Biodegradable Polymers: Market Report

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Biodegradable Polymers Market Report David K. Platt

©PlasBio Inc. (www.plasbio.com)

A Smithers Group Company

Biodegradable Polymers Market Report

David K. Platt

Smithers Rapra Limited A wholly owned subsidiary of The Smithers Group Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, United Kingdom Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 http://www.rapra.net

Published in 2006 by

Smithers Rapra Limited Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY4 4NR, UK

©2006, Smithers Rapra Limited

All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this publication may be photocopied, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior permission from the copyright holder. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of any material reproduced within the text and the authors and publishers apologise if any have been overlooked.

ISBN: 1-85957-519-6

Typeset by Smithers Rapra Limited Cover printed by Telford Reprographics Limited, Telford, UK Printed and bound by Smithers Rapra Limited, Shrewsbury, UK

Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1

Background ................................................................................................................... 1

1.2

The Report .................................................................................................................... 2

1.3

Methodology ................................................................................................................. 3

1.4

About the Author .......................................................................................................... 3

2. Executive Summary ................................................................................................................ 5 2.1

Global Market Forecasts ............................................................................................... 5

2.2

Material Trends ............................................................................................................. 6

2.3

Regional Trends ............................................................................................................ 7

2.4

Market Trends............................................................................................................... 8

2.5

Competitive Trends ....................................................................................................... 9

3. Overview of Biodegradable Polymers ................................................................................... 11 3.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 11

3.2

Definitions of Biodegradable Polymers ........................................................................ 11

3.3

Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation .......................................................................... 11

3.4

Measuring Biodegradability of Polymers ..................................................................... 12

3.5

Factors Affecting Biodegradability............................................................................... 13

3.6

Biodegradable Polymer Classes.................................................................................... 14 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3

Naturally Biodegradable Polymers .................................................................. 15 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers ................................................................... 15 Modified Naturally Biodegradable Polymers ................................................... 15

3.7

Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymers ......................................................................... 16

3.8

Polyhydroxyalkanoates ............................................................................................... 18

3.9

Polylactic Acid Polyesters ............................................................................................ 20

3.10 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers ............................................................................... 22 3.10.1 3.10.2 3.10.3 3.10.4

Polycaprolactone (PCL) ................................................................................... 22 Polyglycolide (PGA) ........................................................................................ 23 Poly(dioxanone) (a polyether-ester) ................................................................. 23 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)................................................................................. 23

i

Biodegradable Polymers

3.11 Processing Biodegradable Polymers ............................................................................. 25 3.11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 25 3.11.2 Film Blowing and Casting ............................................................................... 25 3.11.3 Injection Moulding .......................................................................................... 27 3.11.4 Blow Moulding ............................................................................................... 27 3.11.5 Injection Stretch Blow Moulding ..................................................................... 28 3.11.6 Thermoforming ............................................................................................... 29 3.11.7 Fibre Spinning ................................................................................................. 30 4. The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market ........................................................................ 31 4.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 31

4.2

Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 31 4.2.1

Development of Framework Conditions .......................................................... 31

4.2.2

Development of a Composting Infrastructure .................................................. 35

4.2.3

Pricing Trends ................................................................................................. 37

4.2.4

Growth in Pre-Packaged Food Sales ................................................................ 38

4.2.5

Consumer Preference for Sustainable Packaging .............................................. 38

4.2.6

Product and Technology Development ............................................................ 39

4.3

Market Development and Structure............................................................................. 39

4.4

The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ................................................. 41 4.4.1

Western European Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast .......................... 44

4.4.2

North American Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ............................. 46

4.4.3

Asia Pacific Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast ..................................... 48

5. The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market ................................................................ 57

ii

5.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 57

5.2

Applications Development........................................................................................... 57

5.3

Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 59

5.4

Market Size and Forecast ............................................................................................ 60

5.5

Major Suppliers and their Products ............................................................................. 61 5.5.1

Novamont ....................................................................................................... 61

5.5.2

Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV ........................................................................... 63

5.5.3

EarthShell Corporation ................................................................................... 63

5.5.4

Stanelco Group................................................................................................ 64

5.5.5

Grenidea Technologies .................................................................................... 65

5.5.6

Biopolymer Technologies ................................................................................. 65

5.5.7

NNZ BV ......................................................................................................... 65

5.5.8

Plantic Technologies ........................................................................................ 66

Contents

6. The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market ............................................................ 67 6.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 67

6.2


6.3

6.2.1

Rigid Packaging............................................................................................... 68

6.2.2

Flexible Packaging ........................................................................................... 69

6.2.3

Blow Moulded Bottles ..................................................................................... 70

6.2.4

High Performance Applications ....................................................................... 70

Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 70 6.3.1

Better Environmental Credentials .................................................................... 71

6.3.2

Stable Supply and More Competitive Prices .................................................... 71

6.3.3

World’s First Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral Polymer .............................................. 71

6.3.4

Replacement of Traditional Packaging Materials............................................. 72

6.3.5

Speciality Cards ............................................................................................... 72

6.3.6

Source Options ................................................................................................ 72

6.3.7

New Applications ............................................................................................ 73

6.3.8

Better Processing ............................................................................................. 73

6.4


6.5

Major Suppliers and their Products ............................................................................. 75

7. The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market ........................................................................... 79 7.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 79

7.2

Applications Development........................................................................................... 81 7.2.1

Films ............................................................................................................... 82

7.2.2


7.2.3

Thermoformed Articles ................................................................................... 82

7.2.4

Coated/Corrugated Paper ................................................................................ 82

7.2.5

Synthetic Papers .............................................................................................. 83

7.2.6

Bioresorbable Medical Devices ........................................................................ 83

7.2.7

Polymer Blends ................................................................................................ 83

7.3

Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 83

7.4


7.5

Suppliers and their Products ........................................................................................ 84

8. The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market ..................................................................... 87 8.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 87

8.2


iii


8.3

Market Drivers ............................................................................................................ 89

8.4


8.5

Suppliers and their Products ........................................................................................ 90

9. Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers ............................................................... 93 9.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 93

9.2

Packaging .................................................................................................................... 93 9.2.1


9.2.2

Rigid Packaging............................................................................................... 94

9.2.3

Paper Coating.................................................................................................. 96

9.2.4

Loose-Fill Packaging........................................................................................ 97

9.3

Bags and Sacks ............................................................................................................ 97

9.4

Disposable Serviceware ............................................................................................... 97

9.5

Agriculture and Horticulture ....................................................................................... 98

9.6

Medical Devices .......................................................................................................... 98 9.6.1

Sutures ............................................................................................................ 98

9.6.2

Dental Devices................................................................................................. 99

9.6.3

Orthopaedic Fixation Devices ......................................................................... 99

9.6.4

Other Applications .......................................................................................... 99

9.7

Consumer Electronics Products ................................................................................. 100

9.8

Automotive ............................................................................................................... 100

9.9

Speciality Cards ......................................................................................................... 101

9.10 Fibres ........................................................................................................................ 101 10. Profiles of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters ........................................................ 103 10.1 Alpha Packaging........................................................................................................ 103 10.2 Arkhe Planning Co. ................................................................................................... 103 10.3 Arthur Blank & Company......................................................................................... 104 10.4 Autobar Group Ltd. .................................................................................................. 105 10.5 Bartling GmbH & Co. KG Kunststoffe ..................................................................... 106 10.6 Bi-Ax International.................................................................................................... 106 10.7 BioBag International AS ............................................................................................ 107 10.8 Biosphere Industries Corporation .............................................................................. 108 10.9 BIOTA Brands of America Inc. .................................................................................. 108

iv

Contents

10.10 Bomatic Inc. ........................................................................................................... 109 10.11 Brenmar Company ................................................................................................. 109 10.12 Carolex SAS ........................................................................................................... 110 10.13 Chien Fua Bio-Tech Industry Co., Ltd. ................................................................... 111 10.14 Coopbox Europe .................................................................................................... 111 10.15 Cortec Corporation ................................................................................................ 112 10.16 Earthcycle Packaging Ltd........................................................................................ 113 10.17 Europackaging plc .................................................................................................. 114 10.18 Ex-Tech Plastics, Inc. .............................................................................................. 114 10.19 Fabri-Kal ................................................................................................................ 115 10.20 Faerch Plast A/S ...................................................................................................... 115 10.21 Farnell Packaging Ltd. ............................................................................................ 116 10.22 Fortune Plastics ...................................................................................................... 116 10.23 Good Flag Biotechnology Corporation ................................................................... 117 10.24 Grenidea Technologies Pte Ltd................................................................................ 118 10.25 The Heritage Bag Company.................................................................................... 118 10.26 Huhtamäki Oy ....................................................................................................... 119 10.27 IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH ............................................................................ 120 10.28 ILIP ........................................................................................................................ 121 10.29 Innovia Films BVBA ............................................................................................... 122 10.30 Liquid Container/Plaxicon ...................................................................................... 123 10.31 NNZ bv.................................................................................................................. 123 10.32 Natura Verpackungs GmbH ................................................................................... 124 10.33 NVYRO ................................................................................................................. 125 10.34 Plastic Suppliers Inc. ............................................................................................... 126 10.35 RPC Group plc ....................................................................................................... 127 10.36 Siamp-Cedap .......................................................................................................... 128 10.37 Sidaplax.................................................................................................................. 129 10.38 Signum NZ Ltd. ..................................................................................................... 129 10.39 Spartech Corp......................................................................................................... 130 10.40 Sunway Household Ltd. ......................................................................................... 131

v


10.41 Toray Industries Inc. ............................................................................................... 131 10.42 Toray Saehan Inc. ................................................................................................... 132 10.43 Treofan Group ........................................................................................................ 133 10.44 Vertex Pacific Limited ............................................................................................. 134 10.45 Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd. .................................................................................... 135 10.46 Wentus Kunststoff GmbH ...................................................................................... 136 10.47 Wilkinson Industries Inc. ........................................................................................ 137 11. Database of Major Biodegradable Polymer Suppliers ......................................................... 139 12. Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................... 145 13. Abbreviations and Acronyms .............................................................................................. 155

vi

1

Introduction

1.1 Background Biodegradable polymers have been around for almost a decade, but it has only been in the last two to three years that they have started to be produced on a commercial scale. Biodegradable polymers have already found acceptance in application areas such as food packaging, bags and sacks, loosefill packaging agricultural film and many niche market applications. However, while they remain very much a niche product at the moment, there are signs that biodegradable polymers are ready to attack mass markets with a number of major suppliers such as NatureWorks LLC, Novamont and BASF, gearing up for large-scale production. Biodegradable polymer demand is being driven by a number of important trends. In developed countries of the Western world, particularly in Western Europe, governments have implemented legislation to reduce the amount of municipal waste packaging being sent to landfill. Other options being pursued include mechanical recycling, incineration with energy recovery and composting. As these trends gather momentum, more favourable framework conditions for biodegradable plastics market development are slowly coming into place. There is also a growing trend for brand owners and retailers to recognise the potential marketing benefits of ‘green’ or ‘sustainable’ packaging as consumers become more concerned about the development of sustainable technologies, reduction in CO2 emissions and the conservation of the earth’s fossil resources. Several major world brands including Wal-Mart have been persuaded to switch from petrochemical-based plastics to biodegradable plastics in recent years. Demand for biodegradable polymers is also benefiting from a narrowing in the price differential between biopolymers and petrochemical-based plastics over the last two years. Petrochemicalbased plastic prices have gone up sharply due to a surge in crude oil prices and look like remaining at historically high levels for some time to come. At the same time, biopolymer prices have come down significantly in recent years due to better production techniques, better material sourcing by suppliers and higher production volumes. In 2006, certain starch-based and PLA biopolymers were competitive with standard thermoplastics such as PET. This report uses the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) definitions of biodegradable and compostable plastics. •

Biodegradable plastic: a biodegradable plastic is a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.

•

Composting: composting is a managed process that controls the biological decomposition of biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost; the aerobic and mesophilic and thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make compost; the transformation of biologically decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation that proceeds through mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilised organic matter (compost or humus).

1


Biodegradable polymers and biopolymers can be produced by a wide variety of technologies, both from renewable resources of animal or plant origin, and from fossil resources. A number of different types are already available on the market. Biodegradable polymers that are based on renewable resources include polyesters such as polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Biodegradable polymers can also be made from extracts from plants and vegetables such as corn, maize, palm oil, soya and potatoes. Biodegradable polymers can also be made from mineral oil based resources such as the aliphaticaromatic co-polyester types. Mixtures of synthetic degradable polyesters and pure plant starch, known as starch blends, are also well-established products on the market. Biodegradable polymers are similar in terms of their chemical structure to conventional thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene. They can be processed using standard polymer processing methods such as film extrusion, injection moulding and blow moulding. While biodegradable polymers may be similar to petrochemical-based thermoplastics in terms of their structure, their chemical structure imbues them with technical properties that make them perform in different ways. For example, starch blends can produce film with better moisture barrier protection and higher clarity than some conventional plastics. PLA has a high water vapour transmission rate, which is beneficial for fresh food applications where it is important that the water vapour escapes quickly from the packaging. PLA also reduces fogging on the lid of the packaging.

1.2 The Report The report starts with an overview of biodegradable polymers including an examination of the processes of biodegradation, classification of biodegradable polymers including their chemical structure, properties, and processing performance. Section 4 examines the global market for biodegradable polymers by major geographic region, covering Western Europe, North America and Asia Pacific. Biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type and end use market is presented for each region for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010. The main body of the study (Chapters 5-8) is divided into four core sections based on biodegradable polymer types. •

Starch-based

•

Polylactic acid (PLA)

•

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)

•

Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters

Each section contains an overview of key market drivers, analysis of world consumption by geographic region for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010, application developments and an analysis of the major suppliers and their products. Chapter 9 examines the market opportunities for biodegradable plastics by end use market covering packaging, bags and sacks, disposable serviceware, agriculture and horticulture, medical devices, consumer electronics products, automotive, speciality cards and fibres.

2

Introduction

Finally, Chapter 10 examines around fifty major processors of biodegradable plastics and their products, including: BioBag International, Biosphere Industries, Bomatic, Coopbox, Cortec, Europackaging, Ex-Tech Plastics, The Heritage Bag Company, Huhtamäki, IBEK, Innovia Films, NNZ, natura Verpackungs, Plastic Suppliers, RPC Group, Toray and Treofan.

1.3 Methodology The research for the report is based on various information sources including: the Rapra Polymer Library, trade press, Internet/company web sites, and interviews with some of the leading suppliers. The opinions expressed and the data presented are those of the author.

1.4 About the Author David Platt graduated from the University of Nottingham with an Economics degree before completing an MBA at the University of Bradford. He joined a leading international market consultancy where he specialised in plastics sector research. He conducted a wide range of multi-client and single-client studies covering a wide range of materials, from standard thermoplastics, engineering and high performance polymers to conductive polymers and thermoplastic elastomers. Now operating as a freelance consultant, he makes regular contributions to the European plastics trade press, and also works with leading plastics industry consultants.

3


4

2

Executive Summary

2.1 Global Market Forecasts The market for biodegradable polymers has shown strong growth during the last five years, albeit from a very small base. However, there are still only a handful of producers operating truly commercial scale production plants. The situation is slowly changing with a number of major plant expansions planned over the next few years. The major classes of biopolymer, starch and starch blends, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphaticaromatic co-polyesters, are now being used in a wide variety of niche applications, particularly for manufacture of rigid and flexible packaging, bags and sacks and foodservice products. However, market volumes for biopolymers remain extremely low compared with standard petrochemicalbased plastics. For example, in 2005, biopolymer consumption accounted for just 0.14% of total thermoplastics consumption in Western Europe. In 2005, the global biodegradable plastics market tonnage is estimated at 94,800 tonnes (including loose-fill packaging) compared with 28,000 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, market tonnage is forecast to reach 214,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 17.7% during the period 2005-2010. Excluding loose-fill packaging, which is a relatively more mature sector for biodegradable polymers, global market tonnage in 2005 is 71,700 tonnes and the compound annual growth rate for the period 2005-2010 is 20.3%. Table 2.1 shows global consumption of biodegradable polymers by polymer type for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010.

Table 2.1 Global consumption of biodegradable polymers by polymer type, 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010 (’000 tonnes) 2000

2005

2010

Starch

15.5

44.8

89.2

PLA

8.7

35.8

89.5

PHA

0

0.2

2.9

3.9

14.0

32.8

28.1

94.8

214.4

Synthetic

In 2005, starch-based materials were the largest class of biodegradable polymer with just over 47% of total market volumes. Loose-fill foam packaging accounts for more than a half of starch biopolymer volumes. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second largest material class followed by synthetic aliphaticaromatic co-polyesters. The PHA category is at an embryonic stage of market development with very low market tonnage at the moment.

5


All classes of biodegradable polymers are projected to experience substantial growth during the next five years. Of the material classes with existing commercial applications, PLA will grow the fastest with a compound annual growth rate of 20.1% for the period 2005-2010. PLA demand is being driven by strong product and applications development by major suppliers such as NatureWorks LLC. Synthetic types will also experience growth approaching 20% per annum over the forecast period. Starch-based polymers are projected to grow at slightly lower rates. This is mainly due to the presence of loose-fill packaging, which is a relatively more mature applications sector. PHA, which started from virtually a zero base in 2005, is projected to grow at close to 60% per annum as commercial scale plants come on stream and better products and processes are introduced. Demand for biodegradable polymers is being driven by a number of important trends, including: •

Development of supporting framework conditions such as more favourable government regulations to reduce waste packaging and landfill in favour of recycling and composting. Political support is also slowly gaining ground with biodegradable packaging receiving special treatment in some countries such as Germany.

•

The world biodegradable plastics industry has agreed a set of standards and certification procedures for biodegradable packaging materials, which will continue to encourage growth and possibly deter imitation.

•

Composting infrastructures are being developed by local councils in major towns and cities around the world in response to the problem of packaging waste and over-reliance on landfill in some countries.

•

The price differential between biodegradable polymers and petrochemical-based plastics has narrowed during the last two years.

•

Growing consumer awareness and preference for sustainable packaging.

•

Brand owners are also recognising the benefits of promoting sustainable or ‘green’ packaging.

•

There has been a stream of new product and technology development by leading biodegradable polymer suppliers that have opened up new markets and potential applications.

2.2 Material Trends Product development and improvement has a crucial role to play in the further development of the biodegradable polymers market. These include development of more reliable and lower cost raw materials for manufacture of biodegradable polymers, improvement in performance properties visà-vis standard thermoplastics, improvement in processing performance and development of new polymers and blends. Some of the most interesting material developments covered in the report are as follows. •

New types of renewable feedstock such as palm oil for manufacture of starch-based biodegradable polymers.

•

A new generation of PLA materials that can withstand high temperatures and are suitable for microwavable food packaging.

6

Executive Summary

•

New blends of synthetic biopolymers and PLA with better properties and processing performance.

•

Plasticiser-free flexible PLA film.

•

Development of markets for PLA injection stretch blow moulding applications.

•

PLA bottles with higher barrier for oxygen sensitive food and beverages.

•

Improvements to biodegradable polymer additive formulations helping to improve processing efficiencies.

•

Development of biodegradable polymers with flame retardant properties that can be used for consumer electronics product housing.

•

Development of synthetic biodegradable polymers such as polybutylene succinates (PBS) with improved stiffness and thermal properties.

•

Progress in fermentation processes and identification of lower cost feedstock for manufacture of PHA products to provide lower material costs.

2.3 Regional Trends Figure 2.1 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by major world region for 2005.

Figure 2.1 Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by major world region, 2005

Western Europe is the leading market for biodegradable polymers with 59% of market volumes in 2005. The Western European market has been driven more by regulation than other world regions such as the USA and Japan. These include the European Union directives on packaging waste and landfill which aim to divert a growing amount of packaging waste towards recycling and composting. Europe has also benefited from some of the world’s leading biodegradable producers such as Novamont, Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF being based in the region.

7


North America has lagged well behind Western Europe in terms of biodegradable polymer market development. Traditionally, there has not been the same degree of urgency to address the issue of waste disposal through landfill in North America because of its enormous landmass. Government and consumer attitudes towards recycling of packaging waste and environmental protection have also militated against market development of sustainable materials. However, attitudes are slowly changing. During the last few years there have been a number of positive trends that are encouraging biodegradable polymer development including, growth of the composting infrastructure, more institutions looking at food waste diversion from landfill, rising tipping fees for landfill and a better understanding among foodservice suppliers that there is a market for compostable materials. Japan is the largest consumer of biodegradable polymers in the Asia Pacific region, followed by Australia and New Zealand, with Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and China, some way behind in terms of market development.

2.4 Market Trends Biodegradable polymers can be found in a wide range of end use markets although these materials still remain very much niche products. Continued progress in terms of product development and cost reduction will be required before they can effectively compete with conventional plastics for mainstream applications. Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks, rigid packaging such as thermoformed trays and containers, and loose-fill packaging foam as an alternative to polystyrene and polyethylene. They are also used in agriculture and horticulture for applications such as mulching film, covering film and plant pots. Injection moulding applications include pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, combs and toys. The main markets for PLA are thermoformed trays and containers for food packaging and food service applications. Other developing areas include films and labels, injection stretch blow moulded bottles and jars, specialty cards and fibres. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are used mainly as specialty materials for paper coating, fibres, and garbage bags and sacks. They are also showing up in thermoformed packaging as functional adjuncts to lower-cost biodegradable materials. Potential applications for PHA include feminine hygiene products, packaging, appliances, electrical and electronics, consumer durables, agriculture and soil stabilisation, nonwovens, biomedical device adhesives, and automotive parts. Figure 2.2 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market for 2005. In 2005, packaging (including rigid and flexible packaging, paper coating and foodservice) is the largest sector with 39% of total biodegradable polymer market volumes. Loose-fill packaging is the second largest sector, followed by bags and sacks. Fibres or textiles is an important sector for PLA, and accounts for 9% of total market volumes. Others include a wide range of very small application areas, the most important of which are agriculture and fishing, medical devices, consumer products and hygiene products.

8

Executive Summary

Figure 2.2 Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market for 2005

2.5 Competitive Trends There are around thirty suppliers actively involved in the world biodegradable polymers market in 2005. The synthetic biopolymers market is dominated by large, global and vertically integrated chemical companies such as BASF, DuPont, and Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals. The starch and PLA sectors contain mainly specialist biopolymer companies such as Novamont, NatureWorks LLC, Rodenburg Biopolymers and Biotec, which were specifically established purely to develop biodegradable polymers. The leading suppliers are Novamont, NatureWorks, BASF and Rodenburg Biopolymers, which together represent over 90% of the European market for biodegradable plastics. Global production capacity for biodegradable polymers has grown dramatically since the mid 1990s. In 1995, production was mainly on a pilot-plant basis with total worldwide capacity amounting to no more than 25-30,000 tonnes. In 2005, global capacity for biodegradable polymers was around 360,000 tonnes. Based on announced projects, total production capacity is set to almost reach 600,000 tonnes by 2008. At the moment, there are a growing number of biodegradable polymers performing well in niche applications. Many of these materials can be even more cost competitive in the future compared to petroleum-based resins including PET, polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) as suppliers develop better material properties that can lead to thinner films or lower processing costs. Historically, pricing had been the biggest barrier to biodegradable polymer market development. However, the competitive position of biodegradable polymers has been improved during the last two years by the sharp upswing in the cost and declining availability of standard petroleum-based resins. Commodity resin prices have climbed steadily since 2003 as oil and natural gas prices have surged. During the period 2003-2005, the average price for competing materials such as polypropylene, general-purpose polystyrene and low density polyethylene (LDPE) have increased between 30-35%. Bottle-grade PET prices have increased by nearly 18%. At the same time, prices for the three major types of bio-based resins, starch-based biopolymers, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic aromatic co-polyester, have dropped considerably over the last

9


three years as production volumes have increased, more efficient production processes have been deployed and lower cost raw materials have been found. In 2003, the average price of starch blends was around €3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5 per kg. PLA is now being sold at prices between €1.372.75 per kg compared to a price range of €3.0-3.5 per kg three years ago, and is now almost price competitive with PET. The average cost of an aliphatic aromatic co-polyester has fallen from €3.5-4.0 per kg in 2003 to €2.75-3.65 per kg in 2005. Prices are expected to fall further for all biodegradable polymer types over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall. In terms of the product life cycle, the biodegradable plastics industry has now reached the market introduction stage, having spent the last ten years or so developing their products and processes. The main focus of suppliers was on improving the technology and the products in readiness for full commercialisation. Now, a significant number of products are commercially available and the emphasis has switched to the end user and developing markets and applications. Brand owners and consumer will have a key role to play in the growth of this industry over the next five to ten years. Buyers are indeed beginning to recognise the marketing value of sustainable materials and are starting to endorse this biopolymers movement. It is education and awareness along with the cost and performance improvements that will take sustainable materials out of niche market status. While the cost of some biodegradable plastics are high compared with conventional polymers, from a marketing perspective, it is important not only to consider the material cost, but also all associated costs, including the costs of handling and disposal, which are of course lower for biodegradable plastics. Hence, marketing of biodegradable plastics products is most successful when their cost savings and material advantages are exploited to the full. Also, users of biodegradable plastics can differentiate themselves from the competition by demonstrating how innovative and proactive they are for the benefit of the environment. Applications development to achieve higher production volumes will be crucial for continued market expansion. Production costs for biopolymers still remain high because of low volumes, and profitability of biodegradable plastics products is still too low. Hence, volumes must be increased if unit costs are to fall and profitability is to improve.

10

3

Overview of Biodegradable Polymers

3.1 Introduction This chapter begins with an examination of the mechanisms of polymer biodegradation, how biodegradation mechanisms are measured and the factors affecting biodegradation. This is followed by a review of the different classes of biodegradable polymers, their chemical composition, properties, performance characteristics and processing technologies.

3.2 Definitions of Biodegradable Polymers Biodegradability and compostability are clearly defined by the scientific community and were legally incorporated into a Standard by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), under reference ASTM D 6400 - 99, in July 1999. Similar definitions have been recognised in several countries around the world, the most significant being DIN CERTCO 54900 in Germany. Harmonisation of the definitions was carried out through the International Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI), which signed a memorandum of understanding with the Japanese Biodegradable Plastics Society and the German DIN CERTCO. The ASTM defines a biodegradable plastic as a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae. Composting is defined as a managed process that controls the biological decomposition of biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost; the aerobic and mesophilic and thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make compost; the transformation of biologically decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation that proceeds through mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilised organic matter (compost or humus). Following the international agreement on definitions for biodegradable plastics, specified periods of time, disposal pathways and standard test methodologies were incorporated into the definitions. Standardisation organisations such as CEN, International Standards Organisation (ISO) and American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) were consequently encouraged to develop standard biodegradation tests so these could be determined. Society further demanded non-debatable criteria for the evaluation of the suitability of polymeric materials for disposal in specific waste streams such as composting or anaerobic digestion. Biodegradability is usually just one of the essential criteria, besides ecotoxicity and effects on waste treatment processes.

3.3 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation Biodegradation is usually defined as degradation caused by biological activity, it will usually occur simultaneously with, and is sometimes initiated by, non-biological degradation such as photodegradation and hydrolysis.

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Many different polymers are subject to hydrolysis. Different mechanisms of hydrolysis are usually present in most environments. In contrast to enzymic degradation, where a material is degraded gradually from the surface inwards, chemical hydrolysis of a solid material can take place throughout its cross-section, except for very hydrophobic polymers. Biological degradation takes place through the actions of enzymes or by products (such as acids and peroxides) secreted by microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, fungi). Also, microorganisms can eat, and sometimes digest polymers, and cause mechanical, chemical and enzymic ageing. Two steps occur in the microbial polymer degradation process, first, a depolymerisation or chain cleavage step, and second, mineralisation. The first step normally occurs outside the organism due to the size of the polymer chain and the insoluble nature of many of the polymers. Extracellular enzymes are responsible for this step, acting either endo (random cleavage of the internal linkages of the polymer chains) or exo (sequential cleavage of the terminal monomer units in the main chain). Once sufficiently small size oligomeric or monomeric fragments are formed, they are transported into the cells where they are mineralised. At this stage the cell usually derives metabolic energy from the mineralisation process. The products of this process are gases, water, salts, minerals and biomass. Many variations of this general view of the biodegradation process can occur, depending on the polymer, the organisms and the environment. Nevertheless, there will always be at some stage the involvement of enzymes. Enzymes are the biological catalysts that can induce massive increases in reaction rates in an environment that is otherwise unfavourable for chemical reactions. All enzymes are proteins with a complex three-dimensional structure ranging in molecular weight from several thousands to several million g/mol. The enzyme activity is closely related to the conformational structure, which creates certain regions at the surface forming an active site. At the active site the interaction between enzyme and substrate takes place, leading to the chemical reaction, eventually giving a particular product. Some enzymes contain regions with absolute specificity for a given substrate while others can recognise a series of substrates. For optimal activity most enzymes must associate with cofactors, which can be of inorganic (such as metal ions) or organic origin (such as coenzymes A, ATP, and vitamins like riboflavin and biotin). There are an enormous number of different enzymes each catalysing its own unique reaction on groups of substrates or on very specific chemical bonds, in some cases acting complimentarily and in others synergistically. Different enzymes can also have different mechanisms of catalysis. Some enzymes change the substrate through some free radical mechanism while others follow alternative chemical routes (1).

3.4 Measuring Biodegradability of Polymers Given the various mechanisms available for the biodegradation of a polymer, it will be appreciated that biodegradation does not only depend on the polymer chemistry, but also on the presence of the biological systems involved in the process. When investigating the biodegradability of a material, the effect of the environment cannot be neglected. Microbial activity and hence biodegradability is influenced by the: •

Presence of microorganisms

•

Availability of oxygen

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•

Amount of available water

•

Temperature

•

Chemical environment (pH, electrolytes etc.)

In order to simplify the overall picture, the environments in which biodegradation occurs are divided into two environments, aerobic, where oxygen is available, and anaerobic, where no oxygen is present. These two can in turn be subdivided into aquatic and high solids environments. The high solids environment is the most relevant for measuring the biodegradation of polymeric materials, since they represent the conditions during biological municipal solid waste treatment such as composting. However, possible applications of biodegradable materials other than in packaging and consumer products (such as fishing nets at sea) explain the necessity of aquatic biodegradation tests. Numerous methods to measure the biodegradability of polymers have been developed. Because of slightly different definitions or interpretation of the term ‘biodegradability’, the different approaches are therefore not equivalent in terms of information they provide or the practical significance. Since the typical exposure environment involves incubation of a polymer substrate with microorganisms or enzymes, only a limited number of measurements are possible. These include those pertaining to the substrates, to the microorganisms, or to the reactive products. Four common approaches available for studying biodegradation processes are used. •

Monitoring microbial growth

•

Monitoring the depletion of substrates

•

Monitoring reaction products

•

Monitoring changes in substrate properties

Measurements for testing the biodegradability of polymers are usually based on one or more of these four basic approaches (2).

3.5 Factors Affecting Biodegradability The environment is an important factor affecting the rate and degree of biodegradation of polymer substrates. The other key aspects determining biodegradability are related to the chemical composition of the polymer. The polymer chemistry governs the chemical and physical properties of the material and its interaction with the physical environment, which in turn affects the material’s compostability with particular degradation mechanisms. Many attempts have been made to correlate polymer structure to biodegradability. However, this proved to be challenging and so far only few general relationships between structure and biodegradability have been formulated. In many cases complex interplay between some of the different factors occur simultaneously, often causing difficulty in sorting out primary effects and correlations. Some of the general factors affecting biodegradability are listed below, but it should be considered that many exceptions to the norm have also been reported. The accessibility of the polymer to water-borne enzymes is vitally important because the first step in the degradation of plastics usually involves the actions of extracellular enzymes, which break down

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the polymer into products small enough to be assimilated. Therefore, the physical state of the plastic and the surface offered for attack, are important factors. Biodegradability is usually also affected by the hydrophilic nature (wettability) and the crystallinity of the polymer. A semi-crystalline nature tends to limit the accessibility, essentially confining the degradation to the amorphous region of the polymer. However, contradictory results have been reported. For example, highly crystalline starch materials and bacterial polyesters, are rapidly hydrolysed. The chemical properties that are important include the: •

Chemical linkage in the polymer backbone.

•

Pendant groups, their position and their chemical activity.

•

End-groups and their chemical activity.

Linkage involving hetero atoms, such as ester and amide bonds, are considered susceptible to enzymic degradation. However, this is not the case for polyamides, aromatic polyesters and many other polymers containing hetero atoms in the main chain. The stereo-chemistry of the monomer units along the polymer chain also influences biodegradation rates, since an inherent property of many enzymes is their stereo-chemical selectivity. The stereo-chemistry may nevertheless not be observed when a broad spectrum of microorganisms are used instead of enzyme solutions with high stereo-specificity. The molecular weight distribution of the polymer can have a dramatic effect on rates of depolymerisation. This effect has been demonstrated for a number of polymers, where a critical lower limit must be present before the process will start. The molecular origin for this effect is still subject to speculation, and has been attributed to a range of causes such as changes in enzyme accessibility, chain flexibility, fits with active sites, crystallinity or other aspects of morphology. Interaction with other polymers (blends) also affects the biodegradation properties. These additional materials may act as barriers to prevent migration of microorganisms, enzymes, moisture or oxygen into the polymer domain of interest. The susceptibility of a biodegradable polymer to microbial attack is sometimes decreased by grafting it onto a non-biodegradable polymer, or by crosslinking. On the other hand, it has sometimes been suggested that combining a non-biodegradable polymer with one that is biodegradable, or grafting a biodegradable polymer onto a non-biodegradable backbone polymer may result in a biodegradable system. Whether the non-biodegradable component is in fact mineralised, however, is usually disregarded (3).

3.6 Biodegradable Polymer Classes There are broadly three classes of commercially available biodegradable polymers in existence. 1. Unmodified polymers that are naturally susceptible to microbial-enzyme attack. 2. Synthetic polymers, primarily polyesters. 3. Naturally biodegradable polymers that have been modified with additives and fillers. Naturally biodegradable polymers produced in nature are renewable. Some synthetic polymers are also renewable because they are made from renewable feedstock, for example polylactic acid is derived from agricultural feedstock.

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3.6.1 Naturally Biodegradable Polymers Natural polymers are produced in nature by all living organisms. Biodegradation reactions are typically enzyme-catalysed and occur in aqueous media. Natural macromolecules containing hydrolysable linkages, such as protein, cellulose, and starch, are generally susceptible to biodegradation by the hydrolytic enzymes of microorganisms. Thus the hydrophilic/hydrophobic character of polymers greatly affects their biodegradability. It also has a great impact on their performance and durability in humid conditions. Polysacharides such as starch are the most prevalent naturally biodegradable polymer in commercial use. Aliphatic polyesters such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are also a family of easily biodegradable polymers found in nature that are beginning to find commercial use.

3.6.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers While natural polymers are produced by living organisms, synthetic biodegradable polymers are only produced by mankind. Biodegradation reactions are the same for both, i.e., typically enzyme-catalysed and produced in aqueous media. The major category of synthetic biodegradable polymers consists of aliphatic polyesters with a hydrolysable linkage along the polymer chain such as polylactic acid (PLA). Other widely available synthetic types include aliphatic/aromatic co-polyesters.

3.6.3 Modified Naturally Biodegradable Polymers Over the last thirty years or so, many attempts have been made to improve the biodegradability of synthetic polymers by incorporating polysaccharide-derived materials. The most prominent modified naturally biodegradable polymer in commercial use is produced by Novamont under the Mater-Bi trade name. This starch-based technology is unique because the modification goes beyond conventional compounding. The starch is destructurised by applying sufficient work and heat to almost completely destroy the crystallinity of amylose and amylopectine in the presence of macromolecules able to form a complex with amylose. Novamont produces several different classes of Mater-Bi, all containing starch with different classes of synthetic components such as polycaprolactone (PCL). The material obtained is suitable for producing film and sheet, foams and injection moulding. For the purpose of this report, four classes of commercially available biodegradable polymers are examined. 1. Starch based biodegradable polymers (including modified starch blends) 2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 3. Polylactic acid (PLA) 4. Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters. The following sections discuss the chemical composition, properties and production of each biodegradable polymer type in more detail.

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3.7 Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymers In nature, the availability of starch is just second to cellulose. The most important industrial sources of starch are corn, wheat, potato, tapioca and rice. In the last decade, there has been a significant reduction in the price of corn and potato starch, both in Europe and the USA. The lower price and greater availability of starch associated with its very favourable environmental profile aroused a renewed interest in development of starch-based polymers as an alternative to polymers based on petrochemicals. Starch is totally biodegradable in a variety of environments and thus permits the development of totally degradable products for specific market demands. Degradation or incineration of starchbased products recycles atmospheric carbon dioxides trapped by starch-producing plants and does not increase potential global warming. The most relevant achievements in this sector are related to thermoplastic starch polymers resulting from the processing of native starch by chemical, thermal and mechanical means, and to its complexation to other co-polymers. The resulting materials show properties ranging from the flexibility of polyethylene to the rigidity of polystyrene, and can be soluble or insoluble in water as well as insensitive to humidity. Such properties explain the leading position of starch-based materials in the biodegradable polymer field. Starch is unique among carbohydrates because it occurs naturally as discrete granules. This is because the short-branched amylopectin chains are able to form helical structures, which crystallise. Starch granules exhibit hydrophilic properties and strong intermolecular association via hydrogen bonding due to the hydroxyl groups on the granule surface. The melting point of native starch is higher than the thermal decomposition temperature: hence the poor thermal stability of native starch and the need for conversion to starch-based materials with a much-improved property profile. In nature, starch is based on crystalline beads of about 15-100 microns in diameter. Crystalline starch beads in plastics can be used as fillers or can be transformed into thermoplastic starch, which can either be processed alone or in combination with specific synthetic polymers. To make starch thermoplastic, its crystalline structure has to be destroyed by pressure, heat, mechanical work or use of plasticisers. Three main families of starch polymer can be used: pure starch, modified starch and fermented starch polymers. The production of starch polymers begins with the extraction of starch. Taking as an example corn; starch is extracted from the kernel by wet milling. The kernel is first softened by steeping it in a dilute acid solution, then ground coarsely to split the kernel and remove the oil-containing germ. The starch slurry is then washed in a centrifuge, dewatered and dried. Either prior, or subsequent to the drying step, the starch may be processed in a number of ways to improve its properties. The addition of chemicals leading to alteration of the structure of starch is generally described as ‘chemical modification’. Modified starch is starch that has been treated with chemicals so that some hydroxyl groups have been replaced by for example ester or ether groups. High starch content plastics are highly hydrophilic and readily disintegrate when in contact with water. Very low levels of chemical modification can significantly improve hydrophilicity, as well as change other rheological, physical and chemical properties of starch. Crosslinking, in which two hydroxyl groups or neighbouring starch molecules are linked chemically is also a form of chemical modification. Crosslinking inhibits granule swelling or gelatinisation and gives increased stability to acid, heat treatment and shear forces. Chemically modified starch may be used directly or palletised or otherwise dried for conversion to a final product.

