Battling for survival: India’s wilderness over two centuries

BATTLING FOR 5URVNAL India's Wilderness Over Two Centuries

Edited by

Valmik Thapar

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Contents

Preface

ix

Acknowledgements

xii

The Nineteenth Century

1

The Beginning

The Early Twentieth Century

31

A Critical Period

72

1927-1947

The Nehru Years

149

Independent India: 1947-1964

The Gandhi Era

241

1966-1989

The End of a Century 1990-2002

317

viii

CONTENIS

Appendix

I

371

Appendix

II

389

Appendix

III

403

Appendix

IV

41 3

Appendix

V

419

Bibliography

426

Name Index

443

Preface

T

his book is a glance through two centuries from 1 802 to 2002. It looks at the pages of the history of the wilderness written

by people at different times and moments. It is about governance and the endless battles fought to keep our wilderness alive. I have used excerpts and edited this amazing basket of writing interspersing it with my comments. It is a collection of bits and pieces and I have loved every minute of putting it all together. For me it has been like a journey into an ever-changing wilderness. There are dozens of doctoral theses waiting to be done on different facets of these two hundred years. Nearly 1 50 years were under the British and they really plundered the forests of India. Who would not? Feudal or colonial or post-independence-India's politicians wanted a bit of the spoils. What if the British did not rule India? What if the first laws of the nineteenth century had not been legislated? What if tribal and other customary rights over forests had not been effected? Would anything have changed? Who knows? All I know is that in all societies a 'mafia' develops and that mafia wants its share of the spoils. There is no exception to this-and throughout these 200 years a tiny minority, who loved India's forests and fought for their very survival, tried desperately to minimize the plunder of the mafias. Did they succeed? Maybe to some extent. Till independence it was the white man battling most of the time. I have found very few records of Indians at the forefront of

X

PREFACE

conservation. Then in post-independent India a mixture of Indians and the British who stayed on battled the system, and then by the 1960s emerged the bunch that felt they could make a difference. They courted Indira Gandhi because she was the most powerful ally they had seen. I shudder to think what would have happened to Forest India or our conservationists without her or the laws she made. Could local tribals and forest communities have managed the wilderness against the ruthless vested interests? Would we have been better off with an Indira Gandhi rather than a Nehru in those first decades after independence? Who knows? All I know is that a tiny wild bunch battled it out over two centuries and that is why some of our natural treasures are left in 2003, and this wild bunch fought because they were in love with the wilderness of India. Most believed that little would survive the tum of the twenty-first century. But somewhere the grit and determination of a bunch of individuals did impact on all these years. This is the story of their battles and it is because of them that we still have fragments of wilderness alive. It is nowhere like what it must have been in 1802. But even today a place like Kanha or Kaziranga can take your breath away. So some of the battles had their impact and there are superb success stories to see as a result of them. Throughout the centuries the battles to save India's wilderness were fought whether by autocratic means, or exclusionary policies or authoritarian decisions or by keeping people out or restrictive regulations or top-down approaches-call it what you like. What mattered in the end is that the forest survives and this book has glimpses of some of those fighters and their efforts using every available method. It is about a bunch of people who loved the field in preference to the armchair or writing table. They knew some of the realities that the wilderness faced and focused on action rather than the endless academic exercises that go into the rhetoric of today in terms of 'how to save'. I hope this book inspires many more, especially forest officers, to fight for our wilderness and in the field where it really matters. I also hope that many NGOs learn from the example of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) about the critical role that this organization played over the century in matters pertaining to

PREFACE

xi

conservation. It is truly remarkable and even though there were other associations, BNHS in a way spearheaded a variety of battles. Some of these battles are very similar to what we fight even today. The last decade in India's wildlife history has been tough. I have, through my own experiences, given it some shape. I only know that in 1992 I thought that the tiger would be virtually extinct by 2000. I was proved wrong and that is hope-hope for the future when more battles will be fought to save our wilderness from extinction.

New Delhi 1 January 2003

VALMII< THAPAR

Acknowledgements

F

irstly I must thank J.C. Daniel of the Bombay Natural History Society for not only pointing me in the right direction but also

permitting me to extract so much information from the Society's journals which have been for me a source of great inspiration. I thank Pradeep Sankhala for allowing me to quote his father's work and George Schaller and Billy Arjun Singh for permitting me to use their work. I thank Oxford University Press for allowing me the use of M. Krishnan's text and

Seminar

for the use of my

own writings. I thank Devyani Kulkarni for all her help in the research for this book. I thank the Holkars for the use of that amazing picture of a tiger on a car from their book,

The Cooking of the Maharajas.

I thank N.C. Dhingra for his unique picture of a tiger with its enormous crocodile kill probably one of the most unique pictures from India's wilderness ever taken. I thank Malvika Singh, Paola Manfredi, and Romila Thapar for their reactions and responses. I thank Sunny Philip for his help in typing the manuscript. I thank Mr Asim Ghosh and his team at Hutchinson Max Ltd. for his support towards the production of this book. And to Sanjna Kapoor and my son Hamir endless thanks for their inspiration during 2002.

The Nineteenth Century The Beginning

he early nineteenth century must have opened on an India that was nature's treasure house-rich and dense with a remarkable diversity of wildlife. Just a glimpse of those times comes from a few comments on the unbelievable hunts that could take place. One of the early records of the jungles and wildlife of India comes from a remarkable book put together by Captain T. Williamson in 1807, called Oriental Field Sports. It describes the India of those times and, for me, has always been a fascinating record of those early years when the wildlife of India resembled Africa and the first sport hunting had only just begun. This book, in a way, made history as the eighteenth century ended and the nineteenth started. It was a unique record of India's untamed wilderness. I quote what is one of my favourite plates and its connected description, which is about wild dogs and tigers:

T

I am aware that the subject of this plate will be considered, even by many who have passed nearly their whole lives in Bengal, and especially in other parts of India, as being by no means authentic; and I am also sensible that some few have confounded the dhole, or wild dog, with the jackal. In fact, it has fallen in the way ofvery few,

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to ascertain the absolute existence of the animal in question. However, the want of information in others shall not deter me from offering to the public what I know to be true . . . About wild dogs Williamson states:

They are by nature extremely shy, and avoid all places which are much frequented either by men or cattle. Residing, for the most part, in those immense saul-jungles, which, for hundreds of miles, appear like one black dreary wilderness, it cannot be supposed that Europeans in general, who mostly confine their occupations and their ordinary recreations to the open country, could have many opportunities of seeing them. The dhole community so called, though its name varies much in different places, appears to be about the size of a small greyhound. It has an uncommonly keen look; the countenance being highly enlivened by a remarkably brilliant eye. The body, which is slender and deep chested is very thinly covered with a reddish brown coat of hair; or more properly of a rich bay colour. The tail is long and thin; becoming like the feet, ears, muzzle and coat darker towards the extremities. Their limbs, though light and compact, appear to be remarkably strong, and to be equally calculated for speed, or for power. The peasants likewise state that the dholes are keen in proportion to the size or powers of the animal they hunt; preferring elks to other deer and particularly seeking the royal tiger. I have therefore suggested the probability that some particular enemy exists, which thins the tiger species; or else from the ordinary course of propagation, their numbers would, inevitably, extend to the destruction of every other animal. Knowing the immense powers and activity of a tiger, I should perhaps be somewhat skeptical in regard to the reports of the natives who assert, that not even the largest and fiercest can hold out against the dholes. When I first heard the people of Ramghur detailing their anecdotes on the subject, I was not disposed to give any credit to what appeared to me, such palpable absurdities; and indeed, I

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3

was so illiberal as to ridicule their attempts, for such I considered them, to impose on me with such gross deception. I really could not reconcile it to myself, that dogs of any kind, or however numerous, could cope with a royal tiger. In this same book there was even a remarkable description of how local people hunt and kill tigers with arrows:

Such is the velocity of the arrow, and so quick does this simple contrivance· act, that, tigers are, for the most part, shot near the shoulder. Generally, tigers fall within two hundred yards of the fatal spot, they being most frequently struck through the lungs and sometimes straight through the heart. If the arrow be poisoned, as is most frequently the case, locality is no particular object; though without doubt, such wounds as would of themselves prove effectual, unaided by the venom, give the shecarrie least trouble. The poison never fails to kill within an hour. As soon as the tiger is dead, no time is lost in stripping off the skin; for, were it suffered to remain until the heat might taint it, nothing could effect its preservation; it would rot a certainty; and, even were it not to do so, rapidly the hair would loosen and fall off. But it was also between 1806-1808 that the first 'conservation' of forests started and Captain Watson was asked to assess the forests of Malabar and Travancore. What an expedition it must have been for him! The gun was still to become a menace and its technology was still antiquated. This was a great moment for jungle expeditions and hunting parties. An English lady describes her shooting expedition in 1837 into the Rajmahal Hills of Bengal with 260 attendants and twenty elephants. Writing to a friend she stated:

They do say that there are hills in Bengal, not more than a hundred and forty miles from here; and the unsophisticated population of these hills is entirely composed of tigers, rhinoceroses, wild buffaloes and, now and then, a herd of wild hogs. There, I'm going to live for

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three weeks in a tent.I shall travel the first fifty miles in a palanquin and then I shall march; it takes a full week to travel a hundred miles in that manner ... . We had thirty-rwo elephants out this morning to beat the jungles and to be sure, they were jungles that required beating. What is called high grass jungles, the grass being the consistency of timber, it seems to me, so very much higher than elephant, howdah, and human creature, nothing to be seen of them at 5 yards distance, nothing heard but the crunching of reeds by the elephants as they break their way through ... . What is amazing about these times is the richness of the habitat as endless rhinos and tigers got flushed out by these expeditions. Another diary of 1839 has the following detail:

William arrived yesterday; he looks uncommonly well ... He and Mr. A have killed 36 tigers, the largest number ever killed in this part of the country by rwo guns, and his expedition seems to have answered very well. In the early nineteenth century there was a remarkable character-and probably one of the first in the history of the forests of India-Alexander Gibson. He came to India for the first time in 1821 and by 1825 he joined the marine department of the Bombay government. Just before coming to India he learnt the Hindustani language in the UK. He served in India and in 1 838, at the age of thirty-eight, became one of the first acting superintendents of the Botanical Gardens. From 1840 he conducted some of the first 'forest missions' ever done-he examined the northern forests, including Kolwun and Hunsool, and in 1841 did a forest tour of the Concan. In 1843 he visited the teak plantations in Poona and in 1 844 the North Canara forests. By 1845 he was the interim conservator of forests appointed by Sir George Arthur. Till 1 847 he surveyed endless forests in the Bombay Presidency and was officially appointed in the same year as conservator of forests, probably the first one in India. Even though there was an earlier 'conservancy' in Malabar between 1806 and 1823, perhaps Gibson was actually the first conservator-even before the creation

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5

of a national forest department or service. The reason· for his appointment was clearly to ensure enough timber for the British navy. The state of Bombay's forests in the 1830s was so bad and there was so much concern about timber supply that Governor Farish, in 1839, banned the cutting of teak-this was when the Military Board controlled all forests, though this changed in the 1840s under Gibson. Soon the political, revenue, and military departments would relinquish their hold on the forest. As a forest officer, Gibson was given full magisterial powers as early as 1848. His job was to . provide timber to the government and to the people. Between 1846 and 1854 new responsibilities of planting roadside trees, thinning plantations, preserving babul plantations in southern Maratha country, and the scaling of fees on jungle timber were given to him. If Gibson got Rs 500 per month and Rs 10 every day as a travel allowance, the Bombay forest department had a budget of Rs 293 which increased to Rs 328 by 1856. Gibson's salary came from the marine department till 1860. Thereafter it became the responsibility of the public works department. What an amazing time it must have been! One of the few descriptions of Gibson's travels comes from the book The Dapuri Drawings whose author H.J. Noltie states: The only description of Gibson's mode of travel occurs in a letter to Hooker written in January 1 8 5 8 from Tellicherry in Malabar describing his progress from Calicut to Coorg as follows: 'getting up at 3-walking 8 miles by torch light, horse riding four, and the remaining 3 in a mucheel or swinging hammock brings me to ground with comfort by or before 8 am, and this life I expect to have for the next hundred days'. H.J. Noltie: The Dapuri Drawings.

The life of the first forest officers of India must have been fascinating. It was only in 1864 that a national forest department was created-nearly twenty years after Gibson's work. Let us have some other glimpses of the nineteenth century. Major J.G. Elliot writes in Field Sports in India: 1800-1947:

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The troops of the Honourable East India Company, fighting their way against the Mahrattas north-west from Calcutta to the frontier on the Jumna, found a countryside where the cultivation surrounding the villages was interspersed with areas of thick jungle, tall trees growing out of dense undergrowth and extensive thickets laced with briers. And through this plentiful cover swarmed tiger, pig, deer, peacock, partridge, quail, snipe and duck. Small wonder that the officers of those days turned to sport for relaxation, setting a fashion that persisted to the end. By the start of the nineteenth century field sports were everywhere recognised as part and parcel of the life of the British community. The officers of those days were born and bred in the English countryside and love of sport was in the blood. There was game to be ridden, hunted or shot by anyone who took the trouble to ride a mile or two out of camp or cantonment. 'We had agreed to fire at nothing but tiger, and in consequence the deer and hogs, which we found in greater abundance than I could have believed, all escaped.' Those halcyon days did not last for ever but the next seventy­ five years were the era of the great shikaris: Williamson, Shakespeare, Burton, Kinloch, Forsyth, Gordon, Cumming, Sanderson, Baker, Pollock, to name but a few of them. Game was everywhere plentiful and there was little limit or restriction imposed on what they shot, or where. In fact it was a matter of government policy to clear whole areas of game to open up fresh tracts for cultivation. About 1880 it began to dawn on the early conservationists that things had gone far enough. Soil erosion, following in the footsteps of the sacred cow, was stripping the countryside bare up to the boundaries of the government forests. And inside those forests some control became necessary over what might be shot. The early game laws date from then. Responsibility for giving effect to these laws rested with the officers of the Indian Forest Service, men who spent the months from November to March in the jungle, 'wise in more than wood lore alone', and they made a good job of it. The trips taken on long leave are unforgettable. You booked your forest block weeks, even months, ahead, wrote to the Survey of India for large-scale maps, and pored over them in anticipation till

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you felt you knew every corner of them. Then the day came and you were away, away from the heat and dust of the plains, away from the monotony of an individual training programme that decreed that on the first of April each year the trained soldier once more became a recruit, away to the cool and peace of the jungle where you could not walk a hundred yards without seeing a track or hearing a sound that excited your curiosity and tested your jungle lore. Or if your fancy took you into hills, you marched for a week or ten days through scenery which in truth 'made even Scotland seem tame'. Cold sparkling air; perhaps by the side of the road a tiny waterfall pouring down over a cliff, the rocks tinged with rust, the water, ice cold, tasting faintly of iron; the camp fire outside the tent in the evenings. You stalked barasingha, or ibex or marcher at a height ofover 1 5,000 feet across ground so precipitous you began to wonder why you had ever been fool enough to leave the flat. If you went back empty­ handed, though you seldom did, you had a host of memories to console you in your disappointment. If your regiment was stationed in central India, Cawnpore, Jubbulpore, Mhow, Belgaum, the jungle was at your doorstep and if you had your scouts out, and an indulgent colonel who asked no questions if you disappeared for a couple of nights, you might bring back a panther or even a tiger. In the Sunderbands, the vast delta of the Ganges, game was plentiful-tiger, deer, hog, rhinoceros and buffalo, but there the sportsmen travelled by boat, not on foot or on elephants, and stalking was difficult if not impossible because of the denseness of the reeds and thickets; to say nothing of the danger from tigers who were the most fearless and confirmed man-eaters in all India. The jungles of the United Provinces started about Debra Dun and carried on along the foothills of the Himalayas beyond the provincial boundary for a total of six hundred miles. This is the Terai. In the south, along the frontier with Nepal, are vast swamps, the last remaining haunt in India of the rhinoceros. The northern half is drier but it is cut by foaming rivers pouring down from their sources in glaciers above the snow line.

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The greater part of this immense area consists of forest, dense thicket and tangled vegetation, and where there is water, a very high feathery-tipped grass, appropriately named elephant grass, grows abundantly. Where the grass has been burnt by villagers to obtain fresh pastures for their cattle, park-like glades, clothed in bright green, prevail. And to complete this game reserve, perhaps one of the finest in the world, there are numerous jheels and swamps. It harboured a few elephants, which were strictly preserved, as well as tiger, panther, sambhar and cheetal, barking deer and pig. The heat was never oppressive right up to June, and to fill the cup of happiness you might from your tent or forest bungalow hear one of the snow­ fed rivers tearing over rapids into deep pools that were the home of crocodile and turtle. The tiger claimed your attention in the early mornings and evenings, but the forenoon was given over to the mahseer. A six-pounder caught in heavy water on a one-inch fly spoon and a trout rod fought with a fury matched by few other fish. There are three well-defined though overlapping periods in the story of the sport of the British in India: up to about 1840, for forty years to 1880, and from then to 1947. There was little finesse about it to start with. Few knew or cared much about jungle lore; they were fearless, hard hitting, straightforward Nimrods, ready to ride down with spear or rifle anything they came across. They set the fashion and laid the foundations for those who came after them, but over the next seventy-five years the whole pattern oflife changed so much-Game swarmed over the countryside and village life over large areas was disrupted by man-eaters. When the new military road was built from Calcutta to Benares to cut the distance of the old route along the Ganges, a belt of jungle had to be kept clear for a hundred yards on either side; otherwise tiger would have taken such toll of the travellers that only formed bodies of troops could have used the road. The evolution of a battalion at drill might be thrown into disorder by a stag seeking refuge from a tiger lurking in the jungle that bordered the parade ground. And when the day's work was over three or four officers would make up a party and go questing after tiger, pig, deer or whatever the countryside offered,

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much as their successors a hundred years later would go out after partridge or peacock from battalion camp. When the Mahratta wars were over, about 18 10, the countryside began to settle down, troops were collected in cantonments and game became scarce in immediate vicinity of military stations, but elsewhere it was still plentiful, and there were no game laws. You might have to travel forty or fifty miles to find something to shoot but there was no difficulty about that; parties of two or three would go into camp for a fortnight or even longer. With some semblance oflaw and order prevailing, the government, the East India Company as it still was, turned its attention to exploring the resources of what was really virgin forest. It was the day of Sanderson among the elephants in Mysore. Forsyth and Sterndale in the Central Provinces, men seconded for duty for the purpose. Their books mark the first serious attempt to record the natural history of the country, the customs of the people and the habits of the animals they shoot. Major General J.G. Elliot: Field Sports in India: 1800-1947.

I agree with Major General Elliot that it was a bunch of men, I call them the Wild Bunch, who somewhere between the middle to the end of the nineteenth century started putting down not only their hunting records but also what they saw of the rich natural history. It was a period which saw a spate of books on those remarkable times, and I am certain that it was because of the efforts of this Wild Bunch that many of the first laws on forest and wildlife conservation were founded and amended. The hunters had started to protect their wilderness and some even considered giving up the gun to save wildlife. People like Forsyth, Sanderson, and Sterndale recorded the remarkable richness of wildlife, and even without knowing it they were playing a vital role in what would happen in the next century. Even as early as in 1852 there was a growing concern in parts of central India, especially in Seoni and Mandla districts, about the cutting of teak and sal, and in the years that followed the first restrictions regarding cutting were put in place. For the first time permissions were required to cut timber while some species of trees even got reserved, and as the years rolled on the restrictions

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on the extraction of timber increased. The British knew this was their wealth. They were fencing India's forests for their own use. Even in the Dangs district of Gujarat restrictions on felling were imposed. In fact the pressures were rising. After the mutiny of 1857 there was an enormous focus on expanding the railways and most of the wooden sleepers required came from the superb sal forests dotted across India. It must have been encounters like these in the nineteenth century that opened the minds of those in power to enact legislation in order to own this untapped treasure house. By the end of the 1860s the pressures began for legislation. Would anyone ever believe that the first bit of wildlife or forest legislation concerned the protection of elephants? The fauna and flora of India from the 1860s till the tum of the twentieth century were protected by the following legislations and rules: 1. The Elephant Preservation Acts of 1873 and 1879 ( Madras 1 of 1873 and India VI of 1879): These Acts prohibit the killing, injuring, or capturing of wild elephants except in self-defence or under a licence. The reason for this act was clear. The British wanted strict controls on the wild elephant because it was an economically viable asset. At least 2000 of them were being caught each year. This was a historic law and functioned to limit the use of the elephant. By 1879 this legislation on elephants was applicable to all of British India. Shooting was permitted only of individual elephants that were a danger to humans. This law was enacted nine years after the creation of the imperial forest department in 1864, and it probably played a role in strengthening the powers of this department. It also heralded the beginning of a series of Acts and legislations that would empower the British to control forest India. 2. Madras Act 11 of 1879 : The operation of this Act is confined to the Nilgiris and provides for closed hunting seasons. 3. There were three other Acts concerning the forests of India:

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(a) The Indian Forest Act, 1878. (b) Madras Forest Act, 1882. (c) Burma Forest Act, 1902. The Indian Forest Act further strengthened the powers of the forest officers and the imperial forest department while enabling large tracts of forests to be brought under the control of government. The wealth of the Indian forest had finally been realized-be it timber, minor forest produce, wildlife, or its derivatives. It was all now the property of the government. By the tum of the century nearly 20 per cent of British India would be government-controlled forests. There were a few other laws that were also enacted: 4. The Wild Birds and Game Protection Act, 1887. 5. The Act relating to fisheries in British India, 1897. It was all these laws that carried India into the twentieth century and they carne about because a need must have been felt to preserve the forests, keep them alive, and of course control them. Controlling then meant controlling the wealth of India. There must have been a group of people who intervened in the system to create these laws and these were the first pieces of legislation that were used in the governance of the natural wealth of India. It is in this period of time somewhere in the 1880s that our story starts. It was in 1883 on 15 September that seven gentlemen, interested in natural history, got together and proposed to meet each month to exchange notes, exhibit specimens, and encourage each other. It was this gathering that created the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). The Wild Birds and Game Protection Act of 1887 had probably triggered a debate. Concerned people were getting involved in the process of governance. All the laws were recent and the biggest debate concerned hunting. The Wild Bird and Game Protection Act of 1887 carne into being because of a growing concern regarding the depletion of game-this concern being raised by hunters all across India. In a way, it would be an Act that would protect game for the hunting season and attemp t to prevent the slaughter of wildlife

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indiscriminately. However, this Act was vital to India's wildlife and in the period immediately after its enactment much correspondence resulted. Probably some of the most fascinating bits of dialogue were over the protection of insectivorous birds in the interest of agriculture. BNHS was only a few years old, yet many found it an important forum in which to express their opinions. Within a year of the Act being passed there was a demand for its reconsideration, as will be evident from the correspondences quoted below: Correspondence Relating to the Protection of Insectivorous Birds in the Interests of Agriculture

Bengal Chamber of Commerce Calcutta, 3 1" January 1888 No. 90 of 1888 From S.E.J. Clarke, Esq. Secretary, Bengal Chamber of Commerce, To Sir E.C. Buck, Kt., C.S., Secretary to the Government of India, Revenue and Agricultural Department. Sir,-The Committee of the Chamber of Commerce desire me to hand you copy of a letter, dated 5'h January, from Mr. John Rudd Rainey, Zemindar of Khulna, and copy of the Englishman of 3 1" December, containing a report of a lecture delivered by him before the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. With reference to these papers I am to say, that a reconsideration ofAct XX of 1887, 'An Act for the Protection of Wild Birds and Game' , for the more effectual protection of insectivorous birds in the interests ofAgriculture would have the support of the Chamber of Commerce.- I have, & C., (Signed) S.E.J. Clarke, Secretary. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 4 ( 1 889), p. 1 24.

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The Protection of Insectivorous Birds

At a meeting of the Agri-Horticultural Society on Thursday, Mr John. Rudd Rainey, F.R.G.S., delivered an address on the 'Effectual protection of insectivorous birds in the interests of agriculture.' He said:

As this Society has ever since its foundation, extending over a period of well nigh three score and ten years, been foremost in bringing forward and discussing all subjects likely in any way to promote agricultural interests in this country, as well as advocating such measures as are calculated to prove conducive thereto, hence I venture, as a member of it, to introduce this by no means unimportant subject to their notice with. the view of inviting a discussion upon it at this meeting, and persuading the Society to move the Government to pass an enactment of the effectual protection of insectivorous birds in the interest of agriculture. I am more especially induced to do so now, as the recent promulgation of a legislative enactment (Act No. XX of 1887), entitled 'An Act for the Protection of Wild Birds and Game', fully recognizes the fact that, the destruction of insectivorous birds inj uriously affects agriculture, and endeavours to mitigate the evil, but not to any appreciable extent. This of course, is not sufficient. The utter extermination of insectivorous birds will, no doubt, be thereby prevented, but what is really wanted is something more, the effectual protection from destruction of these useful, nay valuable, birds to agriculturists. It being now an admitted and well known fact, that insectivorous birds are the best friends of agriculturists, it is therefore altogether unnecessary for me to lay any stress upon this point. But it may be stated that, in India, where insects are so various, numerous, and prolific, the destruction they commit on growing and ripening crops is simply incalculable, so much so that a stipulation is sometimes inserted in agricultural leases to the effect that no reduction of rent on account of destruction of crops by insects will be allowed.

