Architectural Drafting and Design

Architectural Drafting and Design Sixth Edition Alan Jefferis Principal of Residential Designs Former architectural dra...

Author: Alan Jefferis | David A. Madsen | David P. Madsen

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Architectural Drafting and Design Sixth Edition Alan Jefferis Principal of Residential Designs Former architectural drafting instructor at Mt Hood Community College Faculty Emeritus at Clackamas Community College Former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. Former Autodesk Developer Network Member Coauthor of Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture.

David A. Madsen President, Madsen Designs Inc. Faculty Emeritus Former Department Chairperson Drafting Technology, Autodesk Premier Training Center Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, Oregon Former Instructor, Drafting Technology Centennial High School, Gresham, Oregon Autodesk Developer Network Member Director Emeritus, American Design Drafting Association Author of Engineering Drawing and Design, Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology.

David P. Madsen Vice President, Madsen Designs Inc. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting Consultant and Educator Autodesk Developer Network Member SolidWorks Research Associate American Design Drafting Association Member Author of Inventor and its Applications. Coauthor of AutoCAD and its Applications, Architectural Drafting Using AutoCAD, Civil Drafting Technology, Engineering Drawing and Design, and Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing.

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Brief Contents Preface, xiii Acknowledgments, xix Prologue, xxiii

SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor Plan Drawings

SECTION 1 Introduction to

20 Plumbing Plans, 461

Architectural Design and Drafting 1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3 2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 3 Architectural Drafting Equipment, 44

19 Electrical Plans, 431

21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485

SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527 23 Roof Plan Layout, 547

4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58 5 Sketching Applications, 66

SECTION 7 Elevations

6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87

24 Introduction to Elevations, 567

7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104

25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589

SECTION 2 Residential Design 8 Construction Specifications, 141 9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design, 152 10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177 11 Exterior Design Factors, 209 12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232

SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268 15 Site Plan Layout, 285

26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608

SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans 27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694 31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708 32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727

SECTION 4 The Floor Plan

SECTION 9 Foundation Plans

16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311

33 Foundation Systems, 773

17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360

34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803

18 Floor Plan Layout, 379

35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828 iii

iv

Brief Contents

SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details

SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting

36 Sectioning Basics, 853

42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953

37 Section Layout, 862

43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975

38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876

44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009

39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901

45 Structural Drafting, 1062

40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914

SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings

and Renderings 41 Presentation Drawings, 935

Glossary, 1095 Index, 1113

Contents Preface, xiii

Drafting Furniture, 44

Acknowledgments, xix

Drafting Pencils and Leads, 44

Prologue, xxiii

Technical Pens and Accessories, 45 Erasers and Accessories, 45

SECTION 1 Introduction to

Architectural Design and Drafting

1

1 Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities, 3

Drafting Instruments, 47 Drafting Machines, 50 Drafting Machine Controls and Machine Head Operation, 51 Scales, 51

Introduction, 3

Protractors, 54

Drafter, 3

Additional Resources, 56

Designer, 6

Architectural Drafting Equipment Test, 56

Interior Decorator, 6

4 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods, 58

Kitchen and Bath Designer, 6 Interior Designer, 7

Introduction, 58

Architect, 8

Papers and Films, 58

Engineer, 9

Manual Drawing Reproduction, 59

Related Fields, 10 Design Basics, 12

Sheet Sizes, Sheet Format, Title Blocks, and Borders, 60


How to Fold Prints, 61

Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test, 32

Diazo Reproduction, 62

2 Introduction to Construction Procedures, 33 Introduction, 33

Photocopy Reproduction, 62 Microfilm, 62 Additional Resources, 64 Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test, 64

Loan Applications, 33 Individual Appraisal Requirements, 34

5 Sketching Applications, 66

Master Appraisal Requirements, 34

Introduction, 66

Change Orders, 34

Sketching Tools and Materials, 66

Building Permits, 34

Sketching Straight Lines, 66

Contracts, 35

Sketching Circular Lines, 67

Completion Notices, 35

Measurement Lines and Proportions, 68

Construction Estimates, 36

Introduction to Multiview Sketches, 71

Construction Inspections, 37

Isometric Sketches, 73

Additional Resources, 40 Introduction to Construction Procedures Test, 40

3 Architectural Drafting Equipment

44

Orthographic Projection, 75 Multiview Projection, 75 Projection of Features from an Inclined Plane, 79

Introduction, 44


Drafting Supplies, 44

Sketching Applications Test, 84 v

vi

Contents

National Building Codes, 155

6 Architectural Lines and Lettering, 87 Introduction, 87

Basic Design Criteria for Building Planning, 156

Types of Lines, 87

Climatic and Geographic Design Criteria, 163

Line Techniques, 91

International Energy Conservation Code, 169

Lettering, 94


Hints for Professional Lettering, 97

Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 175

Additional Resources, 100 Architectural Lines and Lettering Test, 101

10 Room Relationships and Sizes, 177

7 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture, 104

Introduction, 177 The Floor Plan, 177

Introduction, 104

Living Area, 177

Architectural CADD Software Products, 104

Sleeping Area, 185

Productivity with CADD, 107

Service Areas, 190

The CADD Workstation, 107

Traffic Patterns, 203

Using CADD Templates, 107


Template Drawings on the Student CD, 108

Room Relationships and Sizes Test, 208

U.S. National CAD Standard, 108 Uniform Drawing System, 109

11 Exterior Design Factors, 209

Model and Sheet File-Naming Standards, 110

Introduction, 209

Sheet Identification, 113

Site Considerations, 209

File Management, 113

Elements of Design, 211

Sheet Organization, 113

Principles of Design, 212

Schedules, 116

Floor Plan Styles, 214

Drafting Conventions, 116

Exterior Styles, 216

CADD Graphics, 117


Drawing on CADD Layers, 120

Exterior Design Factors Test, 230

CADD Plotting Guidelines, 125 Additional Resources, 135

12 Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction, 232

Computer-Aided Design and Drafting in Architecture Test, 135

Introduction, 232 Energy-Efficient Design, 232

SECTION 2 Residential Design 8 Construction Specifications, 141 Introduction, 141 Residential Description of Materials, 141

139

The LEED Program, 233 National Association of Home Builders Model Green Home Building, 235 Energy Star, 236

General Construction Specifications, 141

The EnviroHome Initiative, Canadian Home Builders’ Association, 236

Specifications for Residential Design, 146

Energy-Efficient Construction Practices, 237

Specifications for Commercial Construction, 146

Solar Energy Design, 237

Construction Documents, 149

Passive Solar Systems, 239


Envelope Design, 242

Construction Specifications Test, 150

Active Solar Systems, 242

9 Guidelines and Required Codes That Affect Building Design 152

Geothermal Systems, 244 Wind Energy, 246

Introduction, 152

Hydroelectric Power, 246

Green Building Guidelines, 152

Biopower, 246

Contents

vii

Healthy Architectural Design and Construction, 246

SECTION 4 The Floor Plan

309


16 Floor Plan Symbols, 311

Conservation and Environmental Design and Construction Test, 251

Introduction, 311 Wall Symbols, 311

SECTION 3 Site Planning 13 Site Orientation, 257 Introduction, 257 Terrain Orientation, 257 View Orientation, 257 Solar Orientation, 259 Wind Orientation, 260 Sound Orientation, 264 Additional Resources, 266 Site Orientation Test, 267

255

Wall Shading and Material Indications, 316 Door Symbol Representations, 318 Window Symbol Representations, 321 Schedules, 324 Cabinets, Fixtures, and Appliances on Floor Plans, 332 Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 337 Floor Plan Materials, 339 Stair Planning and Floor Plan Representation, 341 Hallways on Floor Plans, 345 Fireplaces on Floor Plans, 346 Solid Fuel–Burning Appliances, 350

14 Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements, 268

Room Titles on Floor Plans, 351 Other Floor Plan Symbols, 351

Introduction, 268

Conclusion, 354

Metes and Bounds System, 268


Rectangular Survey System, 268

Floor Plan Symbols Test, 358

Lot and Block System, 271 Site Plan Requirements, 272

17 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes, 360

Topography, 272

Introduction, 360

Drawing Site Plans, 274

Aligned Dimensions, 360

Grading Plan Features, 275

Floor Plan Dimensions, 360

Site Analysis Plan, 277

Placing Exterior Dimensions, 360

Subdivision Plans, 280

Placing Interior Dimensions, 364

Planned Unit Development, 281

Standard Feature Dimensions, 364

Metrics in Site Planning, 281

Omitting Dimensions Established by the Foundation, 365


Dimensioning Arc and Circular Floor Plan Features, 366

Legal Descriptions and Site Plan Requirements Test, 284

Common Sizes of Architectural Features, 367

15 Site Plan Layout, 285 Introduction, 285 Site Design Considerations, 286 Rural Residential Fire Department Access and Site Planning, 287 Laying Out Property Lines, 288 Steps in Site Plan Layout, 289 Site Plan Drawing Checklist, 290

Masonry Veneer on the Floor Plan, 369 Concrete-Block and Structural Masonry Construction on the Floor Plan, 369 Solid Concrete Construction on the Floor Plan, 370 Floor Plan Notes and Specifications, 370 Designing Floor Plans Using Standard Construction Modules, 372 Using Metric Dimensions, 372 Additional Resources, 377 Floor Plan Dimensions and Notes Test, 377

Drawing Contour Lines, 291 Drawing Profiles, 293

18 Floor Plan Layout, 379

Drawing Grading Plans, 294

Introduction, 379


Steps for Laying Out a Floor Plan, 379

Site Plan Layout Test, 303

Second-Floor Plan Layout, 392

viii

Contents

Basement Plan Layout, 394

Plumbing Plan Drawing Checklist, 478

Floor Plan Drawing Checklist, 398

Additional Resources,, 483


Plumbing Plans Test, 483

Floor Plan Layout Test, 403

21 Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning, 485 Introduction, 485

SECTION 5 Supplemental Floor

Plan Drawings 19 Electrical Plans, 431

429

Central Forced-Air Systems, 485 Forced-Air Heating Plans, 486 Hot Water Systems, 490

Introduction, 431

Heat Pump Systems, 490

Electrical Terms and Definitions, 431

Zone Control Systems, 491

Electrical Circuit Design, 432

Radiant Heat, 492

Basic Electrical Design Recommendations, 433

Thermostats, 492

Home Automation, 434

Heat Recovery and Ventilation, 493

Electrical Design Considerations, 435

Exhaust Systems: Code Requirements, 495

Smoke Detectors, 437

Central Vacuum Systems, 495

Carbon Monoxide Alarms, 437

HVAC Symbols, 495

Universal Electrical Installations, 437

Universal HVAC Design, 497

Electrical Symbols, 439

HVAC Code Requirements, 498

Light Fixture Design and Placement, 443

Thermal Calculations for Heating/Cooling, 499

Reflected Ceiling Plans, 446

Steps in Filling Out the Residential Heating Data Sheet, 500

Electrical Schedules, 446

Steps in Filling Out the Residential Cooling Data Sheet, 506

Electrical Wiring Specifications, 447

HVAC Drawings, 511

Metrics in Electrical Installations, 448

HVAC Plan Drawing Checklist, 516

Steps in Drawing the Electrical Plan, 448


Drawing the Upper-Floor Electrical Plan, 449

Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning Test, 520

Electrical Plan Drawing Checklist, 449 Additional Resources, 458 Electrical Plans Test, 459

SECTION 6 Roof Plans 22 Roof Plan Components, 527

20 Plumbing Plans, 461

Introduction, 527

Introduction, 461

Types of Roof Plans, 527

Plumbing Terms and Definitions, 462

Common Roof Terms, 527

Sizing of Plumbing Piping, 464

Roof Shapes, 533

Universal Plumbing Installations, 464

Roofing Materials, 539

Plumbing Schedules, 466

Roof Ventilation and Access, 543

Plumbing Drawings, 466


Water Systems, 466

Roof Plan Components Test, 545

Drainage and Vent Systems, 469 Isometric Plumbing Drawings, 470

23 Roof Plan Layout, 547

Automatic Fire Sprinkler Systems, 471

Introduction, 547

Sewage Disposal, 472

Representing Roof Plan Components, 547

Fire Sprinkler Systems, 474

Representing Structural Materials, 553

Metrics in Plumbing, 474

Representing Nonstructural Material, 554

Adding Plumbing Information to the Floor Plan, 475

Dimensions, 557

Commercial Plumbing Drawings, 475

Annotation, 557

525

Contents

ix

Drawing Gable Roof Plans, 558

28 Structural Components of Framed Construction, 654

Drawing Hip Roof Plans, 559 Drawing Dutch Hip Roof Plans, 560

Introduction, 654

Roof Plan Checklist, 563

Floor Construction, 654

Roof Plan Layout Test, 563

Framed Wall Construction, 664 Roof Construction, 672

SECTION 7 Elevations

565

Additional Resources, 683 Structural Components Test, 684

24 Introduction to Elevations, 567 29 Design Criteria for Structural Loading, 685

Introduction, 567 Major Considerations of Drawing Elevations, 567

Introduction, 685

Representing Materials in Elevation, 572

Types of Loads, 685


Load Design, 688

Introduction to Elevations Test, 588

Load Distribution, 690 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Test, 692

25 Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques, 589 30 Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables, 694

Introduction, 589 Layout, 589

Introduction, 694

Drawing Finished-Quality Lines Manually, 593

Determining Wood Characteristics, 694

Annotation, 595

Determining Size and Span, 694

Drawing Roof Intersections, 596

Working with Engineered Lumber, 699

Drawing Irregular Shapes, 597


Projecting Grades, 600

Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables Test, 706

Elevation Checklist, 606

31 Determining Beam Sizes, 708

Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques Test, 607

Introduction, 708 Structural Lumber, 708

26 Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout, 608

Loading Reactions of Wood Members, 710

Introduction, 608

Methods of Beam Design, 712

Types of Millwork, 608

Sizing Wood Beams Using Standard Formulas, 714

Cabinets, 612

Wood Adjustment Factors, 718

Cabinet Elevations and Layout, 617

Review, 719

Bathroom Cabinet Layout, 623

Sizing Beams Using Span Tables, 720

Cabinet Elevations Checklist, 623

Sizing Laminated Beams, 720


Working with Engineered Beams, 720

Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout Test, 627

Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at the Center, 721 Simple Beam with a Load Concentrated at Any Point, 723 Cantilevered Beams with a Uniform Load, 723

SECTION 8 Framing Methods and Plans

629

27 Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods, 631 Introduction, 631

Additional Resources, 725 Determining Beam Sizes Test, 725

32 Drawing Framing Plans, 727

Wood Framing Methods, 631

Introduction, 727

Energy-Efficient Framing Methods, 638

Major Components Represented on a Framing Plan, 727

Green Construction Goals, 649 Additional Resources, 652

Resisting Lateral Loads Using the Prescriptive Path of the Code, 735

Framing Methods Test, 653

Completing a Framing Plan, 751

x

Contents

Roof Framing Plans, 753

Types of Sections, 853

Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 759

Drawing Scale, 856

Floor Framing Plans, 759

Representing and Locating Materials, 858

Roof Framing Plan Checklist, 762

Sectioning Basics Test, 861

Framing Plan Checklist, 764

37 Section Layout, 862


Introduction, 862

Drawing Framing Plans Test, 770

Stage 1: Evaluate Needs, 862

SECTION 9 Foundation Plans

771

33 Foundation Systems, 773

Stage 2: Lay Out the Section, 862 Stage 3: Finished-Quality Lines for Structural Members Only, 864 Stage 4: Drawing Finishing Materials, 867

Introduction, 773

Stage 5: Dimensioning, 869

Soil Considerations, 773

Stage 6: Lettering Notes, 870

Types of Foundations, 777

Stage 7: Evaluating Your Work, 871

Dimensioning Foundation Components, 798

Section—Trusses Checklist, 871


Section Layout Test, 874

Foundation Systems Test, 801

38 Alternative Layout Techniques, 876

34 Floor Systems and Foundation Support, 803

Introduction, 876

Introduction, 803

Floor Joist/Foundation, 876

On-Grade Foundations, 803

Post-and-Beam Foundations, 879

Crawl Space Floor Systems, 814

Basement with Concrete Slab, 881


Conventional (Stick) Roof Framing, 886

Floor Systems and Foundation Support Test, 827

Section—Rafters Checklist, 892 Garage/Residence—Section, 892

35 Foundation Plan Layout, 828

Alternative Layout Techniques Test, 895

Introduction, 828 Concrete Slab Foundation Layout, 828

39 Stair Construction and Layout, 901

Slab Foundation Plan Checklist, 831

Introduction, 901

Foundation Plan with Joist Construction, 831

Stair Terminology, 901

Foundation Plan with Joists Checklist, 835

Determining Rise and Run, 902

Standard Foundation with Post-and-Beam Floor System, 835

Straight Stair Layout, 903

Foundation Plan with Post-and-Beam Checklist, 840

Open Stairway Layout, 906

Combination Slab and Crawl Space Plans for a Partial Basement, 840

U-Shaped Stairs, 909

Checklist for Foundation Plans with Partial Slab and Floor Joists, 844

Exterior Stairs, 910

Full Basement, 844


Foundation Plan Layout Test, 849

Stair Construction and Layout Test, 913

SECTION 10 Wall Sections and Details 36 Sectioning Basics, 853

L-Shaped Stairs, 910 Section—Stair Checklist, 911

851

40 Fireplace Construction and Layout, 914 Introduction, 914 Fireplace Alternatives, 914

Introduction, 853

Fireplace Terms, 915

Section Origination, 853

Drawing the Fireplace Section, 921

Section Alignment, 853

Section—Masonry Fireplace Checklist, 926

Contents

xi

Fireplace Elevations, 928

45 Structural Drafting, 1062


Introduction, 1062

Fireplace Construction and Layout Test, 931

Plan the Drawing, 1062 Procedure—From Calculations to Working Drawing, 1062

SECTION 11 Presentation Drawings

and Renderings

933

Order of Precedence, 1065 Structural Drafting Project, 1066

41 Presentation Drawings, 935 Introduction, 935

BOXED FEATURES

Types of Presentation Drawings, 935 Methods of Presentation, 936

Going Green

Rendering Procedure for Drawings, 941

An Introduction to Green Design, 12

Presentation Drawings Test, 948

Sustainable Design Opportunity, 130 GreenFormat, 148

SECTION 12 Commercial Drafting

951

Green Codes, 173 Green Design Considerations, 207

42 Building Codes and Commercial Design, 953

Green Styles, 228

Introduction, 953

An Overview, 233

Exploring Building Codes, 953

The Ultimate Urban Green Home, 248

Determining Design Categories, 955

Environmentally Sound Landscaping Practices, 265

Using the Codes, 971

Designing an Ecosystem, 301


Windows and Energy Loss, 325

Building Codes and Commercial Design Test, 974

The International Energy Conservation Code, 396 Living Smart, 400

43 Common Commercial Construction Materials, 975 Introduction, 975 Wood, 975 Concrete Block, 979 Poured Concrete, 983 Steel Construction, 988 Common Connection Methods, 995 Additional Resources, 1005 Common Commercial Construction Materials Test, 1007

44 Commercial Construction Projects, 1009 Introduction, 1009 Office Practice, 1009 Drawing Organization, 1011 Site Drawings, 1013 Architectural Drawings, 1017

Going Green, 404 Energy Conservation, 434 Electricity Generation from Wind Power, 456 Energy Conservation, 465 Solar Hot Water, 473 Indoor Water Use, 481 Improving Indoor Air Quality, 509 Green Roofing, 544 Green Applications of Exterior Elevations, 587 Green Framing, 637 Environmentally Friendly Design and Construction, 682 Green Foundations, 800 Green Floor Systems, 826 Goals of an Energy-Efficient Fireplace, 922 Green Design Considerations, 1003

Structural Drawings, 1038

CADD Applications

Electrical Drawings, 1050

CADD Applications, 56

Fixture Drawings, 1052

Drafting Archives, 60

Mechanical Drawings, 1054 Plumbing Drawings, 1055

Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches, 80

Commercial Construction Projects Test, 1061

Drawing Lines, 92

xii

Contents

CADD Lettering, 97


The Future Is Here with CADD, 106


Architectural CADD Symbols, 119


This Is What the Future Looks Like: Web-Based Architectural Collaboration, 129

Using CADD to Draw Floor Plans, 399

Using Surveyor’s Units, 289

Drawing Electrical Symbols with CADD, 454

Using CADD to Draw Site Plans, 296

Drawing Plumbing Symbols with CADD, 479


CADD in the HVAC Industry, 517


Drawing Roof Plans with CADD, 561

Drawing Floor Plan Walls Using CADD, 317

CADD Elevations and Symbols, 586

U.S. National CAD Standard for Schedules, 330


Placing Material Symbols with CADD, 340


Designing and Drawing Stairs with CADD, 345

Options for Creating Cabinet Elevations, 621

CADD Floor Plan Symbols, 354

Drawing Millwork and Cabinet Elevations with CADD, 625

Placing Architectural Dimensions with CADD, 374

Drawing Framing Plans with CADD, 769


Using CADD to Draw Foundation Plans, 847


Drawing Sections and Details with CADD, 872


Drawing Stairs with CADD, 912

CADD Applications, 385 CADD Applications, 385

Drawing Fireplace Sections and Elevations with CADD, 930


Using CADD to Make Presentation Drawings, 948


The Code and Computers, 973


Commercial Drawings, 1058


CADD Applications, 388 CADD Applications, 389 CADD Applications, 390

Glossary, 1095


Index, 1113

Preface For nearly 25 years, students have relied on Architectural Drafting and Design for easy-to-read, comprehensive coverage of architectural drafting and design instruction that complies with and reinforces architectural, engineering, and construction industry standards and practices. This sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design is a practical, comprehensive textbook that is easy to use and understand. The content can be used as presented by following a logical sequence of learning activities for residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design, or the chapters can be rearranged to accommodate alternate formats for traditional or individualized instruction.

AMERICAN DESIGN DRAFTING ASSOCIATION (ADDA) APPROVED PUBLICATION The content of this text is considered a fundamental component to the design-drafting profession by the American Design Drafting Association. This publication covers topics and related material, as stated in the ADDA Curriculum Certification Standards and the ADDA Certified Drafter Examination Review Guide. Although this publication is not conclusive, with respect to ADDA standards, it should be considered a key reference tool in pursuit of a professional design-drafting career.

ABOUT THE INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL The International Code Council (ICC) is a nonprofit membership association dedicated to protecting the health, safety, and welfare of people by creating better buildings and safer communities. The mission of ICC is to provide the highest quality codes, standards, products, and services for all concerned with the safety and performance of the building environment. ICC is the publisher of the family of the International Codes® (I-Codes®), a single set of comprehensive and coordinated model

codes. This unified approach to building codes enhances safety, efficiency, and affordability in the construction of buildings. The Code Council is also dedicated to innovation, sustainability, and energy efficiency. Code Council subsidiary, ICC Evaluation Service, issues Evaluation Reports for innovative products and reports of Sustainable Attributes Verification and Evaluation (SAVE). Headquarters: 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001-2070 District Offices: Birmingham, AL; Chicago. IL; Los Angeles, CA 1-888-422-7233 www.iccsafe.org

APPROACH Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical and realistic approach to solving problems that are encountered in the architectural design world.

Practical Architectural Drafting and Design provides a practical approach to architectural drafting as it relates to current standard practices. The emphasis on standardization is an excellent and necessary foundation of drafting training as well as for implementing a common approach to drafting nationwide. After students become professional drafters, this text will serve as a valuable desk reference.

Realistic Chapters contain professional examples, illustrations, step-by-step layout techniques, drafting problems, and related tests. The examples demonstrate recommended drafting presentation with actual architectural drawings used for reinforcement. The correlated text explains drafting practices and provides useful information for knowledge building and skill development. Step-by-step layout methods provide a logical approach to beginning and finishing complete sets of working drawings. xiii

xiv

Practical Approach to Problem Solving The professional architectural drafter’s responsibility is to convert architects’, engineers’, and designers’ sketches and ideas into formal drawings. This textbook explains how to prepare formal drawings from design sketches by providing the learner with basic guidelines for drafting layout and minimum design and code requirements in a knowledge-building format. One concept is learned before the next is introduced. The concepts and skills learned from one chapter to the next allow students to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial construction projects. Problem assignments are presented in order of difficulty and in a manner that provides students with a wide variety of architectural drafting experiences.

Real-World Architectural Problems The problems are presented as preliminary designs or design sketches in a manner that is consistent with actual architectural office practices. It is not enough for students to duplicate drawings from given assignments; they must be able to think through the process of drawing development with a foundation based on how drawing and construction components are put into practice. The goals and objectives of each problem assignment are consistent with recommended evaluation criteria based on the progression of learning activities. The drafting problems and tests recommend that work be done using drafting skills on actual drafting materials with either professional manual or computer-aided drafting equipment. A problem solution or test answer should be accurate and demonstrate proper drafting practice.

FEATURES OF THE TEXTBOOK Major features of this textbook that guide you through the world of architectural design and drafting include realistic application of the information presented throughout each chapter, professional illustrations of each concept to be explored, CADD applications of each type of working drawing, exploration of the 2009 building codes and standards produced by the International Code Council, the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED).

Applications Special emphasis has been placed on providing realistic drafting problems. Problems are presented as design sketches or preliminary drawings in a manner that is consistent with architectural practices. The problems have

Preface

been supplied by architects and architectural designers. Each problem solution is based on the step-by-step layout procedures provided in the chapter discussions. Problems are given in order of complexity to expose students to a variety of drafting experiences. Problems require students to go through the same thought and decision-making processes that a professional drafter faces daily, including scale and paper size selection, view layout, dimension placement, section placement, and many other activities. Problems can be solved using manual or computer-aided drafting, as determined by individual course guidelines. Chapter tests provide complete coverage of each chapter and can be used for student evaluation or as review.

Illustrations Drawings and photos are used liberally throughout this textbook to strengthen the concepts presented. Fullcolor treatment enhances the clarity. Abundant stepby-step illustrations take students through the detailed stages of the drafting process for each application. The step-by-step illustrations are created using computeraided drafting for the highest accuracy and quality.

Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) CADD is presented as a valuable tool that has revolutionized the architectural design and drafting industry. The complete discussion of CADD introduces the workstation environment, terminology, drafting techniques, and sample drawings. Although individual course guidelines may elect to solve architectural drafting problems using either computer-aided or manual drafting equipment, the concepts remain the same, with the only difference being the method of presentation.

Construction Techniques and Building Codes Construction techniques differ throughout the country. This text clearly acknowledges the difference in construction methods and introduces the student to the format used to make a complete set of working drawings for each method of construction. Students may learn to prepare drawings from each construction method or, more commonly, for the specific construction techniques that are used in their locality. The problem assignments are designed to provide drawings that involve a variety of construction alternatives. To provide oversight of the wide range of construction methods and materials used throughout the country,

Preface

the 2009 model codes written by the International Code Council (ICC) are referenced throughout this textbook. The major ICC codes addressed in this textbook include the International Residential Code (IRC) in Chapter 1 through Chapter 41 and the International Building Code (IBC) in Chapter 42 through Chapter 45. Although many municipalities have adopted their own versions of these codes, the use of these model codes provides a firm background before exploring local variations.

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NEW TO THE SIXTH EDITION Architectural Drafting and Design, Sixth Edition, provides the following improvements over the fifth edition.

Codes and Standards Compliance Each chapter is based on information provided by the following major industry leaders: ●

Additional Resources At the end of most chapters, an Additional Resources section provides students with information on additional resources related to chapter topics. This section lists Web sites for companies or organizations that offer materials, services, and standards related to the chapter content. The following is an example of how the Additional Resources are presented in the textbook:

Chapter Tests Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Select the Chapter Tests link on the Student CD to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor.

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2009 editions of the International Residential Code and the International Building Code published by the International Code Council. National CAD Standards Version 4. MasterFormat and UniFormat published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC). LEED rating system published by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC). Model Green Home Building Guidelines (MGHBG) developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) and the International Code Council (ICC), which publishes the International Residential Code (IRC).

Going Green Protecting the environment is one of the most important worldwide issues today. A new flagship feature called Going Green is found throughout this textbook, providing current, practical, and experimental energy-efficient

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architectural design and construction techniques that result in a significant reduction in energy consumption. As the building industry grows to meet the demands of our increasing population, we must take care of the environment and allow for current and future development. As a student, it is very important for you to learn what is available today and to find ways to improve energy efficiency in architectural design and construction into the future in an effort to protect the earth. National and local programs have been established to meet this need. A leading program is often referred to as green building. The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) is a key organization developed to promote building design and construction that is environmentally responsible and healthy, while allowing construction to remain profitable. Modern advances in building construction are available to designers, builders, and owners who want to “build green” and make the most of environmental protection in the architectural and construction industries. The following is part of one of the Going Green features found in this edition:

Preface

by a CD icon in appropriate locations throughout this textbook. The supplemental reference material provides optional learning opportunities. The supplemental material ranges from commonly known topics available for students desiring a review, to advanced information that is beyond the scope of this textbook for students interested in further exploration. The supplemental chapter readings are identified within chapter content in this manner:

CADD Applications CADD Applications is a special boxed feature that provides a variety of real-world examples, professional presentations, software applications, tips, standards, and procedures used with computer-aided design and drafting. CADD Applications were first introduced in the fourth edition but have been revised, improved, and expanded due to the rapidly changing CADD industry. CADD Applications in the sixth edition range from one-sentence statements to multipage content. The following is an example of part of one of the CADD Applications found in the sixth edition:

Note Supplemental Chapter Readings Students are directed to supplemental chapter readings that are found on the Student CD and are identified

The Note feature is provided throughout this textbook to provide brief information related to the specific content where the note is found. The following is an example of a sixth edition note:

Preface

NOTE: Although both groups have produced “guidelines,”

many municipalities are starting to move beyond the recommendation stage and are incorporating portions of these guidelines into their design and building requirements. It is expected that with the 2012 edition of the ICC codes, the NGBS-ICC 700 will move from guidelines to law. Verify with the municipality that will govern each specific building project to determine if specific aspects of a green guideline are required. The ICC is also planning to develop a green building code for buildings that are not covered by the NGBS-ICC 700. This code will most likely be the International Green Construction Code (IGCC).

THE STUDENT CD Although not new to the sixth edition, the Student CD has new and improved content. A student CD icon found throughout this textbook guides students to features found on the CD. Refer to the Prologue for a complete description of each component and how to use the Student CD. The following features are found on the Student CD: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Supplemental Chapter Readings Step-by-Step Layout Drawings Chapter Tests Drawing Checklists Drawing Problems Drawing Templates Architectural Blocks and Symbols Related Web Links Workbook Video Clips of Major Concepts Review Questions

ORGANIZING YOUR COURSE Architectural drafting is the primary emphasis of many technical drafting curricula; however, many other programs offer only an exploratory course in this field. This textbook is appropriate for either application, as its content reflects the common elements in any architectural drafting curriculum.

Prerequisites An interest in architectural drafting, plus basic arithmetic, written communication, and reading skills are

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the only prerequisites required. Basic drafting skills and layout techniques are presented as appropriate. Students with an interest in architectural drafting who begin using this text will end with the knowledge and skills required to prepare complete sets of working drawings for residential and light commercial architectural construction projects.

Fundamental through Advanced Coverage This textbook can be used in an architectural drafting curriculum that covers the basics of residential architecture in a one-, two-, or three-semester sequence. In this application, students use the chapters directly associated with the preparation of a complete set of working drawings for a residence, where the emphasis is on the use of fundamental skills and techniques. The rest of the textbook can remain as a reference for future study or as a valuable desk reference. This textbook can also be used in the comprehensive architectural drafting program where a four- to six-semester sequence of residential and light commercial architectural drafting and design is required. In this application, students can expand on the primary objective of preparing a complete set of working drawings for the design of residential and light commercial projects with the coverage of any one or all of the following areas: energy-efficient construction techniques, solar and site orientation design applications, heating and cooling thermal performance calculations, structural load calculations, and presentation drawings.

Section Length Chapters are presented in individual learning segments that begin with elementary concepts and build until each chapter provides complete coverage of every topic. Instructors can choose to present lectures in short, 15-minute discussions or divide each chapter into 40- to 50-minute lectures.

Drafting Equipment and Materials Identification and use of manual and computer-aided drafting equipment is outlined. Students need an inventory of equipment available for use as listed in the chapters. Professional drafting materials are explained, and it is recommended that students prepare problem solutions using actual drafting materials.

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SUPPLEMENTS

Preface

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Instructor Resources Spend Less Time Planning and More Time Teaching With Delmar, Cengage Learning’s Instructor Resources to accompany Architectural Drafting and Design, 6th Edition, preparing for class and evaluating students has never been easier! This invaluable instructor CD-ROM, titled e.resource, allows you anywhere, anytime access to all of your resources. (ISBN: 1–4354–8163–1) Features contained in e.resource include: ●

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Syllabus: Lesson plans created by chapter. You have the option of using these lesson plans with your own course information. (http://www.worldclasslearning .com) Chapter Hints: Objectives and teaching hints that provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention. PowerPoint Presentation: Slides for each chapter of the text provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps you to present concepts and material. Key points and concepts can be graphically highlighted for student retention.

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Exam View Computerized Test Bank: More than 800 questions of varying levels of difficulty are provided in true/false and multiple-choice formats so you can assess student comprehension. Video and Animation Resources: These AVI files graphically depict the execution of key concepts and commands in drafting, design, and AutoCAD and let you bring multimedia presentations into the classroom.

Solutions Manual A solutions manual is available with answers to endof-chapter review questions and solutions to end-ofchapter problems. Solutions are also provided for the Workbook problems. (ISBN: 1–4354–8165–8)

Videos Two video sets, containing four 20-minute tapes each, are available. The videos correspond to the topics addressed in the text: ● ●

Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3094–2 Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3095–0

Video sets are also available on interactive video CD-ROM. ● ●

Set #1: ISBN 0–7668–3116–7 Set #2: ISBN 0–7668–3117–5

Acknowledgments Preface The authors would like to thank and acknowledge the many professionals who reviewed the sixth edition of Architectural Drafting and Design. A special acknowledgment is due the instructors who reviewed the chapters in detail.

Sharon Bagby Texas State Technical College, Sweetwater, Texas

2009 International Residential Code and the International Building Code. Portions of this publication reproduce text from the 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright 2009, with the permission of the publisher, the International Conference of Building Officials, under license from the International Code Council Inc., Falls Church, Virginia. The 2009 International Residential Code is a copyrighted work of the International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.

Amanda Boyle Texas State Technical College, Marshall, Texas

Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. (www.mascord.com)

Rebecca R. Brining Virginia College, Mobile, Alabama

For more than 20 years, a deep-rooted commitment to architectural excellence has made Alan Mascord a trusted name among builders, consumers, and competitors. To date, well over 50,000 Mascord homes have been built across the United States, Canada, and in most developed countries around the world. Alan Mascord Design Associates provides more than 600 stock home plans in a wide range of architectural styles, from single-family homes to multifamily dwellings, including detached garage plans. An active custom design business serves clients with specific and unique requirements, and Efficient Living Services provides builders with tools and resources for building green. Mascord Efficient Living (ISBN-10 0–9788–1131–3) is a guide to the philosophies and practicalities of green building for builders and consumers. Presenting more than 50 home plans detailed to meet nationally recognized green building standards, this book explains the elements to consider before, during, and after construction. Special thanks are given to Jon Epley and Gary Higginbotham for their professional support for this edition in providing content, photographs, and illustrations for several Going Green features found throughout this textbook. Mascord Design Associates also provided several sets of working drawings used for problems in Chapter 18.

Reviewers

Clark Cory Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Tom Felton Western Technical College, La Crosse, Wisconsin Andy Jacobs West-Oak High School, Westminster, South Carolina David K. Landry Louisiana Technical College, Lafayette, Louisiana Edward J. Rother Cerritos College, Norwalk, California

Contributing Companies The quality of this textbook is also improved by the support and contributions from architects, designers, engineers, and vendors. The list of contributors is extensive and acknowledgment is given at each illustration. The following individuals and companies gave an extraordinary amount of support with technical information and art for this edition.

International Code Council (ICC) Special thanks goes to Hamid Naderi, Vice President of Product Development of the International Code Council (ICC), for reviewing the content of this text related to the ICC codes and for allowing us to use text from the

3D.DZYN Special thanks to Ron Palma, 3D.DZYN, for providing loyal feedback related to professional architectural xix

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Acknowledgments

CADD applications. Palma has more than 20 years of experience in the architectural industry as a drafter, designer, lead project designer, and, most recently, as a CAD manager implementing Architectural Desktop for a residential design firm. He is an Autodesk Certified Instructor, trainer, and support technician for an Autodesk reseller. Palma has professional experience as an educator at two community colleges and is a U.S. Army certified instructor. In addition, He taught the Instructor Trainer’s Course for the U.S. Army and has taught courses at Autodesk University. Palma is the coauthor of architectural drafting and AutoCAD books.

Res Communis (www.rescommunis.org) A design collective started by Garrett and Dustin Moon, Res Communis is dedicated to the creation and dissemination of “good” design for all, not just for those who can afford it. Their goal is to contribute to the solving of problems, not the concentration and collection of intellectual property. To that end, every idea and design created is released to the public to use and refine for the good of all. Garrett and Dustin Moon provided the content and illustrations for the Going Green content in Chapter 12. The Going Green feature titled The Ultimate Urban Green Home is the flagship of the Going Green features found in this textbook, demonstrating perfect, sustainable, and selfsufficient design using super-energy-efficient, environmentally safe materials, and clean energy technologies.

Construction Specifications Institute (www.csinet.org) Information used in this text is from MasterFormat and UniFormat and is published by The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) and Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), and is used with permission from CSI, 2008. The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 Alexandria, VA 22314 800-689-2900; 703-684-0300

Bryan Higgins Architect Bryan Higgins, AIA, LEED AP, from Portland, Oregon, provided a set of working drawings and photographs of his design of one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon. The Living Smart program design competition created a catalog of affordable home plans designed for narrow lots, called small-footprint houses. His Living Smart small-footprint design is used in Problem 18–1. Higgins also provided the content for the Going Green feature in Chapter 18 of this textbook.

Leann Collins and Laura Numbers Leann Collins and Laura Numbers contributed a complete set of working drawings and related photographs for a small-footprint residential architectural design. This small footprint is one of the winning homes in the Living Smart program, in Portland, Oregon, and the design is used in Problem 18–3.

TKP Architects, PC, Golden, Colorado (www.keating-partnership.com) Thanks to Erin Elston with TKP Architects for the contribution of residential architectural plans and impressive photographs.

DeSantis Landscapes Dean DeSantis, CLP, President of DeSantis Landscapes, provided the content and photographs used in a Going Green feature found in Chapter 12.

Southwest Windpower (www.windenergy.com) Michael French, Graphics Coordinator for Southwest Windpower, provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for the Going Green feature in Chapter 19.

Autodesk, Inc. (www.autodesk.com) Catherine Palmer, Marketing Manager, AEC Initiatives provided the Going Green feature content in Chapter 7. As a world leader in design innovation technologies, Autodesk helps to empower architecture, engineering, and construction professionals with cost-effective designs and delivers high-performing, resource-efficient buildings and infrastructure.

Solatube International, Inc. (www.solatube.com) Bridget Palitz, Vice President of The McRae Agency, Public Relations for Solatube International, Inc., provided the content, photographs, and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16.

National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) (www.nfrc.org) The NFRC provided content and illustrations for a Going Green feature in Chapter 16.

Engineering Drawing and Design Approximately 180 illustrations are reproduced from Engineering Drawing and Design, by David A. Madsen, David P. Madsen, and J. Lee Turpin from Delmar Publishers.

Acknowledgments

Step-by-Step Model Home Plan Drawings The authors greatly appreciate the efforts of David P. Madsen, Tereasa Jefferis, and Connie Wilmon for their work with the step-by-step drawings found in layout chapters. In addition, we would like to thank: Janice Jefferis for her photo contributions Ken Smith, Kenneth D. Smith Architects and Associates, Inc. Richard Wallace, Southern Forest Products Association APA—The Engineered Wood Association Richard Branham, National Concrete Masonry Association Pamela Allsebrook, California Redwood Association Eric Brown, Eric S. Brown Design Group, Inc. Kathleen M. Arnelt, Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Richard R. Chapman and Robert C. Guzikowski, Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Stephen Fuller, Incorporated Steven Merrill, Mechanical Designer Havlin Kemp, VLMK Consulting Engineers Western Wood Products Association Rajni Pisharody and the staff at Glyph Internaional for their excellent work on the production of this text. Julie Searls for her excellent mastery of the English language and skill as a copy editor.

To the Student Architectural Drafting and Design is designed for you, the student. The development and format of the presentation have been tested in conventional and individualized classroom instruction. The information presented is based on the National CAD Standards, drafting room practice, and trends in the architectural design industry. This textbook is the only architectural drafting reference that you need. Use the textbook as a learning tool while in school, and take it along as a desk reference when you enter the profession. The amount of written text is complete but kept to a minimum. Examples and illustrations are used extensively. Drafting is a graphic language, and most drafting students learn best by observation of examples. Here are a few helpful hints for using this textbook: 1. Read the text. The text content is intentionally

designed for easy reading. Content is given in as few, easy-to-understand words as possible. You should

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do the reading because the content can help you to understand the drawings clearly. 2. Look carefully at the examples. The figure examples

are presented in a manner that is consistent with architectural drafting standards and the U.S. National CAD Standard. Look at the examples carefully in an attempt to understand specific applications. If you are able to understand why something is done a certain way, it will be easier for you to apply the concepts to the drawing problems in this textbook and to the similar issues when working as an architectural drafter. Drafting is a precise technology based on standards and guidelines. The goal of a drafter is to prepare drawings that are easy to read and understand. There are times when rules need to be altered to handle a unique situation. Rely on judgment based on your knowledge of accepted standards in these situations. Drafting is often like a puzzle—there is often more than one way to solve a problem. 3. Use the text as a reference. Few drafters know every-

thing about drafting standards, techniques, and concepts. Always be ready to use this textbook as the reference if you need to verify how a specific application is handled. Become familiar with the definitions and use of technical terms. It is difficult to memorize everything in this text, but architectural drafting applications should become second nature as you gain experience. 4. Learn each concept and skill before you continue to

the next. The text is presented in a logical learning sequence. Each chapter is designed for learning development, and chapters are sequenced so drafting knowledge grows from one chapter to the next. Problem assignments are presented in the same learning sequence as the chapter content and also reflect progressive levels of difficulty. 5. Practice. Development of good manual and comput-

er-aided drafting skills depend to a large extent on practice. Some individuals have an inherent talent for manual drafting, and some people are readily compatible with computers. If you fit into either group, great! If you have difficulty, then practice is all you may need. Practice manual drafting skills to help improve the quality of your drafting presentation, and practice computer skills to improve your skills and efficiency with communication and drafting. 6. Use sketches or preliminary drawings. When you are

drawing manually or with a computer, the proper use of a sketch or preliminary drawing can save a lot of time in the long run. Prepare a layout sketch or preliminary layout for each problem. This preliminary

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step gives you a chance to organize thoughts about drawing scale, view selection, dimension and note placement, and sheet size. After you become an experienced drafter, you may be able to design a sheet layout in your head, but until then, you should use sketches. 7. Use professional equipment and materials. For the best possible learning results and skill development, use the professional drafting equipment, supplies, and materials that are recommended.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Alan Jefferis Alan Jefferis is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology at the Autodesk Premier Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an architectural drafting and CAD instructor at Clackamas Community College for over 30 years. He also taught at Mt. Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, for four years. In addition to community college experience, Jefferis had eight years of experience drawing for architects, engineers, and residential designers prior to working for 26 years as a professional building designer as the principal of Residential Designs, a design firm specializing in custom, energy-efficient homes. He is also a former member of the American Institute of Building Designers. In addition to his design work, he is a coauthor of several standard reference works from Cengage Delmar Learning including Residential Design Drafting and Detailing; Print Reading for Architectural Construction Technology; Commercial Drafting and Detailing; and AutoCAD® for Architecture.

David A. Madsen David A. Madsen is the President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com). Madsen is Faculty Emeritus of Drafting Technology and the Autodesk Premier

Acknowledgments

Training Center at Clackamas Community College in Oregon City, Oregon. He was an instructor and department chairperson at Clackamas Community College for nearly 30 years. In addition to community college experience, Madsen was a drafting technology instructor at Centennial High School in Gresham, Oregon. He is a former member of the American Design and Drafting Association (ADDA) Board of Directors, and was honored by the ADDA with Director Emeritus status at the annual conference in 2005. He has extensive experience in mechanical drafting, architectural design and drafting, and building construction. Madsen holds a Master of Education degree in Vocational Administration and a Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Education. He is the author of Engineering Drawing and Design; Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing; Print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology; and coauthor of Architectural Drafting and Design, and Print Reading for Architecture and Construction Technology, as well as many other drafting and CAD titles.

David P. Madsen David P. Madsen is the Vice President of Madsen Designs Inc. (www.madsendesigns.com), and operates the Madsen Designs Inc. consulting service. He has been a professional design drafter since 1996, and has extensive experience in a variety of drafting, design, and engineering disciplines. Madsen has provided drafting and computer-aided design and drafting instruction to secondary and postsecondary learners since 1999, and has considerable curriculum, and program coordination and development experience. He holds a Master of Science degree in Educational Policy, Foundations, and Administrative Studies with a specialization in Postsecondary, Adult, and Continuing Education; a Bachelor of Science degree in Technology Education; and an Associate of Science degree in General Studies and Drafting Technology. Madsen is also the coauthor of Engineer Drawing and Design and has authored and coauthored other drafting and CAD titles.

Prologue Preface HOW TO USE THE STUDENT CD

Chapter Tests

Pick one of the following links to open. The content of each link is described below.

Chapter tests are found at the end of each chapter. Pick the Chapter Tests link to access chapter tests using Microsoft Word. The chapter tests allow you to review or test your knowledge of the related chapter content, depending on your course objectives. Open the related link and answer the questions electronically, unless otherwise directed by your instructor.

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Step-by-Step Layout Drawings

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Drawing Checklists

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Drawing Problems

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Drawing Templates

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Architectural Blocks and Symbols

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Workbook

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Video Clips of Major Concepts

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Review Questions

Supplemental Chapter Readings Throughout this textbook, a Student CD icon guides you to chapter-related content provided for additional reading and research. The Supplemental Chapter Reading features found on the Student CD include chapter-related content, basic information, advanced content that is beyond the scope of the main textbook, and commonly used abbreviations.

Step-by-Step Layout Drawings Several chapters throughout this textbook use the same model home to describe step-by-step techniques for laying out drawings required in a set of residential working drawings. Click the Step-by-Step Drawings link to view Acrobat Portable Document Format (PDF) files of many of the textbook figures related to the step-by-step layout process. Use the files to display the figures on your computer screen, and to look more closely at the layout steps and details.

Drawing Checklists Drawing checklists are provided for the model home layout chapters throughout this textbook. The checklists allow you to check your work to be sure everything is included in the drawing that you are completing.

Drawing Problems The Chapter 18 drawing problems are found on the Student CD. These problems are identified in the textbook with a Student CD icon. The Chapter 18 drawing problems can be used for creating the floor plans of the selected or assigned house that continue throughout this textbook to create a set of working drawings.

Drawing Templates Select the Drawing Templates link to access a page containing a link to architectural and civil AutoCAD drawing template (.dwt) files. Use the Drawing Templates link and the available drawing template files to create new drawings, as a resource for drawing content, or for inspiration when developing your own templates. The architectural drafting templates are set up to allow you to prepare architectural drawings, whereas the civil drafting templates include preset civil drawing content for site plans and other civil drafting projects. Use the (U.S.) templates to draw using U.S. customary, or feet and inch, units. Use the (metric) templates to draw using metric units. Each template includes a variety

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of appropriate drawing settings and content, such as layers, layouts, and object styles. You can also use a utility such as DesignCenter, to add content from the drawing templates to your own drawings and templates. Consult with your instructor to determine which template drawing and drawing content to use.

Architectural Blocks and Symbols The Architectural Symbols link provides access to an AutoCAD drawing (.dwg) file that contains several common architectural drafting symbols. These symbols are stored in folders named for the drawings in which they are most typically used. Many of the symbols are in AutoCAD block form and are drawn on the 0 layer; others are common symbols that should be made into blocks before inserting into the drawing. Use a utility such as DesignCenter, or copy and paste, to add the blocks to your own drawings. Use the blocks as desired or as directed by your instructor. Additional symbols are available through a variety of resources. Some software programs, such as AutoCAD, include and allow you to access many architectural symbols. Many other symbols are available through the Internet for free download or purchase. The U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS) include separate .dwg files of the symbols presented in the standard.

Related Web Links Internet research is an excellent way to gain additional knowledge about architectural drafting and the professional organizations related to architectural drafting and design. The Related Web Links section contains a variety of related Web site links for you to explore as preferred or as directed by your instructor. The Web site links are provided in alphabetical order covering the entire textbook content, and chapterby-chapter. Click a link to go automatically to the designated Web site.

Workbook Additional problems have been provided to reinforce the knowledge and skills introduced throughout the

Prologue

textbook. These problems are divided into these Sections and Chapters: Section I: Basic Residential Projects Chapter 1 Basic Architectural Drafting Practices Chapter 2 Site Plans Chapter 3 Floor Plan Fundamentals Chapter 4 Basic Floor Plan Problems Chapter 5 Floor Plan Dimensions Chapter 6 Electrical Plans Chapter 7 Plumbing and HVAC Plans Chapter 8 Roof Plans Chapter 9 Elevations Chapter 10 Cabinet Elevations Chapter 11 Foundation Plans Chapter 12 Details Chapter 13 Sections Chapter 14 Stair Sections Chapter 15 Fireplace Sections Chapter 16 Design Criteria for Structural Loading Chapter 17 Construction Specifications, Permits, and Contracts Chapter 18 Presentation Drawings Section II: Advanced Residential Projects Section III: Additional Advanced Residential Projects Section IV: Advanced Research Projects

Video Clips of Major Concepts This feature provides a variety of video clips covering major concepts presented throughout the textbook. These video clips provide you with an alternate learning and study option covering a variety of topics.

Review Questions This feature provides you with review questions that are in addition to the chapter-by-chapter test questions provided throughout the textbook. Use the review questions for additional opportunities to test your knowledge and review textbook content.

www.kevinmillerphoto.com

SECTION 1

Introduction to Architectural Design and Drafting

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CHAPTER 1

Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities I

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As you begin working with this text, you are opening the door to many exciting careers. Each career in turn has many different opportunities within it. Whether your interest lies in theoretical problem solving, artistic creations, or working with your hands creating something practical; a course in architectural drafting and design will help you satisfy that interest. An architectural drafting class can lead to a career as a drafter, CAD technician, designer, interior decorator, interior designer, architect, or engineer. Mastering the information and skills presented in this text will prepare you for jobs as a drafter or CAD technician and serve as a solid foundation for each of the other listed professions as well as many others.

DRAFTER A drafter is the person who creates the drawings and details for another person’s creations. It is the drafter’s responsibility to use the proper line and lettering quality and to properly lay out the required drawings necessary to complete a project. Such a task requires great attention to detail as the drafter draws the supervisor’s sketches. Although the terms are used interchangeably, professionals often use the term drafter to refer to a person who draws manually using pencils or pens. The term CAD technician is used to describe a person who creates the same type of drawings using a computer. Throughout this book, the term drafter will be used to describe both those who draw manually and those who create drawings using a computer.

The Beginning Drafter Your job as a beginning or junior drafter will generally consist of making corrections to drawings created by others. There may not be a lot of mental stimulation to making changes, but it is a very necessary job. It is also a good introduction to the procedures and quality standards within an office. As your line and lettering quality improve, your responsibilities will be expanded. If you’re working at a firm that uses computers, in addition to mastering

basic CAD commands, you’ll need to become familiar with the U.S. National CAD Standards (NCS). These are guidelines assembled by the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) that incorporate the Uniform Drawing System (UDS) published by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), CAD Layer Guidelines published by the American Institute of Architects, and the U.S. Coast Guard. These guidelines are aimed at bringing uniformity between consulting firms to ensure quality plans. Future chapters in this text will introduce key concepts from the NCS. You’ll also need to become proficient using the firm’s computer standards and any special menus and list-processing language (LISP) routines needed to work efficiently. No matter what tools are used to create the drawings, typically your supervisor will give you a sketch and expect you to draw the required drawing. Figure 1-1 shows a project manager’s sketch. Figure 1-2 shows the drawing created by a drafter. As you gain an

3 X 6 PT SILL

SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE W16 X 67

5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8

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5/16 1/4 T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4"

6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES

FIGURE 11 A sketch created by the project manager is usually given to a junior drafter to follow for a first drawing. The drafter can find information for completing the drawing by examining similar jobs in the office. 3

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Architectural Drafting and Design

SOLID BLOCK W/ A-35 ANGLE @ EA. JOIST AND EVERY OTHER BLOCK TO PL. W16 X 67

3 X 6 PT SILL W/ 1/2" o M.B. 24" O.C. STAGGER

The Experienced Drafter 5/16 12 X 12 X 3/4" STEEL TOP PL. 3/8

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5/16 1/4 T.S. 6 X 6 X 1/4" STEEL COLUMN TYPICAL

office chores. Don’t get the idea that a drafter does only the menial chores around an office. But you do need to be prepared, as you go to your first drafting job, to do things other than drafting.

6 X 6 X 3/8" SIDE PLATE 3/4" o TIE RODS & 3/4" TURNBUCKLES

1 FLOOR / GIRDER / PILING R6010309 500 3/4" = 1'–0" FIGURE 12 A detail drawn by a drafter using the sketch shown in Figure 1-1.

understanding of the drawings that you are making and gain confidence in your ability, the sketches that you are given generally will become more simplified. Eventually your supervisor may just refer you to a similar drawing and expect you to be able to make the necessary adjustments to fit it to the new application. The decisions involved in making drawings without sketches require the drafter to have a good understanding of what is being drawn. This understanding does not come from a textbook alone. To advance as a drafter and become a leader on the drawing team will require you to become an effective manager of your time. This will include the ability to determine what drawings need to be created, selected from a stock library, and edited; and to estimate the time needed to complete these assignments and meet deadlines established by the team captain, the client, the lending institution, or the building department. An even better way to gain an understanding of what you are drafting is to spend time at a construction site watching projects that you’ve worked on become reality. Gaining an understanding of what a craftsperson must do as a result of what you have drawn will greatly aid you as you assume more responsibility on projects. Depending on the size of the office where you work, you may also spend a lot of your time as a beginning drafter editing stock details, running prints, making deliveries, obtaining permits, and doing other such

Although your supervisor may prepare the basic design for a project, experienced drafters are expected to make decisions about construction design. These decisions might include determining structural sizes and connection methods for intersecting beams, drawing renderings, visiting job sites, and supervising beginning drafters. As you gain experience, you will be assigned drawings that are more complex. Instead of revising existing details or drawing site plans, cabinet elevations, or roof plans; an experienced drafter and team leader may be working on the floor and foundation plans, elevations, and sections. Your supervisor probably will still make the initial design drawings, but will pass these drawings on to you as soon as a client approves the preliminary drawings. In addition to drafting, you may work with the many city and state building departments that govern your work. This will require you to research the codes that govern the building industry. You will also need to become familiar with vendors’ catalogs. The most common is the Sweets Catalog. Sweets, as it is known, is a series of books that contain product information on a wide variety of building products. Sweets is also available on the Internet or on CDs that are updated quarterly. Information in these catalogs is listed by manufacturer, trade name, and type of product.

Educational Requirements In order to get your first drafting job, you will need a solid education, good computer-aided drafting (CAD) skills, a good understanding of basic computer skills, and the ability to sell yourself to an employer. CAD skills must include a thorough understanding of drawing and editing commands, as well as the ability to quickly decide which option is best for the given situation. This ability will also come with practice. If you work full-time editing details, you’ll quickly become proficient at determining the best commands to use. The education required for a drafter can range from one or more years in a high school drafting program to a diploma from a one-year accredited technical school to a degree from a two-year college program, and all the way to a master’s degree in architecture.

Chapter 1: Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities

Helpful areas of study for an entry-level drafter include math, writing, and drawing. The math required ranges from simple addition to calculus. Although the drafter may spend most of the day adding dimensions expressed in feet and inches, knowledge of advanced math will be helpful for solving many building problems. You’ll often be required to use basic math skills to determine quantities, areas, and volume. Many firms provide their clients with a list of materials required to construct the project. Areas will need to be calculated to determine the size of each room, required areas to meet basic building code requirements, the loads on a structural member, or the size of the structure. Writing skills will also be very helpful. As a drafter, you are often required to complete the paperwork that accompanies any set of plans, such as permits, requests for variances, written specifications, or environmental impact reports. In addition to standard drafting classes, classes in photography, art, surveying, and construction can be helpful to the drafter.

Personal Requirements In addition to a solid education, professionals working in the design field need to function well in group settings. Because the drafter will generally be working for several architects or engineers within an office, the drafter must be able to get along well with others. An additional skill required for a new technician is to be reliable. Reliability within an office is measured by the maintenance of good attendance patterns and the production of drawings as scheduled. To advance and become a good team leader you will also need to develop skills that promote a sense of success among your teammates. Although it is against the law to discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age, marital status, or disability, moving beyond the law and creating a friendly and productive work environment is a critical skill for a team leader.

Workplace Ethics A key quality required in any of the design professions that you might enter is to be ethical. Ethics are rules and principles that define right and wrong conduct. Although ethics guidelines can be as simple as treating others as you would like to be treated, many businesses have a formal code of ethics that employees are required to sign in order to obtain a job. A code of ethics is a formal document that states an organization’s values and the rules and principles that employees are expected

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to follow. In general, codes of ethics contain these main elements: be dependable, obey the laws, and be good to customers. An example of an architectural firm’s standard for ethical business conduct can be seen below: 1. Honesty: to be truthful in all our endeavors, to be

2. 3.

4. 5.

honest and forthright with one another, with our customers, and with our communities. Integrity: to say what we mean, to deliver what we promise, and to stand for what is right. Respect: to treat one another with dignity and fairness, appreciating the diversity of our workforce and the uniqueness of each employee. Trust: to build confidence through teamwork and open, candid communication. Responsibility: to speak up, without fear of retribution, and report concerns in the workplace, including violations of published or unpublished works that are copyrighted.

Copyright Protection Clients often come to an architectural firm hoping to use the plan of a competitor as the basis for the design for their project. It’s important to understand that architectural drawings are protected by copyright. The copyright immediately becomes the property of the person who created the work. Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and the work is created when it is fixed in a copy for the first time. Copies are material objects from which the work can be read or visually perceived either directly or with the aid of a machine or device. In the world of architecture, you’ll be most affected by copyright laws as clients present you with plans from magazines, and ask you to recreate the design. There is nothing illegal when a client gives you several stock plans, and expects you to combine features from these plans into a new plan. However, it is very illegal to take one stock plan, make minor changes, and pass it off as your design. That’s copyright infringement. NOTE: Professional designers and architects have donated

the plans in this book knowing that they will be copied and redrawn. It is perfectly legal for you to reproduce these plans for school projects. It is important to realize though, it is not OK to reproduce these drawings for resale. Laws vary for each state, but as a general rule, unless you’ve changed more than 50% of the plan, or significantly altered the appearance of the design, you may be found guilty of copyright infringement. Never take the plan from another professional, make minor changes, and then call it your design. It’s lazy, unethical, and illegal.

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Employment Opportunities Drafters can find employment in firms of all sizes. Designers, architects, and engineers all require entrylevel and advanced drafters to help produce their drawings. Drafters are also employed by suppliers of architectural equipment. This work might include drawing construction details for a steel fabricator, making layout drawings for a cabinet shop, or designing ductwork for a heating and air-conditioning installer. Many manufacturing companies hire drafters with an architectural background to help draw and sometimes sell a product or draw installation diagrams for instruction booklets or sales catalogs. Drafters are also employed by many government agencies. These jobs include working in planning, utility, or building departments; survey crews; or other related municipal jobs.

be hired to decorate interiors of businesses such as boutiques, restaurants, and offices. They may work on the entire interior of a building or a single room. An interior decorator’s work may involve a variety of elements, including space planning, determination of color schemes, furniture placement, and the coordination of interior finishes such as paint and wallpaper, window coverings, and flooring. It may also include the arrangement of lighting fixtures, art objects, furnishing accessories, and interior plants. Specific job requirements may include: ● ● ● ●

DESIGNER The meaning of the term designer varies from state to state. Many states restrict its use by requiring those calling themselves designers to those who have had formal training and have passed a competency test. A designer’s responsibilities are very similar to those of an experienced drafter and are usually based on both education and experience. A designer is usually the coordinator of a team of drafters. The designer may work under the direct supervision of an architect, an engineer, or both and supervise the work schedule of the drafting team. In addition to working in a traditional architectural office setting, designers often have their own office practice in which they design residential, multifamily, and some types of light commercial buildings. State laws vary regarding the types and sizes of buildings a designer may work on without an architect or engineer’s stamp. For more information about design careers, contact: American Institute of Building Design 991 Post Road East Westport, CT 06880 800-366-2423 Web site: www.aibd.org

● ●

There are no formal educational requirements to enter this career. You can start calling yourself an interior decorator as soon as you start doing interior decorating.

KITCHEN AND BATH DESIGNER Some drafters and designers choose to specialize in the area of residential kitchen and bath design. This might include design work for a client, working with a residential contractor, or working with manufacturers of kitchen and bath equipment. In order to meet the demand for qualified professionals in this area of design, the National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) has created its own training program that offers the foundation for professional career growth through its course offerings, technical manuals, and multilevel certification programs. The three professional levels in which the NKBA certifies its members, and the requirements of each level are: ●

INTERIOR DECORATOR An interior decorator decorates the interiors of buildings, with the aim of making rooms more attractive, comfortable, and functional. Most interior decorators are hired to decorate homes, but they may also

Meeting with clients to determine the scope of a project. Reviewing and measuring the space to be decorated. Preparing proposed room layouts and obtaining cost estimates. Providing samples and colors of materials to be used. Arranging and overseeing painting, wallpapering, and flooring. Selecting and purchasing furnishings and other items.

●

Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer (AKBD)—One year of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and one year in a related field, 30 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. Certified Kitchen Designer (CKD) or Certified Bathroom Designer (CBD)—Three years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry and


●

four years in a related field, 60 hours of NKBA professional development training, and successful completion of the AKBD exam. Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer (CMKBD)—Ten years of experience related to the kitchen and bath industry, 100 hours of NKBA professional development training, and both CKD and CBD certification.

For further information about careers in the field of kitchen and bath design, contact: National Kitchen & Bath Association 687 Willow Grove Street Hackettstown, NJ 07840 800-843-6522 Web site: www.nkba.org

INTERIOR DESIGNER An interior designer works with the structural designer to optimize and harmonize the interior design of structures. In addition to health and safety concerns, interior designers help plan how the space will be accessed, how a space will be used, the amount of light that will be required, acoustics, seating, storage, and work areas. An interior designer must consider how the visual, tactile, and auditory senses of the occupants will be impacted. Visual considerations include the study and application of color, lighting, and form to improve how the occupants function in the space. Consideration must be given to the design of surfaces, the shape of individual rooms within a structure, and the texture of finished surfaces and how furnishing will affect the usage of areas within a structure. The design of a structure must also be considered in relation to how noise and echo will be created and how they can be controlled. An interior designer must have an aesthetic, practical, and technical appreciation for how people use and respond to these elements and to how the elements interact with one another. Interior designers must also be knowledgeable about the many types and characteristics of furnishings, accessories, and ornaments used in creating interiors. Furniture, lighting, carpeting and other floor coverings, paint and wall coverings, glass, wrought metal, fixtures, art, and artifacts are some of the many items and materials designers select. In addition, they must be familiar with the various styles of design, art, and architecture and their history. Interior designers provide a variety of services that include:

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Consulting to help determine project goals and objectives.

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Generating ideas for aesthetic possibilities of the space, and arranging space to suit its intended function.

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Creating illustrations and renderings of proposals.

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Developing documents and specifications related to interior spaces in compliance with applicable building codes.

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Specifying colors and purchasing fixtures, furnishings, products, and other interior materials.

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Designing and managing fabrication of custom furnishings and interior details.

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Monitoring and managing construction and installation of the design.

Although a college degree is currently not a requirement, the trend among employers and in states that have licensing requirements is to require a degree from an accredited institution. This can range from training in a two-year program to earn an associate’s degree or certificate, to a four- or five-year program leading to a bachelor’s (BA, BS, BFA) or master’s (MA, MS, MFA) degree. The option chosen may depend on the licensing requirements in your state and whether you have completed a degree in another field. In the United States, where interior designers are registered by title, designers may not use the title “interior designer” or “registered interior designer” unless they have met the requirements for education, experience, and examination as set forth in the statutes established by the National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ). Candidates who apply to take the NCIDQ examination must demonstrate an acceptable level of professional work experience and completion of related course work. The minimum examination requirements include two years of formal interior design experience and four years of full-time work experience in the practice of interior design. Passing the examination is required in twenty jurisdictions in the United States and eight provinces in Canada that regulate the profession of interior design. For further information about careers in the field of interior design, contact: American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) 202-546-3480 Web site: www.asid.org International Interior Design Association (IIDA) Web site: www.iida.org

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Students can also contact the American Design and Drafting Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, or the U.S. Office of Education.

ARCHITECT An architect is a licensed professional who designs commercial and residential structures. Architects perform the tasks of many professionals, including designer, artist, project manager, and construction supervisor. Few architects work full-time in residential design. Although many architects design some homes, most devote their time to commercial construction projects such as schools, offices, and hospitals. An architect is responsible for the design of a structure and for the way the building relates to the environment. The architect often serves as a coordinator on a project to ensure that all aspects of the structure blend together to form a pleasing relationship. This coordination includes working with the client, the contractors, and a multitude of engineering firms that may be involved with the project. Figure 1-3 shows a home designed by an architect to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities.

Education High school and two-year college students can prepare for a degree program by taking classes in fine arts, math, science, and social science. Many two-year drafting programs offer drafting classes that can be used

FIGURE 13 Architects use their training to blend the needs and wishes of the client with the site, materials, and financial realities. Courtesy California Redwood Assoc., Robert Corna architect, photo by Balthazar Korab.


for credit in four- or five-year architectural programs. A student planning to transfer to a four-year program should verify with the new college which classes can be transferred. Depending on the desired field of practice, students will eventually need to complete the requirements for a bachelor of architecture, master’s of architecture, or a doctorate of architecture degree. Fine arts classes such as drawing, sketching, design, and art along with architectural history will help the future architect develop an understanding of the cultural significance of structures and help transform ideas into reality. Classes that will aid problem-solving abilities, as well as math and science classes, including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and physics, will provide a stable base for the advanced structural classes that will be required. Sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, and classes dealing with human environments will help develop an understanding of the people who will use the structure. Because architectural students will need to read, write, and think clearly about abstract concepts, preparation should also include literature and philosophy courses. In addition to formal study, students should discuss with local architects the opportunities and possible disadvantages that may await them in pursuing the study and practice of architecture.

Positions in Architectural Firms Use of the term architect is legally restricted to individuals who have been licensed by the state where they practice. Once the required degree has been completed, obtaining a license will require practical experience working under the supervision of a licensed architect. A typical path to becoming an architect requires three years to complete a master’s program, three years as an intern, and two years to complete the registration exam process. Some states allow a designer to take the licensing test through practical work experience. Although standards vary for each state, five to seven years of experience under the direct supervision of a licensed architect or engineer is usually required. Positions in an architectural firm include: Technical staff—Consulting engineers such as mechanical, electrical, and structural engineers; landscape architects; interior designers; CAD operators; and drafters. Intern—Unlicensed architectural graduates with less than three years of experience. An intern’s responsibilities typically include developing design and


technical solutions under the supervision of an architect. Architect I—Licensed architect with three to five years of experience. An Architect I’s job description typically includes responsibility for a specific portion of a project within the parameters set by a supervisor. Architect II—Licensed architect with six to eight years of experience. An Architect II’s job description typically includes responsibility for the daily design and technical development of a project. Architect III—Licensed architect with eight to ten years of experience. An Architect III’s job description typically includes responsibility for the management of major projects. Manager—Licensed architect with more than 10 years of experience. A Manager’s responsibilities typically include management of several projects, project teams, and client contacts, as well as project scheduling and budgeting. Associate—Senior management architect, but not an owner in the firm. This person is responsible for major departments and their functions. Principal—Owner/partner in an architectural firm.

Areas of Study The study of architecture is not limited to the design of buildings. Although the architectural curriculum typically is highly structured for the first two years of study, students begin to specialize in an area of interest during the third year of the program. Students in a bachelor’s program may choose courses leading to a degree in several different areas of architecture such as urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior architecture. Urban design is the study of the relationship among the components within a city. Interior architects work specifically with the interior of a structure to ensure that all aspects of the building will be functional. Landscape architects specialize in relating the exterior of a structure to the environment. For further information on training or other related topics, students can contact: American Institute of Architects (AIA) 1735 New York Avenue NW Washington, DC 20006 800-242-3837 Web site: www.aia.org

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American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) 636 Eye Street NW Washington, DC 20001 202-898-2444 Web site: www.asla.org

ENGINEER The term engineer covers a wide variety of professions. In general, an engineer is a licensed professional who applies mathematical and scientific principles to the design and construction of structures. In the construction fields, structural engineers are the most common, although many jobs exist for electrical, mechanical, and civil engineers. Structural engineers typically specialize in the design of structures built of steel or concrete (see Figure 1-4). Many directly supervise drafters and designers in the design of multifamily and light commercial structures. Electrical engineers work with architects and structural engineers and are responsible for the design of lighting and communication systems. They supervise the design and installation of specific lighting fixtures, telephone services, and requirements for computer networking. Mechanical engineers are also an instrumental part of the design team. They are responsible for the sizing and layout of heating, ventilation, and airconditioning systems (HVAC) and plan how treated air will be routed throughout the project. They work with the project architect to determine the number of

FIGURE 14 The architectural team determines the shape and style of the structure. The structural engineering team is responsible for determining the size of materials to resist the loads and stress that a building will face. Courtesy David Jefferis.

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occupants of the completed building and the heating and cooling load that will be generated. Civil engineers are responsible for the design and supervision of a wide variety of construction projects, such as highways, bridges, sanitation facilities, and water treatment plants. They are often directly employed by construction companies to oversee the construction of large projects and to verify that the specifications of the design architects and engineers have been carried out. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, a license is required to function as an engineer. Potential engineers can apply for the license after several years of practical experience, or after obtaining a bachelor’s degree and three years of practical experience. Success in any of the engineering fields requires high proficiency in math and science, and involves completing courses in physics, mechanics, print reading, architecture, mathematics, and material science. As with the requirements for becoming an architect, an engineer must have five years of education at an accredited college or university, followed by successful completion of a state-administered examination. Certification can also be accomplished by training under a licensed engineer and then successfully completing the examination. Additional information can be obtained about engineering by writing to:

New York, NY 10005 212-248-5000 Web site: www.iesna.org

RELATED FIELDS So far, only opportunities that are similar because they involve drawing, design, and creativity have been covered. In addition to these careers, there are many related careers that require an understanding of drafting principles. These include model maker, illustrator, specification writer, plan examiner, inspector, and construction-related trades.

Model Maker In addition to presentation drawings, many architectural offices use models of a building or project to help convey design concepts. Models such as the one shown in Figure 1-5 are often used as a public display to help gain support for large projects. Model makers need basic drafting skills to help interpret the plans required to build the actual project. Model makers may be employed within a large architectural firm or may work for a company that only makes models for architects. For more information, contact the Association of Model Makers at www.modelmakers.org.

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1801 Alexander Bell Drive Reston, VA 20191-4400 800-548-2723 Web site: www.asce.org American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC) 1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 802 Washington, DC 20005 202-347-7474 Web site: acec.org American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE) 1791 Tullie Circle NE Atlanta, GA 30329-2305 800-527-4723 Web site: www.ashrae.org Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) 120 Wall Street, 17th Floor

FIGURE 15 Models such as this one of the KOIN Center in Portland, Oregon, are often used in public displays to convey design ideas. Courtesy KOIN Center, Olympia & York Properties (Oregon) Inc.


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the architectural world to assign reference numbers to architectural materials and products. The numbers consist of 17 groups, 5 major subgroups, and 50 divisions. These listings can be used for production, distribution, filing, and retrieval of construction documents. Each major division of the MasterFormat system is related to a major grouping of the construction process and will be introduced in Chapter 8.

Plan Examiner FIGURE 16 Drawings created by an architectural illustrator are often used for advertising and presentation purposes. Courtesy Bob Greenspan, Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc.

Illustrator Many drafters, designers, and architects have the basic skills to draw architectural renderings. Very few, though, have the expertise to make this type of drawing rapidly. Most illustrators have a background in art. By combining artistic talent with a basic understanding of architectural principles, the illustrator can produce drawings that show a proposed structure realistically. Figure 1-6 shows a drawing that was prepared by an architectural illustrator. Section 11 provides an introduction to presentation drawings. For more information, contact the American Society of Architectural Illustrators (ASAI) at www.asai.org.

Specification Writer Specifications are written instructions for methods, materials, and quality of construction. A written specification for a product may range from a sentence or two describing a price range of a product, to a lengthy document that specifies how a product is to be purchased, delivered, stored, installed, maintained, and recycled at the end of its use. Generally, a writer will have had classes in technical writing at the twoyear-college level. A specification writer must have a thorough understanding of the construction process and the use of the CSI 2004 MasterFormat numbering system, and have a good ability to read plans. The MasterFormat system is published by the Construction Specification Institute (CSI) in the United States, and by Construction Specifications Canada (CSC) in Canada. The numbering system is used by all areas of

Building departments require that plans be checked carefully to ensure that the required codes for public safety have been met. A plan examiner must be licensed by the state, to certify minimum understanding of the construction process. In most states, there are different levels of examiners. An experienced drafter or designer may be able to qualify as a low-level or residentialplan inspector. Generally, a degree in engineering or architecture is required to advance to an upper-level position. Additional information on how to become a plan examiner can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org.

Inspector The construction that results from the plans must also be inspected. Depending on the size of the building department, the plan examiner may also serve as the building inspector. In large building departments, one group examines plans and another inspects construction. Being be a construction inspector requires an exceptionally good understanding of code limitations, print reading, and construction methods. Each of these skills has its roots in a beginning drafting class. Additional information regarding becoming a building inspector can be obtained from the International Code Council at www.iccsafe.org.

Jobs in Construction Many drafters are employed directly by construction companies. The benefits of this type of position have already been discussed. These drafters typically not only do drafting but also work part-time in the field. Some drafters give up their jobs for one of the high-paying positions in the construction industry. The ease of interpreting plans as a result of a background in drafting is of great benefit to any construction worker.

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GOING GREEN An Introduction to Green Design

Reduce, reuse, recycle! No matter what area of the design or construction field you enter, an important aspect of your career will be a building mind-set that revolves around these three words. Whether it is called earth-friendly, green, ecological, or sustainable construction, the concept is to build in a manner that will produce a structure that uses energy efficiently, that uses materials that have low impact on the environment, and that contributes to a healthier workplace. One of the leaders in the development of sustainable construction is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System, referred to as LEED. LEED is a rating system used to evaluate key areas of building projects, such as: • • • • • •

Sustainable sites. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Energy and atmosphere. Material and resources. Innovation and the design process.

Other key organizations that are leaders in green construction include the developed by the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the International Code Council (ICC) that publishes the International Residential Code (IRC). The IRC will be introduced in Chapter 9. These three industry leaders have combined their resources to develop the National Green Building Standards (ICC 7002008). The NGBS are currently a group of guiding principles that can be used throughout the construction process to ensure an environmentally friendly project. It is expected that these current guidelines will become mandatory as part of the ICC code family as the 2012 codes are released. Major principles addressed by the 2008 guidelines include: • Site design and development. • Site design, preparation, and development.

DESIGN BASICS As you enter the world of design, it’s important to understand what you can expect to encounter in an architectural office. Designing a home for a client can be an exciting but difficult process. Very rarely can an architect sit down and create a design that meets the needs of the client perfectly. The time required to design a home can range from a few days to several months. It is important for you to understand the design process and the role that the drafter plays in it. This requires an understanding of basic design,

• • • • •

Resource efficiency. Energy efficiency. Water efficiency. Indoor environmental quality. Operation, maintenance, and building owner education.

The LEED and NGBS principles will be introduced throughout the text. As a new employee in a firm, you may not be making the decisions on how to increase the sustainability of a residence, but in order to advance in an office, you must understand key green issues presented in each of these guidelines. Section 2 of this text will examine common methods of designing a residence that is environmentally friendly. Section 8 will examine common framing methods found in residential construction. Environmentally friendly framing is not just a matter of selecting green materials; once selected, these green products must be transported and used in a manner that will reduce the environmental impact of the structure. Creating an environmentally friendly structure requires the matching of materials to a specific design and site that minimizes the effect on that site. Five questions should be considered that will affect the selection of materials to make a sustainable structure: 1. Can products be selected that are made from environmentally friendly materials? 2. Can products be selected because of what they do not contain? 3. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact during construction? 4. Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact of operating the building? 5. Will the products to be used contribute to a safe, healthy indoor environment?

financial considerations, and common procedures of design. In the balance of this chapter, the terms architect and designer can be thought of as synonymous. Typically the designing and much of the drafting will already be done before a project is given to the junior drafter. As experience and confidence are gained, the drafter enters the design process at earlier stages.

Financial Considerations Both designers and drafters need to be concerned with costs. Finances influence the drafter’s decisions about


framing methods and other structural considerations. Often the advanced drafter must decide between methods that require more materials with less labor and those that require fewer materials but more labor. The owner may never be aware of these decisions, but the choices made can make the difference in whether or not the house is affordable. The designer makes the major financial decisions that affect the cost and size of the project. The designer needs to determine the client’s budget at the beginning of the design process and work to keep the project within these limits. Through past experience and contact with builders, the designer should be able to make an accurate estimate of the cost of a finished house. This estimate is often made on a square footage basis in the initial stages of design. For instance, in some areas a modest residence can be built for approximately $75 per square foot. In other areas this same house may cost approximately $150 per square foot. A client wishing to build a 2500 sq ft house could expect to pay between $187,500 and $375,000, depending on where it will be built. Keep in mind that these are estimates. A square footage price tells very little about the home. In the design stage, square footage estimates help set parameters for the design. The estimate is based on typical cost for previous clients. The price of materials such as lumber, concrete, and roofing will vary throughout the year depending on supply and demand. Basic materials will typically account for approximately 50% of the project cost. Finished materials are the part of the estimate that will cause wide variation in the cost. If you have ever been in a home supply store, you know that a toilet can be purchased for between $30 and $300. Every item in the house will have a range of possible prices. The final cost of the project is determined once the house is completely drawn and a list of materials is prepared. With a list of materials, contractors are able to make accurate decisions about cost. The source of finances can also affect the design process. Certain lending institutions may require some drawings that the local building department may not. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) and Veterans Administration (VA) loans often require extra forms, drawings, and specifications that need to be taken into account in the initial design stages.

The Client Most houses are not designed for one specific family. In order to help keep costs down, houses are often built in subdivisions and designed to appeal to a wide variety of people. One basic plan may be built with several

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FIGURE 17 Stock plans are designed to appeal to a wide variety of buyers. Courtesy Design Basics, Inc. Home Plan Design Service.

different options, thus saving the contractor the cost of paying for several different complete plans. Sections 4, 6, and 7 will explore alternative designs to the home presented throughout this text. Some families may make minor changes to an existing plan. These modified stock plans allow the prospective home buyer a chance to have a personalized design at a cost far below that of custom-drawn plans (see Figure 1-7). If finances allow, or if a stock plan cannot be found to meet their needs, a family can have a plan custom designed.

The Design Process The design of a residence can be divided into several stages. These generally include initial contact, preliminary design studies, room planning, initial working drawings, final design considerations, completion of working drawings, permit procedures, and job supervision.

Initial Contact Clients often approach designers to obtain background information. Design fees, schedules, and the compatibility of personalities are but a few of the basic questions

14

to be answered. This initial contact may take place by telephone or a personal visit. The questions asked are important to both the designer and the client. The client needs to pick a designer who can work within budget and time limitations. Drawing fees are another important consideration in choosing a designer. Design fees vary based on the type of project and the range of services to be provided. Fees are generally based on hourly rates, price per square feet of construction, on a percentage of construction cost, or a combination of these methods. Square footage prices vary based on the size of the project and the area of the country, but must be set to cover design and drafting time, overhead, and profit margin. New drafters are often shocked to learn that their office bills clients at a rate that is often three to four times their hourly rate of pay for drafting time. It is important to remember that this billing price must include supervision time, overhead, state and federal taxes, and hopefully a profit for the office. Design fees for architectural services of a custom house range from 5% to 15% of the total construction cost. The amount varies based on the services provided, the workload of the office, and the local economy. The designer needs to screen clients to determine if the client’s needs fit within the office schedule. Once an agreement has been reached, the preliminary design work can begin. This selection process usually begins with the signing of a contract to set guidelines that identify which services are to be provided and when payment is expected. This is also the time when the initial criteria for the project will be determined. Generally, clients have a basic size and a list of specifics in mind, a sketch of proposed floor plans, and a file full of pictures of items that they would like in their house. During this initial phase of design it is important to become familiar with the lifestyle of the client as well as the site where the house will be built.

Preliminary Design Studies Once a thorough understanding of the client’s lifestyle, design criteria, and financial limits has been developed, the preliminary studies can begin. These include research with the building and zoning departments that govern the site, investigation of the site, and discussions with any board of review that may be required. Once this initial research has been done, preliminary design studies can be started. The preliminary drawings usually take two stages: bubble drawings and scaled sketches. Bubble drawings are freehand sketches used to help determine room locations and relationships. Several sketches similar to Figure 1-8 are usually created. It is during this stage of the preliminary design that consideration is given to the site and energy efficiency of


FIGURE 18 Bubble designs are the first drawings in the design process. These drawings are used to explore room relationships.

the home by planning room orientation to the site, the surroundings, the movement of the sun, and available sunlight at the property at various times of the day. Once a satisfactory layout has been sketched, these shapes are transformed into scaled sketches. Figure 1-9 shows a preliminary floor plan. Usually several sets of sketches are developed to explore different design possibilities. Consideration is given to building code regulations and room relationships and sizes. After the design options are explored, the designer selects a plan to prepare for the client. This could be the point when a drafter first becomes involved in the design process. Depending on the schedule of the designer, a senior drafter might prepare the refined preliminary drawings, which can be seen in Figure 1-10. These will include floor plans and an elevation. These drawings are then presented to the client. Changes and revisions are made at this time. Once the plans are approved by the client, the preliminary drawings are ready to be converted to design drawings.

Room Planning Room usage must be considered throughout the design process. Many professionals verify standard sizes by using vendor catalogs and books such as Architectural Graphic Standards. Chapter 10 will introduce major design concepts to be considered. Typically the designer will have talked with the owners about how each room will be used and what types of furniture will be included. Occasionally, placement of a family heirloom will dictate the entire layout. When this is the case, the owner should specify the size requirements for that particular piece of furniture.

15

S&P


14

FIGURE 19 Bubble drawings are converted to scale drawings so that basic sizes can be determined. The preliminary floor plan contains enough text to convey ideas to the owner, but will require additional annotation to be added for the construction process.

48" X 48" SKYLIGHT 5

300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT

12

BRICK VENEER

2 X 6 FASCIA

6" HORIZ. CEDAR

FRONT ELEVATION 1/4"

1 X 3 CORN. TRIM

1'–0"

FIGURE 110 Based on preliminary floor plans, the front elevation is drawn to explore design options.

16


When placing furniture outlines to determine the amount of space in a room, the drafter can use transfer shapes known as rub-ons, templates, freehand sketching methods, or blocks if working with a CAD program. Rub-ons provide a fast method of representing furniture when manual methods are used, but they can also be expensive. Furniture can be drawn with a template or sketched. Figure 1-11 shows a preliminary floor plan drawn with a CADD program with the furniture added by the use of blocks. In the final stages of the preliminary process, the designer will often work with the clients, or bring in the assistance of interior designers to start planning interior finishes. With the interior space designed, attention can

now be focused on interior details. This might include the use of interior elevations, interior perspectives, and presentation boards. Presentation boards are used to present samples of cloth or other materials that can be used for wall finishes and furniture. Each element will be addressed in future chapters. This is also the time the design team will start to help the clients make selections about key pieces of furniture, lighting fixtures, and equipment.

Initial Working Drawings With the preliminary drawings approved, a drafter can begin to lay out the working drawings. The procedure will vary with each office, but generally each of the

14

FIGURE 111 The preliminary floor plan shows the owner’s changes, with furniture added.


drawings required for the project will be started. These will include the foundation, site, roof, electrical, cabinet, and framing plans. At this stage the drafter must rely on past experience for drawing the size of beams and other structural members. Beams and other structural material will be located, but exact sizes are not determined until the entire project has been laid out.

to get a building permit. On a complicated plan, a wall-framing plan, a roof-framing plan, a grading plan, and construction details may be required. Some lending institutions may require interior elevations, cabinet drawings, and finish specifications. The skills of the drafter will determine his or her participation in preparing the working drawings. As an entry-level drafter, you will often be given the job of making corrections on existing drawings or drawing, for example, site plans or cabinets. As you gain skill you will be given more drawing responsibility. With increased ability, you will start to share in the design responsibilities.

Final Design Considerations Once the drawings have been laid out, the designer will generally meet with the client several times again to get information on flooring, electrical needs, cabinets, and other finish materials. This conference will result in a set of marked drawings that the drafter will use to complete the working drawings.

Working Drawings. The drawings that will be provided vary for each residence and within each office. Figure 1-12 through Figure 1-17 show what are typically considered the architectural drawings. These are drawings that show finishing materials. Figure 1-18 through Figure 1-20 show the electrical drawings. Figure 1-21 through Figure 1-24 show what are

Completion of Working Drawings The complexity of the residence will determine which drawings are required. Most building departments require a site plan, a floor plan, a foundation plan, elevations, and one cross section as the minimum drawing

1200 GAL SEPTIC TANK 10' MIN FROM FND.

4" CONC FLATWORK W/ BROOM FINISH PROPOSED S.F.R.

730.00'

EAM

6- 120' DRAIN LINES @10'O.C.

180'-0"+/WELL- 100' MIN. FROM SEPTIC TANK

36'-0" DIA. MIN. TURNAROUND 60" MIN. RADIUS TYPICAL

W N 30˚ 00;

BRICK PAVERS LAID IN HERRINGBONE PATTERN

24' WIDE X 22' DEEP MIN. PARKING 12'-0" MIN GRAVEL DRIVE

250'-0"+/-

N 30˚ 00' W

730.00'

STR

/'-0"+ 175 MIN. ) 0' ( 10

CL

OF

17

580.00'

CL

GRIGGS RD. LEGAL: TAX LOT 2800, LOT 5 GORDON GLEN HOMES 3E SECTION 24, T2E EAGLE CREEK, MO

FIGURE 112 A site plan is used to show how the structure relates to the site. When the site is relatively flat, grading information is placed on this drawing.

18


SANITARY MANHOLE

A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR:

MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS 11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015

7" E 5 '5 1˚1 ACK S4 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10'

'

19'-

.16

220

0"

20' FRONT YARD SETBACK

15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT

S

5' 97.3 L=

7.

18 '

52

24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL

25'-0" 32'-0"

CURB FACE OF 0' 2 2 .0 R=3

"W

49

LINE OF DECK ABOVE

8'-0" RETAINING WALL

4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL

ALAN DAVID

3'

COUR

˚3

T

43

24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL

48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL

10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62'

S21˚16' 25" E

NO

RTH

24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK

LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON

FIGURE 113 If grading is extensive, the site plan is separated from the grading plan. By careful use of layers, this site plan was used as a base for the grading plan in Figure 1-14.

A PROPOSED RESIDENCE FOR:

SANITARY MANHOLE

165

MICHAEL & TEREASA JACOBS

170 175 E " 7 5' 5 1˚1 ACK S4 180 ETB DS R A E Y SID 10'

11130 S.E. DAVID ALAN COURT CLACKAMAS, OR 97015

15' PUBLIC SANITARY SEWER EASEMENT

19'-

185 ' 190 20.16 2 195

0"

5' 7.3 L=9

0'

'

32'-0"

ENTRY DECK F.F. 194.85' 24" MAX. DEC. GARAGE RETAINING WALL FIN. FL. 195.00 48" HIGH MAX. RETAINING WALL

52

165

10' SIDE YARD SETBACK 264.62'

205

200

195

TH

GRADING PLAN 1"

190

10'-0"

NOR

2.0 R = 32

7.

RB FACE OF CU

18

ALAN DAVID

LINE OF DECK ABOVE

"W

25'-0"

49

4" CONC. DRIVEWAY OVER GRAVEL FILL

3'

24" MAX. DEC. RETAINING WALL ENTRY FIN. FL 195.00' 8'-0" RETAINING WALL LOWER FIN. FL 184.00'

˚3

T

43

COUR

S

200

S21˚16' 25" E 185

180

175

170

LEGAL: LOT 18 OF HIGHPOINTE IN THE N.E. 1/4 OF SEC. 34, T1S, R2E W.M. HAPPY VALLEY, CLACKAMAS COUNTY OREGON

24" AND 48" HIGH RETAINING WALLS TO BE INTERLOCKING DEC. BLOCK

FIGURE 114 A grading plan is used to define new and existing grades, and the cut and fill banks that will be recreated as the soil is relocated. On this drawing, existing soil contours are shown with dashed lines and new grade contours are represented with solid lines.


19

300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT

LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 2x6 FASCIA 1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK 4" CONC. FLATWORK

6x6 POST 4" CONC. FLATWORK

5

REAR ELEVATION

10'-0"

NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ.

14

48"x48" SKYLIGHT

24" MIN.

12

LINE OF ROOF BEYOND

2x6 FASCIA BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN FIN. FLOOR

1x3 R.S. CORN. TRIM

LEFT ELEVATION

LINE OF COLUMN BEYOND LINE OF PLANTER BEYOND

14

48"x48" SKYLIGHT 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 5

12 8'-0" FIN. FLR.-FIN. CEIL.

12'-0" FIN. FLR. - FIN. CEIL. 9'-0" FIN. FLR./FIN. CEIL.

2x6 FASCIA

3'-0" BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR 6" HORIZ. CEDAR SPACE & TYVEK W/METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD 4x3x3/16" METAL LINTEL OVER GARAGE DOOR. SEE OWNER FOR BRICK DESIGN

FRONT ELEVATION

14

5

12

10'-0" 24" MIN.

1x3 CORN. TRIM NOTE: EXTEND CHIMNEY FLUE A MIN. OF 2'-0" ABOVE ANY POINT ON ROOF WITHIN 10'-0" HORIZ.

HORIZ. CONC. SIDING W/ 6" EXPOSURE OVER 1/2" CDX PLYWOOD & TYVEK

RIGHT ELEVATION

14

FIGURE 115 Once the owners have approved the preliminary designs, the exterior elevations can be completed. The elevations will provide a view of each side of the structure and show and specify all exterior materials to be used.

typically called the structural drawings. Many architectural firms number each page based on the type of drawing on that page. Pages are represented by: A—Architectural S—Structural M—Mechanical E—Electrical P—Plumbing

Figure 1-12 shows the site plan that was required for the residence in Figure 1-8. Typically the site plan is completed by a junior drafter from a sketch provided by the senior drafter or designer. A grading plan is not required for every residence. Because this home is to be built on a fairly level site, the elevations are indicated at each corner of the structure. Figure 1-13 shows a site plan for a hillside home. Because of the large amount of soil to be excavated for the lower floor, the grading

20

TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT

A

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

A

A

B

12' PLATE

1. ALL HIPS, RIDGES & VALLEYS TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 2. ALL RAFTERS TO BE 2x8 DFL #2 @ 24" O.C. UNLESS NOTED.

48"x48" SKYLIGHT

12" - 16'-2" 16" - 14'-0" 24" - 11'-5"

2x10 @

12" - 19'-8" 16" - 17-0" 24" - 13'-11"

8' PLATE

HIP SCHEDULE

A B

8' PLATE

2x8 @

B

1. USE 1/2" 'CCX' PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. 2. ROOF VENTS MUST HAVE AN AREA EQUAL TO 1/150 OF THE ATTIC AREA. 3. SKYLIGHTS TO BE DOUBLE DOMED PLASTIC BY VELEX OR EQUAL.