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Starch can also be modified by fermentation as used in the Rodenburg process. In this case the raw material is a potato waste slurry originating from the food industry. The slurry mainly consists of starch, the rest being proteins, fats and oils, inorganic components and cellulose. The slurry is held in storage silos for about two weeks to allow for stabilisation and partial fermentation. The most important fermentation process that occurs is the conversion of a small fraction of starch to lactic acid by mans of the lactic acid bacteria that are naturally present in the feedstock. The product is subsequently dried to a final water content of 10% and then extruded. Starch-based polymers have been the most studied class of biodegradable polymer for their extrusion characteristics. Extrusion processing plays a large role in establishing the polymer properties. Starch can be made thermoplastic by using technology very similar to extrusion cooking. Starch exists as granular beads of about 15-100 microns in diameter that can be compounded with another synthetic polymer as a filler. However, under special heat and shear conditions during extrusion it can be transformed into an amorphous thermoplastic by a process known as destructurising. Starch can be destructured in the presence of more hydrophobic polymers such as aliphatic polyesters. Aliphatic polyesters with low melting points are difficult to process by conventional techniques such as film blowing and blow moulding. Films such as polycaprolactones (PCL) are tacky as extruded and have a low melt strength (over 130 °C). Also, the slow crystallisation of the polymer causes the properties to change with time. Blending starch with aliphatic polyesters improves processability and biodegradability. Addition of starch has a nucleating effect, which increases the rate of crystallisation. The rheology of starch/PCL blends depends on the extent of starch granule destruction and the formation of thermoplastic starch during extrusion. Increasing the heat and shear intensities can reduce the melt viscosity, but enhance the extrudate-swell properties of the polymer. Starch/aliphatic polyester compositions are prepared by blending a starch-based component and an aliphatic polyester in a co-rotating, intermeshing twin-screw extruder. The co-rotating, self-cleaning screw on these machines prevents caking and churning of cooked starch. Temperature and pressure conditions are such that the starch is destructurised and the composition forms a thermoplastic melt. The resulting material has an interpenetrated or partially interpenetrated structure. Novamont is easily market leader for starch-based biodegradable plastics. Under the Mater-Bi trade name, Novamont offers a wide range of materials divided into five product families by processing technology. These are film, extrusion/thermoforming, injection moulding, foaming and tyre technology. Mater-Bi products are mainly used in specific applications where biodegradability is required. Examples include composting bags and sacks, foodservice products such as single serve cups, containers and plates, foam for industrial packaging, film wrapping, laminated paper, agricultural film products, slow release devices and hygiene products. Mater-Bi is characterised by the following properties. •

Use performance similar to traditional plastics

•

Processing performance similar or better than traditional plastics

•

Wide range of mechanical properties from soft and tough material to rigid

•

Antistatic behaviour

•

Compostability in a wide range of composting conditions

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Other leading starch-based biodegradable polymer manufacturers are Biotec and BIOP Biopolymers. Following the sale of the film business to Novamont in 2000, Biotec offers starch-based materials for foodservice products and pharmaceutical applications. BIOP Biopolymer Technologies offers a starch-based material comprising an additive consisting of a vinyl alcohol/vinyl acetate copolymer, sold under the Biopar trade name (4).

3.8 Polyhydroxyalkanoates Polyhydroxyalkonates (PHA) is a term given to a family of aliphatic polyesters produced by microorganisms that are fully biodegradable. They offer a wide array of physical properties that can range from stiff and brittle plastics to elastomers. An attractive feature of PHAs is the ability to produce them using renewable carbon resources. PHA can be produced using renewable carbon sources such as sugars and plant oils. Various waste materials are also being considered for potential carbon sources for PHA production, including whey, molasses and starch. The carbon source available to a microorganism is one of the factors (others being the PHA synthase substrate specificity and the types of biochemical pathways available) that determine the type of PHA produced. For industrial scale production, the carbon source significantly contributes to the final cost. This makes the carbon source one of the most important components in the production of PHA and is therefore a prime target for potential cost reduction. PHAs are mainly composed of R-(-)-3-hydroxyalkanoic acid monomers. These can be broadly subdivided into two groups: Short chain length PHAs •

consist of 3 carbon - 5 carbon monomers (C3-C5)

•

produced by bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus (plus others)

Long chain length PHAs •

consist of 6 carbon - 14 carbon monomers (C6-C14)

•

produced by Pseudomonas oleovorans (plus others)

Each type of PHA generally consists of 1000-10000 monomers, but most are synthesised by short chain length monomers. There are many different types of PHA, distinctly characterised by chain length, type of functional group and degree of unsaturated bonds. A higher degree of unsaturation increases the rubber qualities of a polymer, and different functional groups change the physical and chemical properties of a polymer. PHB (or poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P(3HB))) is the most common type of PHA produced and is an example of a short chain length homopolymer produced by A. eutrophus. PHB has poor physical properties for commercial use, as it is stiff, brittle and hard to process. This has led to an increased interest to produce heteropolymers with improved qualities.

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Biopol, produced by Metabolix, is a leading example of an improved poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co3-hydroxyvalerate), P(3HB-3HV), heteropolymer. Compared to PHB, P(3HB-3HV) is less stiff, tougher, and easier to process, making it more suitable for commercial production. It is also water resistant and impermeable to oxygen, increasing its value. PHB is a completely biodegradable polymer and degrades through various types of bacteria and fungi to carbon dioxide and water through secreting enzymes. It can also be degraded through nonenzymatic hydrolysis. Degradation appears to be the fastest under conditions of high temperatures and mechanical disruption. PHB is also biocompatible, meaning it is a metabolite normally present in blood. The production of biodegradable polymers using carbon as the starting material can be carried out using a 3-stage or a 2-stage process. The 3-stage process involves utilisation of plant sugars derived from photosynthetically fixed CO2 as carbon sources in the fermentation of organic acids, alcohols and amino acids. These substances are then used as building blocks for the chemical synthesis of polymers. Examples of polymers using the 3-stage process include polylactic acid and polybutylene succinate. On the other hand, the 2-stage process involves the direct conversion of plant sugars and plant oils into polymer by microorganisms. At present, the biosynthesis of PHA is largely carried out through the 2-stage process. Compared to the 3-stage process of polymer production, the 2-stage process can be more cost effective provided that excellent producers of PHA are identified and the fermentation process is highly optimised. Inexpensive plant oils have been found to be an excellent carbon source for the efficient production of PHA. There were a number of efforts to commercialise PHA, notably by ICI in the 1980s and early 1990s, and by Monsanto in the mid 1990s. However, these attempts were largely unsuccessful due to the high cost and very limited processability and properties. In recent years, these deficiencies have been largely overcome most notably by Metabolix and by Procter & Gamble’s Nodax business unit, which both specialise in PHA materials development. The broad range of properties offered by PHA make them useful for a wide variety of applications, including: Food packaging Single-serve cups and other disposable foodservice items Houseware Appliances Electrical and electronics Consumer durables Agriculture and soil stabilisation Adhesives, paints and coatings Automotive Medical (bone plates and surgical sutures)

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3.9 Polylactic Acid Polyesters Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. It is a highly versatile material and is made from 100% renewable resources like corn, sugar beet, wheat and other starchrich products. Polylactic acid exhibits many properties that are equivalent to or better than many petroleum-based plastics, which makes it suitable for a variety of applications. The starting material for polylactic acid is starch from a renewable resource such as corn. Corn is milled, which separates starch from the raw material. Unrefined dextrose is then processed from the starch. Dextrose is turned into lactic acid using fermentation, similar to that used by beer and wine producers. Polylactide (PLA) polymer chemistry stems from lactide, which is the cyclic dimer of lactic acid that exists as two optical isomers, d and l. l-lactide is the naturally occurring isomer, and dl-lactide is the synthetic blend of d-lactide and l-lactide. The homopolymer of l-lactide (LPLA) is a semicrystalline polymer. Poly(dl-lactide) (DLPLA) is an amorphous polymer exhibiting a random distribution of both isomeric forms of lactic acid, and accordingly is unable to arrange into an organised crystalline structure. This material has lower tensile strength, higher elongation, and a much more rapid degradation time. PLA is about 37% crystalline, with a melting point of 175-178 °C and a glass-transition temperature of 60-65 °C. The degradation time of LPLA is much slower than that of DLPLA, requiring more than two years to be completely absorbed. Copolymers of l-lactide and dl-lactide have been developed prepared to disrupt the crystallinity of l-lactide and accelerate the degradation process. Turning the lactic acid into a polymer involves a chemical process called condensation, whereby two lactic acid molecules are converted into one cyclic molecule called a lactide. This lactide is purified through vacuum distillation. A solvent-free melt process causes the ring-shaped lactide polymers to open and join end-to-end to form long chain polymers. A wide range of products that vary in molecular weight and crystallinity can be produced, allowing the PLA to be modified for a variety of applications. PLA compares well with petrochemical-based plastics used for packaging. It is clear and naturally glossy like polystyrene, it is resistant to moisture and grease, it has flavour and odour barrier characteristics similar to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of PLA is also comparable to PET. PLA can be formulated to be either rigid or flexible and can be co-polymerised with other materials. Polylactic acid can be made with different mechanical properties suitable for specific manufacturing processes, such as injection moulding, sheet extrusion, blow moulding, thermoforming, film forming and fibre spinning using most conventional techniques and equipment. PLA is a non-volatile, odourless polymer and is classified as GRAS (generally recognised as safe) by the US Food and Drug Administration. Polylactic acid has been around for many decades. In 1932, Wallace Carothers, a scientist for DuPont, produced a low molecular weight product by heating lactic acid under a vacuum. In 1954, after further refinements, DuPont patented Carothers’ process. Due to high costs, the focus was initially on the manufacture of medical grade sutures, implants and controlled drug release applications. Recently, there have been advances in fermentation of glucose, which turns the glucose into lactic acid. This has dramatically lowered the cost of producing lactic acid and significantly increased interest in the polymer.

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Cargill, Incorporated, was one of the first companies to extensively develop polylactic acid polymers. Cargill began researching PLA production technology in 1987. It began production of pilot plant quantities in 1992 and in 1997 formed a joint venture with Dow Chemical Company, Inc., creating Cargill Dow Polymers LLC. The joint venture is dedicated to further commercialising PLA polymers and formally launched NatureWorksTM PLA technology in 2001. Construction was completed on a large-scale PLA manufacturing facility in Blair, Nebraska in 2002. Cargill Dow now trades as NatureWorks LLC, following the sale by Dow Chemicals of its share in the joint venture to Cargill Inc. in 2005. Polylactic acid has many potential uses, including many applications in the textile and medical industries as well as the packaging industry. The main types of NatureWorks PLA that are available for packaging applications include general purpose film grades, extrusion coating, extrusion and thermoforming grades and injection stretch blow moulding. The general purpose film grade is ‘biaxially oriented’, a property that gives it stability at temperatures up to 130 °C. They also offer a biaxially oriented film for high temperature applications (150 °C). According to NatureWorks, these resins offer excellent optical properties, good machinability and excellent twist and dead fold characteristics. These polymers are offered in common pellet form, which should allow for rapid adoption with conventional extruders. Grades designed for extrusion coating on paper, process easily on conventional extrusion coating equipment at a lower melt extrusion temperature than polyethylene coatings according to the company. Paper and board coated in this resin can be heat-sealed on typical equipment. Potential applications for these grades include, lawn and leaf bags, hot and cold drinking cups, picnic plates, bowls, straws, fried food boxes, frozen vegetable packaging, and liquid food packaging. Clear extrusion sheet grades are designed for extrusion and thermoforming applications, and like other NatureWorks’ PLA polymers, use conventional processing techniques and equipment. Potential uses include dairy containers, food service ware, transparent food containers, blister packs, and cold drink cups. PLA is available in grades suitable for manufacture of injection stretch blow moulded bottles. It is claimed these offer comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET making it suitable for a variety of short shelf-life food and beverage bottling applications. NatureWorks LLC is also developing grades for microwavable packaging and bottles for packaging oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA. Polylactic acid also has many potential uses in fibres and non-wovens. It is easily converted into a variety of fibre forms using conventional melt-spinning processes. Spunbound and meltblown nonwovens as well as monocomponent, bicomponent, continuous (flat and textured) and stable fibres are all easily produced. Polylactic acid based fibres have various attributes that make them attractive for many traditional applications. PLA polymers are more hydrophilic than PET, have a lower density, and have excellent crimp and crimp retention. Shrinkage of PLA materials and thermal bonding temperatures are easily controllable. These polymers tend to be stable to ultraviolet light resulting in fabrics that show little fading. They also offer low flammability and smoke generation characteristics.

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Major applications for PLA fibres and non-wovens include clothing and furnishings such as drapes, upholstery and covers. Some interesting potential applications include household and industrial wipes, diapers, feminine hygiene products, disposable garments, and UV resistant fabrics for exterior use (awnings, ground covers). In the field of biomedical devices, polylactic acid has become an important material, having been in use for over 25 years. Polylactic acid is a biodegradable, bioresorbable polymer, i.e., it can be assimilated by a biological system. Since PLA can be assimilated by the body, it has found applications in sustained release drug delivery systems. Furthermore, its mechanical properties and absorbability make PLA polymer an ideal candidate for implants in bone or soft tissue (facial traumatology, orthopaedic surgery, ophthalmology, orthodontics, local implants for controlled release of anti-cancer drugs), and for resorbable sutures (eye surgery, conjunctional surgery, surgery of the chest and abdomen). The mechanical, pharmaceutical and bioabsorption characteristics are dependent on controllable parameters such as chemical composition and molecular weight of the polymer. The time frame for resorption of the polymer may be anything from just a few weeks to a few years, and can be regulated by use of different formulations and the addition of radicals on its chains. PLA polymers are fully compostable in commercial composting facilities. With proper equipment, PLA can be converted back to monomer, which then can be converted back into polymers. Alternatively, PLA can be biodegraded into water, carbon dioxide and organic material. At the end of a PLA-based product’s life cycle, a product made from PLA can be broken down into its simplest parts so that no sign of the original product remains.

3.10 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Polyesters have played a prominent part in the development of biodegradable polymers. One of the first products developed as a biodegradable plastic in the early 1970s was based on a polyester belonging to the polyhydroxyalknoates (PHA) group, called polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). Beside the natural polyesters a number of synthetic aliphatic polyesters have also been shown to be biodegradable. From a commercial point of view the most important synthetic biodegradable aliphatic polyester was traditionally polycaprolactone (PCL).

3.10.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL) The ring-opening polymerisation of ε-caprolactone yields a semicrystalline polymer with a melting point of 59-64 °C and a glass transition temperature of -60 °C. The polymer is regarded as tissue compatible and was originally used in the medical field as a biodegradable suture in Europe. Because the homopolymer has a degradation time of the order of two years, copolymers have been synthesised to accelerate the rate of bioabsorption. For example, copolymers of ε-caprolactone with dl-lactide have yielded materials with more rapid degradation rates. Polycaprolactone aliphatic polyesters have long been available from companies such as Solvay and Union Carbide (now Dow Performance Chemicals) for use in adhesives, compatibilisers, modifiers and films as well as medical applications. These materials have low melting points and high prices (€4-7 per kg in 2005). PCL is predominantly used as a component in polyester/starch blends such as

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Mater-Bi as produced by Novamont. Caprolactone limits moisture sensitivity, boosts melt strength, and helps plasticise the starch. Other types of synthetic biopolymers that have been in use for medical applications for a number of years are polyglycolide, polydioxanone and poly(lactide-co-glycolide).

3.10.2 Polyglycolide (PGA) Polyglycolide is the simplest linear aliphatic polyester. PGA was used to develop the first totally synthetic absorbable suture, marketed as Dexon in the 1960s by Davis and Geck, Inc. Glycolide monomer is synthesised from the dimerisation of glycolic acid. Ring-opening polymerisation yields high molecular-weight materials, with approximately 1-3% residual monomer present. PGA is highly crystalline (45-55%), with a high melting point (220-225 °C) and a glass transition temperature of 35-40 °C. Because of its high degree of crystallisation, it is not soluble in most organic solvents; the exceptions are highly fluorinated organics such as hexafluoroisopropanol. PGA fibres exhibit high strength and modulus and are too stiff to be used as sutures except in the form of braided material. Sutures of PGA lose about 50% of their strength after two weeks and 100% at four weeks, and are completely absorbed in 4 to 6 months. Glycolide has been copolymerised with other monomers to reduce the stiffness of the resulting fibers.

3.10.3 Poly(dioxanone) (a polyether-ester) The ring-opening polymerisation of p-dioxanone resulted in the first clinically tested monofilament synthetic suture, known as PDS (marketed by Ethicon). This material has approximately 55% crystallinity, with a glass-transition temperature of -10 to 0 °C. The polymer should be processed at the lowest possible temperature to prevent depolymerisation back to monomer. Poly(dioxanone) has demonstrated no acute or toxic effects on implantation. The monofilament loses 50% of its initial breaking strength after three weeks and is absorbed within six months, providing an advantage over other products for slow-healing wounds.

3.10.4 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) Using the polyglycolide and poly(l-lactide) properties as a starting point, it is possible to co-polymerise the two monomers to extend the range of homopolymer properties. Copolymers of glycolide with both l-lactide and dl-lactide have been developed for both device and drug delivery applications. It is important to note that there is not a linear relationship between the copolymer composition and the mechanical and degradation properties of the materials. For example, a copolymer of 50% glycolide and 50% dl-lactide degrades faster than either homopolymer. Copolymers of l-lactide with 25-70% glycolide are amorphous due to the disruption of the regularity of the polymer chain by the other monomer. A copolymer of 90% glycolide and 10% l-lactide was developed by Ethicon as an absorbable suture material under the trade name Vicryl. It absorbs within 3 to 4 months but has a slightly longer strength retention time. Nowadays, various aliphatic copolyesters based on succinate, adipate, ethylene glycol and 1,4butanediol are being produced. Aliphatic polyesters based on natural feedstock such lactic acid are also being produced on a commercial scale by companies such as NatureWorks LLC.

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However, most of the aliphatic polyesters presently commercially used for biodegradable materials exhibit serious disadvantages. Beside the relatively high price level, properties are often limited and exclude these materials from many applications. For example, PCL has a very low melting point of about 60 ºC. For conventional technical applications aromatic polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) are widely used. But these polymers are biologically inert and thus not directly applicable as biodegradable plastics. Combining both the excellent material properties of aromatic polyesters and the potential biodegradability of aliphatic polyesters has led to the development of a number of commercially available aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters over the last decade or so. BASF’s Ecoflex is based on a co-polyester from terephthalic acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol. The content of terephthalic acid in the polymer is approximately 42-45 mol% (with regard to the dicarboxylic monomers). Modification of the basic co-polyester lead to a flexible material, which is especially suitable for film applications. Ecoflex reportedly processes easily and has a melting point of 110-115 °C and other properties equal or close to those of LDPE. The F (film) version imparts high elongation and dart impact and yields clear films that weld and print easily, BASF says. masterbatches can fine-tune the feel of Ecoflex films from soft to HDPE-like stiffness. Ecoflex is said to have high toughness and good cling properties. That makes it possible for 10 micron cling films to replace vinyl in vegetable, fruit, and meat wraps. BASF claims its materials also make films with 50% lower moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR) than other biodegradable polymers. The biodegradation of Ecoflex film was tested under composting conditions. After 100 days in a composting environment more than 90% of the carbon in the polymer was converted to carbon dioxide. Tests also showed no toxic effects of degradation intermediates. Eastar Bio (now owned by Novamont) is also based on a co-polyester composed of terephthalic acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol, but due to some special modifications the material properties are different. Degradation of Eastar Bio was tested under composting conditions: after 210 days of composting about 80% of the polymer carbon was released as carbon dioxide. Eastar Bio co-polyesters have a melting point of 108 °C and offer good contact clarity, adhesion, and elongation (up to 800%). They have high moisture and grease resistance, and process much like LDPE. Eastar Bio is used in lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural films, netting, and paper coatings. DuPont’s Biomax product is a standard PET with the addition of three aliphatic monomers to allow degradation to take place. Comparable to PLA, the degradation mechanism is described as an initial attack of water to the special monomers, which are sensitive to hydrolysis. Although it appears that Biomax sufficiently disintegrates under composting conditions, the process of decomposition of the material was too slow to meet accepted standards. Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195 °C melting point versus 250 °C for PET, resulting in higher service temperature capability and faster processing rates than for other biodegradables. Mechanical properties include high stiffness and 40% to 50% elongation. DuPont has targeted fastfood disposable packaging, as well as yard-waste bags, diaper backing, agricultural film, flowerpots and bottles.

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EnPol from Korea’s IRe Chemicals are based on a group of aliphatic co-polyesters comprising adipic acid, succinic acid, 1,2-ethanediol or 1,4-butanediol. EnPol polymers meet the specifications of the US Food & Drug Administration for food contact applications and the USP specifications for medical device applications. The biodegradation of EnPol polymers was tested in a controlled laboratory composting test and showed that within 45 days a carbon dioxide evolution of more than 90% of the carbon present in the co-polyester was detected. Partly because of their cost, biodegradable polyesters are finding much of their market in blends. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters tend to complement one another’s properties, as well as those of PLA, thermoplastic starch, and other organic materials. Eastar Bio, for instance, is flexible and tough, with good contact clarity and adhesion properties. Its deficits are relatively low stiffness, poor melt strength, and a tendency to stick in injection moulds. In contrast, NatureWorks PLA tends to be brittle and has poor adhesion. Blends of the two are a logical way to increase the performance envelope of both materials.

3.11 Processing Biodegradable Polymers 3.11.1 Introduction All commercially available biodegradable polymers can be melt processed by conventional means such as injection moulding, compression moulding, and extrusion. Special consideration needs to be given to the exclusion of moisture from the material before melt processing to prevent hydrolytic degradation. Care must be taken to dry the polymers before processing and to rigorously exclude humidity during processing. Because most biodegradable polymers have been synthesised by ring-opening polymerisation, a thermodynamic equilibrium exists between the forward or polymerisation reaction and the reverse reaction that results in monomer formation. Excessively high processing temperatures may result in monomer formation during the moulding or extrusion process. The presence of excess monomer can act as a plasticiser, changing the material’s mechanical properties, and can catalyze the hydrolysis of the device, thus altering degradation kinetics. Therefore, these materials should be processed at the lowest temperatures possible.

3.11.2 Film Blowing and Casting There are two main processes used commercially for making film from thermoplastics, blowing and casting. Blown film is one of the most common methods of film manufacture (also referred to as tubular film extrusion). The process involves extrusion of a plastic through a circular die, followed by ‘bubble-like’ expansion. The principal advantages of manufacturing film by this process include the ability to: •

produce tubing (both flat and gussetted) in a single operation

•

regulation of film width and thickness by control of the volume of air in the bubble, the output of the extruder and the speed of the haul-off

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•

eliminate end effects such as edge bead trim and non uniform temperature that can result from flat die film extrusion

•

capability of biaxial orientation (allowing uniformity of mechanical properties)

The production process for blown film begins with plastic melt being extruded through an annular slit die, usually vertically, to form a thin walled tube. Air is introduced via a hole in the centre of the die to blow up the tube like a balloon. Mounted on top of the die, a high-speed air ring blows onto the hot film to cool it. The tube of film then continues upwards, continually cooling, until it passes through nip rolls where the tube is flattened to create what is known as a ‘lay-flat’ tube of film. This lay-flat or collapsed tube is then taken back down the extrusion ‘tower’ via more rollers. On higher output lines, the air inside the bubble is also exchanged. This is known as internal bubble cooling. The lay-flat film is then either kept as such or the edges of the lay-flat are slit off to produce two flat film sheets and wound up onto reels. If kept as lay-flat, the tube of film is made into bags by sealing across the width of film and cutting or perforating to make each bag. This is done either in line with the blown film process or at a later stage. Typically, the expansion ratio between die and blown tube of film would be 1.5 to 4 times the die diameter. The drawdown between the melt wall thickness and the cooled film thickness occurs in both radial and longitudinal directions and is easily controlled by changing the volume of air inside the bubble and by altering the haul off speed. This gives blown film a better balance of properties than traditional cast or extruded film, which is drawn down along the extrusion direction only. Polyethylenes (HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE) are the most common resins in use, but a wide variety of other materials can be used as blends with these resins or as single layers in a multi-layer film structure. Blown film can be used either in tube form (e.g., for plastic bags and sacks) or the tube can be slit to form a sheet. Typical applications include packaging (e.g., shrink film, stretch film, bag film or container liners), consumer packaging (e.g., packaging film for frozen products, shrink film for transport packaging, food wrap film, packaging bags, or form-fill-and-seal packaging film). The process for making a cast film involves drawing a molten web of resin from a die onto a roll for controlled cooling. The cast film process is used to make a film with gloss and sparkle. The melt temperature in the cast film process is higher than in the blown film process. The higher the melt temperature the better are the optical properties of the film. Most biodegradable polymers are suitable for film blowing and casting, although modifications are often necessary, and productivity may not be as high as conventional thermoplastics. For example, starch-based Mater-Bi films can be produced by film blowing and casting equipment traditionally used for LDPE with little or no modification. Film production productivity is reported to be 80-90% of LDPE. The main difference from traditional PE film is the lower welding temperatures, therefore small to medium sized production lines with good cooling capacity are the best suited for processing starch-based film. PLA films with thicknesses of 8-510 microns have been obtained from commercial film casting equipment. PLA can be difficult to process into a film due to instability at elevated processing temperatures. According to NatureWorks, melt stable PLA suitable for processing into film can be made by controlling the polymer composition as well as adding stabilising or catalyst-destabilising agents. The polymer molecular weight (MW) plays a role in its processability. Also, polymer morphology is very important. Semi-crystalline PLA is suitable for processing into films with desirable barrier properties. The desired range of compositions for semi-crystalline PLA is less than 15 wt% meso-lactide, and the remaining weight percent being L-lactide.

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Crystallisation of a thermoplastic must occur within a few seconds for efficient film processing. NatureWorks has patented four methods to increase the rate of PLA crystallisation: 1. Adding a plasticising agent such as dioctyl adipate. 2. Adding a nucleating agent such as talc. 3. Orientation by drawing during film casting or blowing or after it has cast or blown. 4. Heat setting, which involves holding constrained oriented film at temperatures above the glass transition temperature (Tg).

3.11.3 Injection Moulding Injection moulding is one of the prime processes for producing plastics articles. It is a fast process and is used to produce large numbers of identical items from high precision engineering components to disposable consumer goods. Most thermoplastics can be processed using injection moulding. Some of the most commonly used include ABS, nylon, polypropylene, polycarbonate and polystyrene. The injection moulding machine consists of a heated barrel equipped with a reciprocating screw (usually driven by a hydraulic motor), which feeds the molten polymer into a temperature controlled split mould via a channel system of gates and runners. The screw melts (plasticises) the polymer, and also acts as a ram during the injection phase. The screw action also provides additional heating by virtue of the shearing action on the polymer. The pressure of injection is high, dependant on the material being processed; it can be up to one thousand atmospheres. Most biodegradable polymers can be used for making injection moulded articles. Starch-based polymers are used to manufacture a wide range of items such as pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, combs and toys, plant pots and bones. One example is the processing of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) into injection moulded articles. It was found that the degree of crystallinity is a result of the processing history during the injection moulding process. In what is known as the fountain flow effect, hot melt flows into a cold mould and quickly forms a frozen layer on the surface of the mould while material in the centre of the sample does not cool as quickly. The difference in cooling rate and orientation causes a difference in the crystallisation between the material close to the surface and material closer to the core. The degree of crystallinity of injection moulded PHBV affects both the properties of the article as well as its biodegradability. This result is also true for many other biodegradable polymers. PLA is a polymer that may not be well suited to injection moulding. Its rate of crystallisation is too slow to allow cycle times typical of those for commodity thermoplastics such as polystyrene. Stress induced crystallisation that can enhance PLA crystallisation is better suited to processes such as fibre spinning or biaxial orientation of film.

3.11.4 Blow Moulding Thermoplastics can be moulded into articles by injection moulding or blow moulding. Blow moulding is the most common process for making hollow articles such as bottles. There are two main types of blow moulding, injection blow moulding and extrusion blow moulding.

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Injection blow moulding is used for the production of hollow objects in large quantities. The main applications are bottles, jars and other containers. The Injection blow moulding process produces bottles of superior visual and dimensional quality compared to extrusion blow moulding. The process is ideal for both narrow and wide-mouthed containers and produces them fully finished with no flash. The process is divided into three stages: 1. Injection: The injection blow moulding machine is based on an extruder barrel and screw assembly which melts the polymer. The molten polymer is fed into a manifold where it is injected through nozzles into a hollow, heated preform mould. The preform mould forms the external shape and is clamped around a mandrel (the core rod) which forms the internal shape of the preform. The preform consists of a fully formed bottle/jar neck with a thick tube of polymer attached, which will form the body. 2. Blowing: The preform mould opens and the core rod is rotated and clamped into the hollow, chilled blow mould. The core rod opens and allows compressed air into the perform, which inflates into the finished article shape. 3. Ejection: After a cooling period the blow mould opens and the core rod is rotated to the ejection position. The finished article is stripped off the core rod and leak-tested prior to packing. The preform and blow mould can have many cavities, typically three to sixteen depending on the article size and the required output. There are three sets of core rods, which allow concurrent preform injection, blow moulding and ejection. For extrusion blow moulding, the blow moulding machine is based on a standard extruder barrel and screw assembly to plasticise the polymer. The molten polymer is led through a right angle and through a die to emerge as a hollow (usually circular) pipe section called a parison. When the parison has reached a sufficient length a hollow mould is closed around it. The mould mates closely at its bottom edge thus forming a seal. The parison is cut at the top by a knife prior to the mould being moved sideways to a second position where air is blown into the parison to inflate it to the shape of the mould. After a cooling period the mould is opened and the final article is ejected. To speed production several identical moulds may be fed in cycle by the same extruder unit. The process is not unlike that used for producing glass bottles, in that the molten material is forced into a mould under air pressure.

3.11.5 Injection Stretch Blow Moulding Injection stretch blow moulding (ISBM) is used for the production of high quality and high clarity containers. PET is the most widely used polymer for injection stretch blow moulding of bottles. During the last two years, there has been a growing interest from brand owners and retailers in the use of PLA for manufacture of stretch blow moulded bottles for short shelf-life products such as mineral water and milk. The ISBM process is divided into four stages. 1. Injection: Molten polymer flows into the injection cavity via the hot runner block, to produce the desired shape of the preform with a mandrel (the core pin) producing the inner diameter and the injection cavity the outer. After a set time the injection moulds and core pins part and the preform held in a neck carrier is rotated 90°.

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2. Conditioning: Because the preform has been cooled in the injection station quickly, it is of varying temperatures throughout its wall thickness. To ensure a good and consistent quality of container, the preform needs a uniform temperature. Heating is employed to achieve this conditioning. 3. Stretching: Once conditioned to the correct temperature the preform is ready for stretching and blowing to the finished shape. 4. Blowing: Once the preform is within the blow mould area the moulds close, a stretch rod is introduced to stretch the preform longitudinally and using two levels of air pressure, the preform is blown circumferentially.

3.11.6 Thermoforming Thermoforming has close similarities with vacuum forming, except that greater use is made of air pressure and plug assisted forming of the softened sheet. The process is invariably automated and faster cycle times are achieved than in the vacuum forming process. Only thermoplastic sheet can be processed by this method. The largest application for thermoformed articles is for food packaging. Other industries include toiletries, pharmaceuticals and electronics. The modern food supply chain uses many forms of thermoformed articles; meat trays, microwave and deep freeze containers, ice cream and margarine tubs, delicatessen tubs, snack tubs, bakery and patisserie packaging, sandwich packs and vending drink cups are just a few of the food related applications. Other non-food applications include manufacturing collation trays, blister packaging and point of sale display trays. Many thermoplastics can be thermoformed, including polystyrene, polypropylene, APET, CPET, and PVC. EVOH is commonly incorporated into a co-extrusion for its superior barrier properties in food. Co-extrusions of these materials are commonly used to provide precise properties for specific applications. In terms of biodegradable polymers, PLA is finding growing use for manufacture of thermoformed articles such as single-use disposable cups and trays, particularly for outdoor events. Starch-based biodegradable polymers can also be thermoformed for production of trays and containers for packaging fresh food and convenience food. The demands of the food packaging industry are for materials which resist the passage of odours, moisture and gases, hence the use of plastics with superior barrier properties. The majority of thermoforming production is by roll fed machines. Sheet fed machines are used for the smaller volume applications. Larger production units have in house sheet extrusion equipment. Because of the complexities in synchronising sheet extrusion equipment and the thermoforming machines, the two processes can be carried out independently of each other, the extruded sheet being produced in advance of production schedules. With very large volumes a fully integrated in-line, closed loop system can be justified. The line is fed with plastics raw material, with extruders feeding directly into the thermoforming machine. The plastic sheet is softened at the heating station. It then indexes to the forming station where the mould tools are located. The forming of the sheet is by a combination of air pressure and male core

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plugs. Certain designs of thermoforming tool facilitate the cropping of the article being formed within the thermoforming tool. Greater accuracy of cut can be achieved by this method due to the article being produced, and the skeletal (scrap), not having to be re-positioned. Alternatives are where the formed sheet, including skeletal, are indexed to the cropping station. The high volumes of articles being produced demand that a parts stacker is integrated into the forming machine. Once stacked the finished articles are now packed into boxes for transportation to the end customer. The separated skeletal is either wound onto a mandrill, for subsequent chopping, or passes through a chopping machine which is in line with the thermoforming machine.

3.11.7 Fibre Spinning The most commonly used commercial processes for making fibres are melt spinning, dry spinning and wet spinning. Melt spinning is the most economical, but can only be applied to polymers that are stable at temperatures sufficiently above their melting point to be extruded in the molten state without degradation. The properties of crystalline polymers can be improved when made into fibre form by the process of orientation or drawing. The result is the increased strength, stiffness, and dimensional stability associated with synthetic fibres. PLA is the most common type of biodegradable polymer found in fibre form. PLA fibre properties compare favourably with both PET and rayon fibres. Conditions that the polymers are subject to during the spinning process impact on fibre properties such as tensile strength and elongation. Polymer degradation can take place during the melt spinning process even when using dry polymer with less than 0.005% water content. Fibres produced by dry spinning undergo very slight degradation.

References 1.

Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 5.

2.

Catia Bastioli, Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, Rapra Technology Ltd, 2003, 11-13.

3.


4.


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4

The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market

4.1 Introduction In 2005, there were very few biodegradable polymer production plants operating on a fully commercial scale. NatureWorks LLC, Novamont, Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF are currently the only major operators with significant production capacity. Nevertheless, the world biopolymers market has shown significant growth during the last five years or so, albeit from a very small base. The major classes of biopolymer, starch and starch blends, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters, are now being used in a wide variety of niche applications, particularly for manufacture of rigid and flexible packaging, bags and sacks and foodservice products. However, market volumes for biopolymers remain extremely low compared with standard petrochemical-based plastics. For example, biopolymer consumption accounted for just 0.14% of total thermoplastics consumption in Western Europe for 2005. This section reviews the major factors that are driving demand for biodegradable polymers in Western Europe and other major world regions. These include increasing concern for environmental protection, the encouragement of recycling and packaging waste reduction and the development of composting infrastructures in a growing number of countries. There has also been a narrowing in the price differential between biopolymers and standard thermoplastics in recent years, which has encouraged some brand owners to switch in favour of biopolymers. The section also provides an analysis of biodegradable polymer market size and growth over the last five years for the three major world regions (Western Europe, North America and Asia Pacific), plus forecasts to 2010.

4.2 Market Drivers 4.2.1 Development of Framework Conditions Biodegradable polymers can make a positive contribution to the conservation of the world’s natural resources and protection of the environment. However, their market potential will only be fulfilled if the required framework conditions are put in place to ensure the necessary investment in technology and production capacity. Framework conditions refer to the development of industry standards and regulatory systems, certification and certification systems that are designed to encourage biodegradable polymer market development. Biodegradable polymers are one answer to the growing problem of how to dispose of domestic waste materials. Waste management is becoming an increasingly important issue in Western Europe and most other developed countries, especially where there are few sites left that can be used for landfill. Since a high proportion of domestic waste is made of plastics, there is a growing interest in recycling plastics and in producing plastic materials that can be safely and easily disposed of in the environment.

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Plastic recycling is a requirement of European Union countries. The European Commission Directive 94/62/EC on Packaging and Packaging Waste aims to prevent or minimise the impact of packaging waste on the environment through recovery and recycling targets. In 2002, the EU decided that the material-specific recycling quota for plastics was to be raised from 20% to 22.5%. The mechanical recycling quota for all the different material groups taken together is to be set at a minimum of 55% and a maximum of 80%. All participants in the supply chain, from polymer producers to retailers, have a financial obligation under the directive for meeting the recycling targets. In December 2005, the EU proposed new legislation to modernise the 1975 Waste Framework Directive, which should give a further boost to the development of biodegradable polymers. The main elements of the proposals are: •

Focussing waste policy on improving the way resources are used;

•

Mandatory national waste prevention programmes, which take account of the variety of national, regional and local conditions, to be finalised three years after entry into force of the directive;

•

Improving the recycling market by setting environmental standards that specify under which conditions certain recycled wastes are no longer considered waste.