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FOR 5URVIVAL

Perhaps some persons may be inclined to think that the preservation of insectivorous birds would result in the total extermination of all insects, useful and destructive alike, so I may point out that Nature, in her wise provision for the protection of all things created, has happily provided against such a contingency, by supplying to those insects most exposed to danger from birds, forms and colours assimilating to the plants on which they are found, and that they thus obtain some appreciable protection from their enemies of the feathered tribe: the most striking illustrations of insects being in some measure insured against danger by their similarity to plants are of course those of grasshoppers, walking leaf insects (genus Phylliam of Entomologists) , and the various members of the curious family Phasmida, all common to this country. I hope that what I have here advanced will induce the Society to make a fitting representation to the Government on the subject, in order to move the Supreme Legislature to pass a more liberal measure in the all-important interest of the agriculturists. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 4 ( 1 889) , pp. 1 26, 127, 1 29.

I find the above extracts of this 1888 note fascinating. More than a century ago, one man fought to protect insectivorous birds, whereas today no one even realizes the importance of these birds. It was clear that the 1887 Act had started a process of dialogue towards protection and its impact was to be felt on other legislations as well. By 1888 the impact of the previous year's legislation was to effect change in the Indian Forest Act of 1878, and under Section 25(i) of this Act the following restrictions and amendments were made in the interest of 'game': Notification The 29th November 1888

No. 6925-The Chief Commissioner is pleased, under Section 25 (i) ofAct VII of 1878 (The Indian Forest Act), to prescribe the following rules to be in force in all 'Reserved Forests' in the Central Provinces:

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I. The poisoning of water for any purpose whateve r is prohibited. II. 1 . Hunting, shooting, fishing or setting of traps or snares is prohibited, except with the permission in writing of the Deputy Commissioner or a Forest Officer duly authorized by him or by the Conservator of Forests in this behalf, and specifYing the particular forest or forests to which the permission applies, and the period for which it is current. 2. The permit may either be general or may restrict the holder to the hunting or shooting or trapping or snaring of particular species, or may prohibit the hunting or shooting or trapping or snaring of any particular species. 3. The permit shall specifically prohibit the destruction or capture of animals of any species in respect of which the Chief Commissioner has directed the observance of a close season, during the term of such close season. 4. The permit may impose restrictions upon the choice of camping grounds within the forests, and shall in all cases specifY the number of companions, retainers, followers, and animals which the holder of the permit may take with him into the forest. 5. Any permit granted under this rule shall be liable at any time to be cancelled by order of the officer granting it or of the Conservator of Forests, and shall cease to be valid in the event of fire occurring in the forest to which it applies. 6. Forest Officers of and above the rank of Sub-Assistant Conservator of Forests are exempted from the operation of this rule within the limits of their respective charges. III. Any breach of the Forest Act or of any rules made under the Act by the holder of a permit granted under Rule II, or by his retainers, shall entail forfeiture of such permit. N. Nothing in these rules shall exempt the holder of a permit granted under Rule II from liability under the Forest Act, or

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any other Law, for anything done in contravention of such law, or for any damage caused by him or his retainers. V. The fees to be charged for the permit issued under Rule II shall be as follows: 1. A fee of one rupee per diem for each sportsman or shikari follower entering the Reserve. 2. A fee of eight annas per diem for each elephant or camel entering the Reserve. 3. When the permit authorizes a camp to be formed within the limits of a Reserve, the pay and allowances of a forest subordinate to be deputed to attend the camp. F.C. Anderson, O ffg Secy. To the Chief Commsr., Central Provinces. .

journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol . 4 (1889), p. 75. As the technology of the gun advanced, a group of people focused on creating restrictions in the laws in order to minimize the damage of uncontrolled hunting. Where would we have been without such interventions? What would have happened but for these nineteenth century laws or their amendments? What would have happened without the debates and actions of the NGOs of that era, like the BNHS? Again there was much debate about these issues and the BNHS played a vital role restricting the desires of the hunters and their lobbies. Let us not forget that the year was

1891,

more then

110

years ago, but the few NGOs that existed were strong and effective then, unlike today. Let us take a look at an early intervention by the BNHS.

The Protection of Wild Birds and Animals The following letter has been addressed to Government by the Bombay Natural History Society on the subject of protection of birds and animals in the presidency:

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From The Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, To The Acting Undersecretary to Government, Bombay SIR,-I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter No. 1575 of 28'h February last, containing draft rules, under section 25(1) of the Indian Forest Act, proposed by Mr. A.T. Shuttleworth. The Rules have been submitted to a large number of the members of this Society, and I am now instructed by the Committee to say that, in their opinion, the rules, if passed (with exception of Nos. 1 and 4), will be most unpopular and will prove a constant source of irritation and annoyance to everyone. The Committee of the Society have carefully considered the question from its various standpoints, and are strongly of opinion that the subject is of such importance that Government should pass a special Act with a view of establishing a 'Close Season', during which all indigenous wild birds and harmless wild animals should be protected. Considering the wanton destruction of birds for the sake of their plumage, which has of late taken place in many parts of the country, and which appears to be on the increase, the Committee are of opinion that protection should not be restricted to game, but should extend to all indigenous wild birds, as well as to harmless wild animals, and that a measure based on such liberal and comprehensive lines would meet with the approval and sympathy of Natives as well as Europeans. In the meanwhile, in an appendix, several extracts from a large number of letters which have lately been sent to this Society from Sind and other parts of the country. H.M. Phipson, Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society.

6, Apollo Street, 16'h April, 1891.

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Appendix There can be no doubt that, unless some steps are taken to prevent it, the time is not far distant when the indigenous game birds of Sind will be well nigh exterminated in the more open parts of the country.Having had some experience all over this district, I know that the Black Partridge has decreased greatly in number, especially in the Rohri and Shikarpur districts. It was in the Rohri district that they were netted for their plumage in enormous numbers a few years ago. I believe the number was as mentioned by Mr.Symons-some 40,000.The shooting grounds about Mungrani, the Shikarpur district, are now worthless. As regards other birds, a considerable traffic in plumage goes on in a quiet way, and one only occasionally hears of it. A year or two ago there was a great demand for certain feathers of the common paddy bird, for which Rs 22 per 'tala' were paid. As very few feathers from each bird are taken, and these are small ones, the number of birds required to produce a 'tala' weight of these feathers was considerable. I expostulated with the zemindars about it, but I heard that several men had made a good deal of money by slaughtering the birds for the sake of these few feathers.I do not think this sort of thing ought to be permitted. Sind, February, 189 1. I am afraid the figures reported to you were anything but exaggerated. Seven or eight years ago it was rumoured that 80,000 Black Partridge skins had been sent off from one station in the Rohri Division (Shikarpur district). In this (the Eastern Nara) district large numbers of large blue Kingfishers and Egrets used to be killed and last year I came across a band of Madrassees engaged in trapping Kingfishers. The awful destruction men of this class must cause may be imagined when it was worth their while to come every year this long journey form Madras, and they were able to pay all expenses and make a living out of the sale of the skins they procured in their cold weather tour. H.M. Phipson, Honourary Secretary journal ofBombay NaturaLHistorySociety, Vol. 6 (1891),

pp. 281-2.

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This was also a moment of time when people wrote about the amazing links they found between Man and Beast. John Lockwood Kipling in 1891 put pen to paper about 'Beast and Man in India'. He called his book A Popular Sketch of Indian Animals in their Relations with People. He wrote· just after the Legislative Council of India passed an Act XI of 1890 for the prevention of cruelty to animals. All these early Acts would play a vital role in the future protection of animals. An extract from Kipling's book follows: One of the most surprising things in the country is the patience with which depredations of the crops are endured. With far less provocation the English farmer organizes sparrow clubs, and freely uses the gun, the trap, and the poisoned bait. And the Indian farmer suffers from creatures that earn no dole of grain by occasional insecticide. The monkey, the nilgai and blackbuck, the wild pig, and the parakeet fatten at his expense, and never kill a caterpillar or weevil in return. He and his family spend long and dismal hours on a platform of sticks raised a few feet above the crops, whence they lift their voices against legions of thieves. The principle of abstaining from slaughter is pushed to an almost suicidal point in purely Hindu regions, and becomes a serious trouble at times. A large tract of fertile country in the N. W. Provinces, bordering on Bhurtpore State, is now lapsing into jungle on account of the inroads of the nilgai and the wild pig. The 'blue cow' or nilgai is sacred, and may not be killed even by the villagers whom the creature drives from their homes, and there are not enough sportsmen or tigers to keep down the wild boar. Gardeners try to scare the birds with elaborate arrangements of string, bamboos, old pans, and stones in their fruit trees; and sometimes a watcher sits like a spider at the centre of an arrangement of cords, radiating all over the field, so that an alarming movement may be produced at any point. Yet their tempers do not give way, and they preserve a monumental patience. Sometimes they say: 'The peacock, the monkey, the deer, the partridge, these four are thieves,' or include other animals and birds with varying numbers, but always with more resignation than resentment. The wisdom of the village says that public calamities are seven, and are visitations of God:

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drought, floods, locusts, rats, parrots, tyranny, and invasion. The professional bird catcher, however, is never of the farmer race, and owes his victims no revenge; while a scornful proverb on his ragged and disreputable condition shows that he earns no gratitude from the cultivator. Another rustic saying about bird slaughter, expanded into its full meaning, would run: 'You kill a paddy-bird, and what do you get? A handful of feathers!' Yet since Parisian milliners have decreed that civilised women shall wear birds in their head-gear, there is not sufficient respect for animal life to say the barbarous slaughter of them now going on all over India. The tolerance or indifference which leaves wild creatures alone is unfortunately an intimate ally of blank ignorance. That townspeople should be ignorant of nature is to be expected, but even in the country a flycatcher, a sparrow, and a shrike are all spoken as chiriyas, birds merely, a not one in fifty, save outcaste folk, can tell you anything of their habits, food, nests, or eggs. The most vague and incorrect statements are accepted and repeated without thought, a habit common to all populations, but more firmly rooted in India than elsewhere. First-hand observation and accurate statement of fact seem almost impossible to the Oriental, and education has not hitherto availed to help him. In the West public instruction becomes more real and vital year by year, but in the East it is still bound hand and foot to corpse of a dead literature. Educational authorities in India discern the fault, but they are themselves mainly of the literary caste and direct native Professors whose passion is for words. We talk of science teaching, but forget to count with a national habit of mind that stands carefully aloof from facts and is capable of reducing the splendid suggestions of Darwin and Wallace, Faraday and Edison, to mechanical and inert rote work. Indifference is intensified by the narrowness of sympathy produced by the caste system, and by the discouragement of attachment to animals among respectable people. Our modern schoolbooks, in which lessons on animal life and humane animal treatment are wisely included, and do something in the course of time to lighten this 'blind side' of Oriental character, and in a few

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generations we may hope for an Indian student of natural history. At present this splendid field is left entirely to European observers, who mostly look at nature along the barrel of a gun, which is a false perspective. I conclude that, while admitting the need for a legislative measure for the protection of animals, consonant with the wishes and feelings of the most cultivated classes in India, and ofitself a sign of advancing civilisation and morality, it would be a task as difficult as hateful to prove that the people at large have any abnormal and inborn tendency to cruelty. The shadow of evil days of anarchy, disorder, and rapine has but lately cleared away and given place to an era of security, when, as the country proverb says, 'the tiger and the goat drink at one ghat'. The people are better than their creeds, but it is not easy to defend their practice, though it is often more due to necessity, custom, and ignorance than to downright brutality of intent. Kipling had a strange way of writing-a strong sense of arrogance pervaded through his words. He did not realize that the so-called ignorance of the Indian people was not ignorance at all but a deep rooted tradition towards nature, a fear and respect of it that kept the natural world alive for them. Can you imagine an India where everyone carried a gun and was ready to cut down every tree? Can you imagine an India where the blue bull was not sacred ? Can you imagine an India without Durga riding the tiger to defeat evil? Can you imagine an India where the banyan tree was not sacred? The soul of India was its belief in nature. Thank god for a lack of Western education and scientific attitude! That is why so much of it lived. And still does. Nature was a part and parcel of daily life. Kipling never could understand this. There were many who like Kipling could not fathom the ritual and belief of the country. But there were others who knew that the secret to the survival of India's rich wildlife lay in the belief of her people in nature and the connection of all the natural world to the gods and goddesses that made up the universe. You do not have to study natural history to protect nature. By the 1890s there were several circulars, instructions, and memos to control the indiscriminate hunting of species that were deemed as going extinct. I reproduce one such circular:

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Circular No. 1525 OF 189 1 General Department

Commissioner's Office Karachi, 23rd September, 1 89 1 Memorandum The Commissioner is informed that p.ersons have been in the habit of snaring and destroying, for the purpose of selling their plumage, the Black Francolin Partridge, the Blue Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnemis) , and several species of Egrets and other birds, and to so great an extent that several species, useful for food as well as ornamental, have been rendered nearly extinct in some parts of the Province. Two persons have recently applied to the Deputy Commissioner, Thar and Parker, for permission to destroy ornamental birds for the sake of their feathers, on the Eastern Nara, on the ground that they have cleared the species out of the Delta of the Indus. 2. The Commissioner desires, therefore, to remind District Officers that the right to destroy ferae naturae as well as fish, has, in Sind, always been a Government royalty, and privilege is sold in certain localities. No one, therefore, can be allowed the privilege gratis as against Government, and the Deputy Commissioner, Thar and Parker, has, therefore, properly refused to grant the pe:.-mission sought for. 3. Revenue and Police Officers are now directed to inform persons who have not paid for the right that they will not be permitted to destroy birds for the sake of their plumage, and to prevent their doing so. journal ofBombay Natural History Society , Vol. 6 ( 1 8 9 1 ) , p. 487.

Such circulars were examples of the first steps taken for the enforcement of the laws and had been triggered by the process of interventions made by the many concerned persons. It also reveals the power of the government over the forest and its produce. It must have been a really exciting time in the history of India's forests. A century was coming to an end and another was about to start. It was the beginning of the first discussions on how to govern the forests and these were the first years of the birth of the

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Imperial Forest Service. It was also a moment for many to bring forth new ideas about wildlife and whether game could be replenished and how; but this was British India and as the centuries changed there is no record of any Indian being involved in conservation-they were totally out of it-at least as far as the British government records were concerned. Also, there were endless discussions about proposals to reintroduce game in different areas, one of which was Bombay. Who said that the idea of reintroduction was a new phenomenon? This was 1892! The Proposed Introduction of Game Into the Neighbourhood of Bombay

Mr. H. Littledale, of Baroda, in bringing forward his proposal, said:

I beg to suggest that an attemp t should be made to introduce the Chukor into this part oflndia. Such an effort would certainly succeed on the Aravellis and Vindhyas, along the big rivers. Again the painted Partridge is our only Southern-Bombay bird; the Black Partridge, a far finer bird, caught to take advantage of the R.M. Railway and settle in our grass birs. He flourishes on the hot grassy plains of Rajpootana, amid the tamarisks of the Indus, and along the banks of the Jhelum in Cashmere; any climate seems to suit him, wet or dry. The Chukor stretches across Asia, Mrica, and Europe, from the Chenab to the Rhone; I have found its nest, at 1 1 ,000 feet, in Baltistan, and it ranges through the low hot levels of Mekran and Arabia. It is a very gamey bird, and, if a fair chance were given it, it would certainly thrive on our ghats everywhere. The Bengal Florican might flourish on the Neilgherries; it lives at 7 to 9 thousand feet in the rainy Pir Pinjal, and the Neilgherry climate would suit it perfectly. There are several Mrican animals, antelopes and so forth, that would thrive in India, and might be easily introduced.

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Let our Sectional Committees take this suggestion up, if they think it worth action on. Money would certainly be forthcoming for a well-considered scheme of introducing to the Bombay side animals that would probably thrive there and give good sport to future generations of sportsmen. I look to this, rather than to vexatious game laws, to provide such shikar in the future as has been enjoyed in the past. Mr. G.W Vidal said that he had received a letter from Mr. E. C. Ozaune, the Director of Agriculture, in which he offered to allow the Society to make use of the Government farms at Budgaum, Poona, and Aligaum for experiments in connection with the acclimatization of game birds. Mr. Vidal also pointed out that land suitable for Black Partridges existed in this Presidency. But I take the opportunity of suggesting that we make an experiment with Pheasants.I thoroughly believe that if pheasants were turned down in the grass lands and teak jungles near the Western Indian Ghats, and protected, a splendid stock might be reared. Every kind of suitable food is present in those jungles for pheasants, and there is plenty of water.I should add about the Bengal Florican that it would be a most interesting experiment, as the bird is not known west of the Ganges.That it is possible it would thrive on the same lands and food as its smaller half-brother, the Lesser Florican or Likh, which is not uncommon in the Deccan and at the Null in the Guzerat. I should doubt, however, our being able to obtain the Bengal Florican in sufficient quantities. I should also suggest the introduction of the African Guinea Fowl. Whatever we do now, we shall do more for the next generation probably than for ourselves. The proposal about Markhor can only be taken as a suggestion to offer to the Neilgherry Game Association. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol . 6 (189 1),

pp. 119-22.

Many must have gone in for reintroductions-as we shall soon see. Exotic species were an· attraction and welcome everywhere. Today few would think of introducing an exotic specie. In fact in places like South Africa, all exotics are being exterminated, including the Himalayan Tahr that ended up above Cape Town.

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Different areas enacted their own laws, rules, and guidelines for hunters and for the protection of wildlife. One such well-known body was 'The Nilgiri Game and Fish Preservation Association' which was created in the 1870s, and their Annual Report of 30 June 1893 makes interesting reading: The Nilgiri Game and Fish Preservation Association

[Extracts from the Annual Report for the year ending 30th June, 1 893.] Increase of Game and Results of Protection Sambhur-There is still a great scarcity of good stags, and such scarcity must continue so long as licence-holders and others butcher small brockets. In the deer forests of Scotland, on Exmoor, in Germany, Newfoundland and many other places, none but 'warrantable' stags are allowed to be shot. On these hills, there is nothing whatever to restrain anyone but his own feelings of humanity and sport. For the Mudumalai Forest, however, special rules have been published, which prohibit the shooting of brockets.These rules have been in force from 1" July, 1 892, and have worked satisfactorily. Ibex-The Association has to announce, with great regret, that the small herd of 5 ibex which existed in Tarnad Burray has totally disappeared, and the only buck left on Konabettu was killed by a landslip last February. It is to be hoped that one of the 2 kids born last year may be a buck; otherwise this small herd of ? (including the kids) must become extinct. Elsewhere on the Kundahs and at Pakasuramalai the ibex are slowly increasing.As already remarked, ibex are much preyed on by panthers, and a small herd cannot make head against their depredations: a larger herd of 20 or 30 may continue to increase in spite of such losses. Bison-A few young bulls are still with the herds in the Mudumalai Forest. Though there were 6 sportsmen shooting in these forests during the year and every inch of the ground was gone over by them, only one black bull was seen.The herds, too, have decreased in number since last year.

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Spotted deer-The wild dogs have done much damage to these deer during the year. A pack of over 40 dogs appeared in the Sigur Forests and killed deer every day for some months, when the pack suddenly broke up into twos and threes. Nine dogs were found lying dead in the forests. Mr. Liebenrood also reports that he found 3 wild dogs lying dead in the forests near Nellakotta. The presumption is that distemper or some other disease broke out in the pack. Some such cause must operate in keeping wild dogs in check, or they would rapidly increase and overrun the whole country. Antelope-These will increase, no doubt, in time with efficient protection. There are 3 or 4 small herds of 5 or 6 in each in the Sigur forests. Small Game-Woodcock have been scarce. Hares fairly plentiful, except in places where jackals are abundant. There is a satisfactory increase in jungle fowl in all the large sholas, but in the small sholas they are shot down every season and have but a poor chance of breeding. Exotic and Introduced Game Chickore-Single birds are occasionally seen, and a convoy of 1 5 was reported in the neighbourhood of Billikal. Pheasants-Those turned out in Lovedale are occasionally seen; others have been seen in Governor's shola, Marliamund plantation, Tudor valley and elsewhere. The birds have apparently scattered widely, as is their habit. Of the 1 2 pheasants originally imported, there are 8 alive; also 3 chickens hatched out. The eggs do not appear to be fertile in the hot climate of Karteri, and the chickens do not live long when hatched. Mr. G. Oakes, who spent over a thousand rupees in importing pheasants from England at his own expense, came to the same conclusion and removed his birds to Ootacamund, where, to his great disappointment and the lasting regret of all sportsmen, they were destroyed to a bird by a marauding jackal, which gained entrance into the pen at night. Rabbits-The game watcher reports that he occasionally sees rabbits, but they have probably scattered and are not likely to increase very fast in such a vermin-infested district as Karteri.

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Peafowl-The Honorary Secretary has not relaxed his efforts to obtain pardees to capture peafowl. After sending men over the Mysore District, a gang was found, but they declined to enter the Government forests even though offered an advance of Rs. l 0, as they imagined it was only a ruse to entice them away and put them in jail! The Forest Department hunted them out of the forests before, and this is really the reason why it is so difficult to get hold of them now. However, it is to be hoped that when the season commences for capturing peafowl, the Association will be able to obtain the assistance of these men. Partridges-The Association is under great obligations to those gentlemen who have, at their own expense, endeavoured to further sport and benefit the district by the introduction of game and fish or who have assisted the Association by donations for the furtherance of the same good objects. journal ofBombay Natural History Society , Vol. 8 ( 1 893),

pp. 535--U.

The Nilgiri Game and Fish Preservation Association was the earliest private organization in the country to create its laws and follow them meticulously. Hunters were very particular about their game and would go to any lengths to protect it. They believed that they were the protectors and that their shooting had minimal impact on the wildlife of the area, as long as all the rules were followed. And could the locals ever follow the rules? Or were they poachers? Did they have any rights over the game? For most of the British, the natives were a nuisance. C.E.M. Russell had a section in his book Bullet and Shot in Indian Forest, Plain, and Hill, written in 1900, about poaching and other nuisances of the late nineteenth century. Did such people minimize the damage caused by the poachers? Who was really causing the damage?