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

A

4. ALL ROOF PITCHES ARE 5/12 UNLESS NOTED. 5. 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT.

FIGURE 116 The roof plan shows the shape of the roof structure as well as vents and drains.

B

A

2x12

B

2-2x12

C

5 1/8" x 10 1/2" GLULAM

D

2-2x10

E

3 1/8" x 12" GLULAM

F

5 1/8 x 13 1/2 GLULAM

G

3 1/2" x 11 7/8" MICROLLAM


12" - 12'-9" 16" - 11'-1" 24" - 9'-1"

TYP. 2'-6"

8' PLATE 2'-6" TYP.

12' PLATE

MAX. RAFT. SPAN 2x6 @

E

PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN

D

B

B

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

2x10 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

12' PLATE

ROOF FRAMING NOTES:

CRICKET

D

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

B

PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN

N

CRICKET

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

D

48"x48" SKYLIGHT

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C. B

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

8' PLATE SEE SECTION

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN 12" ~SCREENED RIDGE VENTS

B

A

B

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

E

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

CHIMNEY W/ 26 ga FLASH/ COUNTER FLASH 2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

A

CRICKET

PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN

CRICKET

E

2x8 PURLIN SEE FRAMING PLAN

48"x48" SKYLITE

8' PLATE

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

D

2x10 RAFT. @ 12" O.C.

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" O.C.

9' PLATE

2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

12' PLATE

8' PLATE

12' PLATE

8' PLATE

PLATE HEIGHT REMAINING LEVEL. FLOOR HEIGHT CHANGES. SEE SECTION


21

BUILT-INS 8

13'-6" CEILING

B

L

6

3'-6" X 6'-0" C.T. SUNKEN TUB

9

S&P

MASONRY FIREPLACE W/ 18" FLUSH HEARTH

G

D

C

36" HIGH PLANTER 8" MAX. STEP

UP 2 RISERS

D

SCREENED CLOSABLE VENT WITHIN 24"

BUILT-INS

S&P

4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT

36" HIGH PLANTER

8" MAX.

ARCH

4'-0" X 4'-0" SKYLIGHT

2'-6" CASE OPENING

22" X 30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS

4'-0"X4'-0" SKYLIGHT ARCH

K

36" F.G. SHW. SHOWER

FULL WALL

ARCH

N N

N

F

P CLS

J N

N

F

3'-6" X 7'-0" SHOWER

N

S&P

P

60" F.G. TUB & S. 2'-6" CASE OPENING

F

FOLDING COUNTER W/ SHELVES BELOW

SELF VENT M

N

10 11

E ARCH

S&P A

22"X30" CRAWL SPACE ACCESS 5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FLOOR AND CEILING

6 3

4

5

BUILT-INS

1

R

INSULATE W.H. TO R-11 & PLACE ON 18" HIGH PLATFORM

2

S

14 DESIGN BASED ON 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE - PATH I.

13

FIGURE 117A The preliminary floor plan is used to form the base of the finished floor plan. Text to describe all interior materials must be provided.

DOOR SCHEDULE SYM.

WINDOW SCHEDULE

A

3'-6" X 8'-0"

B

12'-0" X 8'-0"

C

8'-0" X 6'-8"

D

6'-0" X 6'-8"

TYPE S.C.,R.P., W/ 24" SIDELIGHT W/ SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS W/ 12'-0" X 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. FRENCH DRS. W/ 12" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE SL. GLASS DRS. W/6'-0" x 3'-0" SQ. TRANSOM ABOVE

E

3'-0" X 6'-8"

SELF CLOSING, M.I.

1

F

PR 2'-6" X 6'-8"

HOLLOW CORE

2

G

6'-0" X 6'-8"

SL. MIRROR

1

H

6'-0" X 6'-8"

BIFOLD

1

J

4'-0" X 6'-8"

BIFOLD

1

K

PR 2'-0" X 6'-8"

HOLLOW CORE

1

L

2'-8" X 6'-8"

S.C., M.I.

1

M

2'-8" X 6'-8"

HOLLOW CORE

1

N

2'-6" X 6'-8"

HOLLOW CORE

7

P

2'-4" X 6'-8"

HOLLOW CORE

3

Q

16'-0" X 8'-0"

OVERHEAD, GARAGE

1

9'-0" X 8'-0"

OVERHEAD, GARAGE

1

R

SIZE

QUAN.

DOOR NOTES: 1. FRONT DOOR TO BE RATED AT 0.54 OR LESS; VERIFY DOOR STYLE WITH OWNER. 2. EXTERIOR DOORS IN HEATED WALLS TO BE U 0.20 OR LESS. OR LESS. 4. ALL GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED.

1

SYM.

SIZE

GENERAL NOTES: TYPE

QUAN.

1. STRUCTURAL DESIGNS ARE BASED ON 2003 I.R.C AND 1996 OREGON ENERGY CODE PATH 1. 2. ALL PENETRATIONS IN TOP OR BOTTOM PLATES FOR PLUMBING OR ELECTRICAL RUNS TO BE SEALED. SEE ELECTRICAL PLANS FOR ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATIONS.

1

5'-6" X 7-'6"

ARCHED TOP

1

1

2

5'-6" X 1-0"

AWNING

1

1

3

2'-6" X 5'-0"

PICTURE

2

1

4

2'-6" X 1'-0"

AWNING

2

3. PROVIDE 1/2" WATERPROOF GYP. BD. AROUND ALL TUBS, SHOWERS, AND SPAS.

5

2'-6" X 2'-6"

ARCHED TOP

6

1'-8" X 4'-6"

ARCHED TOP

2 1

4. VENT DRYER AND ALL FANS TO OUTSIDE AIR THRU DAMPERED VENTS.

7

6'-0" X 4'-6"

HOR. SLIDING

1

8

5'-0" X 4'-0"

HOR. SLIDING

1

9

6'-0" X 4'-0"

HOR. SLIDING

1

10

1'-8" X 4'-6"

CASEMENT

11

3'-6" X 4'-6"

PICTURE

2 1

12

4'-0" X 3'-0"

PICTURE

1

ARCHED TOP

1

13 3'-6" X 4'-6" WINDOW NOTES:

1. ALL WINDOWS TO BE VINYL FRAME, MILGARD OR BETTER. 2. ALL WINDOWS TO BE U 0.40 MIN. 3. ALL BEDROOM WINDOWS TO BE WITHIN 44" OF FIN. FLOOR. 4. GLASS WITHIN 18" OF DOORS TO BE TEMPERED. 5. ALL WINDOW HDRS. FOR 8' & 9' CEIL. HEIGHTS TO BE SET AT 6'-8", ALL HDRS FOR 12' CEIL. TO BE SET AT 10'-8", UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 6. VERIFY HEIGHT OF WINDOW #7 WITH TUB HEIGHT.

FIGURE 117B Notes and schedules are typically displayed near the floor plan.

5. INSULATE WATER HEATER TO R-11. PROVIDE 18" HIGH PLATFORM FOR GAS APPLIANCES. 6. PROVIDE 1/4" COLD WATER LINE TO REFRIGERATOR. 7. BRICK VENEER TO BE PLACED OVER 1" AIR SPACE, AND TYVEK W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD.

22

SS

4

4

FLUORESCENT LIGHTS UP IN SOFFIT.

4

WP

(2) FLOOR OUTLETS VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER

4 4

TV

SS S 33 P

P

TO LIGHTING IN SOFFITS

GFI

SS

S.D.

S S 3 3

SS

J

S

SSSS

GFI

GFI

GD

S3

S3 SS

TR

J

SD

3 S

S L

S 3

WP F

S S

TV

GFI F

S

S.D. SS

TR

3 SSS

WP

P

P

120" WP

P

S

SS S 3 33

TR

FLUORESCENT LIGHTS IN SOFFIT.

WP 72" SUPPLY 220 CIRCUIT TO A.C.

S S3 SSSS3

P

S3S3

CH.

S3

S

S

GFI

42"

S3S3S3

SS

S.D.

F

S

S

S.D.

S 3

S3S3S3

F L H

SD

SD

SSS

P

GFI

GFI

SD S3

TR.

S

S

TV

WP

WP 120"

4

S3

WP

4

SS

TV

AIR COND.

S

ALL OUTLETS IN KITCHEN, LAUNDRY, WP BATHROOM & OUTDOOR TO BE GFI.

CIR

SWITCH TURNS ON ALL W.P. OUTLETS MOUNTED UNDER EAVES D

50 AMP.

ELECTRICAL PLAN

14

D

W.P.

W.P 72"

FIGURE 118A The electrical plan shows the locations for lights, plugs, switches, and other electrical fixtures and specifications. Using the floor plan as the base drawing, the electrical drawing can be completed by adding the electrical information on new layers.


LIGHTS ON GATE


23

ELECTRICAL LEGEND

ELECTRICAL NOTES: 1. ALL GARAGE AND EXTERIOR PLUGS & LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 2. ALL KITCHEN PLUGS AND LIGHT FIXTURES TO BE ON GFCI CIRCUIT. 3. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR MICROWAVE OVEN. 4. PROVIDE A SEPARATE CIRCUIT FOR PERSONAL COMPUTER. VERIFY LOCATION WITH OWNER. 5. VERIFY ALL ELECTRICAL LOCATIONS W/ OWNER. 6. EXTERIOR SPOTLIGHTS TO BE ON PHOTOELECTRIC CELL W/ TIMER. 7. ALL RECESSED LIGHTS IN EXT. CEIL. TO BE INSULATION COVER RATED. 8. ELECTRICAL OUTLET PLATE GASKETS SHALL BE INSTALLED ON RECEPTACLE, SWITCH, AND ANY OTHER BOXES IN EXTERIOR WALL. 9. PROVIDE THERMOSTATICALLY CONTROLLED FAN IN ATTIC W/ MANUAL OVERRIDE (VERIFY LOCATION W/ OWNER).

CEILING-MOUNTED LIGHT FIXTURE CAN CEILING LIGHT FIXTURE

110 CONVENIENCE OUTLET L GFI 110 C.O. GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTER WP 110 WATERPROOF

WALL-MOUNTED LIGHT

110 HALF HOT J

JUNCTION BOX

RECESSED LIGHT FIXTURE P.C

220 OUTLET

10. ALL FANS TO VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR. ALL FAN DUCTS TO HAVE AUTOMATIC DAMPERS. 11. HOT WATER TANKS TO BE INSULATED TO R-11 MINIMUM. 12. INSULATE ALL HOT WATER LINES TO R-4 MINIMUM. PROVIDE AN ALTERNATE BID TO INSULATE ALL PIPES FOR NOISE CONTROL.

S

SINGLE POLE SWITCH

S3

THREE-WAY SWITCH

L H F

LIGHT, HEATER, & FAN

S.D. SMOKE DETECTOR

13. PROVIDE 6 SQ. FT. OF VENT FOR COMBUSTION AIR TO OUTSIDE AIR FOR FIREPLACE CONNECTED DIRECTLY TO FIREBOX. PROVIDE FULLY CLOSEABLE AIR INLET. 14. HEATING TO BE ELECTRIC HEAT PUMP. PROVIDE BID FOR SINGLE UNIT NEAR GARAGE OR FOR A UNIT EACH FLOOR (IN ATTIC).

V

VACUUM

LIGHT ON PULL CHORD SPOTLIGHTS 48" SURFACE-MOUNTED FLUORESCENT LIGHT FIXTURE

S

STEREO SPEAKER

P

PHONE OUTLET

TV

CABLE TV OUTLET

15. INSULATE ALL HEATING DUCTS IN UNHEATED AREAS TO R-11. ALL HVAC DUCTS TO BE SEALED AT JOINTS AND CORNERS.

FIGURE 118B Notes and legends are placed with the electrical plan to explain fixtures.

plan was provided (see Figure 1-14). The junior drafter may draw the base drawing showing the structure and site plan and the designer or senior drafter will usually complete the grading information. Typically the owner is responsible for hiring a surveyor, who will provide the topography and site map, although the designer may coordinate the work between the two offices. Section 3 will provide insight into how these two drawings are developed. Using the preliminary drawing that was presented in Figure 1-10, the working elevations can be completed. Depending on the complexity of the structure, they may be completed by either the junior or the senior drafter. Figure 1-15 shows the working elevations for this structure. Section 7 will provide information needed to complete working elevations, and Section 11 will introduce presentation elevations. Figure 1-16 and Figure 1-17 show the completed plan views of this structure. Figure 1-16 shows the view from flying over the structure. The roof plan is often completed by the junior drafter using sketches provided by the senior drafter. Section 6 will provide information on roof plans. The floor plan, represented in Figure 1-17A, is usually completed by the senior drafter. These drawings provide information related to the room arrangements and interior finishes. Junior drafters also work on the plan views by making corrections or adding notes, which are typically placed on a marked-up set of plans provided by the designer or senior drafter. Section 4 will provide information for completing floor plans.

Figure 1-18 shows the electrical plan. Depending on the complexity of the residence, electrical information may be placed directly on the floor plan. A junior drafter typically completes the electrical drawings by working from marked-up prints provided by the designer. Chapter 19 will provide information for completing the electrical plans. Figure 1-19 through Figure 1-21 represent the framing plans and notes associated with these drawings. The notes shown with Figure 1-19 are standard notes that specify the nailing for all framing connections. Depending on the complexity of the structure, framing information may be placed on the floor plan. Because of the information to be shown regarding seismic and wind problems, separate framing plans have been provided. Typically these drawings would be completed by the designer and the senior drafters. Notice in Figure 1-21B that notes have been provided to specify the minimum code standards used to design the residence. Section 6 and Section 8 will provide information needed to complete the framing plans. Figure 1-22 and Figure 1-23 contain the section views required to show the vertical relationships of materials specified on the framing plans. Office practice varies greatly on what drawings will be provided, the scale to be used, and the detail that will be shown in the sections. Section 10 will provide information for drawing sections. Sections are typically drawn by the designer and the senior drafter and completed by the junior drafters. Section 10 will provide information for creating building sections and details.

24


FASTENER SCHEDULE

CAULKING NOTES: CAULKING REQUIREMENTS BASED ON 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE 1. SEAL THE EXTERIOR SHEATHING @ CORNERS, JOINTS, DOOR AND WINDOW, AND FOUNDATION SILLS W/ SILICONE CAULKING. 2. CAULK THE FOLLOWING OPENINGS W/ EXPANDED FOAM OR BACKER RODS. POLYURETHANE, ELASTOMERIC COPOLYMER, SILCONIZED ACRYLIC LAYTEX CAULKS MAY ALSO BE USED WHERE APPROPRIATE. ANY SPACE BETWEEN WINDOW AND DOOR FRAMES BETWEEN ALL EXTERIOR WALL SOLE PLATES AND PLY SHEATHING ON TOP OF RIM JOIST PRIOR TO PLYWOOD FLOOR APPLICATION WALL SHEATHING TO TOP PLATE JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND FOUNDATION JOINTS BETWEEN WALL AND ROOF JOINTS BETWEEN WALL PANELS AROUND OPENINGS FOR DUCTS, PLUMBING, ELECTRICAL, TELEPHONE AND GAS LINES IN CEILINGS, WALLS AND FLOORS. ALL VOIDS AROUND PIPING RUNNING THROUGH FRAMING OR SHEATHING TO BE PACKED

ALTERNATE ATTACHMENTS TABLE NO R 402.3A (1) NOMINAL THICKNESS 5/16" 3/8" 15/32" & 1/2" 19/32" & 5/8" 23/32" & 3/4" 1"

DESCRIPTION (1,2) OF FASTENERS & LENGTH .097-.009 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 5/8 .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE T 15 & 16 GA. 1 5/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4" STAPLE 14 GA. 1 3/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 1 3/4" .097-.099 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 14 GA. 2" .113 NAIL 2 1/4" STAPLE 15 GA. 2" .097-.099 NAIL 2 1/8"

SPACING OF FASTENERS INTERMEDIATE EDGES SUPPORTS 6" 6 4 6 3

12" 12 10 12" 6"

6 3" 6 5 3 6 4"

12" 6" 12 10 6 10" 8"

3"

6"

FLOOR UNDERLAYMENT: PLYWOOD, HARDBOARD, PARTICLEBOARD

|" & 5/16"

3/8"

1/2"

.097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/4" .080 NAIL 1 1/4" STAPLE 18 GA. 3/16 CROWN 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA 1 3/8" .097-.099 NAIL 1 1/2" .080 NAIL 1 3/8" .113 NAIL 1 7/8" STAPLE 15 & 16 GA. 1 1/2" .097-.099 NAIL 1 3/4"

6"

12"

5"

10"

DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING MATERIAL

NUMBER & TYPE OF FASTENERS (1,2,3,5,)

1. JOIST TO SILL OR GIRDER, TOE NAIL 2. BRIDGING TO JOIST, TOENAIL EA. END 3. 1 x 6 (25 X 150) SUBFLOOR OR LESS TO EACH JOIST, FACE NAIL

5"

10"

6"

12"

5"

6"

1. NAIL IS A GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND MAY BE T-HEAD, MODIFIED ROUND HEAD, OR ROUND HEAD. 2. STAPLES SHALL HAVE A MINIMUM CROWN WIDTH OF 7/16" O.D. EXCEPT AS NOTED. 3. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 6" O.C. AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" OR GREATER. NAILS OR STAPLES SHALL BE SPACED AT NOT MORE THAN 10" O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS FOR FLOORS.

6d 6

5/8" (16 mm)

8d 6 7

1/2" (13 mm)

No. 16 ga.9

2-8d 25/32" (20 mm)

4. WIDER THAN 1 x 6 (25 x 150) SUBFLOOR TO EACH JOIST, FACE 3-8d NAIL 5. 2" (50) SUBFLOOR TO JOIST OR GIRDER BLIND AND FACE NAIL 6. SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING FACE NAIL SOLE PLATE TO JOIST OR BLOCKING AT BRACED WALL PANELS 7. TOP OR SOLE PLATE TO STUD, END NAIL

No. 11 ga.8 6d 4 No. 16 ga.9

2-16d 16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C.

No. 11 ga. 6d 4

2-8d

29. INTERIOR PANELING

3- 16d PER 16" (406mm) O.C.

1/4" (6.4 mm)

4d 10

2-16d

3/8" (9.5 mm)

4d 11

8. STUD TO SOLE PLATE, TOE NAIL

4-8d, TOENAIL OR 2-16d END NAIL

9. DOUBLE STUDS, FACE NAIL

16d @ 24" (610mm) O.C.

10. DOUBLE TOP PLATE, FACE NAIL DOUBLE TOP PLATE, LAP SPLICE 11. BLOCKING BTWN. JOIST OR RAFTERS TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 12. RIM JOIST TO TOP PLATE, TOENAIL 13. TOP PLATES, TAPS & INTERSECTIONS, FACE NAIL 14. CONTINUED HEADER, TWO PIECES

16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. 8-16d

1. - COMMON OR BOX NAILS MAY BE USED EXCEPT WHERE OTHERWISE STATED.

2-16d

2. - NAILS SPACED @ 6" (152 mm) ON CENTER @ EDGES, 12" INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS EXCEPT 6" (152 mm) AT ALL SUPPORTS WHERE SPANS ARE 48" 1220 mm OR MORE. FOR NAILING OF WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL AND PARTICLEBOARD DIAPHRAGMS AND SHEAR WALLS, REFER TO SECTION 2314.3. NAIL FOR WALL SHEATHING MAY BE COMMON, BOX OR CASING.

16d @ 16" (406mm) O.C. ALONG EACH EDGE

3. - COMMON OR DEFORMED SHANK.

3- 8d 8d @ 6" (152mm) O.C.

15. CEILING JOIST TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 3-8d 4. - COMMON.

16. CONTINUOUS HEADER TO STUD, TOE NAIL 17. CEILING JOIST, LAPS OVER PARTITIONS, FACE NAIL 18. CEILING JOIST TO PARALLEL RAFTERS, FACE NAIL 19. RAFTERS TO PLATE, TOE NAIL 20. 1" (25mm) BRACE TO EA. STUD & PLATE FACE NAIL 21. 1 x 8 (25 x 203mm) SHEATHING OR LESS TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 22. WIDER THAN 1 x 8 (25 X 203mm) SHEATHING TO EACH BEARING, FACE NAIL 23. BUILT-UP CORNER STUDS 24. BUILT-UP GIRDER AND BEAMS

4-8d 5. - DEFORMED SHANK. 3-16d 6. - CORROSION-RESISTANT SIDING OR CASING NAILS. 3-16d 3-8d 2-8d 2-8D 3-8d

8. - CORROSION-RESISTANT ROOFING NAILS W/ 7/16" ~ (11 mm) HEAD & 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 3/4" (44 mm) LENGTH (FOR 25/32" (20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1.

9. - CORROSION-RESISTANT STAPLES WITH NOMINAL 7/16" (11 mm) CROWN AND 1 1/8" (29 mm) LENGTH FOR 20d @ 32" (813 mm) O.C. 1/2" (13 mm) SHEATHING AND 1 1/2" (38 mm) LENGTH FOR 25/32" ( 20 mm) SHEATHING CONFORMING TO THE @ TOP/BOTTOM & REQUIREMENTS OF SECTION 2325.1. STAGGER 2-20d @ ENDS & @ EACH SPLICE. 2-16d AT EACH BEARING

26. WOOD STRUCTURAL PANELS AND 2 PARTICLEBOARD: SUBFLOOR, ROOF AND WALL SHEATHING ( TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4mm) 1/2" OR LESS

6d 3

19/32 - 3/4"

8d OR 6d 5

7/8 - 1"

8d 3

1 1/8 - 1 1/4"

10d 4 OR 8d 5

COMBINATION SUBFLOOR—UNDERLAYMENT (TO FRAMING) 1" = 25.4 mm) 3/4" AND LESS

7. - FASTENERS SPACED 3" (76 mm) O.C. AT EXTERIOR EDGES AND 6" (152 mm) O.C. AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.

16d @ 24" (610 mm) O.C.

25. 2" PLANKS 12"

1/2" (13 mm)

28. FIBERBOARD SHEATHING:

3-8d

6"3 ""

6"

27. PANEL SIDING (TO FRAMING):

10. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 16" (406 mm) O.C. 20" (508 mm) IF STRENGTH AXIS IN LONG DIRECTION OF THE PANEL, UNLESS OTHERWISE MARKED CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS. 11. - PANEL SUPPORTS @ 24" (610 mm). CASING OR FINISH NAILS SPACED 6" (152 mm) ON PANEL EDGES, 12" (305 mm) AT INTERMEDIATE SUPPORTS.

INSULATION NOTES: INSULATION BASED ON PATH # 1 OF 1992 OREGON RESIDENTIAL ENERGY CODE.

8d 5

7/8" - 1"

8d 5

1 1/8 - 1 1/4"

10d 4 OR 8d 5

FIGURE 119 Many offices use one or more sheets to include all standard framing notes and building specifications.

6x12 HDR. 6x10 HDR.

4x6

4x6 HDR.

NOTES:

1. ALL HEADERS TO BE SUPPORTED BY 2x6 TRIMMERS AND KING STUD UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. 2. STRUTS SHALL NOT BE SMALLER THAN 2x4 MEMBERS. THE UNBRACED LENGTH OF STRUTS SHALL NOT EXCEED 8' AND THE MINIMUM SLOPE OF THE STRUTS SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 45˚ FROM THE HORIZONTAL. 3. HIP, VALLEY AND RIDGE TO BE 2x10 UNLESS NOTED. 4. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITION. 5. EXTEND INTERIOR BEARING WALLS THROUGH TO RAFT. USE 2x4 @ 24" O.C. MAX. @ 45˚ MAX.

W/ 2-H5 EA. END. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

HDR. 4x4

2-2x4

MST 27

2x4 BRACE 45˚ MAX. TYP.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

BEARING WALL 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

4x8 HDR.

6x12 HDR.

SEE NOTE #7

4x4

THIS SYMBOL REPRESENTS THE LOCATIONS OF ALL THE 2x4 ROOF SUPPORTS. BRACES TO BE WITHIN 45˚ OF VERT.

4x4 HDR.

4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR.

4x8 HDR.

MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP.

4x6 HDR. 4x4 W/ PC 44

4x4 HDR.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.

4x10 HDR.

4x4 HDR.

BEARING WALL

5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM 5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4x12 STRONGBACK

4x4 HDR.

5.125"x10.5" GLU-LAM

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

W/HUC410TF 4x10 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

4x8 HDR. 3-2x6

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

FLUSH

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 4x10 HDR.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

MST 27

2x10 VALLEY 6x10 STRONGBACK

4x12 HDR. 4x4 HDR.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4x6 HDR.

FLUSH

4x8 HDR.

BEARING WALL ABOVE

4x8 HDR.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4x4 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C. 4x4 PC44

4x6 HDR.

BEARING WALL ABOVE

1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP.

4x12 HDR.

3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK

4x10 HDR.

4x10 HDR.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

4x6 HDR.

4x4 HDR.

4x14 HDR.

2-2x4

FLUSH

4x4

2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

6x6 CC 5|-6

5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. 5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM

3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM

4x8 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL

4x14 HDR.

4x6 HDR.

6x12 HDR.


6x6 W/ PC66 CAP

MST 27 SOLID BLOCK @ WALL

MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM.


ECC 5|-4 4x8 HDR.

25

FIGURE 120 Because of the complicated roof structure, the material used to frame the roof is separated from the material displayed on the roof plan (Figure 1.16). The roof plan shows the material used to frame the roof. The roof framing plan is used to display the structural materials used to transfer roof loads into the walls.

26

90'-0"

MST 27

1

C

1'-0"

12'-4"

12

8'-4"

C 1 2'-0"

4'-4" 3'-8" 5'-4"

32'-4"

3'-2" 2'-8" 3'-2"

11'-8"

B 1 13'-0"


R

PROVIDE 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL OVER EA. DOOR & WINDOW TYPICAL. 38'-8"

5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM

5 1/8" x 10.5" GLU-LAM 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

MST 48 STRAP FROM BM. TO BM.

Q

C

5 1/8" x1 0.5" GLU-LAM

6'-0"

4x8 HDR.

8'-8"

A


A 1

25'-8"

10 11

71'-0"

C 1

ECC 5 1/4 x 4 13 8'-0"

4x6 HDR.

4x8 HDR. 2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

6x12 HDR.

9'-10"

15'-0"

3'-10"

10'-0"

C 1

A 1

12'-0"

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

9'-10" +

B 1

17'-0"

90'-0"

FIGURE 121A In addition to showing materials needed to frame the structure, materials needed to resist wind, seismic, and other forces of nature are shown.


A 0

4x4 HDR. 4x4 HDR.

2'-4" 5'-4"

1'-0"

19'-0"

4x8 HDR.

4'-6"

4'-0"

2'-7"

2

4x4 HDR.

6'-0"

6'-6"

6'-6"

4x6 HDR.

8'-4"

3'-10"

6x6 CC 5 1/4" x 6

4x10 HDR. 4x4

2'-6" 2'-6"

N

P

P

A 0

1'-0"

1/4"

E

M

5'-0"

2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.

C 1

4x4 HDR.

J

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

5'-4"

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

B 1

5'-4" 4x4 HDR.

P

1'-0"

FRAMING PLAN

8'-1"

4x4 HDR.

2'-6" 2'-10"

7'-2" 4x4 U-26 HGR. TYP. N 2-2x4 SEE NOTE #7

N

7'-8"

33'-4"

4x4 W/ PC 44

3'-10"

N 4x4 HDR.

5'-8"

9'-6"

4x4

FLUSH

4x8 HDR.

4x4 HDR.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

8'-4"

H

4x4 HDR

N

4'-0"

4x6 HDR.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

2'-10"

4'-6"

5'-6"

7'-6"

6'-10"

7'-3"

5

G

4x12 HDR.

3

9

3 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM

7'-6"

14'-8" 12" WIDE WALL

7'-0"

4'-0"

1x4 LET IN BRACE TYP.

8'-10"

4x6 HDR.

4x6 HDR. 4

A

D

FULL WALL

MST 27

9'-4"

12'-4" B 1

A 0

4x6 HDR.

8

L

D

4x4 PC44

MST 27 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL 4x12 STRONGBACK 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C. W/ 2-H5 EA. END. B 1 4x8 HDR.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

6

4'-0"

F

8'-4"

4'-0"

1'-0"

4x6 HDR.

3'-0"

3-2x6

0"

B 1

4'-0"

4x10 HDR.

-1

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4'-8"

5'-8"

K

4'-2"

16" WIDE WALL

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

2'-4"

2'-10"

8'-6"

6'-2"

5'

A 0

2'-4"

N

7'-6"

10'-10"

4x10 HDR. FLUSH

4x6 HDR. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4'-2"

N

5'-6"

16" O.C.

3'-10"

2x6 C.J. @

4'-10"

3'-8"

2'-2"

4x8 HDR.

37'-0" 7'-4"

2'-8"

F

2'-10"

7'-0"

A

A 0

4x6 HDR.

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

4x12 HDR.

3'-0"

6x12 HDR.

3'-2"

7'-2"

4x6 HDR.

4x14 HDR. FLUSH

7'-2"

16'-0"

B

6'-0"

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

1'-0" 5'-8"

4x10 HDR.

14'-2" 5'-8"

2x6 C.J @ 16" O.C.

4'-0"

2'-4"

12'-6"

4x4

D

8'-10"

B

A 0

2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

2-2x4 3-2x4 6x12 STRONGBACK 1'-10"

72'-6"

B 1

B 1

2'-2"

8'-4"

A 0

B 1

C

4x8 HDR.

4x14 HDR.

5'-6" 17'-2"

7 4x6 HDR.

MST 28 W/ SOLID BLOCK @ WALL

B

4x6 HDR.

6x10 HDR. B 1

5'-6"

1'-6"

5'-8" 6x6 W/ 6x12 HDR. EPC66 CAP

7'-4"

8'-10"

7'-6"

7'-0"

6'-0"

6'-8"

7'-2"

5'-9"

11'-2"

5 1/8"x10.5" GLU-LAM

6'-1"

14'-6"

5 1/8" x 13.5" GLU-LAM

4'-3"

25'-6"

13'-8"

8'-10"

4'-0"

11'-10"

19'-10"

4'-7"

3'-10"

3'-8"

8'-10"

32'-0"

2'-4"

24'-6"


27

NOTES: 1. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DFL. #2 MIN.

2. FRAME ALL EXTERIOR WALLS W/ 2X6 STUDS @ 16" O.C. ALL EXTERIOR HEADERS TO BE 4X6 DFL. #2 UNLESS NOTED. 3. ALTERNATE: FOR ALL BMS. SMALLER THAN 4X10 USE 2X6 NAILER AT THE BOTTOM OF ALL 4X HEADERS @ EXTERIOR WALLS. BACK HEADER W/ 2" RIGID INSULATION. 4. ALL SHEAR PANELS TO BE 1/2" PLY NAILED W/ 8 d'S @ 4" O.C. @ EDGE BLOCKING AND 6 d'S @ 8" O.C. @ FIELD UNLESS NOTED. 5. ALL METAL CONNECTORS TO BE BY SIMPSON CO. OR OTHER. 6. ALL ANGLES ON INTERNAL WALLS TO BE 45˚ UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED. 7. USE 4X6 POST W/ EPC 5 1/4 TOP CAP TO 4X6 POST & PC 46 BASE CAP UPSIDE/DOWN TO HDR OVER GARAGE/HALL DOOR. 8. 1X4 DIAG. LET IN BRACE @ 45˚ MAX. TYPICAL. 9. BLOCK ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH AT MIDHEIGHT. 10. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS.

SHEAR WALL SCHEDULE MARK A B C

WALL COVER EDGE NAIL'G 15/32" C-D EXTR. 8d @ 6" O.C. PLYWD. (1) SIDE -U BLOCKED -UNBLOCKE 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 6" O.C. BLOCKED EDGES 15/32" C-D EXTR. PLYWD. (1) SIDE - 8d @ 4" O.C. BLOCKED EDGE

FIELD NAIL'G 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C. 8d @ 12" O.C.

HOLD DOWN SCHEDULE MARK 0

1

HOLD DOWN

CONN. MEMBER

DETAIL

NON-REQ'D SIMPSON PAHD42

8d @ 6" O.C.

FIGURE 121B Notes specifying minimum building standards are shown near the framing plan.

Figure 1-24 shows what is typically the final drawing in a set of residential plans, although the foundation plan is one of the first drawings used at the construction site. Because of the importance of this drawing, it is typically completed by the designer or the senior drafter, although junior drafters may work on corrections or add notes to the drawing. Section 9 will provide information for creating drawings to represent the foundation and floor system. As you progress through this text, you will be exposed to each type of working drawing. It is important to understand that a drafter would rarely draw one complete drawing and then go on to another drawing.

Because the drawings in a set of plans are so interrelated, often one drawing is started, and then another drawing is started so that relationships between the two can be studied before the first drawing is completed. For instance, floor plans may be laid out, and then a section may be drawn to work out the relationships between floors or any headroom problems. When the plans are completely drawn, they must be checked. Dimensions must be checked carefully and cross-referenced from one plan to another. Bearing points from beams must be followed from the roof down through the foundation system. Perhaps one of the hardest jobs for a new drafter is coordinating the

28


2x8 RAFT. @ 16" O.C.

LINE OF ROOF BEYOND 3.125x12" GLULAM

3.125x12" GLULAM 300# COMP. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT

12" R-30 MIN. BLOWN-IN

BATH 2

BED 2

8"MIN,

6x10 GIRDER

6" BATTS. R-25 MIN.

6x10 GIRDER

2x6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" Ø @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ ~2" WASHER

4x4 POST

6"

GUSSET

8" 12"

4x6 HDR.

BED 3

2x4 @ 16" O.C. 2x4 LEDGER

2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.

6" BATTS. R-21 MIN. 2x4 SILL, TYP. 3/8" HARDBOARD OVERLAY

2x6 MUDSILL

1/2" SHEETROCK

12" MIN.

C 1

2'-6" TYP.

BATH 3

8'-0"

1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT

12"MIN,

2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP.

(2) 2x6 TOP PLATE LAP 48" MIN. TYP. ALL EXT. WALLS

2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER

BAFFLE

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

SOLID BLOCK

2x4 NAILER W/ U24 HGR.

2x8 RAFT @ 16" O.C.

A 0

18" MIN.

SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS

12 TYP. 5

2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 45˚ MAX. TYP.

CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR

.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER

SECTION A-A 1'-0" 3/8" NOTES: 1. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS.

SOLID BLOCK OMIT EA. 3RD FOR SCREENED VENTS

45˚ MAX.

5

12

2x8 RAFT. @ 24" 0.C.

4x4 26 ga. METAL FLASH

2x4 PLATE

2x4 @16" O.C.

2x4 BRACE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

U-26 HGR. EA. SIDE

2x6 FASCIA W/ GUTTER 1x4 T&G @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES W/ 2x4 NAILER & CONT. VENT 4" BRICK VENEER W/ 1" AIR SPACE W/ METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. EA. STUD

3/8" NOTES:

8"MIN,

9'-0" 2x6 @ 16" O.C. 2-2x4 TOP >

GUSSET

2x4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.

4x4 POST

2x4 SILL

6"

12"MIN,

2x6 T&G DECKING

8" 16"

1" TREAD MATERIAL SOLID BLOCK

6" TYP. (7 3/4" MAX.)

12" MIN. 18" MIN.

2X6 DFPT SILL W/ 1/2" @ 10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. -7" MIN. INTO CONC. ANCHOR BOLT W/ 2" WASHER

SECTION B-B

4x10 HDR.

8'-0"

LINE OF WALL BEYOND

CONC. PIER SEE FND. PLAN FOR SIZE

1'-0"

1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES.

FIGURE 122 Sections are used to show the vertical relationships of the structural members. A section or detail is used to represent each major shape within the structure.


29

2-2x12 RIDGE BLOCK RIDGE VENT

2x8 RAFTER @ 16" O.C.

2x4 BRACE 48" O.C. @ 45˚ 45˚ MAX. 2x6 C.J. @ 24" O.C.

5 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM

12" MIN.

8'-0"

6"

HGR. 4"x3"x 5/8" STEEL W/ 4" LEG TO WALL. TYP. 7'-0"

2x6 DFPT SILL

LINE OF FIN. FLOOR

SECTION C-C 3/8"

16"

B 1

GARAGE

2x6 DF SILL

8"

5

3 1/8"x13.5" GLU-LAM

U-26 EA. SIDE

5/8" TYPE 'X' GYP. BD. FOR 1-HR. WALL & CEIL.

A 0

12

2x6 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL-SLOPE 1/4" / 12" FOR DRAINAGE.

1'-0"

NOTES:

THICKEN SLAB TO 8" @ EDGE

6x12 CONT. FOOTING

1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL DEFINITIONS. 2x10 RAFTER @ 12" O.C. 3.125"x12" GLU-LAM HIP 2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C.

2"x12" HIP

12

5

2x8 COLLAR TIE @ 48" O.C. 2x6 NAILER

2x8 RAFTER @ 24" O.C. 2x8 PURLIN

2x4 PURLIN BRACE @ 48" O.C. @ 45˚ MAX. FROM VERT.

2x8 C.J. @ 16" O.C.

SOLID BLK. 4x14 HEADER

2'-0"

2-2x4 TOP PLATES, TYP.

LINE OF WALL BEYOND

15'-6"

SOLID BLOCK @ MID SPAN FOR ALL WALLS OVER 10'-0" HIGH

2x4 NAILER

13'-6"

9'-0"

2X6 LEDGER W/ U26 HGR.

PLANTER BEYOND 1" TREAD MATERIAL 2x8 LEDGER W/ U210 HGR.

4x8 TYP.

4x10

1'-6"

2x12 STRINGER @ 16" O.C. 2x KICKER

GUSSET

SECTION D-D 3/8"

.006 BLACK VAPOR BARRIER

1'-0"

4x10

GIRDER & CONC. PIER. SEE FOUNDATION PLAN FOR SIZE.

NOTES: 1. SEE SECTION A-A FOR BALANCE OF NOTES. 2. SEE FND. PLAN FOR GIRDER AND PIER SIZE.

FIGURE 123 Each section is referenced to the framing plan with a viewing plane line to show where the structure is “cut” and in which direction the viewer is looking.

30

90'-0"

1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C.

1'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"

32'-4"

4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"

4'-4"

4'-0"

1'- 2"

5'-4"

9'-2" 4'-0"

4'-0" 2'-0"

1/2"X10 @ 48" O.C.

18'-0"

2 X 6 D.F.P.T. SILL W/ 1/2"X10" A.B. @ 6'-0" O.C. 7" MIN. INTO CONC. & 12" MAX. FROM ANY CORNER W/ 2" WASHERS W/ 2 MIN. PER PLATE. 18" X 6" SCREENED CLOSABLE VENTS @ 10' O.C. & 3' OF EA. CORNER. PLACE VENTS TO AVOID KING STUDS.

BLOCK OUT FOR DOORS

38'-8"

15'-8" 30"X12" DP. CONC. PIER W/ CB66

A 0

1'-10"

1'-6" TYP. @ VENEER

11'-0"

A 1 9'-10"

12'-4"

16'-4"

2'-7"

PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING

8'-0"

B 1

8"

3 1/2"

C 1

PROVIDE 1/2" AIR SPACE @ ENDS & SIDE W/ 55# FELT & 3" MIN. BEARING

13'-0"

6'-6" C 1

4x8 GIRDERS W/ 15" O.C.

9'-4"

6'-0" 4'-9" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-3"

4x10 GIRDER W/18" x 8"

9'-10"

B 1 15"x15"x12"DP. W/ PB44

4x8 TYP.

C 1

5'-1"

4x8 BLOCK EA. SPAN W/ U46 HGR.

7'-0"

18 R

4'-6" 2'-0" 1'-8" 3'-6" 4'-0" 4'-0" 4'-0"

2'-10"

4'-0"

3'-10"

4x10 GIRDER W/18"¯ x 8" PIERS

1'-4" 4'-0"

3'-2"

12"x6" TYP.

4" CONC. SLAB OVER 4" GRAVEL. FILL SLOPE |" MIN. PER FT. FOR DRAINAGE. 21"x21"x12"DP. CONC. PIER. 6'-0"

25'-8"

A 1 9'-10"

B 1

17'-0"

1'-0"

15'-0"

U46 HGR. TYP.

4'-0"

A 0

3'-2"

19'-0"

2'-8"

4'-0"

4'-0"

8" TYP.

90'-0"

FIGURE 124 The foundation plan shows how each of the loads will be supported. The foundation resists not only the loads caused by gravity but also the loads from seismic forces, winds, and flooding.


1'-0"

8'-0"

OO FL TH

IS

4x8 GIRDER ON 4x4 2'-4" POST (4x6 @ SPLICE) W/ GUSSET ON 55# FELT ON 15"¯ x 8" CONC. PIERS. TYP.

1. ASSUMED SOIL BEARING PRESSURE OF 2000 P.S.F. 2. ALL CONC. TO BEAR ON FIRM, NATURAL UNDISTURBED SOIL. 3. CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS TO BE: WALLS NOT EXPOSED TO WEATHER 2500 PSI WALLS EXPOSED TO WEATHER 3000 PSI PORCHES,STEPS AND GARAGE SLAB 3500 PSI 4. EXTEND FOOTINGS BELOW FROST LINE,(12" MIN. INTO NATURAL SOIL FOR 1 STORY AND 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION). FOOTINGS TO BE 6" THICK FOR 1 STORY, AND 7" THICK FOR 2 STORY CONSTRUCTION. ALL FOUNDATION WALLS TO BE 8" WIDE UNLESS STEEL IS PROVIDED WITHIN 2" BUT NOT CLOSER THAN 1" FROM THE FACE OF THE WALL AWAY FROM THE SOIL. STEEL TO BE 2-#3'8 HORIZONTAL. 5. THE GRADE AWAY FROM THE FOUNDATION WALLS TO FALL A MIN. OF 6" WITHIN THE FIRST 10 FEET. 6. ALL FRAMING LUMBER TO BE DOUG. FIR LARCH #2. 7. PROVIDE PEST SCREEN IN EACH INTERIOR PLANTER. 8. SEE SHEET 8A FOR SYMBOL SCHEDULE.

12'-0"

LINE OF SUNKEN FLOOR

7'-8"

8'-0"

8'-0"

6x10 GIRDER W/ 18" x 8" PIERS @ 48" U46 HGR. TYP.

19'-10"

1'-0"

5'-4"

30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER

30"x15"x12" CONC. PIER

2'-4"

8'-4"

B 1

4" 1'-0"

1/4"

4'-0"

5'-10"

FOUNDATION PLAN

4'-0"

ER

6'-2" 6'-0"

4'-0"

17'-6"

LINE OF RAISED FLOOR

3'-0"

3'-4"

4'-0"

"

5'-4" 4x10 GIRDER

1'-0"

18" CONC. PIERS

B 1

4'-0"

3'-4"

6x10 GIRDER W/ 18"Ø x 8" PIERS

2'-4" 5'-2"

2'-8"

2'-0"

7'-0"

18"X8" CONC. PIER 15"x15" CONC. PIER

4'-0"

4'-8"

B 1

3'-0"

1'-0"

72-6"

18"X8" CONC. PIER

21"x21" CONC. PIER

14'-10"

8'-0"

18"X8" CONC. PIER

5'-3"

4x8 GIRDER

18"X8" CONC. PIER

A 0

B 1

18" MIN. CRAWL SPACE COVER W/ 6 MIL BLACK VAPOR BARRIER THROUGHOUT. LAP JOINTS 12" MIN. EXTEND UP STEM WALL & STAPLE TO MUD SILL.

PIER SIZE 15"x15"x12" 6x6 W/ PB66

2'-6"

B 1

15"x15" CONC. PIER

24"X8" CONC. PIER

4x10 GIRDER W/15"X8" PIERS @ 48" O.C. 3'-10"

4'-0" 4'-0"

8'-4" 37'-0"

8'-0"

8'-0"

15"X8" CONC. PIER

4'-0"

8'-0"

B 1

6'-4"x3'-4"x 12" DP. FIREPLACE FTG. 2'-10"

18"X8" CONC. PIER

4'-0"

7'-6"

2'-2" 2'-10"

4'-0"

9'-2"

LINE OF RAISED fLOOR

1'-10"

5'-6"

4'-0"

4'-0"

B 1

28'-6" 14'-6"

22'-6"

11'-10"

W

3'-10"

LO

8'-10"

71'-0"

37'-0"

24'-6"


31

drawings. As changes are made throughout the design process, the drafter must be sure that those changes are reflected on all affected drawings. When the drafter has completed checking the plans, the drafting supervisor will again review the plans before they leave the office.

obtaining a permit varies depending on the local building department and the complexity of the drawings. Permit reviews generally take several weeks. Once the review is complete, either a permit is issued or required changes are made to the plans.

Permit Procedures

Job Supervision

When the plans are complete, the owner will ask several contractors to estimate the cost of construction. Once a contractor is selected to build the house, a construction permit is obtained. Although the drafter is sometimes responsible for obtaining the permits, this is usually done by the owner or contractor. The process for

In residential construction, job supervision is rarely done when working for a designer, but it is quite often provided when an architect has drawn the plans. Occasionally, a problem at the job site will require the designer or drafter to go to the site to help find a solution.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

See CD for more information

The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in the building industry. Address www.acec.org www.aceee.org www.aia.org www.aibd.org www.asce.org www.ashrae.org

www.asla.org www.aspenational.com www.aeinstitute.org www.awa-la.org www.buildinggreen.com

www.crbt.org www.corrim.org

Company, Product, or Service American Consulting Engineers Council American Council for Energy Efficient Economy American Institute of Architects American Institute of Building Designers American Society of Civil Engineers American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirConditioning Engineers American Society of Landscape Architects American Society of Professional Engineers Architectural Engineering Institute Association for Women in Architecture Building Green Inc. (This site contains a listing of site-related links based on LEED standards and CSI formats.) Center for Resourceful Building Technology Consortium for Research of Renewable Industrial Materials

www.thebluebook.com www.csinet.org www.eere.energy.gov www.dreamhomesmag.com www.eeba.org

Construction Information Network Construction Specifications Institute DOE Integrated Building for Energy Efficiency Dream Homes Energy and Environmental Building Association

www.energydesignresources.com www.energystar.gov www.afsonl.com www.greenbuilder.com www.thegbi.org www.greenguard.org www.build.com www.iesna.org www.ieee.org www.nahbrc.org www.noma.net www.nsbe.org www.nspe.org www.naima.org

Energy Design Resources Energy Star (appliance energy standards) First Source™ Greenbuilder Green Building Initiative Green Guard Environmental Institute Home Building and Home Improvement Network Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers National Association of Home Builders National Organization of Minority Architects National Society of Black Engineers National Society of Professional Engineers North American Insulation Manufacturers Association

32

www.residentialarchitect.com

www.raic.org www.scscertified.com www.sara-national.org


Residential Architect Online (bulletin board and buyers’ guide) Royal Architectural Institute of Canada Scientific Certification Systems Society of American Registered Architects

www.oneshpe.org www.same.org www.housingzone.com www.usgbc.org www.wbdg.org www.beconstructive.com

Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers Society of Military Engineers Sustainable Buildings Industry Council U.S. Green Building Council Whole Building Design Guide Wood Promotion Network

Professional Architectural Careers, Office Practices, and Opportunities Test


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD.

Question 1–8 Why should furniture placement be considered in the preliminary design process?

1. Letter your name, Chapter 1 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.

Question 1–10 List five drawings that may be required for a complete set of house plans in addition to the five basic drawings.

Question 1–1 List five types of work that a junior drafter might be expected to perform. Question 1–2 What three skills are usually required of a junior drafter for advancement?

Question 1–9 What would be the minimum drawings required to get a building permit?

Question 1–11 List and describe the steps of the design process. Question 1–12 What are the functions of the drafter in the design process? Question 1–13 Following the principles of this chapter, prepare a bubble sketch for a home with the following specifications:

Question 1–3 What types of drawings should a junior drafter expect to prepare?

a. 75 × 120' lot with a street on the north side of the lot

Question 1–4 Describe what the junior drafter might be given to assist in making drawings.

c. South property line 75' long

Question 1–5 List four sources of written information that a drafter will need to be able to use.

b. A gently sloping hill to the south d. 40' oak trees along the south property line e. 3 bedrooms, 2 1/2 baths, living, dining, with sepa-

rate eating area off kitchen

Question 1–6 List and briefly describe different careers in which drafting would be helpful.

f. Exterior style as per your choice

Question 1–7 What is the purpose of a bubble drawing?

Explain why you designed the house that you did.

CHAPTER 2

Introduction to Construction Procedures I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

●

N

The architect or designer is often involved with several phases of preparation before construction begins on a project. The level of commitment can range from the preparation of plans to the complete supervision of the entire construction project. Clients need several items before construction starts, depending on the complexity or unique requirements of the project. Architects and designers are often involved with zone changes when necessary, specification preparation, building permit applications, bonding requirements, the client’s financial statement, the lender’s approval, and the building contractor’s estimates and bid procurement.

3.

LOAN APPLICATIONS Loan applications vary depending on the requirements of the lender. Most applications for construction financing contain similar information. The construction appraisal requirements proposed by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), Veterans Administration (VA), and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) are typical of most lenders and include: 1. Plot plan (three copies per lot).

4.

2. Prints (three copies per plan). Prints should include

the following: ● Four elevations: front, rear, right side, and left side. ● Floor plan(s). ● Foundation plan. ● Wall section(s). ● Roof plan. ● Cross sections of exterior walls, stairs, and other important details. ● Cabinet elevations including a cross section. ● Fireplace detail (manufacturer’s detail if fireplace is prefabricated). ● Truss detail and engineering (include name and address of supplier).

5. 6.

Heating plan—For forced-air, show size and location of ducts and registers plus cubic feet per minute (cfm) at each register, and furnace British thermal units (Btu). ● Location of wall units with watts and cfm at register. Specifications (one copy per print), which include information about the following: ● Appliances (make and model numbers). ● Smoke detectors (make and model number and “Direct Wire”). ● Typical detail for each plant type (if the project is landscaped). ● Plumbing fixtures (make and model number, size, and color). ● Carpet (brand, style, and directory number). ● Carpet pad (brand, style, thickness, and directory number). ● Truss manufacturer (name and address). ● Fireplace (if applicable) manufacturer and model number. Public Utility District (PUD) or heating contractor’s heat loss calculation (one per specification sheet). Room-by-room Btu heat loss values showing the total Btu heat loss for the dwelling as well as the total output of the heating system. Proposed sale price. Copy of earnest money agreement, blank or completed for a presale. Earnest money is a good faith sum of money given to bind a contract, for example an agreement to purchase real property, or a commitment fee to ensure an advance of funds by a lender. In a real estate transaction, the money is applied to the purchase price and can be forfeited if the purchaser fails to carry out the terms of the agreement. A presale is an exclusive or private sale that is made before construction begins. For a presale, the buyer and the builder must sign the specification sheet. 33

34


Most lending institution applications are not as comprehensive as that of the FHA, but some can require additional information. The best practice is to research the lender to identify the needed information. A wellprepared set of documents and drawings usually stands a better chance of funding.

INDIVIDUAL APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS An individual appraisal is required when a person or persons want to obtain financing to purchase or build a home or other building. The subdivision can be FHA approved, in which case, the FHA approval is submitted to the lender. A subdivision, also called a plat, divides land into pieces, also known as plots or lots, that are easier to develop and sell. The original land divided into individual parcels is a subdivision. A subdivision used for housing is also known as a housing subdivision, housing development, or community. Generally, a subdivision that is not FHA approved contains the following information when submitted to a lender: 1. Total number of lots in the subdivision. 2. Evidence of acceptance of streets and utilities by local

authorities for continued maintenance.

1. Location map and a copy of the recorded plat and

covenants. 2. A letter from the builder that includes the following information: a. The number of lots in the area owned by the builder and the number of lots proposed to be built on. b. The number of homes presently under construction and the number completed and unsold. If the builder has not worked with FHA previously, an equal employment opportunity certificate and an affirmative fair housing marketing plan must be submitted for either a master or an individual appraisal request.

CHANGE ORDERS Any physical change in the plans or specifications should be submitted to FHA or the lender. The change order notes whether the described change is an increase or decrease in value and by what dollar amount. The change order must be signed by the lender, the builder, and by the purchaser if the structure is sold. A typical change order is located with Problem 2–3 on page 42 and on the Student CD.

3. One copy of the recorded plat and covenants.

Covenants, also called deed restrictions, are legal agreements setting the conditions and restrictions for the property. Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R) is a commonly used short form in real estate business. CC&Rs are limitations and rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer, neighborhood, or homeowner association. All condominiums and townhomes, and most planned unit developments and established neighborhoods have CC&Rs.

MASTER APPRAISAL REQUIREMENTS A master appraisal is required when a company wants to obtain financing to develop a subdivision where several homes will be constructed. A minimum of five lots for each plan type is normally required for a master appraisal. The subdivision should be FHA or VA approved and contain the following information:

BUILDING PERMITS The responsibility of completing the building permit application can fall to the architect, designer, or builder. The architect should contact the local building official to determine the process to be followed. Generally, the building permit application is a basic form that identifies the major characteristics of the structure to be built, the legal description and location of the property, and information about the applicant. The application is usually accompanied by two sets of plans and up to five sets of plot plans. The fee for a building permit usually depends on the estimated cost of construction. The local building official determines the amount, which is based on a standard schedule at a given cost per square foot. The fees are often divided into two parts: a plan-check fee paid upon application and a building-permit fee paid when the permit is received. Other permits and fees may or may not need to be paid at this time. In some cases the mechanical, sewer, plumbing, electrical, and water permits are

Chapter 2: Introduction to Construction Procedures

obtained by the general contractor or subcontractors. Water and sewer permits can be expensive, depending on the local assessments for these utilities. A typical building permit application is found with Problem 2–1 on page 41 and on the Student CD for this text.

CONTRACTS Building contracts can be very complex documents for large commercial construction or short forms for residential projects. The main concern in the preparation of the contract is that all parties understand what will specifically be completed in the project, in what period of time, and for what cost. The contract becomes an agreement between the client, general contractor, and architect. The Student CD includes an example of a typical building contract. It is customary to specify the date that the project is to be completed. On some large projects, completion dates for the various stages of construction are specified. Usually the contractor receives a percentage of the contract price for the completion of each stage of construction. Payments are typically made three or four times during construction. Another method is for the contractor to receive partial payment for the work done each month. Verify the method used with the lending agency. The owner is usually responsible for having the property surveyed. A survey determines the boundaries, area, or elevations of land, structures, and other features by means of measuring angles and distances. The architect can be responsible for administering the contract. As specified on typical building contracts, the contractor is responsible for construction and for the security of the site during the construction period. Certain kinds of insurance are required during construction. The contractor is required to have liability insurance and a performance bond. The liability insurance protects the contractor against being sued for accidents occurring on the site. The performance bond guarantees the contractor completes the work in a professional and timely manner or the insurance company covers the cost. The owner is required to have property insurance, including fire, theft, and vandalism. Workers’ compensation is another form of insurance that provides income for contractors’ employees if they are injured at work. The contractor must be licensed, bonded, and

35

insured under the requirements of the state where the construction occurs. The contract describes conditions under which it can be ended. A contract can be terminated if one party fails to comply with requirements, if one of the parties is disabled or dies, and for several other reasons. The two kinds of contracts in use for most construction are the fixed-sum contract and the cost-plus contract. Each contract type offers advantages and disadvantages. Fixed-sum contracts, sometimes called lump-sum contracts, are used most often. With a fixed-sum contract, the contractor agrees to complete the project for a certain amount of money. The greatest advantage of this kind of contract is that the owner knows the exact cost in advance. However, the contractor does not know what hidden problems may be encountered, and so the contractor’s price is likely to be high enough to cover unforeseen circumstances, such as excessive rock in the excavation or sudden increases in the cost of materials. A cost-plus contract is one in which the contractor agrees to complete the work for the actual cost, plus a percentage for overhead and profit. The advantage of this type of contract is that the contractor does not have to allow for unforeseen problems. A cost-plus contract is also useful when changes are to be made during the course of construction. The main disadvantage of this kind of contract is that the owner does not know the exact cost until the project is completed. To overcome this disadvantage, the contractor generally reports costs and is paid after specific phases of construction. The completion and payment for each phase should be specified in the contract. Regardless of the payment schedule, the contractor should report progress and cost periodically and never wait until the end of the project. A typical building contract is located on the Student CD.

COMPLETION NOTICES The completion notice is a document that is posted in a noticeable place on or near the structure. This legal document notifies all parties involved in the project that work has been substantially completed. There can be a very small part of work or cleanup to be done, but the project, for all practical purposes, is complete. The completion notice must be recorded in the local jurisdiction. Completion notices serve several functions. Subcontractors and suppliers have a certain given period of time to file a claim or

36

lien against the contractor or property owner to obtain payment for labor or materials that have not been paid. Lending institutions often hold a percentage of funds for a given period of time after the completion notice has been posted. It is important for the contractor to have this document posted so the balance of payment can be made. The completion notice is often posted in conjunction with a final inspection by the local building official and the client. A series of inspections are conducted at different phases throughout the course of construction. The final inspection is the last opportunity to confirm that all work has been completed and the home or structure is ready to occupy. A checklist containing specific practices that must be accomplished and the proper methods and materials used for completion of each practice is evaluated. These inspections are always conducted by a local building official, and often by the lender and property owner. Most lenders require that all building inspection reports be submitted before payment is given, and some also require a private inspection by an agent of the lender. A sample completion notice is located with Problem 2–4 on page 43 and can also be found on the Student CD.

CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATES A statement of probable construction cost is a forecast of construction costs prepared by the architect or designer during the design process to give the client an approximation of the expected cost to construct the building. This is an important responsibility of the architect or designer. Clients generally want to build a home that they can afford. Determining a budget in advance and designing within that budget can save serious trouble. Architects or designers need to inform the clients if their ideas and desires do not match the budget. Construction estimating is an analysis of construction cost based on a detailed examination of materials and labor for all work to be completed on the project. The construction estimate or elements of the estimate are often referred to as a takeoff. A takeoff carefully identifies the construction materials for a specific aspect of the project, such as a lumber takeoff. The lumber takeoff includes the cost of every piece of lumber, sheathing, trusses, engineered joists, and hardware needed for the project. An electrical takeoff, for example, includes all wire, outlets, switches, junction boxes, and every other item used for the rough-in of the electrical part of the project. The finish electrical fixtures are often found in a separate list of materials.


An accurate cost estimate requires an orderly and organized system of identifying and pricing every construction item in a phase of construction and for the entire project. Construction bids can be part of the construction estimate process when an architect, designer, or general contractor seeks estimates from subcontractors covering the materials and cost of their part of the project. The general contractor is responsible for working directly with the architect, designer, or property owner to complete the entire project in a quality and professional manner. Subcontractors complete specific aspects of the project. Many types of subcontractors, such as foundation, framing, electrical, plumbing, and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC), can be asked to give separate bids to the architect or general contractor. Construction bids are often obtained by the architect or a general contractor for the client. The purpose is to get the best price for the best work. Some projects require that work be given to the lowest bidder, while other projects do not necessarily go to the lowest bid. In some situations, especially in the private sector, other factors are considered, such as an evaluation of the builder’s history based on quality, ability to meet schedules, cooperation with all parties, financial stability, and license, bond, and insurance. The bid becomes part of the legal documents for completion of the project. The legal documents usually include plans, specifications, contracts, and bids. The architect and client should know clearly what the bid includes. The following items are part of a total analysis of costs for residential construction: 1. Plans. 2. Permits, fees, and specifications. 3. Roads and road clearing. 4. Excavation. 5. Water connection (well and pump). 6. Sewer connection (septic). 7. Foundation, waterproofing. 8. Framing, including materials, trusses, and labor. 9. Fireplace, including masonry and labor. 10. Plumbing, both rough and finished. 11. Wiring, both rough and finished. 12. Windows. 13. Roofing, including sheet metal and vents. 14. Insulation. 15. Drywall or plaster.


16. Siding. 17. Gutters, downspouts, sheet metal, and rain drains.

37

Refer to the Student CD: COUNTING THE COST, for more information.

18. Concrete flatwork and gravel. 19. Heating.

CONSTRUCTION INSPECTIONS

20. Garage and exterior doors.

The basics of construction inspections were introduced earlier. When the architect or designer is responsible for the supervision of the construction project, then it is necessary to work closely with the building contractor to get the proper inspections at the necessary times. Two types of inspections occur most frequently. The regularly scheduled code inspections required during specific phases of construction help ensure that the construction methods and materials meet local and national code requirements. The general intent of these inspections is to protect the safety of the occupants and the public. The second common type of inspection is lender inspections, which are conducted by the lender during certain phases of construction. Lender inspections ensure that materials and methods described in the plans and specifications are being used. The lender has a valuable interest in the construction quality. If the materials and methods are inferior or not of the standard expected, then the value of the structure may not be what the lender had considered when a preliminary appraisal was made. Another reason for inspections, and probably the reason that the builder likes best, has to do with disbursement. Included as part of the lender inspections, disbursement inspections are requested at various times, such as monthly, or they can be related to a specific disbursement schedule, such as four times during construction. If the disbursement inspection finds the work to be satisfactory, then funds are released to pay the builder for that completed work. When architects or designers supervise the total construction, then they must work closely with the contractor to make certain the project is completed in a timely manner. When a building project remains idle, the overhead costs, such as construction interest, begin to add up quickly. A contractor who bids a job high but builds quickly can save money in the final analysis. Some overhead costs go on daily even when work has stopped or slowed. The contractor or construction supervisor should also have a good knowledge of scheduling so subcontractors are available in proper sequence, and inspections are obtained at the proper time. If an inspection is requested when the project is not ready, the building official may charge a fee for excess time spent. Always try to develop a good rapport with building officials so each encounter goes as smoothly as possible.

21. Painting and decorating. 22. Trim and finish interior doors, including material

and labor. 23. Underlayment. 24. Carpeting, including the amount of carpet and pad-

ding, and the cost of labor. 25. Vinyl floor covering—amount and cost of labor. 26. Formica. 27. Fixtures and hardware. 28. Cabinets. 29. Appliances. 30. Intercom or stereo system. 31. Vacuum system. 32. Burglar alarm. 33. Weather stripping and venting. 34. Final grading, cleanup, and landscaping. 35. Supervision, overhead, and profit. 36. Subtotal of land costs. 37. Financing costs.

As previously mentioned, the architect or general contractor is often responsible for the complete cost estimate and for getting bids. Cost-estimating education is normally a good idea for learning how to accurately and completely prepare a cost estimate. A variety of cost-estimating software programs are available. One way to find these software programs is to search the Internet with a search subject such as “construction estimating.” Microsoft Excel is a convenient and commonly used tool for preparing cost estimates. This program allows you to set up your own cost-estimating format that tracks and automatically calculates subtotals and totals for the estimate, bid, actual cost, cumulative cost, payee or subcontractor, check number, and date of payment. A Microsoft Excel sample cost estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction is shown in Figure 2-1. Counting the Cost content on the Student CD includes information and analysis about the construction cost and general fees for the construction and financing of a new home.

38


NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE

Bid/Est.

Cumulative

Actual

Cumulative

Payee

Appliances

10,000

10,000

budget

Backfill

1000

11,000

estimate

Bathroom Fixtures

3500

14,500

estimate

Ck #

0

Cabinets

25,000

39,500

budget

Carpets

8500

48,000

estimate @ $45 / sq yd

Carpets Labor

4732

52,732

estimate @ $2 / sq yd

Cleanup

1000

53,732

estimate

Concrete Flatwork/Patios

8000

61,732

estimate @ $2.50 / sq ft

875

63,857

estimate

Concrete Stairs

1250

62,982

estimate lin ft @ $10 / lin ft

Countertops

3000

66,857

estimate @ $22 / sq ft

0

66,857

2500

69,357

0

69,357

Concrete Pumping

Crane Truck & Operator Decks Demolition/Tree Removal

estimate

Doors-Exterior

12,700

82,057

Doors-Interior

18,500

100,557

estimate

Drywall

11,625

112,182

Chapperal

Electrical-Finish

5500

117,682

Lite Rite Electric Inc.

Electrical-Rough

12,000

129,682

Lite Rite Electric Inc.

Electrical-Temporary Electrical-Underground

750

130,432

4500

134,932

Electricity

0

134,932

Equipment Rental

0

134,932

Excavation

2 @325; IWP #645 $12,000

1000

135,932

estimate

10,000

145,932

estimate

Finish Carpentry-Materials

5000

150,932

estimate

Fireplace Mantels

1575

152,507

D Luchs

Foundation Labor

15,260

Finish Carpentry-Labor

Foundation Materials Framing Labor

0 24,000

167,767

Jet Concrete

167,767

w/ labor

191,767

Corban $2,400. Bailey $24,750

Framing Materials

35,000

226,767

BMC 37K Lumbermans 30K

Furnace & Mechanical

10,000

236,767

Wilfert or Rite Way

3500

240,267

Edelen

Garage Doors Ga

FIGURE 21 A sample cost-estimate sheet for a 2366-square-foot new home construction, created using Microsoft Excel.

Date


39

NEW HOME CONST. 2366 SQ FT Updated 2/26/10 EXPENSE Gutters/Downspouts

Bid/Est.

Cumulative

Actual

Cumulative

Payee

1000

243,267

estimate

Hardware-Bath

450

243,717

estimate

Hardware-Cabinets

975

244,692

estimate

5200

249,892

Knez

Insurance & Licenses

0

249,892

Labor-Misc.

0

251,892

Landscaping

0

249,892

Insulation

Light Fixtures

2000

251,892

estimate

Lumber/Materials-Misc.

27,500

279,392

Parr Lumber

Masonry Veneer & Frplc

28,000

307,392

Dave Clooten

Misc. Const. Expense Painting Permits and Plan Ckk Fee Plans and Specs Plumbing-Finish

0

307,392

10,000

317,392

estimate

4600

321,992

County $1,200 paid

10,000

331,992

Architectural Designer $10,000 paid

2500

344,992

Fixtures estimate

10,500

342,492

Fowler $6,500; spkr sys $4,000

Pre-Wire Electronics

1700

346,692

Quadrant

Rain Drains

1000

347,692

estimate

Plumbing-Rough/finish

Roof

20,000

367,692

Bliss Roofing Grand Manor

Security Systems

1500

369,192

Quadrant

Sewer Lines & Cesspools

6000

375,192

Nussbaumer

Sheet Metal/Ducting

0

375,192

see Wilfert heat

Siding Labor

3500

378,692

estimate

Siding Materials

3500

382,192

estimate

Skylights/Greenhouses

0

382,192

Steel Pipes

0

382,192

Structural Engineer

0

382,192

Supervision

0

382,192

Tile/Stone Floors

10,000

392,192

@$10 / sq ft

Tools & Hardware-Misc.

0

392,192

Truck Hauling

0

392,192

Underlayment

0

392,192

Water Main Extension

0

392,192

Water Meter Trench

0

392,192

1000

393,192

estimate

424,692

Pella

Weather stripping Windows Wood Floors

FIGURE 21 Continued

31,500 0

424,692

I-joist systems

Ck #

Date

40




The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to construction supervision procedures and keep current with trends in the industry. Address www.fha.gov

Company, Product, or Service Federal Housing Administration

www.nahb.org www.sagecre.com www.hud.gov www.va.gov

National Association of Home Builders Sage Software U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

Introduction to Construction Procedures Test


QUESTIONS ●

Project location address: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state

●

Nearest cross street: Washington Street

●

Subdivision name: Barrington Heights

●

Township: 2S

●

Range: 1E

●

Section: 36

●

Tax lot: 2400

●

Lot size: 15,000 sq ft

●

Building area: 2000 sq ft

●

Basement area: None

●

Garage area: 576 sq ft

●

Stories: 1

●

Bedrooms: 3

●

Water source: Public

●

Sewage disposal: Public

●

Estimated cost of labor and materials: $88,500

●

Plans and specifications made by: You

●

Owner’s name: Your teacher; address and phone may be fictitious

PROBLEMS

●

DIRECTIONS: All forms must be neatly hand-lettered or typed, unless otherwise specified by your instructor.

Builder’s name: You, your address, and your phone number

●

You sign as applicant

●

Homebuilder’s registration number: Your social security number or another fictitious number

●

Date: Today’s date

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 2 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.

Question 2–1 Define and list the elements of the following construction-related documents: a. Loan applications b. Contracts c. Building permits d. Completion notices e. Bids f. Change orders

Question 2–2 Outline and briefly discuss the required building construction inspections.

Problem 2–1 Access and print the building permit application on the Student CD, or copy the building permit application on page 41. Complete the application using this information.


Problem 2–2 Access and print the building contract on the Student CD. Complete the contract using this information: ●


●

Name yourself as the contractor and your teacher as the owner. (Give complete first name, middle initial, and last name where names are required.)

●

ARTICLE I: Construction of approximate 2000-square-foot house to be located at 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state.

●

Drawing and specifications prepared by you.

●

All said work to be done under the direction of you.

●

ARTICLE II: Commence work within 10 days and substantially complete on or before. (Give a date four months from the date of the contract.)

●

ARTICLE III: $88,500. Payable at the following times:

41

1. One-third upon completion of the foundation. 2. One-third upon completion of drywall. 3. One-third 30 days after posting the completion

notice. ● ARTICLE X: Insurance $250,000; $500,000; and $50,000. ● ARTICLE XVIII: Give the owner’s name, address, and phone number—a fictitious address and phone number may be used if preferred. Give your name and address as the contractor. ● ARTICLE XX: This contract amount is valid for a period of 60 days. If, for reasons out of the contractor’s control, construction has not begun by the end of this 60-day period, contractor has the right to rebid and revise the contract. Problem 2–3 Access and print the change order form found on the Student CD, or copy the change order form on page 42. Complete the form using this information: ● Date: Today’s date ● Project name: Your teacher’s name

42


●

●

● ● ●

Location: 3456 Barrington Drive, your city and state. Also known as Lot 8, Block 2, Barrington Heights, your county and state. Description of change: Add a 24" × 48" insulated tempered flat glass skylight in the vaulted ceiling centered in the entry foyer. Additional cost: $850 Adjusted total project cost: $89,350 Signatures

Problem 2–4 Access and print the completion notice found on the Student CD or copy the completion notice on page 43. Complete the top half of the form above the double line only. The rest of the information is for the official notary public and recording officer. Use this information: ●


●

Owner or mortgagee: Your name

●

P.O. address: Your address


The Stevens-Ness form has been reproduced with the permission of Stevens-Ness Law Publishing Co. No further copying or reproduction in any form is permitted without the express permission of the publisher.

43

CHAPTER 3

Architectural Drafting Equipment I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

Manual drafting is the term used to describe traditional pencil or ink drafting. Manual drafting tools and equipment are available from a number of vendors of professional drafting supplies. For accuracy and durability, always purchase high-quality equipment. This chapter introduces a variety of manual drafting tools and their proper use. Additional products are described in the Supplemental Reference found on the Student CD.

●

● ● ● ●

DRAFTING SUPPLIES Whether equipment is purchased in a kit or by the individual tool, the following items are the minimum normally needed for manual drafting: ●

● ● ● ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 44

One mechanical lead holder with 4H, 2H, H, and F grade leads. This pencil and lead assortment allows for individual flexibility of line and lettering control, or for use in sketching. The lead holder and leads are optional if automatic pencils are used. One 0.3 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and H leads. One 0.5 mm automatic drafting pencil with 4H, 2H, and F leads. One 0.7 mm automatic drafting pencil with 2H, H, and F leads. One 0.9 mm automatic drafting pencil with H, F, and HB leads. Automatic pencils and leads are optional if lead holders and leads are used. Lead sharpener (not needed if the lead holder is omitted). 6" bow compass. Dividers. Eraser. Erasing shield. 30°–60° triangle. 45° triangle. Irregular curve. Adjustable triangle (optional).

● ●

Scales: 1. Triangular architect’s scale. 2. Triangular civil engineer’s scale. Drafting tape. Architectural floor plan template for residential plans, with 1/4" = 1'−0" scale. Circle template with small holes. Lettering guide. Sandpaper sharpening pad. Dusting brush.

Not all of the items listed here are used in every school or workplace. Additional equipment and supplies may be needed depending on the specific application, for example: ● ● ● ●

Technical pen set. Drafting ink. Lettering template. Assorted architectural drafting templates.

DRAFTING FURNITURE Special tables and chairs are available for professional drafting use. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING FURNITURE, for more information.

DRAFTING PENCILS AND LEADS Manual drafting is generally done using pencils. The two most commonly used pencils are mechanical and automatic pencils. Most manual drafters prefer automatic pencils.

Mechanical Pencils The term mechanical pencil refers to a pencil that requires a piece of lead to be manually inserted. Special sharpeners are available to help maintain a conical point.

Chapter 3: Architectural Drafting Equipment

45

Automatic Pencils The term automatic pencil refers to a pencil with a lead chamber that, at the push of a button or tab, advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip. Automatic pencils are designed to hold leads of one width that do not need to be sharpened. These pencils are available for leads 0.3 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, and 0.9 mm thick. Many drafters have several automatic pencils, each with a different grade of lead hardness, used for a specific application.

Lead Grades Several different grades, or hardness, of leads are used for drafting. Your selection depends on the amount of pressure you apply and other technique factors. You should experiment until you identify the leads that give you the best quality. Leads commonly used for thick lines and lettering range from 2H to F. Leads for thin lines range from 4H to H, depending on individual preference. Construction lines for layout and guidelines for lettering are very lightly drawn with a 6H or 4H lead. Figure 3-1 shows the different lead grades. Generally, leads used for sketching are softer than those used for formal drafting. Good sketching leads are H, F, or HB grades.

Polyester and Special Leads Polyester leads, also known as plastic leads, are for drawing on polyester drafting film, often called by its trade name, Mylar. Plastic leads come in grades equivalent to F, 2H, 4H, and 5H and are usually labeled with an S, as in 2S. Some companies make a combination lead for use on both vellum and polyester film. See Chapter 4 for information about drafting media, such as vellum and polyester film. Colored leads have special uses. Red or yellow lead is commonly used to make corrections. Red or yellow lines appear black on a print. Blue lead can be used on

9H 8H 7H 6H 5H 4H

3H 2H H F HB B

2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B

HARD

MEDIUM

SOFT

4H AND 6H ARE COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION LINES.

H AND 2H ARE COMMON LEAD GRADES USED FOR LINE WORK. H AND F ARE FOR LETTERING AND SKETCHING.

FIGURE 31 Range of lead grades.

THESE GRADES ARE FOR ARTWORK. THEY ARE TOO SOFT TO KEEP A SHARP POINT AND THEY SMUDGE EASILY.

an original drawing for information that is not to show on a print, such as notes, lines, and outlines of areas to be corrected. Blue lines do not appear on the print when the original is run through a diazo machine but do reproduce in the photocopy process if not very lightly drawn. Some drafters use light blue lead for layout work and guidelines. Drawing reproduction is discussed in Chapter 4, with information about the diazo and photocopy processes.

Basic Pencil Motions A mechanical pencil must be kept sharp with a slightly rounded point. A point that is too sharp breaks easily, but a point that is too dull produces fuzzy lines. Keep the pencil aligned with the drafting instrument and tilted at an angle of approximately 45° in the direction you are drawing. Always pull the pencil. If you are right-handed, it is recommended that you draw from left to right for horizontal lines, and from bottom to top for vertical lines. Left-handed people draw from right to left and top to bottom. It is very important to keep lines uniform in width. This is done by keeping the pencil at uniform sharpness and by rotating the pencil as you draw. This rotation helps keep the lead from having flat spots that cause the line to vary in width and become fuzzy. Even pressure is also needed to help ensure a uniform line weight. Your lines need to be crisp and dark. Keep practicing, so you can draw high-quality lines. When using an automatic pencil, keep it straight from side to side and tilted about 40° with the direction of travel. Try not to tilt the lead under or away from the straightedge. Automatic pencils do not require rotation, although some drafters feel that better lines are made by rotating the pencil. Provide enough pressure to make a line dark and crisp. Figure 3-2 shows some basic pencil motions.

TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES Technical pens provide excellent inked lines. Refer to the Student CD: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES, for more information.

ERASERS AND ACCESSORIES The common shapes of erasers are rectangular and stick. The stick eraser works best in small areas. Select an eraser that is recommended for the particular material used.

46


India Ink Refill Eraser The India ink refill eraser is for removing India ink from vellum or film. It contains a solvent that dissolves the binding agents in the ink and the vinyl, and then removes the ink. This eraser does not work well with pencil lead.

ROTATE PENCIL AS YOU DRAW (OPTIONAL FOR AUTOMATIC PENCIL). PENCIL MOVES FROM BOTTOM TO TOP.

KEEP AUTOMATIC PENCIL 90° TO SURFACE AND MECHANICAL PENCIL 45° TO SURFACE. PENCIL MOVES LEFT TO RIGHT.

FIGURE 32 Basic pencil motions. Note, these pencil movements should be reversed (top to bottom, right to left) for lefthanded people.

Erasers Used for Drafting White Pencil Eraser The white pencil eraser is used for removing pencil marks from paper. It contains a small amount of pumice but can be used as a general-purpose pencil eraser. Pumice is an abrasive material.

Pink Pencil Eraser A pink pencil eraser contains less pumice than the white pencil eraser. It can be used to erase pencil marks from most kinds of office paper without doing any damage to the surface.

Soft-Green or Soft-Pink Pencil Erasers Soft-green and soft-pink erasers contain no pumice and are designed for use on even the most delicate types of paper without damaging the surface. The color difference is maintained only to satisfy long-established individual preferences.

Kneaded Eraser Kneaded erasers are soft, stretchable, and nonabrasive. They can be formed into any size you want. Kneaded erasers are used for erasing pencil and charcoal. Kneaded erasers are also used for shading. In addition, kneaded erasers are handy for removing smudges from a drawing and for cleaning a drawing surface.

Vinyl Eraser A vinyl or plastic eraser contains no abrasive material. This eraser is used on polyester drafting film to erase plastic lead or ink.

Erasing Tips In erasing, the idea is to remove an unwanted line or letter, not the surface of the paper or polyester film. Erase only hard enough to remove the unwanted feature. However, you must provide enough pressure to eliminate the feature completely. If the entire item does not disappear, ghosting results. A ghost is a line that should have been eliminated but still shows on a print. Lines that have been drawn so hard as to make a groove in the drawing sheet can also cause a ghost. To remove ink from vellum, use a pink or green eraser, or an electric eraser. Work the area slowly. Do not apply too much pressure or erase in one spot too long, or you will go through the paper. On polyester film, use a vinyl eraser and/or a moist cotton swab. The inked line usually comes off easily, but use caution. If you destroy the matte surface of either a vellum or film sheet, you will not be able to redraw over the erased area. Matte is a surface with some texture and is not glossy.

Electric Erasers Professional manual drafters use electric erasers, available in cord and cordless models. When working with an electric eraser, you do not need to use very much pressure, because the eraser operates at high speed. The purpose of the electric eraser is to remove unwanted items quickly. Use caution, because these erasers can also remove paper quickly! Eraser refills for electric erasers are available in all types.

Erasing Shields Erasing shields are thin metal or plastic sheets with a number of differently shaped slots and holes. They are used to erase small, unwanted lines or areas. For example, if you have a corner overrun, place one of the slots or holes of the erasing shield over the area to be removed while covering the good area. Now, erase through the slot or hole to erase the unwanted feature.

Cleaning Agents Special eraser particles are available in a shaker-top can or a pad. Both types are used to sprinkle the eraser particles on a drawing to help reduce smudging and


to keep the drawing and your equipment clean. The particles also help float triangles, straightedges, and other drafting equipment to reduce line smudging. Use this material sparingly because too much of it can cause your lines to become fuzzy. Cleaning powders are not recommended for use on ink drawings or on polyester film.

47

HOLD THE COMPASS HERE DURING USE

GEAR MESH CENTER-WHEEL ADJUSTING SCREW

Dusting Brushes Use a dusting brush to remove eraser particles from your drawing. Doing so helps reduce the possibility of smudges. Avoid using your hand to brush away eraser particles, because the hand tends to cause messy smudges. A clean, dry cloth works better than your hand for removing eraser particles, but a brush is preferred.

DRAFTING INSTRUMENTS This chapter began with a general list of required drafting instruments. Find a supplier that provides professional-quality drafting instruments of the type and characteristics described in the following section.

ONE LEG REMOVABLE TO ADD IN EXTENSION

REMOVABLE LEAD

REMOVABLE NEEDLE POINT

Kinds of Compasses Compasses are used to draw circles and arcs. A compass is especially useful for large circles. However, using a compass can be time consuming. Always use a template, whenever possible, to make circles or arcs quickly. There are several basic types of drafting compasses: ●

●

●

The drop-bow compass is mostly used for drawing small circles. The center rod contains the needle point and remains stationary while the pencil, or pen, leg revolves around the point. The center-wheel bow compass is most commonly used by professional drafters. This compass operates on the screw-jack principle by turning the large knurled center wheel, as shown in Figure 3-3. The beam compass is a bar with an adjustable needle and a pencil or pen attachment for swinging large arcs or circles. Also available is a beam that is adaptable to the bow compass. Such an adapter works only on bow compasses that have a removable break point, not on the fixed-point models.

FIGURE 33 Center-wheel bow compass and its parts.

The compass lead should, in most cases, be one grade softer than the lead you use for straight lines because less pressure is normally used on a compass than a pencil. Keep the compass lead sharp. An elliptical point is commonly used with the bevel side inserted away from the needle leg. Keep the lead and the point equal in length. Figure 3-5 shows properly aligned and sharpened points on a compass. Use a sandpaper block to sharpen the elliptical point of a compass lead. Be careful to keep the graphite residue away from your drawing and off your hands.

Compass Use Keep both the compass needle point and the lead point sharp. The points are removable for easy replacement. The better compass needle points have a shoulder, which helps keep the point from penetrating the paper more than necessary. Compare the needle points in Figure 3-4.

COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITH SHOULDER

COMPASS OR DIVIDER POINT WITHOUT SHOULDER

FIGURE 34 Common compass points.

48


3/8"

1/4" at about 45°

FIGURE 35 Properly sharpened and aligned elliptical compass lead. ADJUSTING THE DIVIDER

Remove excess graphite from the point with a tissue or cloth after sharpening. Sharpen the lead often. Some drafters prefer to use a conical compass point. This is the same point used in a mechanical pencil. If you want to try this point, sharpen a piece of lead in a mechanical pencil, and then transfer it to your compass. If you are drawing a number of circles from the same center, you will find the compass point causes an ugly hole in your drawing sheet. Reduce the chance of making such a hole by placing a couple of pieces of drafting tape at the center point for protection. There are also small plastic circles available for this purpose. Place one of the plastic circles at the center point, and then pierce the plastic with your compass point.

Dividers Dividers are used to transfer dimensions or to divide a distance into a number of equal parts. Some drafters prefer to use a bow divider because the center wheel provides the ability to make fine adjustments easily. Also, the setting remains more stable than with standard friction dividers. A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. It should be easily adjustable with one hand. In fact, you should control dividers with one hand as you lay out equal increments or transfer dimensions from one feature to another. Figure 3-6 shows how the dividers should be handled.

Proportional Dividers Proportional dividers are used to reduce or enlarge an object without mathematical calculations or scale manipulations. The center point of the divider is set at the correct point for the proportion you want. Then measure the original size object with one side of the proportional divider, and the other side automatically determines the new reduced or enlarged size.

USING THE DIVIDER

FIGURE 36 Using the divider.

Parallel Bar The parallel bar slides up and down the drafting board on cables that are attached to pulleys mounted at the top and bottom corners of the table as shown in Figure 3-7. The function of the parallel bar is to allow you to draw horizontal lines. Vertical lines and angles are made with triangles in conjunction with the parallel bar as demonstrated in Figure 3-8. Angled lines are made with standard or adjustable triangles. The parallel bar is commonly found in architectural drafting offices because architectural drawings are frequently very large. Architects and architectural drafters often need to draw straight lines that are the full length of their boards, and the parallel bar is ideal for such lines. The parallel bar can be used with the board in an

CABLE

CABLE PULLEYS

TENSION BRACKET

FIGURE 37 Parallel bar.

BAR


49

angles of any degree. A protractor is an instrument used to measure angles.

Architectural Templates

FIGURE 38 Drawing vertical lines with the parallel bar and triangle.

inclined position. Triangles and the parallel bar must be held securely when used in any position, which makes drafting more comfortable. Professional models have a brake that can lock the parallel bar in place during use.

Triangles There are two standard triangles. One has angles of 30°–60°–90° and is known as the 30°–60° triangle. The other has angles of 45°–45°–90° and is called the 45° triangle. Triangles can be used as a straightedge to connect points for drawing lines. Triangles are used individually or in combination to draw angled lines in 15° increments (see Figure 3-9). Also available are adjustable triangles with built-in protractors that are used to make

Templates are plastic sheets with standard symbols cut through them for tracing. There are as many standard architectural templates as there are architectural symbols to draw. Templates are commonly scaled to match a specific application, such as floor plan symbols. One of the most common architectural templates used is the residential floor plan template shown in Figure 3-10. This template is typically available at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric), which matches the scale usually used for residential floor plans. Features that are often found on a floor plan template include circles, door swings, sinks, bathroom fixtures, kitchen appliances, and electrical symbols. Other floor plan templates are available for both residential and commercial applications. Additional architectural templates are introduced in chapters where their specific applications are discussed. Always use a template when you can. For instance, use a circle template rather than a compass when possible. Templates save time, are very accurate, and help standardize features on drawings. For most applications the template should be used only after the layout has been created. For example, floor plan symbols are placed on the drawing after walls, openings, and other main floor plan features have been established. When using a template, carefully align the desired template feature with the layout lines of the drawing. Hold the template firmly in position while you draw the feature. For best results, try to keep your pencil or pen perpendicular to the drawing surface.

Template Use with Technical Pens 45°

30°

60°

15°

75°

90°

FIGURE 39 Angles that can be made with the 30°–60° triangle and 45º triangle, individually or in combination.

Information on using a template and a technical pen is included on the Student CD.

FIGURE 310 Architectural floor plan symbol template. Courtesy Berol Corporation.

50


FIGURE 312 Arm drafting machine. Courtesy VEMCO America, Inc.

FIGURE 311 Irregular or French curves. Courtesy of C-Thru® Ruler Company.

Irregular Curves Irregular curves are commonly called French curves. Irregular curves are used to draw arcs having no constant radii. A selection of irregular curves is shown in Figure 3-11. Also available are ship’s curves, which become progressively larger and also have no constant radii. Ship’s curves are used for layout and development of ships’ hulls. Flexible curves are made of plastic and have a flexible core. They can be bent and shaped to draw almost any desired curve. Irregular curves are used for a variety of applications in architectural drafting. Some drafters use the curves to draw floor plan electrical runs or leader lines that connect notes to features on the drawing.

DRAFTING MACHINES Drafting machines can be used in place of triangles and parallel bars. Drafting machines have scales attached vertically and horizontally, which are used as straightedges and for measuring increments on a drawing. The drafting machine maintains a 90º relationship between scales using a protractor mechanism. The protractor allows the scales to be set quickly at any angle. There are two types of drafting machines: arm and track. Although both types are excellent tools, the track machine has advantages over the arm machine in industry. A major advantage of the track machine is it allows you to work with a board in the vertical position. A vertical drafting surface position is generally more comfortable to use than a horizontal table. For school or home use, the arm machine can be a good economical choice. When you order a drafting machine, the size specified should relate to the size of the drafting table. For example, a 37 1/2 × 60" machine fits the same size table.

Arm Drafting Machine The arm drafting machine is compact and less expensive than a track machine. The arm machine clamps to a table and through an elbow-like arrangement of supports allows you to position the protractor head and scales anywhere on the board. The arm drafting machine is shown in Figure 3-12.

Track Drafting Machine A track drafting machine has a traversing arm that moves left and right across the table, and a head unit that moves up and down the traversing arm. There is a locking device for both the head and the traversing arm. The shape and placement of the controls of a track machine vary with the manufacturer, although most brands have the same operating features and procedures. Figure 3-13 shows the component parts of a track drafting machine. As with the arm machines, track drafting machines have a vernier scale head that allows you to measure

VERTICAL TRACK BRACKET CLAMP

HORIZONTAL TRACK

VERTICAL BRAKE LEVER

VERTICAL TRACK HORIZONTAL BRAKE LEVER

DOUBLE HINGE

VERTICAL SCALE HORIZONTAL SCALE SCALE CHUCK PLATE

SCALE CHUCK ARM MICRO ADJUSTMENT ANGLE-SETTING CLAMP BASE-LINE CLAMP FOOT ROLLER

FIGURE 313 Track drafting machine and its parts. Courtesy Mutoh America, Inc.


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angles accurately to 5 minutes of arc (5'). A vernier scale is an auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale to allow reading of fractional values during measurement. There are 360 degrees in a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes (1° = 60'), and 1 minute equals 60 seconds (1' = 60").

DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION The drafting machine head contains controls for horizontal, vertical, and angular movement. Refer to the Student CD: DRAFTING MACHINE CONTROLS AND MACHINE HEAD OPERATION for more information.

● ● ● ● ●

Actual size of the structure. Amount of detail to be shown. Sheet size selected. Amount of dimensions and notes required. Common standard practice that regulates the scale of specific drawing types.

The following scales and their notation are frequently used on architectural drawings.

SCALES The drafting instruments used for making measurements, establishing dimensions, and drawing features at reduced size are called scales. Architectural drafting scales are available in a variety of shapes and calibrations.

Scale Shapes There are four basic scale shapes, which are shown in Figure 3-14. The two-bevel scales are also available with chuck plates for use with standard arm or track drafting machines. These machine scales have typical calibrations, and some have no scale reading, for use as a straightedge alone. Drafting machine scales are purchased by designating the length needed, such as 12", 18", or 24", and the scale calibration, such as metric; engineer’s full scale in tenths and half scale in twentieths; or architect’s scale 1/4" = 1'−0" and 1/2" = 1'−0". Many other scales are also available. The triangular scale is commonly used because it offers many scale options and is easy to handle.

Scale Notation The scale of a drawing is usually noted in the drawing title block or below the view that differs in scale from

TWO BEVEL

that given in the title block. Drawings are scaled so that the object represented can be illustrated clearly on standard sheet sizes. It would be difficult, for example, to draw a full-size house, so a scale is used to reduce the size of such large objects. Drawing title blocks and sheet sizes are discussed in Chapter 4. The drawing scale selected depends on:

FOUR BEVEL

FIGURE 314 Scale shapes.

OPPOSITE BEVEL

TRIANGULAR

1/8" = 1'−0"

3/8" = 1'−0"

1 1/2" = 1'−0"

3/32" = 1'−0"

1/2" = 1'−0"

3" = 1'−0"

3/16" = 1'−0"

3/4" = 1'−0"

12" = 1'−0"

1/4" = 1'−0"

1" = 1'−0"

Some scales used in civil drafting are noted as follows: 1" = 10'

1" = 50'

1" = 300'

1" = 20'

1" = 60'

1" = 400'

1" = 30'

1" = 100'

1" = 500'

1" = 40'

1" = 200'

1" = 600'

Metric Scale According to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International System of Units (SI) linear unit, which is commonly used on drawings is the millimeter. On drawings where all dimensions are in either inches or millimeters, individual identification of units is not required. However, the drawing shall contain a note stating: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED, ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES (or MILLIMETERS as applicable). Where some millimeters are shown on an inch-dimensioned drawing, the millimeter value should be followed by the symbol mm. Where some inches are shown on a millimeter-dimensioned drawing, the inch value should be followed by the abbreviation in. Metric symbols are as follows: millimeter = mm

dekameter = dam

centimeter = cm

hectometer = hm

decimeter = dm

kilometer = km

meter = m

52


112 mm 60 mm

1000 mm

25 mm

500 mm I00 mm

I0 mm

20 mm

I mm

1:25

1:1 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 110 120

0

FULL SCALE = 1:1

500

1 m = 1 meter

ONE TWENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:25

112 mm 60 mm 800 mm 25 mm I00 mm I0 mm 2 mm

2 mm 1:2 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

1:33 1/3

180

50

0

HALF SCALE = 1:2

1m

ONE THIRTY-THREE AND ONE-THIRD SCALE = 1:33 1/3

280 mm 1800 mm 112 mm 1000 mm

60 mm I00 mm

I0 mm 5 mm

50 mm 1:5 0

100

200

1:75

300

0

ONE-FIFTH SCALE = 1:5

1m

ONE SEVENTY-FIFTH SCALE = 1:75

METRIC SCALES THAT MATCH ARCHITECT AND CIVIL SCALES Metric Scales

Inch-to-Feet Architectural Scales

Civil Engineering Scales

1:1

FULL SCALE, 1:1

1:5

Close to 3" = 1'–0"

1:10

Between 1" = 1'–0" and 1 1/2" = 1'–0"

1:20

Between 1/2 " = 1'–0" and 3/4" = 1'–0"

1:50

Close to 1/4 " = 1'–0"

1:100

Close to 1/8" = 1'–0"

1:200

Close to 1/16 " = 1'–0"

1:500

Close to 1" = 40'

1:1000

Close to 1" = 80'

FIGURE 315 Common metric scale calibrations and measurements.