This long-term strategy aims to help Europe become a recycling society that seeks to avoid waste and uses waste as a resource. EU-wide statistics on waste treatment are available only for municipal waste, which represents about 14% of total waste produced. At present, 49% of EU municipal waste is disposed of through landfill, 18% is incinerated and 27% recycled or composted. There are wide discrepancies between Member States. Some landfill 90% of their municipal waste, others only 10%. The proportion of recycled municipal waste has been increasing, but this has been offset almost completely by an increase in municipal waste generation. As a result, landfill is only reducing slowly. For example, the amount of plastic waste going to landfill increased by 21.7% between 1990 and 2002, even though the percentage of plastic waste being landfilled dropped from 77% to 62%. Recycling of municipal waste nearly doubled between 1995 and 2003 and now accounts for 82.3 million tonnes per year. Incineration is slowly increasing and generates energy equivalent to 8 million tonnes of oil. Biodegradable materials are created specifically with recyclability or disposal in mind. Recycling techniques for post-consumer biodegradable plastic products have two important features, which distinguish them from conventional polymers: their biodegradability or compostability and the use of renewable resources in their manufacture. The established methods for biological waste recycling of biodegradable plastic products are composting and biogasification. Biodegradable plastics can also be used for energy recovery by incineration and, like conventional polymers, they have a high calorific value. The end products of both processes are carbon dioxide and water. Composting additionally generates biomass, which contributes to the compost’s value as a fertiliser. Incineration generates ash and releases thermal energy. The material cycle can be closed in both scenarios with biodegradable plastics derived from renewable resources. The choice of recycling option depends primarily on the waste-disposal infrastructure already in place. The choice of recycling route will differ according to product group and region. The goal

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should always be to obtain maximum recycling efficiency, both economically and environmentally, in compliance with waste legislation requirements. Composting is the most favoured method for recovery of post-consumer waste biodegradable plastic products, since incineration requires a high calorimetric value and landfill is not suitable for organic materials. Composting is already well established in some European countries, and is being established in others. The Netherlands and Germany are leading countries in the development of a composting infrastructure for biodegradable plastic products. In these countries, more than 95% and 60%, respectively, of all households have access to industrial composting plants. Containers (bio bins) are provided for the collection of organic household refuse. In the EU, organic matter makes up 30-40% of total domestic refuse. In Germany, about 500 plants convert more than six million tonnes of organic refuse into compost. Biodegradable plastic products must meet stringent quality criteria if they are to be composted. Dedicated standards and certification schemes/tests have been established for verifying the compostability of plastic products. Compostable polymers must pass compostability test standards that are described in the harmonised European standard EN 13432, introduced in 2000. This standard applies to ‘Packaging’ and is virtually the same as the former DIN V 54900 standard. The German testing institute, Din Certco, is the body responsible for testing and certifying biodegradable and compostable polymers and products and licenses the use of the corresponding Mark developed by the IBAW, the European Biodegradable Polymers Association and Working Groups. Certification enables compostable products to be identified by a unique mark and channelled for recovery of their constituent materials in specially developed processes. The Compostability Mark thus conveys product information to waste-disposal plant operators and product image to consumers. A certification can be conducted according to three standards: •

DIN V 54900 ‘Testing of the compostability of plastics’ (replaced by DIN EN 13432.

•

DIN EN 13432 ‘Packaging - Requirements for packaging recoverable through composting and biodegradation’ – Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the final acceptance of packaging.

•

ASTM D 6400 ’Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics’.

Laboratory tests have to be performed for materials, intermediates and additives. In these tests the chemical properties are checked, the ultimate biodegradability is verified and the disintegration properties are determined. Chemical testing serves to ensure that neither harmful organic substances, such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) and dioxins, nor heavy metals, such as lead, mercury and cadmium, pass into the soil via the compost. The method specified for the testing of biodegradability serves to verify the complete degradation of the materials within the processing period of normal composting plants. An ecological nontoxicity test that is also prescribed ensures that the plastics used have no adverse effect on the quality of the compost. Additionally the maximum compostable layer thickness is determined. If the results of the tests are in conformity with the standard(s) and/or the certification scheme, the material, intermediate or additive is registered as biodegradable and compostable.

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Products that have been manufactured from registered materials, intermediates and additives, may be certified, if they meet the maximum compostable layer thickness of the used materials or intermediates. Verification tests are performed in order to verify that the same base materials as those declared on application for certification are being used. For this purpose, infrared spectra are recorded and compared. The biodegradable plastics industry initiated the development of standards to protect biodegradable plastics suppliers from imitation products. The term ‘compostable’ could not be legally protected and can be abused by other product suppliers. For example, manufacturers of standard polymers, such as polyethylene, offer what they term ‘compostable grades’ for production of plastic bags. None of the additive containing PE products has so far provided compelling proof of compostability as set out in the stringent standards criteria. Polymeric materials whose organic constituents undergo complete biological degradation are termed biodegradable. Biodegradation is a process caused by biological activity that, accompanied by changes to the chemical structure of the material, leads to naturally occurring metabolic end products. The ambient conditions and the rate of biodegradation have to be determined in standardised test methods. The very fact that a material is biodegradable is not good enough on its own when it comes to industrial processes for recycling biodegradable products. Much more important is verifiable degradation within the typical timeframe of the method. Accordingly, the mentioned DIN standard defines compostability as the property of a polymeric material to degrade during a composting process. ‘Biologically degradable’ is therefore by no means equivalent to ‘compostable’. Since the term ‘compostable’ could not be protected by legal means and biodegradable plastic products cannot be distinguished from conventional polymers by their appearance, a certification and identification process was created with the support of the German Ministry for Consumer Protection, Agriculture and Forests. The certification programme for compostable biodegradable plastic products has been set up by experts responsible for waste recycling and compost quality assurance. The members are as follows: •

Bundesgütegemeinschaft Kompost (German association for compost quality assurance)

•

Bundesverband der deutschen Entsorgungswirtschaft (Association of the German wastemanagement industries)

•

Bundesverband Humus- und Erdenwirtschaft e.V. (German association for humus and soil application)

•

Bundesvereinigung der kommunalen Spitzenverbände (Association of German cities and municipalities)

•

Deutscher Bauernverband (German farmers association)

•

Industrieverband Kunststoffverpackungen (Association for plastic packaging)

•

IBAW, the European Biodegradable Plastics Association

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Industry associations have recognised the need for quality assurance measures as a means of counteracting the threats posed to the biodegradable plastics industry by other materials claiming to be biodegradable and compostable. IBAW has worked alongside the Biodegradable Polymers Institute (BPI) in the USA and the Biodegradable Polymer Society (BPS) in Japan to establish a harmonised certification and labelling system at the international level. In 2005, the four leading European biodegradable plastics material suppliers: BASF, NatureWorks, Novamont and Rodenburg Polymers, have also agreed to submit their packaging materials and products for certification by Din Certco under EN 13432, and label their packaging products with the compostability logo to better inform consumers and retailers. The biodegradable polymers industry is also slowly receiving more political support to bolster market development. The amended German Packaging Ordinance in December 2004, makes special provision for certified bio-packaging, i.e., packaging proven to be compostable. Up to 2012, certified biodegradable plastic packaging products need not be accepted as returns, nor are they subject to recycling quotas. The German Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture has also announced that the national budget allocated to research, development and market launches of renewable materials for 2005 has been virtually doubled to €54 million. In October 2005, the French National Assembly also boosted the prospects for biopolymers with a vote to ban production and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags from 2010. Food and industrial packaging will not be affected. The legislation is designed not only to combat littering but to provide farmers with a new source of income, growing starch-rich maize for packaging. France’s environment ministry estimates that some 15 billion plastic carrier bags, representing 60,000-80,000 tonnes of polymer are circulated in the country annually and that 120 million bags are discarded rather than being recycled.

4.2.2 Development of a Composting Infrastructure For biodegradable polymers to achieve their full market potential, they should add greater functionality and productivity for the end user, if the relatively high prices are to be justified. So far there has been very limited development of an infrastructure for composting and thus the true benefits from using biodegradable polymers are not being realised. Perhaps one of the biggest hurdles for the adoption of biodegradable and compostable materials has been the lack of kerb-side collection and municipal composting facilities, particularly in the USA and parts of Europe. Municipal composting would ‘complete the circle’ for materials such as biopolymers, which start as natural renewable resources and degrade back to useable compost material. The wider development of a composting infrastructure would permit a realisation of the marketing benefits that seems to drive the adoption of sustainable materials. Over the last few years, European legislation has become the key driver for national and regional policy on composting. The targets for diverting biodegradable municipal waste from landfill set out in the European Landfill Directive (EC/31/1999) have led to significant developments in composting infrastructures across Europe. The landfill directive is one of the most important environmental directives the European Parliament has dealt with in recent years. It marks the beginning of a major shift in waste management practice

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in Europe. For the public it represents the end of an era in which people have given very little thought to what happens to the waste they produce. Seven countries currently landfill more than half of the municipal waste they produce. These are Austria, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. For these countries in particular, this directive poses a major challenge to the so-called ‘throwaway’ culture. The three key features of the directive are firstly the promotion of the move away from landfill to more environmentally acceptable alternatives. Secondly, the directive calls for the establishment of European Union wide standards for proper management of landfills. Thirdly, it should result in the discouragement of the transport of waste across frontiers by removing the disparities between the practices and prices relating to landfill in the Member States. In the UK, The Waste and Emissions Trading (WET) Act 2003 provides the framework for the Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme (LATS) designed to meet the diversion targets laid down in Article 5(2) of the Landfill Directive. The UK targets have been divided up between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, and the relevant government body in each nation is responsible for dividing the targets between local authorities who manage disposal. LATS is a market-based mechanism that introduces progressively tighter restrictions on the amount of paper, food and garden waste that authorities can landfill. Local authorities are allocated an annual landfill allowance for municipal biodegradable waste. They are under a duty not to exceed this allowance and face punitive fines for every tonne landfilled above the total amount of allowances they hold. EU fines imposed on the UK for failure to meet the targets will be split between local authorities in direct proportion to their contribution in breaching the targets. The devolved nations have each set incremental recovery, recycling and composting targets to improve performance in the management of household waste. The national targets are divided between local authorities depending on individual performance. In England the aim is to achieve a combined recycling and composting rate of 33% of household waste by 2015, in Wales the target is 40% recycling and composting of municipal waste by 2010 (with a minimum of 15% from composting), Scotland has set municipal waste targets of 35% recycling and 20% composting by 2020, and Northern Ireland has set a target for household waste of 25% recycling and composting by 2010. Against this backdrop of waste strategy targets, the Household Waste Recycling Act (2003) requires all local authorities in England to provide kerbside collections for all householders for a minimum of two materials by 2010. Under the Act kerbside collections of food waste as well as green waste will count as a type of recyclable (providing the waste collection authority does not levy a charge for green waste collections). These national targets aim to push waste further up the waste management hierarchy. Whilst improving the performance levels for dry recyclables will continue to be important for authorities, the introduction of LATS together with the ‘composting’ element of the waste strategy targets is likely to focus efforts on biodegradable municipal wastes. In Europe, Germany and the Netherlands lead the way for separate collection of organic municipal waste for composting. In Germany, source separation of organic residues from households, gardens and parks (biowaste) is one of the main measures in waste management. The participation rate in source separation of biowaste is 70-75% of all German households. In the Netherlands, over 90% of households were involved in the separate collection system for organic waste.

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In 2003, the Dutch regulations agreed to permit biodegradable materials in the ‘green bins’ for professional composting. ‘Green bins’ are part of a system for separating household waste from ‘green’ or recyclable waste. As a first step, only biodegradable shopping bags will be allowed in the green bins. If the scheme proves a success, then retailers will be allowed to put products that have passed their sell by date direct into the green bins, without separating the content of the packaging, thus saving on costs.

4.2.3 Pricing Trends Recent upswings in the cost and declining availability of standard petroleum-based resins have brought biodegradable polymers to a price-competitive level versus petrochemical based polymers. Commodity resin prices have climbed steadily since 2003 as oil and natural gas prices have surged. During the period 2003-2005, average PP homopolymer prices and general purpose polystyrene prices have jumped by over 31%, LDPE film grade prices have gone up by 34.5% and bottle-grade PET prices have increased by nearly 18%. Table 4.1 shows the changes in average standard thermoplastic prices for the years 2003-2005 in Western Europe.

Table 4.1 Average standard thermoplastic prices 2003-2005, Western Europe (€/tonne) 2003

2004

2005

% Change 2003-2005

LDPE

851

1022

1145

34.5

PP homo

798

898

1051

31.7

PS crystal

882

1101

1157

31.2

PET bottle grade

1054

1146

1241

17.7

At the same time, prices for three major types of bio-based resins, starch-based biopolymers, polylactic acid (PLA) and aliphatic aromatic co-polyester, have dropped considerably over the last three years. The price of starch-based biopolymers has come down considerably over the last three years as production volumes have increased, more efficient production processes have been deployed and lower cost raw materials have been found. In 2003, the average price of starch blends was around €3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5 per kg, with an average price close to €1.75 per kg. Similarly, PLA biodegradable polymer prices have fallen sharply over the last five years since the polymers were first commercialised. NatureWorks PLA is now available at prices between €1.37-2.75 per kg compared to a price range of €3.0-3.5 per kg three years ago. NatureWorks PLA has been price competitive with PET for example over the last twelve months as PLA manufacturing scale has increased and process improvements were made alongside the recent sustained higher levels of PET pricing.

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The price of synthetic biopolymers has come down a little during the last three years. In 2005, the average cost of an aliphatic aromatic co-polyester biopolymer was between €2.75-3.65 per kg. In 2003, the average price of aliphatic aromatic co-polyesters was around €3.5-4.0 per kg. Prices are expected to fall further over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall. Historically, pricing had been the biggest barrier to biodegradable polymer market development. However, growing volumes of production and the development of new technology should further allow bio-based resin makers to reduce costs. Using materials such as corn stover, wheat straw and rice straw, which remain in fields after crops are harvested, as resin feedstock, could also increase productivity and economic performance.

4.2.4 Growth in Pre-Packaged Food Sales The inexorable rise in pre-packaged disposable meals means that food manufacturers and packagers are increasingly being targeted to improve their environmental performances. Demographic trends are also encouraging growth in pre-packaged food sales. Datamonitor statistics for example, show that more than one-third of European consumers live alone and are spending €140 billion a year on food, drinks and personal care products. Single people spend 50% more per person on consumer-packaged goods than a two adult household. Such trends underline why concern about the environmental impact of food packaging has never been greater.

4.2.5 Consumer Preference for Sustainable Packaging Consumers are in favour of a sustainable product development such as biodegradable plastics. In 2001, a survey of 600 people in the town of Kassel, Germany was conducted to determine the acceptability of biodegradable packaging to consumers. The study revealed that about 90% considered the idea of replacing conventional plastic packaging by compostable packaging to be either good or very good. 80% of customers using biodegradable packaging classified the quality as either good or very good, and 87% said they would buy it again. The results of the Kassel project show that, in any event, one-third of consumers would be prepared to pay a surcharge, as much as €0.15 for a carrier bag, instead of the current €0.10, provided it were compostable. For a biodegradable yoghurt tub, they would willingly pay an extra €0.05. However, it was found that a higher surcharge would deter sales. Consumers also found the idea of potatoes wrapped in potato-based packaging a fascinating concept and many consumers appreciated that it represented progress. This did not just apply to those consumers who usually buy organic produce. There are no doubt good opportunities for companies to differentiate their products from those of the competition. There is also growing evidence that brand owners and retailers are favouring greater use of sustainable packaging based on biodegradable materials rather than conventional plastics. Sustainable packaging presents an opportunity for manufacturers and retailers to differentiate their products and to present a more environmentally-friendly image to consumers. Biodegradable packaging is a natural fit with organic products, which is a fast growing market. A number of retailers are now offering organically grown fruit and vegetables, and other produce, in biodegradable packaging.

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4.2.6 Product and Technology Development During the last few years, there has been a stream of new product and technology development by leading biodegradable polymer suppliers that have opened up new markets and potential applications. NatureWorks is developing a new generation of PLA that can be used for microwavable packaging. The company has also announced results of research that showed bottles could be used to package oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA in the future. Hycail announced the launch of a new PLA material which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C without distortion. It can also be microwaved with fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or stress cracking. Toray Industries has developed a new technology for manufacture of PLA flexible film that has succeeded in containing the occurrence of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or pressure and displays highly stable flexibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA such as transparency, heat resistance, and biodegradability. Traditionally, a low-molecular-weight liquid plasticiser addition method has been used for achieving flexible PLA films. In the synthetic biodegradables sector, BASF expanded its Ecoflex-brand with Ecovio, a blend of NatureWorks PLA and Ecoflex. In the starch sector for example, Stanelco is understood to be developing a new starch-based biopolymer that it claims will undercut PET and PP prices, while offering a similar ease of processing in both bottle blowing and thermoforming processes. Developments in additive formulations are also helping to improve processing efficiencies for biodegradable polymers. PolyOne for example, introduced a new range of colour and additive masterbatches for biodegradable resins for the European market in 2005.

4.3 Market Development and Structure Global production capacity for biodegradable polymers has grown dramatically since the mid 1990s. In 1995, production was mainly on a pilot-plant basis with total worldwide capacity amounting to no more than 25-30,000 tonnes. In 2005, global capacity for biodegradable polymers was around 360,000 tonnes. Biopolymers based on renewable resources (starch and PLA and including loosefill packaging) accounted for around 300,000 tonnes with synthetic biopolymers accounting for approximately 60,000 tonnes. Based on announced projects, total production capacity is set to almost reach 600,000 tonnes by 2008. Polylactide (PLA) is the leading polymer type among biodegradables with global production capacity for this material amounting to about 250,000 tonnes per annum in 2005. Starch-based polymer capacity is approaching 60,000 tonnes per annum. In 2006, there are around 30 major companies worldwide that are actively involved in developing biodegradable plastic materials. The synthetic biopolymers market is dominated by large, global and vertically integrated chemical companies such as BASF, DuPont, and Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals. The starch and PLA sectors contain mainly specialist biopolymer companies such as Novamont, NatureWorks, Rodenburg Biopolymers and Biotec, which were specifically established purely to develop biodegradable polymers.

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Table 4.2 shows the major biodegradable polymer suppliers by product type for 2005.

Table 4.2 World biodegradable polymers market, 2005 – major suppliers by product type Starch

PLA

PHA

BASF BIOP

X X

Biomer Biotec

Synthetic

X

X

X

Cereplast

X

Daicel Chemical

X

Dainippon

X

DuPont

X

Earth Shell

X

FkuR Grenidea

X

X

X

Hycail

X

IRe Chemical

X

Metabolix

X

Mitsubishi Gas Chemical

X

Mitsui Chemical

X

NEC

X

NNZ

X

NatureWorks

X

Novamont

X

Plantic

X

X

Polyscience

X

Procter & Gamble

X

Rodenberg

X

SK Chemical

X

Showa

X

Solvay

X

Stanelco Toyota

X

X X

The leading biodegradable polymer suppliers are Novamont, NatureWorks, BASF and Rodenburg Biopolymers, which together represent over 90% of the European market for biodegradable plastics.

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At the moment, there are a growing number of biodegradable polymers performing well in niche applications. Many of these materials can be even more cost competitive in the future compared to petroleum-based resins including PET, PE, and PP as suppliers develop better material properties that can lead to thinner films or lower processing costs. In terms of the product life cycle analysis, a new product or polymer would generally require about thirty years from the research and development stage before becoming a commodity product when millions of tonnes are produced annually for mainstream application. In 2005, the biodegradable plastics industry has about fifteen to twenty years of development time behind it and has now reached the market introduction stage. During the last ten years or so the main focus of research and development activity for companies involved in the biopolymers market was on improving the technology and the products in readiness for full commercialisation. Now, a significant number of products are commercially available and the emphasis has switched to the end user and developing markets and applications. Brand owners and supermarkets as well as a consumer, will have a key role to play in the growth of this industry over the next five to ten years. Buyers must begin to understand the marketing value of sustainable materials such as greater energy independence, cleaner soil, less air pollutants, and less impact on global warming. Only then will they endorse this biopolymers’ movement and invest in educating consumers in the value to society of these materials. It is education and awareness along with the cost and performance improvements that will take sustainable materials out of their niche market status and into mainstream applications. Production costs for biopolymers still remain high because of the relatively low volumes being produced and the profitability of biodegradable plastics products remains low. Hence, volumes must be increased if unit costs are to fall and profitability is to improve. The development of new applications will be crucial to achieving higher production volumes and generating the profitability needed for further investment in production capacity. While the cost of some biodegradable plastics are currently higher than most conventional polymers, from a marketing perspective, it is important not only to consider the material cost, but also all associated costs, including the costs of handling and disposal, which are of course lower for biodegradable plastics. Hence, marketing of biodegradable plastics products is most successful when their cost savings and material advantages are exploited to the full. Also, users of biodegradable plastics can differentiate themselves from the competition by demonstrating how innovative and proactive they are for the benefit of the environment.

4.4 The Global Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast Over the last five years, global consumption of biodegradable polymers has shown strong growth. Demand has been fuelled by growing public demand for sustainable packaging materials, growth in composting infrastructures, the introduction of a wider variety of biodegradable polymers, product improvements and a narrowing of the price differential between biopolymers and petrochemicalbased plastics. In 2005, the global biodegradable plastics market tonnage is 94,800 tonnes (including loose-fill packaging) compared with 28,000 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, market tonnage is forecast to reach 214,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 17.7% during the period

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2005-2010. Excluding loose-fill packaging, which is a relatively more mature sector for starch-based biodegradable polymers, global market tonnage in 2005 is 71,700 tonnes and the compound annual growth rate for the period 2005-2010 is projected to be 20.3%. Table 4.3 shows global consumption of biodegradable polymers by world region for the years 2000, 2005 and forecast for 2010.

Table 4.3 Global consumption of biodegradable polymers, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) 2000

2005

2010

% CAGR 2005-2010

Western Europe

15.5

55.7

129.4

18.4

North America

6.7

21.3

46.5

16.9

Asia Pacific

5.8

17.8

38.5

16.7

28.0

94.8

214.4

17.7

Western Europe is the leading market for biodegradable polymers with 59% of market volumes in 2005, followed by North America with 22% and Asia Pacific with 19%. Western Europe is also forecast to show the fastest growth rate for biodegradable polymers over the period 2005-2010. Figure 4.1 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by geographic region for 2005.

Figure 4.1 Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by geographic region for 2005

Starch-based materials represent the largest class of biodegradable polymer with 44,800 tonnes (including loose-fill foam packaging) consumed in 2005. Excluding loose-fill, starch-based materials amounted to 21,700 tonnes in 2005. Polylactic acid (PLA) is the second largest material class with 35,800 tonnes in 2005, followed by synthetic aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters with 14,000 tonnes. The embryonic PHA category amounts to around 250 tonnes.

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Figure 4.2 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for 2005.

Figure 4.2 Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005

All classes of biodegradable polymers are projected to show substantial growth during the next five years. Of the material classes with existing commercial applications, PLA will grow the fastest with a compound annual growth rate of 20.1% for the period 2005-2010. Synthetic types will grow by 18.6% per annum and starch-based polymers will grow at 14.8% per annum. However, excluding loose-fill packaging, which is growing at a lower rate than other applications, starch is forecast to grow by 20.6% per annum over the next five years. The PHA sector, which started from virtually a zero base in 2005, is projected to grow at close to 60% per annum. Figure 4.3 shows percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end user sector for 2005.

Figure 4.3 Percentage share of global biodegradable polymer consumption by end user sector, 2005

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In terms of end use markets, packaging (including rigid and flexible packaging, paper coating and foodservice) is the largest sector with 39% of total market volumes in 2005. Loose-fill packaging is the second largest sector with 24%, followed by bags and sacks with 21%. Fibres or textiles, is an important sector for PLA, and accounts for 9% of total market volumes. Others include a wide range of very small application areas, the most important of which are agriculture and fishing, medical devices, consumer products and hygiene products.

4.4.1 Western European Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast Western Europe is by far the biggest market for biodegradable polymers accounting for 59% of world consumption in 2005. The Western European market for biodegradable polymers has been driven more by regulation than other world regions such as the USA and Japan. These include the European Union directives on packaging waste and landfill which aim to divert a growing amount of packaging waste towards recycling and composting. Europe has also benefited from some of the world’s leading biodegradable producers such as Novamont, Rodenburg Biopolymers and BASF being based in the region. Table 4.4 shows Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.

Table 4.4 Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) 2000

2005

2010

% CAGR 2005-2010

Starch

10.3

29.9

62.1

15.8

PLA

3.7

19.0

50.5

21.6

Synthetic

1.5

6.7

15.8

21.0

PHA

0.0

0.1

1.0

60.0

15.5

55.7

129.4

18.4

In 2005, Western Europe consumed 55,700 tonnes of biodegradable polymers compared with 15,500 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, Western European consumption of biodegradable polymers is forecast to reach 129,400 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 18.4% during the period 2005-2010. Figure 4.4 shows the percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for 2005. Starch is the most widely used biodegradable polymer in Western Europe accounting for 54% of market tonnage in 2005. PLA accounts for 34% with synthetics making up the remaining 12% of market volumes. Starch, excluding loose-fill packaging, is projected to be the fastest growing biopolymer in Western Europe for the period 2005-2010 with a compound annual growth rate of

44


Figure 4.4 Percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005

just over 22%. PLA is also forecast to grow close to 22%, with synthetic biopolymers growing at a slightly lower rate of 18.7% per annum. Figure 4.5 shows percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by end use sector for 2005.

Figure 4.5 Percentage share of Western European biodegradable polymer consumption by end use sector, 2005

Packaging is the largest sector for biodegradable polymers in Western Europe accounting for 37% of market tonnage on 2005. Rigid packaging applications have been around in Europe longer than the film packaging market, which started in UK in 2001-2002, and was followed by Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands. Bags and sacks is another significant European market for biopolymers representing 21% of total consumption. Biowaste collection bags are

45


used in nearly all EU countries and have strong growth potential. Loose-fill packaging is rather a more mature sector and future growth trends are expected to be less than 10% per annum over the next five years. Agricultural mulch film is the most important sector included under the ‘others’ category. Mulch film is mainly used in France, Spain, Italy and Benelux, and has strong growth potential.

4.4.2 North American Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast North America has lagged well behind Western Europe in terms of biodegradable polymer market development. Traditionally, there has not been the same degree of urgency to address the issue of waste disposal through landfill in North America because of its enormous landmass. Government and consumer attitudes towards recycling of packaging waste and environmental protection have also militated against market development of sustainable materials. However, attitudes are slowly changing. During the last few years there have been a number of positive trends that are encouraging biodegradable polymer development. These include: •

Growth of the composting infrastructure with more municipalities coming on line in both the US and Canada.

•

More institutions such as schools looking at food waste diversion from landfill.

•

Tipping fees for landfill are rising, especially in more populated areas of the country.

•

The rising cost of petrochemical-based polymers over the last two years.

•

Better understanding among foodservice suppliers that there is a market for compostable materials.

•

Major retailers and food manufacturers have opted for biodegradable packaging in 2005. For example, Wal-Mart Stores selected NatureWorks PLA to manufacture containers for herbs and other products, while Del Monte Fresh Produce increased its use of NatureWorks PLA for packaging fruit.

Table 4.5 shows North American biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.

Table 4.5 North American biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) % CAGR 2000 2005 2010 2005-2010 Starch 2.8 8.0 14.0 11.9 PLA 2.7 9.6 22.6 18.7 Synthetic 1.2 3.6 8.4 18.4 PHA 0.0 0.1 1.5 71.0 6.7 21.3 46.5 16.9

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In 2005, North American biodegradable polymer consumption was 21,300 tonnes against 6,700 tonnes in 2000. In 2010, biodegradable polymer consumption is projected to reach 46,500 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 16.9% during the period 2005-2010. Figure 4.6 shows percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by product type for 2005.

Figure 4.6 Percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by type, 2005

PLA, with 45% of total volume, is the most widely used biodegradable polymer in North America, followed by starch with 38% and synthetics with the remaining 17%. PLA is also expected to show the fastest rate of growth over the forecast period with volumes increasing at a compound annual growth rate of 18.7%. Synthetic biodegradable polymer growth is not far behind at 18.5%. Figure 4.7 shows percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market for 2005.

Figure 4.7 Percentage share of North American biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market, 2005

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Packaging is the largest application area for bioplastics in North America with 41% of total volumes in 2005. Other significant markets are loose-fill packaging foam and bags and sacks.

4.4.3 Asia Pacific Biodegradable Polymers Market Forecast Japan is the largest consumer of biodegradable polymers in the Asia Pacific region, followed by Australia and New Zealand, with Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and China, some way behind in terms of market development. Taiwan and Japan probably offer the best prospects for growth in biodegradable plastics over the next five years. The Taiwanese government has responded to the growing problems that are being caused to the environment by the disposal of waste plastic items by introducing new environmental policies banning the use of disposable plastics starting with petroleum-based plastic shopping bags and disposable plastic tableware. In Japan, the Biodegradable Plastics Society (BPS) was set up in 1989 to establish technology of biodegradable plastics (GreenPla), to lead extensive, commercial use of GreenPla, to develop evaluation methods of GreenPla and certify GreenPla products. During the period 2003-2005, the BPS has certified a large number of GreenPla products in Japan. Tables 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9 show certified GreenPla products in the fields of daily use, packaging, agriculture and horticulture and foodservice.

Table 4.6 Certified GreenPla products (daily products) Product/trade name BDP type Producer “CHIKYU-MARU” drain net PLA Yamadai “Nature Green” straw PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY Garbage bag PBAT SARUKAWA Drawstring trash bag PBSA Arke Planning Calender frame PLA Fuji Chemicals Case for desk calendar (sheet type) PLA Arke Planning Ruler PLA Arke Planning Envelope with window PLA Arke Planning Clip PLA Arke Planning Clear file PLA Arke Planning Card PLA Arke Planning Fan PLA Arke Planning Biodegradable garbage bag PETS J Film “CHIKYU-MARU” biodegradable drain net PLA Yamadai Biodegradable daily bag PBSA Ohkura Industrial Garbage bage for business use PBSA Asahi Kasei Life & Living

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Table 4.6 Certified GreenPla products (daily products) Continued Product/trade name BDP type Producer “NAMANAMA 4444” (Trash bag) PLA Towakako Compost bag PBSA KIRA SHIKO Biodegradable garbage bag CL-BS copolymer Tohcello “NAMANAMA” (Trash bag) PLA Towakako Trash bag (“ECOLOME LBS”) PBSA Ohkura Industrial “PAPERMAC” compost bag CL CL-BS copolymer Kitamura Chemicals Compost bag PESA KIRA SHIKO Compost bag BS-LA copolymer KIRA SHIKO Shoehorn PBS Daito Mechatronics Biodegradable garbage bag, shopping bag PBAT Tohcello Fashion bag with cotton string PBAT Ohkura Industrial Garbage bag BS-LA copolymer Kuki-Miyashiro “BRIGHTON” shopping bag PLA HORIAKI “BRIGHTON” trash bag PLA HORIAKI Green Environmental Bags PCL Technology “TERRAMAC film” trash bag PLA Unitika Trading “ECO&B” handy loupe PLA NTT Neomeit Hokuri Biodegradable straw PLA Watanabe Kogyo Pland-derived neck strap PLA NAX “PEACH COAT” LR series synthetic paper PLA NISSINBO Industries for printing “TERRAMAC” trash bag JM PLA Unitika Biodegradable garbage bag for business use PBAT Asahi Kasei Life & Living (GB series)

Table 4.7 Certified GreenPla products (packaging) Product/trade name BDP type Producer “TERRAMAC” Film PLA Unitika Plant-derived opaque sheet PLA SEKISUI SEIKEI String bag for booklet PBAT SARUKAWA “KANEPEARL” PLA foam PLA KANEKA (Packaging materials) “KANEPEARL” PLA foam PLA KANEKA (Container for food) Shrink label for heat shrinkable cap PLA Dai Nippon Printing “Nature Green” packaging bags PBAT WEI MON INDUSTRY “Nature Green” film PBAT WEI MON INDUSTRY

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Table 4.7 Certified GreenPla products (packaging) Continued Product/trade name BDP type Producer “Nature Green” NCP0002 sheet PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY “Nature Green” PESC101 sheet PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY “BIPLA TAPE” PBAT Shinano kagaku Heat shrink cap seal PLA Fuji Seal Biodegradable packaging bag PLA Vendor service Over wrapping film for vegetables and fruits PLA Taiyo Kogyo Container for vegetables and fruits PLA Taiyo Kogyo Bag for vegetables and fruits PLA Taiyo Kogyo Antifog bag for vegetables & fruits PBAT Office Media (flexible type) Flexible bag for electronic appliance parts PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL”PLA alumina metalizing PLA Office Media transparent high-barrier film “NAI-SMELL” PLA aluminum metalizing PLA Office Media high-barrier film Nonslip clothing bag PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” PLA antifog bag for PLA Office Media vegetables & fruits (flexible type) “NAI-SMELL” PLA antifog bag for PLA Office Media vegetables & fruits (rigid type) Biodegradable shopping bag PBSA KIRA SHIKO Biodegradable film PLA SEKISUI JUSHI Tablet case PLA Toppan Printing “POPURAN GREEN” PETS Yamato Heat shrink label PLA Fuji Seal Coating film PLA MIKASA INDUSTRY Over wrapping film PLA Taiyo Kogyo “BIOPLUS” laminate film PLA Asahi Kasei Life & Living “DOLON NK-A” PLA Aicello Chemical Bags for foods Starch Dai Nippon Printing Bags for foods PBAT Dai Nippon Printing Packaging materials for newspaper & PBSA MATSUMOTO GOUSEI magazine to recycle “TERRAMAC” sheet HS PLA Unitika “ECO&B” bag for calendar CL-BS copolymer NTT Neomeit Hokuriku Biodegradable thin film PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology Biodegradable bag PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology Expanded heat resistance sheet PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology Heat resistance sheet PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology Transparent food packaging PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology

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Table 4.7 Certified GreenPla products (packaging) Continued Product/trade name BDP type Producer PLA transparent sheet PLA Yao Qing Biotechnology Opaque sheet PLA SEKISUI SEIKEI Translucent sheet PLA SEKISUI SEIKEI “KANKYO” bag B PLA UNITIKA FIBERS “TERRAMAC” sheet SS PLA Unitika Package for novelties PLA Tohcello “PALGREEN LC” flower wrap PLA Tohcello Package for pocket tissue paper BS-LA copolymer Tohcello Starch-based “MATER-FOLIO” (packaging film) ASAHI SOGYO copolyester Starch-based “MATER-BAG” MF (packaging film) ASAHI SOGYO copolyester “SANN FILM-ECO-C” (PES based) PES Materiverpackage “SANN FILM-ECO-B” (PLA based) PLA Materiverpackage Barrier over-wrapping film for food PET copolymer Office Media Barrier pillow type packaging film for food PET copolymer Office Media Barrier shrinkable packaging film for food PET copolymer Office Media “NAI-SMELL” packaging film for tableware PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” shrinkable packaging film for PLA Office Media lunchbox “NAI-SMELL” packaging film for bread PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” packaging film for bun PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” packaging film for rice ball PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” packaging film for sandwich PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier overPLA Office Media wrapping film for food “NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier pillow PLA Office Media type packaging film “NAI-SMELL” multi-layered barrier shrink PLA Office Media film “NAI-SMELL” over-wrapping film for food PLA Office Media “NAI-SMELL” pillow type packaging film PLA Office Media for food “NAI-SMELL” shrink film for food packaging PLA Office Media Bottle PLA MIKASA INDUSTRY “BIOMICRON” LT container PLA JSP “BIOMICRON” C container Starch JSP “BIONOLLE” bag PBS(A) Syowa Highpolymer “BIONOLLE” sheet PBS(A) Syowa Highpolymer “Nature Green” PESC101 sheet PLA Towakako

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Table 4.7 Certified GreenPla products (packaging) Continued Product/trade name BDP type Producer “FLORA BAG” PBAT SHINWA SERVICE Flexible container PBS(A) HEISEI POLYMER Sandbag PBS(A) HEISEI POLYMER “DJ STARCH” bags PCL KANKYO KAIHATHU

Table 4.8 Certified GreenPla products (agriculture/horticulture/forestry) Product/trade name BDP type Producer “BP” marking tape PLA Marusho Suzuki Shoten Biomass planter PLA Tokai Kasei “AGRI” Biodegradable sheet for repellent PLA Gifu Agrifoods and weed barrier “KANEPEARL” PLA foam (Agri-/ PLA KANEKA Horticultural materials) “Nature Green” nursery tray & sheet PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY THE FURUKAWA “Bio-Ace sheet” PBS ELECTRIC “SB pack” series PLA Nishimune Number printed tape E-type PLA Marusho Suzuki Shoten Agri-biodegradable anti-glass sheet PLA Gifu Agrifoods “Cornpole” net-sheet PLA Gifu Agrifoods “CONTAPE” PLA Chubu Nozai “UNIGREEN SAKIGAKE” BS-LA copolymer Unyck “NATURA (Mulch film) PBAT Iwatani Materials “TOKAN” paper seeding pot (laminated) PBS TOKAN KOGYO Green Environment Multi sheet, film PCL Technology “KIEMARU” (sheet for fumigation) BS-LA copolymer Unyck “WILLEY” CL-BS copolymer Shinano Kagaku “CORNPOLE” LD tape PLA Gifu Agrifoods Biodegradable wrapping film for wood PBAT Sekisui Film Sheet PBS(A) HEISEI POLYMER “DJ STARCH” film & sheet PCL KANKYO KAIHATHU

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Table 4.9 Certified GreenPla products (foodservice) Product / trade name BDP type Producer Tableware, Tray, Chop sticks PLA SEKISAKA SHIKKI “Nature Green” NCP0005 PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY tableware “Nature Green” NCP0001 PLA WEI MON INDUSTRY food contactable serviceware Cup PLA MIKASA INDUSTRY Cap (for food container) 2 BS-LA copolymer MIKASA INDUSTRY Green Environment Container PCL Technology Plant-derived food container PLA DIAFOODS “Nature Green” cup, lid PLA Towakako Cup PLA ITOCHU Cap (for food container) PLA MIKASA INDUSTRY Catering tray, Tray for snack PLA KUNIMUNE Plant-derived biodegradable PLA CP Kasei food container Food container/partition PLA KIMURA ALUMI FOIL “DJ STARCH” container PCL KANKYO KAIHATHU Plant-derived biodegradable PLA CP Kasei lid for food container Biodegradable lunchbox PLA FP CORPORATION Biodegradable container PLA FP CORPORATION Lid for biodegradable PLA Tohcello container

PLA is the most certified biodegradable plastic type in Japan with most applications found in the packaging sector. There have also been a significant number of certified products based on synthetic biodegradable plastics such as PBSA and PBAT. Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd, Office Media Co. Ltd, Yao Qing Biotechnology and Taiyo Kogyo are some of the leading converters of biodegradable polymers in Asia. Table 4.10 shows Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010. Consumption of biodegradable plastics increased from 5,800 tonnes in 2000 to 17,800 tonnes in 2005. During the period 2005-2010, Asia Pacific biodegradable plastics consumption is forecast to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 16.7% to reach 38,500 tonnes in 2010. Figure 4.8 shows percentage share of Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type for 2005.

