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Environmental Biotechnology Edited by Hans-Joachim Jördening and Josef Winter

Environmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-30585-8

Related Titles from WILEY-VCH H.-J. Rehm, G. Reed, A. Pühler, P. Stadler, J. Klein, J. Winter (Eds.)

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Environmental Biotechnology Concepts and Applications

Edited by Hans-Joachim Jördening and Josef Winter

Edited by Priv.-Doz. Dr. Hans-Joachim Jördening

Technical University Braunschweig Institute for Technical Chemistry Division Technology of Carbohydrates Langer Kamp 5 38106 Braunschweig Germany

This book was carefully produced. Nevertheless, editors, authors and publisher do not warrant the information contained therein to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Prof. Dr. Josef Winter

University Karlsruhe Institute of Biological Engineering Am Fasanengarten 76131 Karlsruhe Germany

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at . © 2005 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany printed on acid-free paper Composition Detzner Fotosatz, Speyer Printing betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Bookbinding J. Schäffer GmbH, Grünstadt ISBN 3-527-30585-8

V

Preface Josef Winter, Claudia Gallert, Universität Karlsruhe, Germany Hans-Joachim Jördening, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Deutschland The growing awareness of environmental problems, caused especially by the predominate use of fossil resources in connection with pure chemical pathways of production, has led the focus on those alternatives, which sounds environmentally more friendly. Here, biotechnology has the chance to influence and improve the quality of the environment and production standards by: – introduction of renewable instead of fossil raw materials – controlled production of very specific biocatalysts for the – development of new and environmentally improved production technologies with less purified substrates and generation of fewer by-products – bioproducts as non-toxic matters, mostly recyclable. Some impressive studies on industrial applications of biotechnology are published in two OECD reports, which summarized, that biotechnology has the potential of a reduction of operational and/or capital cost for the realization of more sustainable processes (OECD1, OECD2). However, until today the sustainability of technical processes is more the exception than the rule and therefore so-called “End-of-Pipe”technologies are absolutely necessary for the treatment of production residues. In 1972 the Club of Rome published its study “Limits of Growth” and prognosted an upcoming shortage of energy and primary resources as a consequence of exponential growth of population and industry (Meadows et al. 1972). Although the quantitative prognoses of Dennis Meadows and his research team have not been fulfilled, the qualitative statements are today well accepted. Aside of a shortage of resources for production of commodities the limits for an ecologically and economically compatible disposal of production residues and stabilized wastes have to be more and more taken into consideration. The limits for disposal of solid and liquid pollutants in soil and water or of waste gases in the atmosphere are a major issue, since soil, water and air are no longer able to absorb/adsorb these emissions without negative consequences for ecology and life in general. The ultimate oxidation product of organic residues by incineration or – more smooth – by biological respiration in aquatic or terrestric environment led to a significant increase of the carbon dioxEnvironmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-30585-8

VI

Preface

ide content of the atmosphere in the last centuries and thus influences the overall climate. This increase is abundantly attributed to combustion of fossil fuels by traffic and of fossil fuels and coal for industrial production processes and house heating. Increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from incineration of fossil energy sources and from decomposition of organic matter are the main reason for the greenhouse effect. Whereas the pollution of soil with waste compounds and subsequently with their (bio)conversion products generally remains a locally restricted, national problem, as long as evaporation of volatile compounds into the air or solubilization of solids in rain or groundwater can be prevented, emissions into water or the atmosphere are spreading rapidly and soon reach an international dimension. A disturbance of the equilibrium of the natural cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, sulfur or halogen compounds causes an ecological imbalance and endangers nature. In the Brundtland-report “Our common future” (Hauff 1987) a discussion was started about “sustainable development”. The practical realization of this concept was suggested at the “Conference on Environment and Development” of the United Nations in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 and enforced as an action programme in the so-called Agenda 21. A sustainable development to maintain the basis for future generations is contraindicated by exploitation of non-regenerative energy and material resources and a shortening of life cycles (e.g. in information technologies). A life cycle assessment is required to reduce or at least to bring to everybodies attention the flood of waste material. By the obligate demand for recycling of waste components, which is fixed in European Council Directive 91/156/EEC and e.g. translated to the German waste law (KrW/AbfG 1996), production and the use of commodities should minimize the amount of wastes. The practicability of this approach must be demonstrated in industrialized countries and then should be adopted by less developed or developing countries. Environmental biotechnology initially started with wastewater treatment in urban areas at the turn of the 19/20th century (Hartmann 1999) and has been extended among others to soil remediation, off gas purification, surface and groundwater cleaning, industrial wastewater purification, deposition techniques of wastes in sanitary landfills and composting of bioorganic residues, mainly in the second half of the 20 century. The available processes for the protection of the terrestric and aquatic environment were summarized in the first edition of “Biotechnology” still in one volume. Some ten years later in the second edition of “Biotechnology” the development in the above mentioned environmental compartments was updated and decribed by experts in the field from Europe and the United States of America. Although the description was kept very stringent, the above mentioned areas of environmental processes finally were issued in 3 volumes. Volume 11 a of “Biotechnology” was subtitled “Environmental Processes I – Wastewater Treatment” (edited in 1999) and was devoted to general aspects and the process development for carbon, nitrogen and phosphate removal during wastewater treatment and anaerobic sludge stabilization. Volume 11 b of “Biotechnology” was subtitled “Environmental Processes II – Soil Decontamination” (edited in 2000) and summarized microbial aspects and the pro-

Preface

cesses that were applied for soil (bio-)remediation and Volume 11 c, subtitled “Environmental Processes III – Solid Waste and Waste Gas Treatment, Preparation of Drinking water” (edited in 2000) covered general aspects, microbiology and processes for solid waste treatment, waste gas purification and potable water preparation. The new book “Environmental Biotechnology” covers what we think the most relevant topics of the previous volumes 11 a, b and c of “Biotechnology” in a comprehensive form. The invited authors were given the opportunity to update their contributions when a significant progress was achieved in their field in recent years. For instance, although many alternatives were existing in the past for domestic sewage treatment to remove nitrogenous compounds, the development of new biological processes for nitrogen removal in the laboratory and in pilot scale-dimension was reported recently. These processes work with a minimized requirement for an additional carbon source. Although these processes are not yet widely applicated in praxi, they are investigated in detail in pilot- or demonstration-scale in single wastewater treatment plants. The results seem to be promissing and might get importance in the future. The authors and the editors of the new book hope that the presented comprehensive overview on processes of environmental biotechnology for liquid, solid and gaseous waste treatment will help students and professional experts to obtain a fast fundamental information and an overview over the biological background and general process alternatives. This might then be a useful basis or starting point to tackle a specific process in more detail. Josef Winter, Claudia Gallert, Hans-Joachim Jördening Karlsruhe and Braunschweig, September 2004

References L. Hartmann (1999) Historical Development of Wastewater Treatment Processes. In: Biotechnology – Environmental processes I (Volume editor J. Winter), page 5–16. WILEY-VCH, Weinheim 1999. Hauff V. (ed) (1987) Unsere gemeinsame Zukunft. Der Brundtland-Bencht der Weltkommission für Umwelt und Entwicklung. Eggenkamp Verlag, Greyen KrW/AbfG 1996. Kreislaufwirtschafts- und Abfallgesetz – Gesetz zur Förderung der Kreislaufwirtschaft und Sicherung der umweltverträglichen Beseitigung von

Abfällen. Vom 27.9.1994. Bundesgesetzblatt BGBL I. 2705 pp. Meadows D. H., Meadows D. L., Zahn E., Milling P. (1972) Die Grenzen des Wachstums. Bericht des Club of Rome zur Lage der Menschheit. Stuttgart OECD (1998), Biotechnology for Clean Industrial Products and Processes: Towards Industrial Sustainability, OECD Publications, Paris OECD (2001), The Application of Biotechnology to Industrial Sustainability, OECD Publications, Paris

VII

IX

Contents Preface V List of Contributors XXI 1

Bacterial Metabolism in Wastewater Treatment Systems Claudia Gallert and Josef Winter

1.1 1.2

Introduction 1 Decomposition of Organic Carbon Compounds in Natural and Manmade Ecosystems 1 Basic Biology, Mass, and Energy Balance of Aerobic Biopolymer Degradation 3 Mass and Energy Balance for Aerobic Glucose Respiration and Sewage Sludge Stabilization 4 Mass and Energy Balance for Anaerobic Glucose Degradation and Sewage Sludge Stabilization 6 General Considerations for the Choice of Aerobic or Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Systems 8 Aerobic or Anaerobic Hydrolysis of Biopolymers: Kinetic Aspects 8 Hydrolysis of Cellulose by Aerobic and Anaerobic Microorganisms: Biological Aspects 9 Biomass Degradation in the Presence of Inorganic Electron Acceptors and by an Anaerobic Food Chain 12 Roles of Molecular Hydrogen and Acetate During Anaerobic Biopolymer Degradation 14 Anaerobic Conversion of Biopolymers to Methane and CO2 15 Anaerobic Degradation of Carbohydrates in Wastewater 16 Anaerobic Degradation of Protein 18 Anaerobic Degradation of Neutral Fats and Lipids 20 Competition of Sulfate Reducers with Methanogens in Methane Reactors 22 Amount and Composition of Biogas During Fermentation of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats 23

1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.7.1 1.2.7.2 1.2.7.3 1.2.8 1.2.9

1


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1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.2.1 1.3.2.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 1.4 1.5 1.5.1 1.6 1.7

Nitrogen Removal During Wastewater Treatment 24 Ammonification 25 Nitrification of Ammonia 25 Autotrophic Nitrification 25 Heterotrophic Nitrification 26 Denitrification: Nitrate Removal from Wastewater 27 Combined Nitrification and Denitrification 28 Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation (Anammox®) 29 New N-removal Processes 30 Enhanced Biological Phosphate Removal 31 Biological Removal, Biotransformation, and Biosorption of Metal Ions from Contaminated Wastewater 33 Sulfate Reduction and Metal Ion Precipitation 35 Aerobic and Anaerobic Degradation of Xenobiotics 36 Bioaugmentation in Wastewater Treatment Plants for Degradation of Xenobiotics 39 References 41

2

Industrial Wastewater Sources and Treatment Strategies 49 Karl-Heinz Rosenwinkel, Ute Austermann-Haun, and Hartmut Meyer

2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.3.7 2.3.8 2.3.9 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5

Introduction and Targets 49 Wastewater Flow Fractions from Industrial Plants 50 Synopsis 50 Rainwater 50 Wastewater from Sanitary and Employee Facilities 51 Cooling Water 51 Wastewater from In-plant Water Preparation 52 Production Wastewater 52 Kinds and Impacts of Wastewater Components 52 Temperature 52 pH 53 Obstructing Components 53 Total Solids, Suspended Solids, Filterable Solids, Settleable Solids 53 Organic Substances 53 Nutrient Salts (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur) 54 Hazardous Substances 54 Corrosion-inducing Substances 55 Cleaning Agents, Disinfectants, and Lubricants 55 General Processes in Industrial Wastewater Treatment Concepts 56 General Information 56 Production-integrated Environmental Protection 56 Typical Treatment Sequence in a Wastewater Treatment Plant 57 Wastewater Composition and Treatment Strategies in the Food Processing Industry 58

Contents

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.5.7 2.5.8 2.5.9 2.5.10

General Information 58 Sugar Factories 58 Starch Factories 61 Vegetable Oil and Shortening Production 63 Potato Processing Industry 65 Slaughterhouses 67 Dairy Industry 69 Fruit Juice and Beverage Industry 70 Breweries 72 Distilleries 73 References 75

3

Activated Sludge Process Rolf Kayser

3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.1.5.1 3.1.5.2 3.1.5.3 3.1.5.4 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.6.1 3.2.6.2 3.2.6.3 3.2.7 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 3.3.3.3 3.3.3.4 3.3.3.5

Process description and historical development 79 Single-stage process 79 Two-stage process 81 Single sludge carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous removal 82 Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process 83 Special developments 84 Pure oxygen-activated sludge process 84 Attached growth material in activated sludge aeration tanks 84 High-rate reactors 85 Membrane separation of mixed liquor 85 Technological and microbiological aspects 86 Wastewater characteristics 86 Removal of organic carbon 87 Nitrification 90 Denitrification 93 Phosphorus Removal 95 Environmental factors 96 Dissolved oxygen 96 Alkalinity and pH 96 Toxic substances 97 Properties of mixed liquor 98 Plant Configurations 99 Typical Tanks for mixing and aeration 99 Carbon removal processes 101 Nitrogen removal processes 101 Introduction 101 Pre-anoxic zone denitrification 102 Step-feed denitrification process 104 Simultaneous nitrification and denitrification 106 Intermittent nitrification–Denitrification process 108

79

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3.3.3.6 3.3.3.7 3.3.3.8 3.3.4 3.4

Intermittent nitrification–denitrification processes with intermittent wastewater feeding 110 Special processes for low COD/TKN ratio 111 Post-denitrification with external organic carbon 112 Interactions between the biological reactors and the final clarifiers 113 Design procedure 114 References 116

4

Modeling of Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Processes Mogens Henze

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.1.1 4.3.1.2 4.3.1.3 4.3.1.4 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.5

Introduction 121 Purpose of Modeling 121 Elements of Activated Sludge Models 122 Transport Processes and Treatment Plant Layout 122 Aeration 122 Components 123 Processes 123 Hydraulic Patterns 123 Presentation of Models 123 Mass Balances 124 Rates 124 Component Participation 124 The Activated Sludge Models Nos. 1, 2 and 3 (ASM1, ASM2, ASM3) 124 Activated Sludge Model No. 1 (ASM1) 125 Activated Sludge Model No. 2 (ASM2) 127 Activated Sludge Model No. 3 (ASM3) 127 Wastewater Characterization 128 Model Calibration 130 Computer Programs 131 Use of Models 131 References 133

4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

5

High-rate Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Hans-Joachim Jördening and Klaus Buchholz

5.1 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.3.1 5.2.3.2 5.2.4

Introduction 135 Basic Principles 138 Biofilm Formation 138 Biofilm Characteristics 139 Kinetics and Mass Transfer 139 External Mass Transfer 140 Internal Mass Transfer 141 Support Characteristics 142

135

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5.2.4.1 5.2.4.2 5.3 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.2.1 5.3.2.2 5.3.3 5.3.3.1 5.3.3.2 5.3.4 5.3.4.1 5.3.4.2

5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.5

Stationary Fixed-film Reactors 142 Fluidized-bed Reactors 143 Reactor Design Parameters 145 Scale-up 145 Support 146 Stationary-bed Reactors 147 Fluidized-bed Reactors 149 Wastewater 150 Solids in Stationary Fixed-film Reactors 151 Solids in Fluidized-bed Reactors 151 Reactor Geometry and Technological Aspects 151 Fixed-bed Reactors 151 Fluidized-bed Reactors 152 Fluidization of the Support 153 Bed Height and Loss of Support 153 Reactor Operation 154 Start-up Procedure 154 Operation Results: Stationary Bed 155 Operational Results: Fluidized-bed Reactors 157 Conclusions 157 References 159

6

Modeling of Biogas Reactors Herbert Märkl

6.1 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2

Introduction 163 Elements of the Mathematical Model 163 Scale-Up Strategy 165 Measuring Techniques 167 Online Measurement Using a Mass Spectrometer 167 Online Monitoring of Organic Substances with High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 169 Kinetics 170 Acetic Acid, Propionic Acid 176 Hydrogen Sulfide 179 Conclusions 179 Hydrodynamic and Liquid Mixing Behavior of the Biogas Tower Reactor 181 Mixing of the Liquid Phase 182 Model A 185 Model B 186 Distribution of Biomass within the Reactor 188 Experiments 188 Mathematical Modeling 190 Mass Transport from the Liquid Phase to the Gas Phase 192

6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.1.1 6.4.1.2 6.4.2 6.4.2.1 6.4.2.2 6.5

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6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.6 6.7

Liquid Phase 195 Gas Bubbles 195 Head Space 195 Influence of Hydrostatic Pressure on Biogas Production 197 Outlook 199 References 202

7

Aerobic Degradation of Recalcitrant Organic Compounds by Microorganisms 203 Wolfgang Fritsche and Martin Hofrichter

7.1

Introduction: Characteristics of Aerobic Microorganisms Capable of Degrading Organic Pollutants 203 Principles of Bacterial Degradation 205 Typical Aerobic Degrading Bacteria 205 Growth-associated Degradation of Aliphatics 206 Diversity of Aromatic Compounds: Unity of Catabolic Processes 210 Extension of Degradative Capacities 212 Cometabolic Degradation of Organopollutants 212 Overcoming Persistent Pollutants by Cooperation Between Anaerobic and Aerobic Bacteria 214 Degradative Capacities of Fungi 216 Metabolism of Organopollutants by Microfungi 216 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 216 Aromatic Compounds 217 Degradative Capabilities of Basidiomycetous Fungi 220 The Ligninolytic Enzyme System 220 Degradation of Organopollutants 224 Conclusions 225 References 226

7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.4.1 7.2.4.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 7.3.1.2 7.3.2 7.3.2.1 7.3.2.2 7.4

8

Principles of Anaerobic Degradation of Organic Compounds Bernhard Schink

8.1 8.2

General Aspects of Anaerobic Degradation Processes 229 Key Reactions in Anaerobic Degradation of Certain Organic Compounds 231 Degradation of Hydrocarbons 231 Degradation of Ether Compounds and Nonionic Surfactants 232 Degradation of N-Alkyl Compounds and Nitrilotriacetate 234 Degradation of S-Alkyl Compounds 235 Degradation of Ketones 235 Degradation of Aromatic Compounds 236 Benzoate and the Benzoyl-CoA Pathway 237 Phenol, Hydroxybenzoates, and Aniline 238 Cresols 240

8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5 8.2.6 8.2.6.1 8.2.6.2 8.2.6.3

229

Contents

8.2.6.4 8.2.6.5 8.2.6.6 8.2.6.7 8.2.6.8 8.2.7 8.2.8 8.2.9 8.3

Hydroquinone and Catechol 241 Resorcinol 241 Trihydroxybenzenes and Trihydroxybenzoates 242 Hydroxyhydroquinone, a New Important Intermediate 244 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 245 Degradation of Halogenated Organics 247 Degradation of Sulfonates 248 Degradation of Nitroorganics 248 Concluding Remarks 249 References 250

9

Soil Remediation and Disposal 259 Michael Koning, Karsten Hupe, and Rainer Stegmann

9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.5 9.6 9.7

Introduction 259 Thermal Processes 260 Thermal Ex Situ Processes 260 Thermal In Situ Processes 263 Application of Thermal Processes 263 Chemical/Physical Processes 264 Chemical/Physical Ex Situ Processes 264 Chemical/Physical In Situ Processes 266 Application of Chemical/Physical Processes 267 Biological Processes 267 Biological Ex Situ Processes 268 Biological In Situ Processes 270 Application of Biological Processes 270 Disposal 271 Utilization of Decontaminated Soil 271 Conclusions 272 References 272

10

Bioremediation by the Heap Technique Volker Schulz-Berendt

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4

Introduction 275 Principles of the Heap Technique 276 Different Heap Techniques 279 Efficiency and Economy 282 References 284

11

Bioreactors 287 René H. Kleijntjens and Karel Ch. A. M. Luyben

11.1 11.1.1

Introduction 287 Contaminated Solid Waste Streams (Soils, Sediments, and Sludges) 287

275

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11.1.2 11.2 11.2.1 11.2.2 11.3 11.3.1 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.3.1 11.3.3.2 11.3.3.3 11.3.3.4 11.3.4 11.3.5 11.4 11.4.1 11.4.2 11.4.3 11.5 11.6 11.6.1 11.6.2

Characteristics of Contaminated Solids 288 Bioreactors 289 Reactor Configurations 289 Diffusion of Contaminants out of Solid Particles 291 Slurry Bioreactors 292 Slurry Processing 292 Batch Operation 293 Full Scale Batch Processes 296 The DMT–Biodyn Process 296 The FORTEC Process 297 The OMH Process 297 The Huber Process 297 Sequential Batch Operation (Semicontinuous) 297 Continuous Operation 299 Solid-State Bioreactors 303 Process Configuration 303 Batch Operation: Composting 303 (Semi)Continuous Operation: The Rotating-drum Bioreactor 304 Comparison of Bioreactors 305 Conclusions and Outlook 306 Conclusions 306 Outlook 307 References 307

12

In-situ Remediation T. Held and H. Dörr

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.3.1 12.3.2 12.3.3 12.3.3.1 12.3.3.2 12.3.3.3 12.3.3.4 12.3.3.5 12.3.3.6 12.4 12.5

Introduction 311 Investigations 314 Remediation Technologies 316 General Considerations 316 Treatment of Unsaturated Soil (Bioventing) 317 Treatment of Saturated Soil 319 Hydraulic Circuits 319 Special Groundwater Wells 319 Biosparging and Bioslurping 320 Passive Technologies 322 Natural Attenuation 324 Evolving Technologies 326 Monitoring 328 Outlook 330 References 331

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13

Composting of Organic Waste Frank Schuchardt

333

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.5.1 13.5.2 13.6

Introduction 333 Waste Materials for Composting 334 Fundamentals of Composting Process 335 Composting Technologies 340 Composting Systems 342 Nonreactor Composting 342 Reactor Composting 346 Compost Quality 349 References 351

14

Anaerobic Fermentation of Wet and Semidry Garbage Waste Fractions 355 Norbert Rilling

14.1 14.2 14.2.1 14.2.1.1 14.2.1.2 14.2.1.3 14.2.2 14.2.2.1 14.2.2.2 14.2.2.3 14.2.2.4 14.2.2.5 14.2.3 14.2.4 14.3 14.3.1 14.3.1.1 14.3.1.2 14.3.1.3 14.3.1.4 14.3.2 14.3.2.1 14.3.2.2 14.3.2.3 14.3.2.4 14.3.3 14.3.4 14.4

Introduction 355 Basic Aspects of Biological Waste Treatment 355 Biochemical Fundamentals of Anaerobic Fermentation 356 Hydrolytic and Acid-forming (Fermentative) Bacteria 357 Acetic Acid- and Hydrogen-forming (Acetogenic) Bacteria 357 Methane-forming (Methanogenic) Bacteria 357 Influence of Processing Conditions on Fermentation 358 Water Content 358 Temperature 358 pH Level 358 Redox Potential and Oxygen 358 Inhibitory Factors 359 Gas Quantity and Composition 359 Comparison of Aerobic and Anaerobic Waste Treatment 360 Processes of Anaerobic Waste Treatment 361 Procedures of Anaerobic Waste Fermentation 362 Delivery and Storage 363 Preprocessing 364 Anaerobic Fermentation 364 Post-processing 365 Process Engineering of Anaerobic Fermentation of Biowastes 365 Dry and Wet Fermentation 366 Continuous and Discontinuous Operation 367 Thermophilic and Mesophilic Operation 368 Agitation 368 Survey of Anaerobic Fermentation Processes 369 Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion 369 Conclusions 372 References 373

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15

Landfill Systems, Sanitary Landfilling of Solid Wastes, and Long-term Problems with Leachate 375 Kai-Uwe Heyer and Rainer Stegmann

15.1 15.2 15.2.1 15.2.2 15.2.3 15.2.3.1 15.2.3.2 15.2.3.3 15.3 15.3.1 15.3.2 15.3.3 15.3.4 15.3.5

Introduction 375 Biochemical Processes in Sanitary Landfills 375 Aerobic Degradation Phases 376 Anaerobic Degradation Phases 376 Factors Affecting Leachate Composition 378 Waste Composition 380 Water Balance 380 Landfill Age 381 Sanitary Landfilling and Leachate Control Strategies 381 Leachate Problems in Landfills 381 Sanitary Landfilling and Legal Requirements 381 Control of Waste Input and Pretreatment before Deposition 382 Control of Water Input and Surface Sealing Systems 382 Control of Leachate Discharge into the Environment and Base Sealing Systems 384 Leachate Treatment 386 Environmental Monitoring 387 Long-term Problems with Leachate 388 Lysimeter Tests in Landfill Simulation Reactors (LSR) 388 Prognosis of Periods of the Long-Term Time Course of Emissions 390 Controlled Reduction of Leachate Emissions 391 In Situ Stabilization for the Closing and Aftercare of Landfills 391 Technical Methods for Water Infiltration and Effects on Leachate 392 Aerobic In Situ Stabilization and Effects on Leachate Contamination 392 References 394