Some metric-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following: 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter 10 centimeters = 1 decimeter 10 decimeters = 1 meter 10 meters = 1 dekameter 10 dekameters = 1 kilometer

Some metric-to-U.S. customary equivalents are provided in the following: 1 millimeter = 0.03937 inch 1 centimeter = 0.3937 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches 1 kilometer = 0.6214 mile


53

Some U.S. customary-to-metric equivalents are provided in the following:

1/16

1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers = 1609.3 meters 1 yard = 914.4 millimeters = 0.9144 meter 1 foot = 304.8 millimeters = 0.3048 meter 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters = 0.0254 meter

1/32 1/64

16

To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by 25.4. One advantage of metric scales is any scale is a multiple of 10. Therefore, reductions and enlargements are easily performed. In most cases, no mathematical calculations are required when using a metric scale. Whenever possible, select a direct reading scale. If no direct reading scale is available, use multiples of other scales. To avoid the possibility of error, avoid multiplying or dividing metric scales by anything other than multiples of 10. Some metric scale calibrations are shown in Figure 3-15.

FIGURE 317 Enlarged view of an architect’s 16 scale.

●

Floor plans for most residential structures are drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0".

Architect’s Scale

●

Although some applications require a larger or smaller scale, commercial buildings are often drawn at 1/8" = 1'−0" when they are too large to be drawn at the same scale as a residence.

●

Exterior elevations are commonly drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0", although some architects prefer to draw the front, or most important, elevation at 1/4" = 1'−0" and the rest of the elevations at 1/8" = 1'−0".

●

Construction details and cross sections can be drawn at larger scales to help clarify specific features. Some cross sections can be drawn at 1/4" = 1'−0" with clarity, but complex cross sections require a scale of 3/8" = 1'−0" or 1/2" = 1'−0" to be clear.

●

Construction details can be drawn at any scale between 1/2" = 1'−0" and 3" = 1'−0", depending on the amount of information presented.

The triangular architect’s scale contains 11 different scales. On 10 of the scales, each inch represents a foot and is subdivided into multiples of 12 parts to represent inches and fractions of an inch. The 11th scale is the full scale with a 16 in the margin. The 16 means that each inch is divided into 16 parts, and each part is equal to 1/16 inch. Figure 3-16 shows an example of the full architect’s 16 scale. Figure 3-17 shows the fraction calibrations of the full architect’s 16 scale. Look at the architect’s scale examples in Figure 3-18. Notice the form in which scales are expressed on a drawing. The scale is expressed as an equation of the drawing size in inches or fractions of an inch to 1 foot. For example: 3" = 1'−0", 1/2" = 1'−0", or 1/4" = 1'−0". The architect’s scale commonly has scales running in both directions along an edge. When reading a scale from left to right, be careful not to confuse its calibrations with the scale that reads from right to left. When selecting scales for preparing a set of architectural drawings, several factors must be considered.

2 17/32 1 3/16 1/2 16 0

1

2

FIGURE 316 Full (1:1), or 12" = 1'−0", architect’s scale.

3

1/8 1/4 1/2

Some parts of a set of drawings are traditionally drawn at a certain scale, for example:

Civil Engineer’s Scale The architectural drafter also commonly uses the civil engineer’s scale to draw site plans, maps, or subdivision plats or to read existing land documents. Most landrelated plans such as construction site plans are drawn using the civil engineer’s scale, although some are drawn with an architect’s scale. Common architect’s scales used for site plans are 1/8" = 1'−0", 3/32" = 1'−0", and 1/16" = 1'−0". Common civil engineer’s scales used for site plans are 1" = 10', 1" = 50', and 1" = 100'. The triangular civil engineer’s scale contains six scales, one on each of its sides. The civil engineer’s scales are calibrated in multiples of ten. The scale margin specifies the scale

54


2 11/16 1/8 1/16 16 0

1

2

3

11

12

FULL SIZE; 1:1 ; 12"= 1'–0" 1

1 8 1/2

1/4 9

1 1/2

6

3

0

0

3

1/8 SIZE; 1 1/2" = 1'–0"

1/4

1/8

8 1/2

6 1/4 SIZE; 3" = 1'–0"

6

9

3

20

0

1/2

3'–5"

1'–7 1/2" 1

3

9

8

1

4

1/24 SIZE; 1/2" = 1'–0"

1 — 1/2" 2

0

2

9

10

1/12 SIZE; 1" = 1'–0" 1/2

1 5'–4" 3/8

0

2

14

2'–7 1/2"

4

13

12

6

2

26

28

1

3/4

0

1/16 SIZE; 3/4" = 1'–0"

1/32 SIZE; 3/8" = 1'–0"

1

2 18'–4" 1/8 0 46

8 42

4 44

1/8

5'–3" 12 40

16 38

20 36

76

8

80

6

84

88

4

92 0

2

1/4

1/4

1/48 SIZE; 1/4" = 1'–0"

1/96 SIZE; 1/8" = 1'–0"

1

2 11'–4"

23'–0" 3/32

0

62

3/32

0

4

60

8

58

12

56

16

54

20

52

24

50

4

28

48

1/128 SIZE; 3/32" = 1'–0"

12

10

8

12

8

6

16

4

20

24

2

1/64 SIZE; 3/16" = 1'–0"

0

3/16

3/16

FIGURE 318 Architect’s scale combinations.

represented on a specific edge. Keep in mind that any multiple of 10 is available with this scale. The 10 scale is used in civil drafting for scales such as 1" = 10', 1" = 100', and 1" = 1000'. Any multiple of 10 can be used (see Figure 3-19). The 20 scale is used for scales such as 1" = 2', 1" = 20', or 1" = 200'. The remaining scales on the civil engineer’s scale are used in a similar manner. The 50 scale is popular in civil drafting for drawing plats of subdivisions, for example.

Figure 3-20 shows commonly used civil engineer’s scales, with sample measurements provided.

PROTRACTORS A protractor can be used when a drafting machine is not used or when combining triangles does not provide enough flexibility for drawing angles. Protractors can be used to measure angles to within 1/2°.


55

4450' 1" = 1000'

Division

Ratio

Scales Used with This Division

10 20

1:1 1:2

1" = 1" 1" = 2"

1" = 1' 1" = 2'

1" = 10' 1" = 20'

1" = 100' 1" = 200'

30

1:3

1" = 3"

1" = 3'

1" = 30'

1" = 300'

40 50

1:4 1:5

1" = 4" 1" = 5"

1" = 4' 1" = 5'

1" = 40' 1" = 50'

1" = 400' 1" = 500'

60

1:6

1" = 6"

1" = 6'

1" = 60'

1" = 600'

235' 1" = 100' 17' 1" = 10' 10' 1" = 10' 10

0

1

2

3

4

5

FIGURE 319 Civil engineer’s scale, units of 10.

285' 1" = 100' 570' 1" = 200'

23' 1" = 10' 35' 1" = 20'

1.6' 1" = 1'

2' 1" = 2'

1.2 1:1

.10 1:2

.10 1:1 10

20 0

1

2

3

0

1

2

1"

1"

10 SCALE

20 SCALE

6900' 1" = 3000'

3

4

5

6

10

12

7400' 1" = 4000'

550' 1" = 300'

660' 1" = 400'

45' 1" = 30'

53' 1" = 40'

3' 1" = 3'

4' 1" = 4'

.10 1:3

.10 1:4 40

30 0

2

4

6

8

10

0

2

4

1"

1"

30 SCALE

40 SCALE

8300' 1" = 5000'

6

8

13600' 1" = 6000'

770' 1" = 500'

1130' 1" = 600'

64' 1" = 50'

88' 1" = 60'

5' 1" = 5'

6' 1" = 6'

.10 1:5

.10 1:6

50

60 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0

2

4

1"

1"

50 SCALE

60 SCALE

FIGURE 320 Civil engineer’s scales and sample measurements at different scales.

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

56


CADD APPLICATIONS As a professional drafter, designer, or architect, you may continue to see the traditional manual drafting equipment in some offices. However, drafting has changed. The concepts and theories are the same, but the tools are different. Traditional manual drafting has been converting to computer-aided design and drafting (CADD). Computer-aided design and drafting is common in architectural drafting schools and architectural businesses. The CADD workstation is



The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting supplies and equipment. Address www.alvinco.com www.vemcocorp.com

different from the traditional manual drafting table and equipment described throughout this chapter. Drafting tools have changed. For example, the new table is flat and holds a computer, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. A printer and a plotter are usually on or available to the workstation. Chapter 7 describes the computer-aided drafting workstation in detail and explains computer-aided design and drafting applications. ■

Company, Product, or Service Drafting equipment and tables Drafting machines

Drafting pencils www.mayline.com Drafting tables For additional Web sites, search for these key words on your Web browser. Drafting pencils, supplies, tables, machines, templates www.pentel.com

Architectural Drafting Equipment Test



Question 3–5 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use a mechanical pencil.


Question 3–7 List three characteristics recommended for technical pen inks. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: TECHNICAL PENS AND ACCESSORIES.

Question 3–1 Describe a mechanical drafting pencil. Question 3–2 Describe an automatic drafting pencil. Question 3–3 List three lead sizes available for automatic pencils. Question 3–4 Identify how graphite leads are labeled.

Question 3–6 In a short, complete paragraph, describe how to properly use an automatic pencil.

Question 3–8 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using an electric eraser. Question 3–9 What type of compass is most commonly used by professional drafters? Question 3–10 Why should templates be used whenever possible?


57

Question 3–11 Why should a compass point with a shoulder be used when possible?

Question 3–30 Name the scale shape that is commonly used, and why.

Question 3–12 Identify two lead points that are commonly used in compasses.

Question 3–31 To convert inches to millimeters, multiply inches by _____.

Question 3–13 What is the advantage of placing drafting tape or plastic at the center of a circle before using a compass?

Question 3–32 What is an advantage of using metric scales?

Question 3–14 A good divider should not be too loose or too tight. Why?

PROBLEMS

Question 3–15 What are two uses for dividers? Question 3–16 At what number of degree increments do most drafting machine heads automatically lock? Question 3–17 How many minutes are there in 1°? How many seconds in 1'? Question 3–18 Explain the uses of and differences between the soft-green and soft-pink erasers. Question 3–19 What type of eraser is recommended for use on polyester drafting film? Question 3–20 Provide a short, complete paragraph explaining the proper erasing technique. Question 3–21 Name at least five features found on a residential floor plan template. Question 3–22 What piece of drafting equipment is used to draw curves that have no constant radii? Question 3–23 Describe the parallel bar and how it is used. Question 3–24 Why is the parallel bar commonly used for manual drafting in the architectural office? Question 3–25 In combination, the 30° to 60° triangle and the 45° triangle may be used to make what range of angles? Question 3–26 Show how the following scales are noted on an architectural drawing: 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1 1/2", and 3". Question 3–27 What civil engineer’s scale is commonly used for subdivision plats? Question 3–28 What architectural scale is usually used for drawing residential floor plans? Question 3–29 List three factors that influence the selection of a scale for a drawing.

Determine the length of the following lines using an architect’s scale, a civil engineer’s scale, and a metric scale. The scales to use when measuring are given above each line. The architect’s scale is first; the civil engineer’s scale is second; and the metric scale is third.

Problem 3–1 a. Scale: 1/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 10'−0" c. 1:1 (metric) Problem 3–2 a. Scale: 1/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 20'−0" c. 1:2 (metric) Problem 3–3 a. Scale: 3/8" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 30'−0" c. 1:5 (metric) Problem 3–4 a. Scale: 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 40'−0" c. 1:10 (metric) Problem 3–5 a. Scale: 3/4" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 50'−0" c. 1:20 (metric) Problem 3–6 a. Scale: 1" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 60'−0" c. 1:50 (metric) Problem 3–7 a. Scale: 1 1/2" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 100" c. 1:75 (metric) Problem 3–8 a. Scale: 3" = 1'−0" b. 1" = 200' c. 1:75 (metric)

CHAPTER 4

Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

This chapter covers the types of media used for the drafting and the reproduction of architectural drawings. Manual drawings are generally prepared on precut drafting sheets with printed graphic designs for the company logo and information, borders, and title blocks. Computer-aided drawings are generally created using a template containing a border, title block, and graphic designs for the company. The computer-aided drawings are stored in files and reproduced on media by printing or plotting. This is described in Chapter 7. Drawing reproductions or copies are made for use in the construction process so the original manual drawings are not damaged. Alternative materials and reproduction methods are described as they relate to common architectural practices.

●

●

●

●

PAPERS AND FILMS A variety of paper and plastic media, known as film, has been used for manual drafting applications. Computer-aided drawings can be printed on the same media used for most manual drafting applications, but are generally printed on materials better suited for computer printing methods. ●

Selection of Drafting Media This discussion relates to the selection of media for manual drafting applications. The selection of these media can also apply to CADD, but other factors are also described for these applications. Several factors influence the choice and use of manual drafting media. These include durability, smoothness, erasability, dimensional stability, transparency, and cost. ●

58

Durability should be considered if the original drawing is expected to have a great deal of use. Originals can tear or wrinkle, and the images become difficult to see if the drawings are used often.

Smoothness relates to how the medium accepts line work and lettering. The material should be easy to draw on, so the image is dark and sharp without excessive effort on the part of the drafter. Erasability is important because errors need to be corrected and changes are made frequently. When images are erased, ghosting should be kept to a minimum. Ghosting is the residue when lines are not completely removed. These unsightly ghost images can reproduce in a print. Materials with good erasability are easy to clean. Dimensional stability is the quality of the medium that maintains size despite the effects of atmospheric conditions such as heat and cold. Some materials are more dimensionally stable than others. Transparency is one of the most important characteristics of drawing media. The diazo reproduction method requires light to pass through the material. Diazo printing is not commonly used today, and is described on the Student CD. The final goal of a drawing is good reproduction, so the more transparent the material is, the better the reproduction, assuming that the image drawn is of professional quality. Transparency is not a factor with photocopying. Cost can influence the selection of drafting media. When the best reproduction, durability, smoothness, erasability, and dimensional stability are important, there may be few cost alternatives. If drawings are to have normal use and reproduction quality, then the cost of the drafting media can be kept to a minimum. The following discussion of available materials can help you evaluate cost differences.

Vellum Vellum is drafting paper that is specially designed to accept pencil or ink. Lead on vellum is the most common combination used for manual drafting.

Chapter 4: Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods

Vellum is the least expensive material and has good smoothness and transparency. Use vellum originals with care. Drawings made on vellum that require a great deal of use could deteriorate. Vellum is not as durable as other materials. Also, some brands are more erasable than others. Affected by humidity and other atmospheric conditions, vellum generally is not as dimensionally stable as other materials.

Polyester Film Polyester film, also known by its trade name Mylar, is a plastic manual drafting material that is more expensive than vellum but offers excellent durability, erasability, dimensional stability, and transparency. Drawing on polyester film is best accomplished using ink or special polyester leads. Do not use regular graphite leads, because they smear easily and do not adhere properly to the surface. Drawing techniques that drafters use with polyester leads are similar to those used with graphite leads except that polyester lead is softer and feels like a crayon. Film is available with a single- or double-matte surface. Matte is a surface texture that is not glossy. Manual drafting is done on the matte surface. Double-matte film has texture on both sides so drawing can be done on either side if necessary. Single-matte film, which is more common, has a matte surface on one side and a slick surface on the other side. When using polyester film, be very careful not to damage the matte by erasing. Erase at right angles to the direction of your lines, and do not use too much pressure. This helps minimize damage to the matte surface. Once the matte is removed, the surface does not accept ink or pencil. Also, be careful not to get moisture on the polyester film surface. Moisture or grease from your hands can cause ink to skip across the material. Normal handling of drawing film is bound to soil it. Inked lines applied over soiled areas do not adhere well and in time can chip off or flake. It is always good practice to keep the film clean. Soiled areas can be cleaned effectively with special film cleaner.

MANUAL DRAWING REPRODUCTION The one thing most engineers, architects, designers, and drafters have in common is that their finished drawings are made to be reproduced. The goal of

59

every professional is to produce drawings of the highest quality, providing the best possible prints when reproduced. Reproduction is the most important factor in the selection of media for drafting. The primary combination that achieves the best reproduction is the blackest, most opaque lines or images on the most transparent base or material. Each of the materials described makes good prints if the drawing is created with clean, sharp, and opaque lines and lettering. Some products have better characteristics than others for quality reproduction. It is up to the individual or company to determine the combination that works best for the purpose and budget. The question of reproduction is especially important when sepias must be made. Sepias are second- or third-generation originals. For more information on sepias, see the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Figure 4-1 shows a magnified view of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, and ink on polyester film. Notice that each combination provides progressively improved reproduction quality. As you can see from the figure, the best reproduction is achieved with a crisp, opaque image on transparent material. If your original drawing is not of good quality, it will not get better on the print. Even though graphite on vellum is shown as the lowest quality combination for quality reproduction, this combination is the most commonly used for manual drafting practice. The use of graphite on vellum is generally considered the easiest and fastest combination for use in professional manual drafting. Quality originals are created using graphite on vellum when professional drafters follow proper techniques.

GOOD

GRAPHITE ON VELLUM

BETTER

PLASTIC LEAD ON MYLAR

BEST

DIRECT INK DRAFTING ON MYLAR

FIGURE 41 A magnified comparison of graphite on vellum, plastic lead on Mylar, and ink on Mylar. Courtesy Koh-I-Noor, Inc.

60


CADD APPLICATIONS Drafting Archives CADD has almost entirely taken over manual drafting in architecture and industry. Some companies and individuals hold on to traditional drafting practices. Many have said that professional manual drafting is an art form made up of line styles, contrasting line thicknesses, and lettering. Manual architectural lettering is an art style of its own. While there are similarities in the style of architectural lettering, the artistic presentation follows examples provided in Chapter 6. Preserving this artistic lettering style is so important that CADD programs have text styles closely duplicating the best architectural hand lettering. For a time into the near future, there may be a need for you to create new manual drawings or revise archive

SHEET SIZES, SHEET FORMAT, TITLE BLOCKS, AND BORDERS Every professional drawing has a title block. Standards have been developed for the information put into the title block and on the sheet next to the border. A standardized drawing is easier to read and file than drawings that do not follow a standard format. The term file, as it relates to manual drafting, is the storage of drawings in standard file cabinets.

Sheet Sizes Drafting materials are available in standard sizes, which are determined by manufacturers’ specifications and based on national standards. Paper and polyester film can be purchased in cut sheets or in rolls. Architectural drafting offices generally use cut sheet sizes, in inches, of 18 × 24, 24 × 36, 28 × 42, 30 × 42, 30 × 48, or 36 × 48. Roll sizes vary in width from 18" to 48". Sheet sizes used in architectural drafting are often different, but can be the same as sheet sizes recommended by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for mechanical drafting done for manufacturing. ANSI sheet sizes, title block format, and content follow a strict set of standards for use in the industry. Architectural sheets, title block format, and content do not generally follow the same strict standards. The actual application depends on the practice followed

drawings. The term archive defines old drawings that are no longer in use and are stored for possible future use or reference. When revising archive drawings, handle the original very carefully to avoid causing damage. Use the same medium, such as graphite, used on the original drawing. Try to carefully match the line and lettering style used on the original. Reproduce the original as needed and carefully store the original in its proper archive location when finished. Many companies have converted or are continuing to convert their manual drawings to computer-aided drawings. ■

Sheet Size

Dimensions (inches)

A

8 1/2 × 11 or 11 × 8 1/2

B

17 × 11

C

22 × 17

D

34 × 22

E

44 × 34

F

40 × 28

TABLE 41 Standard ANSI Inch Drawing Sheet Sizes

in a specific architectural office. Table 4-1 shows the standard ANSI-recommended inch sheet sizes. Metric sheet sizes vary from 297 × 210 mm to 1189 × 841 mm. Metric roll sizes range from 297 mm to 420 mm wide. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has established standard metric drawing sheet sizes that have been adopted by ANSI. Standard metric drawing sheet sizes are shown in Table 4-2.

Sheet Size

Dimensions (mm)

Dimensions (inches)

A0

1189 × 841

46.8 × 33.1

A1

841 × 594

33.1 × 23.4

A2

594 × 420

23.4 × 16.5

A3

420 × 297

16.5 × 11.7

A4

297 × 210

11.7 × 8.3

TABLE 42 Standard Metric Drawing Sheet Sizes


Zoning Some companies use a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins, and letters along the left and right margins. This system is called zoning. Zoning allows a drawing to be read like a road map. For example, the reader can refer to the location of a specific item as D-4, which means the item can be found on or near the intersection of row D and column 4. Zoning can be found on some architectural drawings, although it is more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing.

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●

● ●

● ●

Architectural Drafting Title Blocks Title blocks and borders are normally preprinted on drawing paper or polyester film for manual drafting applications to help reduce drafting time and cost. “Drawing borders” are thick lines that go around the entire sheet. Top, bottom, and right-side border lines are usually between 3/8" and 1/2" away from the sheet edge. The left border can be between 3/4" and 1 1/2" away from the sheet edge. This extrawide left margin allows for binding drawing sheets. Preprinted architectural drawing title blocks are generally placed along the right side of the sheet, although some companies place them across the bottom of the sheet. Each architectural company uses a slightly different title block design, but this same general information is found in almost all blocks: ● ● ● ●

●

Drawing number. This can be a specific job or file number for the drawing. Company name, address, and phone number. Project or client. This is an identification of the project by company or client, project title, or location. Drawing name. This is where the title of the drawing is placed. For example, MAIN FLOOR PLAN or ELEVATIONS. Most companies leave this information off the title block and place it on the face of the sheet below the drawing. Scale. Some company title blocks provide space for the drafter to fill in the general scale of the drawing. Any view or detail on the sheet that differs from the general scale must have the scale identified below the view title, and both are placed directly below the view.

●

Drawing or sheet identification. Each sheet is numbered in relation to the entire set of drawings. For example, if the complete set of drawings has 8 sheets, then consecutive sheets are numbered 1 of 8, 2 of 8, 3 of 8, through 8 of 8. Date. The date noted is the one on which the drawing or project is completed. Drawn by. The place for the initials or name of the drafter, designer, or architect who prepared the drawing. Checked by. This is the identification of the individual who approves the drawing for release. Architect or designer. Most title blocks provide for the identification of the individual who designed the structure. Revisions. Many companies provide a revision column where changes in the drawing are identified and recorded. After a set of drawings is released for construction, there can be changes. When this is necessary, there is usually a written request for a change from the contractor, owner, or architect. The change is then implemented on the affected drawings. Where changes are made on the face of the drawing, a circle with a revision number accompanies the change. This revision number is keyed to a place in the drawing title block where the revision number, the revision date, the initials of the individual making the change, and an optional brief description of the revision are located. For further record of the change, the person making the change also fills out a form, called a change order. The change order was discussed in Chapter 2. The change order contains complete information about the revision for future reference. The change process and the method of documenting changes vary between companies.

Figure 4-2 shows different architectural title blocks. Notice the similarities and differences between the title blocks.

HOW TO FOLD PRINTS Architectural drawings are generally created on large sheets, and prints are made from the originals. It is necessary to fold the architectural prints properly when they must be mailed or filed in a standard file cabinet. Folding large prints is much like folding a road map. Folding is done in a pattern of bends that

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FIGURE 42 Sample architectural title blocks. (A) Courtesy Summagraphics; (B) Courtesy Southland Corporation; (C) Courtesy Structureform.

puts the title block and sheet identification on the front. Using the proper method to fold prints also aids in unfolding and refolding prints. Never fold original drawings. Figure 4-3 shows how large prints are folded.

DIAZO REPRODUCTION The diazo reproduction method, also known as blue-line prints, has historically been one of the most common methods for reproducing original manual drawings. Refer to the Student CD: DIAZO REPRODUCTION, for more information.

PHOTOCOPY REPRODUCTION A photocopy is a photographic reproduction of printed or graphic material. Photocopies of architectural drawings are commonly made on large-size engineering copy machines, also called engineering copiers or engineering printers. The photocopy engineering-size printer makes prints up to 36" wide and up to 25' long from originals up to 36" wide by 25' long. Prints can be made on bond paper, vellum, polyester film, colored paper, or other translucent materials. Reproduction capabilities also include reduction and enlargement

on some models. Bond paper is a strong, durable paper especially suitable to electronic printing and use in office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Almost any large original can be converted into a smaller-sized reproducible print for distribution, inclusion in manuals, or more convenient handling. Also, a random collection of mixed-scale drawings can be enlarged or reduced and converted to one standard scale and format. Reproduction clarity is so good that halftone illustrations, photographs, and solid or fine line work have excellent resolution and density. The photocopy process has mostly replaced the diazo reproduction process for copying architectural drawings. A halftone is the reproduction of continuous-tone artwork, such as a photograph, by converting the image into dots of various sizes.

MICROFILM Microfilm is a film containing a reduced image of a drawing or other printed material for compact storage and for future access, viewing, and reproduction. Refer to the Student CD: MICROFILM, for more information.


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FOLD 5

FOLD 4 FOLD 3 FOLD 2

FOLD 1

FOLD 5

FOLD 1

FOLD 2

FOLD 1

FOLD 2

FOLD 3

FOLD 2

FOLD 1

B-SIZE

C-SIZE

D-SIZE

E-SIZE

FIGURE 43 How to fold B-size, C-size, D-size, and E-size prints.

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The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to drafting media and standards. Address www.aia.org

Company, Product, or Service American Institute of Architects

www.ansi.org

American National Standards Institute

www.clearprintpapercompany.com

Drafting paper

Drafting Media and Reproduction Methods Test



Question 4–12 Identify two different locations where the scale can be located on an architectural drawing.


Question 4–14 Briefly describe the revision process and its steps.

Question 4–13 What are the results of a properly folded print?

Question 4–15 What is another name for a diazo print?

Question 4–1 List five factors in the choice and use of drafting materials.

Question 4–16 Is a diazo print the same as a blueprint? Explain. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.

Question 4–2 Why is transparency so important in reproducing copies using the diazo process? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.

Question 4–17 Describe the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.

Question 4–3 Describe vellum. Question 4–4 Describe polyester film. Question 4–5 What is another name for polyester film? Question 4–6 Define matte, and describe the difference between single-matte and double-matte. Question 4–7 Which of the following combinations yields the best reproduction: graphite on vellum, plastic lead on polyester film, or ink on polyester film? Question 4–8 What are the primary elements that give the best reproduction? Question 4–9 Identify three standard sheet sizes commonly used by architectural offices. Question 4–10 Describe zoning. Question 4–11 What six elements are normally found in a standard architectural title block?

Question 4–18 What should a good-quality diazo print look like? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–19 Define sepias and describe their use. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–20 Discuss safety precautions in the handling of ammonia. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–21 Describe the recommended first-aid for the following accidents: ammonia spilled on the skin, ammonia in the eyes, and inhaling excess ammonia vapor. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION. Question 4–22 List four advantages of photocopying over the diazo process. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: DIAZO REPRODUCTION.


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Question 4–23 Give at least two reasons for using microfilm. Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.

Question 4–25 Why is CADD rapidly replacing the need for microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.

Question 4–24 What is the big advantage of microfilm? Refer to the Student CD: Supplemental Reference: MICROFILM.

Question 4–26 Given the architectural title block shown in the illustration for this question, identify elements a through h.

h.

g.

f.

e.

d.

c.

b.

BLKID

SODERSTROM ARCHITECTS, P.C. ARCHITECTURE PLANNING SPECIALIZED STUDIES 1200NW FRONT SUITE 410 PORTLAND, OR 97209 (503) 228-5617

a.

CHAPTER 5

Sketching Applications I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

Sketching, or freehand drawing, is drawing without the aid of drafting equipment. Sketching is convenient because only paper, pencil, and an eraser are needed. There are a number of advantages to freehand sketching. Sketching is fast, visual communication. The ability to make an accurate sketch quickly can often be an asset when communicating with people at work or at home. Especially for technical concepts, a sketch can be the best form of communication. Most drafters prepare a preliminary sketch to help organize thoughts and minimize errors on the final drawing. The computer-aided drafter usually prepares a sketch on graph paper to help establish the coordinates for drawing objects or just to organize the drawing before beginning. Some architects, designers, and drafters use sketches to help record the stages of progress until a final design is ready for formal drawings.

SKETCHING TOOLS AND MATERIALS The pencil used for sketching should have a soft lead. A common No. 2 pencil works fine for most people. A mechanical pencil with a soft lead such as H, F, or HB is good. An automatic 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm pencil with F or HB lead is also good, and commonly used because of its availability and ease of use. Soft pencil leads allow for maximum control and variation of line weight. The pencil lead should not be sharp. A slightly rounded pencil point is best because it is easy to control and does not break easily. The lead point is not a factor when using an automatic pencil. Different thicknesses of line, if needed, can be drawn by changing the amount of pressure applied to the pencil. Paper quality is not critical, either. A good sketching paper is newsprint, although almost any kind of paper works. Use commonly available paper such as standard copy machine bond paper or notebook paper. Paper with a surface that is not too smooth is best. Many preliminary architectural designs have been created on a napkin at a lunch table. Sketching paper should not be taped down to the table. The best sketches are made when you are able to move the paper to the most comfortable drawing position. Some people make horizontal lines 66

better than vertical lines. If this is your situation, move the paper so vertical lines become horizontal. Such movement of the paper may not always be possible, so it does not hurt to keep practicing all forms of lines for the best results.

SKETCHING STRAIGHT LINES Lines should be sketched lightly in short, connected segments, as shown in Figure 5-1. If you sketch one long stroke in one continuous movement, your arm tends to make the line curved rather than straight. If you make a dark line, you may have to erase it if you make an error. If you draw a light line, there is often no need to erase an error because it does not show up very much when the final lines are darkened to your satisfaction. Use the following procedure to sketch a horizontal straight line with the dot-to-dot method: Mark the starting and ending positions or dots, as in Figure 5-2. The letters A and B are only for instruction. All you need are the points. STEP 2 Without actually touching the paper with the pencil point, make a few trial motions between the marked points to adjust your eye and hand to the anticipated line. STEP 1

SHORT 2"–3" STROKES MAKE STROKES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT AND BOTTOM TO TOP IF RIGHT-HANDED

DOT-TO-DOT

FIGURE 51 Sketching short line segments.

A

FIGURE 52 Step 1: Dot-to-dot.

B

Chapter 5: Sketching Applications

67

A

B

FOR A Ø 6" CIRCLE

FIGURE 53 Step 3: Short, light strokes.

3" R

1 A

A

B

B

FIGURE 54 Step 4: Darken to finish the line. 1/2"–1" WIDE

Sketch very light lines between the points by moving the pencil in short, light strokes, 2" to 3" long. With each stroke, attempt to correct the most obvious defects of the preceding stroke so the finished light lines are relatively straight (see Figure 5-3). STEP 4 Darken the finished line with a dark, distinct, uniform line directly on top of the light line. Usually the darkness can be obtained by pressing on the pencil (see Figure 5-4). STEP 3

FIGURE 56 Step 1: Making a trammel.

2 CENTER

A

B

FIGURE 57 Step 2: Marking the radius with a trammel.

SKETCHING CIRCULAR LINES The parts of a circle are shown in Figure 5-5. Three sketching techniques are used in making a circle: trammel, hand compass, and nail and string.

Sketching Circles Using the Trammel Method A trammel is an instrument used for making circles. In this example, the instrument is a strip of paper. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the trammel method: To sketch a 6" diameter circle, tear or cut a strip of paper approximately 1" wide and longer than the radius of 3". On the strip of paper, mark an

STEP 1

approximate 3" radius with tick marks, such as A and B in Figure 5-6. STEP 2 Sketch a straight line representing the diameter at the place where the circle is to be located. On the sketched line, locate with a dot the center of the circle. Use the marks on the trammel to mark the other end of the radius line, as shown in Figure 5-7. Place the trammel next to the sketched line, being sure point B on the trammel is aligned with the center of the circle. STEP 3 Pivot the trammel at point B, making tick marks at point A as you rotate the trammel, as shown in Figure 5-8, until you have a complete circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. STEP 4 Lightly sketch the circumference over the tick marks to complete the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9.

RA

CENTER

D R IUS

X

Y

DIAMETER Ø C

B

Z 3 A

CIRCUMFERENCE

FIGURE 55 Parts of a circle.

FIGURE 58 Step 3: Sketching the circle with a trammel.

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4

5

FIGURE 59 Steps 4 and 5: Completing and darkening the circle.

Darken the circle, as shown in Figure 5-9. You can darken the circle directly over the tick marks if your sketching skills are good, or if you are in a hurry.

STEP 5

Sketching Circles Using the Hand-Compass Method The hand-compass method is a quick and fairly accurate way to sketch circles, although it takes some practice. Use the following steps to sketch a 6" diameter circle using the hand-compass method: Be sure your paper is free to rotate completely around 360°. Remove anything from the table that might stop such a rotation. STEP 2 To use your hand and a pencil as a compass, place the pencil in your hand between your thumb and the upper part of your index finger so your index finger becomes the compass point and the pencil becomes the compass lead. The other end of the pencil rests in your palm, as shown in Figure 5-10. STEP 1

FIGURE 511 Steps 4 and 5: Sketching a circle with the handcompass method.

Determine the approximate radius by adjusting the distance between your index finger and the pencil point. Now, with the radius established, place your index finger on the paper at the proposed center of the circle. STEP 4 Using the established radius, keep your hand and pencil point in one place while you rotate the paper with your other hand. Try to keep the radius steady as you rotate the paper (see Figure 5-11). STEP 5 You can perform Step 4 very lightly and then go back and darken the circle or, if you have had a lot of practice, you may be able to draw a dark circle as you go (see Figure 5-11). STEP 3

Sketching Circles Using the Nail-and-String Method A method used to sketch large circles is to tie a pencil and a nail together with a string. The distance between the pencil and nail is the radius of the circle. When a large circle is to be sketched, use this method because the other methods do not work as well. This method is used with a nail driven at the center and a string connected to a pencil, for drawing large circles at a construction site.

MEASUREMENT LINES AND PROPORTIONS

FIGURE 510 Step 2: Holding the pencil for the hand-compass method.

In sketching an object, all the lines that make up the object are related to each other by size and direction. In order for a sketch to communicate accurately and completely, it should be proportional to the object. The actual size of the sketch depends on the paper size and the desired size of the sketch. The sketch should be large enough to be clear, but the


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LINE 1

TABLE

LINE 2

FIGURE 512 Measurement lines.

proportions of the features are more important than the size of the sketch. Look at the lines in Figure 5-12. How long is line 1? How long is line 2? Answer these questions without measuring either line; instead, relate each line to the other. For example, line 1 can be described as half as long as line 2, or line 2 described as twice as long as line 1. Now you know how long each line is relative to the other. This relationship is called proportion. You do not know how long either line is in terms of a measured scale, but no scale is used for sketching, so this is not a concern. Whatever line you decide to sketch first determines the scale of the drawing, regardless of the actual length of the line. This first line sketched is called the measurement line. You relate all the other lines in your sketch to the first line. This is one of the secrets in making a sketch resemble the object being sketched. The second thing you must know about the relationship of the two lines in the example is their direction and position relative to each other. Do they touch each other? Are they parallel, perpendicular, or at some other angle to each other? When you look at a line, ask yourself the following questions (for this example use the two lines given in Figure 5-13): 1. How long is the second line?

Answer: Line 2 is about three times as long as line 1. 2. In what direction and position is the second line relative to the first line? Answer: Line 2 touches the lower end of line 1 with about a 90° angle between the lines. Carrying this concept a step further, a third line can relate to the first line or the second line, and additional lines can continue to relate in the same manner. Again, the first line drawn is the measurement line, which sets the scale for the entire sketch. This idea of relationship can also apply to spaces. In Figure 5-14, the location of a table in a room can be

FIGURE 514 Spatial proportions.

determined by spatial proportions. A typical verbal location for the table in this floor plan might be as follows: “The table is located about one-half the table width from the top of the floor plan or about two table widths from the bottom, and about one table width from the right side or about three table widths from the left side of the floor plan.”

Using Your Pencil to Establish Measurements on a Sketch Your pencil can be a useful tool for establishing measurements on a sketch. When you are sketching an object that you can hold, use your pencil as a ruler. Place the pencil next to the feature to be sketched and determine the length by aligning the pencil tip at one end of the feature and marking the other end on the pencil with your thumb. The other end can also be identified by a specific contour or mark on the pencil. Then transfer the measurement to your sketch. The two distances are the same. Even though sketches do not require this accuracy, this is a quick way to establish measurement lines. A similar technique can be used to sketch a distant object. For example, to sketch a house across the street, hold your pencil at arm’s length and align the pencil with a feature of the house, such as the house width. With the pencil point at one end of the house, place your thumb on the pencil, marking the other end of the house. Transfer this measurement to your sketch in the same orientation taken from the house. Repeat this technique for all of the house features until the sketch is complete. If you keep your pencil at arm’s length and your arm straight, each measurement has the same accuracy and proper proportions.

Block Technique for Sketching MEASUREMENT LINE

FIGURE 513 Study the relationship between the two lines.

Any illustration of an object can be surrounded overall with a rectangle or any other geometric shapes as shown in Figure 5-15. Before starting a sketch, visualize the object inside a rectangle. Then use the measurement-line

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FIGURE 517 Step 2: Block technique. Cut out the sections and lightly sketch the shapes.

lines you learned previously. An elevation is an exterior view of a structure, which is the house in this case. To use the measurement-line and block techniques, follow these steps:

FIGURE 515 Block technique.

technique with the rectangle, or block, to help determine the shape and proportions of your sketch.

Sketching Procedures Using the Measurement-Line and Block Techniques You can sketch any object, such as an elevation, as you look at an actual house or a floor plan and think about how the features of the house relate to the measurement

When you start to sketch an object, try to visualize the object surrounded with an overall rectangle. Sketch this rectangle first with very light lines. Sketch the rectangle in the proper proportion with the measurement-line technique, as shown in Figure 5-16. STEP 2 Cut sections out or away using proper proportions as measured by eye or using your pencil to establish measurements. Use light lines, as shown in Figure 5-17. STEP 1

WIDTH

HEIGHT

WIDTH THIS IS THE ELEVATION TO BE SKETCHED.

FIGURE 516 Step 1: Sketch the block.

THIS RECTANGLE IS IMPORTANT, ESTABLISHED AS OVERALL WIDTH AND HEIGHT OF VIEW. USE CONSTRUCTION LINES.


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FIGURE 521 Step 2: Evenly spaced grid sketched over the swimming pool.

FIGURE 522 Steps 3 and 4: Proportioned box with a regular grid.

FIGURE 518 Step 3: Darken the view.

Complete the sketch by darkening the outlines desired for the finished sketch as shown in Figure 5-18.

STEP 3

Sketching Irregular Shapes By using a frame of reference or an extension of the block method, irregular shapes can be sketched easily to their correct proportions. Follow these steps to sketch the free-form swimming pool shown in Figure 5-19: Enclose the object in a lightly constructed box (see Figure 5-20). STEP 2 Sketch several evenly spaced horizontal and vertical lines, forming a grid, as shown in Figure 5-21. If you are sketching an object already drawn, draw your reference lines on top of the object lines to establish a frame of reference. Make a photocopy, and sketch on the photocopy if the original cannot be used. If you are sketching an object directly, you have to visualize these reference lines on the object you sketch. STEP 1

FIGURE 523 Step 5: Sketching the shape using a regular grid.

FIGURE 524 Step 6: Darkening the object completely.

On your sketch, correctly locate a proportioned box similar to the one established on the original drawing or object, as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 4 Use the drawn box as a frame of reference, and include the grid lines in correct proportion as shown in Figure 5-22. STEP 5 Using the grid, sketch small, irregular arcs and lines that match the lines of the original object, as in Figure 5-23. STEP 6 Darken the outline for a complete proportioned sketch, as shown in Figure 5-24. STEP 3

INTRODUCTION TO MULTIVIEW SKETCHES

FIGURE 519 Free-form swimming pool.

FIGURE 520 Step 1: Imaginary box.

A multiview, or multiview projection, is also known as orthographic projection. Multiview projection is the views of an object as projected upon two or more picture planes in orthographic projection. Orthographic projection is any projection of the features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection, where the projection of the object’s features is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. These terms

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TOP

TOP

FRONT FRONT

RIGHT SIDE

RIGHT SIDE

FIGURE 526 Pictorial view.

FIGURE 525 Multiviews.

are traditionally used in drafting, but they are more commonly used in mechanical drafting for manufacturing. In architectural drafting such drawings are referred to as elevation views. Elevation views are two-dimensional views of an object, such as a house, that are established by a line of sight perpendicular to the surface of the object. When you make multiview sketches, follow a methodical order. Learning to make these sketches can help you later as you begin to prepare elevation drawings.

45°

Multiview Alignment To keep your drawing in a standard form, sketch the front view in the lower left portion of the paper, the top view directly above the front view, and the rightside view to the right of the front view as shown in Figure 5-25. The views needed may differ depending on the object.

FIGURE 527 Step 1: Block out views and establish a 45° line.

Multiview Sketching Technique The following describes how to sketch three basic views of a house: Sketch and align the proportional rectangles for the front, top, and right side of the house given in Figure 5-26. Sketch a 45° line to help transfer width dimensions. The 45° line is established by projecting the width from the proposed top view location across and the width from the proposed right-side view location up until the lines intersect, as shown in Figure 5-27. STEP 2 Complete the shapes within the blocks, as shown in Figure 5-28. STEP 1

FIGURE 528 Step 2: Block out shapes.

Darken the lines of the object, as in Figure 5-29. Remember to keep the views aligned for ease of sketching and understanding by others.

STEP 3


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Sketch a horizontal reference line. You can consider this as the ground-level line. STEP 2 Sketch a vertical line perpendicular to the ground line somewhere near its center. This vertical line is used to measure height. STEP 3 Sketch two 30° angular lines, each starting at the intersection of the first two lines, as shown in Figure 5-30. STEP 1

Making an Isometric Sketch The steps in making an isometric sketch from a multiview drawing or from a real object are as follows:

ISOMETRIC SKETCHES Isometric sketches provide a three-dimensional (3D) pictorial representation of an object, such as the shape of a building. Isometric sketches are easy to draw and provide a fairly realistic 3D view of an object. An isometric sketch tends to represent objects as they appear to the eye. Such a sketch can help you visualize an object because three sides of the object are shown in a single three-dimensional view.

Establishing Isometric Axes

asu

3rd

re

len

LIN E

gth

of

ob

jec

ta

lon

30° APPROXIMATELY

gt

his

lin

e

2nd LINE

Measure height of object along this line

To establish isometric axes, you need four beginning lines: a horizontal reference line, two 30° angular lines, and one vertical line. Draw these lines as very light construction lines as shown in Figure 5-30. Use the following steps to establish the isometric axes:

Me

Select an appropriate view of the object to use as a front view, or study the front view of the multiview drawing. STEP 2 Determine the best position in which to show the object. STEP 3 Begin your sketch by setting up the isometric axes as previously described (see Figure 5-30). STEP 4 Using the measurement-line technique, sketch a rectangular box to the correct proportion, which surrounds the object to be sketched. Use the object shown in Figure 5-31 as an example. Imagine that the rectangular box represents a glass box that surrounds the object to be sketched inside. Begin to sketch the box by marking off the width at any convenient length. This is the width measurement line shown in Figure 5-32. Next, estimate and mark the length and height relative to the measurement line (see Figure 5-33). Sketch the three-dimensional box by using lines parallel to the original axis lines (see Figure 5-33). The box must be sketched correctly; otherwise the rest of your sketch will be out of proportion. All lines drawn in the same direction must be parallel. STEP 1

FIGURE 529 Step 3: Darken all lines.

ne

s li

ct

pth

r

asu

Me

e ed

of

je ob

hi gt

n

alo

4th

E

LIN

30° APPROXIMATELY

1st LINE — GROUND LINE

FIGURE 530 Isometric axes.

FIGURE 531 Given structure.


Ab ou t1

1/4 as lon ga sw idt h

About 1 1/2 as long as width

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h

dt Wi

FIGURE 532 Step 4: Lay out length, width, and height.

FIGURE 534 Step 5: Sketch the features of the structure.

NONISOMETRIC LINES

FIGURE 533 Step 4: Sketch the three-dimensional box. ISOMETRIC LINES

Lightly sketch the features that define the details of the object. When you estimate distances on the rectangular box, you will find that the features of the object are easier to sketch in correct proportion than they would be if you tried to draw them without the box (see Figure 5-34). STEP 6 Darken all the outlines to finish the sketch, as shown in Figure 5-35. STEP 5

Sketching Nonisometric Lines Isometric lines are lines on or parallel to one of the three original isometric axes. All other lines are nonisometric lines. Isometric lines can be measured in true length. Nonisometric lines appear either longer or shorter than their actual length (see Figure 5-35). You can measure and draw nonisometric lines by connecting their endpoints. Find the endpoints of the nonisometric lines by measuring along isometric lines.

FIGURE 535 Step 6: Darken the structure.

To locate where nonisometric lines should be placed, you have to relate to an isometric line.

Sketching Isometric Circles and Arcs Circles and arcs appear as ellipses in isometric views. To sketch isometric circles and arcs correctly, you need to know the relationship between circles and the faces, or planes, of an isometric cube. Depending on which isometric plane the circle appears, isometric circles look like one of the ellipses shown in Figure 5-36. The angle at which the isometric circle slants is determined by the surface on which the circle is to be sketched.

Using the Four-Center Method to Sketch Isometric Circles The four-center method of sketching an isometric circle is fairly easy, but care must be taken to form the ellipse


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1

2 22 LEFT PLANE

HORIZONTAL PLANE

RIGHT PLANE

1

1

FIGURE 536 Isometric circles.

arcs properly so the ellipse does not look distorted. Use the following steps to sketch isometric circles using the four-center method: STEP 1 Sketch an isometric cube or box similar to Figure 5-37. STEP 2 On each surface of the box sketch line segments connecting the 120° corners to the centers of the opposite sides as shown in Figure 5-38. STEP 3 With points 1 and 2 as the centers, sketch arcs beginning and ending at the centers of the opposite sides on each isometric surface (see Figure 5-39). STEP 4 On each isometric surface, with points 3 and 4 as the centers, complete the isometric circles by sketching arcs that meet the arcs sketched in Step 3 (see Figure 5-40).

Sketching Isometric Arcs Sketching isometric arcs is similar to sketching isometric circles. First, block out the overall shape of the object. Next, establish the centers of the arcs. Finally, sketch the arc shapes. Remember that isometric arcs, just like isometric circles, must lie in the proper plane and have the correct shape.

120° CORNER 6 PLACES

2

1

FIGURE 539 Step 3: Sketch arcs from points 1 and 2.

HORIZONTAL (TOP) PLANE

3

3

LEFT PLANE

3

4

4

RIGHT PLANE

FIGURE 540 Step 4: Sketch arcs from points 3 and 4.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Orthographic projection is any projection of features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection. The projection of the features of the object is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. When a surface of the object is parallel to the plane of projection, the surface appears in its true size and shape on that plane. In Figure 5-41, the plane of projection is parallel to the surface of the object. The line of sight from the object is perpendicular to the plane of projection. Notice also that the object appears three-dimensional, which means the object has width, depth, and height. The view on the plane of projection is two-dimensional, which means the view has only width and height. In situations where the plane of projection is not parallel to the surface of the object, the resulting orthographic view is foreshortened, or shorter than the true length, as shown in Figure 5-42.

3

MULTIVIEW PROJECTION FIGURE 537 Step 1: Isometric cube.

FIGURE 538 Step 2: Fourcenter construction of an isometric ellipse.

As a review, multiview projection establishes two or more views of an object as projected on two or more planes by using orthographic projection techniques.

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OBJECT 5

2

PLANE OF PROJECTION 3

2 1

6

1 1

5

3

4

4

2

2

3

6

1

5 LINES OF SIGHT PROJECTORS PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE OF PROJECTION

1

3

LINES OF SIGHT PROJECTORS PERPENDICULAR TO PLANE OF PROJECTION

4

5

4

PLANE OF PROJECTION ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW

ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW FORESHORTENED ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 1, 2, 3, 4

2 TRUE SHAPE OF THE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW

1

PLANE OF PROJECTION

3

1

5

2

6

4 3

5

4 TRUE SHAPE ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW OF SURFACE 2, 3, 5, 6

PLANE OF PROJECTION

FIGURE 542 Projection of a foreshortened orthographic surface.

FIGURE 541 Orthographic projection to form orthographic view.

The result of multiview projection is a multiview drawing. Multiview drawings represent the shape of an object using two or more views. The six possible views include: the front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. All six views are seldom used. Consideration should be given to the choice and number of views so, when possible, the surfaces of the object are shown in their true size and shape. If you can hold an object in your hands, you can visualize the views by turning the object until you are looking directly at a side. Continue turning the object, stopping to look at each view as your line of sight becomes perpendicular to the object surface. Figure 5-43 is a graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object in this manner. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions within a set of multiviews in Figure 5-43. Some people can visualize multiviews better than others. If you have difficulty visualizing views, pick up any object and try to sketch what you see

as you rotate the object looking at each side. Holding an object and rotating to see the sides works well if you can pick up and hold the object. To see the views of your home, for example, go outside and stand so you can see the front of the house with your line of sight as perpendicular as possible to the front. This is the front view. You can do the same thing by walking around your home and stopping to look at each side in the same manner. Take a sketch pad and sketch what you see at each location, just like you do when holding an object.

Elevations as Multiviews It is often easier to visualize a three-dimensional drawing of a structure than it is to visualize a two-dimensional drawing of the same structure. In architectural drafting, however, it is common to prepare construction drawings showing two-dimensional exterior views of a structure that provide representations of exterior materials or interior views of features such as kitchen and bath cabinets. These drawings are called elevations. The method used to draw elevations is multiview projection.


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TOP VIEW

REAR VIEW

LEFT-SIDE VIEW

FRONT VIEW

RIGHT-SIDE VIEW

BOTTOM VIEW

FIGURE 543 A graphic representation of a person holding and rotating an object. As the object is rotated to each position, the person stops to look directly at the object surface. What the person sees at each of these positions is related to the specific multiview seen in proper positions shown.

A more detailed discussion of elevation drawing is found in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. Figure 5-44 shows an object represented by a three-dimensional drawing, called a pictorial drawing, and three twodimensional views. This is the same object that the

TOP OR PLAN VIEW

TOP (PLAN VIEW)

FRONT

SIDE

FRONT VIEW

SIDE VIEW

FIGURE 544 Comparison of a pictorial and a multiview presentation.

person is holding in Figure 5-43. Look at the object represented in Figure 5-43 and compare it to the pictorial and multiview drawing shown in Figure 5-44.

Using the Glass Box Viewing Method If you place the object in Figure 5-44 in a glass box so the sides of the glass box are parallel to the major surfaces of the object, you can project the surfaces of the object onto the sides of the glass box and create the multiviews shown in Figure 5-45. Imagine the sides of the glass box are the planes of projection previously described. Look at Figure 5-45 again to see if you can visualize this idea. If you look at all sides of the glass box, you see the six views: front, top, right side, left side, bottom, and rear. Now, unfold the glass box as if the corners were hinged about the front view as demonstrated in Figure 5-46. These hinge lines are commonly called fold lines.

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TOP

TOP REAR

LEFT

RIGHT

FRONT

BOTTOM

FIGURE 547 Glass box unfolded.

FRONT

SIDE

FIGURE 545 Glass box.

Completely unfold the glass box onto a flat surface, and you have the six views of an object represented in a multiview. Figure 5-47 shows the glass box unfolded. Notice also that the views are labeled:

TOP

front, top, right, left, bottom, and rear. Views are always found in this arrangement when using multiview projection. Now, analyze Figure 5-48 in detail so you see the features that are common among the views. Knowing how to identify the features of an object that are common among views can aid you later in the visualization of elevations. Notice again how the views are aligned in Figure 5-48. The top view is directly above and the bottom view is directly below the front view. The left side is directly to the left and the right side is directly to the right of the front view. This alignment allows the drafter to project features from one view to the next to help establish each view. Now, look closely at the relationship of the front, top, and right-side views. A similar relationship exists using the left-side view. Figure 5-49 shows a 45° projection line established by projecting the fold or reference line (hinge) between the front and side view up, and the fold line between the front and top view over. All of the features established on the top view can be projected to the 45° line and then down onto the side view. This is possible because the depth dimension is the same in both the top and the side views. The reverse is also true.

WIDTH

FRONT

TOP

SIDE

HEIGHT REAR

LEFT

FRONT

RIGHT DEPTH

BOTTOM

FIGURE 546 Unfolding the glass box at hinge lines, also called fold lines.

FIGURE 548 View alignment.


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FOLD LINE

45°

Y X

FOLD LINE

FOLD LINE

FOLD LINE

X Y

FIGURE 549 Establishing a 45° projection line. FIGURE 551 Using dividers to transfer view projections.

Features from the side view can be projected to the 45° line and then over to the top view. The transfer of features in Figure 5-49 using the 45° line can also be accomplished by using a compass with one leg at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical fold lines. The compass establishes the relationship between the top and side views, as shown in Figure 5-50. Another method for transferring the size of features from one view to the next is the use of dividers to transfer distances from the fold line at the top view to the fold line at the side view. The relationship between the fold lines and the two views is shown in Figure 5-51. The front view is usually most important because it is the one from which the other views are established. There is always one common dimension between adjacent views. For example, the width is common between the front and top views and the height is common between the front and side views. This knowledge allows you to relate information from one view to another. Take one more look at the relationship of the six views, as shown in Figure 5-52.

RADIUS FOLD LINE

TOP

REAR

LEFT

FRONT

RIGHT

BOTTOM

FIGURE 552 Multiview orientation.

Proper View Selection There are six primary views that you can use to describe a structure completely. In architectural drafting, the front, left-side, right-side, and rear views are used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure completely. Elevation drawings are discussed in more detail in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. The top view is called the roof plan view. This view shows the roof of the structure and provides construction information and dimensions. Roof plans are discussed in detail in Chapter 22 and Chapter 23. The bottom view is not used in architectural drafting.

PROJECTION OF FEATURES FROM AN INCLINED PLANE

FOLD LINE

FIGURE 550 Projection with a compass.

When you use multiview projection, features of objects that are parallel to projection planes appear true size and shape, but features that are not parallel to projection planes are foreshortened, and are not in true size and shape.

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ROUND WINDOW

LINE OF INTERSECTION

ROUND WINDOW

FORESHORTENED SKYLIGHT

TRUE WIDTH

ROOF

PROJECTION LINES

FIGURE 553 Rectangular features on an inclined plane.

FIGURE 554 Round window is a circle when the line of sight is perpendicular.

FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER

Rectangular Features on an Inclined Plane When a rectangular feature such as a skylight projects out of a sloped roof, the intersection of the skylight with the roof appears as a line when the roof also appears as a line. This intersection can then be projected onto adjacent views, as shown in Figure 5-53.

SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER

TOP (ROOF PLAN)

Circles on an Inclined Plane When the line of sight in a view is perpendicular to a circle, such as a round window, the window appears round, as shown in Figure 5-54. When a circle is projected onto an inclined surface, such as a round skylight projected onto a sloped roof, the view of the inclined circle is elliptical, as shown in Figure 5-55.

FORESHORTENED DIAMETER MINOR DIAMETER SKYLIGHT DIAMETER MAJOR DIAMETER ROUND SKYLIGHT

FRONT

SIDE

FIGURE 555 Circle projected onto an inclined surface appears as an ellipse.

CADD APPLICATIONS Using CADD for Conceptual Design and Presentation Sketches Google SketchUp is a CADD program that can be used to create, share, and present three-dimensional models with an easy-to-use interface. Interface, also called user interface, is the term describing the tools and techniques used to provide and receive information to and from a computer application. Google SketchUp is often used in the conceptual design phase of a project and to create presentation drawings that look hand-sketched, as shown in Figure 5-56.

Tools such as Line, Arc, Rectangle, and Circle are used to sketch two-dimensional (2D) closed boundaries, known as faces. Then, tools such as the Push/Pull, Follow-Me, and Move are used to “pull” faces and edges into three-dimensional (3D) objects (see Figure 5-57). CADD graphic and image files can be imported into Google SketchUp, and then traced over with sketch tools to create quick 3D models for design studies (see Figure 5-58).


CADD APPLICATIONS

FIGURE 556 Google SketchUp can be used in the conceptual design phase to sketch new ideas and designs. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.

FIGURE 557 In Google SketchUp, use sketch lines to create faces, then push/pull the faces into 3D geometry. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.

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CADD APPLICATIONS

FIGURE 558 Google SketchUp lines are traced over an imported image to create a 3D model. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.

“hand-sketched” styles, and shadows to create presentation drawings as shown in Figure 5-59. Custom appearances can be used to create a sampling of different presentation styles. When Google SketchUp is combined with Google Earth, a location from Google Earth can be found and imported into Google SketchUp. A new design idea is sketched relative to the Google Earth location. The Google SketchUp file is then imported back into Google Earth to create a 3D presentation file of the design within Google Earth as shown in Figure 5-60. Google SketchUp is available for download from the Google Web site and comes in two formats. Google SketchUp is a free download and allows you to create 3D models very quickly. Google SketchUp Pro is a premium version and includes all of the tools from the free version plus advanced settings for commercial use and interaction with other CADD programs. ■

In addition to sketching and modeling tools, Google SketchUp can be used to add finish materials,

FIGURE 559a Apply different materials and sketch styles to 3D model geometry to create unique presentation drawings. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.


CADD APPLICATIONS

FIGURE 559 b Continued

FIGURE 560 Use Google Earth to import a site into Google SketchUp, design the 3D model, then send the model back to Google SketchUp for design review. Courtesy Ron Palma, 3D-DZYN.

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The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you find information related to sketching applications. Address www.sketchup.google.com www.drawsketch.about.com

Company, Product, or Service Google Sketch Up Sketching lessons and tutorials

Sketching Applications Test



Question 5–13 When is a surface foreshortened in an orthographic view?


Question 5–15 Give at least two reasons why the multiviews of an object are aligned in a specific format.

Question 5–1 Define sketching. Question 5–2 How are sketches useful in CADD? Question 5–3 Describe the proper sketching tools. Question 5–4 Should paper for sketching be taped to the drafting board or table? Why or why not? Question 5–5 What kind of problem can occur if a long, straight line is drawn without moving the hand? Question 5–6 What type of paper should be used for sketching? Question 5–7 Briefly describe a method that can be used to sketch irregular shapes.

Question 5–14 How many principal multiviews of an object are possible?

Question 5–16 In architectural drafting, what are the exterior front, right-side, left-side, and rear views also called? Question 5–17 If a round window appears as a line in the front view and the line of sight is perpendicular to the window in the side view, what shape is the window in the side view? Question 5–18 If a round skylight is positioned on a 5/12 roof slope and appears as a line in the front view, what shape is the skylight in the side view? Question 5–19 Briefly describe the trammel method for sketching a circle. Question 5–20 Why must the paper be free to rotate when you are using the hand-compass method for sketching a circle?

Question 5–8 Define isometric sketch.

Question 5–21 What is the distance from the center of a circle to the circumference called?

Question 5–9 What is the difference between an isometric line and a nonisometric line?

Question 5–22 Name the distance that goes all the way across a circle and passes through the center.

Question 5–10 What do proportions have to do with sketching techniques? Question 5–11 Define orthographic projection.

Question 5–23 Describe an easy way to sketch a 15" circle on paper and a 6'–6" circle at a construction site.

Question 5–12 What is the relationship between the orthographic plane of projection and the projection lines from the object or structure?

Question 5–24 In a short but complete paragraph, discuss the importance and use of measurement lines and proportions in sketching objects.


Question 5–25 Briefly describe how the block technique works for making sketches of objects.

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elements large enough to fill most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.

Question 5–26 Name two basic applications for multiviews in architectural drafting. Question 5–27 In multiview projection, what is the top view commonly called?

PATIO

Question 5–28 Name the four views that are commonly used as elevations to describe the exterior appearance of a structure. Question 5–29 Why should a soft lead and slightly rounded pencil point be used when sketching?

SWIMMING POOL

Question 5–30 Briefly describe how you would use your pencil to establish measurements if you were sketching a house across the street.

PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: On 8 1/2" × 11" bond paper or newsprint, use proper sketching materials and techniques to solve the following sketching problems. Use very lightly sketched construction lines for all layout work. Darken the lines of the object, but do not erase the layout lines. Additional problems are available on the Student CD.

Problem 5–1 Sketch the front view of your home or any local single-family residence using the block technique. Use the measurement-line method to approximate proper proportions.

SPA

Problem 5–8 Given the top and side views shown in the sketch for this problem, redraw these views and draw the missing front view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.

Problem 5–2 Use the box method to sketch a circle with a diameter of approximately 4". Sketch the same circle using the trammel and hand-compass methods. Problem 5–3 Find an object with an irregular shape, such as a French (irregular) curve, and sketch a two-dimensional view using the grid method. Sketch the object to correct proportions without measuring. Problem 5–4 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1, or a different structure, to prepare an isometric sketch. Problem 5–5 Use the same structure you used for Problem 5–1 to sketch a front view and right-side view. Problem 5–6 Use a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" to draw a 38° acute angle with one side horizontal and both sides 8'–6" long. Problem 5–7 Given the sketch for this problem of a swimming pool, spa, and patio, resketch these

START VIEW HERE

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Problem 5–9 Given the pictorial sketch for this problem, draw the front, top, and right-side views, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.

FRO

NT

Problem 5–10 Given the three views of the house shown in the sketches for this problem, sketch an isometric view, filling most of an 8 1/2 × 11" sheet of paper.

CHAPTER 6

Architectural Lines and Lettering I

N

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R

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C

T

I

O

N

Drafting is a universal graphic language that uses lines, symbols, dimensions, and notes to describe a structure to be built. Lines and lettering on a drawing must be of a quality that reproduces clearly. Properly drawn lines are dark, crisp, sharp, and of a uniform thickness. There should be no variation in darkness, only a variation in thickness, known as line contrast. Certain lines are drawn thick to stand out clearly from other information on the drawing. Other lines are drawn thin. Thin lines are not necessarily less important than thick lines, but they can be subordinate for identification purposes. Recommended line thicknesses are much more defined in mechanical drafting for manufacturing than in architectural drafting. Architectural drafting line standards have traditionally been more flexible, and the creativity of the individual drafter or company can influence line and lettering applications. This is not to say that drafters can do anything that they desire when preparing an architectural drawing. This chapter presents some general guidelines, styles, and techniques that are recommended for architectural drafting. Practices using CADD are covered in Chapter 7 and applied to specific content in later chapters.

TYPES OF LINES Lines are the primary method of displaying images on architectural drawings. The lines must accurately and clearly represent the drawing content. There are a variety of line types found on drawings. Each type of line conveys a meaning in the way it is represented and its placement on the drawing. There are basically two widths of lines commonly found on architectural drawings, thick and thin. The purpose of different line widths is to make certain that lines stand out more than others. Thicker lines are meant to be more dominant than other lines. They may not be any more important, but they are the first lines that are intended to be seen by the viewer. For example, when you look at a floor plan, the wall lines and related features should be the main focus at first glance. Other lines, such as dimension lines, are equally important, but their appearance is subordinate to the lines used to create the plan. Even though national standards recommend two different

line thicknesses for use on drawings, some companies use three line thicknesses to represent different lines on a drawing. Confirm the actual practice used by your school or company. This discussion introduces you to each of the lines commonly used in architectural drafting. Figure 6-1 shows each type of architectural line and its desired width.

Construction Lines and Guidelines Construction lines are used for laying out a drawing. They are drawn very lightly so they do not reproduce and so they are not mistaken for any other lines on the drawing. Manually drawn construction lines are drawn with very little pressure using a pencil with 4H to 6H lead, and if drawn properly do not need to be erased. Use construction lines for all preliminary work. Construction lines are drawn on a separate layer when CADD is used. This layer can be turned on or off as needed. CADD layers are discussed in Chapter 7. Guidelines are similar to construction lines in that they should be drawn lightly enough so they do not reproduce. Guidelines are drawn to guide your manual lettering. For example, if lettering on a drawing is 1/8" (3 mm) high, then the lightly drawn guidelines are placed 1/8" (3 mm) apart. Guidelines are not used with CADD. Some manual drafters prefer to use a light-blue lead rather than a graphite lead for all construction lines and guidelines. Light-blue lead does not reproduce in a diazo printer and is usually cleaner than graphite. Blueline can reproduce in a photocopy machine unless it is drawn very lightly.

Object Lines In architectural drafting the outline lines—or object lines, as they are commonly called—are a specific thickness so they stand out from other lines, as they form the outline of views. Object lines are used to define the outline and characteristic features of architectural plan components, but the method of presentation can differ 87

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THICK

VISIBLE OBJECT LINES

THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) FLOOR PLAN WALL OUTLINES, ELEVATION OUTLINE/ACCENT, SECTION ACCENT, FOUNDATION OUTLINES AND BEAMS

THIN

THIN LINE

THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm) FLOOR PLAN SYMBOLS, ELEVATION FEATURES, SECTION FEATURES

THIN

HIDDEN LINE

THIN LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.012" (0.3 mm)

THIN

CENTER LINE

EXTENSION LINE

LEADER

DOT

DIMENSION LINE

DIMENSION LINE, EXTENSION LINE, AND LEADER LINE

THIN 20'0" SLASH

ARROWHEAD

THICK CUTTING-PLANE LINE OR VIEWING-PLANE LINE

THICK THICK THICK SHORT BREAKS

BREAK LINE

THIN

LONG BREAKS

THICK

CHAIN LINE

THICK LINE APPROXIMATE WIDTH: 0.025" (0.6 mm) PROPERTY LINES

DIMENSION LINE VISIBLE OBJECT LINE

GARB. DISP. GFI

GFI DW

HIDDEN LINE

HOOD W/ LIGHT & FAN. VENT TO OUTSIDE AIR

12'-0"

LEADER LINE

REFR

48"X72" LIGHT SOFFIT W/ 5-48" PERIOD FIXTURES S3

DBL OVEN

HIDDEN LINE BREAK LINE

BRM S S 3

EXTENSION LINE

CUTTING-PLANE LINE

THIN LINE

FIGURE 61 Recommended architectural line styles and weights, with an example as used in a partial floor plan.

Chapter 6: Architectural Lines and Lettering

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slightly from one office to another. The following techniques are alternatives for object line presentation: ● A popular technique is to enhance certain drawing features so they stand out clearly from outer items on the drawing. For example, the outline of floor plan walls and partitions, or beams in a cross section, can be drawn thicker than other lines so that they are more apparent than the other lines on the drawing. When drawn manually, these thicker lines can be drawn with a mechanical pencil or 0.7-mm or 0.9-mm automatic pencil using a 2H, H, or F lead (see Figure 6-2A). This technique can also use light shading to highlight the walls of a floor plan. Dark shading can be used, but it hides the thicker outline lines. ● Another technique is for all lines of the drawing to be the same thickness. This method does not differentiate one type of line from another, except that construction lines are always very lightly drawn. The idea of this technique is to make all lines medium-thick to save drafting time. The drafter uses a lead that works best, although a mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead is popular (see Figure 6-2B). This technique

can use dark shading to highlight features such as walls in floor plans, as shown in Figure 6-2C. The objective with any manual drafting line work is to get all lines dark and crisp. If the lines are fuzzy, they do not reproduce well. ●

Some object lines may not be drawn as thick as others. This idea can be confusing at first. When you are creating an architectural drawing, you need to think about what features you want to be most visual. On a floor plan, for example, the outlines of the walls might be drawn thick to stand out clearly from other features. However, the outlines of cabinets, doors, and other objects might be drawn thin even though they are objects and their outlines might be considered object lines. The partial floor plan in Figure 6-1 shows this variation between object lines. Although this practice is common, the confusion can be compounded for the beginner because some variations can exist between offices. The best thing for you to do is spend as much time as you can looking at sets of architectural drawings with the goal of observing how lines are displayed. Also, quickly become familiar with the methods preferred by your instructor and the company where you work.

10'–0"

10'–0" 5'–0"

5'–0"

5'–0"

5'–0"

ALL LINES SAME THICKNESS

THICK WALL OUTLINES

B 10'–0" 5'–0"

5'–0"

THICK LINES FOR BEAMS AND FOOTINGS DARK SHADING

A

THICK LINES FOR FOUNDATION WALL

C

FIGURE 62 (A) Thick outlines. (B) All lines the same thickness. (C) Accent with shading.

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Dashed Lines In mechanical drafting dashed lines are called hidden lines; the terms are interchangeable in architectural drafting. Dashed lines are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. In architectural drafting, dashed lines can also be considered hidden lines because they are used to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. These dashed features are important but subordinate to the main emphasis of the drawing. Dashed lines vary slightly from one office to the next. These lines are thin and generally drawn about 1/8" to 3/8" (3 to 10 mm) in length with a space of 1/16" to 1/8" (1.5 to 3 mm) between dashes. The dashes should be kept uniform in length on the drawing, for example, all 1/4" (6 mm) should have equal spaces. Dashed lines are thin, and the spacing between dashes should not be measured, but should be approximately the same. Draw dashed lines manually by estimating the dash length and spacing. It takes practice to manually draw dashed lines. Recommended leads for manual drafting are a 0.5-mm automatic pencil with 2H or H lead, or a sharp mechanical pencil with 4H, 2H, or H lead. Examples of dashed-line representations include beams shown in Figure 6-3, headers shown in Figure 6-4, and upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs as shown in Figure 6-5. These concepts are discussed again throughout this textbook as used with specific applications.

Extension and Dimension Lines Extension lines show the extent of a dimension. Dimension lines show the length of the dimension and terminate at the related extension lines with slashes,

4 X 12 BEAM

DASHED LINE BEAM

FIGURE 63 Dashed line beam representation.

4 X 14 HDR.

DASHED LINE HEADER

FIGURE 64 Dashed line header representation.

DASHED LINE DISHWASHER

DASHED LINE UPPER CABINETS

DASHED LINE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT RUN

FIGURE 65 Dashed lines for upper kitchen cabinets, dishwasher, and electrical circuit runs.

arrowheads, or dots. The dimension numeral in feet and inches, or millimeters, is generally placed above and near the center of the dimension line. Extension lines generally start a short distance, such as 1/16" (1.5 mm) away from the feature being dimensioned and typically run 1/8" (3 mm) beyond the last dimension line. When you are dimensioning to a feature such as the center of a window, the center line becomes an extension line. Figure 6-6 shows several extension and dimension lines. Further discussion and examples are provided in later chapters. Extension and dimension lines are generally thin, dark, crisp lines that can be drawn with a sharp mechanical pencil or 0.5-mm automatic pencil using 4H, 2H, or H lead, depending on the amount of pressure you use.

Leader Lines Leader lines are also thin, dark, crisp lines. These lines are used to connect notes to related features


91

DIMENSION LINE 10'-0" EXTENSION LINE

5'-0"

5'-0"

1/8 45°

CENTER-LINE EXTENSION LINE

FREEHAND SLASH ALL IN THE SAME DIRECTION

10'-0" 5'-0"

1/8"

A THICK SLASH IS COMMON ON MANY MANUAL AND CADD DRAWINGS

SOME COMPANIES USE A DOT TO END DIMENSION LINES

TO 3/16"

5'-0" 1/16

FREEHAND ARROWHEAD

CADD ARROWHEADS MAY BE FILLED OR UNFILLED

FIGURE 66 Extension and dimension lines.

on a drawing. Leader lines can be drawn freehand or with an irregular curve. Do them freehand if you can do a good job, but use an irregular curve if they are not smooth. Confirm the preferred practice with your school or company standards. The leader should start from the vertical center at the beginning or end of a note and be terminated with an arrowhead at the feature. Some companies prefer that leaders be straight lines beginning with a short shoulder and angling to the feature. Figure 6-7 shows several examples.

2 X 6 PT SILL 1/2"o

X 10" A.B. @ 6'–0" O.C.

8" X 16" CONC. FTG.

8" THICK FND. WALL ALL

FIGURE 67 Sample leader lines. The style for leaders should be the same throughout the drawing.

Break Lines Break lines are used, for example, to remove a portion of an object, to show a partial view, or to shorten a long object. Break lines are also used to terminate features on a drawing when the extent of the feature has been clearly defined. Two types of break lines can be used in architectural drafting: the long break line and the short break line. The long break line is normally associated with architectural drafting, and uses a break symbol that is generally drawn freehand. Figure 6-8A shows several examples. The short break line can be found on some architectural drawings. This line, as shown in Figure 6-8A, is an irregular line drawn freehand and is used for a short area. The short break line is less commonly used in architectural drafting than the long break line. Breaks in cylindrical objects such as steel bars and pipes are shown in Figure 6-8B.

LINE TECHNIQUES For more information and instructions covering manual drafting techniques for drawing lines with pencil on vellum, polyester lead on polyester film, and inking on vellum and polyester film, refer to the Student CD: LINE TECHNIQUES.

92


LONG BREAK LINE 1/3 R R

LONG BREAK LINE ALTERNATE SYMMETRICAL ABOUT CENTER

1/2 R SHORT BREAK LINE NOT AS COMMON

A

R

B

FIGURE 68 (A) Solid break lines. (B) Cylindrical break lines.

CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Lines INTRODUCTION

POINT ENTRY METHODS The process of specifying points to create and edit objects, such as locating line endpoints, is known as

SINK

2'–0"

W WASHER DRYER R

8'–0"

6" BACKK SPLASH

ADJ. SHELVES L

3'–0"

Drawing line segments is one of the simplest forms of CADD. To draw a line, first access the proper line tool or command. Typically, a line is drawn by specifying a start point and an endpoint. Both points are often known as endpoints. The line appears between the selected points. Usually the LINE command remains active, allowing you to create multiple connected single line segments. When finished, exit the LINE command or restart the command to draw other disconnected lines. Drawing lines using a LINE command represents the fundamental approach to creating computer-aided drawings, because a drawing is a grouping of lines and shapes. Figure 6-9, for example, shows an interior elevation drawing. If you look closely, you can see how the drawing consists of lines and different line types. As you learn more about CADD and specific CADD systems, you will become more familiar with the commands and options that allow you to create and modify complex objects without using individual line segments.

5'–3"

4

1'–10"

UTILITY ELEVATION A

FIGURE 69 An example of a utility room interior elevation. The drawing consists of lines assigned specific line types, created using LINE and OBJECT commands.

point entry. A common traditional method of point entry relies on the Cartesian coordinate system, also referred to as rectangular coordinates. This system is based on


93

CADD APPLICATIONS establishing points at a given distance from the x, y, and z axes. For two-dimensional drafting applications, objects are drawn on the x,y plane and use horizontal x and vertical y coordinates. Three-dimensional drawings make use of the z axis and require x, y, and z coordinate entry. The intersection of the axes is called the origin. This is where x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0, or the 0,0,0 coordinate is located. Absolute coordinate entry uses the exact coordinates from the origin to locate points. Figure 6-10 shows the two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In this example, two lines have been drawn by entering the absolute coordinate 2,1 followed by 2,4 and finally 4,4. The z axis usually requires no consideration when preparing two-dimensional drawings. The actual entry technique varies depending on the CADD system and work environment settings. For example, typing 2,1 or #2,1 may be necessary to enter an absolute coordinate two units right and one unit up from the origin. Figure 6-10 shows how the Cartesian coordinate system is divided into quadrants. Positive and negative values specify coordinates from the origin in each quadrant. Generally, the origin is in the lower left corner of the drawing area to allow for drawing in the upper right quadrant, using positive x,y coordinates. The drawing area is often infinite in size, though drawing limits, or the specified drawing area, can be set to create a virtual drawing area according to sheet size and drawing scale. Depending on the CADD program, many point entry methods exist for placing objects, such as the endpoints of lines. Absolute coordinate entry, as well as relative, and polar coordinate entry are common. Relative coordinate entry is used when points are located at a specified

– ,y –x

distance on the x and y axis from the previous point. For example, when using relative coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @0,2. In this example, the @ symbol indicates from the previous point. Polar coordinate entry is used when points are located from the previous point at a specified distance and angle. For example, when using polar coordinate entry, and the first point is located at 2,2 from the origin, the next point is 2 units directly above the first point by entering @2B SIDE ELEVATION

A>B REAR ELEVATION

A>B REAR ELEVATION

A>B SIDE ELEVATION

FIGURE 238 When roof heights are unequal, the transition can be made by extending the lower roof pitch until it aligns with the upper roof (right) or by allowing a gable roof to be formed between the two roofs.

represents the gable end wall. The finished layout can be seen in Figure 23-13. RIDGE

Roof Intersections with Varied Wall Heights

FIGURE 239 When walls are equally spaced but not perpendicular, the roof surfaces occur along a line, as shown.

RIDGE A

RIDGE B

A

B

B

A

A

RI

DG

E

EY

LL

VA

X°

Another feature common to roofs is the intersection between two roof sections of different heights similar to the home in Figure 23-14. Figure 23-15 shows how an entry portico framed with a 10' (3000 mm) wall would intersect with a residence framed with walls 8' (2400 mm) high. The roof pitch must be known to determine where the intersection between the two roofs will occur. In this example a 6/12 pitch was used. At this pitch, the lower roof must extend 4' (1200 mm) before it will be 10' (3000 mm) high. A line was offset 48" (1200 mm) from the wall representing the horizontal distance. The line that represents the 10' (3000 mm)

B

P

HI

1/2X°

A

FIGURE 2310 When walls are unequally spaced, a drafter may be tempted to draw the roof as shown at (A.) The actual intersection can be seen at (B.) Remember that each valley is drawn at an angle equal to half of the angle between the supporting walls.

FIGURE 2311 The true roof shape can be seen by drawing sections of the roof. Project the heights represented on the sections onto the roof.

552


FIGURE 2314 Many home styles feature homes with roofs that have varied heights. STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

FIGURE 2312 The roof to cover a bay can be represented by drawing the outline of the bay and the desired overhangs parallel to the bay walls (Step 1). Draw construction lines to represent the roof that would be created if the bay were a rectangle. This will establish the ridge and the intersection of the ridge with the main roof (Step 2). Drawing the hips created by a rectangular bay will also establish the point where the true hips intersect the ridge. The true hips will start at the intersection of the overhangs, pass through the intersection of the bay walls, and end at the ridge (Step 3).

high plate is extended to the line that was just drawn to represent where the 8' (2400 mm) roof reaches 10' (3000 mm) high. The valley between the two roofs will occur where the lines representing the higher walls intersect the line representing the horizontal distance.

4'-0"

LINE OF 8'-0" HIGH PLATE

FIGURE 2313 A bay placed parallel to the gable end wall is drawn using the first two steps represented in Figure 23-12. The lines for each roof feature must be erased where they intersect the wall.

LINE OF 10'-0" HIGH PLATE

FIGURE 2315 The slope of the roof must be known to draw the intersection between roofs built on walls of differing heights. With a 6/12 pitch, a horizontal distance of 48" (1200 mm) would be required to reach the starting height of the upper roof (6" per foot × 4' = 24" rise). By projecting the line of the upper walls to a line offset in 48" from the lower wall, the intersection of the two roof planes can be determined. A valley will be formed between the two intersecting roofs starting at the intersection of the wall and the line representing the rise.

Chapter 23: Roof Plan Layout

553

Three lines will always be required to represent the intersections of hips, valleys, ridges, and overhangs on a roof plan.

The valleys and overhangs that result from applying these guidelines are shown in Figure 23-16. The hips, or external corners of the roof, are drawn in a manner similar to that used to locate the ridge. The hips represent the intersection between two roof planes and are represented by a line drawn at an angle that is one-half of the angle formed between the two supporting walls. Keep in mind that the 45° line represents the intersection between two equally pitched roof planes in plan view only. This angle has nothing to do with the actual slope of the roof. The angle that represents the slope or pitch of the roof is seen only in an elevation or section of the structure. Drawing elevations and sections will be introduced in later chapters.

Dutch Hip Roofs A Dutch hip roof is drawn by first drawing a hip, as shown in Figure 23-17. Once the hip is drawn, determine the location of the gable wall. The wall is

A

B

RIDGE

VA LL

EY

H IP 45°

IP H

●

RIDGE

H IP

●

A hip or valley will pass through the corner of two intersecting walls. A hip or valley will always be represented on the plan view using an angle equal to half the angle of the intersecting walls. Generally this will mean that hips and valleys will be drawn at a 45° angle.

45°

IP H

●

IP H

If a hip roof is to be drawn, the ridge formed between the hips is formed just as with a gable roof. Three guidelines need to be followed as the hips and valleys are drawn on the roof plan:

H IP

Representing Hip Roofs

FIGURE 2316 A valley (interior corner) or a hip (exterior corner) is formed between two intersecting roof planes. When each plane is framed from walls that are perpendicular to each other and the slope of each roof is identical, the valley is drawn at a 45° angle.

usually located over a framing member, spaced at 24" (600 mm) on center. The wall is typically located 48" or 72" (1200 or 1800 mm) from the exterior wall. With the wall located, the overhang can be drawn in a manner similar to a gable roof. The overhang line will intersect the hip lines to form the outline of the Dutch hip.

REPRESENTING STRUCTURAL MATERIALS The type of plan to be drawn will affect the method used to show the structural material. Many offices draw a separate roof framing plan similar to Figure 22-3 to show all framing materials. Chapter 29 explains how to represent structural members on a roof framing plan.

C

FIGURE 2317 Layout of a Dutch hip roof: (A) Establish the ridge and hip locations; (B) locate the gable end wall; (C) use bold lines to complete the roof.

554


2 X 6 RAFT.

1 HI 8

STD ROOF TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. - SEE DRAW. BY MANUF.

HI

X

8 P

2

X

1

2

P

@ 24"O.C.

1 2 X 6 RAFTERS @ 24" O.C.

FIGURE 2318 Rafters or trusses can be represented on the roof plan by a thin line showing the proper direction and span, or by using a schedule.

Chapter 32 will discuss drawing framing plans. If framing is to be drawn on the roof plan, the rafters or trusses can be represented as shown in Figure 23-18.

REPRESENTING NONSTRUCTURAL MATERIAL Vents, chimneys, skylights, solar panels, diverters, cant strips, slope indicators, and downspouts are the most common nonstructural materials that will need to be shown on the roof plan.

Vents Vents may be either placed at the ridge, at the eave, or in the gable end walls. Ridge vents can either be a continuous vent similar to Figure 23-19 or individual vents placed near the ridge. Continuous vents can be represented as seen in Figure 23-20 or merely specified in a note and not drawn on the roof plan. Individual vents should be represented on the roof plan as close to the ridge as possible, on the side of the roof that is the least visible. The size of the vent varies with each manufacturer, but an area equal to 1/300 of the attic area must be provided for ventilation. Vents can be represented on a roof plan using a 12" (300 mm) diameter circle or a 12" (300 mm) square to approximate the size of the vent. On some custom homes designed by architects, a specific manufacturer and model number may be specified. For most designs, the type of vent is represented, but the contractor determines the manufacturer, size, and model. If the exact size and type of vent are not known, most offices place a vent at approximately 10'−0" (3000 mm) on center near the ridge, and provide a note to list the coderequired minimum areas. Figure 23-20 shows how ridge vents are represented and specified. Eave vents are not shown on the roof plan, but the size and spacing

FIGURE 2319 A continuous ridge can be used to eliminate the need for standard vents that project from the roof surface. Courtesy CertainTeed.

should be specified in a note. Gable end wall vents are not drawn on the roof plan, but should be specified by note on the roof plan and represented and specified on the exterior elevations. This is covered in more detail in Chapter 25.

Chimneys The method used to represent the chimney depends on the chimney material. Common materials include a metal chimney pipe, metal chimneys surrounded by a wood chase, and masonry chimneys. Common methods of representing chimneys can be seen in Figure 23-20. The Underwriters Laboratory standard UL-103 regulates metal chimney pipes for venting exhaust gases from solid fuel–burning appliances. If a specific manufacturer of the heating device or the chimney is not known, a note specifying the chimney to be “UL-APPROVED CLASS A CHIMNEY PIPE” will usually meet the requirements of the municipality granting the building permit. The metal chimney pipe can be represented by a 14" (350 mm) diameter circle to approximate the actual size of the chimney. The contractor will then install a chimney to meet the requirements of the manufacturer of the fuel burning appliance and the UL minimum requirements.


555

24" TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT

TYP.

13'-0" MASONRY CHIMNEY

CONTINUOUS RIDGE VENT 24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT

SOLAR TUBE BY VELUX OR EQUAL

7'-0"

13'-0"

12" Ø SCREENED RIDGE VENTS

3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT.

24" X 48" CHASE & U.L. APPD METAL CHIMNEY

ROOF PLAN 1/8"

UL APPD. CLASS A METAL CHIMNEY W/ CAP

1'-0"

19'-0"

GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. TRUSS SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C.+/- (1/300 VENT TO ATTIC SPACE ). - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.

FIGURE 2320 Nonstructural materials shown on the roof plan include vents, chimneys, skylights, and solar panels.

If the metal chimney pipe is located in an area where it will be highly visible, a chase framed with wood and covered with material to match the balance of the exterior siding is typically provided. The size of the chase is based on the size of the chimney and aesthetic requirements. Masonry chimneys can range from a minimum of 16" (400 mm) square, up to matching the size used to represent the fireplace on the floor plan. Coordinate the chimney represented on the roof plan with the size of the fireplace on the floor plan, and the size of the chimney represented on the exterior elevations. Chimneys will be further explored in Chapter 40.

Skylights The location of skylights can usually be determined from their location on the floor plan. As seen in Figure 23-21, the opening in the roof for the skylight does not have to align directly with the opening in the ceiling. The skylight is connected to the ceiling by an enclosed area, called a chase or well. By adjusting the angle of the chase, the size and location of the opening in the ceiling for the skylight can be adjusted. When specifying skylights, the size and type should be specified. If the roof is to be framed with trusses,

556


A

B

C FIGURE 2321 By altering the angle of the well (the enclosed space connecting the skylight to the ceiling), the location in the ceiling can be altered. Walls can be framed (A) perpendicular to the ceiling, (B) with one side perpendicular to both the roof and the ceiling, and (C) perpendicular to the roof framing.

the locations should also be given from the outer edge of the gable end wall to the center of the skylight. Dimensions are not required if rafters are used, since they can be cut as needed to locate openings. In addition to traditional skylights, round skylights are available similar to Figure 23-22 that use a reflective, flexible tube to connect the roof opening to the ceiling. To specify a circular solar tube skylight, draw a circle that approximates the required diameter. A specification to describe the solar tube should describe the manufacturer, size, and other possible material specified by the manufacturer. If solar panels are to be represented, the size, angle, and manufacturer should be specified.

Roof Drainage The amount of rainfall determines the need for gutters and downspouts. In semiarid regions, a metal strip called a diverter can be placed on the roof to route runoff on the roof from doorways. The runoff should be diverted to an area of the roof where it can

FIGURE 2322 Solar tube skylights provide diffused light without requiring a straight chase to connect the roof and ceiling surfaces.

drop to the ground and be adequately diverted from the foundation. In wetter regions, gutters should be provided to collect and divert the water collected by the roof. Local codes will specify if the drains must be connected to storm sewers, private drywell, or a splash block. The downspouts that bring the roof runoff to ground level can be represented by approximately a 3" (75 mm) circle or square. Care should be taken to keep downspouts out of major lines of sight. Each downspout can typically drain approximately 20' (6000 mm) of roof on each side of the downspout, allowing the downspouts to be spaced at approximately 40' (12 000 mm) intervals along the eave. This spacing can be seen in Figure 23-23. The distance between downspouts will vary depending on the amount and rate of rainfall and should be verified with local manufacturers. Common methods of showing downspouts can be seen in Figure 23-20. The saddle is a small gable built behind the chimney to divert water away from the chimney, as seen in Figure 23-24. Products that project from the roof such as skylights do not require the use of a saddle. The manufacturer of skylights provides flashing to provide a watertight intersection with the roof.


H

557

H

L

L

H

L

FLASHING

L

H

H L

L

H H

H

L

L

H

SADDLE

FIGURE 2324 A saddle is used to divert water around the chimney.

● H

H L

L

● ●

H

H

FIGURE 2323 The location of gutters and downspouts will be determined by the type of roof and amount of rainfall to be drained. Gutters must be sloped to the downspouts, which should be placed so that no view is blocked.

● ●

Material that should be specified in local notes includes the following: ●

DIMENSIONS The roof plan requires very few dimensions. Typically only the overhangs and openings in the roof are dimensioned. If trusses are to be used to frame the roof, openings in the roof must be located on the roof with modular dimensions. Providing a dimension that extends from the outer edge of an exterior wall, to the center of the opening is the best way to locate roof openings. To properly locate a skylight between trusses would require an odd whole number. Using a dimension such as 21'−0" (6300 mm) will place the center of a skylight between the trusses that are 20' and 22' (6000 and 6600 mm) from the exterior of the structure. Figure 23-25 shows how dimensions are placed on the roof plan.

ANNOTATION As with the other drawings, notes on the roof plan can be divided into general and local notes. General notes might include the following:

Vent notes. Sheathing information. Roof covering. Eave sheathing. Pitch.

● ● ●

Skylight type, size, and material. Chimney caps. Solar panel type and size. Cant strips and saddles.

13'-0"

13'-0"

28'-0"

19'-0"

24" TYP.

24" TYP.

FIGURE 2325 Dimensions should be placed by using leader and extension lines or in a note.

558


STEP 6 STEP 1

STEP 4 STEP 5

STEP 3 STEP 2

FIGURE 2326 The layout of the roof plan should be done using construction lines.

In addition to this annotation, the drafter should also place a title and scale on the drawing.

DRAWING GABLE ROOF PLANS The following instructions are for the roof plan to accompany the residence that was drawn in Chapter 18. The plan will be drawn using a gable roof. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6, which can be seen in Figure 23-26. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate any supports required for covered porches. STEP 3 Locate the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, use 1'−0" (300 mm) overhangs for the gable end walls and 2'−0" (600 mm) overhangs for the eaves. STEP 4 Locate and draw the ridge or ridges. STEP 5 Locate any hips and valleys required by the design. STEP 6 Locate the chimney. STEP 7 Using the line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the outline of the upper roof, and then work down to lower levels. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-27. STEP 1

Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. Each of these steps can be seen in Figure 23-28. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plans. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm)

FIGURE 2327 Drawing the roof plan using finished quality lines.

round vents will be used. Draw the required vents on a surface of the roof that will make the vents least visible. STEP 10 Draw the saddle by the chimney if a masonry chimney or wood chase was used. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw the downspouts if required. STEP 13 Add dimensions for the overhangs and skylights. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-29. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness, and make any minor revisions required before giving your drawing to your instructor.

1'-0" TYP.

STEP 10

STEP 9 6'-0"

19'-0"

STEP 13

STEP 8

2'-0" TYP.

STEP 8 STEP 11

STEP 12

FIGURE 2328 Drawing the nonstructural material.


1'-0" TYP.

559

TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT

STEP 6 STEP 1

LINE OF MASONRY CHIMNEY. FLASH W/ 26 GA. METAL FLASHING

24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT

STEP 4 6'-0"

19'-0" 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT

STEP 5

SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT.