Poachers and Nuisances Of the multitude of poachers which harm the many species of large and small game in the continent of India, I am doubtful whether I ought to award the palm for destructive power to the Indian wild dog ( Cuon rutilam) , or to the class of native whose object is to slay, by any means in his power, and utterly regardless of both sex and age, any animals, the

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flesh of which may command a ready sale in his vicinity. The injury done to the head of game by both is incalculable; but, inasmuch as the native is always at work, quietly and unostentatiously, slaying, without, as a rule, driving the game out of the sphere of his operations, while the terror which is inspired by a pack of wild dogs, hunting in any particular tract of forest, is such as to denude that tract temporarily of all its fera natura and so to necessarily limit the operations of the canine poachers to an occasional visit, I am inclined to think that the human poachers are even greater curse to the sportsman than are the dogs.I will therefore deal first with the poaching native. Generally he possesses a gun-an antiquated, long-barrelled weapon as a rule, but one which, when loaded with several irregularly shaped chunks of lead, a handful of slugs, or two bullets, does terrible execution at close quarters-and a native has far too keen an eye to the retention of what he possesses to risk even a charge of powder and lead unless he is morally certain of scoring.With his bare feet he can walk almost as noiselessly as a cat; practice has rendered both his eyesight and his sense of hearing exceedingly acute; he knows every waterhole, salt lick, and glade in the jungles near his home (and his operations do not usually take him far afield) ; and this knowledge, together with his intimate acquaintances with the habits of the game, added to an unlimited store of patience, and a total disregard of the value of time, constitute, with his afore-mentioned antiquated weapon and few charges of powder and lead, a stock-in-trade which is amply sufficient for his purpose. For hours he will lie in ambush watching a waterhole, at which, in the hot and dry season, deer will come to slake their thirst; or a salt lick, whither they repair, especially in wet weather, to eat the salt earth; but let even a gravid hind or young fawn approach his hiding place so close that to miss is well-nigh impossible, the murderous charge is launched, and the exulting poacher secures an animal whose flesh can be sold. The time has undoubtedly come when a check should be put on this state of things by the impositions of gun and game licences, priced sufficiently highly to prevent the majority of these poachers from incurring the expense of so large an outlay.In Mysore, as I have elsewhere stated, there is nothing to prevent anyone from entering even the State forests (except during the fire season) for the purpose of shooting; and

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the ridiculous cost of a gun licence (about four pence) and the absence of any game regulations, enable the poacher to make a very comfortable living at the cost of very little exertion, and at an outlay in cash of almost nil. There are many other human poachers, particularly gipsy-like wandering tribes, who do not use guns, but who are extremely expert in every conceivable device for capturing game, both large and small, and whose methods often combine great simplicity in form, with consummate ingenuity in design. Antelope are sometimes captured by the turning out, on ground inhabited by wild herds, of a tame buck with nooses fastened to his horns. The natural pugnacity of the wild buck induces him to try conclusions with the intruder, with the result, of course, that the former's horns are entangled, and he is then easily despatched. By this method, bucks only are taken, but another plan for the wholesale capture of the animals, without regard to sex or age, is practised with success in parts of Mysore. A large number of natives, each with a long cord, to which at intervals nooses of strong gut are attached, proceed together to a place towards which the configuration of the ground renders it probable that a herd inhabiting the vicinity may be successfully driven. The cords are then firmly pegged down in a long and often double line (the second some yards behind the first), and the men, by making a very wide circuit, endeavour to get round the herd, and to drive it in the desired direction, when, should the operation prove successful, several of the animals are often caught by the legs, and promptly butchered by the poachers. Pit-falls, dead-fall traps, nooses set in various ways, and numberless devices, too manifold to enter upon here, are employed with variable success to reduce wild animals into possession; while the wholesale capture (by highly successful methods) of all edible game birds and wild fowl, forms a never-failing source of income to the professors of the art. Nuisances in Indian Shooting In addition to the list of poachers, all of whom in greater or less degree are of course nuisances to the sportsman, there are two or three nuisances to the sportsman, which are entitled to special mention.

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One of these is the 'did-he-do-it' plover, so called from its startling strident note when disturbed. This troublesome bird is very partial (for nesting purposes) to little open spaces in the jungle, and the sportsman who may, while moving stealthily, with rifle on full cock, through a likely part of the forest in search of deer, have had the misfortune to startle one or a pair of these birds, knows well that every animal within hearing of that eerie cry has as surely taken the alarm as if it had itself seen the human intruder. Another unmitigated nuisance to the sportsman in Thibet is the kyang or wild ass, whose irritating curiosity leads it to gallop round a stalker as soon as it has perceived his presence, and by its absurd antics to communicate the alarm to the game which he is endeavouring to approach. Monkeys, too, are often to blame by chattering when they see a sportsman, and thus drawing the attention of all other animals within hearing to the fact that an enemy is on foot; but as they often do the sportsman a service by indicating in the same manner the whereabouts of a tiger or a panther, it is comparatively easy to forgive them for an occasional indiscretion. C.E.M. Russell, Bullet and Shot in Indian Forest, Plain and Hill, p. 346-5 5.

Russell believed that after the native poachers the wild dog was the biggest poacher and menace. It was because of people like him that the wild dog was declared vermin and nearly exterminated from the face of India. It was also a moment of time when arrogance and self-righteousness directed the decision­ making process. The ruler was the hunter, and he was obsessed with his sport and always trying to remove any obstacle in this path, be it native poacher, wild dog, or even red-wattled lapwing! The nineteenth century came to an end. No one knew what the next century would bring for wildlife. Many who cared must have had their fingers crossed. Poachers were out poaching, traders trading, hunters slaughtering, villagers protecting, the govern­ ment pulling down the timber, and yet there was a tiny band of people always fighting to save the wilds of India. The battle entered the next century.

The Early Twentieth Century

A

s the century turned, stricter rules governed sport hunting. Some of the first changes were initiated in the Bombay

presidency. I think the reason for this was very clear. By the end of the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century the system of bounties had been totally abused. The gun had developed-it was easy to shoot and be accurate. Wolves, wild dogs, and even tigers had been incessantly slaughtered. Even before the tum of

400 tigers and M. Gerrard 227. They were soon to be overtaken by the local rulers of Udaipur and Gauripur who shot more than 500 tigers each. Another ruler, the Nawab of Tonk, crossed the 600 mark. Such hunting records the century George Yule had killed

were only the beginning. The situation led to much debate and makes fascinating reading:

To The Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society. Sir-I think it worth while to send you the above copy of a letter from the Revenue Department that members of the Society may know how they stand with regard to the new forest regulations. These apply to all forests of any consequence in the Presidency. Yours faithfully, A.C. Logan, I.C.S.

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Revenue Deaprtment Bombay Castle, 1 8th August 1 903 No. 5627.-In exercise of the powers conferred by Section 25, clause (i) Section 3 1 , clause (j), and Section 75, clause (d), of the Indian Forest Act, 1 878, the 25'h July 1 894, published at page 75 1 of Part I of the Bombay Government Gazette (except in regard to the Province of Sind), His Excellency the Governor in Council is pleased with the previous sanction of the Governor-General in Council to prescribe the following rules to regulate hunting, shooting, poisoning of water and setting of traps or snares in the Reserved and Protected forest of the Bombay Presidency excluding Sind: 1 . The following acts are absolutely prohibited in all Reserved and Protected forests: (a) the poisoning of rivers or other water and explosion of dynamite therein for the purpose of killing or catching fish; (b) the setting of spring guns; (c) the taking, wounding, or killing of big game, other than tiger, panther, wolf, hyena, wild dog, pig or bear, over water or saltlicks; (d) wounding or killing any game birds or hares during the close season fixed in the Appendix. 2. The setting of snares or traps is prohibited in all Reserved and Protected forests except with the written permission of the Divisional Forest Officer. 3. (a) In any reserved forests or portions of reserved or protected forests to which the local Government may; for the purpose · of strict conservation or for the preservation of animals which are becoming rare, or for both of these purposes, apply these and the following rules by a notification published in the Bombay Government Gazette, hunting and shooting are prohibited except under a licence to be obtained from the Conservator of Forests. (b) Every licence issued under clause (a) of this rule shall permit the holder to hunt and shoot, and shall be valid for a period

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4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

33

of one year from the date of its grant in any reserved or protected forest in the presidency to which these rules are made applicable under clause (a) , subject to the condition that before it has effect in any forest division in which the licencee does not reside or exercise any jurisdiction, it must be countersigned by the Divisional Forest Officer. (c) No such licence shall entitle the holder to hunt or shoot more than two stags or bulls of each species of animal to be specified in the licence, according to a list to be prepared for each Forest Division by the Conservator of Forests. Licences shall not be refused except for special reasons to be stated in writing. Wounded game may be pursued into the forests of the division adjoining that for which the licence is valid or into a forest closed under Rule 8. A licence granted under these rules shall not be transferable. Every person to whom a licence has been granted under these rules, and who is found hunting, shooting, snaring or trapping in any forest to which these rules apply, shall on demand by any forest, police or revenue officer, produce his licence. The Conservator may on the recommendation of the Divisional Forest Officer and the Collector, declare that any particular forest or part of a forest is wholly closed for a term of years or annually for a specified season. He may also prohibit the taking, wounding or killing of any particular species of animal in any specified tract of forest, with a view to the preservation of such species but any such order shall be subject to revision by the Commissioner. To such forests the validity of licences granted under these rules does not extend or is modified accordingly, provided that gazetted officers whose jurisdiction extends to such forests, or persons holding licences on which the Divisional Forest Officer has endorsed special permission to that effect may kill pig, tigers and other dangerous or destructive animals in such forests. Such special permission shall not be given for a longer period than one month in any case.

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9. If any person to whom permission under Rule 2 or a licence under Rule 3 has been granted commits a breach of any provision of the Indian Forest Act, 1 878 (VII of 1 878), as amended by the Forest Act, 1 890, (V of 1 890) or any rules made thereunder, he shall be liable to the penalty of having the permission or licence, as the case may be, cancelled by the Divisional Forest Officer, in addition to any other penalty to which he may be liable under the Indian Forest Act, 1 878 (VII of 1 878) , or otherwise. An appeal against the cancellation of the permission of the licence by the Divisional Forest Officer shall lie to the Collector and a special appeal, in case of dismissal of the appeal by the Collector, to the Commissioner, whose decision shall be final. 1 0. In any case where the Divisional Forest Officer or Conservator thinks it advisable, he may direct that a Forest Guard or other person shall accompany the camp of any licenceholder hunting or shooting in forests, with the object of seeing that forest rules are not infringed by camp followers. 1 1 . The word 'hunting' as used in these rules, includes tracking for the purpose of discovering the lie of wild animals, provided that any person holding a licence is not prohibited from employing any number of trackers. 1 2. Nothing in these rules shall be taken to exempt any person from liability in respect of any offence by injury to the forest or its produce or of any other offence punishable under the Indian Forest Act, 1 878 (VII of 1 879), as amended by the Forest Act, 1 890 (V of 1 890) . 1 3. Nothing in these rules shall be taken to cancel any privileges granted to resident wild tribes except by the express order of the Collector, or to preclude the grant of special permission by the Divisional Forest Officer or Collector to resident villagers on special occasions. [N .B.-Forest in which wild tribes have been given the privilege of hunting will not generally be notified under Rule. 3] journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 1 6 ( 1 905), pp. 522-5 .

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As the rules became stricter, some of the slaughter was minimized but it led to much conflict and furore amongst those who felt restrained. But there were always some who supported the stricter rules. Reginald Gilbert was a sportsman who, in 1907, felt that the general bounty on tigers should be suspended. He felt that the drastic reduction of wild animals in the Indian empire required immediate correctives. But in the years that followed, it became clear that the enormous deforestation in places like Sind and the Punjab and the pressures of bounty hunting had wiped out the tigers from these areas. As changes were proposed in the laws and efforts undertaken to make stricter laws to protect game, the Bombay Natural History Society was always consulted. This was probably because their information base was so well respected. Those in the process of governance knew that if they wanted good advice they would get it from the BNHS. The year 1908 was critical as a vast area of grassland along the Brahmaputra river in Assam was set aside for what was to become India's first preserve for the rhinos. It was called Kaziranga. It was also the year when the Indian Forest Service was managing two million hectares of sal forest for both India and the British empire. The following correspondence highlights the importance of the BNHS and the respect it commanded:

To The Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society. Sir-1 am directed to forward herewith copies of a letter from the Government of India, No. 1 848, dated the 1 4th August 1 908, and the Bill accompanying it and to request that Government may be favoured with the opinion of your Society on the provisions of the Bill. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient Servant, (Sd.) R.E. Enthoven, Secretary to Government.

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(Copy) No. 1 848. From Sir Harold Stuart, K.C.V.O., C.S.J., Offg. Secretary to the Government of India. To The Chief Secretary to the Government of Bombay Simla, the 1 4'h August 1 908. Home Department, Public. Sir-I am directed to refer to the correspondence ending with your letter No. 2739, dated the 1 9th May 1 905, regarding the protection and preservation of game and fish. 2. The replies to the Home Department letter No. 1 082-90, dated the 23rd May 1 904, with which a draft bill was circulated, disclosed a strong consensus of opinion in favour of protective legislation, while indicating a considerable divergence of opinion on the principles of the bill. 3. A revised draft bill has accordingly been drawn up, and I am directed to circulate it for the further criticism and opinion oflocal Governments. The revised bill defines game and takes power for local Governments to declare a close time during which it will be unlawful to capture, kill or deal in any specified kind of game or the plumage of any specified bird. Fish have been excluded from the scope of the proposed law, as their case can be suitably provided for by rules under the Indian Fisheries Act. The bill also provides for a general exception in favour of the capture or killing of game in self-defence or in protection of crops or fruit, and gives power to local Governments to apply its provisions to birds other than those specified in the definition. It may be noted that clause 3 corresponds substantially to clauses 5 and 7 of the original bill, which were generally approved, and that clause 5 corresponds to clause 1 8 of that bill which also met with general approval. Clause 7 which applies only to birds is far less sweeping than clauses 2 ( 1 ) and 7 of the original bill. In short the present bill embodies in an improved and simplified

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form those provisions of the original bill which met with general acceptance. The Government of India consider that the proposed law will for the present be sufficient to restrict the indiscriminate slaughter of game, if it is combined with suitable restrictions imposed by rules under the Forest Acts in force in the different provinces. 4. The legislation contemplated is likely to be oflimited application, as it is probable that in many parts of India the protection afforded by forests to species threatened with extinction will make it unnecessary to apply the measure, should it be passed into law. It may, however, be argued that the proposed bill, so far as it goes beyond the scope of the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1 887, and especially in its application to deer and other animals which are liable to injure growing crops, is open to the objections stated in the Home Department Resolution No. 1 47 1 8 1 , dated the 29o:h August 1 885. I am to request that these points of possible objection to the measure may receive the consideration of the Governor in Council and that the Government oflndia may be furnished with an expression of the views of His Excellency in Council on the scheme of legislation now formulated. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient servant, H.A. Stuart, Offg. Secretary to the Government of India. (Copy) A Bill to make better provision for the protection and preservation of game. Whereas it is expedient to make better provision for the protection and preservation of game; It is hereby enacted as follows. Short title and extent. 1 . ( I ) This Act may be called the Indian Game Act 1 908. (2) It extends to the whole of British India, including British Baluchistan, Santhal Parganas and Pargana of Spiti.

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Definition. 2. In this Act-'game' means all kinds of the following birds and animals when in their wild state, namely: ( 1 ) bustards, ducks, floricans, geese, jungle fowl, partridges, peafowl, pheasant, pigeons, quail, sandgrouse, snipe, spur fowl, and woodcock; (2) antelopes, asses, bison, buffaloes, deer, gazelles, goats, hares, oxen, rhinoceroses and sheep. Close time. 3. The Local Government may, by notification in the local official Gazette, declare any period of the year to be a close time for any specified kind of game throughout the whole and any part of its territories; and, during such period and within the areas specified in such declaration. It shall be unlawful: (a) to capture or kill any such game; (b) to deal in any such game; (c) to deal in the plumage of any bird specified in such notification captured or killed during such close time. Penalty for illegal capture or killing of, or dealing in, game. 4. Whoever does, or attempts to do any action in contravention of Section 3, shall be punishable: (a) on the first conviction with fine which may extend to fifty rupees, and (b) on the second conviction with imprisonment for a term which may extend to one month, or with fine which may extend to one hundred rupees, or with both. Presumption of commissio � of certain offences. 5. Where any person is found in possession of any game recently captured of killed, the Court may presume that he has captured or killed such game.

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Savings. 6. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to affect the capture or killing of game in self-defence, or in bona fide protection of a standing crop or growing fruit. Application of Act to other birds. 7. The Local Government may, by notification in the local official Gazette, apply the provisions of this Act to any kind of bird other than those specified in Section 2, which in its opinion it is desirable to preserve from extinction. Repeal. 8. The Wild Birds Protection Act, 1 887, XX of 1 887, is hereby repealed. To The Secretary to Government, General Department, Bombay Castle, 6, Apollo St., Fort, Bombay, 1 3'h January 1 909. Sir-With reference to your letter No. 5740 of 1 908, dated the 1 9th September 1 908, I beg to forward herewith the opinion of this Society on the proposed Bill, 'to make better provision for the protection and preservation of game.' I regret the delay that has taken place in forwarding the Society's opinion but the matter had to be referred to a Sub-Committee of ornithologists and others many of whom are stationed in other Presidencies, and it was only on receipt of these individual opinions that my Committee were enabled to formulate their views. I have the honour to be, Sir, Your most obedient servant, (Sd) WS. Millard, Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society.

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Bombay Natural History Society The Committee of the above Society have considered with great interest the Bill in which the Government of India propose 'to make better provision for the protection and preservation of game'. In view of the importance of the subject to Members of the Society, the opinion of a Sub-Committee of some of the leading ornithologists and sportsmen in India has been obtained and this Sub-Committee, while approving general!y of the Bill, have made certain suggestions with a view to the more effective attainment of the objects. Clause 2-Some alteration is in the opinion of this Society required in this clause. ( I ) Should read 'Bustards, (including florican), ducks (including teal) , jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, pea-fowl, pheasants, partridges [including Snow-cocks (Tetraogallus himalayensis)] , Snow­ Partridge (Lerua nicicola) , Sandgrouse, Painted-Snipe, Quail, Pigeons and Woodcock'. The other snipe and Geese do not need to be included as they breed outside Indian limits. (2) This part of the clause needs no alteration in our opinion. It has been suggested that Wild Asses should be excluded from the provisions of this Act but it has recently been brought to the notice of our Society by H. H. the Rao Saheb of Cutch that these animals frequently stray from Cutch into British Territory where they obtain no protection. Clause 3-(b) . This clause might include the 'heads' or 'trophies' such as skins, horns or hoofs. (c) This Society would like to point out that in this clause no mention is made of the Herons (Ardeidae) and Kingfishers (Alcedinidae), the plumage of which is so greatly in demand in Europe, and they consider that special mention should be made of these birds. Clause 4-This clause should be made to include the confiscation of game heads, skins and other trophies as well as punishment for the offence

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Clause 6--T his clause should in the opinion of our Society have the following words added: 'but that the skins, heads or trophies or animals so captured or killed shall be handed over to the local authorities together with an explanation as to the reason of their being so killed or captured'. The inclusion of these words will, it is hoped, prevent native shikaris from shooting animals for trophies for sale under the plea of 'protecting crops'. Clause 7-This clause should in our opinion include any kind of'animal' as well as 'bird'. It is also the opinion of this Society that the results of this Bill will depend entirely on the working of it by the various Local Governments and it is partly with this idea that they suggest the inclusion of the above additions. As naturalists as well as sportsmen, the Society would like to see the Bill extended to all Birds and Animals which are either harmless or useful to man, and protection not merely restricted to game, and they hope that the Government of India will be able to see their way to introduce such a Bill at some future time. W.S. Millard Honorary Secretary Bombay Natural History Society. 1 3'h January 1 909. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 19 ( 1 908-09) , pp. 220-4.

The above is a remarkable record of consultation between the government and the non-government sector. This was 1909, and the first serious amendments to the 1887 Wild Birds and Game Act were being contemplated. The first decade of the twentieth century had taken a toll on the wilderness. There was a flurry of writing and a unique piece was written on the traffic in birds. P.T.L. Dodsworth wrote on 'Protection of Wild Birds in India and Traffic in Plumage' in the Bombay Natural History Society Journal. What a superbly researched article it is, based at the end of one century and the beginning of another, with a strong plea at the end to ban the trade and fashion of feathers:

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Protection of Wild Birds in India and Traffic in Plumage by P.T.L. Dodsworth, F.Z.S. The fauna of British India is protected by the following Acts and Rules: ( 1 ) Madras Act II of 1 879-The operation of this Act is confined to the Nilgiris. It provides for dose seasons, and prohibits the killing, capturing, and selling of game and fish during such seasons. (2) The Elephant Preservation Acts of 1 873 and 1 879 (Madras I of 1 873, and India VI of 1 879)-These Acts prohibit the killing, injuring, or capturing of wild elephants, except in self-defence or under a licence. (3) Forest Laws: (a) The Indian Forest Act, 1 878-Sections 25 (i) and 3 1 (j) (b) Madras Forest Act, 1 882-Sections 2 1 (i) and 26(f) ; and (c) Burma Forest Act, 1 902-Sections 26(h) and 33(c) .

(4) The Wild Birds and Game Protection Act of 1 887 (Act XX of 1 887) . (5) The Act Relating to Fisheries in British India (Act N of 1 897)­ This Act prohibits the destruction of fish by dynamite or other explosive substance in any water, or by poisoning of water; and provides for the protection of fish in selected waters. As the scope of the present inquiry is restricted to birds alone, it will only be necessary to turn our attention to No. ( 4)-The Wild Birds and Game Protection Act of 1 887. This Act extends to the whole of British India, and empowers Local Governments , Municipalities, and Cantonments to frame rules prohibiting (a) the possession or sale during its breeding season within the Municipality or Cantonment of any kind of wild bird recently killed or taken; and (b) the importation into the Municipality or Cantonment of the plumage of any kind of wild bird during such season.

It would be tedious and wearisome to dilate on the early history of what is known as the 'protection' movement, which beginning in 1 869,

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culminated in the A�t of 1 887. It will suffice to state for our purpose that in 1 886 the question of having a general game law for India engaged the attention of the authorities, but such law was then considered unnecessary. It was, however, decided that Local Governments should be empowered to frame rules prohibiting the sale of game within cantonments or towns during a specified season of the year, and with this object, the Act (XX of 1 887) was passed. It is chiefly directed against the destruction of birds, but Local Governments have the power to apply its provisions to any other game. The limited provisions of this Act, which apply to Municipal and Cantonment areas only, will be readily understood when we bear in mind some of the reasons which actuated Government in objecting to afford wider and more stringent measures of protection. They were: (a) The predominant claims of agriculture, to which all other considerations must be subservient. (b) The undesirability of interfering with the livelihood of forest and other wild tribes, who depend largely upon the capture of game for their subsistence. (c) The general objection to the creation of new penal offences. (d) The unj ustifiability of legislation in the interests of the sportsmen. (e) The absence of evidence that the destruction of birds for the sake of their plumage was carried out on an extensive scale, and that there was any serious diminution in their numbers. In 1 900 the Honorary Secretary of the Society for the Protection of Birds raised the question of the advisability of stopping the export of the plumage of ornamental birds; and in the following year in the Budget Debate of the 27th March in the Supreme Legislative Council, the Hon'ble Sir Allan Arthur urged upon Government the expediency of protective measures for game in India. During his visit to Burma in 1 90 1 Lord Curzon was approached upon the subject in a public address. His Lordship returned a sympathetic reply, admitting that the enactments in force did not go far enough, and that more stringent measures were called for. In addition to this, numerous other representations to a similar

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effect were received by Government, or appeared from time to time in the public press. In view of these representations, and of the fact that a considerable time had elapsed since the passing of the Wild Birds and Game Protection Act of 1 887, Lord Curzon's Government decided to inquire into the matter, and to ascertain how far the existing measures had been attended with success. The Local Governments were accordingly asked to report (i) upon the working of the Act in question; (ii) whether it afforded an adequate measure of protection; (iii) the extent to which the skins of birds of handsome or useful plumage were exported, and whether the trade had increased or decreased oflate years; and (iv) whether there was any extensive destruction of wild birds, especially of non-migratory insectivorous birds, during what should be dose seasons for them; and, if so, whether it was leading to the extermination of any species. The replies received to this reference showed dearly that the working of the Act had proved a failure. And this was only to be expected, since the prohibitions applied only within a specified cantonment or town during a specified season. Rural areas (except forest areas) were beyond the scope of the Act. There was nothing to prevent birds being killed during the close season, and the detention of their skins or feathers outside Municipal or Cantonment limits as the case might be, until the prescribed period was over; or by the transfer of the bird-killing operations beyond the specified boundaries. As to the adequacy or otherwise as a measure of protection, the general

consensus of opinion was that existing legislation did not sufficiently meet the necessities of the case. After careful review of the whole subject the authorities have taken up the question of the advisability of a general Game Law for the protection of game in India, and this is at present under consideration. The proposed bill is of a very simple nature, and affords adequate protection to those wild birds and animals which are threatened with extermination. It defines game, and takes power for Local Governments to apply its provisions to birds other than certain specified ones. Fish have been excluded from the scope of the proposed bill, as their case has been suitably provided for by rules under the Indian Fisheries Act.