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Table 4.10 Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) 2000

2005

2010

% CAGR 2005-2010

Starch

2.3

6.9

13.1

13.8

PLA

2.3

7.2

16.4

18.0

Synthetic

1.2

3.7

8.6

21.1

PHA

0.0

0.1

0.4

54.0

5.8

17.9

38.5

16.7

Figure 4.8 Percentage share of Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by polymer type, 2005

Figure 4.9 Percentage share of Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market, 2005

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PLA is the most widely used biodegradable polymer type in the Asia Pacific region accounting for 40% of total consumption in 2005. Starch, mainly loose-fill packaging, accounts for 39% of total consumption. Synthetic polymers account for the remaining 21% of consumption. Synthetic biodegradable polymers are expected to show the fastest growth rate of all the established biodegradable polymer classes over the forecast period. Figure 4.9 shows percentage share of Asia Pacific biodegradable polymer consumption by end use market for 2005. Packaging is the largest market for biodegradable polymers in Asia Pacific with 44% of market volume in 2005. Bags and sacks is the second largest market with 21% followed by loose-fill packaging with 15%.

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5

The Starch-Based Biodegradable Polymer Market

5.1 Introduction Walter-Lambert, the US pharmaceutical company, played a pioneering role in the development of starch-based biodegradable polymers in the early 1990s. Walter-Lambert scientists in Switzerland discovered starch-based polymers while they were researching injection-mouldable materials that could replace gelatine in pharmaceutical capsules. Novon biodegradable polymers were introduced commercially in 1990 with the construction of a large manufacturing facility in Illinois, USA. Despite the early promise of its Novon polymers, Warner-Lambert decided to suspend production three years later following heavy losses for the business. Italian company Novamont has since emerged as the leading supplier of starch-based polymers. Novamont started its research activities in 1989 as part of the Montedison group and its Mater-Bi polymers were commercialised in 1990 with the opening of a 4,000 tonnes per annum plant at Terni in Italy. Novamont further consolidated its leading position in starch-based polymers in 1997 with the acquisition of worldwide patents belonging to Warner-Lambert and has continued to grow the business very successfully since then. According to Novamont, the performance of Mater-Bi polymers in use is similar to petrochemicalbased plastics such as polyethylene and processing performance is also similar or improved compared with traditional plastics. The materials have a wide range of mechanical properties, from soft and tough materials to rigid, exhibit antistatic behaviour and Mater-Bi films have a wide range of permeability to water vapour. Starch-based biodegradable polymers make a significant reduction in environmental impact, particularly with respect to carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption, in comparison with traditional materials and can be composted in a wide range of composting conditions from home composting to rotary fermenting reactors.

5.2 Applications Development Starch-based polymers find use in applications where biodegradable polymers can be used in natural environment such as agricultural and fishery materials. They are also used for applications where recovery and reuse are difficult and where composting of organic waste is effective such as food packaging. They can also be used for applications with specific features, where functionality and performance can also be completely separated from the main function. For example, Mater-Bi has been incorporated into Goodyear Biotred tyres to reduce the roll resistance of the tyre, and hence cuts fuel consumption while promoting good driving properties. Historically, loose fill foam packaging and compost bags were the principal applications for starch-based polymers. Nowadays, many other applications have been developed. Starch-based biodegradable polymers are now finding commercial applications in loose-fill packaging, bags and sacks, flexible packaging, rigid packaging, agriculture and horticulture and various small-scale injection moulding applications.

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Loose-fill packaging was one of the first successful areas of application for starch-based biodegradable polymers. Loose-fill starch-based foam is used for packaging consumer products as an alternative to polystyrene and polyethylene. Following an agreement with Novamont in 1998, National Starch Co is licensing two technologies for the production of loose-fill packaging, one from hydroxypropylated high amylose starch, and a second from almost unmodified starch. Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks including, refuse sacks, shopping bags and compost bags. Flexible packaging applications include extruded bags and nets for fresh fruit and vegetables. Rigid packaging applications include thermoformed trays and containers for packaging fresh food and convenience food. Agriculture and horticulture applications include mulching film, covering film and plant pots. There are various other small fields of application including injection moulding items such as pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, combs and toys, plant pots and bones. They are also used for hygiene products including sanitary products and nappies. Some examples of new applications development for starch-based biodegradable polymers are outlined below. Organic Farm Foods is the UK’s largest pre-packer, importer and distributor of organic fruit and vegetables. In 2005, the company began selling a range of seasonal vegetables in 100% compostable packaging based on film made from the starch-based Mater-Bi polymer manufactured by Novamont. The bags and their labels, both incorporating seven-colour images, are claimed to break down totally in less than twelve weeks. Norwegian company BioBag International is one of the world’s leading producers of environmentally friendly packaging. Their products are based on Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers. BioBag’s main area is supplying biodegradable bags for waste management systems and for agricultural applications such as mulch film. Their principal product is the BioBag waste disposal bag. BioBag is the world’s largest brand of 100% biodegradable and compostable bags and films made from the renewable materials. BioBag is making inroads into the US market. Recently, the city of San Francisco selected BioBag to promote their residential food waste collection programme. The city is sending 100,000 rolls of BioBags to residents within the county to help educate consumers on the importance of diverting food and other biodegradable waste from entering landfills. BioBag also supplies biodegradable and compostable film products for shopping bags, food packaging applications and for packing hygiene articles. Fortune Plastics is one of the top five plastic waste disposal bag manufacturers in the USA. In 2005, the company introduced COMP-LETE, a biodegradable and compostable waste disposal bag made from Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers. COMP-LETE has been certified by the US Biodegradable Products Institute. The Heritage Bag Company produces a biodegradable and compostable waste disposal bag under the trade name Bio-Tuf. The product meets ASTM D 6400 specifications for biodegradability and compostability.

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California-based Biosphere Industries was established in 2002 to manufacture equipment for biodegradable rigid packaging. The company claims that its proprietary production process can produce packaging competitive with conventional heavy paper and plastic disposables. They have adopted advanced aerospace engineering applied to production equipment design, combined with their proprietary PPM (Primary Packaging Materials) which they say make efficient and commercially viable biodegradable rigid packaging. Biosphere’s materials are moisture resistant and can be used in food service items as well as general packaging including a wide range of rigid foam trays, containers and cups. Biosphere PPM materials biodegrade in less than sixty days. They can be used for long shelf-life products, and are fully microwavable and ovenable. In 2006, Stanelco announced that it had developed a potentially new application area for biodegradable polymers, a cigarette film made from food grade starch that will decompose in two months.

5.3 Market Drivers The specific drivers of starch-based biodegradable polymers are summarised below. •

Starch-based biopolymers are lower cost materials than some other biodegradable polymer types such as synthetic co-polyesters and PLA. They are produced from relatively cheap agricultural feedstock and have simpler manufacturing processes compared with synthetic biopolymers.

•

The price of starch-based biopolymers has come down considerably over the last three years as production volumes have increased, more efficient production processes have been deployed and lower cost raw materials have been found. In 2003, the average price of starch blends was around €3.0-5.0 per kg. In 2005, the average price range of starch blends was down to €1.5-3.5 per kg, with an average price close to €1.75 per kg.

•

Stanelco, along with its subsidiary business Biotec, are developing a new starch-based biopolymer that it claims will undercut PET and PP prices, while offering a similar ease of processing in both bottle blowing and thermoforming processes. Currently APET/PE sheet for making food trays costs about €2.5 per kg, while Biotec’s film has a cost base of between €4-6.5 per kg. This is a cheaper alternative to gelatine and certain other packaging materials but much more expensive than PET. Stanelco hopes to bring the price of the Biotec packaging alternative down to about €2.67 per kg.

•

Starch-based biodegradable polymers also have a better environmental image than synthetic biopolymers as they are based on sustainable resources, which open up marketing opportunities for brand owners who wish to promote their products as being packaged in materials based on sustainable resources.

•

Starch blends have better physical and mechanical properties than pure plant based polymers, which open up more application possibilities. For example, starch blends can produce film with better moisture barrier protection and higher clarity. Also in film packaging made from starch blend, the perforations that are normally required can be dispensed with because the optimum moisture content soon establishes itself automatically, even in freshly packaged fruit and vegetables.

•

Thermoformed starch sheets give better transparency compared with some other biodegradable polymer such as PLA. The material offers good potential for home composting, which is a growing consumer trend. This will be advantageous for starch-based biopolymers over PLA, which only decomposes in a communal composting system.

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5.4 Market Size and Forecast Table 5.1 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by major world region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.

Table 5.1 Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by major world region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) Western Europe

North America

Asia Pacific

Total

2000

15.5

2.8

2.3

20.6

2005

29.9

8.0

6.9

44.8

2010

62.1

14.0

13.1

89.2

15.7%

11.8%

13.7%

14.8%

CAGR 2005-2010

In 2005, world consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers is 44,800 tonnes against 20,600 tonnes in 2000. Excluding loose-fill packaging, consumption in 2005 is 21,700 tonnes. During the period 2005-2010, total starch-based biodegradable polymer consumption is forecast to increase at a compound annual average rate of 14.8%. Growth over the same period is forecast at 20.6%, excluding loose-fill packaging. Table 5.2 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers, excluding loose-fill, by major world region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.

Table 5.2 Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers, excluding loose-fill, by major world region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) Western Europe

North America

Asia Pacific

Total

2000

9.5

1.2

1.3

12.0

2005

14.1

3.3

4.3

21.7

2010

38.2

7.4

9.7

55.3

CAGR 2005-2010

22.1%

17.5%

17.7%

20.6%

In 2005, loose-fill packaging represents by far the largest sector for starch-based biopolymers with 52% of world market volumes. Bags and sacks is the next most important market accounting for 28% of total volumes. Packaging and ‘other’ sectors account for 14% and 6%, respectively. The most important of the ‘other’ sectors include agricultural film, hygiene products and a wide range of injection moulding consumer products. Figure 5.1 shows global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by end use sector, 2005.

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Figure 5.1 Global consumption of starch-based biodegradable polymers by end use sector, 2005

Bags and sacks offer the best growth potential for starch-based biodegradable packaging in all three major world regions. In Western Europe, for example, the bags and sacks market for starch-based biopolymers is forecast to grow close to 24% per annum during the next five years. Bags and sacks will also show the strongest growth for starch-based biopolymers in North America and in Asia Pacific with forecast growth rates of 18.0% and 18.8%, respectively. Packaging is another area of strong growth potential for starch-based biopolymers with forecast growth of 20.0% per annum for Western Europe, 19.2% for North America and 17.0% for Asia Pacific. As a relatively mature market for starch-based biopolymers, loose-fill packaging volumes are forecast to grow by 8.6% per annum in Western Europe, 6.8% per annum in North America and by 5.6% per annum in Asia Pacific.

5.5 Major Suppliers and their Products The major world suppliers of starch-based biodegradable polymers are described below.

5.5.1 Novamont Novamont is the major producer of biodegradable blends based on starch and synthetic polymers with annual production of over 20,000 tonnes and sales of over €35m in 2005. Production capacity stands at around 40,000 tonnes per annum. In addition to its internal production, Novamont’s sales have been growing at an annual rate of 20-30% per annum during the period 2002-2005. The company has benefited from growing consumption of biodegradable plastics in Italy due mainly to the separate collection programme for organic waste that favours the installation of composting sites. Following an agreement with Novamont, National Starch & Chemical Co. is licensing two technologies for the production of starch-based biodegradable loose-fill foam for protective packaging applications. One technology is based on high amylose starch and the second from almost unmodified starch. In 2005, estimated annual production by licensees for starch-based biodegradable loose-fill packaging was in the region of 20,000 tonnes.

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Novamont began its research activities in 1989 being then a part of the Italian chemical group Montedison. Since then, the company has invested over €60m in R&D activities for its ‘Mater-Bi’ family of biodegradable plastic materials, the acquisition of patents from Biotec GmbH & Co KG and in the development of its latest biodegradable product, ‘Mater-Foam’.

In 2001, Novamont secured a global agreement with Biotec Biologische Naturverpackungen GmbH & Co KG, E Khashoggi Industries Inc. and affiliates, to settle all patent litigation it has with those parties worldwide. Terms of the settlement include various cross-licensing arrangements. In particular, Novamont is acquiring a worldwide exclusive license under Biotec’s patents in the film industry. This exclusive license will strengthen Novamont’s patent portfolio in the field of starch-based materials that includes over 800 patents and patent applications worldwide. In September 2004, Novamont acquired the ‘Eastar Bio’ technology of Eastman Chemical for an undisclosed sum. The deal includes all patents and technology rights but not production facilities or distribution channels. Eastman introduced its biodegradable polymer in 1997 and since then has invested more than €75m in the project. The resin is used commercially for single-trip disposable packaging, as well as for barrier films and waste-bin liners. Eastman has a 15,000 tonnes per annum production plant at Hartlepool in the UK, which was started up in 1999, for production of Eastar Bio products. The technology acquired from Eastman will enhance the market position of Novamont in polyester and starch-based polyester systems and will allow Novamont not only to complement its existing portfolio but also speed up the internal development of polyesters from renewable raw materials. In June 2005, Mater-Bi polymers were issued with the ‘OK home compost’ certificate from Belgium’s AIB Vincotte international certification institute meaning that it can be used in bags for the recycling of biodegradable organic waste in home compost bins. Under the Mater-Bi trademark, Novamont produces different classes of starch-based biodegradable materials and blends of starch with synthetic polymers. Each class is available in several grades to meet the needs of specific applications. Classes include grades for film and sheet extrusion, injection moulding and foams. Film: Mater-Bi film can be used in variety of applications, from agriculture to packaging finished products. Mater-Bi polymers can be made into film using the standard LPDE extrusion equipment, with lower extrusion temperatures and with the possibility of regenerating the scraps using similar techniques to those used for PE. Novamont offers different grades for specific applications such as bags, shopping bags, mulching films, films for packaging and hygiene films. Novamont claims the Mater-Bi plastic is already used by over 3,500 councils in Europe, leading to improved waste quality and claims cost savings of up to 20%. Thermoforming: For thermoforming applications, Mater-Bi is being used to manufacture nontransparent, hard, thermoformed trays for packaging fresh food. Injection moulding: Mater-Bi can be injection moulded using normal injection presses, with cold runners or hot chamber injection systems. The maximum injection temperature is less than 200 °C. Novamont claims that about 10% of the scraps can be reused in injection moulding, which is about the same as traditional plastics. Mater-Bi can be coloured using the Mater-Bi-based, biodegradable masterbatches. A variety of injection moulded articles can be produced using Mater-Bi. These include pencil sharpeners, rulers, cartridges, toys, plant pots, and bones. As an antistatic material, combs made of Mater-Bi do not produce the electrical charge given by conventional combs.

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Extruded articles: Mater-Bi can be extruded and rolled with water cooling. For example, it is possible to produce completely biodegradable cotton buds of Mater-Bi on traditional extrusion lines. Other examples include extruded nets for fruit and vegetables and sheets for thermoforming. Foams: Wave by Mater-Bi, foamed sheet packaging is a biodegradable alternative to conventional protective foam packaging such as polystyrene, polyurethane and polyethylene. Wave by Mater-Bi is starch-based, and is expanded using water, extruded into sheets and then assembled into blocks that can be cut into any shape. The foams have a robust and resilient closed-cell structure. For loose fill packaging, Wave by Mater-Bi is recommended for packaging pharmaceutical products, laboratory equipment, consumer goods, and mail order goods.

5.5.2 Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV Rodenburg Biopolymers, BV, based in the Netherlands, is one of the largest producers of plantbased biopolymers in Europe. In 2002, the company opened a 47,000 tonnes per annum plant for production of Solanyl, a biopolymer based on potato peel. Initially, Rodenburg is targeting injectionmoulding applications such as flowerpots. The company is planning to develop other markets such as packaging in future. The optimum processing temperature for Solanyl is lower than those of synthetic plastics. The recommended temperature profile ranges from about 110 °C at the first heated zone to 170 °C at the nozzle. Solanyl has excellent flow properties enabling low wall thickness. However, the injection pressure is about 20-30% higher than needed for polyolefins. Mechanical properties are roughly in the same order of magnitude as polyethylene and polystyrene. Solanyl’s rate of degradation is adjustable and there are also grades available for controlled release purposes of active ingredients such as fertilizers and fragrances.

5.5.3 EarthShell Corporation EarthShell Corporation, California, USA, is an environmental packaging technology company. It licenses and commercialises proprietary composite material technology for the manufacture of EarthShell Packaging, including cups, plates, bowls, hinged-lid containers and sandwich wraps. The products are based on a proprietary composite technology that combines organics such as starch from potatoes and inorganic materials such as limestone. In 2003, EarthShell Corp signed a licence agreement with the Sweetheart Cup Company whereby Sweetheart produces and markets EarthShell packaging items such as cups, bowls and hinged-lid sandwich containers in North America. Similar contracts have also been concluded with DuPont and Green Earth Packaging. The DuPont deal focuses on the disposable food service market, including plates, hinged clamshells, and hot and cold cups. EarthShell also supplies materials for manufacture of thermoformed trays for fresh produce and meat, as well as disposable plates, bowls, and cups. In these products, polyester is used as a moisture-barrier over a rigid substrate made of a low-cost natural composite supplied by EarthShell and Apack AG, Germany. The EarthShell composite consists of cellulose from paper waste, starch from potato waste, ground limestone, and water. Apack dispenses with the limestone but adds a polymeric ingredient. Both composites are foamed and formed with special equipment in a process comparable to making waffles.

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While EarthShell has had some success in terms of market development, it has failed to meet its financial targets. Indeed, the company has lost more than $300 million since it was founded 13 years ago, and in 2005 announced that it is closing its Santa Barbara corporate office and moving to Maryland.

5.5.4 Stanelco Group The UK-based Stanelco Group of companies has brought together expertise in radio frequency (RF) technology, RF applications and biodegradable material sciences to create an interesting range of packaging technologies. Stanelco offers the Starpol range of biodegradable, compostable plastic materials. Starpol 2000 is a biodegradable material consisting of PLA (polylactic acid), which can be used in place of petroleum-based plastics. Starpol 2000 materials will completely biodegrade in an active compost in approximately sixty days. The material is available in a range of blends and can be used in sheet or film form for products including food containers, carrier bags and shopping bags. Following analysis and testing carried out by PIRA International, Stanelco’s Starpol 2000 PLA has been approved for all food contact in the EU. Food contact approval has also been granted for Starpol 2000 for fruit and vegetables in the US, with tests continuing for contact with all other food types to meet Food and Drug Administration standards. Starpol 2000 is available in both flexible and rigid forms. Other Stanelco packaging technologies include ‘Greenseal’ food tray lidding, ‘Starpol’ blends of starch and PVA, the ‘FrogPack’ high impact, low cost packaging format and the ‘CradleWrap’ line of biodegradable, air cushion packaging. Stanelco use of radio frequency technology to seal plastic tray packages of perishable food was launched in the UK in a trial partnership with the ASDA supermarket chain. In May 2005 the company opened an office in Orlando, Florida in a bid to target ASDA’s parent company, Wal-Mart, along with Albertson’s, Kroger’s and Safeway. The second trial for the Greenseal technology with ASDA has moved into the retail phase, having passed the shelf-life test. In June 2005, Stanelco acquired Biotec, a German-based company that makes starch-based polymer packaging for the food and pharmaceutical industries for €20m from E. Khashoggi Industries. Stanelco, which markets a method to seal plastic food-tray packages using radio frequency technology, said the purchase would give it access to Biotec’s proprietary pharmaceutical grade film, which can be used to replace conventional polymers such as gelatine. Stanelco currently uses Biotec’s starch products for making food trays, air pillows and edible packaging. Biotec’s film has a cost base of between €4-6.5 per kg, a cheaper alternative to gelatine and other materials. Biotec’s product portfolio includes thermoplastic starch, which can be substituted for petrochemical based plastic packaging. Stanelco’s radio frequency sealing technology can be used to process starch polymers without the degradation caused by other methods such as thermal processing. The purchase of Biotec will help the company develop alternatives to petroleum-based packaging. Biotec has been producing its proprietary Bioplast starch blends for nearly a decade at Emmerich, Germany. In 2005, production capacity for Bioplast was between 8,000-10,000 tonnes per annum. Bioplast is a high performance biodegradable material and is comparable with normal thermoplastics in terms of its properties. Bioplast granules can be processed on only slightly modified machines for thermoplastic resins and can be used in the same way as traditional synthetic plastics.

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Historically, Biotec focused on film applications. More recently the company has shifted emphasis onto pharmaceutical packaging and injection moulding applications. So far, a wide range of applications have been produced from Bioplast including: accessories for flower arrangements, bags, boxes, cups, cutlery, edge protectors, golf tees, horticultural films, mantling for candles, nets, packaging, packaging films, packaging material for mailing, planters, planting pots, sacks, shopping bags, straws, strings, tableware, tapes, technical films, trays, wrap film. In January 2006, Stanelco made a co-operation agreement with supply chain specialist Perseco, to pursue requirements for environmentally friendly packaging. Perseco is a subsidiary of Havi Global Solutions, which provides packaging and supply chain services to the food service and beverage industries. Its clients include some of the world’s leading fast food brands in the US, including McDonalds and Coca Cola. The agreement will focus on development of Biotec’s biodegradable thermoplastic starch products for food packaging materials. This will be the focus for production and further development at a €4.4m facility, which Stanelco plans to build at Blaenau Gwent in Wales.

5.5.5 Grenidea Technologies Grenidea Technologies is a technology company that develops environmentally friendly products based on their proprietary biodegradable AgroResin material, which have been commercial since 2003. Grenidea Technologies operates from Singapore, with international partners and joint venture units around the world. AgroResin is a biodegradable packaging material formulated from fibrous agricultural residues (AgroFibre). AgroResin is currently made from bi-products of the palm oil industry. It can also be made from agricultural fibres, such as wheat straw, that are common biproducts of annual crops. AgroResin is also compatible with existing moulded pulp manufacturing processes. It has received DIN Certco certification for products made of compostable materials (DIN EN 13432:2000-12). The resin is being used in bakery trays and fresh produce containers, which biodegrade almost completely in less than three months.

5.5.6 Biopolymer Technologies Biopolymer Technologies (Biop) offers a starch-based material containing an additive consisting of a vinyl alcohol/vinyl acetate copolymer. In 2005, the company transferred production of its bioplastics from The Netherlands to Schwarzheide in Germany and invested €7m in a new plant there, increasing its production capacity to 10,000 tonnes per annum. The announcement followed the decision earlier in 2005 by BASF to produce its ’Ecoflex’ biodegradable plastic, one of the components of Biop’s Biopar resins, at the Schwarzheide site. The main component of the Bopar production process are based on renewable resources, especially potato starch. Development applications are packaging films, carrier bags, waste bags, agricultural applications and a range of moulded products. Biop also plans to extend its range of bioplastics and make the products available in larger quantities. Materials can be produced to be 100% biodegradable to DIN 13432 standard.

5.5.7 NNZ BV Netherlands based packaging company NNZ BV offers Okopack, a biodegradable starch-based material. Okopack is available in three varieties: Okopack C is transparent with high gloss, with

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properties similar to polypropylene, Okopack S is semi-transparent with properties similar to polyethylene and Okopack Net for netting applications. Okopack C and S can be used for production of flat films, sleeve films and bags and sacks, which can be used for fruit and vegetable packaging. In January 2006, Okopack film and Okopack trays received full Din-Certco certification for biodegradability.

5.5.8 Plantic Technologies Australian company Plantic Technologies has been producing starch-based biodegradable polymers since 2003. Their Plantic R1 material is used to manufacture rigid trays and is also suitable for dry food packaging such as biscuit and confectionery trays, blister packaging, and trays for electronic components. The Melbourne production facility produces flat sheet roll stock in a range of standard colours and gauges. In January 2006, Plantic announced a two-year collaboration programme with Amcor Australasia plc to develop biodegradable flexible packaging solutions for food and confectionery packaging. In 2005, Nestle became the first major user in Europe to adopt Plantic’s biodegradable starch-based materials for manufacture of Dairy Box chocolate trays in Europe. Since 2003, Plantic has also concluded supply deals with companies such as Cadbury Schweppes, Lindt and Spungli and the Byron Bay Cookie Company.

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6

The Polylactic Acid Biodegradable Polymers Market

6.1 Introduction Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid. It is a highly versatile material and is made from 100% renewable resources such as corn, sugar beet, wheat and other starch-rich products. PLA exhibits many properties that are equivalent to or better than many petroleum-based plastics, which makes it suitable for a variety of applications. PLA is available either in a rigid or flexible form and can be co-polymerised with other materials. It is suitable for a wide range of processing technologies including injection moulding, film and sheet extrusion, blow moulding, thermoforming and fibre spinning. Polylactic acid was first discovered in the 1930s when a DuPont scientist, Wallace Caruthers, produced a low molecular weight PLA product. In 1954, DuPont patented Carothers’ process. Initially the focus was on the manufacture of medical grade applications due to the high cost of the polymer, but advances in fermentation of glucose, which forms lactic acid, has dramatically lowered the cost of producing lactic acid and significantly increased interest in the polymer. The formation of Cargill Dow Polymers, a joint venture between Cargill, the agricultural company, and Dow Chemicals in 1997, was one of the most significant developments in the evolution of the biodegradable polymers market. Cargill Dow, which is now trading as NatureWorks LLC, began commercial scale production of their NatureWorks polylactic acid (PLA) based biopolymers in Blair, Nebraska, USA in 1997. The company has since invested in the development of a large scale 140,000 tonnes per annum facility for PLA production. NatureWorks PLA polymers exhibit good permeability to water vapour so that moisture can pass through flexible and rigid film thus minimising condensation. They have a good flavour and aroma barrier with comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET, high clarity and gloss with less than 5% haze, grease resistance to most oils and fats, stiffness which allows for downgauging, heat sealability with initiation temperatures around 80 °C and heat seal strengths of greater than 2 lb/inch. Dead-fold is 25% better than cellophane, which means less spoilage or waste from open packages and minimal changes are necessary to existing processing equipment. The natural surface energy of the polymer is readily acceptable for many ink formulations for good printability. There is also a wide range of disposal options available including mechanical and chemical recycling, industrial composting and incineration with energy.

6.2 Applications Development PLA has potential for use in a wide range of applications, including: •

Thermoformed trays and containers for food packaging and food service applications.

•

Films and labels for a wide range of applications in the film market including labels, heat-seal overlays, window films, flow wrap, twist wrap and formulations for carrier bags.

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•

Injection stretch blow moulded bottles and jars for short shelf-life applications that use cold-filling techniques such as still water, fresh juices, dairy beverages and edible oil.

•

Disposable serviceware: PLA can be used in the manufacturing of disposable cold drink cups, bowls, plates, and cutlery.

•

Speciality Cards: PLA can be used for a variety of cards including gift, phone, key, credit and retail cards. Other sheet applications include folding cartons and blister packs.

•

Fibres: PLA fibre applications include apparel, bedding, carpet, furnishings, personal care, nonwovens and industrial textiles. NatureWorks has built up more than 85 leading brand owners, textile manufacturers and lifestyle partners to develop and market products under their Ingeo brand.

Some examples of new PLA application developments are discussed below.

6.2.1 Rigid Packaging Ex-Tech Plastics Inc. became the first company to produce thermoformed sheet based on NatureWorks PLA in 2003. Wilkinson Industries Inc. became the first US company to manufacture thermoformed food containers and trays made from biodegradable polymers. The NaturesPLAstic product range is based on NatureWorks PLA polymers. In 2004, two of the world’s leading processors of rigid plastic packaging, Huhtamaki and RPC Group, both announced new product ranges based on NatureWorks PLA. In November 2004, Huhtamaki introduced BioWare, a new range of biodegradable and compostable foodservice packaging including single-serve cold drinks cups, plates, cutlery and containers made from polylactic acid produced by NatureWorks LLC. The products are designed to meet the needs of various foodservice operators, ranging from outdoor festivals and mass events to catering and daily food and beverage service. BioWare products are clear and sturdy, and are suited for serving cold drinks including water, beer, soft drinks and shakes. BioWare has already achieved some success in the marketplace. For example Alken Maes, the second largest Belgian brewery, used the BioWare beer cups in the 2004 summer festivals, after which the cups were composted. In Europe, Huhtamaki’s Chinet range is an environmentally sound alternative to chinaware. Chinet plates and bowls are made from 100% moulded fibre and are certified for compostability according to EN 13432. Chinet plates are made from Huhtamaki’s own post-industrial paper cup cuttings in the European manufacturing unit in Norway with a proprietary smooth-moulding process and they are recognised for their rigidity, functionality and premium finish.

In 2004, RPC Bebo Nederland launched a range of biodegradable containers manufactured in NatureWork’s PLA material. RPC says that PLA offers excellent clarity and has an equivalent oxygen barrier to polypropylene. For sealed packs, RPC Bebo Nederland can also supply a heatsealable, compostable lidding film, which is manufactured from biodegradable cellulose derived from wood pulp.

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RPC’s HI-COMPOST product range of biodegradable containers have a highly transparent and glossy finish which, say the company, make them aesthetically similar to clear polystyrene. Wall thickness of the HI-COMPOST containers range from 200 to 1500 micron. In 2005, Italian fresh food packaging company Coopbox Europe launched a PLA-based tray for packing fresh foods such as meat. The product’s mechanical properties mean that it can be used on normal packing lines with stretch film or sealed with PLA film to produce a 100% biodegradable pack. The expanded structure also helps to absorb the liquid released by meat. Cedap, a division of Siamp-Cedap, specialises in thermoforming polystyrene for food industry applications. The company also offers thermoformed PLA-based single-serve cups. Faerch Plast AS is a manufacturer of packaging for the food and retail sectors. It offers a wide variety of plastic types, including articles based on NatureWorks PLA polymers. Target markets include fresh foods such as meat, salad and pasta. In 2005, Wal-Mart decided to switch from petroleum-based plastics to corn-based plastics based on NatureWorks PLA. NatureWorks will initially supply PLA for manufacture of 114 million packages a year for fresh strawberries, sprouts, cut fruit and herbs to Wal-Mart. Plastic gift cards, salad boxes, deli trays, tomato packages, plastic film on donut boxes, and other applications will follow.

6.2.2 Flexible Packaging In 2004, Treofan GmbH developed a metallised version of its PLA biodegradable film that reduces permeability aromas, oxygen and water. The metallised Biophan PLA film is said to be suitable for packaging fatty foods such as butter and cheese, as well as for confectionery, where the mirror-like finish adds a decorative feature to the barrier properties. The metallised film meets both EU and US, Food & Drug Administration food contact requirements. Natura Packaging GmbH, belongs to the Eurea group of companies. The company specialises in manufacture of biodegradable packaging products based on renewable raw materials such as polylactic acid (PLA). Natura focuses on three main areas: fruit and vegetable packaging, waste management, packaging and shopping bags. Plastic Suppliers Inc., a US extruder of blown film for labels and envelopes, has produced the world’s first blown film from NatureWorks PLA. It was hitherto thought that PLA was unsuitable for blown film extrusion. Plastic Supplies claims that its EarthFirst film is 100% compostable, has high gloss, optimum clarity and transparency, high moisture vapour transmission rate, flavour retention, odour barrier, is breathable and is US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) compliant. Areas of application for EarthFirst include window carton film for food packaging, label film, floral wrap film, shrink film and envelope film. Cortec Corporation of White Bear Lake, MN, is a manufacturer of environmentally responsible packaging and materials protection technologies. Cortec offers two families of high performance, certified biodegradable packaging technologies, Eco Film and Eco Works films and bags. Cortec completed the Din Certco application and review process for Eco Film and Eco Works products, which meet ASTM D 6400 international standards for commercial compostability. The most common types of Eco Film and Eco Works products are organic collection bags used by consumers for organic waste diversion programmes. While waste collection bags are by far the largest application of these products at the moment, the company maintains they are suitable for a wide range of other applications including agricultural, construction and food protection films.

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In 2004 it was announced that Japanese companies Kuraray Co. Ltd., The Pack Corp and Matsuura Sangyo Co. Ltd. began offering biodegradable shopping bags made from polylactic acid to women’s clothing stores and also to high-end supermarkets who wish to project an image of environmental consciousness. In 2004, Office Media (Tokyo) developed a new PLA film exhibiting vastly improved functionality as a packaging material. Through combination with other biodegradable plastics, the film’s transparency, flexibility, heat resistance and impact resistance, have been balanced in multiple dimensions, and through adopting two-layer and three-layer structures, gas barrier properties have also been improved. Technology to eliminate the characteristic odour of PLA developed independently by Office Media, have also been applied.

6.2.3 Blow Moulded Bottles Amcor, one of the world’s largest manufacturers of PET bottles, is investigating the potential for a new line of biodegradable bottles for the European markets, to be made using PLA. Amcor PET Packaging has already designed and produced preforms and bottles made out of PLA in conjunction with Canada-based Husky Injection Moulding Systems. The capital costs of a PLA system compared to a PET system are very similar. The main cost component is resin, and the cost of PLA is comparable to that of PET, and is suitable for injection stretch blow moulding. PLA can be used for noncarbonated beverages such as water, juices, milk, as well as edible oil products. Biodegradable PLA bottles can also be easily separated from PET bottles in the waste stream since the adoption of the Compostability Mark. In 2005, Husky working alongside BIOTA Brands of America, blow moulding equipment supplier SIG Corpoplast and Cargill Dow, which supplied its NatureWorks PLA material, introduced the first biodegradable water bottle onto the US market. Husky supplied BIOTA with the 24-cavity HyPET 120 injection moulding system.

6.2.4 High Performance Applications In 2004, Sony and Mitsubishi Plastics teamed up to develop a flame retardant PLA biodegradable resin claimed to be as strong as ABS. The new material will be used in the front panel of Sony standalone DVD players. The resin employs an aluminium hydroxide flame retardant, is rated UL94 V-2 and complies with the EU’s Restrictions on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive. Sony says the use of additives and modifications to moulding parameters allows it to process PLA compound on conventional injection presses in commercially viable cycle times. Toyota Tsusho Corp., a subsidiary of Toyota Corp, and Diversified Natural Products Inc, of the USA, formed a partnership in 2004 to explore the use of PLA in automotive applications. Pioneer Corp. of Japan has used PLA as a replacement for polycarbonate to manufacture an optical disc.

6.3 Market Drivers The specific market drivers of PLA biodegradable polymers are discussed below.

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6.3.1 Better Environmental Credentials The environmental attributes of PLA make it an attractive packaging alternative to fossil fuel based plastics and other synthetic biodegradable packaging materials with positive consumer appeal. In addition, packaging legislation from governments across Europe means that PLA packaging not only helps to avoid existing and proposed taxes on packaging and packaging waste but can also in some instances qualify for subsidies.

6.3.2 Stable Supply and More Competitive Prices Biodegradable polymer prices are generally much higher than commodity polymers for a number of reasons. Most biopolymers have only been commercially available for a couple of years and production volumes are very low compared with the mass produced polyolefins. Initial development costs are also very high. PLA biodegradable polymer prices have fallen sharply over the last five years since the polymers were first commercialised. NatureWorks PLA is now available at prices between €1.37-2.75 per kg compared to a price range of €3.0-3.5 per kg five years ago. Another factor that is encouraging uptake is the stability of maize prices versus petroleum-based polymers. NatureWorks PLA has been price competitive with PET for example over the last twelve months as PLA manufacturing scale has increased and process improvements were made alongside the recent sustained higher levels of PET pricing. NatureWorks claims these trends are encouraging many customers to seek multi-year contracts to ensure a more stable raw material supply and secure a predictable cost position for their own packaging materials. One of the cheapest biopolymers is Solanyl, produced by Rodenburg Biopolymers, which costs between €0.8-1.5 per kg. Solanyl prices are so low because it uses scrap potato peel, a very cheap source of raw material. FkuR’s PLA/polyester blends, on the other hand, cost between €2.85-3.70 per kg.

6.3.3 World’s First Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral Polymer NatureWorks PLA claims to be the world’s first greenhouse-gas-neutral polymer. This factor is important for European customers whereby NatureWorks PLA could assist them to achieve compliance with the greenhouse-gas-emission reduction requirements of the Kyoto Protocol that came into effect in February 2005. The greenhouse-gas-neutral claim is the result of the combination of renewable-resource-based feedstock, along with the purchase of renewable energy certificates (RECs) backed by lifecycle assessment data. These RECs will serve as an offset to cover all of the emissions from the energy used for the production of NatureWorks PLA. The company will purchase certificates for projected 2006 production at its 140,000 tonne capacity manufacturing plant and 182,000 tonne capacity lactic acid plant in Blair, Neb., USA, as well as at its corporate offices in Minnetonka, Minn., USA. The purchase of renewable energy will allow NatureWorks to decrease its fossil fuel footprint by 68%.