2'-0" TYP.

ROOF PLAN

1/8"

1'-0"

GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. (1/300 VENT TO ATTIC SPACE ). - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.

FIGURE 2329 The size of the overhangs and the location of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned. The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.

DRAWING HIP ROOF PLANS A hip roof can be drawn by completing the following steps. Although drawing roof plans may prove frustrating, remember that lines will always be vertical, horizontal, or at a 45° angle. Another helpful hint for drawing a hip roof is to remember that three lines are always required to represent an intersection of hips, valleys, and ridges. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Each step can be seen in Figure 23-30. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate all supports required for any covered porches. STEP 3 Draw the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, assume 24" (600 mm) overhangs. STEP 4 Locate all hips and valleys. STEP 5 Locate all ridges. STEP 6 Locate the chimney if required. STEP 7 Using the line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the upper roof, and then work down to lower roof levels. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-31. STEP 1

STEP 5

12"Ø SCREENED RIDGE VENTS

STEP 3 STEP 2

FIGURE 2330 Layout of a hip roof with construction lines.

Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. When these steps are complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-32. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plan. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic, and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm) round vents at 10'−0" (3000 mm) O.C. will be used. STEP 10 Draw a saddle for any chimneys. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw downspouts. STEP 13 Provide dimensions to locate any roof openings and all overhangs. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-33. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness, and make any minor revisions required before giving your drawing to your instructor. STEP 8

FIGURE 2331 A hip roof plan drawn with finished line quality.

560


2'-0" TYP. STEP 10

STEP 6 STEP 1

STEP 9 STEP 5

STEP 8 6'-0"

19'-0"

STEP 5

STEP 4

STEP 13 STEP 3 STEP 2 2'-0" TYP.

STEP 11 STEP 12

FIGURE 2332 All openings in the roof, such as the chimney, skylights, and materials to be mounted on the roof, should be identified. The overhangs and the location of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned.

DRAWING DUTCH HIP ROOF PLANS A Dutch hip roof can be drawn by completing the following steps. Use construction lines for Step 1 through Step 6. Each step can be seen in Figure 23-34. Use the dimensions on the floor plan to determine all sizes. Locate the perimeter walls. STEP 2 Locate supports required for any covered porches. STEP 1


2'-0" TYP.

TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT

24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT 6'-0"

19'-0"

2'-0" TYP.

ROOF

1/8"

PLAN

1'-0"

FIGURE 2334 The layout of a Dutch hip roof plan should be done with construction lines.

Locate the limits of the overhangs. Unless your instructor provides different instructions, assume 24" (600 mm) overhangs for eaves and 12" (300 mm) at gable end walls. STEP 4 Locate and draw all hips, valleys, and Dutch hip locations. Hips and valleys are located by using methods used to draw a hip roof. The location of a Dutch hip is determined by the framing method. Chapter 30 will explain framing considerations that can affect the location of the Dutch hip gable end walls. STEP 5 Locate and draw all ridges. STEP 6 Locate the chimney if required. STEP 7 Using line quality described in this chapter, draw the materials of Step 1 through Step 6. Draw the upper roof, and then work down to lower roof levels. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-35. STEP 3

12" SCREENED RIDGE VENTS

3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT. GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.

FIGURE 2333 The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.

FIGURE 2335 A Dutch hip roof plan drawn with finished line quality.


561

2'-0" TYP.

6'-0" TYP.

1'-0" TYP.

2'-0" TYP.


TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT 1'-0" TYP.

6'-0" TYP.

STEP 10 24" X 36" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC OPENABLE SKYLIGHT

STEP 9 19'-0"

6'-0"

STEP 8 19'-0"

6'-0" 24" X 24" DBL. DOMED PLASTIC SKYLIGHT

STEP 13

STEP 11

2'-0" TYP.

STEP 12

FIGURE 2336 All openings in the roof, such as the chimney, skylights, and materials to be mounted on the roof, should be identified. The overhangs and the locations of all openings in the roof should be dimensioned.

Use the line quality described in this chapter to draw Step 8 through Step 13. When complete, your drawing should resemble Figure 23-36. Draw any skylights that are specified on the floor plan. STEP 9 Calculate the area of the attic and determine the required number of vents. Assume that 12" (300 mm) round vents at 10'−0" O.C. will be used. STEP 10 Draw a saddle for any chimneys. STEP 11 Draw solar panels if required. STEP 12 Draw downspouts. STEP 8

2'-0" TYP.

ROOF

1/8"

PLAN

1'-0"

3- 24" X 76" SOLAR PANELS SUPPLIED BY OWNER INSTALLED BY PLUMBING CONT. GENERAL NOTES: - PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS @ EA. 3RD. JOIST SPACE @ ALL ATTIC EAVES. - PROVIDE SCREENED ROOF VENTS @ 10'-0" O.C. - USE 1/2" CCX PLY @ ALL EXPOSED EAVES. - USE 300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT.

FIGURE 2337 The roof plan is completed by adding the required local and general notes to specify all roofing materials.

Provide dimensions to locate any roof openings and all overhangs. STEP 14 Label all materials using local and general notes, a title, and a scale. Your drawing should now resemble Figure 23-37. STEP 15 Evaluate your drawing for completeness and make any minor revisions required before giving it to your instructor. STEP 13

CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Roof Plans with CADD A roof plan can be drawn using a CADD program following procedures similar to those used for a manual drawing. The drawing can be created in the file containing the floor plan. Start by freezing all floor plan material except the exterior walls, fireplace, and skylights. Create layers to contain the roof plan using the ROOF prefix. Layer names such as ROOF WALL, ROOF LINE, ROOF OUTL, ROOF ANNO, ROOF DIMN, or layer names based on the NCS should be used to keep the roof information separate from the floor plan information and to ease

plotting. Draw the outline of the residence on the ROOF WALL layer by tracing the outline of the walls on the floor plan, and then freeze the walls of the floor plan. The plan can now be completed using the appropriate step-by-step process for the required roof type. Using the OFFSET command, the lines that represent the walls can be placed to represent the roof outline. Once in the proper position, the PROPERTIES command can be used to assign the lines to the appropriate layer, and to assign the required line weight and line type. Figure 23-38 is an example of a roof plan drawn by CADD. When the roof

562


CADD APPLICATIONS plan is completed, a copy can be saved as a BLOCK with a title ROOF. This drawing eventually can be inserted into and plotted with the drawing file that will contain

the elevations. To ease development of the elevations of a structure, a copy of the roof plan is usually left as an overlay of the FLOOR drawing file. ■

NAIL FIRST SHEET OF ROOF SHEATHING ALONG BACK WALL W/ 8d @ 4" O.C. AT EDGE AND BLOCKING AND 8" O.C. @ FIELD FOR ENTIRE WALL

8'-0" PLATE

TYPICAL DOWNSPOUT DO NOT CONNECT TO FOUNDATION DRAINS 2 X 12 RAFT. / C.J. SEE FRAMING PLANS FOR SPACING INSULATE W/ 10| BATTS R-38 8'-0" PLATE 8'-0" PLATE SCREENED RIDGE VENTS @ EA. 3rd RAFTER SPACE AT VAULTED CEILINGS. NOTCH RAFTERS ABOVE INSULATION FOR AIR FLOW.

8'-0" PLATE USE A-34 ANCHORS S AT EACH RAFTER TAIL TO RIDGE D BEAMS AT ALL RIDGES

INSULATE FLAT CEILINGS W/ 12" BATTS R-38

OPEN SPACE BTWN. BMS @ COURTYARD

8'-0" PLATE

ROOF 1/8"

PLAN

1'-0"

6'-8" PLATE

BEAMS @ 32" O.C. @ ENTRY PROVIDE AN ALT. BID FOR 1 X 6 T & G ROOF DECKING AT EXPOSED EAVES AT ENTRY AND COURTYARD

1. ROOFING TO BE CONC. CLASSIC '100 ROOF TILES BY MONIER OR EQUAL INSTALLED AS PER MANUF. SPECS 2. 1/2" STD GRADE PLY. 32/16 SHEATHING LAID PERP. TO RAFT. NAIL W/ 8d @ 6" O.C.AT EDGES AND 12" O.C. @ FIELD 3. PROVIDE SCREENED VENTS AT EACH 3rd JOIST SPACE SPACE @ ALL ATTIC SPACES. PROVIDE (3) 1" DIA. SCREENED VENTS AT EACH VAULTED EAVE SPACE.

2'-0" TYP.

4. PROVIDE SCREENED RIDGE VENTS @ 10' O.C. +/-. PROVIDE 1 EA. 3rd SPACE AT VAULTED CEILINGS.

8'-0" PLATE

1'-0" TYP.

FIGURE 2338 A roof plan drawn using a computer program such as AutoCAD could be completed using similar steps required to draw a plan manually. If the drawing is completed using a program such as AutoCAD Revit or AutoCAD Architecture, the roof plan can be created from information provided as the floor plan was created.


563

ROOF PLAN CHECKLIST

Annotation

Drawing Setup

❑ Specify post, and metal caps. ❑ Specify exterior header sizes provided by your instructor or based on the information provided in Chapter 18 and Chapter 30. ❑ Specify all openings, giving the size and location. ❑ Reference all downspouts. ❑ For ridge vents, provide 1 sq ft per 300 sq ft of attic. ❑ Make general notes per examples in this chapter. ❑ Label the plate heights if different from 8'−0". ❑ Provide a title and scale.

❑ Establish line scales and line weights fit for plotting at 1/8" = 1'−0". ❑ Use an architectural font for all text.

Drawings ❑ Represent the outline of the structure with thin, dashed lines. ❑ Show all exterior support posts and exterior headers. ❑ Show roof shapes including the ridge, valleys, and hips using bold continuous lines. ❑ Show all roof openings—chimney, skylights, and saddles—as necessary. ❑ Show downspouts. ❑ Show all ridge vents.

Roof Plan Layout Test

Dimensions ❑ Locate skylights from the edge of the wall to the center. ❑ Dimension each overhang size.


PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Using a print of your floor plan drawn for problems from Chapter 18, use a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" to draw a roof plan for your house. Design a roof system appropriate for your area. Sketch the layout you will use and have it approved by your instructor prior to starting your drawing.

2. Place the plan on the same sheet as the elevations if possible. If a new sheet is required, place the drawing so that other drawings can be put on the same sheet. 3. Use the information in the roof plan checklist to complete your drawing. 4. When you have completed your drawing, turn in a copy to your instructor for evaluation.



SECTION 7

Elevations


CHAPTER 24

Introduction to Elevations I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

Elevations are an essential part of the design and drawing process. The elevations are a group of drawings that show the exterior of a building. To communicate clearly, the drafter will need to carefully plan the number, type, and scale to be used to complete the drawings. Skill will also be needed to accurately represent materials without spending unnecessary drawing time.

MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS OF DRAWING ELEVATIONS Elevations were introduced in Chapter 5 as you explored methods of creating multiview sketches. An elevation is an orthographic drawing that shows one side of a building. In true orthographic projection, the elevations would be displayed as shown in Figure 24-1A. To ease viewing, the true projection is typically modified as shown in Figure 24-1B. No matter how they are displayed, it is important to realize that between each elevation projection and the plan view is an imaginary 90° fold line. An imaginary 90° fold line also exists between elevations in Figure 24-1B. Elevations are drawn to show exterior shapes and finishes, as well as the vertical relationships of the building levels. By using the elevations, sections, and floor plans, the exterior shape of a building can be determined. To develop exterior elevations that will be of value in the construction industry, five major areas must be considered, including: 1. The required number of elevations. 2. The type of elevations to be drawn. 3. The scale of the elevations. 4. Where the elevations will be placed. 5. How the elevations will be identified.

The information from these five points will then affect how materials are represented in the elevations.

Required Elevations Building departments typically require an elevation to be drawn of each side of the structure in order to obtain a building permit; four elevations will be required to show the features of most homes. On a very simple rectangular residence, if both ends of the structure are the same, only three elevations will be needed (see Figure 24-2). When drawing a building with an irregular shape, parts of the house may be hidden. An elevation of each surface should be drawn as shown in Figure 24-3. If a building has walls that are not at 90° to each other, a true orthographic drawing could be very confusing. In the orthographic projection, part of the elevation will be distorted, as can be seen in Figure 24-4. Elevations of this type of building are usually expanded so that a separate elevation of each face is drawn. Figure 24-5 shows the layout for a residence with an irregular shape.

Types of Elevations Elevations can be drawn as either presentation drawings or working drawings. Each type of drawing is created to display different information for different groups involved in the construction process.

Presentation Elevations Presentation drawings were introduced in Chapter 1 and will be covered in-depth in Chapter 41. These drawings are part of the initial design process and may range from sketches to very detailed drawings intended to help the owner and lending institution understand the basic design concepts (see Figure 24-6A). Because the front elevation is drawn as part of the preliminary design process, it is often drawn using rendering methods. Common elements that can be added to a rendered elevation include shade, landscaping, people, and automobiles. Each of these items can be added to a drawing using sketching 567

568


PLAN PLAN

90° FOLD LINE

LINE

90° FOLD

LEFT SIDE

FRONT

RIGHT SIDE

REAR

PLAN

90° FOLD LINE

FRONT

90° FOLD LINE

PLAN

PLAN

A

B

RIGHT SIDE

REAR

LINE

90° FOLD

90° FOLD LINE

LEFT SIDE

FIGURE 241 (A) Elevations are orthographic projections showing each side of a structure. (B) The placement of elevations is usually altered to ease viewing. Group elevations so that a 90° rotation exists between views.

techniques, rub-ons, or drawing blocks developed by third-party vendors. Text and dimensions are kept to a minimum. Enough information must be provided to explain the project, but complete annotation is not provided until the working drawings are started.

FRONT

Working Elevations Working elevations are part of the drawings used in the construction process to provide information for the building team and the municipality that will oversee the project. These drawings include information on roofing,

SIDES

REAR

FIGURE 242 Elevations are used to show the exterior shape and material of a building. For a simple structure, only three views are required.

Chapter 24: Introduction to Elevations

569

PLAN

FRONT

RIGHT SIDE

RIGHT COURTYARD

REAR

LEFT SIDE

LEFT COURTYARD

FIGURE 243 Plans of irregular shapes often require an elevation of each surface.

siding, openings, chimneys, land shape, and sometimes even the depth of footings, as shown in Figure 24-6B. In addition to describing the exterior materials, the elevations provide information regarding vertical relationship of materials that are represented on the floor plan. The elevations also provide the information for

DISTORTED

TRUE PROJECTION

the contractor to determine surface areas. Once surface areas are known, exact quantities of materials can be determined. The elevations are also necessary in calculating heat loss, as described in Chapter 21. The elevations are used to determine the surface area of walls and wall openings for the required heat loss formulas.

TRUE PROJECTION

DISTORTED

FIGURE 244 Using true orthographic projection methods with a plan with irregular shapes will result in a distortion of part of the view.

570


3

4 5

6

2

1

2

1

3

5

4

6

FIGURE 245 A common practice when drawing an irregular-shaped structure is to draw an elevation of each surface. Each elevation is then given a reference number to tie the elevation to the floor plan.

MEDIUM CEDAR SHAKES

1 x 8 FASCIA HARDIPLANK SIDING OVER TYVEK

BRICK VENEER

FIGURE 246A A presentation elevation is a highly detailed drawing used to show the exterior shapes and material to be used. Shades, shadows, and landscaping are usually added to enhance the drawing.


571

235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS.

1 X 8 R. S. FASCIA VINYL SHUTTERS

LINE OF FINISH CEILING

8'-0"

1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM

8'-0"

LINE OF FINISH FLOOR LP HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" WAFERBOARD LINE OF FINISH FLOOR BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.

FRONT

1/4"

1'-0"

4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY FROM STRUCTURE.

ELEVATION

FIGURE 246B Working elevations contain less finish detail but still show the shape of a structure accurately.

and will generally show just enough material to represent the material to be applied. Figure 24-7 shows the elevations for the home started in Chapter 18.

Drawing Method If the elevations are completed manually, the preliminary drawings will serve as a guide as the working drawings are projected from the roof and floor plans. When drawn using a computer, the preliminary elevation can serve as a base drawing. The layers containing the artistic material can be frozen to provide better clarity to the building team. No matter the method, additional information should be added to each note to clearly explain the application of each material. Because the front elevation is drawn to please the owner during the preliminary process, the elevation will generally show all materials. The working elevations are drawn to communicate with the building team

Elevation Scales

24" MIN.

Elevations are typically drawn at the same scale as the floor plan. For most homes, this means using a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50). This allows the elevations to be projected directly from the floor plans. Some floor plans for multifamily and commercial projects may be laid out at a scale of 1/16" = 1'−0" (1:200) or even as small as 1/32" = 1'−0" (1:400). Depending on the complexity of the project or the amount of space on a page, some professionals

235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT 3

2 X 8 BARGE RAFTER

12

1x3 R.S. TRIM 5/8" T1-11 PLY SIDING OVER 15# FELT

SIDE

REAR 1/8"

SIDE

1'-0"

FIGURE 247 The working elevations for the home started in Chapter 18 were created for plotting at a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0".

572


REAR

FRONT

LEFT SIDE

REAR

RIGHT SIDE

LEFT SIDE

RIGHT SIDE

FIGURE 248 A common method of elevation layout is to place a side elevation beside both the front and the rear elevations. This allows for heights to be transferred directly from one view to the other. FRONT

draw the front elevation using a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50) to create the front elevation and a smaller scale to create the remaining elevations. When a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" (1:100) or less is used, generally very little detail appears in the drawings, as in Figure 24-7.

Elevation Placement It is usually the drafter’s responsibility to plan the layout for drawing the elevations. The layout will depend on the scale to be used, size of drawing sheet, and number of drawings required. Because of size limitations, the elevations are not usually laid out in the true orthographic projection of front, side, rear, side. A common layout method for four elevations can be seen in Figure 24-8. This layout places a side elevation by both the front and rear elevations so that true vertical heights may be projected from one view to another. If the drawing paper is not long enough for this placement, the layout shown in Figure 24-9 may be used. This arrangement is often used when the elevations are placed next to the floor plan to conserve space. A drawback of this layout is that the heights established on the side elevations cannot be quickly transferred. A print of one elevation will have to be taped next to the location of the new elevation so that heights can be transferred.

Identifying Elevations Three common methods for naming the elevations are typically used by professionals. The method that is used will depend on the client, and whether the elevations are being developed for a specific site. Common methods include: ●

Titles such as FRONT, SIDE, REAR, and SIDE are generally used below each elevation if the drawings

FIGURE 249 An alternative elevation arrangement is to place the two shortest elevations side by side.

are developed for general use when a specific site is not known. ●

If a specific site is known, the elevations can be named for their relationship to the north arrow on the floor plan. If the front wall of the floor plan faces south, instead of being labeled FRONT ELEVATION, this elevation would be labeled SOUTH ELEVATION. The remaining elevations would then be named EAST, NORTH, and WEST.

●

Irregular-shaped homes are often numbered rather than labeled. A number symbol is typically placed on the floor plan to identify each elevation plane, and the corresponding number is placed below the elevation. Figure 24-5 shows examples of elevation number symbols for the floor and elevations. A small, nonscaled floor plan is often placed on the sheet containing the elevations to aid in referencing the elevation to the structure.

REPRESENTING MATERIALS IN ELEVATION The materials that are used to protect the building from the weather need to be shown on the elevations. This information will be considered in four categories: roofing, wall coverings, doors, and windows. Additional considerations are rails, shutters, eave vents, and chimneys. The following portion of the chapter will introduce manual methods of representing each material, followed by a discussion of how to represent the materials using a computer.


573

DRAWING ASPHALT SHINGLES

FIGURE 2410 Drawing asphalt shingles manually. FIGURE 2412 Wood shakes and shingles have much more texture than asphalt shingles.

Roofing Materials Several common materials are used to protect the roof. Among the most frequently used materials are asphalt shingles, wood shakes and shingles, clay and concrete tiles, metal sheets, and built-up roofing materials, which were introduced in Chapter 23. In order to draw these materials in a realistic style, the architectural drafter needs to have an idea of what each material looks like. It is also important to remember that the elevations are meant for the framing and roofing crews. Their jobs will not be made easier by seeing every shingle drawn or other techniques that are used on presentation drawings and renderings. The elevations need to have materials represented clearly and quickly.

Shingles

Wood Shakes and Shingles Figure 24-12 shows a roof protected with wood shakes. Other materials such as Masonite are used to simulate wood shakes. Shakes and Masonite create a jagged surface at the ridge and the edge. These types of materials are often represented as shown in Figure 24-13. When placed using AutoCAD, use the AR-RROOF hatch pattern to represent shingles. Use a thick line about 2° less than the angle used to represent the barge rafter to represent the edge of the shingles on gable end walls. Lines representing shingles will resemble Figure 24-14.

ROUGH EDGE

Asphalt shingles are typically drawn using the method seen in Figure 24-10. Notice that the line weights and lengths vary. Lines can be placed by using a back-andforth method with varied pressure. When placed using AutoCAD, use the AR-RROOF hatch pattern to represent shingles. Use a scale that places the lines in the pattern about 1/16" to 1/8" (1.5 to 3 mm) apart. The resulting pattern will resemble Figure 24-11.

FIGURE 2413 Drawing wood shakes and shingles manually.

FIGURE 2411 The AR-RROOF hatch pattern of AutoCAD can be used to represent composition shingles.

FIGURE 2414 Shakes and shingles can be represented using AR-RROOF. Notice that an inclined line is added to the eave and to the ridge to represent the contour of the roofing material.

DRAW WOOD SHAKES SIMILAR TO SHINGLES

574


FIGURE 2415 Flat tiles are used in many parts of the country because of their low maintenance, durability, and resistance to the forces of nature. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.

Tile Concrete, clay, or a lightweight simulated tile material presents a very rugged surface at the ridge and edge, as well as many shadows throughout the roof. Figure 24-15 shows flat tiles. This type of tile is usually drawn in a manner similar to Figure 24-16A and Figure 24-16B. Figure 24-17 shows a roof with Spanish tile. This type of tile is often drawn as shown in Figure 24-18A and Figure 24-18B. Rub-on films are available for some types of tile roofs. When created using AutoCAD, tile can be drawn using drawing blocks. If blocks are not available from third-party vendors, create a block to represent a small area of the tiles. The block can then be inserted to fill the desired area. Flat tiles can be drawn as shown in Figure 24-16B. Spanish tiles can be represented as shown in Figure 24-18B.

FIGURE 2417 Curved or Spanish tiles are a traditional roofing material of Spanish and Mediterranean style homes. Courtesy Jordan Jefferis.

Built-Up Roofs Because of the low pitch and the lack of surface texture, built-up roofs are usually outlined and left blank on drawings. Occasionally a built-up roof will be covered with rock 2" or 3" (50 or 75 mm) in diameter. The drawing technique for this roof can be seen in Figure 24-19.

Skylights Skylights may be made of either flat glass or domed plastic. Although they come in a variety of shapes and

B B FIGURE 2416 (A) Flat tiles are drawn manually using methods similar to drawing shakes. (B) Representing tile using CADD may require a hatch pattern to be created.

FIGURE 2418 (A) Drawing curved or Spanish tiles manually. (B) Representing curved or Spanish tiles using CADD.


A BUILT-UP ROOF MAY BE DRAWN WITH A PATTERN OF DOTS TO REPRESENT THE GRAVEL

575

BUILT-UP ROOFS ARE OFTEN LEFT BLANK

A DOUBLE-DOMED SKYLIGHT SHOULD HAVE A SLIGHTLY CURVED SURFACE TO REFLECT THE CURVED PLASTIC. SPECIFY SIZE AND MANUFACTURER.

OR

FIGURE 2419 Drawing built-up roofs.

FRONT

SIDE

DOUBLE-DOMED SKYLIGHT THE FLAT-GLASS SKYLIGHT CAN BE DRAWN AS A RECTANGLE. SPECIFY SIZE AND MANUFACTURER.

styles, skylights usually resemble the model shown in Figure 24-20. Depending on the pitch of the roof, skylights may or may not be drawn. On very lowpitched roofs, a skylight may be unrecognizable. On roofs over 3/12 pitch, the shape of the skylight can usually be drawn without creating confusion. Unless the roof is very steep, a rectangular skylight will appear almost square. The flatter the roof, the more distortion there will be in the size of the skylight. Figure 24-21 shows common methods of drawing flat-glass and domed skylights.

FRONT

SIDE

FLAT-GLASS SKYLIGHT FIGURE 2421 Representing domed and flat-glass skylights on elevations.

Wall Coverings Exterior wall coverings are usually made of wood, wood substitutes, masonry, metal, plaster, or stucco. Each has its own distinctive look in elevation.

Wood

FIGURE 2420 Double-domed plastic skylights are a common feature of many roofs. Courtesy Duralite.

Wood siding can be installed in large sheets or in individual pieces. Plywood sheets are a popular wood siding because of their cost and ease of installation. Individual pieces of wood provide an attractive finish but usually cost more than plywood. This higher cost results from differences in material and the labor to install each individual piece. Plywood siding can have many textures, finishes, and patterns. Textures and finishes are not shown on the elevations but may be specified in a general note. Patterns in the plywood are usually shown. The most common patterns in plywood are T1–11 (Figure 24-22), board and batten (Figure 24-23), and plain or roughcut plywood. Figure 24-24 shows methods for drawing each type of wood siding.

576


FIGURE 2422 T1–11 plywood is a common siding. Courtesy Ryan McFadden.

FIGURE 2423 Board and batten siding is used to highlight the horizontal siding of this home.

T1-11 CAN BE DRAWN WITH LINES PLACED AT ABOUT 8" APART.

T1-11 PLYWOOD

FIGURE 2425 Vertical siding is a common natural material for protecting a structure from the elements. Designed by Architects Knudson-Williams. Photo by T. S. Gordon. Courtesy California Redwood Association.

Lumber siding comes in several types and can be laid in many patterns. Common lumber for siding is cedar, redwood, pine, fir, spruce, and hemlock. Common styles of lumber siding are tongue and groove, bevel, and channel. Various types of wood siding can be seen in Figure 24-25, Figure 24-26, and Figure 24-27. Figure 24-28 shows common shapes of wood siding. Each of these materials can be installed in a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal position. The material and type of siding must be specified in a general note on the elevations. The pattern in which the siding is to be installed must be shown on the elevations in a manner similar to Figure 24-29. The type of siding and the position in which it is laid will affect how the siding appears

BATT-ON-BOARD MAY BE DRAWN WITH PAIRS OF PARALLEL LINES ABOUT 8" TO 12" APART.

BATT-ON-BOARD

FIGURE 2424 Drawing plywood siding in elevation.

WHEN R.C. PLY IS USED, NO SURFACE MATERIAL IS SHOWN.

ROUGH-CUT (R.C.) PLYWOOD


FIGURE 2426 Beveled redwood siding is used on this home to create a pleasing blend of the home with the site. Designed and built by Cramer-Weir Co. Photo by Saari & Forrai Photography. Courtesy California Redwood Association.

at a corner. Figure 24-30 shows two common methods of corner treatment. Wood shingles similar to Figure 24-31 can either be installed individually or in panels. Shingles are often drawn as shown in Figure 24-32.

Wood Substitutes Hardboard, fiber cement, aluminum, and vinyl siding can be produced to resemble lumber siding. Figure 24-33 shows a home finished with hardboard siding. Hardboard siding is generally installed in large sheets similar to plywood but often has more detail than plywood or lumber siding. It is drawn using the methods similar to those used for drawing lumber siding. Each of the major national wood distributors has also developed siding products made from wood by-products that resemble individual pieces of beveled siding. Strands of wood created during the milling process are saturated with a water-resistant resin binder and compressed under extreme heat and pressure. The exterior surface typically has an embossed finish to resemble the natural surface of cedar. Most engineered lap sidings

577

FIGURE 2427 Finger-jointed redwood siding is used to create the lower walls of this project by William Zimmerman, architect. Photo by Wayne LeNouve. Courtesy California Redwood Association.

are primed to provide protection from moisture prior to installation. Fiber cement siding products are a common wood substitute because of their cost and durability. Engineered to be resistant to moisture, cold, insects, salt, air, and fire, fiber cement products such as DuraPress by ABTco and Hardiplank by James Hardie are being used in many areas of the country as an alternative to wood and plaster products. Available in widths of 6 1/2", 7 1/2", and 9 1/2" (165, 190, and 240 mm) or 4' × 8' (1200 × 2438 mm) sheets, fiber cement products can reproduce smooth or textured wood patterns as well as cedar plywood panels and stucco. Products are installed similar to their wood counterparts and typically offer a 50-year warranty. Figure 24-34 shows an example of fiber cement bevel siding. Aluminum and vinyl sidings also resemble lumber siding in appearance, as shown in Figure 24-35. Aluminum and vinyl sidings are drawn similar to their lumber counterpart.

578


NO CORNER TRIM, SO SIDING ANGLE MUST BE SHOWN


A

B

C

D

E

OR

NOTICE THAT THE SIDING IS SHOWN OVERHANGING THE FOUNDATION

FIGURE 2430 Common methods of corner treatment to be shown on elevations.

Masonry Masonry finishes may be made of brick, concrete block, or stone. H

G

F

FIGURE 2428 Common types of siding: (A) bevel; (B) rabbeted; (C) tongue and groove; (D) channel shiplap; (E) V shiplap; (F, G, H) these types can have a variety of appearances, depending on the width of the boards and battens being used.

Brick. Brick is used on many homes because of its beauty and durability. Bricks come in a variety of sizes, patterns, and textures. When drawing elevations, the drafter must represent the pattern of the bricks on the drawing and the material and texture in the written specifications. A common method for drawing bricks is shown in Figure 24-36. Although bricks are not usually

VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL LAP

DIAGONAL

VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL LAP

DIAGONAL

A

B

FIGURE 2429 The type of siding and the position in which it is to be installed must be shown on the elevations. (A) Representing siding using manual drawing. (B) Representing siding using CADD.


579

FIGURE 2431 Shingles are often used as a siding material to provide a casual or rustic finish. Courtesy ABTco, Inc.

FIGURE 2433 Hardboard can be used as a siding material if precautions are taken to protect against moisture.

drawn exactly to scale, the proportions of the brick must be maintained. When masonry is drawn using AutoCAD, it can typically be placed using a hatch pattern. In a pattern similar to Figure 24-36, the horizontal brick could be drawn using the BRICK hatch pattern. The BRSTONE pattern can also be used. Notice that two rows of decorative brick have been added to add interest to the wall. These vertical bricks were drawn using the LINE and ARRAY command.

concrete block used to form aboveground walls. A drafter must show the size and pattern of the block to be used on the elevation. If a block with texture is to be used, the texture can be specified in a local or general note. Figure 24-38 shows how concrete blocks can be represented.

Concrete Blocks. Concrete block is often used as a weather-resistant material for above- and belowgrade construction. Figure 24-37 shows two types of

DRAW SOME OF THE SHINGLES AS SINGLE LINES AND SOME AS DOUBLE WIDTH. DRAW THE HORIZONTAL LINES WITH A VARIED WIDTH.

FIGURE 2432 The AR-RSHKE hatch pattern can be used to represent shingle siding.

FIGURE 2434 Fiber cement siding provides excellent protection from moisture, insects, and other natural elements. Courtesy ABTco, Inc.

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FIGURE 2435 Vinyl and aluminum sidings are manufactured to resemble their wood counterparts. Photo supplied by Kaycan Ltd., http://www.kaycan.com.

When drawn using AutoCAD, standard blocks should be represented with the AR-816 hatch pattern. If the AR-816C pattern is used, the grout lines between the blocks are represented. Stone. Stone is often used to provide a charming, traditional style that is extremely weather resistant. Figure 24-39 shows an example of stone used to accent a home. Stone finishes also come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, and are laid in a variety of patterns, as shown in Figure 24-40. When drawn in elevation, both artificial stone and natural stone appear the same. When drawing stone surfaces in elevation, the drafter must be careful to represent the irregular shape, as in

FIGURE 2436 Representing brick in elevation.

FIGURE 2437 Concrete block is used in many areas to provide a long-lasting, energy-efficient building material.

FIGURE 2438 Representing 8 × 8 × 16" concrete blocks in elevation.

FIGURE 2439 Stone is used on many traditional home styles.


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FIGURE 2442 Stucco, plaster, and EIFS can be installed in many different patterns and colors to provide a durable finish. Photo courtesy Dryvit Systems, Inc.

uses a method similar to drawing lumber siding and is distinguished from wood siding by annotation.

Plaster or Stucco FIGURE 2440 Stone is used in a variety of shapes and patterns. Courtesy Stucco Stone Products, Inc., Napa.

Figure 24-41. When drawn using AutoCAD, rounded stone can be represented using the GRAVEL pattern.

Metal Although primarily a roofing material, metal can be used as an attractive wall covering. Drawing metal in elevation

Plaster and stucco can be found throughout the country on many different home styles (see Figure 24-42). Similar in appearance to stucco and plaster are exterior insulation and finish systems (EIFS) such as Dryvit. Typically a rigid insulation board is used as a base for a fiberglass-reinforced base coat. A weather-resistant colored finish coat is then applied by trowel to seal the structure. Shapes made out of insulation board can be added wherever three-dimensional details are desired. Applied in many different patterns, stucco, plaster, and EIFS are typically drawn as shown in Figure 24-43. When drawn using AutoCAD, the AR-SAND hatch pattern can be used to represent stucco, plaster, or EIFS.

Doors

STONE

ROCK

FIGURE 2441 Representing stone surfaces in elevation.

Doors should be drawn to resemble the type of door specified in the door schedule. The drafter should be careful not to try to reproduce an exact likeness of a door. This is especially true of entry doors and garage doors. Typically these doors have a decorative pattern on them. It is important to show this pattern, but do not spend time trying to reproduce the exact pattern. Because the door is manufactured, the drafter is wasting time on details that add

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STEP 1

STEP 2

STEP 3

FIGURE 2444 Layout steps for drawing a raised-panel door.

FIGURE 2443 Representing stucco, plaster, and EIFS in elevation.

nothing to the plan. Figure 24-44 shows the layout of a raised-panel door, and Figure 24-45 shows how other common types of doors can be represented. When created in AutoCAD, doors should be drawn using the steps described in Figure 24-44. When the drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block for future insertion. Place the drawing in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. An insertion point will need to be

specified as a block is created. The midpoint of the sill will prove to be an excellent insertion point. The doors from Figure 24-45 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.

Windows The same precautions about drawing needless details for doors should be heeded when drawing windows. Care must be given to the frame material. Wooden frames are wider than metal frames. When the elevations are started in the preliminary stages of design, the drafter may not know what type

FIGURE 2445 Common doors represented in elevation.


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SINGLE HUNG

CASEMENT

STEP 1: OUTLINE

SLIDING STEP 2: DARKEN

FIXED / AWNING

AWNING

STEP 3: SHADE

FIGURE 2446 Layout steps for a sliding window.

PICTURE / SLIDING

of frames will be used. In this case, the drafter should draw the windows most typically used for the area. Figure 24-46 shows the layout steps for vinyl and aluminum sliding windows. Figure 24-47 shows how other common types of windows can be drawn. When windows are drawn using AutoCAD, they can be drawn using the steps described in Figure 24-46. When creating your own blocks, assign a width of 1. With a width of 1, an X factor representing the desired width can be assigned as the block is inserted into the elevation. An insertion point will need to be specified as a block before the block is saved. The midpoint of the top of the window will prove to be an excellent insertion point. When the drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The windows from Figure 24-47 can be found on

FIGURE 2447 Representing common window shapes on elevations.

the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.

Rails Rails can be solid to match the wall material or open. Open rails are typically made of wood or wrought iron. Vertical rails are required to be no more than 4" (100 mm) clear. Vertical wood rails are often made from decorative spindles or 2" × 2" (50 × 50 mm) material and can be drawn as shown in Figure 24-48. Although it is not necessary to measure

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2 X 6 SMOOTH RAIL 2 X 2 VERT. @ 4" O.C. MAX. CLEAR

W.I. RAILING

A

FIGURE 2448 Common types of railings.

the location of each vertical, care must be taken to space the rails evenly. The entire railing should be represented on the front elevation. On the remaining elevations, only a portion of a rail may be drawn as shown in Figure 24-49, with a single line used to represent the limits of the rail. More decorative railings similar to Figure 24-50 may be required to match a specific historic style.

1 1/2"Ø STEEL RAILING W/ 6" MAX. CLEAR LINE OF RAILING OMITTED FOR CLARITY

38" HIGH X 18" LONG WOOD WALL W/ SIDING TO MATCH RESIDENCE

1 X 4 CORNER TRIM

FIGURE 2449 Railings can often be omitted to allow materials that lie beyond the rail to be seen.

B

FIGURE 2450 Balusters and handrails are required for many home styles. To draw these using AutoCAD, (A) First draw one side of the baluster, (B) Then duplicate it using the MIRROR command to draw the other side.

When railings are drawn using AutoCAD, the verticals can be placed using the ARRAY or COPY commands. To draw vertical spindles similar to Figure 24-50, first draw one side of the baluster and then duplicate it using the MIRROR command to draw the other side. The COPY or ARRAY commands can then be used to place the verticals along the rail as seen in Figure 24-51. When a section of the rail drawing is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The rail from Figure 24-50 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.

Shutters Shutters are sometimes used as part of the exterior design and must be shown on the elevations. Figure 24-52 shows a typical shutter and how it could be drawn. Although the spacing should be uniform, the drafter should try to lay out the shutter by eye rather than measure each louver. When drawn using AutoCAD, the individual slats of the shutter can be placed using the COPY or ARRAY commands. Spacing for the outer frame and the louvers was represented using a 1 1/2" (38 mm) offset. When a shutter is complete, save the drawing as a block in a


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FIGURE 2453 Common methods of representing attic vents on elevations.

Gable End Wall Vents

FIGURE 2451 When drawn with a computer program such as AutoCAD, the rail can be easily created by creating half of the baluster, and then using the MIRROR command to duplicate the other side. Once a full vertical has been created, the ARRAY command can be used to place the balance of the needed balusters.

Drawing eave vents is similar to drawing shutters. Figure 24-53 shows common methods of drawing attic vents for a gable end wall. When the drawing for the vent is complete, save the drawing as a block in a file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The vents from Figure 24-53 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.

Chimney file with a title such as ELEV PROTO SYMB for future reference. The shutter from Figure 24-52 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder. The width of the shutter can be adjusted using the STRETCH command. The shutter length can be shortened by erasing unneeded slats, and then using the STRETCH command to shorten the exterior frame. The shutter length can be extended by using the STRETCH command to extend the frame length, and then using the COPY or ARRAY command to add the necessary slats.

FIGURE 2452 Representing shutters in elevation.

Several different methods can be used to represent a chimney. Figure 24-54 shows examples of wood and masonry chimneys. The chimneys from Figure 24-54 can be found on the Student CD in the SUPPLEMENTAL DRAWING MATERIAL folder.

A

B

C

D

FIGURE 2454 Common methods of drawing chimneys: (A) stucco chase with metal cap; (B) horizontal wood siding with metal cap; (C) common brick; (D) decorative masonry.

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CADD APPLICATIONS CADD Elevations and Symbols INTRODUCTION The software that is used to create the floor plan will greatly affect how the elevation drawings are created. The following discussion assumes the use of AutoCAD or a similar program. If you’re creating elevations using Revit or AutoCAD Architecture, the general steps will be the same, but the procedure will be much easier because of the software’s automation. Information that was provided as the floor plan was created will be used to generate the basic exterior elevations.

Scaling Elevations should be drawn at full scale in model space. This allows for the elevations to be projected directly from the floor plans. They are generally plotted in paper space at the same scale as the floor plan. For most plans, this means plotting at a scale of 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50) with two elevations placed on a sheet. Some floor plans for multifamily projects may be laid out at a scale of 1/16" = 1'–0" (1:200) or even as small as 1/32" = 1'–0" (1:400). When a scale of 1/8" = 1'–0" (1:100) or less is used, generally very little detail appears in the drawings. Depending on the complexity of the project or the amount of space on a page, the front elevation may be drawn at 1/4" = 1'–0" (1:50) and the balance of the elevations at a smaller scale. If the side, rear, side elevations are plotted at a different scale from the front elevation, the scale must be clearly indicated below each drawing.

Elevation Symbols Drawing exterior elevation features with CADD is easy. Most architectural CADD programs have a variety of elevation symbols representing doors, windows, and materials. For example, pick a DOOR or WINDOW symbol

from a menu library and a screen menu will display your options. You then choose a door style such as entrance, flush, or French and you can also add trim and doorknobs. When you pick WINDOW from the tablet menu library, you get options such as sliders, casement, double-hung, awning, and fixed. You can customize window symbols with divided lights, arrows, reflection marks, solid black glass, or hinge marks. Creating Blocks Many third-party architectural programs have a variety of elevation symbols representing doors, windows, and other common materials. If the program that you are using does not contain architectural blocks, they can easily be created using the examples that are located throughout this chapter. Each of the materials such as doors, windows, and rails can be drawn and reused. Once created, the symbol can be saved for reuse in the current drawing or in future drawings. Once a symbol such as a door has been created, the location for saving it should be given careful consideration. Creating a folder titled ELEV PROTO SYMB will make an excellent storage area for keeping symbols. Be sure to subdivide the folder for each drawing so that you can easily find the desired symbol. Subfolders such as FLOOR, ELEC, and ELEV will help organize your storage system. If you plan on creating large quantities of symbols, use titles such as ROOF, WALL, and LANDSCAPING to further divide your drawing elements. A sample title for a tree to be placed on elevations might read PROTOS/ELEV/ LNDS/TREE/OAK. Taking the time to get organized as you create symbols will greatly decrease the amount of time you spend looking for a symbol to insert into a drawing. ■

GOING GREEN

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Green Applications of Exterior Elevations Key elements shown on the exterior elevations include exterior wall finishing materials, roof materials, windows, doors, and skylights. Nearly every manufacturer of these products has introduced features to increase the environmental friendliness of their products. These changes range from changes in the manufacturing process to remove harmful chemicals, increasing the amount of recycled materials in the products, and increasing the reuse of the product once its useful life has been achieved. These products primarily earn LEED credits from the Materials and Resources division. Information to be shown on the exterior elevations includes credits from the following categories: • Resource reuse. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are salvaged from previous building sites for reuse. Common materials for reuse include concrete and wood siding. Relevant areas of CSI for research related to this area include: • 03 – Concrete • Recycled content. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are recycled or contain a high amount of recycled materials. Relevant areas of CSI for research related to this area include: • 04 – Masonry • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings



The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in roofing and exterior siding materials. In addition to the listed sites, use your favorite search engine to research products from the CSI categories listed in wall materials, window materials, glazing, doors, siding, and skylights. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.abtco.com www.alcoa.com

• Local/regional materials. This credit is earned for the use of materials that are produced near the construction site to minimize damage to the environment by transportation-related factors. This allows the use of a product that receives credit for reducing damage from transportation, even though the product itself may not be typically considered “green.” • Rapidly renewable materials. This credit is earned for the use of biobased, biocomposites, and biofirers. Areas of CSI that will be needed for research related to this area include: • 03 – Concrete • 04 – Masonry • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings • 09 – Finishes • 10 – Specialties • Certified wood. This credit is earned for the use of materials such as lumber products originating in certified forests. Areas of CSI that will be useful for research related to this area include: • 01 – General requirements • 03 – Concrete • 06 – Woods, plastics, and composites • 07 – Thermal and moisture protection • 08 – Openings • 09 – Finishes

Company, Product, or Service Abtco, Inc. (hardboard and vinyl siding products) Alcoa Building Products (aluminum and vinyl siding products)

www.alsco.com

www.alside.com www.ambrico.com www.apawood.org www.brickinfo.org www.cwc.ca www.canamould.com www.caststone.org www.cedarbureau.org www.cemplank.com

Alsco Building Products (vinyl and aluminum siding products) Alside (vinyl siding, windows, trim) American Brick Company APA—The Engineered Wood Association Brick Industry Association Canadian Wood Council Canamould (exterior moldings) Cast Stone Institute Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau Cemplank (fiber-cement siding)

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www.culturedstone.com www.eifsfacts.com www.fabral.com www.gp.com www.shakertown.com www.jameshardie.com www.nailite.com


Cultured Stone EIFS Industry Members Association Fabral (metal roofing and siding) Georgia-Pacific Corporation (siding) Hardie Building Products (cedar shingles) James Hardie Building Products Nailite International (replica brick, stone, shake products)

www.napcobuildingmaterials.com www.norandex.com www.owenscorning.com www.reynoldsbp.com www.senergyeifs.com www.vinylinfo.org www.wrcla.org www.vinylsiding.com

Introduction to Elevations Test

NAPCO Building Specialties Norandex (vinyl siding) Owens Corning Reynolds Building Products Senergy (EIFS) Vinyl Institute Western Red Cedar Lumber Association Wolverine (metal siding)


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 24 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number, and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.

Question 24–1 Under what circumstances could a drafter be required to draw only three elevations? Question 24–2 When are more than four elevations required?

Question 24–6 Describe two methods of transferring the heights of one elevation to another. Question 24–7 Describe two methods of showing concrete tile roofs. Question 24–8 What are the two major types of wood siding? Question 24–9 In drawing a home with plywood siding, how should the texture of the wood be expressed? Question 24–10 Sketch the pattern most typically used for brickwork. Question 24–11 What problems are the drafter likely to encounter when drawing stone?

Question 24–3 What are the goals of an elevation?

Question 24–12 Sketch the way wood shingles appear when one is looking at the gable end of a roof.

Question 24–4 What is the most common scale for drawing elevations? How is this different from the scale used to plot the drawings?

Question 24–13 Give the major consideration for drawing doors in elevation.

Question 24–5 Would an elevation that has been drawn at a scale of 1/16" = 1'−0" require the same methods to draw the finishing materials as an elevation that has been drawn at some larger scale?

Question 24–14 What are the two most common materials used for rails? Question 24–15 In drawing stucco, how should the pattern be expressed?

CHAPTER 25

Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques I

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Drawing elevations is one of the most enjoyable projects in architecture. As a student, though, you should keep in mind that a new employee very rarely gets to draw the main elevations. The architect or job captain usually draws the main elevations in the preliminary stage of design, and then a senior drafter gets to finish the elevations. As a beginner you may be introduced to elevations by making corrections resulting from design changes. Not a lot of creativity is involved in corrections, but it is a start. As you display your ability, you’ll most likely be involved in earlier stages of the drawing process. Elevations are drawn in three steps: layout, drawing, and lettering. When given a chance to complete the elevations, you will usually be given the preliminary design elevation or the designer’s sketch to use as a guide.

LAYOUT The layout of elevations will be similar when using manual methods or AutoCAD. The major difference is that when elevations are drawn using AutoCAD, the drawings can be drawn full-size, and aligned beside each other. The drawing sheet size will affect the scale, placement, and layout of elevations that are drawn manually. The drawing sheet should match the size used for the floor plan. Because C-sized paper is so commonly used in educational settings, these instructions will assume that the drawing is to be made on a C-sized sheet. Usually two elevations cannot be placed side by side on C-sized material. Thus, you will not be able to use a side elevation for projecting heights onto the front or rear elevations. The following instructions

will be given for drawing the front elevation at a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50) and the rear and both side elevations at a scale of 1/8" = 1'−0" (1:100). Using two scales will require more steps than when all of the elevations are drawn at one scale. If you’re using a program such as AutoCAD, lay out the elevations in model space using full scale. The scale to be used when the drawings are plotted can be assigned to the viewport containing the drawings in paper space. Be sure to plan the plotting scale prior to adding annotation or dimensions to the drawings, because the scale will affect the display size of each item. The layout process can be divided into three stages: overall-shape layout, roof layout, and layout of openings. Use construction lines for each stage.

Overall-Shape Layout Use the floor and roof plans as a guide to obtain all horizontal locations. If a roof plan has not been drawn, draw the outline of the roof shape on the print of the floor plan. For this drawing it will be assumed that 24" (600 mm) overhangs and a 12" (300 mm) gable end wall overhang will be used. Each horizontal measurement can be projected as shown in Figure 25-1. See Figure 25-2 for Step 2 through Step 8. STEP 2 Lay out a horizontal baseline to represent the finish grade. STEP 3 Project construction lines down from the floor plan to represent the edges and each major jog of the house. STEP 1

CADD APPLICATIONS The layout and drawing of the elevations will be greatly affected by the method used to create the drawings. If a program such as AutoCAD Architecture or Revit is used, the elevations will be generated from information

supplied as the floor plan was drawn. The following discussion will assume the use of manual methods or AutoCAD. ■ 589

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2nd FLOOR PLAN

1st FLOOR PLAN

FIGURE 251 With a print of the floor plans above the area where the elevations will be drawn, horizontal distances can be projected down to the elevation.

STEP 3

STEP 3

STEP 7 STEP 8

8' PLATE LINE

TOP OF WINDOWS

STEP 6 STEP 5 STEP 8 STEP 4 SEE FIGURE 25-3

LINE OF FINISH FLOOR

8' PLATE LINE

TOP OF WINDOW/DOORS LINE OF FINISH GRADE

LINE OF FINISH FLOOR

STEP 3 FIGURE 252 Lay out of the overall shape of the front elevation.

STEP 2

STEP 3

Chapter 25: Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques

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FLOOR JOIST DEPTH VARIES FROM 6"-12"

PROJECTION LINES

3/4"

8"

8"

12"

16 3/4"-22 3/4"

2"

2" 2"

SIDE VIEW OF ROOF

CEILING LINE

FIGURE 253 The height of the finish floor above grade will be determined by the type of floor-framing system. Exact framing sizes are often rounded up to the nearest inch in elevation drawings.

Establish the floor line. See Figure 25-3 for help in determining measurements if a wood floor is to be used. This home will have a concrete slab that is 8" (200 mm) above finish grade. STEP 5 Measure up from the floor line, and draw a line to represent the ceiling level. For this project a height of 8'−0" (2400 mm) will be used. STEP 6 Measure up the depth of the floor joists to establish the floor level of the second floor. If the floor joist size has not been determined, assume that 10" (250 mm) depth (2 × 10s) will be used. STEP 7 Measure up from the second-floor line, and draw a line to represent the upper ceiling level. For this residence, a height of 8'−0" (2400 mm) will be used. STEP 8 Measure up from each floor line 6'−8" (2000 mm), and draw a line to represent the tops of the windows and doors.

FIGURE 254 When elevations are drawn side by side, heights can be projected with construction lines. When only one elevation is drawn, a side elevation will need to be drawn in the middle of what will become the front elevation.

STEP 4

Roof Layout Because a side elevation is not being drawn beside the front elevation, there is no easy way to determine the true roof height. If the sections have been drawn before the elevations, the height from the ceiling to the ridge could be measured on one of the section drawings and then transferred to the elevations. Although this might save time, it also might duplicate an error. If the roof was incorrect on the section drawing, the error will be repeated if dimensions are simply transferred from section to elevation. The best procedure to determine the height of the roof in the front view is to lay out a side view lightly. This can be done in the middle of what will become

the front view (see Figure 25-4). For this home, three different roofs must be drawn: the two-story area, the garage roof, and the porch roof. It would be best to lay out the porch roof last because it is a projection of the garage roof. The upper or garage roof can be drawn by following Step 9 through Step 19, shown in Figure 25-5. Place a line 1'−0" (300 mm) from the end of each wall to represent the edge of the roof for each gable end wall overhang.

STEP 9

Place a second line, 2'−0" (600 mm) from the same end wall to represent the extent of the overhang projection.

STEP 10

Lay out a line to represent the ridge. Because the lower floor is 36' wide (10 800 mm), the ridge will be 18' (5400 mm) from the front wall. For the upper roof, the ridge will be 15' (4500 mm) from the front wall.

STEP 11

Determine the roof slope. For this home, draw the roof at a 5/12 pitch. A 5/12 slope equals 22 1/2°. For a complete explanation of pitches, refer to Section 6 of this textbook.

STEP 12

Draw a line at the desired angle to represent the roof. This line will represent the bottom of the truss or rafter (see Figure 25-6).

STEP 13

Measure up 6" (150 mm) and draw a line parallel to the line just drawn, to represent the top of the roof-framing member. On the elevations, it is not important that the exact depth of the framing members be represented, as long as a uniform depth is used on all elevations for the project.

STEP 14

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TRUE HEIGHT OF RIDGE

REPEAT STEP 10

THIS DISTANCE WILL BE EQUAL TO HALF THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SIDE WALLS ON THE HOUSE BEING DRAWN. THE WALLS ARE 30' (9000 mm) APART, SO THE RIDGE WILL BE 15' (4500 mm) IN FROM THE END WALL.

REPEAT STEP 11 SIDE VIEW LAYOUT

REPEAT STEP 9

RIDGE LOCATION IN SIDE VIEW

STEP 17

STEP 11

STEP 18

STEP 15 STEP 9 STEP 10

STEP 19 STEP 16

STEP 18

STEP 14 STEP 13

FIGURE 255 Layout of the roof shapes. When looking at a roof from the front, the true height cannot be determined without drawing a side elevation. If the roof pitch and the ridge location are known, the true height can be drawn quickly and accurately.

Establish the top of the roof. The true height of the roof can be measured where the line from Step 14 intersects the line from Step 11 (see Figure 25-5). STEP 16 Establish the bottom of the eave. This can be determined from the intersection of the line from Step 10 with the lines of Step 13 and Step 14. STEP 17 Lay out the upper roof using the same procedure: Draw a partial side elevation and project exact heights. STEP 15

The porch roof will be an extension of the garage roof, so much of the layout work has already been done.

Because the ends of the upper and garage roof extend 12" (300 mm), this distance will be maintained. Only the left end and the upper limits of the roof must be determined. The upper edge of the roof will be formed by the intersection of the roof and the wall for the upper floor. This height can be determined by following Step 18 and Step 19. Place a vertical line on the sloped lines (the lines from Step 13 and Step 14) to represent the distance from the garage wall to the front wall on the upper floor plan. For this project, the roof will travel a distance of 6' from the garage to the upper wall. STEP 19 At the intersection of the lines from Step 14 and Step 18, project a horizontal line to represent the top of the porch roof. STEP 18

You now have the basic shape of the walls and roof blocked out. The only items remaining to be drawn are the door and window openings. 1 1/2" - 3" TYPICAL

TRUSS / WALL

RAFTER / WALL

FIGURE 256 The layout of the roof incline will vary slightly, depending on whether trusses or rafters are used to frame the roof. The incline of a truss passes through the intersection of the ceiling and walls. Because the rafter must have at least 1 1/2" of bearing surface, the intersection of the rafter and wall must be adjusted slightly. If the notch in the rafter exceeds 3" (76 mm), the rafter may not be able to support its design loads. Future chapters will explore minimum framing requirements.

Layout of Openings See Figure 25-7 for Step 20 through Step 23. Project the width of all doors, windows, and skylights from their location on the floor plan. STEP 21 Lay out the bottom of the windows and doors. The doors should extend to the line representing the finished floor. Determine the depth of the windows from the window schedule, and draw a line to represent the correct depth. STEP 20


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STEP 22 STEP 20 TYPICAL

STEP 23 STEP 21

FIGURE 257 The widths of the doors, windows, and skylights can be projected from the floor and roof plans into the elevations. Heights can be determined using the window schedule.

Determine the height of the skylights. This must be done by measuring the true size of the skylights on the line from Step 14, and then projecting this height to the proper location. STEP 23 Draw the shape of the garage doors. Remember that the height of these doors is measured from the line representing the ground, not from the floor level. STEP 22

You now have the front elevation blocked out. The same steps can be used to draw the right and left side and rear elevations. The major difference in laying out these elevations is that the widths of the walls, windows, and doors cannot be projected from the floor plan. To lay out these items, you will need to rely on the dimensions of the floor plan. Start by drawing either side elevation. The side elevation can be drawn by following the procedure for the layout of the front elevation. Figure 25-8 shows a completed side elevation. Once this is drawn, use the side elevation to establish the heights for the other side and the rear elevation, as shown in Figure 25-9.

line widths and density, a more realistic elevation can be created. A helpful procedure for completing the elevations manually is to begin to darken the lines at the top of the page first and work down the page to the bottom. You will be using a soft lead, which tends to smear easily. If the lower elevations are drawn first, prevent smearing them by covering them with a sheet of paper when they are complete. Another helpful procedure for completing the elevations is to start at the top of one elevation and work toward the ground level. Also start by drawing surfaces that are in the foreground and work toward the background of the elevation. This procedure will help cut

DRAWING FINISHED-QUALITY LINES MANUALLY After all of the elevations are drawn with construction lines, they must be completed with finished-quality lines. An H and 2H lead will provide good contrast for many of the materials. Ink and graphite will also produce a very nice effect. Methods of drawing the items required in elevations were discussed in Chapter 24. Line quality cannot be overstressed. By using varied

FIGURE 258 The layout of a side elevation is similar to the layout of the front elevation.

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FIGURE 259 With a side elevation drawn, heights for the rear and other side can be projected quickly.

down on erasing background items for items that are in the foreground. Figure 25-10 shows a completed front elevation. It can be drawn by following Step 24 through Step 28. STEP 24 STEP 25 STEP 26 STEP 27 STEP 28

Draw the outline of all roofs. Draw the roofing material. Draw all windows and doors. Draw all corner trim and posts. Draw the siding.

At this point your front elevation is completely drawn. The same procedures can be used to finish the rear and side elevations, shown in Figure 25-11. Note that only a small portion of the siding has been shown in these elevations. It is common practice to have the front elevation highly detailed and have the other elevations show just the minimum information for the construction crew.

FIGURE 2510 Drawing the front elevation manually using finished-quality lines. Features in the background such as the chimney are often omitted for clarity.

STEP 24 STEP 25

STEP 26

STEP 27

STEP 28

FIGURE 2511 Drawing small-scale elevations does not require drawing all of the finishing materials. The same procedures used on the front elevation can be used on the side and rear elevations.


595

● 1" 25 MM EXT. STUCCO OVER 15# FELT W/ 26 GAGE

ANNOTATION With the elevations completely drawn, the material must now be specified. If the elevations are all on one page, a material needs to be specified on only one elevation. Use Figure 25-12 and Figure 25-13 as guides for placing notes and use abbreviations wherever possible to save space. The required notes include the following:

LINE WIRE AT 24" 600 MM O.C. W/STUCCO WIRE MESH, AND NO CORNER BEAD OVER . . . ● CDEIFS EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISHING SYSTEM BY

DRYVIT. INSTALL AS PER MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS. ● MONTEREY SAND, NOVA IV VINYL SIDING BY ALSIDE OR

EQUAL INSTALLED OVER INSULATION BOARD AS PER MANU FACTURER INSTRUCTIONS. ● BRICK VENEER OVER 15# FELT OVER 1" 25 MM AIR

SPACE WITH 26 GAGE METAL TIES  24" 600 MM O.C.  EACH STUD.

1. Siding. Generally the kind of siding, its thickness,

and the backing material must be specified. For each of the following siding materials, the oriented strand board (OSB) or plywood may be provided or omitted, according to regional preferences. When the OSB or plywood is omitted, the siding is installed directly over the vapor barrier and studs. Tyvek and 15# felt can be used interchangeably with the trade names of other vapor barriers. Siding examples include the following:

2. Corner and decorative trims. Common trim might

include: ● 1 × 4 25 × 100 R.S. CORNER TRIM. ● PROVIDE CORNER BEAD FOR STUCCO OR PLASTER

APPLICATIONS. ● OMIT CORNER BEAD FOR STUCCO OR PLASTER

APPLICATIONS.

3. Chimney height. An example: ● 2' 600 MM MINIMUM ABOVE ANY ROOF WITHIN 10'

● HORIZONTAL SIDING OVER 1/2" 13 MM OSB AND TYVEK. ● HORIZONTAL SIDING OVER 3/8" 10 MM PLYWOOD AND

3000 MM.

4. Flatwork. This would include any decks or concrete

● HARDIPLANK LAP SIDING OVER . . .

patios. Include rail material, vertical material, and spacing such as: no boldface

● HARDIE SHINGLESIDE W/ 8" 203 MM MAXIMUM EXPO

● 2 × 6 50 × 150 DFL SMOOTH RAIL WITH 2 × 2 50 × 50

15# FELT.

SURE OVER . . .

VERTICALS  4" 100 MM MAXIMUM CLEAR.

● LP HORIZONTAL LAP SIDING OVER . . .

● 6 × 6 150 × 150 DECORATIVE POSTS.

● 5/8" 16 MM T111 SIDING W/GROOVES  4" 100 MM

● 2 × 6 50 × 150 CEDAR DECKING LAID FLAT WITH 1/4"

6 MM GAP BETWEEN.

O.C. OVER . . .

235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUF. SPECS.

1 X 8 R. S FASCIA

VINYL SHUTTERS

8'-0"

LINE OF FINISH CEILING


8'-0"

LINE OF FIN. FLOOR

L.P. HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" WAFERBOARD LINE OF FIN. FLOOR BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPACE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.

FRONT 1/4"

4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY FROM STRUCTURE.

ELEVATION

1'-0"

FIGURE 2512 Annotation and dimensions should be on the front elevation to describe each material.


24" MIN.

596

3

2X8 BARGE RAFTER

235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT

12

1X3 R.S. TRIM

5/8" T1-11 PLY SIDING OVER 15# FELT

SIDE

REAR

1/8"

1'-0"

SIDE

FIGURE 2513 In addition to specifying materials in the front elevation, each feature should be specified in one of the remaining smaller elevations.

● W.I. RAILING WITH VERTICAL  4" 100 MM CLEAR MAXIMUM. ● 4" 100 MM  CONCRETE FLATWORK.

5. Posts and headers. 6. Fascias and barge rafters. 7. Roof material. For example: ● 235# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. ● 300# COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT. ● MEDIUM CEDAR SHAKES OVER 15# FELT WITH 30# ×

18" 450 MM  WIDE FELT BETWEEN EACH COURSE WITH 10 1/2" 265 MM  EXPOSURE. ● METAL ROOFING BY GIVE MANUFACTURER’S NAME, TYPE

OF PRODUCT, GAGE, AND COLOR. INSTALL AS PER MANU FACTURER SPECIFICATIONS. ● CONCRETE TILE ROOF GIVE MANUFACTURER’S NAME,

STYLE, COLOR, AND WEIGHT OF TILE; E.G., CHESTNUT BROWN, CLASSIC 100 CONCRETE ROOF TILE  950# PER SQ.  BY MONIER OVER 15# FELT. INSTALL AS PER MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS.

8. Roof pitch. Place a roof pitch symbol in elevations

where the angle of the roof can be seen. 9. Dimensions. The use of dimensions on elevations varies greatly from office to office. Some companies place no dimensions on elevations, using the sections to show all vertical heights. Other companies show the finished floor lines on the elevations and dimension floor-to-ceiling levels. Unless your instructor tells you otherwise, place the floor-to-ceiling dimensions on the elevations.

DRAWING ROOF INTERSECTIONS The roof shape can be projected from the roof plan or from an overlay of the roof placed on the floor plan. Figure 25-4 through Figure 25-7 provide examples for projecting a simple roof. Gable roofs often have

irregular-sized overhangs, overhangs of varied shapes, and altered rooflines and roof intersections that must be represented on the elevations. Figure 25-14 shows a small overhang at the gable end wall and a larger overhang where the truss or rafter tails are perpendicular to the support wall. The elevation was created by drawing the roof on the right side first to establish the incline of the roof. The intersection of the 1' and 2' (300 and 600 mm) overhangs was established by projecting their location in the roof plan down to the incline in the elevation. A similar process can be used by projecting heights from one elevation to another. Figure 25-15 shows a portion of a roof plan with a 12" (300 mm) wide overhang at the gable end wall and a 24" (600 mm) wide overhang. Once the inclined plane is drawn, the heights of the 1' and 2' (300 and 600 mm) overhangs can be projected into other elevations. Projecting the intersection of the chimney with the roof is another matter that often frustrates new drafters. To project the true height of a chimney easily, the height must be drawn in an elevation where the angle of the roof can be seen. Figure 25-16 shows the process. The chimney must be 24" (600 mm) above any portion of the structure that is within 10' (3000 mm) of the chimney. The height is determined by measuring 10' (3000 mm) from the center of the flue, and then measuring 24"(600 mm) above this point. Once the height of the chimney above the roof has been determined, it can be projected into other elevations where the roof pitch can’t be seen. Remember that the inner face of the chimney does not align with the outer face of the structure. Figure 25-17A shows a gable roof with a modified Dutch hip. The gable wall of a full Dutch hip roof is usually set back several feet from the wall of the structure. Figure 25-17B shows methods of projecting the


597

OVERHANG 1

OVERHANG 2

X

B A

1'-0"

ROOF TO WALL INTERSECTION

2'-0"

C

FIGURE 2515 The intersection of different-sized overhangs can be projected from one elevation to another. PROJECTION OF OVERHANG

FIGURE 2514 The intersection of different-sized overhangs can be projected from the roof plan to the elevations. Once the incline of the roof is established, the small overhang (represented by line A) can be projected down until it intersects the roof angle. The distance that the lower roof extends past the upper roof (A to C) will vary, depending on the design. X represents the distance between where the roof intersects the outline of the wall and the end of the eave. This overhang (X) is usually equal to overhang 1.

projection of an irregularly shaped home can be seen in Figure 25-20. See Section 6 for an explanation of how the roof plan is drawn. Once the roof plan has been determined, it can be drawn on a print of the floor plan, and the intersections of the roof can be projected to the elevation.

overhangs into an elevation. A similar projection method is used to project eaves that appear to wrap around the corner of a structure, as in Figure 25-18A. The overhangs can be projected as shown in Figure 25-18B. Figure 25-19A shows a gable modified with a small hip. Figure 25-19B shows the process for projecting the hip into the elevation. Projecting a bay roof is similar to projecting a hip roof (see Figure 25-19C).

DRAWING IRREGULAR SHAPES Not all plans will have walls constructed at 90° to each other. When the house has an irregular shape, a floor plan and a roof plan will be required to draw the elevations. The process is similar to the process just described but will require more patience in projecting all of the roof and wall intersections. The

2'-0"

10-0"

FIGURE 2516 The intersection of the chimney with the roof.

598


FIGURE 2517A Gable roof with an eave similar to a Dutch hip roof.

FIGURE 2518B Representing corner eaves.

FIGURE 2519A Gable roof with a partial hip. FIGURE 2517B Projection of a gable roof with a continuous eave.

FIGURE 2518A Gable roof with corner eaves.

FIGURE 2519B Representing a gable roof with a partial hip.


599

PROJECTION ROOF

WALL PROJECTION WINDOW PROJECTION

LINE OF CEILING

SIDE VIEW

FRONT VIEW

DISTANCE A

DISTANCE C

FIGURE 2519C Projecting a bay window is similar to projecting a hip roof.

DI

ST AN

CE

B

A

B

C

FIGURE 2520 When drawing the elevations of a structure with an irregular shape, great care must be taken with the projection methods. This elevation was prepared using the outline of the roof and the floor plan and then projecting the needed intersections down to the drawing area. Notice that on the right side of the elevation, a line at the required angle has been drawn to represent the proper roof angle for establishing the true heights.

600


100.0 0

95.0 0'

100.00' 95.00'

FIGURE 2521 Projecting grades is similar to the method used to project rooflines. This elevation was drawn by using the information on the roof, floor, and grading plans. For clarity, only the projection lines for the grades are shown.

PROJECTING GRADES The term grade is used to describe the shape of the finish ground. Projecting ground levels is required on elevations when a structure is being constructed on a hillside. Figure 25-21 shows the layout of a hillside residence. To complete this elevation, a site, floor, and roof

plan were used to project locations. Usually the grading plan and the floor plan are drawn at different scales. The easiest method of projecting the ground level onto the elevation is to measure the distance on the site plan from one contour line to the next. This distance can then be marked on the floor plan and projected onto the elevation.

CADD APPLICATIONS DRAWING ELEVATIONS WITH AUTOCAD Drawing exterior elevations with AutoCAD is similar to techniques used to draw elevations manually. With manual drafting, lines are projected from the floor plan to create the shapes for the elevations. This was shown in Figure 25-1 through Figure 25-9. With CADD, the same thing is done using a computer. After the floor plan is drawn, freeze all layers that are not relevant to the exterior of the residence. Make a block of the floor plan. Set the drawing limits large enough so that the block of the floor can be

inserted and rotated; in this way, each elevation can be projected from the floor plan using techniques similar to manual methods (see Figure 25-22).

Drawing Finished-Quality Lines with AutoCAD Once the roof and wall locations have been projected, the locations of doors and windows can be determined. Windows and doors representing specific styles can be created and stored as blocks in a library and then inserted as needed. Trees and bushes can also be created as blocks and inserted as needed. Once the design is


601

CADD APPLICATIONS

FIGURE 2522 Use a block of the relevant parts of the floor and roof plans to line out each of the exterior elevations. Keep the elevations aligned so that projections can be made from one elevation to the next. Once the shapes have been projected, doors, windows, and other elements can be added. The completed elevations can be moved into any position for plotting.

completed, the elevations can be moved into the desired position for presentation and plotting. Figure 25-23 shows an elevation created using AutoCAD. After the outlines for all of the elevations have been completed, objects must be assigned to various layers with varied line weights. Line variation is just as important when using a CADD program as it is when drawing manually. Using varied line widths will create a more realistic elevation. Using varied layers will help in controlling objects as the drawings are completed. Use the file from the Student CD SUPPLEMENTAL READING/ CHAPTER 7/ SUGGESTED LAYER NAMES as a guide for creating the layers for this drawing. Although not all layers listed in that file may be needed for a simple home, create the following layers for keeping track of features as the elevations are completed: ELEV ANNO ELEV DIMS ELEV FND ELEV OUTL ELEV PATT ELEV ROOF ELEV THCK ELEV WALL

Text Roof pitch and dimensions Dashed lines Use this layer as a non-plotting layer Hatch patterns for roofing, masonry and siding Roof outlines (texture added to ridge and rakes for shakes or tile) Thick, continuous line Wall outlines—Additional layers can be added if additional colors or thicknesses are to be assigned to objects.

Before starting the final drawing process, determine a method of attack. Possible drawing orders include: 1. Top to bottom: Complete the roof, walls, and foundation.

2. Front to back: Draw items closest to the viewing plane and then work into the background. 3. Materials-based: Draw in groups based on materials such as roof, walls, windows, doors, and ground. The following example will be completed by using method three by completing the front elevation, and then completing each of the remaining elevations. STEP 1 Set the ELEV PATT layer as the current layer and use

the appropriate pattern to represent the desired roofing material. If AutoCAD can’t determine the appropriate boundary, represent the desired boundary with a POLYLINE placed on the ELEV OUTL layer. STEP 2 If wood shingles or concrete tile will be used,

make the ELEV ROOF layer current and represent the material on the ridge and rake. STEP 3 Set the ELEV OUTL layer as the current layer

and provide boundaries as needed to represent any required outlines for masonry patterns. STEP 4 Set the ELEV PATT layer as the current layer and

represent all desired masonry patterns. STEP 5 Set the ELEV WALL layer as the current layer and

represent all corner trim. STEP 6 Use the OFFSET command to establish the bottom

of the siding and trim based on their position relative to the finished floor line. STEP 7 Draw all required posts, columns, railings, and

decorative trim. STEP 8 Draw lines to represent the edge of the founda-

tion below the siding. Offset the foundation edge in 1 unit from the edge of the corner trim.

602


CADD APPLICATIONS 235 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES OVER 15 # FELT. L INSTALL T AS PER MANUF. SPECS.

1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA

VINYL SHUTTERS

8'-0"

LINE OF FINISH CEILING 1 X 4 R.S. CORNER TRIM

8'-0"

LINE OF FIN. FLOOR L.P P. HORIZ. SIDING OVER TYVEK AND 1/2" W WAFERBOARD LINE OF FIN. FLOOR 4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK SLOPE 1/4"/12" AWAY W Y FROM STRUCTURE.

BRICK VENEER OVER 1" AIR SPA P CE & TYVEK OVER 1/2" W WAFERBOARD. USE 26 GA. METAL T TIES @ 24" O.C. @ EA. STUD.

FRONT

ELEVA VATION

1'-0" 24" MIN.

1/4"

3

2 X 8 BARGE RAFTER

235# COMPO. SHINGLES OVER 15# FELT L

12

1 X 3 R.S.. TRIM

5/8" T1-11 PLY L SIDING OVER 15# FELT

SIDE

REAR

1/8"

1'-0"

SIDE

FIGURE 2523 The completed elevations reading assembled for plotting.

STEP 9 Draw all required decorative trim such as window

or door trim, shutters, wall vents, and cupolas. STEP 10 Draw all required steps, flatwork, patios, and decks. STEP 11 Represent the finished floor and finished ceiling

lines with center or phantom lines. STEP 12 Use the ARRAY, OFFSET, or COPY commands to

represent the required siding pattern. Use the TRIM command as required to remove lines representing the siding from windows, doors, or other areas where siding is not required. STEP 13 Use the BREAK command to place breaks in the

ground line each time a different plane occurs. Extend the grade approximately 3 units past the plane closest to the viewing plane. STEP 14 Use the PROPERTIES command and assign

varied line weights to the ground lines. Use a weight

of approximately 100 for lines closest to the viewing plan, with each receding distance represented by a thinner line. At this point your front elevation is completely drawn and should resemble Figure 25-10. The same procedures can be used to finish the rear and side elevations, shown in Figure 25-11. Use the COPY command whenever possible to copy trim, siding, blocks, and hatch patterns. Note that only a small portion of the siding has been shown in these elevations.

Adding Annotation and Dimensions with AutoCAD With the elevations completely drawn, the material must now be specified. Although you’re still working in model space, it is important to remember that the drawings will be plotted in paper space. If your drawings will be


603

CADD APPLICATIONS plotted at a scale of 1/4" =1'−0", use a text height of 6". Use a text height of 12" for elevations that will be plotted at a scale of 1/8" =1'−0". The local notes placed using AutoCAD will be the same notes described earlier in this chapter. If the elevations are all on one page, a material needs to be specified on only one elevation. Spread the required notes equally among each elevation. The dimensions can be placed on any of the four elevations as space allows. If the elevations are to be plotted on multiple pages, each material will need to be specified on each page. Use Figure 25-12 and Figure 25-13 as guides for placing notes and dimensions.

STEP 2 Making model space inside the viewport active.

NOTE: If you’re using AutoCAD 2008 or a newer release, use

Many homes such as those that will be constructed in a subdivision are designed to be built more than once, and they require alternative facades. Figure 25-24 and Figure 25-25 show examples of alternative elevations that were created by using the same basic floor plan, but altering the exterior materials. Minor changes would be required to the floor plan to reflect the different materials used for the columns and railings. Figure 25-26 and Figure 25-27 show examples of alternative elevations that were created using varied roof designs. Each of these drawings was created using the same step-bystep process as the elevation in Figure 25-10. If they are drawn using manual drafting, much of the information such as wall and opening locations would need to be traced from the original elevation. By using a CADD program, information common to all three drawings can be placed on a base layer, with information specific to each roof plan placed on separate layers. Figure 25-28 shows another possible elevation that could be created by altering the floor plan. To create this elevation, the bedroom and the dressing area would need to be flopped. This is a change that would be quite extensive using manual drawing, but could be completed very quickly using a CADD program. ■

the Annotative feature so that the text can be adjusted if the plotting scale needs to be altered.

Preparing For Plotting As you created the elevations you’ve been working in model space at full scale. The final stage of drawing the elevations is to place the elevations in a viewport in paper space. At least two options are available for proceeding. These include: 1. Open a viewport and move the elevations to the desired position. 2. Open a viewport and place copies of the elevations in the desired position. Option 1 is easier and faster if no changes will ever be made to the elevations. Since life is uncertain, option 2 offers future advantages if the elevations need to be changed. Keeping the elevations in their inline position will allow the future alterations to be made if the design is changed. No matter which option is selected, prepare the drawings for plotting by: STEP 1 Creating the needed number of viewports based

on the required plotting scales to be used.

STEP 3 Centering the desired elevation inside the

viewport. Repeat Step 1 through Step 3 if multiple viewports are required. Be sure to use the VIEWPORT toolbar to accurately adjust the plotting scale and to set the PSLTSCALE factor to 0 so that the appropriate line type will be displayed. Once all elevations have been displayed for plotting, return the template to paper space and verify that the scale of 1/1 is current. The drawings are now ready for plotting.

ALTERNATIVE ELEVATIONS

604


CADD APPLICATIONS BURNT RED MISSION 'S' ROOF TILE BY Y MONIER

EXT. T INSULATION A & FINISHING SYSTEM BY Y DR RYVIT T. I

1 X 8 R. S FASCIA

8'-0"

FIN. CEIL.

FIN. FLR

8'-0"

FIN. CEIL.

FIN. FLR

5/8" T1-11 PLY L SIDING W/ GROOVES @ 4" O.C.

1 X 6 R. S. HORIZ. TRIM ABOVE / BELOW EA. WINDOW.

FRONT 1/4"

4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK

ELEVA VATION

1'-0"

FIGURE 2524 This alternative elevation was created by making minor changes including changing the siding, porch roof, and the type and shape of the porch support columns.

300# COMPO. SHINGLES FIN. CEILING 1 X 4 R.S. TRIM

8'-0"

1 X 6 R. S. FASCIA

FIN. FLOOR

8'-0"

FIN. CEIL.

FIN. FLOOR


FRONT 1/4"

1'-0"

ELEVA VATION

FIGURE 2525 This alternative elevation was created by making minor changes to the porch roof, and the type and shape of the porch support columns, and by adding decorative railings.


605

CADD APPLICATIONS BURNT RED MISSION 'S' ROOF TILE BY Y MONIER EXTERIOR INSULATION A & FINISHING SYSTEM BY Y DR RYVIT T. 1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA 12 6

8'-0"

FIN. CEIL.

6 X 8 R.S. BEAMS @ 32" O.C. FIN. FLR

8'-0"

FIN. CEIL.

FIN. FLR

5/8" T T-1-11 PLLY SIDING W/ GROOVES @ 4" O.C.

FRONT

1/4"

1'-0"

1 X 6 R.S. HORIZ TRIM ABOVE/BELOW EA. WINDOW. W


ELEVA VATION

FIGURE 2526 An elevation with a hip roof can be created from the base elevation with minor editing using a computer program. If created manually, the entire elevation would have had to be redrawn.

300 # COMPOSITION SHINGLES

1 X 8 R. S F FASCIA

VINYL SHUTTERS

8'-0"

FIN. CEILING


8'-0"

FIN. FLOOR

FIN. FLOOR 4" CONCRETE FLAT WORK

BRICK VENEER

Z

FRONT 1/4"

L.P P. HORIZ. SIDING

ELEVA VATION

1'-0"

FIGURE 2527 By using AutoCAD to edit the base drawing, this elevation featuring a Dutch hip roof was created easily.

606


8'-0"

8'-0"

2'-0"

CADD APPLICATIONS

1/4"

1'-0"

FIGURE 2528 Making modifications to the floor plan allowed this plan elevation to be created. Using a computer program, the master bedroom and the dressing area were flopped allowing a window to be added to the left side of the elevation. The master bath was extended to align with the lower floor, allowing the upper portion of the home to be broken into three different planes. Using a CADD program, an alternative floor plan could be quickly added to the working drawings to explain the required changes.

ELEVATION CHECKLIST Drawing Setup

❑ Siding materials: ❑ Proper hatch pattern and scale for roof. ❑ Proper hatch pattern and scale for veneer.

❑ Set up your drawings so that the front elevation is plotted at 1/4" = 1'−0" and the side/rear/side elevations are at 1/8" = 1'−0". ❑ Use an architectural font for all text. ❑ Make all notes 1/8" and all titles 1/4" high.

❑ Show ground slope and step siding when within 8" (200 mm) of grade.

Drawing

❑ Finish floor line / bottom of siding relationship (siding to overlap concrete).

❑ Proper orthographic layout. ❑ Coordination with roof plan by showing all ridges, hips, valleys, and turrets. ❑ Coordination with floor plan by showing all walls, doors, and windows. ❑ Horizontal alignment of all eaves.

❑ Veneer to extend to grade. ❑ Horizontal siding and corner trim.

❑ Show corner trim and bottom of siding on entire small-scale elevations. ❑ Show skylights. ❑ Swing direction for casement windows. ❑ Show and specify all support posts, beams, and railings for deck where required.


Specifications ❑ Specify all materials in front elevations. ❑ Specify all materials on the three small elevations. ❑ Specify door and window sizes by placing the appropriate symbol on each elevation. ❑ Specify roof material. ❑ Specify fascia and barge rafter sizes. ❑ Specify siding, overlay, and trim. ❑ Specify all concrete flatwork, stairs, and patios.

607

❑ Specify decks, rails, and required support posts. ❑ Provide a title and scale for each elevation.

Dimensions ❑ Floor to ceiling (dimension an example of each plate height). ❑ Chimney: ridge 10'/2' (3000 mm / 600 mm). ❑ Roof pitch.

Elevation Layout and Drawing Techniques Test


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 25 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.

Question 25–1 Who typically draws the main elevations of a structure? Explain. Question 25–2 List methods of projecting heights from one elevation to another. Question 25–3 What scales are normally used to draw elevations? Question 25–4 What is the best method of determining the height of a roof when it is being viewed in a manner that does not show the pitch? Question 25–5 What lines should be drawn first when finished-line quality is being used? Question 25–6 What drawings are required to project grades onto an elevation? Briefly explain the process. Question 25–7 What drawings are required to draw a structure with an irregular shape? Question 25–8 Sketch the method of showing the chimney height, and provide the minimum dimensions that must be shown.

Question 25–9 What dimensions are typically shown on elevations? Question 25–10 What angle is used to represent a 4/12 pitch?

PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS 1. Use the sketch from Chapter 18, and draw the required elevations. The sketches do not contain all of the features represented on the floor plans and elevations. Draw the elevations so they coordinate with other drawings to be included in the drawing set. 2. Draw the required elevations using the same type and size of drawing material that you used to draw your floor plan. 3. Design the structure using materials suitable for your area. 4. Refer to your floor plan to determine all sizes and locations. If you find material that cannot be located using your floor plan, make additions to your floor plan as required. 5. Refer to the text of this chapter and notes from class lectures to complete the drawings. 6. When your drawing is complete, turn in a copy to your instructor for evaluation.

CHAPTER 26

Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout I

N

T

R

O

D

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C

T

I

O

N

Cabinet construction is an element of the final details of a structure known as millwork. Millwork is any item that is considered finish trim or finish woodwork. Millwork is available in many types of material such as wood, plastic, and ceramic. Wood millwork components are shaped using a milling process. Milling is the use of a rotating cutting tool where the tool forms the desired shape of the millwork. Plastic and ceramic millwork is generally extruded or formed into the desired shape. Extrusion is a manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile, where material is pressed or pushed under pressure through a desired shaped orifice. Architects, designers, and drafters do not always draw complete details of millwork items. The practice of drawing millwork representations depends on the specific requirements of the project. For example, the custom plans for a residential or commercial structure can provide very detailed and specific drawings of the finish woodwork in the form of plan views, elevations, construction details, and written specifications. Plans of a house may show only floor plan views of cabinets. The requirements of specific lenders and local codes determine the extent of millwork drawings on a set of plans. In most situations, when a set of plans is ready for construction, it must be submitted to a lender for loan approval and to code officials for a building permit. The approval of local building officials is always necessary in areas where building permits are required. Before a set of plans can be completed, verify the requirements of the client, the lender, and the local building officials.

shaped forms. In some situations, wood millwork can be replaced with plastic or ceramic products. For example, in a public restroom or in a home laundry room a plastic or rubber base strip can be used around the wall at the floor to protect the wall. This material stands up to abuse better than wood. In some cases, drafters are involved in drawing details for specific millwork applications. There are as many possible details as there are design ideas. The following discussion provides a general example of the items to help define the terms.

Baseboards Baseboards are placed at the intersection of walls and floors and are generally used for appearance and to protect the wall from damage, as shown in Figure 26-2. Baseboards can be as ornate or as plain as the specific design or location requires. In some designs, baseboards are the same shape as other millwork members, such as trim around doors and windows. Figure 26-3 shows some standard milled baseboards.

TYPES OF MILLWORK Millwork can be designed for appearance and/or for function. When it is designed for appearance, ornate and decorative millwork can be created with a group of shaped wooden forms placed together to capture a style of architecture. Shaped millwork is available in as many styles as the designer can imagine. Some vendors manufacture a wide variety of prefabricated millwork moldings, which are available at less cost than custom designs(see Figure 26-1). Functional millwork can be very plain in appearance. This type of millwork is also less expensive than 608

FIGURE 261 Prefabricated millwork. Courtesy Cumberland Woodcraft Co., Inc., Carlisle, Pennsylvania.

Chapter 26: Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout

609

VERTICAL RAILS OR MULLIONS

FINISHED WALL

FINISHED WALL TOP RAIL COVE MOLDING PLYWOOD WITH HARDWOOD FACE VENEER

BASEBOARD

STUD

STUD

BACKING PANEL BASEBOARD FINISHED FLOOR

FINISHED FLOOR

ELEVATION

SECTION

FIGURE 264 Plywood panel wood wainscot.

FIGURE 262 Baseboard.

wood base material. When used for millwork, the outer face can be a desired hardwood. This is a less expensive method of constructing an attractive wood wainscot than the hardwood panels shown in Figure 26-5.

Wainscots A wainscot is any wall finish where the material on the bottom portion of the wall is different from the upper portion. The lower portion is called the wainscot, and the material used is called wainscoting. Wainscots can be used on the interior or exterior of the structure. Exterior wainscoting is often brick or stone veneer. Interior wainscoting can be any material that is used to divide walls into two visual sections. For example, wood paneling, plaster texture, ceramic tile, wallpaper, or masonry can be used as wainscoting. Figure 26-4 shows the detail of wood wainscot with plywood panels. The plywood panel can have a hardwood outer veneer to match the surrounding hardwood material. Veneer is thin sheets of wood glued together to form plywood or glued to a

Chair Rails The chair rail has traditionally been placed horizontally on the wall at a height where chair backs would otherwise damage the wall (see Figure 26-6). Chair rails, when used, are usually found in dining rooms, dens, offices, or other areas where chairs are frequently moved against a wall. Chair rails can be used individually for appearance or together with wainscoting. In some applications, the chair rail is an excellent division between two different materials or wall textures. Figure 26-7 shows sample chair rail moldings.

Cornices The cornice is a decorative trim that is placed in the corner where the wall meets the ceiling. A cornice can

PLYWOOD PANEL QUARTER ROUND CAP COVE TOP RAIL COVE SOLID WOOD PANEL COVE BOTTOM RAIL BASEBOARD

ELEVATION

FIGURE 263 Standard baseboards. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.

FIGURE 265 Solid wood-panel wainscot.

SECTION

610


HEIGHT OF CHAIR BACKS

CHAIR RAIL

JOIST

STUD FINISHED WALL

FINISHED CEILING

STUD

FINISHED WALL

BASEBOARD

FINISHED FLOOR

FIGURE 268 Individual-piece cornice.

FIGURE 266 Chair rail.

be a single shaped wood member called cove or crown molding, as seen in Figure 26-8; or a more complex structure made up of several individual wood members, as shown in Figure 26-9. Cornice boards commonly fit into specific types of architectural styles, such as English Tudor, Victorian, or Colonial. Figure 26-10 shows some standard cornice moldings. In most construction, where contemporary architecture or cost saving is important, wall-to-ceiling corners are left square.

or window jamb and the wall. Figure 26-12 shows a variety of standard casings.

Mantels The mantel is an ornamental shelf or structure that is built above a fireplace opening, as shown in Figure 26-13. Mantel designs vary with individual preference. Mantels can be made of masonry as part

Casings Casings are the members used to trim around windows and doors. Casings are attached to the window or doorjamb (frame) and to the adjacent wall, as shown in Figure 26-11. Casings can be decorative to match other moldings or plain to serve the functional purpose of covering the space between the doorjamb

FIGURE 267 Standard chair rails. Courtesy Hillsdale Pozzi Co.

FIGURE 269 Multipiece cornice.


611

FIGURE 2610 Standard cornice (cove and ceiling) moldings. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.

CASING

DOOR

FIGURE 2613 Mantel. Also notice the decorative cove molding where the wall meets the ceiling and custom casing around the windows. Courtesy Pella Corporation.

HEAD JAMB

JAMB

of the fireplace structure, or ornate decorative wood moldings, or even a rough-sawn length of lumber bolted to the fireplace face. Figure 26-14 shows a traditional mantel application.

CASING

DOOR

FLOOR

ELEVATION

INTERIOR DOOR SECTION

FINISHED WALL MANTEL

FIGURE 2611 Casings. COVE MOLD BACKING TRIM MOLD

MASONRY

ELEVATION

FIGURE 2612 Standard casings. Courtesy Hillsdale Sash and Door Co.

FIGURE 2614 Traditional mantel.

MANTEL SECTION

612


Bookshelves Bookshelves and display shelves can have simple construction with metal brackets and metal or wood shelving, or they can be built and detailed the same as fine furniture. Bookshelves are commonly found in the den, library, office, or living room. Shelves that are designed to display items other than books are also found in almost any room of the house. A common application is placing shelves on each side of a fireplace. Shelves are also used for functional purposes in storage rooms, linen closets, laundry rooms, and any other location where additional storage is needed.

Detailed open railings built of exotic hardwoods can be one of the most expensive and most impressive features in a building. Figure 26-16 shows some standard railing components. Newels are the posts that support the rail at the ends and at landings. Balusters are generally smaller posts placed between the newels.

CABINETS Cabinets are among the most important features for buyers of a new home. The quality of cabinetry can vary greatly. Cabinet designs can reflect individual taste, with

Railings Railings are used for safety at stairs, landings, decks, and open balconies where people can fall. Rails are recommended at any rise that measures 24" (610 mm) or is three or more stair risers in height. Verify the size with local codes. Railings can also be used as decorative room dividers or for special accents. Railings can be built enclosed or open and constructed of wood or metal. Enclosed rails are often the least expensive to build because they require less detailed labor than open rails. A decorative wood cap is typically used to trim the top of enclosed railings (see Figure 26-15). Open railings can be one of the most attractive elements of interior design. Open railings can be as detailed as the designer’s or craftsperson’s imagination.

RAILING CAP TRIM

FLOOR

FINISHED WALL

STAIRS FRAME FLOOR ELEVATION SECTION ENCLOSED RAILINGS

HAND RAIL

BALUSTERS

NEWEL POST

OPEN RAILINGS

FIGURE 2615 Railings.

FIGURE 2616 Examples of standard railing components. Courtesy Hillsdale Pozzi Co.


a variety of styles available. Cabinets are used for storage and as furniture. Cabinets are commonly found in the kitchen and bath, but are also used in the laundry room, family room, walk-in closet, garage, and other storage locations. The design and arrangement of kitchen cabinets has been the object of many studies. Over the years design ideas have resulted in attractive and functional kitchens. Kitchen cabinets have two basic elements: the base cabinet and the upper cabinet, as shown in Figure 26-17. Drawers, shelves, cutting boards, pantries, and appliance locations must be carefully considered. Bathroom cabinets are called vanities, linen cabinets, and medicine cabinets (see Figure 26-18). Other cabinetry provides storage throughout a house, such as in utility or laundry rooms. For example, a storage cabinet above a washer and dryer is common.

TRASH COMPACTOR

TC

GD

613

Cabinet Types There are as many cabinet styles and designs as you can imagine. However, there are only two general types of cabinets, based on their method of construction. These are modular or prefabricated cabinets, and custom cabinets.

Modular Cabinets The term modular cabinets refers to prefabricated cabinets because they are constructed in specific sizes called modules. Modular cabinets are best used when a group of modules can be placed side by side in a given space. If a little more space is available, then pieces of wood, called filler, are spliced between modules. Many brands of modular cabinets are well crafted and very attractive. Most modular cabinet vendors offer different door styles,

DISHWASHER

DW

SINK RANGE/OVEN W/ HOOD FAN REFRIGERATOR BASE CABINETS

UPPER CABINETS

FLOOR PLAN

SOFFIT

WINDOW

SOFFIT

13"

BACKSPLASH

SINK

30"

UPPER CABINETS

12"

BASE CABINETS

36"

SHELF OR DRAWERS TOE SPACE BASE CABINETS

TRASH COMPACTOR

ELEVATION FIGURE 2617 Components of kitchen cabinets.