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The replies to (iii) and (iv) , in respect of exportation and destruction, disclosed not only a serious, but a most disastrous state of affairs. From all parts of the country came the same cries of destruction and diminution, which amounted to virtual extermination. Of Impeyan and Argus pheasants throughout the Himalayas, of Peacocks and Black Partridges from Bombay, of Egrets from Sind and Burma and of a host of others, including Jungle-cocks, Paddy-birds, Kingfishers, Jays, and Orioles throughout India generally. So lucrative was the trade that single districts, such as Lucknow in the United Provinces, and Amritsar in the Punjab, contributed between them nearly 1 6,000 lbs. of plumage annually. Taking as an average 30 skins to the pound, the figures, indicated the destruction of nearly five hundred thousand birds in a single year from two districts alone! From Bombay it was reported that a single Railway Station to the north of Sind had exported within a few months 30,000 skins of Black Partridges, and that over many square miles in the Rohri Division these birds had, within two seasons, been absolutely exterminated by a single party of professional trappers. Various other reports showed that birds were netted and trapped, not by thousands, but by millions, without any regard to season or sex. The hen on her eggs, or with chicks at her feet, were all fair spoil to these unscrupulous hunters. A Postal Official, who was stationed for many years at Dharamsala, gives an interesting account of these operations. 'Monal and Argus pheasants,' he remarks, 'are snared in large numbers by professional trappers in the Kashmir and Chamba Native States, and also in the hills near Kulu, Dalhousie, Dharamsala, Palampur, etc. Snares are set in localities which are not frequented by sportsmen and others, and female birds and animals are destroyed wholesale. I have personally seen scores of young Monals and female pheasants entangled in the snares. The intention of the snares is, of course, to entrap male Monal and Argus Pheasants, but the system is such that every living thing that comes into the traps is destroyed. A short description of the system of snaring might prove of some interest. A hedge of branches of trees, brushwood and grass is erected from the bottom of a hill to the top. At every ten or twelve places, there is a small opening in which a spring snare is fastened. The snare is composed of a bent branch and a slip-knot. While the birds and animals are feeding, they come across the hedge, and naturally look for an opening in order

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to cross it. On finding one, they endeavour to pass through it, and are caught in the snare.' The writer adds that 'the extent of the indiscriminate slaughter under such system can only be realised by those who have witnessed it.' And if these reports were startling, the enormous extent of the export trade in plumage was equally so. During the years 1 8951 900, the total quantity and value of feathers (Indian merchandise) exported by sea from India to other Foreign countries amounted to the gigantic total of 1 1 ,49,354 lbs., representing a value of Rs 1 5, 5 1 ,83 1 . The details were made up as follows:

Provincefrom which Exported Bengal Bombay Sind Madras Burma Total

Quantity

Value

(Lbs.)

(Rs)

1 ,69,499

6,64,942

9,46,067

7,43,807

88 1

1 ,7 1 0

23,499

1 , 1 2,388

9,408

28 ,984

1 1 ,49,354

1 5 , 5 1 ,83 1

The greater part of these feathers were exported to the United Kingdom and China; a considerable portion also went to Austria, Hungaty, France, Germany and the Straits Settlements, and the balance was distributed in small quantities between Belgium, Japan, Arabia, Persia, etc. Nor were these the only figures which the authorities had before them at the time. It appeared that much of the export trade was also conducted through the medium of the India Post Office. For the period from 1 " July 1 898 to 30'h June 1 90 1 , the records of a single Post Office, namely, that of Bombay disclosed the facts that 1 , 52 1 parcels, containing birds' feathers of the aggregate weight of 6,8 1 3 lbs., and valued at £23,653 were addressed to the United Kingdom, while the rest were addressed to other countries. With these data before them, it was obviously impossible for the authorities to view with equanimity such an intolerable state of affairs. All reports and returns showed conclusively that the trade was rapidly increasing; that birds were being killed wholesale for the sake of their plumage; and that, if prompt measures were not taken, the extermination

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of various species, which are to be found in India only, was imminent. Accordingly as a first step to check this indiscriminate slaughter, a Notification No. 5028 S. R. , dated the 1 9'h September 1 902, was issued, under Sea Customs Act, 1 878, (VIII of 1 878) , prohibiting the taking by sea or by land out of British India of skins and feathers of all birds other than domestic birds, except (a) feathers of ostriches, and (b) skins and feathers exported bona fide as specimens illustrative of Natural History. As this prohibition was issued without notice or warning, a large number of representations were received, notably from a trader in Simla, who had in stock skins of Impeyans and black Argus to the value of Rs 6,000 and from two firms in Calcutta who had in hand 6,000 skins of Impeyan and Argus pheasants, and six cases of Kingfishers' feathers, and to enable them to dispose of their stocks, and to wind up their businesses, the operation of the orders was suspended until the 1 " January 1 903. Shortly after this, the attention of Government was drawn to a letter which appeared in the Madras Mail of the 29'h June 1 903, in which the writer gave prominence to the fact that no provision had been made for detecting the export of feathers and plumage by land to territories of Foreign Governments in India, such as Goa and Pondicherry. This point immediately received due attention, and with the cordial co-operation of the French and Portuguese authorities, these outlets for export were also dosed. In July of the same year ( 1 903) a Postal Notice drawing attention of the public to the prohibition of 1 8'h September 1 902, was issued to the following effect: 'It is hereby notified that the transmission by post out of British India of skins and feathers of all birds other than domestic birds, except (a) feathers of ostriches and (b) skins and feathers exported bona fide as specimens illustrative of Natural History is prohibited. 2. In the case of all parcels containing birds' skins or feathers for which customs declarations are required, the name of the bird must be entered in the customs declaration; and if exemption from the above prohibition is claimed on the ground that the skins or feathers are being exported bona fide as specimens illustrative of Natural History, a statement to this effect must be made in the customs declaration, otherwise the parcel will not be accepted for transmission by post.'

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The trade in plumage, however, being very lucrative, the above measures were not sufficient to check it, and it appeared that export by foreign parcel post, under false declaration, was resorted to largely. In consequence of this, two Notifications No. 1 8 1 9-60 and 1 82 1 -60, dated the 26'h February 1 907, were issued under the Indian Post Office Act, 1 898 (VI of 1 898), empowering certain postal officers to search, or cause search to be made, for birds' skins and feathers in course of transmission by post to any place outside British India, and making the customs declaration in respect of parcels handed to the Post Office for transmission by the Foreign post, a declaration required by the Post Office Act. As the position in respect of the illicit traffic in plumage from India is not generally known, we have given in detail the foregoing review of the various preventative measures, taken from time to time, in this country, and it will be observed that the Indian Government have practically closed every possible channel of export. But in spite of all these prohibitions, smuggling to a large extent has commenced, and still continues. The explanatory memorandum which is prefixed to Lord Avebury's 'Importation of Plumage Prohibition Bill' is most pertinent to the subject, and deserves to be quoted in full: 'The object of this Act is to check the wanton and wholesale destruction of birds which is being carried on everywhere throughout the British Empire, and in all parts of the world, without regard to agricultural, educational and aesthetic value of birds. As a proof of the extent of the destruction that at present goes on, and which is threatening the extinction of the most beautiful species, it may be mentioned that at the plume auctions held in London during the last six months of 1 907 there were catalogued 1 9,742 skins of birds of paradise, 1 ,4 1 1 packages of the nesting plumes of the white heron (representing the feathers of nearly 1 1 5,000 birds), besides immense numbers of the feathers and skins of almost every known species of ornamental plumaged bird. At the June sale, held at the Commercial Sale Rooms, 1 ,386 crowned pigeons' heads were sold, while among miscellaneous bird-skins one firm of auctioneers alone catalogued over 20,000 Kingfishers. A deplorable feature of recent sales is the offer oflarge numbers oflyrebirds' tails and of albatross quills. The constant repetition of such figures as the above-and these plume sales take place at least every two months-shows that the Legislature

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must choose between the extermination or the protection of the birds in question.' The statements in the above memorandum, astounding as they may seem, are nevertheless indisputable, and the inference that may be drawn therefrom, viz., that an enormous illicit trade flourishes at the present time, is fully borne out by an examination of the records of the Indian Customs Authorities. During the years 1 903-1 9 1 0, no less that 1 9 cases of smuggling were detected at the ports of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Burma. There were 25 cases in Calcutta, 8 in Bombay, 1 0 in Madras, and 6 in Burma. A brief description of some of the more important ofthese cases which have been detected (in addition to the one noticed by Mr. Buckland) is not only interesting but instructive as showing the methods adopted by smugglers engaged in the plume traffic: Bengal (a) In April 1 903 a Chinese firm were caught exporting a case of Kingfishers' skins. They were fined Rs 1 ,000, and the skins were confiscated. The good were declared as 'Fish maws' . (b) In October 1 904 another firm were caught exporting three cases of Peacock feathers. The goods were intended for Hamburg, and were declared as 'Indian curios'. (c) In August 1 905 another Chinese firm were detected exporting 1 8 cases of Kingfishers' skins. They were intended for Hong Kong, and were declared as 'Tobacco' . An examination of their books showed that since the prohibition of 1 902 they had made no less than nine shipments of such goods. They were, therefore, fined R� 1 0,000. (d) In the same year it came to light that a German firm in Calcutta had on various occasions smuggled consignments of Osprey, Heron and Grey Paddy Birds' feathers to the value ofRs 22,850. They were fined Rs 7,200. The goods were intended for London via Hamburg and Breme_!! . . _

_

� \i�i-s_' ; whickkea':lr

(e) In January 1 906 a .1< )f� sented a shipping bill for 't�ree baskets of contained ngfishers' skins to the valu &fjfu BOO. The consignment was Intercepted.

�

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(f) In June 1 906 a consignment of five parcels, containing Osprey feathers, which had been posted in Calcutta addressed to Colombo under a misdescription 'Pieces of yellow cloth' was detected. This case is a typical one, and is illustrative of the procedure sometimes adopted by smugglers. When they find it difficult to ship goods from a particular port they send them by post, and if they wish to make sure that they will not be seized in the post, then, instead of despatching them direct to a foreign address, they post them to some small Indian port, whence they can be redespatched with less fear of detection; or else they send them to a similar intermediate destination by rail. Bombay (a) During 1 907-1 908 two cases of smuggling of feathers occurred in this Presidency. In one case 4 1 packets of Egrets' feathers from Rangoon were intercepted at short intervals by the Bombay Post Office. The feathers, which were of very considerable value, were confiscated. In the other case 25 large boxes of Peacock feathers were shipped from Singapore on their way to Europe under a false shipping bill in which the contents were declared as 'Country Cotton goods', and the identity of the shippers concealed. The shippers were traced with much difficulty, and severely dealt with, while the feathers were confiscated. (b) In 1 908- 1 909 a case of attempt to export by train 823 Jungle fowl skins, with feathers complete, was detected at Castle Rock. The exporter was fined Rs 300, and was given the option of redeeming the feathers on payment of Rs 4,000. Madras During the year 1 907- 1 908 there were 1 0 cases of attempted exportation of Osprey feathers from the above port. The penalties imposed amounted to Rs 3,005. Burma The only important case of smuggling of feathers reported from the above is one which occurred in 1 909- 1 9 1 0. The goods were exported from Madras to Rangoon, but as this could not be regarded as 'exportation

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out of British India' , the matter was dealt with as a misdeclaration only, and a nominal penalty imposed. There will doubtless be a marked diminution in cases such as those mentioned above, if, and when, the Bill prohibiting the sale of plumage and skins of certain birds, which is at present before the House of Commons, becomes law. But there seems little hope of stamping out altogether this nefarious traffic, so long as the vicious taste for wearing feathers and skins of birds by the fair sex in their headgear continues. 'Women,' says Mr. Buckland, 'have come down through the ages as embodied mercy, tenderness and compassion. Sculptors have represented her with the deep, maternal breast against which tearful little children nestle for succour and comfort. Painters have depicted the poor and the oppressed fleeing to her for refuge from cruelty and wrong. Writers have given her the semblance ofVenus, the peerless goddess, who, because of her solicitude for the birds, would not permit victims to be offered her or her altars to be stained with blood. 'What a travesty of this, the world's reverent ideal of womanhood, is the befeathered Herodias of modern times! Is there in the wide world a more repugnant anomaly than the spectacle of modern woman­ claiming to be more tender than man-transformed, at the beck of fashion, into a creature heedlessly destructive of bird life, and in practice as bloodthirsty as the most sanguinary beast of prey? It cannot be said in apology for her sin that she errs in ignorance. So much has been written and said about the brutal methods by which her feathers are obtained that the old subterfuges have become too battered to stand. Even those soothing emollient she was wont to apply to her conscience, "artful" and "moulted" , have become too impaired by constant refutations to be of further service. She knows, no one better, that art cannot reproduce a feather; and she would toss her head in high disdain if asked to wear a moulted plume.' It would be interesting to know how the practice of wearing plumes and feathers for ornamental purposes originally arose, but it is without doubt of very ancient date. It is one of those relics of remote ages-akin to some superstitions in the religions of modern times-which in spite of its disastrous effects, still lingers, and is an outrage on every feeling of

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humanity. Through countless generations, man has been persistently shaking off all traces of his barbaric ancestors, and when the progress made by him is closely scrutinised, even after this enormous lapse of time, it is surprising to find that faint traces of his ancient customs still adhere to him with a wonderful tenacity. Times are, however, changing; powerful Ornithologists' Unions are at work; ahd the feeling is growing stronger daily that our feathered friends must be protected at all costs. Nothing short of an international law will, perhaps, ever accomplish this; but it is obvious that Governments can no longer countenance so pernicious a trade, the sole object of which is to minister for a short space of time to female vanity, or gratify the passing freak of a summer fashion at the cost of an enormous sacrifice of life. At the present time feathers, skins and other such like tawdries satisfy the demands of millinery, but when these fail who would be bold enough to prophesy that insects with bizarre and fantastic shapes, or exotic butterflies with gorgeous colouring will not next be called into requisition to meet the demands of a new fashion? The attention of Governments of the day will doubtless then be drawn to the preservation of other species by zealous entomologists pressing for legislation in a fresh direction. But to return to the subject. It seems clear from the measures already taken that India is no longer a haunt for dealers of birds' skins and feathers, and it is high time now that they realized their precarious positions. We take this opportunity of suggesting that no heed should be paid to deputations and memorials urging absurd and frivolous objections, such as birds dropping their feathers naturally, or millions of people being deprived of their means of livelihood, or the prohibitions not affording the least protection to birds, etc. The points which strike us as deserving of further consideration by Governments are: (i) To prohibit the export of plumage from one India port to another (vide the Burma case of 1909-19 10). (ii) To prohibit the possession in India of birds' skins and feathers, except in reasonable quantities for personal use or for scientific purposes only. This, it is thought, is the only measure which will ever put an end to the illicit trade so far as India is concerned

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at all events. For as long as there is a demand for feathers and skins, smuggling is bound to continue. In conclusion, we venture to express a hope, and we feel confident that all true sportsmen and naturalists in India will join us that Government will never be induced, even by the doctrine of non­ interference with trade which is the only argument that can reasonably be urged, ever to relax the prohibition in respect of plumage, etc. , now in force. Even the most impartial student of this question could not help but view with feelings of dismay and apprehension, the consequences of any such relaxation. For the trade which is now practically extinct would spring into renewed activity, and while causing lasting and irreparable inj ury by bringing about the extermination of large number of species of birds, would eventually end by killing itself by destroying that on which it subsisted. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 20 ( 1 9 1 0-1 1 ) , pp. 1 1 03- 14.

What an article! Dodsworth was a real fighter and I am certain that his interventions minimized the damage to a diverse range of species. This is another example of the detailed work done on an issue and is probably the first serious research on trafficking. Again much for today's NGOs to learn from. The trade must have been enormous and the forests rich; and we need to peep into the life and work of those who were in the forest service. Let us also take a look at how the habitat was. It is about the same time that Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, a former inspector general of forests in the Government of India, wrote his book Forest Life and Sport in India. A small collection of his writings reveals much about the work of the forest officers in India and the beginning of the forest service. He was one of the first officers to have worked under the 1878 Indian Forest Act­ the bible for forest officers even today. An extract follows:

The Work of the Inspector General of Forests To comprehend the administration of the State Forests of India, it will be necessary to give a short sketch of the machinery of the Indian

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Government. The Empire is ruled by a permanent Executive Council, aided by a more numerous body of nominated Councillors, the whole under the presidency of the Viceroy and Governor General, who holds the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. The other Executive Councillors are the Commander-in-Chief and the Ministers for the Home, Finance, Legislative, Industry and Commerce, and Revenue and Agriculture Departments. Finance and Legislation are administered by officers appointed alternately from England and from amongst the members of the Indian Civil Service; while the heads of the other departments are as a rule recruited from that Service. In each department are Secretaries, who also, with a very few exception, derive their origin from the Indian Civil Service. Each department is divided into branches, and these, in cases where special expert knowledge is deemed to be requisite, are presided over by officials who have the requisite training, either in England or through Indian experience. The heads of these branches, who as a rule are not members of the Indian Civil Service, communicate their advice to the Secretary of the department, who takes final orders from the Minister concerned, or, in case of disagreement between departments, from the Governor General in Council. State Forestry in India is controlled by the Department of Revenue and Agriculture, and the Inspector General of Forests is the expert in charge of its Forest Branch. But he has also other duties outside the scope of that department. On him rests the initiative and control in the matter of forest education, and he is responsible for the correctness of the silvicultural proposals that are prepared under the orders of the Conservators for transmission to the Local Governments. Thus, not only is his advice demanded on all forest questions that are brought before the Government of India, but his orders are required in all matters affecting the professional treatment of the forests. In either case he is open to a salutary criticism which absence oflocal knowledge on his part would render peculiarly effective, and it is therefore of the utmost importance that he should acquire as intimate an acquaintance as possible with the varying conditions that obtain throughout the Peninsula. In respect of the two Provinces of Bombay and Madras, ruled by Governors appointed in England, and subject to only a general control of policy by the Government of India,

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such acquaintance was difficult to obtain; for the Inspector General could only visit these Provinces by special invitation of their Governments, and he received their silvicultural and other reports for information, and not for orders. The efficiency of any Service is based on various conditions, and perhaps the most important of these is the maintenance of a high moral standard; but it becomes difficult to insist on this standard unless adequate protection is afforded at least against lapses that are directly referable to unavoidable financial distress; and if such protection is withheld, relaxations of principle may occur that constitute a danger to official prestige, and easily lead to felonies punishable by the law. The grant of a salary calculated to meet the expenses of a public officer who is forced to live up to a certain social status should be therefore a primary consideration with his employers, but when taking steps to insure the payment of such salaries other points of interest are speedily brought to notice. We are, for instance, often too ready with accusations of corruption and expressions of abhorrence with regard to the acceptance of illegal gratifications by Indians, without considering the difference between the standard of probity created by the British Government and that customary in the country before its arrival. With us, so-called illegal gratifications are penal, because such are rightly held to affect the impersonal service required by the State and the justice of its decisions; we expect an official to refrain from commerce, from speculation, from anything that may divert his attention from public to private interests; we make this condition of his service, and punish, not only any breach of contract, but also those who are accessory thereto. Under native rule the case was widely different; then salaries were often held to be the least part of the emoluments, and, indeed, appointments to onerous and responsible posts were often purchased, and it is but fifty years since the H.E.I.C. both ruled the country and exploited it to its own advantage. The time-honoured system of the past has to give way to the sterner morality of the present day, yet an Indian (not a Government official, who by accepting office has contracted not to increase his income by forbidden methods) sees no degradation, no dishonour, in adhering to an ancient custom, even though he may recognize the theoretical

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superiority of the new regime; and where this regime is not in force he continues the customs of his forefathers. Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, Forest Lifo and Sport in India.

We are still at work trying desperately to improve the working conditions of the forest staff and attempting to reform the service. The inspector general has become the director general but the poor forest service-it has now been relegated to oblivion. Finance departments still destroy the reform and recruitment process. Wilmot probably did not realize it but his time was the golden era for the forest service. The population of India is now over a billion and the pressures on forest land enormous, but the problems described by Wilmot a century ago remain pretty much the same today. In the conclusion Wilmot stated:

Finally, as to sport in India, in so far as the forest is concerned, the time has already arrived when bitterness and j ealousies are not uncommon, as a perusal of correspondence in the daily press will show. And this is but natural when the Government has been forced to interfere to protect from promiscuous slaughter the interesting fauna of the country. At present no one can shoot in Government forests without first purchasing a licence that defines the area placed at the sportsman's disposal, the number and kind of animals he may kill; and in the midst of the eager applications for these licences the Forest Officer may find himself entirely cut off from sport in the area under his charge, or be afraid to fire a shot, lest he should be encroaching on territory leased to another. So much is this the case that more than one Forest Officer has laid aside gun and rifle entirely, so as to have a freer hand in the issue of licences and in the decision of disputes that may arise amongst others-a distinctly humourous result of game laws that add to the duties of the forester, that of gamekeeper, and deprive him of one of the most popular incentives to a forester career. As a rule, the man who passes his life amongst the big game attacks it in his youth, with the ferocity born of primeval instincts and of novelty. As he grows older he becomes more merciful, till at

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last intimate acquaintance conduces to sympathetic affection. He may still feel his blood boil with the excitement of a tiger-hunt, for here is a pastime that never stales with its monotony, provided that man and tiger meet with some pretence of equality; but, for the rest, the wild beasts afford a companionship that is fully recognized in the feeling of solitude experienced when living in a forest devoid of animal life. To read by day on the ground the circumstances and occupations of his neighbours, to interpret by night the cries that tell of their passions and dangers, supplies that added interest which brings vigour to the continuous labour of the forester. For that labour he will find his reward in the generous response of the forest to his fostering care, and in results that will endure for generations after he has completed the short work of a lifetime. Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, Forest Lifo and Sport in India.

The 1 887 Wild Birds Protection Act was amended and repealed in 1912. The Wild Bird and Animals Protection Act (VIII of 1912) replaced it to put the interests of wildlife on the agenda of the country for the first time ever. The new Act and its various amendments must have created an atmosphere that inspired many to write. One of these writers was a forest officer called E.P. Stebbing who, in a book published in 1920 entitled The Diary of a Sportsman Naturalist in India, states some of the most far-reaching thoughts for saving and governing wildlife. He goes into great detail about the economic value of fauna and then into what must have been some of the first strong utterances about creating a sanctuary. What Stebbing was really doing was forcing the prioritization of both the forest and wildlife issue by going into the details of the economic value in order to get attention and political will. It is amazing that this was early in the last century. I do much the same even today as he was doing nearly eighty years ago. E.P. Stebbing wove a path through his writings in order to minimize the effects of poaching and his attempt was to create inviolate tracts or sanctuaries, since he felt there was an urgent need for this at the tum of the last century itself! Stebbing deserves extensive quoting:

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The Economic Value of the Fauna It has been previously mentioned that the Government of India, as the successors to the former rulers of the country, became the owners of the fauna of the forests and wastelands. This fauna has a very considerable economic value, the realization of which has so far not been apparent. Practically the only pecuniary return as yet achieved has been from the sale of shooting licences to sportsmen. And yet the value of the flesh, horns and skins of the mammals annually killed throughout the country must be very considerable. That there is a ready market has been mentioned and is well known to many. The economic value of these products in all probability runs into many lacs of rupees annually. No steps appear to have been yet taken to tap this source of revenue. And it cannot be tapped until the matter is approached from the proper viewpoint. The mere passing of an Act, and the notification of Regulations under the Act by Local Governments, will not be sufficient to deal adequately with the question. The effective preservation of the mammals, birds and fish of a countty as large as India is a matter requiring constant and unremitting attention if they are to be safeguarded. That this matter has not been envisaged from the correct point of view to date is perhaps not surprising. To the old-time sportsman it did not occur. Why should it? The game animals and animals of economic value were in such abundance in the country that the chances of a species becoming exterminated must have appeared remote. The position, as has been shown, is now very different. It is known for a fact that mammals yielding skins of a high commercial value and birds producing plumes are in danger of extinction throughout the world, owing to the cupidity of the commercial firms dealing in such produce. The valuable egret plumes of lndia are a case in point, the must deer of the Himalaya, and so forth. The trader is no respecter of sex or season if he has a valuable market. Where possible, there is no reason why the trade of a country in this respect should not be maintained. But a trade whose existence depends on the slaughter of animals should be regulated one. It requires to be under supervision in order that a proper need of protection may be

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accorded to the animal. Such supervision in India can only be effectually given by the Supreme Government. It is difficult to understand why the economic value of the fauna of the country as a whole has not been realised. Most people are aware that the flora contains many species of high es.onomic value, whether as timber, food and medicinal products, or other commercial articles, such as dyes, tannins, grasses, and so forth. Many of these come from the forests. The Forest Officer, for instance, is well aware that timber by no means constitutes the only commercial article which the forest produces. In fact he may be in charge of areas which produce no timber of commercial size at all. His trees may only grow to a size which yields fuel, such as in some of the Punjabi plains forests. But in most cases the fuel is by no means the only saleable article the forests contain. There will be usually what the forester collectively designates 'Minor products'. The Indian forests contain a very large number of these minor products, varying with the variations in the flora and climate. Lac, for instance, is the product of an insect which is now carefully cultivated in blocks of forest in the Central Provinces and elsewhere and yields a handsome revenue in the parts of the country where it thrives. Bamboos are a minor product which the future may see largely needed for the production of paper pulp; for it has been commercially proved that they can be used in the production of classes of this commodity, the demand for which is ever increasing. Other products are grasses, also used in the manufacture of paper and for thatching purposes; canes, tannins, resin, gums, wax, and so forth, are all minor products, the collection of which in the forest is well understood and the sale ofwhich forms a very handsome proportion of the annual sum realized from the Indian forests. These are derivable, all but lac and wax, from the flora of the country. Why has not equal attention been paid to the products which are obtainable from the fauna? Horns, hides, furs, plumes and feathers, and fish of the rivers and streams. There is a good source of revenue here. The horns shed annually by the deer ( Cervidae) in the forests throughout the country must represent many thousand tons in weight. It is, however, unusual to find more than a stray horn here and there in jungles where deer are numerous. They are systematically searched for and collected by the neighbouring villagers