15.3.6 15.3.7 15.4 15.4.1 15.4.2 15.5 15.5.1 15.5.2 15.5.3

16

Sanitary Landfills: Long-term Stability and Environmental Implications 395 Michael S. Switzenbaum

16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5

Introduction 395 Integrated Waste Management 397 Land Disposal 398 Leachate and Gas Management 403 Summary and Conclusions 406 References 407

Contents

17

Process Engineering of Biological Waste Gas Purification 409 Muthumbi Waweru, Veerle Herrygers, Herman Van Langenhove, and Willy Verstraete

17.1 17.2 17.2.1 17.2.2 17.2.2.1 17.2.2.2 17.2.2.3 17.2.2.4 17.3 17.3.1 17.3.2 17.3.3 17.3.4 17.3.5 17.3.6 17.4 17.5 17.5.1 17.5.2 17.5.3 17.6 17.7 17.8

Introduction 409 Biological Waste Gas Purification Technology 409 General Characteristics 409 Technology Types 410 Biofilter 410 Biotrickling Filter 410 Bioscrubber 411 Membrane Bioreactor 411 Performance Parameters 411 Empty Bed Contact Time or True Contact Time 413 Surface Loading Rate (BA) 413 Mass Loading Rate (BV) 414 Volumetric Loading Rate (vS) 414 Elimination Capacity (EC) 414 Removal Efficiency (RE) 414 Characteristics of the Waste Gas Stream 415 Process Principles 417 Equilibrium Partitioning of the Pollutant 417 Diffusion 419 Microbial Degradation of the Pollutant 420 Reactor Performance 421 Reactor Control 424 Perspectives 424 Acknowledgments 425 References 425

18

Commercial Applications of Biological Waste Gas Purification Derek E. Chitwood and Joseph S. Devinny

18.1 18.1.1 18.1.2 18.1.3 18.1.4 18.1.5 18.2 18.2.1 18.2.2

Background 427 Needs 427 Biological Treatment 428 Biofilters 429 Biotrickling Filters 432 Applications for Biological Systems 432 Applications 433 Soil Bed Biofilters (Bohn and Bohn, 1998) 433 Open Compost Biofilter for Treating Odors from a Livestock Facility (Nicolai and Janni, 1998) 433 Open Bed Compost Biofilter for Wastewater Plant Odor Control (Chitwood, 1999) 434

18.2.3

427

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18.2.4 18.2.5 18.2.6 18.2.7

Inorganic Biofilter for Odor Control at a Wastewater Treatment Facility (Dechant et al., 1999) 435 Biofilter Treating Gasoline Vapor at a Soil Vapor Extraction Site (Wright et al., 1997) 435 Biofilter Treating VOC Emissions from an Optical Lens Manufacturer (Standefer et al., 1999) 436 Advanced Biofilter for Controlling Styrene Emissions (Punti, personal communication; Thissen, 1997) 437 References 438

19

Perspectives of Wastewater, Waste, Off-gas and Soil Treatment Claudia Gallert and Josef Winter

19.1 19.2 19.2.1 19.2.2 19.2.3 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7

Introduction 439 Wastewater Handling 439 Domestic Wastewater 440 Industrial Wastewater 442 Effluent Quality and Future Improvements 443 Solid Waste Handling 444 Off-gas Purification 446 Soil Remediation 446 Drinking Water Preparation 448 Future Strategies to Reduce Pollution and Conserve a Natural, Healthy Environment 448

Subject Index 453

439

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List of Contributors Ute Austermann-Haun Fachhochschule Lippe und Höxter Fachbereich Bauingenieurwesen Emilienstr. 45 32756 Detmold Germany

Wolfgang Fritsche Institut für Mikrobiologie Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena Philosophenweg 12 07743 Jena Germany

Klaus Buchholz Institut für Technische Chemie Abt. Technologie der Kohlenhydrate Technische Universität Braunschweig Langer Kamp 5 38106 Braunschweig Germany

Claudia Gallert Institut für Ingenieurbiologie und Biotechnologie des Abwassers Universität Karlsruhe (TH) Am Fasanengarten Postfach 69 80 76128 Karlsruhe Germany

Derek E. Chitwood University of Southern California Civil and Environmental Engineering Los Angeles, CA 90098-1450 USA Joseph S. Devinny University of Southern California Civil and Environmental Engineering Los Angeles, CA 90098-1450 USA Helmut Dörr Arcadis Consult GmbH Berliner Allee 6 64295 Darmstadt Germany

Thomas Held Arcadis Consult GmbH Berliner Allee 6 64295 Darmstadt Germany Mogens Henze Department of Environmental Science and Engineering Building 115 Technical University of Denmark 2800 Lyngby Denmark


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List of Contributors

Veerle Herrygers CENTEXBEL Rue Montoyer 24 – boîte 2 1000 Bruxelles Belgium Kai-Uwe Heyer Ingenieurbüro für Abfallwirtschaft Bleicherweg 6 21073 Hamburg Germany Martin Hofrichter International Graduate School Zittau Unit of Environmental Biotechnology Markt 23 02763 Zittau Germany Karsten Hupe Arbeitsbereich Abfallwirtschaft TU Hamburg-Harburg Harburger Schloßstr. 37 21079 Hamburg Germany Hans-Joachim Jördening Institut für Technische Chemie Abt. Technologie der Kohlenhydrate Technische Universität Braunschweig Langer Kamp 5 38106 Braunschweig Germany Rolf Kayser Adolf-Bingel-Str. 2 38116 Braunschweig Germany René H. Kleijntjens Partners in Milieutechnik b.v. Mercuriusweg 4 2516 AW’s-Gravenhage The Netherlands

Michael Koning Arbeitsbereich Abfallwirtschaft TU Hamburg-Harburg Harburger Schloßstr. 37 21079 Hamburg Germany Karel Ch. A. M. Luyben Technical University of Delft Julianalaan 67a 2628 Delft 8 The Netherlands Herbert Märkl AB Bioprozeß- und Bioverfahrenstechnik Technische Universität HamburgHarburg Denickestr. 15 21071 Hamburg Germany Hartmut Meyer Institut für Siedlungswasserwirtschaft und Abfalltechnik Universität Hannover Welfengarten 1 30167 Hannover Germany Norbert Rilling TU Hamburg-Harburg Arbeitsbereich Abfallwirtschaft und Stadttechnik Harburger Schloßstr. 37 21079 Hamburg Germany Karl-Heinz Rosenwinkel Institut für Siedlungswasserwirtschaft und Abfalltechnik Universität Hannover Welfengarten 1 30167 Hannover Germany

List of Contributors

Bernhard Schink Institut für Mikrobielle Ökologie Universität Konstanz Universitätsstr. 10 78457 Konstanz Germany Frank Schuchardt Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft Braunschweig-VÖlkenrode (FAL) Institut für Technologie und Biosystemtechnik Bundesallee 50 38116 Braunschweig Germany Volker Schulz-Behrendt Umweltschutz Nord GmbH & Co. Industriepark 6 27767 Ganderkesee Germany Rainer Stegmann Arbeitsbereich Abfallwirtschaft TU Hamburg-Harburg Harburger Schloßstr. 37 21079 Hamburg Germany Michael S. Switzenbaum Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Marquette University PO Box 18 81 Milwaukee, WI 53201-18811 USA

Herman van Langenhove University of Gent Coupure L. 653 9000 Gent Belgium Willy Verstraete University of Gent Coupure L. 653 9000 Gent Belgium Muthumbi Waweru University of Gent Coupure L. 653 9000 Gent Belgium Josef Winter Institut für Ingenieurbiologie und Biotechnologie des Abwassers Universität Karlsruhe (TH) Am Fasanengarten Postfach 69 80 76128 Karlsruhe Germany

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1 Bacterial Metabolism in Wastewater Treatment Systems Claudia Gallert and Josef Winter

1.1 Introduction

Water that has been used by people and is disposed into a receiving water body with altered physical and/or chemical parameters is defined as wastewater. If only the physical parameters of the water were changed, e.g., resulting in an elevated temperature after use as a coolant, treatment before final disposal into a surface water may require only cooling close to its initial temperature. If the water, however, has been contaminated with soluble or insoluble organic or inorganic material, a combination of mechanical, chemical, and/or biological purification procedures may be required to protect the environment from periodic or permanent pollution or damage. For this reason, legislation in industrialized and in many developing countries has reinforced environmental laws that regulate the maximum allowed residual concentrations of carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous compounds in purified wastewater, before it is disposed into a river or into any other receiving water body However, enforcement of these laws is not always very strict. Enforcement seems to be related to the economy of the country and thus differs significantly between wealthy industrialized and poor developing countries. In this chapter basic processes for biological treatment of waste or wastewater to eliminate organic and inorganic pollutants are summarized.

1.2 Decomposition of Organic Carbon Compounds in Natural and Manmade Ecosystems

Catabolic processes of microorganisms, algae, yeasts, and lower fungi are the main pathways for total or at least partial mineralization/decomposition of bioorganic and organic compounds in natural or manmade environments. Most of this material is derived directly or indirectly from recent plant or animal biomass. It originates from carbon dioxide fixation via photosynthesis (→ plant biomass), from plants that served as animal feed (→ detritus, feces, urine, etc.), or from fossil fuels or biologiEnvironmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-30585-8

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1 Bacterial Metabolism in Wastewater Treatment Systems

cally or geochemically transformed biomass (→ peat, coal, oil, natural gas). Even the carbon portion of some xenobiotics can be tracked back to a biological origin, i.e., if these substances were produced from oil, natural gas, or coal. Only because the mineralization of carbonaceous material from decaying plant and animal biomass in nature under anaerobic conditions with a shortage of water was incomplete, did the formation of fossil oil, natural gas, and coal deposits from biomass occur through biological and/or geochemical transformations. The fossil carbon of natural gas, coal, and oil enters the atmospheric CO2 cycle again as soon as these compounds are incinerated as fuels or used for energy generation in industry or private households. Biological degradation of recent biomass and of organic chemicals during solid waste or wastewater treatment proceeds either in the presence of molecular oxygen by respiration, under anoxic conditions by denitrification, or under anaerobic conditions by methanogenesis or sulfidogenesis. Respiration of soluble organic compounds or of extracellularly solubilized biopolymers such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, or lipids in activated sludge systems leads to the formation of carbon dioxide, water, and a significant amount of surplus sludge. Some ammonia and H2S may be formed during degradation of sulfur-containing amino acids or heterocyclic compounds. Oxygen must either be supplied by aeration or by injection of pure oxygen. The two process variant for oxygen supply differ mainly in their capacity for oxygen transfer and the stripping efficiency for carbon dioxide from respiration. Stripping of carbon dioxide is necessary to prevent a drop in pH and to remove heat energy. Respiration in the denitrification process with chemically bound oxygen supplied in the form of nitrate or nitrite abundantly yields dinitrogen. However, some nitrate escapes the reduction to dinitrogen in wastewater treatment plants and contributes about 2% of the total N2O emissions in Germany (Schön et al., 1994). Denitrifiers are aerobic organisms that switch their respiratory metabolism to the utilization of nitrate or nitrite as terminal electron acceptors, if grown under anoxic conditions. Only if the nitrate in the bulk mass has been used completely does the redox potential become low enough for growth of strictly anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens or sulfate reducers. If anaerobic zones are allowed to form in sludge flocs of an activated sludge system, e.g., by limitation of the oxygen supply, methanogens and sulfate reducers may develop in the center of sludge flocs and form traces of methane and hydrogen sulfide, found in the off-gas. Under strictly anaerobic conditions, soluble carbon compounds of wastes and wastewater are degraded stepwise to methane, CO2, NH3, and H2S via a syntrophic interaction of fermentative and acetogenic bacteria with methanogens or sulfate reducers. The complete methanogenic degradation of biopolymers or monomers via hydrolysis/fermentation, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis can proceed only at a low H2 partial pressure, which is maintained mainly by interspecies hydrogen transfer. Interspecies hydrogen transfer is facilitated when acetogens and hydrogenolytic methanogenic bacteria are arranged in proximity in flocs or in a biofilm within short diffusion distances. The reducing equivalents for carbon dioxide reduction to methane or sulfate reduction to sulfide are derived from the fermentative metabolism, e.g., of clostridia or Eubacterium sp., from â oxidation of fatty acids, or the ox-


idation of alcohols. Methane and CO2 are the main products in anaerobic environments where sulfate is absent, but sulfide and CO2 are the main products if sulfate is present. 1.2.1 Basic Biology, Mass, and Energy Balance of Aerobic Biopolymer Degradation

To make soluble and insoluble biopolymers – mainly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids – accessible for respiration by bacteria, the macromolecules must be hydrolyzed by exoenzymes, which often are produced and excreted only after contact with respective inductors. The exoenzymes adsorb to the biopolymers and hydrolyze them to monomers or at least to oligomers. Only soluble, low molecular weight compounds (e.g., sugars, disaccharides, amino acids, oligopeptides, glycerol, fatty acids) can be taken up by microorganisms and be metabolized for energy production and cell multiplication. Once taken up, degradation via glycolysis (sugars, disaccharides, glycerol), hydrolysis and deamination (amino acids, oligopeptides), or hydrolysis and â oxidation (phospholipids, long-chain fatty acids) proceeds in the cells. Metabolism of almost all organic compounds leads to the formation of acetyl-CoA as the central intermediate, which is used for biosyntheses, excreted as acetate, or oxidized to CO2 and reducing equivalents in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. The reducing equivalents are respired with molecular oxygen in the respiration chain. The energy of a maximum of only 2 mol of anhydridic phosphate bonds of ATP is conserved during glycolysis of 1 mol of glucose through substrate chain phosphorylation. An additional 2 mol of ATP are formed during oxidation of 2 mol of acetate in the TCA cycle, whereas 34 mol ATP are formed by electron transport chain phosphorylation with oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. During oxygen respiration, reducing equivalents react with molecular oxygen in a controlled combustion reaction. When carbohydrates are respired by aerobic bacteria, about one third of the initial energy content is lost as heat, and two thirds are conserved biochemically in 38 phosphoanhydride bonds of ATP. In activated sludge reactors or in wastewater treatment ponds that are not loaded with highly concentrated wastewater, wall irradiation and heat losses with the off-gas stream of aeration into the atmosphere prevent self-heating. In activated sludge reactors for treatment of highly concentrated wastewater, however, self-heating up to thermophilic temperatures may occur if the wastewater is warm in the beginning, the hydraulic retention time for biological treatment is short (short aeration time), and the air or oxygen stream for aeration is restricted so as to supply just sufficient oxygen for complete oxidation of the pollutants (small aeration volume). The conserved energy in the terminal phosphoanhydride bond of ATP, formed during substrate chain and oxidative phosphorylation by proliferating bacteria is partially used for maintenance metabolism and partially for cell multiplication. Partitioning between both is not constant, but depends on the nutritional state. In highly loaded activated sludge reactors with a surplus or at least a non-growth–limiting substrate supply, approximately 50% of the substrate is respired in the energy me-

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tabolism of the cells and 50% serves as a carbon source for cell growth (Table 1.1). The biochemically conserved energy must be dissipated to be used for the maintenance metabolism of existing cells and cell growth. If the substrate supply is growth-limiting, e.g., in a low-loaded aerobic treatment system, a higher proportion of ATP is consumed for maintenance, representing the energy proportion that bacteria must spend for non-growth–associated cell survival metabolism, and less energy is available for growth. Overall, more of the substrate carbon is respired, and the ratio of respiration products to surplus sludge formed is higher, e.g., around 70% : 30% (Table 1.1). In a trickling filter system, an even higher proportion of the substrate seems to be respired. This might be due to protozoa grazing off part of the biofilm. For comparison, Table 1.1 also summarizes carbon dissipation in anaerobic methanogenic degradation. Only about 5% of the fermentable substrate is used for cell growth (surplus sludge formation) in anaerobic reactors, whereas 95% is converted to methane and CO2, and most of the energy of the substrates is conserved in the fermentation products.

1.2.1.1 Mass and Energy Balance for Aerobic Glucose Respiration and Sewage Sludge Stabilization In most textbooks of microbiology, respiration of organic matter is explained by Eq. 1, with glucose used as a model substance. Except for an exact reaction stoichiometry of the oxidative metabolism, mass and energy dissipation, if mentioned at all, are not quantified. Both parameters are, however, very important for activated sludge treatment plants. The surplus sludge formed during wastewater stabilization requires further treatment, causes disposal costs, and – in the long run – may be an environmental risk, and heat evolution during unevenly high-loaded aerobic treatment may shift the population toward more thermotolerant or thermophilic species and thus, at least for some time, may decrease the process efficiency.

1 mol C6H12O6 + 6 mol O2 → 6 mol CO2 + 6 mol H2O + heat energy

(1)

Carbon flow during (A) aerobic degradation in an activated sludge system under (a) saturating and (b) limiting substrate supplya and during (B) anaerobic degradation.

Table 1.1

(A)

Aerobic degradation: (a) Saturating substrate supply = high-load conditions 1 unit substrate carbon → 0.5 units CO2 carbon + 0.5 units cell carbon (b) Limiting substrate supply = low-load conditions 1 unit substrate carbon → 0.7 units CO2 carbon + 0.3 units cell carbon

(B)

Anaerobic degradation: 1 unit substrate carbon → 0.95 units (CO2 + CH4) carbon + 0.05 units cell carbon

a

Estimated from surplus sludge formation in different wastewater treatment plants.


If 1 mol of glucose (MW = 180 g) is degraded in an activated sludge system at a high BOD loading rate (e.g., >0.6 kg m–3 d–1 BOD), approximately 0.5 mol (90 g) is respired to CO2 and water, with consumption of 3 mol of O2 (96 g), releasing 19 mol of ATP (Fig. 1.1). The other 0.5 mol of glucose (90 g) is converted to pyruvate by one of three glycolytic pathways, accompanied by the formation of 0.5–1 mol ATP. Pyruvate or its subsequent metabolic products, e.g., acetate or dicarboxylic acids, are directly used as carbon substrates for cell multiplication and surplus biomass formation. A maximum amount of 20 mol ATP is thus available for growth and maintenance (Fig. 1.1). At a pH of 7, about 44 kJ of energy is available for growth per mol of ATP hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Thauer et al., 1977). For an average molar growth yield of aerobes of 4.75 g per mol ATP (Lui, 1998), 90 g biomass can be generated from 180 g glucose. If the combustion energy per g of cell dry mass is 22 kJ, about 890 kJ (2870–980 kJ) is lost as heat during respiration (Fig. 1.1). The energy loss is the sum of heat losses during respiration and cell growth. At a low BOD loading rate, the proportion of glucose respired in relation to the proportion of glucose fixed as surplus biomass can shift. Up to 0.7 mol (126 g) of glucose can be oxidized to CO2, requiring 4.2 mol of oxygen (134.4 g O2). Thus, for respiration of 1 mol of glucose, different amounts of oxygen may be consumed, depending on the loading rate of the wastewater treatment system and the different amounts of carbon dioxide and of surplus sludge formed (Fig. 1.1, Table 1.1). The energy and carbon balance deduced above can be analogously applied to aerobic stabilization of raw sewage sludge. If the initial dry matter content is around 36g L–1 (average organic dry matter content of sewage sludge) and if a biodegradability of 50% within the residence time in the sludge reactor is obtained, about 9 g L–1 of new biomass is formed, and thus 27 g L–1 (36 – 18 + 9) remains in the effluent.

Fig. 1.1

Mass and energy dissipation during glucose respiration at pH 7.

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The released heat energy is approximately 89 kJ L–1 of reactor content. To estimate the theoretical temperature rise, this amount of heat energy must be divided by 4.185 kJ (specific energy requirement for heating 1 L of H2O from 14.5–15.5 °C). Thus, by respiration of 18 g L–1 organic dry matter, the reactor temperature increases by 21.3°C within the residence time required for degradation (≤16 h), provided that no heat energy is lost. A great proportion of the heat energy is, however, transferred via the liquid phase to the aeration gas and stripped out, whereas a smaller proportion is lost through irradiation from the reactor walls. Since air, containing almost 80% nitrogen, is normally used as an oxygen source in aeration ponds or activated sludge reactors, the heat transfer capacity of the off-gas is high enough to prevent a significant increase in the wastewater temperature. Thus, ambient or at least mesophilic temperatures can be maintained. An increasing temperature of several degrees Celsius would lead to a shift in the population in the reactor and – at least temporarily – would result in reduced process stability, but an only slightly increased temperature of a few degrees Celsius might simply stimulate the metabolic activity of the prevalent mesophilic population. In practice, in activated sewage sludge systems no self-heating is observed because degradability is only about 50% and complete heat transfer to the atmosphere occurs via the off-gas at a retention time of more than 0.5 d. If, however, wastewater from a dairy plant or a brewery with a similar COD concentration, but with almost 100% biodegradable constituents, is stabilized with pure oxygen, twice as much heat evolves, leading to a theoretical temperature rise of 57 °C. Self-heating is observed, since there is much less offgas and the heat loss is thus significantly lower. In addition, due to higher reaction rates than with sewage sludge, the heat is generated during a shorter time span (shorter retention time).

1.2.1.2 Mass and Energy Balance for Anaerobic Glucose Degradation and Sewage Sludge Stabilization For anaerobic wastewater or sludge treatment, oxygen must be excluded to maintain the low redox potential that is required for survival and metabolic activity of the acetogenic, sulfidogenic, and methanogenic populations. Hydrolysis of polymers, uptake of soluble or solubilized carbon sources, and the primary metabolic reactions of glycolysis up to pyruvate and acetate formation seem to proceed identically or at least analogously in aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. Whereas aerobes oxidize acetate in the TCA cycle and respire the reducing equivalents with oxygen, anaerobes, such as Ruminococcus sp., Clostridium sp., or Eubacterium sp., either release molecular hydrogen or transform pyruvate or acetate to highly reduced metabolites, such as lactate, succinate, ethanol, propionate, or n-butyrate. For further degradation within the anaerobic food chain, these reduced metabolites must be oxidized anaerobically by acetogenic bacteria. Since the anaerobic oxidation of propionate or n-butyrate by acetogenic bacteria is obligately accompanied by hydrogen production but is only slightly exergonic under conditions of a low H2 partial pressure (Bryant, 1979), acetogens can grow only when hydrogen is consumed by hydrogen-scavenging organisms such as methanogens or sulfate reducers.