DISHWASHER

18"

UPPER CABINETS

24"

SECTION

614


MEDICINE CABINET (MC)

SINK

VANITY

FLOOR PLAN LINEN W/ SHELVES MIRROR AND MC MC BACKSPLASH

VANITY

SINK

21"

30"

SHELF OR DRAWERS

DRAWERS

TOE SPACE

SECTION

ELEVATION FIGURE 2618 Components of bathroom cabinets.

wood species, and finish colors. Modular cabinets are sized in relationship to standard or typical installations, although many modular cabinet manufacturers can make components that fit nearly every design situation. Modular cabinets are often manufactured nationally and delivered in modules. Good places to see modular cabinets on display are your local multi-product lumber company, Home Depot, or Lowe’s Home Improvement Center. The suppliers of modular cabinets often have detailed displays showing the available door designs and other available features. These suppliers typically have a cabinet designer on staff that can create a computer-aided design of your desired cabinets from your building plans. The computer-aided design commonly shows the floor plan and cabinet elevations, and provides a cost analysis based on your desired features (see Figure 26-19).

One of the advantages of custom cabinets is that their design is limited only by the imagination of the architect and the cabinet shop. Custom cabinets can be designed and built for any situation, such as for any height, space, type of exotic hardwood, type of hardware, geometric shape, or for any other design requirements. Custom cabinet shops estimate a price based on the architectural drawings. The actual cabinets are constructed from measurements taken at the job site after the building has been framed. In most cases, if cabinets are ordered as soon as the framing is completed, the cabinets should be delivered on time for installation as one of the last phases of construction.

Custom Cabinets

●

The word custom means made to order. Custom cabinets are generally fabricated locally in a shop to the specifications of an architect or designer, and after construction they are delivered to the job site and installed in large sections.

Cabinet Options Cabinet designs available from either custom or modular cabinet manufacturers include the following: ● ● ●

Various door styles, materials, and finishes. Self-closing hinges. A variety of drawer slides, rollers, and hardware. Glass cabinet fronts for a traditional appearance where desired.


12" 24"

12"

615

24" 36"

12"

METRIC CONVERSION

30"

30"

18"

18"

84"

84"

36"

36"

24"

12" 24"

24"

24" 36"

SIDE

FRONT

SIDE

FRONT

STANDARD BASE AND UPPER CABINETS WITH DRAWERS

INCHES

MILLIMETERS

12

300

15

380

18

450

24

600

30

760

36

900

48

1200

72

1800

84

2200

STANDARD BASE AND UPPER CABINETS

18" 24"

18"

24" 30"

30" 84"

84"

36"

36"

60"

SIDE

SIDE

FRONT

UPPER CABINET OVER RANGE

FRONT UPPER CABINET OVER SINK

12" 15"

12"

18"

12" 12" 36" 24"

30" 18"

1'4" 1'8"

WHEELCHAIR ACCESS EATING BAR BASE CABINET

DROP EATING BAR

WHEELCHAIR SPACE IS 30" X 48". VERIFY DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS FOR DISABLED ACCESS WITH THE MANUAL OF ACTS AND RELEVANT REGULATIONS FOR THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT.

FIGURE 2619 Standard cabinet dimensions. Note: All metric equivalents are soft conversions.

616

● ●

●

Wood or metal range hoods. Specially designed pantries, appliance hutches, and a lazy Susan or other corner cabinet design for efficient storage. Bath, linen storage, and kitchen specialties.

Cabinets Designed for Universal Use Kitchen and bathroom access can be improved for people with disabilities by applying a few design considerations. Whether the cabinets are designed for wheelchair access or for people who need to sit, the same possibilities exist.

Kitchen Design The kitchen cabinets can be designed specifically for easy access, or they can be adjustable or removable for future needs. A versatile kitchen has at least one counter at a height of 32" (813 mm) for convenient wheelchair access. A lower cabinet or pullout shelf can be considered for heavy work that requires leaning over or down. The standard base cabinet height is 36" (914 mm), but a height of 42" (1067 mm) can be considered for very tall people. The range, sink, and workspace next to the refrigerator should be connected and on the same level to make it easier for people to slide heavy items from one workstation to the next. This design is possible in a straight, L-shaped, or U-shaped kitchen. The standard kitchen shape can be modified with angled or curved corners to provide easier access to the corners. Placing the sink between the refrigerator and the cooking center allows for the most convenient food preparation. This design can be altered on the basis of owner preference. Some designs have two kitchens when both standing and wheelchair-using members of the same family actively work. A second kitchen can be added later if enough space and rough plumbing and electrical work are considered during the design process. This second kitchen becomes useful at a later time in life or if there is a need to care for aging family members. Base cabinets can be designed for wheelchair access by providing a recessed space 27" (686 mm) high under the cabinet. These cabinets should also have a larger-than-normal toe space 10" (254 mm) high by 6" (152 mm) deep. Some of the upper cabinets can be designed down to the top of base cabinets. This allows access up to approximately 46" (1168 mm) for wheelchair use. These lower upper cabinets can be installed without doors for easier access to the contents. The clear space in front of cabinets should be at least 48" (1219 mm), but more is preferred.


The eating area should be next to the kitchen for convenience, or provide a passageway between the kitchen and dining room. Part of the kitchen cabinet can be movable to allow for transporting items to and from the eating area. Additional storage is a consideration in designing a kitchen for people who cannot go shopping frequently. Storage should also be compartmentalized for convenient organization, and provide a lazy Susan in the corners for access to under-counter items. Wire racks placed on the backs of doors are accessible, and wire shelves and drawers make it easier to see the contents. Pantries are beneficial for storage in any kitchen design. When full-extension pullout shelves are added to the pantry, items at the back of the shelves become easy to reach. All kitchen drawers should have full-extension guides for easy access. Touch latches on cabinet doors allow the doors to be opened easily. For people in wheelchairs, sliding cabinet doors allow easier access to the cabinet than swinging doors. Many modern appliances are designed with easyto-see and easy-to-use controls near the front. Doubledoor refrigerators provide easy access to the inside, and one door with ice and water dispensers can be specified.

Bathroom Design The bathroom vanity can be designed with a recessed space underneath for sitting or wheelchair access. The vanity cabinet height should be 28" to 32" (711 to 813 mm). Other cabinet design features that were discussed in the previous recommendations about kitchen design can be considered. For example, see details regarding the toe kick space, storage options, drawer guides, and door swings. A wall-mounted or pedestal sink is also a possibility for easy access, but it does not provide counter space. Grab bars should be placed to assist movement from the vanity to the shower and the water closet. The grab bars must be designed and installed to support the weight of a person. Benches can be designed in the bathroom in locations where sitting or transferring from a wheelchair is convenient.

Laundry Room Design Laundry rooms designed with base cabinets next to the clothes dryer make clothes folding convenient. The same considerations as previously discussed apply with regard to height and cabinet recessing. Foldout ironing boards are available that can be installed in a drawer or in the wall.


617

information about door style, finish, hardware, and other features can be provided on the drawings and in specifications.

CABINET ELEVATIONS AND LAYOUT Cabinet floor plan layouts and symbols were discussed in Chapter 16. Cabinet elevations or exterior views are developed directly from the floor plan drawings. The purpose of the cabinet elevations is to show how the cabinet exteriors look when completed and to give general dimensions, notes, and specifications. Cabinet elevations can be as detailed as the architect or designer desires and as needed by the cabinet builder. In Figure 26-20 the cabinet elevations are very clear and well done without detail or artwork that is not specifically necessary to construct the cabinets. In Figure 26-21 the cabinet elevations are drawn more artistically. Neither set of cabinet drawings is necessarily more functional than the other. Specific

Keying Cabinet Elevations to Floor Plans Several methods can be used to key the cabinet elevations to the floor plan. In Figure 26-20, the designer keyed the cabinet elevations to the floor plans with room titles such as KITCHEN or BATH. In Figure 26-21, the designer used an arrow with a letter inside to correlate the elevation to the floor plan. For example, in Figure 26-22 the E and F arrows pointing to the vanities are keyed to letters E and F that appear below the vanity elevation in Figure 26-21.

GLASS DOOR INSERTS

SINGLE SINK BREAD BD.

TRIPLE SINK

TRAY STORAGE

KITCHEN

METAL LINED FOLD-OUT BINS W/GLASS PANELS IN DOORS

3/8" = 1'O"

LAUNDRY HAMPER

3'-0"

6'-0"

3'-0"

2'-6"

REFR SPACE

24"

BREAD BOARD

KNEE SPACE

FOYER

KITCHEN

ISLAND

MAKE-UP LIGHT - TYPICAL FOLD OUT BY SINK

SINK KNEE SPACE

BATH #2

BATH #1

FIGURE 2620 Simplified cabinet elevations. Courtesy Residential Designs, AIBD.

MIRROR SINK

2'-8"

PLASTIC LAM. COUNTERTOP & SPLASH TYP

2'-6"

SINK

BOOK SHELVES

3'-4" 2'-0"

2'-0"

3'-6"

2'-0"

BOOK SHELVES W/ LEADED BEVELED GLASS DOORS

METAL LINED LAUNDRY CHUTE

BREAD BD MARBLE COUNTERTOP 30" ABOVE FLOOR

DISH WASHER

TRASH COMP.

4-METAL LINED VEG. BINS

REFR SPACE COUNTER ON PIANO HINGE OVER MARBLE BAKE CENTER

POWDER #2

POWDER #1

3'-0"

SINK

3'-0"

SINK

8'-0"

MIRROR

8'-0"

MIRROR

5'-0"


5'-0"

618

3'-6"

5'-9"

BATH ELEVATION

E

SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

BATH ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

15'-9"

13'-2" 1'-2" 2'-9"

5'-10"

7'-4"

MICROWAVE PLANTER

SINK

3'-0"

OVEN D.W.

2'-0"

5'-0"

1'-10" 2'-0"

3'-0" 12'-0"

10'-0"

B

KITCHEN ELEVATION

A

SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

KITCHEN ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

8'-6"

1'-0"

13'-6"

8'-0' 1/2"

F

MASTER BATH ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

FIGURE 2621 Detailed cabinet elevations. Courtesy Madsen Designs Inc.

DESK

5'-0"

C

3'-6"

2'-4"

REF.

3'-0"

SINKS

2'-0"

8'-0"

2'-8"

MIRROR

1'-9"

2'-9"

KITCHEN ELEVATION SCALE: 1/4" = 1'-O"

8'-0"

2'-6" 1'-0"

3'-0" 1'-6" 2'-6" 1'-0"

USED BRICK

1'-6"

E


619

the design specifications. The sheet from a set of architectural working drawings shown in Figure 26-26 is an example of how millwork drawings can provide very clear and precise construction techniques.

WALK-IN CLOSET

Cabinet Layout 4/0 X 3/0 SHOWER

MASTER BATH

Kitchen Cabinet Layout

5/0 TUB W/ SHWR

LIN

EN

4/0 X 3/0 SHOWER

F

BATH 2

Cabinet layout is possible after the floor plan drawings are complete. The floor plan cabinet drawings are used to establish the cabinet elevation lengths. Cabinet elevations can be projected directly from the floor plan, or dimensions can be transferred from the floor plan to the elevations with a scale or dividers.

E

FIGURE 2622 Using the floor plan and elevation cabinet location symbol.

In the commercial drawing shown in Figure 26-23, notice the floor plan has identification numbers within a combined circle and arrow. The symbols, similar to the one shown in Figure 26-24, point to various areas that correlate with the same symbols labeled below the related elevations. A similar method can be used to relate cabinet construction details to the elevations. The detail identification symbol shown in Figure 26-25 is used to correlate a detail with the location from which it originated on the elevation. The number in the bottom of the symbol is the page where the elevation or detail is found. In some plans, small areas such as women’s and men’s restrooms have interior elevations without specific orientation to the floor plan. The reason is that the relationship of floor plan to elevations is relatively obvious. Various degrees of detailed representation may be needed for millwork, depending on its complexity and

The cabinet elevations are drawn as though you are standing in the room looking directly at the cabinets. Cabinet elevations are two-dimensional. Height and length are shown in an external view, and depth is shown where cabinets are cut with a cutting plane establishing the line of sight (see Figure 26-27). For the kitchen shown in Figure 26-27 there are two elevations: one looking at the sink and dishwasher cabinet group; the other viewing the range, refrigerator, and adjacent cabinets. Given the floor plan drawing shown in Figure 26-27, draw the cabinet elevations as follows: Make a copy of the cabinet floor plan area, and tape the copy to the drafting table above the area where the elevations are to be drawn. Use construction lines to transfer length dimensions from the floor plan onto the blank drafting sheet to draw the cabinet elevation in the desired location as shown in Figure 26-28. Some drafters prefer to transfer dimensions from the floor plan drawings with a scale or dividers. When the elevations are transferred from the floor plan, the scale is the same as the 1/4" = 1'−0" (1:50 metric) floor plan scale. Other scales are also used, such as 3/8" = 1'−0" or 1/2" = 1'−0", when additional clarity is needed to show small detail. When the cabinet elevation scale is different from the floor plan scale, the dimensions cannot be projected. In this case the dimensions are established from the floor plan and a scale change is implemented before transfer to the elevation drawing.

STEP 1

5

6

7

3

6

2

4

1

8

9

5

REVERSE


REVERSE

620

PASS THRU

NOTE: 1. ALL WALLPAPER TO BE LAID OVER RAPID PLASTER — SMOOTH FINISH 2. PROVIDE A DUST STOP BETWEEN ALL WALL FINISHES AND EQUIPMENT BY OTHERS

8

6'-1" VERIFY

9

LINE OF 7'-0" CEILING

RAPID PLASTER SMOOTH FINISH

TYPICAL 1X12 SIDING

4'-6" VERIFY



4" WOOD COMBO BASE

5

6

7

TURNED POST 2 X 4 @16' O.C. CONT. 2 X 8 CEDAR 2 X 18 DF TRIM

LINE OF SUSPENDED CEILING

CONT. 2 X 8 CEDAR

GYP BD

2 X TRIM CEDAR ALIGN w/2 X 8

WD MOLDING WP #148

2X4@ 16' O.C.

TURNED POSTS

WD SIDING

1

2

3

4

3

3

3

3

FIGURE 2623 Commercial floor plan with cabinet identification and location symbols. Courtesy Ken Smith Structureform Masters, Inc.

FIGURE 2624 Floor plan and elevation cabinet identification and location symbol.

FIGURE 2625 Detail identification symbol.


621

3 X 4 D.F. MITER @ EA. CORNER

11/2" RADIUS CORNER 1"

1" 0 HOLE X 7/8" MIN. DEEP 1" 0 CIRCLE

1" 0 X 3/4" TENNON

CL

1'-4 5/8"

TURN POST FROM 4" X 4" STOCK @ 12" O.C. EQUAL DISTANCE FROM EA. END

16d = 12" O.C. 41/4"

CL

3/4"

2"

6" X 6" X 1" SQ. PLANT. ONS

2 X 10 D.F. TURN POST BASE PLATE MITE @ EA. CORNER 1" 0 HOLE X 7/8" MIN. DEEP & 1" 0 X 3/4" TENNON ON TURN POST 2.2 X 4 D.F. TOP PLATE LAP MIN. 48"

2 X 10 D.F. CONT. FASCIA BOARD 16d = 32" O.C. MB STUCCO #94 MITER @ EA. CORNER 2 X 4 D.F. @ 16" O.C. 5/8" SHEET ROCK

FIGURE 2626 Millwork and cabinet construction details. Courtesy Structureform Masters, Inc.

CADD APPLICATIONS Options for Creating Cabinet Elevations When using CADD, the cabinets can be projected directly from the floor plan and drawn on their own layers. After drawing the cabinet elevations, the floor plan layer is turned off, leaving only the cabinet drawings. The cabinets can then be moved or scaled as needed. Another way to create the cabinet elevations, when using CADD, is to use the floor plan as a reference

drawing. When creating a drawing, it is often necessary to reference another drawing that contains the desired information. For example, when drawing the cabinet elevations, the floor plan can be referenced as a base. Referencing a drawing is similar to inserting an entire drawing file into the current drawing. The referenced floor plan is now used as a base for creating the cabinet elevations. ■

622


Establish the room height from floor to ceiling. If the floor-to-ceiling height is 8' (2400 mm), then draw two lines 8' apart with construction lines using the scale 1/4" = 1'−0" (see Figure 26-29). STEP 3 Locate and draw the portion of the cabinets where the line of sight cuts through base and upper cabinets and soffits as shown in Figure 26-30. STEP 4 Draw cabinet elevation features such as doors, drawers, and appliances (see Figure 26-31). Also draw background features, if any, such as backsplash, windows, and doors. Notice the rectangular shape drawn to the left of the dishwasher and below the countertop at the sink location. This is a false front, designed to look like a drawer. An actual drawer cannot be placed here, because it would run into the sink. A false drawer front is used to establish the appearance of a line of drawers just below the base cabinet top and above the doors. Some STEP 2

LINE OF SIGHT

FIGURE 2627 Establishing the line of sight for cabinet elevations.

CEILING LINE

FLOOR LINE

FIGURE 2628 Step 1: Transfer length dimensions from the floor plan to the cabinet elevation using construction lines.

FIGURE 2629 Step 2: Establish the floor and ceiling lines using construction lines.


623

CEILING LINE

BLOCK-OUT SOFFIT

BLOCK-OUT UPPER CABINET UPPER CABINET WITHOUT SOFFIT

FLOOR LINE BLOCK-OUT BASE CABINET

FIGURE 2630 Step 3: Draw base cabinets, upper cabinets, and soffits.

designs use cabinet doors that extend from the toe kick to the base cabinet top, although this method is not as common. STEP 5 Draw the outline of the ends of the cabinets and surrounding areas with a 0.5 mm line thickness. Draw dashed lines that represent hidden features, such as sinks and shelves, using a 0.25 line weight as shown in Figure 26-32. STEP 6 Add dimensions and notes. The dimensions shown in Figure 26-32 are given in feet and inches; it is standard practice in many offices to dimension cabinetry in inches or millimeters only. Follow the same process for drawing the remaining cabinet elevations (see Figure 26-33).

BATHROOM CABINET LAYOUT The same steps can be used to draw bath vanity elevations, as shown in Figure 26-34, or other special cabinet or millwork elevations and details.

CABINET ELEVATIONS CHECKLIST Plot ❑ Prepare the drawings to be plotted at a minimum scale of 3/8" = 1'−0" on D material with a title block to match other drawing sheets in the project. ❑ Freeze all viewports and use proper text size and font for annotation and dimensions.

Drawing Technique ❑ Proper orthographic layout/fold relationship to each view to floor plan. ❑ Coordination with floor plan—walls, doors, windows. ❑ Keep cabinet widths in 3"-wide modules. ❑ Use bold lines to show outlines of floors, walls, ceilings, and cabinets. ❑ Show drawers over doors for the kitchen and bath. Represent door swings and shelves.

624


RAISED PANEL BIFOLD DOORS W/ STAINED GLASS INSERT PANTRY W/ 5 SHELVES

SOFFIT

3'-0"

BREAD BOARD

8'-0"

REFR. SPACE

1'-6"

2'-6"

HOOD W/FAN VENT OUT

WINDOW

RANGE/OVEN

UPPER CABINET DOORS

5'-4"

1'-9"

2'-0"

1'-9"

2'-0"

KITCHEN CABINET ELEV.

BACKSPLASH DRAWER

DOOR

3'-0"

SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"

FIGURE 2633 Follow Step 1 through Step 6 to draw the other kitchen cabinet elevations.

DISHWASHER

FALSE DRAWER FRONT TRASH COMPACTOR

FIGURE 2631 Step 4: Draw cabinet elevation features such as doors, drawers, and appliances. Also draw background features such as backsplash, windows, and doors.

30" WIDE KNEE SPACE

SINK

SOFFIT

4" CERAMIC TILE BACKSPLASH

2'-6"

D.W. TRASH COMP.

2'-O" 2'-O" 1'-6"

3'-2"

2'-O"

2'-O"

KITCHEN CABINET ELEV.

6'-8"

MAKE UP

8'-0"

SINK

2'-8"

3'-O" 1'-6" 2'-6"

8'-O"

MIRROR ADJ. SHELVES

BACKSPLASH 3'-4"

2'-6"

3'-4"

SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"

MASTER BATH CABINETS FIGURE 2632 Step 5: Draw the outline of the ends of the cabinets and surrounding areas. Draw dashed lines that represent hidden features, such as sinks and shelves. Step 6: Add dimensions and notes.

SCALE: 1/4"=1'-0"

FIGURE 2634 Use cabinet layout Step 1 through Step 6 to draw all bath cabinet elevations.


❑ Show fold-out bin at each sink and range. ❑ In upper cabinets, provide minimum of one bread board, one tray storage, and some optional glass doors. ❑ Provide mirror to 6'−0" high at bath vanity.

Annotation ❑ Specify all materials including counters and backsplash. ❑ Specify toe, backsplash heights, and bar heights. ❑ Specify all shelf types (fixed, pull-out, adjustable). ❑ Label all appliances. ❑ Specify door and window sizes by placing the appropriate symbol on each elevation.

Dimensions

625

❑ Backsplash height above counter. ❑ Counter to bottom of upper cabinets. ❑ Upper cabinet heights. ❑ Height of refrigerator space. ❑ Height of cabinets above range height—list actual and minimum required heights. ❑ Soffit height. ❑ Floor to top of mirrors in bathrooms. ❑ Locate any specialty appliances such as microwave, coffee makers, or wine racks.

Horizontal ❑ Width of each opening in cabinets such as the refrigerator, desks, dishwasher, stove, sinks, and trash compactor. ❑ Overall length of each block of cabinets.

Vertical ❑ Floor-to-ceiling height. ❑ Floor-to-counter height—list all special counter heights such as food bars and desks.

CADD APPLICATIONS Drawing Millwork and Cabinet Elevations with CADD INTRODUCTION

Layer Name

Description

A-FLOR-TPTN

Toilet partitions

A-FLOR-SPCL

Architectural specialties, such as toilet room accessories

A-FLOR-WDWK

Architectural woodwork, field-built cabinets and counters

A-FLOR-CASE

Casework, manufactured cabinets

A-FLOR-APPL

Appliances

A-FURN-FREE

Freestanding furniture

A-FURN-CHAR

Chairs and other seating

CADD LAYERS FOR CABINET DRAWINGS

A-FURN-FILE

File cabinets

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) CAD Layer Guidelines establish the heading Architectural as the major group, Interiors as the minor group, and Facilities as the modifier identification for cabinetrelated CADD layers. The following are some of the recommended CADD layer names for interior facility applications: ■

A-FURN-PNLS

Furniture system panels

CADD makes it easy to draw millwork details and sections with the use of custom menu libraries containing millwork profiles. CADD menus for cabinet floor plan layouts place base and upper cabinets on the drawing, and then add symbols for appliances and kitchen or bath features. Draw cabinet elevations with CADD by selecting cabinet module symbols from menu libraries. Upper and lower cabinet doors can be selected for drawing in 2D or 3D. A complete set of CADD cabinet elevation drawings is shown in Figure 26-35.

A-FURN-WKSF

Furniture systems work surface components

A-FURN-STOR

Furniture system storage components

A-FURN-POWR

Furniture system power designations

A-FURN-IDEN

Furniture identification numbers

A-FURN-PLNT

Plants

A-FURN-PATT

Finish patterns

626


42" TILE BACK BA CK SPLASH 24" UC LIGHT 24" UC LIGHT SPLASH T 36" DOWN-DRAFT DOWN-DRAFT COOK TOP

24" UC LIGHT HOOD W/ LIGHT

36"

36"

DOOR TO HALL 24"

REFR

18"

OVENS

69"

18"

24" UC LIGHT LIGH 24" 4" UC LIGH LIGHT

108"⫾

42"

27"

CADD APPLICATIONS

36"

90"

166"⫾

KITCHEN

KITCHEN SOFFIT

SOFFIT

42"

OPEN TO

F FAMIL LY ROOM 24" U.C. LIGHT

D.W. W

DRYER R SPAC P E

36"

OPEN SHELVES L 57"

63"

KITCHEN

TRAY A

24" U.C. LIGHT

6" B.S.

WASHER W SPAC P E

60"

18"

24" U.C. LIGHT

36"

SINK

32"

24"

24"

72"

UTILITY ROOM

OPEN ADJ. SHELVES L

MANUFA F CTURED D MANTEL

OPEN ADJ. SHELVES L

5'-0"

108"⫾

76"

MOLDING TRIM

MASTER BATH A

32"

32"

3'-0"

80"

72"

BRICK HEARTH R SURROUND

45"

BATH A #2

LIVING ROOM

CABINET ELEVA VATIONS SCALE: 3/8"=1'-0"

FIGURE 2635 CADD cabinet elevations.

18"

BEYOND Y

74"

45"




The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you research available products and floor plan design options. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.enkeboll.com www.homedepot.com

627

Company, Product, or Service Architectural components Cabinet design and supplier

www.kitchen-cabinets-design.com www.lowes.com www.omegacab.com www.diamondcabinets.com www.kraftmaid.com www.qualitycabinets.com www.rivieracabinets.com

Cabinet design and supplier Cabinet design and supplier Omega Cabinetry Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets Prefabricated cabinets

www.kitchencabinetsanddesignsonline.com

Product and service links

Millwork and Cabinet Technology, Cabinet Elevations, and Layout Test


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, or complete the electronic chapter test on the Student CD. 1. Letter your name, Chapter 26 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write the question. Answers can be prepared on a word processor if approved by your course guidelines.

Question 26–1 Define millwork. Question 26–2 Give an example of when plastic or ceramic products may be used rather than wood millwork. Question 26–3 What are baseboards used for? Question 26–4 Describe wainscots. Question 26–5 Define cornice. Question 26–6 When is cornice millwork appropriate?

Question 26–13 What is another name for modular cabinets? Question 26–14 What is the most important difference between modular and custom cabinets? Question 26–15 How is it possible to compare cabinetry and millwork to fine furniture? Question 26–16 What is the purpose of cabinet elevations? Question 26–17 Why is it possible that cabinet elevations may not be part of a complete set of architectural drawings? Question 26–18 Show by sketch and/or explanation three methods of keying cabinet elevations to floor plans. Question 26–19 Make a sketch of a kitchen cabinet elevation that has the following components labeled or dimensioned:

Question 26–7 Where are casings used?

a. Drawers

Question 26–8 Where are mantels used?

b. False front

Question 26–9 Give an example of where bookshelves may be used effectively as millwork in the interior design of a structure.

c. Toe space

Question 26–10 Give two examples of where railings may be used.

d. Backsplash e. Base cabinet f. Upper cabinet

Question 26–11 Describe modular cabinets.

g. Soffit

Question 26–12 Describe custom cabinets.

h. Range and hood

628


i. Dishwasher

g. Medicine cabinet

j. Cutting board

h. Height of vanity cabinet

k. Shelves l. Base cabinet height m. Dimension from top of base cabinet to bottom

of upper cabinet n. Upper cabinet height o. Dimension from top of range to bottom of range

hood p. Cabinet doors

Question 26–20 Make a sketch of a bathroom vanity elevation that has the following components labeled or dimensioned: a. Vanity cabinet b. Backsplash c. Toe space d. Cabinet doors e. Cabinet drawers f. Mirror

PROBLEM Problem 26–1 Using the plans you started in Chapter 18, design and draw the cabinet elevations for all kitchen, bath, and specialty cabinets. The specific location of cabinet doors, drawers, and other features is flexible. Verify your cabinet designs with the contents of this chapter and your course guidelines. The placement of appliances and fixtures is predetermined by the floor plan drawing unless otherwise specified by your instructor. Use a scale of 1/4" = 1'−0" or 3/8" = 1'−0" for the cabinet elevations, depending on the amount of space available on your drawing sheet. The cabinet elevations can be placed on a sheet with other drawings if convenient. Do not crowd the cabinet elevations on the sheet you select. If there is not enough area for the cabinet elevations on a sheet with other drawings, place them on a separate sheet. Avoid placing cabinet elevations on a sheet with exterior elevations or the main floor plan.


SECTION 8

Framing Methods and Plans


CHAPTER 27

Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

More so than any other drawing, the structural drawings—the framing plans, sections and details, and foundation plan— require a thorough understanding of the materials and process of construction. A drafter can successfully complete the architectural drawings with minimal understanding of the structural processes that are involved. However, to work on drawings that will show how a structure is assembled requires an understanding of basic construction principles and materials.

Wood, steel, masonry, and concrete are the most common materials used in the construction of residential and small office buildings. Each material has its own green properties, and methods of achieving Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) credits. With each material, several different framing methods can be used to assemble the components. Wood is the most widely used material for the framing of houses, apartments, and condominiums. The most common framing systems used with wood are platform, and post and beam, although knowledge of older balloon framing methods is needed when completing renovations on existing structures. Several variations of platform framing can improve green building methods and increase energy efficiency. Components for each system will be introduced in Chapter 28.

WOOD FRAMING METHODS Common wood framing methods include: ● ● ● ●

Balloon framing. Western platform framing. Post-and-beam framing. Timber.

Each of these methods has many green properties that lead to LEED credits in the categories of Energy and Atmosphere and Material and Resources. Common credits gained by the use of wood framing methods include recycled content, building resource, rapidly renewable materials, and certified wood products. Division 6 of the CSI classifications covers wood framing methods.

Balloon Framing Although balloon framing is rarely used in new construction except for gable end walls, knowledge of this system will prove helpful if an old building is being remodeled. With balloon or eastern framing the exterior studs run from the top of the foundation to the top of the highest level, as in Figure 27-1A and Figure 27-1B. This is one of the benefits of the system. Wood has a tendency to shrink as the moisture content decreases, and it shrinks more in width than in length. Because the wall members are continuous from foundation to roof, fewer horizontal members are used, resulting in less shrinkage. Brick veneer or stucco is often applied to the exterior face of the wall, and the minimal shrinkage of the balloon system helps to prevent cracking in the exterior finish. Because of the long pieces of lumber needed, a twostory structure is the maximum that can be built easily using balloon framing. Floor framing at the midlevel is supported by a ledger set into the studs. Structural members are usually spaced at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm) on center (O.C.). Although the length of the stud gives the building stability, it has also caused the demise of the system. The major flaw with balloon framing is the danger of fire. A fire starting in the lower level could quickly race through the cavities formed in the wall or floor systems of the building. Blocking or smoke-activated dampers are now required by building codes at all levels to resist the spread of fire (see Figure 27-2).

Platform Framing Platform or western platform framing is the most common framing system now in use. The system gets its name from the platform created by each floor as the building is being framed. The framing crew is able to use the floor as a platform to assemble the walls for that level (see Figure 27-3). Platform framing grew out of the need for fire blocks in the balloon framing system. The fire blocks that had been put in individually between the studs in balloon framing 631

632


RAFTER RAFTER

CEILING JOISTS TOP PLATE CEILING JOISTS FULL HEIGHT STUD FROM SILL TO TOP PLATE

LEDGER FLOOR JOISTS FLOOR JOISTS

LEDGER SOLID BLOCKING SILL FLOOR JOISTS SILL

SOLID BLOCKING

FIGURE 271A Balloon framing wall members extend from the foundation to the roof level in one continuous piece.

A

FIGURE 271B Balloon framing is often used to frame gable end walls and other walls that extend past the normal plate height. The IRC requires blocking every 10' (3000 mm) to reduce the risk of a fire spreading through the wall cavity.

B

FIGURE 272 (A) The risk of fire spreading is very great with balloon framing because flames can race through the floor and wall systems. (B) Building codes require blocking, or fire blocking, to be added to the intersection of each floor and wall to resist the spread of fire and smoke through the floor and wall systems of a structure.

Chapter 27: Environmentally Friendly Framing Methods

633

FIGURE 273 Western platform framing allows the framers to use the floor as a clean surface to construct the walls to support the next level.

FIGURE 275 A western platform floor system constructed using engineered floor joists. Courtesy Benigno MolinaManriquez.

became continuous members placed over the studs to form a solid bearing surface for the floor or roof system (see Figure 27-4).

shows the construction of a joist floor system. Plywood 1/2", 5/8", or 3/4" (12.7, 15.9, or 19 mm) thick can be used for the subfloor, which covers the floor joists. The plywood has a tongue-and-groove (T&G) pattern in the edge to help minimize floor squeaking. Gluing the plywood to the supporting members in addition to the normal nailing also helps eliminate squeaks. Occasionally T&G lumber 1 × 4 or 1 × 6 (25 × 100 or 25 × 150) will be laid diagonal to the floor joists to form the floor system, but plywood is primarily used because of the speed with which it can be installed. With the floor in place, the walls are constructed using the floor as a clean, flat, layout surface. Walls are typically built flat on the floor using a bottom plate, studs, and two top plates. With the walls squared, sheathing can be nailed to the exterior face of the wall, and then the wall tilted up into place. When all of the bearing walls are in place, the next level can be started. As in the balloon system, studs are typically placed at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm), with 16" (400 mm) O.C. the most common spacing. Figure 27-8 shows a building constructed with platform methods. Although in theory, the height of a structure is limitless with the platform framing method, the IRC does not allow studs for each level to be taller than 10' (3000 mm) (12' [3600 mm] under special conditions presented in Chapter 28 and Chapter 32), and does not allow a wood-framed residence to be more than three stories above grade. The height restriction is due to the risk of fire due to the combustible nature of wood and the risk of lateral failure due to high winds and earthquakes. Chapter 42 provides a further discussion of codes affecting wood construction.

Building with the Platform System Once the foundation is in place, the framing crew sets the girders and the floor members. Figure 27-5 shows a foundation and engineered floor joist. The major components of platform construction can be seen in Figure 27-6. Sawn floor joists ranging in size from 2 × 6 through 2 × 14 (50 × 150 through 50 × 350) can be used, depending on the distance they are required to span. If engineered joists are used, 9 1/2" and 11 7/8" (240 and 297 mm) are common depths. Chapter 28 will explore the use of engineered joists. Figure 27-7

STUD

SOLE PLATE FLOOR JOISTS BLOCKING OR RIM JOIST

TOP PLATES STUD

FIGURE 274 The fire blocks of the balloon system gave way to continuous supports at each floor and ceiling level.

634


RAFTER

ROOF SHEATHING

RAFTER SOLID BLOCKING CEILING JOISTS DOUBLE TOP PLATE WALL SHEATHING

SILL

STUDS

SILL SOLID BLOCK

DOUBLE TOP PLATE

SILL

FLOOR SHEATHING

SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST DOUBLE TOP PLATE FLOOR JOISTS

STUDS

SILL

FLOOR JOISTS

SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST

MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS

FLOOR JOISTS

SOLID BLOCK STEM WALL

CEILING JOISTS


STEM WALL

FOOTING CRAWL SPACE FOOTING

FIGURE 276 Structural members of the platform framing system.

Post-and-Beam Framing Post-and-beam construction places framing members at greater distances apart than platform methods do. In residential construction, posts and beams are usually spaced at 48" (1200 mm) on center. Although this

FIGURE 277 A joist floor system typically places support members at 16" (400 mm) O.C. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.

FIGURE 278 A residence framed with western platform framing methods. Courtesy Southern Forest Products Association.


635

ROOF DECKING ROOF BEAM RIDGE BEAM

POST POST

SILL

FLOOR DECKING


GIRDER STEM WALL FOOTING

FIGURE 279 Structural members of a post-and-beam framing system. In residential construction, supporting members are usually placed at 4' (1200 mm) O.C. In commercial uses, spacing may be 20' (6000 mm) or greater.

system uses less lumber than other methods, it requires larger members. Sizes vary, depending on the span, but beams of 4" or 6" (100 or 150 mm) wide are typically used. The subflooring and roofing over the beams are commonly 2 × 6, 2 × 8, or 1 1/8 (50 × 150, 50 × 200, or 28) T&G plywood. Figure 27-9 shows typical construction members of post-and-beam construction. Post-and-beam construction can offer great savings in both lumber and nonstructural materials. Savings result from careful planning of the locations of the posts, and doors and windows that will be located between them. Savings also result from having the building conform to the modular dimensions of the material being used. Although an entire home can be framed with postand-beam methods, many contractors use the post-andbeam system for supporting the lower floor (when no

basement is required) and then use conventional framing methods for the walls and upper levels, as seen in Figure 27-10. Figure 27-11 shows the beams of a postand-beam floor system.

Timber Construction Although timber framing has been used for more than 2000 years, the system was not widely used for the last 100 years. The development of balloon framing methods with its smaller materials greatly reduced the desire for timber methods. Many home owners are now returning to timber framing methods for the warmth and coziness timber homes tend to create (see Figure 27-12). The length and availability of lumber affect the size of the frame. Although custom sizes are available

636


WALL SHEATHING

SILL

STUDS

SOLID BLOCK

FLOOR SHEATHING

SOLID BLOCK OR RIM JOIST

SILL

DOUBLE TOP PLATE

DOUBLE TOP PLATE

FLOOR JOISTS STUDS

FLOOR JOISTS

SILL

SILL FLOOR DECKING



GIRDER

STEM WALL STEM WALL FOOTING FOOTING GIRDER

FIGURE 2710 Post-and-beam construction (lower floor) is often mixed with platform construction for upper floors and roof framing.

for added cost, many mills no longer stock timbers longer than 16" (4800 mm). If laminated timbers are used, spans will not be a consideration. The method for lifting the timbers into place may also affect the size of the frame. Beams are often lifted into place by brute force, by winch, by forklift, or by crane. The method of joining the beams at joints affects the frame

FIGURE 2711 Beam placement for a post-and-beam floor system. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.

FIGURE 2712 The use of exposed timbers throughout the residence creates a warm, cozy feeling. Courtesy Ross Chapple, Timberpeg Post and Beam Homes.

GOING GREEN

637

Green Framing Don’t be fooled by thinking that older methods can’t be green. The home shown below was built in the early seventeenth century but featured many green components that are considered by some as “new technology.” This home featured double wall stone construction, south-facing glazing, and a “green roof” to protect the inhabitants from the cold New England winters. Each of the construction features presented throughout this chapter has some green features and can qualify for a wide variety of LEED credits. The very nature of wood makes it a green product. Long before it became trendy, lumber producers such as Georgia-Pacific, Louisiana-Pacific, and Weyerhaeuser as well as lumber associations such as the APA—The Engineered Wood Association, California Redwood Association, Southern Forest Products Association, and the Western Wood Products Association have worked to increase the efficiency and health of America’s forests. These groups have also worked closely with major code developers such as the ICC, ICBO, SBCCI, BOCA, and CABO (see Chapter 9) to ensure that products and construction methods will produce safe homes that use materials efficiently. Homes framed with the traditional balloon, post-andbeam, or timber framing methods have stood safely and efficiently for more than 400 years in many parts of the country. Western platform construction is at the core of many energy-efficient homes. Simply changing the depth of the wall framing members from 4" to 6" (100 to 150 mm) or altering the size of the roof overhang of homes framed with western platform methods can produce tremendous benefits in heating and cooling efficiency. These methods remain the core of the home building industry and can still be used to produce a very efficient structure. In areas that are subject to high wind loads or severe seismic activity, these methods are still a preferred method of construction.

This home was built in the early seventeenth century but featured double wall construction, south-facing glazing, and a “green roof.”

Other building methods presented in this chapter, such as masonry, concrete block, and steel-framed construction, have been popular for years but are seeing renewed interest because of advances in their production and usage. Brick homes dating back to our early settlers are highly sought after, not only for their historic value, but also because of their durability and insulative qualities. Adobe masonry products have been used in similar methods as their brick counterparts for hundreds of years throughout the Southwest for the same reasons that make other masonry products desirable. Although not as old as masonry construction, concrete blocks are used in many areas because of the protection they provide from airborne objects, and their insulative qualities. Steel has long been a popular building material because of its strength. Depending on manufacturing method and construction methods, even steel can be considered a green product and gain LEED credits for its efficient use of materials, its high use of recycled content, and its ability to be completely recycled when the life of the project is through. This chapter will introduce new production methods that have enhanced the energy efficiency of each of these materials. The balance of the construction methods presented in this chapter are not new, but may be fairly new to home construction. Structural insulated panels have been used since the mid-twentieth century for commercial construction, but have only recently made a major impact in the housing market. Insulated concrete foam construction has been used since the late twentieth century, but has seen its use skyrocket with the current trend to green construction. Engineered lumber has been in use since the mid-twentieth century but continues to grow in popularity because of the shortage of quality sawn lumber, its superior building qualities over sawn lumber, its efficient use of materials, and its high LEED credit value. So if Solomon was correct when he said “There is nothing new under the sun,” why the big push toward green construction? Because we live on a planet with diminishing resources and a growing population, and we have a need to be able to breathe clean air, drink clean water, and live in an environment that can sustain us. It is with this mind-set that the chapter will conclude with green construction goals. As you enter the design field, you’ll be working in a business where some are content to maintain the status quo, and others are hoping to save the planet. Your job will be to find balance using proven methods in new ways. The ideal methods will please your client, save materials to reduce costs to the builder and home owner, produce a low impact on the environment, be energy efficient, be recyclable, be buildable by the current workforce, and not break the bank. Welcome to the challenging world of design that awaits you.

638


FIGURE 2713 Typical components of a post-and-beam home. Courtesy Timberpeg Post and Beam Homes.

size. Figure 27-13 shows common timber components. Structural insulated panels (SIP) with an expanded polystyrene (EPS) core and drywall skin are available for use with timber-frame structures.

ENERGY-EFFICIENT FRAMING METHODS In addition to the use of common wood framing methods that can be used to gain LEED credits, additional methods and materials are available to increase the sustainability of a structure. These include the use of: ● ● ● ● ● ●

Energy-efficient platform framing. Engineered lumber and materials. Structurally engineered panels. Steel framing. Concrete masonry units. Solid masonry units.

Energy-Efficient Platform Framing Standard framing methods for exterior walls feature walls framed with 2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs at 16"

(400 mm) spacing. Chapter 12 introduced energyefficient design. Since the early 1980s, many framers have substituted 2 × 6 (50 × 150) studs at 24" (600 mm) spacing to allow for added insulation in the wall cavity. Many long-held framing practices are being altered to allow for greater energy savings. These framing practices are referred to as advanced framing techniques (AFTs). Many articles related to green construction now refer to AFT as Optimum Value Engineering (OVE). AFT systems eliminate nonstructural wood from the building shell and replace it with insulation. Wood has an average resistive value for heat loss of R-1 per inch of wood compared with R-3.5 through R-8.3 per inch of insulation. Reducing the amount of wood in the shell increases the structure’s energy efficiency. Advanced framing methods usually include 19.2" or 24" (480 or 600 mm) stud spacing, insulated corners, insulation in exterior walls behind partition intersections, single top plates, and insulation headers. For multilevel construction, the studs of the upper level must be stacked over the lower studs, and a metal strap must be used to tie the top plates together. Many municipalities limit advanced framing methods to one-level construction.


639

INSULATION SPACE

(3) 2 X CORNER STUDS

WIDE STUD BACKING INSULATION SPACE INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION

FLAT STUD INTERSECTION

INSULATION SPACE

THREE CORNER STUDS (EXTERIOR) FLAT BLOCKING INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION (2) 2 X CORNER STUDS

INSULATION SPACE DRYWALL CLIP

LADDER BACKED WALL INTERSECTION

INSULATION SPACE INTERIOR FRAMING PARTITION

TWO CORNER STUDS (EXTERIOR)

DRYWALL CLIP

ONE CORNER STUD

FIGURE 2714 Reducing the amount of lumber used at wall intersections reduces the framing cost and allows added insulation to be used.

For a multilevel residence, advanced methods can be used on the upper level, and the spacing can be altered to 16" (400 mm) for the lower floor. For homes designed in high-wind or some seismic zones, AFT may not be allowed without the approval of an engineer or architect. The insulation that is added to corners, wall intersections, and headers must be equal to the insulation value of the surrounding wall. Figure 27-14 shows examples of framing intersections using AFT. Figure 27-15 shows examples of how insulated headers can be framed. Advanced framing methods also affect how the roof will intersect the walls. Figure 27-16 compares standard roof and wall intersections with those of AFT.

DBL. TOP PLATE

RIGID INSULATION 2 X NAILER

DBL. 2 X HEADER WITH RIGID INSULATION SANDWICHED BETWEEN

4" HEADER

FIGURE 2715 Rigid insulation placed behind or between headers increases the insulation value of a header from R-4 to R-11.

640


BAFFLE TO PREVENT INSULATION FROM BLOCKING VENTILATION

STANDARD TRUSS

BATT OR BLOWN-IN INSULATION INSULATION IS COMPRESSED OR RESTRICTED NEAR EAVE

STANDARD FRAME CEILING

BAFFLE RAISED HEEL TRUSS

BATT OR BLOWN-IN FULL INSULATION OVER WALL

FIGURE 2717 Engineered framing materials made from the scraps created from milling other products often produce a product that is stronger than its naturally grown counterpart. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.

ADVANCED FRAME CEILING

BAFFLE

OVERSIZED TRUSS

BATT OR BLOWN-IN FULL INSULATION OVER WALL

ADVANCED FRAME CEILING FIGURE 2716 By altering the bearing point of a truss or rafter, the ceiling insulation can be carried to the outer edge of the exterior wall and reduce heat loss.

Engineered Lumber Framing In addition to using advanced framing techniques, Figure 27-17 uses engineered materials such as joists and beams that affect both the framing method and the impact the framing system will have on the environment. Engineered lumber products are made by turning small pieces of wood into framing members. Structural engineered members are usually made from wood scraps and young, small-diameter, fast-growing tree

species grown on tree farms specifically for the purpose of being used to make structural materials. Depending on the product to be made, sawdust, wood scraps, small pieces of lumber, or whole pieces of sawn lumber can be joined by adhesives applied under heat and pressure to produce engineered building products. Framing members created from small pieces of lumber that would have been scraps are joined together with finger joints and adhesive. Once joined with finger joints, this lumber will be as strong as a standard piece of lumber of the same grade. Common engineered products found throughout a residence include framing lumber such as engineered studs, headers, girders, I-joists, trusses, and sheathing. Production of engineered framing products provides efficient use of each log that enters the mill, predictable superior structural quality, and reduced construction waste at the job site. Engineered lumber for framing consists of laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL), and parallel strand lumber (PSL). The lumber is made by combining small pieces of second-growth trees to create wood that is free of knots and splits. LSL is created by assembling small sections of wood approximately 12" (300 mm) long into larger members. LVL is created by stacking thin veneers of wood peeled from a log and cutting them into lumber-sized members. PSL is created by small strands of veneers peeled from the outer portion of logs, aligned so that the strands are


parallel, coated with a waterproof adhesive, and pressed and cured into large members suitable for beams and girders. Engineered materials, and specific uses in the construction industry, will be explored in Chapter 28.

Structural Insulated Panels Structural insulated panels (SIPs) have been used for decades in the construction of refrigerated buildings, where thermal efficiency is important. SIPs have also been used in residential construction since the 1930s as part of research projects; their popularity increased as energy costs rose in the late twentieth century. SIPs are now a highly sought after economical method of energy-efficient construction because of their structural strength, high insulation rates, built-in vapor barriers, sound-deadening qualities, and ease of installing interior and exterior finishing materials. SIPs are composed of a continuous core of rigid foam insulation, which is laminated between two layers of structural board with an adhesive to form a single, solid panel (see Figure 27-18). Typically, expanded polystyrene (EPS) foam is used as the insulation material, and oriented strand board (OSB) is used for the outer shell of the panel. Plywood is another common material used for the exterior face. By using OSB made from fast-growing trees such as alder or aspen, SIPs are a very environmentally friendly product suitable for wall, floor, and roof construction. EPS panels are also available with a steel structural framework with no OSB facing, or panels can be shipped with 1/2" (13 mm) gypsum board preinstalled over the OSB panel. Special precautions must be specified with panels with a gypsum board face to ensure protection from the weather during storage and construction. New to the SIP market is a honeycomb panel core made of paper with OSB face

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panels. Originally developed for use in the aeronautical engineering industry, the original concept has been modified and is being tested for home use. Honeycomb panels consist of approximately 5% paper and 95% air and offer great potential for strong, energy-efficient SIPs. No matter the materials used, walls and roofs formed of SIPs can be quickly assembled and provide excellent resistance to earthquakes, high winds, moisture, and insect infestation. EPS retains its shape throughout the life of the structure to offer uniform resistance to air infiltration and increased R-values over a similar-size wood wall with batt insulation. Although values differ somewhat for each manufacturer, an R-value of 4.35 per inch of EPS is common. In addition to the increased R-value, because the panels do not contain studs, the SIPs do not create a thermal bridge from the exterior face to the interior face. At the edge of panels, many manufacturers use steel splines or recycled plastic studs to join panels, allowing the insulation to be virtually continuous. SIPs offer the consumer a product that is very environmentally friendly. Although the foam core is made from a nonrenewable resource, it does offer a very efficient use of the resource. One quart of an oil-based product is expanded to create approximately 40 quarts of foam panel filler. SIPs offer increased construction savings by combining framing, sheathing, and insulation procedures into one step during construction. Estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council indicate that the time used to construct the building envelope is reduced by more than one-third and the framing lumber required can be reduced by half. Panels can be made in sizes ranging from 4' through 24' (1200 through 7200 mm) long and 8' (2400 mm) high, depending on the manufacturer and design requirements. SIPs can be precut and custom-fabricated for use on the most elaborately shaped structures. Panels are quickly assembled onsite by fitting splines into routed grooves in the panel edges, as seen in Figure 27-19. Door and window openings can be precut during assembly or cut at the job site. A chase is typically installed in the panels to allow for electrical wiring.

Steel Framing

FIGURE 2718 Structural insulated panels are constructed of a continuous core of rigid foam insulation that is laminated between two layers of OSB. Courtesy Insulspan.

Lower energy cost, higher strength, and insurance considerations have helped steel framing become increasingly competitive with wood framing techniques in residential construction. Because exterior walls are wider, insulation of R-30 can be used for exterior walls. Steel-framing members are consistently straight and square and do not rot, warp, split, crack, or creep; they

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RAFTER

TRACK

CEILING JOISTS FLOOR SHEATHING

JOIST TRACK

TRACK

FIGURE 2719 Structural insulated panels are joined to each other with tongue-and-groove seams. Courtesy Insulspan.

FLOOR JOISTS

ANGLE CLIPS & ANCHOR BOLTS STEM WALL

also have excellent properties for resisting stress from snow, wind, and seismic forces, as well as termite and fire damage. Steel framing methods are referenced in Section 5 21 00 of Division 5 of the CSI classifications. Steel offers several earth-friendly benefits as a construction material and can often earn LEED credits in several categories of the Materials and Resources division. Standard steel used for construction contains approximately 50% recycled metal and is 100% recyclable. Steel can be reused if the building is altered or remodeled, or it can be recycled after the life of the structure. Although steel requires large amounts of energy in the initial manufacturing process, the recycled content value exceeds the goals of LEED. Because steel is very conductive, steel framing increases the risk of thermal bridging through the exterior walls. This conductivity can be overcome by using insulated exterior sheathing. Many residential steel structures incorporate techniques similar to western platform construction methods (see Figure 27-20). Steel studs, as shown in Figure 27-21, are used to frame walls. Walls are normally framed in a horizontal position on the floor and then tilted into place and bolted together. Steel trusses are typically used to provide design flexibility because they require no interior bearing walls.

FOOTING

CRAWL SPACE

FIGURE 2720 Structural members of a western platform framing system composed of steel members.

gained because the mass of concrete blocks acts as a reservoir to trap and store heat from the sun, so that interiors stay cooler longer. Concrete blocks have been traditionally used in warmer climates, from Florida to southern California, as an above-ground building material. Advanced manufacturing processes create CMUs that are insulated and waterproofed, which allows blocks to be used in all climate zones. Water repellants can be mixed into the blocks as they are produced, additional sealants and flashing can be applied at the job site, or cement-based paints can be used as the exterior finish, or they can be

Concrete Masonry Construction Concrete masonry units (CMUs) are a durable, economical building material that provides excellent structural and insulation values. Information related to CMUs can be found in Division 4 22 of the CSI classifications. LEED credits are typically gained in several categories of the Energy and Atmosphere and Materials and Resources division. The credits are

FIGURE 2721 A home framed with steel framing members. Courtesy North American Steel Framing Alliance.


covered with Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) or stucco. Waterproof wood furring strips are normally attached to the interior side of the block to support gypsum board. Insulation can be installed to either face of the block wall at the job site or to the cavity as the block is manufactured. Cavity insulation can include foam placed into the cavities that will not require reinforcing and grout; blocks created with reduced web sizes with insulation mixed into the block at the plant; and the use of mortarless dry-stacked blocks. Blocks set in this method are typically held together by a coat of bonding cement placed on the inside and outside of the blocks.

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DOUBLE CORNER

STRETCHER ( 3 CORE )

SOLID TOP

FULL-CUT HEADER

CORNER

HALF-CUT HEADER

BULL NOSE

LINTEL

Classifications of Concrete Blocks Four classifications are used to define concrete blocks for construction: hollow, load-bearing (ASTM C 90), solid load-bearing (ASTM C 145), and non-load-bearing blocks (ASTM C 129), which can be either solid or hollow blocks. Solid blocks must be 75% solid material in any cross-sectional plane. Blocks are also classed by their weight as normal, medium, and lightweight. The weight of the block is affected by the type of aggregate used to form the unit. Normal aggregates such as crushed rock and gravel produce a block weight of between 40 and 50 lb (18 and 23 kg) for a block 8 × 8 × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm). Lightweight aggregates include coal cinders, shale, clay, volcanic cinders, pumice, and vermiculite. Using a lightweight aggregate will produce approximately a 50% savings in weight.

Patterns, Colors, and Shapes of Concrete Blocks CMUs come in a wide variety of patterns, colors, textures, and shapes. The most common sizes are 8 × 8 × 16" (200 × 200 × 400 mm), 8 × 4 × 16" (200 × 100 × 400 mm), and 8 × 12 × 16" (200 × 300 × 400 mm). Nominal block widths are 4", 6", 8", 10", and 12" (100, 150, 200, 250, and 300 mm), and lengths are 6", 8", 12", 16", and 24" (150, 200, 300, 400, 600 mm). Each dimension of a concrete block is actually 3/8" (10 mm) smaller to allow for a 3/8" (10 mm) mortar joint. In addition to the exterior patterns, concrete blocks come in a variety of shapes, as shown in Figure 27-22. These shapes allow for the placement of steel reinforcement bars, but steel reinforcing mesh can also be used. Chapter 33 will provide further information on concrete reinforcement. Reinforcing is typically required at approximately 48" (1200 mm) O.C. vertically. Horizontal reinforcement is approximately 16" (400 mm) O.C., but the exact spacing depends on the seismic or wind stresses to be resisted. Reinforcement is typically specified on the framing plan and also shown in a cross section and detail. Figure 27-23 shows components of CMU construction.

HALF CORNER

STRETCHER ( 2 CORE)

JAMB

FIGURE 2722 Common shapes of concrete masonry units.

Concrete Form Masonry Units Concrete form masonry unit (CFMU) construction is a hybrid design that blends unit masonry construction and cast-in-place concrete construction into an efficient, single-process, composite wall system. CFMU walls have the outer appearance of conventional CMU surfaces, and are installed using traditional methods. After a CFMU wall has been laid to its desired height, the interior cavity is filled with concrete grout and reinforcing. The end result is a very cost effective, one-operation “sandwich wall” that has all the aesthetic possibilities of masonry and the strength of cast-in-place concrete, with superior performance characteristics.

Solid Masonry Construction The use of brick as a construction material for the building envelope can contribute greatly to the LEED sustainability properties, for which a building gains credits in the Energy and Atmosphere and Materials and Resources divisions. Unlike most construction materials, properly installed brick can last for centuries. Because of the thermal mass associated with brick construction, temperature swings within a structure are reduced. This can help reduce the size of the HVAC system required, which will help save on energy costs. The large mass also will help with soundproofing a structure. When the structure has completed its usefulness, the building can be dismantled and the materials recycled. Information regarding bricks and mortar can be found in Division 4 of the CSI classifications.

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ROOF SHEATHING

RAFTERS SOLID BLOCKING

CEILING JOISTS

HORIZONTAL BOND BEAM @ MIDWALL HEIGHT

FLOOR SHEATHING

SOLID GROUT ALL STEEL CELLS

BOND BEAM @ EA. FLOOR

FLOOR JOISTS LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS

LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS FLOOR JOISTS

FLOOR JOISTS

LEDGER & ANCHOR BOLTS FOOTING CRAWL SPACE

FIGURE 2723 Components of concrete masonry construction.

Brick Positions and Patterns In addition to these green features, one of the most attractive features of brick is the wide variety of positions and patterns in which it can be placed. These patterns are achieved by placing the bricks in various positions to each other. The position in which the brick is placed will alter what it is called. Figure 27-24 shows the names of common brick positions. Bricks can be placed in various positions to form a variety of bonds and patterns. A bond is the connecting of two wythes to form stability within the wall. The pattern is the arrangement of the bricks within one wythe.

The Flemish and English bonds in Figure 27-25 are the most common methods of bonding two wythes or vertical sections of a wall that is one brick thick. The Flemish bond consists of alternating headers and stretchers in every course. A course of brick is one row in height. An English bond consists of alternating courses of headers and stretchers. The headers span between wythes to keep the wall from separating.

Masonry Wall Construction Masonry walls must be reinforced using methods similar to those used with concrete blocks. The loads to be


645

COMMON BRICK WYTHE

FLEMISH BOND

HEADER COURSE

SAILOR COURSE

HALF BRICK

FLEMISH BOND FACE BRICK WYTHE

METAL TIES

ROWLOCK COURSE

STRETCHER COURSE COMMON BRICK WYTHE

SOLDIER COURSE

SHINER COURSE FACE BRICK WYTHE

FIGURE 2724 The position in which a brick is placed alters the name of the unit.

supported and the stress from wind and seismic loads determine the size and spacing of the rebar to be used and are established by the architect or engineer. If a masonry wall is to be used to support a floor, a space one wythe wide will be left to support the joist. Joists are usually required to be strapped to the wall so that the wall and floor will move together under lateral stress. The end of the joist must be cut on an angle, called a fire cut. If the floor joist is damaged by fire, the fire cut will allow the floor joist to fall out of the wall, without destroying the wall. Because brick is very porous and absorbs moisture easily, some method must be provided to protect the end of the joist from absorbing moisture from the masonry. Typically the end of the joist is wrapped with 55# felt and set in a 1/2" (13 mm) air space. The interior of a masonry wall also must be protected from moisture. A layer of hot asphaltic emulsion can be applied to the inner side of the interior wythe and a furring strip attached to the wall. In addition to supporting the gypsum board or plaster, the space between the furring strips can be used to hold batt or rigid insulation. When a roof framing system is to be supported on masonry, a pressure-treated plate is usually bolted to the brick, similar to how a plate is attached to a concrete

COMMON BRICK WYTHE

ENGLISH BOND

ENGLISH BOND

FACE BRICK WYTHE

FIGURE 2725 Brick walls can be strengthened by metal ties or bricks connecting the wythes. The most common types of brick bonds are the Flemish and English.

foundation. Figure 27-26 shows how floor and roof members are typically attached to masonry. Another method of using brick is to form a cavity between each wythe of brick. The cavity is typically 2" (50 mm) wide and creates a wall approximately 10" (250 mm) wide with masonry exposed on the exterior and interior surfaces. The air space between wythes cannot exceed 4" (100 mm) wide unless calculations

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RAFTER

2 X 8 P.T PLATE W/ 1/2"ø A.B. METAL STRAP FIRE CUT

REINFORCING MESH

FLOOR JOIST

FIGURE 2726 Attaching floor and roof framing members to a masonry wall.

for the wall ties and spacing have been provided to the building departments. The air space provides an effective barrier to moisture penetration to the interior wall. Weep holes in the lower course of the exterior wythe will allow moisture that collects to escape. Rigid insulation can be applied to the interior wythe to increase the insulation value of the air space in cold climates. Care must be taken to keep the insulation from touching the exterior wythe so that moisture is not transferred to the interior. Metal ties are typically embedded in mortar joints at 24" (600 mm) O.C. maximum vertical spacing and 36" (900 mm) O.C. horizontal spacing to tie each wythe together. Adjustable wall ties placed for each 2.67 square feet (0.248 m2) of wall space, or prefabricated joint reinforcement with at least one cross wire serving 2.67 square feet (0.248 m2) of wall space are also used to bond wythes together.

Masonry Veneer A common method of using brick and stone in residential construction is as a veneer, a nonstructural covering material. Using brick as a veneer offers the charm and warmth of brick with a lower construction cost than structural brick. If brick is used as a veneer over a wood bearing wall, for example, the amount of brick required is half that of structural brick. Care must be taken to protect the wood frame from moisture in the masonry. Typically brick is installed over a 1" (25 mm) and a maximum of 4 1/2" (114 mm) air space and a 15# layer

of felt applied to the framing. Weep holes with a minimum diameter of 3/16" (5 mm) are required by the IRC in the lowest course of the wall at 33" (833 mm) O.C. The veneer is attached to the framing with 22-gage × 7/8" (22 mm) wide corrosion-resistant metal ties at 24" (600 mm) O.C. along each stud or with 9-gage wire with a hook embedded in the mortar joint. Figure 27-27 shows an example of how masonry veneer is attached to a wood-frame wall. When veneer is placed above an opening, the IRC requires the use of a 6 × 4 × 5/16" (150 × 100 × 8 mm) steel angle with the 6" (150 mm) leg of the angle placed vertically and anchored to (2)-2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs spaced at a maximum of 16" (400 mm) O.C. with (2)-7/16" (11 mm) diameter × 4" (100 mm) lag screws.

Insulated Concrete Form Construction Originally used to form foundation walls, insulated concrete forms (ICFs) are now being used to provide an energy-efficient wall-framing system for an entire structure. Poured concrete is placed in expanded polystyrene (EPS) forms that are left in place to create a super-insulated concrete wall system that is covered in Division 3 11 of the CSI classification. ICFs generally gain LEED credits in the categories of Indoor Environmental Air Quality, Material and Resources, and Innovative Design. Forms are placed in a pattern similar to concrete blocks or bricks and then filled with steel reinforcing and concrete. Forms 6" and 8" (150 and 200 mm) wide × 16" (400 mm) high × 48" (1200 mm) long are available from most manufacturers. Figure 27-28A shows details of insulated concrete forms. An example of a concrete core and a portion of the ICF can be seen in Figure 27-28B. The concrete in the forms creates a pattern similar to post-and-beam construction. Vertical posts are created at 12" (300 mm) O.C., and horizontal beams are created at 16" (400 mm) O.C. Solid concrete webs are created between the posts and beams at the center of the forms. Expanded polystyrene forms (EPFs), which make up the shell of the ICF, provide a stable base for attaching interior and exterior finishing materials and help to create the high energy efficiency of the system. The thermal mass of the concrete and the R-20 value of the EPF give the energy efficiency. Depending on the width of the wall and finishing materials, the total R-value can range from R-30 to R-50. The system also excels by reducing air leakage and air infiltration into the structure. Structures constructed from ICF average 0.1 air exchange per hour (ACH) compared with 0.4 ACH for


647

STUDS SHEATHING VAPOR BARRIER

PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR

METAL TIES

SILL

FLOOR JOIST

CONCRETE FOOTING

RIM JOIST MUDSILL BRICK VENEER

STEM WALL

FIGURE 2727 Brick is typically used as a non-load-bearing veneer attached to wood or concrete construction with metal ties.

4-3/4"

8"

6"

12"

3"

6" 81/4" 3" 12"

4-1/2" 48"

3"

6-1/2" 6-15/16" 1-7/8"

3/4"

1-1/2"

TYPICAL 6" FORMS

FIGURE 2728A Insulated concrete forms: details. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.

1-1/2"

16"

10"

16"

10" 1-1/2"

3/4"

1-1/2"

TYPICAL 8" FORMS

1-1/2"

4"

6"

12"

1-7/8"

81/4"

11"

6"

81/4"

7 7/8"

4"

6"

12"

6"

48"

3"

7 1/2"

1-1/2"

6"

1/2" TYP. 6" 81/4"

1/2" TYP.

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2" X 10" TOP PLATE WITH ANCHOR BOLTS INTO FORM CELLS AS REQ’D. BY CODE HOLD-DOWN CONNECTIO PER CODE or STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

SEE REBAR TABLES FOR VERT. and HORIZ. REBAR SIZE and SPACING.

FINISH MATERIAL SCREWED TO METAL FURRING STRIPS

EXTERIOR FINISH OVER CONCRETE FILLED POLYSTEEL FORMS

CONCRETE SLAB

FIN. GRADE

FIGURE 2728B Insulated concrete form construction is energy efficient because polystyrene forms remain in place around the concrete. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.

wood-frame walls. Figure 27-29 shows wall construction using ICF methods.

Modular Framing Methods Many people confuse the term modular home with mobile or manufactured homes. Manufactured homes are built on a steel chassis and are governed by codes other than the IRC. Modular homes are governed by the same codes that govern site-built homes but are built off-site. Modular homes can qualify for the same LEED credits that the materials already covered in this chapter can achieve. Modular construction is a highly engineered method of constructing a building or building components in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Modular homes begin as components designed, engineered, and assembled in the controlled environment of a factory using assembly-line techniques. Work is never slowed by weather, and materials are not subject

FIGURE 2729 Components of insulated concrete form construction. Courtesy American Polysteel Forms.

to warping due to moisture absorption. A home travels to different workstations, where members of each building trade perform the required assembly. Rooms that require plumbing can be assembled in an area separate from other rooms and then assembled into a module. Modules can be shipped to the construction site, where they are assembled on a conventional foundation. Modules can be shipped complete or may require additional site constructions, depending on the complexity of the module. Figure 27-30 shows the components of a modular home being assembled at the construction site. Structures can also use preassembled components. Panelized walls, which include windows, doors, and interior and exterior finish, can be assembled in a factory but installed at the job site. Floor and roof framing


FIGURE 2730 Modular construction allows as much as 90% of the construction work to be completed inside an environmentally controlled factory. Courtesy J. Rouleau & Assoc.

members can be precut in a factory, numbered for their exact location, and then shipped for assembly at the job site. This system of construction can offer economical construction in remote areas where materials are not readily available.

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FIGURE 2731 Individual windows may not be earth friendly, but by careful planning, windows can be placed to maximize winter sunlight and minimize the summer sun that enters the home. Planning will also be required to determine the roof pitch and size of the roof overhang needed to block summer sun and allow winter sun to penetrate the home. Courtesy Alan Mascord, AIBD Alan Mascord Design Associates, Inc. Bob Greenspan, photographer.

1. Can products be selected that are made from envi2.

GREEN CONSTRUCTION GOALS The final point to be considered in this chapter is not a framing method, but a framing mind-set. Whether it's called earth friendly, green, ecological, or sustainable construction, the concept is to build in a manner that will produce a structure that uses energy efficiently, that uses materials that have low impact on the environment, and that will produce a healthier place to live. Green construction was first considered in Chapter 12 as solar systems were examined. Other chapters have explored energy-efficient alternatives for heating and lighting. Environmentally friendly framing is not just a matter of selecting green materials, but once selected, these green products must be used in a manner that will reduce the environmental impact of the home. Products that are not considered green per se can be used in a home, and they may contribute to the home owner’s goals for efficiency. For example, a specific window may not be rated as a green product, but it may be installed in a location and in a manner that maximizes winter sunlight and minimizes the summer sun (see Figure 27-31). By carefully installing and caulking the window, it can become an asset. Creating an environmentally friendly home requires the matching of materials to a specific design and site that minimizes the effect on that site. Five key questions should be considered that will affect the selection of framing and finish materials to make a sustainable structure:

3. 4. 5.

ronmentally friendly materials? Can products be selected because of what they do not contain? Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact during construction? Will the products to be used reduce the environmental impact of operating the building? Will the products to be used contribute to a safe, healthy indoor environment?

Environmentally Friendly Materials One of the major considerations that affect framing materials is the selection of products and construction materials that are made from environmentally friendly components. The materials used to produce a building product, and where those materials came from, is a key determinant in labeling a product a green building material. Points to consider in selecting building materials include products that can be salvaged, recycled, or certified green; quick-growth products; agricultural waste materials; and products that require minimal processing.

Salvaged Products One of the major goals of sustainable construction is to reuse a product whenever possible instead of producing a new one. When materials are recycled, savings are realized from conserving natural resources and from the energy saved from not having to produce new materials.

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Common salvaged materials used in buildings include bricks, millwork, framing lumber, plumbing fixtures, and period hardware. Each of these materials is sold on a local or regional basis by salvage yards.

Products with Recycled Content Recycled content is an important feature of many green products because these materials are likely to be diverted from landfills. Industrial by-products such as iron-ore slag can be used to make mineral wool insulation, fly ash can be used to make concrete, and PVC pipe scraps can be used to make shingles.

Certified Wood Products Third-party forest certification, based on standards developed by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), will help ensure that wood products come from well-managed forests. Wood products must go through a certification process to carry an FSC stamp. Manufactured wood products can meet the FSC certification requirements with less than 100% certified wood content. Wood that meets FSC certification can be substituted directly for standard-dimension lumber for most residential uses. Estimates by the Natural Resources Defense Council indicate that as much as $1,000 can be saved in a typical home by using certified hem-fir framing lumber, certified plywood, and reclaimed beams.

Quick-Growth and Waste By-Products The use of quick-growth products for framing materials allows old and second-growth trees to remain in the forest. Rapidly renewable materials are made from wood from tree farms with a harvest rotation of approximately 10 years. Wood products such as LVL, OSB, and laminated beams have already been considered. Interior finish products can be produced from agricultural crops or their waste products. Examples of green products made from agricultural crops include linoleum, form-release agents made from plant oils, natural paints, textile fabrics made from coir and jute, cork, organic cotton, wool, and sisal. Building products can also be produced from agricultural waste products made from straw (the stems left after harvesting cereal grain), rice hulls, and citrus oil. These products can be used to improve the interior environment and create an ecologically friendly structure.

Minimally Processed Products Products that are minimally processed can be green because of low energy use and low risk of chemical releases during manufacture. These can include wood products, agricultural or nonagricultural plant products, and mineral products such as natural stone and slate shingles.


Removing Materials to Become Earth Friendly Some building products are considered green, not because of their content, but because they allow material savings elsewhere, or they are better alternatives to conventional products containing harmful chemicals. Chemicals that deplete the ozone, CCA wood preservative, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polycarbonate are products that should be avoided in a structure, but products with these chemicals may be considered earth friendly because the product has significant environmental benefits. Some examples include drywall clips that allow the elimination of corner studs, engineered lumber that reduces lumber waste, the piers for a joist floor system that minimizes concrete use compared to a post-and-beam system, and concrete pigments that eliminate the need for conventional finish flooring by using the concrete slabs as the finished floor.

Reducing the Impact of Construction Some building products produce their environmental benefits by avoiding pollution or other environmental impacts during construction. Products that reduce the impacts of new construction include various erosioncontrol products, foundation products that eliminate the need for excavation, and exterior stains that result in lower VOC (volatile organic compound) emissions into the atmosphere. The greatest impact from construction can come from careful design that creates a home that suits the site, and a foundation system that requires minimal excavation. Review Chapter 13 and Chapter 14 for methods of reducing site impact during construction.

Reducing the Impact after Construction The ongoing environmental impact that results from operating a structure will far outweigh the impact associated with the construction phase. It is important during the design phase to select components that will reduce heating and cooling loads and conserve energy, select fixtures and equipment that conserve water, choose materials with exceptional durability or low-maintenance requirements, select products that prevent pollution or reduce waste, and specify products that reduce or eliminate pesticide treatments.

Reducing Energy Demands SIPs, ICFs, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks, and high-performance windows are examples of materials that can be used during construction to reduce


HVAC loads over the life of the structure. Other energy-consuming equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, dishwashers, refrigerators, washing machines, and dryers should be carefully selected for their ability to conserve energy after construction. Most home appliances are now rated by Energy Star standards that have been adopted nationally. Energy Star is a governmentbacked program designed to help consumers obtain energy efficiency. Using compact fluorescent lamps and occupancy or day-lighting control equipment can save additional energy. Installing efficient equipment as the home is constructed will reduce energy needs over the life of the structure.

Using Renewable Energy Equipment that uses renewable energy instead of fossil fuels and conventional electricity is highly beneficial from an environmental standpoint. Examples include solar water heaters and photovoltaic systems (see Chapter 12). Natural gas fuel cells or cells that use other fossil fuels such as a hydrogen source are considered green because emissions are lower than the combustionbased equipment they replace.

Conserving Water All toilets and shower heads are required to meet federal water efficiency standards. Other products, such as rainwater storage systems, will also contribute to making a residence earth friendly (see Chapter 20).

Reducing Maintenance Products that reduce maintenance make a residence environmentally attractive because they need to be replaced less frequently, or their maintenance has very low impact. Sometimes, durability is a contributing factor to the green designation but not enough to distinguish the product as green on its own. Included in this category are such products as fiber-cement siding, fiberglass windows, slate shingles, and vitrified clay waste pipes.

Preventing Pollution Methods of controlling substances from entering the environment contribute to making a home earth friendly. Alternative wastewater disposal systems reduce groundwater pollution by decomposing organic wastes more effectively. Porous paving products and vegetated roofing systems result in less stormwater runoff and thereby reduce surface water pollution. Providing convenient recycling centers within the home will allow home owners to safely store recyclables for collection. Planning for a compost system will further allow the home owners to reduce their solid-waste generation.

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Eliminating Pesticide Treatments Although they may be needed to increase livability, periodic pesticide treatments around buildings can be a significant health and environmental hazard. The use of products such as termite barriers, borate-treated building products, and bait systems that eliminate the need for pesticide application all contribute to a sustainable structure.

Contributing to the Environment Product selection has a significant effect on the quality of the interior environment. Green building products that help ensure a healthy interior living space can be separated into several categories including products that don’t release pollutants, products that block the spread of indoor contaminants, and products that warn occupants of health hazards.

Improving Interiors with Nonpolluting Products One of the dangers of modern construction is the ability to make a structure practically airtight. This in itself is not a problem, but the adhesives in most products can be harmful when constant air changes are not provided. Products that don’t release significant pollutants into a structure contribute to an earth-friendly home. Interior products that contribute to improving the interior environment include zero- and low-VOC paints, caulks, and adhesives, as well as products with very low emissions, such as nonformaldehyde manufactured wood products.

Blocking, Removing, and Warning of Contaminants Certain materials and products are green because they prevent the contaminants from entering the interior environment. Linoleum is available that helps control microbial growth. Coated duct board is available that helps control mold growth, and products are available for blocking the entry of mold-laden air into a duct system. Other products can help remove pollutants from the shoes of people entering the residence. Each of these types of products can help provide an environmentally friendly home. Several products, such as carbon monoxide (CO) detectors and lead paint test kits, can warn the home owner that contaminants have entered the residence. Once they are aware of environmental dangers, home owners can remove the contaminants by choosing from ventilation products, filters, radon mitigation equipment, and other equipment that removes pollutants or introduces fresh air.

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The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in framing materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.www.aci-int.com www.steel.org www.apawood.org www.alhloghomes.com www.betterbricks.com www.bia.org www.buildinggreen.com www.calredwood.org www.conservationcenter.org www.crbt.org www.cmpc.org www.eere.energy.gov www.enercept.com www.eeba.org

Company, Product, or Service American Concrete Institute American Iron and Steel Institute APA—The Engineered Wood Association Appalachian Log Homes Better Bricks Brick Industry Association BuildingGreen, Inc. California Redwood Association Center for Resource Conservation Center for Resourceful Building Technology Concrete Masonry Promotions Council DOE Integrated Building for Energy Efficiency Enercept, Inc. (SIPs) Energy and Environmental Building Association

www.energydesignresources.com www.energystar.gov www.metafore.org www.fscus.com www.generalshale.com www.gp.com www.greenbuilder.com www.haenerblock.com www.forms.org www.imiwebi.org

Energy Design Resources Energy Star (appliance energy standards) Forest Certification Resource Center Forest Stewardship Council General Shale Brick Georgia-Pacific Greenbuilder Haener Block Company Insulating Concrete Form Association International Masonry Institute

International Zinc Association (zinc and steel home construction) www.lpcorp.com Louisiana-Pacific Corporation www.masonrysociety.org Masonry Society www.modularconnection.com Modular Network www.nahb.org National Association of Home Builders www.nahbrc.org National Association of Home Builders Research Center www.ncma.org National Concrete Masonry Association www.nrdc.org Natural Resources Defense Council www.newbuildings.org New Buildings Institute www.steelframingalliance.com North American Steel Framing Alliance www.pge/pec.com Pacific Energy Center www.polysteel.com Polysteel Forms www.portcement.org Portland Cement Association www.concretehomes.com Portland Cement Association (concrete homes site) www.sfpa.org Southern Forest Product Association www.southernpine.com Southern Pine Council www.spacejoist.com SpaceJoist (open-web trusses) www.ssina.com Specialty Steel Industry of North America www.steeljoist.org Steel Joist Institute www.sipa.org Structural Insulated Panel Association www.housingzone.com Sustainable Buildings Industry Council www.thebricksite.com The Brick Site www.thermalblock.com Thermal Block Systems, LLC www.timberpeg.com Timberpeg (post-and-beam homes) www.timsys.com Timber Systems www.toolbase.org Toolbase Services www.trimjoist.com TrimJoist Engineered Wood Products www.wwpa.org Western Wood Products Association www.weyerhaeuser.com Weyerhaeuser www.wbdg.org Whole Building Design Guide www.iza.com


Framing Methods Test

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QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 27 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.

Question 27–1 Explain two advantages of platform framing.

Question 27–12 List four classifications of CMUs. Question 27–13 Sketch two methods of framing a header with advance framing technology. Label each major component. Question 27–14 What is a fire cut, and how is it used? Question 27–15 How is moisture removed from a masonry cavity wall? Question 27–16 What are two materials typically used to reinforce concrete block construction?

Question 27–2 Sketch a section view showing platform construction methods for a one-level house.

Question 27–17 What is the maximum height of studs allowed by the IRC without special framing conditions?

Question 27–3 What are the drawbacks to using balloon framing?

Question 27–18 What do the letters AFT mean in relationship to framing?

Question 27–4 List five methods that can be used to frame a residence.

Question 27–19 What makes steel such an earthfriendly material?

Question 27–5 Sketch and label a section showing a post-and-beam foundation system.

Question 27–20 Explain the difference between traditional corner framing and a corner built using AFT.

Question 27–6 How is brick typically used in residential construction? Question 27–7 What factor dictates the reinforcing in masonry walls? Question 27–8 Why would a post-and-beam construction roof be used with platform construction walls? Question 27–9 What would be the R-value for a wood wall 4" wide? Question 27–10 What is the typical spacing of posts and beams in residential construction? Question 27–11 List three qualities that make steel framing a popular residential method.

Question 27–21 Why are engineered lumber products considered earth friendly? Question 27–22 List the various parts of a tree that can be used for engineered lumber products. Question 27–23 Explain the term SIP as it relates to framing. Question 27–24 Explain the term VOC and explain how it relates to construction. Question 27–25 Use the Internet to research major environmental concerns in the region where you live.

CHAPTER 28

Structural Components of Framed Construction I

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As with every other phase of drafting, construction drawings have their own terminology. The terms used in this chapter are basic for structural components of residential construction. These terms refer to floor, wall, and roof components.

FLOOR CONSTRUCTION Two common methods of framing the floor system are conventional joist and post-and-beam. In some areas of the country it is common to use post-and-beam framing for the lower floor when a basement is not used and conventional framing for the upper floor. The project designer chooses the floor system or systems to be used. The size of the framing crew and the shape of the ground at the job site are the two main factors in the choice of framing methods. Floor joists are often used when the slope of the site or other design considerations dictate minimal pier placement for floor support. A post-andbeam system requires more concrete but eliminates the need for floor joists. Because fewer materials are involved, it is often the preferred choice of small framing crews or for flat or low-sloped building sites.

Conventional Floor Framing Conventional joist, or stick floor framing involves the use of members 2" (50 mm) wide placed one at a time in a repetitive manner. Basic terms in this system are mudsill, girder, floor joist, and rim joist. Each can be seen in Figure 28-1 and throughout this chapter.

Mudsill The mudsill, or base plate, shown in Figure 28-2 is the first of the structural lumber used in framing the home. The mudsill is the plate that rests on the masonry foundation and provides a base for all framing. Because of the moisture content of concrete and soil, the mudsill is required to be pressure-treated or made of foundationgrade redwood or cedar. Mudsills are set along the entire perimeter of the foundation and attached to the 654

foundation with anchor bolts. The size of the mudsill is typically 2 × 6 (50 × 150). Anchor bolts are required by IRC to be a minimum of 1/2" × 10" (13 × 250 mm). Bolts 5/8" and 3/4" (16 and 19 mm) in diameter are also common. Bolt spacing of 6'–0" (1800 mm) is the maximum allowed by code and is common for most residential usage. Areas of a structure that are subject to lateral loads or uplifting will require bolts at a much closer spacing based on the engineer’s load calculations. Chapter 33 and Chapter 34 will further discuss anchor bolts.

Girders With the mudsills in place, the girders can be set to support the floor joists. Girder is another name for a beam. The girder is used to support the floor joists as they span across the foundation (see Figure 28-3). Girders are usually sawn lumber, 4" or 6" (100 or 150 mm) wide, with the depth determined by the load to be supported and the span to be covered. Sawn members 2" (50 mm) wide can often be joined together to form a girder. If only two members are required to support the load, members can be nailed, according to the nailing schedule provided in the IRC (see Figure 1-19). If more than three members must be joined to support a load, most building departments require them to be bolted together so the inspector can readily see that all members are attached. Another form of built-up beam is a flitch beam, which consists of steel plates bolted between wood members. Because they are labor intensive and heavy, and because of the availability of engineered wood beams, flitch beams are becoming less popular. Chapter 31 introduces formulas that designers use to determine what beam sizes should be and whether built-up beams can be used. Laminated Girders. In areas such as basements where a large open space is desirable, laminated (glulam) beams similar to Figure 28-4 are often used. They are made of sawn lumber that is glued together under pressure to form a beam stronger than its sawn lumber counterpart. Beam widths of 3 1/8", 5 1/8", and

Chapter 28: Structural Components of Framed Construction

655

WALL SHEATHING SILL SHEATHING SILL SOLID BLOCK

FLOOR SHEATHING

STUDS

FLOOR JOISTS

FLOOR SHEATHING FLOOR JOISTS

RIM JOIST

SOLID BLOCK

MUDSILL & ANCHOR BOLTS STEM WALL

GUSSET

STUDS


GIRDER POST

STEM WALL FOOTING

CONC. PIER CRAWL SPACE FOOTING

FIGURE 281 Conventional, or stick floor, framing at the concrete perimeter wall.

6 3/4" (80, 130, and 170 mm) are typical in residential construction. Although much larger sizes are available, depths typically range from 9" through 16 1/2" (225 through 420 mm) at 1 1/2" (38 mm) intervals. As the span of the beam increases, a camber or curve,

is built in to help resist the tendency of the beam to sag when a load is applied. Glulams are often used where the beam will be left exposed because they do not drip sap and do not twist or crack, as a sawn beam does as it dries.

FIGURE 282 The mudsill rests on the masonry foundation and provides a base for all framing. Courtesy Pavel Adi Sandu.

FIGURE 283 Girders are used to support floor joists as they span across the foundation. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.

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FIGURE 284 Glulam beams span longer distances than sawn lumber and eliminate problems with twisting, shrinking, and splitting. Courtesy Ray Wallace, Southern Pine Council.

FIGURE 285 Engineered materials such as PSL, and LVL are common in residential construction. This four-ply LVL girder is used to support engineered floor joists.

Engineered Girders. Engineered wood girders and beams are common throughout residential construction. Unlike glulam beams, which are laminated from sawn lumber such as a 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 (50 × 100 or 50 × 150), parallel strand lumber (PSL) is laminated from veneer strips of fir and southern pine, which are coated with resin and then compressed and heated. Typical widths are 3 1/2", 5 1/4", and 7" (90, 130, and 175 mm). Depths range from 7" through 18" (175 through 450 mm). PSL beams have no crown or camber. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made from ultrasonically graded Douglas fir veneers, which are laminated with all grains parallel to each other with exterior grade adhesives under heat and pressure. LVL beams come in widths of 1 3/4" (45 mm) and 3 1/2" (90 mm) and depths ranging from 5 1/2" through 18" (140 through 450 mm). LVL beams offer performance and durability superior to that of other engineered products and often offer the smallest and lightest wood girder solution. Figure 28-5 shows an example of an LVL girder.

weight of the beam in pounds per linear foot. Floor joists are usually set on top of the girder, as shown in Figure 28-1, but they also may be hung from the girder with joist hangers.

Steel Girders. Steel girders such as those in Figure 28-6 are often used where foundation supports must be kept to a minimum and offer a tremendous advantage over wood for total load that can be supported on long spans. Steel beams are often the only type of beam that can support a specified load and still be hidden within the depth of the floor framing. They also offer the advantage of no expansion or shrinkage due to moisture content. Steel beams are named for their shape, depth, and weight. A steel beam with the designation W16 × 19 would represent a wide-flange steel beam with the shape of an I. The number 16 represents the approximate depth of the beam in inches, and the 19 represents the approximate

Girder Supports. Posts are used to support the girders. As a general rule of thumb, a 4 × 4 (100 × 100 mm) post is typically used below a girder 4" (100 mm) wide, and a post 6" (150 mm) wide is typically used below a girder 6" (150 mm) wide. Sizes can vary, depending on the load and the height of the post. LVL posts ranging in size from 3 1/2" through 7" (90 through 175 mm) are increasingly being used for their ability to support loads. A 1 1/2" (38 mm) minimum bearing surface is required to support a girder resting on a wood or steel support, and a 3" (75 mm) bearing surface is required if the girder is resting on concrete or masonry. Steel columns may be used in place of a wooden post, depending on the load to be transferred to the

FIGURE 286 Steel girders allow greater spans with fewer supporting columns for this residential foundation. Courtesy Janice Jefferis.


657

FIGURE 288 Floor joists are the repetitive structural members used to support the subfloor, or rough floor.

See Chapter 30 for a complete explanation of sizing joists. Because of the decreasing supply and escalating price of sawn lumber, several alternatives to floor joists are available. Four common substitutes are I-joists, open web trusses, laminated veneer lumber, and steel joists.

FIGURE 287 Steel connectors are typically used to resist stress from lateral and uplift by providing a connection between the frame and the foundation. Courtesy Janet Helus.

foundation. Because a wood post will draw moisture out of the concrete foundation, it must rest on 55# felt. Sometimes an asphalt roofing shingle is used between the post and the girder. If the post is subject to uplift or lateral forces, a metal post base or strap may be specified by the engineer to attach the post firmly to the concrete. Figure 28-7 shows the steel connectors used to keep a post from lifting off the foundation. Forces causing uplift will be discussed further in Chapter 29.

I-Joists. I-joists similar to those in Figure 28-5 are a high-strength, lightweight, cost-efficient alternative to sawn lumber. I-joists form a uniform size, have no crown, and do not shrink. They come in depths of 9 1/2", 11 7/8", 14", and 18" (240, 300, 350, and 450 mm). I-joists are able to span greater distances than comparable-sized sawn joists and are suitable for spans up to 40' (12190 mm) for residential uses. Webs can be made from plywood or oriented strand board (OSB). OSB is made from wood fibers arranged in a precisely controlled pattern; the fibers are coated with resin and then compressed and cured under heat. Holes can be placed in the web to allow

STUDS RIM JOIST OR SOLID BLOCK

Floor Joists Once the framing crew has set the support system, the floor joists can be set in place. Floor joists are the repetitive structural members shown in Figure 28-8 that are used to support the subfloor, or rough floor. Floor joists can range in size from 2 × 6 (50 × 150) through 2 × 14 (50 × 350) and may be spaced at 12", 16", or 24" (300, 400, or 600 mm) on center depending on the load, span, and size of joist to be used. A spacing of 16" (400 mm) is most common. Floor joists usually span between the foundation and a girder, but, as shown in Figure 28-9, a joist may extend past its support. This extension is known as a cantilever.

SILL SHEATHING SOLID BLOCK OVER BEARING WALL FLOOR JOISTS

CANTILEVER STUDS DOUBLE TOP PLATE

FIGURE 289 A floor joist or beam that extends past its supporting member is cantilevered.

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FIGURE 2810 Engineered lumber is a common material for residential construction. (Top) Oriented strand board (OSB) is a common web material for residential joists. (Center) I-joists with a plywood web are popular for their uniform size, light weight, and high strength. (Bottom) Joists made of laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are used to support heavy loads. Courtesy GeorgiaPacific Wood Products LLC.

for HVAC ducts and electrical requirements based on the manufacturers specifications. Figure 28-10 shows a joist made with OSB. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made from ultrasonically graded Douglas fir veneers, which are laminated just as LVL beams are. LVL joists are 1 3/4" (45 mm) wide and range in depths of 5 1/2" through 18" (140 through 450 mm). When compared with other engineered products, LVL joists offer superior performance and durability and are designed for singleor multi-span uses that must support heavy loads. Figure 28-10 shows an example of an LVL joist. Figure 28-11 shows an example of a floor framed with engineered joists. Figure 28-12 shows

WALL SHEATHING SILL

typical floor construction using engineered floor joists. Depending on the loads to be supported, when the joist is supported by the sill, blocks may need to be placed beside each joist to provide additional support. Figure 28-13 shows another common method of supporting engineered floor joists. It is the responsibility of the drafter to verify specific construction requirements with the manufacturer. Most joist manufacturers supply disks of standard construction details that can be modified and inserted into the construction drawings. Figure 28-14 shows an example of drawings supplied by an engineered joist manufacturer and then modified by a drafter to meet the needs of a specific project. Open-Web Trusses. Open-web floor trusses are a common alternative to using 2× (50×) sawn lumber for floor joists. Open-web trusses are typically spaced at

WALL SHEATHING SILL

STUDS FLOOR SHEATHING I-FLOOR JOISTS

RIM JOIST

FIGURE 2811 Engineered floor joists set in place to provide a residential floor system. Courtesy Paul Helus.

STUDS FLOOR SHEATHING

2 X BLOCK @ EA. SIDE OF JOIST

I-FLOOR JOISTS



RIM JOIST

RIM JOIST

STEM WALL

STEM WALL

FOOTING CRAWL SPACE

FIGURE 2812 Floor-joist-to-sill connections using engineered lumber.

FOOTING CRAWL SPACE


659

SILL STUDS SILL MOUNTED FLUSH WITH INSIDE OF CONCRETE I-JOISTS JOIST HANGER


FIGURE 2813 Engineered floor joists can be supported using metal hangers.

FIGURE 2815A Open-web floor joists can be used to span large distances for residential designs. Courtesy LeRoy Cook.

24" (600 mm) O.C. for residential and 32" (800 mm) for light commercial floors. Open-web trusses are typically available for spans up to 38' (11 400 mm) for residential floors. Figure 28-15A and Figure 28-15B show examples of open-web floor trusses. The

horizontal members of the truss are called top and bottom chords respectively, and are typically made from 1.5 × 3" (38 × 75 mm) sawn lumber laid flat or from LVL material. The diagonal members, called webs, are made of wood or tubular steel approximately

PROVIDE BLOCKING AND WEB STIFFENERS PER JST. MANUFACTURER 1/2" CDX PLYWD. OR OSB. SHTH. W/ TYVEK

1/2" PARTICLE BOARD 1-1/8" STURI-FLOOR WD.DECKING 11-7/8" TJI 35'S, SEE PLAN FOR SPACING

2X6 STUDS AT 16" O.C. R-25 INSUL.

R-21 INSUL. TOP OF SLAB WHERE OCCURS

5/8"X10" A.B.'S AT 4'-0" O.C.

6"

2X6 SILL PL. W/ SILL SEALER BET. PL & CONC.

# 4 BAR CONT.

TOP FLANGE JOIST HANGER BY FLOOR JOIST MANUFACTURER

6"

8"

(2) # 4 BARS CONT.

2X6 PONY WALL, STUDS AT 24" O.C. W/ .145" POWDER DRIVEN FASTENER AT 24" O.C.