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and sold in the bazaars. Government realises but little revenue under this head. The Forest Officer has had the duties of gamekeeper added to his other arduous ones in the forest. He issues the permits for shooting; allocates the blocks between the yarious permit-holders, possibly finding when this distribution has been made that there will be but a small area left in which he may fire a rifle himsel£ The revenue from the permits goes to Government. But it is a small return for the value of the large number of mammals, birds, and fish killed and sold annually on their property. It has been recognized that the products of the flora belong to the Government and they are collected and sold in the interests of the revenue. The same policy should be extended to cover the products of the fauna. It may be suggested that this could be done by setting up a staff who should have the charge of advising on the best means of collecting the revenue derivable from the fauna as a whole. That, in fact, the fauna should be treated as one of the economic products of the country and that mammals, birds and fishes should only be killed on licence. The case of the sportsman has already been dealt with. His object is to secure pleasure combined with such trophies of the chase as good fortune and his own skill will win by well-understood sporting methods. But the far larger body of individuals interested in the destruction of the fauna of the country are professionals. They kill to sell and their operations should be controlled by the issue of a licence permitting them to kill a certain number of head of the animal named in the permit, before they are taken out of the area in which they are secured. In fact they should be treated on similar lines to those employed in the collection of minor produce from the forests. In the case of the forests the licences would be issued and the royalties collected by the Forest Staff in a manner similar to other forest produce. It would be essential, for the orderly management of these forests under the existing working plans in force, plans which have received the sanction of the Local Governments, that all licences covering o perations within the Government forest area should be issued, the licences controlled, and the revenue collected by the Forest Officer. In the case of the areas lying outside the forests in each District the licences would be issued and

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controlled by the Collector. The introduction of the universal licence would, moreover, place the Collector in an easier position with reference to the vexed question of the gun licence for the protection of crops. If animals were shot in the crops the village shikari or villager would have to pay the royalty on the horns, skins and flesh of the animals shot, and the sex and age of these animals would be recorded. An effective check would therefore be set up, for strict investigation could be carried out in cases where the records showed an undue number of animals shot on this pretext in any locality or the neighbourhood of any village-a check which heretofore has been non-existent. An efficient scheme might well be worked out by the Advisory Officer in the District for the protection of crops which would eliminate once and for all the poaching shikari and villager. If some simple procedure as the one here sketched were brought into force it would be unnecessary to set up a separate department to deal with the protection of the fauna and to obtain from it the revenue which is should certainly yield. The strengthening of the staffs in some cases might be necessary and officers who are known to have made a close practical study of the fauna of their province (they would be sportsmen and naturalists and in their own province would be well known) could be chosen and attached to the various districts and forest divisions for the purpose of advising and bringing into force the new regime. Where a number of adjoining districts or forest divisions in a province have a similar fauna and methods of shooting and poaching, one officer would suffice to deal with the whole area, the revenue derivable being paid into the district of forest division concerned. In every case it should be within the power of the Collector or Forest Officer to refuse, or to recommend to a higher authority the refusal, of all licences to kill any mammal, bird or fish whose numbers from whatever cause has so seriously diminished as to lead to the fear that the species might deteriorate or become extinct within the area. Fish in the inland waters should be treated on similar lines to mammals and birds. Poaching should be firmly put down. The use of the dynamite charge has resulted in far larger numbers of fish being killed than was p ossible in former lines, with much less trouble to the poacher. All

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professional fishermen should be made to take out licences permitting them to ply their vocation and should pay a royalty on the catch. It is believed that the proper realization of the economic value of the fauna of lndia and its exploitation under proper regulations would result in a considerable revenue being derived.

The Preservation of the Indian Land Fauna as a Whole The Permanent Sanctuary In a preceding chapter we have discussed the Game Sanctuary from the point of view of the preservation of animals of sporting interest, i.e., of those usually termed Game Animals. I now propose to deal briefly with Sanctuary regarded from the aspect of the preservation of the fauna of a particular area or country as a whole. A Sanctuary formed for such a purpose requires to have a permanent character. In other words, the area should be permanently closed to shooting and to all and every interruption to the ordinary habits of life of the species to be preserved. It will be obvious at once that Sanctuaries of this nature and their management will differ widely in different parts of the world. In some cases the only prescriptions would probably relate to shooting, poaching, egg collection, and so forth. It would be unnecessary to close the areas entirely to man. In others, however, it is certain that some of the larger and shier animals and birds, and, I believe, certain classes of insects and so forth, can only be preserved from inevitable extinction if Permanent Sanctuaries of considerable extent are maintained, solely with the object of safeguarding the species for which they are created. In Sanctuaries of this class it will not be merely sufficient to forbid shooting. It will be necessary to close them to man altogether, to leave them, in other words, in their primeval condition, to forbid the building of roads or railways through their vastnesses, to prevent the Forest Department from converting the areas into well-ordered blocks of forest managed for commercial purposes; in fact to prevent in them all and every act of man. In every case throughout the world such Sanctuaries will require to be under supervision, but such supervision should be entirely confined to a police supervision to prevent poaching, collecting, and any entrance by man into the area.

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In a previous chapter I alluded to the Presidential Address delivered by Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F. R.S., Secretary of the Zoological Society, in London, before the British Association in Dundee in 1 9 1 2. Dr. Chalmers Mitchell was the first, I believe, to enunciate this theory of a Sanctuary for the preservation, not merely of animals whose protection from extinction was considered necessary either from their sporting or economic value, but of the fauna as a whole. He quite correctly pointed out that my paper, read before the Zoological Society in November, 1 9 1 1 , only dealt with the former aspects of the question. After discussing the position of Europe in respect of the diminution of extinction of animals which were abundant in the past the author comes to India. 'India contains,' he says, 'the richest, the most varied, and, from many points of view, the most in teresting part of the Asiatic fauna. Notwithstanding the teeming human population it has supported from time immemorial, the extent of its area, its dense forests and jungles, its magnificent series of river valleys, mountains, �nd hills have preserved until recent times a fauna rich in individuals and species.' After pointing out that the books of sportsmen show how abundant game animals were forty years ago, he continues: 'The one-horned rhinoceros has been nearly exterminated in Northern India and Assam. The magnificent gaur, one of the most splendid of living creatures, has been almost killed off throughout the limits of its range-Southern India and the Malay Peninsula. Bears and wolves, wild dogs and leopards are persecuted remorselessly. Deer and antelope have been reduced to numbers that alarm even the most thoughtless sportsmen, and wild sheep and goats are being driven to the utmost limits of their range.' After alluding to the diminution of animals in other countries, and especially game animals and those killed for economic reasons, the author continues: 'And to us who are Zoologists, the vast destruction of invertebrate life, the sweeping out, as forests are cleared and the soil tilled, of innumerable species that are not even named or described is a real

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calamity. I do not wish to appeal to sentiment. Man is worth many sparrows; he is worth all the animal population of the globe, and if there were not room for both, the animals must go. I will pass no judgement on those who find the keenest pleasure of life in gratifying the primeval instinct of sport. I will admit that there is no better destiny for the lovely plumes of a rare bird than to enhance the beauty of a beautiful woman . . . But I do not admit the right of the present generation to careless indifference or to wanton destruction. Each generation is the guardian of the existing resources of the world; it has come into a great inheritance, but only as a trustee. We are learning to preserve the relics of early civilizations, and the rude remains of man's primitive arts and crafts. Every civilized nation spends great sums on painting and sculpture, on libraries and museums. Living animals are of older lineage, more perfect craftsmanship, and greater beauty than any of the creations of man. And although we value the work of our forefathers, we do not doubt but that the generations yet unborn will produce their own artists and writers of the past. But there is no resurrection or recovery of an extinct species, and it is not merely that here and there one species out of many is threatened, but that whole genera, families, and orders are in danger.' There still remains, then, the problem of carrying the preservation of animals the one stage further to include the whole fauna-in a word, the formation of Fauna Sanctuaries. Their creation so as to include some of the most interesting of the fauna is still possible in India, e.g., in that fascinating tract stretching from Assam down into Burma. I am so entirely in sympathy with Dr. Mitchell's opinions on this question that I will quote his concluding remarks before the Association: 'There are in all the great continents large tracts almost empty of resident population, which still contain vegetation almost undisturbed by the ravages of man and which still harbour a multitude of small animals, and could afford space for the larger and better known animals. These tracts have not yet been brought under cultivation, and are rarely traversed except by the sportsman, the explorer, and the prospector. O n these there should be established, in all the characteristic faunistic areas, reservations which should not be merely temporary recuperating grounds for harassed game, but absolute Sanctuaries. Under no condition should they be opened to the sportsmen. No gun should be fired, no animal

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slaughtered or captured save by the direct authority of the wardens of the Sanctuaries, for the removal of noxious individuals, the controlling of species that were increasing beyond reason, the extirpation of diseased or unhealthy animals. The obvious examples are not the game reserves of the Old World, but the National Parks of the New World and Australasia. In the United States, for instance, there are now the Yellowstone National Park with over two million acres, the Yosemite in California with nearly a million acres, the Grand Canon Game Preserve, with two million acres, the Mount Olympus National Monument in Washington with over half a million acres, as well as number of smaller reserves for special purposes, and a chain of coastal areas all around the shores for the preservation of birds. In Canada, in Alberta, there are the Rocky Mountains Park, the Yoho Park, Glacier Park, and Jasper Park, together extending to over nine million acres, whilst in British Columbia there are smaller Sanctuaries. These, so far as laws can make them, are inalienable and inviolable Sanctuaries for wild animals. We ought to have similar Sanctuaries in every country of the world, national parks secured for all time against all the changes and chances of the nations by international agreement. In the older and more settled countries the areas selected u n fo rtun ately m us t be deter m i n e d by various considerations, of which faunistic value cannot be the most important. But certainly in Africa and in large parts ofAsia, it would still be possible that they should be selected in the first place for their faunistic value. The scheme for them should be drawn up by an international commission of experts in the geographical distribution of animals, and the winter and s u m mer haunts of m igrato ry b i rds should be taken into consideration. It is for zoologists to lead the way, by laying down what is required to preserve for all time the most representative and most complete series of surviving species without any reference to the extrinsic value of the animals. And it then will be the duty of the nations, jointly and severally, to arrange that the requirements laid down by the experts shall be complied with.' To the thoughtful man this lucid exposition of the case places the whole problem in � nutshell.

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I think the concluding extract from Dr. Chalmers Mitchell's paper is one of the highest importance both in its wider sense and in the more confined one as regards India. Sanctuaries such as above sketched are the only possible method of saving from extinction the rhinoceros, bison or gaur, and buffalo, to take three of the best known of the big game animals requiring protection in India. But these Sanctuaries require to be left in their state of primeval forest. They cannot be treated as commercial forests managed from a revenue-making point of view by the Forest Department. The most scientific arrangements for opening and closing the blocks of forest as they come up in rotation for felling and other operations will not avail to make such areas true Sanctuaries. I have an idea that some of the areas in America and Canada alluded to above by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell are Sanctuaries which it is proposed to treat as revenue-giving forests. If this is the case they will not remain Sanctuaries for a certain proportion of the fauna they at present contain. There can be little doubt that as it is with some of the shier mammals so must it be with a proportion of other forms of animal life living in the forests. They can be preserved from extinction in an area of primeval forest left untouched by man and maintained in its original condition. Amongst insects it is, I think, probable that some of the forest members of the longicorn, buprestid, brenthid and bark-boring beetles (Scolylidae), to mention but four families, many species of which are still probably unknown to science, will disappear with the cleaning up of the forests and their systematic management by the Forest Department. My point is that I am in complete agreement with Dr. Mitchell in his contention that the Sanctuary, the large, permanent Sanctuary, should not be regarded merely as a harbour for animals of game or economic interest, but that it should be formed in the interests of the fauna as a whole. I would, however, add to this the rider that in the case of the large Sanctuaries required to preserve from extinction animals either of a naturally roving disposition or of very shy habits the prohibition to entry should not be confined to the sportsmen alone or to man generally outside the officials connected with the area. But further, that it should

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be recognized that in order to realize the objects aimed at it should be rigidly laid down that no working of any kind can take place within the Permanent Sanctuary. That in other words a Permanent Sanctuary does not fall within the boundaries of any area · worked by Government officials, either for profit or other reasons, on behalf of the Government. Officials would be appointed to supervise the Sanctuary, but their duties would be confined to policing the area in order that the objects for which it was created might be realized to the full.' E.P. Stebbing,

The Diary ofa Sportsman Naturalist in India.

And I can fully understand the need for sanctuaries at that moment of time. The last fifty years had seen devastation. As Mahesh Rangarajan puts it: 'Over 80,000 tigers, more than 150,000 leopards and 200,000 wolves were slaughtered in 50 years from 1875 to 1925. It is possible this was only a fraction of the numbers actually slain . . . ' For those who cared, the 1920s and the reflections o f the horrors of hunting over the last decades must have given little cause for hope. The 1920s was also a time for great bursts in human populations. This was when the sharpest rise in births took place. Mortality levels were also coming down. The pressures on the forest had increased sharply. By 1926 there were much discussion, dialogue, and debate on 'game' preservation in India. The Bombay Natural History Society played a vital role in triggering the issues of this debate-they wrote to forest officers and sportsmen for their opinions and a series of editorials in the Journal created an awareness of the need for 'conservation' . I think the reason for this was the state of game-o f wildlife in general. Again, there was much discussion about the concept of a sanctuary and its feasibility. Many issues were discussed, much as we discuss today, but in 1927 few believed that the time had come to create protected areas. I have edited a selection of writings during this period to provide a glimpse of what must have been a critical turning point in the history of both the forest and wildlife. In 1926 an editorial in the Journal of the BNHS summarized the important issues regarding preservation.

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Game Preservation (Editorial) . . . It is as a poacher that man is the great destroyer. In considering how to deal with the problem of the native who kills game, the first thing to be considered is his reason for doing it, and three reasons immediately appear. These are first for profit, in order that he may sell the meat, hide and horns, and this would appear by far, the most common one. The second is, for the meat only, and this is not so common. The third reason, is to protect his crops, and no one can possibly complain of an agriculturist in any part of the world protecting his property in such a way. The increase in number of gun licences issued has had a most fatal influence on the existence of game in many districts. It is not that the licences themselves have done the actual damage, but that they have a habit of lending or hiring out their weapons to others. In many cases it is the custom for dear old Indian gentlemen whose figure puts out of the question their personally taking an active part in hunting, to send out their retainers with a gun to kill game for them, regardless of season, sex or size; and there is no doubt that by stopping this abuse of a gun licence granted as a personal privilege, much game would be saved. It is very often for the purpose of such household use that gun licences are applied for. Such action would not however affect the poacher who poaches for pecuniary profit, and from a larger number of the letters received, it is evident that the buyer is the person to get at. The formation of sanctuaries is the principle point on which the letters differ. Where recommended the suggestion is always qualified by the remark that they are expensive; as, to be effective, they must be well guarded by unbribable Game Warden, and this is put forward as an insuperable objection by several. The majority are of the opinion that existing Reserved Forests are sufficient sanctuaries in themselves, and the general consensus of opinion is that the licence holder is of considerable assistance in Game preservation. In this connection it might

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be remembered what has happened on nullahs being dosed in Kashmir for a long period as sanctuaries: they have almost invariably been found almost empty of Game on being reopened, dosing them having proved to benefit the poacher only. This is the almost inevitable fate of any sanctuary in India unless unbribable game watchers are found at very high rates of pay. As there is no prospect of such paragons ever being discovered without expenditure of money never likely to be available, the provision of sanctuaries may be relegated to the dim future. There is again the effect of preservation on the Forest itsel£ Bison and Sambhar both do a great deal of damage to young teak and other valuable timber trees, and must be kept within bounds. A sanctuary to be effective must be big, and there are few places where the Forest Department can afford to set aside a large tract of forest as a sanctuary. One correspondent draws attention to the balance being upset in another direction, and gives figures to support his contention that tigers have taken to man-eating much more oflate years in the Northern Circars owing to the decrease in their natural food, namely deer, at the hands of poachers. To summarize the impression gained from the letters read it appears that what is principally needed is a law forbidding the sale of any part of a big game animal (carnivora excepted) save by a Forest Officer in the public interest. An adequate penalty to be enforced. Secondly that the use of a gun except by the licence holder in person be strictly forbidden and penalties exacted. It only remains for us to accord our most grateful thanks to all those who have answered our letters and for the care and trouble they have taken in doing so. journal ofBombay Natural History Sodety, Vol. 31 ( 1 926) , pp. 803-04. And there must have been endless discussions on new concepts. The Nilgiri Game Association of prevailing state of affairs:

1879 also assessed the

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The Preservation in the Nilgiris by Major E.G. Phythian-Adams, I.A. (Retd.) The Nilgiri Game Association was formed in 1 879, and is therefore one of the oldest societies for Game Preservation in India. The mass of the Nilgiri plateau intercepts the monsoon currents and accordingly one side receives heavy rain from the south-west monsoon while the other obtains little except from the north-east. This climatic variation considerably affects both the nesting seasons of birds and the times when the deer, more especially chi tal, may be found in hard horn. At the time of the formation of the Association in 1 879 as the result of considerable Press agitation, big game was fast approaching extinction on the plateau. The butchers of that period knew no restriction of age, sex, or season, and slaughtered alike doves, fawns, and stags in velvet. Poaching is inevitable and all that can be done is to mitigate the evil as far as possible. The N.G.A. has for many years and at considerable expense maintained a staff of seventeen game watchers, but as they were found to be quite useless, they were abolished in 1 926, and their duties taken over by ordinary Forest Guards, a special sum being set aside by the N .G.A. for rewards for reporting cases. The N .G.A. is much hampered by the amount of private Patta land in the area, over which it has no control, and on which shooting takes place without restriction throughout the year. Since the revision of the Indian Arms Act a few years ago the number of licenced weapons has increased enormously, and there is, unfortunately no doubt that poaching into Reserved Forests is far more common than it used to be. What is needed is an Act to protect the females of deer at all times, and game birds during the nesting-season equally on private as on public land. The Forest Rangers and their assistants in this district now receive free shooting licences, and if they will fully realize their responsibilities in the matter of Game Preservation, much might be effected. Certain areas on the plateau are closed to shooting either big or small game, and others to beating, and it is proposed to close next year to all shooting a considerable area in the centre of the plateau to acclimatize imported Jungle-fowl and Burmese Pheasants. For many years the large

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tract on the west of the plateau known as the Kundahs has been closed to all heating and small game shooting. It was re-opened this season, but there is no appreciable increase in the number or size of heads in the case of Sambur, nor in the number of small game. The Kundahs are uninhabited and seldom visited except by an occasional sportsman or by men grazing herds of cattle. Its southern edge is no doubt poached to a certain extent by the jungle Kurrumbas from the Bhavani Valley, but they do not penetrate far above the cliffs. The poor results obtained seem to show that a long period of protection in the same area is a mistake, and that closed areas should not be kept as such for more than a few years. General-The present condition of game in the area is satisfactory, but the greatly increased number of licenced and unlicenced weapons in the hands of Patta-land shooters renders necessary stricter supervision than formerly, and an Act to regulate the sale of big game throughout the year, with severe penalties for the use of a gun except by a licence­ holder in person. Unless some such steps on the lines indicated are taken at an early date, the head of game in the area will diminish rapidly, and no longer afford alike to the resident and to the visitor the sport that it does at present. Lovedale, Nilgiris March 3, 1 927.

It is quite clear that at the tum of the century India had spiralled into a wildlife crisis. World War I had also taken its toll on India's rich timber supply. The guns were more advanced and motor car had made its entry. With accelerating crisis came strident calls from urgent conservation and now started a remarkable period of 'battling' to save the wilds.

A Critical Period 1927-1947

he period between 1927 and 1937 was in a way fascinating

T because there was a remarkable spurt in writing and about

what was considered as a rapidly developing wildlife crisis. The Indian Forest Act (XIV of 1927) had just been enacted with new rules and guidelines. The human population was growing rapidly and the first waves of infrastructure develop ment were accelerating, especially the railway network, and with it came the endless demands for wooden sleepers. Forests were cut rapidly. Discussions about shooting rules, closed and open seasons, the creation of game preservation societies, protection of monitor lizards, and how different regions should create new laws to protect species, became frequent. I think one of the primary reasons for this was the development of the motor car and the laying of roads. This caused havoc to wildlife since forests became easily accessible to many, and cars fitted with lights or specially designed hunting cars that were made for the maharajas, entered the forests in great numbers. Wildlife had little chance. Hunting records accelerated. Four tigers in one night was the norm. By 1929, just outside Bombay, which was the headquarters of the BNHS, a tiger that had swum in from the Thane creek was shot dead. This was also the last recorded tiger shot or seen in Bombay.

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In nearby Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) there were also serious concerns about the state of wildlife. People like Dunbar Brander wrote on the problems of wildlife in the Central Provinces and this was again a moment to re-discuss the creation of sanctuaries and national parks. The debates raged on; Brander went to the extent of giving a detailed outline for a 'Valley Reserve'. S.H. Prater wrote of the problems of wildlife both in India and across the world, and Milroy, a forest officer from Assam wrote on the serious problems that afflicted that region. Champion wrote of the concerns of wildlife in the United Provinces, and in a way a bunch of forest officers across India who loved the wilderness were revealing by the mid-thirties the severity of the crisis that was enveloping them. At this time Cadell wrote on the predicament of the Indian lion, and by 1935 a major conference was organized to discuss the problems that plagued Indian wildlife. It must have been the first of its kind . Richmond wrote on the Madras Presidency, Salim Ali on the Hyderabad State, Phythian-Adams on Mysore, and Jepson on wildlife preservation in India. This, in my opinion, is one of the first records of an Indian, Salim Ali, getting involved with the process of conservation. It was, as I said earlier, a burst of concern for what was going on. It led to the first journal on Indian wildlife being edited by Corbett, which was called Indian Wildlife, Official Organ of the All India Conference for the Preservation of Wildlife, and it was born after the conference in 1935. This was the 'wild bunch' in a major battle to save India's wildlife. They were activated like never before. For them the future must have looked bleak. In a way this was one of the most turbulent periods in the history of Indian wildlife and a collection of articles, letters, and comments about this period is reproduced here:

Game Preservation in India by The Editors Game Preservation wherever it may be undertaken embodies the same principle-the principle that, in order to afford game animals that peace and protection which will enable them to live and reproduce their kind

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without damage to man, man should only be allowed to damage them under certain rules and should be restricted from ruthless destruction. How is this principle applied in India? Let us take first the factors which adversely affect the existence of game and then consider the remedies or lack of remedies. Firstly as a settler, by dearing the forest and wastelands and driving the game away from its natural habitat; secondly as a destroyer, by protecting his own preserves from intrusion yet pursuing animal life within the vastnesses of its retreat. Disease is a second adverse factor to be reckoned with; rinderpest has accounted for a large number of bison and buffalo in Peninsular India, while foot and mouth disease has in recent years seriously affected game animals in Kashmir and Himalayan ranges. A third adverse factor might be said to be the killing of game by predatory animals, yet this factor we might set down as a natural check on over-increase, and unless the balance of nature has been upset by extraneous causes its effect on game as a whole is not considerable. The remedy against man would appear to be obvious, namely the provision of extensive areas of absolute wilderness affording harbourage to wild life, and so long as there are refuges safeguarded by their very nature against usurpation by man so long will wildlife thrive and maintain its existence, provided there is no epidemic disease. In India the possession of such areas has been one of the main factors tending to the protection of its wild fauna and there should be little danger, for the present, of any of the existing species being exterminated. Viewed as a whole, therefore, the present condition of game in India would appear decidedly good-but for how long will this status be maintained? In some parts of the country, as in the Central Provinces, there has already been serious depletion and in other areas there is an almost complete disappearance of game. In making a plea for the protection of the wild fauna of the country we must urge that apart from the purely sympathetic motives which should impel man to permit to lesser creatures the right of existence there are other, perhaps less worthy and more material, thoughts and motives which are worth considering. These reasons are put forth on the assumption of course that animal life is worth preserving somewhere.