During anaerobic degradation of 1 mol glucose, approximately 95% of the glucose carbon is used for biogas formation (171 g = 127.7 L CH4 + CO2), and only about 5% of the substrate carbon (9 g) converted to biomass (Table 1.1). Much less heat energy is released during anaerobic metabolism than during aerobic respiration (131 kJ mol–1 versus 890 kJ mol–1, respectively), and the biogas contains almost 90% of the energy of the fermented substrate (Fig. 1.2). Due to the heat energy requirement to warm the wastewater and due to heat losses via irradiation from pipes and reactor walls, heat generation is not nearly sufficient to maintain a constant mesophilic fermentation temperature. For this reason, anaerobic digesters must be heated. In sewage sludge with 36 g L–1 organic dry matter content and 50% biodegradability, 0.9 g surplus sludge and 17.1 g biogas (equivalent to 12.75 L) are formed during anaerobic stabilization. Only 13.1 kJ of heat energy per mol of glucose is released, leading to a self-heating potential of 3.1 °C. Since the heat energy is released only during the hydraulic residence time of the wastewater in the reactor, which is usually more than 10 d (except for high-rate industrial wastewater treatment, where in special situations the HRT may be shorter than one day), much more heat energy is lost by irradiation via the reactor walls than is required to maintain the temperature. If highly concentrated wastewater streams of the food and beverage industry are stabilized anaerobically at hydraulic retention times of 10–5 atm is prevented by active methanogenesis or sulfate reduction (Bryant, 1979). Whereas hydrogen seemed to be the most sensitive regulator of anaerobic degradation, formate (Bleicher and Winter, 1994), acetate, or other fatty acids accumulated to much higher concentrations (McInerney, 1988) but did not repress anaerobic degradation. If hydro-

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gen accumulated due to an oversupply or to inhibition of methanogens, anaerobic biodegradation was disturbed successively in different stages. Initially, in the acetogenic stage â oxidation of fatty acids and alcohols failed, leading to an accumulation of these acid metabolites. Later, the spectrum of metabolites of the fermentative flora changed toward more reduced products like ethanol, lactate, propionate, and nbutyrate, leading to an even higher concentration of volatile fatty acids and a further decrease in pH. At pH values below 6.5, methanogenic reactions were almost completely prevented. At this stage acidification with a rich spectrum of reduced products still proceeded. 1.2.7.1 Anaerobic Degradation of Carbohydrates in Wastewater Carbohydrates are homo- or heteropolymers of hexoses, pentoses, or sugar derivatives, which occur in soluble form or as particles, forming grains or fibers of various sizes. In some plants, starch forms grains up to 1 mm in diameter, which is 1000 times the diameter of bacteria. Starch metabolism by bacteria requires hydrolytic cleavage by amylases to form soluble monomers or dimers, since only soluble substrates can be taken up and metabolized. The anaerobic degradation of biopolymers in general and of cellulose in particular can be divided into hydrolytic, fermentative, acetogenic, and methanogenic phases (Fig. 1.3). Hydrolysis and fermentation of the hydrolysis products can be catalyzed by the same trophic group of microorganisms. The distinction of the two phases is of more theoretical than practical relevance. Concerning reaction rates in a methane fermenter that is fed with a particulate substrate, the rate-limiting step is hydrolysis rather than the subsequent fermentation of the monomers, if acetogenesis and methanogenesis proceed faster. The hydrolysis rates of polymers can be very different. Hemicellulose and pectin are hydrolyzed ten times faster than lignin-encrusted cellulose (Buchholz et al., 1986, 1988). In the acidification reactor of a two-stage anaerobic process, hydrolysis of polymers to monomers is normally slower than fermentation of monomers to fatty acids and other fermentation products. For this reason, no sugar monomers can be detected during steady-state operation. In the methane reactor, â oxidation of fatty acids, especially of propionate or n-butyrate, is the ratelimiting step (Buchholz et al., 1986). Fatty acid degradation is the slowest reaction overall in a two-stage methane reactor fed with carbohydrate-containing wastewater from sugar production. Thus, the methane reactor has to be larger than the acidification reactor to permit longer hydraulic retention times. The rate of cellulose degradation depends strongly on the state of the cellulose in the wastewater. If cellulose is lignin-encrusted, lignin prevents access of cellulases to the cellulose fibers. If cellulose is mainly in a crystalline form, cellulases can easily attach to it, and then hydrolysis can be a relatively fast process. At increasing loading in an anaerobic reactor fed with crystalline cellulose, acetogenesis became the rate-limiting process, leading to propionate and butyrate formation (Winter and Cooney, 1980). In decaying plant material, cellulose is very often lignin-encrusted. Due to the highly restricted access to these complexes by cellulases, hydrolysis of cellulose is the rate-limiting step in its degradation to methane and CO2.


Fig. 1.3 Anaerobic degradation of lignocellulose and cellulose to methane and CO2 (according to ATV, 1994).

Whether microorganisms are capable of degrading lignin under anaerobic conditions is still under discussion. In a natural environment without time limitation, lignin was reported to be degraded anaerobically (Colberg and Young, 1985; Colberg, 1988). However, since these results were based on long-term experiments performed in situ and anaerobiosis was not controlled, it remains doubtful, whether the small amount of lignin that disappeared was really degraded under strictly anaerobic conditions. The occurrence of coal and fossil oil suggests that lignin compounds are highly resistant to microbial attack. During anaerobic degradation of starch, hydrolysis by amylases proceeds with high velocity if good contact between starch grains and amylases is maintained. Whereas in an anaerobic reactor at low loading, starch degradation can proceed in the absence of acetogenic bacteria, as indicated in Figure 1.4 (route a), at high loading, volatile fatty acids are formed and acetogens are essential for total degradation (Fig. 1.4, route b). Figure 1.4 illustrates how the rate-limiting acetogenic reactions may be avoided by adjusting the conditions so that hydrolysis and fermentation occur no faster than methanogenesis. The rationale behind this is that many fermen-

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tative bacteria produce only acetate, formate, CO2, and hydrogen when H2-scavenging methanogens or sulfate reducers are able to maintain a sufficiently low H2 partial pressure, but a wide spectrum of fermentation products, typical for the metabolism of the respective bacterial species in pure culture, is produced at higher H2 partial pressure (Winter, 1983, 1984). Methanogenesis in continuous syntrophic methanogenic cultures can be disturbed by spike concentrations of sugars or – at low concentrations of sugars – by the presence of inhibitory substances like NH3, H2S, antibiotics (Hammes et al., 1979; Hilpert et al., 1981), or xenobiotics. In consequence, the H2 partial pressure increases and volatile fatty acids are generated (Winter, 1984; Winter et al., 1989; Wildenauer and Winter, 1985; Zellner and Winter, 1987b). Once propionate or n-butyrate are produced, anaerobic degradation requires acetogens for â oxidation (Fig. 1.4, route b).

1.2.7.2 Anaerobic Degradation of Protein Proteins are biological macromolecules, either soluble or solid (e.g., feathers, hair, nails). Outside the cell at an acid pH or in the presence of enzymes, soluble proteins precipitate, e.g., precipitation of casein by addition of rennet enzyme. The reaction sequences necessary for protein degradation in a methanogenic ecosystem are outlined in Figure 1.5. Hydrolysis of precipitated or soluble protein is catalyzed by sev-

Fig. 1.4

Anaerobic degradation of starch under low- and high-loading conditions.


Fig. 1.5

Anaerobic degradation of proteins.

eral types of proteases that cleave membrane-permeable amino acids, dipeptides, or oligopeptides. In contrast to the hydrolysis of carbohydrates, which proceeds favorably at a slightly acid pH, optimal hydrolysis of proteins requires a neutral or weakly alkaline pH (McInerney, 1988). In contrast to the fermentation of carbohydrates, which lowers the pH due to volatile fatty acid formation, fermentation of amino acids in wastewater reactors does not lead to a significant pH change, due to acid and ammonia formation. Acidification of protein-containing wastewater proceeds optimally at pH values of 7 or higher (Winterberg and Sahm, 1992), and ammonium ions together with the CO2–bicarbonate–carbonate buffer system stabilize the pH. Acetogenesis of fatty acids from deamination of amino acids requires a low H2 partial pressure for the same reasons as for carbohydrate degradation. This can be maintained by a syntrophic interaction of fermentative, protein-degrading bacteria and acetogenic and methanogenic or sulfate-reducing bacteria. Except for syntrophic interaction of amino acid-degrading bacteria with methanogens for maintenance

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of a low H2 partial pressure, clostridia and presumably also some other sludge bacteria may couple oxidative and reductive amino acid conversion via the Stickland reaction. One amino acid, e.g., alanine (Eq. 4) is oxidatively decarboxylated and the hydrogen or reducing equivalents produced during this reaction are used to reductively convert another amino acid, e.g., glycine, to acetate and ammonia (Eq. 5). CH3–CHNH2–COOH + 2 H2O → CH3–COOH + CO2 + NH3 + 2 H2 ÄG°b = +7.5 kJ mol–1 2 CH2NH2–COOH + 2 H2 → 2 CH3COOH + 2 NH3 ÄG°b = –38.9 kJ mol–1

(4) (5)

For complete degradation of amino acids in an anaerobic system therefore, a syntrophism of amino acid-fermenting anaerobic bacteria with methanogens or sulfate reducers is required (Wildenauer and Winter, 1986; Winter et al., 1987; Örlygsson et al., 1995). If long-chain amino acids are deaminated (Eqs. 6–9), fatty acids such as propionate, i-butyrate, or i-valerate are formed directly. The fatty acids require acetogenic bacteria for their degradation. valine + 2 H2O → i-butyrate + CO2 + NH3 + 2 H2 leucine + 2 H2O → i-valerate + CO2 + NH3 + 2 H2 i-leucine + 2 H2O → 2-methylbutyrate + CO2 + NH3 + 2 H2 glutamate + 2 H2O → propionate + 2 CO2 + NH3 + 2 H2

(6) (7) (8) (9)

In contrast to carbohydrate degradation, where the necessity for propionate- and butyrate-degrading acetogenic bacteria can be circumvented by substrate limitation (Fig. 1.4a), during protein degradation these fatty acids are a product of deamination, and their formation cannot be avoided by maintaining a low H2 partial pressure. In the methanogenic phase there is no difference in methanogenic activity whether carbohydrates or proteins are fermented, except that the methanogens in a reactor fed with protein need to be more tolerant to ammonia and higher pH.

1.2.7.3 Anaerobic Degradation of Neutral Fats and Lipids Fats and lipids are another group of biopolymers that contribute significantly to the COD in sewage sludge, cattle and swine manures, and wastewater from the food industry, e.g., slaughterhouses or potato chip factories (Winter et al., 1992; Broughton et al., 1998). To provide a maximum surface for hydrolytic cleavage by lipases or phospholipases, solid fats, lipids, or oils must be emulsified. Glycerol and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids (palmitic acid, linolic acid, linolenic acid, stearic acid, etc.) are formed from neutral fats. Lipolysis of phospholipids generates fatty acids, glycerol, alcohols (serine, ethanolamine, choline, inositol), and phosphate. Lipolysis of sphingolipids generates fatty acids and amino alcohols (e.g., sphingosine), and lipolysis of glycolipids generates fatty acids, amino alcohols, and hexoses (glucose, galactose). A scheme for anaerobic degradation of fats is shown in Figure 1.6. Sugar moieties and glycerol can be degraded to methane and CO2 by interaction between


fermentative and methanogenic bacteria in low-loaded systems or by cooperation between fermentative, acetogenic, and methanogenic bacteria in high-loaded systems. The long-chain fatty acids are degraded by acetogenic bacteria by â oxidation to acetate and molecular hydrogen. If acetate and molecular hydrogen accumulate, the anaerobic digestion process is inhibited (Hanaki et al., 1981). Odd-numbered fatty acids are degraded to acetate, propionate, and hydrogen, and even-numbered fatty acids to acetate and hydrogen (Bryant, 1979). Only at a very low H2 partial pressure, which can be maintained by hydrogen-utilizing methanogens or sulfate reducers, is â oxidation of at least n-butyrate or propionate exergonic. Methanol, ethanol, and ammonia are formed from choline (Fig. 1.6). After hydrolysis, fermentation, and acetogenesis of the fat components in the methanogenic phase acetate, CO2, and hydrogen are converted to biogas. All subsequent intracellular reactions can be influenced by syntrophic interaction via interspecies hydrogen transfer, except for the extracellular initial lipase reaction.

Fig. 1.6

Anaerobic degradation of fats.

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22


Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and biogenic oils can also be degraded anaerobically under thermophilic conditions. The overall degradation scheme is the same, but the microorganism populations are different (e.g., Winter and Zellner, 1990). Thermophilic fat degradation is becoming more important in practice, since waste fat from fat separators and fat flotates of the food industry are often cofermented in agricultural biogas plants. Since, for hygienic reasons, the input material must be autoclaved, a thermophilic process should be used, keeping the fat in a melted, soluble form for more effective metabolism. Biogas plants with cofermentation of waste fat residues are considered waste treatment systems (Chapter 11, this volume) and must be designed to meet the hygienic demands relevant to treatment of the respective waste. 1.2.8 Competition of Sulfate Reducers with Methanogens in Methane Reactors

Municipal wastewater or wastewater from sugar production, slaughterhouses, breweries, etc., normally contains less than 200 mg L–1 of sulfate. If sulfuric acid is used, e.g., to clean stainless steel containers and pipes in the dairy industry or to maintain an acid pH in bioreactors for bakers’ yeast or citric acid production, or if ammonium sulfate is used to inhibit metabolic routes in bakers’ yeast for the production of biochemicals, the wastewater contains large amounts of sulfate. Sulfite-containing wastewater is also generated by the starch and cellulose industry during bleaching of the raw products. If these wastewaters are subjected to anaerobic treatment, the methanogenic bacteria must compete with sulfate reducers for the hydrogen equivalents from COD degradation (Omil et al., 1998). In anaerobic digesters sulfate reduction is the favored reaction, due to the higher affinity of sulfate reducers for reducing equivalents or hydrogen, leading to sulfide production at the expense of reduced biogas formation. Sulfide subsequently forms heavy metal precipitates and, if still present in larger amounts, remains in solution and may be toxic to acetogens and methanogens. Some hydrogen sulfide leaves the reactor with the biogas, which may contain up to a few percent of H2S. Then gas purification is necessary before the gas can be used as fuel for gas engines. Hydrogen sulfide in biogas causes not only odor problems but also corrosion of fermenters and pipes. Methanogenesis of dissolved and particulate organic material in sulfate-rich wastewater is possible, if acidogenesis and sulfate reduction (stripping of H2S together with CO2) is separated from methanogenesis in a phased or a staged process (Lens et al., 2002). The higher affinity of sulfate reducers than methanogens for reducing equivalents can also be used for sulfate and heavy metal ion removal from wastewater in the first stage of a two-stage anaerobic process (Elferink et al., 1994). In comparison to methanogens, which have a rather restricted substrate spectrum (Table 1.3), sulfate reducers are metabolically more versatile. Sulfate reducers can utilize polymers such as starch, monomers such as sugars, fatty acids, formate, aliphatic and aromatic compounds, as well as molecular hydrogen (Widdel, 1988) to generate reducing equivalents for sulfate reduction (Eq. 10):

1.2 Decomposition of Organic Carbon Compounds in Natural and Manmade Ecosystems +

2– 4

8 (H) + 2 H + SO

→ H2S + 4 H2O

(10)

Undissociated hydrogen sulfide is toxic to both methanogens and sulfate reducers. A 50% inhibition of methanogenesis was observed at a total sulfide concentration of 270 mg L–1 (Oleszkiewicz et al., 1989), whereas 85 mg L–1 sulfide inhibited sulfate reducers (McCartney and Oleszkiewicz, 1991). For stable methanogenesis, no more than 150 mg L–1 sulfide should be accumulated (Speece et al., 1986). H2S toxicity can be avoided by intensive flushing with biogas to strip the H2S for adsorption onto Fe2(OH)3. If large amounts of H2S are formed during anaerobic treatment, essential heavy metal ions for methanogens (Fe, Ni, Mo, Co, etc.) may be precipitated as sulfides, which may lead to deficiencies in heavy metal bioavailability for the wastewater population. The metabolites of the fermentative and acetogenic phase of anaerobic wastewater treatment systems, mainly acetate and CO2 + H2, are substrates for methanogens and for sulfate reducers. If wastewater with a high sulfate concentration is treated in a methane reactor, the population may gradually shift from hydrogenotrophic methanogens toward hydrogenotrophic sulfate reducers, due to a more favorable Ks value for hydrogen of the sulfate reducers. For pure cultures of Desulfovibrio sp. the Ks value for hydrogen is 1 ìM, but for hydrogenotrophic methanogens it is only 6 ìM (Kristjansson et al., 1982). For acetate, such a dramatic disadvantage of methanogens was not observed. The affinities of sulfate reducers and of methanogenic bacteria (valid at least for Methanosaeta sp.) for hydrogen are in the same range, 0.2–0.4 ìM (Elferink et al., 1994). 1.2.9 Amount and Composition of Biogas During Fermentation of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Fats

From an economic point of view, the specific biogas amounts and the biogas quality from anaerobic treatment of wastewater and sludge are important process parameters. Therefore, a basis for prediction of amount and composition of biogas was elaborated as early as the 1930s (Buswell and Neave, 1930; Buswell and Sollo 1948; Buswell and Mueller, 1952). If the elemental composition of a wastewater is known, the theoretical amount and composition of the biogas can be predicted with the Buswell equation (Eq. 11). The actual biogas amount is lower and can be calculated by including a correction factor for the degree of degradability, the pH (which influences CO2 absorption), and a 5%–10% discount for biomass formation. CcHhOoNnSs + 1/4 (4c – h – 2o + 3n + 2s)H2O → 1/8 (4c – h + 2o + 3n + 2s)CO2 + 1/8 (4c + h – 2o – 3n – 2s)CH4 + nNH3 + sH2S

(11)

According to the Buswell equation (Eq. 11), for the anaerobic treatment of a wastewater with carbohydrates as pollutants, the gas composition should theoretically be 50% methane and 50% CO2 (Eq. 12):

23

24


1 mol C6H12O6 → 3 mol CH4 + 3 mol CO2

(12)

Since CO2 is increasingly soluble in water with decreasing temperature and increasing pH, CO2 reacts to form bicarbonate/carbonate, and the biogas may contain more than 80% methane. The total amount of gas is then diminished by the amount of CO2 that is absorbed and solubilized in the liquid. From a fat- and protein-containing wastewater, theoretically more than 50% methane can be generated (Table 1.5).

1.3 Nitrogen Removal During Wastewater Treatment

Nitrogen-containing substances in wastewater are inorganic or organic. Together with phosphates, they represent the main source for eutrophication of surface water. For this reason they must be eliminated together with the organic carbon during wastewater treatment. Whereas phosphates form insoluble precipitates with many heavy metal ions and the precipitates can be separated by sedimentation or flotation, all nitrogen compounds, except for magnesium ammonium phosphate, are easily soluble in water and thus cannot be removed chemically by precipitation. For biological removal of amino nitrogen and of heterocyclic nitrogen compounds, their conversion to ammonia in an aerobic or anaerobic treatment process is the first step. Then ammonia must be nitrified, and the nitrate denitrified to yield nitrogen. Thus, depending on the kind of nitrogen compounds present in wastewater, nitrogen removal requires up to three processes in sequence: ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The major portion of nitrogen compounds in municipal wastewater are reduced nitrogen compounds such as ammonia, urea, amines, amino acids, and proteins. Oxidized nitrogen compounds such as nitrate and nitrite normally are not present at all or not in relevant amounts. Nitrate and nitrite may, however, represent the main nitrogen load in wastewater of certain food or metal industry branches (Gensicke et al., 1998; Zayed and Winter, 1998).

Table 1.5

Amount of biogas, biogas composition, and energy content.

Substrate

Carbohydratesa Fatsb Proteinsc a

Amount (cm3 g –1) 746.7

Composition % CH4

% CO2

Energy content (kW h × m–3)d

50

50

4.95

1434

71

29

7.02

636

60

40

5.93

Calculated for hexoses. Calculated for triglycerides containing glycerol plus 3 mol palmitic acid. c Calculated for polyalanine and reaction of ammonia to (NH4)2CO3. d at standard conditions b

1.3 Nitrogen Removal During Wastewater Treatment

The ammonia in raw municipal wastewater is mainly derived from urine and is formed in the sewer system by enzymatic cleavage of urea by ureases (Eq. 13): NH2CONH2 + H2O → CO2 + 2 NH3

(13)

The residence time of the wastewater in the sewer system normally is not long enough for a significant contribution of ammonia from other sources, e.g., proteolysis and deamination of amino acids. 1.3.1 Ammonification

The main organic nitrogen compounds in municipal wastewater are heterocyclic compounds (e.g., nucleic acids) and proteins. Proteolysis and degradation of amino acids leads to liberation of ammonia by the various mechanisms of ammonification (Rheinheimer et al., 1988), including hydrolytic, oxidative, reductive, and desaturative deamination (Eqs. 14–17, respectively) R–NH2 + H2O → R–OH + NH3 R–CHNH2COOH + H2O → R–CO–COOH + 2 (H) + NH3 R–CHNH2–COOH + 2 (H) → R–CH2–COOH + NH3 R–CH2–CHNH2–COOH → R–CH=CH–COOH + NH3

(14) (15) (16) (17)

A significant amount of ammonia from urea cleavage or from ammonification of amino acids is assimilated in aerobic treatment processes for growth of bacteria (surplus sludge formation). It can be estimated that bacteria consist of roughly 50% protein and that the nitrogen content of protein is about 16%. Thus, for synthesis of 1 g of bacterial biomass, about 0.08 g of ammonia-N is required. To eliminate ammonia that is not used for cell growth during wastewater treatment, it must first be nitrified and then denitrified to molecular nitrogen or anaerobically oxidized with nitrite. 1.3.2 Nitrification of Ammonia 1.3.2.1 Autotrophic Nitrification Autotrophic nitrifiers are aerobic microorganisms oxidizing ammonia via nitrite (Eq. 18) to nitrate (Eq. 19). Organisms catalyzing nitrification (Eq. 18) belong to the genera Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrosolobus, Nitrosospira, and Nitrosovibrio, organisms catalyzing nitration (Eq. 19) include, e.g., members of the genera Nitrobacter, Nitrococcus, and Nitrospira.

NH4+ + 1.5 O2 → NO2– + 2 H+ + H2O NO2– + 0.5 O2 → NO3–

(18) (19)

25

26


Ammonia oxidation to nitrite or nitrite oxidation to nitrate are energy-yielding processes for the autotrophic growth of the nitrifying bacteria. CO2 is assimilated via the Calvin cycle. Since the positive redox potential of the oxidizable nitrogen compounds is not low enough to form NADH2 for CO2 reduction, NADH2 must be formed by an energy-consuming reverse electron transport. For this reason, the growth yield of nitrifying bacteria is low. Nitrosomonas sp., e.g., must oxidize 30 g NH3 to form 1 g of cell dry mass (Schlegel, 1992). The oxidation of ammonia by nitrifiers is initiated by an energy-neutral monooxygenase reaction that yields hydroxylamine (Eq. 20): NH3 + XH2 + O2 → NH2OH + X + H2O

(20)

Then hydroxylamine is further oxidized, presumably via nitroxyl (Eq. 21) to nitrite (Eq. 22), which is the energy-yielding reaction during nitrification. For microbial oxidation of 1 mg NH4+-nitrogen to nitrite, 3.42 mg O2 is required, and for the oxidation of 1 mg NO2–-nitrogen to nitrate (Eq. 19), 1.14 mg O2. NH2OH + X → XH2 + (NOH) (NOH) + 0.5 O2 → HNO2 + energy

(21) (22)

Due to their slow growth autotrophic nitrifiers cannot successfully compete with heterotrophic bacteria for oxygen. In a highly loaded activated sludge system, the autotrophic nitrifiers are overgrown by the heterotrophic sludge flora, which consume the oxygen. Ammonia oxidation starts only if the BOD5 concentration in the wastewater is 60%) (INES, 1997). Industrial sludges mostly originate directly from corrosion and wear from equipment or water treatment units on the site. Disregarding the heterogeneous nature of the waste, the contaminant behavior is largely determined by the fines (Werther and Wilichowski, 1990), because submicron particles such as humic–clay structures and clay agglomerates have an extremely high adsorption capacity (Brady, 1984). The solid waste, therefore, basically contains a contaminated fine fraction, a less contaminated sand–gravel fraction, cleaner debris, and a contaminated water phase.

Fig. 11.1 Distribution of contaminants over the solids fractions (in percentage of the total

amount of oil present) and particle size distribution (cumulative).