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6.3.4 Replacement of Traditional Packaging Materials For rigid thermoformed packaging, the stiffness of PLA enables more efficient down gauging versus existing PET materials. PLA is also an alternative to traditional plastic films such as cellophane, cellulose acetate and glassine, as well as a low temperature heat seal layer and/or flavour and aroma barrier in co-extruded structures where its combination of properties allows layer simplification or replacement of specific layers. PLA blow moulded bottles offer comparable organoleptic properties to glass and PET making it suitable for a variety of short shelf-life food and beverage bottling applications. PLA is also finding growing use in the manufacture of thermoformed disposable serviceware. Because of its compostability, cups and containers made from PLA can be collected with food waste and transported to an appropriate commercial composting facility. Cups also feature high gloss and clarity, strength and excellent printability. For flexible film applications such as carrier and trash bags PLA has the potential to replace LDPE and HDPE bags when a compostable solution is desired. Furthermore, the high water vapour transmission rate of PLA is beneficial for fresh food applications where it is important that the water vapour escapes quickly from the packaging. PLA also reduces fogging on the lid of the packaging. While PLA has made good progress in flexible film applications, development of new technologies is required to improve the fundamental qualities such as thermal properties: heat resistance, heat shrinkage etc.) and mechanical properties (strength, ductility, etc.) for further successful commercialisation. Traditionally, a low-molecular-weight liquid plasticiser addition method has been used for achieving flexible PLA films. However, the film made with this method was found to be unstable against changes in external factors such as temperature and pressure, resulting in the bleeding out of the liquid plasticiser, which in turn would lead to defects in the film characteristics such as transparency and flexibility, which were altered over time. Toray Industries has developed a new technology that has succeeded in containing the occurrence of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or pressure and displays highly stable flexibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA such as transparency, heat resistance, and biodegradability.

6.3.5 Speciality Cards PLA is finding new applications in speciality cards such as credit, membership, retail and gift cards. Biodegradable polymers provide retailers and brand owners with an opportunity to provide a more responsible environmental position to traditional plastics such as PVC for these applications. The rigid properties of PLA sheet allow it to be easily scored and PLA also exhibits an optimum surface for printing and varnishing.

6.3.6 Source Options NatureWorks LLC has announced a source options program, especially for European customers who may view maize variety as an important market issue. Customers may choose their desired level of

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market impact regarding the maize source of the polymer. Available programs include certification that the polymer has no genetically-modified content, a source offset option (guarantees an equal amount of non-genetically modified maize is purchased and delivered) and a seed-to-finished product identity-preserved grade of NatureWorks PLA.

6.3.7 New Applications Shrink sleeve suppliers, brand owners and packaging converters are examining better performing and more environmentally-friendly alternatives such as polylactic acid, as a replacement for traditional shrink sleeve materials. Shrink sleeves can be made from PVC, PET, PP and oriented PS. The problems associated with PVC, recyclability, and oriented polystyrene (OPS), restricting shrinkage level, have resulted in a surge in use of polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), but this material is not suitable for all applications. Wine and spirit bottles could be the first target application for compostable PLA-based shrink sleeves being developed by Gilbreth. The company is at the final stages of testing a PLA material supplied from Plastic Supplies. Gilbreth has found that the PLA-based shrink sleeve shrinks at lower temperatures than traditional shrink sleeve material such as PETG. Another company, Decorative Sleeves, is also in the process of testing PLA-based shrink sleeves. Japanese electronics company Sharp has developed technology to blend PLA biopolymers with conventional plastics recovered from scrapped consumer appliances. Petroleum-based plastics are generally incompatible with bioplastics, and blends tend to show inferior properties such as impact strength and heat resistance. Sharp claims to have overcome these problems with a microdispersion technology that dramatically improves the properties of the blended material. The company expects to use such blends in its consumer electronics products by early 2007. Another Japanese consumer electronics company, NEC, plans to adopt PLA biopolymers for its cellphones and personal computers in order to achieve product differentiation. Impact strength, heat deformation resistance and durability are required for cellphones and the company has developed a kenaf-reinforced polylactic acid that meets these requirements. Plans now call for the reinforced resin to be given non-phosphorous, non-halogen flame retardancy, and then applied to notebook personal computer housings starting in 2007. Meanwhile, Fujitsu and Toray Industries have developed the first large-scale notebook computer housing based on polylactic acid biodegradable polymers. The housing is moulded of a specially developed PLA/polycarbonate blend that provide the required heat and flame resistance. In 2005, Japanese company Kaneka developed the first beads-process, foamed resin moulded product, which is based on polylactic acid. The new KanePearl product has the strength and shock-absorbing properties of existing beads-process, foamed polystyrene products. Unitika Textiles in Japan has also developed a technology to manufacture foam-moulded products with good heat resistance using PLA.

6.3.8 Better Processing Plastic additives manufacturer, Clariant, is running field tests with packaging converters using polylactic acid polymers for its CESA-extend masterbatch. The aim of the new additive is to improve

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the viscosity of PLA for stretch blow moulding applications, which should lead to greater production efficiencies and cost savings when using PLA polymers.

6.4 Market Size and Forecast Table 6.1 shows global consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers by major world region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010.

Table 6.1 Global consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers by major world region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) Western Europe

North America

Asia Pacific

Total

2000

3.7

2.7

2.3

8.7

2005

19.0

9.6

7.2

35.8

2010

50.5

22.6

16.4

89.5

21.6%

18.7%

17.9%

20.1%

CAGR 2005-2010

World consumption of polylactic acid biodegradable polymers has increased significantly over the last five years as major suppliers such as NatureWorks have brought their 140,000 tonnes per annum plant fully on stream. In 2005, world consumption of PLA amounted to 35,800 tonnes against 8,700 tonnes five years earlier. During the period 2005-2010, PLA consumption is forecast to reach 89,500 tonnes, which represents a compound annual growth rate of 20.1%. Western Europe is the largest market for PLA in 2005 with just over 53.0% of world PLA consumption. North America accounts for 27.0% and Asia Pacific the remaining 20.0%. Figure 6.1 shows percentage share of global PLA consumption by end use sector for 2005.

Figure 6.1 Percentage share of global PLA consumption by end use sector, 2005

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Packaging, including foodservice, is easily the largest end use market for PLA with 70% of total consumption in 2005. Textile fibres account for an estimated 23% of total volumes. ‘Other’ applications, with just 7% of total volumes, include speciality cards and sheet, agricultural products and a wide range of injection moulded products.

6.5 Major Suppliers and their Products The major suppliers of biodegradable polymers based on PLA are described below. NatureWorks LLC is the new name of Cargill Dow LLC. The company was renamed after its product, the PLA-based biologically degradable polymer, following the Dow Chemical Company’s sale of its 50% stake to agricultural company Cargill, its former joint venture partner, in 2005. Cargill Dow Polymers LLC started up its first commercial-scale plant for polylactic acid (PLA) at Blair, Nebraska, in the US in 2002. The unit has planned capacity to produce 136,000 tonnes per annum. Until then, the pilot production capacity for PLA was only 4,000 tonnes per annum. In early 2004, Cargill Dow, as the company was then known, refocused market development on food packaging and textiles. Pricing was reduced from an original level of $1.0 per lb to $0.85 per lb or lower, making PLA more competitive with materials such as PET. Sales rose 60% during the first nine months of 2004 compared to the same period a year earlier and the number of customers during the same period doubled. The company aims to secure market share as quickly as possible, particularly in the food packaging area. Marketing activities are being focused on drinking cups, deli and produce containers and other packaging uses where the resin can function and compete on price with established polymers such as PET. In fibre form, the material is also suitable for the production of textiles (garments, carpets). NatureWorks says that NatureWorks PLA resin is competitive with petrochemical-based products. The company claims that its PLA has a life cycle that reduces fossil fuel consumption by 50% in its production and emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced by 15-60%. Over the next few years, around $250m is to be invested in commercial development and technology improvement. NatureWorks has signed cooperation agreements with a number of users including Tetra Pak, Trespaphan GmbH, Mitsubishi Plastics, Woolmark Company Ltd and the British Autobar Group Ltd. NatureWorks has also concluded an exclusive agreement with Taiwan’s Wei Mon Industry Cn. Ltd (WMI) for the marketing of packaging products made of ‘NatureWorks’ PLA material. The material is being marketed in Taiwan under the name ‘Nature Green’. In view of Taiwan’s growing plastic waste problem, the government is working on new environmental guidelines banning the use of disposable products made of plastics, starting with bags and tablecloths made from fossil raw materials. NatureWorks is achieving some success in persuading leading retailers and manufacturers to switch to PLA packaging. In 2005, it was announced that Wal-Mart Stores Inc. would use PLA in containers for produce such as herbs and other products. NatureWorks followed up the Wal-Mart deal with an announcement that Del Monte Fresh Produce NA Inc. would increase its use of NatureWorks PLA in packaging for pineapple, melons and fruit and vegetable medleys. NatureWorks’ PLA is also being used in containers for Newman’s Own salad dressing and bottles for Biota drinking water.

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NatureWorks currently offers two biodegradable polymer brands for packaging and fibre applications. NatureWorks PLA is used for manufacture of food packaging and serviceware. Ingeo PLA is used for manufacture of nonwoven textile fibres. NatureWorks PLA can be extruded, cast or biaxially oriented, and thermoformed using conventional processing equipment. The company claims that NatureWorks PLA performs like traditional petroleum-based plastics, and in some cases offers better performance characteristics, including gloss, clarity, strength, and flavour and aroma barrier. In 2005, NatureWorks LLC announced that it was is developing a new generation of PLA that can be used for microwavable packaging. The company also announced results of research that showed bottles could be used to package oxygen sensitive food and beverages using barrier-enhanced PLA in the future. Tests showed that multi-layer bottles, with a barrier resin middle layer and an outer layer of PLA, had improved water and oxygen barriers. Californian based company Cereplast Inc. is the developer and manufacturer of a proprietary biodegradable and compostable biopolymer based on NatureWorks PLA resin. Specifically, Cereplast biodegradable resins incorporate the following ingredients in their formulation: starch derived from cornstarch, wheat starch or potato starch, polylactic acid generated from the corn dextrose and minerals and other biodegradable components, to enhance the physical properties required for the various applications. Cereplast bioplastics can be used to manufacture thermoformed articles such as cups, containers and cutlery, plus extrusion coating, profile extrusion and blow moulding grades. In March 2006, Cereplast announced plans to double its capacity by the summer of 2006 and is investing in new and more efficient equipment. The company also reported that advances in nano-technology that they have introduced into their process coupled with polymer processing advantages through lower temperatures, support Cereplast’s confidence in the viability of the bioplastics market. In 2004, the Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan brought on stream a pilot plant to make bioplastics based on polylactic acid and derived from sugar cane and other natural sources. The plant, costing €14m, has a capacity of 1,000 tonnes per annum. Toyota has been involved in a number of programmes aimed at promoting ‘global regeneration’ and the creation of a recycling oriented society. Bioplastics with improved performance in terms of durability, heat resistance and other performance criteria are used in the Toyota Raum passenger vehicle. Japanese company NEC has developed a plant-derived bioplastic whose main component is polylactic acid. It is said to possess the world’s best flame retardance for a product of this type. This has been achieved without the use of halogenated or phosphorous flame retardants. NEC has applied proprietary property-modifying additives such as inorganic heat absorbants, high flow modifiers and impact modifiers to realise the bioplastic. The material conforms to the UL94 5V standard, which means it can be utilised in a wide variety of electronic products, including personal computer housing. Netherlands-based Hycail, a fully owned subsidiary of Dairy Farmers of America, manufactures PLA biodegradable polymers for applications such as rigid packaging, electronics, films, emulsions, flexibilisers, adhesives, binders, coatings and chewing gum base. The company has had a semicommercial plant operational since April 2004 and currently manufactures just a few hundred tonnes of PLA polymers. The production plant is located in Noordhorn, the Netherlands with offices also located in Noordhorn, and Turkku, Finland. Hycail products are certified according to EN 13432 and safe for food contact use. The company is currently in the process of constructing its first fullscale European plant with an annual capacity of at least 25,000 tonnes per annum.

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In December 2005, Hycail announced the launch of a new biodegradable material, Hycail XM 1020, which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C without distortion. It can also be microwaved with fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or stress cracking: cups made from the material have stood up to microwaving with olive oil up to 205 °C for 30 minutes. Hycail claims that the increased heat resistance has not affected other properties such as transparency, processability and strength. The company claims that the new material is a genuine game changer in PLA technology and puts it in the high performance thermoplastics arena. In 2004, Toray Industries, Inc. succeeded in developing the world’s first plasticiser-free flexible PLA film using Toray’s own nano-structure control technology for biaxially oriented films. This film, without losing the transparency and heat resistance features of PLA, has achieved superior flexibility levels, meaning it could be used as packaging films such as wrapping films. Toray are confident that the environment-friendly features of PLA film are expected to spur widespread demand in the future. Toray plans to commercialise the PLA film in areas such as soft packaging materials, films for building materials, electronic devices, and automobiles as well as for industrial material usage such as in process films. Osaka-based Mitsui Chemicals Inc. is increasing production of its Lacea-brand PLA resin. The bio-based material has been used in electronics packaging, envelope windows and prepaid phone cards. Most recently, Honda Motor Co. Ltd. of Tokyo has used Lacea PLA in packaging straps at its auto plants. FKuR Kunststoff GmbH (FKuR) launched its biopolymer business in 2000. The company has capacity of more than 2,700 tonnes per annum and sells in all global regions. In collaboration with the Fraunhofer Umsicht Institute in Oberhausen, Germany, FkuR has developed a PLA/polyester blend that reportedly processes like LDPE film. Tests show that the new Bio-Flex 219F material can be processed on conventional blown film lines without modifications to screws, dies, and take-offs. The company claims easy processing results from the high compatibility of the blend components. The formulation consists of more than 10% PLA (purchased from NatureWorks LLC) plus a biodegradable co-polyester and special additives. FKuR says a special combination of compatibilisers permits coupling between the PLA and the co-polyester. The compound is homogeneous, which allows the film to be drawn down to 8 microns. Film up to 110 microns thick is 90% degraded after twelve weeks in composting conditions. Bio-Flex 219F is targeted for shopping bags, mulch film, and laminates for trays. FKuR has also developed Bio-Flex grades with higher stiffness. Grade 466F (more than 20% PLA) and grade 467F (more than 30% PLA) are for shopping bags. Grade 482F, with more than 70% PLA, is for cast film. Another offering in FKuR’s Nature Compounds line is a modified cellulose with processing characteristics and mechanical properties similar to polystyrene. Biograde 300A can be injection moulded for foodservice applications such as cutlery, is white in colour and produced with natural fillers and a special vegetable oil. It has high thermal stability and can be moulded on standard machines with a general-purpose screw. The material is notable for its low shrinkage and virtual absence of warpage, according to the company. Up to 20% regrind can be processed without deterioration of properties. Biograde 300A will contain special additives that permit the material to be thermoformed into hot cups.

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FKuR also introduced Biograde 200C in 2005, an unfilled cellulose blend with high stiffness and transparency for cast film and injection moulding. The material can also be blow moulded into bottles and thermoformed into cups and trays. Injection moulded Biograde 200C exhibits properties comparable to polystyrene, but with the addition of barrier performance comparable to PLA. It consists of 100% renewable resources, but does not contain starch. Biomer, another German biopolymer manufacturer, is exploring new markets for its PHB and PLA polyesters. Biomer develops micro-organisms that ferment sugar or starch syrup through a toll manufacturing arrangement. The polyester extract is then compounded with low- and high-molecularweight plasticisers, nucleators, and processing aids to produce three standard injection moulding formulations. Melt viscosity is very low, so high clamp force is not necessary to produce complex structures. The materials are said to process like liquid-crystal polymers and have a melt flow rate (MFR) above 20 g/10 min. Biomer claims that 1.2 mm thick samples of its materials degrade in a composting environment within six weeks. Grade P226 reportedly has mechanical properties similar to PP, is easy to mould, and offers fast cycles. Grade P209 has properties similar to HDPE but elongation at break is significantly lower because of the material’s crystalline structure. Grade P240 is a higher impact version of P209. Injection moulded applications include medical diagnostic tools, firework casings, and practice artillery shells for the military. PHB is also extruded into multi-filaments for woven surgical patches. Biomer is developing PHB grades with higher melt strength for blown film. Biomer also produces smaller amounts of PLA for transparent medical diagnostic strips, which are injection moulded. The first PLA production facility in China is scheduled to start up by the second half of 2007. Uhde Inventa-Fischer has been awarded a contract by Harbin Weilida Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. to build a 10,000 tonnes per annum continuous polylactide plant at Harbin Heilongjiang Province, P.R. China.

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7

The PHA Biodegradable Polymers Market

7.1 Introduction Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a family of biodegradable aliphatic co-polyesters produced by bacterial fermentation. These polymers are synthesised in the bodies of bacteria fed with glucose (e.g., from sugar cane) in a fermentation plant. PHA was first discovered in prokaryotes as a high molecular weight storage molecule in cytoplasmic granules. Since then over one hundred PHA compositions have been reported, some made by genetically engineered bacterial strains. PHAs are extremely versatile polymers as their crystallinity can be manipulated to provide a broad range of mechanical and barrier properties, in some cases matching the performance of engineered thermoplastics. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the most common type of PHA. In recent years there has been growing interest in the use of PHB and PHB copolymers in the biodegradable plastics industry. The biodegradable and non-toxic effect of PHBs also make them a strong possibility for many medical applications, including drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance. PHA biodegradable polymers are still largely at the development stage of market development, although there a few commercial applications available. The main candidates for commercialisation are Biopol PHBV, being developed by Metabolix, and Nodax PHBH, marketed by Procter & Gamble. Metabolix is the leading producer of PHA biodegradable material. The company produces PHA through aerobic fermentation, which involves converting natural sugars or oils into PHA polymers directly inside aerated fermentation tanks. Each fermentation consists of a growth phase, during which empty cells (bio-factories) are grown to target concentrations, followed by a production phase, during which the cells fill up with PHA. Metabolix PHA polymers are semi-crystalline thermoplastics:

Varying the chain length and side chains can produce a broad range of physical and mechanical properties. R can be hydrogen or hydrocarbon chains of up to around C13 in length, and x can range from 1 to 3 or more. Varying x and R affects hydrophobicity, Tg (glass transition temperature), Tm (melt temperature) and the level of crystallinity. The level of crystallinity can vary from around 70% to very low, producing a range from high stiffness to elastomeric. When R is a methyl group and x=1, the polymer is poly-(3-hydroxybutyric acid) (PHB), which is the base homopolymer in the PHA class. Metabolix PHA polymers containing 3-hydroxy acids have a chiral centre, and are optically active. Metabolix’ manufacturing process by its very nature means that all 3-hydroxy units have an R configuration.

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Metabolix offers PHA homopolymers, copolymers, and terpolymers. Copolymer grades have a broad property spectrum, from rigid thermoplastics to thermoplastic elastomers, and grades useful in waxes, adhesives, and binders. Metabolix can also convert its PHA copolymers into their building blocks, which have applications as solvents and chemical intermediates. Metabolix PHA polymers can also be produced as aqueous dispersions with glass transition temperatures (Tg) generally below 0 °C. These dispersions are unique in that they can be made in the amorphous state, but form semi-crystalline films after drying. Hence there is no need to use traditional coalescing solvents or plasticizers to artificially reduce the polymer glass transition temperature during the film formation and drying processes. These films are extremely tough and show unusual scrub and scuff resistance compared with conventional emulsion polymers. Metabolix’s PHBV (polyhydroxybutyrate valerate) was initially developed by ICI. PHBV and related copolymers are made in a pilot plant using different bacteria to create compositions with up to 70% crystallinity. Elongation can be manipulated from 5% to 100%, and melting points range between 135 and 185 °C (275-365 °F). The physical properties claimed for Metabolix PHA polymers are described below. •

Molecular weight - Metabolix PHA is available in molecular weights ranging from around 1,000 to over one million.

•

Thermal properties - PHA natural plastics are thermally unstable above 180 °C. Attempts to process these materials with high Tm (melting temperature) using conventional techniques can result in a progressive reduction in molecular weight and hence mechanical properties. Metabolix has developed techniques and formulations that allow these high Tm PHA polymers to be processed with minimal loss in molecular weight. The heat resistance of PHA means they can be applied to applications such as coated paper cups for hot drinks.

•

Mechanical properties - Metabolix PHAs cover a broad range of physical properties and can behave both as traditional thermoplastic polymers and as elastomers. Some polymers (polyethylene, flexible PVC, and thermoplastic elastomers) have high elongation at break, and yield irreversibly at high levels of extension. Metabolix has developed elastomeric grades that have high levels of recovery (typically >80-90%), even under high levels of deformation (e.g. > 500% ultimate elongation at break). These materials can be used for adhesives, stretch coatings and fibres, and have properties similar to vulcanized rubbers.

•

Gas barrier properties - Metabolix PHA polymers have lower moisture vapour transmission rates than other biodegradable polymers. The oxygen transmission rates for unoriented PHA films are 25-30 cc-mil/(100 in²-day) at 77 °C, 0% relative humidity.

•

Biodegradability - Metabolix PHA offer hydrolytic stability under normal service conditions but when exposed to microbial organisms naturally present they break down enzymatically in soil, composting, waste treatment processes, river water and marine environments. They also rapidly decompose to carbon dioxide and water and will degrade in anaerobic environments, unlike some other biodegradable polymers.

•

UV Stability - Metabolix PHA are aliphatic polyesters and therefore have good UV stability compared with formulated polyolefins, styrenics and aromatic polyesters.

Procter & Gamble is the other leading pioneer on the field of PHA biodegradable polymers. The ‘Nodax’ biopolymers are based on the copolymer PHBH, a copolymer polyester of 3-hydroxybutyric and 3hydroxyhexanoic acid. The higher the 3-hydroxyhexanoic acid comonomer component, the more flexible

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the copolymer becomes. Therefore, controlling the copolymerisation ratio is said to enable production of a wide variety of grades, from rigid through to flexible film. The material is also said to differ from degradable PLA materials in that it can be broken down by bacteria without prior hydrolysis. It is the branched nature of Nodax PHBH copolymers that makes them distinctive. Carbon side chains of C6 to C24 length are appended to the C4 backbone, and comonomer content can range from 2% to 20%. Analogous to a conventional LDPE copolymer, PHBH’s long-chain branching allows a considerable range for tailoring crystallinity, melting point, stiffness, and toughness. PHBH comes in short-chain (C6), medium-chain (C8-10), and long-chain (C12-22) species, but current emphasis is on the C4/C6 class. P&G recently licensed rights to make these polymers to Kuraray in Tokyo, Japan, which brought a production plant on line in 2005. Nodax C4/C6 is said to be ‘a natural fit’ for injection moulding and extrusion of sheet or film. The polymer has mechanical properties similar to a polyolefin and surface properties much like PET, including high receptivity to printing inks and dyes. Adhesion to LDPE and PP is good enough to avoid tie layers in multi-layer structures. Nodax’s oxygen barrier property approaches that of EVOH. PHBH biodegrades both aerobically and anaerobically (e.g., underwater) and is alkaline digestible and water-soluble. These characteristics open potential for lower-cost handling and disposal of troublesome wastes. For example, medical waste containers and devices could be put in a ‘trash digester’ (an industrial alkaline washing machine) for disposal. Furthermore, industrial stretchwrap films used to protect automobiles during shipment might be removed and disposed of by hot washing and flushing steps instead of labour-intensive film handling. In recycling, it might be feasible to alkaline digest low-value elements of a bottle recycling stream (labels and caps) while keeping the bottles intact for reclaim. In summary, the most important properties of Nodax polymers according to P&G are its anaerobic and aerobic degradability, hydrolytic stability, good odour and oxygen barrier, surface properties are ideal for printing, wide range of tailored mechanical properties and excellent miscibility with other resins to further optimise properties.

7.2 Applications Development Metabolix’s PHA is being targeted at potential applications in packaging, single use and disposable items, houseware, appliances, electrical and electronics, consumer durables, agriculture and soil stabilization, adhesives, paints and coatings, and automotive parts. To date, Metabolix has developed formulations suitable for injection moulding, cast film, cast sheet for thermoforming and melt extruded paper and board coating. In future, the company plans to extend the range of conversion processes to include blown film, blow moulding, fibre and nonwovens, foam, adhesives and emulsion coatings. Procter & Gamble claim potential applications for their Nodax polymers are as follows: •

Feminine hygiene products Nodax has the benefit of degradation in septic systems, which offer possibilities for application in feminine hygiene products such as wipes and tampon applicators. These flushable products may exist in the form of paper coatings, fibres, films and foams.

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•

Nonwovens Nodax properties are suitable for short life applications include medical surgical garments and disposable wipes and also some long life applications include automotive upholstery and carpet, where there is growing industry interest in use of degradable materials.

•

Binders The thermal and surface properties of Nodax offer potential for binding of nonwovens such as PET. Nodax could be applied in either a solid particulate or latex form to thermally bonded nonwovens. Nodax could also provide high wet strength to tissue and other papers, while at the same time preserving aesthetics and disposal options.

7.2.1 Films Nodax’ combination of odour barrier, hydrolytic stability and compostability characteristics offer potential as compostable paper or plastic bags as well as agricultural film.

7.2.2 Flexible Packaging The combination of odour barrier, sealability and printability provides potential for Nodax in flexible packaging. Nodax is a soft and pliable, yet reasonably transparent polyester resin. Polyester films have better printability because of their higher surface energy. For example, a thin layer of PET is often reverse-printed and then laminated over polypropylene. Nodax can substitute for both the polypropylene and polyester layers, since it can be converted like a polypropylene film and is already printable.

7.2.3 Thermoformed Articles Nodax’ properties of barrier, heat and dielectric sealability, and printability offer potential as lidding or tub stock for thermoformed articles.

7.2.4 Coated/Corrugated Paper The repulpability, high barrier, and excellent printability of Nodax offer opportunities in coated linerboard and coated papers. This allows the converter to combine high quality printing and high barrier with traditional paper recycling. Nodax is easily digestible by the same process as the de-inking step in the recycling of used paper. High temperature, in the presence of caustics, will spontaneously digest Nodax coating. This is especially attractive since no sticky residues will be created from the Nodax coated recycled paper. Nodax coating can also be applied to foodservice articles such as cups, plates, and placemats. When it comes to disposal, Nodax is complimentary with composting of food waste. Its fast anaerobic degradability means these materials can be disposed of in marine or other low oxygen environments. The ideal market opportunities are found in closed loop environments such as theme park landfills, cruise and navy ships.

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7.2.5 Synthetic Papers There are growing opportunities for polymer-based synthetic papers for labels where the printability and reduced environmental impact of Nodax polymers could play a role.

7.2.6 Bioresorbable Medical Devices Nodax has superior biocompatibility compared to other bioresorbable plastics, which makes the material suitable for some medical applications such as drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance.

7.2.7 Polymer Blends Nodax can be blended with other biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid and thermoplastic starch for improved processing performance.

7.3 Market Drivers The specific factors driving demand for PHA-based biodegradable polymers are discussed below. The cost of PHA-based materials is on the high side and prices will have to come down much more for major inroads into end use markets to be made in future. For example, PHB prices range from €9-16 per kg, which prevents them from replacing lower-priced commodity plastics for the time being. Despite high prices, there are a few places where PHB is used. The US Navy opted to use PHB cups, which can be easily thrown overboard after use and degrade in the sea. In Japan, PHB is being used for manufacture of women’s disposable razors. Over the longer term, PHB producers believe the material is suitable for food packaging such as yoghurt cups and beverage bottles. However, a big obstacle is obtaining food contact approvals. Due to the many substances present in the residual biomass, food-approval testing is prohibitively expensive. Suppliers such as Biomer are putting food-approval effort on hold until it can secure a commitment from a large food processor. PHB producers expect continued progress in fermentation processes and identification of lower cost feedstock to provide more reasonable material costs for niche markets. Longer term, crop-based production has potential to drive PHB costs to more competitive levels from improved productivity. P&G for example, is investigating the manufacture of Nodax by plant-grown methods. The supplier states that this method could reduce Nodax prices to between €1.0-2.0 per kg. Metabolix has produced PHBV for the first time in a commercial-scale fermentation plant. Much idle fermentation capacity exists in the U.S. for making animal feed such as lysine and food additives like MSG. The supplier plans to use this on a toll basis or through a joint venture to cut the current high costs. To further reduce PHBV costs, plans call for exploring direct or plant-grown PHBV, in which polymer is made in the leaves or roots of a plant. Metabolix claims that switchgrass is being investigated because it grows well on marginal land. It holds out hope of driving PHBV cost down to below €2.0 per kg.

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Leading suppliers such as Metabolix and Procter & Gamble have also formed collaboration agreements with strategic partners to speed up the commercialisation of PHA biodegradable polymers (Section 7.5).

7.4 Market Size and Forecast The PHA-based biodegradable polymers’ market is still very much at the developmental stage with few commercial applications in existence. In 2005, market tonnage is estimated at no more than around 250-300 tonnes worldwide. Assuming that producers are successful in bringing down PHA production costs and prices, and in developing niche applications, market tonnage could be around 3,000 tonnes by 2010.

7.5 Suppliers and their Products The major suppliers of PHA-based biodegradable polymers are described below. Metabolix Inc., is a private firm based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, that was spun out of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1992 and acquired biopolymer technology from Monsanto Inc. in 2001. Metabolix began its first commercial production of organic polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) resin, based on corn sugar in 2005 at an undisclosed location in the Midwest. The plant was expected to produce around 100 tonnes of material in 2005 and close to 1000 tonnes in 2006. The first commercial product using Metabolix PHA will be a soil stake used in farming. The item was available from early 2006. Metabolix is also exploring the use of switch grass, a common wild grass that grows in many areas of the Midwest, as a potential feedstock. To date, Metabolix has received $10 million in federal funding for switch grass research. The firm is also involved in joint ventures with agricultural processing firm Archer Daniels Midland Co., which is supplying initial feedstock, and BP plc. The two-year collaboration agreement with BP will involve research and development of grass crops containing high levels of naturally grown polymers, which can be used to produce biodegrading plastic materials. A co-product of the process would be advantaged biomass material, which can be converted to energy. BP will provide financial support for the programme as well as full-time staff over the two-year period starting 14th February 2005. In addition, the companies will explore commercial options to exploit any technology that results from the collaboration. The strategic alliance with Archer Daniels Midland Company (ADM) has the purpose of commercialising Metabolix PHA products. Through the alliance, the two companies are planning to establish a state-of-the-art 50,000 tonnes per annum production facility and a 50/50 joint venture to manufacture and market natural PHA polymers for a wide variety of applications, including coated paper, film, and moulded goods. Under the agreement, ADM will obtain exclusive manufacturing rights and certain co-exclusive marketing rights to Metabolix proprietary PHA technology. In 2003, Metabolix and BASF teamed up to speed the commercialisation of PHA materials in film, fibres, moulded parts and coatings. The polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) polyester will be produced from sugar by Metabolix Inc using fermentation technology for the initial one-year agreement. BASF will investigate the material’s technology and processing. PHA has been used in the medical area

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for biodegradable surgical threads, which is not a price sensitive area. As PHA is more expensive than commodity plastics, it will be necessary to find attractive applications for the materials in niche markets. In 2004, Procter & Gamble formed a joint development agreement with Japan’s Kaneka Corporation for the commercialisation of Nodax biodegradable polymers. The companies will develop costeffective ways of producing Nodax through fermentation and make the polymer easier to process so it can be used in a wider range of applications. US speciality chemical company Polyscience Inc has introduced a new range of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) biodegradable polymers that are potential candidates for drug delivery, cosmetic applications, wrapping fragrances for food applications, and blending materials for production of biomaterials. PHA-b-PEG block copolymers are a new family of amphiphilic block copolymers. They are manufactured with a controlled molecular PHA block from high molecular weight bacterial PHA. This allows the PHA block to remain optically active and the side chain length and ratio with PEG to be varied. German company Biomer is exploring new markets for its PHB and PLA polyesters. Biomer develops microorganisms that ferment sugar or starch syrup through a toll manufacturing arrangement. The polyester extract is then compounded with low and high molecular weight plasticizers, nucleators, and processing aids to produce three standard injection moulding formulations. Melt viscosity is very low, so high clamp force is not necessary to produce complex structures. The materials are said to process like liquid crystal polymers and have a melt flow rate (MFR) above 20 g/10 min. Biomer claims that 1.2 mm thick samples of its materials degrade in a composting environment within six weeks. Grade P226 reportedly has mechanical properties similar to polypropylene, is easy to mould, and offers fast cycle times. Grade P209 has properties similar to HDPE but elongation at break is significantly lower because of the material’s crystalline structure. Grade P240 is a higher impact version of P209. Injection moulded applications include medical diagnostic tools, firework casings, and practice artillery shells for the military. PHB is also extruded into multi-filaments for woven surgical patches. Biomer is developing PHB grades with higher melt strength for blown film. Biomer also produces smaller amounts of PLA for transparent medical diagnostic strips, which are injection moulded. Biomer has experienced strong growth over the period 2004-2005, particularly in the USA. Production capacity is believed to be several tonnes per month.

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8

The Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Market

8.1 Introduction In the past five years, a broad range of synthetic biodegradable resins based on aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters have been commercialised by global suppliers. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are made in modified PET polymerisation facilities from petrochemical feedstocks. Unlike other petrochemicalbased polymers that take a very long time to degrade after disposal, these polyesters break down rapidly to CO2 and water in appropriate conditions where they are exposed to the combined attack of water and microbes. These products meet US, European, and Japanese composting standards, typically breaking down in twelve weeks under aerobic conditions. The main types of synthetic biodegradable polymer in commercial use are as follows. •

Polybutylene adipate/terephthalate (PBAT) from BASF and IRe Chemical

•

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) from Showa Highpolymers

•

Polybutylene succinate/adipate) (PBSA) from Showa Highpolymers and IRe Chemicals

•

Polybutylene succinate/carbonate (PBSC) from Mitsubishi Gas Chemical

•

Polybutylene succinate terephthalate (PBST) from DuPont

•

Polytetramethylene adipate/terephthalate (PTMT) from Novamont

•

Polycaprolactone (PCL) from Daicel Chemical and Solvay

Aliphatic polyesters like polycaprolactone (PCL) or polybutylene adipate (PBA) are readily biodegradable, but because of their melting points of 60 °C are unsuitable for many applications. On the other hand, aromatic polyesters like polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) have high melting points above 200 °C and very good material properties, but are not biodegradable. The solution is a combination of aliphatic polyesters and aromatic polyesters. This involves modifying the crystalline structure of PBT by incorporating aliphatic monomer (adipic acid) in the polymer chain in such a way that the material properties of the polymer would remain acceptable (e.g., melting point of the crystalline range still around 100 °C), but the polymer would also be readily compostable/biodegradable. In this way it was possible to combine the degradability of aliphatic polyesters with the outstanding properties of aromatic polyesters. Synthetic biodegradable polyesters fall into two broad categories. One is highly amorphous, imparting flexibility and clarity comparable to a conventional LDPE copolymer. A second group of semicrystalline polyesters is more rigid, with properties similar to PET, PP, or PS. The three most prominent global suppliers of synthetic biodegradable polymers are BASF, Novamont, which acquired Eastman Chemicals Eastar Bio product portfolio in 2005, and DuPont.

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BASF’s Ecoflex and Novamont’s Eastar Bio Ecoflex are aromatic-aliphatic co-polyesters based on butanediol, adipic acid, and terephthalic acid. BASF’s products contain long-chain branching while Eastar Bio is highly linear in structure. BASF Ecoflex co-polyester films have a property profile similar to that of low-density polyethylene and can be produced on existing LDPE extrusion processing lines. They have a melting point of 110-115 °C, The Ecoflex F (film) version imparts high elongation and dart impact and yields clear films that weld and print easily. Ecoflex is said to have high toughness and good cling properties. That makes it possible for 10-micron cling films to replace vinyl in vegetable, fruit, and meat wraps. BASF claims its materials also make films with 50% lower MVTR (moisture vapour transmission rate) than other biodegradable polymers. Eastar Bio is offered in general-purpose and blown-film grades. The aliphatic-aromatic co-polyesters have a melting point of 108 °C and offer good contact clarity, adhesion, and elongation. They have high moisture and grease resistance, and process much like LDPE. Eastar Bio is used in nonwovens, lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural films, netting, and paper coatings. In the semi-crystalline category, DuPont offers a modified PET incorporating three proprietary aliphatic monomers. Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195 °C melting point, versus 250 °C for PET, resulting in higher service temperature capability and faster processing rates than for other biodegradables. Mechanical properties include high stiffness and 40% to 500% elongation.

8.2 Applications Development Synthetic biodegradable polyesters are used mainly as specialty materials for paper coating, fibres, and garbage bags and sacks. They are also showing up in thermoformed packaging as functional adjuncts to lower-cost biodegradable materials (e.g., as moisture-barrier films). Biodegradable polyesters also generally work well in blends with PLA, starch, organic wastes, and natural-fibre reinforcements such as flax. Bags and sacks is one of the most important market sectors for Ecoflex. It can be used in the manufacture of fresh fruit and vegetable bags, refuse bags and carrier bags, using either Ecoflex on its own, or an Ecoflex/starch blend. Ecoflex co-polyester is being used by Zerust Consumer Products in Ohio, USA, to market a synthetic biodegradable clear plastics bag for lawn and leaf applications. Zerust’s new Great Green Earth bags can be used to replace paper bags for organic waste disposal. Great Green Earth bags are approved by the US Biodegradable Products Institute, and are certified via ASTM D6400 for their ability to biodegrade swiftly and safely during municipal or commercial composting. The Great Green Earth bags are manufactured using a proprietary technology developed by Northern Technologies International (NTI), Lino Lakes, Minn. Zerust, the consumer division of NTI, also markets food waste bags and agricultural film under the Great Green Earth brand. In packaging, Ecoflex can be used as a coating material to make paper, cardboard or starch-based foam tougher and protect against fat, moisture and temperature variations. These are useful properties for hamburger boxes, coffee cups, packaging for meat, fish, poultry, fruit or vegetables, food dishes and fast-food boxes. Ecoflex is also found in agricultural films such as cover sheeting and mulch film. The film can be ploughed into the field and is degraded in the soil after use.

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Eastar Bio is used in nonwovens, lawn-and-garden bags, agricultural films, netting, and paper coatings. DuPont’s Biomax is used in a number of specialty packaging applications, injection-moulded parts, coatings for paper, thermoformed cups and trays, and films because of its superior barrier properties. DuPont has targeted fast-food disposable packaging, as well as yard-waste bags, diaper backing, agricultural film, flowerpots, and bottles, for particular development. Showa’s Bionelle products are used in commodity bags, agricultural films, traffic cones, and industrial trays. SK Chemicals’ SkyGreen products are used in films, disposable cutlery, food trays, hairbrush handles, and paper coatings.