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From the scientific standpoint there are innumerable investigations­ anatomical, physiological , ecological, geographic, taxonomic and evolutionary, which can only be made from the study of animal life. Biology has already produced many conceptions of practical and educational value. The role of the parasite, the predator, the scavenger, in the economic web oflife has, besides its purely educative significance, a not wholly useless application to social relations. And what about the purely economic aspect? Even predatory animals have a distinct value as a controlling influence against over-population by species whose unrestricted increase would adversely affect the interests of man. Again there is the utilization for man's benefit of animal products, such as furs, hides and horns, which in themselves present a valuable economic asset and are in themselves a plea for the conservation of the sources of supply. Have these economic possibilities been exhausted? A few years ago Insulin, that priceless boon to the diabetic, was discovered in the liver of a shark. Who knows what animal products yet remain to be discovered which will be of priceless value to man? The principle of conservation being admitted, what are the methods to be employed? The principle is the same in every country, the methods to be employed must vary in every country and will probably vary in different parts of the same country. Let us consider some of the different methods of conservation in vogue in different parts of India. In the United Provinces shooting rules close and open shooting blocks for altogether fortnights. This system provides and ensures fortnightly periods of constantly recurring rest. In the Terai type of jungles, where shooting blocks are small and game can be very thoroughly disturbed by a line of elephants beating them day after day, the system is an absolute necessity. In the Central Provinces the forests are parcelled out into shooting blocks usually of a large size. One block, usually a central one, being reserved as a Sanctuary; this, coupled with the extensive size of the blocks, secures game from undue disturbances. There is here, and in other parts of India also, a strict limit to the kind and number of animals which may be shot in a given block, and, in addition, an individual limit is imposed on all sportsmen whether exempted from permits or not.

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In Southern India the game laws are not applicable to the various provinces as a whole and in certain areas no game laws exist. The Nilgiri Districts and those parts of Coimbatore and Malabar which are so effectively controlled by the Nilgiri Game Association are the only areas with special laws excepting the areas known as reserved forests where the number of animals that may be shot is controlled by licence. The position as regards game in Assam is simple; here the game areas are divided into wastelands, reserve forests, and hill forests. The immense areas of wasteland which existed at one time are now being rapidly cultivated by immigrant settlers or used as grazing lands by an invasion ofbuffalo-keepers, Nepalese, so that game in these lands is rapidly losing ground. In reserve forests shooting is controlled by licence. For the better protection of rhinos, large areas of grass and swamp land have been included in these reserves and treated as sanctuaries. In the hill forest areas conditions are steadily approaching those obtaining in wastelands where an increasing human population is gradually driving game from its quondam preserves. Whilst game in Assam will be less and less exempt from molestation as cultivation approaches forest boundaries, it must be admitted that there is little danger ofgame in Assam becoming extinct for a great many years so long as extensive forests continue to exist and to provide safe harbourage to game. The conditions prevailing in Assam may be applied to India as a whole. On broad principles land may be classified in three main zones­ urban areas, agricultural areas, and forest and waste areas. As far as animal life is concerned we cannot expect its preservation in urban lands. Cultivated areas with their domestic animals and crops provide at once an opportunity for conflict between man's interests and those of the wild species, and in such land the plea for protection cannot carry weight. We come finally to forest areas and wastelands where, as shown, excellent laws suited to local conditions have been framed for protection ofwildlife, yet nevertheless game is decreasing where once it abounded. Existing game laws are excellent in themselves but it is in their efficient application that the trouble arises. As far as the agency of man is concerned there is no mystery attached to the causes of trouble. Firstly while the licence holder is restricted by the terms of his licence from doing undue damage, the poacher is affected by no law. He slaughters indiscriminately

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everything that he sets his eyes upon, regardless of sex, age, or season, he sits over saldicks and waterholes, indulges in night shooting and does all that he should not do. Secondly emphasis must be laid on the great increase in recent years in the number of gun licences issued which increase is producing, and will continue increasingly to produce, its inevitable effect on game in forest areas and lands immediately adjoining. Thirdly there is a mass of unlicensed guns carefully concealed but constantly used, and there is also the loaning of fire arms by accommodating licensees to friends and retainers, and finally there are the professional trappers and gangs of men with dogs who slay and devour all that falls before them. Those in control of forest areas cannot be altogether exonerated for the ineffective application of the rules. Conservators of Forests and Divisional Forest Officers are not necessarily interested in game preservation, and in addition there often exists the clash of interests between the sylviculturist and the game protector, for game can do considerable damage to young teak and other valuable forest timbers. If the game in reserved forests and sanctuaries is to be protected a more rigid application of the laws is necessary-the stimulus for which might be obtained by an executive order from above. Much might also be effected by cooperation with the police since every constable is in law 'a forest officer'. A more liberal system of rewards for detection of forest crime, particularly of poaching, is another point worthy of consideration. Rewards are far too rarely given and very rarely indeed in poaching cases; the detection and capture of a poacher who is armed often involves danger and there is no class of forest crime the detection of which merits to a greater extent the granting of reward. It is evident that much of the poaching that is done in forest preserves is carried on for profit. It is significant that the decrease of game in certain areas has corresponded with the increase in the export of skins, principally of bison, buffalo, sambhar, etc. Bison, chital and sambhar hides are openly sold in the bazaars and there is nothing to prevent these sales. If the poacher is deprived of his market the temptation to kill would be largely removed and it would appear that there could be no possible objection to a general law throughout India forbidding the sale by unauthorized persons of

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any portion of big game animals-whether hides, horns or meat and with adequate penalties annexed for those who break the law.

As to the question of gun licences, it may be assumed that in 99 cases out of 1 00 they are not obtained for the purpose for which they are granted as it is the merest fiction to suppose that the guns are used exclusively for crop protection, which is the only legitimate purpose to which they can be put. While the reduction in the number of licences may perhaps be a difficult matter, it would seem a perfectly fair proposition to have all the 'crop protection' guns called in during the hot weather when there are absolutely no crops to protect. It is during the hot weather, when water is so scarce and the jungles are so thin, that 80 per cent of the damage is done. It has been found useful, where gun licences are required solely for crop protection purposes, to have several inches of barrel removed. Lastly a suitable penalty might be imposed for the use of a gun except by the licence holder in person. The formation of suitable game sanctuaries has been proposed by many as a solution. They must be fairly large, must possess a perennial water supply and must as far as possible be protected against fire and, what is most important, they must have a special staff to look after them. Each preserve will require well-paid watchers with a game warden over them-the game warden should be well paid and given considerable preventive powers. The case for the game warden and his special staff is that many forest officials have neither the time nor perhaps the inclination to apply themselves especially to game preservation. The exploitation of timber and forest produce is annually increasing and forest officers find it more and more difficult to get away from work which brings revenue so as to be able to pay sufficient attention to a question which in this material age is considered to be one of subsidiary importance. A game warden requires special qualifications and besides being a sportsman must also be a naturalist with a knowledge of the ways and habits of the animals he is called upon to protect. The objection to the game sanctuary is that it is expensive both as regards the extent of forest land which must be sacrificed for the purpose and as regards its maintenance by well-paid warden and an unbribable staff. Besides it may be maintained that a long period of protection in the same area is probably a mistake. Nullahs maintained as sanctuaries in Kashmir for considerable periods

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were found, on reopening them to shooting, to be almost empty of game. Lastly an unbribable staff of subordinate game watchers would be difficult to procure. The Nilgiri Game Association which, at considerable expense, maintained a staff of seventeen game watchers, abolished the system as these were found to be quite useless and their duties have now been taken over by ordinary forest guards. The above article was written originally for publication in the Times of India. As it proved too long for the purpose the Editor of the Times published a resume in a leader which appeared in the paper on July 7. The following note appeared in the Times, London, July 1 2, in reference to the leader published in Bombay: 'Any further proposals for preserving game in India as suggested in Bombay are likely to be viewed with the greatest suspicion and disapproval by the cultivating classes. Large game is already carefully preserved in many of the Indian States whose rulers are usually ardent shikaris, and in British India the Forest Department controls most of the game areas. In these, shooting is restricted by the issue of licences and the number of heads that may be bagged. 'The depredations of the larger beasts are one of the most serious handicaps that the ryot has to face. Hundreds of thousands of plough and milch cattle are carried off every year by tiger and panther, while the number of human beings who fall prey to man-eaters is still very considerable. Only last year a man-eater was at large within 50 miles of Madras and was reported to have killed six persons. 'Besides the loss of cattle there is the damage done to crops, which in many parts of India is very extensive. Wild elephants are well known as the most destructive creatures. They will tread down or tear up three or four times the area they eat of such favoured delicacies as cardamoms. It is usually permissible to kill them when they are found doing damage on private land, but it is no easy task to do so. Occasionally a small owner at the foot of the hills may make a lucky coup by digging an elephant pit in his land and capturing a small tusker which is worth more than his field, but in an ordinary way the elephant is looked upon as a sacred nuisance. Wild pigs do a great amount of damage to sugar­ cane, and many a weary cultivator spends the whole night on a

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"machan" among his canes trying vainly to scare them away with horn and tom-tom. 'One of the most popular of the provisions of the new Arms Act was the reduction in fees for the possession of muzzle-loaders for the protection of crops and the greatly increased facilities for obtaining licences given to the agricultural classes. Previously, when the losses of cattle from tiger or panther became intolerable and there were no guns available, a whole village would turn out with spears, sticks and drums and surrounding "stripes" or "spots" after his meal, would literally poke him to death. 'The cattle mortality returns show no such decrease among them as would justify any further protection of the felines. In fact in the last few years an increase in the number of tiger has been reported in the Godavari Agency.'

Game Associations There are already in existence several game associations in the hills which regulate the number of shooting licences issued in the area they control. The Nilgiri Game Association which has been in existence for many years has done very useful work in protecting sambur, bison, etc. , and has also spent quite a large sum in stocking rivers with imported trout. Pulini Association, started about 1 5 years ago, is doing similar good work. Bo th associations work under the auspices of the Local Government. So long as the innumerable }heels of Northern India and the tanks of the south receive their supply of water there is no fear of any diminution in the myriads of duck and teal which flock to them every cold weather. The Indian is not likely to change his food supply, and so long as he grows paddy so long will the opportunities for snipe-shooting which India affords be unequalled elsewhere. As cultivation in the dry tracts increases, it is inevitable that the herds of blackbuck and chinkara which roamed over the wastelands in former days should diminish, but there will always be uncultivable areas which

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will form a refuge for them as well as for partridge and sandgrouse and the innumerable other small game of the Indian plains. The days are yet far off when anything in the way of a National Park to preserve Indian fauna is either called for or practicable. An extract from the petition of a ryot sums up the present situation: 'A reserve forest in the proximity of the village is the nursing ground for all sorts of forest beasts, particularly that species of animals that exist by the wild destruction and hasty consumption of the crops of innocent but hard-working farmers. No human endeavour, however ingenious, could scare them away; but if done they come with renewed vigour and far more formidable companions. The declared enemies of the farmer, the cheetahs, the leopards, undertake a perfect crusade against my sheep and goats, more particularly my life-giving bulls and other cattle.' journal ofBombay Natural Histo ry Society, Vol. 32 ( 1 927) , pp. 359-65.

The levels of the debate are fascinating. The 'back and forth' about protected areas, the repeated request for unbribable staff, and the lobbies which were strong and intense, as the hunter did not want to part with his turf even if it were for the creation of a national park. It is clear that at the end of the 1920s there was a tiny minority fighting to create sanctuaries and national parks. The majority, including even those at home in England who called themselves the cultivated classes, wanted only to ensure that they had unrestricted access to the best piece of hunting turf in Asia. They had an enormous vested interest. It was the minority that battled. And thank god for them. Today it is only these protected areas that house remnants of wildlife. The 'wild bunch', eighty years ago, played an extraordinary role in planting the seeds for the protected areas of today. The editors of the BNHS journal did not realize that the day was not far off when India would declare its first national park in order to protect and preserve and minimize the enormous impact of sport hunting that had begun to take a toll on India's wildlife.

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Game Preservation (BNHS Annual Report) Attention must be drawn to various articles on Game Preservation in India and Ceylon which have appeared in the Journal. The subject is one of growing importance and is attracting attention in all parts of the Empire. The general consensus of opinion in India is that game sanctuaries, if by such are meant areas within which no shooting is to be allowed, are not the remedy. They will be paradises for poachers. What are wanted are Game Preserve in which shooting under regulation is allowed, and the alienation of Forest land, which is the home of interesting species of Forest Game which would be exterminated were the land put under cultivation, should be prohibited. Our present difficulties are mainly due to the increasing number of officials with no interest in sport or natural history. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 34 ( 1 929),

p. 605.

Here is another remarkable description of the prevailing state of affairs. They viewed sanctuaries as a poachers' paradise. They had to deal with officials who had no interest in wildlife. The same malaise plagues us even today. The debate about sanctuaries went on and more and more people came into the fray to write about the regions they loved and the sorry state they were in. Here are some extracts from A.A. Dunbar Brander on the Central Provinces. He was a remarkable forest officer with a vision for the future who was writing then on the preservation of wildlife in India. Good game tracts exist both in Indian States and in British India. The British Government has no jurisdiction over the game in Indian States. Most of the Indian Princes protect game, and there is a growing tendency for this movement to spread and become more vigorous. In most States the laws or rules for the protection of wild animals are effectively enforced. No more need be said about the States. With regard to British India, game is found in country having a different legal status, and this must be differentiated:

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(a) Private land (b) State land. Generally speaking, game in (a) has no owner. It belongs neither to the owner of the land nor to the State. The Government, however, has the right to pass laws regulating the slaughter of game, and, in most cases such laws have been passed. I shall refer to this in more detail when dealing with game laws. With regard to State land the great bulk of which consists of Government forest, the State owns the game, and special laws dealing with its protection throughout India have been passed. These laws are administered by the Forest Department. I shall also refer to this in some detail later on.

Types of Game Country There are four main types of country in which game is found and which I have designated as follows:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Himalayan Terai Central Plateau Southern

I left India in 1 922 but revisited it in 1 928, and was appalled to find such a change in so short a period, quite common species being found only with difficulty. The finest game country in this tract is found in the Central Provinces, and I shall deal at some length with the causes which have brought about his state of affairs in that area, as I believe they have a very wide application.

Position of Game on Private Lands As already stated, the game in private lands has no owner. The State has

passed laws prohibiting the killing of does and immature animals. To all intents and purposes the laws are a dead letter as there is no preventive staff. The two main preventive services in India are the Police and the

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Forest Service. The latter has no jurisdiction outside State forest, and the Police take no interest in enforcing the rules. Prosecutions are very rare, and any interest the local constable may take in the matter would often be to share in the booty. The result is that game has almost disappeared froin private lands. The main Bombay-Allahabad line runs through some 200 miles of antelope country. Twenty years ago one was almost constantly in sight of herds. In 1 928 in four hours I only saw two small herds, watching from the train. The only fauna left in private lands is a few chital and sambhar in specially favoured localities, pig in considerable numbers, and a sprinkling of antelope, also lesser carnivora. The great mass of the country, however is blank and it will be readily understood that these blank unprotected spaces surrounding Government forests which contain game act as a constant drain on the stock of fauna in the protected lands: there is constant leakage to destruction. In my opinion nothing can save the fauna in these private lands. Its extermination is certain. The people have been educated to destroy it: there is no staff to protect it, and even if the Indian Legislatures could be induced to take measures, financial considerations preclude adequate protection. State Lands: Position of Game

These mostly consist of State forests where the Forest Act and the rules made thereunder apply; amongst these are included the rules regulating the killing of game. On the whole, these are excellent, and, although I shall suggest certain stiffening to meet modern conditions, nevertheless it is not in the rules themselves but in their application that failure arises. As regards the European and Indian sportsmen who enter the forest to shoot under permit, the rules are absolutely efficacious, and this type of sportsmen does no harm. Where they fail is in the prevention of poaching. There is lucrative trade in game; the initial detection of poaching often rests with a lowly-paid forest guard. Men possessing guns often command respect, and the guard finds the easiest plan is to take a percentage of the profits. Moreover, too sparingly given, the magistrates' sentences are often quite inadequate.

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The Main Reasons why the Destruction of Game has Recently Increased.

1 . During the war the rules were relaxed. In certain cases the shooting of does was permitted to make leather jackets for sailors. There was a general activity in the trade in the products of game: tanneries came into being, and what was previously an occasional trade has now become an active competitive one with wide ramifications: a slaughtered deer no longer means merely a gorge of meat for the local aborigines, it is an article of commerce and a valuable one.

2. There has been a very large increase in the number of gun licences issued as well as a large increase in unlicensed or illegal guns. It is easy to see that with a large number of guns legally possessed, the detection of illegal guns becomes more difficult. Be the causes what they may, the State forests are surrounded by guns, many of which are constantly used in destroying game both inside the forest and just outside it. In the present political situation any attempt to regulate the number of guns to actual requirements for crop protection is hopeless. The guns have come, and to stay.

3. The Motor Car-This is perhaps the biggest factor of all, in the disappearance of game, although without the two previous causes its significance would be small. Since the war whole tracts have been opened up-in fact no tract is inviolate-cars penetrating along dirt tracks into country in one day which previously took a week's marching with camels and horses. Every car that moves by day or night has one or more guns in it, and practically every animal seen which presents a fair chance of being killed, without further questions asked, is fired at. Moreover, expeditions go out at night with strong moveable searchlights and shoot down whatever is encountered, and the car enables the booty to be removed. The destruction is terrible. I came across glaring cases during my short three months' trip in 1 928. The present game laws were framed before this menace arose, and they require to be reviewed and amended in consequence.

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1 . An attempt to check the increase of guns, even reduce them. 2. Much stricter control and regulation of tanneries and business trading in wild fauna and its products.

3. Complete review of the rules so as to deal with the motor car amongst other things, and to bring the owner and the driver of any car within the penalties of law-breaking.

4. Press for stiffer sentences in poaching cases and rewards to subordinates detecting the same. These rewards are at present optional, but should be made as a matter of course, save for definite reasons.

5. Establishing associations for the protection of Wildlife and housing enlightened Indian opinion, and enlisting influential men as members of such Societies.

Sanctuaries As will be seen from what I have written above, the Himalayan and Terai

areas are hardly suitable places, even if required, in which to create National Sanctuaries. With regard to the Central and Southern areas, the case is different. In these tracts they will form a useful and interesting purpose, especially in the former, where the fauna can be readily observed, will readily tame, and be a delight to visitors. My knowledge of the Southern tract does not enable me to suggest any particular area, but as I know every square mile of the Central Provinces I can definitely assert that one area is suited par excellence for a National Park. This is known as the Banjar Valley Reserve.

The Banjar Valley Reserve Situation-Situated in the South Mandla Forest Division, 30 miles south­ east of Mandla, which is the District Headquarters. Mandla is almost 60 miles, due south ofJabalpur, and served by first­ class road and light railway. There is a fair weather motor road from Mandla to Khana in the centre of the valley.

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Maps-Splendid forest maps on the 4 inch to 1 mile scale made by the Forest Survey can be got from the Map Office, Dehra Dun. These show 25 feet contours, and, if desired, maps showing grasslands, sal forest and mixed forests (Stock Maps) can be purchased. Area-From memory the area is about 40,000 acres, but for the purpose of a National Sanctuary some 30,000 additional and adjoining acres should be included. The Banjar Valley is merely a name given to a forest unit. General Description-Broadly speaking the area is a huge amphitheatre surrounded in a circular manner by a range of hills about 3,000 feet high. The bulk of the area is within these hills, but the forest extends down the outward slopes of the hills until the cultivated plains are reached. It is well watered throughout, but this of course could be improved, especially on the hilltops. The low-lying portions consist of grass maidans or open plains, young trees being cut back annually by frost. As soon as the contour above the frost level is reached pure Sal (Shorca robusta) forest is found. This, however, only extends a short way up the hillsides, where it gives place to the usual mixed forest of 200 or 300 species and bamboos. The rock and soil are metamorphic sand with occasional pockets of black cotton soil. The Game-In 1 900 this tract contained as much game as any tract I ever saw in the best parts of Africa in 1 908. I have seen 1 ,500 head consisting of 1 1 species in an evening's stroll. It is nothing like that now, but it is still probably true to say that it contains more numbers and more species than any other tract of its size in the whole Asia.

Legal Position This area is one of the oldest State reserves and belongs to Government. It contains valuable timber and is policed and administered by the Forest Department. Government would not care to give up working the valuable timber in the area, but this need not interfere with Sanctuary.

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It is essential that the area remain State Forest, otherwise the Forest Act would not apply. Also it is absolutely essential for our purposes that the Act should continue to apply. Some form of 'dedication' could no doubt adjust this as there is no incompatibility. If the Act applies, as it must, and if the Forest Department continues to manage the Forest (timber) , as it will, it is clear that our staff must be also the Forest Staff. Otherwise there will be two staffs in the same area, and one will be in opposition to the other. Mo reover, the Forest Department has managed the game in India, against great difficulty, with signal success in most cases, and to deprive them of these functions would create resentment; especially, unless it could be shown to be reasonable and necessary.

Banjar Valley The shooting of game is strictly regulated, but a tremendous lot of poaching takes place. Part of it is always sanctuary, but these sanctuaries which are found in numbers in all districts are merely administrative shooting sanctuaries, resting blocks, pending opening to shooting again. They have nothing like the status of a National Sanctuary.

Some Suggestions The local Gc;>Vernment might agree to the area being declared a National Sanctuary but would, I consider, be more inclined to give the proposal favourable consideration if it was initiated by Indian gentlemen. It might, therefore, be the best course to first obtain the support of the non-official members of the Legislative Council and it is believed that the conservation oflndian wildlife for the benefit of the Indian People is a plea which no party can lightly thrust aside.

Conclusion I consider that action in India is urgently required, perhaps more so than in Mrica. There are I know questions of detail which apply to

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particular areas and particular species which I have not touched upon but in the above I have attempted to tell you something about India as a whole, and in particular what definite action that might be taken in the Central Provinces.' journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 3 6 ( 1 933), pp. 40-5.

What Dunbar Brander was describing must be the area in and around the Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh. He considers this region better than the wilderness of Africa. It must have been magical. He would have loved to have known that this area is one of India's finest national parks today. In a way his dream came true. His proposal for the earmarking this area as a sanctuary is exceptional because of the detail that he went into. Again, it was such men and their work that made a critical difference to the future of Indian wildlife. It was 1 933 and Salim Ali's first treatise on the protection of birds in India had just been published. His knowledge was amazing. Prater was another such scholar, an encyclopaedia of knowledge. He was curator of the BNHS in 1933 and his book on Indian animals is still as relevant today as it was then. He also wrote on the preservation of wildlife and the remedies necessary to resolve some of the problems. Here are some extracts from a speech he made in 1933 on the occasion of the golden jubilee of the BNHS.

