known to the naturalists of his day that he did not merit a mention in Robert Lloyd Praeger's Some Irish Naturalists. He was J. P. Burkitt. Burkitt was born in 1870. He trained as a civil engineer and between 1900 and 1940 was the County Surveyor for Fermanagh. He placed different patterns of metal bands on

Ornithology and bird conservation

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Aerial view of Nort h Harbour and Bird Observato ry at Cape Clear, Cork. Note the dark colour of the sea due to red tide. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

th e legs of Robin s in his garden - not coloured ring s because he wa s colour blind - and thus made possible for th e first time the study in th e field of indi vidual bird s. He discover ed new facts about territorial behaviour a nd son g. including fem ale song: he observed threat display: he was th e first to use ringing returns to estimate ave rage a ge. He told David Lack th at he did not look at a bird until he was 3 7, at wh ich tim e he h ad no ornithological friends (Lack 1965). He publi sh ed a pioneering paper in British Birds, entitled 'A study of the Robin by means of marked bird s' (Brit Birds 1924-2 6,17:294-30 3: 18:97-10 3: 20 5-557: 19 : 120124: 20: 9 1- 10 1) and a few sho rt papers in the Irish Nat uralist . He told Lack in 1944 ' Whe n I was doing the Robin I had pricks of con scien ce th at I wa s really more interested in th e created than th e Cre ator'. He was deepl y religiou s, extrem ely humble and in tellectu ally brilliant. He spent his lat er years reading th e Bible and working in his gard en . One othe r littl e-known Irish a utho r deser ves men tion here and th is is Rev E.A. Armstro ng , the a utho r of th e 'New Na turalist' mon ogr aph on The Wren (195 5) and of The Folklore of Birds (19 58) in th e same series. His Birds of the Grey Wi nd (1 940). an evocative account of his explora tion of the landscap e of his hom e pro vin ce in sea rch of birds. was the first bird book on Nor the rn Ireland . Howe ver , he was outside th e mainstream of Irish ornith ology and, unlike C. Dou glas Dean e. who wrot e the Ulster Museum 's

Handbook of th e Birds of No rthern Ireland ( 19 54 ), had little influe nc e on lat er gene ra tions . 'Jimmy' Deane, as he was Widely kn own , mad e maj or contribution s both to th e study of birds in Northe rn Ireland and to th e popula riza tion of an interest in wildlife th rou gh his prolific writings and his films.

SLOW B il l' STEA DY PROG RESS : 1954-19 6 6 Two events in 1954 had a maj or influ en ce on the developm ent of Irish ornithology. Thes e were th e publication by Oliver & Boyd in Edinburgh of Birds of Ireland by Kennedy. Ruttledge and Scr oope , and th e foundation of th e Irish Bird Report by th e Irish Ornithologists' Clu b under th e edit or ship of Major R. F. Ruttledg e. The book was a major undertaking. describing th e st atus and distribution of Irish birds as kn own in the lat e 19 40s and ea rly 1950s. but more vital for the future wa s the publi cati on of th e first Report. Birds of Ireland is very much a descendant of th e 1900 book of th e same title: th e order h as chan ged but th e approa ch is sim ilar. as no doubt ca n be sa id ab out thi s book! Th e new Report . however , pro vided a forum for documenting changes in Irish ornitho logy whic h was so succ essful th at its editor was a ble to produce a new book, Ireland 's Birds,· with in twelve years. Birdwat ch ers were keen to ha ve th eir record s published a nd th e a n nua l appea ra nce of a list of unusual bird occ urrences stim ula ted th e sma ll number of ac tive observe rs . Th e first twelve issues

34

Ornithology and bird conservation

contained a very full systematic list and, for most of these years, a report of bird records at Saltee Bird Observatory. Only with the publication of Ireland's Birds in 1966 did Major Ruttledge feel that the systematic list could be somewhat curtailed and short papers included. This was eventually to lead to the foundation of an Irish ornitholgoical journal. The issue which most intrigued ornithologists in the 1950s and early 1960s was the study of bird migration. In Ireland Saltee Bird Observatory was founded in 1950, though closed in 1964. Copeland Bird Observatory and Cape Clear Bird Observatory, both still thriving, were founded in 1954 and 1959 respectively. Bird Observatories also existed briefly at Tory Island (1958-1965) and Malin Head (1961-1965). A great deal was learned in a few years at these sites about the pattern of bird migration but perhaps the greatest long-term value of the observatory network was the cross-fertilization fostered by the mix of relatively experienced British and novice Irish birdwatchers, and the opportunities provided for Irish birdwatchers to learn the techniques of bird-ringing and the use of mistnets to catch birds. Well-known ornithologists, such as Frank King and Oscar Merne, cut their teeth at Saltee. Others, such as Ken Preston, Killian Mullarney and Anthony McGeehan, developed their skills at Cape Clear. The presence of ornithologists at island watchpoints who knew how to keep log-books, record data and make descriptions of birds was a marvellous educating factor. The collection of data and the encouragement to analyse it stimulated many of us in later studies. The Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club was founded in 1960 and developed a reputation for co-operative survey work in the mid 1960s when it carried out monthly wildfowl counts in the entire Lough Neagh basin, thus establishing the importance of the area for wintering diving ducks. The early 1960s were also the years when the bird conservation movement first made real progress. In Northern Ireland a Committee on Nature Conservation, chaired by the Duke of Abercorn, reported in 1962 and recommended the establishment of an independent nature conservancy funded by the government and linked closely to Queen's University. The recommendation was not implemented, apparently because of objections from the then Ministry of Agriculture (which also included Forestry) but three years later, after much lobbying at Stormont, the Amenity Lands Act 1965 was enacted and the responsibility for countryside and nature conservation was passed to the then Ministry of Development. This was a major turning point. For the first time Nature Reserves could be established and a second-tier element known as Areas of Scientific Interest was also introduced. The Act formed the basis for the effective conservation of many rich ornithological sites in Northern Ireland over the next 20 years. Voluntary bird conservation in Northern Ireland also made significant progress with the establishment by the National Trust for Northern Ireland, with the support of the local wildfowling organizations, of the Strangford Lough wildlife Scheme in 1966. Under its auspices refuge areas for nesting ducks and terns and for wintering waders, ducks

and geese were created, a warden was appointed and information facilities for the public were installed. Conservation was slower to get moving in the Republic, but certain changes were in the wind in 1965 and 1966 which would have lasting repercussions. A new voluntary body, the Irish Wildfowl Committee, was founded in Dublin in December 1965, largely under the stimulus of an energetic young American post-graduate at University College, Galway, Dr David Cabot. Its objectives included safeguarding the Wexford Slobs, conserving wetlands, surveying wildfowl populations and publicizing conservation needs. Also in Dublin John Temple Lang began to revitalize the dormant Irish Society for the Protection of Birds and to campaign for a new Wildlife Act. New figures were appearing who were to have a marked impact on ornithology in the next twenty years because of their organizational dynamism and their ability successfully to promote conservation as an issue. 1967-1987 It is not just nostalgia which makes the late 1960s appear as exciting years. Increasing urbanization, changes in land-use, land drainage, pollution and the effect of pest icides all appeared as major threats to birds. The voluntary conservation movement developed rapidly in response; government in both Northern Ireland and the Republic committed more resources to wildlife conservation: the general public showed a heightened awareness of wildlife; and television showed that close-up views of birds and their behaviour was popular early evening entertainment. Attitudes seemed to be changing very rapidly. In the Republic the principal organizations concerned with bird watching and conservation, the Irish Wildfowl Conservancy (it had changed its name from the Irish Wildfowl Committee), the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds and the Irish Ornithologists' Club, came together in 1968 to form the present Irish Wildbird Conservancy with objects of (a) conservation, (b) education, (c) research and (d) encouragement of field ornithology. The new organization saw co-operative field ornithology as both a means of providing essential conservation baseline material on the distribution of Irish birds and as a popular outlet for the enthusiasm of active members. Four principal surveys were promoted from the beginning: wildfowl counts, breeding seabird counts, the survey of breeding birds on the basis of the 10 km squares of the National Grid and the breeding Peregrine census. Wildfowl counts were first carried out in Ireland in the late 1940s and early 1950s under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust and were concentrated on locations close to Dublin and Belfast. Then, in 1964-65 the Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club commenced a series of counts of the wildfowl of the Lough Neagh basin which showed for the first time the immensity of the numbers of duck wintering in the area. From 1967 onwards, the Irish Wildfowl Committee and, in due course, the Irish Wildbird Conservancy, organized country-wide counts of geese and wildfowl generally as part of the International Waterfowl Research Bureau international censuses. The initial reasoning behind the wildfowl counts was a growing consciousness of the threat to the habitat of ducks, THE RECENT PAST:

Ornithology and bird conservation

geese and swans posed by increasing drainage and the obvious lack of information on the numbers and distribution of these birds in Ireland. An additional motivation to these surveys was the international interest in wildfowl and their habitats. and the closer contact with bodies such as the International Waterfowl Research Bureau and the World Wildlife Fund. which efforts to raise funds to purchase part of the Wexford Slobs had produced. When the Seabird Group, a mainly British organization of workers interested in seabirds, proposed a census of all the breeding seabirds around the coastline of Britain and Ireland in 1969 and 1970, the Irish reaction was as enthusiastic as the response to wildfowl counts. The habitat on which birds spend so much of their lives, the inshore waters around our coast. appeared to be gravely threatened by oil pollution and by the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs which were identified as a possible contributory factor to unusual seabird mortality in the Irish Sea in 1969. As with the wildfowl, virtually nothing was known about the numbers of birds breeding around our shores and there was also a growing international interest in seabirds and their conservation. So, the decision was early taken to co-operate with the Seabird Group and to take part in what wa s called

35

'Operation Seafarer'. There had been an Irish involvement in the Seabird Group from the start: the Bird Observatories at Cape Clear, Malin Head and Tory had contributed to the Atlantic Seawatch scheme which the Group had promoted and a number of Irish sea watchers had contributed data from points such as Brandon Point. the Old Head of Kinsale and even, though somewhat removed from the Atlantic, the West Pier, Dun Laoghaire. Irish representation on the Seabird Group Executive Comm ittee, as on so many organizations in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was personified by Oscar Merne and he promoted the new survey actively. It was a most exciting two years and. while the survey's techniques have been much criticized in recent years, it did pinpoint all the major seabird colonies and. for some species, provided valuable baseline data. The main criticism of the survey has been the general lack of a systematic approach to censusing the cliff-breeding auks and the burrowing species. a criticism which is valid . but it should be recalled that this extremely ambitious survey did result in a number of research projects aimed at solving the censusing problem and at other aspects of seabird breeding biology . The results were summarized in book form in 1974 (Cramp et aI1974).

The third survey promoted by the Irish Wildbird Con-

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Ornithology and bird conservation

servancy in its early years was the plan to join with the BTO in mapping the breeding birds of Britain and Ireland on a 10 km square grid, over the five years from 1968 to 19 72. There was no obvious conservation motive behind this survey, unlike the wildfowl and seabird counts, but there was a sense that if the British and Northern Irish were going to do it (and it was the concept of the BTO) then the Republic should join in. Very little consideration was given to the difficulty involved or indeed to who would organize the survey: at this stage, no organizer of an amateur ornithological survey in Ireland had received reimbursement of his expenses, let alone any remuneration. There was no money anyhow. However, the IWC was fortunate in that the BTO appointed as organizer Dr Tim Sharrock, whose association with Cape Clear Bird Observatory, which he had helped to found in 1959, had brought him in contact with the more active Irish ornithologists. Equally fortunate was the fact that David Scott agreed to organize the survey in the Republic of Ireland. The enthusiasm and hard work of both men ensured the success of the Atlas. David Scott spent each summer in the field and the rest of the year corresponding with observers, ensuring that all parts of the Republic were covered and checking records. The project had a scientific value in that it mapped with unprecedented accuracy all the records of confirmed, probable or possible breeding over the five year period. It also propagated the idea of field ornithology as an activity of interest in itself and many Irish amateur birdwatchers were introduced to rigorous recording techniques. At the end of the Atlas period many called for a new survey to keep them occupied in useful activity, but the replacement survey on important bird habitats which was adopted in Britain proved too complex and too demanding of most Irish observers and was not a success here. Finally, the IWC in response to the declining population of the Peregrine promoted annual censuses of the species in the Republic. This survey was organized annually by John Temple Lang and summary results were published each year. Like the wildfowl counts and the seabird censuses, the Peregrine survey marked a response to conservation problems and the threat to a species. Each of these surveys reflected the interest of Irish ornithologists in numbers and distribution of birds. The wildfowl counts developed in due course into a Wetlands Enquiry which amassed a great deal of material on the seasonal distribution and numbers of most Irish wildfowl and waders in the early 1970s (Hutchinson 1979), and was repeated in the 1980s, but there was no spin-off into studies of why the birds feed on particular estuaries, where they moult, or how many of them actually utilize individual sites. These were the problems which increasingly interested British and Continental ornithologists from the mid 1970s on, but. apart from a small amount of wader and wildfowl ringing, one state-funded project on Mallard, one long-term project on Barnacle Geese, and a couple of single season studies of waders in Strangford Lough, there was no research on ducks, geese or waders. It may be argued that research was carried out on the Wexford Slobs on the feeding ecology of White-fronted Geese but, if so, the results have never been published. There was little improvement

in the 1980s despite all the protests about threats to waterfowl, though a state-funded research programme commenced on White-fronted Geese, Micheal O'Briain carried out studies on Brent Geese as part of his doctoral research in University College, Dublin, and Oscar Merne studied the infauna of the Shannon Estuary as a food resource for shorebirds. The criticism which the seabird census work had attracted led to several attempts to survey particular sites, but it was left to the RSPB to institute a scheme of annual monitoring of specific seabird colonies at a series of cliffs (Stowe 1982). The enthusiasm for atlassing was soon seen to be limited to surveys based on the simplest of instructions. Attempts to run a Register of Ornithological Sites foundered repeatedly on observer indifference to the habitat within which the birds occur: one might almost describe it as an apathy towards ecology. Efforts were made to organize Common Birds Census work but the birdwatchers who had taken part in the Atlas found this too complex and demanding of their time. It was not until 1981 when the BTO/IWC Winter Atlas project was launched that this enthusiasm was harnessed again for a simple survey with clear objectives and a very straightforward recording card. Even the Peregrine survey, which led to post-graduate projects for two. workers and eventually to state-sponsored surveys in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, did not produce much material on the birds other than on numbers and distribution until the early 1980s. One is drawn inexorably to the conclusion that while amateur ornithology flourished in Ireland in the nineteenth century, it parted company from British and Continental movements in the early years of this century. As both amateur and professional research developed abroad. Irish ornithology stagnated in an interest in bird distribution and bird reports not that far removed from the current enthusiasm for 'twitching' or adding as many species as possible to one's life list. It could be argued that such a strong statement is not fair to ringers, but Irish ringing has been notable for the dearth of publications from its proponents. The BTO provided essential assistance in both Northern Ireland and the Republic in the late 1960s and early 1970s by providing intensive ringing courses, and there are now approximately 100 ringers in the country, but only a handful of serious research projects have been started and very few papers relying mainly on ringing results have been published. One would hardly think that this is the country of J. P. Burkitt, the father of colour ringing. In the foregoing I have dealt very largely with Irish amateur ornithology. The reason for this emphasis is the scarcity of professional opportunities for ornithologists in Ireland. There is no University with an interest in ornithology to rival Oxford, Aberdeen or Durham in the UK, though there are indications that this may be changing. At each of the colleges of the National University in Dublin, Cork and Galway there is now at least one member of staff prepared to encourage students to work on birds. Secondly, there is an increase in the number of professional ornithologists working in the civil service since the mid 19 70s. It would not be true to say that there is a plethora of opportunities in the state service but there does seem to be

Ornithology and bird conservation an increase in the number of ornithologists earning a living from research, either as employees of or under contract to government departments. In particular, the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland has commissioned a substantial amount of work in the last five years, largely from the RSPB. Surveys of breeding 'Peregrines, breeding Common Scoters and breeding waders have provided contract work for ornithologists in Northern Ireland. In the Republic the Wildlife Service has commissioned research into seabird breeding ecology, White-fronted Goose feeding ecology, the effect of Cormorants on fisheries and the effect of drainage of a river system on the birds of the area. Thirdly, there are signs of a very few amateurs carrying out first-rate ornithological research and being prepared to contemplate publishing it. One of the aims of the journal Irish Birds, which was founded in 1977, was to encourage both amateur and professional ornithologists to publish original work on Irish birds and, while the emphasis of the majority of papers has been on bird distribution, there have been important contributions on other topics. During these years there was unprecedented pressure on the natural environment. Increasing industrialization and land reclamation threatened many bird habitats. The conservation movement responded with varying degrees of success to these threats. In Northern Ireland the Amenity Lands Act had been passed in 1965 and under its provisions a number of important ornithological sites have been conserved. The cliffs and sea-stacks at the western end of Rathlin Island off the Antrim coast, with their breeding seabirds, and the Quoile Pondage in Down with its wildfowl, are among the 44 nature reserves now established. Under the provisions for establishing Areas of Scientific Interest a certain degree of protection was afforded by the exercise of a measure of planning control. By this means the large sites of Lough Neagh and Lough Beg were saved from all forms of development except those of a purely agricultural nature. By the end of the 1970s it was clear that the Department of the Environment (NI), the successor to the Ministry of Development, did not have sufficient powers to deal with the major conservation problems which were becoming apparent. In 1985 two related Orders-in-Council strengthened the provisions of the 1965 Act. The new legislation provided severe penalties for disturbing birds in the breeding season, made it an offence to introduce certain species which had the capability to become pests .and, among strong provisions regarding Areas of Special Scientific Interest, landowners are obliged to consult the Department of the Environment in advance of undertaking a range of operations or activities which the Department considers may damage the value of the site in nature conservation terms. The voluntary organizations have also played a prominent role in nature conservation in Northern Ireland. The National Trust, which established the Strangford Lough Wildlife Scheme, has also set up and managed a number of reserves, including one at the Bann Estuary. The RSPB first became involved in Northern Ireland in 1966 when it absorbed the Ulster Society for the Protection of Birds and appointed Frank Hamilton as its first Regional Officer. Growth has been steady and members' groups were formed in Belfast in 1970, Bangor in 1971, Larne in 1973, and

37

Antrim, Lisburn, Fermanagh and North West in 1977. Current membership in all Ireland is approximately 4,000, of which the great majority are in Northern Ireland. The RSPB now has a full-time Regional Officer, Assistant Regional Officer and Overall Reserves Warden as well as secretarial staff, wardens and contract researchers. It has reserves at Castlecaldwell on Lough Erne, Green Island and Greencastle Point on Carlingford Lough, Swan Island on Larne Lough, Shane's Castle on Lough Neagh, Rathlin Island cliffs and Lough Foyle. In the Republic the then Department of Lands, which had recently established a small game development and conservation unit, announced in November 1966 that the Minister was having legislation prepared to deal with game on a national basis and that amending legislation dealing with wild bird protection was also envisaged. In 1968 the Department of Lands and the Irish Wildbird Conservancy, with financial help from the World Wildlife Fund and Arthur Guinness, Son & Co, Ltd, acquired a section of the North Slob in Wexford and established the Wexford Wildfowl Reserve. Two years later, as part of the Irish contribution to European Conservation Year, an international wildlife seminar was held in Killarney (O'Gorman & Wymes 1973). This has been described by one of the participants as a rather lavish function which 'appeared like a battle, waged with free alcohol, between An Foras Taluntais (Agricultural Institute) ... and the Forest Service of the Department of Lands' (Parker 1987). The seminar recommended that a centralized wildlife conservation agency be established with adequate budgetary support. In 1970 the small game development unit in the Department of Lands was merged with the Forestry Division to form the Forest and Wildlife Service, and over the next few years a small number of staff was hired to begin assessment of sites for conservation purposes, several areas of ornithological interest were protected by the imposition of 'noshooting' orders with landowner consent (totalling 66 by 1988), and work continued on the preparation of a comprehensive wildlife act. In December 19 76 the Wildlife Act was enacted and it came into effect in June 1977. The Wildlife Act placed responsibility for wildlife conservation with the Forest and Wildlife Service and provided for the establishment of both state-owned and privatelyowned nature reserves, of refuges for fauna and for special management arrangements, for the protection of wild birds, fauna and flora, for the control of hunting and shooting, and for the control of trading in wildlife. Unlike the Northern Irish legislation it did not give any statutory support for areas of special scientific interest. The Act was welcomed by the voluntary conservation, shooting and hunting bodies and they in turn were invited to nominate members to a Wildlife Advisory Council which was set up to advise the Minister. The Wildlife Advisory Council included a number of independent experts as well as the nominees of various voluntary bodies, and served for three terms of three years until 1987. Its reports chart the progress made and the problems and frustrations encountered. By the end of 1985,26 nature reserves had been declared, but 23 were in state forests. While it was important that natural and semi-natural woodland should be conserved, the high pro-

38

Ornithology and bird conservation

portion of reserves on state land was due largely to the unavailability of finance to purchase sites in private hands and to the reluctance to use the sections in the Act which allowed the Minister to recognize privately-owned nature reserves or to make management agreements. The second report of the Council noted the accelerating rate of destruction of natural habitats and described the response of the Department of Fisheries and Forestry, which incorporated the Forest and Wildlife Service, as inadequate. While much useful research had been carried out, the Council reported, there were signs of difficulty in translating the results into a co-ordinated policy for nature conservation. The final report stated clearly that it was apparent to those, both within Ireland and overseas, who were aware of the facts, that satisfactory progress in wildlife conservation had not been and was not being made. These were harsh words addressed to a Minister from a Council set up to advise him, and the Council went further, adding that a number of its recommendations had not been implemented. The principal difficulty was the marginalization of wildlife conservation within the structure of a government department largely committed to commercial forestry. In 1984 a Review Group on Forestry was appointed to advise the minister and, in its own submission, the Wildlife Advisory Council recommended that the objectives of wildlife conservation would best be met by the establishment of a heritage authority which would be responsible for wildlife, national parks and historic monuments. This recommendation was accepted and in 1987 the Wildlife Service was separated from Forestry and transferred to the Office of Public Works with a governmental commitment to setting up a heritage authority. The Forest and Wildlife Service, known since July 1987 as the Wildlife Service, has carried out a great deal of research to identify sites of sufficient value for nature reserve status in the Republic, just as the Department of the Environment has done in Northern Ireland. In 1986 an index of publications and reports over the years 1969 to 1986 contained over 250 items. It continues to maintain the 66 areas covered by 'no-shooting' orders. It administers the Wildlife Act, issuing licences and bringing prosecutions, but its commitment to conservation through purchasing habitat has been disappointing. Two other state bodies have had a significant input to conservation in the Republic. The Office of Public Works, to which the Wildlife Service was transferred in 1987, has established National Parks at Killarney in Kerry, Glenveagh in Donegal and Connemara in Galway. These incorporate over 20,000 ha and include a number of sites of importance for birds. As Foras Forbartha, the National Institute for Physical Planning and Construction Research, produced a series of inventories of areas of scientific interest for each of the counties in the Republic in the 1970s and published a summary in 1981, the total area of which was 231,500 ha. In addition, the Conservation Unit of An Foras carried out or commissioned environmental impact surveys for a number of local authorities where major plans for changes in land-use were proposed. The abolition of this organization was announced in 1987 as part of the government's policy of budgetary spending cuts. In a pungent review of wildlife conservation in the

Republic, in the five years following the passage of the Wildlife Act, Temple Lang (1983) concluded that the most important defect in policy was the absence of a firm financial commitment by the state to the acquisition of nature reserves. He considered that this was the main reason for the failure to conserve the fourteen most important wetlands listed by the International Council for Bird Preservation, or to acquire any areas except Pollardstown Fen in Kildare for wildlife conservation. His critique still holds true in its main thrust, though three more sites have been acquired for wildlife conservation in subsequent years, and, with the Irish government committed to a policy of severe financial restraint in the late 1980s, it appears unlikely that substantial funds will be available for nature reserve acquisition in the near future. The IWC remains the principal voluntary wildlife conservation organization in the Republic. Its membership in 1987 was about 5,000 in 22 branches. Throughout the 1970s the IWC was run by volunteers but sponsorship in 1980 made it possible for Richard Nairn to be employed as Director. Since then, membership has grown from about 1,700 to over 5,000. Nowadays, the IWC has a staff of three and several researchers and assistants on contract. Its reserves include the Wexford Wildfowl Reserve (jointly with the Wildlife Service), the Little Skellig and Puffin Island in Kerry, Sheskinmore Lough in Donegal, Broad Lough in Wicklow and Lough Beg in Cork. With increasing public interest in wildlife and birds in particular, the IWC has been successful in achieving a high media profile and its open days at the North Bull in Dublin have attracted thousands of visitors. Public attitudes to birds and conservation have changed significantly in the 1980s, though it is still worth pointing out that far more people shoot game than are members of all the bird conservation and ornithological bodies in the country. In Northern Ireland there are about 89,000 shotgun licences, the majority of which are issued for shooting game. The number in the Republic is similar. There is a strong gun club movement and the membership has been adequate to support several shooting magazines over the years. The ornithological and the nature conservation public in Ireland has never been considered large enough by any Irish publisher to support a commercial magazine, though a number of British magazines are sold into this market. However, a handful of books on Irish birds (e.g. Roche & Merne 1977, D'Arcy 1981, D'Arcy 1986, Hutchinson 1986) have found commercial success, and several enterprising pioneers have made a living from organising courses on field studies and wildlife related topics. The impact of television on attitudes to wildlife has not been sufficiently stressed. In the Republic, home produced television went on the air for the first time on New Years Eve 1964 and within a couple of years half the homes in the country had television sets. From an early stage, Amuigh Faoin Speir, a weekly programme of wildlife films illustrated by drawings and narrated in both English and Irish, was an amazing success. Eamon de Buitlear, who had been running a pet shop, and Gerrit van Gelderen, who had been working in advertising, teamed up to produce forty-eight programes a year and the public loved

Ornithology and bird conservation

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Little Skellig, off the coast of Kerry , Ireland's largest Gannet colony , (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

them, Eventually the programme was dropped, but both men have continued to make wildlife films and are public figures throughout the country. Without preaching at anyone these simple programmes opened the eyes of many people to the wildlife of the Irish coun tryside and to the beauty and wildness of the places where birds , mammals and plants can be watched. They had a tremendous effect on raising public awareness, similar indeed to the effect of the much more sophisticated programmes produced by the BBC and by Independent Television in Britain, Eamon de Buitlear's achievements were recognized by the ornithological community in 1983 when he was elected President

•

of the IWC and by the wider Irish community in 1987 when he was appointed a Senator. If interest in birds is measured by membership of an ornithological body, then the majority of the birdwatching public is situated in Dublin and Belfast. The urban concentration is not surprising, as it reflects the position in Britain where most RSPB members live in highly urbanized south-east England. But the IWC in the Republic and the RSPB in Northern Ireland both have a stro ng and widely dispersed branch network nowadays with members situated all over the country and this bodes well for the future.

Recent changes in status Although birds are the best documented wildlife in Ireland, chan ges in status are difficult to measure because of the increase in intensity of observ ation over the past twenty years. As th e number of birdwat chers in the field has increased so has their mobility and th eir competence. Birds which were difficult to identify twenty years ag o are now readil y separated by more skilful birdwatchers using better opti cal equipment and improved field guides. An obvious con sequence has been an expa nsion of th e Irish list by the add ition to it of a number of va gran t species. many of which may well have been overlooked in the pa st. A furth er effect of the explosion in interest in birdwatching has been that more distribution surveys have been carried out and some birds have been found to be more common than was previously suspected. In the case of th e Blackcap, for example. it is th ought that much of th e apparent increase recorded in th e late 1960s resulted from sea rche s being made for the birds so that they could be rec orded for the Breeding Atla s proje ct. Field workers wh o had pre viously concentrated th eir atte ntions in areas kn own to be good for bird s visited places a nd habitats where th ey would not normally hav e gon e. ADDI TIO N S T O T HE IRI SH L IST

The total number of species on th e Irish list at 31 st December 19 86 was 39 7. Of th ese. 4 7 were added in th e years from 1966 to 19 86. One of th ese. Ruddy Duck . has colonized Ireland from En gla nd wh ere a feral population

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ha s been established for many yea rs. Of th e rem ainder. 23 are va gra nts from North America. 15 from Euro pe and North Africa and eight from Asia . Three species recorded by Ruttledge, but su bsequen tly rejected. have been recorded again: Short-billed Dowitcher. Gull-billed Tern and Brunnich 's Guillemot. Breeding has been recorded for th e first time in eight species. Three species - Black Tern . Greens han k and Dotterel- br ed only once or twice and seem unlikely to become established. Pied Flycatchers ne sted in tw o counties in 1985 and, if nestboxes continue to be made available for them. are likely to nest again because of the proximity of a large breeding population in we st Wal es. Goosanders have a tenuous foothold in Ireland but seem likely to becom e permanent. Ruddy Ducks . Black-tailed Godwits and Bearded Tits appear to be slowly establishing themselves. Several spec ies which breed in Britain are occurring more frequentl y and ne sting seems likely in the near future. Such species would include Golden Eagle (a former breeder). Osprey. Little Ringed Plover. Cetti's Warbler and Firecrest. CHANGES I N STA T US

The number of breeding species sho win g signs of marked increase su bstantia lly exceed s th e number kn own to be decreasing. The most exce ptiona l change in sta tus has been tha t of th e Collared Dove. which first bred in Ireland

Recent changes in status in 1959 and which by 1965 was thinly distributed along the coast. The spread was rapid and nowadays Collared Doves nest throughout most of Ireland and in certain cereal growing districts are extremely numerous. Several seabird species have continued to increase. Cormorants have doubled in numbers since the late 1960s. In this case the increase has been attributed to the availability of a new food source - the rapidly expanding population of roach in Irish lakes - and to protection from shooting in 1976. Fulmars, Shags, Common Gulls, Black-headed Gulls and Guillemots have all increased as well. Several of the gulls appear to have responded to the increase in waste products of the fishing industry and to the spread of refuse dumping. Indeed, the Herring Gull increase to the mid 1970s and the subsequent decline have both been attributed to the effects of refuse dumping. The new food source is believed to be responsible for the increase, but the change in the dumping habits of householders when they started using black plastic bags, in the late 1970s, is thought to have caused the decline by providing optimal conditions for botulism. The increased availability of food for gulls has affected breeding populations abroad as well as in Ireland. The increase in wintering Lesser Black-backed Gulls, the regularity with which flocks of Little Gulls occur in Wicklow, Wexford and Galway, the scattering of Mediterranean Gulls which now winter along much of the coast and the occurrence of small parties of North American Ring-billed Gulls are all evidence of the good health of gull populations generally. Habitat changes have caused some major changes in

I

I

j

-'A

,___

41

Irish bird populations. In particular, the spread of coniferous afforestation has reduced the area of upland rough pasture and led to declines in Hen Harriers, Merlins, Red Grouse and Twites. It has also led to an increase in Jays, Coal Tits and Siskins. The most dramatic declines have been in the Corncrake, Grey Partridge, Roseate Tern and Nightjar populations. Species first recorded in Ireland between 1966 and 1986 Systematic order Year order

White-billed Diver Cattle Egret Great White Egret Lesser White-fronted Goose Ruddy Duck Black Kite American Coot Semipalmated Sandpiper Stilt Sandpiper Short-billed Dowitcher Marsh Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper Laughing Gull Ring-billed Gull Ross's Gull Gull-billed Tern Elegant Tern Forster's Tern Brunnich's Guillemot Little Swift Belted Kingfisher Olive-backed Pipit Citrine Wagtail Gray Catbird Pied Wheatear Rock Thrush Siberian Thrush Gray-cheeked Thrush Cetti's Warbler Savi's Warbler Paddyfield Warbler Blyth's Reed Warbler Pallas's Warbler Radde's Warbler Dusky Warbler Bearded Tit Philadelphia Vireo Black-and-white Warbler Northern Parula Yellow-rumped Warbler Blackpoll Warbler American Redstart Ovenbird Northern Waterthrush White-throated Sparrow Indigo Bunting Bobolink

1966 Semipalmated Sandpiper Bearded Tit 1967 Little Swift White-throated Sparrow 1968 Stilt Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper Laughing Gull Citrine Wagtail Blyth's Reed Warbler Cetti's Warbler Pallas's Warbler American Redstart 1969 Lesser White-fronted Goose Gull-billed Tern 1970 Dusky Warbler 1971 Bobolink 1973 Ruddy Duck 1974 White-billed Diver Rock Thrush 19 76 Cattle Egret Yellow -rumped Warbler Blackpoll Warbler 19 77 Ovenbird 1978 Belted Kingfisher Olive-backed Pipit Black-and-white Warbler 1979 Ring-billed Gull 1980 Marsh Sandpiper Pied Wheatear Savi's Warbler 1981 American Coot Black Kite Ross's Gull 1982 Elegant Tern Forster's Tern Gray-cheeked Thrush Paddyfield Warbler Radde's Warbler 1983 Northern Parula Nothern Waterthrush 1984 Great White Heron 1985 Short-billed Dowitcher Siberian Thrush Philadelphia Vireo Indigo Bunting 1 986 Brunnich's Guillemot Gray Catbird

Species recorded breeding for the first time between 1966 and 1986 1967 Black Tern c. 1975 Black-tailed Godwit

Ireland: location of first-sightings of new birds in Ireland, 196686. Small dots represent one record. medium dots two or three records, and the large dot 14 records

1969 Goosander 1972 Greenshank 1973 Ruddy Duck

19 75 Dotterel 1976 Bearded Tit 1985 Pied Flycatcher

42

Recent changes in status

Corncrake at the edge of a meadow. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Corn crakes a re now largely rest ricted to th e we st coast and the Shannon valley. There has been much spec ulation as to the reason for decline and ch angin g farming practice ha s been th e most widel y sug gested cause . Howe ver. Corncra kes hav e disappeared in man y pla ces wh ere th ere h ave been no obvio us changes in farmin g methods. so th e position app ears to be more complex . Roseate Terns have declined on both sides of th e North Atlantic so the Irish position is n ot special. but the rea son s are unknown. Th e decline of the Grey Partridge and the Nightjar . both now rare speci es in Ireland and app arently destined for extinction . have not been adequately explained. Changes in sta tus of certain summer migrants can be attributed to the effect of factors in the wintering area. Several species which winter in the Sahel ar ea of Africa. notably Sand Martins and Wh itethroats, ha ve been affected by the drought in that area and adult mort ality appea rs to have been very high . Th e result has been very much reduced numbers returning to breed in summe r. One species. the Reed Warbler . ha s colon ized Ireland successfully in the period. Th ere wa s one old breeding record. but Reed Warblers now nest in small numbers at a number of reed-bed s on th e south . eas t and north-east coasts. In thi s case. the commencement of breeding in Ireland followed an increase in passage bird s in autumn. There are some signs that a similar trend may be happening with the Wood Warbler. Among wintering and pa ssag e birds th ere have been few

species showing noticeable chan ges in sta tus despite the effect s of drainage on wildfowl and wader h ab itat. The win ter population of the Gree nlan d White-fronted Goose has declined in mo st of its traditional haunts aw ay from th e Wexford Slobs. but in Wexford numbers have been maintained well and even sho wn an in crea se. Th e declin e Species for which there is good evidence of status change between 1966 and 198 6 Breeding speciesshowing marked population expansion or reduction Increases Decreases Great Crested Gre be Hen Harrier Fu lmar Merlin Cormorant Red Grouse Sh ag Grey Part ridge Buzzard Corncrak e Peregr ine Herring Gull (after mid 19 70 5) Black-h ead ed Gull Rosea te Tern Commo n Gull Nigh tjar Herring Gu ll (to mid 19 705) Sand Marti n Arcti c Tern Whitethroat Guillemot Twite Colla red Dove Yellowh amme r Reed Warbl er Com Bunting Jay Magpie Hooded Crow Raven Siskin Reed Bunting

Recent changes in status Passage or winter visitors showing substantial and generally progressive increases or declines Increases Decreases Whooper Swan Tufted Duck Greylag Goose Twite Brent Goose Gadwall Teal Long-tailed Duck Mediterranean Gull Little Gull Black-headed Gull Common Gull Lesser Black-backed Gull Goldcrest Firecrest

in the outlying flocks has been largely due to the destruction of habitat and to the disturbance of the birds. but the trend has been reversed in recent years due to a ban on shooting. Few duck or wader species have shown major changes in numbers and those which have. such as the increasing Whooper Swans. Greylag Geese. Brent Geese. Gadwall and Teal. and the decreasing Pochard and Tufted Ducks. appear to be responding to events elsewhere. perhaps on the breeding grounds.

43

Breeding species showing local increases or decreases itl rangeor numbers Decreases Increases Common Seoter Gannet Kittiwake Grey Heron Stock Dove Mute Swan Barn Owl Gadwall Sedge Warbler Shoveler Spotted Flycatcher Lesser Black-backed Gull Kittiwake Sandwich Tern Razorbill Long-eared Owl Robin Redstart Whinchat Blackcap Wood Warbler Chiffchaff Coal Tit Jackdaw

Background to the species accounts PERIOD COVERED

The species accounts cover records of birds in Ireland up to the end of 1986. The bulk of each account deals with records since 1965, the date to which Ruttledge's Ireland 's Birds (1966) summarized records, but brief synopses are given of reco rds in the period up to 1952 , the year to which Kennedy, Ruttledge & Scroope's Birds of Ireland (1954) brought records, and from 1953 to 1965 . ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL

The sequence and nomenclature ofVoous's List of recent holarctic bird species (I977) as given in The 'British Birds ' List of Birds of the We stern Palearctic (I984) is followed. Species not included therein are placed according to the listing given in A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World (Howard & Moore 1984). Every species accepted by the Irish Rare Birds Committee as recorded in Ireland up to the end of 1986 is included. Where the total number of records does not exceed ten , all those recorded since 1952 are listed. Records of birds

44

known to be of a species not otherwise recorded in Ireland but not fully identified as to species (eg Pterodroma sp.) are included in the text but not in the totals of species recorded . Records of birds believed to have escaped from captivity (eg Red-headed Bunting) or known to have arrived by shipassisted passage (eg Northern Flicker) are given square brackets. Records of rare birds have all been accepted by the Irish Rare Birds committee with the exception of Blacknecked Grebes and Buzzards in the breeding season, and of Ruddy Ducks in Northern Ireland. The breeding season records have been provided for this book by the observers concerned and Ruddy Ducks are now resident in Northern Ireland in such numbers that observers no longer consider the birds as rare. Where significant material on commoner birds has been available for the period since 1986 this has been fully utilized in the text. All statements regarding status refer to the island of Ireland unless otherwise indicated. References to the

Background to the species accounts Republic of Ireland and to Northern Ireland are to the territory of each state. References to Munster, Leinster, Connacht and Ulster are to the area of each province. Throughout the text counties are referred to without the prefix 'Co.'. Placenames are given the nomenclature used by the Ordnance Survey maps in the Republic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland. The use of an oblique in a date (eg 1985/86) implies a continuous period. A hyphen (eg 1985-87) indicates a series of season s in successive years where the recording per iod is not continuous. THE HISTOGRAMS

These show distribution of selected species by halfmonthly periods from 1966 to 1986. Presence is recorded for each period in which a bird is known to have occurred and not just the period in which it was first recorded. Longstaying birds, therefore, are shown as being present in a succession of periods. The month is divided in two at the fifteenth day with day I 5 attributed to the first halfmonthly period. Darker stippling represents the first sighting of individual birds; paler stippling represents birds known to have arrived in an earlier period. SOUR CES

The pr incipal sources for each species are the Irish Bird Report (IBR). Ruttledge's Ireland's Birds (RuttIedge 1966),

45

Kennedy, Ruttledge & Scroope's Birds of Ireland (Kennedy et al 1954), The Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland (Breeding Atlas) and The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland (Winter Atlas). References to these are as shown.

Local bird reports have been widely consulted and are referred to by the initial letters of the title (eg CBR 1984 for Cork Bird Report 1984). These local reports are listed in Appendix I . Computer print-outs of Irish ringing recovery data have been provided annually by the BTO to the Research Branch, Wildlife Service. Bray, Wicklow, which makes them available to the Compiler of the annual Ringing Report (published in Irish Birds). Summaries of recoveries in Ireland of birds ringed outside the country and of recoveries abroad of birds ringed in Ireland were provided by the BTO for use in the preparation of this book. The BTO Ringing Scheme receives financial support from the Nature Conservancy Council in Britain, the Wildlife Service in the Republic of Ireland and the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. SOURCES SPECIFIC TO PARTICULAR GROUPS

Wildfowl and Waders Wildfowl counting began in Ireland in the late 1940s and early 1950s under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust at Slimbridge in England. There were few counts from the mid 1950s to the early 1960s, but counts revived in the mid 1960s and systematic wader

Tile Bridges of Ross. Clare. Ireland's fine st west coast seawatchinq point. witll Loop Head in tile backgr ound. (Plloto: Ricllard T. Mill s )

Background to the species accounts

46

Malin Head Tory

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{ The Mullet Inlshkea 18

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KERRY

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Old Head of Kinsale

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There is some immigration in winter. A total of 14 birds ringed in Scotland, mainly on the Uists in western Scotland, \ e l.. .'....,... have been sighted wintering or recovered on the north ; t'" . ...- ...-..",-L "r ),.... .-.. .'\, ........i coast of Ireland. One English ringed bird has been recovered in Ireland. A study of lead levels in Mute Swans in Cork has shown that 41 % of birds sampled at a coarse fishing site had levels greater than those considered the maximum tolerable, and one bird was shown to have died from lead poisoning. Discarded lead weights were believed to be the source Bewick's Swans censused in winter 1975/76. Large dots represent (O'Halloran & Duggan 1984). \

-.

l..6, 1,294 in 1967, 1.876 in 1968, 2,107 in 1969, 2,273 in 1970, 1,889 in 1971, 2,256 in 1972. 2,407 in 1973, 2,484 in 1974 (O'Meara 1975b), but a decline by 1984 to a maximum of 1.231 (McGrath & Walsh 1985) 1.673-1,883 in 1969-70, 2,754 in 1985 (M. Shorten) 983 in 1958 (Coulson 1963), 3.311 in 1969, 6,200 in 1976, 5,262 in 1979 (Watson 1981). 6.420 in 1985 (NIBR 1982-85)

harbours and fishing ports all winter and. occasionally, there are massive influxes. In December 1983. for example, during an exceptional appearance of sprats off the Cork coast, there were estimated to be 25,000 Kittiwakes at Ballycotton and 3,000-5,000 in Cork Harbour. The flocks at Ballycotton were compared to snowflakes in a snowstorm. Numbers declined somewhat in January with counts of 6,000 at Ballycotton on 10th January and 3,500 in Cork Harbour on 4th January. In the following winter there were only 600 at Ballycotton and 1 500 in Cork Harbour. A similar influx was noted at Galway Bay in January 1981 when there were large numbers of sprats close inshore (A. Whilde). These numbers are exceptional, for ringing has shown that most Kittiwakes disperse in late autumn. many wandering across the North Atlantic to Greenland and Arctic Canada, others moving south to the Bay of Biscay, and birds ringed in France and Norway have been recovered on the Irish coastline as they travel out into the oceans. t

130

Pagophila eburnea

Ivory Gull Paqophila eburnea This Arctic gull remains a very great rarity. There were two records involving three birds in the nineteenth century and four records between 1900 and 1931. Since 1965 there have been five records: an adult at Ballycotton, Cork, on 16th October 1969; an adult near Bunowen Point, Galway, on 6th August 1971; an immature at Bangor, Down, from 26th November to 1st December 1978; an immature at Ballycotton, Cork, from 1st to 9th January 1980 and an adult seen in Wexford Harbour on 25th March 1983 and found dead the following day.

Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica There have been three records. Adults were seen at Ballyconneely, Galway, on 1st July 1969, at the Roe Estuary, Londonderry, from 7th to 10th October 1982, and at the Bridges of Ross, Clare, on 21 st September 1984.

Caspian Tern Sterna caspia The only records are of singles seen off Tory Island, Donegal, on 30th September 1959 and at Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath, on 20th July 1984.

Royal Tern Sterna maxima

Rockabill, Dublin. Since then, they have increased and spread, almost certainly continuing to do so though the Rockabill colony was abandoned after 1935. Breeding was also recorded in north Mayo, Fermanagh and Donegal in the nineteenth century and in this century in Down, Galway, Sligo, Wexford (Kennedy et a11954) and Cork (Whilde 1985). There were no records of nesting in Kerry before 1969-70 or in Clare prior to 1984, and no estimates were made of the total breeding population until 1969-70 (Cramp et al1974). A special census of breeding terns was carried out in 1984 and this indicated a substantial increase, particularly in Galway and Down. The largest colonies are at Strangford Lough, Down, where nesting began about 1930 (Kennedy et al 1954). Sandwich Terns tend to move about from colony to colony, some islands being used for a few years and then deserted. As a result, it is necessary to census a wide area if local movements are not to be misinterpreted as major population trends. At Strangford they have tended to nest on relatively few islands, using only three consistently between 1977 and 1984, and five intermittently (Brown & McAvoy 1985). They nested in high density and almost always in close association with Black-headed Gulls Numbers rose in Strangford from 481 in 1969 to 1,075 ir 1980 and 1,489 in 1984, but there were years wher the population dipped, and 1984 had much the highest numbers. In Wexford there have been annual counts of terns a1 Lady's Island Lake for a number of years and these have shown marked fluctuations due in part, at least, to sudden changes in water level, to predation by rats, mink and large gulls and to varying disturbance at the site. Numbers of pairs of Sandwich Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985) County

The single record is of one picked up dead on the North Bull, Dublin, on 24th March 1954.

Elegant Tern Sterna elegans One was seen at a colony of Sandwich Terns at Greencastle Point, Carlingford Lough, Down, from 22nd June to at least 3rd July 1982, and at Ballymacoda, Cork, on 1st August 1982. This is the only record for the western Palearctic of this Pacific species.

Coastal

Wexford Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Donegal Down Antrim

Sandwich Terns breed on the coast, apart from colonies on Lough Erne in Fermanagh and Carrowmore Lake in Mayo, tending to prefer maritime turf and shingle to other habitats for their nest sites (Whilde 1985). They were first proved to breed in Ireland in 1850 when nests were found at

1984

250 60

241

215 190 200 1.210

443

7

2,125

221 205 1,959 149 -3,225

Inland

Mayo Fermanagh

Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis

1969-70

Total

No

Count

164

78 242

--3.467

Sandwich Terns are the earliest terns to arrive in spring, the first birds invariably being reported in late March. The main arrival is in April and early May, at which time birds may be seen anywhere along the coast. From mid July

Sterna dougallii onwards parties comprising adults and some young (often still being fed by the adults) may be found at beaches and estuaries all along the south and west coasts. though in lesser numbers on the Dublin and Wick low coasts. The earliest spring record is of one on 2nd March 1963 at Portaferry. Down. and there are only two other records before 15th March: singles at Blennerville. Kerry . on lIth March 1958 and Copeland. Down. on 13th March 1969 . There are a number of records of birds remaining into early November. incl uding one of a bird at Dun Laoghaire. Dublin. on 12th November 1983. The only winter recor d is of one at Ballycotton, Cork. on 6th January 19 74. Ringing recoveries show that Irish breeders winter mainly on the coast of Africa from the Gulf of Guinea to the Cape of Good Hope. some even rounding the Cape to the Indian Ocean.

131

,

Number s of pairs of breeding terns at Lady's Island Lake. Wexford. 1977-1987 (after WBR and O. J. Merne) Sandwi ch Tern

Roseate Tern

Common Tern

1977 19 78 1979

5 354 204

220

20 150

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

106 142 101

1985 1986 1987

286 144 186 7

215 269 1 58 20

Arctic Tern

20 6 5

Little Tern

3 1

70

No count

191 291 525-600

14

30

600-708

8

3 31 206

10

Roseate Tern Sterna dougal/ii The Roseate Tern was common in Ireland in the first half of the nineteenth century. but may have ceased to breed here by 1900. Ear ly in the present century nesting was proved again and n umbers increased up to the early 1960s. since when there has been a decline and the species is now a scarce breeder. Roseate Terns prefer to nest on islands close to the mainland. The chosen habitats in the ten colonies found in the country in 1984 were clearly rocks. maritime turf and shingle (Whilde 1985) and. unlike other terns. they prefer to nest under vegetation. The largest colony of a ll. Tern Island in Wexford. now dese rted. was on a sand ban k. In the early years of the last century there were what was desc ribed as considerable numbers breeding in a few localities on the east coast (Ussher & Warren 1900). Rockabill off the Dublin coast and Mew Island. one of the Copeland Islands off the Down coast. were the two colonies identified. but the numbers involved cannot be estimated from the published accounts. though there were said to be hundreds at Rockabill in 1844. By the turn of the century

there were no longer any terns breedin g at Rockabill and very few at Mew Island. and no Roseates were suspected. However. Ussher & Warren refer to sightings of lon g. slender terns on the coast of Donegal an d Connemara, which may well have been Roseate Terns. but the wildness of the birds prevented identification. It is possib le. therefore. that some Roseate Terns continued to breed in the west of Ireland at the end of the last century but. if so. the numbers were low indeed. Breeding was rediscovered in 1906 when a few pairs bred (Kennedy et al 1954). In 1908 a few pairs nested in Strangford Lough (Cramp et al 1974). where breeding continues. and in 1913 a colony of 20-25 pairs was found at Malahide, Dublin. among the large tern colony which remained there until the early 1950s. Small numbers of Roseate Terns (up to 20 pairs) appear to have nested there in the 1920s and perhaps la ter. At Rockabill. nesting was proved again in 1930 when 12 pai rs were found and this colony has su rvived to be now the largest in Europe. Numbers have fluctuated with 200 pai rs in 1949. 296 in 1950. 68 in 1958. 20-30 in 1965. 30-40 in 1966. 100 in 1969. 80 in 1970 (Hutchinson 1975). 110 in 1984. 160 in 1985.180 in 1986 (IECBR) and 250 in 1987 (O. J. Merne). In Wexford the largest colony was at Tern Island . in Wexford Harbour. which was first discovered in 1961 with 1.600 pa irs and where there we re 2.000 pairs in 1962 (Ruttledge 1966). In 1970 there were 1.300-1.500 pairs but concern over the effect of erosion on the shape of the island was expressed in the Irish Wild bird Conservancy Annual Report and Conservation Review from 1971 onwards. Numbers of pairs of Roseate Terns declined sharply from 1974 onwards. In 1975 the area of the island was much reduced by winter sto rms and in Ju ly. while 400 pairs

132

Sterna hirundo

nested, high tides washed nests, eggs and chicks away. Terns returned to the island in 19 76 despite a further reduction in its size but the colony was deserted by the adults before any young fledged. The island had almost disappeared by 1977 and only a few birds attempted to nest. What was presumably the remnants of this once large colony moved to Lady's Island Lake to breed in 1978, but by 1982 even this colony had been reduced to a handful of pairs, largely because of predation by rats, and only 14 were counted in 1984. Green Island in Carlingford Lough, Down, was a major colony for many years. In 1969 there were 228 pairs, increasing to 697 in 1971, and fluctuating between 59 and 160 between 1973 and 1984. In 1984 this island had the second largest colony with 77 pairs (Whilde 1985). In Strangford Lough, Down, there were only ten pairs in 1969, then only one pair in 1972, but in 1975 a small colony was established again. In 1975 there were 42 pairs and this rose to 156 in 1978, but declined to 18 in 1984 (Brown & McAvoy 1985). The dramatic decline in Roseate Tern numbers has been mirrored throughout Europe, and in eastern North America as well. The total European population, excluding that of the Azores, in the late 1970s was estimated at 1,100 pairs of which 660 were in Ireland (Thomas 1982). By 1984 the European population, again excluding the Azores where 635 pairs were found in 1984, had declined to an estimated 525 pairs of which 268 were in Ireland (Whilde 1985). So far, this decline has been unexplained.

into the area off the Dublin and north Wicklow coast to feed on the rich fishing banks offshore before going south on autumn migration. Departure is earlier than the other terns, a record of 50 on 30th September 1969 being considered very late, but there have been records up to 18th October (one at Blennerville, Kerry, in 1957). The earliest record is of one in Galway Bay on 14th April (Kennedy et a11954). Ringing recoveries have shown that Irish breeding Roseate Terns winter in the Gulf of Guinea, particularly off the coast of Ghana. Numbers of Roseate Terns breeding at Tern Island. Wexford. 1961 to 1977 Source Pairs Cramp et al1974 1961 1.600

1962 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

2.000 1,200

Ruttledge 1966 Cramp et al1974

1.300-1.500 IBR Lloyd et aI 1975 538 Lloyd et a11975 533 IWC Annual Report (Over 1,000) Lloyd et aI 1975 (687) IWe Annual Report 603 400 250 50

o

IWC Annual Report Thomas 1982 IBR a.}. Merne

Numbers of pairs of Roseate Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70, 1984 (after Whilde 1985) and 1987 (M. Avery) County

1969-70

1984

1987

Dublin Wexford

60 1,350

110 14

250 8

Cork Galway Donegal Antrim Down Totals

10 6

3 190 238 1,851

3 39 96 268

25 40 323

The decline in breeding pairs has also resulted in a fall in numbers away from the breeding colonies. In the early 1970s up to 500 were regularly found among the large tern roosts at Sandymount Strand, Dublin, and Broad Lough, Wicklow (Hutchinson 1975). The largest concentration reported was of over 2,000 at Broad Lough in August 1975 (DWBR 1974-75). Since 1980 the numbers reported at Sandymount have been low in most years and included 20 in September 1982, but a record of a minimum of 500 in mid September 1983, with possibly up to 2,000 (IECBR 1983), was a large proportion of the European population. In 1984 numbers were lower but a maximum of 300 was counted on 8th September. In September 1986, 500 were seen (0. J. Merne). These birds apparently move

Common Tern Sterna hirundo Common Terns are the most widely distributed of Irish breeding terns, nesting around most of the coastline and inland on Lough Neagh, on the Shannon lakes, in Connemara and on Lough Erne in Fermanagh. They nest chiefly on rock, maritime turf or shingle, and most colonies are on islands (Whilde 1985). As with the other terns, our knowledge of the distribution and numbers of this species has been advanced by the census of coastal breeders made in 1969-70 (Cramp et al 1974) and of the entire population carried out in 1984 (Whilde 1985). Before 1954 the Common Tern was considered to far outnumber the Arctic Tern on the east coast. In Down, where the proportion of Arctic Terns had been 60% in the first half of the nineteenth century, the Common Tern in the 1950s predominated in the ratio of 13 to one. In Dublin, where the colony at Malahide had a population of several thousand birds in the first half of the century (Hutchinson 1975) the Common Tern was much more numerous, and in Wexford, where the Arctic Tern was more numerous in 1934, the situation had reversed and the Common was slightly more common by the 1950s. In the 1960s Common outnumbered Arctic by between 5 and 10 to one. On the coast of Galway and Donegal the Arctic Tern predominated, but inland the Common Tern

Sterna hirundo was much more numerous (Kennedy et aI 1954). There were large colonies on the Connacht lakes prior to about 1920 when a decrease set in. Breeding ceased on Lough Carra, Mayo, before 1940 and on Lough Carrowmore, Mayo, by 1944. The colonies on Lough Corrib in Galway, and Loughs Mask and Conn, Mayo, were reduced to a very few birds. Kennedy et al (1954) did not consider that human persecution had been the cause of the declines on these lakes, but thought it possible that an increase in predation by the growing numbers of gulls or the spread of dense vegetation over the breeding sites may have been the cause. Whatever the reason, Common Terns were still nesting plentifully on Lough Neagh in the 19 5Os and there were small colonies on the Westmeath lakes (0. J. Merne).

The census results in 1969-70 show that identified Common Terns outnumbered Arctic Terns by about 2.8 to one. The position is impossible to establish with accuracy because of the large number of terns which was not specifically identified. However, by 1984 the position had changed greatly and Common Tern numbers on the coast had clearly reduced substantially. Part of the reason for this may well have been the abandonment of the large colony at Tern Island, in Wexford Harbour, where there were 850 pairs in 1969. These birds may have shifted across to the west coast of Britain, for the British population was certainly not declining in 1974 when the numbers at Tern Island were reducing rapidly (Lloyd et al 1975). However, other colonies have also declined, particularly

Numbers of pairs of Common. Arctic and Common/Arctic Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985)

1984

1969-70 County

Common

Arctic

Common/ Arctic

Common

Arctic

Common/ Arctic

Coastal

132

30

60

86

5 65

57 51

12 163

105 20

547 169

170

45

390 400

40 175

1,060

172 8 207 783

24 119 168 6 658 369 5 411

425

83

3.506

1.041

1.360

2,212

2.215

310

107 42

33 28 4

22

120

Wexford

70 16 840

50

Cork Kerry Clare Galway

570 500 20 300

Mayo Sligo Donegal Londonderry Antrim Down

130 100 170

140 1 5 210 130

Dublin Wicklow

Totals Inland Galway

Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Roscommon Tipperary Westmeath Cavan Longford Armagh Fermanagh Totals

133

56 41 4 28 5 37 14 76 13 -423 2,635

28 24

7

1

- -7 73 2.288

--

29 339

--

134

Sterna paradisaea

in Cork and Kerry where a number of medium-sized colonies have either been abandoned or reduced to very small numbers. and the reasons are completely unknown. Common Terns arrive on our coast early in May. though the earliest record is of one at Rathlin Island. Antrim. on 12th April 1961. In the past twenty years there have been no published reports of birds earlier than 22nd April. In autumn large flocks assemble on the east coast to feed off the Dublin and north Wicklow coasts. These assemblies involve large numbers of birds establishing a nocturnal roost at Sandymount Strand in Dublin Bay. feeding off the coast on the India Bank some 10 km offshore and using Broad Lough. Wicklow. as a diurnal preening and resting area (Pettit 1973). These flocks have been known to use the area since 1959 at least (IBR). They remain from the end of July into early September and are mainly adults. Numbers vary but in most years exceed 4.000 and reached 7.000 in 1983. The flocks are so large that it is clear they involve Common Terns from Britain and perhaps further afield as well as Irish breeders. In some years flocks of up to 200-500 assemble off the east Cork coast at the same season. Most Common Terns have departed by mid October. but one or two birds are recorded in November each year. The latest records are of a single bird at Malahlde. Dublin. on 28th November 1956. and single birds found freshly dead in Down on 1st January 1957 (1.S. Furphy) and at Dun Laoghaire. Dublin. on 22nd December 1958. There have also been records of single Common or Arctic Terns at Clogher Head. Louth. on 29th December 1976 and 8th January 1972 and an extraordinary record of three Common or Arctic Terns at Ballycotton. Cork. on 15th March 1969. One ringed at the Copeland Islands on 17th May 1959 was recovered in Victoria. Australia. on 26th October 1968. a distance of 17.641 km from its home colony. but most winter on the west African coast between Mauretania and South Africa .

of inland breeding sites. with the greatly reduced numbers they found . On the north-east coast the Common Tern had replaced the Arctic as the dominant species: in Donegal and Galway the position was similar. On the Blasket Islands. Kerry. and the Sovereign Islands. Cork. Arctic Terns had disappeared. On the Dublin coast there had been a decrease. The results of the census in 1969-70 showed that Arctic Terns. even allowing for the large number of unidentified Common or Arctic Terns counted. were greatly outnumbered by Common Terns. The census in ] 984 showed a complete change in circumstances with an evident real increase in the population and apparent decreases only reported in the small colonies in Antrim. Dublin and Wicklow (Whilde 1985). Sites such as the Connacht lakes. which Kennedy et !II (1954) reported as having been deserted. were reoccupied and the Inishkea Islands. which Kennedy et al considered eminently suitable for Arctic Terns. have been colonized. Because of the difficulty in separating Arctic from Common Terns and the tendency of either species to move a colony from one site to another for no obvious reason. the history of the various colonies is impossible to interpret with accuracy. Brown & McAvoy (1985). for example. discussed the history of the Strangford Lough tern colonies without differentiating between Common and Arctic Terns. The first Arctic Terns normally appear in May but there is an exceptional record of a bird at Monkstown, Cork. on 15th April 1966. Departure appears to follow a different pattern to that of Common Terns with much smaller numbers assembling on the east coast in early autumn. though approximately half of a flock of 3.000 terns at Sandymount Strand. Dublin. on 3rd August 1984 was estimated to consist of Arctic Terns. There were a number of juvenile Arctic Terns and approximately 30 first summer birds. Small numbers do occur on autumn passage on all coasts but flocks of over 100 are unusual. Ringing recoveries have shown that British Arctic Terns winter mainly in the Antarctic pack ice south east of the Cape of Good Hope. There is only one winter recovery of an Irish ringed Arctic Tern - in Angola in February - but it seems likely that most Irish birds winter with those from Britain.

Forster's Tern Sterna forsteri

Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea The Arctic Tern has reversed the decline in breeding numbers recorded in the first half of the present century and has increased substantially since the late 1960s. Most Arctic Terns nest on islands and the habitat is similar to that of Common Terns. In many cases the two species breed in mixed colonies. In 1954 Kennedy et al contrasted the descriptions by Ussher & Warren (1900). of large colonies and a number

This North American species has been recorded on several occasions and the number of birds involved is at least four and possibly seven. The first record was of a first-winter bird in Dublin Bay from 21 st November 1982 to mid January 1983 . A firstsummer bird was seen at Lady's Island Lake. Wexford. on 11th September 1983. It is possible that this was the same as the Dublin Bay bird the previous winter. A first-winter bird seen at the Bann Estuary. Londonderry. from 3rd to 5th December] 983 was certainly new. and a first-winter seen at Groomsport. Down. on 19th and 20th March 1984 and at the Quoile Pondage, Down. on 12 th and 13th March ] 984 may have been the same bird.

Chlidonias hybridus An adult was seen near Termonfeckin, Louth, on 3rd August 1985, at Dundalk Harbour, Louth, on 7th and 8th September 1985, at Clogher Head, Louth, on 21st September 1985. This could have been the bird first recorded in Dublin Bay in 1982. A first-winter at Dungarvan, Waterford, from 26th January to 2nd February 1985 was certainly a new bird. An adult was seen in Wexford Harbour from 7th June 1986 to at least February 1987.

Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus The only Irish record is of an adult in winter plumage picked up freshly dead on the shore of the North Bull, Dublin, on 29th November 1953. The specimen was found to be referable to the West African race Sterna a. melan-

135

Numbers of pairs of Little Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985, Cooney 1987 and]. S. Furphy) County 1969-70 1984

Dublin Wicklow Wexford Cork Kerry Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Londonderry

13 50 100 2 11 60 12 2 40 6

Totals

296

36 15 15 45 2 10 45 80 18

266

optera.

Little Tern Sterna albi/rons Because Little Terns nest chiefly on shingle and sandy beaches they are particularly vulnerable to human disturbance during the summer. As a result, one would suppose that the population is declining but all the evidence suggests that these birds are holding their own. In the mid 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) described the numbers of Little Terns breeding in Ireland as far below those of Arctic and Common Terns, and indicated that it was exceptional to find more than 2 5 pairs in a colony. They considered that there may have been a decrease since the turn of the century because Ussher & Warren wrote that there were a few colonies with upwards of 50 pairs. These included Dublin Bay and Killala Bay, Mayo. By the early 1950s the Dublin Bay colony had nearly 40 pairs and that at Killala Bay had only ten nests in 1949. This evidence seems too slim to postulate a decline, especially when colonies fluctuate from year to year. The difficulty of counting breeding pairs was referred to by Whilde (1985) in comparing the 1984 census with that in 1969-70. He pointed out that disturbance early in the 1984 season in Wexford and Wicklow led to movement of part of the population and that these birds may not have been counted elsewhere. He also thought that the west coast estimates were minimal and suggested that the real total should have been about 300 pairs for the country. Comparison with 1969-70 shows that there was a considerable redistribution but no real change in status. The value of protection of colonies has been demonstrated in the east coast counties of Louth, Dublin and Wicklow where wardening commenced at four colonies in 1986. The result was an increase in breeding numbers, a concentration into fewer colonies and improved productivity. By summer 1987 the number of breeding pairs had risen from 66 in five colonies in 1984 to 108 in two colonies in 1987, and the number of young fledged at

the main colony at the North Bull had risen from 19 in 1984 to 135 in 1987 (Cooney 1987). Little Terns arrive in Ireland from the last week of April, exceptionally earlier, with the earliest known being three at Ballycotton, Cork, on 11 th April 1968, and one at Clogher Head, Louth, on 12th April 1980. The majority depart in September with small numbers recorded up to the end of October. The latest recorded was one at Ballycotton from 12th to 20th November 1977. Inland records are rarer than for any of the other breeding terns, but Ruttledge (1966) reported birds on Lough Carra in Mayo, Lough Corrib in Galway and Lough Beg in Londonderry. Since 1966 there have been records of a single bird on Lough Sheelin, Cavan, on 11th June 1976 and two on Lough Corrib on 14th June 1976.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus There were two records prior to 1966 and five records since then. The early records were of an adult shot at the mouth of the River LUTey, Dublin, in September 1839, and an adult seen at Buckroney Marsh. Wicklow, on 9th June 1961. More recently there were single adults at Ballycotton, Cork, on 18th and 19th May 1968; at the North Slob, Wexford, from 13th to 20th May 1970; at Galway Harbour from 29th May to the end of July 1970; at Ballycotton from 4th to 15th August 1984, and at Kllmacslmon, Cork, from 28th July to 3rd August 1985.

136

Chlidonias niger largest autumn number s recorded we re 5 3 in Courtmacsherry Bay in September 19 76 and 90 off Carnsore Point in September 19 8 0. On the we st eoast th ere were 40 in Ga lway Harbour in Sept ember 19 81.

White-winged Black Tern ChIidonias leucopterus

Black Tern ChIidonias niger The Bla ck Tern is an annual au tumn pa ssag e migrant and an irr egul ar spring migrant. Breeding has taken place. Th e sin gle breeding record wa s a t Loug h Erne. Ferma nagh . whe re a pair reared one yo ung in 196 7. A pa ir returned to th e site in 19 68 a nd one bird wa s seen in 1969 but breeding w as not repeat ed. In 1975 a pair attempted to breed again a t Lough Erne but th e nest and eggs we re abandoned. Bla ck Terns are not annual on sprin g pa ssage. Since 19 66 th ere h ave on ly been records in 19 66 , 19 69 , 1970. ] 978. 1979. 1980. 198 1. 19 83 and 19 8 6. The on ly years whe n mor e than four were record ed in spring were 19 6 6. when the re was an influ x of mo re th an 70 bird s at the end of May. and 19 8 6 whe n 2 ] we re seen in mid May. Parties were recorded in 19 6 6 at lak es in Cava n . Clare. Limerick and Roscommon . and 30 were report ed off Hook Head , Wexford. In 1986. 20 we re seen in Wexford and on e in Dublin . These spring mo vem ents were not unprecedented th ere had been an influ x of 35 to Dub lin Bay in early May ] 9 60 . but it is stra n ge that th ere h ave been so few spring record s since 19 6 6. Nu mbers in a utum n va ry from year to yea r but there is a clear pattern of pa ssage. peak in g in the seco nd half of September. with stragglers into ea rly November. the lat est being one at Ring send. Dublin , on 16th Novem ber 19 68 . Bird s a re rec ord ed on all coasts but are rare in th e north. Most are reported from th e south and east coasts. The

Block Tern

300

150

Jon

1966-86

The White-w ing ed Black Tern is a ra re sprin g an d a utumn vagrant to Irel and. There were] 2 record s prior to 1966, of which seven were in th e nineteen th cen tury a nd five between 1900 and 196 5. Th ose wh ich we re da ted were in May (three). Jun e (th ree), July (two ) and October (two ). One of the nin eteen th cent ury record s has only recently been identified in the Ulster Museum (NIBR ] 982-85). Since 19 6 6 th ere have been 3 ] record s in th e co u nties Armagh (one), Clare (one) . Cork (11). Down (four) , Dublin (two), Kerr y (five ). Londonderry (on e), Louth (one). Tipperary (on e) a nd Wexford (four). Th e only record s of more th an a sing le bird were of three at Tac ums hi n . Wexford. on 18th Augus t ] 976. tw o at Akera gh Lough . Kerry. on 24 th and 25th Septembe r 19 68. and two at Ballycotton. Cork. from 9th to 13th Sept ember 19 75 . It seems likely th at th e increase in record s since 1966 is due to observers understanding how to identify adu lt and imm atu re birds in autumn plumage rather th an to an y real in crea se in numbers.

Wh ite-winged Blac k Tern

1966 -86

Jon

Guillemot Uria aalge Guillem ots breed in lar ge numbers on cliffs and m arine islands a ro und the sou th a nd w est coasts . a nd at th ree Dublin sites a nd several Antrim sites on the ea st and no rt heast coasts. Most bird s nest on exposed cliff ledges or on th e tops of marine st ac ks. crow ding toge the r in den se groups. th ough some also nest in caves or in crev ices. Numbers are increasing . Th e breedin g numbers were counted in 1969-70 but su bseque n t resear ch into colony attendance by Guillemo ts h as sho wn that accura te cens usi ng is ex tremely difficul t. Because the birds do not build nests it is usually imp ossible to co unt with confiden ce th e number of bre edin g pai rs. In stead . the usua l tech nique is to count th e number of birds on land. This figure ca nno t be extrapolated relia bly to a tot al of breedin g pa irs beca use th e ra tio of breeding to non-breeding birds may vary. and becau se th ere ca n be

Uria aalge

13 7

Guillemots in a 'wreck' in the Irish Sea the previous autumn. In the late 1970s there were counts of 6.0007.500 birds (Lloyd 1981). Detailed counts carried out over the summer period in the years 1978-80 produced annual totals of 11,050-13.300. 11.115-13.410 and 12 .00013.800 birds on the cliffs (Lloyd 1981). By 1985 and 1986 numbers had increased to 15.692 and 16,329 respectively (O.J. Merne). There is little information available from earlier years with which to assess trends prior to 1969-70. though at Tory Island. Donegal. there were counts of 165 in 1954 and 146 in 1969-70 (Cramp et aI 1974). indicating stability. and at Cape Clear. Cork. there were 141 'pairs' in 1963.25 in 1967 and 101 in 1969. On the Dublin coast there is evidence of steady. long-term increase. Ireland's Eye and Howth Head were colonized between 1900 and 1950. Ireland's Eye had 700 birds in 1969. 1,150+ in 1985 and 1,458 in 1986; Howth Head had 238 birds in 1969.222 in 1974.431 in 1985 and 529-585 in 1987. The data collected at these sites do not provide details of the number of breeding pairs. but they do give the number of birds on the cliffs each year. Taken together. they indicate that Guillemot numbers have increased since 196970 . Numbers on the west coast appear to be increasing. At the Cliffs of Moher. Clare. where there were 5.902 birds in 1969-70. a total of 12.794 was counted in 1980. and 12.207 in 1987 (T. Ta rpey). Numbers at Aughris, Sligo. were lower in 1980 than in 1969-70. but there were increases therefrom 1971 to 1978 (Stowe & Harris 1984). Guillemots come to the breeding cliffs from October onwards. but do not nest until May . From mid July to the considerable daily or even hourly variation in attendance of birds on land. Much the largest colonies in the country are at Rathlin Island. Antrim. where 21,575 were estimated in 1969; Lambay Island . Dublin. where 10.500 birds were counted on the cliffs in 1970; and Great Saltee. Wexford. where there were estimated to be 10.000 pairs in 1969. The total of42.075 pairs (the counts of birds on cliffs were converted directly to pairs by Cramp et al 1974) was more than half the total of 78 .640 estimated for the entire country. Each of these colonies has been the subject of other studies. Birds on the cliff at Rathlin were counted again in 1976 and the total of 30.000 showed a substantial increase on the 21,575 in 1969 . Sample counts carried out at sections of the colony from 1977 to 1979 showed no obvious trend (Watson 1980). but by 1985 the colony had reached 39.480 birds (NIBR 1982-85). Lambay Island was counted again in 1983 and. as with Rathlin, the 14.000 birds on the cliffs. though counted early on 14th May . was a considerable increase on the count in 1970 (IECBR 1983). Both these counts at Lambay were from boats. but 42 .990 were counted from the cliffs in 1987. and it is likely that the earlier counts substantially underestimated the true population (O.J . Merne). Great Saltee is the best studied colony. Between 1964 and 1971 th ere were annual counts by Dr D. Cabot of birds on the cliffs in the range 4,800-13.300. with the peak in 1967. and the lowest numbers in 1970 following the death of over 10,000

Guillemot breedingcolonies. Largedots represent more than 1 .000 birds. medium dots 100-1.000 birds. small dots less than 100 birds

138

Alca torda

first week in August the cliffs are deserted again. Many Irish Guillemots appear to winter off the Irish coastline and at places, particularly near the breeding sites, in some numbers. At Cape Clear, passage of auks, believed to be mostly Guillemots, reaches over 2,000 per hour in December. During an influx of sprats on the east Cork coast in winter 1983/84 there were estimated to be 8,00010,000 auks, both Guillemots and Razorbills, off Ballycotton. Most Guillemots feed just offshore and are vulnerable to oil pollution. When fuel oil seeped out of the are carrier Kowloon Bridge on the west Cork coast in November and December 1986, over 1,500 oiled Guillemots were found on beaches on the Cork and Waterford coast. Birds ringed at Great Saltee have been recovered in the Irish Sea, English Channel, along the south coast of Ireland, and on the west coast of France and north coast of Spain. The furthest travelled birds have been the four recovered off the coast of Portugal. There have been a few winter records of the darker northern race U,a. aalqe. The proportion of 'bridled' Guillemots varies. Ruttledge (1966) considered it to be about 2% on the south and east coasts, 5%-6% on the north and west coasts. At Great Saltee Lloyd (1981) found 0.81% in 1978 in a sample of 726 birds and compared this with 0.42% in the 19 50s and 1.25% in the mid 1970s. A much larger sample of 8,202 was checked in 1981 and 0.77% were found to be bridled (P. M. Walsh). At Cape Clear only one bridled bird was seen out of 425 examined in the years 1959-65 (Sharrock 1973). Numbers of pairs of Guillemots, Razorbills and Black Guillemots breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 (after Cramp et al 1974) Black County Guillemot Razorbill Guillemot

Louth Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down Totals

1 11,500

1.760 4

40

9,700 390 4,800

5.900 1.140

6 90

1.970

60

3,800

40

8,500

2.800 1,650

1,500

317

20 ]40 ]5

3,200

2,105

2,000 10,950

55 27,160

22,300

3,500

78,640

48.361

16

20

]60 ]10

-

20

738

Brunnlch's Guillemot Uria lomvia The only record is of one at Ballyteigue Bay, Wexford. on 24th December 1986. The earlier records cited by Ruttledge (1966) are not now considered acceptable.

Razorbill Alca torda Razorbills are as widely distributed in summer as Guillemots, nesting in colonies wherever there are suitable marine cliffs. Unlike Gulllemots, which lay their eggs on exposed ledges, they prefer crevices, corners of ledges and holes among boulders. As a result they often nest singly rather than in dense groups side by side, though among boulders they frequently nest in close proximity. The population was censused in 1969-70 and a total of 48,361 pairs was calculated. It is now known that assessments of the numbers of breeding pairs of Razorbills cannot be made with any more confidence than for Guillemots, particularly since many nests are hidden and it is frequently impossible to judge whether a bird on land is on an egg or not. Three colonies held almost two-thirds of the total. Horn Head. Donegal, was estimated to have perhaps as many as 45,000 pairs (Breeding Atlas), though the figure included by Cramp et al (1974) and quoted in the table was about half this. The colony was recounted in June 1980 (Watson & Radford 1982) and very much lower numbers were estimated (a minimum of 12,412 birds), but because of the lack of documentation of the counting technique in 1969 it is impossible to judge whether there was any real decrease. A further recount in 1987 resulted in an estimate of 4,000-6,000 birds (R. Sheppard). Great Saltee, Wexford, was estimated to hold 5,800 pairs in 1969. This is one of the few colonies for which there is detailed historic information. There were large numbers in the 1930s and there were estimates of 10,000 'pairs' in the 1960s. 8,000 'pairs' in 1967-68,5,800 'pairs' in 1969 and about 4,500-5,000 'pairs' in the early 1970s (Perry & Warburton 1976, Roche & Merne 1977), though annual counts by David Cabot (cited in Lloyd 1981) put the number of individual birds on the cliffs at an approximately stable 4,050-6,650 birds between 1964 and 1976. These counts agreed well with Clare Lloyd's own counts of 5,7007,765 in 1978,4,000-6,140 in 1979 and 4,660-6,600 in 1980. and with a count of 3,561-4,673 in 1985 (O.J. Merne). These data are such that it is impossible to judge whether the Saltee numbers have changed over the past twenty years. Rathlin Island, Antrim, was estimated to hold 3,148 pairs in 1969. A recount in 1976 produced 7,000 birds (Watson 1980) but sample counts from 1977 to 1979 showed no discernible change in status, though a census in 1985 produced 9,071 individuals (NIBR 198285). An increase was reported at the Cliffs of Moher, Clare, from 1,571 in 1969-70 to 2,831 in 1980 (Stowe & Harris 1982), and there has been no continued increase here either, with 2,188-2,300 in 1987 (T. Tarpey). Comparison of counts for the very few other colonies where there were earlier counts indicate that Razorbill

Cepphus gryIle

139

they return later to the breeding colonies. Most recoveries of Great Saltee ringed birds were in the Irish Sea. on the south coast. off west Britain. in the English Channel. off Iberia. in the western Mediterranean and off north-west Africa. Singles were recovered in the Azores and west Greenland. Immatures tended to travel farthest (O.J. Merne). The status of the northern race A.t. torda is unclear though it appears to be rare. One was shot at the Tearaght, Kerry. in June 1885; a bird ringed at Runde. Norway. was recovered in Wicklow in January 1970. and nine were found dead on the east Cork coast in January and February 1983. The 1983 birds represented 3.9% ofa sample of 228 Razorbills which had drowned in fishing nets (Smiddy 1987).

Great Auk Pinquinus impennis

Razorbill breeding colonies. Largedots represent more than 1.000 sites.mediumdots 10Q.-l.000 birds. small dots lessthan 100 birds

numbers do not appear to have changed significantly. At Cape Clear. Cork. there were 260 in 1963. 180 in 1967. 183 in 1969 and in 1983 Razorbills were reported to be widespread. On the east coast Howth Head. Dublin. was colonized between 1900 and 1950. Bray Head. Wicklow. between 1940 and 1950 and Wicklow Head after 1952. At Howth Head there were 187 in 1969.225 in 1974. 249 in 1985 and 258-280 in 1987 (O.J. Merne). The increase at these sites appears to be steady but unspectacular. Razorbills come ashore to visit colonies from March to April. sometimes at the end of February (Ruttledge 1966). This is the season when the peak passage is recorded off Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). Razorbills are the commonest of the auk species which comprise the huge spring movements there. exceptionally reaching 10.000 per hour in calm conditions following rough weather. but more usually peaking at under 1.000 per hour. Perhaps these are birds which have returned to Irish waters after wintering farther south and are commencing to visit their colonies while also undertaking long feeding trips. At the end of July and in early August. Razorbills leave the cliffs and the adults moult into winter plumage. At this season. passage at Cape Clear is negligible. presumably because the birds are flightless while moulting. During winter. Razorbills occur widely off our coast (Winter Atlas). particularly on the south coast. near the breeding colonies on the east coast and in Galway Bay; and substantial auk passage (certainly including this species) is sometimes recorded at Cape Clear in winter. However. far fewer Razorbills than Guillemots were found oiled after the Kowloon Bridge was wrecked off the west Cork coast in November 1986. perhaps because

The Great Auk appears to have been abundant in former times and remains of this extinct species have been found in kitchen middens on the coasts of Antrim. Clare. Donegal. Mayo and Waterford (Kennedy et aI1954). The last Irish Great Auk was captured alive on the Waterford coast in May 1834.

Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle The Black Guillemot breeds in small numbers around most of the Irish coast. being absent only from low-lying stretches on the east coast where there are no suitable breeding sites. Black Guillemots nest in caves. among boulders or in other hidden sites by the sea. Sometimes they use man-made structures. At Bangor. Down. they nest in the harbour wall: at Greenore, Louth. they have used a hole in a wooden pier; at Strangford Lough they nest in a wrecked ship. These birds are difficult to census because their nest sites are hidden and the 1969-70 census relied heavily on assessments based on counts of adults visible on the water. The number of pairs estimated to be breeding in that census was. therefore. most probably an underestimate at 738. Recent survey work in Orkney and Shetland has shown

140

AUe aUe

that the real figure there may be 2-3 times the population estimated in 1969-70 (Ewins & Tasker 1985) and the Irish population has probably been underestimated by at least a similar magnitude. Only in Northern Ireland has the population been recounted using the methodology recommended by Ewins & Tasker (1985), and the number found in 1987 was 506 birds as compared with 258 in 1969-70. The doubling of numbers was attributed not just to improved censusing technique but also to increases at some areas and expansion into Belfast Harbour, Down (J. G. Greenwood). Rather little is known of the past history of the Black Guillemot in Ireland. Kennedy et al (1954) reported an increase on the Wicklow coast where formerly the birds had been rare. They also noted relatively recent nesting in Down. Ruttledge (1966) considered that there had been a recent increase in Donegal and on the east coast, and that the range was expanding northwards in Down. Certainly, the Copeland Islands, where five pairs were counted in 1969, were colonized in 1959. On the east coast there were only 1 5 pairs estimated at Bray Head. Wicklow, in 1969, where there had been 40 or more pairs in 1953, and none at all were found on Lambay Island, Dublin, where breeding had been recorded from the nineteenth century up to at least 1952 (Hutchinson 1975). On the south coast the Cape Clear population was estimated at 44 pairs in 1963, 16 in 1967 and 39 in 1969 (Sharrock 1973). Since 1969-70 there have been few counts. In Northern Ireland the population was recounted in 1979 and Londonderry was found to have been colonized with three pairs breeding. In Antrim the population was estimated to have increased from 110 to 136 + pairs and in Down the count of 18 + pairs was similar to the 20 counted in 196970. However, Watson (1980) considered that the numbers in both censuses were probably underestimated. In Wicklow a count of 100 birds off Bray Head in 1982 (IECBR) indicated that numbers were well above the 15 pairs estimated in 1969. In winter, Black Guillemots move into slightly more sheltered waters where they roost, dispersing daily along the coast to feed (Winter Atlas). There is no evidence of emigration of our birds. At Cape Clear the largest numbers occur in early spring, from late February to April, when birds display and visit the cliffs. During the breeding season the numbers visible are lower and there is a sudden departure in early August when the birds move to inshore and more sheltered waters. They are scarce from August to February except when calm conditions and bright weather bring flocks out to the island. Sea passage off the island is virtually non-existent (Sharrock 1973). Some birds do visit their breeding sites in winter and Greenwood (1987) has shown that nest-sites at Bangor were visited from early October onwards, probably because of the need to secure nest holes in an area where suitable breeding sites were limited.

Little Auk AIle aIle The Little Auk is an irregular winter visitor. recorded annually since 1975. Most records are of single birds, but small parties have been seen and the peaks in early April and early September are partly due to the occurrence of groups of birds. In early April there were 25 at Rosbeg, Donegal, in 1982 and eight at Cape Clear over three days in April 1975. In early September there were eight in a day at Cape Clear in 1980 and 21 in 1985. The highest counts in recent years have been at the Bridges of Ross, Clare, where 71 were seen in autumn 1984 with a maximum of 30 on 23rd September. The records indicate that Little Auks are scarce passage migrants off our coast among the large auk flocks that occur in April, and even scarcer in autumn. A few certainly occur off the coast in winter, but the records are relatively few because observers are disinclined to endure the cold on a cliff top in mid winter looking for Little Auks. In the years when observations have been made at Cape Clear in late December and early January a few Little Auks have generally been seen. Records during the years 1966-86 have been from all the coastal counties, except Galway, Meath, Leitrim. Limerick, Louth, and Wicklow, and inland from Kilkenny. Most records have been from Clare, Cork, Dublin and Wexford, but only four were recorded on the entire west coast from Kerry north to Sligo. There was no severe 'wreck' where birds were strewn along the coast and far inland by gales during the period from 1966, though a minor 'wreck' in January 1976 produced 13 birds, mostly in Londonderry. There were major 'wrecks' in the past in October 1841, November 1893, January 1895, January 1910, January and February 1912, winter 1948-49 and February 1950. In the last 'wreck' about 50 were picked up in Cork and as many as 12 or 14 were found in a field in Carlow (Kennedy et al 1954). Because of the widespread dispersal of birds in these 'wrecks' the only counties without a record are Longford, Cavan, Roscommon and Monaghan. There have been no records in June or July. 40

30

20

10

Little Auk

..