8.3 Market Drivers The specific drivers for synthetic biodegradable polymers are discussed below. Synthetic polymers based on polyesters and co-polyesters are some of the most expensive biopolymers. Feedstock is expensive compared with biopolymers based on renewable resources and the production process is more complex and costly. Synthetic types can cost up to three times the price of commodity polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene. The price of synthetic biodegradable polymers has come down a little during the last three years. In 2003, for example, the average price of Eastar Bio and BASF’s Ecoflex was around €3.5-4.0 per kg. In 2005, the average cost of an aliphatic aromatic polyester biopolymer was between €2.753.65 per kg. The more specialised polymers, such as DuPont’s Biomax, cost as much as €5-6 per kg. Polycaprolactones cost between €4-7 per kg. Synthetic biodegradable polymer prices are expected to fall further over time as production volumes increase and unit costs fall further. While, synthetic biodegradable polymers are more costly than either starch-based or PLA polymers, they often have better physical and mechanical properties than types of biodegradable polymers based on renewable resource. These include higher strength, better clarity, better barrier properties and a greater ease of processing. New product development is also playing an important role in driving the synthetic biopolymer market. For example, the launch of the Ecovio product by BASF in 2005 is expected to boost sales of synthetic biopolymers in flexible film applications.

8.4 Market Size and Forecast Table 8.1 shows global consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers by major world region for the years 2000, 2005 and 2010. During the period 2000 to 2005, world consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers has increased from 3,900 tonnes to 14,000 tonnes. In 2010, world consumption of synthetic biopolymers is projected to reach 32,800 tonnes. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 18.6% during the period 20052010. These forecasts assume that producers are successful in lowering the cost of production and that the price differential between synthetic biopolymers and standard thermoplastics continue to narrow.

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Table 8.1 Global consumption of synthetic biodegradable polymers by major world region, 2000, 2005 and 2010 (’000 tonnes) Western Europe

North America

Asia Pacific

Total

2000

1.5

1.2

1.2

3.9

2005

6.7

3.6

3.7

14.0

2010

15.8

8.4

8.6

32.8

18.7%

18.5%

18.4%

18.6%

CAGR 2005-2010

Western Europe is the leading market for synthetic biopolymers with 48% of total world consumption in 2005. Asia Pacific and North America each account for around 26% of consumption. Figure 8.1 shows percentage share of global synthetic biodegradable polymers consumption by end use market for the year 2005.

Figure 8.1 Percentage share of global synthetic biodegradable polymers consumption by end use market, 2005

Bags and sacks represents around a half of synthetic biodegradable polymer consumption worldwide in 2005. Packaging represents 39% of total consumption with ‘other’ applications such as agricultural film, paper coating and nonwovens representing 11% of total market volumes.

8.5 Suppliers and their Products The major suppliers of synthetic biodegradable polymers are described below. BASF production capacity for Ecoflex is currently around 14,000 tonnes per annum. The firm added about 6,000 tonnes of annual production of the material in early 2006 at Schwarzheide, Germany to meet growing demand for the polymer.

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In November 2005, BASF announced that it was expanding its Ecoflex-brand natural plastic line with Ecovio, a blend of NatureWorks PLA and Ecoflex, which is polyester-based. Ecovio production began in October 2005 at an undisclosed location in Germany. The first Ecovio LBX 8145 grade contains 45% by weight of PLA that is chemically bound to the Ecoflex. BASF said the first application will be in flexible films used for shopping bags. In Europe, Ecovio was commercially available from March 2006. It is planned to introduce Ecovio in Asia and NAFTA during the second half of 2006. Apart from offering Ecovio to film processors, BASF will also supply the ‘basic component’ as Ecovio L, so that processors can combine it with Ecoflex or PLA themselves to obtain softer or harder formulations than the first LBX 8145 grade or to modify Ecovio L to make it suitable for injection moulding or deep-drawing applications. DuPont offers a family of biodegradable polymers based on polyethylene terephthalate (PET) technology known commercially as Biomax. Proprietary monomers are incorporated into the polymer, creating sites that are susceptible to hydrolysis. At elevated temperatures, the large polymer molecules are cleaved by moisture into smaller molecules, which are then consumed by naturally occurring microbes and converted to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Biomax can be recycled, incinerated or landfilled, but is designed specifically for disposal by composting. Biomax is being used in a number of specialty packaging applications, injection-moulded parts, coatings for paper, thermoformed cups and trays, and films because of its superior barrier properties. DuPont offers three proprietary aliphatic monomers. Biomax 6962 has 1.35 g/cc density and 195 °C (383 °F) melting point, versus 250 °C (482 °F) for PET, resulting in higher service temperature capability and faster processing rates than for other biodegradable polymers. Mechanical properties include high stiffness and 40% to 500% elongation. On the technology front, DuPont has stepped up its efforts in the biodegradable polymers market by forming a joint venture with Tate & Lyle plc, an agricultural products firm. The joint venture DuPont Tate & Lyle BioProducts LLC will build a manufacturing plant in Loudon, Tennessee, which is set to open in 2006. The plant will make a grade of corn-based propanediol used to produce DuPont’s Sorona-brand polymer, which is being marketed into clothing, textile fibres and packaging. All of the new plant’s output will be consumed internally by Sorona production. The plant is expected to have an annual capacity of 45,000 tonnes per annum. According to DuPont, the structure of the fibre molecule gives Sorona materials improved characteristics. For example, Sorona makes a softer fibre than either polyester or nylon while still offering other desirable attributes like superior comfort-stretch, recovery and dyeability. The fibre also allows manufacturers to use up to three different dye methods to create a single fabric with many different colors in a pattern. Sorona fibre also enables fibre to be dyed at lower temperatures than either polyester or nylon. Eastar Bio technology, which was developed and owned by Eastman Chemicals, was acquired by Novamont in 2005. Eastman introduced its biodegradable polymer in 1997 and since then has invested more than €75m in the project. The resin is used commercially for single-trip disposable packaging, as well as for barrier films and waste-bin liners. Eastman has a 15,000 tonnes per annum production plant at Hartlepool in the UK, which began production in 1999. Japan’s Showa Highpolymers, part of the Showa Denko group, and Korea’s SK Chemicals both have small plants producing aliphatic (polybutylene succinate) and aliphatic-aromatic (polybutyrate adipate terephthalate) polyesters. Both firms also offer their resins in the USA. Showa’s Bionelle products are used in commodity bags, agricultural films, traffic cones, and industrial trays. Some Bionolle grades are modified with diisocyanate chain extenders to improve stiffness and thermal properties.

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In 2005, Showa developed a new biodegradable formulation of polybutylene succinate (PBS), which is flexible but resists tearing because of its unique ‘tangled’ molecular structure. South Korean company SK Chemicals produces SKYGREEN polybutylene succinate (PBS) thermoplastics based on aliphatic polyester and aliphatic/aromatic co-polyesters that were developed from SK Chemicals polyethylene terephthalate (PET) technology. SKYGREEN BDP products offer LDPE-like properties. They are used in films, disposable cutlery, food trays, hairbrush handles and paper coatings. Aliphatic versions biodegrade more rapidly and offer better processing and tensile properties than the aromatic-aliphatic grades, which cost less. Japan’s IRe Chemicals also offers a polybutylene succinate product under the trade name EnPol 4000. Mitsubishi Gas Chemicals offers a PBS based synthetic biopolymer under the Iupex trade name. Japan’s Mitsubishi Gas Chemical (MGC) also offers a biodegradable version of polycarbonate termed ‘polyester carbonate’ (PEC). It has a melting point of 110 °C and stiffness-toughness balance comparable to PP homopolymer. MGC’s PEC reportedly is used in a new portable tape-cassette player introduced by Sony Corp. Daicel Chemicals of Japan offers Celgreen PH, biodegradable polymers based on polycaprolactone (PCL) and Celgreen PCA based on cellulose acetate. The main applications are found in textile fibres, environmental fields, where reuse or recycling are difficult, and in applications that take advantage of other Celgreen strengths, including in vivo biodegradation absorption, water retention and absorption, oxygen barrier strength, and low melting point. Japan’s Dainippon Ink and Chemicals (DIC) has pursued the alternate approach of combining polyester and PLA properties into one polymer. DIC developed a biodegradable copolymer called CPLA based on a co-polyester plus lactic acid. A higher ratio of co-polyester increases flexibility, while more lactic acid adds stiffness. One version of CPLA is reported to combine PS-like clarity with PP-like physical properties. Solvay’s CAPA products are a range of polycaprolactone homopolymers that offer a combination of properties resulting in hard crystalline biodegradable polymers that melt at low temperatures (58-60 °C) and have very good hot melt adhesive characteristics. The polymers are terminated with primary OH groups and can be utilised for crosslinking in applications such as reactive hot melt adhesives. Solvay also offers premium grades such as the high clarity option (CAPA 6500C) and blown film grades (CAPA FB). The latter are available as filled or unfilled versions for applications ranging from laminating adhesives to biodegradable films.

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9

Market Opportunities for Biodegradable Polymers

9.1 Introduction During the last three years biodegradable polymers have begun to find new applications outside of their traditional market of bags, sacks and packaging. This chapter examines where biodegradable polymers are currently being used and assesses future market opportunities in the following areas: •

Packaging

•

Bags and sacks

•

Disposable serviceware

•

Agriculture and horticulture

•

Medical devices

•

Consumer electronics

•

Automotive

•

Speciality cards

•

Fibres

9.2 Packaging The packaging market offers the greatest potential for biodegradable polymers. Packaging is by far the largest market for plastics accounting for about 30% of the 40 million tonnes of plastics consumed in the European Union. Given the growing environmental awareness of consumers and brand owners, government concerns about the growing cost of waste disposal and the developing compost infrastructure in various European countries, the packaging sector offers many opportunities for biodegradable polymers in future. This section reviews the market opportunities for manufacturers of biodegradable plastics in packaging markets.

9.2.1 Flexible Packaging Film, wrap and bags for food scrap, food residues and food products, destined for composting in commercial composting facilities, holds considerable potential for biodegradable plastics. Conventional plastics are a significant contaminant in organics processing and they reduce the marketability of the compost produced. These applications depend on the disposal environment being a commercial composting operation, which provides the necessary conditions for the polymer to degrade. Another application for biodegradable plastics is for plastic films used in fresh food wrapping and plastic wrap used in the catering industry. The reason that a biodegradable film could be advantageous

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in these areas is that a significant amount of food waste from catering companies and shopping centres can potentially be diverted to commercial composting facilities. Consumers are already encountering biodegradable flexible packaging in a number of supermarkets. In the UK, for example, supermarket chains such as Sainsbury and Tesco are using biodegradable packaging for organic food products. In the Netherlands, Albert Heijn has been using biodegradable packaging for a number of its fresh organic fruit and vegetable products since 2003. Also in the Netherlands, Eosta, a company that trades in organically grown vegetables and fruit decided to package all their products in starch-based bioplastics. Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used to make extruded bags and nets for fresh fruit and vegetables. The high water vapour permeability of starch blend film is an advantage and helps to keep fruit and vegetables fresh for longer. When the shelf life has expired, the food and the packaging can be composted efficiently together, with little further manual input necessary. PLA can also be used for a wide range of films and label applications in the flexible packaging market including heat-seal overlays, window films, flow wrap and twist wrap. According to companies such as Mitsubishi Plastics, the flexible packaging sector has the most potential for NatureWorks PLA. Mitsubishi Plastics is conducting research on NatureWorks PLAbased biaxially-oriented film for high performance industrial plastic applications and believes there is bright promise for NatureWorks PLA in composite film products. They regard PLA as a product that provides a seamless transition from PET and other petroleum-based plastics. Environmental trends, more competitive pricing and high performance features are seen as the main growth drivers. PLA film was traditionally found to be unstable against changes in external factors such as temperature and pressure, resulting in the bleeding out of the liquid plasticiser used for its manufacture. This in turn led to defects in the film characteristics such as transparency and flexibility, which were altered over time. Toray Industries has developed a new technology that contains the occurrence of bleeding out when faced with changes in temperature or pressure, and displays highly stable flexibility while not losing any of the superior features of PLA such as transparency, heat resistance, and biodegradability. This development should lead to production of improved film in future, thus opening up more opportunities for the polymer. Product development is also playing an important role in expanding the market for biodegradable packaging film. In 2005 for example, BASF introduced Ecovio, a blend of NatureWorks PLA and Ecoflex, which is polyester-based. The first Ecovio LBX 8145 grade contains 45% by weight of PLA that is chemically bound to the Ecoflex. BASF said the first application will be in flexible films for shopping bags.

9.2.2 Rigid Packaging Biodegradable plastics are also finding growing interest for the manufacture of rigid packaging in place of conventional plastics such as polypropylene, PET and polystyrene. Biodegradable plastics have particular advantages for manufacture of disposable and single use food and beverage trays and containers, especially for fast food restaurants and outdoor events, where commercial composting of left over food would be feasible.

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Examples of where biodegradable plastics are being used at the moment are described below. Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for the manufacture of thermoformed trays and containers for packaging fresh food and convenience food. PLA is also used for thermoformed trays and containers. Injection stretch blow moulded bottles and jars for short-shelf-life applications that use cold-filling techniques for contents such as still water, fresh juices, dairy beverages and edible oil is also a potentially interesting market for PLA. Dairy packaging, including tubs for yoghurt, sour cream and margarine is another growing area of application for biodegradable polymers. As PLA prices move closer to those of PET there may be a tendency for brand owners to switch from PET in favour of biodegradable polymers such as PLA for injection stretch blow moulded bottles, not only on cost grounds, but also because renewable packaging materials have marketing advantages for the consumer. PLA permits manufacture of varied and complex bottle shapes and sizes. Monolayer bottles of NatureWorks PLA can be formed on the same injection moulding/stretch blow moulding equipment used for PET, with no sacrifice in production rate. PET has some properties that PLA does not have and so NatureWorks is targeting applications where it has a competitive edge such as fresh food packaging and products that don’t require sophisticated barriers such as water, milk and juice products. These development activities appear to be paying off with the announcement in September 2005 that Amcor PET Packaging is working with Husky to develop a European market for compostable PLA bottles for applications such as still mineral water, vegetable oils and dairy products. The market for PLA bottles is attracting a lot of attention in Europe and consumers are starting to show an interest in packaging made from renewable resources. Husky, a strategic partner in the development, has demonstrated production of NatureWorks PLA preforms on a HyPet 90 moulding system. Amcor is at an advanced stage of development with a PLA bottle project for at least one major European customer. However, pricing remains an issue. The PLA price is a bit on the high side compared with PET and polypropylene at the moment, but as volumes pick up the price gap will narrow. In 2005, UK mineral water brand Belu launched the UK’s first biodegradable mineral water bottle made of PLA. The company chose biodegradable plastics as a means of enhancing its environmental credentials. The new bottle is available through outlets that already stock the brand, including the Waitrose retail chain, London restaurants and clubs such as Nobu, Sketch and the Groucho Club. In November 2005, Jivita became the most recent water to be bottled in NatureWorks PLA. The brand contains natural extracts, flowers, resins and bark, to create the world’s first aromatherapeutic water. The company says that the PLA bottle and label are a natural fit and help strengthen the product’s all-natural appeal. Also in 2005, US dairy products supplier Naturally Iowa Dairy announced natural and organic milk in bottles stretch blow moulded from NatureWorks PLA. Several varieties of PLA-bottled milk are being offered including half-gallon ‘grip’ bottles, 1.25-2-gallon bottles, and an 11-oz single-serve PLA bottle. The 1.25-2-gallon bottles are produced by Liquid Container/Plaxicon using stock moulds. PLA is also finding that there are growing opportunities in thermoformed trays and containers for packaging fresh food.

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In 2002, Italian supermarket chain, Iper, became one of the first adopters of PLA for packaging with the introduction of thermoformed containers for fresh fruits, vegetables, pasta and salad. Iper selected PLA because it enabled the company to provide customers with a natural food product protected by a natural package, which they say is an important combination that allows them to differentiate themselves from the competition. Iper worked with European packaging suppliers Autobar to develop thermoformed containers and with Treofan GmbH to develop the film lidstock for their containers. In 2005, SPAR Austria started packaging organic apples, pears and tomatoes in rigid trays sealed with a flow wrap film made from NatureWorks PLA. Research showed that consumers perceive that nature-based packaging enhances the appeal of fresh food, and strongly prefer products packaged in biodegradable plastic containers. Other retailers using PLA containers include Auchan and Wal-Mart. Auchan launched NatureWorks PLA rigid containers for salads in April 2005 and reported six months later that sales of its PLA packed salads had grown significantly. Auchan plans to expand NatureWorks PLA to packaging its line of pastries. Wal-Mart began using NatureWorks PLA for fresh cut fruit, herbs, strawberries and Brussels sprouts in 2005. It plans to expand use of nature-based packaging for items such as cut vegetables, donut boxes, select tomato packaging and gift cards in due course. In 2004, Del Monte Fresh Produce NA introduced NatureWorks PLA containers for fresh cut produce in Wild Oats Markets. Del Monte estimates that 50% of its containers for fresh cut produce will be made from NatureWorks PLA in 2006. Also in 2004, Newman’s Own introduced a line of organic salads packaged in NatureWorks PLA clamshell containers. Newman’s claim that the packaging helped the success of the products from launch and generated higher sales than expected. They added that the PLA packaging fitted neatly with the company’s organic message and saw PLA as a way to differentiate their products from the competition. Product development is also playing a role in widening the application potential for PLA in rigid packaging. For example, in 2005, Hycail announced the launch of a new biodegradable material, Hycail XM 1020, which can withstand temperatures over 200 °C without distortion. It can also be microwaved with fatty and liquid foods, without distortion or stress cracking. Hycail claims that the increased heat resistance has not affected other properties such as transparency, processability and strength. The company claims that the new material is a genuine game changer in PLA technology and puts it in the high performance thermoplastics arena. Synthetic biodegradable polymers are also finding a growing number of applications in thermoformed packaging, usually to provide a moisture barrier layer to lower-cost biodegradable materials.

9.2.3 Paper Coating Coated or laminated paper products represent a significant potential market for biodegradable polymers. At present, packaging such as hamburger wrapping and disposable cups, are extrusion coated with low density polyethylene film that is resistant to biodegradation. This also restricts the biodegradation of the paper substrate since it acts as an impervious barrier.

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Synthetic biodegradable polymers such as BASF’s Ecoflex can be used as a coating material for paper, cardboard or starch-based foam to toughen and protect against fat, moisture and temperature variations. These are ideal properties for hamburger boxes, coffee cups, packaging for meat, fish, poultry, fruit or vegetables, food dishes and fast food boxes. Coated paper for butter and lard also benefit from the very high grease resistance of some synthetic bioplastics.

9.2.4 Loose-Fill Packaging Loose-fill packaging was one of the first successful areas of application for starch-based biodegradable polymers. Loose-fill starch-based foam is used for packaging consumer products as an alternative to polystyrene and polyethylene. While, biodegradable plastics have made some inroads into these markets, the future prospects for their growth in loose-fill are not so exciting as they are in some other areas of packaging.

9.3 Bags and Sacks Plastic bags have a high profile in the land waste stream as these materials are not currently accepted in the kerbside collection and recycling systems. Biodegradable plastics present an attractive alternative to polyethylene in these applications. Starch-based biodegradable plastics are used for manufacture of various types of bags and sacks including refuse sacks, shopping bags and compost bags. Bags and sacks is one of the most important market sectors for synthetic biodegradable polymers such as BASF’s Ecoflex. It can be used to manufacture fresh fruit and vegetable bags, refuse bags and carrier bags, using either Ecoflex on its own, or an Ecoflex/starch blend. There is still considerable potential for biodegradable polymers in the manufacture of bags and sacks. The development of municipal waste collection programmes and composting infrastructures around the world offers excellent growth prospects for the use of biopolymers in refuse and composting bags. There are opportunities for biodegradable polymers for manufacture of supermarket carrier bags, given the growing concern by various governments about the use of plastic bags, Indeed, the French government has voted to ban production and use of non-biodegradable plastic bags from 2010.

9.4 Disposable Serviceware PLA can be used in the manufacturing of disposable cold drink cups, bowls, plates, and cutlery. Serviceware made with biodegradable polymers such as PLA is particularly valued at outdoor events such as sports stadiums, concerts, universities, amusement parks, shopping malls and other venues that benefit from the disposal options available with biodegradable polymers. Over the next five years, biopolymers are expected to make further inroads into these markets. In the summer of 2005 for example, Alken-Maes Breweries served more than 1.5 million beers in NatureWorks PLA cups at three popular Belgian music festivals. A total of 2,940 kg of compostable cups were recycled at those music festivals, creating 147 kg of compost, and generated a lot of interest in Alken-Maes.

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There are also opportunities for serviceware made from biodegradable polymers through retail outlets. Coop Italia for example, became the first retailer in Europe to offer consumers serviceware from NatureWorks PLA in April 2005. The company reported that sales had since exceeded their expectations.

9.5 Agriculture and Horticulture At the present time, products made from biodegradable polymers are being used in the natural environment for applications where biological recycling makes sense. Applications include bags for organic refuse, agricultural mulching film, cemetery decorations, market-garden items such as plant pots, seed/fertiliser tape and binding materials and fishing lines and nets. Biopolymers are also finding uses in the leisure goods sector with applications such as golf tees, disposable goods used in fishing, marine sports and mountain climbing. Agricultural mulching film is a particularly promising area of application for biodegradable polymers. Mulch film is utilised in some agricultural applications, such as tomato cropping, as a mulch soil cover to inhibit weed growth and retain soil moisture. These films could be made from biodegradable plastics to eliminate the need for mechanical removal, as the mulch film could be ploughed into the soil. These films could also prevent the loss of topsoil humus that could be removed along with the waste film, and also enrich the soil with additional carbon. Starch-based biodegradable polymers will continue to experience good growth in these applications over the next five years.

9.6 Medical Devices Biodegradable polymers for medical devices are typically made from materials that are able to dissolve and be absorbed into the human body. There are many examples of biomedical applications for biodegradable polymers in the medical and dental fields but the main applications include wound sutures and staples, biodegradable plastic screws and rods for pinning and repairing ligaments; devices for internal drug deposition; orthopaedic mouldings, cardiovascular and intestinal supports; polymer tissues, sponges and mouldings. Some of the most significant commercial applications of biodegradable polymers are discussed in more detail below.

9.6.1 Sutures Sutures are the major area of application for biodegradable polymers in the medical devices market. However, the sutures market is mature and is not expected to grow rapidly in the future. There are basically two types of suture, braided and monofilament sutures. Braided sutures are typically more pliable than monofilament and exhibit better knot security when the same type of knot is used. Monofilament sutures are more wiry and may require a more secure knot. Their major advantage is that they exhibit less tissue drag, a characteristic that is especially important for cardiovascular, ophthalmic, and neurological surgery. The main parameters for suture selection are based on criteria such as tensile strength, strength retention, knot security, tissue drag, infection potential, and ease of tying.

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9.6.2 Dental Devices Biodegradable polymers have found use in two dental applications. Employed as a void filler following tooth extraction, porous polymer particles can be packed into the cavity to aid in quicker healing. As a guided-tissue-regeneration (GTR) membrane, films of biodegradable polymer can be positioned to exclude epithelial migration following periodontal surgery. The exclusion of epithelial cells allows the supporting, slower-growing tissue, including connective and ligament cells, to proliferate.

9.6.3 Orthopaedic Fixation Devices Orthopaedic fixation devices made from synthetic biodegradable polymers have advantages over metal implants in that they transfer stress over time to the damaged area, allowing healing of the tissues, and eliminate the need for a subsequent operation for implant removal. The currently available materials have not exhibited sufficient stiffness to be used as bone plates for support of long bones, such as the femur. Rather, they have found applications where lower-strength materials are sufficient: for example, as interference screws in the ankle, knee, and hand areas; as tacks and pins for ligament attachment and meniscal repair; as suture anchors; and as rods and pins for fracture fixation.

9.6.4 Other Applications Biodegradable polymers have found other applications that have been commercialised or are under investigation. Anastomosis rings have been developed as an alternative to suturing for intestinal resection. Tissue staples have also replaced sutures in certain procedures. Other applications currently under scrutiny include ligating clips, vascular grafts, stents, and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most of the commercially available biodegradable devices are polyesters composed of homopolymers or copolymers of glycolide and lactide. There are also devices made from copolymers of trimethylene carbonate and ε-caprolactone, and a suture product made from polydioxanone. Some of the most widely used biodegradable polymers used for biomedical applications are briefly described below. Polyglycolide was used to develop the first totally synthetic absorbable suture, marketed as Dexon in the 1960s by Davis and Geck, Inc. Polylactides have a high modulus that makes them more suitable for load bearing applications such as in orthopaedic fixation and sutures. Polycaprolactone is regarded as tissue compatible and used as a biodegradable suture. Polydioxanone was the first clinically tested monofilament synthetic suture, known as PDS and marketed by Ethicon. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) copolymers have been developed for both device and drug delivery applications. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) are also being researched for use in medical devices. The PHB homopolymer is crystalline and brittle, whereas the copolymers of PHB with PHV are less crystalline, more flexible, and easier to process. These polymers typically require

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the presence of enzymes for biodegradation but can degrade in a range of environments and are under consideration for several biomedical applications. Procter & Gamble’s Nodax PHBH products have potential applications in the medical field. Nodax has superior biocompatibility compared to other bioplastics, which makes the material suitable for some medical applications such as drug release, bone regeneration, and nerve guidance.

9.7 Consumer Electronics Products A number of Japanese companies have developed biodegradable plastics for a range of consumer electronics applications. In 2004, Sony and Mitsubishi Plastics developed a flame retardant PLA biodegradable resin claimed to be as strong as ABS. The new material will be used in the front panel of Sony stand-alone DVD players. Pioneer Corp of Japan has used PLA as a replacement for polycarbonate to manufacture an optical disc. Japanese electronics company Sharp has developed technology to blend PLA biopolymers with conventional plastics recovered from scrapped consumer appliances. The company expects to use such blends in its consumer electronics products by early 2007. Fujitsu and Toray Industries have developed the first large-scale notebook computer housing based on polylactic acid biodegradable polymers. The housing is moulded of a specially developed PLA/ polycarbonate blend that provide the required heat and flame resistance. Japanese consumer electronics company, NEC, plans to adopt PLA biopolymers for its cellphones and personal computers in order to achieve product differentiation. NEC has developed a kenaf-reinforced polylactic acid, which will be used for notebook personal computer housings starting in 2007.

9.8 Automotive Automotive is one of the largest markets for thermoplastics, but to date few applications have been developed for biodegradable polymers. This situation is expected to change over the next five years as more auto manufacturers examine the possibilities offered by biodegradable polymers to replace petrochemical-based polymers. In February 2006, Japan’s Mitsubishi Motors announced that it is to use the biopolymer, polybutylene succinate (PBS), in the interior of its new mini-car launched next year. In conjunction with Aichi Industrial Technology Institute, it has developed a material that uses PBS combined with bamboo fibre. PBS is composed of succinic acid, which is derived from fermented corn or cane sugar, and 1,4butanediol. Bamboo grows quickly and is seen by Mitsubishi as a sustainable resource. In lifecycle tests, the PBS-bamboo fibre composite achieves a 50% cut in carbon dioxide emissions compared with polypropylene. Volatile organic compound levels are also drastically reduced, by roughly 85%, over processed wood hardboards. Mitsubishi said that it plans to substitute plant-based resins and quick-growing plant fibres for materials such as petroleum-based resins and wood hardboards used in car interiors, for environmental reasons.

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Toyota Tsusho Corp, a subsidiary of Toyota Corp, and Diversified Natural Products Inc, of the USA, formed a partnership in 2004 to explore the potential for biodegradable polymers in automotive applications.

9.9 Speciality Cards PLA can be used for a variety of cards including gift, phone, key, credit and retail cards. Biodegradable plastic cards provide brand owners and retailers with an environmentally responsible alternative to traditional plastics such as PVC. Biopolymers are expected to make further inroads into this enormous market over the next five years. To date, biopolymers are being used by only a small number of card companies and retailers. These include the Co-operative Bank in the UK, which uses PLA for its credit and debit cards. US company, UV Color, also uses biopolymers for its line of transaction cards, gift cards, phone cards and other specialty cards, which are branded Earthsource.

9.10 Fibres PLA is the most commonly used biodegradable polymer found in fibre form. PLA fibre properties compare favourably with both PET and rayon fibres. Potential PLA fibre applications include apparel, bedding, carpet, furnishings, personal care, nonwovens and industrial textiles. DuPont is stepping up its drive to develop sustainable materials with the commercialisation of its Sorona fibre materials, which use a corn-based propanediol feedstock. It has formed a joint venture with Tate & Lyle plc and will open a 45,000 tonnes per annum manufacturing plant in Loudon, Tennessee in 2006. Sorona is a softer fibre than either polyester or nylon and is being targeted mainly at clothing markets. Toray is one of the biggest processors of NatureWorks Ingeo PLA fibres in the world. The company is initially developing Ingeo fibre products for industrial and daily use such as carpets, bedding and industrial materials. Ultimately, Toray plans to develop the fibre for a broad range of applications including clothing and interior decoration materials. Perhaps one of the best areas of opportunity for PLA is in geotextiles for agriculture. Companies such as Unitika believes that PLA anti-fungal properties combined with its ability to be engineered for biodegradability makes it ideal as a landscaping fabric. Unitika sees possibilities for a total system of geotextiles from rope and plant covers to plant pots and fertiliser bags.

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Profiles of Leading Biodegradable Plastics Converters

10.1 Alpha Packaging 1555 Page Industrial Blvd. St. Louis, Missouri 63132 USA Tel: (1) 314 427 4300 Fax: (1) 314 427 5445 www.alphap.com

Company Overview Alpha Packaging manufactures bottles and jars made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and highdensity polyethylene (HDPE) for the pharmaceutical, nutritional and personal care markets. Technologies used include injection blow moulding, injection stretch blow moulding, and extrusion blow moulding. Alpha manufactures stock and custom containers in a variety of styles and colours. Alpha was founded in 1969 and is based in a 210,000 square-foot headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri, which houses injection blow moulding equipment for both PET and HDPE bottles and jars. Alpha also has plants in Brooklyn and Salt Lake City.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Alpha Packaging manufactures NatureWorks PLA bottles on stretch blow-moulding machines. Alpha states that PLA is ideal for oil-based products, as well as products with flavour and aroma attributes. The PLA resin is FDA-approved and suitable for food contact. It is used for dairy, juice and water bottles, as well as trays for deli meats, salads and single-serve meals.

10.2 Arkhe Planning Co. 19-1-5 Imaichi-Cho Fukui city J-918-8152 Japan Tel: (81) 776 38 4547 Fax: (81) 776 38 4617

Company Overview Arkhe Planning Co was established in 2000 to manufacture innovative textiles and agricultural products

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from PLA. The company also produces hygiene products such as cloth diapers and incontinence pads. Arkhe Planning is a subsidiary of Arkhe Group, an international developer and distributor of high quality pure titanium raw material and parts and accessories for the optical industry.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Arkhe’s PLA fibres are used to produce a range of novelty goods including calendar cases, bags, clips, name card holders, mouse pads, cell phone straps, diary covers and stationery. They have been certified as fully biodegradable under the Japanese GreenPla system. Arkhe PLA fibres are also used for manufacture of biodegradable agricultural products such as nets, nonwoven sheets, sand bags, garbage bags, anti-weed sheets and rope.

10.3 Arthur Blank & Company 225 Rivermoor Street Boston MA 02132 USA Tel: (1) 617 325 9600 Fax: (1) 617 327 1235 www.abco.com

Company Overview Arthur Blank & Company is the largest producer of private label plastic cards in North America, printing and personalising more than 850 million plastic cards a year. Manufacturing capacity exceeds 1 billion cards. Major customers include American Airlines, American Express, Amtrak, AT&T, Barnes & Noble, British Airways, Blue Cross Blue Shield, Costco, Exxon, Hyatt Hotels, IBM, L.L. Bean, Pizzeria Uno, Sears and 7-Eleven. Capabilities include colour matching, foil stamping, holograms, unusual die cuts, and high-resolution ink jet imaging. They can also add signature panels, bar codes, encoded magnetic stripes and individual names on each card.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Arthur Blank introduced CornCard USA, a corn-based plastic card based on NatureWorks PLA as an alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastic cards. CornCard USA is identical to traditional plastic cards in look, feel, and durability while offering the same reliability and functionality. Major national retailers and quick service restaurants are already considering alternatives to traditional petroleum-based plastics. Arthur Black was the first volume manufacturer to offer PLA-based plastic cards, which is available for virtually the entire product line including: gift, loyalty, debit, membership, and ID cards.

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10.4 Autobar Group Ltd. Autobar House 41-42 Kew Bridge Road Brentford Middlesex TW8 0DY United Kingdom Tel: (44) (0) 208 326 8000 Fax: (44) (0) 208 326 8001 www.autobar.com

Company Overview The Autobar Group is a pan-European business that manufactures a large range of packaging products mainly for use in the food, drink, health and home and personal care sectors. The Group has three trading businesses: Veriplast International, Autobar Rigid Packaging and Autobar Flexible Packaging. Autobar utilises injection moulding, thermoforming, extrusion and lamination for processing polypropylene, polyethylene, polystyrene, PET and PLA biodegradable polymers.

Biodegradable Plastic Products The Autobar Disposables Group is a pan-European manufacturer of disposable foodservice products trading under the name Veriplast International. Autobar began its experimentation with NatureWorks PLA in 1997 when it manufactured yoghurt containers for Danone, the major European dairy products producer, for trials in the German market. While the containers were found to be successful, the systems to segregate the compostable materials had not yet been developed at that time. Autobar has worked with Italian supermarket chain, Iper, on the manufacture of PLA thermoformed trays and containers for fresh foods in place of polypropylene. The packaging consists of 12 sizes, categorised as ‘small’, ‘medium’, ‘large’ and ‘maxi’, that offer a range of dimensions. At its plant in Mont-de-Marsan, France, Autobar begins the production process by creating 330 micron film sheets from the NatureWorks PLA resin using a standard cast extrusion line. The extruded sheet is then thermoformed. By using NatureWorks PLA instead of polypropylene, Autobar was able to reduce the wall thickness of the containers, from 460 microns down to 330 microns. The downgauging allows Autobar to use less material, which helps reduce the production costs, without compromising the quality of the thermoformed container. After significant input on the thermoforming of NatureWorks PLA, Autobar was recognised by NatureWorks LLC as one of its development partners.

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10.5 Bartling GmbH & Co. KG Kunststoffe Haller Weg 4 D-33829 Borgholzhausen Germany Tel: (49) 5425 94950 www.bartling-cups.com

Company Overview Founded in 1959, Bartling is a manufacturer of tailor-made packaging for the food service industry. Bartling is a privately owned company with more than 250 employees.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Bartling offers a range of products made from NatureWorks PLA such as beer and juice-cups, saladshakers and ice cups.

10.6 Bi-Ax International 596 Cedar Ave Wingham Ontario N0G 2W0 Canada Tel: (1) 519 3571818 Fax: (1) 519 3573773 www.bixinc.com

Company Overview Bi-Ax International is a Canadian company dedicated to oriented polylactide film (OPLA) and biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) film. Bi-Ax International is headquartered in Wingham, Ontario, Canada, and operates a separate manufacturing facility in Tiverton, Ontario, Canada. Main markets for Bi-Ax products are the food packaging, pressure sensitive tape and graphics lamination industries.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Bi-Ax offers the Evlon line of OPLA film made from NatureWorks PLA for packaging and label applications. Evlon EV co-extruded plain PLA film is a crystal clear film that can be used in many packaging applications either plain or printed and laminated. Target applications include twist wrap, labels, window film and board lamination.

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Evlon Ev HIS is a co-extruded one-side heat sealable PLA film for packaging applications either plain or printed and laminated, for horizontal and vertical packaging machines. Suggested applications include bags, overwrap and laminations.

10.7 BioBag International AS Hovsveien 8 N- 1831 Askim Norway Tel: (47) 69 888590 Fax: (47) 69 888599 www.polargruppen.com

Company Overview BioBag is the world’s largest producer of 100% biodegradable and 100% compostable bags and films made from Novamont’s starch-based material, Mater-Bi. The company changed its name from Polar Gruppen AS in January 2006 to better reflect the nature of the business to its customers. BioBag’s main manufacturing facilities are based in Norway and the company has sales offices throughout Europe, as well as in the USA and Canada.

Biodegradable Plastic Products BioBag International offers the following product range: BioShop shopping bags BioBag pooper bags BioAgri agricultural film BioGarden garden waste sacks BioPack for fresh fruit and vegetable packaging BioTech technical films and bags for industry BioToi fitted bags for portable toilets BioBag products have a number of important features: •

BioBag products meet all of the international standards for biodegradability and composting including ASTM D6400 specifications and EN 13432:2000.

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BioBags are certified GMO Free.

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BioBags are DEN certified for restricted use of metals in soy-based inks and dyes.

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BioBags are shelf stable and no chemical additives are used to enhance decomposition.

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BioBags ‘breathe’, which allows heat and moisture to escape or evaporate.

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BioBags will decompose in a controlled composting environment within 10-45 days.

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BioBags will decompose in a natural setting at an extended rate comparable to other naturally biodegradable materials, such as paper and food waste.

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A notable development for BioBag was the selection of BioBag by the city of San Francisco for their residential food waste collection programme. The city is distributing 100,000 rolls of BioBags to residents within the county so that they can divert food and other biodegradable waste from landfill. San Francisco residents can now purchase additional supplies at over 100 outlets in the bay area.