The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire Part 1 Introduction [Extracts of an address given by Mr. S.H. Prater, M.L.C., C.M.Z.S., the Society's Curator, at the Jubilee Meeting of the Society held in Bombay on the l Oth of August, 1 933] The Need for a Special Organization to Protect Wildlife Whether our reserve forests remain the principal sanctuaries for wildlife in this country or whether in some of the Provinces the purpose is affected by establishing national parks, there is need for a real organization whose

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sole concern will be the protection of wild animals in these preserves. Our effort to protect wildlife have failed mainly because of the haphazard methods we employ, the lack of any coordinate policy and the lack of any real protective agency to carry that policy into effect. The Forest Department which ordinarily administers the Forest laws has multifarious duties to perform and, while the Forest Officer has discharged this trust to the best ofhis ability, he cannot give the question his personal attention, nor can he find time, except in a general way, to control the protection of wildlife in our forests. Experience of other countries has shown the need of a separate and distinct organization whose sole concern is the protection of wildlife in the areas in which it operates. Further, the existing laws, as now applicable in many of our Provinces, are obsolete. Naturally, their primary purpose is the protection of the forest rather than its wildlife. These laws require consolidation and bringing up to modern standards of conservation. No better guide to our Provincial Governments seeking to amend their game laws exists than the recently issued report of the Wildlife Commission in Malaya. Volume II of this Report gives the general principles of conservation. It shows how these principles may be embodied in an Act and indicates n ew administrative methods, based on actual experience and on the laws of other countries. With modifications, where necessary, it will serve as a model for Protective Legislation in India. Lastly there is the all-important question of making adequate financial provision for carrying out the work of conservation. In these days of depression, when most Governments are faced with deficit budgets, the apportioning of money for this purpose must be a matter of difficulty but, unless and until suitable financial provision is made by the State for the conservation of wildlife within its borders, the effort cannot succeed. This much is clear. Our present haphazard methods have failed. The experience of other countries indicates the system that should replace them. The effective introduction of this system depends upon money being provided to work it. In the United States and in other countries the problem of financing the work of conservation has been helped by the creation of special funds. The recent Wildlife Commission of Malaya, which made a careful study of this aspect of the problem, strongly urges the creation of such a

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fund to be termed the Wildlife Fund to be used solely for the purpose of conservation. The idea is that all fees which could be collected under Wildlife Enactments, including any licence or fees for riverine fishing, as well as revenues from all sporting arms licences, permits, duties on arms (sporting) and ammunition (sporting) should be credited to the Wildlife Fund. If any of these fees are collected by another department, then the cost of collection should be borne by the Wildlife Fund. It is the only means by which financial provision can be made expressly for the purpose of conservation. It is the only means by which the money devoted to this purpose will have a definite relation to the revenue derived by the State from wildlife sources and which, therefore, can be expended with every justification upon the conservation of these sources. It is the only way to ensure an equitable system of conservation; the only way in which a properly organized department can be stabilized. It is the solution advocated in other countries and one which is equally applicable to any country which undertakes conservation of wildlife on sound lines. If the idea of creating a Wildlife Fund is not acceptable and, if we are yet serious in our intention to do what is possible for the conservation of wildlife in India, then we must replace the Wildlife Fund by an alternative policy, which will ensure the allocation of sufficient money to meet the requirements of adequate conservation. It is so easy to refuse a constructive policy and then put nothing in its place. The necessity for conservation being clear, the importance of an adequate financial policy to support it cannot be ignored. We have indicated what other countries are doing for the protection of wildlife but it must be apparent that the measures which they have taken, whether initiated by acts of Government or by private enterprise must owe their success to the support of public opinion. There is need for the creation of sane public opinion on the subject ofwildlife protection in India. At present, such opinion hardly exists and even if it does, in some quarters it may be antagonistic. This is mainly because people do not know, nor has any attempt been made to teach them something of the beauty, the interest and the value of the magnificent fauna of this country.' journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 36 ( 1 933), pp. 1-1 1 .

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This was the early 1930s in India. Prater looked globally at the issues involved and then zeroed down on to what India really needed. His appeal for a special organization to defend wildlife is something we fight for unsuccessfully even today. We desperately need a centralized organization whose sole job will be to protect the protected areas. We fail because there is no consensus and there are too many vested interests. The Indian Forest Service does not want an Indian Wildlife Service. We have not even got an independent federal structure in place to govern both forests and wildlife. Will it ever happen? Prater believed it was essential way back in the 1930s. We are now in the twenty­ first century, but our political leaders are still deaf to reason. They want to keep the doors to nature's treasure-house open so that it can be looted and plundered. Is it not amazing how good common sense can be ignored over generations and for nearly seventy years. Assam in the early 1930s must have been like a Noah's ark. Rich dense grasslands and the endless plains of the Brahmaputra river must have created some of the finest habitat and one of the highest densities of both predator and prey. It must have been a remarkable time. A.J.W. Milroy who served as a forest officer in Assam describes the 1930s in a land where hundreds of rhinos, thousands of elephants, and wild buffalo were found everywhere-a land of gaints:

The Preservation of Wildlife in India No. 3 .-Assam by A.J.W Milroy (Conservator of Forests, Assam) Types of Game Country Enormous areas of grass and reeds used to extend from the banks of the Brahmaputra towards the hills which enclose the valley on both sides, and it was here that most game used always to be found-rhinoceros, and swamp deer in the low-lying places, elephants, bison and other deer nearer the hills-but these are precisely the very localities that attract

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the buffalo-herdsmen and the settlers, so that a great deal of this type of jungle has now disappeared for ever and it is only a matter of time before most of the balance goes too. In these circumstances the policy adopted a few years ago of issuing gun licences almost indiscriminately has only accelerated what was bound eventually to take place, and what has already occurred in all countries suffering from or blessed (as the less far-sighted hold) with, an increasing human population. Most of the former great shooting grounds are thus being occupied exclusively by Man and nothing can be done in them for wild animals. There remain for consideration the Reserve Forests, which have been taken up mostly for timber, but which include as Game Sanctuaries two important grassy areas. Dense, evergreen forests contain comparatively little fodder suitable for game animals, which prefer the most open and the deciduous tree forests, but everywhere in Reserves reasonable game preservation should be looked for, seeing that the sale of shooting permits is a possible source of revenue, that rules exist for the benefit of the various species of animals, and that a Forest Staff is provided by Government to uphold these and other Forest Laws. It must be confessed, however, that in Assam just as in Burma, judging from some recent Annual Forest Administration Reports from that Province, game preservation is largely a matter of individual whim, and that encouraging results obtained by one Divisional Forest Officer are only too often dissipated during the regime of a successor, who is indifferent to this side of his multifarious duties. The present Government cannot be accused oflack ofkeenness. Three years ago, a British Officer and a Company ofAssam Riffles were detailed to spend six weeks touring a district where the inhabitants had got out of hand and were poaching in the Manas G ame Sanctuary on a commercial scale, while at the present moment an energetic Assistant Conservator is on special duty at the head of an anti-poaching campaign that is doing some very good work indeed. The Assam Legislative Council have recently declared Rhinoceros horns to be forest produce wherever found; it has become much easier to deal into the trade in these, as horns are now liable to seizure unless their possession can be satisfactorily accounted for. No help from the Centre, however, can make up for lack of interest on the part of the officers on the spot, though an enthusiastic

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Conservator can do much to overcome apathy, thanks to the tradition of loyalty in the Forest Service, but to be really effective he must possess both the time and the inclination to tour 'off the map' and away from the usual comfortable, stereotyped marching routes. At the worst a certain amount of game of most sorts will linger on in the larger Reserves for some time yet, but not in the smaller ones which can be easily raided, and from which animals are always straying into settled lands bristling with guns: at the best, if the Forest Department does not depart from the policy of recent years as regards Forest Villages and as regards demanding the cooperation in these matters of its subordinates, quite a fair number (in some places sufficient to allow of restricted shikar) of the more interesting species will survive in suitable localities within the forest boundaries. Increased pressure on the outside land being likely to lead to a demand for catastrophic deforestation of cultivable areas inside the Reserves. It had been intended, in order to obtain complete control, to acquire on behalf of Government all the guns owned by forest villager for temporary issue at the right time, together with any others that might be necessary, but this measure has had to be postponed until funds become available again. Game Sanctuaries The two Game Sanctuaries ofwhich mention has been made are situated, the Manas towards the north-west on the Bhutan frontier and the Kaziranga in the centre of the valley on the south bank of Brahmaputra. Both areas were originally selected for the Great One-horned Rhinoceros (R.unicornis) they contained, and a very fine stock of these animals was raised as the result of the protection afforded. Kaziranga, the more low­ lying, is particularly suited for buffalo too, the Manas for bison along the Bhutan boundary. The rhinoceros, our most important animal from the natural history point of view, is a difficult species to preserve even though its destruction is forbidden by law, because all parts of its body may be eaten even by Brahmins and because its horn is reputed throughout the East to possess aphrodisiac properties, while it lays itself open to easy slaughter by its habit of depositing dung on the same heap day after day. The demand

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for rhinoceros' horns has always been considerable in India, but of recent years China has also been in the market, consequent on the practical extermination of R. sondaicus in Lower Burma, Tenasserim, etc., with the result that a horn is now worth j ust about half its weight in gold. The prospect of a lucrative business led to an organization being formed for passing on rhinoceros' horns and elephant tusks to Calcutta, and the disturbed political conditions provided the virile Boro tribes (Meches and Kacharies) living near the Manas with the opportunity to take up poaching on a large scale. The operations of the financiers in the background were checked for the time being; the advent of the Assam Rifles restored order; additional game-watchers were engaged, and an Assistant Conservator was placed in charge of the Sanctuary to carry on the good work, but in view of what has happened in Burma, despite the best efforts of the authorities there, one cannot be confident that the fight we are putting up will not prove in the end to be a losing one if we merely continue on present lines. A fundamental obstacle to success lies in the difficulty of identifying poachers unless these are actually caught in flagrante delicto, and this must always be a rare occurrence when members of a gang have only to separate and run a few yards into the high grass to evade capture. Both Sanctuaries are at present inaccessible for want of roads and camping huts except to those who can travel light, such as poachers and game-watchers, and to those who can command the use of elephants, such as Forest Officers and a few planters. It was pointed out some years ago that this being so it would be quite possible, without the outside world being any the wiser at the time, for a dishonest subordinate in immediate charge of a Sanctuary to sell all the game while his forest officer, absorbed in other duties, was earning credit for the good work he might be doing elsewhere in the division. The loss would obviously be irreparable, and it was suggested that in these circumstances the western and eastern portions of the Manas Sanctuary, which with adjacent Reserves contains an effective area of about 1 50 sq. miles, should be opened to shooting under very strict supervision, the bag being limited (wounded to count as killed) and very high fees being charged, while the

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central part was preserved inviolate for the benefit of those interested in studying or photographing wild animals. It is permissible to believe that the Sanctuaries might have some chance of survival if they could be made more or less self-supporting, but precious little otherwise, and the question is one on which, we may feel sure, advice from the Society from the depths of its experience would not be resented. The Assam of the future may very well be proud to think it is taking its stand by the side of other civilized countries in saving its fauna from extinction, but it is going to be a poor Province, at any rate to start with, and if only some revenue could be expected from shooting permits and from the sale of captured specimens to Zoological Gardens, there would dearly be less initial hostility for the good cause to face. Anything in the nature of a Public Park on the lines of the Kruger National Park would be out of the question unless it was under Imperial control because if the Assamese tax payer ever wants anything of this sort, he will certainly demand that all predatory and dangerous animals be removed before he disports himself in it. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 37 ( 1 934) , pp. 97- 1 0 1 .

Milroy realized the uniqueness of Manas and advocated in the early 1930s that it be inviolate. Today it is one of the most troubled UNESCO world heritage sites. Forest officers like Milroy and Champion at different ends of India were unique in their quest for protection. Here is what F.W. Champion wrote about wildlife in the United Provinces in 1934:

Preserving Wildlife in the United Provinces F. W Champion One among the numerous striking results of the Great War has been an awakening all over the world to the fact that wild animals are tending to become less and less in numbers in many countries, and often species that were common a few decades ago are being, or actually have been, entirely exterminated. Most of us who went through the War saw far too much of killing ever to want to see any more; and the natural reaction has been that a new spirit of sympathy with wild creatures has become

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firmly established in many countries. Wildlife protection societies are springing up here and there, particularly in America and England, and the Society for the Protection of the Fauna of the Empire is doing great work in trying to preserve the wonderful fauna of the British empire from further wanton destruction. An enthusiastic branch of this society has been started in India and a very good work is being done, but unfortunately it is not receiving so much support from Indians as could be desired. Indians, many of whom are prohibited by their religion from taking life, should be the very first to support such a society and a number are already whole heartedly doing so, but real mass support has yet to be received. This I believe to be very largely due to lack of knowledge of the aims and objects of such a society, and insufficient propaganda, and I am confident that much greater support will be received in future as a result of the great efforts now being made by the Bombay Natural History Society and the various local branches of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire, which all who have the slightest interest in wild animals should join without a day's further delay. After all, once a species of wild animal has been exterminated, no money, no society, no human agency can bring that species back to the world, and delay in helping those who are doing their best to save species already threatened with extermination may mean that help, tardily given, is given too late. Position of Wildlife The present position in the United Provinces is perhaps not quite so bad as in some other parts oflnd.ia, owing to the presence of a very sympathetic government, an influential forest department, and great land holders, all of whom have always remembered that within limits, wild creatures have j ust as much right to exist as human race. The position inside reserved forests and in certain large estates, which is fairly satisfactory, will be discussed later in this article, but first the present state of affairs in the ordinary districts composing 80 per cent or more of the whole Province, which are causing so much worry to those who are interested in wildlife. Frankly the position is appalling. The vast increase in gun licences which has taken place within recent years, combined with the greatly improved means of transport, has caused a drain on the wildlife of the districts such as can end only in the almost complete destruction

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of any kind of wild creature considered to be worth powder and shot. Laws do exist imposing close seasons, but these laws often are not, and cannot be, observed in present-day conditions. Deputy Commissioners and Superintendents of Police in some cases do their utmost, but they are so over-worked nowadays with political and economical troubles that, however keen they may be, they literally have neither the time nor the energy to try to enforce unpopular laws, which, by comparison with present-day troubles, possibly do not seem very important. Further the responsible officers in a district are very few in number and it is quite impossible for them to stop bribery among thei r often low-paid subordinates. A rupee or two or a piece of meat is quite sufficient temptation to an underpaid chowkidar not to report an offence under a Wild Animals Protection Act, particularly as it is often extremely difficult to prove such offence, and, even if proved, a subordinate magistrate will generally let off the offender with a purely nominal fine. It therefore seems that, in the present state of the country, any Act enforcing close seasons outside Reserved Forests, however well it may be conceived, is worth little more than the paper on which it is written. In actual fact special efforts are now being made in Hamirpur and Meerut districts to protect sambar and chi tal; but it is not known to the writer how far such efforts are proving successful. Animals like blackbuck and chital and game-birds, both in the plains and particularly the hills, are literally being wiped out at an increasingly rapid rate and one wonders if there will be anything left except monkeys and jackals after another two or three decades. There is one bright spot, however, and that is that non­ game birds at least are not harried to the same extent as in England because the · egg-collector is scarce, and the average Indian boy, unlike his British confrere, does not amuse himself by collecting vast numbers of birds' eggs, only to throw them away in most cases as soon as the boy begins to grow up. Taken as a whole there is no doubt whatever but that the position in these plains districts of the United Provinces is just about as bad as it could be, but one must always remember that these areas are very densely populated and that really there is not very much room for any considerable numbers of the larger game animals, which must tend to interfere with the cultivator and his crops. In any case leopards are found in many places, since they are prolific breeders and very difficult

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to keep in check, and even if more adequate protection were given to the game animals in cultivated districts, it is probable that their numbers would still be kept down by a corresponding increase in the numbers of leopards. Sufficient has now been written to show that the position in the cultivated districts is very unsatisfactory, but that increasing population in already heavily populated areas, combined with the present political and economic distress , makes it very difficult to make practical suggestions for improving matters. What can be done is for large land­ holders in sparsely populated districts to preserve restricted areas really efficiently and noble examples of what a great help to the wildlife of a country such measures can prove to be is to be found in the great swamp­ deer preserves of Oudh, notably those of the Maharani Saheba ofSingahi and of Captain Lionel Hearsey. The former of these has been under careful protection for many years and an area of perhaps 20 square miles now contains several thousand heads of these magnificent deer. A few are shot annually, but the number destroyed is almost certainly less than the natural increase and these public-spirited benefactors can justifiably feel that, so long as they maintain their present standard of efficient preservation, there is no fear of the swamp-deer following the already long list of fine animals which have been exterminated from the United Provinces. Reserved Forests Now the position of wild animals in the Reserved Forest, of which the writer, being a Forest Officer, has perhaps a specialised knowledge, will be considered. Firstly the writer would state most emphatically that United Provinces forest officers as a class are, and always have been, extremely sympathetic towards wild animals. Few are really heavy killers and quite a number do not shoot animals at all, beyond their requirements for food for themselves or their camp followers. An odd individual here and there both in the present day and in the past, has possibly let his sporting instincts drive him into becoming a really heavy killer, but the amount of slaughter done by the average forest officer in these Provinces is conspicuously small. It sometimes happens that disgruntled sportsmen state that forest officers are selfish or destroy more animals than all other

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classes put together; but these statements are most emphatically untrue and generally have an inner history, which reveals the accuser as having some personal grudge against an individual forest officer, which leads him to make general insinuations which are totally unfounded. None could be keener on the preservation of wildlife than the present writer, and, if he thought that his brother officers were indifferent to the preservation of wild animals, he would not hesitate to say so. The writer believes that it would be a great mistake to remove the wild animals inside Reserved Forests from the protection of the forest department and place them in charge of a separate Game Department. The present system is working very well and such action would be regarded as a slur on forest officers and would alienate the all-important sympathy of the powerful forest department. The United Provinces reserved forests are not very extensive and they are all under the personal supervision of divisional forest officers. Poaching does occur to a limited extent, particularly during the monsoon when the forests have to be deserted owing to their unhealthiness, and from motor cars, but such poaching is not very extensive and every effort is made to keep it in check. Elaborate rules, which are constantly being amended, do exist for the issue for shooting licences, for the enforcement of close seasons, and for helping any species which is tending to become scarce. These rules may not be perfect-no rules ever are-but at least their object is to provide shooting for all who apply in the right way, and at the same time to preserve the wild animals in perpetuity without letting them increase to such an extent as to become a nuisance to forest management or to surrounding villages. Species that, for any particular reason, need help are entirely protected, examples being wild elephants for many years and sambar in Lansdowne division since an attack of rinderpest in 1 927; and senior forest officers are always ready to listen sympathetically to applications for protecting particular animals in particular tracts. Even tigers now have a close season and are not allowed to be shot by artificial light. Some may argue that it is a wrong policy to protect tigers, hut at least such protection shows that forest officers consider that even tigers have the right to live in their jungles. It is sometimes stated that, even in the reserved forests, wild animals are much scarcer than they used to be. The writer cannot speak for thirty

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or forty years ago since the old records are not clear and he was not in India at that time; but, even if the head of game had diminished, it is possible that the numbers were excessive in the past or that the memories of those who claim that animals are disappearing are a little at fault. After all, most of us tend to think of the 'good old times', although it is possible that those times were not quite so good as they now appear in perspective. An effort has been made to collect figures of animals shot in the past with those shot nowadays for comparison, but records of thirty or forty years ago do not give the information required. The following are the conclusions that the writer draws from the figures that are available: (a) Taken as a whole the head of game shot recently has generally not shown any marked decrease, except in the mountain reserved forests, where control is not so easy. (b) Tigers appear to have increased and marked decreases seem to have taken place in the numbers of nilgai, kakar, wild dog and blackbuck. The decreases are partly due to serious floods and rinderpest epidemics, and are probably natural fluctuations which will right themselves in time. Wild dogs have decreased owing to the large reward paid for their destruction. (c) The decreases in the number of some animals shot recently are due to the removal of rewards as a measure of economy. (d) It may always be remembered, however, that the number of animals inside Reserved Forests is probably being artificially swelled by the influx of refugees from the appalling conditions at present prevailing outside. This influx will decrease as animals outside become exterminated. Also modern rifles are so good and shooting with the help of a motor car is so easy, that probably a greater proportion of the existing animal population is shot annually nowadays than was the case in the past. (e) The forest department watches these lists carefully and takes action whenever such action appeared to be required.

(f) The general impression of senior forest officers is that, although there have been considerable fluctuations in particular areas, the game in the United Provincial Reserved Forests as a whole

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has not markedly decreased during the last 25 years, except in the high hill forests. To summarise, the present position ofwild animals inside the Reserved Forests of the plains and foot hills of the United Provinces does not give cause for serious anxiety, except for the ever-increasing use of that arch enemy of the wild animals-the motor car. The numbers of the wild animals in the mountain reserved forests appear definitely to be decreasing. The position in some zemindari estates is good and in others poorer; and the position in the ordinary districts is almost hopeless. Some Suggestions The writer w�d make the following suggestions to help the present state of affairs: (a) Public opinion-This is by far the most important of all methods of wildlife conservation and without it, all efforts to preserve wild creatures will prove abortive. Good work is already being done by propaganda and by lectures but much more remains to be done. Good illustrated books help greatly and the formation of sanctuaries and national parks, where the general public can see wild animals in their natural state, would all help. Major Corbett as local Secretary of the United Provinces branch of the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire Society is doing a lot to assist in this work. (b) Laws-It is much easier in the present state of India to pass a law than to see it enforced, but the writer would greatly like to see laws passed on the following points: I . Sale of shikar meat, trophies, etc.-It is ofvital importance

that a law be passed at an early date totally forbidding the sale of any portion of a wild animal, with certain definite exceptions. Such exceptions would be the dropped horns of deer, and the hides of deer where numbers have to be reduced. Special licences should be issued in such cases and such licences, liable to cancellation at any moment, should be under the personal control of the Divisional forests officers, where reserved forests are anywhere near, or under Deputy commissioners where there are no forest officers.

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The sale of any shikar trophy should be entirely and absolutely prohibited. Such a law, properly enforced, would finish the professional poacher, and would end the nefarious dealings of certain taxidermists who sell shikar trophies to those 'sportsmen' who are incapable of bagging anything themselves.

2. Limitation of gun licences-This is very difficult in the present political state of the country, but at least greater efforts could be made to differentiate between game licences and licences for the protection of the crops, person, property or display. Gun licences for the protection of crops should insist that barrels should be sawn-off short, as such licences are very largely applied for when the real object is poaching.

3. Motor cars (and also carts and tongas)-The shooting of any wild animal from, or within, say, 400 yards of a motor­ car, cart or tonga, either by day or by night, should be made an offence liable to prosecution. The writer personally would like to stop motor cars altogether from entering Reserved Forests, or, where this cannot be done, he would like to place check-chowkies at the entrances and exits of such roads, the cost to be covered by a small wheel-tax. Fire­ arms would either have to be deposited at such chowkies or would be scaled, so that they could not be used while inside the forests. The excuse of requiring fire arms for protection en route should not be accepted, as passengers in motor­ cars very rarely need protection from wild animals except possibly from occasional rogue elephants or man-eaters. Luckily recent economies have resulted in the abandoning of some of the motor-roads in the reserved forests of the United Provinces. The writer would like to see them all abandoned! The old-time shikari or forest officer managed perfectly well without them, and they tend only too often to make his modern successor slap-dash and lazy.

4. Protection of rare stragglers-It occasionally happens that a rare animal, such as a rhinoceros, strays into reserved forests from Nepal or elsewhere. Such animals should be rigidly

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BATIUNG FOR SURVIVAL protected with a fine of, say, Rs 2,000, or imprisonment, for their destruction. The excuse that 'If I don't shoot it, someone else will' should never be accepted in such cases. The recent law passed in Bengal for the protection of the rhinoceros, should be extended to the whole of India.

5. Rewards-The writer considers that Government rewards for destroying wild animals should be given far more sparingly than in the past. Luckily, recent economies have resulted in a great reduction in the rewards offered, and it is sincerely to be hoped that such reduction will be permanent. Rewards in the past have encouraged poachers and have sometimes caused as upset in the balance of nature where they were misapplied. They are really quite unn ecessary except fo r man-eaters and notoriously destructive creatures such as porcupines. Since writing the above I have been reconsidering the question and have read up a certain amount of literature on the subject. On the whole I have little to add to what I wrote before except that I am not so certain as I was that the head of game inside the United Provinces' reserved forests is not decreasing. I was posted to N. Kheri Division in 1 92 1 and I returned there again in 1 93 1 . Although still a good place for animals in 1 93 1 , I would estimate that there had been at least a 25 per cent decrease in nearly all species during that decade. The reasons for this reduction I would put down to (a) Motor cars making shooting far easier than it used to be, (b) the destruction of game in the adjoining areas outside the forests resulting in a smaller influx and greater damage to animals straying outside. I am now in Bahraich division in Oudh which has a reputation of being a good game division. I have now been here for 5 months and so far I have found game of all kinds to be rather scarce although I hear that more animals come in from Nepal in the hot weather. The reasons for this apparent decrease are the same as in Kheri, i.e., motor cars and destruction of animals outside the forests, combined with increased poaching along and near the Nepal border. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 37 (1934 ).

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Champion was a real character of the forest service. One of the few who gave up the gun totally and only photographed wild animals. His books are remarkable. His pictures even better. He hated the invention of the motor car and its impact on the hunters who used it to hunt, even more. He loved the forests of the United Provinces. He was one of the greatest fighters of those times for wildlife, and was endlessly suggesting steps to protect the rich wilderness of those times. In a way, we are journeying with a wild bunch of people from one corner of India to another, 'be it Assam or UP or the Saurashtra coast. The 1920s had triggered so · . much debate that the 1930s were full of detailed analysis of those times and the suggested means of solving some of the problems� The 1930s was a decade where the maximum amoimt of writing on wildlife took place as compared to any period before that. People were really worried about the future. The BNHS played :a vital role in the expression of comment and opinion in its journal. Examples follow:

The Preservation ofWildlife in India No. 5-The Indian Lion By i S r Patrick Cadell, KT. , C.S.I., C.I.E. I have been asked by the Honorary Secretary ofBombay Natural History Society to write a note upon the Indian Lion, and the measures needed for his preservation. I gladly do so because I believe that there is no other wild animal in India which could so easily ·become totally eitinct. It is now preserved solely by the efforts of one State. Should that State for any reason become weary of well doing, the lion would disappear from India in two or three years.