11.2 Bioreactors

In Figure 11.1 the line shows a typical particle size distribution for soils having a dominant fraction of fines (the step between 10 and 20 µm) and a dominant sand fraction (the step between 150 and 250 µm). The bars show the measured mineral oil concentration as distributed over the fractions. For efficient processing of this waste, only the fractions 2–6 mm). Second, sand fractions are removed by one or more separation techniques such as sieves, hydrocyclones, Humphrey spirals, flotation cells, jigs, and upflow columns; a typical separation diameter (the so-called cutpoint) for the hydrocyclone depicted is 63 µm (Cullinane et al., 1990). In the cyclone the slurry flow is split into a sand fraction (particle size >63 µm) at the bottom and a fine fraction at the top (60 25–45 >20–40

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13 Composting of Organic Waste

In addition to a sufficient content of free water, the microorganisms need a C/N ratio in the substrate of 25–30 for optimal development and fast enough rotting process, and the carbon should be readily available. At C/N ratios below the optimum, the danger of nitrogen loss as ammonia gas increases (especially when the temperature rises and the pH is >7). If the C/N ratio is higher than optimum, the composting process needs a longer time to stabilize the waste material. Figure 13.3 shows the relations between the factors influencing the rotting process. The structure of the waste, i.e., its consistency and the configuration and geometry of the solids, determines the pore volume (whether filled with water or air) and the air flow resistance of a compost heap. These in turn influence the gas exchange and the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the air pores and liquid phase. When these factors are optimum, exothermic microbial activity is rapid, leading to increasing temperature by build up of heat within the heap. Microbial activity is affected by the water content, nutrients (C/N ratio, availability), and pH. The mass and volume of the heap influence the temperature according to the heat capacity and heat losses by irradiation. Heat convection within the heap, which is conditioned by the temperature difference between the material and the atmosphere, affects the gas exchange. The gas exchange and the temperature influence the evaporation of water and thus also the proportion of water-filled pores [3, 4, 6, 11, 22, 29]. One effect of the activity of the different microbial groups is a characteristic temperature curve during composting (Fig. 13.4). After a short lag, the temperature increases exponentially to 70–75 °C. At 40 °C there is often a lag during the changeover from mesophilic to thermophilic microorganisms. After reaching a maximum, the temperature declines slowly to the level of the atmosphere. The progression of the temperature curve depends on numerous factors such as the kind and preparation

Factors influencing the composting process.

Fig. 13.3

13.3 Fundamentals of Composting Process Characteristic temperature curve during composting process.

Fig. 13.4

of the waste, the surface/volume ratio of the heap, air temperature, wind velocity, aeration rate, C/N ratio, processing technique, and mixing frequency. The first phase of the composting process, up to a temperature up to about 60 °C, is called the pre- and main composting; the second phase is called the post-composting or mature phase. Both phases are characterized by different processes (Table 13.4). Frequently, the designers of a composting facility must consider both phases by dividing the entire composting process into different technical stages, especially when the wastes have a risk of strong odor emissions: • Pre- and main composting occurs in closed reactors or in roofed facilities, and in frequently-mixed or forced-aerated windrows. • The post-composting/mature phase is done in windrows. The consequences for the composting process are basically to optimize the factors that influence the rotting process. The most important factor is, for a given composition of waste, to ensure gas exchange in the heap. This can be done by taking the following measures: • adapting the height of the heap to the structure, water content, and oxygen demand (high during pre- and main composting, low during the mature phase) • turning (mixing, loosening) the windrows • constructing windrows in thin, ventilatable layers

Table 13.4 Phases and characteristics of the composting process.

Pre- and Main Composting

Postcomposting, Mature Phase

Degradation of easily degradable compounds: sugar, starch, pectin, protein

Degradation of difficult-to-decay degradable compounds: hemicellulose, wax, fat, oil, cellulose, lignin

Inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms and weed seeds

Composition of high molecular weight compounds (humus)

High oxygen demand

Low oxygen demand

Emissions of odor and drainage water

Low emissions

Time: 1–6 weeks

Time: 3 weeks to 1 year

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• mixing and loosening the rotting material in reactors (in rotating drums, with tools) • using forced aeration • decreasing the streaming resistance by adding bulking material having a rough structure or in the form of pellets

13.4 Composting Technologies

The production of compost consists of preparing and conditioning the raw material, followed by the actual composting (Fig. 13.5). To produce a marketable product it is necessary to convert the compost to an end product. The aim of raw material preparation and conditioning is to optimize conditions for the following composting process, to remove impurities so as to protect the technical equipment, to reduce the input of heavy metals and hazardous organic components (if the impurities contain these components), and to meet quality requirements for the finished compost. The basic steps of raw material preparation and conditioning are: • disintegration of rough wastes (e.g., wood scraps, trees, brush, long grass) by chopping, crushing, or grinding to increase the surface area available for microbial activity • dehydration or (partial) drying of water-rich, structureless wastes (e.g., sludge, fruit remains) if they are too wet for the composting process • addition of water (fresh water, wastewater, sludge) if the wastes are too dry for the composting process

Fig. 13.5 Basic flow sheet of compost production.

13.4 Composting Technologies

• mixing of components (e.g., wet and dry wastes, N-rich and C-rich wastes, wastes with rough and fine structure) • manual or automatic separation of impurities (glass, metals, plastics) The products of preparation and conditioning of the wastes are waste air (depending on the composition and the conditions of storage, it may include bad smells and dust) and possibly drainage water beneath the raw material. The basic steps of the subsequent composting process may be: • aeration to exchange the respiration gases oxygen and carbon dioxide and to remove water (the only essential step during composting) • mixing to compensate for irregularities in the compost heap (e.g., dry zones at the surface, wet zones at the bottom, cool zones, hot zones) and to renew the structure for better aeration • moistening of dry material to improve microbial activity • drying of wet material by aeration or/and mixing to increase the free air pore space for microbial activity or to improve the structure of the compost for packaging • manual removal of impurities The products of the composting process are a biologically stabilized compost, waste air, and drainage water (when the material is very wet). It may be necessary to prepare the compost for transport, storage, sale, and its application. When post-preparation is needed, the basic steps can be: • sieving the compost to obtain different fractions for marketing or to remove impurities • manually or automatically removing impurities • drying wet compost to prevent formation of a clumpy, muddy product and drainage of water during storage • disintegrating clumps in the compost by crushing or grinding to prevent problems that may occur when the fertilizer is packaged • mixing the compost with additives (soil, mineral fertilizer) to produce potting mixes or gardening soils. Disintegration (crushing, chopping, grinding), especially of bulky wastes containing wood pieces, is necessary to increase the surface area available for the microorganisms and to ensure the functioning of the machines and equipment used in subsequent stages of the process (e.g., turning machine or tools, screens, belt conveyor). The intensity of disintegration depends on the velocity of the biodegradation of the waste, the composting process, the dimensions of the heap, the composting time, and the intended application of the final product. For disintegration of organic wastes, chopping machines or various kinds of mills (cutting, cracking, hammer, screw) are mainly used [1]. The raw waste or compost is screened to separate particles with a required granule size. These particles can be the organic raw material for composting, the compost itself, or impurities. In practice, drum- and plain-screens (with hole plates, wire

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grates, stars, or profile iron) are usually used. The size of the sieve holes depends on the subsequent use of the compost or on whether impurities are being removed (>80 mm: removal of impurities; 80 to 40 mm: production of mulching material; 10 to 25 mm, production of compost for landscaping, agriculture, and gardening [1].

13.5 Composting Systems

Composting systems can be classified into nonreactor systems and reactor or vessel systems (Fig. 13.6) [1, 2, 4–6] 13.5.1 Nonreactor Composting

Figure 13.7 shows the types of nonreactor composting systems. Field composting: During field composting, which is the simplest way of composting organic wastes, all microbial activity takes place in a thin layer at the soil surface or within a few centimeters of the soil surface (arable land or grassland). This system is useful for treating both sludge and green wastes (grass, straw, brushwood). To ensure rapid and uniform decomposition, green wastes need to be chopped. Mulching machines can be used if the wastes are growing in the same area (e.g., vineyard prunings); otherwise, collected wastes are spread out with a manure spreader after chopping. Because the waste material surface exposed to the atmosphere is large,

Fig. 13.6 Classification of composting systems.

13.5 Composting Systems

Fig. 13.7

Classification of nonreactor composting systems.

self-heating does not occur, and therefore neither do thermal disinfecting or killing of weed seeds. Therefore, only wastes without problems of hygiene or weed seeds can be utilized in this kind of composting. In the narrower sense of the definition of composting, field composting is not composting, because there is no self-heating and no real process control. Windrow composting: The main characteristic of nonreactor windrow composting is direct contact between the waste material and the atmosphere and, therefore, interdependence between the two. The composting process influences the atmos-

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344


phere by emitting odors, greenhouse gases, spores, germs, and dust. The atmosphere, which carries the respiration gas oxygen, can influence the composting process by • supplying rain water – advantage: adds water, which is needed if the material for composting is or has become too dry, thus resulting in more rapid biodegradation – disadvantages: blocks free airspace, favors anaerobic conditions and associated odor emissions, decreases compost quality, increases drainage water • changes in air temperature – advantages: high air temperatures can increase the evaporation rate of very wet wastes, increasing the amount of free air space; high temperatures can shorten the lag phase at the start of the process – disadvantages: high air temperatures can increase the evaporation rate, leading to insufficient moisture; low air temperatures can delay or inhibit self-heating • changes in air humidity – advantages: low air humidity can increase the evaporation rate of very wet wastes; high air humidity reduces the evaporation rate – disadvantages: low air humidity can increase the evaporation rate, leading to insufficient moisture; high air humidity can decrease the evaporation rate, leading to too much moisture • supplying wind – advantages and disadvantages: wind can intensify the effects of air temperature and humidity The extent of contact between waste material and atmosphere can be influenced by covering the piles with mature compost material, straw, or special textile or fleece materials that allow gas exchange but reduce the infiltration of rain water. The cross section shape of a windrow compost pile can be triangular or trapezoidal. The height, width, and shape of a windrow depend on the waste material, climatic conditions, and the turning equipment. Natural aeration in windrows can be supported by (1) addition of bulking material to the waste, (2) using bulking material as an aeration layer at the bottom of the windrow (20–30 cm), (3) aeration pipes from the bottom of the windrow, and (4) perforated floor (Fig. 13.8). To ensure a high quality of the compost, windrows are disturbed from time to time by turning. The effects of turning are (1) mixing of the material for homogenization (dry or wet zones at the surface, wet zones at the bottom) and for killing pathogenic microorganisms and weed seeds, (2) renewing the structure and free airspace, and (3) increasing evaporation to dry the waste material or the mature compost. The turning frequency depends on the kind and structure of the waste and the quality requirements of the finished compost. It can vary from several times a day (at the start of the process when the oxygen demand is high or for drying mature compost) to once every several weeks. Machines and equipment for turning include tractor mounted front-end loaders, wheel loader shovels, manure spreaders, tractor-driven windrow turning machines,

13.5 Composting Systems Fig. 13.8 Ways to improve natural aeration in compost windrows.

and self-driven windrow turning machines (Fig. 13.9). The mixing quality of frontend loaders and wheel loaders is relatively poor and requires an experienced driver. Compression of the (wet) wastes by the weight of the machinery can be a disadvantage. An example of a simple open-windrow composting plant with a tractor-driven turning machine is shown in Figures 13.10 and 13.11. It consists of a concrete or asphalt floor area with an open shed for storing the finished compost. All the drainage and rain water are collected in a tank or basin. Large pieces of waste (branches, trees) are chopped periodically by a machine that is driven from one place to another. After separating the impurities from the biowaste, windrows are formed from both components with a wheel loader. The windrows are turned frequently with a tractor-driven turning machine (or a self-driven machine). The finished compost is screened with a mobile screening device. The oversize fractions from the screening are

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346

13 Composting of Organic Waste Self-driven windrow turning machine (drawing: Backhus GmbH, Edewecht).

Fig. 13.9

Fig. 13.10

Open windrow composting plant with turning machine [3].

reused in the compost plant, and the finished compost is stored under a roof until it is sold. 13.5.2 Reactor Composting

Every method of composting in an enclosed space (e.g., container, box, bin, tunnel, shed) with forced exchange of respiration gases is a type of reactor composting. Composting reactors (Fig. 13.12) can be classified according to the manner of material flow as

13.5 Composting Systems Fig. 13.11 Flow sheet of an open

windrow composting plant.

• horizontal-flow reactors having – a static solids bed or – an agitated solids bed • vertical-flow reactors • rotating-drum reactors With few exceptions, all reactors have a means of controlled forced aeration and enable the waste air and the drainage water to be collected and treated. Addition of water or other additives is possible only when the waste material is mixed in the reactor. If possible, composting processes are used only for precomposting, because of the high costs of reactor composting compared to windrow composting. Horizontal-flow reactors with static solids bed: This is a batch system in which the waste material is loaded with a wheel loader or transport devices into a horizontal reactor or is covered by a foil or textile material. The forced aeration, in positive or neg-

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348

Fig. 13.12


Reactor composting systems.

ative mode or alternating, issues from pipes at the bottom of the material or from holes in the floor. The waste air, with its odor components and water, can be treated in a biofilter or biowasher. In some systems some of the waste air is recycled. The air flow rate can be controlled according to the temperature in the material or the oxygen/carbon dioxide concentration in the air. The retention time in the reactor is between several days (precomposting) and several weeks (mature compost). The end product can be inhomogeneous (partially too dry) and not biologically stabilized, because there is no turning/mixing and no water addition to the waste material and is forced aeration from only one direction. Horizontal-flow reactors with agitated solids bed: In this reactor type the waste material can be turned mechanically and water can be added, in contrast to a horizontal-flow reactor with a static solids bed. The devices for mixing the wastes can be horizontally or vertically operating rotors or screws, scraper conveyors, or shovel wheels. Fully automated functioning of the whole process is possible. Vertical-flow reactors: In this reactor type the waste material flows vertically, with or without stages, with mass flow from the top to the bottom as a plug flow system or, if the material from the outlet at the bottom is loaded back in at the top, as a mixed system. Forced aeration occurs from the bottom or from vertical pipes in the material. This process can also be run in a fully automated way.

13.6 Compost Quality

Fig. 13.13

Composting plant with rotting drum in closed shed [3].

Rotating-drum reactor: The waste material is loaded into a horizontal slowly rotating drum with forced aeration. The filling capacity is approximately 50%. The material is transported (plug flow) in the helical pathway from one end of the drum to the other and is mixed intensively. Self-heating starts after a short time. Water addition is possible. Rotating-drum reactors can also be used as mixing equipment. An example of a composting plant with a rotating-drum reactor is shown in Figures 13.13 and 13.14. This plant is characterized by an enclosed building for receiving the biowaste, preparing it for the rotting process (disintegration, separation of impurities), pre-rotting in a drum, and main-rotting in turned windrows (composting I, Figure 13.14). All highly contaminated waste air can be collected and treated with a biofilter. Only the maturing phase of the compost (composting II, Figure 13.14) occurs under natural climatic conditions in windrows under a roof. In a fully enclosed composting plant, even the maturing phase takes place in a closed shed.

13.6 Compost Quality

To be used as a fertilizer and soil conditioner, compost must meet certain quality requirements, such as (1) optimal maturity, (2) favorable contents of nutrients and organic matter, (3) favorable C/N ratio, (4) neutral or alkaline pH, (5) low contents of heavy metals and organic contaminants, (6) no components that interfere with plant growth, (7) mostly free from impurities, (8) mostly free from germinatable seeds and living plant parts, (9) low content of rocks, (10) typical smell of forest soil, and (11) dark brown to black. ‘Maturity’ and ‘stability’ are different properties of compost. Stability is defined in terms of the bioavailability of organic matter, which relates to the rate of decompo-

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Fig. 13.14 Flow sheet of a composting plant with rotting drum in closed shed.

sition. Maturity describes the suitability of the compost for plant growth and has been associated with the degree of humification. Several methods are used in practice to determine maturity and stability: e.g., simple field tests in Dewar flasks, tests on plants, respiration activity, chemical analyses, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [1 to 26]. The various procedures for determining the maturity and stability of compost are discussed in the literature; general, final tests have not been agreed upon. Concerning the compost quality factors that relate to human health, such as the contents of heavy metals, hazardous organic compounds, parasites, and other disease organisms, several countries have passed laws, ordinances, regulations, and norms.

References

References Section 13.1: Introduction 1 2 3

4

5

6 7 8

DeBertoldi M (ed.), Compost: Production, Quality and Use. London 1987: Elsevier. Haug RT, The Practical Handbook of Composting. Boca Raton, FL 1993: Lewis. Thomé-Kozmiensky KJ (ed.), Biologische Abfallbehandlung. Berlin 1995: Erich Freitag. White P, Franke M, Hindle P, Integrated Solid Waste Management: A Lifecycle Inventory. London 1995: Blackie. DeBertoldi M, Sequi P, Lemmes B, Papi T (eds.), The Science of Composting. London 1996: Blackie. Epstein E, The Science of Composting. Lancaster, Basel 1997: Technomic. Bidlingmaier W (ed.), Biologische Abfallverwertung. Stuttgart 2000: Ulmer. Insam H, Riddech N, Klammer S (eds.), Microbiology of Composting. Berlin/Heidelberg 2002: Springer.

Section 13.3: Fundamentals of Composting Process 1

2

3 4 5 6 7 8

Section 13.2: Waste Materials for Composting 9 1

2

3

4

5

Fricke K, Stellenwert der biologischen Abfallbehandlung in integrierten Entsorgungskonzepten, in: Biologische Verfahren der Abfallbehandlung (Dott W, Fricke K, Oetjen R, eds.), pp. 1–58. Berlin 1990: Erich Freitag Verlag. Fricke K, Turk T, Stand und Stellenwert der Kompostierung in der Abfallwirtschaft, in: Bioabfallkompostierung – Flächendeckende Einführung (Wiemer K, Kern M, eds.), pp. 13–98. Witzenhausen 1991: M.I.C. Baeza. Bidlingmaier W, Anlageninput und erzeugte Kompostqualität. in: Biologische Abfallbehandlung II (Wiemer K, Kern M., eds.), pp. 109–120. Witzenhausen 1995: M.I.C. Baeza Thomé-Kozmiensky KJ (ed.), Biologische Abfallbehandlung. Berlin 1995: Erich Freitag Schuchardt F, Composting of plant residues and waste plant materials. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G, eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, pp. 101–125, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH

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Edwards CA, Neuhauser EF (eds.), Earthworms in Waste and Environmental Management. The Hague 1988: SPB Academic Michel FC, Reddy CA, Effect of oxygenation level on yard trimmings composting rate, odor production, and compost quality in bench-scale reactors. Compost Sci Util 1998, 6(4), 6–14 Schaub-Szabo SM, Leonard JJ, Compost Sci Util 1999, 7(4), 15–24 Shi W, Norton JM, Miller BE, et al., Appl Soil Ecol 1999, 11(1), 17–28 Sommer SG, Dahl P, J Agric Eng Res 1999, 74(2), 145–153 Van Ginkel JT, Raats PAC, Van Haneghem IA, Neth J Agric Sci 1999, 47(2), 105–121 Chamuris GP, Koziol-Kotch S, Brouse TM, Compost Sci Util 2000, 8(1), 6–11 Dominguez J, Edwards CA, Webster M, Vermicomposting of sewage sludge: effect of bulking materials on the growth and reproduction of the earthworm Eisenia andrei. Pedobiologia 2000, 44(1), 24–32 El-Din SMSB, Attia M, Abo-Sedera SA, Field assessment of composts produced by highly effective cellulolytic microorganisms. Biol Fert Soils 2000, 32(1), 35–40 Kutzner HJ, Microbiology of composting. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G. eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, pp 35–100, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH Larney FJ, Olson AF, Carcamo AA et al., Physical changes during active and passive composting of beef feedlot manure in winter and summer. Bioresource Technol 2000, 75(2), 139–148 Moller HB, Sommer SG, Andersen BH, Nitrogen mass balance in deep litter during the pig fattening cycle and during composting. J Agric Sci 2000, 135, 287–296 Schuchardt F, Composting of plant residues and waste plant materials. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, pp 101–125, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH Amon B, Amon T, Boxberger J, et al., Emissions of NH3, N2O and CH4 from dairy cows housed in a farmyard manure tying stall (housing, manure storage, ma-

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nure spreading). Nutr Cycl Agroecosys 2001, 60, 103–113 Beck-Friis B, Smars S, Jonsson H, et al., Gaseous emissions of carbon dioxide, ammonia and nitrous oxide from organic household waste in a compost reactor under different temperature regimes J Agric Eng Res 2001, 78, 423–430 Elwell DL, Keener HM, Wiles MC, et al., T ASAE 2001, 44, 1307–1316 Hao XY, Chang C, Larney FJ, et al., J Environ Qual 2001, 30, 376–386 Hassen A, Belguith K, Jedidi N, et al., Microbial characterization during composting of municipal solid waste. Bioresource Technol 2001, 80, 217–225 Huang GF, Wu QT, Li FB, et al., Nitrogen transformations during pig manure composting. J Environ Sci China 2001, 13, 401–405 Ndegwa PM, Thompson SA, Integrating composting and vermicomposting in the treatment and bioconversion of biosolids. Bioresource Technol 2001, 76, 107–112 Barrington S, Choiniere D, Trigu, M, et al., Effect of carbon source on compost nitrogen and carbon losses. Bioresource Technol 2002, 83(3), 189–194 (Barrington S, Choiniere D, Trigui M, et al., Compost airflow resistance. Biosyst Eng 2002, 81, 433–441 Hart TD, De Leij FAAM, Kinsey G, et al., Strategies for the isolation of cellulolytic fungi for composting of wheat straw. World J Microb Biot 2002, 18, 471–480 Jensen HEK, Leth M, Iversen JJL, Effect of compost age and concentration of pig slurry on plant growth. Compost Sci Util 2002, 10(2), 129–141 Noble, R, Hobbs, PJ, Mead, A, et al., Influence of straw types and nitrogen sources on mushroom composting emissions and compost productivity. J Ind Microbiol Biot 2002, 29(3), 99–110 Richard TL, Hamelers HVM, Veeken A, et al., Moisture relationships in composting processes. Compost Sci Util 2002, 10(4), 286–302 Singh A, Sharma S, Composting of a crop residue through treatment with microorganisms and subsequent vermicomposting. Bioresource Technol 2002, 85(2), 107–111

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Tiquia SM, Tam NFY, Characterization and composting of poultry litter in forcedaeration piles. Process Biochem 2002, 37, 869–880 Veeken A, de Wilde V, Hamelers B, Passively aerated composting of straw-rich pig manure: effect of compost bed porosity. Compost Sci Util 2002, 10(2), 114–128 Wolter M, Prayitno S, Schuchardt F, Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions from solid pig manure during storage versus during composting with respect to different dry matter contents. Landbauforsch Volk 2002, 52(3), 167–174 Agnew JM, Leonard JJ, The physical properties of compost. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 238–264 Barrington S, Choiniere D, Trigui M, Knight W, Compost convective airflow under passive aeration Bioresource Technol 2003, 86, 259–266 Bolta SV, Mihelic R, Lobnik F, et al., Microbial community structure during composting with and without mass inocula. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 6–15 Fukumoto Y, Osada T, Hanajima D, Haga K, Patterns and quantities of NH3, N2O and CH4 emissions during swine manure composting without forced aeration: effect of compost pile scale. Bioresource Technol 2003, 89(2), 109–114 Liang C, Das KC, McClendon RW, The influence of temperature and moisture contents regimes on the aerobic microbial activity of a biosolids composting blend. Bioresource Technol 2003, 86(2), 131–137 Principi P, Ranalli G, da Borso F, et al., Microbiological aspects of humid husk composting. J Environ Sci Heal B 2003, 38, 645–661

Section 13.4: Composting Technologies 1

Schuchardt F, Composting of plant residues and waste plant materials. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G, eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, 101–125, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH

References

Section 13.5: Composting Systems 1 2

3

4 5

6

Haug RT, The Practical Handbook of Composting. Boca Raton, FL 1993: Lewis. Thomé-Kozmiensky KJ (ed.), Biologische Abfallbehandlung. Berlin 1995: Erich Freitag Verlag. Gronauer A, Claassen N, Ebertseder T et al., Bioabfallkompostierung. BayLfU 139 (1997) Bidlingmaier W (Ed.), Biologische Abfallverwertung. Stuttgart 2000: Ulmer Verlag Krogmann U, Körner I, Technology and strategies of composting. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G, eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, pp 127–150, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH Schuchardt F, Composting of plant residues and waste plant materials. in: Biotechnology (Rehm HJ, Reed G, eds.) Vol. 11c: Environmental Processes III, 101–125, Weinheim 2000: Wiley-VCH