10.8 Biosphere Industries Corporation 1025 Cindy Lane Carpinteria, CA 93013 USA Tel: (1) 805 566 6563 Fax: (1) 805 566 6583 www.biospherecorp.com

Company Overview Biosphere Industries is a California based engineering, research and development house that was established in 2002 to provide equipment and proprietary technology for biodegradable rigid packaging. The company has developed modular equipment and production sequences better suited for high volume, low cost packaging production by utilising advanced aerospace engineering applied to production equipment design, combined with its own PPM (Primary Packaging Materials) rigid packaging material.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Biosphere offers a biodegradable material for rigid packaging as an alternative to paper and standard thermoplastics. The PPM materials are moisture resistant and can be used in food service items such as rigid foam trays and containers as well as general packaging. PPM is made from renewable organic resources such as starch and grass fibres. They are biodegradable in less than sixty days. PPM packaging products have a long shelf-life and are fully microwavable and ovenable.

10.9 BIOTA Brands of America Inc. PO Box 2812 Tellunide CO-81435 USA Tel: (1) 970 728 6132 www.biotaspringwater.com

Company Overview BIOTA is a leading US brand of natural spring water. BIOTA is sold at select natural foods and gourmet supermarkets throughout the western United States. The company has plans to offer BIOTA bottled water in stores across the United States in the near future.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2005, BIOTA introduced NatureWorks™ PLA for packaging its natural spring water. BIOTA was the first beverage company in the world to exclusively use NatureWorks PLA to bottle its products. BIOTA water bottles are completely compostable. They are approved and certified as commercially compostable by the Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI). Initial testing has demonstrated that a BIOTA water bottle will degrade within 75 to 80 days in a commercial composting situation. PLA bottles are also approved by the FDA for food and water contact. The bottle label is also compostable but the cap is not at the moment. BIOTA is currently researching biodegradable options for the cap.

10.10 Bomatic Inc. Corporate Headquarters 1841 East Acacia Street Ontario 91761 Canada Tel: (1) 909 947 3900 Fax: (1) 909 947 5969 www.bomatic.com

Company Overview Bomatic, Inc. has been a producer of plastic bottles and containers since 1969. The company serves the personal care, automotive, pharmaceutical, medical, lawn and garden, food, household cleaners, and industrial chemicals markets. Production capabilities include extrusion blow moulding and injection moulding products made from: HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PET, PETG, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyurethane.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2004, the Ontario plant began to produces sports and energy drink bottles made from biodegradable NatureWorks PLA resin.

10.11 Brenmar Company 8523 South 117th Street Omaha Nebraska 68128 USA Tel; (1) 402 592 3303 Fax: (1) 402 592 8275 www.brenmarco.com

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Company Overview Brenmar was founded in 1988 as a distributor of supermarket, retail store and manufacturing supplies. Since then, Brenmar has become a nationwide leader in the foodservice supply industry. Brenmar offers a wide range of products such as carryout bags and a broad range of packaging for bakery, deli, meat and produce departments. Brenmar also has expanded beyond supermarkets to include many other retail concerns, as well as food service and manufacturing companies, selling such items as thermal printers, labels, fastener systems and packaging.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Brenmar was one of the first companies to introduce NatureWorks PLA compostable packaging for the food service market. The Versapak product line includes containers for fruit produce and fresh or frozen bakery products. Other Brenmar products include cold drink cups, cutlery, bowls and hinged clamshells.

10.12 Carolex SAS Z. Ind. F-49160 Longue Jumelles France Tel: (33) 2 41 52 61 82 Fax: (33) 2 41 38 80 85 www.carolex.fr

Company Overview Carolex, established in 1978, is a manufacturer of thermoplastic film and sheet. The company has two production sites in France and belongs to the Vita Thermoplastics group. The principal target markets for Carolex are industrial thermoforming, food, medical and cosmetic packaging, graphic arts, screen and lithoprinting, stationery, communications and event management. Carolex acquired Imperial Packaging in the USA, which means the company is now able to offer an extensive range of extruded products which combine technical know-how and design with high performance, flexible, modern production lines. Carolex business is organised around two main areas: packaging and graphic arts, The company offers a range of standard and special products made from polystyrene, ABS, PET, polyethylene and polypropylene. Technologies include lamination and multi-layer co-extrusion.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Carolex is understood to be in the process of developing PLA for manufacture of packaging film but only relatively small quantities of the product are being offered commercially at the moment.

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10.13 Chien Fua Bio-Tech Industry Co., Ltd. 14-5 Nan Pin Di Nan Pin Lane Yuanlin 510-46 Taiwan Tel: (886) 4 832 0588 Fax: (886) 4 833 3280 www.cfcup.com

Company Overview Established in 1970, Chien Fua is one of the leading manufacturers of consumable cup and food containers in Taiwan. The company exports throughout Asia, and also to the Middle East, Europe, North America and Oceania. Its principal product lines are drinking cups, ice cream and food containers.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Chien Fua offers PLA-based custom made products including clear cups, salad / fruit bowls, sushi trays, clamshell, food containers, trays and other related products.

10.14 Coopbox Europe Head Office: Via Gandhi 8 42100 Reggio Emilia Italy Tel: (39) 0522 2991 Fax: (39) 0522 287929 www.ccpl.it

Company Overview Coopbox was established in 1972 and has grown to become a leader in the Italian market and one of the top companies in Europe in the manufacture and sale of plastic packaging for the fresh food industry. Coopbox has offices and production facilities in several of the Italian regions and is currently increasing its presence and product range in European markets through new companies it has set up or acquired in Spain, France and Germany. Coopbox annual sales were in excess of €100 million in 2004 and the company has around 650 employees. Having already established itself as a serious partner for mass market distribution supplying polystyrene trays, Coopbox now also provides packaging for all sectors of the food industry, electronics, construction, manufacturing and garden centres and nurseries. Coopbox products include the ‘Drenante’ tray and the ‘Aerpack’ protected atmosphere system.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2005, Coopbox Europe produced the first PLA-based tray for packing fresh foods. The product’s mechanical properties mean that it can be used on normal packing lines with stretch film or sealed with PLA film to produce a 100% biodegradable pack. The expanded structure also helps absorb the liquid released by meat.

10.15 Cortec Corporation 4119 White Bear Parkway St. Paul MN-55110 USA Tel: (1) 651 429 1100 Fax: (1) 651 429 1122 www.cortecvci.com

Company Overview Cortec Corporation of White Bear Lake, MN, is a manufacturer of environmentally responsible packaging, metalworking, cleaning, water treatment and metal protection technologies. Cortec manufactures over 300 products in five plants located in Minnesota, Wisconsin. It is a global supplier of environmentally-friendly speciality chemicals, plastics and coated paper.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Cortec offers two families of high performance, certified biodegradable packaging technologies based on polyester from corn, Eco Film and Eco Works films and bags. Cortec became the first US manufacturer to complete the Din Certco application and review process for Eco Film and Eco Works film and bag products in March 2005. Eco Film and Eco Works also meet ASTM D 6400 international standards for commercial compostability. The most common types of Eco Film and Eco Works products are organic collection bags used by consumers for organic waste diversion programmes. While waste collection bags are by far the largest application of these products at the moment, the company maintains they are suitable for a wide range of other applications including agricultural, construction and food protection films. Eco Film is designed to replace non-degradable as well as starch and polyethylene-based films. Eco Film is available in standard lengths of 91.4 cm and 122 cm rolls as well as a variety of custom sizes and forms. Eco-Tie is a high-strength, completely biodegradable and compostable alternative to twine and metallic/plastic ties used in agricultural and industrial markets. This proprietary technology was developed specifically for vineyards where the grape plants are tied to metal wire and fences during their growing cycle. By using Eco-Tie, wine producers are able to further minimise the environmental impact of their production.

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Eco Works is used for checkout bags, food sleeves and pouches, produce bags and display bags. Additionally, Eco Works Compostable Bags are available in retail packs. Eco Works Biodegradable & Compostable Films and Bags are specifically designed to replace LDPE, LLDPE and HDPE films used in a wide variety of applications ranging from protective industrial films, retail packaging and agricultural films to high performance organic collection bags with drawstring closures. EcoWrap is a combination of highly elastic certified biodegradable polyester and cling coating. EcoWrap is designed to replace non-biodegradable tensioning films and palletising wraps. EcoWrap has superior strength, which allows for downgauging. Eco Wrap is also suitable for masking applications and is available with patented multi-metal corrosion inhibiting properties. It is ideally suited for agricultural shipments.

10.16 Earthcycle Packaging Ltd. Suite 1100 – 1166 Alberni Street Vancouver V6E 3X3 British Columbia Canada Tel: (1) 604 899 0928 Fax: (1) 604 682 4133

www.earthcycle.com Company Overview Vancouver-based Earthcycle Packaging is a privately held company which manufactures packaging based on sustainable resources based on palm fibre.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Earthcycle sustainable packaging is made from palm fibre, a bi-product of palm fruit, which is harvested for its oil. Earthcycle has developed a line of packaging specific for fresh vegetable and fruit. The packaging trays are water resistant and are available in two colours, natural fibre and vanilla. Other colours are available upon request, using vegetable dyes, so the biodegradability and compostability of the product is not jeopardised. Earthcycle’s line of food service trays are designed for a range of food, including sandwiches, salads, fries, burgers and complete dinners. Earthcycle products are certified by the FDA for use in the food service industry. The take-out containers are both oil and water-resistant and are microwaveable. The company is currently developing a line of Earthcycle fresh meat, poultry and seafood trays. They are also developing a line of Earthcycle garden pots for the herb and seedling market. NatureFlex film is available for lidding in a heat sealable bag or wrap format. This material is certified compostable to the European ‘OK’ Home Compost standard as well as to ASTM D6400 and by the Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI).

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10.17 Europackaging plc 118 Amington Road Yardley Birmingham UK Tel: (44) 121 706 6181 Fax: (44) 121 706 6514 www.europackaging.co.uk

Company Overview Europackaging is one of the leading UK paper and plastic packaging suppliers with annual sales over €290 million in 2004. Europackaging has manufacturing plants in the UK, Malaysia, China, Dubai and the USA. Principal products include paper and plastic bags and sacks, containers and trays, stationary, tableware, tape and industrial wrap.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In March 2004, Europackaging became the first UK company to introduce a complete line of biodegradable packaging products. The product line includes carrier bags, luxury shopping bags, disposable cutlery, single-serve vending cups and hinged salad containers, as well as bakery film, front bags and hinged containers. Europackaging biodegradable products are based on NatureWorks PLA.

10.18 Ex-Tech Plastics, Inc. 11413 Burlington Road Richmond Illinois 60071 USA Tel: (1) 815 678 2131 Fax: (1) 815 678 4248 www.extechplastics.com

Company Overview Ex-Tech manufactures speciality thermoformed polyolefin, polystyrene, PVC and PLA film and sheet for food applications.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2003, Ex-Tech became the first company in North America to introduce NatureWorks PLA sheets for thermoforming applications. The material complies with FDA and European requirements for food packaging. Target markets for Ex-Tech PLA containers include food packaging, organic in-store prepared food packaging, thermoformed hinged packaging and tray packaging.

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10.19 Fabri-Kal 600 Plastics Place Kalamazoo MI 49001 USA Tel: (1) 800-888-5054 Fax: (1) 269-385-0197 www.f-k.com

Company Overview Fabri-Kal was founded in 1950 and has grown to become the sixth largest thermoformer in North America with over 800 employees. Headquartered in Kalamazoo, Michigan, Fabri-Kal has three manufacturing facilities throughout the US and is the largest thermoformer of polyolefins (PP and HDPE) for food packaging in North America. Product lines include deli cups, drinking cups and lids.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Fabri-Kla offers Greenware premium cold drink cups that are manufactured from NatureWorks PLA.

10.20 Faerch Plast A/S Rasmus Færchs Vej 1 DK-7500 Holstebro Denmark Tel: (45) 99 101010 Fax: (45) 99 101099 www.faerchplast.com

Company Overview Færch Plast is a manufacturer of packaging for the food industry and the retail trade. Around 80% of production is exported, mainly to other European countries. Færch Plast is 100% owned by Færch Holding A/S. The company has a subsidiary in the UK and a sales office in Obernai, France. In 1997, Færch Plast established Færch Plast Norden, a division which handles sales to the Nordic countries. The company is represented in many other European countries through a network of agents and distributors. Færch Plast is an extruder of film and thermoforms packaging. Packaging is made from PS, CPET, APET, PP and PLA plastics. Principal end use sectors served are ready meals, fresh meat, cold food, snacks and disposables. In collaboration with European and American partners, Færch Plast also markets a wide range of packaging solutions, which complement Færch Plast’s own product range. These products includes sealing foils from Du Pont Teijin Films, absorbers from Paper Pack Inc and transparent OPS packaging for convenience products from Inline, as well as disposable tableware.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products Faerch Plast offers thermoformed articles based on NatureWorks PLA polymers. Target markets include fresh foods such as meat, salad and pasta.

10.21 Farnell Packaging Ltd. 30 Ilsley Avenue Dartmouth Nova Scotia Canada Tel: (1) 902 468 3192 Fax: (1) 902 468 9378 www.farnell.co.ca

Company Overview Farnell Packaging has been in business for over forty years as a custom manufacturer of polyethylene and co-polyester films, bags, sheets and pressure-sensitive labels. Farnell Packaging products are sold throughout the North American market and all of its quality systems are registered under ISO9001:2000.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Farnell Packaging manufactures all compostable, biodegradable films and bags from materials that meet industry standards for aerobic biodegradation. These products are certified to use the compostable logo of the International Biodegradable Products Institute & US Composting Council. Biodegradable products are available in stock sizes (and custom sizes depending on quantity). Products are marketed under the BIG BOY trade name.

10.22 Fortune Plastics P. O. Box 637 Williams Lane Old Saybrook CT 06475 USA Tel: (1) 860 3883426 Fax: (1) 860 3889930 www.fortuneplastics.com

Company Overview Fortune Plastics was established in 1955 and has grown to become one of the top five plastic bag suppliers in the USA. The company is privately-owned and has plants in Chicago, Phoenix, Nashville, Orlando and Old Saybrook, CT.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2005, Fortune Plastics introduced COMP-LETE compostable bags. These bags are suitable for collecting food scraps and garden trimmings for compsting. The bags, which are based on Novamont’s Mater-Bi polymers, have been certified by the US Biodegradable Polymers Institute as fully biodegradable and compostable.

10.23 Good Flag Biotechnology Corporation No. 51, Ting-hu Road, Dahua Tsun Kweishan Hsiang Taoyuan Hsien Tao Yuan Taiwan Tel: (8863) 2115000 Fax: (8863) 2114567 www.goodflag.com.tw

Company Overview Good Flag Biotechnology is one of the largest manufacturers of PP packaging and disposable food containers in Asia. Established in 1974, Good Flag employs over 200 people and has annual sales in excess of €25 million. The company exports around a quarter of its sales to Asia, Europe and North America. Product lines include food packaging and biodegradable disposable tableware, plastic formed packaging products, electronics packaging materials, PP folding colour boxes, cold drinking cups, gift packaging boxes, cosmetic packaging and lunch boxes and inserts. Good Flag has 42 production lines including: •

Extrusion machinery: computerised automatic transmission system

•

Thermoforming machines

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Printing: fully automatic high speed printing machine that can print up to six colours simultaneously.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Good Flag Biotechnology has experienced a sharp growth in demand from food manufacturers, retailers and hotels for its 100% biodegradable packaging. The company has invested 2.5 million in new equipment from Germany to produce environmentally friendly thermoformed cups from PLA. The company has production capacity for 12 million items per day for both PLA and PP cups. The principal biodegradable products are PLAR360Y, a 100% biodegradable 360cc non-toxic disposable cup and PLA-R200Y, a PLA disposable drinking water cup sold under the Good Flag trade name.

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10.24 Grenidea Technologies Pte Ltd. 67 Ayer Rajah Crescent Singapore 139950 Tel: (65) 68720020 Fax: (65) 68720460 www.grenidia.com

Company Overview Grenidea Technologies was founded in 2000 to develop environment-friendly products based on their proprietary biodegradable AgroResin and AgriPack materials. Grenidea work with distributors and manufacturing technology licensees to create and market innovative applications of their technologies.

Biodegradable Plastic Products AgroResin is a biodegradable packaging material from by-products of the palm oil industry. It can also be made from agricultural fibres, such as wheat straw. It is compatible with existing moulded pulp manufacturing processes. AgroResin has received Din-Certco certification for products made of compostable materials (DIN EN 13432:2000-12). AgriPack packaging products are the main application for AgriResin materials. They are lightweight, moisture resistant, anti-static and have insulating properties. They are also microwavable, making them suitable for food packaging. AgriPack products can be coloured, coated, printed and embossed. AgroPack has been certified as organic recoverable through composting and biodegradation (Din Certco: DIN EN 13432). It also complies with the EU standard for food packaging (EU: German Recommendation XXXVI). Currently, AgroPack products are used by Carrefour Singapore, FAMA, and Sainsbury’s (UK) retail outlets.

10.25 The Heritage Bag Company 1648 Diplomat Boulevard 16 Brenridge East Amherst New York USA Tel; (1) 716 632 2379 Fax: (1) 716 632 2386 www.heritage-bag.com

Company Overview The Heritage Bag Company is a privately owned business which manufactures a range of plastic bags. Products include polyethylene trash bags, healthcare waste disposal bags and bags for food.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products Heritage offers the BioTuf compostable bags for pre- and post-consumer food waste diversion programmes and for municipal kerbside yard waste collection programmes. The company claims that BioTuf bags have superior strength, excellent puncture and tear resistance and proven lifting strength and load capacity. BioTuf bags meet ASTM D6400-99 specifications for biodegradability and compostability. They are also photodegradable if left by the roadside.

10.26 Huhtamäki Oy Länsituulentie 7 02100 Espoo Finland Tel: (358) 9 686 881 Fax: (358) 9 660 622 www.huhtamaki.com

Company Overview Huhtamäki Oyj was established in 1920 and is now one of the world’s leading consumer packaging companies. The company is based in Finland and is listed on Helsinki Stock Exchange. Huhtamaki has more than 70 manufacturing and sales units and over 15,000 employees in 36 countries. Net sales in 2004 were approximately €2.1 billion. The company claims world leadership in rigid thin-walled plastic and paper packaging and moulded fibre packaging. It is also a market leader in high-performance flexible packaging. Huhtamaki organises its business into six groups, consumer goods, foodservice, moulded fibre, retail, films and special operations. Consumer goods includes rigid packaging for ice cream, edible fats and spreads, dairy, personal care, household care, pet food, confectionery, convenience foods, baby food as well as beverages and fresh foods. Foodservice packaging is aimed at restaurants and beverage vendors, institutional caterers, airline caterers and vending machine operators. Moulded fibre is used for egg packaging, trays and boxes for fruit and vegetables. Retail includes single-use tableware products such as white Chinet and Bibo and Lily coordinated cups, plates, napkins and table-covers. The Films division is one of the major producers of polyolefin films in Europe and an important converter of films, papers and other web form materials. The materials are mainly used for technical applications such as label and graphic arts, adhesive tapes, building and construction, automotive and packaging. The special operations division includes the Flex-E-Fill automated rotary filling system business and the recycling operations.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In November 2004, Huhtamaki introduced BioWare, a new range of biodegradable and compostable foodservice packaging including single-serve cold drinks cups, plates, cutlery and containers, made from polylactic acid produced by NatureWorks LLC. The products are designed to meet the needs of various foodservice operators, ranging from outdoor festivals and mass events to catering and daily food and beverage service. BioWare products are clear and sturdy, and are suited for serving cold drinks including water, beer, soft drinks and shakes. BioWare has already achieved some success in the marketplace. For example Alken Maes, the second largest Belgian brewery, used the BioWare beer cups in the 2004 summer festivals after which the cups were composted. The plates and bowls of the BioWare range are Huhtamaki’s Chinet products, made from 100% moulded fibre. Chinet plates are certified for compostability according to European standard EN 13432. Chinet plates are made from Huhtamaki’s own post-industrial paper cup cuttings in the European manufacturing unit in Norway with a proprietary smooth-moulding process and they are recognised for their rigidity, functionality and premium finish. In Europe, the Chinet range has been successfully introduced for households as well as institutional caterers and casual restaurant chains looking for a convenient, cost-effective and environmentally sound alternative to chinaware.

10.27 IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH Losaurach 116 D-91459 Markt Erlbach Germany Tel: (49) 91 6189 700 Fax: (49) 91 6189 7099 www.ibek-gmbh.de

Company Overview IBEK Verpackungshandel GmbH, formerly trading as Apack AG, is a manufacturer of biodegradable packaging and packaging solutions for the food and catering sector. The company has production plants in Germany, Thailand, China and Canada and is headquartered in Markt Erlbach, Germany. In Germany, IBEK’s production capacity amounts to approximately 150 million packaging units per annum.

Biodegradable Plastic Products IBEK’s biodegradable plastic product range includes: •

Apack industrial food packaging for meat, fish, poultry, cheese, fruit and vegetables for large packer companies and supermarkets.

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•

Apackmenue industrial packaging for ready-meals, canteen food and take-away meals.

•

Cellis catering articles for fast food and outdoor events.

IBEK uses Eastman’s Eastar Bio co-polyesters and PLA for their bio-packaging products. Apack’s trays are being used for organic produce by two top UK supermarket chains (including J Sainsbury’s) as a replacement for EPS foam trays. A 2.5 mm thick Eastar Bio film is laminated to the upper surface of the Apack tray. This breathable film provides moisture and grease resistance to protect the substrate from premature degradation, but lets in air to ensure biodegradation. The film also adds rigidity and printability. For shipping, the trays are bundled in a 15 micron Eastar Bio cling film, which replaces 12 micron PVC film used with EPS trays. Apack meat trays have a base similar to that of the produce tray. It is mated to a clear, heat sealable PLA lidstock. PLA is an inherently poor oxygen barrier, but use of a proprietary post-extrusion step reportedly extends shelf life by 50% to 6-9 days. Apack’s Canadian subsidiary is promoting use of its composite in hot- and cold-drink disposable cups to replace EPS. Apack Canada’s cups are foamed to 0.2 g/cc density, reportedly providing better insulation than paper cups. A co-polyester coating prevents moisture penetration, permits quality printing, and provides enough insulation (in hot cups) to dispense with costly paper sleeves. The sprayed-on coating uses a blend of an Eastman co-polyester and a second biodegradable resin to get a balanced viscosity.

10.28 ILIP sede legale Via G. Galilei n°168 41100 Modena Italy Tel. (39) 051 6715411 Fax (39) 051 6715413 www.ilip.it

Company Overview Ilip is one of Europe’s largest producers of packaging for agricultural products, making a wide range of punnets, trays and fruit inserts for fruit and vegetable packaging, and disposable tableware for catering. In addition to NatureWorks PLA, Ilip uses PET and polypropylene for its packaging applications.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2003, Ilip introduced a NatureWorks PLA rigid container for fresh produce applications as an environmentally sustainable alternative to traditional plastic packaging.

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10.29 Innovia Films BVBA Sluisweg 8 B-9820 Merelbeke Belgium Tel: (32) 9 241 1211 Fax: (32) 9 241 1294 www.innoviafilms.com

Company Overview Innovia Films is the world’s leading supplier of speciality biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) and cellulose films for speciality packaging, labelling and graphic arts and industrial products. Innovia has annual sales of over €350m and employs some 1,400 people worldwide. Total annual film capacity is more than 120,000 tonnes. The company has production sites in Belgium, UK, USA and Australia and sales offices throughout Europe, the Americas and Asia. Innovia Films formerly traded as UCB Films, which was part of the UCB Group before being sold to an investment consortium involving Candover Partners for €320m in 2004.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Innovia Films offers the NatureFlex range of biodegradable polymers based on cellulose from wood pulp, which is sourced from managed plantations. All NatureFlex films are proven in both commercial and home composting systems. They are inherently anti-static, glossy and transparent with a naturally high gas barrier and resistance to grease, oils and fats. The first area of use is for fresh produce, where NatureFlex NE 600 films provide strong but peelable seals, as well as some degree of moisture permeability, which reduces in-pack condensation. NatureFlex films also perform well on the packing line and have a wide heat sealing range, from 70 ºC to 200 ºC. This means the packaging film can be used on faster processing lines with no loss of seal performance. NatureFlex films are also stiffer and more oriented than some other biopolymers, which make them suitable for use on standard flow-wrap and form-fill-seal equipment. NatureFlex is available in an uncoated form and in three different coated versions providing moisture and gas barrier performance, and is certified to EU and US standards for industrial and home composting. The company is also in the process of developing a metallised NatureFlex film, which is currently undergoing independent testing in order to formally confirm its biodegradability and compostability. In 2004, US organic health food producer, Raw Indulgence, began using NatureFlex packaging film for its Heavenly Whole Food Brownies and Blondies range. New York-based Raw Indulgence chose to use the film to flow-wrap its range of vegan Brownies because it was consistent with the ethos of the product, the crystal clear film looked good on the pack, and it is easy to use.

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10.30 Liquid Container/Plaxicon 1760 Hawthorne Lane West Chicago Illinois 60185 USA Tel: (1) 630) 231 0850 Fax: (1) 630 562 5858 www.liquidcontainer.com

Company Overview Liquid Containers is one of North America’s largest blow moulders of plastic bottles with twelve manufacturing sites in the United States. Liquid Containers serves a broad range of packaging-critical markets including food, household and industrial chemicals, agricultural chemicals, and automotive after-care products. Principal polymers used for manufacture of blow moulded bottles are high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The product range includes wide mouth or narrow neck, high clarity, tinted, opaque or coloured.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In November 2004, Naturally Iowa Dairy began using natural and organic milk in stretch blow moulded bottles produced by Liquid Containers using NatureWorks PLA. The bottles are available in several varieties of PLA including half-gallon ‘grip’ bottles, and 1 to 2 gallon sizes. An 11-oz singleserve PLA bottle was later introduced. The pressure-sensitive labels will not be made of PLA.

10.31 NNZ bv Postbus 104 9700 AC Groningen Leonard Springerlaan 13 NL-9727 KB Groningen The Netherlands Tel: (31) 50 5207800 Fax: (31) 50 5207801 www.nnz.com

Company Overview NNZ was established in 1922 as a trading house selling jute bags. This family run business has since grown to become a major operator in the packaging sector. NNZ has branches in Europe and the United States and holds a central position in a global network of packaging producers, research institutes, universities and retail organisations. NNZ is active throughout the entire packaging chain, from raw material producers to consumers.

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NNZ focuses on two main packaging sectors, agriculture and industrial. For agricultural markets, NNZ supplies film and bags, trays and containers, transit packaging, net packaging, paper and cardboard packaging and jute sacks. For industrial markets, NNZ supplies industrial bulk containers, polyethylene packaging, polypropylene sacks, transit packaging and paper bags.

Biodegradable Plastic Products NNZ offers Ökopack, a biodegradable starch-based material. Ökopack is available in several varieties: • Ökopack Film C is transparent with high gloss, with properties similar to polypropylene. • Ökopack Film S is semi-transparent with properties similar to polyethylene. Ökopack C and S can be used for production of flat films, sleeve films and bags and sacks, which can be used for fruit and vegetable packaging. • Ökopack Tray C is a PET-like transparent, black, high gloss tray based on sugar. • Ökopack Tray F is a foam tray made from starch. It is offered in green and black and can be embossed. Okopack Tray F is similar to foamed PS and useful for food protection applications. • Ökopack Tray W is a water-soluble tray made from starch. It can be transparent, coloured in yellow and purple, and can also be embossed. Applications include flower bulb trays. • Ökopack Tray P is a fibre-based tray based on palm oil. It is available in a natural colour, green, brown, red and yellow and can also be embossed. • Ökopack Net for netting applications. In January 2006, Ökopack film and Ökopack trays received full Din-Certco certification for biodegradability.

10.32 Natura Verpackungs GmbH Industriestr. 55-57 D- 48432 Rheine Germany Tel: (49) 5975 303-57 Fax: (49) 5975 303-42 www.naturapackaging.com

Company Overview natura packaging belongs to the Eurea group of companies. It offers a wide range of biodegradable packaging products for fruit and vegetables, waste management and shopping bags based on

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NatureWorks PLA material. Natura products are all 100% biodegradable, are produced using the highest possible amount of sustainable renewable resources, are certified in accordance with the European EN 13432 standard (German DIN 54900) and have a very high degree of permeability.

Biodegradable Plastic Products natura’s biodegradable fruit and vegetable packaging solutions offer the same possibilities as conventional plastic packaging but less energy is expended during production. The required sealing temperature is 25% below that of traditional materials. In addition, the products’ shelf life is increased by the high permeability of the packaging. This permeability causes an ‘anti-fog’ effect. As a result, products remain clearly visible, even after several days in-store. Examples of natura fruit and vegetable packaging include knitted netting, extruded nets, potato and carrot bags, trays on a sugar cane base, flow pack available in two varieties (PLA or cellulose) and PLA trays. In the field of waste management, natura supplies biodegradable waste bags in many different shapes and sizes, from 8 to 240 litres. The bags are used for kitchen and garden waste bins and compost easily after use. natura also offers a wide range of shopping bags in many different shapes and sizes. These bags are based on a starch biodegradable polymer and are fully compostable.

10.33 NVYRO Unit 10, George Business Park Cemetery Road Southport PR8 5EF United Kingdom Tel: (44) 1704 536600 www.nvyro.com

Company Overview Nvyro was established to produce cassava (tapioca) starch based packaging solutions. Tapioca is one of the cheapest sources of raw materials for manufacture of starch based biodegradable polymers.

Biodegradable Plastic Products The Nvyro disposable food packaging product range covers soup bowls, plates, cups, lunch boxes, trays and lunch plates. Products are being targeted at ready to eat food, and take away food for fast food centres, canteens, catering, hospitals, stadiums, exhibitions and conferences and shows. The products are suitable for a wide range of foods, including dry, semi-liquid, liquid, cold and hot, and fatty foods. The products are all based on cassava starch plant fibre and have foam-like structure and rigidity.

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They are light in colour and exhibit a mild odour. They have low water absorbency, and soften slightly when in contact with liquid, but are still stable in service. They disintegrate into fragments within one week after being immersed in still water.

10.34 Plastic Suppliers Inc. Head Office 2400 Marilyn Lane Columbus Ohio 43219 USA Tel: (1) 614 475 8010 Fax: (1) 614 475 0264 www.plasticsuppliers.com

Company Overview Plastic Suppliers is one of the largest manufacturers and distributors of plastic films producing for the flexible packaging, folding carton, shrink film, thermoforming, envelopes and printing markets. In the USA, the company has two manufacturing plants located in Columbus, OH, and five distribution sites located in Marietta, GA, IL; Fullerton, CA; Dallas, TX ; and Mt. Laurel, NJ, respectively. It also has a manufacturing plant in Gentbrugge, Belgium and another distribution site in Northampton, UK. The corporate office is located in Columbus, Ohio. Plastic Suppliers’ manufacturing division is known as Polyflex and is also located in Columbus, Ohio. The company operates two separate plastic film and sheet manufacturing facilities in Columbus. Plastic Suppliers is among the world’s leading manufacturers of biaxially oriented polystyrene. Polyflex and Labelflex films have been manufactured in Columbus, Ohio since the 1970s and at the Sidaplax subsidiary in Gentbrugge, Belgium, since 1957. Plastic Suppliers’ films are marketed under the trade names of EarthFirst, Polyflex, Freezflex, Matteflex and Labelflex.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2005, Plastic Supplies produced the world’s first blown film from NatureWorks PLA. It was hitherto thought that PLA was unsuitable for blown film extrusion. Plastic Supplies claims that its EarthFirst film is 100% compostable, has high gloss, optimum clarity and transparency, high moisture vapour transmission rate, flavour retention, odour barrier, is breathable and is FDA compliant. Areas of application for EarthFirst include window carton film for food packaging, label film, floral wrap film, shrink film and envelope film. EarthFirst PLA packaging film is available in clear, matte and white grades.

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For window carton applications, the company claims that EarthFirst film is environmentally friendly and its properties are just as good as comparable films. For food contact applications, EarthFirst PLA film has a good flavour and aroma barrier and air can move freely through the EarthFirst PLA film to prevent fogging on windows and promote swift adhesive drying. Also, EarthFirst PLA film in food applications extends the products’ freshness and results in a longer shelf-life. EarthFirst PLA film for labelling applications is offered in white and clear and can be used in cut and stack or pressure sensitive applications. This film is suited to applications that require a modern, no-label look because of its clarity and gloss. EarthFirst film for packaging flowers or herbs is amenable to ink and has a high natural dyne level making floral sleeves more colourful and presentable. EarthFirst film for envelope windows comes in clear and matte film. The USPS standard for haze is met and exceeded with EarthFirst PLA film and readability is not compromised as it also meets the USPS Optical Character Recognition Machine standards.

10.35 RPC Group plc Head Office Lakeside House Higham Ferrers Northamptonshire NW10 8RP UK Tel: (44) 1933 410064 Fax: (44) 1933 410083 www.rpc-group.com

Company Overview The RPC Group is Europe’s leading supplier of rigid packaging with turnover of €445 million in 2005. The company manufactures a full range of blow moulding, injection moulding and thermoforming rigid packaging applications for many different markets including industrial, chemical and household packaging, health and beauty packaging, food and drink packaging, caps, dispensers and corks, plastic sheet and presentation packaging, plus vending disposables and catering products. RPC Bebo manufactures sterilisable multiplayer and monolayer pots, trays and tubs. RPC Containers manufactures bottles, jars and tubs. RPC Tedeco-Gizeh manufactures plastic cups, disposables and dairy packaging. RPC Bramlage-Wiko manufactures cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food dispensers. RPC Cobelplast manufactures formable plastic sheet.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2004, RPC Bebo Nederland launched HI-COMPOST, a range of biodegradable containers manufactured in NatureWorks PLA material. The company says the new range is in response to increasing packaging legislation from governments across Europe. PLA containers not only help to avoid existing and proposed taxes on packaging and packaging waste but can also in some instances qualify for subsidies. RPC says that PLA offers excellent clarity and has an equivalent oxygen barrier to polypropylene. For sealed packs, RPC Bebo Nederland can also supply a heatsealable, compostable lidding film, which is manufactured from biodegradable cellulose derived from wood pulp. The HI-COMPOST product range of biodegradable containers has a highly transparent and glossy finish which, say the company, makes them aesthetically similar to clear polystyrene. The wall thickness of the HI-COMPOST containers ranges from 200 to 1500 micron.

10.36 Siamp-Cedap Head office 4, Quai Antoine 1er BP 219 – 98007 Monaco France Tel: (33) 377 93 155375 Fax: (33) 377 9205 7104 www.siamp.com

Company Overview Cedap, (European Consortium of Plastic Applications), was established in 1963 in Monaco. Its main activity is the production of polystyrene sheet for food packaging. Cedap is a division of Siamp-Cedap. Cedap specialises in ‘Form Fill Seal’ (FFS) applications for dairy product packaging. It offers bicolour, striped and laminated PS sheet. Cedap has a production plant in France and a production site in Belgium, which opened in 1998. Cedap Mexico was established in 2001 to serve the American market. Cedap also formed a strategic agreement in Europe with the Huhtamaki group (Finland).

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2005, Cedap introduced thermoformed PLA-based single-serve drinking cups.

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10.37 Sidaplax Kerkstraat 24 B-9050 Gentbrugge Belgium Tel: (32) 9210 8010 Fax: (32) 9210 8019 www.sidaplax.com

Company Overview Belgium based company Sidaplax has been a subsidiary of Plastics Suppliers Inc since 1988. Sidaplast is a leading producer and distributor of biaxially oriented plastic films, registered under such trademarks as ‘Polyflex’, ‘Labelflex’ and ‘TMOPS’. Sidaplax operates in more than 40 countries operating in a range of markets such as the food processing, packaging, healthcare, communications and stationery, consumer goods and converting industries.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Sidaplax has added Plastic Supplies’ EarthFirst PLA film to its product range. EarthFirst is used in label face stock, shrink sleeve, wrap around shrink, floral and over wrap, window carton, packaging and envelope window film applications.

10.38 Signum NZ Ltd. PO Box 58294 Greenmount Auckland New Zealand Tel: (64) 9274 4433 Fax: (64) 9274 4429 www.signum.co.nz

Company Overview Signum is a privately-owned company established in 1936 and is now a leading manufacturer of thermoformed plastic packaging. Signum has manufacturing facilities in Melbourne, Sydney and Auckland, New Zealand. The company has grown organically and, through a series of acquisitions, in the design, tooling, extrusion and moulding areas. Signum is committed to the development of environmentally-friendly packaging and offers a large proprietary range of produce, deli, bakery and food service containers. Signum is a sole or major

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supplier of rigid thermoformed packaging products to Campbell’s, Danone, MasterFoods, Sara Lee, SC Johnson, Simplot and Qantus. It has quality management systems in place, which comply with the requirements of ISO 9002 and CODEX HACCP standards.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Signum is known to be developing the use of PLA for their range of food service containers and trays.

10.39 Spartech Corp. 120 South Central Avenue, Suite 1700 Clayton Missouri 63105-1705 USA Tel: (1) 314 721 4242 Fax: (1) 314 721 1447 www.spartech.com

Company Overview Spartech Corporation is a leading producer of extruded thermoplastic sheet and roll stock, polymeric compounds, and custom engineered plastic products. The company has 43 manufacturing facilities located throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Europe, with annual production capacity of more than 635,000 tonnes, sales of approximately €1.0 billion and has 3700 employees. The main markets for Spartech plastic products include packaging, transportation, recreation, building and construction, sign and graphics markets.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Spartech has introduced a Green Initiative to provide environmentally-friendly solutions for customer, shareholders, employees and the environment. Their Green mission states that Spartech will aggressively and proactively pursue material solutions and production practices that minimise the effect on the environment. As part of the company’s Green Initiative, Spartech introduced the new Rejuven8 family of biodegradable polymer materials in February 2006. Rejuven8 is designed specifically for thermoforming applications and is made from 99% NatureWorks PLA. It is being applied to a wide variety of packaging applications as well as the graphic arts industry. Rejueven8Plus is made from 95% NatureWorks PLA and was specifically developed for printed applications. This alloy material has enhanced characteristics over standard PLA that makes it similar to PET. Secondary processing criteria further raise its heat resistance properties to well over 150 °F, which is much higher than the standard PLA maximum temperature range of about 105-120 °F.