I am often asked how many lions still remain in the Gir. As I have said above, there were supposed to be less than a dozen in 1 880, and about the same at the beginning of the century when Lord Curzon's vis it was cancelled. As a result of the strict p reservation during the Administration the number was believed to have increased to fifty, though even in those days poaching was not unknown. It has since been stated in the London Times, and the statement is quoted in General Burton's

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book, that there are now two hundred lions. I believe this number to be greatly exaggerated. The fact that lions move in troops, and that they cover long distances leads to over estimation. If a man sees a troop of six or seven animals, and hears of a similar number some miles away within a few days, he naturally fixes too high a number for the whole forest. My own opinion though it is only a guess is that there are not much more than 75 to 80. It is obvious that this number cannot stand a drain of ten or twelve being shot yearly, especially if the animals so killed outside Junagadh limits are all of young breeding stock. . It may be observed that there is no real excuse for shooting a lioness in mistake for a lion. Even if the shooting of female tigers and panthers were regarded as being unsportsmanlike and reprehensible, the sportsman might well plead that he had not sufficient time, or sufficient knowledge, to distinguish. But he could not truthfully say so in the case of the lioness. A lion which is hot easily distinguishable as being such, must be very young and worthless as a trophy to a self-respecting sportsman. What then is the remedy to be adopted against unfair or unwise shooting? It has been recently proposed in a high official quarter that all the jurisdictions concerned, that is all those which possess or border upon any ponion of the Gir forest, should agree to refrain from shooting within a mile from the boundary of another jurisdiction, and from shooting any but full-grown males. This would lead to some improvement though in two recent cases the condition that the animal shot should be a full-grown male has been, I am afraid, somewhat liberally interpreted. But it may be doubted whether this is enough, and I venture to think that it would be better to come to an agreement that the total number of lions to be shot in one year should not exceed some such figure as five or SIX.

The pressure on Junagadh of suggestions for invitations to shoot lions is, it may be observed, increasing year by year, and the Junagadh Darbar would gladly welcome some such limitation. Unless an agreement is reached, and is faithfully observed, the danger of the disappearance of the lion from the fauna of India and consequently from its last home in Asia, is obvious. R. W. Button, 'The Preservation of Wildlife in India',

journal ofBombay Natural History Society.

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The ruler of Junagadh had, in the nick of time, protected the lion. He was an exception to the rule. That is why the Asiatic lion survives in Gir today. It was in 1900 that the nawabs controlled hunting by carefully limiting the shoots. Strict quotas helped in the recovery of the lion. As Mahesh Rangarajan puts it: 'Its rarity and value as a trophy made the Lion a valuable political pawn to have at hand-paradoxically its value in the hunt became vital to its continued existence. ' The British supported the Nawab at critical points and there was never any indiscriminate killing of Lions-there were no bounties either. The lions ended up with large amounts of protection. Let us not forget that the hunting records of another ruler from the then state of Bikaner, in the 1930s, was very different. Sadul Singh of Bikaner shot 5()()()() heads of animal including

46000 game birds! And in the bag was also one

Asiatic lion.

Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the Problem of their Protection (Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the BNHS-38 ( 1 ) : 1 935) An interesting development of the whole question of Preservation of Wildlife in India was the recent Inter-Provincial Conference convened by the Government of India at Delhi in January 1 935 at which the Society was represented by the Curator, Mr. S.H. Prater. The Conference was instrumental in making a number of detailed recommendations for the better protection of wild animals both inside and outside forest areas. If these recommendations are accepted and put into force by the various provincial governments, much will have been accomplished to improve the deplorable conditions, which exist in many parts of the country. But while the Conference made numerous recommendations of detail-the broad issues underlying the whole problem remain unsettled. Among these is the need of fully exploring the possibility of creating permanent sanctuaries wherever necessary for giving permanent shelter to wildlife. Equally important is administering the laws related to the protection of wild animals. To fix the responsibility on an already overworked and under-staffed department without

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providing it with adequate means to enforce these laws will not improve the positiiJn.' The same holds good regarding the protection of animal life outside forest areas, where their destruction is now greatest. Mere legislation without the means to enforce it, must remain, as at present, quite useless in preventing the destruction of wildlife outside forest areas both in and out of season. journal ofBombay Natural History Society, Vol. 38( 1 ) ( 1 935), p. 223.

I think that this 1935 conference was the first ever to look at the problems of wildlife all across India. To this national conference went many of the people whose writings I have extracted. The 'wild bunch' must have fought its battles at this conference and I am certain that many of . their recommendations must have been accep ted for action. The conference signified the· serioushess of th�- ptoblei:n that forests and wildlife faced. It must have activated' marty into' action. L�t us travel . to southern India ' and :see what it was like then: . .

:

. :·

.

�

._ .·

'

� ' :. . . ;

. ·.

.

The Preservation ·;

· · ·

:

·.

. ' �

;

of Wildlife in India No??: Madra5 Presiden cy .

('The wild ·a�imals of �he Incii�n Empire and tQ.e p roblem of their _preservation) .

.

R.p., Rintext immediately comes to mind the words of Pythagoras who said: 'For so long as man continues to be the ruthless destroyer of lower living beings, he will never know health or peace. For so long as men massacre animals, they will kill each other. Indeed, they who sow the seeds of murder and pain cannot reap joy and love.' (4) Article 48-A in Part IV (Directive Principles) of the Constitution of India, 1 950 brought by the Constitution (4znd Amendment) Act, 1 976, enjoins that 'State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.' Article 47 further imposes the duty on the State to improve public health as its primary duty. Article 5 1 -A(g) imposes 'a fundamental duty' on every citizen of lndia to protect and improve the natural 'environment' including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures. (5) Industrialisation, urbanisation, explosion of population, over­ exploitation of resources, depletion of traditional sources of energy and raw materials, and the search for new sources ofenergy and raw materials, the disruption of natural ecological balances, the destruction of multitude of animal and plant species for economic reasons and sometimes for no good reason at all are factors which have contributed to environmental deterioration. While the scientific and technological progress of man has invested him with immense power of nature, it has also resulted in the unthinking use of the power, encroaching endlessly on nature. If man is able to transform deserts into oasis, he is also leaving behind deserts in the place of oasis. In the last century, a great German materialist philosopher warned mankind: 'Let us not, however, flatter ourselves over much on account of our human victories over nature. For each such victory nature takes its revenge on us. Each victory, it is true, in the first place brings about the results we expected, but in the second and third

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places it has quite different, unforeseen effects which only too often cancel the first.' (6) To protect and improve the environment is a constitutional mandate. It is a commitment for a country wedded to the ideas of a Welfare State. The world is under an impenetrable cloud. In view of enormous challenges thrown by the Industrial revolution the legislatures throughout the world are busy in their exercise to find out means to protect the world. Every individual in the society has a duty to protect the nature. People worship the objects of nature. The trees, water, land and animals had gained important positions in the ancient times. As Manu Vlll, page 282 says different punishments were prescribed for causing injuries to plants. Kautilya went a step further and fixed the punishment on the basis of importance of the part of the tree. (See Kautilya Ill, XIX, 1 97) . (7) The Academy Law Review at pages 1 37-8 says that a recent survey reveals that everyday millions of gallons of trade wastes and effluents are discharged into the rivers, steams, lake and sea, etc. Indiscriminate water pollution is a problem all over the world but is now acute in densely populated industrial cities. Our country is no exception to this. Air pollution has further added to the intensity and extent of the problem. Every year millions of tons of gaseous and particulate pollutants are injected into the atmosphere, both through natural processes and as a direct result of human activity. Scientists have pointed out that earth's atmosphere cannot absorb such unlimited amount of pollutant materials without undergoing changes which may be of adverse nature with respect to human welfare. Man in order to survive in his planetary home will have to strike the harmonious balance with nature. There may be boundless progress scientifically which may ultimately lead to destruction of man's valued position in life. The Constitution has laid the foundation of Articles 48-A and 5 1 -A for a j urisprudence of environmental protection. Today, the State and citizen are under a fundamental obligation to protect and improve the environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures. (8) A learned Jurist has said, the Rig veda praises the beauty of the dawn ( usha) and worships Nature in all its glory. And yet today a bath in the Yamuna and Ganga is a sin against bodily health, not a salvation for

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the soul-so polluted and noxious are these 'Holy' waters now. 'One hospital bed out of four in the world is occupied by a patient who is ill because of polluted water . . . Provision of a safe and convenient water supply is the most important activity that could be undertaken to improve the health of people living in rural areas of the developing world' (W. H . O . ) . 'Nature never did betray. That heart that loves her' (Wordsworth) . The anxiety to save the environment manifested in the Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1 976 by the introduction of a specific provision for the first time to 'protect and improve' the environment. (9) The State is the trustee of all natural resources which are by nature meant for public use and enjoyment. Public at large is the beneficiary of the seashore, running waters, airs, forests and ecologically fragile lands. The State as a trustee is under a legal duty to protect the natural resources. These resources meant for public use cannot be converted into private ownership. ( 1 0) The aesthetic use and the pristine glory cannot be permitted to be eroded for private, commercial or any use unless the courts find it necessary, in good faith, for public good and in public interest to encroach upon the said resources. ( 1 1 ) Sustainable development is essentially a policy and strategy for continued economic and social development without detriment to the environment and natural resources on the quality of which continued activity and further development depend. Therefore, while thinking of the developmental measures the needs of the present and the ability of the future to meet its own needs and requirements have to be kept in view. While thinking the present, the future should not be forgotten. We owe a duty to future generations and for a bright today, bleak tomorrow cannot be countenanced. We must learn from our experiences of past to make both the present and the future brighter. We learn from our experiences, mistakes from the past, so that they can be rectified for a better present and the future. It cannot be lost sight of that while today is yesterday's tomorrow, it is tomorrow's yesterday. ( 1 2) The greenery of lndia should not be allowed to be perished, to be replaced by deserts. Ethiopia which at a point of time was considered to be one of the greenest countries, is virtually a vast desert today.

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( 1 3) It is, therefore, necessary for the Government to keep in view the international obligations while exercising discretionary powers under the Conservation Act unless there are compelling reasons to depart there from. ( 1 4) The United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm during June 1 972 brought into focus several alarming situations and highlighted the immediate need to take steps to control menace of pollution to the Mother Earth, air and of space failing which, the Conference cautioned the mankind, it should be ready to face the disastrous consequences. The suggestions noted in this Conference were reaffirmed in successive Conference followed by Earth Summit held at Rio-de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1 992. ( 1 5) Before we part with the case, we note with concern that the State and the Central Government were not very consistent in their approach about the period for which the activities can be permitted. Reasons have been highlighted to justify the somersault. Whatever be the justification, it was but imperative that due application of mind should have been made before taking a particular stand and not to change colour like a Chameleon, and that too not infrequently. This for me is one of the most philosophical judgments ever given on the issue of wildlife. It reveals the thinking of the apex court about economies versus ecology and I believe it will remain a landmark judgment in the decades to come.

Appendix V

Making a Difference: Some Supreme Court Orders Based on Recommendations of the Central Empowered Committee

These are landmark judgments that create a new path for reform and restructuring of forest institutions . A sum of fifteen billion rupees is spent each year on compensatory afforestation. Now the processes to use this money have been changed forever. Mining all across the Aravallis has been totally banned for the present in Haryana and Rajasthan. This is an earth-shaking order in the environmental interest of the nation. The eviction of one of the senior politicians in the state of Karnataka from encroached forest lands of the Chimagalur area reveals the full support the apex court gives to the protection of forests. It will set an important precedent for the future. the issue in question involves the alleged encroachment and large-scale deforestation of the Tatkola Forest in Karnataka. Let us look at some of the extracts.

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I.A.No. 566 of 200 1 In Writ Petition (C) No. 202/ 1 995 T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad (Petitioner) Versus Union of lndia and Others (Respondents) . Extracts

1 . We accept the Report of the Central Empowered Committee of September, 2002 Result of this is that the Report ofShri Sahay regarding encroachment in Tatkola Reserve Forest as confirmed by the Survey of India Report shall be treated as final and all encroachments reported therein shall be removed. In conclusion: (a) Shri R.M.N. Sahay, Court Commissioner's Report about the forest area under encroachment in Tatkola Reserve Forest as confirmed by Survey of India Report shall be treated as final and all encroachments reported therein shall be removed forthwith. (b) A notice shall be published in the local/vernacular newspapers at least seven days before the actual removal of encroachments is undertaken specifying to the extent feasible, the name of the encroacher, area under encroachment, the compartment number/survey number and the Forest form where the encroachments are to be removed in compliance of this order. (c) Chief Secretary, Karnataka shall be personally responsible to ensure removal of such encroachments. Director General of Police, Karnataka shall be responsible to ensure that police protection and help needed for removal of encroachments is provided as and when required. (d) The encroachers are liable to compensate for the losses caused due to the encroachments especially when the land encroached upon has been utilised for commercial purposes. We, however, take a lenient view and direct that if the encroachers voluntarily

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vacated the encroached land and hand over the same to the Chief Conservator of Forest within three months from today i.e. on or before 3 1 st January, 2003, they will not be liable to pay any compensation but if they continue to remain in occupation then they will have to pay Rs 5 lakhs per hectare per month to the State Government. Money so recovered shall be kept in a separate account and shall be used exclusively for forest protection and rehabilitation of the encroached area with the concurrence of the Central Empowered Committee. (e) Action taken Report shall be filed by the Chief Secretary, Karnataka before the Central Empowered Committee every month till the encroachments are completely removed and all the compensation payable by the encroachers has been deposited. Copy of the Action Taken Report also be filed in this Court. On Compensatory Afforestation

As recommended by the Central Empowered Committee we direct as follows: (a) The Union of India shall within eight weeks today frame comprehensive rules with regard to the Constitution of a body and management of the compensatory afforestation funds in concurrence with the Central Empowered Committee. These rules shall be filed in this court within eight weeks form today. Necessary notification constituting this body will be issued simultaneously. (b) Compensatory Afforestation Funds which have not yet been realised as well as the unspent funds already realised by the States shall be transferred to the said body within six moths of its constitution by the respective states and the user-agencies. (c) In addition to above, while according transfer under Forest Conservation Act, 1 980 for change in user-agency from all non­ forest purposes, the user agency shall also pay into the said fund the net value of the forest land diverted for non-forest purposes. The present value is to be recovered at the rate of Rs 5.80 lakhs

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(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

per hectare to Rs 9.20 lakhs per hectare of forest land depending upon the quantity and density of the land in question converted for non-forest use. This will be subject to upward revision by the Ministry of Environment & Forests in consultation with Central Empowered Committee as and when necessary. A 'Compensatory Afforestation Fund' shall be created in which all the monies received from the user-agencies towards compensatory affo restati o n , addi tional compensatory afforestation, penal compensatory afforestation, net present value of forest land, Catchment Area Treatment Plan Funds, etc. shall be deposited. The rules, procedure and composition of the body for management of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund shall be finalised by the Ministry of Environment & Forests with the concurrence of Central Empowered Committee within one month. The funds received form the user-agencies in cases where forest land diverted falls within protected Areas i.e. area notified under Section 1 8, 26A or 35 of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1 972, for undertaking activities related to protection of biodiversity, wildlife, etc., shall also be deposited in this Fund. Such monies shall be used exclusively for undertaking protection and conservation activities in protected areas ofthe respective States/ Union Territories. The amount received on account of compensatory afforestation but not spent or any balance amount with the States/Union Territories or any amount that is yet to be recovered from the user-agency shall also be deposited in this fund. Besides artifici� regeneration (plantations) , the fund shall also be utilised for undertaking assisted natural regeneration, protection of forests and other related activities. For this purpose, site specific plans should be prepared and implemented in a time bound manner. The user agencies especially the large public sector undertaking such as Power Grid Corporation, N .T.P.C., etc. which frequently require forest land for their projects should also be involved in

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undertaking compensatory afforestation by establishing Special Purpose Vehicle. Whereas the private sector used agencies may be involved in monitoring and most importantly, in protection of compensatory afforestation. Necessary procedure for this purpose would be laid down by the Ministry of Environment & Forests with the concurrence of the Central Empowered Committee. (i) Add. (j) An independent system of concurrent monitoring and evaluation shall be evolved and implemented through the Compensatory Afforestation Fund to ensure effective and proper utilisation of funds. On Transmission Lines in Rajaji National Park

Taking all circumstances into consideration, these applications are allowed, permission in granted to the Power Grid Corporation to erect the transmission lines through the Rajaji National Park. Aforesaid 1 4739 trees will be cut be the Forest Department of the State of Uttaranchal under the supervision of the Central Empowered Committee. Trees so cut shall be sold by the Forest Department under the supervision of the Central Empowered Committee by public auction. The amount so realised as well as the sums payable by Power Grid Corporation for afforestation etc. will be kept by the Central Empowered Committee in a fixed deposit initially for a period of three months and with the constitution of the body for the management of the Compensatory Afforestation Funds, the principal amount so realised by the Central Empowered Committee shall be transferred to the said body. This permission which is granted will be operational on Rs 50 crores being deposited with the Central Empowered Committee who shall deposit the same in fixed deposit and after twelve weeks transfer the same to the body constituted for the purpose of managing the Compensatory Afforestation Funds.

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Monitoring Report (First) of the Central Empowered Committee

We have perused the First Monitoring Report of the Central Empowered Committee. Three suggestions have been made in the said Report ... . We, accordingly, direct as follows: ( I ) The ban imposed with regard to the opening of the new saw­ mills and other wood-based industries by this Coun's order dated 1 5th January, 1 998 in the State of Nagaland is extended by a further period of five years. (2) The High Powered Committee is allowed to dispose of the assets on such defaulting units, including plants, machinery, land, shed, timber and timber products who have not paid the penalty imposed by the High Powered Committee of the wood-based units of north-eastern states. This will be subject to such orders which may be passed by the Central Empowered Committee. No State or Union Territory shall permit any unlicensed saw­ mills, veneer, plywood industry to operate and they are directed to close all such unlicensed unit forthwith. No State Government or Union Territory will permit the opening of any saw-mills, veneer or plywood industry without prior permission of the Central Empowered, Committee. The Chief Secretary of each State will ensure strict compliance of this direction. There shall also be no relaxation of rule with regard to the grant of license without previous concurrence of the Central Empowered Committee. It shall be open to apply to this Court for relaxation and or appropriate modification or orders qua plantations or grant of licenses. Illegal Mining in Aravallis

Second Monitoring Report of the Central Empowered Committee dated 28 October, 2002, has been received from the Central Empowered Committee. This Report deals with the mining which is termed as illegal

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in the Aravalli hills. It is stated in this Report that the members of the Central Empowered Committee visited the affected areas on 27th October, 2002, namely the forest area in the Aravalli Hills-Kote and Alampur Village. Report states that mining operations are being carried out in this area which is a forest area which was being recreated by plantations under the Aravalli Mining Programme funded by the Japanese Government in the early 90s. We, prohibit and ban all mining activity in the entire Aravalli hills. This ban is not limited only to the hills encircling Kote and Alampur villages but extends to the entire hill range of Aravalli from Dholput to Rajasthan. The Chief Secretary, State of Haryana of Chief Secretary, State of Rajasthan are directed to ensure that no mining activity in the Aravalli hills is carried out, especially, in the part which has been regarded as forest area or protected under the Environment (Protection) Act. This order was modified on 16 December 2002 permitting mining in certain areas as long as proper legal clearances were followed. The importance of our rich natural heritage has never had such priority as far as the apex court is concerned. In the same month of December 2002 the Wildlife Protection Act was amended once again being passed by both houses of Parliament. Mostly it was felt that this effort would plug most of the loopholes that plague the effective enforcement of the Act. But who knows what 2003 will bring?

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Roberts, T.J. (1977) . The Mammals of Pakistan, London: Benn. Rodgers, W. A., H. S. Panwar and V. B. Mathur, (2000). Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A Review, Dehra Dun: Wildlife Institute of India. Rogers, A. and H. Beveridge, (1909). The Tuzuk I Jahangiri, London: Royal Asiatic Society. Roonwul, M.L. and S.M. Mohnot, (1977). The Primates of South Asia, Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Press. Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot, and N.S. Rathore (eds). (1984). Current Primate Researches. Jodhpur: Dept. of Zoology, Jodhpur University. Russell, C.E.M. (1900). Bullet and Shot in Indian Forest, Plain and Hill, London: W. Thacker. Saberwal, V . , J. Gibbs, R . Chellam and A;J.T. Johnsingh. ( 1 994) . ' Lion-human C onflict in the Gir Forest, India', Conservation Biology, Vol. 8, pp. 501-7. Saberwal, V., Mahesh Rangarajan and Ashish Kothari. (2001). People, Parks and Wildlife: Towards Coexistence. London: Sangam Books Limited. Saharia, V.B. (1982). Wildlife in India, Delhi: Natraj. Sanderson, G.P. (1982). Thirteen Years among the Wild Beast in India, London: W.H. Allen & Co. Sankhala, K. (1978). Tiger, London: Collins. Sarkar, J. (1969). 'A Description of Bengal in AD 1609', Bengal Past and Present, Vol. 35, pp. 1-7. Schaller, G.B. (1967). The Deer and the Tiger, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ( 1977) . Mountain Monarchs; Wild Sheep and Goats of the Himalaya, Chicago: Chicago University Press. (1980). Stones of Silence; journeys in the Himalaya, London: Andre Deutsch. Scott, Jonathan. (1985). The Leopard's Tale London: Elm Tree Book. Seidensticker, J., S. Christie and P. Jackson, (1999). (eds), Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. __

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Name Index

Abdulali, Humayun Abdullah, Farooq Agarwal, Anil

Dorai Rajan, D.

Eardley-Wilmot, Santhill

121

Elliot, J.G.

4

Bahuguna, Sundar Lal

282

Farish

5

5

Forsyth, J.

293

Berwick, S.

9

239

Bhutto, Z.A.

Gandhi, Indira

251

Brander, A.A. Dunbar Burton, R.G. Burton, R.W.

Gandhi, M.K.

82

1 69

Gandhi, Rajiv

1 24

280

Gandhi, Sonia

96

Gee, E.P.

349

305

Gandhi, Sanjay

1 05

Champion, F.W.

2 63

Gandhi, Maneka

123

Cadell, Patrick

349

1 75

Chaturvedi, M.D.

1 69

Chinnappa, K.M.

Gerrard, M.

324

Chundawat, R.S.

Ghorpade, Y.R.

3 70

Gibson, Alexander

Corbett, J.

41

1 49

249

Arthur, George

Bernhard

239

Dodsworth, P.T.L.

295

306

Ahmed, F.A. Ali, Salim

Dillon Ripley, S.

1 75

136

Desai, Morarji

31 1 91

Gilbert, Reginald Gowda, Deve

2 75

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S.

1 98

Gujral, I.K.

351

351

4 35

53

444

NAME

INDEX

Hardy, Sarah

239

Jackson, Peter

311

Jafry, Hasan Abid Jepson, Stanley Joslin, P.

Rathore, Fateh Singh Richmond, R.D. 136

134

Karanth, Ullas

325

Khan, M.A.

210

Kipling, J.L.

19

Krishnan, M.

208

Littledale, H.

23

Millard, W.S.

39

Milroy, A.J.W.

301 233

241

214

Shuttleworth, A . T .

17

Singh, Billy Arjan

258

234

Singh, J.A.

1 75 352

Singh, Karan

247

Singh, Sadul

1 07

Spillet, Juan

227

237

Stebbing, E.P.

57

Stemdale, Robert A.

5

Padmanabh Pillai, E.V.

141

249 17

Stracey, P.O.

1 75

Tiwari, N.D.

284

Vajpayee, A.B.

Phythian-Adams, E.G.

70

301

247

Singh, Jaswant

121

Phipson, H.M.

Satarawala, K.T.

Singh, G. 63

319

Pande, Kedar

245

Schaller, George

Shukla, V.C.

1 12

Nath, Kamal

Prater, S.H.

9

Shahi, S.P.

1 42

Nehru, Jawaharlal Noltie, H.J.

Sanderson, G . P .

Seshadri, B.

92

Monteath, G.

Nightingale

27

Scindia, Madhavrao

Mitchell, P. Chalmers Morris, R.C.

1 08

Russell, C.E.M.

Sankhala, Kailash

239

320

Vidal, G.W.

9

349

24

89

Ward, Geoffrey C. Rainey, John Rudd Rajamani, R.

12

325

Ram, Jagjivan

263

Rangarajan, Mahesh Rao, Narsimha

2 74

Watson

3

Wavell

141

Williamson, T.

1

67

Yule, George

31

320