. :

1966-86

Fratercula arctica

Puffin Fratercula arctica

The Puffin is a summer visitor to its breeding colonies on a relatively small number of islands and remote cliffs scattered along the west coast and at a handful of sites on the east coast. The status of the Puffin in Ireland has recently been comprehensively reviewed (Harris 1984). He considered that the Irish breeding population in 1982 was probably in the region of 42.000 pairs in some 30-40 colonies. only eight of which held more than 1.000 pairs. In addition to these sites. which are listed in the table. there are smaller colonies at other islands off the Kerry coast. Inishnabro (116 pairs in 1966. 600 in 1973) and Inishvickillaun (300 pairs in 1969) have colonies of a few hundred pairs each . Doulus Head on the Kerry mainland has a few pairs. Off the Mayo coast there are colonies on Clare Island. the Stags of Broadhaven and Black Rock (I .700 pairs in 1954. much less in 1969. none seen in 1987). Pig Island. Inishturk. Kid Island (500-1,000 pairs) and cliffs near Porturlin. In Donegal there are colonies on Tory Island (1,200-2 .000 pairs in 1954. fewer in 1969. 600-700 birds in 198 7). Tormore Island and the adjacent mainland (perhaps 500 pairs in 1969-70. very few in 1987) and Horn Head (about 250 pairs in 1969-70. 20-100 birds in 1987) (Harris 1984. O.J . Merne, D. Duggan. R. Macdonald. R. Sheppard). On the north coast the main colony is Rathlin. but there are about 100 pairs at the colonies at Muck Island. The Gobblns, Carrick-a-rede, Sheep Island and Larrybane Head (Watson 1980). On the east coast there are colonies at Lambay Island (300-400 pairs in 1907. 1,000 pairs in 1939. 100 pairs in 1970.235 birds in 1987) and Ireland's Eye (100 pairs in 1939. a few pairs in 1958. eight birds offshore in 1969. 16 birds in 1985 . seven birds in 1986) (Hutchinson 1975. O. J. Merne, IECBR 1985). On the south coast there are colonies on the Saltees, Wexford. and the Bull and Cow Rocks. Cork . as well as a handful of pairs at several other sites on the Cork coast. At Great Saltee there were many thousands in 1883. and the colony was believed to be expanding in 1913. Numbers declined later but in 1949 there were reported to be 3.000 pairs. By 1965 there were 1,500. and by 1969 only 750 pairs. From 1965 to 1972 David Cabot counted 750-8 70 birds each year. but from 1973 to 1978 his counts were

141

mostly below 500 (Lloyd 1981). Lloyd carried out a detailed census in 1979 and again in 1980 and produced a population of 1,100-1,200 pairs. In June 1987. 1,] 28 birds were counted (0. J. Merne). On the Bull and Cow Rocks there are probably less than 1.000 Puffins. but landing on the Cow is extremely difficult. At Cape Clear there are probably about ten pairs. a similar total to that for 1969. but a decline from the 30 in 1963. Controversy surrounds the largest Irish colony. Evans & Lovegrove (1973) recorded a dramatic decline in numbers on Inishtearaght from 20.000-30 .000 pairs estimated in 1968 to about 7.500 pairs in 1969. and 8 .000 pairs in 1970 and 1973 . The grassy slopes where the birds had nested in 1968 were reported to have been deserted and almost all the Puffins were nesting among rock boulders in 1969. No cause for the decline was given. Kelly & Watson (1977) disputed whether there had ever been a decline and suggested that the apparent decline was an artifact of sampling errors in difficult terrain. and of the problem of comparing a count in July 1969 with one in early June the previous year. Evans & Bourne (1978) subsequently defended the data and suggested that disease could have caused an exceptional mortality at Inishtearaght. Puffins come to their colonies in spring. At Cape Clear the spring sea-passage peak is earlier than for the other two common auks in early April. They leave the colonies in August. the young fledgling and leaving alone. later being followed by the adults and first-years. Peak numbers are seen off Cape Clear in late autumn from October to early December (Sharrock 1973) and there are January records. In winter Puffins are rarely seen off the coast.

Puffin breeding colonies. Large dots represent more than 1.000 occupied burrows. medium dots 100-1 .000 burrows. small dots less than 100 burrows

142

Syrrhaptes paradoxus

except by seawatchers at sites such as Cape Clear, as the birds disperse to the Atlantic. The few ringing recoveries away from Britain and Ireland are from France (four), Algeria (two), Sardinia (one) and Portugal (one). Puffin colonies in Ireland with more than 1,000 breeding pairs (after Harris (1984) except where indicated). Kerry 7,500-8.000 occupied burrows in 1969Inishtearaght 73 6,000-6,500 pairs in 1969-73 Great Skellig 4,000-10,000 pairs in 1967-81 Puffin Island Clare Cliffsof Moher

Mayo Illaunmaistir

Bills Rocks

Antrim Rathlin Island

Wexford Great Saltee

Several thousand pairs in 1970s. Only 700-1.000 birds counted in 1987 (T. Tarpey) 2,000 pairs in 1969, 5,500 pairs in 1976. 1,491-2,263 apparently occupied sites in 1985 (O.}. Merne) At least 5,000 pairs in 1939, 1,000 pairs in 1967.102-110 birds in 1987 (R. Macdonald) 2,200 pairs in 1967 (Cramp et al 1974), 817 in 1969, 1,364 in 1974 (Watson 1980), 2.000 pairs in 1976. 2,896 pairs in 1985 (NIBR 1982-85) Many thousands in early years, 3,000 pairs in 1949, 1,500 pairs in 1965, 750 pairs in 1969-75.1.100-1,200 pairs in 1979-80, 1,128 birds in 1987 (0. J. Merne)

Pallas's Sandgrouse Syrrhaptes paradoxus

A number were recorded in the last century in the irruptions of 1863 and 1888. In the former invasion, birds were shot in June in Dublin, Fermanagh and Donegal and a flock of 13 or 14 occurred near Killybegs, Donegal. The in vasion of 1888 was more extensive, with records in 13 counties and several flocks of 14-16. In addition to the birds reported during these invasions a pair was shot in Kildare in 1876 (Ussher & Warren 1900). The only record of sandgrouse this century is of two which remained for over a week, in May 1954, in sandhills beside Wexford Harbour, but the description recorded does not rule out the possibility that they may have been Blackbellied Sandgrouse P. orientalis.

Rock Dove Columba livia The Rock Dove is the ancestor of all forms of domestic pigeon including the Feral Pigeons which nest so commonly in towns and cities throughout Ireland. It is not easy to separate Rock Doves from Feral Pigeons. especially solitary birds, and even on remote cliffs where one might expect only Rock Doves a few birds showing extremely varied plumage may be seen. At Cape Clear, for example, the population was reported to be relatively pure in the late 1960s, but the proportion of Feral Pigeons had risen since 1959 (Sharrock 1973). Rock Doves or Feral Pigeons breed all around the coast except for the low-lying stretch from north Wexford to south Wicklow where there are no suitable breeding cliffs. Pure, wild birds predominate from Waterford west to Kerry, north to Donegal and east to north Antrim. On the east coast and inland, only Feral Pigeons are found. Feral Pigeons breed inland quite widely in the south-east, east and north of the country, particularly in Wexford, north Carlow. Kilkenny and south Kildare. Dublin, Louth, Down and Londonderry (Breeding Atlas). The concentrations in north Carlow. Kilkenny and Kildare are in an area of grain drying which provides substantial feeding and nest site availability. Rock Doves nest colonially on ledges or crevices in caves. or occasionally on cliff ledges on the coast. Feral Pigeons nest in similar situations on buildings in towns and cities. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that the wild Rock Dove was maintaining its numbers though there were isolated reports of declines around Glengarriff, Cork, in Wicklow and in western Connemara. These authors pointed out that, even in north Mayo and west and northwest Donegal, Feral Pigeons could be found among the wild birds. Only in Clare, Kerry and Sligo did 'the birds remain very true to type'. In winter the distribution is very similar to that in summer (Winter Atlas) but. inland, Feral Pigeons clearly outnumber coastal Rock Doves. There does appear to be some movement of Rock Doves, however, for at Cape Clear the largest numbers occur in September-october and December-January, with the lowest levels in July, November and March (Sharrock 1973). To some extent the concentrations may result from autumn and winter flocking of local birds but there seems little doubt that migrants or birds from adjoining sections of coast arrive in autumn, and winter visitors come in December and January. The peak counts at Cape Clear are usually 7585 but up to 147 in a day have been recorded.

Columba oenas

Stock Dove Columba oenas Having colonized Ireland in the second half of the last century the Stock Dove spread steadily until by the early 19 70s it was breeding over most of the country. apart from the west and much of Leitrim and Cavan. but there is some evidence of a decline and contraction of range since then. Colonization commenced in the north and east and continued westwards. Breeding took place in Down and Louth in 1877. in Antrim in 1889 . in Armagh and Wicklow in 1890. in Carlow in 1894. in Laois in 1896 and in Offaly in 1897. In 1896 birds were seen on the border of Clare and Galway. the first record west of the River Shannon. and by 1919 they were qu ite numerous at Clonfert, Galway. In the present century. breeding was first recorded in Waterford in 1903 or 1904. in Tyrone in 1909. in Fermanagh in 1913. in Limerick in 191 5. in Londonderry in 1921, in Mayo in 1923 or 1924. in Donegal in 1924. Numbers were increasing in Meath in 1916. so that county must have been colonized long before. In Cork the Stock Dove was nesting as far west as Timoleague in 1925 and by 1943 it was widespread in the county. In Cavan it was considered a recent arrival in 1930. and Sligo was colonized some time before 1946. By the early 19 50s the Stock Dove had still not spread west of Lough Corrib in Galway. it had not bred in Kerry and was not believed to have become established in Leitrim or Tyrone (Kennedy et al19 54). The Dingle peninsula in Kerry and west and north Mayo were. however. colonized in the 1950s (Ruttledge 1966). There is very little information on the status of Irish Stock Doves since 1969-72 when the breeding distribution was mapped. They were then widely distributed but were absent from south-west Kerry. west Clare. west Galway. west Mayo (With the exception of a single record on The Mullet). west Donegal. the Antrim plateau and much of Leltrlm, Cavan. Fermanagh and Monaghan. However. though breeding widely throughout the country. Stock Doves are nowhere as abundant as Woodpigeons. Ruttledge (1966) considered that flocks of more than 25 were rare. but flocks of 50 at Rogerstown, Dublin. in December 1984. 51 at Ballintubbrid. Cork. in September 1976. 61 in Cobh, Cork. in January 1984 and 70 at Kilcoole, Wicklow. in February 1971 are evidence that larger aggregations do occur. In Wexford flocks of over 250 occurred on the North Slob in the 1970s (O.J. Merne). The spread of the Stock Dove in Britain has been shown to be a response to the expansion of arable farming (O'Connor & Mead 1984). It is not. therefore. surprising

143

that the Irish colonists spread rapidly from the north and east coasts to the wheat and barley growing areas farther inland in the south and south-east. There is no evidence to indicate whether numbers are increasing or contracting. Survey work in winter in 1981-84 showed that the winter range was much more restricted than had been found in summer in 1969-72 . The population was much more clearly concentrated in south and east. with the largest numbers in Carlow. Kilkenny and Kildare where cereal growing is concentrated. It appears that birds vacate the higher hills in Wicklow and Kerry . and the western fringes of their range. in winter. Certainly. at Cape Clear. where one or two pairs breed. the birds are absent from the island from November to March (Sharrock 1973). A variety of nesting sites is used including holes in trees. crevices in cliffs. ivy-covered walls and even rabbit burrows. Small parties of up to six birds occur at Cape Clear in spring and autumn. and there were records of birds in May and September at Great Saltee, Wexford. However. ringing studies in Britain have shown that. there. Stock Doves are relatively sedentary and it seems unlikely that our birds emigrate.

Stock Dove winter distribution 1981-84

14 4

Colum ba palumbu s

Woodpigeon Colum ba palumb us Woo dpigeons breed in large numbers thro ug ho ut th e entire co u ntry an d a re join ed in winter by lar ge flocks of imm igra nts . They are wide ly reg a rded as a pest on far ml and . Th e cur rent widespread distribution an d n umbers of Woo dpigeo ns a re of relati vely recent or igin. In Britai n they we re first men tioned as an ag ricu ltural pest in th e eightee nth ce ntury (Breeding Atlas) and it seems likely that they were increasin g in Irela nd a t that time. Certainly. by th e en d of th e nineteenth cent ury they were breeding commo nly. and were inc reasi n g in Con ne m ara wherever th ere we re plantations. but were on ly ra re au tu mn visitors to Achill , Mayo. and were unknown around Belmullet. May o. By th e ea rly 19 50s sma ll numbers were breed ing th ere. but birds were still ab sent from The Mullet (Ken nedy et al1 9 54). They were found the re in 19 6 9- 72 . but breedin g w as not proved (Breeding Atlas ). Th e we st Galw ay isla nd of ln ishb ofin had not been colonized by 197 6 (Hutch inson & Ruttledge 1978). In Cork they were rare spr in g and a utumn migrants to Ca pe Clear up to 19 62 when on e or two pairs summered. and in 19 6 3 three pa irs nested. Since th en th er e has been a breeding populati on of up to ten pairs (Sh arroc k 19 73 ). The Woo dpigeon w as originally a bird of woodland. It expanded rapidly from that ha bit a t to ex ploit new agr icultural cro ps suc h as tu rn ips. kal e and clover. whic h rema in green th roughou t the win ter. allowing a high er prop or tion of th e popu lat ion to su rvive th rough out the winter . It was a lso abl e to exploit the inc rease in cereal growing which provided a source of a utumn food in spilt gra in on stu bble fields (Breeding A tlas) . Whe the r it is still inc reasi ng is not kn own . for the bird is now virtually ub iqui tou s a nd in crease ca n no lon ger be measured by expa ns ion of range. In winter Woodpigeons occur th roughout the co untry. but th e largest numbers ar e in th e cerea l-gro win g ea st and sou th-east. and numbers appea r to be low er her e than in Britain (Winter A tlas) . As an indi cation of th e populati on level in one county. the Federation of Coun ty Cork Gun Club s reported th at 89.094 were sho t in their county in 19 82 / 8 3 and 19 83 / 84. and a flock of a t least 15.000 was rep ort ed at Castlemartyr. Cork. in Januar y 19 75 . It has long been con sidered that th ere is massive winter immigr ati on . Kennedy et al ( 19 54) sta ted that large flocks come to Ireland to winter. As far west as Mayo. the first noticeable influx was recorded as taking place at th e end of September . more frequently ea rly in October . Successive wa ves of immigrants we re reported to a rrive in October. Most of th ese imm igrants we re believed to be of Contine n tal origin. as British Woodpigeo ns tend to be sede ntary. In Febru ary and Ma rch th e winter visitors were record ed as departing. However. st udies in Britain h ave sho wn th at the re is on ly a little immigrati on th ere from th e Con tine nt. Indeed . of all th e hundreds of th ou sands of Woo dpigeo ns sho t in Brita in and Ire land up to th e ea rly 19 60s. on ly tw o birds ringed on th e Continen t had eve r been recovered . th ou gh one . a bird ringed as a nestling in Denm ark . was recovered in Laois eigh t years and eight months later (Murton 19 65 ). Murt on (1965 ) sho we d that th ere is a very large increase

in Woo dpigeo n numbers after th e breeding seaso n . and with food plentiful in September a nd October th e bird s spend a great deal of tim e tra vellin g between th e woods and fields. The flocks a lso fly high er at this time a nd th ese changes in beh a viou r and numbers give th e illusion of immigr at ion . Murton did refer to a spec tacula r imm igra tion of Woo dpigeons in a utumn 195 9. a year when th er e was unprecedented movem en t a t Sa ltee Bird Observato ry. Wexford. with 500 birds crossing th e island on 4th Nove mber. but he emphasized th at thi s was exceptiona l. Th ere is some proof of imm igra tion to Ireland from Britain : nestlin gs ringed in North umberla n d in Aug us t 194 4 . and on th e Isle of Man in May 194 8. were recovered in Tipper ary in Nove mber 194 5 a nd in Antrim in Janu ar y 1949 . respectively. and three Scotti sh rin ged ad ults have been found in Ireland. But it seems clear that th e n umbers are relati vely small. Th er e is little eviden ce of migrat ion at Cape Clear. an d flock s of over 100 have never been rep orted. Woodpig eon s have been found nesti ng in heather and stunted bu sh es in west Clare and west Don ega l. occasiona lly elsewhere (Ken nedy et all 9 54 ). At Capel Island. Cork. a pair br ed on th e ground in low vegeta tion in 19 7 7. a nd th ey breed regularly on Great Salt ee in low bracken .

Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Th e Collared Dove is a recent colonist. first recorded in Ireland in 19 59. and now breeding throu ghout most of the co untry . Prior to a bout 19 30. Collared Doves bred no closer to Ireland th an Turkey and parts of Albania. Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. They sta rted a ra pid expa ns ion a bout then a nd reach ed Hunga ry in 19 32. Czechos lova kia in 19 36 . Austria in 19 38. Germ any in 194 3. th e Nethe rlands in 19 47. Den mark in 1948 . Swe den and Switzerl and in 194 9 . Fra nce in 1950. Belgium and Norway in 195 2 . England in 19 55 and Scotla nd in 1957. Th e first bird s bred in Irela nd in 1959. w hen sing le pairs nested in Glasnevin Ceme tery . Dublin. a nd near Ga lway city. and bird s were a lso see n in Bangor. Down. in th e sa me yea r . The su bseque n t sprea d h as been we ll documen ted (Hudson 19 65. 1972).

Streptopelia turtur Colonization of Ireland by Collared Doves (after Hudson 1965 and 1972) 1959 First seen in Down. Dublin and Galway. Bred in Dublin and Galway 1 960 Bred in Down 1961 First seen in Donegal on islands of Tory and Inishtrahull 1962 First seen in Cork and bred near Midleton First seen in Offaly and bred near Tullamore First seen in Fermanagh and bred near Enniskillen First seen in Kerry 1963 First seen in Antrim and bred in Belfast Bred in Wexford town. 15 birds present in October First seen in Armagh. Londonderry. Mayo. Waterford. Wicklow 1964 Well established in Belfast. Antrim. with up to 75 birds in November 5 pairs in Lurgan. Armagh 4 pairs in Cork 2 pairs bred in Londonderry 8 or more pairs breeding in Down Breeding in north Dublin suburbs and Baldoyle, Dublin Still only 1 pair in Fermanagh Bred at Newport, Mayo First seen in Monaghan, Sligo 1 or 2 pairs bred at Dungarvan and possibly at Dunmore East. Waterford 3 pairs bred at Greystones and 1 pair at Killincarrig, Wicklow 1965 First bred in Donegal. Meath. Monaghan 1966 First bred in Carlow. Limerick. Sligo 1968 First bred in Tipperary, Tyrone, Westmeath 1969 First bred in Kildare, Kilkenny, Louth

By 1969-72 the breeding distribution covered much of the country, though there were large gaps in the Cavan. Monaghan, Longford and Roscommon region (Breeding Atlas). What was most significant. however, was that breeding was recorded right along the west coast, indicating the urge which had driven the birds westwards and was to lead to colonization of Iceland and the Faeroes in the early 19 70s. The preferred habitats from the beginning of colonization were suburbs, small towns and the vicinity of grain stores and mills. Rural countryside and city centres are much slower to be colonized and support few birds. In the countryside, nesting is restricted to the vicinity of farm buildings. Land above 200 m is also not favoured. In the coastal counties the largest numbers tend to be within 10km of the shore (Hudson 1972). By the early 1970s there had been a report of a flock of 500 in the Tralee area of Kerry (Hudson 1972), and 300350 were on the South Slob, Wexford, in the 1970s (O.J. Merne), but the winter distribution recorded in 1981-84 (Winter Atlas) showed no sign of any increase in range of this largely resident species. Indeed. in the west of the country, in the counties of Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo and Donegal, no birds were found in winter in a number of areas where they had bred a decade earlier. indicating that there may be winter movement eastwards to the cerealgrowing areas where the largest numbers of Collared Doves were found. It appears that the spread of the Collared Dove in Ireland has largely ceased. though records from Cape Clear island, Cork, where records have been maintained since 1959. and from Great Saltee, Wexford, confirm that

145

Collared Doves still undertake westerly movements in spring. Sharrock (1 973) showed that Collared Doves were spring migrants to Cape Clear. largely between late April and late June. but rare autumn migrants. This pattern has continued, and up to 12 birds are recorded annually in spring. There have been no records later than October (CCBOR). At Great Saltee there were annual spring records from 1977 onwards except for 1981. with a maximum of five in a day, but only a handful of autumn records (WBR). The number of Collared Doves now breeding in the country is impossible to estimate. Once the birds become common there is a tendency to cease recording them. In recent years the largest flocks recorded on the east coast have been at Swords in Dublin (130 in August 1983) and Lusk in Dublin (286 in November 1983, 208 in February 1985) (IECBR). These indicate a steady but not spectacular increase over the previous decade or so, as the largest flocks in Dublin prior to 1974 were at the same locations: 40 at Lusk in August 1969 and 100 at Swords in September 1971 (Hutchinson 1975).

Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur The Turtle Dove is a scarce spring migrant, summer visitor and autumn migrant. which breeds rarely. It is most commonly found in Cork, but summering birds are also regular on the east and west coast. There are a very few breeding records. In the last century there were two records which Ruttledge (1966) excluded but which were in counties where breeding has been repeated. In the present century there was a small colony near Lusk, Dublin, for some years in the 1940s. and there have been isolated breeding records in Cork, Down, Dublin, Kerry. Wexford and Wicklow since 1960. The small number of breeding records and the complete absence of

Breeding recordsof Turtle Doves in Ireland Reported to have bred near Downpatrick, Down (Thompson 1849-51) A pair reported to have bred at Derraquin, Kerry Pre-1843 (Thompson 1849-51) A pair bred at Clontarf. Dublin (Kennedy et al 1939 1954) A few pairs nested in Corduff area near Lusk, Late 19408 Dublin A pair bred each year near Lusk, Dublin 1955-57 A pair bred in Co Dublin 1960 A pair bred in Co Wicklow. A pair present in 1962 1963 as well. but not proved breeding (Hutchinson 1975) A pair fed young at roadside at Whitegate, Cork. 1968 where they were believed to have been bred; breeding thought likely in 1966 and 1967 also A bird incubating in Down later deserted eggs A pair with recently fledged young on South Slob. 1971 Wexford, 16th June A pair bred successfully on Iveragh peninsula, 1972 Kerry A pair probably bred near Drinagh, Wexford 1977 1842

146

Clamator qlandarius

evidence of breeding since 1 9 77 are surprising in view of the frequency of spring migrants and the length of time many of them stay in Ireland. The largest numbers are recorded in Cork and Wexford. At Cape Clear there were spring records in the years 195969 from mid April to early July, but the majority occurred in mid May when up to 59 were seen in a day. More usual peak numbers in spring are 10-15 in a day. Autumn numbers were far lower and rarely exceeded one or two in a day. At Great Saltee and Hook Head, Wexford, there was regular passage from the end of April to mid June with most in May and a very thin passage in autumn (Ruttledge 1963, Lovatt 1984). Apart from Cork and Wexford, Turtle Doves can occur in almost any coastal county in spring and early summer, but more rarely in autumn. There have been a few winter records. Ussher & Warren (1900) had records in every month except February, and since 1954 there was one at Tallaght, Dublin, on 11 th December 1957, two at Roche's Point, Cork, on- 3rd November 1967, one at Sandyrnount, Dublin from 25th to 26th February 1969, one at the North Slob, Wexford, on 21st November 1977 (O.J. Merne) and one in Belfast, Antrim, from 24th January to 10th April 1985.

are no firm quantitative data on Cuckoo numbers for any Irish location. At Cape Clear a few Cuckoos bred in most years in the 1960s and early 1970s, but they have been noticeably scarce since 1977 and breeding has not been proven in recent years, though 1982 was a better year and breeding may have taken place (CCBOR). The date of arrival of the first Cuckoo is a cause of much correspondence in the newspapers in April. Arrival is normally in the second half of April, but the earliest Irish record is 2nd April (Ussher & Warren 1900). In recent years an exceptionally early arrival was on 4th April 1969 at Cape Clear. Departure of adults begins in July. Juveniles leave in August and early September, but some have been killed at lighthouses in July. The latest recorded dates are 2nd November 1883 at the Tuskar Rock, Wexford, and 26th November 1900 in Down (Kennedy et al19 54).

Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator qiandarius

Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus

There have been four records. One was caught about March 1842 on Omey Island, Galway. One was found dead in early spring in 1918 near Cahirciveen, Kerry; it was stated to have been originally accompanied for about a week by another. One was seen at Mahee, Down, from 9th to 16th September 1975. One was found dead on the North Bull, Dublin, on 13th March 1983. A record of one seen by the lightkeeper on the Great Skellig, Kerry, on 30th April 1897 (Kennedy et al 1954) was not accepted by Ruttledge (1966).

There have been six or seven records, two of which were in the last century. Single birds were killed near Youghal, Cork, in 1825 and near Bray, Wicklow, in 1832. One was seen at Keel on Achill Island, Mayo, on 30th September 1964 and the same bird or another was seen 14 km away on 1st October 1964. One was found at Cape Clear on 13th October 1969: it had been dead for about four to seven days. One was found dying at Lecarrow, Sligo, on 31st October 1979. One was seen at Cape Clear on 30th October 1986.

Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Barn Owl Tyto alba

The Cuckoo is a common and widely distributed summer visitor which breeds throughout the country. During the years 1968-72 birds were heard calling and suspected of breeding in more than 95% of the 10 km squares of the National Grid, though breeding, which is difficult to prove, was confirmed in significantly less than half of the squares (Breeding Atlas). There is no doubt, however, but that the Cuckoo is widespread throughout the country in summer. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that there had been a decrease in the first half of this century. There was reported to have been a scarcity of Cuckoos in the south of the country and in Galway, Mayo and Cavan in 1943 and more especially in 1944, but there was a recovery to a certain extent in 1945. Ruttledge (1966) considered that the decline had become more noticeable since 1953. There

The Barn Owl is resident, breeding over much of the country, but apparently absent from parts of west Cork and almost all of west Galway, Mayo and Donegal (Breeding Atlas). Formerly, Barn Owls though nowhere numerous were found in almost every district, even on remote islands such as the Aran Islands, Galway, and Rathlin, Antrim (Kennedy et al 1954). A decrease in some localities was reported about 1950, and from about 1960 there was a marked decline and Ruttledge (1966) recorded that the Barn Owl was then absent from many of its former haunts. Survey work in 1968-72 showed that the breeding distribution was thin in the north-west and that Barn Owls were absent from most of Connemara, from west Donegal and from much of Cork (Breeding Atlas). However, Barn

Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus erythrophthalmus The single record is of one shot on 25th September 1871 at Killead, Antrim.

Athene noctua

147

1975, Sma I 1987, Walpole 1977, Walsh 1984). At rural roosts the most frequent prey items are wood mice and pygmy shrews, and wood mice and brown rats are the most important items by weight. At an urban roost in Waterford higher proportions of birds, house mice and rats were found and rats were the most important prey in weight. followed by birds. In areas within the range of the recently introduced bank vole that species constituted 15%-22% of the diet by weight. Our resident birds are of the nominate race. Three specimens of the Continental race T,a. quttata were shot in 1932. one in January in Tipperary and two at the beginning of April in Kerry.

Scops Owl Olus scops Owls are extremely easy to overlook and a concentration of breeding pairs in Kerry was believed to be more a reflection of the success of the local observer in locating birds. through his contacts with farmers. than an indication that the birds were commoner there than elsewhere. Observations in recent years. inland in Cork. have also produced evidence that birds were largely overlooked during the years 1968-72 (K. Preston). In north Armagh. searches of old buildings and widespread enquiries among the public have been made each year since the mid 1960s. as part of a special study, and about 14 nest sites located. Barn Owls became scarcer during the period and , in 1982-83, birds were found nesting in only eight locations. In 1984 only one of these sites was occupied and since then no Barn Owls have been found in the area (C. Dawson). A special survey of Barn Owls was carried out from 1982 to 1985 as part of an enquiry into the British and Irish population (Shawyer 1987). Records were sought from the public and intensive field observations were made in sample areas. On the basis of the detailed studies it was estimated that two or three pairs of Barn Owls nest in each of the 10 km squares in which they were recorded. Extrapolating further, Shawyer (1987) estimated the Irish population at 600-900 pairs. The attempt to map the winter distribution of Barn Owls over the years 1981-84 was relatively unsuccessful - the thin distribution which emerged appears to reflect lack of observer effort rather than something close to the true situation (Winler ALIas). Any investigation into Barn Owl numbers and distribution requires an intensity of effort which could not be applied in a general survey. The birds are even more difficult to find in winter. when they resort to woodland, than in summer. There is little reason to doubt that Barn Owls are still quite Widely distributed away from the west coast. though there have been some reports of decline. The food of Barn Owls in Ireland has been studied by several workers and the results of pellet analyses at a number of roosts have been published. all of them showing the Barn Owl as specialising on small mammals (Fairley & Clark 1972. Glue 1974. Clark 1974, Forster & Fairley

There were seven records in the nineteenth century and three in the twentieth. The older records were in March, April, May. June, July and November, and were of single birds except for the May record which was two birds. They were in Wexford (three). Antrim. Antrim/Down. Meath and Galway. Since 1900 a male has been captured at the Fastnet Lighthouse. Cork. on 6th May 1907. one was shot at Ballyliffin, Donegal, in July 1911 and one was heard calling and recorded at Lisnarick. Fermanagh, on 18th June 1974.

Snowy Owl Nyclea scandiaca Prior to 1954 the Snowy Owl was an irregular but not infrequent visitor, especially to the north and north-west. but there have only been two records since then . Kennedy et al (1954) listed 56 records in 18 countries. 25 of which had been since 1900. Of these records. 22 were in Mayo. seven in Donegal, five in Galway. three each in Antrim and Down. and no more than two in any other county. More were recorded on The Mullet in Mayo than anywhere else. Since 1954 the only records are of single birds seen near Carrickfergus, Antrim. on 14th January 1956 and at Ballygar, Roscommon, on 10th November 1968.

Little Owl Athene noctua There have been four records. One was killed at Kilmorony, Kildare, in June 1903 having been there since February. One was washed ashore while still alive near Lame, Antrim. in autumn 1945. One was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 4th May 1960. One was seen at Dunlavin. Wicklow, on 21 st December 1981.

148

Asio otus

Long-eared Owl Asia otus The Long-eared Owl breeds throughout Ireland. being thinly distributed wherever there is suitable woodland. There have been many reports of an increase coinciding with the planting of conifers. The attempt to map the breeding distribution of this species in 1968-72 was not very successful as there was clear evidence that some observers had particular difficulty in locating Long-eared Owls (Breeding Atlas). As a result. the mapped distribution showed the birds to be thinly scattered over much of the country but with absences from much of west Cork, Clare. west Galway . Mayo and Sligo, and concentrations in the north-east and in Kerry. It is impossible to judge how much of this mapped distribution reflected differences in the ability of the observers to find the birds. but one can be certain that the birds were in reality much more widespread than the map indicated. The same problem of interpretation arises with the distribution map in the Winter Atlas. Birds were only found in 87 of the 1,010 10 km squares of the Irish National Grid. and it is evident that observers spent little time in the field after dark and had great difficulty locating Long-eared Owls in their favour ed habitat of spruce and pine woods. When not calling or displaying they are almost impossible to find. The food of Long-eared Owls has been extensively studied (Fairley 1967, Glue & Hammond 1974) and it is clear that. in Ireland. wood mice are the most important items. followed by brown rats . There is believed to be an influx in autumn from the Continent but the numbers are unknown. One bird ringed at Heligoland, West Germany. in November 1977. was recovered in Mayo in January 1980. At Cape Clear, there were record s in the years 1959 to 1986 in March , August (two). September (three), October (16) and November , but whether they were of Irish or Continental origin is unknown.

Short-eared Owl Asia flammeus Short-eared Owls are largely winter visitors to the coast and a scattering of inland sites, but breeding has been recorded . The first record of attempted breeding was on The Mullet. Mayo, in 1923 , when a pair built a nest . but they left without eggs being laid (Kennedy et al 1954). The first record of proved breeding was in Galway , in 1959, when three young were reared. In the same year a pair was seen in display in Wicklow in July, one was recorded in a bog in Antrim on 3rd May, and one was seen on a moor in Donegal in July. Although individual birds were seen at Powerscourt. Wicklow. on 3rd June 1972, and at Bray Head, Wicklow, on 22nd July 1973, there were no subsequent records of attempted breeding until 1977 when single pairs nested in Kerry and Limerick, and two other pairs almost certainly nested in Limerick. No birds were found in 1977. but four

\.

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adults were found in 1978 in or close to the areas where they had nested in 1976. Breeding was believed not to have taken place (jones 1979). Examination of pellets collected at two of the 1977 breeding sites showed that the diet consisted of 79% and 72% bank voles by weight. The bank vole is a recent colonist in Ireland, first recorded in 1964, and it is interesting that the Short-eared Owls were exploiting this relatively new prey source. However. it has been pointed out by Glue (1977) that the absence of voles from Iceland has not prevented Short-eared Owls from nesting successfully there. In 1979 two birds were recorded in the same area in Limerick but non e appears to have been seen subsequently. In 1983 a bird summered in Co. Dublin and in 1985 a pair bred in Kerry near the border with Cork (P. Smiddy). Short-eared Owls usually arrive in October and depart in March . At Cape Clear there were records during the years 1959-69 in the period August to November, and in March and April. Most were in November (Sharrock 1973). Since 1970 the majority of records has been in October and November , but there have been records in spring and in August. September and December, even one in July. The largest numbers are usually reported in Dublin, where North Bull is a favoured haunt with one or two every year and in some years more . Since 1974 there have been up to nine at the North Bull. six at Dalkey Island , six at Rogerstown and six at Baldoyle in Dublin. In the east coast counties of Wicklow, Dublin. Meath and Louth the totals recorded annually. from 1980 to 1985. were 12, 11. 22 , 23. 16 and 33 . respectively (IECBR). In Cork the maximum recorded at one site in recent years was seven at Clonakilty in February 1985. In Belfast there were up to nine at the Harbour Estate in winter 1985-86. Survey work in winter. in 1981-84, showed that Shorteared Owls were th inly scattered in Ireland with most on the east coast. in Strangford Lough, Down . near Belfast. Antrim. and at a few other chiefly coastal sites. In 1985 the total reported for the entire country was a minimum of 55 , but this is almo st certainly a sizeable underestimate of the real winter population. Four Short-eared Owls ringed as fledglings in Scotland, one in northern England and one on the Isle of Man , have

Apus apus been recovered in winter in Ireland. The winter diet has been summerized by Glue (l977). based on pellets collected at five Irish sites. The brown rat was shown to be nutritionally the most important item. followed by wood mice.

149

A survey of breeding Nightjars was carried out in Britain in 1981 and the organizer sent enquiries to 30 Irish participants in the 1968-72 Breeding Atlas who had found Nightjars then. but only received one positive reply and that was for Wicklow. Only two records were sent to the compilers of the Irish Bird Report for 1985. and one for 1986: in 1985 a migrant was seen at Hook Head. Wexford, in May and one at the Burren, Clare. which may have been breeding. In 1986 two pairs were seen at a traditional site. There were no records for Northern Ireland from 1980 to 1985 (NIBR 1982-85). but a pair was found in Tyrone in 1987 (C. Dawson) . The remaining breeding population in Ireland appears to be extremely small. with a handful of pairs in the Burren, in Waterford and perhaps elsewhere. Migrants occur at Cape Clear. Cork. and at Great Saltee, Wexford. in May in some years. but not annually. Nightjars in autumn are now very rare. The latest record is of one at Rathgormac. Waterford, in the third week of November 1975.

Needle-tailed Swift Hirundapus caudacutus The single record is of one seen at Cape Clear on 20th June 1964. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus The Nightjar. once a widely distributed summer visitor to much of the country, is now extremely rare as a breeding species, In the early 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) considered the Nightjar to be common in Munster. though probably not breeding in west Kerry. In Leinster it was common in Wexford and Wicklow, still a summer visitor to Howth, Glencullen and Carrickgollogan in Dublin, and it bred in Westmeath. It was not believed to breed in Louth. In Connacht. breeding had been recorded in Galway though evidently in small numbers. There had been an increase in Mayo since the turn of the century and Night jars bred as far west as Achill, Breeding was also known for east Clare and for Roscommon. In Ulster. Nightjars were most common in Fermanagh and bred in Cavan and Donegal. In Antrim and Down they were scarce. In 1952 replies to an enquiry into the breeding distribution of this and several other breeding species indicated that densities were highest west of the Shannon (Norris 1960). A decline seems to have set in during the 19 50s and 1960s because the results of the 1968-72 breeding bird survey showed that Night jars were found only in one area west of the River Shannon and that they were very thinly scattered over the rest of the country. with a concentration in Fermanagh and south Tyrone. In Dublin and Wicklow there had certainly been a marked decline by the early 1970s. Birds were only heard in song at Powerscourt Deer Park, Wlcklow, and at Carrickgollogan in 1968-72. Between 1980 and 1985 one was recorded in April. four in May and one in August. All were believed to be migrants.

Swift Apus apus Swifts are summer visitors, arriving mainly in May and leaving in August. They breed throughout the country but are scarce in the west. Swifts are closely associated with cities. towns and villages and depend on houses or other buildings for nest sites. though birds were found breeding on limestone cliffs inland at Knockrnore. Fermanagh. in 1955 (Ruttledge 1966). The 1968-72 breeding survey showed that Swifts breed in almost every 10 km square throughout Ireland, with the exception of south-west Donegal. west Mayo. west Galway and parts of west Kerry where they were thinly distributed or absent. North-west Mayo was the largest area where Swifts were completely absent (Breeding Atlas). There have been no counts of breeding pairs, but Kennedy et al (l954) considered that there had been a definite increase in the west since 1932. They cited Thompson (I 849-51 ) who believed that Swifts were rare in Kerry and Donegal. and Ussher & Warren (1900) who regarded them as still local in Kerry and seldom met with in western Connacht. By the early 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) wrote that Swifts were frequent in Connemara and in Kerry and Donegal. Breeding was known on Achill and The Mullet. Mayo. This is still the case but Swifts are evidently not so widespread in the west as elsewhere in the country. The main arrival of Swifts in spring is normally in the second week of May, but the first birds are usually reported

150

Apus melba

in th e last week of April. Th e earli est reports by far ar e of one at Carriga line. Cork. on 1 3th March 19 83 . a party of nine ne ar Arklow, Wicklow . on 5th Apr il 19 72. and single s at Lurgan . Armagh. on 7th April 19 76 a nd at Cork city on 8th April 19 79 . Departure is ma inly in Aug ust but a trickle rem ains in to September and th ere ar e a few October record s in most yea rs. Th e lat est Irish record s are of sin gles at Ban gor. Down. on 17th November 194 8 an d at Kilcoole. Wicklow. on 26th November 19 66. Observ ations a t Cape Clear. where Sw ifts do not breed. durin g th e yea rs 1959-6 9 showed that th e largest numbers a re recorded in Jun e and July (Sha rrock 19 73 ). The se a re presumably birds breeding on the adjace nt ma inland which visit the island to feed on insects.

Alpine Swift Apus m elba There were nine records prior to 19 66 a nd 14 from 1966 to 19 8 6. All have been single bird s except for th ree at Ballyteig e Bay. Wexford. on 22nd June 19 8 6. The earlier record s were in Cork (three). Dublin (tw o). Waterford. Wexford . Wick low and 'nea r Lough Neagh' (Ruttledge 19 66 ). Wh ere the records were dated th ey were in th e months March. April. May. June. Augus t (two) and September. Th e more recent record s ha ve been in Antrim . Cork (four). Dublin . Kerry (two). Londonderry. Wexford (tw o) and Wicklow (three). The dat es ha ve been a lmost as scattered as for th e earlier records: March . April (two) . May. Jun e (three) . July (three) and Sept ember (four) .

1966· 86

Jan

I

I

Little Swift Apus affini s The sing le record is of one seen at Cape Clear on 12th June 19 6 7.

Kingfisher Alcedo att his Kin gfish ers breed in eve ry county in Ireland . th ough they are sca rce in hilly and mounta inou s areas. In 19 68- 72 the ir mapp ed distribution excluded th e Wicklow mountains. parts of nor th Cork and west Kerry. north-west Cla re and mu ch of Connemara. we st Mayo. and north and west Don egal (Breeding Atlas ). They are found breeding in th e vicinity of water. usu ally slow-movin g rivers. lak es and pond s. th ou gh some are found by faster flowing streams . In winter th ose wh ich breed on upland strea ms leave for th e lowlands or the shore and there is a very obv ious movem ent to estuaries and bays alon g the coa st. At thi s tim e of yea r Kingfishers can be met with at m an y bays and inlets a lon g th e south-west. south a nd eas t coas ts (Wint er Atlas ). Th e move to lowland a reas and th e coas t is clearly a respon se to dropping temperature and th e risk of river s freezin g ove r. thus preventing fishing. Ruttledge (1968) inve stigat ed th e sta tus of th e Kingfisher after th e seve re winter of 19 62 / 6 3 wh ich wa s respon sible for hea vy losses in western Europe. He considered tha t th e cold did no t have an effect in Ireland compa ra ble to th at elsew he re and th at th ere was no sign of declin e. excep t very locally. He qu oted John Weavi ng. an a utho rity on Irish inland wat erw ays. as findin g the sta tus of th e Kingfisher unch an ged since 19 5 7. when it wa s particularly plentiful on th e stretch of th e Grand Canal bet ween Hazelh atch, Kildare. and Rahan , we st of Tu llamor e. Offaly. Th e few ca ses of decre ase found by Ruttledge from his enquiries were du e to drainage or othe r int erferen ce with th e river bank (th ree ca ses). pollution from sheep-d ipping (two cases) and silting of th e river from bog workings. The reason for disapp earance of Kingfish er s from th e Bann River cana l near Belfast since 1965 was unknown. but disappearance from wat ers near Dublin city was reported as du e to human int erferen ce. disturbance of the river banks and pollution. Kingfishers may have ceased breeding near Dublin city . but in th e ea rly 1970s they cou ld still be see n in winter on th e Liffey at Islandbridge. on the River Dodd er a nd at Booterstown marsh (Hu tchinson 19 75). In 19 84 a survey of 21 km of the River Oona . Tyrone. located eight territories. a density of 3.8 per 10 km (Watson 19 84): on 10 km of th e River Lagan near Belfas t there were four pairs in most years from 19 74 to 19 81 (Bailey 19 8 2). Kingfishers a re rather sede nta ry . tho ug h yo ung bird s disper se in a utumn . Th ere were fou r autumn rec ord s at Cape Clear up to 19 69 and seven bet ween 19 70 and 19 86. all in Aug us t or September. The longest-travelled ring ed bird wa s one rin ged in Antrim in July and recover ed 7 5 km away in Londond erry in Decemb er of th e follow ing year.

Upupa epops 151 Belted Kingfisher Ceryle alcyon There have been three records. The first was seen at Ballina. Mayo. from mid November 1978 until it was shot on 3rd February 1979 . The second wa s a female shot at Dundrum Bay. Down . on 12th October 19 80. and the third was a female seen at Ballyvaughan. Clare. from 2 8th October 1984 to early December 1985. and near Killaloe in Tipperary from 6th February to 8th March 1985. Two earlier records. of birds shot in Meath on 26th October 1845 and in Wicklow in November in the same year (Rutt ledge 1966). have been rejected as the specimens show sign s of the birds having been kept in captivity. and there is evidence that one was stuffed from a dry skin .

Bee-eater Merops apiaster There were ten records prior to 1954 (Kennedy et al19 54) . four from 1954 to 1966. and six from 1966 to 1983. The early records were in Cork (two). Donegal. Dublin , Wexford (three). Wicklow (two) and in an inland county. Where the month was recorded. one record (involvin g seven birds) was at the end of April or beginning of May. two in May. one in 'summer', one in November (involving six bird s) and one in 'winter'. The more recent records have been of two at Cregane. Rosscarbery. Cork. on 17th and 18th April 1955; singles were at Cape Clear on 17th and 18th October 1959: at Howth Head . Dublin. on 15th May 1961 ; near Crosshaven. Cork. on 26th April 1964: at Cape Clear on 2nd and 3rd June 1979; at Caragh Lake. Kerr y. on 4th June 1979: seven were at Valentia. Kerry. on 17th and 18th May 1983. and singles at Cape Clear on 30th September 1985 . at Great Saltee, Wexford . on 4th October 1986 and at Newport. Mayo. on II th October 1986.