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10.40 Sunway Household Ltd. 777 Xin Ji Road Qingpu Industrial Zone Shanghai 201707 China Tel: (86) 21 59703435 Fax: (86) 21 59703776 www.sunwaypak.com

Company Overview Founded in 1997, Sunway has developed into one of the main PE bag suppliers in mainland China. They manufacture food, freezer and sandwich bags, swing bin/pedal bin liners, checkout bags and refuse sacks. The company is exporting over 95% of sales to Western Europe, the USA, Australia and Japan. Sunway has annual sales of over 12 million, employs over 300 staff and has annual production capacity approaching 20,000 tonnes.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Sunway offers disposable tableware made of biodegradable materials. The product range includes cups, plates, dishes, cutlery, drinking straws and decorations.

10.41 Toray Industries Inc. Head Office 2-1, Chigusa-Kaigan Ichihara Chiba 299-0196 Japan Tel: (81) 436 23 0750 Fax: (81) 436 24 5299 www.toray.com

Company Overview Toray is a diversified and multinational group of companies with operations in 18 countries and regions. Toray’s core businesses are in fibres and textiles, and plastics and chemicals. The company also has businesses in the fields of information and telecommunications, housing and engineering, pharmaceuticals and medical products, and advanced composite materials. Toray processes a diverse range of high performance resins, including Amilan (nylon), Toyolac (ABS), Toraycon (PBT), and Torelina (PPS), for use in electronic components, automotive parts and a number of other industrial products. The company has established production and processing bases in the US, Southeast Asia and China, as well as Japan, and is now pursuing further global development and business expansion by taking its focus beyond raw materials to include plastics processing.

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In plastic films, Toray is a major world producer of BOPP film sold under the Torayfan trade name. In addition Toray offers Lumirror (polyester) film, Torelina (PPS) and Mictron (aramid). In textiles, product lines include synthetic fibre (Toray Nylon), polyester (Toray Tetoron), and acrylic (Toray Toraylon). Toray is implementing its ‘Project New Toray 21’ programme, comprising business reforms geared to ‘A New Toray for the 21st Century’. Toray has located promising business areas covering the environment, safety, and amenities, and its policy is to develop these into major earnings’ sources by 2010. The development of materials based on renewable resources such as biodegradable polymers, is a key component of the new strategy.

Biodegradable Plastic Products As part of the company’s new strategic vision to develop more environmentally-friendly businesses, Toray is expanding its capability in biodegradable polymers based on NatureWorks PLA in both textiles and film sectors. In 2003, Toray reached an agreement with NatureWorks LLC, covering brands, technology licenses and PLA chip supply, to manufacture and sell INGEO fibre products made from NatureWorks PLA. Toray manufactures the fibre in Japan, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia. Toray also manufactures textiles in countries around the world including Japan, other parts of Asia, and Europe. In addition to licensing the NatureWorks INGEO brand, Toray is also authorised to develop and use its own sub-brand ‘ECODEAR’ in communicating Toray’s products derived from PLA in textile markets and consumer products markets. Toray is initially developing INGEO fibre products for industrial and daily use such as carpets, bedding and industrial materials. Ultimately, Toray plans to develop the fibre to a broad range of applications including clothing and interior decoration materials. In 2004, Toray developed the world’s first plasticiser-free flexible PLA film using Toray’s own nanostructure control technology for biaxially oriented films. This film, without losing the transparency and heat resistance features of PLA, has achieved superior flexibility levels, meaning it could be used in packaging films such as wrapping films. Toray are confident that the environment-friendly features of PLA film will spur widespread demand in the future. Toray plans to commercialise the PLA film in areas such as soft packaging materials, films for building materials, electronic devices, and automobiles as well as for industrial material usage such as in process films.

10.42 Toray Saehan Inc. LG Mapo Bldg. 275 Gongduk-dong Mapo-gu Seoul South Korea Tel: (82) 23279 1000 www.toraysaehan.co.kr

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Company Overview Toray Saehan is a synthetic fibre business, which started operations in 1999. The company is a joint venture between Japan’s Toray and South Korea’s Saehan companies. Toray Saehan has three major business areas: polyester base film and film processing, polyester filament and polypropylene and polyester spunbond, nonwoven fabric. •

Polyester base film used in audio and video packaging, electromagnetic, condenser, thermal transfer ribbon (TTR), graphic, and laminating applications.

•

Polyester filament for weaving and knitting applications.

•

Toray Saehan is a world leader in production of spunbound materials. Polypropylene spunbond and polyester spunbond for applications including hygienic products, household goods, bedding, furniture, clothing, industrial materials, medical goods, and farming. With an annual manufacturing capacity of 30,000 tonnes of polypropylene spunbond and 4,000 tonnes of polyester spunbond.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Toray Saehan is supplying high quality environmentally-friendly biodegradable resin and sheet based on NatureWorks PLA.

10.43 Treofan Group Head Office Am Prime Parc 17 65479 Raunheim Germany Tel: (49) 6142 2000 Fax: (49) 6142 200 3299 www.treofan.com

Company Overview The Treofan Group is a manufacturer of biaxial oriented polypropylene film (BOPP) and cast polypropylene film under the brand name Treofan. The company also manufactures PLA film under the brand name Biophan. Treofan is a global business with seven manufacturing sites around the world and sales operations in more than 20 countries. Treofan produces around 280,000 tonnes of film per annum and has worldwide manufacturing capabilities including 22 BOPP lines, 10 cast lines, 6 metallisers, 2 pilot lines, 1 coater line and one PLA line. Treofan has four main business groups, packaging, labelling, tobacco packaging and technical films. The company offers a wide range of PP films including standard and cast films, transparent, white, opaque, cavitated, metallised and high-barrier metallised.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products In June 2004, Treofan introduced its new biodegradable and compostable Biophan film made from polylactic acid supplied by NatureWorks LLC. According to the company, Biophan offers exceptional transparency and gloss, the ability to transmit water vapour, and outstanding sealing properties. Biophan is also printable, resistant to oil, fat and alcohol, and is thermoformable. Biophan disintegrates completely into water and carbon dioxide within 45 days. The material is suitable for packaging fruits, vegetables, salads and other consumer products. One of the first applications for Biophan was a salad bag for French organic food company Mont Blanc Primeurs. In November 2004, Treofan introduced labels made from Biophan for beverages and consumer products. The Biophan labels can be used in combination with bottles produced by NatureWorks PLA so that the labels may be composted together with the bottle in an industrial composting plant. In February 2006, Treofan announced that it is to move production of its Biophan biodegradable PLA packaging films from France to its plant in Neukirchen, Germany, saying that production at the German plant will be more efficient. The move follows the earlier announcement that Treofan’s site in Mantes-la-Ville, France, had been sold to Polyfilms, and that the site would continue toll manufacturing Biophan film for Treofan. Treofan said that with sales having doubled in 2005, Biophan is now receiving even greater importance in the group’s product strategy. A new generation of PLA film with ‘excellent properties’ is at the pilot development stage. To further underline the importance of PLA to Treofan, the company has strengthened the management team with the appointment of new commercial and technical managers.

10.44 Vertex Pacific Limited Unity Drive North Harbour Industrial Park Albany PO Box 228 Auckland New Zealand Tel: (64) 9 415 7015 Fax: (64) 9 415 6317 www.vertex-pacific.co.nz

Company Overview Vertex is the leading supplier of plastics-based packaging products in New Zealand and is rapidly establishing a strong market presence in Australia. The business has been in existence since 1941 when it originally manufactured children’s toys and shoe soles.

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Vertex has manufacturing facilities in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Hastings, and a sales office in Sydney, Australia. Sales are in excess of NZ $90 million, of which the company exports around two-thirds. Vertex employs about 400 people in New Zealand and Australia. The Hamilton facility in New Zealand also features a product design and tooling operation. Manufacturing processes include: blow moulding, injection moulding, injection stretch blow moulding, extrusion and thermoforming. Vertex also runs a number of decoration processes from flexographic and offset printing, to adhesive and in-mould labelling. In 2000, senior management bought the assets of Carter Holt Harvey Plastics Products together with Pacific Equity Partners to form Vertex Pacific Ltd. Vertex Pacific’s parent company Vertex Holdings was listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange in 2002. Vertex business is divided into six categories: Technical Components, Dairy, Industrial Containers, Household Products, Food Trays and Securefresh. Processes include rigid blow-moulded containers for industrial, household, chemical and agricultural products; extruded sheet and thermoformed containers for food manufacturers, kiwifruit and horticultural products; disposable and point-ofsale packaging for the food service sector and injection-moulded components for human and animal health products.

Biodegradable Plastic Products Vertex is actively involved in the commercialisation of biodegradable polymers and uses NatureWorks PLA material. The company initiated a development project to ascertain the technical and commercial viability of PLA in 2003, which has resulted in a decision to supply various stock products made from PLA. These include: disposable cups, fresh food containers including deli containers and salad bowls, bakery containers including sandwich wedges, bottles, food trays and extruded sheet for further processing. Examples of applications for Vertex PLA products include beer cups for the Hokitika Wildfoods Festival in New Zealand and drink cups for the HSBC Round the Bays Run.

10.45 Wei Mon Industry Co. Ltd. 2F, No 57, Shing Jung Road Nei Hu Chu Taipei 114 Taiwan www.weimon.com.tw

Company Overview Wei Mon Industry Co. was established in 1987 to manufacturing concrete piping materials as well as contracting major civil infrastructure projects such as water supply pipelines, sewerage systems, and land developments. Since 1996, Wei Mon started to research and develop natural and environmentallyfriendly products, including Biodegradable Plastic Products.

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Biodegradable Plastic Products Wei Mon has an agreement with NatureWorks LLC to promote and distribute packaging articles made in Taiwan from NatureWorks PLA. The biodegradable plastics products are being marketed in Taiwan as Nature Green, In addition to promoting and distributing Nature Green, the company is manufacturing end-use packaging products for the Taiwan market.

10.46 Wentus Kunststoff GmbH Postbox 10 06 53 Eugen-Diesel-Straße 12 D-37656 Höxter Germany Tel: (49) 5271 6890 Fax (49) 5271 689219 www.wentus.de

Company Overview Flexible packaging supplier, Wentus, was founded in 1965 and is now part of the Clondalkin Group. The company employs over 400 people and has a production capacity in excess of 45,000 tonnes/ year. It is one of the largest producers of speciality polyolefin films and packaging in Germany and is certified according to quality standard DIN ISO 9001. The main products offered by Wentus include: •

Food and consumer goods packaging films

•

Customised barrier films

•

Flowers and plant packaging film

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Lamination films

•

Medical films

•

Wrapping and covering film

•

Inliners and special films

•

Shrink films

•

Household films and bags

•

Industrial sacks and bags

Biodegradable Plastic Products Wemterra blown films are starch-based biodegradable and compostable materials. They are certified in accordance with DIN V 54900 (Germany) ‘OK Compost’ and ‘VGS-Label’ (including OK-CompostLabel, Belgium). Wenterra film is used for manufacture of bio-waste disposal bags and sacks.

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10.47 Wilkinson Industries Inc. 12th and Madison Street PO Box 490 Fort Calhoun Nebraska 68023 USA Tel: (1) 402 468 5511 Fax: (1) 402 468 5518 www.wilkinsonindustries.com

Company Overview Wilkinson Industries manufactures foodservice packaging products including aluminum foil, OPS clear containers, roll foil and foil pop-ups, and the new natural plastic packaging, NaturesPLAstic, made from NatureWorks PLA. Wilkinson extrudes OPS sheet, thermoform containers and domes, aluminum foil containers and converts roll stock into foodservice foil products. Some of Wilkinson’s most famous product offerings over the years have included the tamper-evident clear container, JustFresh, the improved clear hinged container, SeaShell, and its aluminum steamtable, PerformancePak, which set the standard for aluminium pans in the industry. In April 2004, Wilkinson Industries was acquired by the private investment company Mid Oaks Investments LLC.

Biodegradable Plastic Products In 2003, Wilkinson Industries introduced NaturesPLAsticin, which says the company, was the first-ever thermoformed plastic food container made from NatureWorks PLA. NaturesPLAstic is completely recyclable under composting conditions in 45 days using commercial composting facilities. NaturesPLAstic has shown good performance qualities with Wilkinson’s initial research showing NaturesPLAstic displaying similar characteristics to PET packaging, but with less clarity than OPS packaging. The Fresh Performance line is a two-piece rectangular container designed for fresh-cut produce. Small, medium and large family sizes are available in NaturesPLAstic (PLA) and in PET. HerbShell is Wilkinson’s hinged natural (PLA) container with hanging tabs for ease of display for fresh, organic and natural herbs. JustFresh are clear tamper-safe plastic containers in bowls and tubs designed for fresh cored pineapples. Another new product line in the JustFresh range are bowls with new easy-open lids. These products are available in PLA or OPS. VersaPak is Wilkinson’s two-piece delicatessen packaging for salads and mixed deli items which is also available in PLA as well as OPS. SeaShell is a clamshell container for deli and bakery items and is now available in PLA and OPS.

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Database of Major Biodegradable Polymer Suppliers

BASF Aktiengesselschaft D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany Tel: (49) 621600 Fax: (49) 621 6042525 www.basf.de

Biotec Biologische Naturverpackungen GmbH & Co. KG Werner-Heisenberg-Str. 32, Postfach 100220, D-46422 Emmerich, Germany Tel: (49) 2822 92510 Fax: (49) 2822 51840 www.biotec.de

BIOP Biopolymer Technologies AG Gostritzer Str. 61-63, D- 01217 Dresden, Germany Tel: (49) 351 8718146 Fax: (49) 351 8718447 www.biopag.de

Biomer Biopolyesters Forst-Kasten-Str. 15, D-82152 Krailling, Germany Tel: (49) 8985 72665 Fax: (49) 89/85 72792 www.biomer.de

Cereplast Corporate office: 3421-3433 West El Segundo Boulevard, Hawthorne CA 90250, USA Tel: (1) 310 676 5000 Fax: (1) 310 676 5003 www.cereplast.com

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Daicel Chemical Industries Ltd Head Office: 1, Teppo-cho, Sakai-shi, Osaka 590-8501, Japan Tel: (81) 72 227 3111 Fax: (81) 72 227 3000 www.daicel.co.jp

Dainippon Ink & Chemicals Inc. Corporate Headquarters: DIC Building, 7-20, Nihonbashi 3-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8233 Japan Tel: (81) 3 3272 4511 Fax: (81) 3 3278 8558 www.dic.co.jp

DuPont 2 Chemin du Pavillon, PO Box 50, CH-1218 Grand Sacconex, Geneva, Switzerland Tel: (41) 22 717 5111 Fax: (41) 22 717 4200 www.dupont.com

Eastman Chemical Company PO Box 3263 Hertizentrum, CH-6300 Zug, Switzerland Tel: (41) 41 726 6100 Fax: (41) 41 726 6200 www.eastman.com EarthShell Corporation 1301 York Road, Suite 200, Lutherville, Maryland 21093, USA Tel: (1) 410 847 9420 Fax: (1) 410 847 9431 www.earthshell.com

FkuR Kunststoff GmbH Siemensring 79, D- 47877 Willich, Germany Tel: (49) 2154 9251 26 Fax: (49) 2154 9251 51 www.fkur.de

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Grenidea Technologies PTE Ltd. 67 Ayer Rajah Crescent 02-07/08/09, SGP-139950, Singapore Tel: (65) 68720020 Fax: (65) 68720460 www.grenidea.com

Hycail BV Industrieweg 24-1, NL- 9804 TG, Noordhorn, The Netherlands Tel: (31) 594 505769 Fax: (31) 594 506253 www.hycail.com

Metabolix, Inc. 21 Erie Street, Cambridge, MA 02139-4260, USA Tel: (1) 617 492 0505 Fax: (1) 617 492 1996 www.metabolix.com

Mitsubishi Corporation 6-3, Marunouchi 2-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8086, Japan Tel: (81) 3 3210 2121 Fax: (81) 3 3210 8935 www.mitsubishicorp.co.jp

Mitsui Chemicals Europe GmbH Oststraße 10, D-40211 Düsseldorf, Germany Tel: (49) 211 173320 Fax: (49) 211 323486 www.mitsui-chem.co.jp

NEC Electronics Corp. Head Office: 1753 Shimonumabe Nakahara, Ku Kawasaki, Kanagawa 211-8668, Japan Tel: (81) 44435 5111 Fax: (81) 44435 1667 www.necel.com

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NNZ BV Postbus 104, NL- 9700 AC, Groningen, The Netherlands Tel: (31) 50 5207844 Fax: (31) 50 5207801 www.nnz.nl

NatureWorks LLC 15305 Minnetonka Boulevard, Minnetonka 55345, Minnesota, USA Tel: (1) 952 742 0400 Fax: (1) 952 984 3430 www.natureworksllc.com

Novamont SpA Via Fauser 8, I- 28100, Novara, Italy Tel: (39) 0321 699655 Fax: (39) 0321 699600 www.materbi.com

Plantic Head Office: Unit 2, Angliss Park Estate, 227-231 Fitzgerald Road, Laverton North, Victoria 3026, Australia Tel: (61) 3 9353 7900 Fax: (61) 3 9353 7901 www.plantic.com.au

Polysciences, Inc. 400 Valley Road, Warrington, PA 18976, USA

Tel: (1) 215 343 6484 Fax: (1) 215 343 0214 www.polyscience.com

Procter & Gamble The Heights, Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey KT13 0XP, United Kingdom Tel: (44) 1932 896492 Fax: (44) 1932 896499 www.pg.com

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Rodenburg Biopolymers BV Denariusstraat 19, NL- 4903 RC, Oosterhout, The Netherlands Tel: (31) 162 497 040 Fax: (31) 162 497 041 www.biopolymers.nl

SK Chemicals Co. Ltd. 948-1,Taechi3-Dong, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-283, Republic of South Korea Tel: (82) 2 2008 2008 Fax: (82) 2 2008 2009 www.skchemicals.com

Showa Highpolymer Co. Ltd. Nerima-Ku 179-0075, Tokyo, Japan Tel: (81) 3 399 99268 Fax: (81) 3 399 99633 www.shp.co.jp

Solvay SA Headquarters: Rue du Prince Albert 33, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium Tel: (32) 2 509 61 11 Fax: (32) 2 509 66 17 www.solvay.com

Stanelco plc Starpol Technology Centre, North Road, Marchwood Industrial Park, Southampton SO40 4BL, United Kingdom Tel: (44) 2380 867 100 Fax: (44) 2380 867 070 www.stanelco.co.uk

Toyota Motor Corp 1, Toyotacho, Toyota 471-8571, Aichi, Japan Tel: (81) 5 6528 2121 Fax: (81) 5 6580 1116 www.toyota.com

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Glossary of Terms

Abiotic disintegration

The disintegration of plastic materials by means other than by the biological process such as dissolving, heat ageing or ultraviolet ageing.

Additives

Materials that are added to a base polymer to produce a desired change on properties or characteristics.

Adipic acid aliphatic copolyesters

Biodegradable polyester used in degradable plastic products.

Adipic acid aromatic copolyesters


Aerobic degradation

Degradation in the presence of air. Composting is a way of aerobic degradation.

Amorphous

Devoid of crystallinity, no definite order. At processing temperatures, the plastic is normally in the amorphous state.

Anaerobic degradation

Degradation in the absence of air, as occurs in dry landfills. Anaerobic degradation is also called biomethanisation.

Assimilation

The conversion of nutrients into living tissue; constructive metabolism.

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons derived from or characterized by the presence of unsaturated resonant ring structures.

Binder

In a reinforced plastic, the continuous phase which holds together the reinforcement.

Biodegradable plastic

a degradable plastic in which the degradation results from the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.

Bioerodable

Polymers that exhibit controlled degradation through the incorporation of prodegradant additive masterbatches or concentrates. Such polymers oxidise and embrittle in the environment and erode under the influence of weathering.

Biomass

The weight of all the organisms in a given population.

Blends & alloys

Combinations of two or more different polymers mechanically entangled rather than chemically bonded.

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Block copolymer

An essentially linear copolymer in which there are repeated sequences of polymeric segments of different chemical structure.

Blow moulding

A method of fabrication in which a parison (hollow tube) is forced into the shape of the mould cavity by internal air pressure.

Branched

In molecular structure of polymers (as opposed to Linear), refers to side chains attached to the main chain. Side chains may be long or short.

Calendering

To prepare sheets of material by pressure between two or more counterrotating rolls.

Cast

To form a plastic object by pouring a fluid monomer-polymer solution into an open mould where it finishes polymerising. Forming plastic film and sheet by pouring the liquid resin onto a moving belt or by precipitation in a chemical bath.

Catalyst

A substance which markedly speeds up the cure of a compound when added in minor quantity as compared to the amounts of primary reactants.

Cellulose

A natural high polymeric carbohydrate found in most plants; the main constituent of dried woods, jute, flax, hemp, ramie, etc. Cotton is almost pure cellulose.

Co-moulding

A plastic processing technique to produce multi-layered objects of different plastic types.

Compostable

Compostable materials are capable of undergoing biological decomposition in a compost site, to the extent that they are not visually distinguishable and break down to carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass, at a rate consistent with known compostable materials (e.g. cellulose).

Compostable plastic

A polymer is ‘compostable’ when it is biodegradable under composting conditions. The polymer must meet the following criteria: • Break down under the action of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae). • Total mineralisation is obtained (conversion into CO2, H2O, inorganic compounds and biomass under aerobic conditions). • The mineralisation rate is compatible with the composting process and consistent with known compostable materials (e.g. cellulose).

Composting

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A managed process that controls the biological decomposition of biodegradable materials into a humus-like substance called compost The aerobic and mesophilic and thermophilic degradation of organic matter to make compost; the transformation of biologically decomposable materials through a controlled process of bio-oxidation

Glossary of Terms

that proceeds through mesophilic and thermophilic phases and results in the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilised organic matter (compost or humus). Compound

A base polymer plus plastic additives that are selected to achieve certain desired properties.

Compression strength

Crushing load at the failure of a specimen divided by the original sectional area of the specimen.

Crosslinking

The forming of strong covalent bonds in a polymer chain that can only be broken at high temperatures.

Crystallinity

A state of molecular structure in some resins which denotes uniformity and compactness of the molecular chains forming the polymer. Normally can be attributed to the formation of solid crystals having a definite geometric form.

Cure

To change the properties of a polymeric system into a more stable, usable condition by the use of heat, radiation, or reaction with chemical additives. Note - Cure may be accomplished, for example, by removal of solvent or crosslinking.

Cycle

The complete, repeating sequence of operations in a process or part of a process. In moulding, the cycle time is the period, or elapsed time, between a certain point in one cycle and the same point in the next.

Decomposer organism

An organism, usually a bacterium or a fungus, that breaks down organic material into simple chemical components, thereby returning nutrients to the environment.

Degradable

Degradable materials break down, by bacterial (biodegradable), thermal (oxidative) or ultraviolet (photodegradable) action. When degradation is caused by biological activity, especially by the enzymatic action of microorganisms, it is called ‘biodegradation’.

Density

Weight per unit volume of a substance, expressed in grams per cubic centimetre, pounds per cubic foot, etc.

Dielectric strength

The electric voltage gradient at which an insulating material is broken down or ‘arced through,’ in volts per mil of thickness.

Dimensional stability

Ability of a plastic part to retain the precise shape in which it was moulded, fabricated, or cast.

Dimensional strength

The electric voltage gradient at which an insulating material is broken down or ‘arced through,’ in volts per mil of thickness.

Ecotoxicity

Ecotoxicity refers to the potential environmental toxicity of residues, leachate, or volatile gases produced by the plastics during biodegradation or composting.

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Elastomer

A material which at room temperature stretches under low stress to at least twice its length and snaps back to the original length upon release of stress.

Elongation

The fractional increase in length of a material stressed in tension.

Embossing

Techniques used to create depressions of a specific pattern in plastics film and sheeting.

Ester

The reaction product of an alcohol and an acid.

Extrusion

A plastic processing technique to produce pipe, film or sheeting. The plastic is fed through a flat or preformed annular die, which gives the object its definitive shape.

Fibre

This term usually refers to relatively short lengths of very small crosssections of various materials. Fibres can be made by chopping filaments (converting).

Filler

A cheap, inert substance added to a plastic to make it less costly. Fillers may also improve physical properties, particularly hardness, stiffness, and impact strength. The particles are usually small, in contrast to those of reinforcements but there is some overlap between the function of the two.

Flame retardant

A chemical substance added to the base polymer to significantly reduce the propagation of fire.

Flexural modulus

A measure of the strain imposed in the outermost fibres of a bent specimen.

Flexural strength

The strength of a material in bending, expressed as the tensile stress of the outermost fibres of a bent test sample at the instant of failure. With plastics, this value is usually higher than the straight tensile strength.

Foamed starch

Starch can be blown by environmentally-friendly means into a foamed material using water steam. Foamed starch is antistatic, insulating and shock absorbing, therefore constituting a good replacement for polystyrene foam.

Glass transition

The reversible change in an amorphous polymer or in amorphous regions of a partially crystalline polymer from (or to) a viscous or rubbery condition to (or from) a hard and relatively brittle one. Note - The glass transition generally occurs over a relatively narrow temperature region and is similar to the solidification of a liquid to a glassy state: it is not a phase transition. Not only do hardness and brittleness undergo rapid changes in this temperature region but other properties, such as thermal expansion and specific heat also change rapidly. This phenomenon has been called second order transition, rubber transition and rubbery transition. The word transformation has also been used instead of transition. Where more than one amorphous

148

Glossary of Terms

transition occurs in a polymer, the one associated with segmental motions of the polymer backbone chain or accompanied by the largest change in properties is usually considered to be the glass transition. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

The approximate midpoint of the temperature range over which the glass transition takes place.

Gloss

The shine or luster of the surface of a material.

Graft copolymers

A chain of one type of polymer to which side chains of a different type are attached or grafted (i.e., polymerising butadiene and styrene monomer at the same time).

Hardness

The resistance of a plastic material to compression and indentation. Among the most important methods of testing this property are Brinell hardness, Rockwell hardness and Shore hardness.

Heat deflection temperature

The temperature at which a standard test bar (ASTM D648) deflects 0.010 in., under a stated load of either 66 or 264 psi.

Heat sealing

A method of joining plastic films by simultaneous application of heat and pressure to areas in contact. Heat may be supplied conductively or dielectrically.

Homopolymer

Polymers that are made of one single repeated base unit or monomer.

Humus

The solid organic substance that results from decay of plant or animal matter. Biodegradable plastics can form humus as they decompose. Humus in soil provides a healthy structure within which air, water and organisms can combine.

Hydrocarbon plastics

Plastics based on resins made by the polymerization of monomers composed of carbon and hydrogen only.

Hydrogenation

Chemical process whereby hydrogen is introduced into a compound.

Hydrolysis

Chemical decomposition of a substance involving the addition of water.

Hygroscopic

Tending to absorb moisture.

Impact resistance

Relative susceptibility of plastics to fracture by shock, e.g., as indicated by the energy expended by a standard pendulum type impact machine in breaking a standard specimen in one blow.

Impact strength

The ability of a material to withstand shock loading. The work done in fracturing, under shock loading, a specified test specimen in a specified manner.

Injection blow moulding

A blow moulding process in which the parison to be blown is formed by injection molding.

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Injection moulding

A plastic processing technique to produce solid parts with a high degree of precision. The material is injected into a mould by a plunger, and a press keeps the mould closed while the material cools. At the end of the process, the mould is released and the part ejected.

International Standard

A standard published by the International Organisation for Standardisation and commencing with ISO (e.g., ISO 16929). Note for electrical products the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is the main international standardisation body.

Laminate

A product made by bonding together two or more layers of material or materials.

Life Cycle Analysis

A procedure which involves assessing the impact of a product or material throughout its life cycle – i.e., from raw material extraction or production through manufacture and use, to disposal or recovery. Also called Life Cycle Assessment.

Masterbatch

A plastics compound which includes a high concentration of an additive or additives. Masterbatches are designed for use in appropriate quantities with the basic resin or mix so that the correct end concentration is achieved. For example, colour masterbatches for a variety of plastics are extensively used as they provide a clean and convenient method of obtaining accurate colour shades.

Mineralisation

Conversion of a biodegradable plastic to CO2, H2O, inorganic compounds and biomass. For instance the carbon atoms in a biodegradable plastic are transformed to CO2, which can then reenter the global carbon cycle.

Melt flow

The flow rate obtained from extrusion of a molten resin through a die of specified length and diameter under prescribed conditions of time, temperature and load as set forth in ASTM D1238.

Melt temperature

The temperature of the molten plastic just prior to entering the mould or extruded through the die.

Metallising

Applying a thin coating of metal to a non-metallic surface. May be done by chemical deposition or by exposing the surface to vaporised metal in a vacuum chamber.

Modulus of elasticity

The ratio of stress to strain in a material that is elastically deformed.

Moisture Vapour Transmission

The rate at which water vapour permeates through a plastic film or wall at a specified temperature and relative humidity.

Monomer

A relatively simple compound which can react to form a polymer.

Mould

To shape plastic parts or finished articles by heat and pressure. The cavity or matrix into which the plastic composition is placed and from which it takes its form. The assembly of all the parts that function collectively in the moulding process.

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Glossary of Terms

Moulding shrinkage

The difference in dimensions, expressed in inches per inch, between a moulding and the mould cavity in which it was moulded, both the mould and the moulding being at normal room temperature when measured.

Organic recycling

Organic recycling is either the aerobic (i.e., composting) or anaerobic (bio-methanisation) treatment of biodegradable materials under controlled conditions, using microorganisms to produce stabilised organic residues, methane and carbon dioxide.

Orientation

The alignment of the crystalline structure in polymeric materials so as to produce a highly uniform structure. Can be accomplished by cold drawing or stretching during fabrication.

Parison

The hollow plastic tube from which a container, toy, etc. is blow moulded.

Photo-biodegradation

Degradation of the polymer is triggered by UV light and assisted by the presence of UV sensitisers. In this process the polymer is converted to low molecular weight material and in a second step converted to carbon dioxide and water by bacterial action.

Photodegradable

A process where ultraviolet radiation degrades the chemical bond or link in the polymer or chemical structure of a plastic.

Plasticizer

Chemical agent added to plastic compositions to make them softer and more flexible.

Polymer

A high-molecular-weight organic compound, natural or synthetic, whose structure can be represented by a repeated small unit, the mer; e.g., polyethylene, rubber, cellulose. Synthetic polymers are formed by addition or condensation polymerisation of monomers. If two or more monomers are involved, a copolymer is obtained. Some polymers are elastomers, some plastics.

Polymerisation

The process of converting a mixture of monomers into a polymer.

Polyamide

A polymer in which the structural units are linked by amide or thioamide groupings. Many polyamides are fibre forming.

Polybutylene

A polymer prepared by the polymerization of butene as the sole monomer.

Polyester

A resin formed by the reaction between a dibasic acid and a dihydroxy alcohol, both organic. Modification with multi-functional acids and/or bases and some unsaturated reactants permit crosslinking to thermosetting resins. Polyesters modified with fatty acids are called alkyds.

Polyethylene

A thermoplastic material composed by mers of ethylene. It is normally a translucent, tough, waxy solid which is unaffected by water and by a large range of chemicals.

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Polyhydroxyalkanoates

Linear aliphatic polyesters produced in nature by bacterial fermentation of sugar or lipids.

Polyhydroxybutyrate


Polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate copolymer


Polylactic acid


Polyolefin

A polymer prepared by the polymerisation of an olefin(s) as the sole monomer(s).

Polypropylene

A tough, lightweight rigid plastic made by the polymerization of highpurity propylene gas in the presence of an organometallic catalyst at relatively low pressures and temperatures.

Polystyrene

A water-white thermoplastic produced by the polymerization of styrene (vinyl benzene). The electrical insulating properties of polystyrene are outstandingly good and the material is relatively unaffected by moisture.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

A thermoplastic material composed of polymers of vinyl chloride; a colorless solid with outstanding resistance to water, alcohols, and concentrated acids and alkalis. It is obtainable in the form of granules, solutions, lattices, and pastes. Compounded with plasticizers it yields a flexible material superior to rubber in ageing properties. It is widely used for cable and wire coverings, in chemical plants, and in the manufacture of protective garments.

Preform

A compressed tablet or biscuit of plastic composition used for efficiency in handling and accuracy in weighing materials. (v.) To make plastic molding powder into pellets or tablets.

Reinforced plastics

A plastic with high strength fillers embedded in the composition, resulting in some mechanical properties superior to those of the base resin.

Resin

Any of a class of solid or semi-solid organic product of natural or synthetic origin, generally of high molecular weight with no definite melting point. Most resins are polymers.

Shore hardness

A method of determining the hardness of a plastic material using a durometer.

Shrink wrapping

A technique of packaging in which the strains in a plastic film are released by raising the temperature of the film thus causing it to shrink over the package. These shrink characteristics are built into the film during its manufacture by stretching it under controlled temperatures to produce orientation of the molecules. Upon cooling, the film retains its stretched condition, but reverts toward its original dimensions when

152

Glossary of Terms

it is heated. Shrink film gives good protection to the products packaged and has excellent clarity. Specific gravity

The density (mass per unit volume) of any material divided by that of water at a standard temperature, usually 4 °C. Since water’s density is nearly 1.00 g/cc, density in g/cc and specific gravity are numerically nearly equal.

Spinning

Process of making fibers by forcing plastic melt through a spinneret.

Thermal conductivity

Ability of a material to conduct heat; physical constant for quantity of heat that passes through a unit cube of a substance in a unit of time when the difference in temperature of two faces is 1 degree.

Thermal expansion coefficient

The fractional change in length (sometimes volume, specified) of a material for a unit change in temperature. Values for plastics range from 0.01 to 0.2 mil/in.

Thermoforming

Any process of forming thermoplastic sheet which consists of heating the sheet and pulling it down onto a mould surface.

Thermoplastic

A polymeric material or plastic that becomes soft or formable when heated and rigid when cooled.

Tensile strength

The pulling stress, in psi, required to break a given specimen. Area used in computing strength is usually the original, rather than the neckeddown area.

Thermoset

A polymeric material that undergoes irreversible chemical changes when cured with heat, catalysts or ultraviolet light.

Transparent

Descriptive of a material or substance capable of a high degree of light transmission, e.g., glass. Some polypropylene films and acrylic mouldings are outstanding in this respect.

UV stabilizer

Any chemical compound which, when mixed with a thermoplastic resin, selectively absorbs UV rays.

Vacuum forming

Method of sheet forming in which the plastic sheet is clamped in a stationary frame, heated, and drawn down by a vacuum into a mould. In a loose sense, it is sometimes used to refer to all sheet forming techniques, including Drape Forming involving the use of vacuum and stationary moulds.

Viscosity

Internal friction or resistance to flow of a liquid. The constant ratio of shearing stress to rate of shear. In liquids for which this ratio is a function of stress, the term ‘apparent viscosity’ is defined as the ratio.

Warpage

Dimensional distortion in a plastic object after moulding.

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13

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABS

acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymers

ADM

Archer Daniels Midland Company

APET

amorphous polyethylene terephthalate

ASTM

American Society for Testing and Materials

ATP

adenosine triphosphate

BOPP

biaxially oriented polypropylene

BPI

Biodegradable Products Institute

BPS

Biodegradable Polymer Society

BS

butylene succinate

CAGR

cumulative annual growth rate

CEN

European Committee for Standardization

CL

caprolactone

CPET

crystallised polyethylene terephthalate

DLPLA

poly(dl-lactide)

EU

European Union

EVOH

ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer

FDA

US Food & Drug Administration

FFS

form-fill-seal

GRAS

generally recognised as safe

GTR

guided-tissue-regeneration

HDPE

high density polyethylene

IBAW

International Biodegradable Polymers Association & Working Groups

IEC

International Electrotechnical Commission

ISBM

Injection stretch blow moulding

ISO

International Standards Organization

LA

lactic acid

LCP

liquid crystal polymers

LDPE

low density polyethylene

LLDPE

linear low density polyethylene

LPLA

l-lactide

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MFR

melt flow rate

MGC

Mitsubishi Gas Chemical

MVTR

moisture vapour transmission rate

MW

molecular weight

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Area

NTI

Northern Technologies International

OPLA

oriented polylactide film

OPS

oriented polystyrene

PA

polyamide

PBAT

polybutylene adipate-terephthalate

PBS

polybutylene succinate

PBSA

polybutylene succinate-adipate

PBSC

polybutylene succinate-carbonate

PBST

polybutylene succinate-terephthalate

PBT

polybutylene terephthalate

PC

polycarbonate

PCB

polychlorinated biphenyl

PCL

polycaprolactone

PDS

polydioxanone

PE

polyethylene

PEC

polyester carbonate

PET

polyethylene terephthalate

PETG

polyethylene terephthalate glycol

PGA

polyglycolide

PHA

polyhydroxyalkanoate

PHB

polyhydroxybutyrate

PHBH

poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid-co-3-hydroxyhexanoic acid)

P(3HB-3HV) poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) PHBV

polyhydroxybutyrate valerate

PHV

polyhydroxyvalerate

PLA

polylactic acid

PP

polypropylene

PPM

primary packaging materials

PPS

polyphenylene sulfide

PS

polystyrene

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

PTMT

polytetramethylene adipate-terephthalate

PVA

polyvinyl alcohol

PVC

polyvinyl chloride

REC

renewable energy certificate

RoHS

Restriction on Hazardous Substances

RF

radio frequency

Tg

glass transition temperature

Tm

melt temperature

TTR

thermal transfer ribbon

USP

United States Pharmacopeia

UV

ultraviolet light

WMI

Wei Mon Industry Cn. Ltd

157


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ISBN: 1-85957-519-6

Smithers Rapra Limited Smithers Rapra Limited is a leading international organisation with over 80 years of experience providing technology, information and consultancy on all aspects of rubbers and plastics. Smithers Rapra Limited was formed in 2006 when Rapra Technology became part of The Smithers Group. Rapra has extensive processing, analytical and testing laboratory facilities and expertise, and produces a range of engineering and data management software products, and computerised knowledge-based systems. Rapra also publishes books, technical journals, reports, technological and business surveys, conference proceedings and trade directories. These publishing activities are supported by an Information Centre which maintains and develops the world’s most comprehensive database of commercial and technical information on rubbers and plastics.

Shawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, UK Telephone: +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118 http://www.rapra.net

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