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Section 13.6: Compost Quality 16 1

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Adani F, Genevini PL, Gasperi F, Zorzi G, Organic matter evolution index (OMEI) as a measure of composting efficiency. Compost Sci Util 1997, 5(2), 53–62 Popp L, Fischer P. Claassen N, Biologisch-biochemische Methoden zur Reifebestimmung von Komposten. Agrobiol Res 1998, 51(3), 201–212 Saharinen MH, Evaluation of changes in CEC during composting. Compost Sci Util 1998, 6(4), 29–37 Fauci MF, Bezdicek DF, Caldwell D, et al., Compost Sci Util 1999, 7(2), 17–29 Namkoong W, Hwang EY, Cheong JG, et al., Compost Sci Util 1999, 7(2), 55–62 Warman PR, Compost Sci Util 1999, 7(3), 33–37 Koenig A, Bari QH, Application of selfheating test for indirect estimation of respirometric activity of compost: theory and practice. Compost Sci Util 2000, 8(2), 99–107 Ouatmane A, Provenzano MR, Hafidi M, et al., Compost Sci Util 2000, 8(2), 124–134 Wu L, Ma LQ, Martinez GA, J Environ Qual 2000,. 29, 424–429

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Butler TA, Sikora LJ, Steinhilber PM, et al., Compost age and sample storage effects on maturity indicators of biosolids compost. J Environ Qual 2001, 30, 2141–2148 Eggen T, Vethe O, Stability indices for different composts. Compost Sci Util 2001, 9(1), 19–26 Provenzano MR, de Oliveira SC, Silva MRS, et al., Assessment of maturity degree of composts from domestic solid wastes by fluorescence and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies. J Agric Food Chem 2001, 49, 5874–5879 Smith DC, Hughes JC, A simple test to determine cellulolytic activity as indicator of compost maturity. Commun Soil Sci Plan 2001, 32, 1735–1749 Levanon D, Pluda D, Chemical, physical and biological criteria for maturity in composts for organic farming. Compost Sci Util 2002, 10, 339–346 Weppen P, Determining compost maturity: evaluation of analytical properties. Compost Sci Util 2002, 10(1), 6–15 Wu L, Ma LQ, Relationship between compost stability and extractable organic carbon. J Environ Qual 2002, 31, 1323–1328 Adani F, Gigliotti G, Valentini F, Laraia R, Respiration index determination: a comparative study of different methods. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 144–151 Benito M, Masaguer A, Moliner A, Arrigo N, Palma RM, Chemical and microbiological parameters for the characterisation of the stability and maturity of pruning waste compost. Biol Fert Soils 2003, 37, 184–189 Brewer LJ, Sullivan DM, Maturity and stability evaluation of composted yard trimmings. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 96–112 Changa CM, Wang P, Watson ME, et al., Assessment of the reliability of a commercial maturity test kit for composted manures. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 125–143 Chen YN, Nuclear magnetic resonance, infra-red and pyrolysis: application of spectroscopic methodologies to maturity determination of composts. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 152–168 Chica A, Mohedo JJ, Martin MA, Martin A., Determination of the stability of MSW compost using a respirometric technique. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 169–175

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13 Composting of Organic Waste Cooperband LR, Stone AG, Fryda MR, Ravet JL., Relating compost measures of stability and maturity to plant growth. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 113–124 24 Korner, I, Braukmeier, J, Herrenklage, J, et al., Investigation and optimization of composting processes: test systems and practical examples. Waste Manage 2003, 23, 17–26 23

Rynk R, The art in the science of compost maturity. Compost Sci Util 2003, 11, 94–95 26 Zubillaga MS, Lavado RS, Stability indexes of sewage sludge compost obtained with different proportions of a bulking agent. Commun Soil Sci Plan 2003, 34, 581–591 25

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14 Anaerobic Fermentation of Wet and Semidry Garbage Waste Fractions Norbert Rilling

14.1 Introduction

During the last 30 years the amount of solid wastes has rapidly increased. Now one of the primary aims in waste management is to reduce the amount of waste to be disposed by prevention, reduction, and utilization (KrW-/AbfG, 1994). By means of separate collection and biological treatment of biowaste, the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) to be incinerated or landfilled will be significantly reduced. Biological treatment of garbage waste fractions can be carried out aerobically (composting) or anaerobically (anaerobic digestion). Each technique is appropriate for a certain spectrum of wastes. Today, most biological waste is composted because this technology is already well developed, with quite a lot of experience at hand, but anaerobic processes advance in their importance for the utilization of solid organic waste. Anaerobic digestion, which is typically conducted inside a closed vessel in which the temperature and moisture are controlled, is particularly suited to wastes with a high moisture content and a high amount of readily biodegradable components. In Sections 14.2 and 14.3 the characteristics of the anaerobic process are discussed with respect to their ecological and economical aspects.

14.2 Basic Aspects of Biological Waste Treatment

The leading aim of separate collection and treatment of biological wastes is stabilization of the waste by microbial degradation. The product is a compost that, if its pollutant content is low, can be used as a fertilizer or soil conditioner and thus be fed back into the natural cycle. In contrast to the commonly established composting processes, the technique of anaerobic fermentation of waste is relatively young and dynamic. With great scienEnvironmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-30585-8

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tific expenditure, process developments and optimizations are being pursued, so it may be assumed that the technological potential of biowaste fermentation has not yet been fully exhausted. 14.2.1 Biochemical Fundamentals of Anaerobic Fermentation

Biogas is produced whenever organic matter is microbially degraded in the absence of oxygen. In nature this process can be observed in marshlands, in marine sediments, in flooded rice fields, in the rumen of ruminants, and in landfill sites (Maurer and Winkler, 1982). Anaerobic degradation is effected by various specialized groups of bacteria in several successive steps, each step depending on the preceding one. For industrial-scale application of anaerobic fermentation processes it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of these interactions, to avoid substrate limitation and product inhibition. The entire anaerobic fermentation process can be divided into three steps (Fig. 14.1): 1. hydrolysis 2. acidification 3. methane formation At least three groups of bacteria are involved in the anaerobic fermentation process. First, during hydrolysis, the mostly water-insoluble biopolymers such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are decomposed by extracellular enzymes to water-soluble monomers (e.g., monosaccharides, amino acids, glycerin, fatty acids) and thus made accessible to further degradation. In the second step (acidification) the intermediates of hydrolysis are converted into acetic acid (CH3COOH), hydrogen (H2), carbon dioxide (CO2), organic acids,

Fig. 14.1

The three stages of anaerobic processing of organic matter (Sahm, 1981).


amino acids, and alcohols by different groups of bacteria. Some of these intermediate products (acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide) can be directly used by methanogenic bacteria, but most of the organic acids and alcohol are decomposed into acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide during acidogenesis. Only these products, as well as methanol, methylamine, and formate, can be transformed into carbon dioxide and methane (CH4) by methanogenic bacteria during the third and last step, methane formation.

14.2.1.1 Hydrolytic and Acid-forming (Fermentative) Bacteria The first group of bacteria is very heterogeneous: besides obligate anaerobic bacteria, also facultative anaerobic bacterial strains occur. The high molecular weight compounds of the waste biomass (proteins, polysaccharides, fats) are decomposed into low molecular weight components by enzymes that are excreted by fermentative bacteria. This first step is inhibited by lignocellulose-containing materials, which are degraded only very slowly or incompletely. Subsequently, acid-forming bacteria transform the hydrolysis products into hydrogen, carbon dioxide, alcohols, and organic acids such as acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, and valeric acids. The formation of the acids decreases the pH.

14.2.1.2 Acetic Acid- and Hydrogen-forming (Acetogenic) Bacteria The group of acetogenic microorganisms represents the link between fermentative and methanogenic bacteria. They decompose alcohols and long-chain fatty acids into acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. It is a characteristic of acetogenic bacteria that they can grow only at a very low hydrogen partial pressure. For this reason they live in close symbiosis with methanogenic and sulfidogenic bacteria, which use hydrogen as an energy source (Sahm, 1981).

14.2.1.3 Methane-forming (Methanogenic) Bacteria The group of methanogenic bacteria is formed of extreme obligate anaerobic microorganisms which are very sensitive to environmental changes. They transform the final products of acidic and acetogenic fermentation into methane and carbon dioxide. About 70% of the methane is produced by the degradation of acetic acid and about 30% by a redox reaction from hydrogen and carbon dioxide (Roediger et al., 1990). The slowest step is rate-determining for the whole process of anaerobic fermentation. Although methanogenesis of acetic acids is the rate-limiting step in the anaerobic fermentation of easily degradable substances, hydrolysis can be rate-limiting when sparingly degradable substances occur. Because of the complexity of the anaerobic degradation mechanisms and the stringent requirements of the microorganisms, process operation is very important for fermentation processes. To achieve optimized, undisturbed anaerobic degradation, the speed of decomposition in the consecutive steps should be equal.

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14.2.2 Influence of Processing Conditions on Fermentation

The activity of microorganisms in anaerobic fermentation processes depends mainly on water content, temperature, pH, redox potential, and the presence of inhibitory factors.

14.2.2.1 Water Content Bacteria take up the available substrates in dissolved form. Therefore, biogas production and the water content of the initial material are interdependent. When the water content is below 20% by weight, hardly any biogas is produced. With increasing water content biogas production is enhanced, reaching its optimum at 91%–98% water by weight (Kaltwasser, 1980).

14.2.2.2 Temperature The process of biomethanation is very sensitive to changes in temperature, and the degree of sensitivity depends on the temperature range. For most methane bacteria, the optimum temperature range is between 30 and 37 °C (Maurer and Winkler, 1982). Here, temperature variations of ±3 °C have minor effect on the fermentation (Winter, 1985). In the thermophilic range, however, i.e., at temperatures between 55 and 65 °C, a fairly constant temperature has to be maintained, since deviations by only a few degrees cause a drastic reduction of the degradation rates and thus of biogas production.

14.2.2.3 pH Level The pH optimum for methane fermentation is between pH 6.7 and 7.4. If the pH of the medium drops below 6, because the balance is disturbed and the acid-producing dominate the acid-consuming bacteria, the medium becomes inhibitory or toxic to the methanogenic bacteria. In addition, strong ammonia production during the degradation of proteins may inhibit methane formation if the pH exceeds 8. Normally, acid and ammonia production vary only slightly due to the buffering effect of carbon dioxide/bicarbonate (CO2/HCO3 – ) and ammonia/ammonium (NH3/NH4+), which are formed during fermentation, and the pH normally stays constant between 7 and 8.

14.2.2.4 Redox Potential and Oxygen Methane bacteria are very sensitive to oxygen and have lower activity in the presence of oxygen. The anaerobic process, however, shows a certain tolerance to small quantities of oxygen. Even continuous, but limited, oxygen introduction is normally tolerated (Mudrak and Kunst, 1991). The redox potential can be used as an indicator of the process of methane fermentation. Methanogenic bacterial growth requires a relatively low redox potential. Hungate (1966; cited by Braun, 1982) found –300 mV to


be the minimum value. Changes in redox potential during the fermentation process are caused by a decrease in oxygen content as well as by the formation of metabolites like formate or acetate.

14.2.2.5 Inhibitory Factors The presence of heavy metals, antibiotics, and detergents can inhibit the process of biomethanation. With reference to investigations of Konzeli-Katsiri and Kartsonas (1986), Table 14.1 lists the limit concentrations (mg L–1) for inhibition and toxicity of heavy metals in anaerobic digestion. 14.2.3 Gas Quantity and Composition

Biogas is a mixture of various gases. Independent of the fermentation temperature, a biogas is produced which consists of 60%–70% methane and 30%–40% carbon dioxide. Trace components of ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can be detected. The caloric value of the biogas is about 5.5–6.0 kWh m–3. This corresponds to about 0.5 L of diesel oil. If the chemical composition of the substrate is known, the yield and composition of the biogas can be estimated from Eq. (1) (with reference to Symons and Buswell, 1933):

冢

CnHaOb + n –

a 4

–

b 2

冣 H O → 冢2 + 8 – 4 冣 CH + 冢 2 – 8 + 4 冣 CO n

a

b

2

n

4

a

b

2

(1)

Table 14.2 shows the mean composition and specific quantity of biogas as dependent on the kind of degraded substances. For anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste, an average biogas yield of 100 m3 t–1 moist biowaste and having a methane content of about 60% by volume may be assumed.

Table 14.1 Inhibition of anaerobic digestion by heavy metals (Konzell-Katsiri and Kartsonas,

1986). Heavy Metal

Inhibition (mg L–1)

Toxicity (mg L–1)

Copper (Cu) Cadmium (Cd) Zinc (Zn) Nickel (Ni) Lead (Pb) Chromium III (Cr) Chromium VI(Cr)

40–250 – 150–400 10–300 300–340 120–300 100–110

170–300 20–600 250–600 30–1000 340 200–500 200–420

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14 Anaerobic Fermentation of Wet and Semidry Garbage Waste Fractions Table 14.2 Mean composition and specific yields of biogas in relation to the kind of substances

degraded.

Substance

Gas Yield (m3 kg–1 TS)

CH4 Methane Content (Vol. %)

CO2 Carbon Dioxide Content (Vol. %)

Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Municipal solid waste (MSW) Biowaste Sewage sludge Manure

0.79 1.27 0.70 0.1–0.2 0.2–0.3 0.2–0.4 0.1–0.3

50 68 71 55–65 55–65 60–70 60–65

50 32 29 35–45 35–45 30–40 35–40

14.2.4 Comparison of Aerobic and Anaerobic Waste Treatment

Professional biological treatment must include the separation of interfering matter, sanitation, and microbial degradation of the readily and moderately degradable substances so that the final product is biologically stable, compatible with plant roots, and, as far as possible, free of pollutants and can be applied as a soil improver in horticulture and agriculture. Aerobic composting and anaerobic fermentation are, in principle, available as processes for the biological treatment of organic residues. Composting is suitable for the stabilization of rather dry solid waste, and anaerobic processes are used for very moist waste (e.g., kitchen garbage) which is easy to degrade. Both systems have advantages and disadvantages. Their general properties are listed and compared in Table 14.3. A great advantage of anaerobic fermentation is the production of biogas that can be used as a source of energy. Either local users can be found for the gas recovered from the process, or it can be cleaned and upgraded for inclusion in a gas supply network. By way of comparison, during composting all the energy is released as heat and cannot be used. In addition, intensive composting requires a lot of energy for artificial aeration of the waste material. The technical expenditures for anaerobic fermentation are higher than for composting, but if standards, especially concerning the reduction of emissions (odor, germs, noise, dust), are raised, the technical expenditures for composting can be expected to grow as well. The duration of anaerobic and aerobic treatment depends very much on the substrate and the process used, so that the times required cannot be compared in general. The same is true for the floor space required. A major advantage of anaerobic digestion in comparison with aerobic composting is the ability of engineers to have total control over gaseous and liquid emissions, as well as having the potential to recover and use methane gas generated as the wastes degrade. For composting, the problem of odor control has not yet been sufficiently

14.3 Processes of Anaerobic Waste Treatment Table 14.3 Comparison of aerobic and anaerobic waste treatment (according to Rilling, 1994a).

Characteristics

Anaerobic Digestion

Aerobic Composting

Phases

solids, liquid

solids, liquid, gas

Degradation rate

up to 80% volatile solids

up to 50% volatile solids

Energy consumption

excess produced

demands input

Technical expenditure

in the same range

Duration of the process

1–4 weeks (only anaerobic stage)

4–16 weeks (depending on the process)

Post-treatment

generally necessary (post-composting about 2–8 weeks)

generally none

Floor space required

comparatively low

comparatively low or high (depending on the process)

Odor emission

comparatively low

comparatively high

Stage of development

little experience but increasing

Costs

much experience

in the same range

Sanitation

external process step

integrated

Suitability of wastes

wide (wet and dry wastes)

narrow (dry wastes)

solved. Large volumes of odiferous waste air have to be treated by costly means to avoid complaints from surround communities. In contrast, hardly any odorous emissions occur in anaerobic fermentation, because this biological treatment takes place in closed reactors. Malodorous waste air is produced only during loading and unloading the reactor. No general statement can be made as to whether anaerobic or aerobic fermentation is the more favorable process, as in each individual case many factors must be considered. This means that in the field of waste treatment, as well as in the field of wastewater treatment, several different processes with similar goals can have certain advantages – depending on the operational area.

14.3 Processes of Anaerobic Waste Treatment

Anaerobic fermentation has been used successfully for many years as a treatment for wastewater, sewage sludge, and manure. However, anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste is a relatively new technique which has been developed in the past 10–15 years. Only biodegradable household wastes – i.e., those of organic or vegetable origin – can be processed in anaerobic digestion plants. Garden waste, or green wastes as they are often called, can also be included, but woodier materials (like branches) are less suitable because of their relatively longer decomposition time under anaerobic conditions.

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As a result of anaerobic fermentation combined with an additional post-composting step, a material is produced that is usually similar to the compost produced by aerobic processes. It can be used as fertilizer, soil conditioner, or peat substitute. Although composting is widely used for wastes containing high amounts of dry matter, anaerobic digestion has turned out to be a good alternative for treating wet organic wastes (Fig. 14.2). At present, the anaerobic fermentation technique is mainly used in Western Europe, where more than 30 companies offer anaerobic treatment plants commercially for the digestion of putrefiable solid waste. 14.3.1 Procedures of Anaerobic Waste Fermentation

Generally, the following steps are required for the anaerobic treatment of organic waste (Rilling, 1994a): 1. delivery and storage of the biological waste 2. preprocessing of the incoming biological waste 3. anaerobic fermentation 4. storage and treatment of the digester gas 5. treatment of the process water 6. post-processing of the digested material Figure 14.3 shows the possible treatment steps used in biowaste fermentation. In principle, all fermentation processes can be described as a combination of a selection of these treatment steps. The process technology demanded for the implementation of the different steps of the treatment differs very much, depending on the anaerobic process chosen. In general, the gas production increases and the detention time decreases with increasing energy input for preparation of the material and the fermentation itself (mesophilic/thermophilic).

Fig. 14.2 Suitability of wastes for aerobic composting and anaerobic digestion (according to

Kern et al., 1996).


Fig. 14.3

Possible treatment steps used in biowaste fermentation.

14.3.1.1 Delivery and Storage For both composting and fermentation the wastes are pretreated before the actual biological stabilization occurs. The supplied biowastes are quantitatively and qualitatively recorded by weighing, are visually inspected at an acceptance station, and are unloaded into a flat or deep bunker or a collecting tank that serves as a short-term intermediate storage place and permits continuous feeding to the subsequent pretreatment plant.

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14.3.1.2 Preprocessing The purpose of pretreatment is to remove pollutants and interfering matter as well as to homogenize and condition the biowaste. The kind of pretreatment depends on the specific system of the anaerobic fermentation process. Dry fermentation processes use dry preprocessing, where sieves, shredders, grinders, homogenization drums, metal separators, ballistic separators, and hand sorting sections can be combined. In wet fermentation processes the biowastes are additionally mixed with water, homogenized, and shredded. By means of sink–float separation other foreign substances can be removed.

14.3.1.3 Anaerobic Fermentation Having separated any recyclable or unwanted materials from the incoming wastes, the organic material is shredded and fed into the digester. Shredding results in a material that can be handled more easily. In addition, material having a larger surface area is more easily broken down by the bacteria. Shredding in a drum can be combined with a precomposting step. However, shredding causes the material to lose structure. The desired particle size after shredding may be between 5 and 40 mm, in certain cases up to 80 mm. Yard and garden waste (especially branches, etc.) have to be shredded separately before composting. If very wet wastes, like sewage sludge, are included, the addition of further water may not be necessary, but for household organic wastes, water is usually added to dilute the solids. Wastes with low structure and a high moisture content are best for fermentation, but wastes rich in structure can also be degraded anaerobically by means of dry fermentation processes. Heat is needed to adjust the required process temperatures to about 35 °C (mesophilic process) or 55 °C (thermophilic process), and sometimes water must be added. During fermentation, organic degradation takes place anaerobically, i.e., under the exclusion of oxygen, in closed, temperature-regulated containers. Depending on the process operation, the material consistency may vary between well-structured matter and thick sludge or fluid suspension. The optimum pH value is in the neutral range. The output of the fermentation reactor is a wet, organically stabilized, fermentation residue and biogas. After dewatering, a soil-improving product comparable to compost can be obtained from the fermentation residue by aerobic post-composting. The wastewater generated during draining can in part be recirculated into the pretreatment unit to adjust the water content. Surplus wastewater has to be treated and discharged. With only minor energy loss, the biogas can be used in decentralized fuel-burning power stations to produce electrical power and heat so that, in general, the fermentation process can be operated in an energy-neutral manner, and the surplus can be marketed by feeding it into the public power and heat supply mains. When the fermentation is confined only to easily degradable organic waste components, energy can be produced with minimal technical expenditure, and the odor and energy-intensive prefermentation steps can be omitted. In a subsequent composting step the medium and difficult-to-degrade organic substances, which can be


degraded anaerobically only to a limited extent, are aerobically decomposed at low cost. Thus, when investigating the question of ‘fermentation or composting’ the answer may often suggest the demand for fermentation and composting.

14.3.1.4 Post-processing To complete the stabilization and disinfection of the digested residue, some kind of refining process is needed before it can be used for agriculture or horticulture. After possible dewatering and/or drying, the anaerobically fermented waste is generally transferred to aerobic biological post-treatment and matured for about 2–4 weeks to become a good, marketable compost. After drying and, if required, purification, the biogas can be used as an energy source. Depending on local regulations, the excess process water is transferred to a wastewater treatment plant or may be applied directly to farmland as a liquid fertilizer. 14.3.2 Process Engineering of Anaerobic Fermentation of Biowastes

Anaerobic fermentation processes are generally suitable for the biological treatment of readily degradable substances having low structure and high water content, e.g., kitchen waste. At present, several processes for the anaerobic fermentation of organic solid wastes are under development. The processes differ in the number of biodegradation stages (one- or two-stage processes), separation of liquid and solids (one- or two-phase system), water content (dry or wet fermentation), feed method (continuous or discontinuous), and the means of agitation. The most important characteristics of anaerobic fermentations are compiled in Table 14.4. Anaerobic fermentation of biowaste can be achieved by one-stage or two-stage fermentation. In the one-stage process (Table 14.5) hydrolysis, acidification, and methane formation take place in one reactor, so it is not possible to achieve optimum re-

Table 14.4 Characteristics of anaerobic waste treatments (according to Rilling, 1994a).

Characteristics Stages of biodegradation

one-stage

two-stage

Separation of liquid and solids

one-phase dry fermentation

two-phase wet fermentation

Total solids content

25%–45%

85%

Feed method

discontinuous

continuous

Agitation

none

stirring, mixing, percolation

Temperature

mesophilic (30–37 °C)

thermophilic (55–65 °C)

365

366

14 Anaerobic Fermentation of Wet and Semidry Garbage Waste Fractions Table 14.5 Comparison of one- and two-stage processes.

Process Operation

One-Stage

Two-Stage

Operational reliability Technical equipment Process control Risk of process instability Retention time Degradation rate

in the same range relatively simple very complex compromise solution optimal high minimal long short reduced increased

action conditions for the overall process, due to slightly different environmental requirements during the different stages of the fermentation. Therefore, the degradation rate is reduced and the retention time increases. The basic advantage of onestage process operation is the relatively simple technical installation of the anaerobic digestion plant and lower costs. In two-stage processes (Table 14.5), hydrolysis and acidification on the one hand and methane formation on the other hand take place in different reactors so that, e.g., mixing and adjustment of the pH can be optimized separately, permitting higher degradation degrees and loading rates. As a result, the detention time of the material can be decreased significantly. This, of course, involves a more sophisticated technical design and operation, resulting in higher costs. During the first stage the organic fraction is hydrolyzed. As a result, dissolved organics and mainly organic acids, as well as CO2 and low concentrations of hydrogen, are produced. In the second stage the highly concentrated water is supplied to an anaerobic fixed-film reactor, sludge blanket reactor, or other appropriate system where methane and CO2 are produced as final products. Reciprocal inhibiting effects are excluded so that high process stability with a better methane yield is obtained.