Hoopoe

Jan

1966 -86

Roller Coracias garrulus There were ten records before 1900. four between 1900 and 1966 and one since then . The records prior to 1900 were widely scattered., The counties where known were Antrim. Cork (two). Clare. Donegal. Kildare. Leitrim. Sligo and Wexford . The records since then were of one shot in Donegal. near Londonderry on 27th September 1900. one at Great Sal tee. Wexford. in May 1943. one found dead at Hook Head. Wexford. on 18th April 1956. and adult male found freshly dead at Castlegregory. Kerry. on 23rd May 1958. and one seen at Castlederg. Tyrone. from II th to 24th July 1976.

Hoopoe Upupa epops The Hoopoe is a scarce but annual spring migrant on the south coast and occasionally elsewhere. It occurs on rare occasions in autumn or at other times of the year. Before 1953 it was considered a frequent visitor to the southern coastal counties. especially Cork and Wexford (Kennedy et al 1954). and was reported as having been

152

Jynx torquilla

breeding birds displaced westwards as they migrated southwestwards. If they had been English or southern European breeders, a decrease in records would have been expected as this population has been contracting its range. In fact, numbers of Wrynecks recorded in Ireland have remained at much the same level since the mid 19 50s. Furthermore, Wrynecks appear on the Irish coast amongst falls of typical Scandinavian night migrants such as Pied Flycatchers. Finally, it has been shown that birds ringed in Europe show a migratory direction between south and west in autumn. The eight birds recorded in spring, of which five were at Great Saltee, Wexford, one at nearby Hook Head and only two at Cape Clear, were presumably birds overshooting their normal southerly breeding area in April and May.

recorded in every county except Carlow, Cavan, Leitrim, Longford, Louth, Meath, Monaghan and Tyrone. Inland records were few: of 117 reports in the nineteenth century only 11 were from inland counties, and there were only eight between 1900 and 1953. During the summer of 1934 a pair of Hoopoes was suspected of breeding at an estate between Cappoquin and Lismore in Waterford, but no nest was found. A bird of the year was shot nearby in September 1934 but the specimen was lost and breeding was never proved (Kennedy et aI 1954). Since 1966 there have been records for every month except January, although there were two records for January in 1962. There is a clear peak in April and a small indication of autumn passage. In 1980 a pair spent three weeks near Waterford city, and in 1982 a pair summered in Kilkenny. There must be a strong possibility of breeding taking place in the future. The numbers recorded vary from year to year, but 1965 produced far more than any other year with a minimum of 65 between 28th March and 8th April, of which most were in Cork (16) and Wexford (six). The records since 1966 have been mainly in Cork (64) and Wexford (17), but birds have also been reported from Down, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, Louth, Mayo, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford and Wicklow.

The only record is of a bird seen to fly ashore from a liner at Cork Harbour in October 1962 (Durand 1972). The bird had landed on the vessel while on a crossing from the United States.

Wryneck Jynx torquilla

Green Woodpecker Picus viridius

Wrynecks are rare spring vagrants but are autumn visitors to the south coast in most years. They have been recorded elsewhere but are extremely rare. There were 30 records prior to 1966 of which two were in spring and 28 in the period August to November. The majority were in September and the one November record was of a bird shot on 14th November 1925 in Cork. The pattern since 1966 has not changed significantly except that Wrynecks have been more frequently recorded, with about 51 between 1966 and 1986, no doubt due to the increase in activity at bird observatories. Indeed, of the 51 birds recorded, all except 23 were at Cape Clear. Wrynecks are not recorded in every year. An analysis of the records between 19 58 and 1977 showed (Hutchinson 1980) that the autumn Wrynecks are most likely to have been Scandinavian or central European

There have been three records, all in the last century. Single birds were shot at Sallymount, Kildare, on 27th September 1847, at Rathmullen, Donegal, in January 1854, and at Kilshrewly near Granard, Longford in the last century (Ussher & Warren 1900).

20

15

10

Jan

[Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus]

Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major Great Spotted Woodpeckers are rare and irregular visitors which occasionally occur in influxes of several birds. Prior to 1900 there were about 39 records from Kerry, east and north to Londonderry, of which nine were in winter 1889/90 (Ussher & Warren 1900). One record of two together and another of three are cited. Kennedy et aI (1954) listed 13 records, including two birds together in the Glenesk Valley, Antrim, from 10th to 20th April 1931 : of these records nine were in winter 1949/50. Most of the birds recorded were in the months October to February. From 1954 to 1965 the only records were of one in September 1957, one in December 1959 and five in winter 1962/63. Since 1966 there have been records of about 29 in winter 1968/69, two in 1971/72, 15 in 1972/73, one in 1973/74 and one in 1978/79. The influx in 1968/69 included three near Bunratty. Clare, and two observations of two birds. Three were again reported in 1972/73 at Rostrevor, Down. None has been recorded since spring 1979. The records of influxes are believed to refer to birds of the northern race D. m. major, and the 1968/69 invasion

Lul1ula arborea 153 coincided with large numbers of these birds on the east coast of England. Specimens shot in Down in 1886/87, Galway in 1907/08 and Waterford in 1910/11, together with one found dead in Antrim in 1938/39, have been examined critically and assigned to the northern race. However, a bird shot in Permanagh on 12th December 1959 was found to be D. m. anqlicus. In the period 1966-86 all the records were from September to April, mainly November to February. Birds were recorded in Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Clare, Donegal. Down, Dublin, Galway, Kildare, Laois, Limerick, Londonderry, Longford, Sligo and Wicklow, with the majority on the east coast from Down south to Wicklow. Two bones have been found in separate caves in Clare, indicating that Great Spotted Woodpeckers were once part of the Irish breeding avifauna (Kennedy et al 1954).

Short-toed Lark Calandrella brachydactyla There was one record before 1951 a bird shot in Mayo in October 1890. However, the opening of Saltee Bird Observatory, Wexford, produced another record in September 1951, and from then until 1965 there were records every year except 19 52 and 1964. Ofthe total of 16 records up to 1965, involving 17 birds, three were in May, two in August, six in September and five in October. Eight birds were recorded at Saltee, four elsewhere in Wexford, one at Tory Island, Donegal, one at Duncrue Street, Belfast, Antrim, one at Cape Clear, and one at Inishtrahull, Donegal (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there have been only ten records, four at Cape Clear, three at Dursey Island, Cork, two at Saltee and one at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford. They were in May, August, September (two) and October (six). It is likely that the reduction in manning at Great Saltee has been the principal cause of the decline in records. t

10

Short-toed lark

1966-86

Lesser Short-toed Lark Calandrella rufescens The four records involve about 40 birds, all in the 1950s. A flock of about 30 was seen in sandhills beside Tralee Bay, Kerry, on 4th January 1956; five were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 30th March 1956; two were seen at Armagh, Mayo, on 21st May 1956; five were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, from 22nd to 25th March 1958.

Woodlark Lullula arborea In the mid nineteenth century, Woodlarks were reported by Thompson (1849-51) as a very local resident in Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Armagh, Down and Antrim. Breeding was reported at about the same time in Wicklow by Watters (1853). They declined in the second half of the century and Ussher & Warren (1900) had relatively few records. In Cork they had records at Rathcormac, Doneralle, Permoy and Trabolgan, but the last breeding record was at Permoy in 1887. The vicinity of Lismore and Cappoquin in the Blackwater valley were breeding haunts in Waterford, but not later than about 1870. Nesting was not recorded in Dublin after 1851, but a nest was found in Wicklow in 1894 at a site where five birds had been seen through the preceding winter. At another Wicklow location a small flock was seen in September 1898. There were records in Kildare, Offaly and Laois but, apparently, only of single birds. In 1874 breeding was reported at three locations in Down, but there were no more recent records. By the turn of the century the Woodlark appears to have been extinct as a resident Irish species and there have been very few records since. In 1905 a pair bred at Kilbarrow Wood near Ferns in Wexford, and in 1954 a pair bred at Castlefreke near Rosscarbery, Cork, and two other adults were also present. Two birds were seen in sandhilis at Portmarnock, Dublin, on 4th September 1927. Single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 15th and 26th October 1951, 4th November 1954 and 30th March 1956, and at Swords, Dublin, on 3rd April 1960, and Cape Clear from 2nd to 7th September 1965. The only record since 1965 is of one at Cape Clear from 1st to 6th September 1966. The disappearance of the Woodlark from Ireland had a parallel in Britain, where there was a marked decline in the nineteenth century (Parslow 1973) for reasons which are not understood. There was a revival in England and Wales which reached a peak in the 1950s, and the Cork breeding record in 1954, together with the few Saltee records of vagrants, occurred at this time.

154

Alauda arvensis

Skylark Alauda arvensis The Skylark is a widespread resident and winter visitor to Ireland. In summer it is a familiar bird of farmland. salt marsh. sand dunes. waste land and moorland. During the 1968-72 breeding bird survey. Skylarks were found nesting or probably nesting in all except a handful of 10 km squares. Even in mountainous areas of Kerry . Donegal and Wick low breeding was proved widely (Breeding Atlas) Ruttledge (1966) noted signs of a decrease in the first half of the 1960s. but no adequate census work has been carried out to show if this was temporary. nor how the decrease was measured. In 1971 there was reported to have been a decrease in east Wicklow. Certainly. there is no evidence nowadays of any change in status. Skylarks are still abundant and widespread breeding birds . and in some habitats the most numerous species. On a sand-dune system at Murlough Nature Reserve. Down. they were the mo st abundant species with a density of 58.4 pairs/km- in 1976 and 1977 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). At a Wexford site. comprising sand-dunes and small fields. densities in three years ranged from 30.0 to 46.4 pairs/km? (0. J. Merne). but Meadow Pipits were more numerous in two years on one plot. In winter the numbers of Skylarks are much reduced. especially on higher ground and in the north-west (Wint er Atlas). At this time they leave exposed places such as Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). There are clear signs that the birds concentrate near and on selected parts of the coast and in the cereal growing counties of the south-east. They feed in autumn on stubble fields. and in winter on a utumn sown cereals and weed seeds . At the coast they find an abundance of seeds on salt marshes and sand dunes. The spring and autumn movements of Skylarks are puzzling . In spring no apparent movement is noted at Great Saltee and it is only slight a t Cape Clear. but there was evidence of migration at lnlshkea, Mayo . and Tory Island. Donegal, in March-April 1961 . In autumn there is heavy migration. Large numbers arrive in the north-east. especially in October. and move south across the country. Arrival from over the sea has been recorded at Malin Head. Donegal. In the south. emigration to the south and southwest has been recorded at Great Saltee, and Hook Head.

Wexford and at Ballycotton, the Old Head of Kinsale and Cape Clear. Extremely large numbers occur in Wexford . At Hook Head up to 6.000 have been estimated as moving south in a day and there has been a number of records of more than 1.000 in a day (Lovatt 1984). Curiously. this movement is not seen every year at Cape Clear. perhaps because the majority of birds move south in most years before reaching a point as far west as Cape Clear. In only one year from 1976 to 1986 were more than 50 recorded in a day. and that was 180 in October 1980. Ruttledge (1966) also describes movement to the north and north-west which is most noticeable on the Wexford coast. This has not been recorded in recent years. but was ascribed by Ruttledge to movements of immigrants coming to winter. The large numbers which arrive on the north coast are clearly immigrants from the Continent or northern Britain. and it seems likely that the majority. if not all. of the birds which are seen moving south on the south coast are also Continental birds on passage. It is not known whether any Irish bred birds emigrate for the winter.

Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris There have been only nine records of the Shore Lark in Ireland . One was shot at Wicklow Head on 4th November 1910; one was seen at the West Pier. Dun Laoghaire. Dublin . from 2nd to 13th April 1950; one was seen near Kilcoole, Wick low . on 8th December 1950; two were seen at Tacumshln, Wexford. on 9th February 1964. Since 1966. two were seen at the North Bull. Dublin. from 23rd to 25th October 1966 and one on 9th November 1966; two were seen at Ballagan Point, Louth . on 8th February 19 70; one was seen at Portstewart, Londonderry. on 1st and 2nd December 1976; three were seen in Tralee Bay. Kerry. from 18th December 1976 to 17th January 1977 and one was seen at Lame. Antrim. from 2nd March to 13th April 1985.

Sand Martin Riparia riparia Sand Martins are summer visitors to most of the country. nesting in burrows in sand cliffs at quarries. on the coast and occasionally on river banks. Some small colonies are in th e face of turf banks and in one case. in Cavan. there were 50 pairs (Kennedy et al 1954). Nesting has also been recorded in cre vices in a ruined castle. in a sea wall and in holes drilled for explosives in a stone bridge (Ruttledge 1966). During 1968-72 they were shown to breed throughout the country. except for patches in west Clare. south-west Galway. north Mayo and parts of Donegal (Bre eding Atlas). However. that period spanned a population crash between 1968 and 1969 which has been attributed principally to

Hirundo daurica the effects of the drought in the Sahel region of Africa (where our Sand Martins winter) and, to a lesser extent, to the effect of reduced breeding success following a series of cool, late springs (Cowley 1979). In England the population had reached a peak in 1968, following increases since 1965 or earlier, and the same position may have held in Ireland. Ruttledge (1966) reported that in a survey of 24 colonies, two were of 150 pairs, six of 100-150 pairs and the remainder of less than 100. The mean was 66 pairs. The first birds in spring usually arrive towards the end of March and movement continues through April and May. The earliest record is of two at Kilcoole. Wicklow, on 9th March 19 77, and there are several records between 10th and 14th. Spring passage at Cape Clear during 1959-69 showed peaks in early April and late May which were not explained (Sharrock 1973). Autumn passage at Cape Clear during the same period peaked at the end of July and in early September. A late July movement was also recorded on the Wicklow coast in 1969 and 1970, and at Hook Head, Wexford, in 1966 when about 4,000 passed southwest from 16th to 20th July (Lovatt 1984). The two movements appear to represent the departure of first-brood juveniles early in autumn and adults and second-brood juveniles later in the autumn. The few ringing recoveries which exist indicate that Irish Sand Martins cross to England after breeding, birds from further north crossing to the English midlands and those from the south crossing to the south of England (Mead & Harrison 1979). Continental recoveries indicate a route south along the west coast of France to Africa south of the Sahara. The decline following the 1969 crash has been reflected in much reduced numbers on passage at Cape Clear: a total of 2,000 over four days in September 1981 at Hook Head was quite exceptional. Sand Martins are great rarities in winter and there have only been two records in December (singles at Dingle, Kerry, on 1st December 1967 and Ballycotton, Cork, on 16th December 1973) and one in January (one at Monasterevin, Kildare on 12th January 1963).

Swallow Hirundo rustica Swallows are summer visitors, familiar to most as harbingers of spring, which breed in every part of Ireland and are particularly associated with farm buildings and outhouses where they build their nests. During 1968-72 they were proved to breed in all except two of those 10 km squares which consist mainly of land (Breeding Atlas): they bred even in upland areas and on islands off the west coast. Kennedy et al (1954) reported that Swallows were absent from the desolate moors of Mayo but that there had been an increase in Connemara since 1924. In certain parts there was reported to have been a decrease, and Mayo was cited. Ruttledge (1966) considered that there was some evidence of a decrease, at least locally, but the 1968-72 survey showed that Swallows bred in all parts of the country. There have been no

155

quantitative surveys over a large area to show whether there has been any change in numbers in recent years. At Cape Clear, Cork, breeding numbers were considered to be constant during the 1960s at about 30 pairs (Sharrock 1973), but in 1984 only 13 pairs bred. It is not possible to draw firm conclusions about the state of the population generally from such a small sample. Ussher & Warren (1900) reported that nesting took place in marine caves on the Cork and Dublin coasts, and Ussher, who was an accomplished investigator of caves, had repeatedly seen nests in caves. On the Lower Lake at Killarney, Kerry, Swallows bred in caves on one of the islands. Kennedy et al (1954) recorded nests in marine caves at Clare Island, Galway, and Achill Island, Mayo, and at Schull Harbour, Cork, where a pair had nested in a cave for over fifty years. The only recent record of nesting in caves is of a pair near Cloyne, Cork, in 1986 (P. Smiddy). The first birds arrive from southern Africa in early April with the main passage in May. The earliest documented record is on 4th March 1952 (Kennedy et al19 54), though Ruttledge (1966) refers to 2nd March as the earliest date. Since 1966 the earliest record has been four at Clonakilty on 7th March 1977. Autumn passage reaches a peak in Wexford and Cork in August and September, but small numbers trickle through in October and into November. Much the largest passage ever recorded in Ireland was on the Wicklow coast in 1982 when an estimated 50,00055,000 moved south over Broad Lough in six hours on 2nd October. Slightly smaller were the movements south of an estimated 20,000 and 15,000 at the same place on 14th September 1980 and 7th September 1986 respectively. The maximum in a day is more usually about 5,000. Up to 1,000 in a day have been recorded at Hook Head, Wexford, and up to 600 in a day at Cape Clear, though 150-400 would be the maximum in a day in most years. At Great Saltee an assembly of 2,000 birds was recorded on 11th September 1958 (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Ballycotton, Cork, up to 3,000 occur in autumn, and on the Wicklow coast large numbers move south each year. After breeding, Swallows assemble in huge flocks to roost communally in reed beds, and can number several thousand birds. Since 1966 there have been 12 December and three January published records. These were single birds apart from two in Cork in 1974 and four together at Howth, Dublin, on 9th December 1978. The records were in Antrim, Clare, Cork (four), Donegal, Down, Dublin (five), Kerry and Tipperary.

Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica There have been only two records. Single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on lOth and 11th April 1952, and at Castledawson, Londonderry, on 18th November 1980.

156

Delichon urbica

House Martin Delichon urbica Although not so common as Swallows, House Martins are as familiar to many people because of their habit of building nests under the eaves of houses. They breed throughout most of the country, being absent only from parts of west Donegal, west Mayo and west Galway (Breeding Atlas). The great majority use houses as nest sites but cliff sites are still utilized in some parts of the country. Ruttledge (1 966) cited Antrim, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Londonderry, Waterford and Wicklow as counties where cliff-nesting had been recorded. In Cork there are colonies on the coast, and nine small colonies were recorded between Cork Harbour and Rosscarbery in 1985 (CBR 1985), though the true total is well in excess of this. Small numbers, probably less than 12, breed in two colonies at Cape Clear. East of Cork Harbour there are about 70 pairs at seven sites, but numbers are now much reduced at Power Head which held as many as 50 pairs in 1964. In Dublin there are colonies on cliffs at Lambay Island and Howth Head, and in Wicklow at Wicklow Head where there were 30 pairs in 1965. There are no recent data from the other counties where cliff breeding is known to have been recorded in the past. In Kerry, where breeding on sea cliffs has not been recorded, seven pairs were nesting inland on cliffs near Killarney in 1967. Nests have been recorded under bridges on a number of occasions. In 1961 a pair was found nesting in the middle of a Sand Martin colony at Aughavannagh, Wicklow (Holohan & O'Connor 1964). The first spring migrants usually reach Ireland early in April but the majority arrive in May. The earliest record was one at Hollywood, Down, on 4th March 1952. In more recent years the earliest was a bird at Bray, Wicklow, on 7th March 1977. There is little evidence of passage migration in spring. At Hook Head, Wexford, up to ten in a day is usual and the highest counts have been 40 and 50 (Lovatt 1984). In autumn, passage is noticeable in Wexford and at Cape Clear, Cork, in August and September. At Hook Head and at Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 40 in a day in autumn would be normal, though counts of 200250 have been made. At Cape Clear the highest count is 100. There are a few records of birds in November in most years, but winter records are rare. Ruttledge (1966) cited two December records and there have been three since then. One bird was seen at Ballintubbrid, Cork, on 16th December 1 9 73; one was seen near Midleton, Cork, from November 1975 to 14th January 1976, and one was seen at Drumbo, Down, on 12th December 1981.

in October. Of the old records, two were in Dublin and the others in Cork, Donegal and Wexford. Since 1966 the majority has been in Cork (13 records involving 16 birds). There have been two records involving three birds in Armagh and single records in Kerry, Londonderry and Waterford. 10 Richard's Pipit

1966-86

Jan

Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris There were eight records up to 1965 and 12 from 1966 to 1986. The earlier records were all after 1952 and were in Antrim (one), Cork (four) and Wexford (three). Three were in spring and five in autumn. Since 1966 all the records have been in Cork (seven), Wexford (four) and Wicklow (one). Both spring records were at Great Saltee, Wexford, as indeed were two of the three spring birds prior to 1966. Apart from two at Cape Clear from 26th to 30th September 1976, all the records have been of single birds.

Jan

Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodqsoni The single Irish record is of a bird at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 21 October 1978.

Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis

Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae This large pipit is a rare vagrant in autumn. There were six records before 1966, of which four were between 1953 and 1965, and 1 7 since then. A total of 28 birds has been recorded, mostly singly but on one occasion two birds and on two occasions three were seen together. Most have been

The Tree Pipit is an annual spring and autumn passage migrant, and perhaps a rare breeding species. Most records are between early April and mid June and between early August and the end of October. Since 1966, as indeed beforehand (Ruttledge 1 966), the majority of records have been on the Wexford coast or at Cape Clear. In spring all except five birds were in Wexford and these five were at Cape Clear (three), Galway and Kerry. The autumn records were more widely dispersed and were in

Anthus cervinus Clare, Down, Kerry, Louth, Meath and Wicklow, as well as Cork and Wexford where most occurred. There were three inland records prior to 1966. One was in song on 21st May 1914 near Portumna, Galway; an unmated male was in song from 15th May to 10th July 1932 near Athenry, Galway; one was in song on 29th May 1959 in Antrim. Since then there have been several records indicative of breeding. Single males were heard in song at one site in Wicklow and two in Kerry in 1975. In 1976, singing males were heard at sites in Kerry, Limerick and Tipperary. It seems likely that Tree Pipits may be rare and overlooked breeding birds in Ireland, and there have been a number of unsubstantiated reports of singing birds, but more information is required to ascertain the precise status of the species in summer. 40

Tree Pipit

1966-86

30

20

10

Jan

Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis This is a widespread and abundant breeding bird of open country, nesting in every county and on the marine islands. Its breeding habitat in the lowlands comprises grassland, rough pasture, sand dunes, moorland and bogs. Above 500m it is much the commonest breeding bird. Breeding numbers have been surveyed at several sites. At census plots in sand dune systems in Down and Wexford, densities per km 2 varied from 46.8 in Down (Nairn & Whatmough 1978) to 33.7-60.0 in Wexford (0. J. Merne). Only Skylarks were more numerous and in two years on one Wexford plot Meadow Pipits were the most numerous species. At Cape Clear, an island of 639 ha, Meadow Pipits were found to be the most numerous breeding species in 1965, with 355 pairs counted (55.5 per krn") (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). The distribution covered all the available habitats on the island but the highest concentrations were in areas of rough pasture, and the lowest densities were in the moorland areas. In a recount in 1986 a total of 370 pairs was located (57.9 per km-), with similar distribution, indicating that the island is virtually saturated (Borton 1987). At Inishbofin, Galway, an island of 936ha, a total of only 37 pairs of Meadow Pipits was found in 1976 (3.9 per km") (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). As on Cape

157

Clear, most were found on rough pasture and densities on moorland (which comprise a much larger proportion of the surface area than at Cape Clear) were very low. At Glenveagh National Park, an area of mountain, glen, woodland and lakes in Donegal, the distribution of breeding birds was recorded in 1980 and Meadow Pipits were present on moorland at all levels from the lower heaths to the mountain tops and were also present in open areas of scrub woodland (MacLochlainn 1984). Ruttledge (1966) considered that there had been a decrease in the preceding fifteen years and Kennedy et al (1954) also referred to a recent decrease, perhaps because of a reduction in grassland as a result of increased tillage, and perhaps because of burning of moors and bogs. There is no recent evidence of any change in status. In autumn there is substantial passage migration in September and October. At Cape Clear up to 1,000 birds have been recorded in a day in autumn (Sharrock 1973). Meadow Pipits ringed on the coast in autumn have been recovered in winter in France (six), Spain (eight) and Portugal (two). In winter many Meadow Pipits desert the mountains for the lower-lying parts and the milder south of the country. It has been shown that during the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 two thirds of the 10km squares with more than 43 birds recorded were in the southern half of the country and most were on the coast (Winter Atlas). Flocks of Meadow Pipits in winter are usually small, rarely exceeding 100 birds. It is not known what proportion of the wintering population consists of immigrants. Spring passage is very slight in late March and early April at Cape Clear, at Great Saltee and Hook Head, Wexford (Ruttledge 1963, Lovatt 1984).

Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus There were about eight records before 1966, all at Great Saltee, Wexford. One was seen in May and the remainder were in August (one) and September (six) (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there have only been three records, perhaps partly due to reduced manning at Great Saltee. One was seen at Cape Clear and on 9th October 1975, one was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 15th and 16th October 1977. One was recorded at Dursey Island, Cork, on 23rd October 1979. The recent records have, therefore, all been later than those prior to 1966.

158

Anthus petrosus American Pipit Anthus rubescens There have been two records. One was seen at Great Saltee. Wexford, from 8th to 16th October 1951, and one was seen on the seashore near Newcastle, Wlcklow, on 19th October 196 7.

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla [lava

Rock Pipit Anthus petrosus The Rock Pipit is distributed all around the Irish coastline and on marine islands. The only gaps in distribution are on the sandy shores of east Wexford, north Wick low and north Louth where there is a shortage of the rocky habitat the birds prefer (Breeding Atlas). At Great SaItee , Wexford, ] 5-20 pairs breed (Ruttledge 1963), and at Cape Clear censuses in summer] 965 ,1967 and 1985 found between 39 and 54 pairs. Ruttledge (J 966) considered that there was no evidence of migration other than of a very local character. but Sharrock (J 9 73) showed that the largest numbers at Cape Clear were seen in late September and suggested that these were mainly migrants. The highest numbers are also recorded at Hook Head. Wexford, at this time, but Lovatt (1984 ) argued that this merely reflected local breeding success rather than migration. Birds were colour ringed at Great Sal tee and one ringed there in September was recovered the following January on the Waterford coast (Ruttledge ] 963). The only ringing recovery to date showing evidence of immigration is of a bird ringed at Lundy, England, in autumn and recovered across the Irish Sea on the Wicklow coast in the following breeding season. It seems likely that the autumn peaks are indeed postbreeding aggregations and that there is very limited movement of the birds . Winter distribution reflects that in summer (Winter Atlas) though there were four inland records in the period ] 980/8] to 1983/84 in Clare, Donegal and Kerry . The Scandinavian race Ant/IUS p. littoralis has been recorded on one occasion, at Tory Island, Donegal. on 14th April 1961.

Water Pipit Ant/IUS spinoletta

The Yellow Wagtail is a regular, though scarce, passage migrant in spring and autumn and a rare breeding species. Breeding was regular around Lough Neagh in the 1850s and continued into the present century. Near Lurgan, Armagh, Yellow Wagtails bred plentifully in the bogs, but a decline set in there around 1922 and a general decrease was recorded at all the Lough Neagh haunts shortly afterwards. Around Lough Beg. Londonderry, a few still bred in ] 942 but by 1944 Yellow Wagtails had disappeared as breeding birds from Northern Ireland. In the west ofIreland there were small numbers breeding on rocky islets and among sedges on the lake shore at Lough Corrib, Galway, in 1853 or 1854, and at Loughs Mask and Carra, Mayo, in 1891. In 1917, pairs were seen on Lough Mask: by 1922 there were very few, though individual birds were noted up to 1928, following which there were no records. The only other site at which bre eding was known prior to 1953 was Ballybough, Dublin , where one pair was found nesting in 1868 (Kennedy et aI1954 ). However. there has " been a scatt ering of successful breeding pairs since 1956. mostly birds showing the characters of the British breeding race M.fflavissima but also including those with the characters of the Ashy-headed Wagtail M.J. cinereocapilla, which normally breeds around the Adriatic and in Italy, and the Blue-headed Wagtail M.fflava which is the common breeding form in France and much of western Europe. The number of pairs has always been low and nowhere has breeding continued for more than six years. In spring, Yellow Wagtails occur in very small numbers. Only 24 were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford, between 17th April and 28th May, from 1950 to 1961 (Ruttledge 1963). At Cape Clear, a few arc seen in spring in most years (Sharrock ]973). Autumn passage is more marked but the 30--40 birds at Great Saltee in September 1955 was quite exceptional. The maximum recorded at Cape Clear was 12 in a day in September 1976. Passage birds , where they can be subspecifically identified. are usually found to show the characters of the Yellow Wagtail M.J.flavissima but other races have been recorded. The Blue-headed Wagtail M.fflava has definitely bred 10

There have been three records. One was shot at Rockabill, off Dublin , in June 186]; one was seen at the North Bull, Dublin. on 18th March 1943 , and two were seen at the South Slob, Wexford. from 29th December 1985 until 9th February 1986.

Blue-headed Wagtail

Jan

1966-86

Motacilla alba 159 Records of proved and suspected breeding of Yellow Wagtail s in Ireland. 1954-1985. All records refer to Yellow Wagtails M.f.flavissima except where indicated. Number of pairs and details 1956 1 pair of Yellow Wagtails M .f.f1avissima and 1 pair of Ashy-headed Wagtails M,f. cinereocapilla bred at Sydenham. Belfast. Down. Another pa ir of Ashy-headed Wagt ails bred at Duncrue Street. Belfast. 1957 1 pair bred at Belfast Shipyard. Antrim. 1958 3 pairs bred near Lame. Antrim. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails M .f.f1ava was also seen . but breeding wa s not proved . at Larne. 1962 1 pair almost certainly bred at Lough Derg, Tipperary. An adult was seen repeatedly carrying food in June. 1963 I pair bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow. Male showed some affinity to Blue-headed Wagtail. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred near Duncrue Street . Belfast. Antrim. 1964 1 pair bred near Kllcoole, Wicklow. 1965 2 pairs bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow . 1 pair bred at Ballinwilling. near Ballycotton, Cork. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred in Kerry . 1966 2 pairs bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow. 1 pair bred at Ballinwilling Cork. 1967 3 pa irs bred near Kllcoole, Wicklow. 1968 3 pa irs bred near Kilcoole. Wicklow . 1 pair suspected breeding. but not proved. at Lough Beg. Londonderry. 1980 Single pairs suspected nesting in north Dublin and at Tacumshin. Wexford . 1981 1 pair bred successfully at Rogerstown in Dublin . Birds present in summer at Kilcoole. Wicklow. 1982 1 pair. perhaps two. bred at Tacumshin, Wexford. 1983 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred in Wexford.

in Antrim. Kerry and Wexford on one occasion each. and has been suspected of breeding in Antrim on a second occasion. In addition there were one spring and three autumn records between 1959 and 1965 (Ruttledge 1966). Between 1966 and 1985 there have been about 21 records. mostly involving single birds but including a party of five at Cape Clear in September 1976. These records have been in Antrim (one). Cork (15). Dublin (one ). Londonderry (two) and Wexford (two) . The Ashy-headed Wagtail M.f. cinereDcapilla has nested on one occasion and was also recorded at Rathlin Island. Antrim. on 1st May 1985. The Grey-headed Wagtail M.j. thunbergi. which breeds in southern Scandinavia and eastern Eurasia. has been recorded five times. four of them in Wexford. Single bird s showing the characters of this race were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford . on 2nd and 3rd May 1960 and on 13th to 15th May 1979. at Tacumshin. Wexford. on 26th June 1982 and 11 th August 1984. and at Cloyne . Cork . on 9th May 1984.

Grey Wagtail MDtacilla cinerea Grey Wagtails breed in every county in Ireland and occur in autumn as passage migrants. The breeding distribution in the period 1968-72 comprised the entire country with the exception of small parts of west Mayo. south Galway and south Clare (Breeding Atlas). Grey Wagtails occur mainly in the vicinity of fastflowing streams and rivers. but they are not restricted to uplands. Nesting is widespread also in the lowlands on slower rivers and on the edge of lakes. Grey Wagtails are susceptible to hard weather and the population declined particularly after the cold winter of 1916/17 (Kennedy et al 1954). The two successive cold winters of 1962/63 and 1963/64 appear also to have led to increased mortality but by 1968 numbers had clearly recovered. In autumn there is passage at Cape Clear. where Grey Wagtails are rare except from late August to early October when up to 32 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). At Great Saltee, Wexford. there was passage in the same period in the years 1950-61. with up to five recorded in a day (Ruttledge 1963); and at Hook Head. Wexford. up to 15 have been recorded in a day (Lovatt 1984). It is not known whether these passage birds are mainly Irish in origin or whether they include birds from the Continent. but it seems likely that they do include British birds. There have been three recoveries in Ireland of Grey Wagtails ringed as nestlings (two in Ireland. one in Scotland). all showing southerly movement. and evidence from ringing in Britain shows that British juveniles and adults move south and south-west in autumn. In winter the highest densities are in the south and east (W inter Atlas). presumably because the climate is milder. In winter they can be seen in the cities foraging near dock s and around boats.

Pied Wagtail MDtacilla alba Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola The only two Irish records have been at Ballycotton, Cork. Single immatures were recorded from 15th to 17th October 1968 and from 6th to 12th September 1980.

Pied Wagtails are among the most widespread passerines in Ireland. breeding in every part of the country including all the inhabited marine islands (Breeding Atlas ). At the turn of the century Ussher & Warren (190 0 ) considered that the only part of Ireland where they were not very

160

Bombycilla qarrulus

common was in wes t Connach t and on th e Ara n Islands. Ga lway . Th ey also indicated th at Pied Wa gta ils did not ne st on Th e Mullet in Mayo. The re a ppears to have been a great increa se in the next 30 years. for Kennedy et al (1954) wrote that Pied Wagtail s were plentiful in west ern Connacht and on The Mullet. Spring and autumn passag e is recorded at many coa stal sites. On the south coast. numbers are higher in autumn th an in spring . At Great Salt ee, Wexford . and a t Cape Clear. few are seen in spring but th ere is quite stro ng a u tum n passage with up to 65 in a day at Cape Clear (Rutt ledge 1963. Sharrock 19 73 ). The Continen ta l and Icelandic bre eding ra ce kn own as the White Wagta il M. a. alba is a sca rce spri ng m igrant a t Great Sa ltee and a common one in au tumn. mainly in September whe n up to 10 0 in a day occ ur. but is progressively sca rcer at sites to th e west. Pied Wagtails M. a. yarrelli predominate at Cape Clear. and rarely have more than ten White Wagtails been seen th ere in a day. a pa rt from an except ional influ x in 19 6 3 when 100 were seen on 1st September . The highest numbers of White Wagt ails are usually recorded in Wexford. where th e record co unt to da te is of 800 at Tac u ms h in . Wexford. on 20th Sept ember 1979. White Wagtails are commo ne r in spring th an in a utumn on the west a nd nor th-east coasts (Ruttledge 19 66). but are sca rce a t a ny seaso n on the eas t coas t (Hutchin son 19 75 ). On th e north coast up to 100 were record ed a t the Bann estuary. Londonderry. in April 19 73 (Ma rsh 19 75) but autumn record s were few . Recoverie s of ringed bird s sho w that the population of Pied Wagtails in northern Brtitain is largely migratory and it may be that th e autumn influxes of thi s race on the sou th coast consist of bird s from Scotl and and northern England. Th e recovery in Antrim in Au gu st 19 84 of a bird ring ed in sou the rn Eng la nd in the pr eviou s Mar ch is of int erest but we do not kn ow where th is ind ividual was breed ing . Not enough of th e Irish br eeding populat ion has been rin ged to kn ow if th ere is em igra tion . bu t the winter distr ibu tion is very similar to that in summe r (W inter A tlas ). Many Pied Wagta ils gather in lar ge com munal roosts a t night. Most of th ese are in she ltered bu sh es a nd reed beds. but a number are in cities suc h as Cork and Dublin. The best kn own roost is in tr ees in the cent re of O'Connell Street . Dublin . which ha s been occupied since a t lea st 1929. Between November 19 7 7 and Mar ch 1980 th e highest number co un ted was 1.0 76 (Cotto n & Lovatt 19 85) but th er e h ave been cou nts in th e pas t of up to 3.600 bird s. Nu mbers tend to be high est in cold winters and durin g December to February.

,I

Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus Wa xw ing s ar e sca rce winter visitors except in yea rs when irruptions occu r. In the present century th er e ha ve been irru ptions in th e winter s 19 0 3/ 0 4 . 19 32/ 33. 19 4 6/ 4 7. 19 5 7/59. 19 6 5/ 6 6.1 9 6 7/ 68 and 19 70/ 71. Th e winte rs of 1946/ 47 and 19 6 5/ 6 6 brought large number s to Ireland. In th e former win ter the largest flocks were in Antrim and Dublin bu t there were record s as far west as Old Head . Mayo. and Bunbeg. Don egal. In An trim three flocks tot alling abou t 100 birds were seen in on e a rea. The largest influ x by far was in winter 19 6 5/6 6 when flocks of over 50 were recorded in Galway and Mea th. over 10 0 in north Dublin and as many as 300 at En nlskillen . Ferm anagh . Cornw a llis & Town send (19 6 8 ) in vestigated the timing of th e influ x to both Britain and Ireland and sh owed that over 1. 500 we re pr esent in thi s coun try in mid-wint er. Num bers of Wax willgs recorded in winter 1965/66 (af ler COrllwallis & Towll selld 1968 ) 9 th-20th Octob er o December 1. 30 5 2 Ist- 3 1st October 205 Jan u ar y 575 1st-1 4th Nove m ber 68 0 Febr ua ry 245 15th- 21 st November March 940 90 22nd- 30 th Novem ber 1. 525 April 45

Altho ugh the lar gest numbers were record ed on th e eas t

Cinclus cinclus coast in winter 1965/66. birds were reported from almost every county. A few Waxwings were recorded in Antrim in winter 1966/67. but there was another. much smaller invasion in 1967/68 when flocks of up to 50 were seen in Dublin and Tyrone. and parties of over 30 in Antrim and Donegal. In winter 1970/71 there were widespread reports covering 12 counties but the majority were again on the east coast. Up to 110 were recorded in Belfast. Antrim. 70 in the Dublin suburbs and 52 in Bray. Wicklow. Since 1970/71 a few Waxwings have been recorded in most years. generally on the east coast from Wicklow north to Antrim. but none was recorded in 1980 or from 1983 to 19 85. Waxwings irrupt across Europe from Scandinavia when food there is scarce in autumns following good breeding seasons. Waxwings feed mainly on rowan berries and the population expands after years of good berry crops. Then. in a year when the Scandinavian crop yield is reduced. Waxwings move west in search of food and appear in Irish suburban gardens feeding on cotoneaster berries.

Dipper Cindu s cindus

The Dipper is a familiar bird of fast-flowing streams and rivers and nests. as a result. in the hilly parts ofthe country. The breeding distribution. as mapped in 1968-72. was centred on those parts of the country where land was

161

over 300 m . Kildare. Limerick. Westmeath, Roscommon. Longford. Cavan and Monaghan were counties where Dippers were scarce. but breeding was proved in every county. Even in Certain lowlying parts. such as south Cork. south-east Wexford. coastal Wicklow. east Clare. east Galway and Meath. Dippers were found in small numbers (Breeding Atlas) . The winter distribution is very similar (Winter Atlas) though there is some evidence that Dippers move to lower levels in winter. They have been seen. for example. on the edge of the estuary at Douglas. Cork . Movements are clearly very limited and there have been no records at either Cape Clear. Cork. or Great Saltee, Wexford. Dipper numbers on several rivers in north-west Ireland were censused in 1972 and 1982 and the results compared by Perry (1983). There was an increase from 25 to 41 pairs during the period. On the River Faughan in Londonderry there was one breeding pair on average per 1.8 km of river in 1982. Of the 41 nests found . 31 were in or under bridges. three were on the outside of bridges. four were on river banks. two were in the roots of trees and one was at a weir. In Cork. Dippers have been found to breed almost to the coast and in lowlying areas. They nest on slow-moving rivers provided they have an area of broken water (K. Preston). On the Owenacurra River in ea st Cork pairs are found about every 1.1 km (P. Smiddy). Our resident birds are of the Irish race C. c. hibernicus. Single birds showing characters of the Black-bellied form C.c. cindus. which breeds on the Continent. have been recorded at the River Tolka, Dublin. from 12th January to 3rd February 1956 and at Tory Island. Donegal, on 13th October 1962.

162

Troglodytes troglodytes

Wren Troglodytes troglodytes

Dunnock Prunella modularis

The Wren is one of the commonest birds in Ireland, frequenting a range of habitats from woodland, through hedgerows and suburban gardens, to gullies on exposed headlands and remote marine islands, such as the Great Skellig and Tearaght in Kerry. During the 1968-72 breeding survey the Wren was found to be the third most widespread bird in Britain and Ireland after the Skylark and Carrion/Hooded Crow (than which it is much more widespread in Ireland) (Breeding Atlas), and it was suggested that it was probably the commonest nesting bird throughout the two islands. In winter, Wrens are equally ubiquitous, though there is a tendency for densities to be lower in Galway, Mayo and west Donegal than elsewhere (Winter Atlas). There is rather little detailed census material. In areas of sand-dune in Wexford and Down. Wrens were among the five most numerous species with densities ranging from 22 to 32 pairs per km 2 (0.1. Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). The breeding population at Cape Clear, Cork, was estimated at 750-1,000 pairs in 1959-61. Following the severe winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63. numbers declined dramatically. There were estimates of 150-200 pairs in 1962, 75 in 1963, 120 in 1964, 300 pairs in 1965 (Sharrock 1973) and 391 in 1986 (Borton 1987). The 1965 and 1986 estimates were based on surveys which involved plotting the location of breeding pairs on a 6-inch map, but the earlier estimates have been described as 'guesses at the breeding population' (Sharrock 1973). Wrens bred in 1965 over most of the island, being absent only from the cliffs, though they nested closer to the cliffs than any other species. By 1986 there had been a clear increase in numbers in the formerly sparsely populated areas, especially near cliffs. At Great Saltee, Wexford, Wrens nested plentifully in the first half of the century, then decreased and ceased nesting about 19 58 (Ruttledge 1963). though a pair did breed in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976), and by the 1980s several pairs were nesting again (O.J. Merne). Ruttledge (1966) pointed out that there is movement at coastal islands. At Tory Island, Donegal. small numbers of Wrens occur in April, early May and October. At Inishtrahull, Donegal, there is passage in October and November. At Cape Clear the resident population is so large that passage is difficult to detect but an arrival of migrants was suspected in early November 1967 (Sharrock 1973). At Great Saltee, there is light passage at the end of March and in April, more marked in October. Up to 50 birds occur in November (Perry & Warburton), possibly remaining to winter. The nature of the movements on the coast is unknown. Most may well be local birds dispersing in search of food. None of the 24 Irish ringed Wrens recovered had travelled more than 9 km,

The Dunnock, or Hedge Sparrow as it is usually known in Ireland, is a widespread and common resident, most common in areas of dense undergrowth and scrub. In towns and cities, Dunnocks are found in parks and gardens where there are hedges and shrubs. In the country they occur in hedges on farmland, in gorse and bracken and wherever there is a good growth of scrub. They are not so common in woodland, except at the fringes and in clearing. At census plots in sand-dune systems densities vary considerably. In Wexford in 1978-80 they ranged between 20 and 38 pairs per km 2 in poor farmland adjacent to the dunes (0. J. Merne): in Down only eight pairs per km 2 were recorded in sand-dunes but as many as 78 per km? in areas of sea buckthorn (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). The winter distribution (Winter Atlas) shows a tendency for the largest numbers to occur in cultivated areas, where hedges provide the bulk of their habitat. Numbers are lowest in mountainous areas, especially in Down and Wicklow, and in the west. There is no evidence of any immigration and our birds appear from ringing results to be very sedentary. Only two have been recorded travelling more than 9 km and the farthest distance covered was 116 km, from Down to Wicklow. Two birds flying high over Cape Clear on 7th October 1962 were presumably local birds dispersing further than usual. The suggestion of migration at Great Saltee, Wexford, in May and, to a greater extent in September and October (Ruttledge 1963), is almost certainly only local movement. Numbers were censused at Cape Clear in 1965 and 1986 and the totals of 243 and 310 pairs counted showed that Dunnocks were the third most numerous breeding species, after Meadow Pipit and Wren (Sharrock & Fogden 1967. Borton 1987). The distribution was not clumped in the farmed parts of the island but extended over areas of bracken and gorse which had invaded hillsides and long abandoned fields and had expanded between 1965 and 1986. At Great Saltee, Dunnocks are the commonest resident small birds, with 30 pairs nesting in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976). Although Dunnocks breed widely in the west of Ireland, including on the Aran Islands, Galway, none was found breeding at Inishbofin, Galway, in 1978, and only one bird was seen there in 1956 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978).