2'-6"

# 4'S AT 48" O.C. ALTERNATE HOOKS

4" DIA. DRAIN LINE ( FOR D.S. )

6 MIL. VAPOR BARRIER

(2) # 4 BARS CONT. 1'-4"

9 S2.1

18"X 8" CONT. CONC. FTG.

TYPICAL FOUNDATION / FLOOR FRAM'G. SECTION 1" = 1'-0"

FIGURE 2814 Details of common connections of I-joists are usually provided by the manufacturer, but a drafter will be required to edit the detail to meet specific aspects of a project. Courtesy Scott R. Beck, Architect.

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IRC requires a minimum of 1/2" (13 mm) diameter anchor bolts and clip angle at 6'−0" (1800 mm) O.C. to be used to attach the angle to the concrete. Eight #8 screws are required to attach the angle to the floor joist track. Floor joists are then bolted to the track using two #8 screws at each joist. Additional fasteners should be used if winds exceed 90 mph.

Floor Bracing

FIGURE 2815B Open-web floor joists with metal webs.

1" (25 mm) in diameter. When drawn in section or details, the webs are typically represented with a bold center line drawn at a 45° angle. The exact angle is determined by the truss manufacturer and is unimportant to the detail. As the span or load on the joist increases, the size increases and the type of material changes. Pairs of 1.5 × 2.3" (38 × 58 mm) laminated veneer lumber are used for the chords of many residential floor trusses. In drawing sections showing floor trusses, it is important to work with the manufacturer’s details to find exact sizes and truss depth. Most truss manufacturers supply disk copies of common truss connections. Steel Joists. When steel joists are used to support the floor, a 6" × 6" × 54 mil L-clip angle is bolted to the foundation to support the track that will support the floor joist, as shown in Figure 28-16. The

Because of the height-to-depth proportions of a joist, it will tend to roll over onto its side as loads are applied. To resist this tendency, a rim joist or blocking is used to support the joist. A rim joist, also sometimes referred to as a band or header, is aligned with the outer face of the foundation and mudsill. Some framing crews set a rim joist around the entire perimeter and then endnail the floor joists. An alternative to the rim joist is to use solid blocking at the sill between floor joists. Figure 28-17 shows the difference between a rim joist and solid blocking at an exterior wall. Blocking in the floor system is used at the center of the joist span, as shown in Figure 28-18. Spans longer than 10' (250 mm) must be blocked at center span to help transfer lateral forces from one joist to another and then to the foundation system. Another use of blocking is at the end of the floor joists at their bearing point. Figure 28-18 shows the use of solid blocking at an interior wall. Figure 28-19 shows an example of blocking for engineered floor joists. These blocks help keep the entire floor system rigid and are used in place of the rim joist. Blocking is also used to provide added support to

STUDS JOISTS TRACK FLOOR SHEATHING

RIM JOIST SOLID BLOCKING

TOP PLATES

ANGLE CLIPS & ANCHOR BOLTS

FIGURE 2816 Floor construction using steel floor joists.

FIGURE 2817 Floor joist blocking at the center and end of the span. At midspan, solid blocking or cross blocking may be used. At the ends of the floor joists, solid blocking or a continuous rim joist may be used to provide stability.


FIGURE 2818 Solid blocking is placed between floor joists to help resist lateral loads.

the floor sheathing. Often walls are reinforced to resist lateral loads. These loads are, in turn, transferred to the foundation through the floor system and are resisted by a diaphragm, a rigid plate that acts similarly to a beam and can be found in the roof level, walls, or floor system. In a floor diaphragm, 2 × 4 (50 × 100) blocking is typically laid flat between the floor joists to allow the edges of plywood panels to be supported. Nailing all edges of a plywood panel allows for approximately one-half to two times the design load to be resisted over unblocked diaphragms. The architect or engineer determines the size and spacing of nails and blocking required. Blocking is also used to reduce the spread of fire and smoke through the floor system.

Floor Sheathing Floor sheathing is installed over the floor joists to form the subfloor. The sheathing provides a surface for the base plate of the wall to rest on. When completing drawings for renovations of older structures, 1 × 4s or 1 × 6s (25 × 100s or 25 × 150s) floor sheathing laid perpendicularly or diagonally to the floor joists is often

661

FIGURE 2819 Blocking is used to provide stiffness to a floor system and to support plumbing and heating equipment. Courtesy John Black.

encountered. Drawings detailing the intersections of sawn lumber with engineered sheathing will need to be provided. Plywood and OSB are the most common materials used for floor sheathing for structures built after the mid-twentieth century. OSB is made from three layers of small strips of wood that have been saturated with a binder and then compressed under heat and pressure. The exterior layers of strips are parallel to the length of the panel, and the core layer is laid in a random pattern. Common Engineered Stamp Markings. Engineered products such as plywood and OSB are regulated by the IRC based on guidelines provided by The Engineered Wood Association (APA), which was formerly the American Plywood Association. The APA rates engineered materials by their structural grade designation, span rating, bond classification, exposure rating, and group number. These and other specifications are stamped on each piece of engineered material regulated by the APA. Stamp symbols can be seen in

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FIGURE 2820 Common APA specifications found in the product stamps for engineered floor sheathing, general sheathing, and siding. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.

Figure 28-20. Major specifications that will affect referencing plywood in drawings include grade designations, span ratings, bond classifications, thickness, and group number. Grade Designations. Structural panel grades (see Figure 28-20 callout #1) are identified by a name suggesting their intended use or by a letter that represents the veneer grade used to construct the panel. Veneer grades define the appearance of the product in terms of the exposed surface veneer and the amount and size of repairs that can be made to the veneer during the manufacturing process. Common letter grades can be seen in Table 28-1. A-grade veneer is the highest veneer grade. The minimum grade allowed for use in exterior-grade plywood is C-grade. D-grade veneers are allowed only where the veneer will be protected from long-term exposure to weather. Span Rating. APA specifications for general sheathing include a number that is listed as two numbers, such as 32/16, separated by a slash (see Figure 28-20, Callout #2). These numbers are the span rating and are used to specify (in inches) the maximum allowable center-to-center spacing of the supports for the product. The first number represents the maximum recommended spacing of supporters if the panel is used for roof sheathing and the long dimension of the sheathing is placed across three or more supports. The second number represents the maximum recommended spacing of supports if the panel is used for floor

sheathing and the long dimension of the sheathing is placed across three or more supports. Floor sheathing that will support ceramic tile is typically 32/16 APA span rated 15/32" or span rated 40/20 Symbol

Description

A

Smooth, paintable, with not more than 18 neatly made repairs that are parallel to the grain permitted. Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. May be used for natural finish in less demanding applications.

B

Solid surface. Shims, sled or router repairs, and tight knots to 1" across grain permitted. Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. Some minor splits permitted.

C-Plugged Improved C veneer with splits limited to 1/8" width and knotholes or other open defects limited to 1/4" × 1/2". Wood or synthetic repairs permitted. Admits some broken grain. C

Tight knots to 1 1/2". Knot holes to 1" across grain and some to 1 1/2" if total width of knots and knotholes within specified limits. Synthetic or wood repairs. Discoloration and sanding permitted. Limited splits allowed. Stitching permitted.

D

Knots and knotholes to 2 1/2" width across grain and 1/2" larger within specified limits. Limited splits are permitted. Stitching permitted. Limited to Exposure 1.

TABLE 281 Common APA Veneer Grades. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.


and 19/32" thick. For products made for a specific application such as Sturd-I-Floor and siding, the span rating will appear as a single number. Common span ratings for Sturd-I-Floor sheathing include 16, 20, 24, 32, and 48. Common span ratings for sheathing for siding are 16 and 24. Bond Classifications. The APA bond classification of an engineered product describes the moisture resistance of the glue used to bond the fibers of the product together (see Figure 28-20, Callout #4). Bond classifications can be either Exterior or Exposure 1. ●

●

Exterior panels are suitable for long-term exposure to weather, repeated wetting and redrying, or other severe conditions. This classification is referenced by the letters EXT in the grade stamp. Exposure 1 panels are sometimes referred to as CDX or EXP1 panels and are suitable for uses not involving long-term exposure to weather. Products in this bond group can resist moisture caused by construction delays, but are not intended to be exposed to weather for the life of the product. Exposure 1 panels can be used in protected uses such as an eave where exposure to moisture is on the underside only.

Thickness. The thickness of engineered sheathing is expressed as a fraction beside the span rating. Available thicknesses for APA floor sheathing include 1/2", 19/32", 5/8", 23/32", 3/4", 7/8", 1 3/32" and 1 1/8". Available metric sizes listed by the Canadian Plywood Association (CPA) include 15.5 mm (5/8"), 18.5 mm (3/4"), 20.5 mm (13/16"), 22.5 mm (7/8"), 25.5 mm (1"), and 28.5 mm (1 1/8"). The spacing of the supports, and the load to be supported by the floor sheathing will determine the thickness to be used. By general practice, 5/8" or 3/4" (15.5 or 18.5 mm) plywood is typically used for floor sheathing supported by joists or trusses. For floors that will support tile flooring 19/32", 23/32", or 7/8" (15.1, 18.2, or 22.5 mm) thick T&G decking is recommended by the Tile Council of America (TCA). APA recommendations for panel use can be seen in Table 28-2.

Span Rating

Thickness

16

19/32", 5/8"

20

19/32", 5/8"

24

23/32", 3/4", 7/8"

32

7/8"

48

1 3/32", 1 1/8"

TABLE 282 APA-Rated Sturd-I-Floor. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

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Group Number. A group number is assigned to each product to define more than 70 species of wood that are used to create engineered materials (see Figure 28-20, Callout #10). Species are divided into one of five groups based on the strength and stiffness of the species. Species in Group 1 are the strongest and those in Group 5 are the weakest.

Finished Flooring Once the subfloor has been installed, an underlayment for the finish flooring is put down. The underlayment is not installed until the walls, windows, and roof are in place, making the house weather-tight. The underlayment provides a smooth impact-resistant surface on which to install the finished flooring. Underlayment is usually 3/8" or 1/2" APA underlayment Group 1, Exposure 1 plywood, hardboard, or waferboard. Hardboard is typically referred to as medium- or highdensity fiberboard (MDF or HDF) and is made from wood particles of various sizes that are bonded together with a synthetic resin under heat and pressure. The underlayment may be omitted if the holes in the plywood are filled. APA Sturd-I-Floor rated plywood 19/32" through 1 3/32" thick can also be used to eliminate the underlayment.

Post-and-Beam Construction Terms to be familiar with when working with post-andbeam floor systems include girder, post, decking, and finished floor. Each can be seen in Figure 28-21. Notice there are no floor joists with this system. A mudsill is installed with post-and-beam construction just as with platform construction. Once set, the girders are placed. With post-and-beam construction the girder is supporting the floor decking instead of floor joists. Girders are usually 4 × 6 (100 × 150) beams spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C., but the size and distance may vary depending on the loads to be supported. As with conventional methods, posts are used to support the girders. Typically a 4 × 4 (100 × 100) is the minimum size used for a post, with a 4 × 6 (100 × 150) post used to support joints in the girders. With the support system in place, the floor system can be installed. Figure 28-22A and Figure 28-22B show the components of a post-and-beam floor system. Decking is the material laid over the girders to form the subfloor. Typically decking is 2 × 6 or 2 × 8 (50 × 150 or 50 × 200) tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards or 1 3/32" or 1 1/8" APA-rated Sturd-I-Floor EXP-1 plywood T&G floor sheathing. The decking is usually finished similarly to conventional decking with a hardboard overlay.

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FLOOR DECKING STUDS SILL SILL


FLOOR DECKING GIRDER

POST & GUSSET

FOOTING

STEM WALL

CONC. PIER GIRDER CRAWL SPACE

POST & GUSSET CONC. PIER

FIGURE 2821 Components of post-and-beam construction.

FRAMED WALL CONSTRUCTION As a drafter you will be concerned with two types of walls: bearing and nonbearing. A bearing wall supports not only itself but also the weight of the roof or other floors constructed above it. A bearing wall requires some type of support under it at the foundation or lower floor level in the form of a girder or another bearing wall. Nonbearing walls are sometimes called partitions. A nonbearing wall serves no structural purpose. It is a partition used to divide rooms and could be removed

FIGURE 2822A Floors built with a post-and-beam system require no floor joists to support the floor sheathing. Girders are usually placed at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. with supports placed at 8' (2400 mm) spacing along the girder.

FIGURE 2822B The crawl space for a post-and-beam floor system. Plywood gusset plates are used to connect the post to the girder and a wood brace is used to resist lateral loads for a tall post.


BEARING WALLS

NONBEARING

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BEARING WALLS

WALLS

FIGURE 2823 Bearing and nonbearing walls. A bearing wall supports its own weight and the weight of floor and roof members. A nonbearing wall supports only its own weight. The IRC allows ceiling weight to be supported on a wall, while still considering it a nonbearing wall.

without causing damage to the building. Bearing and nonbearing walls can be seen in Figure 28-23. In post-and-beam construction, any exterior walls placed between posts are nonbearing walls.

FIGURE 2824B Common components for a wood-frame wall system. Courtesy Benigno Molina-Manriquez.

Wall Construction Bearing and nonbearing walls made of wood or engineered lumber are both constructed using a sole plate, studs, and a top plate. Each can be seen in Figure 28-24A, Figure 28-24B, and Figure 28-24C.

The sole, or bottom plate is used to help disperse the loads from the wall studs to the floor system. The sole plate also holds the studs in position as the wall is being tilted into place. Studs are the vertical

DOUBLE TOP PLATE

STUDS

SOLE PLATE LINE OF FLOOR

FIGURE 2824A Standard wall construction uses a double top plate on the top of the wall, a sole plate at the bottom of the wall, and studs.

FIGURE 2824C Common components for a steel-frame wall system. The track is screwed to floor sheathing, and studs are screwed to the track.

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framing members used to transfer loads from the top of the wall to the floor system. Typically 2 × 4 (50 × 100) studs are spaced at 16" (400 mm) O.C. with a maximum height of 10' (3000 mm). Table 28-1 and Table 28-2 provide maximum heights for wall studs based on the stud size and wind conditions. The studs provide a nailing surface for the wall sheathing on the exterior side and the gypsum board on the interior side. Studs 2 × 6 (50 × 150) are often substituted for 2 × 4 studs (50 × 100) to provide added resistance for lateral loads, to hide plumbing, and to provide a wider area to install insulation. Engineered studs in 2 × 4 or 2 × 6 (50 × 100 or 50 × 150) are also available in 8', 9', and 10' (2400, 2700, and 3000 mm) lengths. Engineered studs are made from short sections of stud-grade lumber that have had the knots and splits removed. Sections of wood are joined together with 5/8" (16 mm) finger joints. The top plate is located on top of the studs and is used to hold the wall together. The top plate also provides a bearing surface for the floor joists from an upper level or for the roof members (see Figure 28-25). Two top plates are required on bearing walls, and each must lap the other a minimum of 48" (1200 mm). This lap distance provides a continuous member on top of the wall to keep the studs from separating. An alternative to the double top plate is to use one plate with a steel strap at each joint in the plate. The strap must be a minimum of 3" × 6" × 0.036" (75 × 150 × 0.914 mm) that is nailed to each plate segment with (6)-8d nails. If only one plate is provided, rafters or joists must align directly over the wall studs. If the top plate is to be notched or drilled, requiring the removal of more than 50% of the plate width, a 16-gage × 1 1/2" (38 mm) steel strap that is nailed with (8)-10d nails on

THIS LAP HOLDS INTERIOR WALLS IN POSITION TOP PLATE SPLICE

@

4 BE 8"M AR IN ING . LA WA P LL S

DOUBLE TOP PLATE STUDS

FIGURE 2825 Top plate laps are required to be 48" (1200 mm) minimum in bearing walls or held together with steel straps.

FIGURE 2826 Steel studs and joists provide the support for the upper floor.

each side of the plate opening must be provided. The strap must extend 6" (150 mm) minimum past each side of the notch or hole. When steel studs are used, a track is placed above the studs and fastened with a minimum of two #8 screws to each stud. The size of the screws will vary depending on the gage of the track and the thickness of the steel studs. Figure 28-26 shows an example of a steel-frame wall.

Wall Sheathing OSB and plywood sheathing are primarily used as an insulator against the weather and also as a backing for the exterior siding. Sheathing may be considered optional, depending on your area of the country. When sheathing is used on exterior walls, it provides what is called double-wall construction. In single-wall construction, wall sheathing is not used, and the siding is attached over a vapor barrier such as Tyvek, Pinkwrap, Typar, or the traditional 15# felt placed over the studs, as in Figure 28-27. Additional information on vapor barriers can be found later in this chapter. The cost of the home and its location will have a great influence on whether wall sheathing is to be used. In areas where double-wall construction is required for weather or structural reasons, depending on the stress to be resisted, 3/8" or 1/2" (9.5 or 12.5 mm) plywood is used on exterior walls as an underlayment. Other APA sizes that are available are 5/16", 7/16", 15/32", 19/32", 5/8", 23/32", and 3/4". CPA sizes include 7.5 mm, (1/4"), 7.5 mm (5/16"), 9.5 mm (3/8"), 12.5 mm (1/2"), 15.5 mm (5/8"), 18.5 mm (3/4") 20.5 mm (13/16"), 22.5 mm (7/8"), 28.5 mm (1 1/8") and 31.5 mm (1 1/4"). No matter the reason for using wall sheathing, plywood sheathing should be APA-rated SHEATHING, EXP 1 or 2, EXT, STRUCT 1, EXT 1, or STRUCT 1 EXT. Many builders prefer to use 1/2" (12.5 mm) OSB for sheathing in place


FIGURE 2827 The siding material can be placed directly over the vapor barrier and studs in what is referred to as single-wall construction. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.

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FIGURE 2828B OSB is a common alternative for the underlayment for siding materials. Courtesy Benigno MolinaManriquez.

of plywood. Figure 28-28A shows the use of plywood for wall sheathing. Figure 28-28B shows the use of OSB wall sheathing. In areas where single-wall construction is the norm, APA-rated SIDING is available with a variety of surface textures and patterns including T1-11, rough-sawn, reverse board and batten, channel groove, and brushed. APA panels are available in 4' × 8', 4' × 9', and 4' × 10' in thickness of 11/32", 3/8", 7/16", 15/32", 1/2", 19/32", and 5/8". Engineered lap siding is available in lengths up to 16' (4800 mm) and widths of up to 12" (300 mm).

FIGURE 2828A Plywood is placed over the vapor barrier and studs to provide added protection from the elements and to provide resistance to lateral forces caused by winds and earthquakes.

Structural Wall Sheathing. The design of the home may require the use of plywood sheathing for its ability to resist a wall’s twisting or racking. Racking can be caused by wind or seismic forces. Plywood used to resist these forces is called a shear panel or lateral bracing. See Figure 28-29 for an example of racking. Plywood can be used to resist this motion by keeping the studs in their intended position. When plywood is used to resist lateral forces, an architect or engineer will need to calculate the force to be resisted to determine the thickness of the sheathing and the nailing required to attach it to the wall studs based on APA and IBC requirements. Chapter 32 will introduce methods of using sheathing

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STUDS TEND TO SHIFT OR RACK WHEN PRESSURE IS APPLIED TO THEIR WIDE SURFACE

FORCE (WIND OR SEISMIC) STUDS IN NORMAL POSITION

stiffen the studs. A notch is cut into the studs, and a 1 × 4 (25 × 100) is laid flat in this notch at a 45° angle to the studs. If plywood siding rated APA Sturd-I-Wall is used, no underlayment or let-in braces are required. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, blocking was common in walls to help provide stiffness. Blocking for structural or fire reasons is now no longer required unless a wall exceeds 10' (3000 mm) in height. Blocking is often installed as a nailing surface for mounting cabinets and plumbing fixtures. Blocking is sometimes used to provide extra strength in some seismic zones.

Framing Members for Wall Openings FIGURE 2829 Wall racking occurs when wind or seismic forces push the studs out of their normal position. Plywood panels can be used to resist these forces and keep the studs perpendicular to the floor. These plywood panels are called shear or braced wall panels.

to resist lateral forces using the prescriptive methods of the IRC. Shear panels that are placed based on the prescriptive methods of the IRC are referred to as braced wall panels. Let-In Bracing and Blocking. An alternative to using engineered materials for shear panels is to use let-in braces. Figure 28-30 shows how a brace can be used to

In addition to the wall components mentioned, several other terms should be familiar to the drafter. These terms are used to describe the parts used to frame around an opening in a wall: headers, subsill, trimmers, king studs, and jack studs. Each can be seen in Figure 28-31A. Figure 28-31B shows each component in a wall made of single-wall construction.

CRIPPLE (JACK) STUDS

FLOOR SHEATHING RIM JOISTS TOP PLATES CRIPPLE (JACK) STUDS

HEADER ROUGH OPENING

TRIMMER KING STUD

HEADER

SUBSILL JACK STUDS SOLE PLATE FLOOR SHEATHING RIM JOISTS TOP PLATES

FIGURE 2831A Construction components at an opening.

FIGURE 2830 Let-in braces can sometimes be used instead of shear panels to resist wall racking. Courtesy Gang-Nail Systems, Inc.

FIGURE 2831B Framing for an opening in a wall includes the header, subsill, trimmer, king stud, and jack studs.


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The term header is used to describe members of roof and wall construction. When used to describe a wall member, the term header describes the structural member over an opening such as a door or window. When an opening is made in a wall, one or more studs must be omitted. A header is used to support the weight that the missing studs would have carried. Each end of the header is supported by a trimmer. Depending on the weight the header is supporting, double trimmers may be required. The trimmers also provide a nailing surface for the window and the interior and exterior finishing materials. A king stud is placed beside each trimmer and extends from the sill to the top plates. It provides support for the trimmers so that the weight imposed from the header can go only downward, not sideways. In areas susceptible to seismic or wind damage, the trimmers and king stud must be anchored to the foundation. Figure 28-32A shows an example of a framing anchor attached to the trimmers and king stud. The forces of uplift that are created by seismic or wind forces are transferred from the window framing into the anchor, and then transferred through the bolt into the concrete foundation. On multilevel structures, straps such as those seen in Figure 28-32B are used to transfer FIGURE 2832B Multilevel structures require metal straps to transfer the wind and seismic forces from the upper window trimmers into the lower trimmers, and then into the foundation.

the stress from the upper window trimmers into the lower trimmers. Between the trimmers is a subsill located on the bottom side of a window opening. It provides a nailing surface for the interior and exterior finishing materials. Jack studs, or cripples, are studs that are not full height. They are placed between the sill and the sole plate and between a header and the top plates.

Modular Wall Framing

FIGURE 2832A Stresses from wind and seismic forces are transferred from the trimmers and king stud to the anchor, through the floor, and into the foundation.

Modular framing was briefly examined in the previous chapter. Similar to modular framing where a home is assembled in a factory and then transferred to the job site in modules is the use of modular framing methods that ship the components in containers. Portions of homes such as the wall assembly shown in Figure 28-33 are assembled in a clean environment, packed into a cargo container, and shipped to the job site for assembly. Drafters involved with homes assembled in modules not only have to be concerned with the overall home design, but also must consider how the home will be divided into

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and the use of caulking and weather stripping. Review Chapter 12 and Section 5 for related information.

Water Barriers

FIGURE 2833 Portions of homes can be assembled in a clean environment, packed into a cargo container, and shipped to the job site for assembly.

modules. The home in Figure 28-34 shows a different type of modular construction. Trusses have been used for years to form the roof assembly. The upper floor of this home is constructed of trusses that not only form the roof, but also combine the wall and floor members into one unit. These units can be quickly assembled allowing an entire home to be assembled in one day.

Exterior Wall Protection Prior to installing the siding material, the home must be covered with a weather-resistant exterior wall envelope. The envelope can consist of a water vapor or air barrier,

A key goal of the building envelope is to keep water out of the structure. Leaking water rots wood, grows mold, corrodes steel, and lowers insulating R-values. The IRC requires that a water barrier be provided to keep water from entering the living environment. Although many building programs focus on keeping water vapor out, most structural problems are caused by water intrusion. Water can enter the structure at any break in a wall or roof surface such as a window or skylight, butt joints in sidings, knots, and siding overlaps. Water is driven through these leakage points by wind, gravity, and capillary forces. During a storm, air pressure causes water to move up, down, and sideways moving from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. The area directly behind a wind-blown wall surface is at a lower pressure than its exterior face. This pressure difference creates siphon points that pull water into the building. Once water is wicked into the wood sheathing or framing material, it can cause structural problems. The IRC requires the use of a minimum of 14# per square feet (0.683 kg/m2) of asphalt-saturated felt to resist water intrusion. Also referred to as 15# building paper, the felt must be installed in horizontal rows, with the upper layer lapped 2" (50 mm) over the lower row. In addition to carefully covering the wall, care must be taken to ensure that water can’t enter the envelope at the tops of doors or windows. Small strips of felt are generally provided along each edge of openings to provide overlapping layers of protection (see Figure 28-28B). Metal flashing to direct water outward around the tops of openings provides added protection. Grade-D kraft paper can be used to protect the structural members behind stucco, brick, stone, and other porous veneers instead of using 15# felt. Panel siding with shiplap joints, battens and paper-backed stucco lath are not required to have building paper.

Moisture and Air Barriers

FIGURE 2834 The upper floor of this home is constructed of trusses that combine the framing members of the roof, walls, and floor members into one unit.

The IRC allows other approved water-resistant materials to be used to seal the exterior envelope. Many designers use plastic house wraps that comply with ASTM standards in place of the building paper. Plastic house wraps are engineered materials that are designed to keep out liquid water and prevent air infiltration, while allowing water vapor to escape from inside of the home. Common wraps include Tyvek, Pinkwrap, and Typar, but many other brands are available. These materials are composed of microscopic pores that are small enough to resist water and air molecules, but


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Interior Moisture Protection

FIGURE 2835 The exterior finishing material is usually installed over 15# asphaltic felt or a plastic building wrap composed of microscopic pores that are small enough to resist water and air molecules, but large enough to let smaller moisture vapor molecules pass through. Courtesy APA, The Engineered Wood Association.

A vapor barrier is a membrane that is placed on the warm side of the walls and ceilings between the drywall and the insulation. This barrier is used to prevent water vapor inside the home from entering the insulated wall cavity, where it can condense and cause structural damage. The barrier can be provided by the insulation facing, paint or primer applied to the drywall, or a sheet of 4-mil polyethylene film applied to the wall (see Figure 28-36). If a film is used, the seams between sheets should be taped. Any penetrations for electrical fixtures should also be sealed. In addition to the vapor barrier, interior caulking should be specified to reduce air infiltration. Common locations for interior caulking include: ●

large enough to let smaller moisture vapor molecules pass through. These house wraps are available in rolls up to 12' (3600 mm) wide allowing for fewer seams than with building felt. Any seams required in the house wrap are taped, providing a seamless envelope around the home. Figure 28-35 shows the application of engineered wood siding over a plastic house wrap. Equally important to specifying the underlayment to be used is to specify that the underside of the siding material is to be primed. Because water will get behind the siding, the interior side of the siding must be protected from water intrusion. Review Chapter 27 if masonry is to be used as a veneer in place of siding.

Exterior Caulking

●

●

● ● ● ● ●

Where pipes enter the structure. Especially critical are any holes placed in the sole plate. Outlets and switch plates located in exterior walls. Gaskets for outlets and switch plates can help prevent air leakage through the walls, as well as caulking holes where wiring passes through the sill or top plates. Where vents exit the structure. Provide caulking around the vent, but also provide self-sealing ducts that restrict airflow when exhaust fans are not in use. Between the fireplace and exterior walls. Between sheets of paneling. The interior side of door frames. The interior side of window frames. Baseboards (even if you have wall-to-wall carpeting).

In addition to the siding and building felt or wrap, caulking provides a third line of defense against water and air intrusion. Caulking was introduced in Chapter 12. The type and location of caulking and weather stripping are generally specified in the construction documents. The IRC requires that the following areas be filled with caulking: ● ● ●

All joints, seams, and penetrations in the exterior shell. Doors, windows, and skylight assemblies and their respective frames. Any other source of air infiltration.

Because this final category for the building code is very general, most offices provide specific locations that must be caulked or weather-stripped. A list of common caulking notes can be found on the Student CD in the BLOCKS folder.

FIGURE 2836 A sheet of 4-mil polyethylene film is applied to the wall and ceiling. The vapor barrier can also be provided by the insulation facing, paint, or primer applied to the drywall.

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FIGURE 2837 Joint compound is applied to hide all joints and screw heads.

Interior Finish The final element of wall construction to be considered is the interior finish. For most homes the interior finish consists of gypsum board. Gypsum board is the generic name for a family of sheet products such as Sheetrock, drywall, wallboard, or plasterboard that consist of a noncombustible core primarily of gypsum with paper surfacing. Gypsum wallboard is a type of gypsum board that is designed for walls, ceilings, or partitions and affords a surface suitable to receive decoration. Each name is used to describe a manufactured panel that is typically 1/2" (13 mm) thick, made out of gypsum plaster, and encased in a thin cardboard. Panels that are 5/8" (16 mm) thick are recommended for ceiling uses with trusses spaced at 24" (600 mm) O.C. The panels are nailed or screwed onto the framing and the joints are taped and covered with a joint compound. Figure 28-37 shows the application of joint compound. Other types of gypsum products found in a residence include green board, type X, and sounddeadening board. ●

Green board is a water-resistant material used in areas that have high moisture content, such as near a shower, tub, or spa for a backing for ceramic tile.

●

Type X gypsum board that is 5/8" (16 mm) is often used on the wall that separates the garage from the living areas. Municipalities vary on the need to use type X gypsum board. The IRC allows standard gypsum board to be used if it extends the full height of the separating wall, or if the separating wall and ceiling are covered with gypsum board. Although the use of standard gypsum board is allowed to separate the garage from the home, type X offers superior

●

fire resistance. Type X gypsum board is also used on the bottom of stairs to protect any usable space that is below the stairs. See Chapter 39 for more information on stair construction. Sound-deadening board is used in many custom homes to muffle mechanical and plumbing sounds near living and sleeping areas of the home. Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb sound are often used in home theaters.

ROOF CONSTRUCTION Roof framing includes both conventional and truss framing methods. Each has its own special terminology, but many terms apply to both systems. These common terms will be described first, followed by the terms for conventional and truss framing methods.

Basic Roof Terms Roof terms common to conventional and trussed roofs are eave, cornice, eave or bird blocking, fascia, ridge, sheathing, finishing roofing, flashing, and roof pitch dimensions. The eave is the portion of the roof that extends beyond the walls. The cornice is the covering that is applied to the eaves. Common methods for constructing the cornice can be seen in Figure 28-38. Eave or bird blocking is a spacer block placed between the rafters or truss tails at the eave. This block keeps the spacing of the rafters or trusses uniform and keeps small animals from entering the attic. It also provides a cap to the exterior siding, as seen in Figure 28-39. A fascia is a trim board placed at the end of the rafter or truss tails and usually perpendicular to the


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2" AIR SPACE ABOVE INSULATION

BAFFLE BTWN EA. RAFT RAFTER

RAFTER (3)-1" SCREENED VENTS AT EACH RAFTER SPACE INSULATION

2 X 4 NAILER

RAFTER/CEILING JOIST

FASCIA TRIM NOTCH RAFTER TAIL TO MATCH FASCIA

FASCIA SCREENED VENT 1/2" "CCX" EXT. PLY BAFFLE AT VENT

RAFTER

SOLID BLOCK-OMIT EVERY THIRD FOR SCREENED VENT

G.I. FLASHING

FASCIA NOTCH RAFTER TAIL

FASCIA

SCREENED VENT

SOLID BLOCK WITH 2" AIR SPACE ABOVE

1/2" "CCX" EXT. PLY OR 1X6 T&G TYP.

FIGURE 2838 Common methods for constructing a cornice. Methods shown in each example are interchangeable. The rafter/ceiling joists could be enclosed similar to the example in the upper left corner, or the tails could be cut square similar to the example in the lower left corner.

building wall. It hides the truss or rafter tails and also provides a surface where the gutters may be mounted. The fascia can be made from either 1× or 2× (25× or 50×) material, depending on the need to resist warping (see Figure 28-39). The fascia is typically 2" (50 mm) deeper than the rafter or truss tails. At the opposite end of the rafter from the fascia is the ridge. The ridge is the highest point of a roof and is formed by the intersection of the rafters or the top chords of a truss (see Figure 28-40). Roof sheathing is similar to wall and floor sheathing in that it is used to cover the structural members.

Roof sheathing may be either solid or skip. The area of the country and the finished roofing to be used will determine which type of sheathing is used. For solid sheathing, 1/2" (13 mm) OSB or 1/2" (13 mm) thick CDX plywood is generally used. CDX is the specification given by the APA to designate standard-grade plywood. It provides an economical, strong covering for the framing, as well as an even base for installing the finished roofing. Common span ratings in inches used

RIDGE RIDGE BOARD SHEATHING EAVE GUTTER

RAFTER EAVE BLOCKING

FASCIA FULL GUTTER WITHOUT FASCIA

FIGURE 2839 Eave components.

FIGURE 2840 Ridge construction.

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RIDGE BOARD

PITCH SYMBOL

12 RISE

5

OVERHANG

RUN TOTAL SPAN

FIGURE 2841 CCX plywood with a span rating of 24/16 is typically placed over rafters to support the finish roofing material at the exposed eaves. OSB is typically used over the attic.

for residential roofs are 24/16, 32/16, 40/20, and 48/24. Figure 28-41 shows plywood sheathing being applied to a conventionally framed roof. Skip sheathing is used with tile or shake roofing. In colder climates, the skip sheathing is installed over OSB or plywood sheathing. Typically 1 × 4s (25 × 100) are laid perpendicular to the rafters with a 4" (100 mm) space between pieces of sheathing (see Figure 28-42). A water-resistant sheathing must be used when the eaves are exposed to weather. This usually consists of plywood-rated CCX or 1" (25 mm) T&G decking. CCX is the specification for exterior-use plywood. It is designated for exterior use because of the glue and the type of veneers used to make the panel. The finished roofing is the weather-protection system. Roofing might include built-up roofing, asphalt

FIGURE 2843 Roof dimensions needed for construction.

shingles, fiberglass shingles, cedar, tile, or metal panels. See Chapter 22 for more information about roof components. Flashing is generally 20- to 28-gage metal used at wall and roof intersections to keep water out. Pitch, span, and overhang are dimensions that are needed to define the angle, or steepness, of the roof. Each can be seen in Figure 28-43. The term pitch is used to describe the slope of the roof, which is the ratio between the horizontal run and the vertical rise of the roof. The run is the horizontal measurement from the outside edge of the wall to the center line of the ridge. The rise is the vertical distance from the top of the wall to the highest point of the rafter being measured. Review Chapter 22 for a discussion of roof pitch. The span is the horizontal measurement between the inside edges of the supporting walls. Chapter 29 will further discuss span. The overhang is the horizontal measurement between the exterior face of the wall and the end of the rafter tail.

Conventionally Framed Roofs Conventional, or stick, framing methods involve the use of wood members placed in repetitive fashion. Stick framing involves the use of members such as a ridge board, rafter, and ceiling joists. The ridge board is the horizontal member at the ridge that runs perpendicular to the rafters. The ridge board is centered between the exterior walls when the pitch on each side is equal. The ridge board resists the downward thrust resulting from gravity trying to force the rafters into a V shape between the walls. The ridge board does not support the rafters but is used to align the rafters so that their forces are pushing against each other.

Common Rafter Types

FIGURE 2842 Skip or spaced sheathing is used under shakes and tile roofs.

Rafters are the sloping members used to support the roof sheathing and finished roofing. Rafters are typically spaced at 24" O.C. (600 mm), but rafters spaced at 12" and 16" (300 and 400 mm) O.C. are also common.


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HIP RIDGE VALLEY RAFTERS

VALLEY

HIPS

TOP PLATES

COMMON RAFTERS HIP JACK RAFTERS

FIGURE 2844 Roof members in conventional construction.

I-joists can also be used for rafters in residential construction. There are various kinds of rafters: common, hip, valley, and jack. Each can be seen in Figure 28-44. A common rafter is used to span and support the roof loads from the ridge to the top plate. Common rafters run perpendicular to both the ridge and the wall supporting them. The upper end rests squarely against the ridge board, and the lower end receives a bird’smouth notch and rests on the top plate of the wall. A bird’s mouth is a notch cut in a rafter at the point where the rafter intersects a beam or bearing wall. This notch increases the contact area of the rafter by placing more rafter surface against the top of the wall, as shown in Figure 28-45.

Hip rafters are used when adjacent slopes of the roof meet to form an inclined edge. The hip rafter extends diagonally across the common rafters and provides support to the upper end of the rafters (see Figure 28-46). The hip is inclined at the same pitch as the rafters. A valley rafter is similar to a hip rafter. It is inclined at the same pitch as the common rafters that it supports. Valley rafters get their name because they are located where adjacent roof slopes meet to form a valley. Jack rafters span from a wall to a hip or valley rafter. They are similar to a common rafter but span a shorter distance. Typically, a section will show only common rafters, with hip, valley, and jack rafters reserved for a very complex section.

WITH NO BIRD'S MOUTH, THE RAFTER COMPRESSES FROM TOO MUCH PRESSURE OVER TOO SMALL AN AREA. HEEL

A RAFTER WITH A BIRD'S MOUTH DISTRIBUTES ROOF WEIGHT OVER THE ENTIRE WIDTH OF THE SEAT.

SEAT

NO BIRD'S MOUTH

BIRD'S MOUTH

FIGURE 2845 A bird’s mouth is a notch cut into each rafter to increase the bearing surface.

TYPICAL RAFTER-TOPLATE CONNECTION

676


RIDGE BEAM METAL STRAP AT RIDGE @ 48" O.C.

RAFTERS

CEILING JOISTS

FIGURE 2846 A hip rafter is an inclined ridge board used to frame an exterior corner.

FIGURE 2848 When the ceiling joists are perpendicular to the rafters, a metal strap can be used to connect the rafters to the ridge and resist the outward force of the rafters, or a collar tie can be attached to the upper third of the rafters.

Common Rafter Supports Rafters tend to settle because of the weight of the roof and because of gravity. As the rafters settle, they push supporting walls outward. These two actions, downward and outward, require special members to resist them. These members are ceiling joists, ridge bracing, collar ties, purlins, and purlin blocks and braces. Each can be seen in Figure 28-47. When the ceiling joists are laid perpendicular to the rafters, a metal strap must be placed over the ridge to keep the rafters from separating, as shown in Figure 28-48. Ceiling joists span between the top plates of bearing walls to resist the outward force placed on the walls from the rafters. The ceiling joists also support the finished ceiling. Collar ties are also used to help resist the outward thrust of the rafters. They are usually the same cross-section size as the rafter and placed in the upper third of the roof. Ridge braces are used to support the downward action of the ridge board. The brace is usually a 2 × 4

45˚ MAX.

Vaulted Ceiling Members

RIDGE COLLAR TIES @ 48" O.C. CONTINUOUS PURLIN PURLIN BLOCK

CEILING JOISTS

(50 × 100) spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. maximum. The brace must be set at 45° maximum from vertical. A purlin is a brace used to provide support for the rafters as they span between the ridge and the wall. The purlin is usually the same cross-section size as the rafter and is placed below the rafter to reduce the span. As the rafter span is reduced, the size of the rafter can be reduced. See Chapter 30 for a further explanation of rafter sizes. Purlin braces are used to support the purlins. They are typically 2 × 4s (50 × 100s) spaced at 48" (1200 mm) O.C. along the purlin and transfer weight from the purlin to a supporting wall. The brace is supported by an interior wall, or a 2 × 4 (50 × 100) lying across the ceiling joist. It can be installed at no more than 45° from vertical. A scrap block of wood is used to keep the purlin from sliding down the brace. When there is no wall to support the ridge brace, a strongback is added. A strongback is a beam placed over the ceiling joist to support the ceiling and roof loads. Figure 28-49 shows ceiling joists hung from a strongback.

PURLIN BRACE AT 48" O.C.

FIGURE 2847 Common roof supports include purlins, and purlin blocks and braces.

If a vaulted ceiling is to be represented, the terms rafter/ceiling joist and ridge beam will be used on the roof plan and sections. Both can be seen in Figure 28-50. A rafter/ceiling joist is a combination of a rafter and a ceiling joist. The rafter/ceiling joist is used to support both the roof loads and the finished ceiling. Typically 2 × 12 (50 × 300) rafter/ceiling joists are used to allow room for 10" (250 mm) of insulation and 2" (50 mm) of air space above the insulation. The size of rafter/ceiling joists must be determined by the load and span.


677

METAL JOIST HANGERS KEEP ROOF FROM SEPARATING

TOP PLATES AND STUDS PROVIDE SUPPORT

RIDGE BEAM RAFTER/CEIL. JOIST

FLUSH RIDGE BEAM

HEADER SUPPORTS TOP PLATE

A METAL STRAP IS REQUIRED TO KEEP RAFTERS FROM SEPARATING SOLID BLOCK

BEARING WALL

RAFTER/CEIL. JOIST

HEADER RIDGE BEAM

EXPOSED RIDGE BEAM

FIGURE 2850 Common connections between the ridge beam and rafters. The beam may be exposed or hidden. NAILER

Truss Roof Construction

METAL HANGERS

FLUSH HEADER

STRONG BACK

FIGURE 2849 Common methods of supporting loads include bearing walls, headers, flush headers, and the strongback. When a header is used, the loads rest on the header. With a flush header, the ceiling joists are supported by metal hangers. A piece of scrap wood is used to hang the ceiling joist to the strongback.

A truss is a component used to span large distances without intermediate supports. Residential trusses can be as short as 15' (4500 mm) or as long as 50' (15 000 mm). Trusses can be either prefabricated

RIDGE BOARD

DOUBLE TRIMMER DOUBLE HEADER RAFTER

A ridge beam is used to support the upper end of the rafter/ceiling joist. Because there are no horizontal ceiling joists, metal joist hangers must be used to keep the rafters from separating from the ridge beam. ISOMETRIC

Framing Members Required at Roof Openings The final terms that you will need to be familiar with to draw a stick roof are header and trimmer. Both terms are used in wall construction, and they have a similar function when used as roof members (see Figure 28-51). A header at the roof level consists of two members nailed together that are parallel to the ridge to support rafters around an opening such as a skylight or chimney. Trimmers are two rafters nailed together and placed perpendicular to the ridge to support the sheathing on the inclined edge of an opening.

RAFTERS DOUBLE HEADER DOUBLE TRIMMER

PLAN

FIGURE 2851 Typical construction at roof opening.

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TOP CHORD TRUSS CONNECTORS TRUSS CLIP

WEBS BOTTOM CHORD CLEAR SPAN (INSIDE TO INSIDE) TOTAL SPAN (OUTSIDE TO OUTSIDE)

FIGURE 2852A Roofs framed with trusses are common because of the speed and ease with which they can be manufactured, shipped, and installed. Courtesy Ray Wallace, Southern Forest Products Association.

or job-built. Prefabricated trusses similar to those in Figure 28-52A are commonly used in residential construction. Assembled at the truss company and shipped to the job site, the truss roof can quickly be set in place. A roof that might take two or three days to frame using conventional framing can be set in place in two or three hours using trusses, which are set in place by crane. The size of material used to frame trusses is smaller than with conventional framing. Typically, truss members need be only 2 × 4s (50 × 100s) set at 24" (600 mm) O.C. An engineer working for the truss manufacturer will determine the exact size of the truss members. The drafter’s responsibility when drawing a framing plan for a structure framed with trusses is to represent the types of trusses to be used, the span of the trusses, and the area where a specific type of truss will be used. In sections and details the drafter must show the general truss shape and bearing points. Chapter 32 introduces framing plans, and Chapter 36 introduces sections.

FIGURE 2852B Truss construction members.

nailing surface for the roof sheathing and as a spacer in setting the trusses into position. Truss clips, also known as hurricane ties, are used to strengthen the connection between the truss and top plate or header, which is used

Terms Used to Describe Truss Roof Construction In making these drawings, it is helpful to have knowledge of truss terms, such as top chord, bottom chord, webs, ridge block, and truss clips. Figure 28-52B shows common truss components. The top chord of a truss serves a similar function to a rafter. It is the upper, inclined member of the truss that supports the roof sheathing. The bottom chord serves a purpose similar to a ceiling joist. It resists the outward thrust of the top chords and supports the finished ceiling material. Webs are the interior members of the truss that span between the top and bottom chord. They are attached to the chords by the manufacturer using metal plate connectors similar to those in Figure 28-53. Ridge blocks are blocks of wood used at the peak of the roof to provide a

FIGURE 2853 Two types of metal connectors are used with truss construction. The rectangular plate is supplied by the truss manufacturer to strengthen the connection between the top and bottom chord and does not need to be specified by the drafter. The strap is used to transfer forces of uplift created at the eave as wind attempts to lift the truss off the top plate. The strap holds the truss securely to the wall, and sends the uplift through the wall, and into the foundation. It is critical that the strap be specified on the roof plan and sections.


SCISSOR TRUSS

STANDARD TRUSS

TRUSS CLIP

TRUSS CLIP

LEDGER (MATCH RAFT/C.J. SIZE)

BIRD BLOCK

BIRD BLOCK

FASCIA

679

TOP PLATE

METAL HGR. STUB TRUSS

TOP PLATE

FASCIA

TRUSS CLIP

STUDS

STUDS RAFTER/C.J. TOP PLATE

STANDARD TRUSS TO WALL

SCISSOR TRUSS TO WALL

RAFTER/C.J. TO STUB TRUSS

FIGURE 2854 Common truss connections normally shown in the sections. Notice that the top chord aligns with the outer face of the top plate. When detailing a scissor truss, the bottom chord is typically drawn a minimum of two pitches less than the top chord.

to support the truss. Shown in Figure 28-53, the truss clips transfer wind forces applied at the eave that cause uplift, into the wall framing and into the foundation. A block is also used where the trusses intersect a support to keep the truss from sliding along the top plate when wind or seismic loads are applied perpendicular to the trusses. Common truss intersections with blocking and hurricane ties are shown in Figure 28-54. Truss Construction. The truss gains its strength from triangles formed throughout it. The shape of each triangle cannot be changed unless the length of one of the three sides is altered. The entire truss will tend to bend under the roof loads as it spans between its bearing points. Most residential trusses can be supported by a bearing point at or near each end of the truss. As spans exceed 40' (12 000 mm) or as the shape of the bottom chord is altered, it may be more economical to provide a third bearing point at or near the center. For a two-point bearing truss, the top chords are in compression from the roof loads and tend to push out the heels and down at the center of the truss. The bottom chord is attached to the top chords and is in tension as it resists the outward thrust of the top chords. Webs closest to the center are usually stressed by tension, and the outer webs are usually stressed by compression. Figure 28-55 shows how the tendency of the truss to bend under the roof loads is resisted and the loads are transferred to the bearing points.

in residential construction is a standard truss, which is used to frame gable roofs. A gable end wall truss (see Figure 28-56B) is used to form the exterior ends of the roof system and is aligned with the exterior side of the end walls of a structure. This truss is more like a wall than a truss, with the vertical supports typically spaced at 24" (600 mm) O.C. to support exterior finishing material. A girder truss is used where two perpendicular roofs intersect. To form a girder truss, the manufacturer typically bolts two or three standard trusses together. The manufacturer determines the size and method of constructing the girder truss. As seen in Figure 28-56C, the truss tails are removed by the manufacturer from the trusses to be supported, and metal hangers are used to hang the trusses to the girder truss. If a vaulted roof is desired, vaulted or scissor trusses can be used. Vaulted and scissor trusses have inclined bottom chords (see Figure 28-56D). Typically there must be at least a two-pitch difference between the top and bottom chord. If the top chord is set at a 6/12 pitch, the bottom chord usually cannot exceed a 4/12 pitch.

4000

2000

Types of Roof Trusses When they were introduced to the residential market, trusses were used primarily to frame gable roofs. Computers and sophisticated design software have enabled trusses to be manufactured easily in nearly any shape. Several of the common shapes and types of trusses available for residential roof construction can be seen in Figure 28-56A. The truss most commonly used

+

4000

+

+ –

+ –

4000

– –

+

+

2000

–

FIGURE 2855 Trusses are designed so that the weight to be supported is spread to the outer walls. This is done by placing some members in tension and some in compression. A member in compression is indicated by a plus sign (+), and one in tension is represented by a minus sign (–).

680


STANDARD

CANTILEVERED

HIP

GABLE END

STUB

MONO

VAULTED

SCISSOR

DUAL PITCH

ATTIC

BROKEN PITCH

GAMBREL

HEADER

FIGURE 2856A Common types of roof trusses for residential construction.

FIGURE 2856B Gable end wall trusses can often be shipped with the wall sheathing and siding attached.

FIGURE 2856C A girder truss is used to support trusses that are placed perpendicular to the girder truss. The truss manufacturer will determine the size of the materials needed to construct the girder truss. Courtesy Lisa Echols.

FIGURE 2856D Scissor trusses (foreground) and standard trusses (background) are often combined to frame a roof. Courtesy Lisa Echols.

A section will need to be drawn to give the exact requirement for the vaulted portion of the truss, similar to Figure 28-57. If a portion of the truss needs to have a flat ceiling, it may be more economical to frame the lowered portion with conventional framing materials, a process often referred to as scabbing on. Although this process requires extra labor at the job site, it might eliminate a third bearing point near the center of the truss. Figure 28-58 shows an example of two areas with vaulted ceilings separated by a hallway with a flat ceiling. A cantilevered truss is used where a truss must extend past its support to align with other roof members. Cantilevered trusses are used where walls jog to provide an interior courtyard or patio. A stub truss can be used where an opening will be provided in the roof or the roof must be interrupted. Rooms with glass skywalls, as in Figure 28-59, can often


681

STD./SCISSOR TRUSSES @24" O.C.

FIGURE 2857 A drawing of a standard/scissor truss is usually provided to show the manufacturer where to vault the roof.

SCISSOR TRUSSES @ 24" O.C. SOLID BLOCK TYPICAL

2 X 4 @ 24" O.C. 2 X 4 C.J. @ 24" O.C.

FIGURE 2858 An alternative to a standard/scissor truss is to “scab on" a false ceiling at the job site.

6'-0" TYPICAL VERIFY EXACT SIZE W/ MANUFACTURER.

STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C

LIMIT OF HIP TRUSSES

R

HIP TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

PE

LIMIT OF FULL TRUSSES

EE

@ 24" O.C.

ER

STD. TRUSSES

SL

6

EP

CANTILEVERED TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

6

HEADER TRUSS

2

X

E SL

STUB TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

2X

FRAME AREA OVER RAFTERS @ 24" O.C. TRUSSES W/ 2 X 6

TRUSS

2X8 RIDGE

GIRDER

MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

3 PANEL WINDOW SKYWALL.

FIGURE 2859 Standard, girder, stub, cantilever, hip, and mono trusses can each be used to form different roof shapes.

682

GOING GREEN Environmentally Friendly Design and Construction

Throughout this chapter, many building components have been discussed. Most of us live and work in structures that are constructed of these components and never even think about the building materials. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists more than 48,000 chemicals, with no information on the toxic effects of 79% of them. Of the chemicals that have been tested, many are found in the residential construction industry and can cause severe medical problems to individuals who are chemically sensitive. Allergies and diseases such as chronic fatigue syndrome are being linked to construction materials. Indoor air of new homes often contains as much as six times the acceptable outdoor levels of pollutants. The greatest indoor health risks come from airborne pollutants from products containing formaldehyde-based resins and solvents containing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are used in the construction process. Formaldehyde is a colorless gas compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and is found in most resin-based construction products. Resin is used in products such as plywood, HDF (high-density fiberboard), MDF (medium-density fiberboard), PSL, OSB, LVL, linoleum, lacquer, gypsum board, paneling, wallpaper, caulking compounds, insulation, adhesives, upholstery, and carpet. The toxins contained in the products can be present in levels harmful to healthy adults for up to 20 years after installation. Many household cleaning products also contain small amounts of formaldehyde. Exposure to low-level concentrations can cause irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes, as well as headaches, coughing, and fatigue. Higher levels of exposure can cause severe allergic reactions, skin rash, and possibly some types of cancer. Alternatives to formaldehyde-based products are often expensive and difficult to find. The AIA is becoming a leader in providing education in environmentally friendly construction methods. Concern is now being expressed by many groups for the need to examine the effects of manufacturing, using, and disposing of specific products in relation to the environment. Pressure-treated lumber can be removed from a residence by substituting products with a natural ability to repel moisture, such as cedar or redwood. Low-toxic products such as Aqua Mix Penetrating Sealer, Protek, and Bora-Care Tim-Bor Impel can be used to protect lumber from moisture. Sheets of grass-based boards such as MeadowBoard or Medite can be used in place of plywood sheathing. These boards resemble OSB in appearance but contain no dangerous resins. If plywood must be used, exterior grades contain lower levels of formaldehyde than most interior grades. The sides, edges, and interior side of

plywoods can be sealed with sealers such as Aqua Mix Safe Seal or Crystal Aire to prevent fumes from leaking into the home. Fiberglass insulation materials are also harmful to chemically sensitive people. Products such as AirKrete can be sprayed into the stud space to provide a toxin-free insulation. Foil-based insulation materials such as K-Shield or Denny Foil, with taped joints, can also be used to shield the interior of a structure from toxins contained in wall cavity material. Adhesives, joint compound, strippers, paints, and sealants all contain volatile organic chemicals, which can be harmful for years. Such products as Aqua Mix, Murco, Crystal Aire, and Auro are nontoxic or have low toxicity. Carpeting is one of the worst causes of indoor pollution. Typically, carpeting contains more than 50 chemicals that are used as bonding and protective agents. In addition to its chemical content, carpet harbors pollutants such as dust, mold, and pet dander, which affect many people with allergies. All-natural carpets of untreated wool, cotton, or other natural blends such as coir or sea grass are the best choices for allergy-sensitive people. Nylon is the most inert of the synthetic materials used for carpets. Stain treatments, foam pads, and the adhesives used for attaching the pad must be carefully considered because of their chemical content. AFM Safecoat seals noxious fumes into most carpets. For a chemically sensitive person, hard-surface floors are a better alternative than carpet. Tile, hardwood, linoleum, and slate are safe choices. Hardwood floors made of natural wood are safe, but the protective coating should be carefully considered. Wood parquet flooring should not be used because of the resins in the products and the adhesives used to bond them to the subfloor. Vinyl flooring is typically chemically saturated. Natural linoleum made from linseed oil and wood floors with jute backing provide a nontoxic durable flooring. In addition to the material used for construction, heating equipment, appliances, and furnishings must be considered if the toxins used in construction are to be reduced. Although gas and oil furnaces are cost effective, the fumes created by the burning of fossil fuels cause allergies for many people. Electric forced air and radiant heating are nontoxic. Many appliances within a residence should also be carefully considered. Gas appliances should be avoided; they create the same problems associated with gas heaters. Ovens should not be self-cleaning and should initially be heated outside the residence to burn off oils, paints, and plastic fumes. Dishwashers and clothes dryers also typically contain materials that affect chemically sensitive users.


be framed using stub trusses. The shortened end of the truss can be supported by either a bearing wall, a beam, or by a header truss. A header truss has a flat top that is used to support stub trusses. The header truss has a depth to match that of the stub truss and is similar in function to a girder truss. The header truss spans between, and is hung from, two standard trusses. Stub trusses are hung from the header truss. A hip truss has a horizontal top chord parallel to the floor, which is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding hip truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used. The height of each hip truss decreases as they get closer to the exterior wall, which is perpendicular to the ridge. Typically hip trusses must be 6' (1800 mm) from the exterior wall to achieve enough height to support the roof loads. Figure 28-59 shows where hip trusses could be used to frame a roof. The exact distance will be determined by the truss manufacturer and will be further explained in Chapter 32. A mono truss is a single-pitched truss used to form a shed roof, or used


www.hardboard.org www.alsc.org www.apawood.org www.bc.com www.canply.org www.csa.ca www.cwc.ca www.celotex.co.uk www.gp.com www.gypsum.org www.hpva.org

STD. TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

2 X 4 STUDS @ 16" O.C.

MONO TRUSSES @ 24" O.C.

U210 MTL. HGR. @ EA. TRUSS

FIGURE 2860 A mono truss is often used to blend a one-story area with a two-story area.

in conjunction with hip trusses to form the external portion of the hip roof. A mono truss is also useful in blending a one-level structure with a two-level structure, as seen in Figure 28-60.


The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current with changes in building materials. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address

683

Company, Product, or Service American Hardboard Association American Lumber Standards Commission, Inc. APA—The Engineered Wood Association Boise Cascade Canadian Plywood Canadian Standards Association Canadian Wood Council Celotex Corporation (insulating sheathing) Georgia-Pacific Corporation Gypsum Association Hardwood Plywood & Veneer Association

www.iilp.org www.internationalpaper.com

www.naad.org www.nahb.com

www.owenscorning.com www.typarhousewrap.com www.strongtie.com www.sfpa.org www.woodtruss.com www.masonrysociety.org www.tileusa.com www.trimjoist.com www.weyerhaeuser.com

International Institute for Lath, Plaster, & Drywall International Paper (highperformance building products) National Association of Aluminum Distributors National Commercial Builders Council of the National Association of Home Builders Owens Corning (house wrap and insulation) Reemay (Typar house wrap) Simpson Strong-Tie Company, Inc. Southern Forest Products Association Structural Building Components Portal The Masonry Society The Tile Council of America TrimJoist Engineered Wood Products Weyerhaeuser

684



Structural Components Test QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows:

Question 28–13 How do ridge, ridge blocking, and ridge board differ?

1. Letter your name, Chapter 28 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.

Question 28–15 Sketch, list, and define four types of rafters.

Question 28–1 List two different floor framing methods, and explain the differences. Provide sketches to illustrate your answer.

Question 28–18 What two elements are typically applied to wood to make an engineered wood product?

Question 28–2 How do a girder, a header, and a beam differ?

Question 28–19 Define mudsill. Question 28–20 What function does a purlin serve?

Question 28–3 List the differences between a rim joist and solid blocking at the sill.

Question 28–21 Explain the difference between a bearing and a nonbearing wall.

Question 28–4 How wide are girders typically, for a residence framed with a conventional floor system?

Question 28–22 What is the minimum lap for top plates in a bearing wall?

Question 28–5 What are let-in braces and wall sheathing used for?

Question 28–23 Sketch, label, and define the members supporting the loads around a window.

Question 28–6 A let-in brace must be at what maximum angle?

Question 28–24 What is the most common spacing for rafters?

Question 28–7 Define the following abbreviations:

Question 28–25 What is the function of the top plate of a wall?

PSL

MDF

APA

OSB

EXP

EXT

LVL

HDF

STRUCT

Question 28–8 How is a foundation post protected from the moisture in the concrete support? Question 28–9 Blocking is required in walls over how many feet high? Question 28–10 List four common materials suitable for residential beams and girders. Question 28–11 What purpose does the bird’s mouth of a rafter serve? Question 28–12 What do the numbers 4/12 mean when placed on a roof pitch symbol?

Question 28–14 List three types of truss web materials.

Question 28–16 List two functions of a ceiling joist. Question 28–17 Define the four typical parts of a truss.

Question 28–26 What is the advantage of providing blocking at the edge of a floor diaphragm? Question 28–27 List the common sizes of engineered wood studs. Question 28–28 What are the common span ratings for plywood suitable for roof sheathing? Question 28–29 What grades of plywood are typically used for floor sheathing? Question 28–30 List eight qualities typically given in an APA wood rating.

CHAPTER 29

Design Criteria for Structural Loading I

N

T

R

O

D

U

C

T

I

O

N

To advance in the field of architecture requires a thorough understanding of how the weight of the materials used for construction will be supported. This will require knowledge of loads and determining how they are dispersed throughout a structure. Several types of forces or loads affect structures. The most common are gravity, lateral loads, uplift, temporary loads, and moving loads. Gravity is a uniform force that affects all structures. Gravity causes a downward motion on each building component. Lateral loads produce a sideways motion on a structure. Lateral loads are caused by wind and seismic activity and vary in intensity according to the location of the structure and seismic activity. In addition to producing lateral force, wind can also produce uplift. Temporary loads are loads that must be supported for only a limited time. Storing 30 sheets of OSB roof sheathing on a few trusses is an example of a temporary load. Moving loads are loads that are not stationary. The moving loads most common in residential construction are produced by automobiles or construction equipment. This chapter will explore gravity loads, how they are transferred throughout a structure, and how to achieve equilibrium with the forces acting on the structure.

TYPES OF LOADS As a drafter, you will need to be concerned with several types of loads acting upon a building: dead, live, and dynamic loads. Because of the complexity of determining these loads exactly, building codes have tables of conventional safe loads, which can be used to help determine the amount of weight or stress acting on any given member.

Dead Loads Dead loads consist of the weight of the structure and include walls, floors, and roofs, plus any permanently fixed loads such as fixed service equipment. Building codes typically require design values to be based on a minimum dead load of 10 lb per square foot (psf) (0.48 kN/m2) for floors and ceilings. A design value of between 7 and 15 psf (0.48 and 0.72 kN/m2) for rafters is used, depending on the weight of the finished roofing.

The design load for dead loads can be verified in the design criteria section of each joist and rafter table (see Chapter 30). The symbol DL is used to represent the values for dead loads.

Live Loads Live loads are those superimposed on the building through its use. These loads include such things as people, furniture, and weather-related items such as wind, ice, snow, and water (rain). The most commonly encountered live loads are moving, roof, and snow loads. Live loads are represented by the symbol LL.

Floor Live Loads Buildings are designed for a specific use or occupancy. Depending on the occupancy, the floor live load will vary. The IRC requires floor members to be designed to support a minimum live load of 30 psf (1.44kN/m2) for sleeping rooms and 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) for all other habitable rooms. Garage floors that will support the weight of a vehicle must be able to support a minimum live load of 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2). Exterior balconies and decks must be designed to support a minimum live load of 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) although some municipalities require materials that can support a minimum live load of 60 psf (2.88 kN/m2). Live loads for floors will be further discussed in Chapter 42.

Moving Live Loads In residential construction, moving loads typically occur only in garage areas and are due to the weight of a car or truck. When the weight is being supported by a slab over soil, these loads do not usually cause concern. When moving weights are being supported by wood, the designer needs to take special care in the design. The IRC requires a minimum load of 50 psf (2.40 kN/m2) to be used in the design of residential garages. An elevated residential garage floor must also be able to support a 2000 (907 kg) pound load applied over a 20 sq in 1290 mm2 area. Elevated garage floors loads are typically beyond the ability level of most new designers, and should be drawn under the supervision of an architect or engineer. 685

686

Roof Slope


Tributary Loaded Area In Square Feet for Any Structural Member 0–200 201–600 Over 600

Flat or rise less than 20 4" per foot (1:3) Rise 4" per foot (1:3) to 16 less than 12" per foot (1:1) Rise 12" per foot (1:1) 12 and greater

16

12

14

12

12

12

TABLE 291 Minimum Roof Live Loads in Pounds-Force per Square Foot of Horizontal Projection

Roof Live Loads Roof live loads vary from 20 to 40 psf (0.96 to 1.92 kN/m2), depending on the pitch and the use of the roof. The size of the area that will support the load, referred to as a tributary load, also affects the live load. Based on IRC requirements, these loads can be seen in Table 29-1. Some roofs also are used for sundecks and are designed in a manner similar to floors. Other roofs are so steep that they may be designed like a wall. Many building departments use 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) as a safe live load for roofs. Consult the building department in your area for roof live load values.

Snow Loads Snow loads may or may not be a problem in the area where you are designing. You may be designing in an area where snow is something you dream about, not design for. If you are designing in an area where snow is something you shovel, it is also something you must allow for in your design. Because snow loads vary so greatly, the designer should consult tables similar to Figure 9-21 or the local building department to determine what amount of snow load should be considered. In addition to climatic variables, the elevation, wind frequency, duration of snowfall, and the exposure of the roof all influence the amount of live load design.

Dynamic Loads Dynamic loads are those imposed on a structure from a sudden gust of wind or from an earthquake.

Wind Loads Although wind design is usually designed by an architect or engineer, a drafter must understand the areas of a structure that are subject to failure. Figure 29-1 shows a partial map of minimum basic wind speeds that should be used to design a structure. This map provides general guidelines, but the local building department should be consulted for the design criteria for wind conditions for specific areas. Wind pressure creates wind loads on a structure. These loads vary greatly, depending on the

location and the height of the structure above the ground. IRC defines four basic wind exposure categories based on ground surface irregularities of the job site. Review Chapter 9 for a discussion of the four wind exposures. Figure 29-2 shows a simplified explanation of how winds can affect a house. Wind affects a wall just as it would the sail of a boat. With a boat, the desired effect is to move the boat. With a structure, this tendency to move must be resisted. The walls resisting the wind will tend to bow under the force of the wind pressure. The tendency can be resisted by roof and foundation members and perpendicular support walls. These supporting walls will tend to become parallelograms and collapse. The designer of the structure determines the anticipated wind speed and designs walls, typically referred to as shear walls, to resist this pressure. In planning for loads from wind, prevailing wind direction cannot be assumed. Winds are assumed to act in any horizontal direction and will create a positive pressure on the windward side of a structure. A negative pressure on the leeward (downwind) side of the structure creates a partial vacuum. Design pressures for a structure are based on the total pressure a structure might be expected to encounter, which is equal to the sum of the positive and negative pressure. A design value of 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2) is common for residential projects, but this value should be verified with local building departments. Thirty psf (1.44 kN/m2) equals a wind speed of 108 miles per hour (mph). Other common values can be seen in Table 29-2. Areas subject to high winds from hurricanes or tornados should be able to withstand winds of 125 mph (201 km/h), with 3-second gusts as high as 160 mph (257 km/h). Using these values, the designer can determine existing wall areas and the resulting wind pressure that must be resisted. This information is then used to determine the size and spacing of anchor bolts and any necessary metal straps or ties needed to reinforce the structure. Wind pressure is also critical to the design and placement of doors and windows. The design wind pressure will affect the size of the glazing area and the method of framing the rough openings for doors and windows. Openings in shear walls will reduce the effectiveness of the wall. Framing around openings must be connected to the frame and foundation to resist forces of uplift from wind pressure. Uplift, the tendency of members to move upward in response to wind or seismic pressure, is typically resisted by the use of steel straps or connectors that join the trimmer and king studs beside the window to the foundation or to framing members in the floor level below. Walls with large areas of openings must also have design studies to determine the amount of wall area that will be required to resist the

Chapter 29: Design Criteria for Structural Loading

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FIGURE 291 Basic minimum wind speeds for the design of wind pressure on a residence. See the IRC for complete listings. Reproduced from the International Residential Code / 2009. Copyright © 2009. Courtesy International Code Council, Inc. www.iccsafe.org.

SH

E

AR

WA

lateral pressure created by wind pressure. As a general rule of thumb, a wall section 4'–0" (1200 mm) is required for each 25 lineal feet (7500 mm) of wall. The amount of wall to be reinforced is based on the wall height, the seismic zone, the size of openings by the shear panel, and the method of construction used to reinforce the wall. Chapter 32 explores methods

LL

N N D TIO W I REC I D

SH

EA

R

L WA

L

FIGURE 292 Wind pressure on a wall will be resisted by the bolts connecting the wall sill to the foundation and by the roof structure. The wind is also resisted by shear walls, which are perpendicular to the wall under pressure.

psf kN/m2 mph

km/h

psf

kN/m2 mph

km/h

15 20 25 30 35 40 45

122 142 159 174 188 201 214

50 55 60 70 80 90 100

2.40 2.64 2.88 3.36 3.84 4.32 4.80

225 237 246 266 285 303 319

0.72 0.96 1.20 1.44 1.68 1.92 2.16

76 88 99 108 117 125 133

TABLE 292 Wind Loads

140 147 153 165 177 188 198

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4 X 6 POST HD-5A W/ 2-3/4" DIA. BOLTS THRU POST & 3/4" DIA BOLT THRU BEAM 3" CONC. FLOOR 2 X 12 F.J. @12" O.C 3 X 6 P.T. PLATE

W16 x 67

11 S-14

DBL SOLID BLK @ EA. SPACE BELOW POST

POST / WIDE FLANGE 3/4" = 1'-0"

FIGURE 293 Metal straps are used to transfer the loads from one floor through to another and down into the foundation. This detail will hold the wood floor system to the steel girders for the hillside home shown in Figure 28-6.

of resisting the forces of shear using the prescriptive methods of the building codes. Another problem created by wind pressure is the tendency of a structure to overturn. Structures built on pilings or other posted foundations allow wind pressure under the structure to exceed the pressure on the leeward side of the structure. Codes require that the resistance of the dead loads of a building to overturning be one and a half times the overturning effect of the wind. Metal ties are used to connect the walls to the floor, the floor joists to support beams, the support beams to supporting columns, and columns to the foundation. These ties are determined by an architect or engineer for each structure and are based on the area exposed to the wind and the wind pressure. Figure 29-3 shows an example of a detail designed by an engineer to resist the forces of uplift on a structure.

Seismic Loads Seismic loads result from earthquakes. Figure 29-4 shows a seismic map of the United States and the risk in each area of damage from earthquakes. The IRC has specific requirements for seismic design based on the location and soil type of the building site and the building shape. Chapter 32 explores building shape as it relates to construction materials. Chapter 33 discusses soil types and their effect on structures. Six seismic zones are listed in the IRC, ranging from zone A through zone F based on definitions provided in the International Building Code. Zone A is the least prone to seismic damage and structures

in zone E are most likely to be damaged by earthquakes. Zones A, B, and C do not require special construction methods. Special provisions are provided in the IRC for structures built in zones D1 and D2. Structures built in zone E and zone F are governed by the IBC. Stress that results from an earthquake is termed a seismic load and is usually treated as a lateral load that involves the entire structure. Lateral loads created by wind affect only certain parts of a structure; lateral forces created by seismic forces affect the entire structure. As the ground moves in varying directions at varying speeds, the entire structure is set in motion. Even after the ground comes to rest, the structure tends to wobble like Jell-O. Typically, structures fall to seismic forces in much the same way as they do to wind pressure. Intersections of roofs-to-wall, wall-tofloor, and floor-to-foundation are critical to the ability of a structure to resist seismic forces. An architect or engineer should design these connections. Typically, a structure must be fluid enough to move with the shock wave, but so connected that individual components move as a unit and all units of a structure move as one. Figure 29-5 shows a detail of an engineer’s design for a connection of a garage-door king stud designed to resist seismic forces. The straps that are attached to the wall cause the wall and foundation to move as one unit.

LOAD DESIGN Once the floor plan and elevations have been designed, the designer can start the process of determining how the structure will resist the loads that will be imposed on it. The goal of load design is to achieve equilibrium between the structure and the forces that will act upon the structure. For the gravity loads pushing down on the structure, an opposite and equal force or reaction must resist the gravity loads. The structural members of the home form a load path to transfer gravity loads into the foundation and then into the soil. The load path is the route that is used to transfer the roof loads into the walls, then into the floor, and then to the foundation. The structural members must be of sufficient size to resist the loads that are above the member. To determine the sizes of material required, it is always best to start at the roof and work down to the foundation. When you calculate from the top down, the loads will be accumulating; and when you work down to the foundation, you will have the total loads needed to size the footings. As a beginning drafter you are not expected to design the structural components. In most offices, the structural design of even the simplest buildings is done by a designer


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FIGURE 294 Seismic zone map for site Class-D can be used to determine the potential risk of damage from earthquakes. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

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4 X 4 POSTS

MSTA-18 STRAP BY SIMPSON CO. ON EA. SIDE OF POST. 2 X 6 DFPT SILL W/ (3)- 1/2" DIA X 10" A.B.

(1) -#4 VERT. AT EA. MTL. STRAP

Dead Load (DL)

Live Load (LL)

Total

Floors (nonsleeping) Floors (sleeping rooms) Exterior balconies Decks Walls Attics (without storage) Attics (with storage) Roofs (light coverings) Roofs (tile)

10 10 10 10 10 5 10 10 25

40 30 60 40 — 10 20 30 30

50 40 70 50 — 15 30 40 55

TABLE 293 Minimum Design Loads

# 4 CONT. 3" UP FROM BTM. OF 15" X 7" FTG. EXTEND STEEL 10'-0" AROUND FOOTING CORNER.

simple beam, the load on it is equally dispersed to each support. An individual floor joist, rafter, or truss or a wall may be thought of as a simple beam. For instance, the wall resisting the wind load in Figure 29-2 can be thought of as a simple beam because it spans between two supporting walls and has a uniform load. If a beam is supporting a uniformly distributed load of 10,000 lb (4536 kg), each supporting post would be resisting 5000 lb (2268 kg). A complex beam has a non-uniform load at any point of the beam, or supports that are not located at the end of the beam. Chapter 31 introduces methods of determining beam sizes when the loads are not evenly distributed. Table 29-3 shows a summary of typical building weights based on minimum design values from the IRC. Figure 29-6 shows the bearing walls for a one-story structure framed with a truss roof system and a postand-beam floor system. Remember that with a typical truss system, all interior walls are nonbearing. Half of

SHEAR / FND. TIE

3/4"

Member

1'-0"

FIGURE 295 Hold-down anchors are used to resist seismic forces and form a stable intersection between the floor and foundation.

or an engineer. The information in this chapter is a brief introduction into the size of structural members.

LOAD DISTRIBUTION A beam may be simple or complex. A simple beam has a uniform load evenly distributed over the entire length of the beam and is supported at each end. With a

TOTAL ROOF LOAD 1440# (32'+2'+2') X 40#

ROOF LOAD ON WALL 720#

FLOOR WEIGHT 100# (2'X 50#)

200# ( 4'X 50#)

8'-0"

WALL WEIGHT 80#

720# (ROOF LOAD ON WALL)

WALL WEIGHT 80# (8' X 10#)

FLOOR WEIGHT 100#

TOTAL LOAD SUPPORTED 900# ON FOUNDATION

4'-0" 32'-0"

TOTAL LOAD SUPPORTED ON FOUNDATION 900# (720#+80#+100#)

FIGURE 296 Loads for a one-level structure framed with a truss roof with 2' overhangs and a post-and-beam foundation system.


32'-0"

1/4 OF TOTAL LOADS

16'-0"

8'-0"

15'-0"

1/2 OF TOTAL LOADS

8'-0"

1/4 OF TOTAL LOADS

691

16'-0"

RAFTER SPAN RAFTER SPAN

FIGURE 298 Load distribution on a simple beam.

Upper Floor 8'-0"

16'-0"

8'-0"

32'-0"

FIGURE 297 Bearing walls and load distribution of a typical home.

the roof weight will be supported by the left wall, and half of the roof weight will be supported by the right wall. For a structure 32' wide with 2' overhangs, the entire roof will weigh 1440 lb (36' × 40#). Each linear foot of wall will hold 720 lb (18' × 40# psf), which is half the total roof weight. If the walls are 8' tall, each wall will weigh 80 lb (8' × 10#) per linear foot of wall. The foundation will hold 100 lb of floor load (2' × 50#) per linear foot. Only 2' of floor will be supported, because beams are typically placed at 48" O.C. Half of the floor weight (2' × 50#) is placed on the stem wall, and half of the weight (2' × 50#) will be supported by the girder parallel to the stem wall. Each interior girder will support 200 lb (4' × 50#) per linear foot of floor weight. The total weight on the stem wall per foot will be the sum of the roof, wall, and floor loads, which equals 900 lb. Figure 29-7 shows the bearing walls of a two-level structure framed using western platform construction methods. This building has a bearing wall that is located approximately halfway between the exterior walls. For this type of building, one-half of the total building loads will be on the central bearing wall, and one-quarter of the total building loads will be on each exterior wall. Examine the building one floor at a time and see why.

At the upper floor level, the roof and ceiling loads are being supported. In a building 32' × 15', as shown in Figure 29-8, each rafter is spanning 16'. Of course the rafter is longer than 16', but remember that the span is a horizontal measurement. If the loads are uniformly distributed throughout the roof, half of the weight of the roof will be supported at each end of the rafter. At the ridge, half of the total roof weight is being supported. At each exterior wall, one-quarter of the total roof load is being supported. At the ceiling and the other floor levels, the loading is the same. One-half of each joist is supported at the center wall and half at the outer wall. Using the loads from Table 29-3, the weights being supported can be determined. Calculating the total weight that a wall supports is a matter of determining the area being supported and multiplying by the weight.

Roof The area being supported at an exterior wall is 15' long by 10' wide (8' + 2' overhang), which is 150 sq ft. The roof load equals the sum of the live and dead loads. Assume a live load of 30 psf. For the dead load, assume the roof is built with asphalt shingles, 1/2" ply, and 2 × 8 rafters for a dead load of approximately 8 psf. For simplicity, 8 can be rounded up to 10 psf for the dead load. By adding the dead and live loads, you can determine that the total roof load is 40 psf. The total roof weight the wall is supporting is 6000 lb (150 × 40 lb = 6000 lb). Because the center area in the example is twice as big, the weight will also be approximately twice as big. But just to be sure, check the total weight on the center wall.

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You should be using 15 × 16 × 40 lb for your calculations. The wall is 15' long and holds 8' of rafters on each side of the wall, for a total of 16'. Using an LL of 40 lb, the wall is supporting 9600 pounds.


ROOF 9600 # ROOF 6000 # CEILING 3600 #

ROOF 6000 # CEILING 3600 #

Ceiling The procedure for calculating a ceiling is the same as for a roof, but the loads are different. A typical loading pattern for a ceiling with storage is 30 lb. At the outer walls the formula would be 15 × 8 × 30 lb, or 3600 lb. The center wall would be holding 15 × 16 × 30 lb, or 7200 lb.

Lower Floor Finding the weight of a floor is the same as finding the weight of a ceiling, but the loads are much greater. The LL for residential floors is 40 lb and the DL is 10 lb, for a total of 50 lb per sq ft.

Walls The only other weight left to be determined is the weight of the walls. Generally, walls are 8'−0" high and average about 10 lb psf. Determine the height

7200 # CEILING

WALL 1200 #

1200 # WALL

FLOOR 6000 #

WALL 1200 # FLOOR 6000 #

1200 # WALL

WALL 1200 #

12,000 # FLOOR

FLOOR 6000 #

24,000 #

43,200 #

WALL 1200 # FLOOR 6000 #

24,000 #

FIGURE 299 Total loads supported by footings. Using the assumed loads multiplied by 15 (the length of the building) produces the total loads.

of the wall and multiply by the length of the wall to find its area. Multiply the area by the weight per square foot, and you will have the total wall weight. Figure 29-9 shows the total weight that will be supported by the footings.

Design Criteria for Structural Loading Test


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements. Show all work and provide a sketch of a simple section and plan view to show how loads will be supported for the questions and problems.

Question 29–4 What factors cause snow loads to vary so widely within the same area?

1. Letter your name, Chapter 29 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it.

Question 29–6 What load will a floor 15' wide by 25' long generate per linear foot on the stem wall if the floor joists are parallel to the 25'-long wall? If they are parallel to the 15' wall?

Question 29–1 What are the two major categories of loads that affect buildings? Question 29–2 What is the safe design live load for a residential floor? Question 29–3 What is the safe design total load for a residential floor?

Question 29–5 On a uniformly loaded joist, how will the weight be distributed?

Question 29–7 If the floor in Question 29–6 had a girder to support it 12'−6" in from the edge of the short wall (centered), how much weight would the girder be supporting? Question 29–8 A building is 20' wide with 2' overhangs and a tile roof supported by trusses. The roof shape is a gable, and the building is 30' long. What amount of roof weight is being supported by the walls? What


amount of weight per linear foot is a footing at the bottom of the 8'−0"-high wall supporting? Assume a post-and-beam foundation is used, with the beams parallel to the footing in question. Question 29–9 A one-story home with a post-and-beam floor needs a foundation design. Girders will be placed at 4' O.C. with support every 8'. What weight will the girders be supporting in nonsleeping areas? What weight will the stem wall at the end of the girder be supporting in sleeping areas?

PROBLEMS Show all work and provide a sketch of the plan view and a simple section to show how the loads will be supported. Assume standard spacing for each member if the spacing is not specified.

693

Problem 29–5 Steel columns will be used at each end to support a 16'-long girder with a weight of 1260 lb per linear foot. How much weight will the columns support? Problem 29–6 A residence will be built with a truss roof spanning 24', with built-up roofing and 30" overhangs. How much weight would a header over a window 8' wide in a bearing wall need to support? How much weight would an 8' header support if it were in the wall perpendicular to the ridge? Use the following information to complete Problem 29–7 through Problem 29–11. Answer the questions by providing the weight per linear foot. A one-level residence will be built using trusses with 36" overhangs. The residence will be 24' wide. The roof is 235-lb composition shingles. Floor joists will be placed at 16" O.C. with girders spaced at 12'–0" O.C. All walls will be 8'–0" high.

Problem 29–1 If a joist with a total uniform load of 500 lb is supported at each end, how much weight will each end be supporting?

Problem 29–7 How much weight will be supported by a header over a window 6' wide in an exterior bearing wall?

Problem 29–2 If a joist with a total uniform load of 700 lb is supported at the midpoint and at each end, how much weight will be supported at each support?

Problem 29–8 A wall is to be built 11'−9" from the right bearing wall. If a 2'−6" pocket door is to be installed in the wall, how long will the header need to be, and how much weight will it be supporting?

Problem 29–3 A 16' rafter/ceiling joist at a 6/12 pitch will be supporting a cedar shake roof. What will be the total weight supported if the rafters are spaced at 12" O.C.? 16" O.C.? 24" O.C.? Problem 29–4 A stub truss with a 24" overhang will span 28' over a residence and support 300-lb composition shingles. It will be supported by a wall at one end and a girder truss with a metal hanger at the other end. How much weight will the hanger need to support?

Problem 29–9 Determine the load to be supported and specify the width of footing required if a wall is placed 14' from the left bearing wall. Problem 29–10 What will be the total dead load per linear foot that the bearing wall on the right side will be supporting? Problem 29–11 What will be the total roof load that the bearing wall on the left side will be supporting?

CHAPTER 30

Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables I

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The complexity of the structure and the experience of the drafter determine who will size the framing members. Even if each framing member will be determined by an engineer, a drafter should understand how span tables are used to determine joists and rafters. Because joists and rafters are considered simple beams with uniform loads, their sizes can be determined from span tables contained in the building code.

Standard framing practice is to place structural members at 12", 16", 19.2", or 24" (300, 400, 480, or 600 mm) on center. Because of this practice, standard tables have been developed for the sizing of repetitive members. These tables are available from the International Residential Code (IRC) and from major lumber associations such as the American Forest and Paper Association, Western Wood Products Association, or the Southern Forest Products Association. To use these tables you must understand a few basic facts, including typical loading reactions of framing members and the structural capabilities of various species and grades of wood.

DETERMINING SIZE AND SPAN The IRC provides allowable span tables for floor joists, ceiling joists, and rafters. Determine how the wood is to be used and proceed to the proper table. A few simple headings must be located at the top of the table before any spans can be identified (see Figure 30-1 to become familiar with the basics of the span table). Some of the key information to be gleaned from this part of the table includes: ●

Title. The IRC includes several different span charts, and it is extremely easy to use the wrong table. Double-check the title to see that you have the right table.

●

Loads. Within some categories of tables, the values for the table are determined by the loads assumed to be supported. In Figure 30-1, the table is based on an assumed LL value of 40 psf and dead loads of 10 or 20 psf. The values in this table will work well for a residence, but not for an office.

●

Deflection. The term deflection describes the stiffness of a structural member by its tendency to bend under a load. A beam will usually not fail from deflection, but the members that the beam supports will fail. When floor joists sag too much, Sheetrock will crack, or doors and windows will stick. Allowable deflection is represented by a symbol such as L/∆ = 360. Other allowable options include L/∆ = 240 and L/∆ = 180. The IRC lists the allowable deflection in the design criteria of each span table. The allowable deflection listed in the design criteria defines how much a member is allowed to sag. Deflection will be further explained in Chapter 31.

●

Size and spacing of lumber. The left side of the span table is the size and spacing of the framing lumber. In Figure 30-2, you will notice that each size of structural member has a value for a spacing of 12", 16", 19.2", and 24" O.C.

DETERMINING WOOD CHARACTERISTICS Before a span table can be used, you must be familiar with the species and grade of wood used for framing in your area. The most common types of framing lumber are Douglas fir–larch (DFL #2), Southern pine (SP #2), Spruce-pine-fir (SPF #2), and Hemlock-fir (Hem-fir #2). Notice that each species is followed by #2. This number refers to the grade value of the species. Usually only #1 or #2 grade lumber is used as structural lumber. The wood listed as #3 has too many checks and cracks to provide the needed strength for structural lumber. SS represents select structural lumber, a high-quality wood that is too expensive to be used for anything except exposed beams for the rich and famous. Once the type of framing lumber is known, the safe span can be determined.

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Chapter 30: Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables

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DEAD LOAD VALUE

LUMBER SIZE

TITLE

2X6

SPECIES

2X8

2 X 10

2 X 12 2

2X6

2X8

DEFLECTION VALUE

2 X 10

2 X 12

SPAN

FIGURE 301 Because of a wide variety of span tables with a similar appearance, it is critical that a few basic facts be studied before using each table. Before determining a span, verify the table title, the live and dead loads, the deflection limits, the lumber size, and spacing. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

Sizing Floor Joists Tables divided by living areas and sleeping areas are provided by the IRC to determine floor joists. The table shown in Figure 30-2 is intended for use in determining floor joists that will be used in residential living areas. Joist spans from this table can be used in sleeping areas, but joist spans from Figure 30-3 should not be used in general living areas.

Sizing Floor Joists for Living Areas To use Figure 30-2, find the column that represents proper species and grade for the lumber used in your area. The first listing in the column is 11–4. The 11–4 represents a maximum allowable span of 11'−4". For this example, Douglas fir #2 will be used. Because the most common spacing for floor joists is 16" O.C., drop down to the 16" spacing box. Using the Douglas fir– larch #2 option of the 16" row and the 10-lb column, you will find spans listed for 2 × 6 = 9−9, 2 × 8 = 12–7, 2 × 10 = 15−5, and 2 × 12 = 17−10. If you were looking for floor joists to support a living room floor that is 14'−6" wide, the 2 × 10 floor joists would be suitable. Using 2 × 12 floor joists placed at 24" O.C. would also be suitable with a maximum span of 14'−7". Using Figure 30-2, determine the distance 2 × 8 Hem-fir #2 floor joists will span at 16" O.C. Work to the right until you come to 2 × 8. Now work down to the 16" spacing row. The span for a 2 × 8 at 16" O.C. with a dead load of 10 lb is 12'−0". Use the same procedure for determining the span for a 2 × 10 SP #2 floor joist at 16" O.C. The listed span is 16'−1". Typically, the span will be known, and the drafter will need to determine the size of member. For instance,

determine the size of floor joists needed for a living area that is 15' wide. Assume Southern pine with a dead load of 10 lb will be used. Using joists spaced at 24" or 19.2" O.C., 2 × 12 could be used. With a spacing of 16" O.C., either 2 × 10 or 2 × 12 joists could be used. Even if select structural lumber is used, 2 × 8 joists cannot be used to span 15'−0". If a girder is used at the midpoint to reduce the span, 2 × 6 SP #2 joists placed at 24" O.C. could be used safely. The designer will now need to determine if it is more cost effective to use 2 × 6 joists at 24" O.C. and a girder, or 2 × 10 joists at 16" O.C. with no girder. For most markets, the cost of labor will be the determining factor rather than the cost of the lumber. To reduce labor cost, the 2 × 10 SP #2 at 16" O.C. will be more economical.

Sizing Floor Joists for Sleeping Areas The IRC allows the floor live load of sleeping areas to be reduced from 40 to 30 lb. The table in Figure 30-3 can be used to determine floor joists with a live load of 30 psf and a dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Values from this table are determined using the same methods that were used with Figure 30-2. Notice that to determine the DFL #2 floor joists needed to support a bedroom with a 14'−6" span, that 2 × 8 at 12" O.C. or 2 × 10 at 16" O.C. can be used.

Sizing Ceiling Joists To determine the size of a ceiling joist, use the proper table and the same procedure that was used to size floor joists. Because they are both horizontal members, they will have similar loading patterns. A table for sizing ceiling joists can be seen in Figure 30-4.

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FIGURE 302 This span table is suitable for determining floor joists for living areas with a live load of 40 psf, a deflection of L/D∆ = 360, and dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.


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FIGURE 303 This span table is suitable for determining floor joists for sleeping areas with a live load of 30 psf and dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

698


FIGURE 304 This span table is suitable for determining ceiling joists without storage areas with a live load of 10 psf and a dead load of 5 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.


699

For ceiling joists the live load is only 10 psf. Span tables are available for ceiling joists with and without storage. Using Figure 30-4, determine the smallest size DFL #2 ceiling joist that will span 16' at 16" O.C. You will find that a 2 × 6 at 16" O.C. will span 17'−8". Figure 30-5 shows a table for ceiling joists with limited attic storage. This table will be more realistic for most residential uses. Notice that the dead load has been increased from 5 to 10 psf. Using DFL #2 joists at 16" O.C. to span 16' will require 2 × 8 joists to be used. These joists are suitable for spanning distances of up to 16'−3".

adjustment factors provided in the table need to be applied that will reduce the allowable rafter span.

Sizing Rafters

Sizing Engineered Floor Joists

Although the selection of rafters is similar to the selection of joists, two major differences will be encountered. Tables are available for rafters with and without the ceiling attached to the rafters, and based on the ground snow load. Load tables with ground snow loads of 30, 50, and 70 psf are available in the IRC. Remember that the required load to be supported should be verified with the building department that will govern the job site. Your local building department will determine which live load value is to be used. The dead load is determined by the construction materials to be used. The table in Figure 30-6 with a dead load of 10 psf would be suitable for rafters supporting most materials except tile, with no interior finish. The column in Figure 30-6 with a load of 20 psf is suitable for supporting most tiles. Vendor catalogs should always be consulted to determine the required dead loads. Figure 30-7 shows a similar table for 30-lb loads. Once the live and dead loads have been determined, choose the appropriate table. Determine what size Hem-fir rafter should be used to support a roof over a room 18' wide framed with a gable roof. Assume the roof is supporting 235-lb composition shingles with a live load of 20 psf, a dead load of 10 psf, and 24" spacing. Because a gable roof is being framed, the actual horizontal span is only 9'−0". Using the table in Figure 30-6, it can be seen that 2 × 6 HF #2 rafters spaced at 24" O.C. are suitable for spans of up to 11'−7". If the same room were to be framed with DFL #2 lumber, 2 × 6 members would be suitable for spans of up to 11'−9". If the spacing is reduced to 16" O.C., 2 × 4 DFL #2 rafters can be used for spans of up to 9'−10". Even though they are legal, many framers will not use 2 × 4 members because they tend to split as they are attached to the wall top plates. If ceiling joists or rafters ties are located above the bottom of the attic,

Figure 30-8 shows a span table for engineered floor joists. Notice that this actually consists of two tables. The lower portion of the table describes spans based on code-allowed deflections. The upper portion of the table describes spans based on the manufacturer’s suggested deflection limits of L/480. The increased deflection limits will produce an excellent floor system with little or no vibration or squeaking. To determine the joist size required to span 16'−0", follow these steps:

WORKING WITH ENGINEERED LUMBER Determining the span of engineered lumber is similar to sizing sawn lumber, although span tables will vary slightly for each manufacturer. Most suppliers of engineered joists provide materials for determining floor joists and rafters. The balance of this chapter will explore material supplied by Weyerhaeuser.

● ● ● ●

Determine the deflection limit to be used. For this example L/360 will be used. Identify the loading condition to be used. For this example a 40 psf LL and a 10 psf DL will be used. Select the on center spacing to be used. For this example 24" O.C. will be used. Scan down the spacing column until a distance that exceeds the span is located. For this example, the first joist that meets the design criteria is the 11 7/8" TJI/210 joist with a span of 16'−10".

Compare the same joist with the top half of the table. Using the stricter deflection limits, the 11 7/8" TJI/210 joist will span 16'−5". If the spacing is changed to 12" O.C., a 9 1/2" TJI/110 could be used with a maximum span of 16'−5".