14.3.2.1 Dry and Wet Fermentation Different anaerobic digestion systems can handle wastes with different moisture contents; they are classified as dry fermentation processes (water content between 55% and 75%) and wet fermentation processes (water content >85%.) Table 14.6 shows advantages and disadvantages of dry and wet fermentation. With the dry fermentation process, little or no water is added to the biowaste. As a consequence, the material streams to be treated are minimized. The resulting advantages are smaller reactor volumes and easier dewatering of the digested residue. On the other hand, operating with high contents of dry matter places higher requirements on mechanical pretreatment and conveyance, on the gas-tightness of charge and discharge equipment, and, if planned, on mixing in the reactors. Bridging of the material and the possibility of clogging have to be avoided. Because of the low mobility is dry fermentation, a defined residence time can be reached by approximating plug flow, which is particularly important under the aspect of product hygiene in the thermophilic operation mode. The degradation rates in dry fermentation processes

14.3 Processes of Anaerobic Waste Treatment Table 14.6 Comparison of wet and dry fermentations.

Process Mode

Dry

Wet

Total solids content

high 25–45%

low 2–15%

Reactor volume

minimized

increased

Conveyance technique

expensive

simple

Agitation

difficult

easy

Scumming

little risk

high risk

Short circuit flow

little risk

high risk

Solid–liquid separation

simple

expensive

Variety of waste components

small

great

are lower than in wet fermentation, due to the larger particle size and reduced substrate availability. When wet fermentation processes are used, the organic wastes are ground to a small particle size and mixed with large quantities of water so that sludges or suspensions are obtained. This allows the use of simple, established mechanical conveyance techniques (pumping) and the removal of interfering substances by sink–float separation. At the same time, the reactor contents can be easily mixed, which permits controlled degassing and defined concentration equalization in the fermenter. As a consequence, the degradation performance of the microorganisms is optimized. The mean substrate concentrations and thus also the related degradation rates are lower than in plug flow systems, since, for completely mixed systems, the concentrations in the system are equal to the outlet concentrations. Mixing is limited by the shear-sensitivity of methane bacteria; however, too-low a degree of mixing may result in floating and sinking layers. Homogeneity and a fluid consistency permit easier process control. By fluidizing the biowaste, the mass to be treated increases until the 5-fold, depending on the total solids content of the substrate with the consequence that the aggregates and reactors have to be made much larger. Fluidization and dewatering of the fermentation suspension especially require considerable technical and energetic expenditures. But if the degrees of degradation are the same, recycling the liquid phase from the dewatering step to the fluidization of the input material, makes it possible to reduce the wastewater quantity to an amount comparable to that used in dry fermentation and to keep a considerable part of the required thermal energy within the system.

14.3.2.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Operation When an anaerobic process is run in continuous operation mode, the reactor is fed and discharged regularly. Completely mixed and plug flow systems are available. Enough substrate is fed into the reactor to replace the putrefied material as it is discharged. Therefore, the substrate must be flowable and uniform. Steady provision of

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nutrients in the form of raw biodegradable waste enables stable process operation and constant biogas yield. Depending on the reactor design and the means of mixing, short circuits may occur, and the retention time therefore cannot be guaranteed for each part of the substrate in completely mixed systems. In the discontinuous operation mode (batch process), the fermentation vessel is completely filled with raw garbage mixed with inoculum (e.g., digestate from another reactor) and then completely discharged after a fixed detention time. Batch digesters are easy to design, comparatively low in cost, and suitable for all wet and dry organic wastes (Table 14.7).

14.3.2.3 Thermophilic and Mesophilic Operation The optimal process temperatures for methane fermentation are in the mesophilic temperature range (about 35 °C) and in the thermophilic temperature range (about 55 °C). Reactors designed for mesophilic operation are heated to 30 to 40 °C. According to the experience gained with this way of operation, the process stability is high. Minor temperature variations have only a small effect on mesophilic bacteria. The advantages of mesophilic process operation result from the lower amount of heat to be supplied and the related higher net energy yield. In addition, higher process stability is achieved, since a broad spectrum of mesophilic methane bacteria that show low sensitivity to temperature changes exist. The thermophilic range requires temperatures between 50 and 60 °C. Under certain circumstances thermophilic process operation allows faster substrate turnover, so that the residence times can be shorter. The higher expenditure of energy to maintain the process temperature is a disadvantage. When the process is run under thermophilic conditions for a defined residence time, sanitation in the reactor is possible,; otherwise, sanitation has to be achieved in a separate treatment step or by aerobic after-composting. On the other hand, the net energy yield is lower, due to the higher heat requirement, and the temperature sensitivity of the microorganisms reduces the process stability. Table 14.8 lists the advantages and disadvantages of mesophilic and thermophilic process operations.

14.3.2.4 Agitation For a high degradation activity of the bacteria, it is necessary to provide the active biomass with sufficient degradable substrate. Simultaneously, the metabolic products

Table 14.7 Comparison of continuous and discontinuous feed.

Process Operation

Continuous

Discontinuous

Retention time Technical equipment

shorter complex

longer simple

14.3 Processes of Anaerobic Waste Treatment Table 14.8 Comparison of mesophilic and thermophilic process operation.

Process Operation

Mesophilic (35 °C)

Thermophilic (55 °C)

Process stability Temperature sensitivity Energy demand Degradation rate Detention time Sanitation

higher low low decreased longer or the same no

lower high high increased shorter or the same possible

of the organisms have to be removed (Dauber, 1993). These requirements can be met by mechanical mixing or other agitation of the reactor contents. Another possibility is to install a water recirculation system, by which the process water, which ensures nutrient provision and the removal of metabolic products, trickles through the biowaste in the reactor (Rilling and Stegmann, 1992). Other processes use compressed biogas for total or partial mixing of the material. 14.3.3 Survey of Anaerobic Fermentation Processes

During the past few years several anaerobic processes for the utilization of solid waste have been developed. Each has its own benefits. Currently, the European market offers at least 30 different processes or process variants. Figure 14.4 shows (without claiming to be complete) the processes organized according to water content and number of fermentation stages and indicates that most of the offered processes are one- or two-stage wet fermentation systems. The number of dry fermentation processes is comparatively small. One primary reason for this situation is the higher technical effort required for dry fermentation. Although wet fermentation can be based on the well known and successful technology used in sewage sludge treatment and the digestion of manure, dry fermentation requires the employment of new, innovative technologies, especially in the field of gas-tight filling and emptying, as well as in conveyance systems. An example of a one-step wet fermentation system is the DBA–Wabio process (Fig. 14.5); an example of a two-step wet fermentation system is the BTA process (Fig. 14.6); and examples of one-step dry fermentation systems are the ATF process (Fig. 14.7) and the Dranco process (Fig. 14.8). 14.3.4 Feedstock for Anaerobic Digestion

The feedstock for an anaerobic digestion plant can be organic wastes that have been separately collected and delivered to the plant ready for processing or, alternatively, municipal solid waste (MSW) or a fraction of MSW (e.g., 10 000 mg O2 L–1), high BOD5/COD ratios (commonly >0.7), acidic pH values (typically 5–6), and ammonia (often 500–1000 mg L–1) (Ro-

15.2 Biochemical Processes in Sanitary Landfills

Time courses of compositions of leachate and gas in a landfill cell (Christensen and Kjeldsen, 1989).

Fig. 15.1

binson, 1989), the latter due to hydrolysis and fermentation of proteinaceous compounds in particular. The second intermediate anaerobic phase (Phase III, Figure 15.1) starts with slow growth of methanogenic bacteria. This growth may be inhibited by an excess of organic volatile acids, which are toxic to methanogenic bacteria at concentrations of 6000–16 000 mg L–1 (Stegmann and Spendlin, 1989). The methane concentration in the gas increases, while hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and volatile fatty acids decrease.

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15 Landfill Systems, Sanitary Landfilling of Solid Wastes, and Long-term Problems with Leachate

Moreover, the concentration of sulfate decreases owing to biologic reduction. Conversion of fatty acids causes an increase in pH values and alkalinity, with a consequent decrease in solubility of calcium, iron, manganese, and heavy metals. The latter are probably precipitated as sulfides. Ammonia is released and is not converted in the anaerobic environment. The third phase of anaerobic degradation (Phase IV, Figure 15.1) is characterized by methanogenic fermentation elicited by methanogenic bacteria. At this stage, the composition of leachate is characterized by almost neutral pH values and low concentrations of volatile acids and total dissolved solids; the biogas generally consists of more than 50% methane. This confirms that solubilization of the majority of organic components has decreased at this stage of landfill operation, although the process of waste stabilization will continue for several decades. Leachates produced during this phase are characterized by relatively low BOD5 values and low ratios of BOD5/COD. Ammonia continues to be released by the firststage acetogenic process. Table 15.1 shows the ranges of leachate concentrations depending on the degradation phase for some relevant parameters. Ehrig (1990) compiled leachate concentrations from German landfills from the 1970s and 1980s. According to his evaluation the organics (COD, BOD5, TOC), as well as AOX, SO4, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cr, are determined by the biochemical processes in the landfill, and there are striking differences between the acid phase and the methanogenic phase. Kruse (1994) investigated 33 landfills in Northern Germany, the leachate concentrations mainly derive from the late 1980s and early 1990s. He defined three characteristic periods according to the BOD5/COD ratio: • acid phase: BOD5/COD ≥ 0.4 • intermediate phase: 0.4 > BOD5/COD > 0.2 • methanogenic phase: BOD5/COD ≤ 0.2 Between the two investigations there are significant differences concerning the quantities of organic parameters. In the younger landfills (Kruse, 1994), leachate concentrations of COD, BOD5, and TOC are lower than those determined by Ehrig (1990) some 10 years earlier. This can be explained by developments in the technology of waste landfilling. In many younger landfills waste deposition and compaction in thin layers, in combination with an aerobic pretreated bottom layer, were carried out. This led to a reduction in the period for the acid phase and to an accelerated conversion of organic leachate components into the gaseous phase, as well as the degradation of organics to methane and carbon dioxide. 15.2.3 Factors Affecting Leachate Composition

The chemical composition of leachate depends on several parameters, including those concerning waste mass and site localization and those deriving from design and management of the landfill. Of the former. the main factors influencing leachate quality are discussed in this section.

b

6 22 000 13 000 7000 1674 600 750 1350 0.5 3 500 2100 1350 1100 470 1200 6 0.3 780 0.2 0.08 5 0.16 0.006 0.01 0.09

Acid Phase Medium

4.5–7 6000–60 000 4000–40 000 1500–25 000 540–3450 10–4250 30–3000 40–3425 0–25 0.1–50 70–1750 100–5000 50–4000 10–2500 50–1150 10–2500 0.1–30 0.03–1.6 20–2100 0.02–2.05 0.004–1.4 0.1–120 0.005–1.6 0.0005–0.14 0.0002–0.01 0.008–1.02

Range 7.5–9 500–4500 20–550 200–5000 524–2010 10–4250 30–3000 40–3425 0–25 0.1–50 10–420 100–5000 50–4000 10–2500 40–350 20–600 0.1–30 0.3–1.6 3–280 0.02–2.05 0.004–1.4 0.03–4 0.005–1.6 0.0005–0.14 0.0002–0.01 0.008–1.02

8 3000 180 1300 1040 600 750 1350 0.5 3 80 2100 1350 1100 180 60 6 0.3 15 0.2 0.08 0.6 0.16 0.006 0.01 0.09

Methanogenic Phase Range Medium

Leachate from MSW Landfills (Ehrig, 1990)

Parameter more or less independent from the biochemical degradation phase. DOC.

– mg O2 L–1 mg O2 L–1 mg L–1 µg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1 mg L–1

pH COD BOD5 TOC AOX Organic Na NH4-Na TKNa NO2-Na NO3-Na SO4 Cl Naa Ka Mg Ca Total Pa Cra Fe Nia Cua Zn Asa Cda Hga Pba

a

Unit

Parameter

Table 15.1 Constituents in leachates from MSW landfills (Ehrig, 1990; Kruse, 1994).

6.7–8.3 700–28 000 200–10,000 300–1500b 260–3900 17– 1650 250–2000

20–230 315–12 400 1–6800 170–1750 90–350 40–310 0.3–54 0.002–0.52 2–120 0.01–1 0.005–0.56 0.06–1.7 0.0053–0.11 0.0007–0.525 0.000002–0.025 0.008–0.4

740 920

200 2150 1150 880 285 650 6.8 0.155 135 0.19 0.09 2.2 0.0255 0.0375 0.0015 0.16

17– 1650 250–2000

35–925 315–12 400 1–6800 170–1750 30–600 80–2300 0.3–54 0.002–0.52 3–500 0.01–1 0.005–0.56 0.05–16 0.0053–0.11 0.0007–0.525 0.000002–0.025 0.008–0.4

90 2150 1150 880 200 150 6.8 0.155 36 0.19 0.09 0.6 0.0255 0.0375 0.0015 0.16

740 920

7.5 3400 1200 880b 1545

Intermediate Phase Medium Range Medium 7.4 9500 6300 2600b 2400

Acid Phase

6.2–7.8 950–40 000 600–27,000 350–12,000b 260–6200

Range

Leachate from MSW Landfills (Kruse, 1994)

25–2500 315–12 400 1–6800 170–1750 25–300 50–1100 0.3–54 0.002–0.52 4–125 0.01–1 0.005–0.56 0.09–3.5 0.0053–0.11 0.0007–0.525 0.000002–0.025 0.008–0.4

17– 1650 250–2000

7.0–8.3 460–8300 20–700 150–1600b 195–3500

240 2150 1150 880 150 200 6.8 0.155 25 0.19 0.09 0.6 0.0255 0.0375 0.0015 0.16

740 920

7.6 2500 230 660b 1725

Methanogenic Phase Range Medium

15.2 Biochemical Processes in Sanitary Landfills 379

380


15.2.3.1 Waste Composition The nature of the waste organic fraction considerably influences the degradation of waste in the landfill and thus also the quality of the leachate produced. The inorganic content of the leachate depends on the contact between waste and leaching water, as well as on the pH and the chemical balance at the solid–liquid interface. In particular, the majority of metals are released from the waste mass under acid conditions.

15.2.3.2 Water Balance In Figure 15.2, the main factors affecting the water balance of landfills are represented schematically. The water balance of a landfill may be described by means of the water balance equation, where LF describes the proportion of precipitation which, after decreases due to evaporation and surface effluent, is actually introduced into the landfill body:

P – VE – VT – ES – S ± R ± WD + WC = EB where: P precipitation, controlled water addition, if required VE evaporation VT transpiration ES effluent surface S storage LF climatic leachate formation LF = P – VE – VT – ES R retention WD water demand or release by biological conversion WC consolidation EB leachate effluent at the landfill base (into a drainage system, or underground if no bottom sealing exists)

Fig. 15.2 Factors affecting the water balance in a landfill (Hupe et al., 2003).

15.3 Sanitary Landfilling and Leachate Control Strategies

15.2.3.3 Landfill Age Variations in leachate composition and in quantity of pollutants removed from waste are often attributed to landfill age, defined as the time from the deposition of waste or the time from the first appearance of leachate. Landfill age obviously plays an important role in the determination of leachate characteristics governed by the type of waste stabilization processes. We should emphasize that variations in composition of leachate do not depend exclusively on landfill age but also on the degree of waste stabilization and the volume of water that infiltrates the landfill. The pollutant load in leachate generally reaches maximum values during the first years of operation of a landfill (2–3 years) and then gradually decreases in the following years. This trend is generally applicable to organic components, the main indicators of organic pollution (COD, BOD5, TOC), microorganism population, and the main inorganic ions (heavy metals, Cl, SO4, etc.).

15.3 Sanitary Landfilling and Leachate Control Strategies 15.3.1 Leachate Problems in Landfills

The most typical detrimental effect of leachate discharge into the environment is that of groundwater pollution. To prevent this, the first step in landfill design development was to site the landfill far from the groundwater table and/or far from groundwater extraction wells. Thus more attention was focused on studying the hydrogeology of the area so as to identify the best siting of the landfill. A further step in landfill technology was to site the landfill in low-permeability soil and/or to engineer impermeable liners to contain wastes and leachate. Containment, however, poses the problem of leachate treatment. Discharge of leachate into the environment is today considered under more restrictive views. The reasons for this are: • many severe instances of groundwater pollution by landfills • the greater hazard posed by the size of landfill (larger than in the past) • the need to comply with more and more restrictive legislation regarding quality standards for wastewater discharges The leachate problem accompanies a landfill from its beginning to many decades after its closure. Therefore, leachate management facilities should also last and their effectiveness be ensured over a long period of time. 15.3.2 Sanitary Landfilling and Legal Requirements

In view of all the aspects mentioned above, leachate control strategies involve the input (waste and water), the reactor (landfill), and the output (leachate and gas). This

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is one of the reasons why the German Landfill Ordinance (DEPV, 2002), the Technical Instructions on Waste from Human Settlements (TASI, 1993), laid down standards for disposal, including the collection, treatment, storage, and landfilling of wastes from human settlements. State-of-the-art technology is required and, with the so-called multibarrier concept, it is the waste to be dumped itself that forms the most important barrier. The other barriers are the geological barrier of the landfill site, base sealing with an effective drainage system, and surface sealing after a landfill section has been completely filled. Considering these major aspects the Instructions on Waste from Human Settlements define two classes of landfills: • landfill class I – particularly high standards for mineralization levels of the waste to be dumped – relatively low standards for landfill deposit sites and landfill sealing (base and surface sealing) • landfill class II – lower standards for mineralization levels of the waste to be dumped (mainly for municipal solid wastes) – considerably higher standards for landfill deposit sites and landfill sealing than apply to landfill class I 15.3.3 Control of Waste Input and Pretreatment before Deposition

The first step in the waste input control strategy should be that of minimizing the amount of waste to be landfilled. This can be achieved by waste avoidance, separate collection activities, recycling centers for recyclables, incineration, and mechanical–biological pretreatment of residual municipal solid waste (MSW) or composting of biowaste. With regard to its properties, the waste can be separated into different fractions: a light fraction of high calorific value, in some instances also a mineral fraction and a fraction rich in organics can be gained. Some of these fractions also have reutilization potential. The mechanical–biological pretreatment of MSW can be used within a waste management concept as a sole process or in combination with thermal pretreatment (Fig. 15.3). After the mechanical–biological pretreatment, significant reductions in the remaining emissions, in the range 70%–90% in terms of loads and concentrations, are possible. Figure 15.4 shows as an example the low leachate concentration of a landfill section filled with MBP residues. 15.3.4 Control of Water Input and Surface Sealing Systems

The strategy for water input control is strictly related to the quality of the waste to be landfilled. For nonbiodegradable waste and according to its potential hazard to the environment, prevention of water infiltration can be used as the main option (usually by means of top sealing). In contrast, for biodegradable waste, water input must


Fig. 15.3

Scheme of waste pretreatment before landfilling.

383

384


Fig. 15.4 Effects of mechanical–biological treatment on leachate concentrations in an MBP land-

fill section.

be assured until a high degree of biostabilization is achieved. Here, water input should be limited to the strictly necessary amount and minimization techniques should be used. The most important parameters in this regard are (Stegmann et al., 1992): • siting of landfills in low precipitation areas, if possible • planting the topsoil with species characterized by high evapotranspiration • surface lining in critical hydrological conditions • surface water drainage and diversion • high compaction of the refuse in place • measures to prevent risks of cracking owing to differential settlement Furthermore, utilization of intermediate covers in the landfill operation area could represent a useful leachate minimization technique. The two final surface sealing systems that must be used, according to the regulations of the TASI (TASI, 1993), are shown in Figure 15.5. 15.3.5 Control of Leachate Discharge into the Environment and Base Sealing Systems

As mentioned above, uncontrolled leachate discharge into the environment is the main pollution risk of waste deposition. For this reason, regulations are more restrictive today (DepV, 2002, TASI, 1993). The following tools are used: • The lining system should be based on the multibarrier effect (double or triple liners). Quality control of materials and construction should be improved to ensure higher safety and durability. • A rational drainage and collection system is important to avoid accumulation of leachate inside the landfill. The main problems of drainage systems are proper choice of materials, clogging, durability, and maintenance. In Figure 15.6 the base sealing systems for class I and II landfills, according to the requirements of the TA Siedlungsabfall (TASI, 1993), are shown. The sealing


Fig. 15.5

Landfill surface sealing systems (TASI, 1993).

Fig. 15.6

Landfill base sealing systems (TASI, 1993).

systems must be arranged on the landfill base and on the sloping areas. For landfill class II, the geological barrier should comprise naturally arranged, slightly permeable bedrock several meters thick. If this requirement is not met, a homogenous equalizing layer at least 3 m thick and having a permeability of k ≤ 1 × 10–7 ms–1 has to be installed.

385

386


The landfill base must be at least 1 m above the highest expected groundwater level, once settling under the load of the landfill has come to an end. The surface of the base sealing system must be formed in the manner of a roof profile. Once the sealing bearing surface has finished settling, the surface of the sealing layer must exhibit a transverse gradient of ≥3% and a longitudinal gradient of ≥1%. Perforated pipes (collectors), additionally capable of being rinsed and monitored, must be provided for the collection and discharge of leachate. The leachate must be channeled by means of free flow into drainage shafts that must be installed outside the dumping area. 15.3.6 Leachate Treatment

Leachate has always been considered a problematic wastewater from the point of view of treatment, because it is highly polluted and its quality and quantity are modified with time in the same landfill. Today, according to the increasingly restrictive limits for wastewater discharge, complicated and costly treatment facilities are required. Table 15.2 shows the current German requirements for leachate quality before discharge. Several parameters are of great importance for the treatment technology that has to be applied, mainly COD and AOX, but also nitrogen and BOD5. The first

Table 15.2 Limiting concentrations for the discharge of treated leachate according to German

standards (51. Anhang Rahmen-AbwasserV, 1996). Parameter

Limiting Concentration mg L–1

COD BOD5 Nitrogen, total (sum of NH4 + NO2 + NO3) Phosphorus, total Hydrocarbons Nitrite-nitrogen AOX Mercury Cadmium Chromium Chromium (VI) Nickel Lead Copper Zinc Cyanide, easy liberatable Sulfide

200 20 70 3 10 2 0.5 0.05 0.1 0.5 0.1 1 0.5 0.5 2 0.2 1


two parameters require a more comprehensive treatment technology or a combination of different treatment methods. Current treatment facilities for the treatment of leachate mainly consist of several treatment methods to meet the limiting concentrations for the effluent. Typical combinations are shown in Figure 15.7. 15.3.7 Environmental Monitoring

Environmental monitoring is of extreme importance for the evaluation of landfill operational efficiency and for the observation of environmental effects on a longterm basis. The following monitoring facilities must generally be provided and checked at regular intervals for proper operation (TASI, 1993): • groundwater monitoring system with at least one measuring station in the inflowing current of ground water and a sufficient number of measuring stations in the current of ground water flowing out of the landfill area • measuring facilities for monitoring settlement and deformations in the landfill body and the landfill sealing systems

Fig. 15.7

1998).

Methods and combinations of methods often used for leachate treatment (Ehrig et al.,

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388


• measuring facilities for recording meteorological data such as precipitation, temperature, wind, evaporation • measuring facilities for collecting the quantities of leachate and water that are needed for analyzing the water balance • measuring facilities for recording the quality of leachate and other waters In addition, if the generation of landfill gas is expected, it is necessary to provide facilities for measuring landfill gas and to install gas level indicators for the purpose of emission control.