Gray Catbird Dumetella carolinensis One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 4th November 1986.

Rufous Bush Robin Cercotrichas qalactotes There have been three records. One was shot at the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, in September 1876. One was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, from 22nd September to 4th October 1951. One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 20th April 1968.

Phoenicurus ochruros

163

Robin Erithacus rubecula

Bluethroat Luscinia svecica

Robins are resident and abundant breeding birds. though a few probably emigrate. They nest throughout the entire country and are particularly common in gardens. on farmland. in scrub and on the edges of woodland. In winter some Robins retreat from higher ground to the lowlands. They were found in almost every 10 km square in the country in 1981 /82 to 1983/84 (Winter Altas). being absent only from a handful of squares which included more sea than land. Densities tended to be greater away from the mountains. though this trend was not so obvious as in Britain, probably reflecting the milder climate in Ireland. At Cape Clear a total of 160 pairs was counted in 1965. and a concentration in the sheltered, bracken covered valley which runs through the centre of the island was noticeable (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). In 1986. 410 pairs were counted, indicating a remarkable rate of increase. every piece of suitable habitat appearing to have a breeding pair (Borton 1987). At Great Saltee, Wexford , only one pair breeds sporadically (Perry & Warburton 1976). About 13 pairs were estimated at lnishbofin. Galway. in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). Some Continental Robins E. r. rubecula. which differ from the breeding race E. r. melophilus. have been found in Ireland. There were three records of singles at Great SaItee on 22nd May 1957, 4th May 1958 and lIth October 1962. and there has been one record at Cape Clear. an arrival of about 50 on 9th October 1959 . Two birds trapped in Tipperary, on 5th January 1963. also had the characters of this race (Ruttledge 1966). Continental Robins are migratory and normally winter in south-west Europe and north Africa , so records of passage migrants should be expected from time to time . The only ringing recovery of an Irish-ringed Robin outside the country is of one ringed in Down, in March 1969 , and found in Spain in January 1970. There also appear to be movements on the coast of Robins of our breeding race. A large influx was noted on the south coast in October 1987.

Eight were recorded prior to 1966 and 18 have been recorded since then. The early records were of single birds at Great Saltee, Wexford (one in April , one in August, two in September) and Cape Clear (one in August. one in September. two in October). Since 1966 records have shown a marked October peak but have been more widespread. Four were in Down, one in Clare and one in Galway. though four were in Wexford and eight in Cork . Two birds together have been recorded twice, once in spring and once in autumn . The spring record was at Great Saltee on 18th May 1985 and involved one of the whitespotted race L. s. cyanecula and one of the red-spotted race L. s. svecica. 10

Jan

Nightingale Luscinia megarhyncllOs There were eleven records before 1966 and five records since then. Of the eleven records. ten were at Great Saltee, Wexford (eight in May and two in September). The other record was of a male in song at Carton, Kildare. at night on 6th and 9th May 1955 . The first Irish record was as recently as May 1953 . Since 1966 there has only been one spring record. a bird at Cape Clear on 16th and 20th April 1968. The other records were of one at Cape Clear from 20th to 24th August 1970. two at Cape Clear on I st and 2nd October 1976, one at Great Saltee on 29th August 1979. and one at Cape Clear on 5th October 1981.

Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros The Black Redstart is a regular spring and autumn migrant. Some birds remain to winter and there have been occasional summer records. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that Black Redstarts had become much more common than in the nineteenth century. though it is difficult to make comparison. Certainly. Ussher & Warren (1900) noted some 60 records from Dublin south and west to the Blaskets in Kerry. six from Dublin north and west to Kerry. and three in the

164

Phoenicurus phoenicurus

midlands, a similar pattern of records to that which was recorded for the first half of the present century. In autumn, Black Redstarts are passage migrants on all coasts, but chiefly on the south and east. At Great Saltee, Wexford, passage is mainly in October, the earliest record being one on 25th August (Ruttledge 1963), and five the most on one day (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Hook Head, Wexford, larger numbers have occurred in some years, particularly in 1975 when there were over 75 on 26th October, and 1982 when there were over 40 on 30th October (Lovatt 1984). At Cape Clear, numbers are similar and the peak number recorded was 36 on 28th October in 1975, the same year as the Hook Head peak. Small numbers occur each autumn all along the south coast. On the east coast numbers in autumn are lower, and the 1975 total of 1 7 in Dublin and Wicklow was considered quite exceptional (DWBR 1974-75). Passage migrants are rare on the north and west coasts. In 1975 there were one Clare and two Down records. Some of the autumn birds remain to winter and their distribution was mapped in 1981/82 to 1983/84. Small numbers winter along the coast from Down south to Wexford and west to east Kerry, and there are pockets of wintering birds on the Shannon estuary and in Galway. Occasional, single birds were seen scattered away from the coast and seven were recorded at least 60 km from the sea. The winter population in this period was probably 60-100 birds. In recent times, wintering numbers may not have increased substantially. In 1908, R. M. Barrington (cited in Hutchinson 1975) recorded that one or two were known in Dublin every winter, a position not far removed from the current status, though numbers fluctuate from winter to winter. There is return passage in late March and early April, but numbers are lower than in autumn. Marsh (1975), in an account of birds of the north coast, published only one Black Redstart record and that was in March. Breeding has never been suspected but one was recorded in breeding habitat at Cloghoge Brook, Wicklow, on 25th April 1971 (Hutchinson 1975), one was killed at the Bull Rock Lighthouse, Cork, on 15th June 1903, and two were reported at Malin Beg, Donegal, on 12th July 1943 (Kennedy et al 1954). There have also been at least two unpublished summer reports in recent years (K. Preston).

and at least two pairs were reported as nesting at Derrynane, Kerry, and others were stated to be in the area in 1946 (Kennedy et al 1954), though the authors were divided as to the validity of this last record. Between 1954 and 1965, breeding took place in four counties. In 1955 a pair with four young was seen at Ballygawley, Tyrone, and another pair, also with four young, was seen at Ballymoney, Antrim. A male was seen in the same year at another Antrim site in late July, though there was no evidence of breeding. In 1957 one was heard in song in Wicklow and a pair was proved to breed in 1959 and 1960. Simms (1971) found Redstarts in an Records of breeding Redstarts in Ireland 1966 to 1986 County Details 1966 Antrim Circumstantial evidence that a pair bred near Belfast

1968 Donegal 1970 Mayo Wick low 1971 Mayo Wicklow 1973 Kerry 1974 Mayo Wicklow 1975 Donegal 1977 Wicklow 1978 Wicklow 1979 Wicklow 1980 Donegal Wicklow 1981 Wicklow 1982 Dublin Wick low

Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus The Redstart is a rare but near annual breeding bird and a scarce but annual passage migrant. Breeding has been recorded at intervals over many years. In 1885 a pair bred at Powerscourt, Wicklow, and nesting continued up to the turn of the century. In 1890 a pair bred at Luggala, and in 1898 birds were seen at Glendalough, both in Wicklow. A Redstart was heard in song in 1888 in Tyrone and breeding took place at Baronscourt, Tyrone, for several years prior to and including 1895. In 1944 and 1945 a male was heard in song in Wicklow

1983 Mayo Wicklow 1984 Londonderry Wicklow 1985 Wicklow 1986 Wick low

Single pairs bred at two different sites 1 pair bred successfully in the south-west of the county Single pairs proved to breed at two localities. A pair seen at another site. 1 pair bred at the 1970 site 1 in song at one site, 3 or 4 at site where breeding proved in 1970 1 male seen in Killarney from 14th to 22nd May: a pair nearby from 15th to 25th May 1 pair bred 1 pair bred 1 pair bred. A bird seen at another site in July 1 pair bred 2 pairs bred at one site, 1 pair at another 2 pairs bred at one site. single pairs at two other sites 1 pair bred at Glenveagh Males in song at three sites with a maximum of 4 in song at one site No proof of breeding but up to 4 males at Glendalough and a pair at Lough Tay 1 seen at Lord Massey's Wood on 16th and 17th July. No proof of breeding At least 1 pair bred at Glendalough where 2 males and 2 females were present 1 in song at Glenamoy on 13th July 1 pair probably bred at Glendalough. 1 in song at Lough Tay A pair near Maghera on 20th May and a male at Banagher Glen in early May may have bred Single birds seen at Glendalough and Lough Tay 2 pairs bred at Glenmalure, 2 pairs at Lough Tay. Single birds seen at Glenmacnass and Glendalough 1 pair bred at Glendalough: 1 pair at Glenmalure. Single bird seen at Lough Dan

Saxicola rubetra unidentified sessile oakwood in a Wicklow valley in the mid 1960s, where they may have been nesting. In the early 1960s a nest was found in Armagh (C. Dawson). One was heard in song in Mayo in May 1965 at a site where breeding was proved in 1970 and subsequently. Since 1966 there has been an upsurge in breeding records with regular nesting in oakwoods in Wicklow and occasionally elsewhere. The wide scattering of records in Antrim, Donegal, Mayo and Kerry indicates that Redstarts are probably overlooked in woods in summer. The Kerry birds in 19 73 were recorded by a survey group carrying out a census of the birds of the Killarney oakwoods. It seems likely that the increase in the past 25 years has been to some extent a real one because the Wicklow sites have been visited by birdwatchers for well over a hundred years. Redstarts are regular spring and autumn migrants in small numbers. At Great Saltee, Wexford, they occur from mid, occasionally early, April to late May and from late August to mid October, though the latest record is for 3rd November (Ruttledge 1963). At Hook Head, Wexford, the pattern is similar, thouth an early bird was recorded on 2nd August 1982 (Lovatt 1984). Further west, Redstarts are rare in spring at Cape Clear, but up to ten in a day occur in autumn. Migrants are recorded from late March to May and from early August to the end of October (Sharrock 1973). Away from the south coast, Redstarts are occasional migrants in ones and twos in spring and autumn at Copeland, Down, and Tory Island, Donegal. The latest acceptable record is of one at Tralee. Kerry, on 15th November 1958. A bird reported at Oysterhaven, Cork, on 19th December 1965 was described as an adult male in summer plumage, and seems extremely improbable.

Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Whinchats are summer visitors to the midlands, north, north-west and scattered other parts of Ireland. They are regular spring and autumn migrants on the south and east coast. The breeding distribution and numbers have changed considerably. In 1900, Whinchats bred locally throughout Ulster, more numerously than elsewhere in Longford, Roscommon, Leitrim and Sligo, and were known to have nested in Louth, Dublin and Wicklow. By the early 1950s the population was centred in the midlands. The largest numbers were in Kildare extending into Offaly. Numbers in Longford, Leitrim and Sligo were much reduced, but Whinchats remained fairly common in the Curlew Mountains in Roscommon, their range extending west almost to the Mayo border, though it was thought unlikely that any bred in Mayo. A few bred in the north of Louth. Numbers had declined in Donegal, particularly after 1939. Whinchats were scarce in Armagh, Cavan, Permanagh, Londonderry and Monaghan (Kennedy et a119 54). After the mid 1950s there was an increase in numbers and range. Ruttledge (1966) recorded the birds as numer-

165

ous only in Kildare. A few pairs bred on the Dingle peninsula in Kerry and locally elsewhere. In Cork breeding was erratic. Very few bred, spasmodically, in Wexford. In Wicklow the species was scarce, in Dublin rare if still present. A few nested in Offaly, but breeding had extended into Meath and Laols. Whinchats were common in Westmeath, but rare in Longford. Breeding continued in Roscommon. Numbers were increasing in Donegal, a few nested in Antrim and Fermanagh, For most other counties there was little information in the mid 1960s. A pair had bred in Clare in 1956 and in Antrim in 1957, but not more recently. The 1968-72 survey (Breeding Atlas) showed that Whinchats were most widespread in Antrim, Donegal, Kildare, Roscommon, Westmeath and Wicklow. Breeding was also proved in Cavan, Clare, Dublin, Fermanagh, Kerry, Kilkenny, Laols, Leitrlm, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Meath, Offaly, Sligo, Tipperary, Tyrone and Wexford. All the evidence indicated an expansion of range. Most birds are found in the lowlands, frequently on the edges of bogs and on rough pasture, but they occur in valleys in mountains in Wicklow and Donegal. The Wicklow breeding habitat is usually in a hollow, or other sheltered spot, on a hill with a great deal of bracken and a few small trees. There is generally a stream in the vicinity. In Northern Ireland many breeding pairs are associated with young forestry plantations U. S. Furphy). Whinchats are spring and autumn migrants on the east and south coasts. At Great Saltee, Wexford, spring passage is from 21st April to mid May, occasionally end May, autumn passage from mid August to mid October, with a maximum of 12 recorded in a day (Ruttledge 1963). At Cape Clear, spring records are very rare, but up to 15 occur in a day from early August to end October (Sharrock 1973). There are records in the last century of birds in December, January and February (Ussher & Warren 1900). In the present century the latest record is of three at Old Head, Mayo, on 28th November 1949, and the only winter record is of one at Fota, Cork, on 20th February 1980.

166

Saxicola torquata

Stonechat Saxicola torquata The Stonechat is a common resident in Ireland . found usually in young forestry plantations. among gorse and heather and in rough coastal pasture where bracken and gorse occur. The breeding distribution in 1968-72 comprised most of the country except the rich pastures of Meath and Cavan. Monaghan. Armagh. Down and Antrim where the birds were scarce. apart from near the coast in the two last counties (Breeding Atlas). At census plots on sand-dune systems and poor coastal farmland in Wexford. densities ranged from 10.5 to 17 .9 per km 2 (O.J . Merne), but in similar habitat in Down it was only 7.8 per km 2 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Numbers have been counted regularly over a long period only at Cape Clear. Cork. where the population in the three summers prior to the 1961 /62 cold winter was roughly estimated at between 50 and 150 pairs. In summer 1962 only 15-25 pairs bred. The following winter. I 962/63. was even more severe and the population was reduced to three pairs in I 963 and 1964. Numbers recovered after this and there were] 7 pairs in ] 965. over 20 in ] 966. 33 in 1967 and 28 in 1969 (Sharrock 1973). In I 983 there were 24 pairs (Collins l 985) and in 1984 there were 25 (CCBOR 1983-84). but cold weather in 1985/86 reduced numbers to l 3 pairs in 1986 (Borton 1987). The stability of the population at a level well below 50 pairs may raise doubts as to the validity of the estimates for the years before the 196] / 6 2 winter. but there was a count of 48]. and an estimate of close to 1,000 present. on 31 August 1959. and an estimate of 300 in March 196]. so the population does seem to have been significantly higher prior to l 96] / 6 2 .

Stonechats have long been known to be vulnerable to cold weather. In the hard winter of 1916/17. and after the cold spell of January and February] 945. large numbers died. During the years after 1945 the decline continued. but from I 950 there was evidence of an increase and within a few years numbers were back to normal (Kennedy et al 1954). The hard winters of 1961 /62 and 1962/63 were at least as severe and the effect on the Cape Clear population has already been noted . On a ] 6 km strip of Wicklow coast. from Greystones to Wicklow town. Stonechats were believed to have been virtually exterminated. Only one pair could be found in March 1963. and during subsequent visits in l 963 none was found . Nor were any found on Howth Head. Dublin (Doran I 964). By I 969 numbers had fully recovered (Hutchinson I 975). The winter distribution of the Stonechat is principally coastal. though a few birds remain inland in lowlying areas (Winter Atlas). Stonechats leave the mountains at Glenveagh, Donegal. after the summer (MacLochlainn 1984) and are absent from the Wicklow mountains and the Antrim plateau (Winter Atlas) . During the years] 96365 when the population was at its lowest level they left Cape Clear from mid October to February (Sharrock] 973). Some birds clearly leave the country altogether. as is shown by the recovery of birds in Spain - one recovered six weeks after being ringed at Cape Clear in mid September] 96] and the other in December 1978 having been ringed at Great Saltee, Wexford. in the previous October. An eastern Stonechat. showing the characters of one of the races S. t. maura or S. t. steineqeri, but more closely resembling the former. was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. from 12th to 19th October 1977.

Catharus minimus

167

Wheatear Oenantheoenanthe

Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica

Wheatears are summer visitors to the coast and to high country away from the sea. They prefer rough grazing land where sheep and rabbits keep the turf low. They nest in dry-stone walls, in rocks and scree and in rabbit burrows. They nest around most of the coastline, the Ards peninsula in Down being a striking exception, but are scarce on parts of the east and south coast. Inland, they are abundant over most of Clare, west Cork, Donegal, Down, west Galway, Kerry, Londonderry, Mayo and Sligo. In these counties they nest chiefly where the land is over 250 m, but overspill into lowland as well. However, Wheatears are absent from the midland plain, from lowland Munster away from the coast, and from lowland Ulster (Breeding Atlas). Kennedy et al (1 954) considered that there had been a recent decrease, especially in Galway and Mayo, where this had been particularly noted in inland areas. The only site where repeat censuses have been made is Cape Clear, where there were at least 34 pairs in 1963, approximately 50 in 1965, about 25 in 1984 and 19 in 1986. The decline has been linked to a loss of suitable habitat (Borton 1987). At Inlshbofin, Galway, where Wheatears are widely scattered, nesting both in the stone walls which surround cultivated fields and in scree, or between boulders on the hilly parts of the island, there were approximately 30 pairs in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). Inland they have been counted at Glenveagh, Donegal, where there were about 11 territories on upland heath in 1980. They show a clear preference at Glenveagh for areas where the grass is grazed short by sheep (MacLochlainn 1984). Although Wheatears are summer visitors, arriving from mid March to April and departing from early August to mid October, there have been a number of late autumn records and a scattering of winter records. There have been four records of single birds in winter since 1953: at Blackrock, Dublin, in December 1957 and January 1958, at Lough Carrowmore, Mayo, on 26th December 1967, at Ballymacaw, Waterford, from 23rd December 1970 to 25th January 1971 and at Prince William's Seat, Dublin, on 13th December 1979. The only early February record is of one on the Clare Coast on 3rd February 1938 (Kennedy et aI1954). The Greenland race O. o. leucorrhoa is a spring and autumn migrant on all coasts, occasionally inland, and most common in autumn. Normal passage is from late April to the end of May, and from the end of August until the end of September, with stragglers in October. Birds showing the characters of the Faeroes and Icelandic breeding race O. o. schioleri were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford, in September (Ruttledge 1963).

There has been only one record. A male of the blackthroated form of the western race O. h. hispanica was collected at Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 16th May 1916.

Black Wheatear Oenantheleucura or White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe Ieucopyga A bird at Portnoo, Donegal, on 1Oth June 1964 was of one of these species.

Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis An adult male was seen at Clogher Head, Louth, on 20th and 21st May 1974.

White's Thrush Zoothera dauma The three records are all of birds shot in the nineteenth century. One was near Bandon in early December 1842, one in spring 1867 at Ballymahon, Longford, one near Westport, Mayo, on 9th January 1885.

Siberian Thrush Zoothera sibirica A female, probably immature, was seen at Cape Clear on 18th October 1985.

Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus The two records were of single birds in spring and autumn. One was picked up dead at Blackrock lighthouse, Mayo, on 26th May 1956. One was seen at Cape Clear from 14th to 16th October 1968.

Pied Wheatear Oenanthepleschanka

Gray...cheeked Thrush Catharus minim us

There have been two records: one seen at Knockadoon Head, Cork, from 8th to 16th November 1980, and one at Ballinaclash, Wexford, on 19th and 20th November 1983. Both were immature males and were trapped and ringed.

The only record is of an immature at Cape Clear on 19th October 1982. The bird was caught by hand after being knocked to the ground by a Sparrowhawk.

16 8

Turdus torquatu s

Ring Ouzel Turdus torquat us Ring Ouzels ar e summe r visitors in sma ll numbers. and pa ssage migrants in spring and autumn. The breeding distributi on in 1968-72 was limited to th e Wicklow mountai ns. th e Mou rne mountains in Down . the mou nta inou s parts of north and west Donegal. nor th Leitrim and west Cavan . th e Neph in Beg ran ge in Mayo. Slieveca rran in Clare. th e Comeraghs in Waterford . with breeding possibly contin uin g in the Kerry mountains ( Breeding Atlas). There is some evide nce th at the distr ibution ma y ha ve been somewha t wider in rea lity. For example. birds we re foun d holding ter rito ry in north and we st Cork in 19 77 . and aga in in 19 8 6 and 19 8 7. an d it is kn own th at some potential bre eding sites in the mountains were not checked in 1968-72 . Five pairs were found in th e Kerry mounta ins in 198 7 (T. Carru th ers) a nd. a ga in. it seems likely that th ese were overloo ked in th e past. Nevertheless. thi s distribution reflects t he extent of th e declin e thi s century. At th e turn of th e century. Ring Ouzels were kn own to breed in mo st counties. Only in Meath . Westrneath, Longford . Kildar e and Armagh were Usshe r & Warren (1900) certain th at br eeding did not tak e pla ce. Th ey did not ha ve proof of breeding in Clare. Roscommon . Kilken n y. Wex ford or Mon aghan but cons idered it possible. In all th e rem ainin g coun ties th ey h ad evidence of nestin g. Numbers were highest in Kerr y. Waterford. Tipperary. Wicklow, Galway. Mayo. Sligo. Leitrim , Done gal and Dow n . very similar to th e are as where breeding continues. Kennedy et al ( 19 54) noted a cons idera ble decrease in the first 50 years of thi s century. Ring Ouzels were a lmost unknown in Cork. Wexford. Antrim. Galw ay a nd Mayo; th ey were rare in Leitrim. Cav an and Waterford. In Kerry. Down. Wicklow and south Dublin they were still well-e st ablished. a nd th ey ne sted spa rsely in parts of Ferman agh . Don egal a nd perh ap s Sligo. In th e last ce ntury th ey bred at sea- level in Dublin at Lambay Island and Howth Head (Hu tchinson 19 75 ). in Mayo on Achill Island. and in Donegal (Kenne dy et al 1954). but nowadays all the record s ar e for mountainous ar eas. There is no evidence that numbers have decl ined furthe r since th e early 195 0s. exce pt perhaps locally.

Migrants ar e recorded from lat e Mar ch to th e end of April. som etimes ea rly May. at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clea r. Cork. The max imum record ed at Grea t Saltee was ] 4 on 2 nd April ] 9 5 6. Sprin g passage in very small nu mb ers has also been noted at Tor y Island . Don ega l. a nd at seve ral sites on th e sou th and eas t coasts. In a utumn. numbers are lower at Great Saltee but h igh er at Cape Clear . where the highest total was an except ion al count of 52 on 16th October 19 73. The pr evious highest daily total was 12 so this was qu ite exce ptional. Au tu mn passa ge is fro m th e end of Aug ust to early Novem ber. wit h most occu rr ing in October. There were occasional winter record s in th e last century but only three thi s centu ry. One wa s seen in Wicklow in mid January 19] 8; an adult male was at Rosslare. Wex ford. from 3rd January to early Mar ch] 9 72 ; a male was seen at Cavehill. Antrim. from 19th Januar y int o Februa ry] 985 (NIBR 19 8 2- 85 ).

Blackbird Turdu s merula Blackbirds ar e among the most familiar bird s and nest in every part of Ireland from mountain to lowland bog and from the midlands to marine islands (B reeding Atlas). Th ey h ave not a lways been quite so Widespread . Ussher & Warren (1 900) noted Blackbird s on ly as win ter visitors to parts of th e wes t. whe re the re we re few tr ees. suc h as Dungloe, Don egal a nd Valentia . Kerry. They believed th e Blackbird was ext ending its range. Breeding was first rec orded near Belmullet, Mayo. in 1890 and one of their correspondents rem embered when Blackbirds did not breed at Achill Isla nd. Mayo. Kennedy et al (19 54 ) considered th at Blackbirds were continuing to increa se through th e first half of th is cen tury . Th e population at Cape Clea r. Cork.

Turdus philomelos was surveyed in summer 1965 and 167 pairs counted. It was believed that the population was stable and had not been affected by the cold winters of 1961 /62 and 1962/63 (Sh ar rock & Fogden 1967). th ough on the east coast Blackbirds did decrease in numbers after these winters (Doran 1964). A recount at Cape Clear in 1986 produced 135 pairs (Borton 1987) indicating perhaps a slight decline. On sand-dune systems in Down and Wexford densities ranged between 12 .0 and 21.1 pairs per km 2 (O.J . Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In winter Blackb irds are as widespread as in summer but the largest numbers are in the east of the country. roughly corresponding to the distribution of better agricultural land (Winter Atlas). Large numbers of Blackbirds arrive in Ireland in autumn to winter here. Ringing recoveries indicate that birds come from Scotland. northern England and Scandinavia. There is also evidence th at the Blackbirds from northern Britain which winter in Ireland move gradually towards the south-west of the country and then. at the end of winter. move progressively back to the northeast (Snow 1978). Our own Blackbirds appear to be largely resident. Ringing studies in Londonderry suggested a relatively high degree of attachment of juveniles to the natal area (Marsh] 9 75). Autumn passage is marked at Great SaItee, Wexford. from late September to November. In October up to 300 birds a day occurred on a number of occasions. sometimes more. The highest autumn count was 1.000 on 6th November 1969 (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Hook Head . Wexford. up to 100 occur a day in October cr November in most years (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at Cape Clear were lower. with the autumn peak in November. when up to 147 were seen in a day in the regularly censused portion of the island (Sharrock 1973).

169

Fieldfare Turdus pilaris Fieldfares are common and widespread winter visitors. though the number recorded varies from year to year. Fieldfares were found in 1981 /82 to 1983/84 throughout most of the country, only being absent from parts of west Donegal, west Galway and Mayo. and the highest parts of the Wicklow mountains (W inter Atlas). The largest numbers were east of the River Shannon. contrary to th e traditional view (Ruttledge 1966) that they are more abundant in the west. The earliest arrival date recorded is 5th September in 1981 at Hook Head, Wexford. but the main arrival is from November onwards. The number of immigrants and the timing of their movement depend on the abundance of the rowan fruit crop in Scandinavia. When the crop is large, the arrival is delayed and numbers are lower. On the east coast large flocks are not infrequent. particularly after cold weather. Over 1,000 were seen in a flock at Rogerstown. Dublin. in February 1969; about 1.500 were at Donabate, Dublin. on 10th January 1981; on 15th January 1984 birds were seen flying inland from the east at rates of 400 per hour and 200 per hour at Clogher Head. Louth. and Swo rds. Dublin. respectively; about 1,000 were seen at Swords. Dublin, in January 1985. Fieldfares respond rapidly to cold weather. moving into Ireland when conditions deteriorate in Britain and on the Continent. Even in mild winters Fieldfares tend to move into Ireland from Britain after December. presumably in continued search for food. There have been a number of late spring records.' In recent years the latest were single birds at Shanganagh, Dublin. and Hook Head, Wexford, on 21st May 1978. and five at Dangan, Galway. on 18th May. two still present on 3rd June. The only July records are of a bird captured near Dublin on 14th July 1914. and one seen at Tallaght, Dublin. on 21st July] 965 . Birds ringed as juveniles in Norway and Sweden have been recovered here in winter. A migrant ringed at Great Saltee , Wexford. in November was recovered in Norway the following May . Birds ringed in Ireland in winter have been recovered in varied locations in subsequent winters, including Italy (three), France and Finland (one each). and some have been recaught back at the same Irish site .

Song Thrush Turdus philomelos In summer. Song Thrushes are as widespread as Blackb irds but much less numerous. In winter. while still widely distributed, they appear even scarcer relative to the number of Blackbirds. Song Thrushes were found and proved to breed in almost every 10km square which consisted largely of land in 1968-72 . but were not found in one square in Wick low and one in north Mayo . and were not proved to breed in one in Tyrone (Breeding Atlas). There is no evidence to indicate any trend in breeding numbers. though Kennedy et al (1954) considered that there were temporary declines

170

Turdus iliacus

after the cold winters of 1916/17 and 1945/46. Song Thrushes are much scarcer than Blackbirds but there is no evidence to suggest that they are declining in numbers (Breeding Atlas).

At Cape Clear. Cork. there were estimated to be 50 pairs in 1960. 12 in 1961 and 1962 . eight in 1963 (after the severe winter). 16 in 1964 and 18 in 1965 (Sharrock & Fogden 1965) and 41 in 1986 (Borton 1987). It appears that Song Thrushes are recent colonists of Cape Clear. having first nested about the turn of the century or early in this century. They are even more recent colonists at Inlshbofln, Galway. where none was found in 1932 or 1943 . but one pair bred in 1956. three in 1968 and five in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). On sand-dune systems in Down and Wexford densities are low (1 .2 to 5.2 pairs per km '). though in sea buckthorn in Down a density of 33.3 pairs per km ' was recorded (O.j. Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). There is heavy immigration in autumn. sometimes from mid September but usually from mid October to mid November. Up to 50 have been recorded at Great Sal tee. Wexford. at this time (Perry & Warburton 1976). up to 100 at Hook Head . Wexford. and once 300 (Lovatt 1984). and up to 90 at Cape Clear . In winter. Song Thrushes occur throughout the country. with concentrations widely scattered (Winter Atlas). The Irish breeding population is thought to be resident. so numbers must increase substantially in winter because of immigration. Many Scottish and northern England Song Thrushes winter in Ireland and there may be some immigration of Scandinavian birds . Song Thrushes are prone to hard-weather movements and. in 1962/63. many moved from northern England into Ireland (Winter Atlas). In spring there is evidence of slight passage at Great Saltee, where there are up to five birds per day. though at times up to 30. from mid March to early April. At Hook Head there are occasional increases from late February to late March. but there is no evidence at all of movement at Cape Clear in spring.

\

In winter. Redwings are widely dispersed throughout the country and large flocks can be found in most parts. The density of birds was clearly higher. however. in the south. midlands and east during the period 1981 /82 to 1983 /84 (Winter Atlas). The lowest numbers were in the north. in west Donegal. west Mayo. west Galway. west Clare and west Kerry and in mountainous areas such as the Wick low mountains and the Commeraghs in Waterford. Redwings feed on soil invertebrates and on hawthorns. and fruit in gardens and wooded areas. but react very rapidly to dropping temperatures. During the cold winter of 1981 /82 . Redwings moved into the southern half of the country from Britain and presumably from further north in Ireland. but in the following winter. a much milder one. they were more uniformly distributed across the country (Winter Atlas).

Redwing Turdus iliacus The Redwing is one of the most abundant winter visitors to Ireland . huge numbers arriving. at times. in autumn or when the temperature falls suddenly in Britain in winter. The first autumn arrivals are usually seen from early October. but there have been exceptionally early birds . The earliest records of all have been of one found dead at Drumshanbo, Leitrim, on 7th August 1977. and one seen in Down on 26th August (Kennedy et al19 54). There have been several September records since 1966 as well. The main arrivals are in late October and November. At this time birds may be heard tlying over at night in most parts of the country. At Great Saltee and Hook Head. Wexford. the autumn peak is normally about 100 in a day. Numbers at Cape Clear are very variable. with the peak usually varying between 100 and 300 a day. but there were over 2.300 on 13th October 1972 and 1.600 on 13th October 1973.

There is some slight passage in late March. sometimes April. at Great Saltee and Cape Clear. but numbers are very small. Late birds linger into early May. and in May 1951 a pair attempted to breed in Kerry. The latest records in recent years were of single birds at lnishowen, Donegal, on 31st May 1976. at Raheny, Dublin. on 15th May 1977. and at Slyne Head. Galway. from 18th to 22nd May 1979. The majority of wintering Redwing are of the nominate race from Finland. Norway and Sweden. Some Icelandic birds of the race T. i. coburni occur in autumn on the north and west coasts at Tory Island and Malin Head. Donegal, and at Erris Head. Mayo. and there is probably a small wintering population. There were only two records of birds identified as Icelandic at Cape Clear up to 1969 and one at Great Saltee up to 1963. so there appears to be very light passage on the south coast. Ringed birds from Iceland have been recovered in Ireland in winter. but they are much scarcer than those of the nominate race. perhaps because many fewer are ringed in Iceland.

Locustella naevia MistIe Thrush Turdus viscivorus The Mistle Thrush is a relatively recent colonist which is now resident throughout the country. The species seems to have been unknown in Ireland in the eighteenth century and the first record was of one shot in winter 1800 in Antrim. Breeding took place in Down a few years later and in Louth in 1807. Colonization appears to have been swift. By 1832 Mistle Thrushes were resident and common in north-west Donegal; they were common near Portumna, Galway, and around Clonmel, Tipperary, in 1839; numbers in Cork and Kerry had increased since the first records in 1818 and 1827 respectively (Thompson 1849-51). By 1850, Mistle Thrushes were breeding in every county, though they were scarce in western Connacht. They had not reached Achill Island, Mayo, in 1860 but were breeding there by the turn of the century (Ussher & Warren 1900). Kennedy et al (1954) noted that the Mullet. Mayo, had been reached a few years before 1954. The current breeding distribution is throughout the country, though Mistle Thrushes were not found at Achill, Mayo, in 1968-72 (Breeding Atlas). They are irregular breeders at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). The reasons for the success of the Mistle Thrush in colonizing Ireland, and northern England and Scotland in the same period, are unknown. There is immigration in autumn, though this is more marked on the north coast than elsewhere. At Malin Head, Donegal, as many as 600 were seen arriving on 22nd October 1961. Numbers at Great Saltee, Wexford, do not usually exceed three in a day in autumn (Perry & Warburton 1976) and at nearby Hook Head the maximum has been 15 (Lovatt 1984). At Cape Clear there have been only four occasions when more than ten were seen, and three of those were in 1959 when up to 313 were seen in a day (Sharrock 1973); there were no autumn influxes between 1966 and 1986. In winter, Mistle Thrushes are found in all parts of Ireland but the largest numbers are in the north and east (Winter Atlas). Evidence from ringing indicates that Irish Mistle Thrushes do not emigrate but that some birds from Scotland and northern England move into Ireland for the winter (Snow 1969). There is no evidence that Continental Mistle Thrushes winter here. Most of the immigrants appear to leave in February and March.

American Robin Turdus miqratorius There were six records up to 1965 and four subsequently. The early records were of single birds shot at Shankill, Dublin, on 4th May 1891; at Lough Gill. Sligo, about 7th December 1892; in Leitrim in December 1894; single birds were seen at Camolin, Wexford, between 10th and 18th December 1954; at Blennerville, Kerry, on 11th and 13th January 1955; and one coming aboard a trawler off the Skelllgs, Kerry, on 28th January 1965. The recent records are of single birds seen at Glengarriff

1 71

Cork. on 16th January 1977, and at Waterville, Kerry, on 13th December 1981; one was found dying near Ballynahlnch, Down, on 15th January 1982; one was seen at Edenderry, Offaly, from 8th June to end July 1983.

Cetti's Warbler Cettia cetti The only records have been at Cape Clear, Cork. Single birds were seen on 24th August 1968 and 8th October 1975.

Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola iuncidis The two records have both been in spring at Cape Clear, Cork. One was seen on 23rd April 1962 and the second on 18th April 1985.

Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler Locustellacerthiola A male found dead at Rockabill lighthouse, Dublin, on 28th September 1908 is the only record.

Grasshopper Warbler Locustellanaevia The Grasshopper Warbler is a summer visitor to marshy fields, young conifer plantations and overgrown waste land. It has increased its range considerably since 1900 and breeds in every county. At the turn of the century Grasshopper Warblers were not known to breed in Donegal, Down, Galway, Kildare, Lettrim, Limerick, Londonderry, Monaghan and Sligo. By the early 1950s they were breeding in all these counties. Kennedy et al (1954) found them locally distributed in Galway and Mayo, and more numerous in Waterford than in any other county. They described the favoured breeding haunts as fields where there was an abundance of rushes mixed with long grass; Ussher & Warren (1900) noted that they also bred in young plantations mixed with coarse vegetation, on mountain heath, among thick furze and in long grass where land was cultivated. The increase in the first half of the century does not appear to have continued. Grasshopper Warblers now nest very widely in Clare and Kerry on the western coast, but rather thinly in west Galway, Mayo and Donegal. The only large gap in breeding distribution is in Cork, where very few breed. It seems likely that the spread of afforestation provided additional habitat for the range expansion. Arrival in spring is generally in early May. At Great Saltee, Wexford, passage is from mid April to late May with up to nine in a day in May (Perry & Warburton 1976). At

172

Locustella luscinioides

Hook Head. Wexford. Grasshopper Warblers are scarce spring migrants but there were arrivals of 20 on 21st April 1968 . and 21 on 22nd April 1971 (Lovatt 1984). At the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. they are probably annual in spring and 21 were seen on 21st April 1968. the day of the first large movement at Hook Head (CBR 1968). Grasshopper Warblers are rare spring migrants at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). Departure is from late August until the end of September. with occasional birds in early October. Movement at the south coast islands and promontories involves even fewer birds than in spring. though the skulking behaviour of the birds makes observation of them difficult when they are not singing. The earliest records have been on 11 th April. the latest on 15th October (Kennedy et al 1954).

Savi's Warbler Locustella luscinioides The two Irish records were both in summer. indicating that breeding may be imminent. One was seen and trapped at Shannon Airport Lagoon. Clare. on 17th June 1980. It remained until 23rd June. One seen near Youghal, Cork. from 17th to 23rd June 1985 was joined by a second on 19th June. No evidence to indicate breeding was obtained.

Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola There were eight records prior to 1966 and four since then. An immature male was found dead at Bull Rock lighthouse. Cork. on 20th September 1903; a female was found dead at Tuskar Rock lighthouse. Wexford. on 9th August 1913; one was seen at Achill Island. Mayo. on 2nd June 1906; single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 2nd September 1958. 1st and 2nd October 1958 . and 28th August 1961 ; singles were seen at Cape Clear on 31st August 1961 and from 17th to 24th September 1963. The four records since 1966 have all been at Cape Clear : single birds on 14th and 15th October 1973. 29th and 30th September 1976. 11th and 12th October 1976. and 3rd September 1981.

Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Sedge Warblers are common summer visitors to reed beds and marshy land throughout the country. They breed throughout most of Ireland but are scarce in parts of west Galway and west Mayo . Laois, Londonderry and south Tipperary. where suitable habitat is absent. They nest on some marine islands such as Cape Clear. Cork. Great Saltee, Wexford. and Inlshbofin. Galway. though not on the Aran Islands. Galway (Breeding Atlas). Arrival in spring is from mid April. the earliest record being on 5th April (Kennedy et al 1954). but the main arrival is in the second week of May . At Great Saltee, Wexford. up to 50 birds a day are recorded regularly at this time. smaller numbers at Hook Head. Wexford. At Cape Clear numbers are much lower. Autumn movement is from mid August until the end of September. with stragglers to the end of October. As in spring. numbers at Great Saltee are higher than at sites to the west. The latest record is of one on 9th November 1890 (Kennedy et al19 54). Results of ringing at sites such as Shannon Airport Lagoon in Clare and Portmore Lough in Antrim. where birds gather prior to autumn migration. have shown movement from Ireland to southern England. France and Portugal in the same autumn. While some birds ringed in England have been recovered in Ireland all have been in subsequent years. Autumn movement is predominantly south-easterly. There have been regular counts of breeding numbers at only one site. a stretch of the River Lagan near Belfast. and Sedge Warblers declined there from seven to three pairs during the years 1974 to 1981 (Bailey 1982). Counts of migrants at Cape Clear showed that far fewer were seen from 1972 to 1986 than in the 1960s. though it is not known whether this is due to population change or variations in weather conditions at migration time.

Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola An adult trapped on the North Slob. Wexford . on 3rd December 1982 died on the following day.

Hippolais pallida Blyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum

The only record is of one at Cape Clear from 13th to 19th October 1969. Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus

Reed Warblers were rare autumn vagrants until 1979 or 1980, when breeding appears to have commenced. They now nest in small colonies at reedbeds in several counties mainly in the east and south. The Reed Warbler is extremely difficult to identify with certainty in the field because autumn birds, in particular, resemble other species of unstreaked Acrocephalus warbler. However, all those which have been trapped over the years have proved to be Reed Warblers. If birds of any other species are involved they must be extremely rare; in this account all records of unidentified unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers are treated as being of Reed Warblers. Prior to 1953 there was a single breeding record at Monlough, Down, where a nest with five eggs was found in May 1935. Otherwise, there were two spring and four autumn records. Between 1954 and 1957 there was one autumn record and one summer record of a bird in song near Portaferry, Down, on 21st June 1956. The records from 1958 to 1977 have been analysed elsewhere (Hutchinson 1980). During this period there were two spring and about 120 autumn records. Apart from one in Down, all the records were on the south coast between Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Of the total, 18% were at Great Saltee and 82% at Cape Clear (Hutchinson 1980). The number of records, excluding presumed breeders, varied between one and 12 per annum from 1958 to 1975, but they then increased sharply to 19 in 1976, 21 in 1977, five in 1978, 20 in 1979, about 17 in 1980, about 14 in 1981, about 15 in 1982, and records continue at about this level. The pattern of occurrence of non-breeding birds shows an autumn movement chiefly between mid August and the end of October, with a very few spring, summer and early November birds. Breeding was first proved at Ballycotton, Cork, where between five and ten pairs now breed. One was recorded there on 16th July 1979, 10 or 12 between 24th August and 27th September 1980, and breeding was proved in 60-

Reed Warbler (non-breeding and including all records of Acrocepha Ius warblers) 1966-86

I

unstreaked'

173

1981 when at least five males were in song and 1 7 were trapped and ringed. In 1982 up to six were in song and 28 trapped. There were no published data for 1983 but 14 were trapped in 1984. At nearby Youghal, Cork, there were about 11 in June and July 1983, a pair was proved to breed in 1984 and one was heard in song in 1986. In Wexford, one summered at Ring Marsh in 1980. By 1983 there were one or two at Lady's Island Lake and at least four were counted on the River Slaney on 11 th June. In 1984 at least six Reed Warblers were in song at Killinick, the River Slaney and the South Slob, and one nest was found. In 1985 up to seven were in song at the South Slob and one at Tacumshin. In 1986 birds were in song at Lady's Island Lake, the South Slob and Tacumshin. In Down, three adults and two juveniles were trapped at Strand Lough between 15th and 22nd August 1982. In 1983 four adults and six juveniles were trapped in summer. Birds have been seen in the breeding season at other localities in Down and Antrim in years before 1982, but details have not been published (NIBR 1982-85). In Kerry, five were trapped at Lough Leane between 28th July and 6th August 1982. A pair bred in Wicklow in 1982. A pair was seen in summer 1983 and a juvenile in August. A pair was again present in 1984; in 1985 a pair bred and another male was present; in 1986 three birds were seen in summer. The August and September records are probably of wandering juveniles from the Continent or the south of England. One trapped at Cape Clear on 13th September 1985 had been ringed as a juvenile nine days earlier in the Netherlands. The October records occur when most west European Reed Warblers have departed, and usually arise after the classic south-easterly winds which bring Continental migrants to Ireland. They may well be reverse migrants from more easterly populations (Hutchinson 1980). The colonization of Ireland represents a range expansion which is continuing and now includes very widely scattered colonies. It seems likely that other colonies are being overlooked.

Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus

There have been three records. One was found dead near Castletownsend, Cork, on 16th May 1920; one was seen at Cape Clear from 10th to 26th June 1964, and another on 18th May 1979.

45

Olivaceous Warbler Hippolais pallida 30

15

The only records are of singles trapped at Tory Island, Donegal, on 29th September 1959 and at Dursey Island, Cork, on 16th September 1977.

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Hippolais icterina

Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina Icterine Warblers are rare but almost annual autumn migrants on the south coast. Prior to 1966 there were records of 44 birds, two of which were in the nineteenth century, the others between 1955 and 1965 at Great Saltee, Wexford (11), Cape Clear, Cork (29), the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, and Copeland, Down. All were in autumn except for one in Dublin on 8th June 1856, and one at Great Saltee on 17th May 1964. Since 1966 there have been records every year except 1970, and 102 Icterine Warblers were reported in the 21 year period. Most were in Cork and Wexford but there were two in Waterford, one in Dublin and one in Kerry. The majority were in September but one was seen at Cape Clear on 8th June in 1967. The latest record is one at Dalkey, Dublin, from 20th to 28th November 1982. 30

Icterine Warbler

Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata There have been five records. One was caught at the Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 27th October 1912. Single birds were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 27th and 28th October 1968, on 15th August 1972, on 19th October 1972 and on 25th and 26th October 1975.

1966-86

Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans

20

10

Jan

Melodious Warbler Hippolais polyglotta Melodious Warblers are scarcer in most autumns than Icterine Warblers but are also near annual migrants on the south coast. Two birds were recorded in the nineteenth century in addition to a record of one at Coolattin, Wicklow, in May 1886 thought to be of this species (Ussher & Warren 1900). This last record is not adequately substantiated so is now excluded. From 1956 to 1963, 33 were recorded, of which 12 were at Great Saltee, Wexford, and 19 at Cape Clear, Cork. There were also single birds at Erris Head, Mayo, and Copeland, Down. All were in autumn. From 1966 to 1986 a total of67 was recorded, all except one in autumn. The only records outside Wexford and Cork 30 Melodious Warbler 20

were in Waterford (five), Louth and Down. The spring record was of a bird at Ballyrnacaw, Waterford, on 25th April 1976. Birds have been recorded annually since 1966, except in 1971, 1972, 1975 and 1982. Peak numbers of Melodious Warblers occur in August, when they are almost as likely to be seen as Icterine Warblers. In September and October Icterine Warblers are twice as likely to be seen.

1966-86

Only four Subalpine Warblers were recorded up to 1965, but eight have been recorded since then. The records up to 1965 were at Hook Head, Wexford, on 17th September 1933, at Maidens lighthouse, Antrim, on 13th June 1937, at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 10th September 1954, and at Cape Clear, Cork, on 6th and 7th October 1962. Since 1966 there have been six spring records, of which five have been in Wexford, and two autumn records in Cork. The spring records were on 28th May 1967 at Copeland, Down, on 31st May 1979 at Great Saltee; from 9th to 11th May 1981 at Hook Head; on 10th May 1982 at Great Saltee: on 8th and 9th May 1983 at Hook Head and from 2nd to 8th May 1984 at Great Saltee. The autumn records were at Cape Clear from 25th September to 3rd October 1979 and at the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, from 13th to 17th October 1985. Subalpine Warblers were recorded annually from 1981 to 1985 but not in 1986.

Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria The Barred Warbler is almost an annual vagrant in autumn to the south coast, occasionally being recorded elsewhere. Being a particularly skulking species it is probably more frequently overlooked than most other scarce warblers. There were six records prior to 1953 and 15 from 1953 to 1965. Since 1966 a further 43 have been recorded, all in autumn. The majority of the records since 1965 have been in Cork, but there have also been records in Clare (one), Down (three), Galway (one), Londonderry (one), Louth (one), Mayo (one), Waterford (two) and Wexford (three). Barred Warblers were recorded in each year from 1966 to 1986 except 1973 and 1980.

Sylvia comm unis

15

Barred Warbler

1966-B6

175

birds are returning migrants which have overshot their breeding or natal areas. The records in August and September are believed to be of birds which have migrated in a reverse direction from their natal area in England. Those which occur in October and early November are probably reverse migrants from an area of origin further south-east (Hutch inson 1980). A record of one bird in Clare on 20 th March 1976 has been withdrawn by the observer. The Siberian race S.c. blythi has been recorded once. on Great Saltee on 15th November 1954. 3D

Lesser Wh;tethroat

1966-B6

Jan

Whitethroat Sylvia communis

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca Lesser Whitethroats are annual spring and autumn migrants in very small but increasing numbers. Up to 1953 there were three May . one September and three October records (Kennedy et aI1954). From 1954 to 1965 a further 31 were recorded of which two were in April. four in May. one in June. one in August. 15 in September. six in October and two in November. Apart from two in Donegal and single birds in Antrim. Down . Dublin and Kerry . all the records were in Wexford and Cork. reflecting the concentration of birdwatchers at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Since 1966 there have been a further 112 birds. They have been seen every year except 1967 and 1974 and have been in Antrim (two). Clare. Down (six). Louth. Waterford (six) as well as in Cork and Wexford. There is evidence of an increase in records. From 1966 to 1981 the maximum in a year was nine in 1977. but there were 20 in 1982.11 in 1983. five in 1984. 17 in 1985 and nine in 1986. One Lesser Whitethroat. trapped at Great Sal tee on 11 th May 1980. had been ringed as a juvenile in Devon in England on 12th August 1979. indicating that our spring

Whitethroats are widespread summer visitors to scrubland. thick and bushy hedgerows. waste land and young forestry plantations. Ruttledge (1966) considered that wherever there was rough cover Whitethroats were common. even in desolate regions. This was once indeed the case but numbers declined drastically in 1969 and. while there has been some recovery. they remain lower than they were in earlier years. In 1968-72. the mapped breeding distribution covered most of the country. with patches in Cork. Donegal, Galway. Kerry . Limerick. Mayo and Tyrone where the birds were absent (Breeding Atlas). The decline from 1969 onwards. which was experienced over much of Britain and the Continent as well, has been attributed to massive mortality in the winter quarters in the Sahel zone of west Africa on the southern fringe of the Sahara where there had been severe drought (Winstanley et aI1974). Numbers of breeding Whitethroats have rarely been censused. At Cape Clear. Cork . there were 20 to 35 pairs up to 1968. but only five pairs in 1969. about ten in 1979. 15 in 1983. eight in 1984 and 17 in 1986. Numbers of migrants declined at Cape Clear as well. The number of bird-days in 1974. the year of lowest numbers. was less than 10% of the 1959-69 average. but they increased thereafter and from 1980 to 1983 there were between 133 and 184 bird-days in autumn. In 1984 there were only 51 bird-days. At Copeland. Down. the average number of birds per day in spring dropped from 4 .2 in 1961-65 to 2 .15 in 1966-70 and 0 .42 in 1971-75 (CBOR). Densities on two sand-dune plots in Wexford in 1978-80 were surprisingly high and showed a steady increase. from 8.4-9.6 pairs per km 2 in 1978. to 19.0-20.4 in 1980 (0. J. Merne). At a

176

Sylvia borin

similar site in Down, in 1976-77, the mean density was 9.1 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In late May and early June 1985, in the Burren in north-west Clare. S. Cowdy recorded 41 singing males in an area of approximately 25 by 1 7 km. Birds were recorded from roads so the actual density was almost certainly far higher. Curiously. none at all were found in two census plots at Killinaboy in Clare in 1977 and 1978 (Moles 1982), though S. Cowdy found them so widespread in the Burren in 19 77 that she visited the area in 1985 with the intention of recording all the singing birds. At Great Saltee, Wexford, numbers of spring migrants were once very impressive. Up to 300 in a day, occasionally 500. were recorded in May. Numbers in autumn, at up to 30 in a day. were much lower (Perry & Warburton 1976). The highest totals at Cape Clear were 50 in spring and 31 in autumn, but these were before 1969 (Sharrock 1973). The earliest arrival date on record is 14th March 1902 at Blackwater Bank lightship, Wexford, and the latest was at Ballycotton, Cork, on 11th November 1981. Two birds wintered near Bantry. Cork, and two others on nearby Whiddy Island, Cork, in winter 1974/75.

Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Garden Warblers are summer visitors to the Shannon lakes, Lower Lough Erne and the Cavan lakes where they breed in small numbers. Elsewhere they are sporadic nesters. In the period 1968-72 they nested at Lough Derg, Lough Ree and Lough Bofin on the Shannon, at lakes in Cavan, Fermanagh, Monaghan, and on the shore of Lough Neagh, Antrim. In addition. breeding was proved or suspected in Carlow. Cork, Donegal. Down. Kerry, Leitrim, Louth, Meath, Tipperary, Waterford and Wexford, but in all cases either singly or in very small numbers. Apart from the cessation of breeding at Lough Neagh in the mid 1970s (NIBR 1982-85), the breeding range does not seem to have changed much since the end of the nineteenth century. Garden Warblers were then local breeders found mainly on islands or on the wooded shoreline of lakes (Kennedy et al 1954) and, while the range appeared to have extended since the mid nineteenth century, this was at least as likely to be due to increased investigation as to a real increase. In spring, Garden Warblers are scarce but annual migrants at Great Saltee, Wexford, from late April until the end of May and once in June (Perry & Warburton 1976). They are rare migrants at Cape Clear. Cork, in May. Numbers at Great Saltee are slightly higher in autumn from early August to early October, and a maximum of six was recorded on 4th October 1960. At Cape Clear. passage extends into early November, but numbers vary considerably from year to year. The peak count has been 28 on 5th October 1981. There are two winter records. One was seen on 18th February 1960 at Blackrock, Dublin, and one on 8th December 1976 at Raheny, Dublin.

Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Blackcaps are local but probably increasing summer visitors. Small but variable numbers winter each year and there is a marked autumn passage. Up to 1966 the distribution in summer was considered to be extremely local. Most were believed to breed in Wicklow; a few bred in Cavan beside Lough Ramor and Lough Sheelln, perhaps near Killeshandra; several bred in Donard and Tollymore Parks near Newcastle, Down, and at Shane's Castle and Belfast Castle, Antrim. A few were believed to breed in Wexford, and breeding was reported in Limerick in 1964 (Ruttledge 1966). In the nineteenth century, Blackcaps were reported in summer in Antrim, Armagh, Cavan. Carlow, Donegal, Down, Dublin, Fermanagh, Galway, Kerry, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois. Leltrim, Mayo, Meath, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford. Westmeath, Wexford and Wicklow (Ussher & Warren 1900). The contraction in range from 24 counties to five or six appears to have occurred in the first quarter of this century (Kennedy et aI1954). Fieldwork in 1968-72 showed a picture which had completely changed and breeding was recorded in every county except Mayo, though distribution was patchy in the western half of the country. Breeding was considered probably in only one 10km square in Galway, one in Sligo and three in Roscommon (Breeding Atlas). Whether the general increase had occurred rapidly or had been a long but unnoticed process is unknown. However, the density of birds was still low and the total Irish breeding population was estimated at no more than about 1.500 pairs (Breeding Atlas). A particularly high density of birds was found at Mountain Lodge valley on the southern slopes of the Galtee mountains where there were 23 singing males in 1969. Only one had been found in 1956 and few were found in later years. In 1979 apair was proved to breed at Lough Corrib. the first record of nesting in west Galway, perhaps indicating a slow expansion in range. In Cork, numbers declined in the late 1970s but appear to be increasing again (K. Preston) and in the eastern part of the county birds were found in all suitable habitats in the early 1980s (P. Smiddy). Blackcaps also winter in Ireland, visiting bird tables in suburban gardens in Dublin, Belfast. Cork. Limerick, Waterford, Galway, Sligo and the midlands. The number of birds involved is difficult to assess. Prior to 1953, Kennedy et al (1954) reported about 70 occurrences in winter, but in 1985 a total of about 75 birds was recorded for the one winter. Even this understates the true total. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84, Blackcaps were present quite widely east of the River Shannon and with concentrations around the cities (Winter Atlas). Birds are difficult to count because they wander from garden to garden. In winter 1976/77 a total of 58 was ringed in orchards at Corbally House, Antrim. In the east coast counties of Dublin and Wicklow the total numbers of wintering birds recorded from 1980 to 1985 each year were 23.34, 53,40, 51 and 41 (IEeBR). More birds are reported in February than in the other winter months, perhaps because shortage of natural food brings the birds into

Phylloscopus schwarzi gardens at this time. Wintering Blackcaps are believed to be immigrants from northern and eastern Europe which arrive in late autumn after the breeding birds have departed. Four ringed, wintering birds have been recovered: one ringed in Austria in August 1961 was found dead in Wicklow in December 1961; one ringed in Down in February 1975 was recovered at St David's, Wales, in October 1975; one ringed in Antrim in January 1979 was recovered in West Germany in July 1981; and one ringed in Kerry in January 1982 was recovered in Cornwall, England, in January 1985. Passage migration in spring is thin at Great Saltee, Wexford, Hook Head, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Up to four in a day occur at Great Saltee from late March to mid May (Perry & Warburton 1976), up to three at Hook Head (Lovatt 1984) and similar numbers at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). In autumn, numbers are substantially greater, especially in recent years. Passage is from late August to early November at all these sites, and peak counts have been 30 at Great Saltee on 22nd October 1983,20 at Hook Head on 30th October 1982, 20 on the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, on 31st October 1982, and 28 at Cape Clear on 26th October 1979. These numbers represented a considerable increase over those recorded in former years. At Cape Clear the largest number recorded in a day, before 1970, was 11. More than 20 were recorded in a day in 1973, 1975, 1979 and 1982. The increase in autumn numbers at bird observatories has been ascribed to a recent increase in easterly airflows, bringing more Blackcaps westwards from Europe, to an increase in the total Blackcap population, to a change in the species' habits or, perhaps, to a combination of all three (Langslow 1978).

177

Pallas's Warbler Phylloscopus prorequlus There have been only four records. One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 23rd October 1968. Three were seen in 1985: single birds 'at Cape Clear on 21 st October, at Sherkin Island, Cork, from 2 3rd to 27th October, and at Hook Head, Wexford, on 24th and 25th October.

Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Warblers are annual late autumn migrants which arrived in large numbers in 1985 and 1986. Only two were recorded prior to 1953, one shot on the Tearaght, off Kerry, on 14th October 1890, and one seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on the exceptionally early date of 6th August 1952. From 1953 to 1965 a further 15 were recorded at Cape Clear, Cork (eight), Great Saltee (two), Copeland, Down (two), Malin Head and Tory Island, Donegal (one each) and Inishbofin, Galway (one). Since 1966, Yellow-browed Warblers have been recorded every year except 1972, but all except four in Clare, and single birds in Down, Dublin and Louth, have been seen in the south coast counties of Cork, Waterford and Wexford. The pattern of occurrence is well-marked with all records between mid September and mid November, the great majority in October. Influxes in 1985 and 1986 produced unprecedented numbers, with at least 87 birds recorded in the first year and at least 59 in the second. The invasions coincided with an influx into Britain and much of western Europe. At Cape Clear, 24 were trapped and at least 50 were estimated to have passed through in 1985.

Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides Although a number of records of Greenish Warblers have been published, most have been considered unacceptable following a recent review (Mullarney 1984). There are only nine accepted records, all of single birds: at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 25th August 1952 and 19th to 28th September 1957; at Cape Clear, Cork, on 29th August 1961 (originally accepted as an Arctic Warbler); from 25th to 29th September 1964; from 9th to 15th September 1983; from 6th to 10th October 1984 and from 29th September to 1st October 1985; and at Hook Head, Wexford, on 12th September 1981 and 18th September 1982.

120 Yellow-browed Warbler

1966-86

80

40

Jan

Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis

Radde's Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi

There are only six records of the Arctic Warbler. Single birds were recorded at Tory Island, Donegal, on 1st September 1960: at Cape Clear, Cork, from 8th to 10th September 1968, from 20th to 22nd October 1977 and on 5th October 1981; at Toe Head, Cork, from 20th to 25th October 1985; and at Loop Head, Clare, on 6th September 1986.

There have been two records. One bird was seen at Hook Head, Wexford, on 30th October 1982, and the other was seen at Helvick Head, Waterford, on 15th October 1985.

178

Phylloscopus fuscatus

Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus The single Irish record Is of one found injured near Limerick City. about 5th December 1970. which died within a couple of days. The bird had been ringed at the Calf. Isle of Man. on 14th May 1970.

Bonelli's Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli There have been 12 records of Bonelli's Warblers. Two were recorded prior to 1966 and ten since then. The first two records were at Cape Clear. Cork. on 2nd September 1961, and at Great Saltee, Wexford. from 1st to 16th September 1962. Subsequent records have been at Cape Clear on 28th August 1968. 6th October 1968. 19th August 1970. 13th September to I l th October 1970. 26th August 1980 and 30th August to 1st September 1981: at Brownstown Head. Waterford. from 12th to 18th September 1981: at Hook Head. Wexford. on 27th and 28th August 1983. and from 25th August to 2nd September 1984: and at the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. on 22nd August 1984.

sion at Clonbrock, Galway. In Sligo there were records at Hollybrook, though not annually. and a pair was seen at Colebrooke. Fermanagh. in May 1870. Occasional birds were also seen or heard in song at Glen Druid and Abbotstown, Dublin . at Clonmel, Tipperary. at Ballyhyland, Wexford. at Glenalla and Carrablagh, Donegal. and at Bog Meadows. Belfast. Antrim (Ussher & Warren 1900). In the first half of the twentieth century Kennedy et aI (1954) considered that there had been a reduction in breeding records and that no Wood Warblers were then nesting in Ireland. At Clonbrock, Galway. nesting had ceased some time around the turn of the century. Nesting was eventually proved in Wicklow in 1910. and several singing males were heard there in 1949. but no nesting pairs were traced. The only other cases of proved breeding were near Warrenpoint. Down. in 1932 and at Glengarrlff, Cork. in 1938. Wood Warblers were heard singing in a number of counties but they were considered to be unmated males which had moved too far west and unable to attract mates. In 1968 a pair was proved to breed in Derrybawn Wood. Wicklow, and breeding was repeated in 1969 and 1970.

Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix The Wood Warbler is a rare breeding bird. though it occurs annually in suitable oakwoods, and is a scarce but increasing spring and autumn migrant. Breeding was rare and spasmodic in the past. In the nineteenth century. Wood Warblers were annual visitors to Wicklow where they were recorded repeatedly in Powerscourt, the Dargle valley . the Glen of the Downs. Derrybawn Wood and Glendalough. A nest was found in 1872 or 1873 at Brockley Park in Laois, and birds were seen regularly and proved breeding on at least one occa-

Antrim

1968 1969 1970 1971 1974 1975 1976 19 77 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Records oj breeding (b) and singing (s) Wood Warblers in Ireland. 1966 to 1986 Armagh Donegal Down Dublin FerGalway Kerry LondonMayo managh derry

Is

Is

2s Is 2s 2s 5s 5s Is

Is

Is

Is Is 4s

3s

3s Is

Is Is Is Is 2s

Is 4s 8s 7s

Is 3s

Wicklow

Ib Ib lb . Is 3s Is lb. Is 3s Ib.4s 2s Is lOs 2s 4s

Is

2s

Is Is 2s

Tipperary

Is Is

Is Ib.7s 1b. 13s

Phylloscopus trochilus Since then, there have been nesting records in Wicklow in 1975, 1977, 1985 and 1986, and in Mayo in 1981, but there have been many records of singing males in suitable breeding habitat. some of which may refer to pairs which subsequently bred. Considering how difficult it can be to prove breeding conclusively, the frequency of these records suggests that Wood Warblers probably breed every year. Some records have not been published in detail: these include the five nestlings ringed in Northern Ireland in 1985 and 15 in 1986. One nestling ringed in Antrim in 1981 was recovered in the same wood in 1985. Wood Warblers on spring migration were extremely rare at islands, headlands or lighthouses until recent years. Single birds were recorded in May at Blackrock, Mayo, in 1890; at Rockabill, Dublin, in 1912; at Maidens, Antrim, in 191 7 and at Copeland, Down, in 1963. Since then, there have been spring records at Great Saltee (singles in 1983 and 1984): Hook Head, Wexford (singles in 1971 and 1983); Cape Clear, Cork (one in 1973, two in 1977, singles in 1979 and 1981, three in 1983, one in 1984); Rathlin Island, Antrim (one in 1985); Copeland (one in 1981) and Howth Head, Dublin (one in 198 5). In autumn there has been a similar increase in records. More than twice as many autumn Wood Warblers were recorded in the ten years 1968-77 as compared with the previous ten years (32 against 15), and in the nine years 1978-86 a further 40 were recorded. This coincided with the increase in summer records from suitable breeding habitat. Wood Warblers are clearly increasing as spring migrants, summer visitors and autumn migrants. 45 Wood

(non-breeding)

1966-86

30

15

Chiffchatf PhyIloscopuS collubita

The Chiffchaff is one of our most familiar summer visitors. Small numbers spend the winter and there is considerable passage migration on the coast in spring and autumn. Chiffchaffs breed nowadays in every county and are absent only from north-west Mayo, though they are thinly distributed in west Donegal (Breeding Atlas). This was not always the case. In the early part of the nineteenth century Chiffchaffs were known to breed in only seven counties: Antrim (Belfast, Shane's Castle and Cushendall), Cork (at Castle Warren and Glengarriff), Down (Belfast, Bryansford

179

and Rostrevor), Dublin (Phoenix Park and Glasnevin), Kerry (near Tralee), Tipperary (near Clonmel) and Waterford (near the town). These were sites where there were woods with a good cover of undergrowth (Thompson 1849). In 1984 they were still scarce but by 1900 Chlffchaffs had increased considerably and bred in every county, though they were not so numerous as Willow Warblers (Ussher & Warren 1900). The increase continued in the present century. The first record at Achlll, west Mayo, was in May 1937 and breeding was proved in 1968-72. They increased their range in north-west Kerry in the 1950s and bred for the first time this century near Tralee in 1960 (Ruttledge 1966), and at Cape Clear, in 1986. Chiffchaffs arrive from early March onwards, most coming in the second week of May. At Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 100-200 birds per day (in some years as many as 600) have been recorded in spring (Perry & Warburton 1976). Numbers at Hook Head, Wexford. are lower. and ten in a day is usual, up to 150 having been recorded on three occasions (Lovatt 1984). Cape Clear. being further west has a much lower spring passage (Sharrock 1973). Autumn migration is from the end of August to the end of October, with stragglers into November; numbers at Great Saltee and Hook Head are much lower than in spring, maxima of about 30 per day being normal; numbers at Cape Clear are similar. On the north coast there is evidence of passage in September (Marsh 1975). In late autumn in most years. brown-and-white and grey-and-white Chiffchaffs are seen on the south coast, presumably of the race P.c. abietinus which breeds in Scandinavia and across north and west Russia, or the race P.e. tristis which breeds across Siberia and intergrades with obtetinus in the west of its range. These birds generally have a different call to the other Chiffchaffs present, but their precise area of origin is at present unknown. Chiffchaffs winter in Ireland in small numbers. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 they were recorded in 19 counties, but most were on the south coast in Cork, Waterford and Wexford. However, there were records as far north as Antrim, Donegal and Londonderry (Winter Atlas). In Cork, where most winter, numbers fluctuate from year to year. In 1980/81. for example, there were records of about 150, but only 20 in 1981/82, 31 in 1982/83 and 11 in 1983/84 (CBR). It is not known whether most of the wintering birds are local breeders or immigrants from abroad. but one ringed in the breeding season at Bellarena, Londonderry. was retrapped again on 25th November 1974, indicating that the bird was wintering there (Marsh 1975).

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Willow Warblers are abundant summer visitors, arriving later than Chiffchaffs and departing a little earlier. They nest more widely than Chiffchaffs, being less dependent on woodland, their range extending into north-west Mayo, and are commoner than Chiffchaffs except perhaps

180

Regulus regulus

in the south-west (Breeding Atlas). Kennedy et al (1954) considered the Willow Warbler to be more numerous in western Connacht than it had been at the turn of the century. They are scarce. however. in oak woodland and it has been argued that this is because the species' niche is occupied by the Goldcrest (Batten 1976) or. alternatively. that they require a considerable amount of pioneer growth. particularly birch. and that thi s is replaced in Irish woods by holly which favours the Goldcrest (Wilson 1977). In an area of sea buckthorn at Murlough Nature Reserve. Down . a density of 200 pairs per km 2 was recorded in 1977 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Spring arrival is from the beginning of April, occasionally from 30th or 31 st March. At Great Saltee, Wexford . up to 200 in a day are frequent in April, occasionally up to 500 (Perry & Warburton 1976). and 2.000 have been recorded (0. J. Merne). At Hook Head . Wexford . the peak is usually 50-100 but 700 were recorded on 21st April 1968 (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at the much further west Cape Clear. Cork. are lower. 100 being very occasionally recorded and once 600. Departure is from late July with most leaving in August and September though stragglers pass through in October and there have been records as late as 6th November at Cape Clear . Numbers in autumn are lower than in spring. with up to 70 at Great Saltee, 150 at Hook Head . and not more than 100 in a day at Cape Clear. Birds showing the characters of the northern race P.t. acredula have been recorded on a number of occasions in spring at Great Saltee, with a maximum of 15 in a day. They appear to be much scarcer a t Cape Clear where there were only four records, with a maximum of five birds. in the period 1959-69 (Sharrock 1973). There have been no reliably identified Willow Warblers recorded in winter.

woods and large gardens. sometimes at high densities. In Irish oakwoods they are. together with Chaffinch. Robin , Wren and Blue Tit. among the five commonest breeding species. and at one census plot in Wicklow they were the commonest (Wilson 1977). Densities at the five census plots ranged from 92 to 195 pairs per km ' . Numbers in coniferous woods are substantially greater. and densities of 591 pairs per km 2 were recorded in Kerry in Norway spruce and 387 pairs per km 2 in Sitka spruce (Batten 1976). Numbers fluctuate considerably. dropping after severe winters but recovering quickly du ring a series of mild seasons. The numbers recorded in Kerry in 1973 by Batten appear to have been relatively high, as densities in Killarney oakwood in 1985 and 1986 were 40% and 20% , respectively, of the 1973 density (T. Carruthers). The 1985/86 winter was cold , so the decline was probably due to high winter mortality. In winter. Goldcrests are Widely distributed. with a reduction in numbers evident in the west (Winter Atlas). At this time they wander in loose flocks. usually with tits, and feed in hedges and loose scrub near the coast and by freshwater. as well as on the fringes of woodland. There is some spring movement noticeable on the coast and a marked autumn passage. At Great Saltee, Wexford, spring passage is from the end of March until mid May with up to about ten birds in a day. In autumn numbers are higher from September to mid November. A large movement was recorded in early October 1957 when about 200 were present (Ruttledge 1963). At Hook Head . Wexford, numbers are slightly lower, though 120 were recorded on 24th-26th October 1975 (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at Cape Clear fluctuate from year to year but follow a similar pattern. except that a few remain on into December or January in some years (Sharrock 1973). Peak numbers in autumn are usually about 30-50 a day but 200 were recorded on 28th October 1975. the year when the highest numbers were also at Hook Head , and 250 were seen on 12th October 1985 . On the ea st coast a small late March and early April movement and a larger autumn movement are evident (Hutchinson 1975) and the October 1975 south coast influx was reflected at Clogher Head, Louth. where there were several hundred on 7th October (LBR 1975). Passage is also evident at Copeland. Down (CBOR) and on the north coast (March 1975). Numbers occurring on migration at Copeland showed a steady increase both in spring and autumn from 1956 to 1975 (CBOR 1975). Peak numbers both in spring and autumn were in the three year period 1973-75 . Goldcrests come to Britain and Ireland in winter from northern Europe . east to Finland and Poland and south to France. Some British Goldcrests also cross the Irish Sea to winter here.

Goldcrest Regulus regulus

Firecrest Regulus ignicapillus

Goldcrests nest throughout the country. though they are scarce in the relatively treeless north-west of Mayo (Breeding Atlas). They occur in coniferous woods, deciduous

There were only nine records of Firecrests in Ireland before 1966. These were of a bird found dead near Glengarriff, Cork. on 7th December 1943, five seen on Valentia Island,

Ficedula parva Kerry, on 4th October 1951, and records at Cape Clear, Cork, of seven in October 1959, one in October 1960, one in September 1961, one in October 1962 and about eight in October and November 1964. Since 1966, Firecrests have been recorded in every year except 1970 and are now regular though scarce autumn migrants, rare winter visitors, and spring migrants. There were at least 22 in the ten years 1958-1 967 and at least 82 in the next ten years (Hutchinson 1980). Numbers have continued to increase: in autumn 1978 about 34 Firecrests were recorded and in autumn 1982 about 27. Most records have been on the south coast. from Wexford to Cork, but there have also been records in Clare. Down. Dublin, Fermanagh and Wicklow. Records in the winter months of December to February are still rare and have been from Cape Clear, Cork City, Knockaderry and Minane Bridge in Cork, Rathfarnham in Dublin, Banbridge and Rostrevor in Down, and Ennis in Clare. The increase in records mirrors an expansion in breeding numbers and range which has occurred throughout northwest Europe and has been reflected by the commencement of breeding in Britain in 1961 (Hutchinson 1980).

181

ten a day from August to mid September are regular at each of these sites. with stragglers through October and into early November. The highest autumn numbers have been about 50 at Great Saltee (Perry & Warburton 1976), 80 at Hook Head and 50 at Cape Clear. On the north-east coast there is thin spring and autumn passage at Copeland, Down, with rather more in spring than autumn. The maximum in a day was 20 in spring (CBOR 1975). On the north coast. passage is not noticeable (Marsh 1975). The earliest Irish record is of one at New Ross, Wexford, on 12 th March 19 55. The only other March records are of two at Seapoint, Dublin, on 20th March 1958, and single birds at Killegar, Leitrim, on 25th March 1973 and at Tinahealy, Wicklow, on 28th March 1978. The latest Irish record is of one which struck the Tuskar Rock lighthouse off Wexford between 20th and 30th November 1897.

Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva

Firecrest

1966-86

30

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatchers are summer visitors, nesting in clumps of trees on farmland, in large gardens, on the edges of woods or in clearings, and in orchards and parks. They are widespread breeding birds, nesting in every county, though somewhat locally distributed in south Galway and north Mayo where trees are few (Breeding Atlas). In recent years there have been many reports of a marked decline in breeding numbers. These are among the latest spring migrants to arrive, the majority arriving between early May and early June. At Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 20 a day is the usual spring peak but over 100 were seen on 22nd May 1959 (Ruttledge 1963). Numbers at Hook Head, Wexford, are similar, though the maximum recorded was 34 on 10th May 1981 (Lovatt 1984). Very few occur in spring at Cape Clear, an exception was 1967 when up to 48 were seen in a day between 10th and 18th May. In autumn numbers of up to

The Red-breasted Flycatcher is an annual autumn migrant in small numbers. Before 1953 there were only nine records, comprising eight which died or were shot at lighthouses and one which was identified at Great Saltee, Wexford. Six were in October, two in September and one (at the Bull Rock, Cork. in 1903) as late as 18th November. After the establishment of bird observatories on islands and coastal headlands, records became annual or virtually so. Indeed, 1981 and 1982 were the only years between 1959 and 1986 when no Red-breasted Flycatchers were recorded at Cape Clear, and 1982 was the first year since 1958 that none was recorded in the country. They are mainly late September and October passage migrants, but single birds were recorded in May and August, and two in November in the period 1966-86. These records were on 7th May 1983 at Clogher Head, Louth, on 29th August 1970 and 4th November 1980 at Cape Clear, and on 7th November 1981 at Knockadoon Head, Cork. The records from 1966 to 1986 were all in Wexford or Cork except for the spring bird at Clogher Head and two autumn records in Clare. An extraordinary record is of an adult in summer plumage at Glenealy, Wicklow, on 8th July 1961. 45

Red-breasted Flycatcher

15

1966-86

182

Ficedula hypoleuca

Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Pied Flycatchers are chiefly autumn passage migrants, but a very few occur in spring and breeding has recently been proved. Spring records have been mainly at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Cork. At Great Saltee one was recorded in April and five in May from 1952 to 1974 (Perry & Warburton 1976). From 1977 to 1984 there were 13 in April or May and one in June (WBR). At Hook Head. Wexford. two were recorded in April. two in May and one in June (Lovatt 1984). and at Cape Clear . there were four spring records up to 1969 (Sharrock 1973) and about seven from 1970 to 1986 (CCBOR). None was recorded in spring at Copeland. Down, up to 1975 (CBOR 1975). In autumn there is marked passage at Great Saltee, Hook Head. Cape Clear and at the intervening headlands. Passage is from August to October and peaks in early September. Up to 15 have been seen in a day at Great Saltee, I 2 at Hook Head and 36 at Cape Clear. Even on the west coast a few birds are recorded in autumn at Loop Head . Clare. Pied Flycatchers breed commonly just across the Irish Sea in west Wales and it is surprising that there was no indication until very recently that they might breed in Ireland. though the very small number of spring records indicates how few birds overshoot on migration. There have been a number of unpublished records of Pied Flycatchers at woods in north-east Antrim and. after one such sighting in I 974. nestboxes were placed in a wood. In I 985 a pair nested in one of these nestboxes. raising at least two young (Bradley et al 1986). In 1976 one was seen inland in Wicklow on 28th April ; in 1978 a male sang at a Wicklow site for about a week from 20th May; in 1983 nestboxes were installed in the hope of attracting Pied Flycatchers and clutches were laid in two boxes in ] 985 . However. the nestlings in both nestboxes were predated and none fledged (Fagan 1986).

Bearded Tit Panurus biarmicus The first record of Bearded Tits in Ireland was of a pair in a small area of sedges near Dunleer, Louth. on 3rd January 1966. In I 972 a party of eight was seen at Cape Clear , Cork. on] 3th October. In ] 974 two males and two females were seen between Kilcoole and Greystones, Wicklow, on 10th October. From the following autumn. 1975. birds were present at a site in Wicklow and a pair bred in 1976. probably rearing two broods. They were not seen after December. but up to two females were seen in summer 1977. From January to July 1980 up to ten were present. In what year breeding recommenced. or whether it had been continuing since 1976. is unclear. but three. possibly four. pairs bred successfully in I 982; at least I 1 pairs were present in I 983 and breeding was again proved; at least three pairs bred in 1984 and at least two . probably three. in I 985. In Ring Marsh. Wexford. at least three juveniles were

seen in the first week of September ] 976. At Ballycotton. Cork. six were seen from 28th October to early November 1979. three on 28th September 1980 and one or two until December 1980. A male was present from Ll th January to at least 28th June 1981 and at nearby Ballymacoda a male was seen on I 5th April 1981. There were no subsequent records from these sites .

Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatl/s Long-tailed Tits are common residents which breed over most of the country. only being absent from north and west Donegal. west Mayo and west Galway. south-west Clare and the Dingle peninsula in Kerry (Breeding Atlas). There is no evidence of any long -term change in numbers though Kennedy et al (1954) considered that this was one of the species most vulnerable to cold weather. a view confirmed by BTO census studies in England which have shown decreases of over 40% on farmland after hard winters. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that Long-tailed Tits had disappeared from parts of Tipperary. Galway. Mayo . Antrim and Down after the cold weather in January 1945 and that numbers in other counties were much reduced. The hard weather of February ] 947 had a further serious effect and Long-tailed Tits were scarce in most counties for a few years. The cold winter of 1916/17 was not considered quite so severe in its effects. Long-tailed Tits recovered their numbers within a few years after these winters and that of 1962/63 which also affected them. wiping out up to 80% in Britain but perhaps fewer here.

Parus major In winter they are widely distributed but. in the west. seem to retreat somewhat from their breeding range. presumably because of the shortage of food on the relatively treeless west coast (Winter Atlas). Long-tailed Tits wander a little in late autumn . A party of five was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. in November 1959 and parties of up to ten have been recorded at Cape Clear on nine occasions from August to November. None wa s recorded at Cape Clear prior to 1968. perhaps reflecting the low level of the population after the 1962/63 cold winter. They have also been recorded at the Copeland Islands. Down. and on the Aran Islands. Galway.

Coal Tit Parus ater

Coal Tits are extremely common birds in Irish coniferous and deciduous woods and in mature gardens. They breed throughout the country except in the treeless north and west of Donegal. north-west of Mayo. south of Galway and much of the Dingle peninsula in Kerry (Breeding Atlas). They have spread in the west as plantations have been established (Kennedy et al 1954) and there are many reports of an increase in numbers in the last decade. In sessile oakwood this species was more numerous than the Blue Tit in two plots in Wicklow; it was less numerous in three in Kerry (Wilson 1977). It was always one of the six most numerous species in thi s habitat. and densities ranged from 66 to 102 pairs per krrr' in 1973 and 1975 (Wilson 1977). A repeat census in 1986 of a plot in Kerry. previously censused in 1973. showed a decline of 30% in numbers (T. Carruthers). possibly because numbers were unusually high during the earlier study which followed a series of mild winters when adult mortality was low. The winter distribution shows little change except that Coal Tits were seen on the western seaboard in Kerry. Mayo and Donegal (Winter Atlas). The Irish Coal Tit has been separated as a subspecies P,a. hibernicus on the basis of plumage coloration and larger bill size. However. there is considerable variation and birds showing the apparent characteristics of the Irish subspecies can be seen in flocks with birds resembling British Coal Tits P.a. britannicus. Single birds showing the characters of the Continental rate P.«. ater were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. on 6th and lith October 1959 and 13 th October 1961. Subsequent records at Cape Clear in 1970 (up to five). 1974 (u p to three). 1975 (two). 1976 (one). 1978 (one). 1979 (four). 1981 (five). 1985 (up to 20) and 1986 (up to 1 3) were all of birds showing similar characters to those on the mainland. The increase in records from 1970 may represent an increase in the local mainland population. There have been only two records at Great Saltee, Wexford (O.}. Merne).

183

Blue Tit Parus caeruleus The Blue Tit is a common and widespread resident. certainly more numerous than either Coal Tit or Great Tit. The breeding distribution in 1968-72 covered all the country except for a handful of 10 km squares in north Mayo . Blue Tits are well adapted to a range of habitats from deciduous woodland to hedgerow and gardens. In oakwoods they were more numerous in three Kerry plots than Coal Tits but were outnumbered in two Wicklow plots (Wilson 1977). Densities ranged from 83 to 233 pairs per km ", Kennedy et al (1954) noted that Blue Tits had the widest range of any of our tits as they inhabit open as well as wooded areas. They did not find them. however. on any of the marine islands off Connacht except Achill, Mayo. and noted that Rathlin, Antrim. and Lambay off the Dublin coast. were frequented by a few. A few pairs bred occasionally at Cape Clear. Cork. in the 1960s and there is an obvious arrival there in autumn. presumably of birds from the nearby mainland (Sharrock 1973). In recent years numbers have increased and as many as ten pairs were found in summer 1986 (Borton 1987). Great Saltee, Wexford. also has a few birds in autumn (Perry & Warburton 1976). An influx of up to 40 birds at Malin Head. Donegal. in October. appears to be an annual occurrence. In winter. Blue Tits are relatively uniformly distributed over the country. with higher densities around urban areas (Winter Atlas). Blue Tits do not move far in winter but form into flocks with other tits to forage in woodland and on hedges and scrub. In some years Blue Tits irrupt from the Continent into Britain but there is no evidence to suggest that many reach Ireland. During the tit invasion of Britain in autumn 1957 there was a maximum of no more than six in a day at Great Saltee, Wexford.

Great Tit Parus major The Great Tit is almost as widespread as the Blue Tit but is much less numerous. Great Tits are not quite so widespread on the western seaboard. and were described by Ruttledge (1966) as scarce there. but otherwise they nest all over Ireland ( Breeding Atlas). They occur in relatively low densities in Irish oakwoods. varying from 18 to

184

Certhia famiIiaris

41 pairs per km 2 in five plots surveyed (Wilson 1977). The winter distribution is similar to that in summer with most of the country, apart from the extreme west of Mayo and Donegal. occupied (Winter Atlas). There is a slight tendency for higher densities to occur in the eastern half of the country. Great Tits appear to be largely resident. though they wander in autumn and occur annually in small numbers on islands such as Cape Clear, Cork (Sharrock 1973). In some years birds remain on Cape Clear through the winter to breed the following summer. At Great Saltee, Wexford. they are even scarcer and all those trapped from an arrival of 12 in October 1957 proved to show the characters of the Continental race P. m. major (there was an invasion that autumn on the east coast of England). Numbers of Great Tits on the east coast and Kerry were considered to have been unusually high in October 1957.

Treecreepers have occurred once on Great Saltee, Wexford, in September (Ruttledge 1963), 14 times on Cape Clear . Cork, all between June and October (CCBOR). and seven times up to 1975 at Copeland, Down, once in April, but otherwise from July to September (CBOR 1975). These records indicate post-breeding dispersion.

Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus There were about 60 records of Golden Orioles up to 1965 in the months April. May and 'in summer'. Twenty-four of these records were in May: in addition, there was one record in October. Most were of single birds. but in four case s there were two birds together. once five together and once 'a small flock' . Most occurred in coastal counties in the south, but there were records in Limerick. Kildare, Kilkenny. Roscommon and Tyrone (two) (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1965 there have been records in 13 of the 21 years to 1986. A total of 36 birds was reported. of which 19 were in Cork, ten in Wexford. four in Wicklow and one each in Dublin , Kerry and Tipperary. More were reported in spring 19 79 than in any earlier year: a minimum of nine and perhaps as many as 12 were seen. Golden Orioles remain extremely rare autumn vagrants, with single birds at Cape Clear, Cork, on 8th September 1966 and at Ballygawley, Tyrone, on 2nd October 1953. the only records.

(

( I

Golden Oriole

15

1966 -86

10

JAn

Treecreeper Certhia [amiliaris Treecreepers nest both in deciduous and coniferous woodland wherever suita ble habitat exists . As a result. they are absent from north and west Donegal. north-west Mayo. parts of Clare and Kerry and th e vicini ty of the Mourne mountains in Down (Breeding Atlas). In winter they occur in much the same areas as in summer, though in the period 1981 /82 to 1983/84 they were not found in much of west Kerry (Winter Atla s). The difficulty in covering the countryside adeq uately wh en Treecreepers are at low densities may explain the apparent absence.