Selecting Engineered Rafters Figure 30-9 shows an example of a table that can be used to determine engineered rafter sizes. Before using the table, notice the deflections and the divisions in the table. Deflection is limited to L/180, and the table is divided into non-snow and snow load areas and low and high sloped roofs. The low listing should be used for roofs with a slope of less than

700


FIGURE 305 This span table is suitable for determining ceiling joists with limited storage and a live load of 10 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.


FIGURE 306 This span table is suitable for determining rafters that do not support ceiling loads. Design loads include a live load of 20 psf and a dead load of either 10 or 20 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

701

702



FIGURE 307 This span table is suitable for determining rafters that do not support the ceiling loads with a ground snow load of 30 psf. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.


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6/12, and the high listing should be used for slopes greater than 6/12. The following steps can be used to determine the required rafter size to span 16'−0" on a 5/12 pitch supporting composition shingles: ●

●

Determine the roof loading to be used. For this example, a LL of 20 lb and a DL of 15 lb with no snow will be used. Determine the appropriate slope column to be used. For this example, the low column will be used.

●

Move down the 20LL + 15DL low column into a row that reflects the desired spacing until a value is found that equals or exceeds the required span. All of the values for 16" and 19.2" rafters exceed the required 16'−0" span. A 9 1/2" TJI/150 at 24" O.C. can be used for the required span.

As with other types of engineered materials, consult all of the manufacturer’s instructions.

704


FIGURE 308 Engineered floor joist span tables. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.


FIGURE 309 Engineered rafter span tables. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.

705

706




The following Web sites can be used as a resource to help you keep current on lumber manufacturers. These Web site links are also provided on the Student CD where you can select a link and go automatically to the specified Web site. Address www.afandpa.org www.aitc-glulam.org www.awc.org www.bcewp.com

Company, Product, or Service American Forest and Paper Association American Institute of Timber Construction American Wood Council (NDS Standards) Boise Cascade (engineered wood products)

www.cwc.ca www.gp.com www.ilevel.com www.lpcorp.com www.sfpa.org www.woodtruss.com www.wwpa.org www.weyerhaeuser.com

Canadian Wood Council Georgia-Pacific Corporation I-level by Weyerhaeuser Louisiana-Pacific Corporation Southern Forest Products Association Structural Building Components Association Western Wood Products Association Weyerhaeuser (building products)

Sizing Joists and Rafters Using Span Tables Test


QUESTIONS DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions with short, complete statements or drawings as needed on an 8 1/2" × 11" sheet of notebook paper, as follows: 1. Letter your name, Chapter 30 Test, and the date at the top of the sheet. 2. Letter the question number and provide the answer. You do not need to write out the question. Answers may be prepared on a word processor if course guidelines allow it. Use the type of lumber common to your area to answer the following questions. Unless something else is noted, use #2 material.

Question 30–7 Determine the floor joist size needed to span 13'−0" to support a kitchen floor. Question 30–8 Determine the smallest floor joist size needed to span 13'−0" to support a living room floor. Question 30–9 What is the smallest size floor joist that can be used to span 15'−9" beneath a kitchen? Question 30–10 What floor joist size would be needed to support a kitchen 12'−2" wide? Question 30–11 Determine the smallest floor joists that could be used to span 12'−8".

Question 30–1 List four common types of lumber used for framing throughout the country.

Question 30–12 What is deflection, and how do building codes express its limits?

Question 30–2 How is modulus of elasticity represented in engineering formulas?

Question 30–13 Use the Internet or local vendor resources to locate five or more different manufacturers of engineered floor joists that are available in your area.

Question 30–3 Determine the floor joist size that will be required to span 15'−0" if spaced at 16" O.C. Question 30–4 You are considering the use of 2 × 8 floor joists to span 14'−0". Will they work? Question 30–5 Using 2 × 6s at 16" O.C. for ceiling joists, determine their maximum safe span. Question 30–6 Determine the size of lumber required to span 16'−6" with 16" and 24" spacings for rafter/ ceiling joists.

Question 30–14 Use the tables presented in this chapter and determine the floor joist size required to span 17'−0" using L/360 and L/480 using a spacing of 16" O.C. Question 30–15 What is the advantage of using a deflection value of L/480 if the building codes allow a greater deflection?


PROBLEMS DIRECTIONS: Use the tables presented in this chapter to complete the following problems. Unless noted, use DFL #2 at standard spacing. Use the Weyerhaeuser Web site when necessary.

Problem 30–1 A living room is 17'−9" wide. What is the smallest size ceiling joist that could be used for an attic with no storage? Problem 30–2 A contractor has bought a truckload of 2 × 6s 18' long. Can they be used for ceiling joists with no attic storage spaced at 16" O.C.? Problem 30–3 What size rafter is needed for a home 28' wide with a gable roof, 4/12 pitch with 235-lb composition shingles if a 10# dead load and a 30# live load is assumed? Problem 30–4 What is the maximum span allowed using 2 × 10 rafters for a 3/12 pitch using built-up roofing if a 10-lb dead load and a 20-lb live load is assumed? Problem 30–5 Determine the rafter size to be used to span 14' and support a 20-lb dead load at a 6/12 pitch.

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Problem 30–6 What size engineered floor joists should be used for a floor span of 17'−9" if L /480 is to be used? Problem 30–7 A 9 1/2" TJI/110 at 24" O.C. will be used to cantilever 24". The joist will support a floor load of 45 psf and a wall that supports a truss 28' wide with 1' overhangs. How should the cantilevered joist be reinforced? Problem 30–8 If the joists in Problem 30–7 were placed at 16" O.C., how should they be reinforced? Problem 30–9 Engineered rafters are required to span 19' and support 300-lb composition shingles on a 6/12 pitch in an area where no snow is expected. What size TJI should be used if 24" spacing is desired? Problem 30–10 Engineered rafters are required to span 17'−6" and support a DL of 20 lb on a 5/12 pitch in an area where no snow is expected. What is the smallest size engineered material that can be used? What is the smallest size rafter that can be used if 24" spacing is desired?

CHAPTER 31

Determining Beam Sizes I

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T

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As you advance in your architectural skills, the need to determine the size of structural members will occur frequently in residential design. This chapter will introduce loads that must be considered, define structural lumber, and explore how the sizes of wood beams are determined. You will need to develop several skills in order to determine the size of structural members easily. These skills include the ability to distinguish loading patterns on beams, recognize standard engineering symbols used in beam formulas, recognize common causes of beam failure, and understand how to select beams to resist these tendencies.

STRUCTURAL LUMBER No matter how the loads are placed or what size the load is, all beams will bend to some extent. How and to what extent a beam will bend depends on its natural properties. These properties vary depending on the size of the member, the type of wood to be used, the moisture content of the wood, and defects in the wood.

Lumber Sizes Lumber is described using a nominal size and a net size. Nominal size describes the width and depth of a piece of wood in whole inches, such as a 6 × 10. The 6 represents the width and the 10 represents the depth of the beam. A 6 × 12 will shrink in size as it 2" Material (in.) (mm)

Lumber Grading Most structural lumber is visually graded when it is sawn at a mill. With visual inspection methods, wood is evaluated by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards in cooperation with the U.S. Forest Products laboratory. Some structural lumber is tested nondestructively by machine and graded as mechanically evaluated lumber (MEL). The current standard for rating lumber is the NDS 2005 standard (National Design Specifications for Wood Construction), based on destructive testing of visually graded dimension lumber. The lumber guidelines can be found on the American Forest and Paper Association Web site. With NDS guidelines, wood is given a designation such as #1 to define its quality and a base value for the species. The base value is then adjusted, depending on the size of the lumber. The grading process takes into account what portion of the tree the member was sawn from and natural defects in the wood such as knots and checks. In addition to the NDS and IRC prescriptive tables,

4" Material (in.) (mm)

(in.)

6" Material (mm)

1½" × 3½"

38 × 90

3½" × 3½"

90 × 90

5½" × 3½"

140 × 90

1½" × 5½"

38 × 140

3½" × 5½"

90 × 140

5½" × 5½"

140 × 140

1½" × 7½"

38 × 190

3½" × 7¼"

90 × 184

5½" × 7½"

140 × 190

1½" × 9¼"

38 × 235

3½" × 9¼"

90 × 235

5½" × 9½"

140 × 240

1½" × 11¼"

38 × 280

3½" × 11¼"

90 × 280

5½" × 11½"

140 × 290

1½" × 13¼"

38 × 330

3½" × 13½"

90 × 340

5½" × 13½"

140 × 340

TABLE 311 Common Net Lumber Sizes 708

dries, and it will be reduced in size as it is smoothed with a planer. The final size of wood after planing is referred to as the net size. The net next size of a 6 × 10 is 5 1/2" × 9 1/2" (140 × 240 mm). The net size is used in designing structural members. Common net sizes include widths of 1 1/2", 3 1/2", 5 1/2", and 7 1/4" (38, 90, 140, and 180 mm). The net depth will vary depending on the width. Common net sizes can be seen in Table 31-1.

Chapter 31: Determining Beam Sizes

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the NDS includes Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) methods that can be used by the designers. No matter how the wood is evaluated, common terms used to define it include dimension lumber, timbers, post and timbers, and beams and stringers.

Dimension Lumber

SURFACE NEAREST LOAD IN COMPRESSION

b

NEUTRAL AXIS d

Dimension lumber ranges in thickness from 2" to 4" (50 to 100 mm) and has moisture content of less than 19%. Common grades of dimension lumber include: ● ● ● ● ● ●

Stud. 2" to 6" (50 to 150 mm) width and a maximum length of 10' (3000 mm). Select structural. No. 1 and better. No. 1, 2, & 3. Construction. Utility.

Timbers Timber is both a general classification for large sizes of structural lumber and the name of a specific grade and size: structural lumber that is at least 5" (125 mm) thick. The two basic categories of timber include post and timbers and beams and stringers. ●

●

Post and timbers. This classification refers to structural lumber that is 5 × 5 and larger with a thickness and width that are the same or within 2" (50 mm) of each other such as a 6 × 6 or 6 × 8. Beams and stringers. This classification refers to structural lumber that is 5 × 5 and larger with a thickness 2" (50 mm) or greater than the width such as a 6 × 10 or 6 × 12.

Properties of Lumber In addition to the terms used to describe lumber, several key terms must be understood to determine the size of wood beams. These terms include breadth, depth, area, extreme fiber stresses, neutral axis, moment of inertia, section modulus, and grain (see Figure 31-1). Some definitions of lumber terms follow. A: Area of the beam, determined using b × d. b: Breadth of a rectangular beam in inches. d: Depth of a rectangular beam in inches. Fb: Extreme fiber stresses: As a beam deflects from the load it supports, the surface of the beam supporting the load will be placed in compression. The bottom of the beam will be placed in tension.

LOAD

SURFACE OPPOSITE OF LOAD IN TENSION

FIGURE 311 Common properties of rectangular lumber. When a load is placed on the top of a beam, the surface nearest the load is placed in compression and the surface away from the beam is in tension.

Neutral axis: The axis formed where the forces of compression and tension in a beam reach equilibrium. It is formed at the midpoint between the forces of compression and tension. Because the upper and lower surfaces of the beam resist the most stress, holes can be drilled near the neutral axis without greatly affecting the strength of the beam. This chapter will explore the placement of loads on a beam and help determine the loads that must be resisted so that equilibrium can be achieved. I: Moment of inertia is the sum of the products of each of the elementary areas of a beam multiplied by the square of their distance from the neutral axis of the cross section. This sounds technical, but a value for I is listed in tables that will be presented later in this chapter for use in deflection calculations. S: Section modulus is the moment of inertia divided by the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber of the cross section. Once again, this sounds technical, but a value for S is listed in tables that will be presented later in this chapter for use in determining bending strength calculations. Grain: How a beam reacts will depend on the relationship of the load to the grain of the wood. Wood grain is composed of fibers that can be visualized as grains of rice that are aligned in the same direction. The wood fibers are strongest in their long direction. Common relationships of loads to grain include loads placed parallel and perpendicular to the grain. ●

When a load is applied in the same direction as the fibers of a structural member, the force is said to be parallel to the grain. Loads that are parallel to the grain are represented by the symbol //.

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COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO THE GRAIN

BENDING MOMENT

COMPRESSION PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN

TENSION PARALLEL TO THE GRAIN

DEFLECTION

HORIZONTAL SHEAR

TENSION

COMPRESSION

VERTICAL SHEAR

FIGURE 313 Forces acting on structural members.

FIGURE 312 Forces acting on horizontal members.

●

When a load is applied across the direction of the fibers of a structural member, the force is said to be perpendicular to the grain and is represented by the symbol ⊥.

Figure 31-2 shows a force applied to a beam in each direction. Loads typically affect structural members in five different ways: bending strength, deflection, horizontal shear, vertical shear, and bearing area. These forces will create stress that affects the fibers inside the beam. The forces of tension and compression from outside of a beam will also be considered. Each force can be seen in Figure 31-3 and will be explored in the next section of this chapter.

LOADING REACTIONS OF WOOD MEMBERS For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This is a law of physics that affects every structure ever built. There are several actions or stresses that must be understood before beam reactions can be considered. These stresses include fiber bending stress, deflection, horizontal shear, vertical shear, and compression. To determine the size of a framing member using standard loading tables, you do not need to know how these stresses are generated, only that they exist. Design loads have been discussed in earlier

chapters. Review Table 29-3 for a partial list of design live loads (LL) and dead loads (DL). These design loads will be useful in determining the load on a beam. Table 31-2 shows a partial listing of base design values that are needed for the design of beams. This table includes a column of values for fiber bending stress (Fb), modulus of elasticity (E), and horizontal shear (Fv) based on the National Design Specifications for Wood Construction, published by the American Forest and Paper Association.

Fiber Bending Stress The bending strength of a wood beam is measured in units of fiber bending stress. Earlier you read about extreme fiber stress (compression) that occurs on the beam surface supporting the load. Extreme fiber stress (tension) also occurs on the surface opposite the surface in compression. Engineers use a relationship of allowable fiber bending stress to the maximum bending stress to determine the required strength of a framing member. Fiber bending stresses are represented by the symbol Fb. The values listed in beam tables are the safe, allowable fiber bending.

Bending Strength Bending strength is the determination of the beam strength required to resist the force applied to a beam measured in moments. The bending moment at any point of the beam is the measure of the tendency of the beam to bend due to the force acting on the beam.


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DESIGN VALUES FOR BEAMS SIZE, SPECIES, AND COMMERCIAL GRADE

EXTREME FIBER BENDING Fb

DFL #2 48 4 10 4 12

Base Value 875 875 875

DFL #1 68 6 10 6 12

1350 1350 1350

Modifier (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)

Increased Value 1138 1050 963

HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

85 85 85

1. 6 1. 6 1. 6

85 85 85

1. 6 1. 6 1. 6

70

1. 3

Reduce the base value of all members larger than 6 12 by (12/d)1/9 = Cf. Hem-Fir 6_

1050

TABLE 312 Partial Listing of Safe Design Values of Common Types of Lumber Used for Beams. Data from Wood Structural Design Data, originally produced by the National Forest Products Association, which is now part of the American Forest and Paper Association.

The magnitude of the bending moment varies throughout the length of the beam. The maximum bending stress occurs at the midpoint of a simple beam with a uniform load. The location for maximum bending moment in complex beams will be discussed later in this chapter. The letter M represents bending moment in engineering formulas. The relationship of the allowable extreme fiber bending stress (Fb) to the maximum bending moment (M) equals the required section modulus (S) of a beam. The design equation is S = M/Fb. The Fb base design value listed in psi for various lumber species can be determined using Table 31-2. The base Fb value for 4× members varies depending on the depth of the beam. The base design value for 6× material remains fixed, up to and including 6 × 12. Determining the required section modulus of a beam will provide one of the pieces of information needed to determine the size of beam needed to support a specific load over a given span.

Deflection Deflection deals with the stiffness of a beam. It measures the tendency of a structural member to bend under a load and as a result of gravity. As a load is placed on a beam, the beam will sag between its supports. As the span increases, the tendency to deflect increases. Deflection rarely causes a beam to break but greatly affects the materials that the beam supports. When floor joists sag too much, gypsum board will crack or doors and windows will stick. Two formulas will be used to determine deflection. The first is the legal limit of deflection that determines how much the building

code will allow a specific beam to bend. Limits are set by the IRC and are expressed as a ratio of the length of the beam in inches over a deflection value. Allowable deflection for a floor beam is represented by the ratio L/360. For a 10' long floor beam, it is allowed to deflect 0.33' (120/360). The allowable deflection value defines the maximum amount of deflection (can sag). Other allowable deflections include: L/180 Roofs with a slope of 3/12 or greater with no ceiling loads L/360 Floors and plastered ceilings L/240 All other structural members

Modulus of Elasticity Modulus of elasticity also deals with the stiffness of a structural member. It is a ratio of the amount a member will deflect in proportion to the applied load. The letter E is used in beam tables and design formulas to represent the value for the modulus of elasticity. The E value represents how much the member will deflect (the “will sag” value). For a beam to be safe, the E value (will sag) cannot exceed the deflection value (can sag). Different formulas for varied loading conditions will be introduced throughout the balance of this chapter. These formulas consider the load and span of the beam, the modulus of elasticity, and the moment of inertia of the beam. Deflection is represented by the symbol ∆. The value for the modulus of elasticity is expressed as E for the species and grade of the beam to be used, and the moment of inertia is expressed as I.

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Horizontal Shear

Compression

Horizontal shear is the tendency for the wood fibers to slide past each other at the neutral axis and fail along the length of the beam. Horizontal shear is a result of forces that affect the beam fibers parallel to the wood grain. Under severe bending pressure, adjacent wood fibers are pushed and pulled in opposite directions. The top portion of the beam nearest the load is in compression. The edge of the beam away from the load is under stress from tension. The line where the compression and tension forces meet is the point at which the beam will fail. Horizontal shearing stresses are greatest at the neutral surface. The maximum horizontal shear stress for a rectangular beam is one and one half times the average unit shear stress. The design formula is v = (1.5) (V)/A, where:

Compression is the tendency to compress a structural member. Fibers of a beam tend to compress the portion of a beam resting on a column, but residential loads are usually not sufficient to cause a structural problem. Posts are another area where compression can be seen. Wood is strongest along the grain. The loads in residential design typically are not large enough to cause problems in the design of residential columns. However, the length of the post is important in relation to the load to be supported. As the length of the post increases, the post tends to bend rather than compress. Structures with posts longer than 10' (3000 mm) are often required by building departments to be approved by a structural engineer or architect. The forces of tension and compression will not be analyzed in this book.

v = maximum unit horizontal shear stress in psi V = total vertical shear in pounds A = area of the structural member in square inches Table 31-2 lists the maximum allowable horizontal shear values in psi for major species of framing lumber. The value for v must be less than the maximum safe Fv value. Horizontal shear has the greatest effect on beams with a relatively heavy load spread over a short span. Visualize a yardstick with supports at each end supporting a 2-lb load at the center. The yardstick will bow but will probably not break. Move the supports toward the center of the beam so they are 1’ apart. The beam will not bend but will be more prone to failure from breaking from the stress of horizontal shear.

Vertical Shear Vertical shear is the tendency of a beam to fail perpendicular to the fibers of the beam from two opposing forces. Vertical shear will cause a beam to break and fall between its supporting posts. Vertical shear is rarely a design concern in residential construction, because a beam will first fail by horizontal shear.

Tension In addition to the forces of tension that act within a beam, tension stresses attempt to lengthen a structural member. Tension is rarely a problem in residential beam design. Tension is more likely to affect the intersection of beams than the beam itself. Beam details typically reflect a metal strap to join beams laid end to end, or a metal seat may be used to join two beams to a column.

METHODS OF BEAM DESIGN Professionals use three methods of beam design: a computer program, wood design books, and, of course, the old-fashioned way of pencil, paper, and a few formulas. Software that will size beams is available for many personal computers. Each national wood distributor will supply programs that can determine spans, needed materials, and then print out all appropriate stresses. Software that will size beams made of wood, engineered lumber, and steel is also available through private developers. Two popular programs include StruCalc by Cascade Consulting Associates and BeamChek by AC Software, Inc. Figure 31-4 shows the prompts for solving a hip using BeamChek. Web sites for each firm are listed at the end of the chapter. These programs typically ask for loading information and then proceed to determine the span size within seconds. Using a computer program to solve beam spans is extremely easy, but you must be able to answer questions that require an understanding of the basics of beam design and loading.

Using Span Tables Another practical method of sizing beams is the use of books published by various wood associations. Two of the most common span books used in architectural offices are Wood Structural Design Data from the National Forest Products Association and Western Woods Use Book from the Western Wood Products Association. These books contain design information of wood members, standard formulas, and design tables that provide beam loads for a specific span. Table 31-3 shows a partial listing for the 8' span


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FIGURE 314 Display for determining a hip beam using the program BeamChek developed by AC Software, Inc. WOOD BEAMS—SAFE LOAD TABLES Symbols used in the tables are as follows: Fb Allowable unit stress in extreme fiber in bending, psi W Total uniformly distributed load, pounds w Load per linear foot of beam, pounds Fv Horizontal shear stress, psi, induced by load W E Modulus of elasticity, 100 psi, induced by load W for l/360 limit Beam sizes are expressed as nominal sizes, inches, but calculations are based on net dimensions of S4S sizes.

Fb SIZE OF BEAM

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1800

2000

8 —0 SPAN

2 ⴛ 14

W w Fv E

3291 411 124 489

3657 457 138 543

4023 502 151 597

4389 548 165 652

4754 594 179 706

5120 640 193 760

5486 685 207 815

5852 731 220 869

6583 822 248 978

7315 914 276 1086

6 ⴛ8

W w Fv E

3867 483 70 864

4296 537 78 960

4726 590 85 1055

5156 644 93 1152

5585 698 101 1247

6015 751 109 1343

6445 805 117 1439

6875 859 125 1535

734 966 140 1727

8593 1074 156 1919

4 ⴛ 10

W w Fv E

3743 467 86 700

4159 519 96 778

4575 571 105 856

4991 623 115 934

5407 675 125 1011

5823 727 134 1089

6238 779 144 1167

6654 831 154 1245

7486 935 173 1401

8318 1039 192 1556

3 ⴛ 12

W w Fv E

3955 494 105 576

4394 549 117 640

4833 604 128 704

5273 659 140 768

5712 714 152 832

6152 769 164 896

6591 823 175 959

7031 878 187 1024

7910 988 210 1151

8789 1098 234 1279

TABLE 313 Partial Listing of a Typical Span Table. Once W, w, Fb, E, and Fv are known, spans can be determined for a simple beam. See the American Wood Council Web site at: http//:www.awc.org/pdf/wsdd. Data from Wood Structural Design Data, originally published by the National Forest Products Association, which is now a part of the American Forest and Paper Association.

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BEAM FORMULA NOTATIONS

R

R=V = w 2 2 w M max. at center = 8

R 1 2

1 2

V Shear

3V v = 2bd

V

M max.

max. at center

4 = 5w 384E

Moment

FIGURE 315 Loading, shear, and moment diagrams for simple beam with uniform loads, showing where stress will affect a beam and the formulas for computing these stresses. From Wood Structural Design Data. Courtesy National Forest Products Association.

table. By following the instructions provided with the table, information on size, span, and loading patterns can be determined. A partial listing of beam spans and values can be found on the Student CD in the USING SPAN TABLES file. The complete document can be found at the American Wood Council Web site.

Using Standard Formulas The final method of beam design is to use standard formulas to determine how the beam will be stressed. Figure 31-5 shows the formulas and the loading, shear, and moment diagrams for a simple beam. These are diagrams that can be drawn by the designer to determine where the maximum stress will occur. With a simple beam and a uniformly distributed load, the diagrams typically are not drawn because the results remain constant.

Symbols for Formulas Standard symbols have been adopted by engineering and architectural communities to simplify the design of beams. Many symbols have been introduced throughout this chapter. Table 31-4 gives a list of the notations that will be needed to design residential beams. Notice that some are written in uppercase letters and some in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters such as W and L represent measurements expressed in feet. W represents the total load in pounds per square feet; L represents the beam span in feet. Lowercase letters represent measurements expressed in inches. The letters b and d represent beam size in inches, and ℓ represents beam span in inches. As a drafter, you need not understand why the formulas work, but it is important that you know the notations to be used in the formulas.

b

breadth of beam in inches

d

depth of beam in inches

D

deflection due to load

E

modulus of elasticity

Fb

allowable unit stress in extreme fiber bending

Fv

unit stress in horizontal shear

I

moment of inertia of the section

I

span of beam in inches

l

span of beam in feet

M

bending or resisting moment

P

total concentrated load in pounds

S

section modulus

VR

end reaction of beam

W

total uniformly distributed load in pounds

w

load per linear foot of beam in pounds

TABLE 314 Common Notations Used in Beam Formulas

SIZING WOOD BEAMS USING STANDARD FORMULAS Wood beams can be determined by following these steps: 1. Determine the area to be supported by the beam. 2. Determine the weight supported by 1 linear foot 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

of beam. Determine the reactions. Determine the pier sizes. Determine the horizontal shear. Determine the bending moment. Determine the deflection.

Step 1: Determining the Area to Be Supported To determine the size of a beam, the weight the beam is supposed to support must be known. To find the weight, find the area the beam is to support and multiply by the total loads. Figure 31-6 shows a sample floor plan with a beam of undetermined size. The beam is supporting an area 10'−0" long (the span). Floor joists are being supported on each side of the beam. Chapter 29 introduced methods of load dispersal. In this example, each joist on each side of the beam can be thought of as a simple beam. Half of the weight of each joist on side A will be supported by the wall, and half


715

10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED


BE DETERMINED

10'-0" SPAN FOR BEAM TO

5'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD A

5'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD B

6'-6" 1/2 OF LOAD B

3'-6" 1/2 OF LOAD A

LOAD B LOAD A

LOAD B LOAD A

10'-0" SPAN A

10'-0" SPAN B

W = TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED W = AREA × WEIGHT PER SQ.FT. 7'-0" SPAN A

FIGURE 316 Floor plan with a beam to be determined. This beam is supporting an area of 100 sq ft, with an assumed weight of 50 psf, W = 5000 lb.

13'-0" SPAN A

20'-0" TOTAL SPAN BETWEEN BEARING POINTS 10'-0" TOTAL LOAD TO BE SUPPORTED

of the weight of load A will be supported by the beam. Because the total length of the joists on side A is 10', the beam will be supporting 5' (half the length of each joist) of floor on side A. This 5' wide area that the beam supports is referred to as a tributary area. In this case, it is tributary load A. On the right side of the beam, tributary load B would be 5' wide (half of the total span of 10'). A tributary width is defined as the accumulation of loads that are directed to a structural member. The tributary width will always be half the distance between the beam to be designed and the next bearing point. A second point to remember about tributary loads is that the total tributary width will always be half the total distance between the bearing points on each side of the beam, no matter where the beam is located. Figure 31-7 shows why this is true. Once the tributary width is known, the total area that the beam is supporting can be determined. Adding the width of tributaries A + B and then multiplying this sum by the beam length measured in feet (L) will determine the area the beam is supporting. For the beam in Figure 31-6, the area would be (5' + 5')(10') = 100 sq ft. Using the loads from Table 29-3, the loads for floors can be determined. The live load for a floor is 40 lb, the dead load is 10 lb, and the total load is 50 lb. By multiplying the area by the load per square foot, the total load (W) can be determined. For this example, with an area of 100 sq ft and a total load of 50 psf, the total load is 5000 lb. The total load is represented by the letter W in beam formulas.

6'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD A

4'-0" 1/2 OF LOAD B

LOAD B

LOAD A

12'-0" SPAN A

8'-0" SPAN B

20'-0" TOTAL SPAN BETWEEN BEARING POINTS

FIGURE 317 The sum of the tributary widths is equal to half the total distance between the bearing point on each side of the beam. With a total width of 20', the tributary width supported by the beam will be 10’ no matter where the beam is placed.

If the beam size is to be determined using a computer program, the total live load and the total dead load that the beam is supporting may be required instead of the total load (W). For this example the total dead load is 10 lb × 100 sq ft, or 1000 lb. The total live load is 40 lb × 100 sq ft, or 4000 lb. Although this may seem obvious, the total live load and the total dead load must add up to the total load supported. Taking the time to check the obvious can help to eliminate human errors.

716


LOAD B LOAD A 1'-0"

10'-0" SPAN FOR BEAM TO BE DETERMINED


w = WEIGHT PER LINEAR FOOT w= W L

FIGURE 318 Determining linear weights. For an area of 10 sq ft, with an assumed weight of 50 psf, w = 500 lb.

PRESUMPTIVE LOAD-BEARING VALUES OF FOUNDATION MATERIALSa CLASS OF MATERIAL

LOAD-BEARING PRESSURE (pounds per square foot)

Crystalline bedrock

12,000

Sedimentary and foliated rock

4000

Sandy gravel and/or gravel (GW and GP)

3000

Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, silty gravel, and clayey gravel (SW, SP, SM, SC, GM, and GC)

2000

Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey silt, silt, and sandy silt (CI, ML, MH, and CH)

1500b

For SI: 1 psf 0.0479 kN/m . a. When soil tests are required by Section R401.4, the allowable bearing capacities of the soil shall be part of the recommendations. b. Where the building official determines that in-place soils with an allowable bearing capacity of less than 1500 psf are likely to be present at the site, the allowable bearing capacity shall be determined by a soils investigation. 2

Step 2: Determining Linear Weight In some formulas only the weight per linear foot of beam is desired. This is represented by the letter w. In Figure 31-8, it can be seen that w is the product of the area to be supported (the total tributary width), multiplied by the weight per square foot. It can also be found by dividing the total weight (W) by the length of the beam. In our example, if the span (L) is 10', w = 5000/10 or 500 lb.

Step 3: Determining Reactions Even before the size of a beam is known, the supports for the beam can be determined. These supports for the beam are represented by the letter R, for reactions. The letter V is also sometimes used in place of the letter R. On a simple beam, half of the weight the beam is supporting (W) will be dispersed to each end. In the example, W = 5000 lb and R = 2500 lb. At this point W, w, and R have been determined (W = 5000 lb, w = 500 lb, and R = 2500 lb).

Step 4: Determining Pier Sizes The reaction is the load from the beam that must be transferred to the soil. The reactions from the beam will be transferred by posts to the floor and then into the foundation system. Usually a concrete pier is used to support the loads at the foundation level. To determine the size of the pier, the working stress of the concrete and the bearing value of the soil must be taken into account. Usually concrete with a working stress of 2000 to 3500 psi is used in residential construction. The

TABLE 315 Safe Soil-Bearing Values. Courtesy 2009 International Residential Code, Copyright © 2009, Washington, DC. International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsafe.org.

working stress of concrete specifies how much weight in pounds can be supported by each square inch (psi) of concrete surface. If each square inch of concrete can support 2500 lb, only 1 sq in. of concrete would be required to support a load of 2500 lb. The bearing value of the soil must also be considered. Most building departments use 2000 psf for the assumed safe working value of soil but the exact value used should be based on the local municipality. Don’t skim over these numbers. The concrete is listed in pounds per square inch. Soil is listed in pounds per square foot. The pier size is determined by dividing the load to be supported (R) by the soil-bearing pressure. Table 31-5 lists the safe soil-loading values for round and square piers based on the 2009 International Residential Code published by the International Code Council. This table will be explored further in Chapter 33 as the nature of soil is examined. A pier supporting 2500 lb must be divided by 2000 lb (the soil bearing value) to find the needed area of the pier. This will result in an area of 1.25 sq ft of concrete needed to support the load. See Table 31-6 to determine the size of pier needed to obtain the proper soil support area. Round piers should be used for interior piers. Square piers should be used to add support to the exterior foundation. Chapter 33 will provide additional information related to piers.


717

This formula will determine the minimum 2bd value needed to resist the load of 5000 lb. For a simple beam, V = R, and R has been determined to be 2500 lb. To determine the b and d values, use the actual size of the beam. Because you don’t know what size beam to use, the b and d values remain unknown. Dividing the 3V value, by the safe limits for the wood (85), can solve this problem and determine the needed 2bd value to resist the 5000-lb load. Use the following formula:

PIER AREAS AND SIZES ROUND PIERS (interior)

SQUARE PIERS (exterior)

15 ” DIA. 1.23 SQ FT

15 ” SQ 1.56 SQ FT

18 ” DIA. 1.77 SQ FT

18 ” SQ 2.25 SQ FT

21 ” DIA. 2.40 SQ FT

21 ” SQ 3.06 SQ FT

24 ” DIA. 3.14 SQ FT

24 ” SQ 4.00 SQ FT

27 ” DIA. 3.97 SQ FT

27 ” SQ 5.06 SQ FT

30 ” DIA. 4.90 SQ FT

30 ” SQ 6.25 SQ FT

36 ” DIA. 7.07 SQ FT

36 ” SQ 9.00 SQ FT

42 ” DIA. 9.60 SQ FT

42 ” SQ 12.25 SQ FT

TABLE 316 Common Pier Areas and Sizes. (The area of the concrete pier can be determined by dividing the load to be supported by the soil-bearing pressure. Areas are shown for common pier sizes. Round piers are typically used to support interior loads, and square piers are generally used when piers are added to support the exterior foundation.)

Step 5: Determining Horizontal Shear To compute the size of the beam required to resist the forces of horizontal shear, use the following formula. Fv =

(3)(v) = # < 85 (the safe design value for DFL lumber) (2)(b)(d)

Fv =

3V = # < 2bd (the required 2bd value to resist the load) 85

Fv =

3 x 2500 = 88.23 (the minimum 2bd value needed; the 85 2bd value of the selected beam must exceed this value)

Use the values in Table 31-7 to find a 2bd value that exceeds 88.23. A 4 × 14 or 6 × 10 could be used to meet the requirements of horizontal shear. Now you can solve the required bending moment.

Step 6: Determining the Bending Moment A moment is the tendency of a force to cause rotation about a certain point. In figuring a simple beam, W is the force and R is the point around which the force rotates. Determining the bending moment will calculate

PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL LUMBER NOMINAL SIZE

(b)(d)

(2)(b)(d)

S

A

I

(384)(E)( I) *

26

1.5 5.5

16.5

28

1.5 7.25

21.75

2 10

1.5 9.25

27.75

21.4

13.875

98.9

60,764

2 12

1.5 11.25

33.75

31.6

16.875

177.9

109,302

2 14

1.5 13.25

39.75

43.9

19.875

290.8

178,668

46

3.5 5.5

38.5

17.6

19.25

48.5

29,798

48

3.5 7.25

50.75

30.7

25.375

111.0

68,198

4 10

3.5 9.25

64.75

49.9

32.375

230.8

141,804

4 12

3.5 11.25

78.75

73.8

39.375

415.3

255,160

4 14 68

3.5 13.5 5.5 7.5

94.5 82.5

106.3 51.6

47.250 41.25

717.6 193.4

440,893 118,825

6 10

5.5 9.5

104.5

82.7

32.25

393.0

241,459

6 12

5.5 11.5

126.5

121.2

63.25

697.1

428,298

6 14

5.5 13.5

148.5

167.1

74.25

1127.7

692,859

7.6 13.1

8.25

20.8

12,780

10.875

47.6

29,245

*384 E I values are listed in units per million, with E value assumed to be 1.6 for DFL.

TABLE 317 Structural Properties of Wood Beams. (Columns (2)(b)(d) and (384)(E)(I) can be used in the horizontal shear and deflection formulas. These two columns are set up for Douglas fir–larch (DFL #2). For different types of wood, use NDS values for these columns.)

718


the size of the beam needed to resist the tendency for W to rotate around R. To determine the size of the beam required to resist the force (W), use the following formula: M=

(w)(ℓ2) 8

Once the moment is known, it can then be divided by the Fb of the wood to determine the size of beam required to resist the load (S = M/Fb). This whole process can be simplified by using the formula: (3)(w)(L2) S= (2)(Fb)

Because Fb values for 4× members are sizedependent, it is important to solve for horizontal shear before solving the bending moment. If you solve for S first, you’ll need to guess a beam size for a starting point. To determine if a 4 × 10 would be suitable, use the values for Douglas fir from Table 31-2, and apply this formula to the beam from Figure 31-6: S=

(3)(500)(100) 150,000 = = 71.4 = S (2)(1050) 2100

This formula will determine the section modulus required to support a load of 5000 lb. Look at the values in Table 31-7 to determine if a 4 × 10 is adequate. A beam must be selected that has an S value larger than the S value found. By examining the S column of the table, you will find that a 4 × 10 has an S value of only 49.9, so the beam is not adequate. Because we already know that a 6 × 10 was safe for horizontal shear, check to see if it will provide the needed section modulus. The Fb value for a 6 × 10 of 1350 is determined using the value from Table 31-2. The listed S and I values are for DFL #2. See the NDS tables for values for other species of wood. Using the formula 150,000/2700 will require a minimum S value of 55.6. It can be seen in Table 31-7 that a 6 × 10 has an S value of 82.7, which is suitable to resist the forces of bending moment.

Step 7: Determining Deflection Deflection is the amount of sag in a beam. Deflection limits are determined by building codes and are expressed as a fraction of an inch in relation to the span of the beam in inches. Limits set by the IRC are: 1/360 Floors and ceilings 1/240 Roofs under 3/12 pitch, tile roofs, and vaulted ceilings 1/180 Roofs over 3/12 pitch

To determine deflection limits, the maximum allowable limit must first be known. Use the formula: Dmax =

L × 12 = maximum allowable deflection 360

This formula requires the span in feet (L) to be multiplied by 12 (12 inches per foot) and then divided by 360 (the safe deflection limit for floors and ceiling). In the example used in this chapter, L equals 10'. The maximum safe limit would be: L × 12 10 × 12 120 = =D= = 0.33" 360 360 360 = maximum allowable deflection

Dmax =

The maximum amount the beam is allowed to sag is 0.33". Now you need to determine how much the beam will actually sag under the load it is supporting. The values for E and I need to be determined before you can calculate the deflection. These values can be found in Table 31-7. You will also need to know ℓ3 and W, but these values are not available in tables. W has been determined to be 5000#. For our example: ℓ = 10 × 12 = 120 ℓ3 = (ℓ)(ℓ)(ℓ) = (120)(120)(120) = 1,728,000

Because the E value was reduced from 1,600,000 to 1.6, change the ℓ3 value from 1,728,000 to 1.728 or 1.73. Each of these numbers is much easier to use for calculating. To determine how much a beam will sag, use the following formula: D=

5(W)(ℓ3) (W)(ℓ3) or D = 22.5 (384)(E )(I) (E)(I)

The values determined thus far are W = 5000, w = 500, R = V = 2500, L = 10, ℓ = 120, ℓ3 = 1.728, and I = 393 (see Table 31-7, column I). Find the value of (384)(E)(I) for a 6 × 10 beam from Table 31-7 (241,459). Now insert the values into the formula. D=

43,200 5(W)(ℓ3) 5 × 5000 × 1.728 = = = 0.178" 384(E)(I) 241,459 241,459

Because 0.178" is less than the maximum allowable deflection of 0.33", a 6 × 10 beam can be used to support the loads.

WOOD ADJUSTMENT FACTORS Refer to the Student CD: WOOD ADJUSTMENT FACTORS to explore methods of reducing the loads to be supported.


719

REVIEW 20'-0"

1. Determine the values for W, w, L, ℓ, ℓ3, and R.

W = area to be supported × weight (LL + DL) w = W/L L = span in feet ℓ = span in inches ℓ3 = (ℓ)(ℓ)(ℓ) R = V = W/2 2. Determine post supports: R = W/2 3. Determine pier sizes: R/soil-bearing pressure 4. Determine Fv: Fv =

(3)(V) (3)(V) = # < 85 or = # > (2)(b)(d) (2)(b)(d) 85

5. Determine S: S=

(3)(w)(L2) (2)(Fb)

6. Determine the value for Dmax D = ℓ/360 or ℓ/240 or ℓ/180

12'-0"

In what may have seemed like an endless string of formulas, tables, and values, you have determined the loads and stresses on a 10' long beam. Seven basic steps were required, as follows: 2 X 12 DFL #2 RAFT @ 24" O.C.

FIGURE 319 Sample floor plan with a beam of undetermined size.

STEP 2

Determine reactions.

R = W/2 = 2400

Determine pier sizes, R/soil value (assume 2000 lb).

STEP 3

2400 = 1.2 sq ft 2000

According to the Table 31-6, use either a 15" diameter or 15" square pier. STEP 4

7. Determine D: (5)(W)(ℓ3) D= (384)(E)(I)

2 X 12 DFL #2 RAFT @ 24" O.C.

S=

Determine the section modulus. (3)(w)(L2) 3 × 400 × 144 172,800 = = = 96 (2)(Fb) 2 × 900 1800

Use a 4 × 14 or a 6 × 12 to determine Fv.

Practice Figure 31-9 shows a floor plan with a ridge beam that needs to be determined. The beam will be SPF with no snow loads. Using the seven steps, determine the size of the beam. Determine the values. W = 10 × 12 × 40 = 4800 lb w = W/L = 4800/12 = 400 lb R = V = 2400 L = 12' L2 = 144 ℓ = 12' × 12" = 144 ℓ3 = 2.986 Fb = 900 (see Table 31-8) Fv = 65 max (see Table 31-8) E = 1.2 max

STEP 1

Determine horizontal shear. The value from Table 31-8 is 65.

STEP 5

4 × 14Fv =

(3)(V) 3 × 2400 7200 = = = 76.19 > 65 (2)(b)(d) 2 × 3.5 × 13.5 94.5

Because the computed value is larger than the table value, the 4 × 14 beam is inadequate. Try a 6 × 12. 6 × 12Fv =

700 = 56.92 126.5

Finally, this beam works. Now solve for deflection. STEP 6

Determine Dmax.

Dmax = STEP 7

D=

ℓ 144 = = 0.8" 180 180

Determine D. (5)(W)(ℓ3) 5 × 4800 × 2.986 71,664 = = D = 0. 223 (384)(E)(ℓ) 384 × 1.2 × 697 321,178

720


BASE DESIGN VALUES FOR BEAMS AND STRINGERS SPECIES AND COMMERCIAL GRADE


HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E

DFL #1

1350

85

1,600,000

24 Fb V4 DF/DF

2400

165

1,700,000

Hem Fir #1

1050

70

1,300,000

24 Fb E-2 HF/HF

2400

155

1,700,000

900

65

1,200,000

2200

200

1,700,000

SPF #1 22F b E-2 SP/SP

BASE DESIGN VALUES FOR POSTS AND TIMBERS SPECIES AND COMMERCIAL GRADE DFL #1


HORIZONTAL SHEAR Fv

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY E

1200

85

1,600,000

Hem Fir #1

950

70

1,300,000

SPF #1

800

65

1,200,000

TABLE 318 Comparative Values of Common Framing Lumber with Laminated Beams of Equal Materials. Values based on Western Wood Products Association.

SIZING BEAMS USING SPAN TABLES Refer to the Student CD: SIZING BEAMS USING SPAN TABLES to explore methods of sizing sawn beams using span tables.

SIZING LAMINATED BEAMS Two beam problems have now been solved using the tables in this chapter. Both beams were chosen from standard dimensioned lumber. Often, glu-lams are used because of their superior strength. Using a glu-lam can greatly reduce the depth of a beam as compared with conventional lumber. Glu-lam beams are determined in the same manner as standard lumber, but different values are used based on values provided by the Western Wood Products Association (see Table 31-8). Table 31-9 gives values for glu-lams made of Douglas fir. See the tables by the Western Wood Products Association for values for other species. You will also need to consult the safe values for glu-lam beams. For beams constructed of Douglas fir, the values are Fb = 2200, Fv = 165, and E = 1.7.

WORKING WITH ENGINEERED BEAMS Most manufacturers of engineered joists and rafters also supply beams made of LVL (laminated veneer lumber), PSL (parallel strand lumber), and LSL (laminated strand lumber). Figure 31-10 shows an example of a table for sizing beams made of PSL. To use this table, follow these steps: ●

Determine the roof loading (snow duration and live and dead loads) and find the appropriate section of the table that represents the design loads.

●

Find the house width from the appropriate loading section that meets or exceeds the span of the trusses.

●

Locate the opening size in the “Rough Opening” column that meets or exceeds the required window or door rough opening.

●

The beam listed at the intersection of the rough opening and the house width/roof load is the required header size.

Consult the Weyerhaeuser Web site for additional loading conditions and beam materials.


721

PROPERTIES OF GLU-LAM BEAMS SIZE (b)(d) 3 1/8 9.0

S

A

(2)(b)(d)

I

(384)(E)(I) *

42.2

28.1

56.3

189.8

123,901

57.4 75.0 94.9 117.2

32.8 37.5 42.2 46.9

65.6 75.0 84.4 93.8

301.5 450.0 640.7 878.9

196,819 293,760 418,249 573,746

69.2

46.1

92.0

311.3

203,217

5 1/8 10.5 5 1/8 12.0

94.2 123.0

53.8 61.5

107.6 123.0

494.4 738.0

322,744 481,766

5 1/8 13.5

155.7

69.2

138.4

1,050.8

685,962

5 1/8 15.0

192.2

76.9

153.8

1,441.4

940,946

5 1/8 16.5

232.5

84.6

169.0

1,918.5

1,252,397

6 3/4 10.5

124.0

70.9

141.8

651.2

425,103

6 3/4 12.0

162.0

81.0

162.0

972.0

634.522

6 3/4 13.5

205.0

91.1

182.6

1,384.0

903,475

6 3/4 15.0

253.1

101.3

202.0

1,898.4

1,239,276

6 3/4 16.5

306.3

111.4

222.8

2,526.8

1,649,495

3 1/8 10.5 3 1/8 12.0 3 1/8 13.5 3 1/8 15.0 5 1/8 9.0

*All values for 384 E I are written in units per million. All E values are figured for Doug fir @ E 1.7. Verify local conditions.

TABLE 319 Structural Properties of Glu-Lam Beams (Columns (2)(b)(d) and (384)(E)(I) are set up for Douglas fir. If a different type of wood is to be used, you must use different values for these columns.) (Values based on Western Wood Products Association.)

SIMPLE BEAM WITH A LOAD CONCENTRATED AT THE CENTER Often in light construction, load-bearing walls of an upper floor may not line up with the bearing walls of the floor below, as shown in Figure 31-11. This type of loading occurs when the function of the lower room dictates that no post be placed in the center. Because no post can be used on the lower floor, a beam will be required to span from wall to wall and be centered below the upper-level post. This beam will have no loads to support other than the weight from the post. In order to size the beam needed to support the upper area, use the formulas in Figure 31-12. Notice that new symbol P, has been added to represent a point, or concentrated load, in the formula used to determine the maximum bending moment (M). The point load is the sum of the reactions from each end of the beam. Figure 31-13 shows a sample worksheet for this beam. Notice that the procedure used to solve for

this beam is similar to the one used to determine a simple beam with uniform loads. With this procedure, you must determine the amount of point loads for the upper beams. The sketch shows the upper floor plan with each point load. Once the point loads are known, determine M. Once the value for M has been determined, it can be used to find the required section modulus (S). Use the formula M/Fb = S. This will provide the S value for the beam. Try to use a beam that has a depth equal to the depth of the floor joists. Notice also in Figure 31-12 that there is no formula for determining the value for Fv in this or any of the following formulas. This is because Fv is always determined using the formula 3V/(2)(b)(d) = required Fv value or 3V/max Fv value = min 2bd value. In Figure 31-13 two different beams have been selected that have the minimum required section modulus. Once the section modulus is known, the beam can be checked for horizontal shear and deflection. Because of the length of the beam, horizontal shear will not be a factor.

722


Ho

us

e

W id th

ROOF LOAD (psf)

Ro u g

HOUSE WIDTH

NON-SNOW AREA 125%

24'–0" 20LL + 15DL

30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"

20LL + 20DL

30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"

25LL + 15DL

30'–0"

SNOW AREA 115%

36'–0" 24'–0" 30LL + 15DL

30'–0" 36'–0" 24'–0"

40LL + 15DL

30'–0" 36'–0"

ening h Op

h Roug ing n e p O

ROUGH OPENING 12'–0"

14'–0"

16'–3"

18'–3"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

8'–0"

9'–3"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 111/4" 7" X 91/4" 3 1/2" X 117/8" 5 1/4" X 111/4"

3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 111/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 117/8"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4"

3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8"

3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 14" 7" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 51/4" X 117/8" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14"

3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 7/8" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14"

3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 16" 5 1/4" X 14" 3 1/2" X 18" 5 1/4" X 14" 5 1/4" X 16" 7" X 14"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4"

10'–0"

3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 9 1/2" 3 1/2" X 11 7/8" 5 1/4" X 9 1/4" 5 1/4" X 9 1/2"

3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 11 1/4" 7" X 9 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4" 3 1/2" X 14" 5 1/4" X 11 1/4"

GENERAL NOTES Table is based on:

BEARING REQUIREMENTS

• Uniform loads

Minimum header support to be double trimmers (3" bearing).

• Worst case of simple or continuous span. When sizing a continuous span application, use the longest span. Where ratio of short span to long span is less than 0.4, use the TJ-Beam™ software program or contact your Trus Joist MacMillan representative.

In shaded areas, support headers with triple trimmers (4 1/2" bearing).

• Roof truss framing with 24" soffits • Deflection criteria of L/240 live load and L/180 total load. All members 7 1/4" and less in depth are restricted to a maximum deflection of 5/16".

FIGURE 3110 Design tables for solving exterior headers for a single-level residence using nontreated PSL beams. Courtesy Trus Joist, A Weyerhaeuser Business. All rights reserved.


723

22' BEAM @ LIVING RM. P=W=5500# V=2750 L=22'

=264

3 =18.399744

5500# 132"

132" =264

R1=2750 ( P )( M= 4

R 2=2750 )

1,452,000 = ( 5500 )( 264 ) = = 363,000 = M 4 4

USE 5 1/8 X 131/2 (S = 155.7) 363,000 = S = 151.25 S= M = OR 6 3/4 X 12 (S = 162) fb 2400 fv =

(3) (2750) (3) (V) 8250 = 50 BOTH BM. OK = = 2bd = 165 165 165

Dmax. = D=

360

=

264 = .73 360

(5500) (18.4) (48 X 1.7) (972)

? 6 3/4 X 13 1/2 = ? 6 3/4 X 15 =

=

D=

(P) ( 3 ) (48) (E) ( )

=

101,200 = 1.2 > .73 = FAIL 79,315

= 1384 =

101,200 = 1.1 > .73 = FAIL 85,745

= 1898.4 = 101,200 = .65 < .73 = 154,909 USE 6 3/4 X 15 fb 2200 GLU-LAM BEAM

FIGURE 3113 A worksheet for a beam with a load concentrated at the center. When determining the size of a beam, it is a good idea to include the location of the beam, a sketch of the loading, needed formulas, and the selected beam.

FIGURE 3111 An engineer’s sketch to help determine loads on a beam, showing a load concentrated at the center.

SIMPLE BEAM WITH A LOAD CONCENTRATED AT ANY POINT

CANTILEVERED BEAMS WITH A UNIFORM LOAD Refer to the Student CD: CANTILEVERED BEAMS WITH A UNIFORM LOAD to explore methods of sizing sawn cantilevered beams.

Figure 31-14 shows a sample floor plan that will result in concentrated off-center loads at the lower floor level. Figure 31-15 shows the diagrams and formulas that would be used to determine the beams of the lower floor plan. Figure 31-16 shows the worksheet for this beam.

BEAM POST

AREA SUPPORTED BY POST 8' 10'

15'

10'

14' UPPER BEAM 4' UPPER FLOOR PLAN POST

P = 2

R=V x

P

2

SECTION

2 Mx

V

when x TO BE 1/2" X 19 1/2" X 3 STRAP PL. W/ 13/16 X 1" SHORT SLOTTED HORIZ. HOLES ( EA. SIDE OF BEAM) W/ (4) 3/4" DIA. W/ STD WASHERS CENTERED EA. SIDE. USE A TS 6 X 6 X 5/16 COLUMN W/ 1/4" FILLET TO PL.

PROBLEM 4510D

PROBLEM 4510C

1082


Problem 45–11 Truss Details

●

Goal The purpose of these details is to show how the trusses are connected in end-to-end connections, to beams, to ledgers, and to the wall at grid 1 and grid 11 at A and C.

Method Use the calculations and the vendor’s material to supply needed information.

NOTE: The sketches that the engineer provided are from a

recent project that is very similar to your project. Edit each detail to reflect the trusses that are specified on the roof framing plan. ●

DETAIL H: Truss-to-beam at a column. Braces are added from the truss to the glu-lam so that the beam will not roll off the column as a result of wind pressure against the walls at grid A and grid C.

●

DETAIL I: (Remember that I, O, and Q are never used in the final detail callouts.)

●

DETAIL J: Basic truss-to-beam connection. Information in this detail should be reflected in all roof details.

●

DETAIL K: Truss-to-truss connection at the inner edge of the roof diaphragm. This bolting will, in effect, make two trusses function as one. Make use of vendor specs for sizes.

●

DETAIL L: Ledger splice at grid A and grid C.

●

DETAIL M: Ledger splice at grid 1 and grid 11.

●

DETAIL N: Truss-to-ledger connection at grid A and grid C, perpendicular.

●

DETAIL O: (Remember that I, O, and Q are never used in the final detail callouts.)

PROBLEM 4511A

DETAIL P: Truss-to-ledger connection at grid 1 and grid 11, parallel.

1. Determine the location of details. Details should be

drawn with the beam details or on a separate sheet. Place the details in an order that reflects their relationship to the building. 2. Lay out each detail, allowing approximately 15 minutes

per detail. Assume the web is 1" diameter aluminum placed at a 45° angle, starting 6" from the end of the truss. The bottom chord of the truss never touches the beam. Also, carefully study the truss diagram provided by the vendor. The top chord, which supports the entire load on the truss, never touches the beam. The truss is supported by a metal connector. 3. Use several line types, weights, and colors to represent

the materials. Draw steel plates and brackets as boldest lines and beam outlines slightly thinner, followed by bolts or other connectors, followed by glu-lam lines. 4. Dimension all information from the sketch or

calculations. 5. Place weld information on details as required. 6. Notes. Place notes in or near the drawing as

required. 7. Place detail markers and title and scale below each

detail.

Chapter 45: Structural Drafting

1083

Problem 45–11 (Continued)

TRUSS / BEAM DETAILS ROOF LEDGERS: USE 4X12 D.F.L. # 2 LEDGER SPLICES: USE (2) 1/2" X 3 STRAP PL. EXTENDING 4 BOLTS ON EACH SIDE OF SPLICE. USE 3/4" DIA. X 8" BOLTS @ 20" O.C. W/ 2 ROWS @ 3 1/2" O.C.

LEDGER SPLICE/NONBEARING WALLS ( 1 & 11):

USE (3) SIMPSON MST48 STRAP TIES CENTERED OVER SPLICE @ 3 1/2" O.C. - 1 3/4" DOWN FROM LEDGER TOP. PROVIDE (4) 3/4" X 8" BOLTS THRU 1/4" X 3" WASHERS CENTERED BETWEEN PL's.

TRUSSES: USE 45" DEEP TJ/60 TRUSSJOIST @ 32" O.C. ASSUME: 2.3" DEEP TOP AND BOTTOM CHORD. 1" DIA. ALUM. WEBS @ 45 DEGREES; 6" IN FROM END OF TOP CHORD. BTM. CHORD TO BE 2" MIN. CLEAR OF BM.

TRUSS/BM CONNECTION: PROVIDE 2X4 SOLID BLOCKING BTWN. TRUSSES OVER BEAM. ATTACH TO GLU-LAM W/ SIMPSON CO. A-35 @ 32" O.C. @ EA. BLOCK ALTERNATE SIDES & PROVIDE (2) EA. BLK. NAIL W/ n8 ALL HOLES.

TRUSS-BM/COLUMN: PROVIDE 2X4 BRACE ALONG BEAM FOR (2) TRUSS SPACES EA. SIDE OF COLUMN. USE 3X4 SOLID BLOCK BTWN. BRACES. NAIL BLOCK TO BRACE W/ (5)-16d NAILS. PROVIDE 3X4X10' NAILER @ TRUSSES. NAIL W/ (2)-16d'S EA. TRUSS. USE SIMPSON U-24 HGR. 2" UP FOM BTM. OF BEAM TO BRACE. SET BRACE AT 45 DEGREES MAX. FROM BEAM.

TRUSS-BM @ BLOCKING EDGE: USE (2) SIMPSON HD-2

HOLD DOWNS EITHER SIDE OF SPLICE W/ (2)-5/8" X 4 1/2"Ø 1/2"Ø BOLTS THRU TRUSS, AND 5/8" X 15"Ø 15"Ø BOLTS ACROSS SPLICE.

TRUSS/WALL (A & C): USE 4X12 DFL #2 TREATED LEDGER W/

3/4" X 8" BOLTS @ 48" O.C. THRU 1/4"X 3" WASHERS. SOLID BLOCK BTWN. TRUSSES @ LEDGER W/ 2X4 BLOCKS W/ (2) SIMPSON A-35 EA. BLK. PROVIDE 3/4" X 3" X 4" PL. ABOVE PLY. SHEATH. BOLT TO WALL W/ (1) 3/4" X 4 1/8"Ø 1/8"Ø BOLTS AT EA. 3rd TRUSS. WELD MST 27 STRAP TO PL. W/ 1/8" FILLET WELD AND NAIL TO TRUSSES W/ n8 EA. HOLE.

TRUSS/WALL ( 1, 11): USE 4X12 DFL TREATED LEDGER W/ 3/4"X 8" BOLTS @ 6'-0" O.C. THRU 1/8" X 3" WASHERS. USE 3 X 4 PL. (SEE ABOVE) @ EA. 3rd TRUSS W/ MST STRAP. PROVIDE 3X4 SOLID BLOCK @ 48" O.C. FOR 37.3' OUT FROM WALL (SEE PLYWOOD DIAPHRAM SPECS.) CONNECT BLOCK TO TRUSS W/ SIMPSON Z-38 HGR.

PROBLEM 4511C

PROBLEM 4511B

1084


Problem 45–12 Floor Details Goal The purpose of these details is to show how the floor trusses are connected in end-to-end connections, to beams, to ledgers, and to the wall at grid 1 and grid 11 at A and C. Show the use of 1 1/8" STURD-IFLOOR plywood sheathing in all floor details. ●

●

DETAIL FLOOR A: BEAM TO CONCRETE WALL. Copy and edit the roof beam/wall detail (Roof Detail A) as required to reflect the floor conditions using: ❍

●

beam connection. Use Roof Detail J as a guide to support the floor trusses. Support the top chord of the truss on the glu-lam beam. Provide 2 × 4 solid block laid flat between the trusses.

6 3/4 × 37 1/2" glu-lam beam.

DETAIL FLOOR B: BEAM TO COLUMN. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the intersection of the 6 3/4 × 37 1/2" glu-lam beams to the steel columns. The detail will be similar to Roof Detail B, but will have a steel column that extends to the roof instead of the concrete wall. Use the following materials to make the connection. ●

LOWER CONNECTION ●

Provide 1/4" clear between the beam and the column.

●

Support the glu-lam beam with a 3/4 × 9 × 6 7/8" bearing plate.

●

Provide a 7/16 × 9 × 15" side plate that laps each side of the base plate.

●

Provide a 7/16 × 15 × 6 7/8" end plate. ❍

Weld side plates to the base and end plates, and to 6 × 6 column with 3/8" fillet welds at each connection.

●

Bolt the side plates/beam with (4) 3/4" bolts that are 1 1/2" down from the top of the side plate, and 1 1/2" in from edge of plate and 3" O.C.

●

Provide a 9 × 9 × 3/8" gusset with 1/4" fillet weld each side to CCO/TS

UPPER CONNECTION ●

●

●

Provide an 8 × 3 × 6 7/8" U × 7/16" strap w/ (1)-3/4"Ø bolt through the beam and U strap. ❍

Place the center line of the bolt/strap 3" down from top of beam.

❍

Set bolts 1 1/2" from end of strap.

Weld the side of the U plate to the TS w/ 3/16" fillet weld. DETAIL FLOOR C: TRUSS TO BEAM. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss to

●

DETAIL FLOOR D: BEAM TO COLUMN AT WOOD WALL. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the beam-to-column connection at grid 7.5. This detail will be similar to Roof Detail B with a beam on only one side of the wall. Beam supported on column with center of 2-hour wall 12" from the center of column. Copy and edit the floor beam detail (Floor Detail B) as required to reflect the beam to column and ledger at wall using: ❍

Provide 3 × 12 DFPT ledger over 5/8" gypsum board to support the floor decking.

❍

Provide solid blocking in the wall behind the ledger.

DETAIL FLOOR E: TRUSS TO WALL LEDGER—PERPENDICULAR. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss-toledger (perpendicular) connection. Use the drawing created in Problem 45–11N as a base to complete this drawing. ❍

Provide 4 × 12 DFPT ledger w/ 3/4"Ø bolts at 24" O.C. staggered 3" up/down.

❍

Provide 3 × 4h × 3/4" plate with 3/4"Ø × 4 powerdriven bolt.

❍

Weld an MST36 strap to plate w/ 1/8" fillet weld at 8'–0" O.C.

❍

Provide 2 × 4 blocking laid flat between the trusses.

DETAIL FLOOR F: TRUSS TO WALL LEDGER—PARALLEL. Use the skeleton drawing provided on the Student CD to create a detail showing the truss-to-ledger (parallel) connection. Use the drawing created in Problem 45–11P as a base to complete this drawing. ❍

Provide 4 × 12 DFPT ledger with 3/4"Ø bolts @ 48" O.C. staggered 3" up/down.

❍

Provide a 3 × 4h × 3/4" plate w/ 3/4"Ø × 4 powerdriven bolt.

❍

Weld an MST36 strap to the plate with 1/8" fillet weld at 8'–0" O.C.

❍

Provide 2 × 4 blocking between the ledger and the truss @ 8'–0" O.C.

❍

Select suitable U hangers for the block.


1085

Problem 45–13 Slab Details

2. Lay out each detail, allowing approximately 15

Goal These drawings will provide information required to complete the floor slab, showing intersections in the concrete slab and door joints, and elevations.

3. Draw all lines. Be careful that all rebar is drawn

Method Use a scale as indicated on each detail. Place details on the same sheet as the slab, on grade plan, or on a separate sheet with all other concrete details.

4. Dimension as per sketches.

1. Determine in what order the details will be

presented.

minutes per detail. with the same type of line quality. Draw mesh as a thin line with the X spaced at 4" O.C. 5. Place detail markers on the slab plan and section. 6. Label as required.

PROBLEM 4513A

SLAB/ DOCK SLAB:

ALL SLAB ON GRADE CONC. TO BE F'c = 3500 PSI @ 28 DAYS. ALL TARGET STRENGTHS SHALL BE IN ACCORDANCE W/ CHAPTER 4 OF ACI 318 BUILDING CODE REQUREMENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE. SLABS TO BE 5" THICK UNLESS NOTED W/ WWF 12X12 -W4xW4 OR GRD 40 # 3 @ 15" O.C. EA. WAY CENTERED IN SLAB.

JOINTS:

PROVIDE 1/4" FIBER ISOLATION JOINTS W/ NEOPRENE JOINT SEALANT OVER 3/8" BACKER BEAD AT ALL CONTROL JOINTS AND AROUND ALL FOUNDATION PEDESTALS. PROVIDE # 5 X 15" LONG SMOOTH DOWELLS @ 12"O.C. @ ALL CONTROL JOINTS UNLESS NOTED ( SEE PER. JTS.) COVER W/ PAPER SLEEVES ON EA SIDE OF JOINT. KEEP WWM 2" MIN. CLEAR OF JOINT. KEEP # 5's 2 1/2" CLR. OF BOTTOM OF SLAB.

PERIMETER JOINTS:

SAME AS ABOVE EXCEPT: ALL SMOOTH DOWELLS TO BE # 5X 30" LONG. PROVIDE 3/4" DIA. 'L' STRUCTURAL CONNECTION INSERTS W/ 3/4" DIA. X 25" LONG COIL RODS @ 5'-7" O.C. PROVIDE 2" MIN. ROD PENETRATION INTO INSERTS.

DOORS: PROVIDE 3" WIDE X 3/4" X 3/4" CHAMFER IN SLAB AT ALL DOORS. THICKEN SLAB AT ALL DOORS TO 10" AND PROVIDE (2) #4 BARS 2" CLR OF BTM. OF SLAB.

LOADING DOCK:

PROVIDE 12' WIDE BASE PLATFORM W/ 1/4" X 12" SLOPE TO DRAIN. DRAIN TO BE 8" X 12" DEEP POLYESTER CONC DRAIN W/ C.I. GRATE. THICKEN SLAB @ GRATE TO 18" DP. W/ 2 # 4 @ 15" O.C. 3" CLR OF BOT. OF FTG. PROVIDE 20" MIN SLOPE IN DOCK. THICKEN SLAB TO 10" @ ENTRY W/ (2) #4 DIA. @ 6" O.C. 3" CLR. OF BTM OF FTG.

PROBLEM 4513B

1086


Problem 45–14 Foundation Details

2. Determine the missing dimensions from the calcu-

Goal These details will provide information about the concrete at the foundation level, showing either the exterior foundation or the pedestals.

3. Lay out each detail. Be sure to allow room for

Method Use a scale as indicated on each detail. Place details on the same sheet as the foundation plan or on a separate sheet with all other concrete-related details. Use the sketches and the calcs as a guide for your drawing.

4. Dimension as per sketches.

1. Determine in what order the details will be

presented.

lations prior to layout work. schedules where they are required. Be careful that all rebar is drawn with the same type of line quality as used in the slab details. 5. Place detail markers on the foundation plan and

section. 6. Label as required.

PROBLEM 4514A PROBLEM 4514B


1087


FOUNDATION ASSUME:

ALL FOUNDATION, PEDESTAL, AND RETAINING WALL CONC. TO BE F'c =3000 PSI @ 28 DAYS. ALL STEEL BAR REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE ASTM A615, GRADE 40, DEFORMED BARS UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED IN DRAWINGS OR DETAILS.

PEDESTALS:

USE 14" W/ (8)- GRADE 40 #5 VERT. RE-BAR 1 1/2" CLR. OF PEDESTAL FACE (HEIGHT VARIES, SEE FOUNDATION PLAN AND D COMPLETE SCHEDULE). SCHEDULE) USE # 3 HORIZ. TIES W/ TOP AND BTM. (3) TIES @ 5" O.C. & INTERMEDIATES @ 10" O.C. HORIZ. TIES TO PROVIIDE (4) 3/4" X 10" PROV BE WITHIN 1 1/2" OF TOP AND BOTTOM. A.B. IN 6 1/2" GRID W/ 2 1/2" BOLT PROJECTION.

PEDESTALS: (@ 7.5)

SIMILAR TO TYPICAL PEDESTALS (ABOVE) UNLESS NOTED. PROVIDE # 3 HORIZ TIES (2) @ 5"O.C. WITHIN TOP OF 1 1/2" OF PEDESTAL, AND BALANCE @ 10"O.C. W/ LAST TIE WITHIN 1 1/2" OF BTM OF PED. USE 5'-6" X 3'-6" X 18" DP. FTG.

PROBLEM 4514C

PEDESTAL FOUNDATIONS: (@ B-6)

USE A 6" X 14" DP. W/GRD. 40, # 5 @10"O.C. EA.WAY 3" CLEAR OF BASE

PEDESTAL FOUND. (@ 2,5,7,10)

USE 7' X 14" DP. W/ GRD. 40, # 6 @ 10"O.C. EA.WAY 3" CLR. OF BASE.

PEDESTAL FOUND. (@ 3,4,8,9,)

USE 6.5' X 14" DP. W/ GRADE 40, # 6 @ 12"O.C. EACH WAY 3" CLEAR OF BASE.

FOUND.- LOAD BEAR:

36" X 14" DP. W/ (3) GRD. 40,#5@ 9"O.C. 3" CLR. OF FTG. BTM.

FOUND.- NON-BEAR: ON-BEAR: (1& 11)

USE SE 26" X 14" DP. FOOTING W/ (2) GRD. 40, #5 @ 12"O.C. 3" CLR. OF FTG. BTM.

RETAINING TAINING AINING WALL: WALL

USE SE 8" THICK WALL W/GRD. 40, #4 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY, 2" CLR. OF SOIL SIDE OF WALL. USE 14" THICK FTG X 4.5' WIDE W/ GRADE 40, #4 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY, 2" CLR OF TOP OF FTG. PROVIDE #5 @ 10" O.C. EA. WAY 3" CLR. OF BTM OF FTG. W/ #5 @ @10" O.C. 'L' SHAPED BAR W/ 24" MIN. PROJECTION INTO FOOTING. USE #4 CONT. @ "L". FOOTING TO TAPER FROM 8"-12" PROJECTION FROM WALL ON SOIL SIDE AND BTWN. 1'-2"- 2'-10" ON DOCK SIDE. PROVIDE 4" DIA. DRAIN IN 2" X 24" MIN. 3/4" MINUS GRAVEL BED.

PROBLEM 4514D

1088


Problem 45–15 Typical Cross Sections Show the vertical relationship of all structural members. NOTE: Keep in mind that your engineer has given you a sketch

from a similar, but former, project. Verify the vertical heights for these sections with other drawings for the project. Goal The purpose of this drawing is to show the vertical relationship of structural members. It functions as a reference map and is not intended to provide a detailed explanation of the connections. Most of the details that will be drawn will be referenced on this drawing. Method Using a scale of 3/16" = 1'–0", and the attached sketch, draw the sections represented on the floor plan. 1. Place section markers in the same location on the

roof drainage, roof framing, slab, and foundation plans before starting the drawing. 2. Establish baselines to represent the top of the slab

floor and the wall at C and the beams at B. 3. Determine the elevations of the footings at the

wall and pedestal from the foundation plan. Your

PROBLEM 4515

detail must match your reference marker, not your neighbor’s or the engineer’s sketch. The location of the reference marker will affect your wall heights. 4. Establish vertical heights at A, B and C, based on

the panel elevations. 5. Lay out the ledger, trusses, and beams. 6. Draw all items. Be careful to distinguish between

concrete and wood members. 7. Dimension as per the sketch. 8. Label grids and local notes. On Problem

Note Should Read

5/8" ply . . .

See note on roof calcs.

T.J.I. . . .

TJI HS 90/24 trusses at 32" O.C. (roof).

T.J.I. . . .

TJI HS 90/30 trusses at 24" O.C. (floor).

6" walls . . .

6" tilt-up conc. walls.

Roofing . . .

4-ply built-up asphaltic fiberglass class ‘A’ roofing.

Beam . . .

6 3/4" × 25.5, 37.5, or 43.5 glu-lam beam.


1089

Problem 45–16 Exterior Elevations

4. Establish finish-grade elevations.

Goal These drawings will provide an external view of the building to be constructed.

5. Lay out all door locations using the locations

Method Typically, an elevation of each side of a structure would be drawn. Verify with your instructor which elevations will be drawn for your project. Use a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0" and follow the procedures outlined in Chapter 24 and Chapter 25. For best use of a page, place the elevations in the upper portion of a sheet to allow room for other drawings.

6. Locate loading docks according to the foundation

Layout 1. Draw a reference line to represent the top of the

slab. This line will never be on the finished drawing but will help locate the bottom of all doors. 2. Establish each end of the structure and each grid. 3. Establish the top of the walls using information on

the typical cross sections and details.

PROBLEM 4516

shown on the panel elevation sketches. plan. 7. Determine the locations of three strips, and sign as

per sketch. 8. Draw the grade and loading dock using bold lines. 9. Draw the outline of the structure. 10. Draw grid lines as thin parallel lines. 11. Draw doors. 12. Draw strips and sign. 13. Draw concrete symbols on some of the walls. 14. Label as per sketch.

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Problem 45–17 Panel Elevations Goal These drawings will provide an internal view of the walls to be constructed, showing wall shape and openings. Method Typically, an elevation of each panel of a structure would be drawn. Verify with your instructor if more than the north face will be drawn for your project. Use a scale of 3/32" = 1'–0". Because of the length of the structure, the sketch of the north panel elevations is shown on two separate drawings. Your drawings should reflect the true layout of the structure and include all information specified in the calcs. Place this drawing on the same sheet as the elevations. Use a copy of the elevations to speed the layout, and establish layers to be used on the exterior elevations. Layout Represent and locate every opening in the exterior walls. Be sure that the floor plan and elevations are coordinated.

PROBLEM 4517


1. Draw a reference line to represent the slab. This

line will never be on the finished drawing but will help locate the bottom of each panel. 2. Establish each end of the structure and each grid. 3. Establish the top of the walls using information on

the sections and elevations. 4. Determine the foundation elevations and lay out

the top of the footing. 5. Lay out all door locations. 6. Draw the outline of the panels. 7. Draw the grid lines. 8. Draw door openings. 9. Provide dimensions to describe all wall shapes and

all door openings. Keep size location separate from location dimensions. 10. Print all notes.


Problem 45–18 Panel Details Goal The purpose of these drawings is to show steel placement around any openings in the tilt-up walls. Steel could be shown on the panel elevations, but more clarity is gained by providing details. Method A detail will be provided for each size opening, to show typical steel placement. Be aware that all steel specified by the doors is in addition to any steel specified in the general note for the walls. Typical wall steel is usually specified in a note only and not shown. This allows special steel patterns to be shown and easily

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specified. Use a minimum scale of 1/4" = 1'–0". Place these details on the same sheet as the panel elevations. Reference these details to the panel elevations. 1. Draw the door opening allowing approximately

7'–0" on all four sides. 2. Lay out steel placements based on dimensions

specified on the panel elevation sketches and calcs. 3. Draw the steel much bolder than the opening outline. 4. Dimension each opening as per the sketch. 5. Label all steel.

WALL PANELS PANELS:

ALL WALLS TO BE 6" THICK, 4000 PSI CONCRETE W/ GRADE 60-# 5 @ 10"O.C. VERT. & GRADE 40-# 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZONTALLY CENTERED IN WALL. EXTEND ALL WALL STEEL TO WITHIN 2" OF TOP AND BOTTOM. ALL PANELS TO HAVE EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISHED UNLESS NOTED PROVIDE (2) GRADE 40, # 5 X 4'-0" 45 DEGREE DIAG. STEEL TYP. TOP AND BOTTOM OF ALL DOORS. TIE FIRST DIAG. TO INTERSECTION OF HORIZ. AND VERT. STEEL. W/ SECOND BAR AT 8" O.C.

PANEL/PANEL:

USE (2) 3/4" X 2 1/2" COIL INSERTS THRU 1" HOLES IN 11"h X 10"w X 3/8" INSERTS TO BE 1 1/2" MIN. FROM PL. EDGES, 8"O.C. AND 3" MIN. FROM EDGE OF CONC. PANEL.

PROVIDE 3 X 13 X 3/8" PL. INSET FLUSH INTO CONC. 3" MIN. FROM PANEL EDGE W/ (2) 3/4" X " HEADED CONC. ANCHORS @ 10" O.C. 1 1/2" MIN. FROM PL. EDGES. WELD TO PL. W/ 1/8" FILLET ALL AROUND @ FIELD. PROVIDE 11/2" MIN. LAP OF 11 X 10 PL. OVER 3X13 PL. & WELD W/ 1/4" FILLET WELD. ALL CONNECTOR PL. TO BE @ 5'-0" O.C. MAX. 12" MIN. FROM TOP AND BTM OF PANELS.

PANEL CORNERS:

SIMILAR TO PANEL/PANEL JOINT

UNLESS NOTED. USE 3/8" X 5" X 3" X 11" PL. ALL CORNER PL"s TO BE @ 6'-0" O.C. MAX. 12" MIN. FROM TOP AND BTM. OF PANEL EDGES.

PANEL/ FND:

7/8" DIA. X 14" STRUCTURAL CONNECTOR BY RICHMOND OR EQUAL, 8" MIN. INTO FND. WITH 5" MIN WALL PENETRATION. SET IN NON-SHRINK GROUT IN 3 X 9 ANCHOR SLEEVE IN FOUNDATION. USE: 6 PER PANEL @ GRID 11 9 " " @ " 1 8 " " @ " C 8 " " @ " 1-4 7 " " @ " 4-7 6 " " @ " 7-11

11'-0" DOOR:

IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE: (2) GRADE 60, # 6 @ 8"0.C. 1" CLEAR OF EACH FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (3) GRADE 60, # 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZ. ABOVE AND BELOW DOORS, EXTEND 24" MIN EA. SIDE OF DOOR. ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR PROVIDE GRD. 40, # 4 @ 12"O.C VERT. EXTEND VERT. 36" ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR..

**** ALL STEEL PATTERNS TO START WITHIN 1 1/2" OF WALL OPENINGS.

8'-0" DOOR:

IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE: (3) GRADE 40, # 5 @ 8" O.C. @ 1" CLR. OF EACH FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (3) GRADE 60, # 4 @ 12" O.C. HORIZ. ABOVE AND BELOW DOORS, EXTEND 24" MIN EA. SIDE OF DOOR. ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR PROVIDE GRD. 40, # 4 @ 12" O.C. VERT. EXTEND VERT. 36" ABOVE AND BELOW DOOR..

**** ALL STEEL PATTERNS TO START WITHIN 1" OF WALL OPENINGS.

3'-0" DOOR:

IN ADDITION TO WALL STEEL PROVIDE:

(2) GRADE 60, # 6 @ 6" O.C. 1" CLR. OF EA. FACE VERT. FOR FULL HEIGHT OF WALL. (2) GRD 40, # 5 X 7'-0" TOP AND BTM. @ 8" O.C.

PROBLEM 4518

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Problem 45–19 Wall Details Goal The purpose of the wall details is to aid in the erection and connection of the concrete wall panels and to show connections between the steel columns and pedestals. Method Use the scale as indicated on each sketch. Place the details with the panel elevations, with a section, or with other concrete details. 1. Determine in what order the details will be pre-

sented. Place the details in an order that reflects their relationship to the building. 2. Lightly block out each detail. Draw only major

items such as concrete, steel connector, and column outlines.

PROBLEM 4519A

3. Draw details with finish line quality. Use several

line types or colors to distinguish clearly concrete, steel plates, and bolts. 4. Dimension all information based on sketches and

calcs. Do not share dimension locations of bolts. 5. Place all weld symbols as required. 6. Place notes as required. Notes can be shared

between details. 7. Place detail markers, title, and scale below each

detail. Do not place information in the circle.



PROBLEM 4519B

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Problem 45–20 Project Coordination

4. Assign a reference letter to all details. Two methods

may be used. Step (a) is the same for each method.

Goal Up to this point, you have drawn plan views, elevations, sections, and details. These drawings must now be placed in a logical presentation order and be referenced to one another.

a. Starting on page 1, label each detail A, B, C,

and so on, until all details on page 1 have been assigned a letter. Start in one corner and work across or up and down the page. Do not skip all over the page as you assign reference letters.

Method 1. Place all drawings in the order described in

b. On page 2, assign each detail a letter starting

Chapter 44.

with the letter A, and work through the alphabet. Use the same pattern that was used on page 1. Repeat this process for all pages with details.

2. Once the page order has been determined, place a

page number in the title block. Structural drawings will always reflect the total number of pages in the title block as well as the actual page being viewed. In the title block, the numbers S-2 of 7 would be placed on the second of seven pages. 3. Assign a page number to all details. All details

drawn on page 1 would have an S-1 placed in the lower half of the detail reference circle. All details drawn on page 2 would have an S-2 placed in the lower half of the reference circle. This pattern should be repeated until all details have a page number.

OR c. On page 2, instead of starting over at A, use the

letter that would follow the last letter used on the preceding detail. Never use the letters I, O, or Q. After detail Z, use AA, BB, and so on. d. After all details have been referenced, make sure

that each detail referenced on the plan views and sections, and so on, has the correct reference symbol. Some details will be referenced on more than one plan. Most will be on the section.

Glossary Preface A Absolute coordinate entry A Cartesian coordinate point

entry system where points are always measured from the origin (0,0). Accessibility Ability to go in, out, and through a building and its rooms with ease regardless of disability. Acoustics The science of sound and sound control. Active solar system System that uses mechanical devices to absorb, store, and use solar heat. Also called mechanical solar system. Adobe Heavy clay used in many southwestern states to make sundried bricks. Aggregate Stone, gravel, cinder, or slag used as one of the components of concrete. Air duct A pipe, typically made of sheet metal, that carries air from a source such as a furnace or air conditioner to a room within a structure. Air leakage (AL) Indicated by an air leakage rating expressed as the equivalent cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area (cfm/sq ft). Air trap A U-shaped pipe placed in wastewater lines to prevent backflow of sewer gas. Air-dried lumber Lumber that has been stored in yards or sheds for a period of time after cutting. Building codes typically assume a 19% moisture content when determining joist and beams of air-dried lumber. Air-lock entry See Vestibule. Air-to-air heat exchanger A heat recovery and ventilation device that pulls polluted, stale, warm air from the living space and transfers the heat in that air to fresh, cold air being pulled into the house. Alcove A small room adjoining a larger room often separated by an archway. Aligned dimensioning A dimensioning system with dimensions placed in line with the dimension lines and read from the bottom or right side of the sheet. Alternative braced wall panel (ABWP) A method of braced wall line reinforcement that has a length of between 2'−4" through 3'−6" (711 through 1067 mm) to resist lateral loads. Ambient air temperature The temperature of the air surrounding a heating or cooling device. Ambient light Light that comes from all directions. American National Standard taper pipe threads The standard thread used on pipes and pipe fittings. Ampere (amp) A measure of electrical current. Anchor A metal tie or strap used to tie building members to each other. Anchor bolt A threaded bolt used to fasten wooden structural members to masonry. Angle iron A structural piece of steel shaped to form a 90° angle.

Angle of repose The slopes of cut and fill from the excavation site

measured in feet of horizontal run to feet of vertical rise. Angular dimensions Given by locating the center of the circu-

lar feature pattern and by providing the continuous angles between features. Annotation Commonly used in architectural CADD applications to refer to any text, notes, dimensions, and text symbols on a drawing. Antebellum Latin for “before war,” the term refers to the elegant plantation homes built in the American South in the years preceding the Civil War. Appraisal The estimated value of a piece of property. Apron The inside trim board placed below a windowsill. The term is also used to apply to a curb around a driveway or parking area. Aquifer An underground bed or layer of earth, gravel, or porous stone that yields water. Architect A licensed professional who designs commercial and residential structures. Architectural solar system See Passive solar system. Archive Usually defines old drawings that are no longer in use and are stored for possible future use or reference. Areaway A subsurface enclosure to admit light and air to a basement. Sometimes called a window well. Art Deco A style of architecture originating in the 1920s that featured geometric, streamlined shapes and the use of materials such as aluminum, stainless steel, lacquer, and in-laid wood. Asbestos A mineral that does not burn or conduct heat; it is usually used for roofing material. Ash dump An opening in the hearth into which ashes can be dumped. Ash pit An area in the bottom of the firebox of a fireplace to collect ash. Ashlar masonry Squared masonry units laid with a horizontal bed joint. Asphalt An insoluble material used for making floor tile and for waterproofing walls and roofs. Asphalt shingle Roof shingles made of asphalt-saturated felt and covered with mineral granules. Asphaltic concrete A mixture of asphalt and aggregate that is used for driveways and parking areas. Assessed value The value assigned by governmental agencies to determine the taxes to be assessed on structures and land. Atrium An inside courtyard of a structure that may be either open at the top or covered with a roof. Attic A floor space consisting of an open area at the top of a building just below roof. The attic is often used for storage. Automatic pencil A pencil with a lead chamber that, at the push of a button or tab, advances the lead from the chamber to the writing tip. Awning window A single-sash window that tilts outward and up. 1095

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B Back draft damper A damper with blades that are activated

by gravity, permitting air to pass through them in one direction only. Backfill Earth, gravel, or sand placed in the trench around the footing and stem wall after a foundation has cured. Baffle A shield, usually made of scrap material, to keep insulation from plugging eave vents. Also used to describe windor sound-deadening devices. Balance A principle of design dealing with the relationship between the various areas of a structure as they relate to an imaginary center line. Balcony A deck or patio that is above ground level. Balloon or eastern framing A building construction method that has vertical wall members extending uninterrupted from the foundation to the roof. Balusters Generally smaller posts placed between the newels. Balustrade A row of repetitive, small posts (balusters) that support the handrailing. Band joist A joist set at the edge of the structure that runs parallel to the other joist (also called a rim joist). Banister A handrail beside a stairway. Barge rafter Inclined trim that is placed parallel to the rafters or trusses, which hangs from the projecting edge of a roof rake. Also referred to as a verge board, gable rafter, or gable board. Base cabinets Cabinets in a kitchen or bathroom that sit on the floor. Base course The lowest course in brick or concrete masonry unit construction. Base plate See Mudsill. Baseboard The finish trim where the wall and floor intersect, or an electric heater that extends along the floor. Baseline A reference line. Basement A level of a structure that is built either entirely belowgrade level (full basement) or partially below-grade level (daylight basement). Batt Strip of insulation usually made of fiberglass to be used between framing members. Batten A board used to hide the seams when other boards are joined together. Batter board A horizontal board used to form footings. Bay A division of space within a building usually divided by beams or columns. Bay window A window constructed by extending the exterior of a structure. Beam A horizontal structure member that is used to support roofs or wall loads (often called a header). Beamed ceiling A ceiling that has support beams that are exposed to view. Bearing partition An interior wall that supports weight from above and distributes the load to the foundation. Bearing plate A support member, often a steel plate, used to spread weight over a larger area. Bearing wall A wall that supports vertical loads in addition to its own weight. Bearings Directions with reference to one quadrant of the compass. Below-grade A description for any part of the house or structure that is underground or beneath ground level. Bench A fairly level step excavated into the earth material on which fill is placed. Benchmark A reference point used by surveyors to establish grades and construction heights.

Glossary

Bending One of three major forces acting on a beam. It is the ten-

dency of a beam to bend or sag between its supports. Bending moment A measure of the forces that cause a beam to

break by bending. Represented by M. Berm A mound or built-up area. Beveled siding Siding that has a tapered thickness. Beveled weld A weld created when one piece of steel has a beveled

edge and the mating steel has a square edge. Bibb An outdoor faucet that is threaded so that a hose may be

attached. Represented by H.B. on floor plans. Bidding requirements The construction documents issued to bid-

ders for the purpose of providing construction bids. Bill of material A part of a set of plans that lists all of the material

needed. Biodegradable wastes Type of waste, typically originating from

plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Biofuel Biomass used to generate electricity, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibers, chemicals, or heat. Biomass Natural material, such as trees, plants, agricultural waste, and other organic material. Organic material is any material that originated as a living organism. Biomass energy See Biopower. Biopower Using biomass to generate electricity in a way that is cleaner and more efficient than most other electricity generation techniques (also called biomass energy). Bird or eave blocking A spacer block placed between rafters to maintain a uniform spacing and to keep animals out of the attic. Bird's mouth A notch cut into a rafter to provide a bearing surface where the rafter intersects the top plate. Blind nailing Driving nails in such a way that the heads are concealed from view. Blocking Framing members, typically wood, placed between joist, rafters, or studs to provide rigidity (also called bridging). Blue-line prints See Diazo prints. Board and batten A type of siding using vertical boards with small wood strips (battens) used to cover the joints of the boards. Board foot The amount of wood contained in a piece of lumber 1" thick by 12" wide by 12" long. Bond The mortar joint between two masonry units, or a pattern in which masonry units are arranged. Bond beam A reinforced concrete beam used to strengthen masonry walls. Bond paper A strong, durable paper especially suitable to electronic printing and use in office machines including copiers and desktop printers. Bottom chord The lower, usually horizontal, member of a truss. Bounds Another term for boundaries. Bow window An arc-shaped bay window. Box A box equipped with clamps, used to terminate a conduit (also known as an electrical box or outlet box). Box beam A hollow built-up structural unit. Boxed eave An eave with a covering applied directly to the bottom side of the rafter or truss tails. Braced wall line Each exterior surface of a residence. Braced wall panel A method of reinforcing a braced wall line using 48" wide panels to resist lateral loads. Break lines Lines added to a drawing in order to remove a portion of an object, to show a partial view, or to shorten a long object. Breaker An electrical safety switch that automatically opens the circuit when excessive amperage occurs in the circuit.

Glossary

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Breezeway A covered walkway with open sides between two dif-

Carbon offsets The lessening of carbon emissions through the

ferent parts of a structure. Bridging Cross blocking between horizontal members used to add stiffness (also called blocking). Broker A representative of the seller in property sales. Brownfields Properties that are contaminated or perceived to be contaminated. They may also include properties that are underutilized for various socioeconomic reasons, such as abandonment, obsolescence, tax delinquency, and/or blight. Btu British thermal unit. A unit used to measure heat. Building code Legal requirements designed to protect the public by providing guidelines for structural, electrical, plumbing, and mechanical areas of a structure. Building life cycle The observation and examination of a building over the course of its entire life. Building line An imaginary line determined by zoning departments to specify on which area of a site a structure may be built (also known as a setback). Building model An electronic representation of a building, with elements graphically representing the building drawn with realworld size in their real-world units. Building paper A waterproofed paper used to prevent the passage of air and water into a structure. Building permit A permit to build a structure issued by a governmental agency after the plans for the structure have been examined and the structure is found to comply with all building code requirements. Built-up beam A beam built of smaller members that are bolted or nailed together. Built-up roof A roof composed of three or more layers of felt, asphalt, pitch, or coal tar. Bullnose Rounded edges of cabinet trim. Butt joint The junction where two members meet in a square-cut joint, end to end, or edge to edge. Buttress A projection from a wall often located below roof beams to provide support to the roof loads and to keep long walls in the vertical position.

development of alternative projects such as solar or wind energy or reforestation. Carport A covered automobile parking structure that is not fully enclosed. Carriage The horizontal part of a stair stringer that supports the tread. Cartesian coordinate system A point entry system based on selecting points that are a given distance from the horizontal and vertical axes, known, respectively, as the X and Y axes. Also referred to as rectangular coordinates. Casement window A hinged window that opens from the outside vertical edge, generally using a crank mechanism. Casework All of the components that make up the cabinets. Casing The metal, plastic, or wood trim around a door or a window. Catch basin An underground reservoir for water drained from a roof before it flows to a storm drain. Cathedral window A window with an upper edge that is parallel to the roof pitch. Caulking A soft, waterproof material used to seal seams and cracks in construction. Cavity wall A masonry wall formed with two wythes with an air space between each face. Ceiling joist The horizontal member of the roof that is used to resist the outward spread of the rafters and to provide a surface on which to mount the finished ceiling. Cement A powder of alumina, silica, lime, iron oxide, and magnesia pulverized and used as an ingredient in mortar and concrete. Cementitious foam insulation Non-toxic insulation that is not a petroleum product, and not susceptible to moisture damage. Central heating A heating system in which heat is distributed throughout a structure from a single source. Cesspool A cistern that receives untreated sewage that goes through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues through an open bottom and perforated sides into porous soil. Chair rail Molding placed horizontally on the wall at the height where chair backs would otherwise damage the wall. Chamfer A beveled edge formed by removing the sharp corner of a piece of material. Channel A standard form of structural steel with three sides at right angles to each other forming the letter C. Chase A recessed area of column formed between structural members for electrical, mechanical, or plumbing materials. Check Lengthwise cracks in a board caused by natural drying. Check valve A valve in a pipe that permits flow in only one direction. Chemicals Material with specific chemical composition. Chimney An upright structure connected to a fireplace or furnace that passes smoke and gases to outside air. Chimney cap The sloping surface on the top of the chimney. Chimney hood A covering placed over the flue for protection from the elements. Chimney liner A liner built into the chimney usually made of fire clay or terra-cotta to provide a smooth surface to the flue wall and to reduce the width of the chimney wall. Chord The upper and lower members of a truss that are supported by the web. Cinder block A block made of cinder and cement used in construction. Circuit The various conductors, connections, and devices found in the path of electrical flow from the source through the components and back to the source.