15.4 Long-term Problems with Leachate

The characteristics of landfill leachate are relatively well known, at least for the first 20–30 years of life of the landfill, the period from which actual data are available. On the other hand, little is known about the leachate composition of later phases of the landfill, and the basis for making good estimates is rather weak. For this reason, several landfills were investigated in a German joint research project ‘Landfill Body’ (Ehrig et al., 1997). The purpose was to describe the present stage of stability of landfills of different ages, their corresponding emissions, and the future development of emissions. The main focus of the research program included long-term experiments in test lysimeters that were carried out to predict emissions that the solid waste in old landfills will release in the future. 15.4.1 Lysimeter Tests in Landfill Simulation Reactors (LSR)

To describe the effects of future biological and thermal pretreatment on leachate emissions, landfill simulation experiments were carried out under anaerobic conditions. The test system ensured that the typical landfill phases, such as the acid phase and the stable methane phase, took place in sequence in the reactor. Choosing appropriate milieu conditions enabled the researchers to achieve an enhanced biologic degradation process. By this means, the maximum emission potential represented by gas production and leachate load were determined within reasonable periods of time (Heyer et al., 1997; Stegmann, 1981). The range of emissions in the water phase that can occur in the landfill in the future was based on experiments in four LSR lysimeters. Figure 15.8 shows concentrations of COD and TKN on a logarithmic scale during a test period of more than 1000 d: • The COD concentrations showed very similar qualitative declines that followed a gradual asymptotic course, which can be described as a function of dilution and mobilization. The BOD5 concentrations were very low as expected, because almost all waste samples were in the stabilized methane phase when the tests began. The BOD5/COD ratio was lower than 0.1.

[mg L–1]

389

CE = 200 mg L–1

[mg L–1]

15.4 Long-term Problems with Leachate

CF = 70 mg L–1

Fig. 15.8

COD and TKN: LSR leachate concentrations in waste samples from two landfills (Heyer et al., 1998).

• There were striking differences in the magnitude of concentrations, depending on the age of deposition and the conditions within the landfill body before the sampling and because of varying waste compositions. • The time course of nitrogen emission was comparable to that of the organic parameters. However, the decline of nitrogen in the leachate occurred more slowly, because a higher portion of organic compounds became hydrolyzed during the LSR test period. More than 90% of the TKN nitrogen was emitted as ammonia.

390


15.4.2 Prognosis of Periods of the Long-Term Time Course of Emissions

The time course of leachate emissions depends mainly on: • the potential substances that can be mobilized • the water balance in the landfill, mainly the water flux • the mobilization behavior These LSR tests did not allow final, generalizing predictions for the development of emissions development with time. One reason was the specific conditions of each landfill site, e.g., the climate, the surface cover, the waste composition, and inhibition effects. Another reason was the high water exchange rate in the LSR tests that was used to simulate accelerated conversion, mobilization. and dilution in the landfill. However, the possible future development of emissions is discussed below. The time course of emissions can be described with an exponential function. With the idealized conditions in the LSR test devices and the setting of a water balance, which was approximately 100 times higher than at the landfill, periods TE can be estimated, until a limiting value CE is reached. The estimations are based on the following assumptions: • constant climatic leachate generation of 250 mm per year (this means no impermeable surface sealing, only a permeable soil cover) • a standard height of 20 m • the dry densities in the LSR tests are similar to those in the landfill, approximately 0.75 Mg TS m–3 • uniform percolation through the landfill body

Table 15.3 Estimations of periods TE for reaching the limiting values CE (Heyer, 2003).

Parameter

CE Limiting Value

C0 Concentration at Test Start [mg L–1]

T1/2 Half Life

TE Periods

[a]

[a]

COD

CE = 200 mg O2 L–1 mean

500–12 700 5100

10–40 28

80–360 140

TKN

CE = 70 mg L–1a mean

200–2100 1200

15–57 43

120–450 220

Cl

CE = 100 mg L–1 mean

340–2950 1200

15–43 33

90–250 140

AOX

CE = 500 µg L–1 mean

390–2380 µg L–1 1600 µg L–1

14–42 22

30–210 80

a

Total amount of nitrogen = sum of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate.

15.5 Controlled Reduction of Leachate Emissions

The periods TE are compiled in Table 15.3 together with the concentrations C0 at the beginning of the LSR tests and the half-life values T1/2. According to German standards for COD in the leachate, the estimation results in a period of 80–360 years, with a mean of 140 years, until the limiting concentration of 200 mg O2 L–1 is reached. Chloride shows similar periods. All investigations and tests point to nitrogen as the component with the longest period of release of relevant concentrations into the leachate phase: 220 years on average may be necessary until a concentration of 70 mg L–1 is reached (Heyer, 2003). The plausibility of these estimates is difficult to judge. Each landfill has a different water balance, which can vary with the seasons or change because of surface covers, lining systems, or damage to these technical barriers.

15.5 Controlled Reduction of Leachate Emissions 15.5.1 In Situ Stabilization for the Closing and Aftercare of Landfills

The main option for controlling leachate quality by controlling the landfill reactor is to enhance the biochemical processes (when biodegradable wastes are deposited). Then the question arises of how to positively influence the emission behavior of municipal solid waste deposits in such a way that the duration and extent of aftercare measures can be reduced. For this purpose, two principal in situ stabilization methods can be used, depending on the boundary conditions of landfills and old deposits (Fig. 15.9): • Humidification and irrigation methods, e.g., for younger waste deposits equipped with surface sealing and having a higher proportion of bioavailable organic material for the intensification of anaerobic degradation processes (Hupe et al., 2003). • Aeration methods, e.g., for older waste deposits or for deposits showing a lower proportion of bioavailable organic substances and decreasing landfill gas production.

Fig. 15.9

Methods for in situ stabilization with the goal of reducing aftercare.

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392


15.5.2 Technical Methods for Water Infiltration and Effects on Leachate

Technical methods for water infiltration must be planned so that controlled, even moisture penetration of the landfill body is guaranteed. Likewise, short circuit currents and preferred seepage paths must be avoided by using suitable measures. Various technical methods are available for use with regard to water infiltration into the landfill body. At the same time, the effect of the infiltration plants on existing surface sealing systems or on systems that are yet to be installed is of great importance. The choice of infiltration system is additionally determined by the quality of the infiltration medium (see above) and the quantity to be infiltrated. Depending on the landfill boundary conditions and the targets of infiltration, the following infiltration methods may be used: • horizontal infiltration systems below the surface sealing system – two-dimensional infiltration methods – linear infiltration methods • vertical infiltration systems – use of existing vertical gas collectors – vertical deep wells – infiltration injectors in short screen distances Combinations of the individual infiltration systems can be used. The experience gained so far with regard to controlled infiltration can be summarized as follows: • positive experiences – enhancement of gas production: up to three times higher – longer economic life of the gas – accelerated stabilization of the waste body and reduced leachate contamination • negative experiences – blockage and incrustation in the infiltration system – shearing, rupture, and buckling of pipes – uneven water introduction or no water introduction in subareas 15.5.3 Aerobic In Situ Stabilization and Effects on Leachate Contamination

Aeration processes for aerobic in situ stabilization are being used in several German landfills and old deposits with success. Common to all sites is the ultimate target: the controlled reduction of emissions and of the resultant risk potential of leachate within a relatively short period of time with the goal of economical site closure, aftercare, and securing measures (Heyer et al., 2003). The basic technical concept of aeration consists of a system of gas wells, through which atmospheric oxygen is fed into the landfill body via active aeration in such a way that aerobic stabilization of deposited waste is accelerated. Simultaneously, the low-contaminated waste gas is collected and treated in a controlled manner by means of other gas wells.

15.5 Controlled Reduction of Leachate Emissions

In principle, the following processes occur during aeration in the landfill body: • A change from anaerobic to aerobic conditions takes place, resulting in an accelerated and, in part, broader degradation of the bioavailable waste components. The increased carbon conversion during in situ aeration therefore leads to faster stabilization of organic substances. • At the end of the stabilization process, organic compounds consist of only nearly or completely nondegradable compounds with very low residual gas potential. • In the leachate path, accelerated decrease in the parameters COD and, above all, BOD5, as well as in nitrogen (TKN or NH4-N) occurs with the aerobic degradation of organic compounds and their release into the gas phase (mainly as carbon dioxide) as a result of aeration. • Compared with strictly anaerobic conditions, the aftercare periods for the leachate emission path are reduced by at least several decades by in situ aeration. The aftercare phase is not considered complete after aeration has been terminated, but aftercare expenses are significantly reduced, since costly leachate purification measures can be terminated earlier. If leachate percolates directly into the underground, as sometimes occurs in old deposits lacking sealing and drainage systems for the collection of leachate, the polluting effects would be considerably lower. In situ aeration is planned to operate for a period of 2–4 years under average landfill conditions. Meanwhile, results and experience concerning the operation of stabilization measures are available for several sites for a period of 2–3 years (Heyer et al., 2003). Figure 15.10 shows, as an example, the development of nitrogen contamination in the leachate and groundwater off-flow from an old landfill. From the outset of aeration in April 2001, a considerable decrease in the nitrogen contamination can be seen after one year of stabilization, in spite of several deviations.

Fig. 15.10 Changes in leachate contamination within the off-flow area during aerobic in situ stabilization of the old Kuhstedt waste deposit (Heyer et al., 2003).

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References ABFABLV, Abfallablagerungsverordnung (German Waste Disposal Regulation). Verordnung über die umweltverträgliche Ablagerung von Siedlungsabfällen (Regulation for the Environmentally Compatible Disposal of MSW). March 2001 ABWV, Abwasserverordnung (German Waste Water Ordinance, 1997), Verordnung über Anforderungen an das Einleiten von Abwasser in Gewässer vom 21. März 1997 Andreottola, G., Chemical and biological characteristics of landfill leachate, in: Landfilling of Waste: Leachate (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds.), pp. 65–88, London 1992: Elsevier. Barber, C., Behaviour of Wastes in Landfills, Review of Processes of Decomposition of Solid Wastes with Particular Reference to Microbiological Changes and Gas Production, Stevenage 1979: Water Research Centre, Stevenage Laboratory Report LR 1059. Belevi, H., Baccini, P., Long-term behaviour of municipal solid waste landfills, Waste Manag. Res. 1989, 7, 483–499. Christensen, T.H., Kjeldsen, P., Basic biochemical processes in landfills, in: Sanitary Landfilling: Process, Technology and Environmental Impact (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds.), pp. 29–49, London 1989: Academic Press. DepV, Deponieverordnung (German Landfill Ordinance, 2002), Verordnung über Deponien und Langzeitlager: in der Fassung des Beschlusses des Bundeskabinetts vom 24. Juli 2002, BGBl I 2002, 2807 European Council, Council Directive 1999/ 31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the Landfill of Waste, European Council, Official Journal of the European Communities L 182 (1999) Ehrig, H.-J., Qualität und Quantität von Deponiesickerwasser, Entsorgungsprax. Spez. 1990, 1, 100–105 Ehrig, H.-J., Einführung in das Verbundvorhaben Deponiekörper, in: Verbundvorhaben Deponiekörper, Proceedings of 2. Statusseminar, Wuppertal 1997, pp. 1–5, Umweltbundesamt, Projektträgerschaft Abfallwirtschaft und Altlastensanierung des BMBF. Ehrig, H.-J., Stegmann, R., Biological processes, in: Landfilling of Waste: Leachate (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds.), pp. 185–202, London 1992: Elsevier.

Heyer K.-U., Emissionsreduzierung in der Deponienachsorge. Hamburger Berichte, Band 21, Stegmann (ed), Stuttgart 2003: Verlag Abfall aktuell. Heyer, K.-U., Stegmann, R., Untersuchungen zum langfristigen Stabilisierungsverlauf von Siedlungsabfalldeponien, in: Verbundvorhaben Deponiekörper, Proceedings of 2. Statusseminar, Wuppertal 1997, pp. 46–78, Umweltbundesamt, Projektträgerschaft Abfallwirtschaft und Altlastensanierung des BMBF. Heyer K.-U., Hupe K., Koop A., Ritzkowski M. & Stegmann R., The low pressure aeration of landfills: experiences, operation, costs. Proceedings Sardinia 2003, (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds), CISA, Cagliari, Italy 2003 Hupe K., Heyer K.-U., Stegmann R., Water infiltration for enhanced in situ stabilization. Proceedings Sardinia Symposium 2003, (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds), CISA, Cagliari, Italy 2003 Kruse, K., Langfristiges Emissionsgeschehen von Siedlungsabfalldeponien, Heft 54 der Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Siedlungswasserwirtschaft, Braunschweig 1994: Technische Universität. Robinson, H.D., Development of methanogenic conditions within landfill, Proceedings 2nd International Landfill Symposium Sardinia ’89, Porto Conte 1989, October 9–13. Stegmann, R., Beschreibung eines Verfahrens zur Untersuchung anaerober Umsetzungsprozesse von festen Abfallstoffen im Deponiekörper, Müll Abfall 1981, 2. Stegmann, R., Spendlin, H.H., Enhancement of degradation: German experiences, in: Sanitary Landfilling: Process, Technology and Environmental Impact, (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds.), pp. 61–82, London 1989: Academic Press. Stegmann, R., Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Landfill leachate: an introduction, in: Landfilling of Waste: Leachate (Christensen, T.H., Cossu, R., Stegmann, R. eds.), pp. 3–14, London 1992: Elsevier. TASI, Technical Instructions on Waste from Human Settlements (TA Siedlungsabfall), Dritte Allgemeine Verwaltungsvorschrift zum Abfallgesetz vom 14. Mai 1993, Technische Anleitung zur Verwertung, Behandlung und sonstigen Entsorgung von Siedlungsabfällen, Bundesanzeiger Nr. 99a, 1993

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16 Sanitary Landfills: Long-term Stability and Environmental Implications Michael S. Switzenbaum

16.1 Introduction

Our society generates significant quantities of municipal solid waste. According to Tchobanoglous et al. (1991), solid wastes comprise all the wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally solid and that are discarded or unwanted. Municipal solid waste is usually assumed to include all community wastes (residential, commercial, institutional, construction and demolition, and municipal services) and does not include industrial and agricultural sources. Although municipal solid waste is only a relatively small fraction of the total amount of solid waste generated, proper management is essential for the control of disease vectors and for protection of the environment. In the United States, about 1.9 × 1011 kg (210 × 106 t) of municipal solid waste are generated per year. The per capita generation rate is about 2 kg (4.4 lb) per person per day (U. S. EPA, 1997b). These rates have vastly increased over the past 30–40 years, but are now starting to level off or even slightly decrease (Fig. 16.1). Generation rates in the United States are considerably higher than generation rates in European countries.

Fig. 16.1

Municipal solid waste generation rates, 1960–2000 (U.S. EPA, 1997a).


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16 Sanitary Landfills: Long-term Stability and Environmental Implications

Fig. 16.2 Total and net waste generation, 1960–2000 (U.S. EPA, 1997a).

Because of recycling efforts, the net generation rate has been decreasing (Fig. 16.2). Net generation is the amount of solid waste remaining from the total amount generated after materials such as newspaper, glass, and aluminum have been recovered by recycling activities. Municipal solid waste is a heterogeneous mixture of the materials that society uses. General categories include food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, rubber, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, ‘tin’ cans, and ferrous metals. The standard unit for reporting waste generation is mass. However, mass data are of limited value for certain applications such as landfill design, since average landfill requirements depend on the volume of waste. In addition to the original density of any materials making up the solid waste mixture, the volume also depends on how much the waste has been compacted (Table 16.1). The comparative percentages of various components of the waste stream are variable. Composition varies geographically and is also influenced by efforts in source reduction and recycling (Table 16.2). In summary, large amounts of municipal solid waste are generated, and the waste is diverse in nature. These wastes must be managed for the control of disease vectors and for protection of the environment.

Table 16.1 Density of municipal solid waste as influenced by compaction

(according to Tchobanoglous et al., 1991). Component

Density (kg m–3)

Residential In compactor truck In landfill (normal) In landfill (well compacted) Baled

130 300 450 590 700

16.2 Integrated Waste Management Table 16.2 Comparison data: solid waste stream composition (% by mass) (according to O’Leary and Walsh, 1992).

Solid Waste Component

Medford, Wisconsin 1988 Study

Franklin 1990 Estimate

Illinois Department of Natural Resources Guidelines

Cal Recovery 1988 Study

GBB Metro Des Moines

Food waste Yard waste Other organic Subtotal Newsprint Corrugated Mixed paper Subtotal Ferrous metal Aluminum Other metal Subtotal Plastics Glass Inorganics Subtotal Total

22.80 11.80 16.20 50.80 3.10 6.20 5.60 14.90 5.20 1.60 0.20 7.00 7.10 8.00 12.20 27.30 100.00

8.39 19.80 7.92 36.11 5.15 7.31 24.39 36.85 7.45 1.34 0.20 8.99 7.92 8.25 1.88 18.05 100.00

8.00 20.00 11.00 39.00

8.80 28.20 8.90 45.90 7.30 6.70 19.10 33.10 3.20 1.00 0.70 4.90 7.30 4.90 3.90 16.10 100.00

10.00 11.00 7.80 28.80 5.20 10.80 32.70 48.70 4.90 0.30 0.20 5.40 9.40 2.40 5.30 17.10 100.00

37.00

6.00 7.00 5.00 6.00 18.00 100.00

16.2 Integrated Waste Management

Tchobanoglous et al. (1991) defined solid waste management as the discipline associated with control of the generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that accords with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations, and that is also responsive to public attitudes. Integrated solid waste management, according to Tchobanoglous et al. (1991) involves the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals. Integrated solid waste management refers to the complimentary use of a variety of waste management practices to safely and effectively handle the municipal solid waste stream with the least adverse impact on human health and the environment. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has adapted a hierarchy in waste management, which can be used to rank management actions (U. S. EPA, 1988). The hierarchy (Fig. 16.3) is in order of preference. Source reduction is at the highest level, and landfilling is at the lowest level. An integrated approach contains some or all of the following components: • source reduction: reduction in amount of waste generated • recycling: separation and collection of waste materials

397

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16 Sanitary Landfills: Long-term Stability and Environmental Implications Fig. 16.3

Waste management hierarchy (U.S. EPA, 1988).

• transformation (incineration): alterations to recover energy or other products (such as compost) • landfilling: land disposal of wastes, those not able to be recovered, combusted or otherwise transformed Note that, although land disposal of wastes is ranked lowest in the hierarchy, it is still a widely used waste management strategy. Certain materials cannot be reduced at the source, recycled or transformed and are therefore landfilled. 16.3 Land Disposal

Although efforts have been made in source reduction, recycling and incineration, most of the solid waste generated in the United States still ends up in landfills (56.9% in 1995). However, the percentage is decreasing (Table 16.3). The data reflect progress made in achieving the goals of the EPA’s hierarchy.

Table 16.3 Waste management practices, 1960–2000 (as percentage of waste generated)

(after U.S. EPA, 1997b). Year:

1960

1970

1980

1990

1995

2000

Generated Recovered for recycling/composting Discarded after recovery Combusted Discarded to landfill

100 6.4 93.6 30.3 60.3

100 6.6 93.4 20.7 72.6

100 9.6 90.4 9 81.4

100 17.2 82.8 16.2 66.7

100 27.0 73.0 16.1 56.9

100 30 70 16.2 53.7


Land disposal was promoted as a ‘modern’ means of solid waste disposal in the mid 1960s, in response to the air pollution problems associated with uncontrolled combustion of municipal solid waste. Unfortunately, land disposal was often not properly conducted. Rather than disposal into well-engineered and operated landfills, solid waste was merely buried in uncontrolled dumps. In addition, there was no distinction between municipal solid waste and hazardous waste – both were placed in these dumps. This often resulted in an adverse impact on the environment. In fact, many of the sites listed on the National Priority List of the United States Environmental Protection Agency are abandoned dumps (or orphaned landfills). A diagram of the potential impacts of improperly constructed dumps (Fig. 16.4) illustrates several detrimental effects, including groundwater contamination from leachate, surface water contamination from runoff and gas migration (which can damage plants, potentially cause explosions in confined areas and can lead to atmospheric contamination). As of result of the problems from improperly constructed dumps, new federal regulations were promulgated. Subsequent landfill disposal criteria are listed in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) under Subtitle D (Federal Register, 1991). A summary of the U.S. EPA regulations for MSW landfills is shown in Table 16.4. The cost of landfilling has greatly increased because of the new federal regulations (Fig. 16.5). Average tipping fees increased greatly after passage of the RCRA. At the same time, many old landfills have been closed, often because they were causing environmental damage. Figure 16.6 shows the trends in terms of the number of landfills in the United States. Although the number of landfills has decreased, the trend is to build larger landfills (often regional), which are often owned by private businesses (Denison et al., 1994). In landfills, solid waste is disposed of in thin layers that are compacted to minimize volume and then covered (usually daily) with a thin layer of material (usually soil) to minimize environmental problems. Intermediate cover is usually placed on the top and exposed sides of the compacted solid waste. The covered compacted material is called a cell. A series of adjacent

Fig. 16.4

Environmental impacts of dumps.

399

400

16 Sanitary Landfills: Long-term Stability and Environmental Implications Table 16.4 Summary of U.S. EPA regulations for municipal solid waste landfills (from Tchobano-

glous and O’Leary, 1994). Item Applicability

Requirement

– all active landfills that receive MSW after October 9, 1993 – certain requirements also apply to landfills that received MSW after October 9, 1991, but were closed within 2 years – certain exemptions for very small landfills – some requirements are waived for existing landfills – new landfills and landfill cells must comply with all requirements Location – airport separation distances of 1.5 km, 3 km, and in some instances requirement more than 3 km are required – landfills located on floodplains can operate only if flood flow is not restricted – construction and filling on wetlands is restricted – landfills over earthquake faults require special analysis and possibly construction practices – landfills in seismic impact zones require special analysis and possibly construction practices – landfills in unstable soil zones require special analysis and possibly construction practices Operating – landfill operators must conduct a random load checking program to criteria ensure exclusion of hazardous wastes – daily covering with 0.1524 m of soil or other suitable materials is required – disease vector control is required – permanent monitoring probes are required – probes must be tested every 3 months – methane concentrations in occupied structures cannot exceed 1.25% – methane migration offsite must not exceed 5% at the property line – Clean Air Act criteria must be met – access must be limited by fences or other structures – surface water drainage run-on to the landfill and runoff from the working face must be controlled for 24-year rainfall events – appropriate permits must be obtained for surface water discharges – liquid wastes or wastes containing free liquids cannot be landfilled – extensive landfill operating records must be maintained Liner design – geomembrane and soil liners or equivalents are required under most criteria new landfill cells – groundwater standards may be allowed as the basis for liner design in some areas Groundwater – groundwater monitoring wells must be installed at many landfills monitoring – groundwater monitoring wells must be sampled at least twice a year – a corrective action program must be initiated where groundwater contamination is detected Closure and post- – landfill final cover must be placed within 6 months of closure closure care – the type of cover is soil or geomembrane and must be less permeable than the landfill liner – postclosure care and monitoring of the landfill must continue for 30 years Financial – sufficient financial reserves must be established during the site operating assurance period to pay for closure and postclosure care


Fig. 16.5

Landfill tipping fees, national averages in the United States (U.S. EPA, 1997a).