Red-backed Shrike l..anius collurio There were eight records prior to 1953 , seven between August and October and one in May. The spring record was at Great Sal tee , Wexford: the autumn records were in Cork (three) and in Down , Dublin, Galway and Wicklow (one ea ch) . From 195 3 to 1965 a further 14 were recorded. 11 in September or October, one in May and two in June. Six were in Cork. four in Wexford. two in Donegal and one each in Antrim and Armagh.

Lanius senator

185

Since 1966. Red-backed Shrikes have been recorded every year except 1967.1972.1973.1975 and 1984. Apart from two in Down and Wicklow and one in Dublin. all have been in Cork or Wexford. The late August peak comprises 12 birds. of which six were in 1976 and four in 1983. Records in other half-monthly periods are more evenly spaced. Adult Red-backed Shrikes are rare in autumn. only three having been recorded at Cape Clear. It appears likely from the age of the birds. the lateness of most of records and their concentration on the south coast. that the late September and October records are of reverse migrants from a population migrating south-east or east-south-east. The August records. which occurred during spells of easterly winds. were probably of Continental migrants displaced westwards by the weather (Hutchinson 1980).

15 Red-backed Shrike

1966-86

was one at Kinnegar, Down. from 13th December 1970 to 4th April 1971. Jan

Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator

Lesser Grey Shrike [,anius minor There have been three records. An immature was seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from 14th to 26th September 1962 ; an adult was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 30th and 31st May 1978; and a juvenile was seen at Ballycotton. Cork. on 6th September 1985.

Woodchat Shrikes were recorded on four occasions before 1953. three in Wexford and one in Cork . Three records were in May and one in September (Kennedy et al 1954). From 1953 to 1965. 18 Woodchat Shrikes were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford (nin e in May. four in August. five in September) and one at Cape Clear. Cork. in August. From 1953 to 1961, Woodchat Shrikes were recorded in every year except 1956 and 195 7. Since 1966 a further 18 have been recorded in the counties Cork (eight). Wexford (eight). Down and Waterford (one each). There is a tendency for most birds to appear in May and August but there have also been records in late April. June. July and October.

Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor There were at least 28 records in the nineteenth century. Since then there were three records from 1900 to 1965. and 13 from 19 6 6 to 198 6 . The nineteenth century records were widely scattered in at least 13 counties during August (three) and from October to March (Kennedy et aII954) . The records from 1900 to 1965 were of one shot in Meath on 23rd March 1906. and of singles at Blackrock lighthouse. Mayo . on 19th and 20th June 1957. and at Tory Island. Donegal. on 21st June 1957. Since 1966. single birds have been seen in Antrim. Armagh. Clare. Donegal. Down (two records). Dublin (two records). Galway. Louth. Wexford (three records) and Wicklow. The only bird to remain for more than a few days

Jan

186

Garrulus glandarius Magpie Pica pica

Magpies ar e commo n and inc reas ing residen ts. They wer e apparently first recorded in Wexford a bout 16 76 and sprea d rapidly th ereafter. By the end of th e nineteenth century. Magpies nested throughou t th e country , th ough they were sca rce r in the tr eeless pa rts of west Kerry. west Galway , Mayo and Donegal. A flock of 300-400 wa s record ed in Done ga l in 1882, a nd 15 0-200 were seen at Hook Head lighthou se on 18th October 18 9 3 (Ussher & Warren 19 00 ). In th e first half of this century Magpies appear to have increased in th e west because Kenn edy et al (1 954) found th em plentiful in Connemara. In 19 68- 72 they were pro ved to breed in all parts of th e cou ntry. including the en tire western sea board (Breeding A tlas) . The winter distribution is simila r but th ere is clearly a higher density of Magpie s in north-east Ireland than in the rest of th e coun try ( W inter Atlas). Ringing results sho w that Magpies ar e seden ta ry. but flocks are not unusual on headlands in autumn . Jay Garrulus glandar ius In Dublin City they have been kn own to bre ed since at Jays are distributed qu ite widely th roughout much of lea st 18 52 (Wa tters 185 3). Breeding den sity in Dublin was Ireland. but do not breed in parts of Antrim . Done ga l. west inv estigated from 19 80 to 19 8 3 a nd 7-8% of th e city wa s Sligo. Mayo. west Clar e. west Limerick. Kerry or west Cork surveyed for nests (Kavan agh 19 8 7). Th e breeding den sity (Breeding Atlas). Th ey ar e birds of decidu ou s a nd coni ferous wa s estimated at just over half th e nest den sity (58%). woodlands. a nd there app ear s to be ample suita ble habit at man y nests being unoccupi ed. In 19 8 3 th e nest den sity was 2 8.6 pairs per km 2 and th e breeding den sity wa s 16 .6 in seve ra l of th ese counties. Th eir absence is pu zzl ing . The distribution in win ter. from 19 81 / 8 2 to 19 8 3/ 84. pa irs per krn-. den sities far in excess of those recorded indica ted an expa ns ion furt he r west th an the breedin g any where else in th e Magp ie's range. In 19 70 a survey of ra nge in 1968-72 . indicat ing a real expa nsion of ran ge or part of Dub lin produced a ne st den sity of about three pairs a winter dispers ion ( W inter A tlas). Since Jays are cons idered per km -'. The re has been an aver age increase of 12-1 3% to be relati vely sede nta ry . it seems likely that th ey a re per an n um over 13 yea rs, and in 1980-83 this was coninc reas ing. a nd in Cork they a re conside red cer ta in ly to be tinu ing. increasing (K. Pr est on ). Large numbers occur in flocks: up to 30-40 were The re ha s clea rly been a prolon ged increase sinc e th e record ed in a flock in th e Pho eni x Park prior to 19 53 turn of th e century . Jays were greatly redu ced in numbers (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ) but over 60 we re seen in a field in in th e earl y ninete enth cen tury. in Ulster a pparently Blackrock. Dublin . with 20 in th e adjoining field in 196 7. becau se of th e cu ttin g down of woods. and in Cor k becau se A roos t in trees in Herb ert Park in Du blin. between October birds were ta ken for the wing fea the rs . which were used and May in 197 1/7 2. regularly held up to 40 birds and on for tying sa lmon flies (Usshe r & Warren 19( 0 ). and in the one occa sion 70 wer e coun ted in February . latter half of th e century th e ran ge was restri cted to parts In Kerry. Magpi es were not found in Killarney woodland of Waterford. Tipperary . Kilkenny. Wexford . Carlow. Laois by a study team in 1973 but by th e ea rly 19 80s th ey were and Kildare. Breeding commenc ed in Meath in 1909 . in widespre ad in th e area (T. Carruthers). Clare sh ortl y after 1909. in Cork about 191 5. in Cavan At Cape Clea r. Cork. where some n est in gor se bushes and Long ford abou t 191 8. in Roscommon after 19 2 3. in in th e absence of tr ees. numbers of breeding Magpie s ha ve Arm agh about 1942. To both Dublin a nd Wicklow. Jays ran ged from eigh tin 1960 to 15 in 19 6 5. but the number of were only kn own as wanderers in 19 0 8. but were well nests h as not been cens used in recent yea rs. The maximum esta blishe d by th e 1940s (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ). daily coun ts. however. show a mark ed incre ase in The first record west of th e Con nacht lakes was at Tour- n umbers. Th e maxi mum in a day up to 1969 was 35 makead y. Mayo. in January 19 58 : th e first record in Kerry (Sha rroc k 19 73). New peak s were 4 0 in October 19 72 . 74 was of five in Killarney in January 19 66. a nd breeding was in 19 75-77. up to 119 in a day in 19 80- 8 2 and 240 in pro ved there in 19 73: in Don egal there was a wint er reco rd early November 19 84 (CCBOR). Copeland. Down , has seen in GJenveagh in 19 81 / 82 to 19 8 3/ 84 . a similar increase in numbers of visiting bird s with bet ween The pattern of increase appea rs to in volve birds dis- one and four in a day up to 19 75. th en ma xima of ten in persing wes t in winter. and th en some rem ain ing to breed 19 78. 30 in 19 79 and 1 7 in 198 3 (CBOR). in lat er su mmers. It seems likely th at the inc rease is co nLar ge numb ers are sho t eac h yea r. In Cork. for example, tinuing. the Federation of County Cor k Gun Clu bs reported that The Irish race G.g. hibernicus is da rker a nd more rufou s 12 .905 were sho t from 19 8 2/ 8 3 to 198 3/ 8 4 . th an Briti sh Jays .

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

Chough Purrhacorax pyrrhocorax Choughs are familiar birds on the south, west and north coasts and breed inland in Kerry and at a few locations in west Cork and Connemara. They nested on all coasts in the first half of the nineteenth century. and at a number of inland mountain sites, but disappeared from Dublin about 1852 and from Wexford and the eastern parts of Cork late in the century (Ussher & Warren 1900). However. they nest in east Cork nowadays. a pair nested on Great Saltee, Wexford, in a number of years up to 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and a pair continues to do so (O.J. Merne) , and there is a traditional site at Hook peninsula, Wexford. which is still in use (Lovatt 1984). The decline apparently continued into the early years of this century but numbers increased again from about 1925 (Kennedy et aI1954 ). A survey of the breeding population was undertaken in 1963 which produced a total of 567-582 breeding pairs, though coverage was incomplete in several areas (Cabot 1965). In 1982 a detailed survey was carried out and all known and likely Chough breeding sites were visited over a three and a half month period. including the mountain areas of Kerry and Cork, inland parts of Connemara and most offshore islands (Bullock et al 1983). A total of 656 breeding pairs was found. with an additional 29 possiblybreeding pairs, and 615-623 non-breeding birds were also

187

found. Kerry had the most birds, with the Dingle peninsula the best area. Results of 1982 census of breeding Choughs (after Bullock et al 1983) County Breeding NonChange in status pairs breeding since 1962 birds

Antrim Donegal Sligo Mayo Galway Clare Kerry Cork Waterford Wexford

9-10 109-112 5-6 73-75 38-39 31-34 205 -209 148-153 37-46 1

Total

656-685 615-623

3 103 6 72 33 35-37 131 171 59-65 2

Declined Probably no change Probably no change Probably no change Possible decline No change No change No change Possible increase Possible increase

Only 55 pairs were found nesting inland. The furthest inland was a pair on the inland edge of the MacGillycuddy Reeks in Kerry . 19 km from the sea. Over three quarters of

188

Corvus monedula

inland sites were within 8 km of the sea. Detailed comparison of the 1982 survey results with those for 1962 showed that the population was relatively stable, and comparison with records for the late 1800s showed that, despite the decline about the turn of the century, numbers had recovered completely. Choughs have a strong preference for areas where there is short-grazed pasture in which they can dig for food, and for undisturbed soils which are rich in invertebrates (Bullock et al 1983). Improvement of old coastal pastures is bad for Choughs and the decline in Northern Ireland, from 21-22 pairs in 1962 to 9-10 pairs in 1982, was attributed by Bullock et al (1983) to fencing of the coastal strip, preventing livestock from grazing the cliff slopes. Distribution in winter is similar to that in summer, though Choughs are vulnerable to prolonged frost, when they are unable to dig for their food, and many are said to have died in the hard winters of 1916/17 and 1962/63 (Winter Atlas). In autumn there is dispersal from Cape Clear, Cork, and numbers there are lowest from November to February (Sharrock 1975). This dispersal, if similar to that reported at Bardsey Island, Wales, is purely local and consists largely of young birds (Winter Atlas). The largest flock reported is of 231 in Kerry in 1968. There have been only three east coast records in the past hundred years. One was seen at Clogher Head, Louth, from 8th January to at least 18th March 1974; three were seen in the Mourne Mountains, Down, in October 1974 O.S. Furphy) and one was at Howth Head, Dublin, from 18th February to at least 29th March 1982. All were presumably wanderers from the Isle of Man or Wales.

Jackdaw Corvus monedula Jackdaws breed almost everywhere in Ireland, with the exception of the Bog of Erris in north Mayo where there are few nest sites. They nest in chimneys, ruined buildings, other man-made structures, and in holes in trees and cliffs. In the last century there were records of breeding in rabbit burrows in open fields in Fermanagh, Down, Donegal and Tyrone (Ussher & Warren 1900). The population was increasing in the 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954) and 1960s (Ruttledge 1966) and is probably still expanding. Among the largest concentrations in the country are the cliff-breeding birds at Downhill, Londonderry, and the Giants's Causeway, Antrim. Jackdaws bred on few of the offshore islands in the early 19 50s. They nested at Valentia, Kerry, and Achill, Mayo, but did not breed on the Blaskets, Kerry, the Aran Islands, Galway, the remoter islands off the Galway and Mayo coast, Tory Island, Donegal (though they bred in the past), Inishtrahull, Donegal and Rathlin Island, Antrim. Jackdaws did nest on the islands of less exposed coasts such as the Copelands, Down, Lambay Island, Dublin, and the Great Saltee, Wexford (where about 50 pairs bred). Nowadays they nest on the Aran Islands (Breeding Atlas) and Rathlin Island. Cape Clear, Cork, was colonized in the late 1970s and nine pairs attempted to breed in 1984. At Great Saltee,

in contrast, numbers have declined, only 19 pairs bred in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and numbers remain low (0. J. Merne). In winter, Jackdaws are found throughout the country, with lower densities in the west and in upland areas (Winter Atlas). They feed mainly in pasture fields, especially where these have been grazed, though they will scavenge in gardens and around farmyards. They roost, usually with Rooks, in large communal woodland roosts. On the south coast large numbers of Jackdaws are frequently seen in late autumn at Great Saltee and Cape Clear. These flocks appear to be wanderers from the mainland which move out to the islands in high pressure conditions, but usually return after a few hours. There is immigration in autumn, however, from Britain and perhaps from the Continent but the scale of these movements is unknown.

Rook Corvus frugilegus Rooks are abundant birds in Ireland. They nest throughout the country with the exception of west Mayo and parts of south-west Galway where the absence of woodland restricts this and other three nesting species. The population in northern Ireland was censused in 1975 as part of a survey of rookeries in Britain and Northern Ireland (Sage & Vernon 1978). A total of 108,837 nests was counted in 2,765 rookeries, with the highest density in Londonderry where there was an average of 12.6 nests per km', much higher than in any county in Britain. Indeed, the average density in Northern Ireland of 8.0 pairs per km 2 was much greater than in England (3.9), Wales (1.9) or Scotland (3.3). The mean size of rookery was 39 nests, though there were two rookeries which had over SOO nests, Kinghill, Down (528), and Loughguile, Antrim (728). Rooks are birds of mixed agriculture, preferring areas of tillage and grassland (O'Connor & Shrubb 1986), and the farming economy of Northern Ireland provides the ideal habitat. In the Republic, rookeries were surveyed in Kildare in 1981 and a breeding density of 47.4 nests per km 2 was found, three-quarters of the birds being in rookeries of less than 100 nests (Macdonald 1985). This density is even higher than that found in Northern Ireland. The only information on density over most of the Republic is for the winter and it is clear that the numbers found in Northern Ireland and in Kildare are among the highest in the country. Numbers are high in much of the east and southeast but relatively low in the west (Winter Atlas). An increase was considered to have taken place in the first half of a twentieth century (Kennedy et aI 1954). Irish Rooks are resident and rather sedentary, though flocks visit marine islands in summer and autumn, typically in conditions of high pressure. Macdonald & Phelan (1986) have shown that east coast Rooks have a large feeding range in late summer and late winter, when food availability is low and the birds reproductively inactive. In spring, autumn and early winter, the feeding range is more restricted. On the east coast there is some evidence of

Corvus corax movement in spring and late autumn (Hutchinson 1975). Kennedy et al (1954) reported that Rook s had been seen departing in autumn from the west coast and immigrating at south-western and western light-stations, and considered that the immigrants were from the Continent. It seems more likely that these autumn movements were local ones, such as have been frequently observed at Cape Clear, Cork, when flocks come out from the mainland, fly south, then return after an hour or two, cawing loudly. Winter roosts number many thousands of birds at some woodland sites .

189

estuaries, where there is more food available for scavengers than in the past. Carrion Crows were extremely rare up to the 1950s. Breeding took place in Mayo in 1890 and in Down in 1949. In addition. a male interbred with a Hooded Crow in Down in 1908, a bird interbred with a Hooded Crow in Antrim in 1943. a male interbred with a Hooded Crow in north Dublin in 1935. and a female with a Hooded Crow in south Dublin from 1939 to 1948. A scattering of birds was recorded in various parts of the country, but Carrion Crows were considered rare vagrants (Kennedy et al19 54). In addition to these records a pair nested in Dublin in 1947 (Hutchinson 1975).

Carrion Crow/Hooded Crow Corvus corone The grey-and-black Hooded Crow C.c. cornix is the common race in Ireland, the all-black Carrion Crow C. c. corone being very scarce. Hooded Crows are ubiquitous. nesting Widely even in north-west Mayo where so few other tree-nesting species breed (Breeding Atlas). They use cliffs, small bushes, electricity pylons and other man-made structures for nest sites in the absence of trees. They were considered to have increased since 1924, to be still increasing in the 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954). and to have noticeably increased in the late 1950s and early 1960s (Ruttledge 1966). Certainly, in Dublin they did not become regular visitors to the North Bull until 1929. Nowadays, parties of 15 or 20 are normal there (Hutchinson 1975). In winter. Hooded Crows are widespread and numerous with relatively low densities only in parts of Donegal. Galway and Mayo (Winter Atlas). Ruttledge (1966) recorded that the largest flock on record was of 94 birds . Since then a number of flocks of 100 have been recorded and the largest published count is of 167 at Youghal, on 17th March 1978, suggesting that the increase continues. In Cork a total of 22,300 was reported shot in winters 1982/83 and 1983/84 by the Federation of County Cork Gun Clubs. At Cape Clear. Cork, numbers recorded annually have shown no sign of any change. and the number of breeding pairs in 1986. at 19. was less than the 25 located in 1985. so it may be that an increase (if such has occurred) has been localised in areas near towns and

From the late 19 50s onwards. Carrion Crows appear to have become more regular. in 1956 a pair bred in Kerry: in 1968-72 birds nested at several locations in Antrim and Down (Breeding Atlas) and presumably continue to do so. Certainly. Carrion Crows are now so widespread in winter, albeit in very small numbers, on the east and north-east coasts (Winter Atlas) that it seems probable they are nesting at several sites. At Cape Clear, Carrion Crows are rare autumn migrants. Hybrid Carrion/Hooded Crows are recorded in winter in Louth. Antrim and Down (Winter Atlas), and occasionally in Wexford (0. J. Merne).

Raven Corvus corax Ravens have increased considerably this century and now breed in most upland districts and on coastal cliffs. During 1968-72 they were proved to nest in all counties except Monaghan, Meath . Longford, Kildare and Offaly. In Dublin and Wicklow a survey of 45 nests showed that 22 were on inland cliffs. 14 in trees and the remainder in quarries,

190

Sturnus vulgaris

on sea-cliffs and on man-made structures (G. C. Noonan). In winter they were found to be more widespread from 1981/82 to 1983/84. possibly reflected some dispersion but also indicating that the breeding range may have expanded (Winter Atlas). Certainly. there has been a continued increase this century. Ravens were plentiful in Ireland in the nineteenth century. but persecution by gamekeepers and shepherds reduced numbers considerably until by 1900 distribution was largely coastal and none nested in Dublin. Fermanagh. Leitrlm. Londonderry. Sligo, Tyrone or Wexford (Ussher & Warren 1900). The recovery began early in the twentieth century and breeding recommenced in Dublin in 1917, Kilkenny in 1929. Wexford in 1944. By the early 19 50s. Ravens were again breeding in all the counties they had abandoned at the turn of the century. Indeed. six pairs were known in 1987 to breed in Kildare. where none was found in 1968-72 (G. C. Noonan). Irish densities have been reported as rather low with only 1.5 pairs per 10km square in Dublin and Wicklow (Breeding Atlas). However. nest sites are difficult to find and the Breeding Atlas data. which referred mainly to Wicklow. understated the real density in squares where Ravens were nesting. The long-term study of Ravens in 2.025 km 2 in Wick low and adjoining counties. on which the 1968-72 data was based. had resulted in the identification of 80 breeding territories by 1987. Visits were made to 62 in 1986. and 44 were occupied. Breeding was probably successful at 3 1 of these sites . six failed and the results at three were not known. Ten of the nests were in trees. but tree nests have been used at least once since 1940 in 44 of these 80 territories. Even though this study has been in progress since 1972 . six of the 80 breeding territories were not discovered until 1987. From 1972 to 1987 the mean brood size of 327 broods ringed was 3 .18 (G. C. Noonan) . In Northern Ireland. nesting was proved at 119 territories between 1980 and 1987. of which 114 were visited in 1987 and at least 97 were found to be occupied by pairs. Nesting occurred at a minimum of 87 sites, with 71 successful and at least 209 young fledged. However. the number of young fledged at some of these nests was not known for certain. At the 42 nests where brood size was counted accurately the mean was 3.28. Most of the ten nest failures were caused by storms in early March; at only one was human interference the cause. The nest sites were on natural cliffs (52). in quarries (25) or in trees (ten). Taking into account the level of coverage. the Northern Ireland population was estimated after the 1987 census at about 170 pairs of which about I 50 pairs nest annually 0. H. Wells). This is a density of about one pair per 10 km square. Ringing recoveries show that young birds disperse widely through suitable habitat. Numbers increase at Cape Clear . Cork. in autumn (Sharrock 1973). presumably because of dispersal of the local mainland population. One Scottish ringed bird has been recovered in Londonderry.

Starling Sturnus vulgaris Starlings are common nowadays everywhere in Ireland. but this was not always the case. In the mid nineteenth century they were common in winter and bred quite widely but not in large numbers. By the end of the century Starlings had bred in every county but were unknown in summer in west Cork. in mainland Kerry. and only a few scattered pairs were nesting in Wexford and Waterford (Ussher & Warren 1900). Numbers increased in the first half ofthe present century. By the early 19 50s Starlings nested in mainland Kerry but were still absent from the Dingle peninsula and scarce in west Cork. where the first breeding in Bantry was not proved until 1935. In Waterford and Wexford numbers were still low (Kennedy et al19 54). Cape Clear . Cork . and the Dingle peninsula were colonized about 1955. and the islands of Inlshbofin. Galway. and Achill. Mayo. in 1962 and 1965 respectively. By 1968-72 Starlings were nesting in virtually all the 10 km squares in the country (Breecling Atlas).

In late summer. large flocks of juveniles disperse widely. visiting islands such as Cape Clear from the end of June onwards (Sharrock 1973). Later in autumn there is massive immigration from the Continent. and in winter. when there is exceptionally hard weather, there are further arrivals. Most of the winter visitors are from Scandinavia. Holland. northern Britain, north Germany and Poland. At times thousands can be seen arriving in late autumn at Great Saltee, Wexford. where 5.00D-1O.000 birds have been recorded in a day in November (Perry & Warburton 1976). There are enormous roosts at some sites . In 1845 there were said to be 200.000 roosting in the Phoenix Park. Dublin. By 1954 that roost was said to be far larger. There is also a huge roost at the Dublin gasworks and at O'Connell Street. Dublin (Hutchinson 1975). Roosts of 25.000100.000 birds occur in several counties and are generally in woods. in reedbeds, on cliffs or on buildings. In many instances roosts of over 100.000 birds have assembled at

Passer montanus

191

one site for several years and have then deserted the area. Winter visitors leave in March and early April.

Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus The Rose-coloured Starling was recorded on about 37 occasions prior to 1953, on two occasions between 1953 and 1965, and ten times from 1966 to 1986. The records up to 1953 were in Antrim, Clare (three). Donegal (five), Down (three), Dublin (six), Galway (two). Kerry (four). Londonderry (two), Mayo (four), Meath, Monaghan, Tipperary (two) and Wexford (th ree). The month of occurrence is known for 29 records; these were in June (eight), Ju ly ( Ll ), August (five). September (three) and November (two) (Kennedy et aI1954). From 1953 to 1966 the only records were of single birds at Great Saltee. Wexford. from 25th to 28th September 1954 and at Cape Clear, Cork, from 31st August to 8th September 1961. The ten birds recorded since 1966 were in Cork (two). Down. Dublin, Fermanagh, Galway (three), Mayo and Wicklow and were in the months June (two), July (three). August (two). September (two) and November (one).

House Sparrow Passer domesticus House Sparrows are familiar birds of towns. farmyards, houses. factories and other buildings, breeding widely throughout the country. In 1968-72 they were found to be absent from only four of the 10 km squares with significant amounts ofland (Breeding Atlas). They form into flocks in autumn, and forage around farmyards. in gardens and in hedgerows for the winter. House Sparrows are very sedentary and autumn movements are limited. though birds have been reported from many marine islands and light-stations. The winter distribution shows the highest numbers in the north-east and east approximating to the areas of highest human population (W inter Atlas). House Sparrows withdraw from the mountains of Donegal. Wicklow and Kerry in winter. Kennedy et aI (1954) reported a decrease in the west and attributed it to replacement of thatched roofs with slate. Ruttledge (1966) believed that the decrease had continued but there are no quanutative data to verify this.

Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Tree Sparrows nest in small colonies around the coast. in the Lough Neagh basin and at a handful of other inland sites . The history of the species in Ireland is of decline and recovery. Tree Sparrows nested in Dublin in the nineteenth century, but had gone by the 1940s; two small colonies in Kerry had disappeared by the late 1940s; three Mayo colonies had been abandoned by the end of the 1930s; a Sligo colony was no longer in existence in 1948; colonies in Londonderry and Antrim had ceased to exist by the late 1940s. Only in Donegal could Kennedy et aI (1954) be sure that a few pairs continued to breed at Dunfanaghy. Even this colony had disappeared by 1956. In 1955 a few pairs bred in Londonderry, in 1956 a few in Down, and in 1957 and 1958 a few bred at the Gobbins, Antrim. In 1959 and 1960 there were scattered reports of Tree Sparrows but no report of breeding. In 1961 there were breeding reco rds in Donegal, Londonderry and Mayo . and about 50 birds were seen at Malin Head, Donegal. in October. In 1962 breeding was pro ved in Dublin. where 40 birds had Wintered . and in Down where 55 had been

192

Vireo olivaceus

seen in March. By 1965 breeding had been proved in Antrim, Armagh, Cork, Donegal, Down, Dublin, Galway, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Sligo, Waterford, Wexford and Wicklow. The colonies were all small, usually consisting of less than six pairs and that at St John's Point, Down, was considered the largest with about 12 pairs. Most birds nested in ruined buildings. The majority of colonies were on the coast, but even those inland were within sight of an expanse of water (Ruttledge 1966). During 1968-72, breeding was also proved in Clare, Fermanagh, Kerry, Kildare, Leitrim. Roscommon and Tyrone (Breeding Atlas). The population was obviously growing rapidly. In 1969/70 the winter population in north Dublin was estimated to be at least 300. In February 1970 a flock of 150 was on Oxford Island, Lough Neagh, Armagh. The winter distribution as mapped in 1981/82 to 1983/84 shows the largest numbers on the north coast (Donegal and Londonderry), around Lough Neagh, inland in Down, in Louth, Meath and north Dublin, and in Wexford. There were also records from a number of inland sites, but there were no Kerry records at all (Winter Atlas). Winter counts in north Dublin indicate a similar population level to that in the late 1960s. Tree Sparrows appear to be largely sedentary, but there have been records at coastal bird observatories. At Great Saltee, Wexford, ten were seen on 11 th May 19 59 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and at Cape Clear, Cork, there were four records in the period May to July from 1959 to 1969 (Sharrock 1973). Since then there have been several records, mainly in May and June. It may be that these are wandering adults searching for suitable breeding sites.

Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus

One was recorded prior to 1966, a bird picked up dead at the Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 4th October 1951. Since then eight have been recorded, six at Cape Clear, Cork, and one each in Waterford and Wexford. The Cape Clear records were on 6th and 7th October 1967, from 27th September to 2nd October 1978, on 24th September 1981, on 9th October 1982, from 2nd to 7th October 1985 and from 19th to 23rd October 1985. The other records were at Hook Head, Wexford, from 26th September to 1st October 1981, and at Brownstown Head, Waterford, on 17th October 1985.

Chaffinch Frlnqilla coelebs

Chaffinches are numerous breeding birds anywhere trees or bushes are to be found. They occur in highest densities in deciduous woodland but also frequent coniferous woodland, hedgerows, gardens, orchards, farmyards and scrub. In sessile oak woodlands Chaffinches were the most abundant bird species in three Kerry plots and in one out of two Wicklow plots sampled (Wilson 1977). Densities varied from 108 to 326 pairs per km". The lowest density was in ungrazed woodland. Simms (1972) found the Chaffinch the most abundant bird species in 19 sessile oakwoods he visited. In an area of sea buckthorn in Down, Chaffinches were the second most common species with a density of 156 pairs per km 2 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In autumn, large flocks of Chaffinches pour into the country from Fenno-Scandia and other parts of the Continent. The winter immigrants arrive from October to mid November but mainly in late October and early November. Most arrive first in south-east England, having crossed Europe south through Denmark, Belgium and Holland, and a proportion travel on to Ireland. The largest numbers are seen in Wexford, and flocks of 1,000 occur at times at Great Saltee. Numbers at Cape Clear, Cork, are usually low but the quite exceptional total of 9,500 was seen there on 29th and 30th October 1959. These immigrants consist largely of northern birds F. c. coelebs. which are larger and paler than our resident F. c. gengleri. Female Continental Chaffinches predominate because they usually migrate further than the males (Newton 1972). In winter, Irish birds tend to feed in small groups in woods or near hedges, whereas Continental Chaffinches feed in large flocks in fields. The winter distribution covers the entire country but the largest numbers are in the north, east and south-east (Winter Atlas). The winter visitors depart in mid March.

Brambling Fringilla montifringilla

The Brambling is a winter visitor from the Continent in varying numbers. From 1981/82 to 1983/84 Bramblings were found rather thinly across much of the country East of the River Shannon, but were very scarce in the west (Winter Atlas).

Philadelphia Vireo Vireo philadelphicus

The single record, the first for Europe, is of one at Galley Head, Cork, from 12th to 17th October 1985.

Bramblings are present from October to March, occasionally in April. They usually occur with Chaffinches and prefer areas with beechmast. There were unusually large numbers in the winters of 1949/50, 1952/53 and 1981/82 and 1983/84. Flocks of 100 and 300 were counted in Down and Wicklow, respectively, in 1952/53, and of 350 in Cork in 1983/84. Only in the east coast counties and in Cork have records been published of the numbers recorded over a number of years, and these clearly illustrate the fluctuations from year to year.

Carduelis spinus Number of Bramblinqs recorded in east coast counties of Louth, Meath, Dublin and Wicklow (source IECBR) and Cork (source CBR), 19801986 East coast Cork 1980 4 17 1981 60 9 1982 155 130 1983 40 45 1984 259 421 1985 43 25 1986 260 107

In summer single birds were seen in Down on 13th June 1910, and at Great Skellig, Kerry. from 8th to 15 th July 1943.

Serio Serinus serinus There have been six records. Single birds were captured by birdcatchers in Co Dublin in January 1893 and on 1st February 1907. One was seen and heard singing at Fermoy, Cork, in May 1947. Single birds were seen at Clogher Head, Louth, on 19th May 1974, at Cape Clear, Cork, on 11 th and 12 th November 1975, and at Galley Head, Cork, on 2nd October 1979.

193

Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis The Goldfinch breeds in every county and has extended its range in the past fifty years. In 1968-72, breeding was reported from all parts of Ireland, with a patchy distribution only in parts of Donegal. west Mayo, west Galway and west Kerry (Breeding Atlas). In the nineteenth century the Goldfinch was reduced in numbers by the activity of birdcatchers (Ussher & Warren 1900), but it increased after the passage of bird protection legislation in 1930 and 1931, especially in Ulster and north Donegal, though it was still scarce in west Donegal, west Mayo and west Kerry in the early 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954). By the early 1960s breeding had been proved on Achill Island, Mayo, and the Aran Islands, Galway, thought there had apparently been a decline in eastern counties (Ruttledge 1966). In autumn there is some immigration, which is particularly noticeable at Great Saltee, Wexford, from late September into November. Up to 50 a day have been recorded in November. At Cape Clear, Cork, similar passage is noted and up to 226 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). These birds may be British Goldfinches or else Irish ones moving south to winter on the Continent. In winter, Goldfinches are widespread, numbers in the west being as high as those in the east, reflecting their preference for open country rather than woodland. They are absent, however, from mountainous parts (Winter Atlas). A thin spring passage is noticeable at coastal headlands and islands in April and May.

Greenfinch Carduelis chloris The Greenfinch is a common resident species, breeding in all parts of the country, apart from relatively treeless parts of west Galway, west Mayo and north-west Donegal (Breeding Atlas). At the turn of the century Greenfinches were apparently absent from the coast of Donegal and from The Mullet, Mayo (Kennedy et al 1954). By the early 1960s they had extended into these areas, though thinly. There were reports of a decline in the 1960s (Ruttledge 1966) but no quantitative date have been published. In winter the highest densities are in the north-east, east and south, though Greenfinches winter throughout Ireland (Winter Atlas). After breeding, they assemble in flocks to feed on arable land, in recent years showing a preference for oil-seed rape. Flocks of 100 are not unusual in favoured areas. There is evidence of an increase at the coast in autumn, and numbers at bird observatories and lightstations are highest in September and October. Passage is again noticeable at these sites in April and May, but whether these are mainly local birds or involve birds from Britain and the Continent is unknown. A small number of British Greenfinches winter in Ireland, as shown by ringing recoveries, and a few Continental birds may do so as well.

Siskin Carduelis spinus Siskins have increased in numbers .and expanded their range this century, presumably in response to the spread of forestry plantations. In 1968-72 they were found widely distributed in forestry in Antrim, west Cork, Donegal, Fermanagh, Galway, Kerry, and Londonderry, and more patchily in other counties (Breeding Atlas). In the mid nineteenth century Slskins were winter visitors, but by 1900 breeding had been proved in 16 counties. By 1953, breeding had been proved in another six counties and suspected in three others (Kennedy et al 1954). Ruttledge (1966) reported that a serious decline in numbers had been reported in Donegal and certain other counties in recent years, but the distribution recorded in 1968-72 indicated a strong population. In autumn, Siskins wander from woodlands and reach places like Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork, where up to 103 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). Whether there is much immigration is unknown, but a bird ringed in Down in January 1982 was retrapped in Estonia the following autumn, and one ringed in West Germany in November 1974 was recovered in Limerick in spring 1975, so some Continental migrants certainly reach us. Ringing has also shown four cases of movement between Ireland and Britain. The winter distribution is rather patchy but indicates a shift towards the south, or perhaps some immigrants wintering in the southern half

194

Carduelis cannabina

of the country (Winter Atlas) . In the past five years there has been a marked increase in reports of birds coming to bird tables.

Linnet Carduelis cannabina Linnets are common and widespread birds which breed in almost every part of the country. including all suitable marine islands. though they appear to be rather scarce in central Ulster (Breeding Atlas). They feed on weed seeds and find these on farmland . young conifer plantations. scrubland. sand-dunes and waste land generally. Breeding densities on sand-dune systems are relatively high and have been found to range from three to 21 pairs per km 2 in Wexford (O.J. Merne). to 22 pairs per km 2 in Down (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Passage migration in autumn is heavy in Wexford. Up to 500 a day have been recorded at Great Saltee and 'great numbers' at Carnsore Point (Ruttledge 1966). Numbers at Hook Head. Wexford. build up from 100-200 in early August to 300--400 in mid to late September. with sometimes 1.000 in a day. Up to 400-600 winter at Hook Head (Lovatt 1984). Numbers up to 600 a day have been seen at Malin Head . Donegal. in October. At Cape Clear. Cork. the highest numbers are also in autumn and involve separate peaks in late August and in early October (Sharrock I 973). These birds are believed to be mostly on passage as relatively few Linnets winter in Ireland. Some Irish Linnets certainly move south to winter in western France and parts of Iberia and some British birds move into Ireland in autumn. though it may be that most move on south (Newton 1972). In winter Linnets are concentrated in the south and east of the country. especially near the coast and are absent from central and southern Ulster and much of Galway (Winter Atlas).

A spring passage is noted on a small scale in Wexford. but is more marked at Cape Clear 107'1\

Young Twite

Twite Carduelis flavirostris Twites have a restricted distribution. breeding on and near the coast from Rathlin Island. Antrim. west to Donegal and south to Kerry and west Cork . In 1968-72 . breeding was recorded far inland only in Carlow. Londonderry and Mayo . though suspected in north Wexford and Sligo (Br eeding Atlas). There are indications that Twites have declined in the past 80 years but little information is available on their past distribution. Ussher & Warren (1900) referred to nesting in Waterford and around Lough Neagh. neither of which is a breeding area now. They considered that Twites were common and characteristic birds of mountain and rocky coasts in all provinces. Twites bred in the mountains of Dublin and Wick low in 1900. and presumably in the 1950s as Kennedy et al (1954) did not refer to any change in status. but they were gone by the late 1960s. Winter distribution is similar to that in summer. except that small parties appear on estuaries and salt marshes as well as on bogland and heath (Winter Atlas) . There has clearly been a marked decrease in winter on the east coast. Kennedy (1953) recorded Twites as regular in winter on the North Bull. Dublin. sometimes in large numbers. and he had one record of several hundred. Nowadays. numbers on the east coast from Louth to Wick low are very low . From 1980 to 1985 more than five were recorded only in winter 1984/85 . when about 37 were seen (IECBR). Irish Twites appear to be sedentary. There was only one record at Great Saltee. Wexford (Perry & Warburton 1976). but there have been two spring. and a scattering of autumn records. at Cape Clear . Cork (CCBOR). In Northern Ireland. Twites winter regularly in small numbers at Lough Foyle. Londonderry. Duncrue Street marsh. Antrim, and Kinnegar, Down (W . McDowell). There are two ringing recoveries showing movement to or from Scotland. One ringed in Down in April was retrapped in Strathclyde. 73 km away, in May : one ringed in Inverness in August was found the following February in Donegal.

Carpodacus erythrinus

195

Redpoll Carduelis flam mea

Crossbill Loxia curvirostra

The Lesser Redpoll C.f. cabaret is a widely distributed species, breeding throughout the country, though with a large gap in Limerick in 1968-72 (Breeding Atlas). In 1900, Redpolls were believed to be increasing and, some time afterwards, Carlow and Kerry were added to the counties in which they breed. Redpolls were still scarce in Carlow in 1953 but were widespread in Kerry, where breeding had first been recorded in 1910. In the early 1950s breeding was known as far west as Achill Island and the Mullet, Mayo (Kennedy et al 1954). In autumn and winter, Redpolls wander widely in small flocks and clearly withdraw from the west and from mountains. In the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 much of west Clare, Donegal, Kerry, Londonderry and west Mayo were abandoned and the majority was recorded in the northeast and in central Ireland (Winter Atlas). Redpolls depend mainly on birch and alder seeds in winter, and wander in search of them. The paucity of records compared with the wide summer distribution suggests that many birds emigrate, but there are no ringing recoveries to indicate that this is so. Small parties have been recorded on Copeland, Down, Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork, mostly in autumn. There have been a few records of Redpolls showing the characters of other races. The Mealy Redpoll C.f. flammea, which breeds in northern Continental Europe, was recorded about 11 times prior to 1966 (Ruttledge 1966) and on three occasions since then. The recent records were of single birds in Kerry in October 1968, in Donegal in September 1976, and in Antrim in October 1977. There have been at least 11 records of birds showing characters of the Greenland Redpoll C. f. rostrata, mainly on the coasts of Donegal, Mayo and Kerry, and in the months September (at least eight), October (one) and November (one). The most recent record was of five at Tory Island, Donegal, in September 1960 (Ruttledge 1966). Birds showing characters of one of the northern forms, possibly the large, pale Arctic Redpoll C. hornemanni, though not accepted as such, were recorded in Armagh on 24th December 1958 (five). at Duncrue Street. Belfast Antrim, on 11th January 1958 (two), and at Malin Head. Donegal, on 21st October 1961 (one).

The Crossbill is a scarce and irregular breeding bird which visits Ireland in most years and arrives in large numbers in irruptive years. The first records of Crossbills in Ireland were in the early eighteenth century. Following a large-scale irruption in 1838 they nested in Tipperary and apparently did so for many years. There were smaller scale irruptions in 1807, 1868, 1881, and another large-scale one in 1888, after which Crossbills were reported breeding in 18 counties. After 1905. a marked decrease took place, but further irruptions in 1909, 1927. 1929 and 1935 restored numbers to an extent, but from 1935 onwards there was a steady decrease. Nesting was suspected in Tyrone after the 1927 irruption and was known in Laois from 1935 to 1937. Nesting took place in the 1940s at Muckross, Kerry, but there were no Dublin records between 1948 and 1953. By 1953 it was thought that breeding probably continued only on the south side of the Galtee Mountains in Tipperary (Kennedy et al1954). There were further invasions in 1953, 1958, 1959, 1962,1966,1972 and 1984. The 1962 invasion was the largest on record. In one wood in Wicklow at least 250 were present, but breeding records are still few. In 1957 at least one pair bred in Tyrone; in 1964 a pair almost certainly bred in Down; in 1967 Crossbills probably bred in south Dublin or Wicklow and they almost certainly did so in 1973 (Hutchinson 1975, Ruttledge 1966). Records of adults and juveniles in spring in 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981 and 1984 in Wicklow suggest breeding, as do records in spring in Londonderry in most years from 1980 to 1986, and in Waterford and Galway in 1982. Breeding was proved in Dublin in 1980 and in Wicklow in 1985. In Northern Ireland there were considered to be at least 200 Crossbills present in suitable breeding localities in spring 1985, some of which may have been the result of repeated influxes, but others were believed to have fledged in the area (NIBR 1982-85). In Fermanagh, young were seen in spring 1984 and breeding was believed to have taken place in 1983 as wellI]. S. Furphy). The 1984 invasion produced a total of at least 380 birds in Dublin and Wicklow in winter 1984/85, and breeding took place in Dublin in 1986 (O.J. Merne). Breeding was proved in Kildare in 1986. Unprecedented numbers (up to 91) were recorded in Cork from summer 1986 into winter 1986/87, and juveniles were seen. Crossbills have been recorded in October at Cape Clear, Cork, and in June and July at Great Saltee, Wexford.

Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera There have been four records. A female was killed at Grenville near Belfast, Antrim, on 11 th January 1802. A female was killed in Antrim about 1867. An adult male was shot at Tempo, Fermanagh, on 17th February 1895. An adult male was shot near Crumlln, Antrim, on 2nd August 1927.

Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus There were three records up to 1965 and 24 since then, indicating a real increase in occurrence, corresponding with an expansion of range in Europe. The three early records were of single birds at Tory Island, Donegal, on 8th September 1954, Great Saltee, Wexford, from 31st August to 4th September 1958, and

196

Pyrrhula pyrrhula

Ini sh trahull, Don egal. on 2 5th September 19 65. The su bseque n t re cords have been in 19 71 (on e) and the n an n ua lly from 19 75 to 19 8 6 . except for 1984 wh en n on e w as seen . Record s h ave been in Cork (19). Wex ford (fou r. including the sprin g re cord s) and Dow n (one). A sing le adu lt male in sprin g 19 86 . an d two in th e following a u tum n . were the first recorded. Scarlet Rosef tnch

1966 -86

we re record ed in Laois in ea rly May 1934 . an d near Lough Feea gh , Mayo. in mid April 19 52 . bu t n o ev ide nc e of br eeding was found on either occasion . Since 195 3 ther e h a ve been n in e records. Single bird s wer e record ed at lnlshbofln , Galway. on 10 th October 19 5 7: at Manor Kilbride . Wicklow , on 14th Decem ber 19 6 6 an d for seve ra l weeks a fterwards: at Cape Clea r. Cork. on 9th October 1969; a t Blackro ck . Dub lin . on 4th December 1970: at Ca pe Clea r on 15th Au gust 19 73 : at Cu llens town . Wex ford. on 19 th June 19 75 (fou n d dead); at Dursey Island. Cork. on 29th Octob er 1978 an d at Cape Clea r on 13th May 19 79 and 20 th Octo ber 19 85.

Ja n

Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula Bullfin ch es are res ide n t and in cr easing in number s. At the turn of the century they w ere consi de red to be inc rea sing (Usshe r & W arren 1900) and in th e early 19 50 s thi s was rep or ted to be con tin uing. and Bullfin ch es were found as far w est as Con ne mara , an d in Mayo to Westport an d Ach ill. In Kerry th ey were br eeding on th e Dingle peninsul a (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ). In 1 9 66 it was rep orted th at there h ad been a 'trem en dous in crease' in th e past three years. n ot on ly in th e breeding populati on but in wintering number s as we ll (Ru tt ledge 1966). The distribution . as m app ed in 1968-72. showed th at Bullfinch es did not breed in west Don egal. north-west Mayo. pa rts of wes t Ga lway. a nd were thi nl y distribu ted in west Kerry (B reeding A tlas) . For Achi ll. wher e n esting w as reported in 19 53. th ere wer e no records. Th e w in ter distribu tion in 19 81 / 82 to 1 9 8 3/ 84 showed th at Bullfinch es were then m or e widely distribu ted in Don egal. Galway a nd Ker ry. wer e record ed on Ach ill, but wer e still abse n t fro m m ost of n orth-w est Mayo (Wi nte r A tlas). Bullfin ch es a re pr edom inantly bird s of w oodland so th eir absence from th e Bog of Erris and surro u n din g landscap e is n ot surprising. A few Bullfinch es have been repor ted a t island bird obse rvato ries a n d at light-st ati on s. but those which have been examined in the h and h av e been of th e Irish and British bre ed ing race P. p. pileata . Th e on ly record of th e Con tine n ta l race P. p. py rrhula is of one trapped and rin ged in Galway in February 19 6 5.

Black-and-white Warbler M niotilta varia The re h a ve been two records. Sin gle bird s wer e see n at Cape Clea r. Cork. on 18th October 19 78 . and at Lou ghe rmo re Forest. London derry . from 30th Septem ber to 2nd October 19 84 .

Northern Parula Parula am ericana One w a s seen at Firke el. Cork . from 19th to 24th October 19 8 3.

Yellow -rurnped Warbler Dendroica coronat a Hawfinch Coccothra llstes coccotlrrallstes Haw finch es we re record ed on a bo ut 86 occasions in 23 co u nties in the n in eteen th cen tu ry by Ussher & Warren (1900). Th ey wer e regular wi n ter visito rs. especially to the Ph oen ix Park in Dubli n . to Cork a nd to Tippera ry . Hawfinch es we re recorded on a fu rt he r n in e or ten occasions in th e first decade of this century. but on ly 12 were recorded from 19 lito 19 53. Of th ese. two togethe r

Six bird s h ave bee n recorded . Th e first five we re at Cap e Clea r. Cork: one. see n on 7th and 8 th October 19 76 . appears to ha ve bee n killed by a Sparrow hawk as some of its feat he rs we re found th e da y afte r it w as last see n. Th e other Cape Clear reco rds were of one on 19th a n d 20th Octo ber 19 8 2. two on 10 th Octo ber 1983 . one rem ainin g to 19th . and one from 5th to 7th October 1985 . The fin al record was one at Loop Head . Cla re. from 3 I st Octo ber to 2nd Nove m ber 1986.

Calcarius lapponicus

1 97

Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica striata

Dark-eyed Junco Junco hyemalis

There have been four records. Single birds were recorded at Cape Clear, Cork, from 6th to 10th October 1976, from 24th to 31st October 1982 and on 6th October 1984. One was recorded at Hook Head, Wexford, from 5th to 15th October 1985.

One was shot at Loop Head, Clare, on 30th May 1905.

American Redstart Setophaqa ruticilla Single birds were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 13 th and 14th October 1968, and at Galley Head, Cork, from 13th to 15th October 1985.

Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus A first-winter bird of the nominate race S. a. aurocapillus

was found dead at Lough Carra Forest, Mayo, on 8th December 1977.

Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 10th and 11th September 1983.

Scarlet Tanager Piranqa olivacea There have been three records. A female was trapped and ringed at Copeland, Down, on 12th October 1963; a firstwinter female was seen at Firkeel. Cork, from 12th to 14th October 1985 and an adult male was seen at the same place on 18th October 1985.

Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus Lapland Buntings are scarce autumn passage migrants and winter visitors. Up to 1978/79 winter, records were very few but in recent years have become more frequent. Ruttledge (1966) reported Lapland Buntings as annual passage migrants in fluctuating numbers, arriving on the north, and more particularly the north-west, coast chiefly in September and October. There were only seven records for Ireland up to 1952 (Kennedy et aI 1954) but the subsequent increase was the result of more observations at remote coastal headlands and islands. In 1953 a total of about 300 was seen at Inishtrahull and Malin Head, Donegal, and at Magilligan Point, Londonderry. This influx appears to have been exceptional but observations in subsequent years at Tory Island, Inishtrahull and Malin Head, Donegal, and at Erris Head, Mayo, showed that Lapland Buntings were regular passage migrants in numbers up to 20-30 a day, once 70 at Tory. The earliest autumn record is of 15-20 at Tory on 27th August 1959. On the south coast, Lapland Buntings are scarce and not annual autumn migrants to Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Occasional birds have been seen in all the coastal counties except Antrim, Meath, Clare and Galway. In winter there were three records of single birds prior to 1953. From 1953 to 1965 the only record was of five at Wexford Harbour in January and February 1962. Since 1966 there have been a number of records of parties in winter, including 12 at Portmarnock, Dublin, in 1978/79, ten at the North Slob, Wexford, in 1983/84, 19 at Balbriggan, Dublin, in 1985/86, 11 at Ballycotton, Cork, 14 at Ballymacoda, Cork, ten at Hook Head, Wexford, and 20 at the South Slob, Wexford, in winter 1986/87. There is spring passage in March and April, but the numbers are lower than in autumn. One adult male was seen at Cape Clear on 27th May 1978, a very late date in spring.

120

Fox Sparrow Zonotrichia iliaca One was trapped and ringed at Copeland, Down, on 3rd June 1961.

80

40

White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis Two have been recorded: immature males were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 3rd April 1967, and at Duncrue Street marsh, Belfast, Antrim, from 1st December 1984 to May 1985.

Lapland Bunting

1966-86

198

Plectrophenax nivalis Achill Island, Mayo, and on Inishbofin , Galway. but noted their disappearance from Rathlin some time before 1945. Only one pair was found on lni shbofin in 1943 and none subsequently (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). In Northern Ireland. numbers are reported to have decreased in some areas in recent years (NIBR 1982-85) and there are now said to be no Yellowhammers in Fermanagh 0. S. Furphy) . At Cape Clear. Cork, there were estimated to be 35 pairs in 1965 (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). Flocks of up to 80 have been seen in April and 100 in September and October (Sharrock 1973), but such numbers are no longer seen and breeding numbers had declined to ten pairs by 1986 (Borton 1987). There have been spring records at Great Saltee, Wexford. at Copeland. Down. and at Tory Island. Donegal. Large numbers of Yellowhammers appear at times in autumn. At Malin Head. Donegal. where the species is normally common. a local irruption was recorded in 1963 when 500 were present on 28 September. In winter. from 1981 /82 to 1983/84. Yellowhammers were recorded in greatest densities in the east of the country. in Galway and in the north of the country, but where completely absent from much of the west and from most of Cavan. Ferrnanagh, Leitrim and Roscommon (Winter Atlas). Since Yellowhammers are thought to be largely sedentary this absence may be due to a decline in numbers. or to the difficulty encountered by observers in locating the birds in areas where less time was spent in the field.

Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Snow Buntings are principally autumn passage migrants and winter visitors in small numbers. Ruttledge (1966) noted that the majority occurred on the west and north coasts. but that Snow Buntings were found in all maritime counties. Numbers fluctuated and. while flocks usually totalled about 20 birds . in good winters flocks of 150-200 were seen. Since 1966 numbers have continued to fluctuate from winter to winter. exceptional winters being 1970/71 when 260 were seen at Strangford Lough. Down. and 200 at Dunseverick, Londonderry, and 1985/86. when up to 1,000 were at Lough Foyle. In the three winters 1981 /82 to 1983/84. Snow Buntings were found in quite small numbers on the west, north and east coasts and in very small numbers on the south coast. the largest numbers being found near Lough Neagh, Antrim. Only in Donegal and a very few other locations were Snow Buntings found inland (Winter Atlas). though it has been suggested that in fact Snow Buntings winter quite widely in small numbers in mountains in Northern Ireland (J. S. Furphy). At coastal sites such as Cape Clear. Cork. Snow Buntings are rare autumn migrants. In late May 1977 a male was seen in Donegal carrying food on a number of dates but no further evidence of breeding was obtained.

Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana Ortolan Buntings are rare autumn migrants and vagrants in spring. Prior to 1966 they were considered to be almost annual in occurrence and there had been records in April (one), May (two), August (four) . September (14) and October (seven). All the records were from Great Saltee, Wexford. or Cape Clear. Cork , except for two in Donegal. one in Antrim. one in Mayo and two in Wick low (Ruttledge 1966). Ortolans are rarer now than in the 1960s. with records in only 13 of the years from 1966 to 1986. Of the records since 1966, one was in Louth. one at Hook Head. Wexford, two at the Old Head of Kinsale and two at Dursey Island. Cork. and the remainder were at Cape Clear. The lack of manning at Great Saltee since the early 1960s has presumably been responsible for the absence of records there.

Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella Yellowhammers are widespread but rather thinly distributed birds of open country. They frequent farmland. woodland edge. bracken-covered hills . scrub and young conifer plantations. In 1968-72 they were found breeding or probably breeding in all but a handful of 10 km squares (Breeding Atlas). There have been sporadic reports of decreases and Ruttledge (1966) noted that Yellowhammers had withdrawn from some islands off the west coast and from Rathlin Island. Antrim. Kennedy et al (1954) found Yellowhammers plentiful on the Mullet and

15

Ortolan 8unt;ng 1

Jan

1966-86

Emberiza melanocephala

199

Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica There have been two records. One was seen at Cape Clear. Cork. on 9th October 1959 and one was trapped and ringed at Loop Head. Clare. on 13th October 1985.

Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla There were four records prior to 1953. and five between 1954 and 1965 . Since 1966 a further six have been recorded. The records up to 1965 were in Clare. Donegal (two). Dublin (four) and Wexford (two). and in the months February. April. September (two). October (three). November and December (Ruttledge 1966). A previously accepted record in Antrim in 1955 is no longer considered acceptable (NIBR 1982-85). Since 1966. single birds were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from 11th to 17th October 1973. from 7th to 11th October 1975 and on 11th and 12th October 1980. In addition. single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 7th and 8th May 1983. at Dursey Island. Cork. on 22nd and 23rd October 1983 and at Galley Head. Cork. from 25th to 28th October 1986.

Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola There have been three records. One was seen at Tory Island. Donegal. on 18th September 1959; single birds were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from lIth to 20th September 1983 and on 18th September 1985 .

Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus Reed Buntings breed throughout Ireland and are increasing in numbers. They nest in a variety of habitats. ranging from reedbeds to hedges. and appear to expanding into drier areas. particularly young plantations. In 1968-72 they were found breeding in every part of the country and on a number of marine islands. though not on the Aran Islands. Galway (Breeding Atlas). Densities in sand-dune systems are quite high with 11-27 pairs per km 2 in Wexford and 18 in Down (O.J. Merrie . Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In autumn. apparently irruptive behaviour was observed at Malin Head. Donegal. where over 350 were seen on 28th September 1963. a date on which large numbers of Yellowhammers were also seen. On the islands of Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Cork. there is evidence of increases in March and October suggesting some movement. Most Reed Buntings leave Cape Clear in winter (Sharrock 1973).

The winter distribution encompasses most of the country. though Reed Buntings abandon the mountains of Antrim. Wicklow and Donegal. and parts of west Mayo (Winter Atlas). Densities of wintering Reed Buntings do not appear to differ between north and south or between east and west.

[Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps] Eight adult males were recorded between 1951 and 1964. but it is likely that most. if not all. had escaped from captivity. Single birds were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 22nd and 23rd September 1951; Tory Island. Donegal. on 26th April 1953; Belmullet. Mayo. on 8th June 1953; Inishtrahull, Donegal. on 10th September 1953; Great Saltee on 5th May 1962; Cape Clear. Cork . on 26th July 1962; Ballycotton. Cork. on 23rd and 24th June 1964 and at Cape Clear on 14th September 1964. In addition there have been at least two summer records in Northern Ireland (NIBR 1982-85)

Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala There have been three records. Single males were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 31 st May 1950. at Ballymore, Wexford. on 28th November 1958. and at Wicklow Head. Wicklow. on 13th May 1979.

200

Miliaria calandra

Corn Bunting Miliaria calandra The Corn Bunting bred in every county except Leitrim at the turn of the century and was common in the coastal counties. It was believed to be decreasing in west Kerry, west Cork, Laols, Offaly and Roscommon (Ussher & Warren 1900). By the early 1950s the range was reduced to cultivated headlands and islands. Small numbers bred on the Dingle peninsula in Kerry: at Youghal Bay and near Ballycotton in east Cork: around Crookhaven, at the Mizen Head and on and near Dursey Island in west Cork: near Helvick Head and Tramore in Waterford: on the south Wexford coast; quite widely in Galway and Mayo: at a few spots in Donegal: and at a handful of sites in Antrim and Down (Kennedy et al 1954). Breeding had not been recorded in Clare since 1947, in Tipperary since 1940 or in Dublin since 1947. This decline has continued, though there was a small revival in Dublin in 1954 when several pairs were found in song west of Malahide. By 1956 none was present and the hedges where the birds had been found had been levelled. In 1968-72 the breeding population was centred on the south Wexford and Waterford coasts, on the west Galway and west Mayo coasts, in north Donegal and on the Ards peninsula in Down (Breeding Atlas). In Cork and Kerry a very few pairs bred at isolated headlands and there was a record inland in Clare which probably did not relate to a breeding pair. Numbers declined in the 1970s and none was recorded in breeding habitat in Cork after 1976. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84, Corn Buntings were only recorded in one 10km square in Wexford, two in Galway, three in Mayo, one in Donegal and one in Down, indicating that Corn Buntings are now rare birds in Ireland. At Inishbofln, Galway, Corn Buntings were plentiful in 1943 but the number of singing males was reduced to six in 1956, 11 in 1968 and eight in 1976 (Hutchinson &

Ruttledge 1978). There have been several records at Great Saltee, Wexford, mostly in spring, presumably involving birds which have wandered across from the adjoining mainland, and only one record at Cape Clear in the past 25 years.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus There have been six records. A first-year male was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 7th and 8th October 1962: a firstyear female was seen at Cape Clear on 11th and 12th October 1979: in 1983 first-year males were seen at Cape Clear from 9th to 15th October, at the Bull Rock, Cork, on 10th October and at Pirkeel, Cork, on 19th and 20th October: and a first-winter female picked up injured near Kilmore, Wexford, on 3rd October 1985 died on 7th October.

Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea An immature bird at Cape Clear, Cork, from 9th to 19th October 1985 was trapped and ringed on 11th October.

Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus There have been two records. One was seen at Hook Head, Wexford, from 12th to 14th October 1971. One, trapped and ringed at Cape Clear, Cork, was seen from 13th to 24th September 1982.

APPENDIX 1

List of local bird reports

Bird occurrences in Co. Waterford, 1972-73. 1974-75. Cape Clear bird observatory report. Annual 1959 to 1969. 1970-71, 1972-74. 1975-77, 1978. 1979. 1980-82. 1983-84. 1985-86. Copeland bird observatory report, Annual since 1956. Cork bird report. Annual under several titles 1963 to 1971, 1976 to 1986. Dublin and north Wicklow bird report 1969. 1970. Dublin and Wicklow bird report . Annual 1971 to 1973. 1974-75. Irish east coast bird report. Annual 1980 to 1986. Louth bird report . 1974. 1975.

Malin Head bird observatory report. 1961-64. 1965. Northern Ireland bird report , 1980-81, 1982-85. Report on bird occurrences in County Waterfo rd. 1971. Tory Island bird report. 1958-59, 1960. 1961. 1962. 1963-64. Tory Island bird report , Mullet bird report. Tory 1965. Mullet 1966. W exford bird report. Annual 1970 to 1972, 1977-80. 1981-82.1983-84.

Most of these reports a re available for consultation in the IWC's library.

201

202

Appendix 2 APPENDIX 2

Principal organisations

Republic of Ireland

Northern Ireland

Irish Wildbird Conservancy Ruttledge House, 8 Longford Place, Monkstown, Dublin. Branches (20) in Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Donegal, Dublin Central, Dublin North, Dublin South, Fingal, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, Liffey Valley, Mayo, North Munster, Sligo, Tipperary, Waterford, West Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow.

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Belvoir Forest Park, Belfast BT8 4QT. Members' groups (7) in Antrim, Bangor, Enniskillen, Larne, Limavady and Lisburn.

Cape Clear Bird Observatory Address of Secretary available from Irish Wildbird Conservancy.

Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club Address of Secretary available from RSPB. Copeland Bird Observatory Address of Secretary available from RSPB.

APPENDIX 3

Scientific names of plants, fishes and mammals named in the text Plants Holly Ilex aquifolium Bramble Rubus fruticosis Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Hawthorn Crataequs monogyna Gorse Ulex sp. Ling Calluna vulgaris Heather Erica sp. Rhododendron Rhododendronponticum Sea Buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides Elm Ulmus sp. Birch Betula sp. Sessile oak Quercus petraea Pedunculate oak Quercus robur Beech Fagus sylvatica Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Norway spruce Picea abies Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis Yew Taxus sp. Bracken Pteridium aquilinum Eelgrass Zostera sp.

Fishes Eel Anguilla anguilla Salmon Salmo salar Roach Rutilus rutilus Wrasse Crenilabus sp. Mammals Pygmy shrew Sorex minutus Rabbit Oryctalagus cuniculus Bank vole Clithriononys qlareolus Wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus Brown rat Rattus norveqicus Mink Mustela vison

Belfast,

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Hall, J.J. 1981. The Cock of the Wood. Irish Birds 2: 38-4 7. Harradine, J. 1986. 'Jack Snipe' in Lack, P. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Harris, M. P. 1984. The Puffin. Calton. Haworth, P. 1986. An upland survey of west Galway. Unpublished Report to World Wildlife Fund (U.K.). Heppleston, P. B. 1971. The feeding ecology of Oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralequs L.) in winter in northern Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 40:651-672.

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Hudson, A. 1982. Great Black-backed Gulls on Great Saltee Island. 1981. Irish Birds 2:167-175.

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General Index Afforestation 25 . 26.27.41 - species adversely affected by 26. 27 . 41 - species benefiting from 26. 27. 41. 87. 1 71 Agricultural changes 24 . 25 . 42 - species adversely affected by 25 . 42 - species benefiting from 25 . 42. 70 Censuses and surveys (see also monitoring studies) - of individual species 12 . 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 28 . 32. 33 . 36. 3 7. 49. 52 . 54.56 .57.58.59.60.62.64.65.66.67.68.70.87.90. 91.92.93.95.98.99.102.106.112.113 .115 .122. 123.125.126.128.129 .130.131. 13 2. 133. 134. 135. 137.138.140.141.142.147.150.161.166.167.169. 170.172.173.183.187.188.189.190 - of bird communities 11. 16. 17. 18. 19 . 20. 21 . 22 . 23. 24. 26.27.28.34.35.37.45.47.77.78 . 83.102.103.104. 106 Climatic change 14 Colonisation - recent 40. 42 . 44. 84. 85 . 99 . 109. 114. 136. 144.173.182 Disturbance - sensitivity to 70 Egg-collecting 31 Habitat loss du e to - afforesta tion 27 - agricultura l cha n ges 24 . 25 - draining 2 3. 24. 35 Hybridisation 69 . 189 Internationally important wetlands 18 . 19 . 2 0

Introductions 44. 69 . 9 3 Irruption /irruptive movements 160 . 192. 195 Legislation 31. 34 . 3 7. 38 Management for con servation 34 Migration studies 34. 111. 154 Monitoring studies (see also censuses and su rveys): Common Birds Census 26.27.28.36 grebes 20 pa sserines 22. 23 . 24 . 26. 28 . 33 . 4 7 raptors 36 . 86 . 87. 88. 90. 91 . 92 seabirds 12.16.17.28.35.47 waders 18.19.20.21. 22. 45. 47.117 wildfowl 18. 19.20.21. 22 . 23. 45. 47.77 Moorland - afforestation 41. 87 Nationally important breeding populations 16. 19 . 20 . 22 Oiling and mortality 138 Operation Seafarer 35 PCBs 35 Pesticides 36. 91. 92 'Pest' species 29 Pollution 35 Population decline . due to - disea se 125 - habitat loss 19.66.86. 87.96.97. 108 -mortality in winter 14 . 26. 2 7.131.1 32 .154.166.175 - pesti cides 3 6. 91 - other cau ses 42.43.50.64.68.70.75.77. 78. 79 .81. 8 2 . 83.93 .100.101 .133 .134.142.149.194.200

209

210

Index

Population increases - recent 40,41, 42, 43. 49. 50, 51, 52. 57, 58.59,60,64,66.68.70,73,75,85,88.109,120.121. 123.127,128.129.130,137,138,144,145,176,177. 186.190 Predation 127 Range contraction - cause uncertain 42,43,64, 100, 101, 149 - due to habitat loss 41, 66, 86, 87. 96. 97 Range expansion - recent 40.41,42,43.49,50.51, 52, 58, 59, 65.81.123.144.145.176,177,186,190 Research/species studies 19, 28,32,33,36, 47 59.62,64,67, 70,71.74,81,82,88,90,91.92,93,94,109,123,124, 127.188, 189,190 J

Reserves 34 Shooting 29, 31, 38,42, 67,70,94,144,186 Threats/potential threats 34 Weather - and migration 53, 118. 119, 121 - and mortality 14, 182, 183 - and movements 14, 64 Woodland - bird communities 26.27 - changes 25,26,27

Species Index Page references of species account s in bold num erals Accipiter gentili s 87 nisu s 87 Acrocephalus agricola 172 arund inaceus 1 73 dum etorum 173 paludicola 1 72 schoenobaenus 172 scirpaceus 173 Actitis hypoleucos 11 5 macularia 11 5 Aegithalos caudatus 182 Aix galericulata 72 Alauda arvensis 154 Alba tross . Black-b rowed 51 Alca torda 138 Alcedo al!hi s 1 50 Alectoris rufa 93 Alle alle 140 Anas acuta 75 am ericana 72 clypeata 76 crecca 73 discors 76 fo rmosa 73 penelope 72 platyrhynchos 74 rubripes 75 querquedula 75 strepera 73 Anser albifrons 66 anser 67 brachy rhynchus 66 caerulescens 69 ery thropus 67 fabalis 66 Anthus campestris 156 cervinus 157 hodgsoni 156 novaeseelandiae 156 pratensis 1 57 rubescens 1 58 spinoletta 158 trivialis 156 Apus affinis 150

apus 149 m elba 150 Aquila chry saetos 89 clanqa 89 Ardea cinerea 62 purpurea 63 Ardeola ralloides 61 Arenaria interpres 11 5 Asio flamm eus 148 otus 148 Athene noctua 147 Auk . Great 139 Littl e 140 Avocet 98 Aythya collaris 78 f erina 77 [uliqula 78 marila 79 nyroca 78 Bartramia longicauda 112 Bee-eater 151 Bittern 60 Americ an 61 Little 61 Blackbird 26. 168 Blackcap 26. 43 . 176 Bluethroat 163 Bobolink 41 . 20 0 Bombycilla qarrulus 16 0 Botaurus lentiginosus 61 stellaris 60 Brarnbling 192 Branta bernicla 70 canadensis 69 leucopsis 70 Bubulcus ibis 61 Bucephala clanqula 83 Bullfinch 196 Bulweria bulwerii 52 Bun ting. Black-h eaded 199 Corn 42.200 Indig o 41 .200 Lapland 197

Little 199 Orto lan 198 Red-head ed 44. 199 Reed 2 2 . 4 2.199 Ru stic 199 Snow 23 .198 Yellow-breasted 199 Burh inus oedicnemu s 98 Bush Robin. Rufou s 162 Bustard. Gre at 9 7 Little 97 Buteo buteo 88 laqopus 88 Buzzard 1 6. 42. 4 4. 88 Hon ey 85 Rough-Legged 89 Calandrella brachyda ctyla 153 rufescens 153 Calcarius lapponicus 19 7 Calidris alba 103 alpina 106 bairdii 104 canut us 102 [erruqinea 105 fuscicollis 104 maritima 106 melan otos 105 minuta 103 minutilla 104 pusilla 103 temminckii 104 Calonectris diom edea 52 Capercaillie 30. 93 Caprimulgus europaeus 149 Carduelis cannabina 194 carduelis 193 jIammea 195 fla virostris 194 spinus 193 Carpodacus ery thrinus 195 Catbird. Gray 41. 162 Catharu s m inim us 167 ustulatus 167

211

212

Index

Cepphus grylle 139 Cercotrichas galactotes 162 Certhia famiIiaris 184 Ceryle aleyon 151 Cettia cetti 1 71 Chaffinch 26,27.192 Charadrius alexandrinus 99

dubius 99 hiaticula 99

Diomedea melanophris 51 Dipper 20.22.30.161 Diver. Black-throated 48 Great Northern 12.48 Red-throated 48 White-billed 41. 49 Dolichonyx oruzivorus 200 Dotterel 28, 40, 41, 99 Dove, Collared 40. 41. 42,144 Rock 142 Stock 25.43,143 Turtle 145 Dowitcher. Long-billed 108 Short-billed 40, 41. 108 Duck, American Black 75 Ferruginous 78 Long-tailed 43. 80 Ring-necked 78 Ruddy 40.41,44,85 Tufted 20.43.78 Dumetella carolinensis 162 Dunlin 106 Dunnock 162

morinellus 99 vociferu« 99 Chettusia gregaria 101 Chiffchaff 43. 179 Chlidonias hybridus 135 leucopterus 136 niger 136 Chough 19. 187 Ciconia ciconia 63 Cinclus cinclus 161 Circus aeruqinasus 86 cyaneus 86 pygargus 87 Cisticola iuncidis 171 Clamator glandarius 146 Clanqula hyemalis 80 Coccothraustes coccothraustes 196 Coccyzus americanus 146 erythrophthalmus 146 Colaptes auratus 152 Columba Iivia 142 oenas 143 palumbus 143 Coot 96 American 41. 96 Coracias qarrulus 1 51 Connorant16, 17. 37.41,42,47, 57 Corncrake 22,41, 42, 95 Corvuscorax 189 corone 188 frugilegus 188 monedula 188 Coturnix coturnix 93 Courser, Cream-coloured 98 Crake, Baillon's 95 Little 95 Spotted 94 Crane 96 Sandhill 97 Crex crex 95 Crossbill, Common 195 Two-barred 195 Crow, Carrion/Hooded 24, 30, 42, 189 Cuckoo 146 Black-billed 146 Great-spotted 146 Yellow-billed 146 Cuculus canorus 146 Curlew 14.18,20.21.22,47,112 Eskimo III Cursorius cursor 98 Cygnus columbianus 64 cygnus 65 olor 64

Falco columbarius 90 naumanni 89 peregrinus 91 rusticolus 91 subbuteo 91 tinnunculus 90 vespertinus 90 Falcon, Red-footed 90 Ficedula hypoleuca 182 parva 181 Fieldfare 169 Firecrest 40, 43 180 Flamingo, Greater 63 Chilean 63 Flicker, Northern 44. 152 Flycatcher, Pied 27.28,40.41,182 Red-breasted 181 Spotted 43, 181

Delichon urbica 156 Dendrocopos major 152 Dendroica coronata 196 tiqrtna 197

Fregata sp. 60 magnificens 60 Frigatebird sp, 60 Frigateblrd, Magnificent 60

Eagle, Golden 40. 89 Spotted 89 White-tailed 86 Egret, Cattle 41. 61 Great White 41, 61 Little 61 Bqretta alba 61 garzetta 61 Eider 80 King 80 Emberiza aureola 199 bruniceps 199 citrinella 198 hortulana 198 melanocephala 199 pusilla 199 rustica 199 schoeniclus 199 Eremophila alpestris 154 Erithacus rubecula 163

Pratercula arctica 141

Fringilla coelebs 192 monitfrinqtlla 192 Pulica americana 96 atra 96 Fulmar 16,41, 42, 47, 51 Fulmarus glacialis 51

Gadfly petrel sp, 52 Gadwall 43, 73 Gallinago gallinago 108 media 108 Gallinula chloropus 96 Gannet 11. 12, 16, 17.29.39,43,47, 57 Garganey 75 Garrulusqlandartus 186 Gavia adamsii 49 arctica 48 immer48 stellata 48 Gelochelidon nilotica 130 Glareola nordmanni 98 pratincola 98 Godwit, Bar-tailed, 12, 18, III Black-tailed 12, 18, 19. 20,22,40. 41, 109 Goldcrest 26,27,28,43,180 Goldeneye 20. 83 Goldfinch 193 Goosander 40,41.84 Goose, Barnacle 12, 13, 18, 19, 20. 36, 70 Bean 66 Brent 12, 18. 19, 36.43, 70 Canada 69 Greylag 43,67 Lesser White-fronted 41, 67 Pink-footed 66 Snow 69 White-fronted, 12, 18. 19, 20, 22, 23, 36,37,42.66,67,69 Goshawk 87 Grebe, Black-necked 44, 51 Great Crested 20. 42. 49 Little 20. 49 Red-necked 50 Slavonian 50 Greenfinch 193 Greenshank 18,28.40.41,114 Grosbeak, Rose-breasted 200 Grouse, Red 41,42.92 Grus canadensis 97 grus 96 Guillemot 12, 16, 17, 31, 41, 42, 136 Black 16, 139 Brunnlch's 40,41.138 Gull, Black-headed 20, 28, 41, 42. 43, 121 Bonaparte's 121 Common 20.28,41.42.43,123 Glaucous 127 Great Black-backed 17,20,127 Herring 20,28,41, 42, 125 Iceland 126 Ivory 130 Laughing 46.120 Lesser Black-backed 20, 41. 43. 124 Little 41,43, 120 Mediterranean 41,43,120 Ring-billed 13,41, 122

Index Ross's 41, 128 Sabine's 11, 121 Gyps [ulvus 86 Gyrfalcon 91 Haematopus ostralegus 97 Haliaeetus albicilla 86 Harrier, Hen 27, 32,41,42,86 Marsh 86 Montagu's 87 Hawfinch 196 Heron, Grey 29, 43, 62 Night 61 Purple 63 Squacco 61 Himantopus himantopus 98 Hippolais icterina 1 74 pallida 173 polyglotta 174 Hirundapus caudacutus 149 Hirundo daurica 155 rustica 155 Hobby 91 Hoopoe 151 Hydrobates pelogicus 55

Ibis, Glossy 63 Ixobrychus minutus 61 Jackdaw 43,188 Jay 41, 42,186 Junco, Dark-eyed 197 Junco hyemalis 197 Jynx torquilla 152 Kestrel 23, 90 Lesser 89 Killdeer 99 Kingfisher 14, 20, 22, 30, 150 Belted 29, 41,151 Kite, Black 41,85 Red 85 Kittiwake 11, 12, 16, 17,43,47, 128 Knot 12, 18, 102 Lagopuslagopus 92 Lanius collurio 184 excubitor 185 minor 185 senator 185 Lapwing 14,20,21,22,31,47,102 Lark, Shore 154 Lesser Short-toed 153 Short-toed 153 Larus arqentatus 125 atricilla 120 canus 123 delawarensis 122 fuscus 124 glaucoides 126 hyperboreus 127 marinus 127 melanocephalus 120 minutus 120 philadelphia 121 ridibundus 121 sabin; 121 Limicola [alctnelius 107

Limnodromus griseus 108 scolopaceus 108 Limosa lapponica 111 limosa 109 Linnet 194 Locustella certhiola 171 Iuscinioides 172 naevia 171 Loxia curvirostra 195 leucoptera 195 Lullula arborea 153 Luscinia megarhynchos 163 svecica 163 Lymnocryptes minim us 107

Magpie 28,29,30,42,186 Mallard 30, 36, 74 Mandarin 72 Martin, House 156 Sand 42,154 Melanitta fusca 82 nigra 81 perspicillata 82 Merganser, Hooded 83 Red-breasted 84 Mergus albellus 83 cucullatus 83 merganser 84 serrator 84 Merlin 23, 41, 42,90 Merops apiaster 151 Micropalama himaniopus 107 Miliaria calandra 200 Milvus migrans 85 milvus 85 Mniotiita vario 196 Moniicola saxatilis 167 Moorhen 20, 22, 96 Motacilla alba 159 cinerea 159 citreola 159 flava 158 Muscicapa striata 181 Netta rujina 77 Nightingale 30,163 Night jar 41, 42, 149 Numenius arquata 112 borealis 111 phaeopus 111 Nuthatch 27,28 Nyctea scandiaca 147 Nycticorax nucticorax 61

Oceanites oceanicus 55 Oceanodroma leucorhoa 57 castro 57 Genanthe hispanica 167 leucopyga 167 leucura 167 oenanthe 167 pleschanka 167 Oriole, Golden 184 Oriolus oriolus 184 Osprey 30, 40, 89 Otis tarda 97 Otus scops 147 Ouzel, Ring 23 168 t

Ovenbird 41,197 Owl, Barn 43, 146 Little 147 Long-eared 43,148 Scops 147 Short-eared 148 Snowy 147 Tawny 27,28 Oxyura iamaicensis 85 Oystercatcher 18, 19, 97 PagophiIa eburnea 130 Pandion haliaetus 89 Panurus biarmicus 182 Partridge, Grey 25, 30, 41, 42, 93 Red-legged 93 Parula americana 196 Parula, Northern 196 Parus ater 183 caeruleus 183 major 183 Passer domesticus 191 montanus 191 Passerina cuanea 200 Perdix perdix 93 Peregrine 23,30,31,36,37,42,91 Pernis apivorus 85 Petrel, Bulwer's 52 Leach's 11, 32, 57 Madeiran 57 Soft-plumaged 52 Storm 11, 12, 16,17,55 Wilson's 55 Phalacrocoraxaristotelis 60 carbo 58 Phalarope, Grey 32, 117 Red-necked 31, 116 Wilson's 116 Phalaropusfulicarius 11 7 lobatus 116 tricolor 116 Phasianus colchicus 94 Pheasant 30. 94 Pheucticus ludovicianus 200 Philomachus pugnax 107 Phoenicopterus chilensis 63 ruber 63 Phoenicurus ochruros 163 phoenicurus 164 Phylloscopus bonelli 178 borealis 177 collybita 179 [uscatus 178 inornatus 177 proregulus 1 77 schwarzi 177 sibilatrtx 1 78 trochiloides 177 trochilus 1 79 Pica pica 186 Picus viridis 152 Pinquinus impennis 139 Pintail 75 Pipit. American 158 Meadow 23,157 Olive-backed 41, 156 Red-throated 157 Richard's 156

213

214

Index

Pipit--eontinued

Rock 158 Tawny 156 Tree 27,156 Water 158

Piranqa olivacea 197 Platalea leucorodia 63 Plectrophenax nivalis 198 Plegadis falcinellus 63

Plover, American Golden 100 Golden 12, 14, 18,20,21.22.23,47, 100 Grey 12, 18, 101 Kentish 99 Little Ringed 40,99 Pacific Golden 100 Ringed 19, 99 Sociable 101 Pluvialis apricaria 100 dominica 100 [ulva 100 squatarola 101 Pochard 20, 77 Red-crested 77 Podiceps auritus 50 cristatus 49 qriseqena 50 niqricollis 51

Porzana carolina 94 parva 95 porzana 94 pusilla 95

Pratincole, Black-winged 98 Collared 98 Prunella modularis 162 Pterodroma sp. 52

Puffin 16, 17, 141 Puffinus assimilis 55 gravis 53 qriseus 53 puffinus 54 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 187 Pyrrhula pyrrhula 196

Quail 25, 93 Rail, Water 94 Rallus aquatic us 94 Raven 23,24,42, 189 Razorbilll2, 16, 17,31,43,138 Recurvirostra avosetta 98

Redpoll 195 Redshank 12, 18,22, 113 Spotted 112 Redstart 27,28,43, 164 American 41, 197 Black 163 Redwing 170 Regulus ignicapillus 180 regulus 180 Rhodostethia rosea 128 Riparia riparia 154 Rissa tridactyla 128

Robin 26,27,29, 33,43, 163 American 171 Roller 151 Rook 25,28,188

Rosefinch, Scarlet 195 Ruff 107 Sanderling 18,19,103 Sandgrouse, Pallas's 142 Black-bellied 142 Sandpiper, Baird's 104 Broad-billed 107 Buff-breasted 13, 107 Common 115 Curlew 105 Green 114 Least 104 Marsh 41,113 Pectoral 13, 105 Purple 18, 106 Semipalmated 41,103 Solitary 41, 114 Spotted 115 Stilt 41, 107 Upland 112 White-rumped 104 Wood 115 Saxicola rubetra 165 torquata 166

Scaup 20,79 Scolopax rusticola 109

Scoter, Common 20,37,43,81,82 Surf 13,82 Velvet 82 Seiurus aurocapillus 197 noveboracensis 197 Serin 193 Serinus serinus 193 Setophaga ruticilla 197 Shag 16,41, 42, 60 Shearwater, Cory's 52 Great 53 Little 55 Manx 11, 12, 16,17,54 Sooty 53 Shelduck 18, 71 Ruddy 71 Shoveler 20,43,76 Shrike, Great Grey 185 Lesser Grey 185 Red-backed 184 Woodchat 185 Siskin 41, 42,193 Skua, Arctic 118 Great 119 Long-tailed 12, 119 Pomarine 12, 117 Skylark 23, 154 Smew 83 Snipe 20, 22, 23, 108 Great 108 Jack 107 Somateria molIissima 80 spectabilis 80

Sora 94 Sparrow, Fox 197 House 191 Tree 191 White-throated 41, 197 Sparrowhawk 87 Spoonbill 63

Starling 190 Rose-coloured 191 Stercorarius lonqicaudus 119 parasiticus 118 pomarinus 117 skua 119 Sterna albifrons 135 anaethetus 135 caspia 130 dougallii 131 eleqans 130 [orsteri 134 hirundo 132 paradisaea 133 sandvicensis 130

Stilt, Black-winged 98 Stint, Little 103 Temminck's 104 Stonechat 166 Stone-curlew 28,98 Stork, White 63 Streptopelia decaocta 144 turtur 145 Sturnus roseus 190 vulgaris 190 Sula bassana 57

Swallow 155 Red-rumped ISS Swan, Bewick's 12, 18,20,64 Mute 28, 43, 64, 65 WhooperI2,18,20,22,43,64,65 Swift 149 Alpine 150 Little 41, 152 149 Sylvia atricapilla 176 borin 176 cantiIlans 175 communis 175 curruca 175 nisoria 174 undata 174 Syrrhaptes paradoxus 142 Tachybaptus ruficollis 49 Tadorna [erruqinea 71 tadorna 71

Tanager, Scarlet 197 Teal 13,18,20,43,73 Baikal 73 Blue-winged 76 Tern, Arctic 19, 20,42,131, 133,134 Black 40,41, 136 Bridled 135 Caspian 130 Common 19, 20,131,132,133 Elegant 41, 130 Forster's 41, 134 Gull-billed 40, 41, 130 Little 19, 32, 131, 135 Roseate 41, 42, 131 Royal 130 Sandwich 19,20,43,130,131 Whiskered 135 White-winged Black 136 Tetrao uruqallus 93 Tetrax tetrax 97

Index Thrush, Gray-cheeked 41, 167 Mistle 170 Rock 41,167 Siberian 41,167 Song 29,169 Swainson's 167 White's 167 Tit, Bearded 40, 41, 182 Blue 26,28,183 CoaI26,28,41,43,183 Crested 28 Great 183 Long-tailed 182 Marsh 27,28 Willow 27,28 Treecreeper 184 Tringaerythropus 112 flavipes 114 glareola lIS melanoleuca 114 nebularis 114 ochropus 114 solitaria 114 staqnatilis 113 totanus 113 Troglodytes troglodytes 162 Tryngites subrujicollis 107 Turdus iliacus 170 merula 168 miqratorius 171 philomelos 169 pilaris 169 torquatus 168 viscivorus 171 Turnstone 18, lIS Twite 41,42,43,194 Tyto alba 146

Upupaepops 151 Uria aalge 136 lomvia 138 Vanellus vanellus 102 Vireo, Philadelphia 41, 192 Red-eyed 192 Vireo olivaceus 192 philadelphicus 192 Vulture, Griffon 86 Wagtail, Citrine 41, 159 Grey 20,22, 159 Pied 26,27,159 Yellow IS8 Warbler, Arctic 177 Aquatic 172 Barred 174 Black-and-white 41, 196 Blackpoll 41, 197 Blyth's Reed 41, 173 Bonelli's 178 Cetti's 40,41, 171 Dartford 28, 174 Dusky 41, 178 Fan-tailed 171 Garden 26, 176 Grasshopper 1 71 Great Reed 173 Greenish 177 Icterine 174 Marsh 173 Melodious 174 Olivaceous 173 Paddyfield 41, 172 Pallas's 41, 177 Pallas's Grasshopper 171 Radde's 41, 177

215

Reed 42,173 Savi's 41,172 Sedge 43, 172 Subalpine 174 Willow 26, 179 Wood 27,42,43,178 Yellow-browed 13,177 Yellow-rumped 41,196 Waterthrush, Northern 41, 197 Waxwing 160 Wheatear 23, 167 Black 167 Black-crowned 167 Black-eared 167 Pied 41,167 Whimbrel III Whinchat 165 Whitethroat 42,175 Lesser 175 Wigeon 18, 20, 21, 22,72 American 72 Woodcock 109 Woodlark 28, 153 Woodpecker, Great Spotted 27, 28, 152 Green 27,28,152 Lesser Spotted 27 Woodpigeon 29, 144 Wren 23, 26, 33, 162 Wryneck 152 Yellowhammer 42,198 Yellowlegs, Greater 114 Lesser 114 Zonotrichia albicollis 197

iliaca 197 Zootheradauma 167 sibtrica 167