Fig. 16.6

Number of landfills in the United States (U.S. EPA, 1997a).

cells is called a lift. A lift is usually 3–3.5 m tall. The bottom lift is placed on the bottom liner (usually a composite of clay and a flexible membrane) and a leachate collection and removal system. A landfill eventually consists of several vertical lifts and is 15–30 m tall. The landfill cap is placed on top of the top lift and is a combination of soil and synthetic materials. A schematic diagram of selected engineering features of a modern sanitary landfill is shown in Figure 16.7. The design of a modern sanitary landfill focuses on the prevention of leachate and gas migration. Vents and collection systems ensure that any gas produced is captured and then recovered, flared, or dissipated in the atmosphere. The landfill cap is designed to prevent precipitation from entering the landfill. Liners prevent contamination of the subsurface. Leachate collection and removal systems prevent a buildup of hydraulic head on the liner. Note, however, that the strategy of complete entombment of municipal solid waste is somewhat controversial. Many believe that, even though landfills may be carefully designed and operated, all landfills will eventually leak. Subtitle D require-

401

402

Fig. 16.7


Profile of landfill engineered features (not to scale).

ments of RCRA can only delay, but not prevent, the generation and migration of leachate and methane (Denison et al., 1994). In this regard, several investigators have promoted the adoption of ‘wet-cell design and operation’ (i.e., leachate recycling) to accelerate decay of the organic fraction of landfilled waste and thus avoid the problem of releases after the post-closure period (Pohland, 1980). Wet-cell design and operation also increased the methane yield in earlier years, which made gas recovery more feasible and presented the potential for reuse of the physical property of the landfill (Dension et al., 1994). The three common configurations for landfills are area, ramp, and trench. The area configuration involves constructing a landfill above ground, and the trench configuration involves excavation. The ramp configuration is a variant of the area configuration, as it is built above ground, but on a slope.

16.4 Leachate and Gas Management

16.4 Leachate and Gas Management

The RCRA landfill design criteria include provisions for leachate and gas management to prevent groundwater contamination and to avoid any potential problems from gas migration, including explosions and fires, vegetation damage and atmospheric contamination. The rate and extent of gas generation are influenced by numerous factors but are controlled primarily by the products of microbial reactors in the landfills. Typical constituents of MSW landfill gas are shown in Table 16.5. Methane and carbon dioxide are the principal gaseous products. Smaller amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and trace compounds (many of which are volatile organic compounds; VOC) can also be found in landfill gas. Some of the trace gases, although present in small amounts, can be toxic and may present risks to public health (Tchobanoglous et al., 1991). The occurrence of significant quantities of VOC is associated with older landfills, which accepted industrial and commercial wastes containing VOC. In newer landfills, the disposal of hazardous wastes is not allowed, and thus the concentrations of VOC in the landfill gas are low. Gas migration is controlled by landfill caps, vents, and recovery systems or flaring systems. Leachate is formed when water passes through the landfilled waste materials. Leachate is a mixture of organic and inorganic, soluble and colloidal solids. It includes the products from decomposition of materials, as well as soluble constituents leached from the landfilled materials. Leachate generation rates are determined from the amount of water contained in the original material and the amount of precipitation that enters the landfill. Other factors include climate, site topography, final cover material, vegetative cover, site operating procedures and type of waste in the landfill. Landfill leachate characteristics vary widely from season to season and from year to year, as well as from one landfill to another. Typical data on the composition of leachate are shown in Table 16.6. Particle size, degree of compaction, waste composition, landfilling technique, cover configuration, site hydrology, climate and age of the tip are among the factors that affect leachate quantity and quality (Pohland and

Table 16.5 Typical constituents of MSW landfill gas (according to Tchobanoglous et al., 1991).

Component

Percent (dry volume basis)

Methane Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfides and S compounds Ammonia Hydrogen Carbon monoxide Trace constituents

45–60 40–60 2–5 0.1–1.0 0–1.0 0.1–1.0 0–0.2 0–0.2 0.01–0.6

403

404


Harper, 1986). Leachate characteristics are directly related to the natural processes occurring inside the landfill. The effects of climate on leachate production are fairly well understood. Rainwater provides both the mode of transport of contaminants out of the landfill and the moisture required for microbial activity. Depending on the porosity of the cover material (as well as the integrity of the cap, if one exists), high levels of rainfall often result in the production of large quantities of leachate. Large amounts of rainwater effectively reduce the contaminant concentration by dilution of the leachate. In more arid regions, evapotranspiration can reduce the expected leachate volume. Pohland and Harper (1986) have described five relatively well defined stages in landfill stabilization, which occur as landfill wastes are degraded (Table 16.7). Under favorable conditions, generally dictated by the presence of sufficient moisture to support microbial activity, landfills function as large-scale anaerobic reactors. Complex organic materials are converted to methane gas through the biological methane fermentation process. As a result, leachates produced in younger landfills are generally characterized by the presence of substantial amounts of volatile fatty acids (VFA), which are precursors of methane. These VFA make up the majority of the COD of young leachates.

Table 16.6 Typical compositions of leachate from new and mature landfills

(according to Tchobanoglous et al., 1991). Constituent

BOD5 TOC COD Total suspended solids Organic nitrogen Ammonia-N Nitrate Total P Ortho P Alkalinity as CaCO3 pH Total hardness as CaCO3 Calcium Magnesium Potassium Sodium Chloride Sulfate Total iron

Value (mg L–1) New Landfill (10 years)

100–200 80–160 100–500 100–400 80–120 20–40 5–10 5–10 4–8 200–1000 6.6–7.5 200–500 100–400 50–200 50–400 100–200 100–400 20–50 20–200

16.4 Leachate and Gas Management Table 16.7 Summary of stages of landfill stabilization (according to Pohland and Harper, 1986).

Phase

Description

Characteristics

I.

Initial adjustment

– initial waste placement and moisture accumulation – closure of each fill section and initial subsidence – environmental changes are first detected, including onset of stabilization process

II.

Transition

– field capacity is exceeded and leachate is formed – anaerobic microbial activity replaces aerobic – nitrate and sulfate replace oxygen as primary electron acceptors – a trend toward reducing conditions is established – measurable intermediates (VFA) appear in leachate

III.

Acid formation

– intermediate VFA become predominant with the continued hydrolysis and fermentation of waste organics – pH decrease, causing mobilization and possible complexation of heavy metals – nutrients such as N and P are released and assimilated – hydrogen produced from anaerobic oxidations may control intermediate fermentation products

IV.

Methane fermentation

– acetic acid, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen produced during acid formation are converted to methane – pH increases from buffer level controlled by VFA to one more characteristic of the bicarbonate system – redox potential is at a minimum – leachate organic strength decreases dramatically due to conversion of organic matter to methane gas

V.

Final maturation

– relative dormancy following active biostabilization – measurable gas production all but ceases – organics more resistant to microbial degradation may be converted, with possible production of humic-like substance capable of complexing and remobilizing heavy metals

Along with a high organic content, leachates can also contain considerable amounts of heavy metals (Chian and DeWalle, 1977). The oxidation–reduction potential and pH inside a biologically active landfill favor the solubilization of metals. High concentrations of iron, calcium, manganese and magnesium have been reported by several researchers (Pohland and Harper, 1986; Lema et al., 1988; Kennedy et al., 1988). Other potentially more toxic metals have also been measured in significant concentrations in leachates (Pohland and Harper, 1986). Leachate migration is controlled by a combination of landfill cap, bottom liner, and leachate collection and removal.

405

406


The nature of leachate contaminants generally mandates that some type of treatment process be employed prior to ultimate discharge of the wastewater. Numerous studies have been performed to evaluate the performance of biological and/or physicochemical treatment processes for removing organic and inorganic leachate contaminants. In general, leachates produced in younger landfills are most effectively treated by biological processes, because the wastewater is mostly composed of volatile fatty acids, which are readily amenable to biological treatment. Both aerobic and anaerobic processes have been used for the treatment of landfill leachate (Pohland and Harper, 1986; Iza et al., 1992). In contrast, contaminants in older leachates tend to be more refractory and inorganic in nature, making physicochemical treatment more applicable. In some situations, biological and physicochemical treatments are combined. As mentioned previously, a particularly attractive alternative for leachate treatment is leachate recycling, which has been shown to be an effective in situ treatment (Pohland, 1980). More recently, Pohland (1998) has noted that bioreactor landfills with in situ leachate recycling and treatment prior to discharge provide accelerated waste stabilization in a more predictable and shorter time period than is achieved in a conventional landfill.

16.5 Summary and Conclusions

Landfilling of municipal solid waste developed approximately 35 years ago as the principal means of solid waste management. It emerged as an alternative to incineration, which became less popular due to air quality concerns. Unfortunately, landfills were not designed and/or operated in a proper manner and therefore, had significant impact on the environment. In response to this situation, new laws (RCRA) were passed and strict regulations were established for solid waste landfill design and operation. These include provisions to control gas and leachate migration. In addition, the United States Environmental Protection Agency developed a hierarchy that relegated landfilling to a low priority. Higher emphasis is now placed on source reduction, recycling, and transformation processes. As a result of these new regulations and policies, the amount of municipal solid waste being landfilled has decreased. The number of landfills have also decreased (but newer landfills are generally larger). However, landfilling will remain a significant solid waste management tool, because certain components in the solid waste stream cannot be economically recovered or transformed. Although the new regulations focus on controlling gas and leachate migrations and subsequent environmental impacts, there are concerns about the long-term stability of landfill and the integrity of the liner systems. As a result, several investigators have promoted leachate recycling or the wet-cell concept as a means of accelerating the rate of solid waste decomposition.

References

References Chian, E. S. K., DeWalle, F. B., Evaluation of Leachate Treatment, Vol. 1. Characterization of Leachate, U.S. EPA Report No. EAP600/2-77-186a. Cincinnati, OH 1977. Denison, R. A., Ruston, J., Tyrens, J., Diedrich, R., Environmental prospectives, in: Handbook of Solid Waste Management (Kreith, F., ed.). New York 1994: McGrawHill. Federal Register, Solid waste disposal facility criteria: final rule, 40CFR Parts 257 and 259 (October 9, 1991). Iza, J. M., Keenan, P. J., Switzenbaum, M. S., Anaerobic treatment of municipal solid waste landfill leachate: operation of a pilot scale hybrid UASB/AF reactor, Water Sci. Technol. 1992, 25, 225. Kennedy, K. J., Hamoda, M. F., Guiot, S. G., Anaerobic treatment of leachate using fixed film and sludge bed systems, J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 1988, 60, 1675–1683. Lema, J., Mendez, R., Blazquez, R., Characteristics of landfill leachates and alternatives for their treatment: a review, Water Air Soil Pollut. 1988, 40, 223–250. O’Leary, P. R., Walsh, P. W., Solid Waste Landfills. Madison, WI 1992: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dept of Engineering Professional Development. Pohland, F. G., Leachate recycle as landfill management option, J. Environ. Eng. (ASCE) 1980, 106, 1057–1069.

Pohland, F. G., In situ anaerobic treatment of leachate in landfill bioreactors, Proc. 5th Latin American Seminar on Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment, October 1998, Viña del Mar, Chile. Pohland, F. G., Harper, S. R., Critical Review and Summary of Leachate and Gas Production from Landfills, U.S. EPA Report no. EPA 600/2-86/073. Cincinnati, OH 1986. Tchobanoglous, G., Theissen, H., Vigil, S., Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues. New York 1991: McGraw-Hill. Tchobanoglous, G., O’Leary, P., Landfilling, in: Handbook of Solid Waste Management (Kreith, F., ed.). New York 1994: McGraw-Hill. U. S. EPA, The EPA Municipal Solid Waste Factbook, Version 4.0 software. Washington DC 1997a. U. S. EPA, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States, 1996 Update. Washington DC 1997b: OSW Publications Distribution Center. U. S. EPA, The Solid Waste Dilemma: An Agenda for Action, U.S. EPA Report no. EPA/530SW-88.054A. Washington DC 1988.

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17 Process Engineering of Biological Waste Gas Purification Muthumbi Waweru, Veerle Herrygers, Herman Van Langenhove, and Willy Verstraete

17.1 Introduction

Process engineering of biological waste gas purification aims at the selection and operation of biological waste gas purification technologies with the ultimate aim of assuring mass transfer and biodegradation of one or more pollutants in a waste gas stream. Biodegradation of the pollutants occurs when microorganisms use the pollutants as a carbon source or an electron donor. In some special situations, microorganisms using a particular substrate such as glucose, ethanol, etc., can also oxidize another pollutant. This is due to unspecific metabolism by the enzymes of organisms and is called cometabolism (Alexander, 1981). The extent to which biological waste gas purification can occur is determined mainly by the physicochemical characteristics of the pollutant(s), the intrinsic capabilities of the microbial physiology and ecology, and the operating and environmental conditions. When selecting the bioreactor technology, focus is placed on the operational and control requirements needed to ensure an optimal chemical and physical environment for mass transfer and biodegradation so as to achieve a high and constant removal efficiency of the pollutant.

17.2 Biological Waste Gas Purification Technology 17.2.1 General Characteristics

Biological waste gas purification technology currently includes bioreactors known as biofilters, biotrickling filters, bioscrubbers, and membrane bioreactors. The mode of operation of all these reactors is similar. Air containing volatile compounds is passed through the bioreactor, where the volatile compounds are transferred from the gas phase into the liquid phase. Microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, grow Environmental Biotechnology. Concepts and Applications. Edited by H.-J. Jördening and J. Winter Copyright © 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN: 3-527-30585-8

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17 Process Engineering of Biological Waste Gas Purification

in this liquid phase and are involved in removing the compounds acquired from the air. The microorganisms responsible for the biodegradation usually grow as a mixture of organisms. Such a mixture of different bacteria, fungi and protozoa depends on a number of interactions and is often referred to as a microbial community. Microorganisms are generally organized in thin layers called biofilms. The pollutants in the air (such as toluene, methane, dichloromethane, ethanol, carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, etc.; Tolvanen et al., 1998) usually act as a source of carbon and energy for growth and maintenance of the microorganisms. Some waste gases, such as those produced during composting, are composed of many (often up to several hundred) different chemicals, such as alcohols, carbonyl compounds, terpenes, esters, organosulfur compounds, ethers, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, etc. (Tolvanen et al., 1998; Smet et al., 1999). The remarkable aspect of the microbial community is that it generally develops to a composition so that all these different chemicals are removed and metabolized simultaneously. Microorganisms also require essential nutrients and growth factors to function and produce new cells. These include nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, vitamins and trace elements. Most often these nutrients and growth factors are not present in the waste gas and have to be supplied externally. There are fundamental differences between the four types of reactors mentioned above. They range from whether the microorganisms are immobilized or dispersed to the state of the aqueous phase in the reactor (mobile or stationary). The aqueous phase significantly influences the mass transfer characteristics of the system. A short description of each of the four types of bioreactors for biological waste gas purification currently in use is given below (also see Figure 17.1). 17.2.2 Technology Types 17.2.2.1 Biofilter In a biofilter, the air is passed through a bed packed with organic carrier materials, e.g., compost, soil or wood bark. The compounds in the air are transferred to a biofilm that grows on the filter materials. The nutrients necessary for growth of the microorganisms are supplied by the organic matter. On top of the biofilm is a thin liquid layer. An important control parameter is the moisture content of the overall carrier matrix, which must be between 40% and 60% (w/w). To avoid dehydration, the air is generally humidified before entering the biofilter. If the waste gas contains high levels of solid particles (i.e., the waste gas is an aerosol), an aerosol removal filter can be installed before the humidification chamber. This prevents clogging of the biofilter by the particles.

17.2.2.2 Biotrickling Filter A biotrickling filter is similar to a biofilter. Here, pollutants are also transferred from the gas phase to a biofilm that grows on a packing material. However, the packing materials are made of chemically inert materials, such as plastic rings. Because nu-

17.3 Performance Parameters

trients are not available in these materials, they have to be supplied to the microorganisms by recirculating a liquid phase through the reactor in co- or countercurrent flow.

17.2.2.3 Bioscrubber A bioscrubber consists of two reactors. The first part is an absorption tower, where pollutants are absorbed by a liquid phase. This liquid phase goes to a second reactor, which is a kind of activated sludge unit, where microorganisms growing in suspended flocs in the water degrade the pollutants. The effluent of this unit is recirculated over the absorption tower in a co- or countercurrent direction to the flow of the waste gas.

17.2.2.4 Membrane Bioreactor In a membrane bioreactor, the waste gas stream is separated from the biofilm by a membrane that is selectively permeable to the pollutants. One side of the membrane is in contact with a liquid phase supplemented with nutrients, and the other side is in contact with the waste gas stream. The nutrient-rich liquid phase is inoculated with microorganisms capable of degrading the pollutant. These microorganisms organize themselves and form a biofilm attached onto the membrane. As the pollutants migrate through the selectively permeable membrane, they enter the nutrientrich liquid phase and are degraded. The liquid phase is maintained in a reservoir where the nutrients are refreshed, oxygen is supplied and the pH and temperature are controlled. Different types of membranes can be used, such as polar or hydrophobic membranes. They can be installed as tubular or flat sheets. Figure 17.1 shows a close-up of the site of biological activity in the four types of bioreactors. Note that in a bioscrubber the microorganisms are in the second reactor and are fully suspended as flocs or granules in the liquid.


Different biological waste gas purification technologies can be compared based on performance by using a set of parameters. These parameters include • empty bed contact time (s) • surface loading rate (m3 m–2 h–1) • mass loading rate (g m–3 h–1) • volumetric loading rate (m3 m–3 h–1) • elimination capacity (g m–3 h–1) • removal efficiency (%) The discussion below particularly relates to the biofilter type of reactor.

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412


Fig. 17.1 Schematic representation of four types of bioreactors used in biological waste gas pur-

ification and close-up view of their respective microbial configurations: (a) biofilter, (b) biotrickling filter, (c) bioscrubber, (d) membrane bioreactor.


17.3.1 Empty Bed Contact Time or True Contact Time

The residence time of the gas in a bioreactor can be calculated in two different ways; • Superficial residence time or empty bed residence time, based on the total volume of the reactor and referred to as empty bed contact time (EBCT): EBCT =

V 3600 Q

(1)

where V = volume of filter material in the reactor (m3), and Q = waste gas flow rate (m3 h–1). • True residence time ô, which is based on the free space in the reactor and defined as ô=

åV 3600 Q

(2)

where å = porosity of the packing materials (dimensionless). Often the exact porosity needed to calculate the true residence time is not known. Hence, most often the empty bed contact time is used. The EBCT is typically used for comparison of gas residence times in different reactor technologies or under different loading conditions. However, one has to remember that this gives an overestimation of the true residence time. Due to preferential currents through the larger voids in the packing, the actual residence time can differ considerably from the calculated residence time. The residence time in the reactor is useful as an indicator of the time available for mass transfer of the pollutant from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the biofilm, which is often the factor limiting microbial degradation. 17.3.2 Surface Loading Rate (B A)

The surface loading rate indicates the amount of air that is passed through the bioreactor per unit surface area per unit time: BA =

Q A.

(3)

where A = total surface area of the packing or filter material in the bioreactor (m2). One can also express the velocity of the gas (m h–1) through the empty reactor. However, the reactor is normally filled with packing materials, which results in a velocity of gas higher than the surface loading rate.

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17.3.3 Mass Loading Rate (B V)

The mass loading rate gives the amount of pollutant that is introduced into the bioreactor per unit volume and per unit time: QCg–in

BV =

(4)

V.

where Cg–in = concentration of the pollutant in the inlet waste gas stream (g m–3). 17.3.4 Volumetric Loading Rate (vS)

The volumetric loading rate is the amount of waste gas passed through the reactor per unit reactor volume: vS =

Q

(5)

V.

17.3.5 Elimination Capacity (EC)

The elimination capacity EC gives the amount of pollutant removed per volume bioreactor per unit time. The overall elimination capacity is defined by Eq. (6): EC =

Q (Cg–in – Cg–out) V.

(6)

where Cg–out = concentration of the pollutant in the effluent waste gas (g m–3). 17.3.6 Removal Efficiency (RE)

Removal efficiency is the fraction of the pollutant removed in the bioreactor expressed as a percentage. It is defined as RE =

(Cg–in – Cg–out) Cg–in

100

(7)

We should note that the various parameters are interdependent. There are only four independent design parameters: reactor height, volumetric loading rate, and gas phase concentrations at the inlet (Cg–in) and outlet (Cg–out).

17.4 Characteristics of the Waste Gas Stream

17.4 Characteristics of the Waste Gas Stream

Several characteristics of the waste gas stream have to be known when considering the implementation of biological waste gas purification technologies. Table 17.1 lists the characteristics of the waste gas stream that are essential for correctly designing a biological purification system. Physical parameters such as relative humidity and temperature are important, because they have considerable influence on microbial degradation of the pollutant. Different microorganisms have different optimal ranges of temperature and relative humidity for growth. Temperature also affects the partitioning of the pollutant between the gas and liquid phases. The waste gas flow rate influences the volumetric loading rate of pollutant on the biologically active phase and, hence, the elimination capacity. Equally important are the identity and concentration of the pollutant and/or odor units in the waste gas stream, because they influence the overall efficiency of the biological waste gas system. It is also important to establish the chemical composition of the waste gas stream before starting to design the treatment system. The microbial degradability of the pollutant in the waste gas stream is largely dependent on its chemical identity. The pollutant can be organic or inorganic. Typical organic pollutants that are often encountered in waste gas streams are ethers, ketones, fatty acids, alcohols, hydrocarbons, amines, and organosulfur compounds. Valuable information about the biodegradability of chemicals can be obtained, e.g., from Van Agteren et al. (1998). Waste gases can also contain inorganic compounds such as NH3, NO2, NO, H2S, and SO2. Some of these compounds may be present at toxic levels or they may reduce the degradation capacity by, e.g., acidifying the biofilter material. Therefore, either these compounds have to be eliminated before the waste gas stream enters the bioreactor, or a means of controlling the pH has to be installed. Different compounds can also

Table 17.1 Important characteristics of a waste gas stream.

Parameter

Unit

Relative humidity Temperature Waste gas flow rate Pollutant identity (chemistry) Pollutant concentration Odor concentration

% °C m3 h–1 g m–3 ou m–3

Odor unit (ou) is the amount of (a mixture of) odorous compounds present in 1 m3 of odorless gas (under standard conditions) at the panel threshold (CEN, 1998).

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affect each other’s degradation without being toxic to the microorganisms. Smet et al. (1997) reported that isobutyraldehyde (IB) had to be removed by a first layer of the biofilter before a Hypohomicrobium-based microbial community in a subsequent layer could develop and metabolize the dimethyl sulfide (DMS) present in the waste gas. In separate batch experiments they showed that the same Hypohomicrobium sp. switched its metabolism from using IB to consuming DMS when the IB concentrations decreased. When bioreactors are used for odor abatement, the concentration of odiferous compounds in the waste gas has to be determined as well. The odor concentration in odor units per cubic meter (ou m–3) corresponds to the number of times a waste gas sample has to be diluted with reference air before the odor of the diluted sample can be distinguished from the reference air by 50% of the members of a standard panel. In this respect, the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN) is currently involved in standardizing the determination of odor compounds by dynamic olfactometry. This will improve the reproducibility of olfactometric measurements, basically by using panels standardized with respect to 1-butanol (detection threshold of 40 ppbv) (CEN, 1998). Although the evaluation of bioreactor performance aimed at odor reduction has to be based on olfactometric measurements, design and optimization always require chemical characterization of the overall process. The concentration of the pollutants and/or odor units largely depends on the source of the waste gas stream. Waste gas streams from, e.g., hexane oil extraction processes have a pollutant concentration in the range of a few g m–3. On the other hand, for waste gas streams polluted with offensive odors, concentrations of the odorous compounds can be in the range of mg m–3 or less (Smet et al., 1998). The characteristics of the waste gas stream determine to a large extent the type of bioreactor system that can be used. Table 17.2 gives a first indication of the suitability of bioreactors for waste gas purification in relation to the characteristics of the waste gas stream. Note the preponderant importance of the Henry coefficient. Chemicals that dissolve easily in water (hydrophilic substances) can be retained efficiently by scrubbing with water. Chemicals that are poorly water soluble (high Henry coefficient) are better dealt with by means of a biofilter. In Table 17.2, the mem-

Table 17.2 Pollutant concentrations, Henry coefficients, and concomitant operating parameters

of biofilters, biotrickling filters, and bioscrubbers (after van Groenestijn and Hesselink, 1993).

Pollutant concentration (g m–3) Henry coefficient (dimensionless) Surface loading rate (m3 m–3 h–1) Mass loading rate (g m–3 h–1) Empty bed contact time (s) Volumetric loading rate (m3 m–3 h–1) Elimination capacity (g m–3 h–1) Removal efficiency (%)

Biofilter

Biotrickling Filter

Bioscrubber

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