C Cabinet work The interior finish woodwork of a structure, espe-

cially cabinetry. CADD Computer-aided design and drafting. Camber A curve built into a beam to help resist the tendency of

the beam to sag when a load is applied. Can Part of the housing for a recessed lighting fixture. Cant strip A small built-up area between two intersecting roof

shapes to divert water. Cantilever A structure that projects out without support from

below. Cantilevered truss. A pre manufactured truss that is designed to

extend past its bearing point. Carbon dioxide (CO2) A gas at standard temperature and pressure

that exists in Earth’s atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is generated as a by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels or the burning of vegetable matter, among other chemical processes. Carbon footprint A measure of the impact that human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of greenhouse gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide. Carbon neutral The reduction of emissions from all greenhouse gas sources to produce a neutral result through energy efficiency, renewable energy purchases, and carbon-offset purchases.

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Circuit breaker A safety device that opens and closes an electrical

circuit.

Glossary

Condensation The formation of water on a surface when warm air

comes in contact with a cold surface.

Circumference The distance around the perimeter of a circle. Cistern A receptacle for holding water or other liquid, especially a

Condensation resistance (CR) The ability of a product to resist the

tank for catching and storing rainwater. Civil engineer A professional who works with the design and structural teams and who is responsible for the design and supervision of a wide variety of construction projects, such as highways, bridges, sanitation facilities, and water treatment plants. Clapboard A tapered board used for siding that overlaps the board below it. Cleanout A fitting with a removable plug that is placed in plumbing drainage pipelines to allow access for cleaning out the pipe. Clearance A clear space between building materials to allow for airflow or access. Clerestory window A window or group of windows that are placed above the normal window height, often between two roof levels. Code A performance-based description of the desired results with wide latitude allowed to achieve the results. Code inspection Code enforcement inspections that take place at various times during construction. Collar ties Horizontal ties between rafters near the ridge to help resist the tendency of the rafters to separate. Colonial A style of architecture and furniture adapted from the American colonial period. Column A vertical structural support, usually round and made of steel. Combustion air Outside air supplied in sufficient quantity for fuel combustion. Common plumbing wall A wall between rooms where plumbing fixtures are placed back-to-back. Common rafter Structural roof members that run perpendicular to both the ridge and the wall supporting them, they span and support the roof loads from the ridge to the top plate. Common wall The partition that divides two different dwelling units. Community Group of interacting people living in a common location. Compass Tools used to draw circles and arcs. Compass point Any of 32 horizontal directions indicated on the card of a compass. Completion notice A document that notifies all parties involved in the project that work has been substantially completed. Complex beam Beam with a non-uniform load at any point on it, which has supports that are not located at its end. Composition The spacing, layout, and appearance of lettering. Compression A force that crushes or compacts. Computer input Information placed into a computer. Computer mainframe The main computer that controls many smaller desk terminals. Computer output Information that is displayed or printed by a computer. Computer software Programs used to control a computer. Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) Using a computer for a design tool, and for drafting aid. Computer-aided drafting (CAD) Using a computer as a drafting aid. Concentrated load A load centralized in a small area. The weight supported by a post results in a concentrated load. Concrete A building material made from cement, sand, gravel, and water. Concrete blocks Blocks of concrete that are precast. The standard size is 8 × 8 × 16".

Conditioned A heated or cooled space. Conductor Any material that permits the flow of electricity. A

formation of condensation on the interior surface of the product.

drainpipe that diverts water from the roof (a downspout). Conduit A bendable pipe or tubing used to encase electrical wiring. Construction bids Part of the construction estimate process when

an architect, designer, or general contractor seeks estimates from subcontractors covering the materials and cost of their part of the project. Construction documents Drawings and written specifications prepared and assembled by architects and engineers for communicating the design of the project and administering the construction contract. Construction estimating Determines the total costs of labor, materials, capital, and professional fees required for a proposed product. Construction joint A joint used when concrete construction must be interrupted to provide a clean surface when work can be resumed. Construction lines Lines used for laying out a drawing. Construction loan A mortgage loan to provide cash to the builder for material and labor that is typically repaid when the structure is completed. Construction types Divisions in the building code numbered from I to V, with type I being the most fire-resistive and type V being the least fire-resistive. Continuous beam A single beam that is supported by more than two supports. Contour A line that represents land formations. Contour interval The vertical distance between contour lines. Contour lines Lines that connect points of equal elevation and help show the general lay of the land. Contract documents The legal requirements that become part of the construction contract. Contractor The manager of a construction project, or of one specific phase of it. Control or contraction joint An expansion joint in a masonry wall formed by raking mortar from the vertical joint. Control point survey A survey method that establishes elevations that are recorded on a map. Convenience outlet An electrical receptacle though which current is drawn for the electrical system of an appliance. Cool roof A roof that features highly reflective materials that are used to reflect heat. Coordinate dimensions Dimensions that provide horizontal and vertical location dimensions to the center of the circular features. Coordinate display Coordinates appear on-screen as you move the cursor to various positions. Coping A masonry cap placed on top of a block wall to protect it from water penetration. Corbel A projection of stone, brick, timber, or metal projecting out from a wall to support a structure above. Corner bead A strip of wood or metal used to protect external corners of plastered walls. Cornice The part of the roof that extends out from the wall. Sometimes referred to as the eave. Cost-plus contract A type of contract in which the contractor agrees to complete the work for the actual cost, plus a percentage for overhead and profit.

Glossary

Counterflash A metal flashing used under normal flashing to pro-

vide a waterproof seam. Course A continuous row of building materials such as shingles, stone, or brick. Court An unroofed space surrounded by walls. Cove lighting Concealed light source behind a cornice or horizontal recess that directs the light on a recessed ceiling. Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R) Limitations and rules placed on a group of homes by a builder, developer, neighborhood, or home-owner association. All condominiums and townhomes, and most planned-unit developments and established neighborhoods have CC&Rs. Crawl space A space between the ground and the floor of a building in which a person cannot generally walk upright. Cricket A diverter built to direct water away from an area of a roof where it would otherwise collect, such as behind a chimney. Cripples Cut-off vertical framing members above and below the window. Cross bracing Boards fastened diagonally between structural members, such as floor joists, to provide rigidity. Cross section See Section. Crosshatch Thin lines drawn about 1/16" apart, typically at 45°, to show masonry in plan view or wood that has been sectioned. Cul-de-sac A dead-end street with no outlet that provides a circular turn around. Culvert Underground passageways for water, usually part of a drainage system. Cupola A small structure built above the main roof level to provide light or ventilation. Cure The process of concrete drying to its maximum design strength, usually taking 28 days. Curtain wall An exterior wall that provides no structural support. Cut and fill The excavation process involving the removal of earth, which is the cut, and moving earth to another location, which is the fill. Cutting-plane lines Lines that show the location of a cut made for the purpose of creating a sectional view at the specified location. Cutting-plane lines can be placed on floor plans, foundation plans, or any place where a section needs to be drawn to show the internal construction.

D Damper A movable plate that regulates the draft or air flow in a

chimney or vent pipe. Dashed lines Also considered hidden lines, these lines are used

to show drawing features that are not visible in the view or plan. Datum A reference point for starting a survey. Daylight basement A basement that allows you to enter and exit from ground level directly into or from the basement floor. Daylighting The use of various design techniques to enhance the use of natural light in a building. Dead load The weight of building materials or other immovable objects in a structure. Deadening A material used to control the transmission of sound. Deck Exterior floor that is supported on at least two opposing sides by adjoining structures, piers, or posts. Decking A wood material used to form the floor or roof. Deed restrictions Written statements in a deed that outline the limits of use of a property. Default Any value that is maintained by the computer for a command or function that has variable parameters.

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Deflection The tendency of a structural member to bend under a

load as a result of gravity. Degree day A measure that gauges the amount of heating or cool-

ing needed for a building using 65°F (18°C) as a baseline. Delta note Triangular symbol with a number inside, placed on the

drawing in the desired location. The same delta symbol and number is placed with the general notes to correlate related information. Density The number of people allowed to live in a specific area of land or to work in a specific area of a structure. Dentil molding Square tooth-like trim that is often placed along the eaves of traditional homes. Depreciation Loss of monetary value. Designer A person who designs buildings but is not licensed as an architect. Detail drawings (HVAC) Enlarged views of equipment, equipment installations, duct components, or any features that are not defined on the plan. Detail files A specific type of model file that can include plans, elevations, sections, and details. Details Enlargements of specific areas of a structure that are drawn where several components intersect or where small members are required. Diameter The distance across an arc or circle passing through the center. Diaphragm A rigid plate that acts similar to a beam and can be found in the roof level, walls, or floor system. Diazo prints made by passing an ultraviolet light through a translucent original drawing to expose a chemically coated paper or print material underneath. Also known as blue-line prints. Digital terrain model (DTM) A model of a topographic surface that uses information on height, slope, aspect, breaks in slope, and other topographic features. Dimension line Line showing the length of the dimension and terminating at the related extension line with slashes, arrowheads, or dots. Dimension lumber Lumber ranging in thickness from 2" to 4" and having moisture content of less than 19%. Dimensions Numbers that provide the measurements used for construction. Direct solar gain A direct gain in heat created by the sun. Directories See Folders. Disbursement inspections Requested at various times, such as monthly, or they can be related to a specific disbursement schedule, such as four times during construction to get the builder payment for that portion. Disk Computer storage unit that stores information or programs used to run a computer. Distribution panel Panel where the conductor from the meter base is connected to individual circuit breakers, which are connected to separate circuits for distribution to various locations throughout the structure. Diverter A metal strip used to divert water. Dividers A manual drafting tool used to transfer dimensions or to divide a distance into a number of equal parts. Documents A general term that refers to all drawings and written information related to a project. Dormer A structure that projects from a sloping roof to form another roofed area. This new area is typically used to provide a surface to install a window. Double glazing A windowpane formed of two layers of glass with a sealed air space between the layers.

1100

Glossary

Double-hung windows Windows with moveable upper and lower

Easement An area of land that cannot be built upon because it

sashes, which slide vertically past each other. Double-wall construction Walls that have sheathing placed on the exterior side of the wall to support the exterior siding, and to provide additional energy efficiency over standard construction. Downspout A pipe that carries rainwater from the gutters of the roof to the ground. Draft A current of air and gases through the fireplace and chimney. Drafter A person who makes drawings and details from another person’s creations. Drafting A universal graphic language that uses lines, symbols, dimensions, and notes to describe a structure to be built. Drafting machine Maintains a horizontal and vertical relationship between scales, which also serve as straightedges, by way of a protractor component. Drain A collector for a pipe that carries water. Drainage system Provides for the distribution of solid and liquid waste to the sewer line. Drawing content The variety of information in the drawing, such as layers, layouts, line types, text styles, and symbols. Drawing limits The specified drawing area, which can be set to create a virtual drawing area according to sheet size and drawing scale. Drawings Store and catalog information that is distributed through the project cycle. Dressed lumber Lumber that has been surfaced by a planing machine to give the wood a smooth finish. Dried-in Construction covered to protect against weather. Drift bolt A steel rod that has been threaded and that is often used to span between metal connectors on two separate beams. Drip A projecting portion of the cornice that sheds rainwater. Drop ceiling See Suspended ceiling. Dry rot A type of wood decay caused by fungi that leaves the wood a soft powder. Dry well A shallow well used to disperse water from the gutter system. Drywall An interior wall covering installed in large sheets made from gypsum board. Duct systems The design, installation, and control systems are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. Ducts Pipes used to conduct hot or cold air of the HVAC system. Duplex convenience outlet A receptacle outlet. Duplex outlet A standard electrical convenience outlet with two receptacles. Dutch door A type of door that is divided horizontally in the center so that the top or bottom half of the door may be opened separately. Dutch hip A type of roof shape that combines features of a gable and a hip roof. Dynamic loads The loads imposed on a structure from a sudden gust of wind or from an earthquake.

provides access to a structure or to utilities, such as power or sewer lines. Eave The lower part of the roof that projects from the wall. Also see Cornice. Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. Effluent Treated sewage from a septic tank or sewage treatment plant. Egress A term used in building codes to describe access. Elastic limit The extent to which a material can be bent and still return to its original shape. Elbow An L-shaped plumbing pipe. Electrical box See Box. Electrical conduit A metal or fiber pipe or tube used to enclose a single or several electrical conductors. Electrical engineer A professional who works with the design and structural teams and who is responsible for the design of lighting and communication systems. Electrical work The installation of rough-and-finish electrical systems in a building. Electricity Energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor. Elevation The exterior views of a structure. Elevation (Related to surveying, site planning, and disciplines such as plumbing and HVAC.) The height of a feature from a known base, which is usually given as 0 (zero elevation). Elevation views Two-dimensional views looking at the outside of the building or interior features. Ell An extension of the structure at a right angle to the main structure. Eminent domain The right of a government to condemn private property so that it may be obtained for public use. Enamel A paint that produces a hard, glossy, smooth finish. End-result specifications Specifications that provide final characteristics of the products and methods used in construction, and the contractor can choose a desired method for meeting the requirements. Energy Star A joint program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy designed to help save money and protect the environment through energy efficient products and practices. Engineer A licensed professional who applies mathematical and scientific principles to the design and construction of structures. Entourage The surroundings of a rendered building consisting of ground cover, trees, people, and automobiles. Envelope design Design method based on the idea of constructing an envelope or continuous cavity around the perimeter of a structure. Environmentally friendly Designing and constructing buildings with renewable materials such as wood from certified forests, earthen materials, and recycled products. Environmentally sound See Environmentally friendly. Equity The value of real estate in excess of the balance owed on the mortgage. Erasing shields Thin metal or plastic sheets with a number of differently shaped holes. Ergonomics The study of human space and movement needs as they relate to a given work area, such as a kitchen.

E Earnest money A good-faith sum of money given to bind a con-

tract, for example, an agreement to purchase real property, or a commitment fee to ensure an advance of funds by a lender. In a real estate transaction, the money is applied to the purchase price and can be forfeited if the purchaser fails to carry out the terms of the agreement. Earthen floors A green building technology that combines the mixture of sand, clay soil, and fibers that are poured in place and sealed with linseed oils and waxes to make durable washable surfaces.

Glossary

Evapotranspiration A term used to describe the sum of evapora-

tion and plant transpiration from the Earth’s land surface to the atmosphere. Excavation The removal of soil for construction purposes. Expansion bolt A bolt with a special expanding sleeve that is designed so that the sleeve, once inserted into a hole, will expand to increase the holding power of the bolt. Expansion joint A joint installed in concrete construction to reduce cracking. Extension lines Lines showing the extent of a dimension that are generally thin, dark lines. Exterior envelope The elements of a structure that enclose heated and cooled air through which thermal energy transfers to or from the exterior. Extrusion A manufacturing process used to create long objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile, where material is pressed or pushed under pressure through a desired shaped orifice.

F Fabrication Work done on a structure away from the job site. Facade The exterior covering of a structure. Face brick Brick that is used on the visible surface to cover other

masonry products. Face grain The pattern in the visible veneer of plywood. Facility A physical structure or group of structures, including site construction, serving one or more purposes. Facility model An information model related to a specific structure that is integrated with data and documents about that structure. Fascia A horizontal board nailed to the end of rafters or trusses to conceal their ends. Federal Housing Administration (FHA) A governmental agency that insures home loans made by private lending institutions. Felt A tar-impregnated paper used for water protection under roofing and siding materials. Sometimes used under concrete slabs for moisture resistance. Fenestration Openings in the building envelope including glazed blocks, glazed doors, opaque doors, roof windows, skylights, vertical windows including fixed and movable, or any products with glass or other types of glazing. Fiber-bending stress The measurement of structural members used to determine their stiffness (Fb). Fiber-cement cladding A highly-durable and non-toxic material that acts as an effective barrier for insulation from the elements. Fiberboard Fibrous wood products that have been pressed into a sheet. Typically used for the interior construction of cabinets and for covering the subfloor. Field Any open area that surrounds the main views. Field-built Cabinets or other features built on the job. File As related to manual drafting, the storage of drawings in standard file cabinets. Fill lighting Light from a light fixture that fills an area. Fill material Used to raise an area for construction. Typically gravel or sand is used to provide a raised, level building area. Filled insulation Insulation material that is blown or poured into place in attics and walls. Fillet weld A weld between two surfaces that butt at 90° to each other with the weld filling the inside corner. Final inspection The last inspection of a building construction project prior to occupancy. Finish electrical The light fixtures, outlets, and all other final electrical work that is done when the construction is nearly complete.

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Finished lumber Wood that has been milled with a smooth finish

suitable for use as trim and other finish work. Finished size Sometimes called the dressed size, the finished size

represents the actual size of lumber after all milling operations and is typically about 1/2" smaller than the nominal size, which is the size of lumber before planing. Nominal Size (inches)

Finished Size (inches)

1

3/4

2

1 1/2

4

3 1/2

6

5 1/2

8

7 1/4

10

9 1/4

12

11 1/4

14

13 1/4

Fire brick A refractory brick capable of withstanding high tempera-

tures and used for lining fireplaces and furnaces. Fire cut An angular cut on the end of a joist or rafter that is sup-

ported by masonry. The cut allows the wood member to fall away from the wall without damaging a masonry wall when wood is damaged by fire. Fire door A door used between different types of construction that has been rated as being able to withstand fire for a certain amount of time. Fire rated A rating given to building materials to specify the amount of time the material can resist damage caused by fire. Fire wall A wall constructed of materials resulting in a specified time that the wall can resist fire before structural damage will occur. Fire-stop Blocking placed between studs or other structural members to resist the spread of fire. Firebox The combustion chamber of the fireplace where the fire occurs. Fireplace opening The area between the top and side faces of the fireplace; it is the front of the firebox. Fireproofing Any material that is used to cover structural materials to increase their fire rating. Fit house See Small-footprint home. Fitting A standard pipe used for joining two or more sections of pipe. Fixed window A window that is designed without hinges so it cannot be opened. Fixed-sum contracts Sometimes called lump-sum contracts, these contracts are used when the contractor agrees to complete the project for a certain amount of money. Flagstone Flat stones used typically for floor and wall coverings. Flashing Metal used to prevent water from leaking through surface intersections. Flat roof A roof with a minimal roof pitch, usually about 1/4" per 12". Flathead (countersunk) screws Screws used for finish work where a protruding head is not desirable Flitch beam A built-up beam that consists of steel plates bolted between wood members. Floor joists Structural members made from sawn or engineered lumber used to span between the foundation walls and support the floor decking. Floor plan Architectural drawing of a room or building as if seen from above.

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Floor plug A 110-V convenience outlet located in the floor. Flue A passage inside of the chimney to conduct smoke and gases

away from a firebox to outside air. Flue liner A terra-cotta pipe used to provide a smooth flue surface so that unburned materials will not cling to the flue. Folders Also known as directories, the folders on your computer allow you to store and organize computer files. Font A complete assortment of any one size and style of lettering or text. Footing The lowest member of a foundation system used to spread the loads of a structure across supporting soil. Footing form The wooden mold used to give concrete its shape as it cures. Footprint Often used in reference to the foundation dimensions upon which the house is constructed. Foundation The system used to support a building’s loads and made consisting of the footings, stem walls, and piers. The term is used in many areas to refer just to the footing. Frame The structural skeleton of a building. French doors Exterior or interior doors that have glass panels and swing into a room. Fresnel lens Type of lens originally developed for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the weight and volume of material required in conventional lens design. Compared to earlier lenses, the Fresnel lens is much thinner, allowing the passage of more light over much longer distances as with Tubular Daylighting Devices described in this textbook. Frost line The depth to which soil will freeze. Full basement Occupies the entire area inside the foundation walls. Full sections Drawing views that result from passing the cutting plane through the entire structure. Full sections are meant to give an overall view of a specific area of the structure. Functional elements Often referred to as systems or assemblies, these are major components, common to buildings that perform a known function regardless of the design specification, construction method, or materials used. Furnace Mechanism that produces heat by burning fuel oil or natural gas, or by using electric heating coils or heat pumps. Furring Wood strips attached to structural members that are used to provide a level surface for finishing materials when different sized structural members are used.

G Gable A type of roof with two sloping surfaces that intersect at the

ridge of the structure. Gable end wall The triangular wall that is formed at each end of a

gable roof between the top plate of the wall and the rafters. Galvanized pipe Steel pipe that has been cleaned and dipped in

molten zinc to provide protection from rusting. Gambrel A type of roof formed with two planes on each side of

the ridge. The lower pitch is steeper than the upper portion of the roof. Garden window Generally a 90° bay window that extends beyond the exterior, with a glass front, sides, and roof to allow in extra natural light. General contractor Person responsible for working directly with the architect, designer, or property owner to complete the entire project in a quality and professional manner. General notes Notes that apply to features on the drawing rather than to specific items.

Glossary

Geothermal system Heating and cooling system that uses the

constant, moderate temperature of the ground to provide space heating and cooling, or domestic hot water, by placing a heat exchanger in the ground, or in wells, lakes, rivers, or streams. Ghost A line that should have been eliminated but still shows on a print. Girder A horizontal structural member made of wood, laminated wood, engineered wood, or steel that spans between two or more supports at the foundation level. Girder truss A truss used where two perpendicular roofs intersect typically created by bolting two or three standard trusses together. Glu-lam See Glued-laminated beam. Glued-laminated beam (glu-lam) A structural member made up of layers of lumber that are glued together. Gothic A style of architecture originating during the medieval period and typically seen in cathedrals that featured pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses (exterior wing walls placed to resist the outward thrust of arches). Grade The designation of the quality of a manufactured piece of wood. Grading The moving of soil to affect the elevation of land at a construction site. Grading plans Information showing how a construction site will be excavated; construction drawings that generally show existing and proposed topography. Grains A unit of weight measure. Graphic scale Similar to a small ruler that represents the numeric scale. The divisions on the graphic scale represent increments of measure that can be easily applied to the drawing. Gravel stop A metal strip used to retain gravel at the edge of built-up roofs. Gravity Uniform force that affects all structures due to the gravitational force from the earth. Gray water Wastewater from clothes washing machines, showers, bathtubs, hand washing, lavatories, and sinks. Green board A water-resistant material used in areas that have high moisture content, such as the areas by a shower, tub, or spa. Green home A home that uses less energy, water, and natural resources; creates less waste; and is healthier and more comfortable for the occupants. Green lumber Lumber that has not been kiln-dried and still contains moisture. Green power Electricity that is generated from resources such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and low-impact hydro facilities. Green roof A roof system consisting of some type of vegetation growing in soil, planted over a waterproof membrane. Greenhouse effect Atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the Earth’s atmosphere but long-wave radiation less readily transmitted outward, due to absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases Gases that absorb global radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone. Grid inter-tied A system setup whereby if a solar array is producing more energy than is needed, the energy is fed into the power grid. Likewise, when a solar array is not producing enough energy, the home pulls power back from the grid. Grid survey Locations on a survey established in a grid. Ground An electrical connection to the earth by means of a rod. Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI or GFI) A 110-V convenience outlet with a built-in circuit breaker.

Glossary

Ground line A line that represents the horizontal surface at the

base of a perspective drawing. Grout A mixture of cement, sand, and water used to fill joints in masonry and tile construction. Guardrail A horizontal protective railing used around stairwells, balconies, and changes of floor elevation greater than 30". Guidelines Lines drawn to guide your manual lettering. Gusset A metal or wood plate used to strengthen the intersection of structural members. Gutter A channel at the edge of the eave for moving rainwater from the roof to downspouts. Gypsum board An interior finishing material made of gypsum and fiberglass and covered with paper that is installed in large shapes.

H Half-timbered A construction method that originated in medieval

Europe that featured wood framing members with the space between members filled with plaster, brick, or stone. Halftone The reproduction of continuous-tone artwork, such as a photograph, by converting the image into dots of various sizes. Handrail Railing that you slide your hand along as you walk down the stairs. Hanger A metal support bracket used to attach a structural member to a larger member. Hard conversion Typical inch units are converted directly to metric. Hardboard Sheet material formed of compressed wood fibers. Head The upper portion of a door or window frame. Header A structural member used at the roof level that consists of two or more members nailed together, laid parallel to the ridge board to support rafters around an opening such as a skylight or chimney. Header course A horizontal masonry course with the end of each masonry unit exposed. Header truss A truss that has a horizontal top chord that is used to support stub trusses. Headroom The vertical clearance over a stairway. Hearth The fire-resistant floor extending in front of the firebox. Heartwood The inner core of a tree trunk. Heat transfer multiplier The product of the heat transfer coefficient of the material (U factor = 1/R value) and the design temperature difference. Heat pump A unit designed to produce forced air for heating and cooling. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) The terminology used to refer to the industry that deals with the heating and airconditioning equipment and systems found in a building. The HVAC system is also referred to as the mechanical system. Heel The end of a rafter that rests on the wall plate. Hidden lines See Dashed lines. Hip The exterior edge formed by the intersection of two sloping roof surfaces. Hip rafters Structural roof members used when adjacent slopes of the roof meet to form an inclined edge. The hip rafter extends diagonally across the common rafters and provides support to the upper end of the rafters. Hip roof A roof shape with four sloping sides. Hip truss A truss that has a horizontal top chord that is parallel to the floor that is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding hip truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used. Hopper window A window that is hinged at the bottom and swings inward.

1103

Horizon line A line drawn parallel to the ground line that repre-

sents the intersection of ground and sky. Horizontal shear One of three major forces acting on a beam, it is

the tendency of the fibers of a beam to slide past each other in a horizontal direction (Fv). Hose bibb A water outlet that is threaded to receive a hose. Housing Structures collectively in which people are housed. Housing development A residential area of similar dwellings built by property developers and usually under a single management. Housing subdivision Synonymous with housing development low-density development in suburban and the fringe of urban areas. Characteristics include distance from employment and commercial centers, dependence on automobile travel, and extended public infrastructure. Hue A particular gradation of color; a shade or tint. Humidifier A mechanical device that controls the amount of moisture inside of a structure. Hydroelectric power Electricity generated by the conversion of the energy created by falling water. Hydrozoning A landscape practice that groups plants with similar water requirements together in an effort to conserve water.

I I Beam The generic term for a wide flange or American standard

steel beam with a cross section in the shape of the letter I. Included angle The angle formed between the center and the end-

points of an arc. Indirect lighting Mechanical lighting that is reflected off a surface. Individual appraisal A real estate property appraisal required when

a person or persons want to obtain financing to purchase or build a home or other building. Indoor temperature The design temperature for the space inside a building. Indoor wet bulb The bulb of which is enclosed in wetted material so that water is constantly evaporating from it and cooling the bulb. Industrial piping Piping used to carry liquids and gases used in the manufacture of products. Infiltration Outside air that enters a building through uncontrolled locations. Insertion point Location where text is started when using a computer program. Insulated concrete form (ICF) An energy-efficient wall framing system in which poured concrete is placed in polystyrene forms that are left in place to create a super-insulated wall. Insulating glass Two or more panes of glass with a sealed space between. Insulation Material used to restrict the flow of heat, cold, or sound from one surface to another. Intensity The brightness or dullness of a specific color. Interface Also called user interface, the term describing the tools and techniques used to provide and receive information to and from a computer application. Interior decorator Professional who decorates the interiors of buildings, with the aim of making rooms more attractive, comfortable, and functional. Interior designer Professional who works with the design team to optimize and harmonize the interior design of a structure in regard to how space will be used, the amount of light that will be required, acoustics, seating, storage, and work areas. Internal heat gain The total value of internal heat gains should be the gain occurring at the time of maximum heat gain to the space taking into account solar, infiltration, and internal gains.

1104

Glossary

International Residential Code (IRC) A national building code for

Lateral bracing Reinforcing placed in a structure to keep it from

one- and two-family dwellings. Irregular curves Commonly called French curves, irregular curves are used to draw arcs having no constant radii. Isolation joint A joint installed in concrete construction to reduce cracking and to provide workable areas. Isometric A drawing method that enables three surfaces of an object to be seen in one view, with the base of each surface drawn at 30° to the horizontal plane. Isometric lines Lines on or parallel to one of the three original isometric axes. Isometric sketches Freehand drawings of objects in an isometric view that display the objects at approximately a 30° angle.

moving from side to side as a result of wind or seismic forces applied to the structure. Lateral loads A load which causes objects to move sideways. Lath Wood or sheet metal strips that are attached to the structural frame to support plaster. Latitude The angular distance between an imaginary line around the earth parallel to the equator and including the equator. Lattice A grille made by criss-crossing strips of material. Lavatory A bathroom sink, or a room that is equipped with a washbasin. Layers In CADD, details of a design or different drafting information that are separated so that one type of information is over the other. Leach lines Soil-absorbent field used to disperse liquid material from a septic system. Leader line A line that connects a note to the feature being identified. Ledger A horizontal member that is attached to the side of wall members to provide support for rafters or joists. Legend An area on a drawing that displays and identifies symbols used on the drawing. Lender inspections Inspections done to ensure the materials and methods described in the plans and specifications are being used. Lettering The term used to describe the traditional handmade letters and numbers on a drawing. Liability insurance Protects the contractor against being sued for accidents occurring on the site. Lien A monetary claim on property. Light scallop An effect created when the light fixture is placed close to the wall resulting in a concentrated arc-shaped light pattern on the wall. Lighting outlet An electrical outlet that is intended for the direct connection of a lighting fixture. Limits See Drawing limits. Lintel A horizontal steel member used to provide support for masonry over an opening. Lisp A programming language used to customize CADD software. Live load The load from all movable objects within a structure including loads from furniture and people. External loads from snow and wind are also considered live loaded. Load path The route that is used to transfer the roof loads into the walls, then into the floor, and then to the foundation. Load-bearing wall A support wall that holds floor or roof loads in addition to its own weight. Local notes See Specific notes. Longitude Also called meridians, imaginary lines running north and south. Longitudinal section A section produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the long axis of the structure, used to frame the roof, ceiling, and floor systems. Lookout A beam used to support eave loads. Loose-fill insulation Fibers or granules made from cellulose, fiberglass, rock wool, cotton, or other materials. Lot An individual construction site or piece of property that has a defined legal description. Lot plan The drawing of a lot. Louver An opening with horizontal slats to allow for ventilation. Low-e glass Low-emissivity glass that has a transparent coating on its surface that acts as a thermal mirror. Lump-sum contract Written agreement under which a customer or owner agrees to pay a contractor a specified amount, for completing a scope of work without requiring a cost breakdown.

J J-groove weld A weld that results when one piece has a perpen-

dicular edge and the other has a curved grooved edge Jack rafter A rafter that is cut shorter than the other rafters to

allow for an opening in the roof. Jack stud A wall member that is cut shorter than other studs

to allow for an opening such as a window (also called a cripple stud). Jalousie window A type of window that has overlapping narrow glass, metal, or wooden louvers, operated with a crank handle for adjusting the louver angle outward. Jamb The vertical members of a door or window frame. Joist A horizontal structural member used in repetitive patterns to support floor and ceiling loads. Junction box A box that protects electrical wiring splices in conductors or joints in runs. Justify, justified, or justification To align text. Several lines of text that are left-justified are aligned along the left side, for example.

K Key lighting Stage light that sets the overall level of light intensity

for something that is being filmed. Kickblock or kicker A block used to keep the bottom of the stringer

from sliding on the floor when downward pressure is applied to the stringer. Kiln A heating unit for the removal of moisture from wood. Kiln dried A method of drying lumber in a kiln or oven. Kiln-dried lumber has a reduced moisture content when compared to lumber that has been air-dried. King stud A full-length stud placed at the end of a header. Kip Used in some engineering formulas to represent 1000 lb. Knee wall A wall of less than full height. Knot A branch or limb of a tree that is cut through in the process of manufacturing lumber.

L Lag screws Large screws used for attaching wood to wood or steel

to wood. Lally column A vertical steel column that is used to support floor

or foundation loads. Laminated Several layers of material that have been glued together

under pressure. Landing A platform between two flights of stairs. Latent load The heat released when water vapor in the saturated

air condenses. Lateral Sideways motion in a structure caused by wind or seismic

forces.

Glossary

M Magnetic declination The difference between true north and

magnetic north. Magnetic north The compass points to magnetic north. Main The primary supply pipe, also called water main or sewer

main, depending on its purpose. Mansard A four-sided, steep-sloped roof. Mantel A decorative shelf above the opening of a fireplace. Manual drafting The term used to describe traditional pencil or

ink drafting. Market value The amount that property can be sold for. Masonry Walls built using brick, stone, concrete blocks, or other

similar materials. Masonry veneer Walls that consist of a single non structural

external layer of masonry, such as brick or stone, and separated by an air space from the structural framing such as wood, steel, or masonry. Master appraisal The listing of models covering types of individual homes proposed for construction. The information collection sets forth the general and specific conditions that must be met before mortgage insurance, prepared by participating lenders working with developers. MasterFormat A list of numbers and titles that are created to organize information into a standard sequence that relates to construction requirements, products, and activities. Matte Surface texture that is not glossy. Mechanical engineer Professional who works with the design and structural teams who is responsible for the sizing and layout of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems (HVAC) and who plans how treated air will be routed throughout the project. Mechanical pencil A pencil that requires a piece of lead to be manually inserted. Mechanical solar systems See Active solar system. Mechanical system See Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC). Mechanical ventilation Building ventilation provided by mechanical means such as a fan or air-to-air heat exchanger. Meridian See Longitude. Mesh A metal reinforcing material placed in concrete slabs and masonry walls to help resist cracking. Metal tie A manufactured piece of metal for joining together two structural members. Metal wall ties Corrugated metal strips used to bond brick veneer to its support wall. Meter Instrument used to measure electrical quantities. The electrical meter for a building is where the power enters and is monitored for the electrical utility. Meter base The mounting base to which the electrical meter is attached. It contains all of the connections and clamps. Metes Measurements. Method specifications Outline material selection and construction operation process to be followed in providing construction materials and practices. Milling The use of a rotating cutting tool where the tool forms the desired shape of the millwork. Millwork Finished woodwork that has been manufactured in a milling plant. Examples are window and door frames, mantels, moldings, and stairway components. Mineral wool An insulating material made of fibrous foam. Model files Contain the individual elements that make up the final drawing of the building model, such as the walls, doors,

1105

windows, dimensions, and the various drawing features on their own layers. Modular cabinets Prefabricated cabinets that are constructed in specific sizes called modules. Module A standardized unit of measurement. Modulus of elasticity (e) The degree of stiffness of a beam. Moisture barrier Typically a plastic material used to restrict moisture vapor from penetrating into a structure. Molding Decorative strips, usually made of wood, used to conceal the seam in other finishing materials. Moment The tendency of a force to rotate around a certain point. Mono truss A single-pitched truss (one-half of a standard gable truss). Monolithic Concrete construction created in one pour. Monument A boundary marker set to mark property corners. Mortar A combination of cement, sand, and water used to bond together masonry units. Mortgage A contract pledging the sale of property upon full payment of purchase price. Mortgagee The lender of the money to the mortgagor for the purchase of property. Mortgagor The buyer of property who is paying off the mortgage to the mortgagee. Moving loads Loads that are not stationary, such as those produced by automobiles and construction equipment. Mudroom A room or utility entrance where soiled clothing can be removed before entering the main portion of the residence. Mudsill The horizontal wood member that rests on concrete to support other wood members. Also called base plate. Mullion A horizontal or vertical divider between sections of a window. Multiview drawing A drawing that shows up to six views, including the top, front, right side, left side, rear, and bottom views of an object. Multiview projection The views of an object as projected upon two or more picture planes in orthographic projection. Muntin A horizontal or vertical divider within a section of a window.

N Nailer A wood member bolted to concrete or steel members to

provide a nailing surface for attaching other wood members. Naturescaping A method of landscaping that allows people and

nature to coexist. By incorporating certain plants, especially native ones, into one’s yard, one can attract beneficial insects, birds, and other creatures, and help keep our rivers and streams healthy. Neoclassical Building style inspired by the Classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome and contains some, but not all, of the main features. Nested joists Steel joist placed around another joist to allow the strength of a joist to be greatly increased without increasing the size of the framing members. Net size Final size of wood after planing. Net-zero energy A home generates as much as or more energy than the occupants consume through the course of a year. Net-zero water A home generates as much as or more water than the occupants consume through the course of a year. Neutral axis The axis formed where the forces of compression and tension in a beam reach equilibrium. Newel The end post of a stair railing. Nominal size An approximate size achieved by rounding the actual material size to the nearest larger whole number.

1106

Nonferrous metal Metal, such as copper or brass, that contains

no iron. Nonisometric lines Lines on an isometric sketch or drawing that

do not fall on one of the isometric planes. Nosing The rounded front edge of a tread that extends past the riser.

O Object lines Lines used to define the outline and characteristic

features of architectural plan components. Object-oriented CADD A new idea for modeling physical objects

such as building components. Elements of a building are represented as objects, containing the physical geometry as well as many other kinds of attributes. Obscure glass Glass that is not transparent. Occupancy group A specification that indicates by whom or how the structure will be used. On center A measurement taken from the center of one member to the center of another member. Online Communicating with other computers or with devices such as printers or file servers through your modem or network. Operating system A master program that controls a computer’s basic functions and allows other programs to access the computer’s resources such as the disk drive, printer, keyboard, and monitor. Organic material Any material which originated as a living organism. Oriel window A window located in a round, turret-like projection from the main wall of Gothic Victorian style homes. The turret does not extend to the ground and is supported by brackets or corbels. Orientation The locating of a structure on property based on the location of the sun, prevailing winds, view, and noise. Origin The intersection of the X = 0 and Y = 0, or 0,0 axes. Orthographic projection Any projection of the features of an object onto an imaginary plane called a plane of projection, and the projection of the features of the object is made by lines of sight that are perpendicular to the plane of projection. Outdoor temperature The temperature outside of the building. Outdoor wet bulb The lowest temperature at which water being cooled can reach the outside temperature. Outlet An electrical receptacle that allows for current to be drawn from the system. Outlet box See Box. Outrigger A support for roof sheathing and the fascia that extends past the wall line perpendicular to the rafters. Outsourcing The practice of sending out parts of the project to subcontractors for completion. Overhang The horizontal measurement of the distance that the roof projects from a wall. Overlay drafting The practice of drawing a structure in several layers that must be combined to produce the finished drawing.

P Pad An isolated concrete pier. Palladian window A large window that is divided into three parts,

with the center section that is usually arched and larger than the two side sections. Panel See Distribution panel. Parallel bar A manual drafting tool used for drawing straight lines that slides up and down the drafting board on cables that are attached to pulleys mounted at the top and bottom corners of the table.

Glossary

Parallels See Latitude. Parametric Able to specify any desired dimensions or shape. Any

change to a parametric design automatically updates the entire design to match the change. Parapet A portion of wall that extends above the edge of the roof. Parging A rough coat of mortar applied to a masonry wall as a protective finish. Parquet flooring Wood flooring laid to form patterns. Partial basement Can be designed under any desired portion of the foundation area. Partial section A section that does not go completely through the structure that is used to show construction materials that are not seen in other sections. Partition An interior wall. Party wall A wall dividing two adjoining spaces such as apartments or offices. Passive solar gain See Solar gain. Passive solar system System that uses natural, architectural means to radiate, store, and radiate solar heat. Also called architectural solar system. Patio Ground-level exterior entertaining area that is made of concrete, stone, brick, or treated wood. Pendant light A light fixture that hangs from the ceiling usually suspended by a cord, chain, or metal rod. Sometimes called a drop or suspender. Penny The length of a nail represented by the lowercase letter d; “16d” is read as “sixteen penny.” Percolation test Test used to determine if the soil could accommodate a septic system. Performance bond Guarantee that the contractor will complete the work in a professional and timely manner or the insurance company covers the cost. Perspective A drawing method that provides the illusion of depth by the use of vanishing points. Photo drafting The use of photography to produce a base drawing on which additional drawings can be made. Photocopy A photographic reproduction of printed or graphic material, especially by xerography. Pictorial drawing A drawing that shows an object in a threedimensional format. Picture plane The plane onto which the view of the object is projected in a perspective drawing. Pier A concrete or masonry foundation support. Pilaster A reinforcing column built into or against a masonry wall. Piling A vertical foundation support driven into the ground to provide support on stable soil or rock. Pitch A description of roof angle comparing the vertical rise to the horizontal run. Plank Lumber that is 1 1/2" to 2 1/2" in thickness. Planned unit development A creative and flexible approach to land development, which can include such uses as residential areas, recreational areas, open spaces, schools, libraries, churches, or convenient shopping facilities. Plaster A mix of sand, cement, and water used to cover walls and ceilings. Plat A map of an area of land that shows the boundaries of individual lots. Plate Horizontal pieces of wood at the top of a wall to hold the studs in position. Platform or western platform framing A building construction method where each floor acts as a platform in the framing.

Glossary

Plenum A chamber which can serve as a distribution area for heat-

ing or cooling systems, generally between a false ceiling and the actual ceiling, or between construction members. Plot A parcel of land. Plotter An output device used in computer-aided drafting to draw lines and symbols. Plumb True vertical. Plumbing See Residential piping. Plumbing fixture A unit used to supply and contain water, and discharge waste. Examples of fixtures are sinks, lavatories, showers, tubs, and water closets. Plumbing system All the piping and fixtures in a structure. Plumbing walls The walls in a building where plumbing pipes are installed. Plywood Wood composed of three or more layers with the grain of each layer placed at 90° to each other and bonded with glue. Poche A shading method using graphite applied with a soft tissue in a rubbing motion. Pocket door A door that slides into a pocket that has been built into the wall. Point entry The process of specifying points to create and edit objects, such as locating line endpoints. Point of beginning (POB) Fixed location on a plot of land where the survey begins. Pointing Placing of mortar in the joints of masonry walls to improve the appearance and increase weather protection. Polar coordinate entry Used when points are located from the previous point at a specified distance and angle. Polyester film Also known by its trade name, Mylar; polyester film is a plastic manual drafting material that offers excellent dimensional stability, erasability, transparency, and durability. Polyester lead Plastic drafting pencil lead for use on polyester film. Porch A covered entrance to a structure. Portico A roof supported by columns instead of walls. Portland cement A hydraulic cement made of silica, lime, and aluminum that has become the most common cement used in the construction industry because of its strength. Post A vertical wood structural member usually 4 × 4 or larger. Post and beam A method of framing that places larger framing members at greater distances from each other than that used with traditional framing methods. Post-tensioning Concrete slabs that are poured over unstable soil by using a method of reinforcement. Potable water Water of a quality that is suitable for drinking. Pre-wire See Rough-wire. Precast A concrete component that has been cast in a location other than the one in which it will be used. Prefabricated Buildings or components that are built away from the job site and transported ready to be used. Presale An exclusive or private sale that is made before the construction begins. Presentation drawings Drawings used to convey basic design concepts. Prestressed A concrete component that is placed in compression as it is cast to help resist deflection. Prevailing winds Direction from which the wind most frequently blows in a given area of the country. Principal The original amount of money loaned before interest is applied. Profile Vertical section of the surface of the ground, and/or of underlying earth that is taken along any desired fixed line.

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Program A set of instructions that controls the functions of a

computer. Project A set of related activities taking place at a facility and can

include planning, design and construction documents, consulting, purchasing, construction, and post-construction activities. Proportion A principle of design that deals with size and shape of areas and their relationship to one another. Proportional dividers Used to reduce or enlarge an object without mathematical calculations or scale manipulations. Proprietary product specification Provides specific product names and models for desired applications. Prototype See Template drawing. Protractor A manual drafting tool used to measure angles. Public land states The states in an area of the United States starting with the western boundary of Ohio to the Pacific Ocean, and including some southeastern states and Alaska. Puck A pointing device with multiple buttons used to issue commands or pick items from a menu. Purlin A horizontal roof member that is laid perpendicular to rafters to help limit deflection. Purlin brace A support member that extends from the purlin down to a load-bearing wall or header.

Q Quad A courtyard surrounded by the walls of buildings. Quarry tile An unglazed, machine-made tile. Quarter round Wood molding that has the profile of one-quarter

of a circle. Quatrefoil window A round window composed of four equal lobes

that resemble a four-leafed clover.

R R-factor A unit of thermal resistance applied to the insulating

value of a specific building material. R-value Measurement of thermal resistance used to indicate the

effectiveness of insulation. Rabbet A rectangular groove cut on the edge of a board. Radial survey A survey method used to locate property corners,

structures, natural features, and elevation points. Radiant barrier Material made of aluminum foil with backing and

is used to stop heat from radiating through the attic. Radiant heat Heat emitted from a particular material such as

brick, electric coils, or hot water pipes without the use of air movement. Radio frequency Electromagnetic radiation waves that transmit audio, video, or data signals. Radius The distance from the center of an arc or circle to the circumference. Radon A naturally occurring radioactive gas, usually found in a basement, that breaks down into compounds that are carcinogenic when inhaled over long periods of time. Rafter The inclined structural member of a roof system designed to support roof loads. Rafter/ceiling joist An inclined structural member that supports both the ceiling and the roof materials. Railings Used for safety at stairs, landings, decks, and open balconies where people can fall. Rain gardens A planted depression or planting area or island that allows rainwater runoff from impervious urban areas like roofs, driveways, walkways, and compacted lawn areas the opportunity to be absorbed. Rainwater catchment system See Cistern.

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Glossary

Rainwater harvesting The gathering, or accumulating and storing,

Roof sheathing Similar to wall and floor sheathing, it is used to

of rainwater. Rake The sloped end portion of a roof that forms at the gable end wall where the roof intersects the wall. It is the equivalent of an inclined eave. Rake joint A recessed mortar joint. Reaction The upward forces acting at the supports of a beam. Rebar Reinforcing steel used to strengthen concrete. Rectangular coordinates See Cartesian coordinate system. Reference bubble A symbol used to designate the origin of details and sections. Reference keynotes Notes that are used to identify drawing items and reference the item to a specific section of the specifications using CSI MasterFormat numbers or to a note block placed on the same sheet as the drawing containing the reference. Register An opening in a duct for the supply of heated or cooled air. Reinforced concrete Concrete that has steel rebar placed in it to resist tension. Reinforced masonry See Structural masonry. Relative coordinate entry Used when points are located a specified distance on the X and Y axes from the previous point. Relative humidity The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere compared to the maximum possible amount at the same temperature. Rendering An artistic process applied to drawings to add realism. Residential piping Also called plumbing, it is the system that carries freshwater, gas, or liquid and solid waste. Retaining wall A masonry wall supported at the top and bottom, designed to resist soil loads. Rheostat An electrical control device used to regulate the current reaching a light fixture. A dimmer switch. Rhythm A principle of design related to the repetitive elements of a design that bring order and uniformity to it. Ribbon A structural wood member framed into studs to support joists or rafters. Ridge The uppermost area of two intersecting roof planes. Ridge beam A structural member used to support the upper end of the rafter/ceiling joist. Ridge blocks Blocks of wood used at the peak of the roof to provide a nailing surface for the roof sheathing and as a spacer in setting the trusses into position. Ridge board A horizontal member that rafters are aligned against to resist their downward force. Ridge brace A support member used to transfer the weight from the ridge board to a bearing wall or beam. The brace is typically spaced at 48" O.C. and may not exceed a 45° angle from vertical. Rim joist A joist at the perimeter of a structure that runs parallel to the other floor joist. Rise The amount of vertical distance between one tread and another. Riser The vertical member of stairs between the treads. Roll roofing Roofing material of fiber or asphalt that is shipped in rolls. Roof drain A receptacle for removal of roof water. Roof framing plans A plan created to show the size and direction of the construction members that are required to frame the roof. Roof plan A drawing created to show the shape of the roof, it is the equivalent to the top view of the structure. Roof pond Usually constructed of containers filled with antifreeze and water on a flat roof. The water is heated during the winter days, and then at night the structure is covered with insulation, which allows the absorbed heat to radiate into the living space.

cover the structural members. Roof sheathing may be either solid or skip. Rooftop garden See Green roof. Rough floor The subfloor, usually plywood, that serves as a base for the finished floor. Rough hardware Hardware used in construction, such as nails, bolts, and metal connectors, which will not be seen when the project is complete. Rough lumber Lumber that has not been surfaced but has been trimmed on all four sides. Rough opening The opening in a wall or framework of a building, for a feature such as a door or window frame to be installed. Rough-in Installation of the electrical boxes and wiring and the plumbing system before installing electrical and plumbing fixtures. Rough-wire Means to run wiring in the walls during construction for possible future hookup and use. Also called pre-wire. Roundhead screws Screws used at lumber connections where a visible head is tolerable. Rowlock A pattern for laying masonry units so that the end of the unit is exposed. Run (plumbing) Portion of pipe continuing in a straight line in the direction of flow in which it is connected. Run (stair design) The horizontal distance of a set of steps or the measurement describing the depth of one step.

S Saddle A small gable-shaped roof used to divert water from behind

a chimney. Sanitary sewer A sewer that carries sewage without any storm,

surface, or groundwater. Sanitary sewer system A system of underground pipes designed

for the collection and transfer of wastewater from domestic residences, businesses, and industries to a wastewater treatment plant, or private sewage treatment such as a septic tank or cesspool. Sash (plural sashes) A framework that holds the panes of a window in the window frame. Scab A short member that overlaps the butt joint of two other members used to fasten those members. Scale A measuring instrument used to draw materials at reduced size. Scale (drafting convention) The ratio of measuring units expressing a proportional relationship between a drawing and the fullsize item it represents. CADD drawings are created at full scale and plotted at the selected scale. Scale factor Establishes the relationship between the drawing scale and the desired feature height. Schedule A grouping of related items with corresponding distinguishing features, with a heading and a minimum of three columns of related information. A schedule formats information into rows and columns in order to more easily present design information. Scissor truss A truss with inclined bottom chords. Scotia A concave molding. Scratch coat The first coat of stucco that is scratched to provide a good bonding surface for the second coat. Seasoning The process of removing moisture from green lumber by either air (natural) or kiln drying. Secondary or second-generation original A print of an original drawing that can be used as an original.

Glossary

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Section A type of drawing showing an object as if it had been cut

Small-footprint home A home that is generally designed for a

through to show interior construction. Sections Smaller surveys of a township, with 36 sections in one township. Seismic Earthquake-related forces. Sensible load calculations Calculations that changes the temperature of a material without a change in state, such as that which would lead to increased moisture content. Sepias Diazo materials that are used to make secondary originals. Septic system Consists of a storage tank and an absorption field in which solid and liquid waste enters, is stored, and then decomposes into sludge. Septic tanks Used primarily for individual residences outside of public sewage districts. A septic tank is an on-site treatment system for domestic sewage, in which the sewage is held to go through a process of liquefaction and decomposition by bacterial organisms. The flow continues to be safely disposed in a subsurface facility such as a tile field, leaching pools, or buried sand filter. Service connection The wires that run to a structure from a power pole or transformer. Setback Minimum distance required between the structure and the property line. Sewer A pipe, normally underground, that carries wastewater and refuse. Shake A hand-split wooden roof shingle. Shear The stress that occurs when two forces from opposite directions are acting on the same member. Shearing stress tends to cut a member just as scissors cut paper. Shear panel A wall panel designed by an engineer to resist wind or seismic forces. Sheathing A covering material placed over walls, floors, and roofs that serves as a backing for finishing materials. Sheet grid coordinates A system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Shim A piece of material used to fill a space between two surfaces. Shiplap A siding pattern of overlapping rabbeted edges. Sill The framing member that forms the bottom edge of an exterior door or window opening. Simple beam Beam with a uniform load evenly distributed over its entire length and supported at each end. Single-hung window Two sashes of glass, with the top sash stationary and the bottom sash movable. Single-wall construction Exterior walls constructed without the use of sheathing and placing the siding over a vapor barrier and the wall studs. Site An area of land generally one plot or construction lot in size. Site orientation Placement of a structure on a property with certain environmental and physical factors taken into consideration. Site plan Drawing describing how a parcel of land is to be improved, including the outlines of all structures and site improvements, such as driveways, parking lots, landscaping, and utility connections. Sketching Freehand drawing, that is, drawing without the aid of drafting equipment. Skip sheathing Typically 1 × 4s (25 × 100) laid perpendicular to the rafters with a 4" (100 mm) space between each piece. Skylight A window in a roof used to admit sunlight. Slab A concrete floor system typically poured at ground level. Sleepers Strips of wood placed over a concrete slab in order to attach other wood members.

small urban lot. A small-footprint home is also referred to as a fit house, because it is designed to fit on lots where traditional designs do not fit. Smoke chamber The portion of the chimney located directly over the firebox that acts as a funnel between the firebox and the chimney. Smoke shelf A shelf located at the bottom of the smoke chamber to prevent downdrafts from the chimney from entering the firebox. Soffit A lowered ceiling, typically found in kitchens, halls, and bathrooms, to allow for recessed lighting or HVAC ducts. Soft conversion The product is manufactured directly using metric units rather than being converted to inches. Soft metric conversion The preferred metric construction standard that rounds off dimensions to convenient metric modules. Softwood Wood from a cone-bearing tree. Soil pipe A pipe that carries the discharge of water closets or other similar fixtures. Soil stack The main vertical wastewater pipe. Soil vent Vent that runs up the wall and vents out the roof, allowing vapor to escape and ventilates the system. Solar access Refers to the availability of direct sunlight to a structure or construction site. Solar collectors Catches sunlight and converts this light to heat. Solar gain Refers to the increase in temperature in a building that results from solar radiation. Solar heat Heat that comes from energy generated from sunlight. Solar heat gain Solar heat gain includes solar energy that is transmitted directly through the fenestration and energy that is absorbed radiation. Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) Measures how well a product blocks heat caused by sunlight. Solar panel Solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity. Solarium Glassed-in porch designed on the south side of a house that is in direct exposure to the sun’s rays. Soldier A masonry unit laid on end with its narrow surface exposed. Sole plate The plate placed at the bottom of a wall. Solid concrete construction Concrete is poured into forms that mold the mixture to the shape and dimensions desired. Solid fuel–burning appliances Such items as airtight stoves, freestanding fireplaces, fireplace stoves, room heaters, zero-clearance fireplaces, antique stoves, and fireplace inserts for existing masonry fireplaces. Sound-deadening board Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb mechanical and plumbing sounds near living and sleeping areas. Spackle The covering of Sheetrock joints with joint compound. Span The horizontal distance between two supporting members. Spark arrester A screen placed at the top of the flue to prevent combustibles from leaving the flue. Specific notes Relate to specific features on a drawing. Specification An exact statement describing the characteristics of a particular aspect of the project. Splice Two similar members that are joined together in a straight line usually by nailing or bolting. Split-level A house that has two levels, one about half a level above or below the other. Square An area of roofing covering 100 sq ft. Square-groove weld The resulting weld created when two pieces with perpendicular edges are joined end-to-end. Stack A vertical plumbing pipe.

1110

Glossary

Stairwell The vertical shaft where a stair will be framed. Standpipe The plumbing system that the fire hoses connect to.

Surfaced lumber Lumber that has been smoothed on at least

It is a dry system until a fire truck connects to it and pumps water through the system for fire suppression. Statement of probable construction cost A forecast of construction costs prepared by the architect or designer during the design process to give the client an approximation of the expected cost to construct the building. Station point The position of the observer’s eye in a perspective drawing. Stations Numbers given to the horizontal lines of a grid survey. Stile A vertical member of a cabinet, door, or decorative panel. Stirrup A U-shaped metal bracket used to support wood beams. Stock Common sizes of building materials. Stop A wooden strip used to hold windows in place. Storm sewer A sewer used for carrying groundwater, rainwater, surface water, or other nonpolluting waste. Stress A live or dead load acting on a structural member. Stress results as the fibers of a beam resist an external force. Stressed-skin panel A hollow, built-up member typically used as a beam. Stretcher A course of masonry laid horizontally with the end of the unit exposed. Stringer or stair jack The inclined support member of a stair that supports the risers and treads. Strongback A beam placed over the ceiling joist to support the ceiling and roof loads. Structural masonry Normally a blend of materials that are manufactured at high temperatures and generally have higher compressive strength than concrete block or poured concrete. Also referred to as reinforced masonry. Structured wiring systems High-speed voice and data lines and video cables wired to a central service location. Stub truss A truss that has a similar shape to a standard truss except that one end of the truss has been removed so that the truss can be supported by a header truss. Stub walls Walls that do not go all the way across the room. Stucco A type of plaster made from Portland cement, sand, water, and a coloring agent that is applied to exterior walls. Stud The vertical framing member of a wall that is usually 2 × 4 or 2 × 6. Stud frame The vertical construction members of a wood- or steelframe wall, where the individual members, called studs, are usually placed between bottom and top plates that are spaced every 16" or 24" apart. Stylus A pen-like device used for transferring information to a computer by writing, moving, or selecting on an electronic tablet. Subcontractors Tradespeople who complete specific aspects of the project. Subdivision Divides land into pieces, also known as plots or lots, that are easier to develop and sell. Also called a plat. Subfloor The flooring surface that is laid on the floor joists and serves as a base layer for the finished floor. Subfolder A folder placed inside another folder that contains files related to the folder where it resides. Subsill A sill located between the trimmers and bottom side of a window opening. It provides a nailing surface for interior and exterior materials. Sump A recessed area in a basement floor to collect water so that it can be removed by a pump.

Survey map Map of a property showing its size, boundaries, and

one side. topography. Suspended ceiling A finish ceiling constructed of lightweight

ceiling panels and light fixtures hung from cables, wires, or brackets from the structure above. Swale A recessed area formed in the ground to help divert groundwater away from a structure. Switch leg The electrical conductor from a switch to the electrical device being controlled. Systems or assemblies See Functional elements.

T Takeoff An estimate of materials. Tamp To compact soil or concrete. Template (CADD) A pattern of a standard or commonly used feature. Template drawing The basis for starting a drawing. A template

drawing contains all of the standard elements you need in the drawing format—for example, a border, title block, text style, and scale factor, and drawing default values. A template is also referred to as a prototype in CADD terminology. Templates Plastic sheets with standard symbols cut through them for tracing. Temporary electric service The electrical service to a construction site for construction purposes and is removed after the permanent electrical service is connected to the building. Temporary loads The loads that must be supported by a structure for a limited time. Tensile strength The resistance of a material or beam to the tendency to stretch. Tension Forces that cause a material to stretch or pull apart. Termite shield or carrier A strip of sheet metal used at the intersection of concrete and wood surfaces near ground level to prevent termites from entering the wood. Terra-cotta Hard-baked clay typically used as a liner for chimneys. Terrain Characteristic of the land on which a proposed structure is to be built. Terrain model A 3D model of the earth surface or terrain. Also referred to as a digital terrain model (DTM). Text The term for lettering that is done using CADD. Text style A set of text characters, such as font, height, width, and angle. Texture The roughness or smoothness of a material. Thermal break A longitudinal channel, longitudinal flange, or sidewalls that create a hollow center in which a thermal barrier is integrally formed. Thermal conductor A material suitable for transmitting heat. Thermal resistance Represented by the letter R, resistance measures the ability of a material to resist the flow of heat. Thermal storage walls Walls constructed of any good heatabsorbing material such as concrete, masonry, or water-filled cylinders. Thermostat A mechanical device for controlling the output of HVAC units. Threshold The beveled member directly under a door. Throat The narrow opening to the chimney that is just above the firebox. The throat of a chimney is where the damper is placed. Tile field Open-joint drain tiles laid to distribute septic tank effluent over an absorption area or for providing subsoil drainage in wet areas.

Glossary

Tilt-up A method of construction in which concrete walls are cast

in a horizontal position and then lifted into place. Timber Lumber with a cross-sectional size of 4 × 6 or larger. Toe nail Nail driven into a member at an angle. Toggle bolt A bolt used where one end of the bolt may not be accessible because of construction parameters, they are designed to expand when it is inserted through a hole, so that it cannot be removed. Tongue and groove A joint where the edge of one member fits into a groove in the next member. Top chord The upper member of the truss that supports the roof sheathing. Topography Physical description of land surface showing its variation in elevation and location of features such as rivers, lakes, or towns. Townhouse One of a row of homes sharing common walls. Townships Six-mile square surveys of the great land surveys. Traffic flow Route that people follow as they move from one area to another. Trammel An instrument used for making circles. Transformer An electrical device that either raises or lowers the voltage of electricity. Transition fitting (HVAC) A standard or custom duct component that connects one duct size to a different duct size, or one duct shape to a different duct shape, or both different shape and size. Transom A window located over a door. Transverse section A section, often referred to as a cross section, produced when the cutting plane is parallel to the short axis of the structure. Trap A U-shaped pipe below plumbing fixtures that holds water to prevent odor and sewer gas from entering the fixture. Tread The horizontal member of a stair on which the foot is placed. Tributary width The accumulation of loads that are directed to a structural member. It is always half the distance between the beam to be designed and the next bearing point. Trimmer At the roof level, a trimmer is a structural member made up of two rafters nailed together to support the sheathing on the inclined edge of an opening. Trombe wall A massive dark-painted masonry or concrete wall situated a few inches inside and next to south-facing glass. True north The same as geographic north, which is the North Pole. True-height line The true height line is formed where the object touches the picture plane. Objects that are on this line are seen at their true height. Truss A prefabricated or job-built construction member formed of triangular shapes used to support roof or floor loads over long spans. Truss clips Metal fasteners used to strengthen the connection between the truss and top plate or header, so that wind forces applied to the roof are transferred down through the wall framing and into the foundation. Also known as hurricane ties. Truss, cantilevered A truss used where a truss must extend past its support to align with other roof members. Truss, girder A truss used to hold trusses that are perpendicular to the girder truss. Truss, header A truss with a similar function to a girder truss. It has a flat top that is used to support stub trusses. Truss, hip A truss with a top chord that is parallel to the floor that is used to form a hip roof. Each succeeding truss increases in height until the full height of the roof is achieved and standard trusses can be used.

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Truss, mono A single-pitched truss used to form a shed or to form

the outer edges of a hip roof. Truss, stub A truss that does not extend the full length of other

trusses because an opening will be provided in the roof, or the roof must be interrupted. Tubular Daylighting Device (TDD) Captures sunlight on the rooftop and redirects it down a reflective tube into interior spaces. Type X gypsum board Specially designed drywall composed of gypsum, elastic polymers, and sound isolation layers that are used to absorb sound.

U U-factor A measure of heat flow through a material. It is the

inverse of the R-Value (1/R Value). U-groove weld A welded joint created by grinding the ends of

two pieces of steel together so that a U is formed at their intersection. U-value Defined as the coefficient of heat transfer expressed as BTUH sq ft/°F of surface area. Ultimate strength The unit stress within a member just before it breaks. UniFormat An arrangement of construction information based on physical parts of a facility called systems and assemblies. Unit stress The maximum permissible stress a structural member can resist without failing. Unity A principle of design related to the common design or decorating pattern that ties a structure together. Uplift The tendency of structural members to move upward due to wind or seismic pressure. Urban heat island effect City areas are warmer than suburbs or rural areas due to less vegetation, more land coverage, and other infrastructure.

V V-groove weld A weld created when each piece of steel to be joined

has an inclined edge that forms a V. Valley The internal corner formed between two intersecting roof

structures. Valley rafter Similar to a hip rafter, it is inclined at the same

pitch as the common rafters that it supports and gets its name because it is located where adjacent roof slopes meet to form a valley. Value The effect of changing the darkness or lightness of a color by adding black or white to a color. Valve A fitting that is used to control the flow of fluid or gas. Vanishing point The point at which an extended line intersects the horizon line. Vanity Used in an architectural application, generally a bathroom cabinet containing a sink with a mirror above. Vapor barrier Material that is used to block the flow of water vapor into a structure. Typically 6-mil (0.006") black plastic. Vault An inclined ceiling area. Vellum Drafting paper that is specially designed to accept pencil or ink. Veneer Thin sheets of wood glued together to form plywood or glued to a wood base material. When used for millwork, the outer face can be a desired hardwood. Vent pipe The pipe installed to ventilate the building drainage system and to prevent drawing liquid out of traps and stopping back pressure. Vent stack A vertical pipe of a plumbing system used to equalize pressure within the system and to vent sewer gases.

1112

Vent system Allows for a continuous flow of air through the

system so that gases and odors can dissipate and bacteria do not have an opportunity to develop. Ventilation The process of supplying and removing air from a structure. Verge or barge rafter An inclined fascia. Vernier scale An auxiliary scale sliding alongside a main scale to allow reading of fractional values during measurement. Vertical shear A stress acting on a beam, which causes a beam to drop between its supports. Vestibule A small entrance or lobby. Vicinity map Shows the development or construction site in relation to the local area. Villa A term used to define an upper-class country home. Virtual reality A computer-simulated world that appears to be a real world. Visible Transmittance (VT) Measures how much light comes through a product. Volt The unit of measure for electrical force.

W Wainscot Paneling applied to the lower portion of a wall. Wall wash lighting Provides even, diffuse lighting of vertical

surfaces. Wallboard Large, flat sheets of gypsum, typically 1/2" or 5/8" thick,

used to finish interior walls. Warp Variation from true shape. Waste pipe A pipe that carries only liquid waste free of fecal material. Waste stack A vertical pipe that runs one or more floors and

carries the discharge of fixtures other than water closets and similar fixtures. Water closet A water-flushing plumbing fixture, such as a toilet, that is designed to receive and discharge human excrement. This term is sometimes used to mean the compartment where the fixture is located. Water distributing pipe A pipe that carries water from the service to the point of use. Water heater An appliance used for heating and storing hot water. Water main See Main. Water meter A device used to measure the amount of water that goes through the water service.

Glossary

Water service The pipe from the water main or other supply to the

water-distributing pipes. Waterproof Material or a type of construction that prevents the

absorption of water. Watt A unit measure of power. Weather strip A fabric or plastic material placed along the edges of

doors, windows, and skylights to reduce air infiltration. Webs Interior members of the truss that span between the top and

bottom chords. Weep hole An opening in the bottom course of masonry to allow

for drainage. Welding A method of providing a rigid connection between two or

more pieces of steel. Wet-bulb temperature A measurement of the environment that

reflects the physical properties of the surrounding air based on the use of a thermometer that has its bulb wrapped in cloth that draws moisture from the surrounding air. Window wells Metal or concrete structures that allow access to a below-grade window. Wire gauge A method of defining wire diameter by a number, with wire diameter increasing as the number gets smaller. Work results Traditional construction practices that typically result from an application of skills to construction products or resources. Work triangle The triangular area created in the kitchen by drawing a line from the sink, to the refrigerator, and to the cooking area. Wythe A single unit thickness of a masonry wall.

X Xeriscaping Landscaping and gardening in ways that reduce or

eliminate the need for supplemental irrigation.

Z Zero-clearance fireplaces An insulated metal fireplace unit and

flue can be placed next to a wood-framed structure. Zoning (sheet format) In reference to drawing sheet format, zoning

is a system of numbers along the top and bottom margins and letters along the left and right margins, allowing a drawing to read like a road map. Zoning (land use planning) An ordinance that regulates the location, size, and type of a structure in a building zone.

Preface Index A AAC. See Autoclaved aerated concrete Absolute coordinate entry, 93 ABTco, 577 ABWP. See Alternative braced wall panels AC Software, 712 Accent lighting, 445 Accessibility requirements, 157–160, 967–972. See also Universal design Accessible routes, 967 Accordion doors, 321 ACEC. See American Consulting Engineers Council ACI. See American Concrete Institute Active solar systems, 237 photovoltaic modules, 242–243 solar architectural concrete products, 244 solar collectors, 242 storage facilities for, 243–244 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act Adobe bricks, 1004 Advanced framing techniques (AFT), 638–639 AEC. See Architectural Engineering or Construction AFM Safecoat, 682 A-frame roofs, 535–536 AFT. See Advanced framing techniques AIA. See American Institute of Architects Air circulation clerestory windows and, 240 healthy buildings and, 247 Air conditioning. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 244 Air filtration, 509 Air leakage (AL), 326 Air pollution, 493 Air quality, indoor, 509–511 AirKrete, 682 Air-lock entry, 238, 250. See also Vestibule Air-supply registers, 485

Air-to-air heat exchangers, 493–494 AISC. See American Institute of Steel Construction AKBD. See Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer AL. See Air leakage Aligned dimension, 360 Aligning floors, 392, 394 Allergies, 682 Allowable floor area, 961–962, 964–965 Alternative braced wall panels (ABWP), 738–739 Aluminum siding, 577 Ambient air temperature, 492 Ambient light, 443 American Concrete Institute (ACI), 953 American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), 10 American Design and Drafting Association, 8 American Forest and Paper Association, 694, 708 American Foursquare style, 225 American Gas Association, 499 American Institute of Architects (AIA), 3, 9, 108, 119, 298, 383, 480, 682. See also CAD Layer Guidelines American Institute of Building Design, 6 American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), 993 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 12, 51, 60, 236, 517 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 708 American Society of Architectural Illustrators (ASAI), 11 American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 10, 953 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), 10, 494 American Society of Interior Designers (ASID), 7 American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), 9 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 94

American Wire Gauge (AWG), 448 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 156, 319, 333, 334, 1034 Ampere, 431, 447 Anchor bolts, 773, 785–787, 790, 999 Anchor straps, 797 Anchors, 669, 732, 740 Andersen Corporation, 356 Angle of repose, 294 Angular dimensions, 366 Annotation, 94, 97 with AutoCAD, 602–603 on cabinet elevations, 625 on elevations, 595–596 on roof plans, 557–558 on sections, 860 text placement of, 1064 ANSI. See American National Standards Institute Antebellum style, 219 APA. See The Engineered Wood Association Appliances, 33 in CADD, 387 common sizes of, 337–338 dimensions for, 368 kitchen, 198–199 laying out, 386–387 solid fuel-burning, 350–351 symbols for, 332–337 Aqua Mix Penetrating Sealer, 682 Aqua Mix Safe Seal, 682 Aquastat, 465 ArchiCAD, 105 Architects certification of, 8 levels of, 9 Architect’s scale, 53 Architectural concrete, solar, 244 Architectural drawings for commercial projects, 1017–1038 exterior elevations, 19 floor plan, 21 folding, 61–63 grading plan, 18 roof plan, 20, site plan, 17–18 zoning on, 61 Architectural Engineering or Construction (AEC), 480

Architectural features common sizes of, 337–339, 367–368 dimensioning, 367–368 Architectural firms, positions in, 8–9 Architectural Graphic Standards, 14 Architectural lettering in CADD, 94, 97–100 height of, 96 legibility of, 96 rules for, 96–97 on sections, 870–871 single-stroke, 95–96 slanted, 96 styles of, 95 terminology of, 94 Architectural lines break, 91, 92 in CADD, 92–94 construction, 87 dashed, 90 as design elements, 211 dimension, 90, 91 extension, 90, 91 finished-quality, 593–594, 600–602, 864–867, 877–880, 883–884, 925–926 guidelines, 87 leader, 90–91 object, 87, 89 in presentation drawings, 940 styles and weights of, 88 techniques for, 91 thickness of, 89, 117 types of, 87–91, 118 weights of, 117–118 Architectural solar systems. See Passive solar systems Architecture areas of study for, 9 related fields, 9–11 Archive drawings, 60 ASAI. See American Society of Architectural Illustrators ASCE. See American Society of Civil Engineers Ash dump, 916 ASHRAE. See American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers ASID. See American Society of Interior Designers

1113

1114

ASLA. See American Society of Landscape Architects ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers Assemblies, 148 Associate Kitchen & Bath Designer (AKBD), 6 Association of Model Makers, 10 ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials Attics access to, 543, 545 on floor plans, 352 storage in, 172 ventilation of, 543 Auro, 682 AutoCAD, 105, 108, 109, 394, 454, 479–480, 562, 586, 589, 1059 annotation/dimensions with, 602–603 cursor modes in, 93 drawing content reuse/sharing in, 119 drawing finished-quality lines with, 600–602 drawing foundation plan in, 847 fonts in, 97 line formatting in, 94 model space/layout space in, 127 plotting and, 127 symbols in, 119–120 Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), 650 Autodesk, 105, 129 Autodesk Ecotect, 131–133, 135 Autodesk Green Building Studio, 131–132, 135 Autodesk Revit, 105, 131–133, 480, 562, 586 Automatic fire sprinklers, 162, 471–472 Automatic pencils, 45 AWG. See American Wire Gauge Awning windows, 322

B Balance, 213 Balconies, 205, 206 Balloon framing, 631–632, 637 Balusters, 612 Balustrades, 218 Barbecues, 349 Barge rafters, 532–533 Base plate. See Mudsill Baseboards, 608 Baselines, 269 Basement plan layout, 394–398 Basement walls IECC rules for, 172 treated-wood, 792–793 Basements daylight, 215, 395, 397, 825 on foundation plan, 823–825 foundation plan for full, 844–847

Index

foundation plan for partial, 840–844 framing plan for, 768 full, 824 partial, 823 section layout for, 881, 883–886 unfinished, 394 Basic pencil motions, 45, 46 Bathrooms. See also Water closet accessibility in, 616 accessibility requirements for, 968–972 cabinets in, 623 electric layout for, 442 electric outlets in, 433 floor plans of, 333–334 lighting/outlets in, 436 location of, 191 types of, 190–191 Bathtubs, universal design and, 465 Batt insulation, 641 Bay projections, 549, 551 Bay windows, 323, 599 Beam formulas, 714 BeamChek, 712 Beams, 395, 727. See also Girders; Post-and-beam framing cantilevered, 723 complex, 690 design methods for, 712–714 engineered, 720 in framing plans, 978–979, 1039–1041 grade, 783–784 hip, 712, 713 laminated, 976, 978–979 ridge, 527, 676–677 simple, 690 simple with load concentrated at any point, 723 simple with load concentrated at center, 721 single span, 976 sizing laminated, 720 sizing with span tables, 720 sizing wood, 714–718 three-hinged arch, 976 Tudor arch, 976 Bearing partitions, 392 Bearing walls, 664–665 Bearings, 268 Bedrooms, 187–189 lighting/outlets in, 436 window planning for, 189 Below grade, 394 Bench, 295 Bending moment, 710, 717–718 Bending strength, 709, 710 Bentley Systems, 105 Berms, 257 BidBuilder, 105 Bidding requirements, 149 Bifold doors, 319 BIM. See Building information modeling Biofuel, 246 Biomass, 246

Biopower, 246 Bipass door, 319 Bird blocking, 672 Bird’s mouth, 675 Black pipe. See Galvanized pipe Blind nailing, 997 Block technique, 69–71 Blocking, 668 BOCA. See Building Officials and Code Administrators International Bolts, 773, 785–787, 790, 998–1000 Bond classifications, 663 Bond paper, 62 Bonds, 644 Bonneville Power Administration, 499 Bonus room, 201–202 Bookshelves, 612 BOP. See Builder Option Packages Bora-Care Tim-Bor Impel, 682 Borate, 651 Boundary nailing, 997 Bounds, 268 Bow window, 323 Box (electrical), 431 Boxed eaves, 532 Braced wall construction, 736, 738–739 Braced wall line (BWL), 735, 744 applying code requirements to, 747–748 continuously sheathed, 748–750 on framing plan, 749–751 placement of panels in, 742, 744, 747 seismic risk and, 747 support of, 749 Braced wall panels (BWP), 668, 735, 736, 738–739 Braced wall schedule, 767 Bracing let-in, 668 by seismic design category, 745–747 wind speeds and, 743–744 Break lines, 91, 92 Breaker, 431 Brick, 314. See also Solid masonry construction adobe, 1004 clay, 1004 fire, 1004 positions/patterns of, 644 wall covering with, 578–579, 580 British thermal unit (Btu), 325, 486, 499 Brownfield sites, 247, 251 Btu. See British thermal unit Bubble drawings, 14, 104 Builder Option Packages (BOP), 236 Building Blocks technology, 105 Building codes, 152. See also specific codes braced wall lines and, 747–748

CADD and, 973 choosing, 156 fireplace requirements in, 917 HVAC requirements in, 498–499 location on property and, 157 model, 155–156 national, 155–156, 953–954 solar energy design and, 238 using, 971–972 Building contracts, 35 Building envelope determining, 169–170 general requirements for, 170–171 specific requirements for, 172 Building information modeling (BIM), 105, 130–131 Building life cycle, 148 Building model, 110 Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), 156, 953 Building orientation, 379 Building paper, 670 Building Performance products, 105 Building permits, 34–35 Building planning design criteria for, 156–163 egress/accessibility requirements, 157–160 heating requirements and, 162 light/ventilation requirements and, 161–162 location on property, 157 room dimensions, 160–161 safety equipment requirements and, 162–163 sanitation requirements and, 162 Building standards, in framing plans, 23, 27 Built-in masonry barbecues, 349 Built-up roofing, 540 Bungalow style, 226 BWL. See Braced wall line BWP. See Braced wall panels

C Cabinets, 612 annotations for, 625 in CADD, 386, 621 construction details for, 621 custom, 614 dimensions for, 625 drawing in CADD, 625–626 elevations of, 617–619, 624–625 field-built, 386 on floor plans, 619–620 kitchen, 197–198 laying out, 386, 617, 619, 622–623 modular, 613–614 options for, 614, 616 standard dimensions of, 615 symbols for, 332–336 types of, 613–614 for universal use, 616 CABO. See Council of American Building Officials

Index

CAD. See Computer-aided drafting CAD Layer Guidelines, 3 layer names in, 122–124 site plan drawings in, 298–300 walls in, 383 CAD technician. See Drafter CADD. See Computer-aided design and drafting CADD layers commercial project layer names, 1063–1064 drawing in, 120–121 for HVAC, 519 landscape plans in, 299–300 naming standards for, 122–124 plumbing in, 480 for site plan drawings, 298–300 using, 124–126 CADD/GIS Technology Center (CGTC), 108 Calculations CADD and, 1058–1059 drawings from, 1010–1011 requirements for, 1009 residential v. commercial projects and, 1009 California Redwood Association, 637 Canadian Home Builders’ Association (CHBA), 236–237 Cantilevered beams, 723 Cantilevered truss, 680 Cape Ann style, 218 Cape Cod style, 218 Carbon dioxide, 232, 235 Carbon footprint, 232 Carbon monoxide, 348, 493, 511 Carbon monoxide detectors, 163, 437, 651 Carbon neutral, 232 Carbon offsets, 232 Carpeting, indoor pollution and, 682 Carport, 202–203 Carriage bolts, 999 Cartesian coordinate system, 92 Cascade Consulting Associates, 712 Cascadia Region Green Building Council, 248 Casement windows, 322 Casework, 386 Casing, 319, 610, 611 Cast-in-place concrete construction, 984–985 Cast-iron pipe, 461 Caulking, exterior, 671 CBD. See Certified Bathroom Designer CCA wood preservative, 650 CC&R. See Covenants, conditions, and restrictions CCX plywood, 674 Ceiling joists, 676 sizing, 695, 698–700 vaulted ceilings and, 676–677

1115

Ceilings drop, 446 elevation changes in, 386 IECC rules for, 172 insulation of, 172 load distribution on, 692 reflected, 446 section layout and, 887, 889 suspended, 446 vaulted, 676–677 Cement roof tiles, 542, 574 Center-line dimensioning method, 363, 364 Central forced-air systems, 485–486 cooling cycle in, 486 heating cycle in, 486 Central vacuum systems, 495 Certified Bathroom Designer (CBD), 6–7 Certified Kitchen Designer (CKD), 6–7 Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer (CMKBD), 7 Certified wood products, 650 Cesspool, 472 CFMU. See Concrete form masonry units CGTC. See CADD/GIS Technology Center Chair rails, 609 Change orders, 34 Chase, 489 CHBA. See Canadian Home Builders’ Association Chemical sensitivity, 682 Chimneys, 554–555 decreasing heat lost through, 923 on elevations, 585 reinforcement of, 920–921 terms for, 918–920 Chronic fatigue syndrome, 682 Circuit, 431 Circuit breaker, 431 Civil engineers, 10 Civil engineer’s scale, 53–55 CKD. See Certified Kitchen Designer Clay bricks, 1004 Clay roof tiles, 542, 574 Cleaning agents, 46–47, 510 Cleanouts, 348, 462 Clear span structures, 248 Clerestory windows, 240 Client, 13 Climatic/geographic design criteria, 163–168 Closets, 189, 336 CMKBD. See Certified Master Kitchen & Bathroom Designer CMU. See Concrete masonry units Coast Guard, 3 Code inspections, 37 Collar ties, 676

Colonial style, 216–220 Dutch, 220–221 English, 220 French, 221–222 Color, 212 Columns, 727 Combined reinforcing methods, 742 Combustion air, 348–349, 351 Commercial buildings architectural drawings for, 1017–1038 CADD drawings for, 1058–1060 calculations for, 1009–1011 concrete block construction, 979–983 connection methods for, 995–1002 drawing organization for, 1011–1013 electrical plan for, 1050–1052 exterior details for, 1037 exterior elevations of, 1029–1030 fixture drawings for, 1052–1054 floor plan symbols for, 1018–1020 floor plans for, 1017–1020, 1032 foundation plan for, 1047–1049 framing plans for, 1039–1042 grading plans for, 1013, 1016 heavy timber construction, 976 interior details for, 1037–1038 interior elevations of, 1032, 1034 laminated beam construction, 976, 978–979 landscape plans for, 1014, 1017 layer names for, 1063–1064 mechanical plans for, 1054–1055 office practices for, 1009–1011 platform construction, 975–976 plumbing plans for, 1055–1058 poured concrete, 983–988 reflected ceiling plans for, 1034 roof plans for, 1023–1029 schedules for, 1020–1023 sections for, 1030–1032 site drawings for, 1013–1017 stairs in, 1036 steel construction, 988–995 structural details for, 1046–1047 structural drawings for, 1038–1049 structural elevations for, 1042, 1044, 1046 structural sections for, 1046 vertical circulation drawings for, 1034–1037 Common plumbing wall, 467 Common rafter, 675 Community, 34 Compass points, 499–500 Compasses, 47–48 Completion notices, 35–36

Complex beam, 690 Composition, 94 Composting toilets, 248–249 Compression, 712, 781 Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), 56 accuracy of, 311 aligning floors in, 394 appliances/utilities in, 387 archives and, 60 building codes and, 973 cabinets in, 386, 621 commercial drawings with, 1058–1060 composite floor plan in, 398 conceptual design/presentation sketches with, 80–83 construction lines in, 87 dimensions in, 374–376, 388, 602–603 door/window symbols in, 385, 389 drawing elevations with, 600–606 drawing finished-quality lines in, 600–602 drawing fireplaces with, 930 drawing floor plans with, 317–318, 399 drawing foundation plan with, 847–848 drawing framing plans with, 769 drawing lines in, 92–93 drawing millwork/cabinets with, 625–626 drawing roof plans with, 561–562 drawing sections with, 872–874 drawing site plans in, 296–300 drawing stairs with, 912–913 electrical symbols in, 448, 454–455 elevation symbols in, 586 elevations in, 586 fireplace symbols in, 384 floor plan symbols in, 354–357 floor plan walls in, 383 fonts in, 97, 98 generating schedules with, 331 HVAC and, 517–519 interface of, 80 justified text in, 99–100 layer names in, 122–124 layers in, 120–121 lettering in, 94, 97–100 line format in, 94 line weights in, 117–118, 316 materials symbols in, 340, 390 mathematical calculations and, 1058–1059 model/sheet layout in, 127, 128 notes in, 392 pictorials in, 518 plotting guidelines for, 125, 127–129 plumbing symbols in, 479–480 presentation drawings with, 948 productivity with, 107

1116

Computer-aided design and drafting (continued) scale factor in, 97, 99 schedules and, 116, 324, 330–331 software products for, 104–105 square footage calculations in, 392 stairs in, 345–346, 385 structural details in, 1059 surveyor’s units in, 288 symbol libraries for, 355–357 symbols in, 118, 119–120 templates for, 107–108 terrain models in, 298 text styles in, 97 virtual buildings in, 106 working area in, 381 working drawings in, 1059 Computer-aided drafting (CAD), 4 Concentrated load, 721 Concrete. See also Poured concrete construction compressive strength of, 781 post-tensioning reinforcement of, 809–810 solar architectural, 244 solid construction, 370 sustainable qualities of, 1003–1004 Concrete blocks, 642–643 classification of, 643 commercial building construction with, 979–983 on floor plan, 369–370 green, 1004 patterns/colors/shapes of, 643 sizes of, 979–980 steel reinforcement for, 982–983 wall covering, 579–580 Concrete form masonry units (CFMU), 643 Concrete masonry construction, 642–643 for foundation walls, 791, 792 Concrete masonry units (CMU), 642, 980 Concrete slab on floor plans, 352 foundation plan checklist for, 831 foundation plan layout for, 828–832 foundation plan layout for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844 section layout and, 862–863 Condensation resistance (CR), 326 Conditioned air, 485 Conduit, 431, 448 Connection methods bolts/washers, 998–1000 metal framing connectors, 998 nails, 995–997 power-driven studs, 997 screws, 997–998 staples, 997 welds, 1000–1002

Index

Conservation design, 232 Construction bids, 36–37 Construction documents, 149 Construction drawings, 149 Construction estimating, 36–37, 38–39 Construction inspections, 37 Construction joints, 804–805 Construction lines, 87 Construction Specifications Canada (CSC), 11, 141 Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), 3, 11, 108, 112, 141 Construction types, 954, 960 Contemporary style, 227, 229–230 Continuous foundations, 779–780, 782 Continuously sheathed braced wall lines, 748–750 Contour interval, 273 Contour lines drawing, 291–292 on topographic map, 272–273 Contract documents, 149 Contracts, 35 Control joints, 803–804 Control point survey, 291 Convenience outlets, 432, 433, 435–437 Conventional floor framing, 654–663 Cool roofs, 544 Cooling cycle, 486 Coordinate dimensions, 366 Coordinate display, 93 Coordinate entry, 93 Coordinating drawings/ specifications, 149 Copper pipes, 461 Copyright protection, 5 Corbels, 323 Cornice, 527, 532, 609–611, 672–673 Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST), 461 Cost-plus contracts, 35 Cotswold Cottage, 220 Council of American Building Officials (CABO), 156 Counters, arrangements of, 196–197 Covenants, 34 Covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&R), 34, 177 CPVC. See Postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride CR. See Condensation resistance Craftsman style, 226–227 Crawl space combined floor methods, 819, 822 on floor plans, 352 foundation plan for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844 joist floor framing, 814–818

post-and-beam floor systems, 818–819 walls of, 172 Cripples, 669. See also Jack studs Cross sections, 353–354, 853 Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 461 Crystal Aire, 682 CSC. See Construction Specifications Canada CSI. See Construction Specifications Institute CSST. See Corrugated stainless steel tubing Custom cabinets, 614 Cut and fill, 294 Cutting-plane lines, 353–354

D Damper, 918 Daylight basements, 215, 395, 397, 825 Daylighting, 250, 326–327 DBS. See Digital broadcast systems Dead loads, 685 Decking, 663, 991 Decks, 205, 206 Decorative pendant task lighting, 444–445 Deed restrictions, 34 Deflection, 694, 711, 718 Degree days, 499 Delta notes, 371 Den, 183, 185 Denny Foil, 682 Department of Energy (DOE), 171, 236, 243 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 33, 156 Department of Labor, 8 Description of Materials, 141–145 Design basics client, 13 criteria for building planning, 156–163 design process, 16–17, 19, 23, 27, 31 elements of design, 211–212 financial considerations, 12–13 principles of design, 212–214 Design categories, 955 accessibility requirements, 967–971 building area, 960 building height, 960 building location/size, 960–961, 964–965 construction types, 960 exits, 965–967 occupancy groups, 956–960 occupant load, 965–966 zoning and, 960–961 Design criteria for building planning, 156–163 climatic/geographic, 163–168 Design process final design considerations, 17 initial contact, 13–14

initial working drawings, 16–17 preliminary design studies, 14 room planning, 14, 16 site considerations, 209–210 working drawings, 17–31 Design studies, preliminary, 14 DesignCenter, 119, 454, 479–480 DesignCenter Online, 119 Designers, 6 Detail coordination, 1065 Detail files, 112 Detail markers, 1020 DetailPro, 105 Details, 855–856, 995, 1037– 1038, 1059 Diameter dimensions, 366 Diameter nominal (DN), 474–475 Diaphragm, 661, 732, 1039 Diazo machine, 45 Diazo reproduction, 62 Diffusers, 485 Digital broadcast systems (DBS), 435 Digital Canal, 105 Digital satellite systems (DSS), 435 Digital Takeoff, 105 Digital terrain model (DTM), 298 Dimension lines, 90, 91, 360 Dimension lumber, 709 Dimensions, 118 aligned, 360 angular, 366 arc/circular features, 366–367 with AutoCAD, 602–603 for cabinets, 625 in CADD, 374–376, 388 center-line method for, 363, 364 of common architectural features, 367–368 coordinate, 366 defined, 360 diameter, 366 exterior, 360–363 face-of-finish-material method for, 363, 364 face-of-stud method for, 363, 364 in floor plans, 360 foundation and, 365 for foundation components, 798–799 in framing plans, 733 interior, 364 locating materials with, 860 metric, 372–374 radius, 366 of roof plans, 557 for room components, 367–368 section layout and, 869, 878, 880–881, 885 on sections, 860 standard feature, 364–365 Dining room, 183, 185, 186, 435 Direct solar gain, 240 Disbursement inspections, 37 Distribution panel, 432

Index

Diverter, 556 Dividers, 48 Documents, 149 DOE. See Department of Energy DOE-2, 131 Doors accessibility requirements for, 968 accordion, 321 bifold, 319 bypass, 319 CADD symbols for, 385, 389 casing around, 319 dimensions of, 338, 368 double-acting, 320 double-entry, 319–320 Dutch, 320–321 egress requirements and, 157–158 on elevations, 581–582 French, 320 garage, 321 keying, 328 laying out, 384–385 laying out on elevations, 592 pocket, 319, 402 schedule for, 328 sill of, 318 symbol representations for, 318–321 width of, 319 Dormer floor plan, 215–216 Double-acting doors, 320 Double-entry doors, 319–320 Double-hung windows, 322 Double-wall construction, 665 Down-lighting non-uniform, 443–444 uniform, 443 Downspouts, 556 Draft, 350 Drafter beginning, 3–4 educational requirements for, 4–5, 8 employment opportunities for, 6–8 experienced, 4 personal requirements for, 5 Drafting basic pencil motions for, 45, 46 defining, 87 erasing in, 45–47 furniture for, 44 pencils/leads for, 44–45 supplies for, 44 Drafting conventions, 116 Drafting film. See Polyester drafting film Drafting instruments architectural templates, 49 compasses, 47–48 dividers, 48 irregular curves, 50 parallel bar, 48–49 triangles, 49

1117

Drafting machines arm, 50 track, 50–51 Drafting media selection of, 58 sheet sizes for, 60 Drag struts, 1039 Drain fields, 472 Drainage systems, 469–470, 556 Drains, 462 Drawing. See also specific drawings finished-quality lines, 593–594 irregular shapes, 597 layout of, 1062–1063 managing multiple scales, 1065 roof intersections, 596–597 Drawing area, 379, 382 Drawing area coordinate system, 114. See also Zoning Drawing borders, 61 Drawing content, 119 Drawing information managers, 119 Drawing limits, 93 Drawing organization drawing placement, 1013 origination, 1011–1012 page designators, 1012–1013 Drawing reproduction Diazo, 62 manual, 59 photocopy, 62, 938 Drawing sheets drawing area on, 379, 382 sizes of, 60, 379 Drawing title, 390 Drawing Web format (DWF), 129 Dried-in, 432 Drift bolts, 1000 Driveways, layout of, 286 Drop ceilings, 446 Drought-tolerant plants, 265 Drywall, 313, 315 Drywells, 556 DSS. See Digital satellite systems DTM. See Digital terrain model Duct loss, 500 Duct plenums, 489 Duct space, 489–490 Duct systems, 485, 498 Ducts, 485 Duplex convenience outlets, 432, 433, 435–437 Durapress, 577 Dust control, 509 Dusting brushes, 47 Dutch colonial style, 220–221 Dutch doors, 320–321 Dutch hip roofs, 537–538, 552, 560–561, 757–760 DWF. See Drawing Web format DWF Viewer, 129 Dynamic loads seismic, 688–690 wind, 686–688

E Earnest money, 33 Earthen floors, 249–250 Earth-friendly construction, 12 Earthquakes, 688 Easements, 286 Eastern framing. See Balloon framing Eave vents, 585 Eaves, 527, 532, 672 Ecological construction, 12 Ecosystem, 301 Edge nailing, 997 Educational requirements, 4–5, 8 Egress requirements doors for, 157–158 emergency openings, 158 halls, 158–159 handrails/guardrails and, 160 means of, 157 stairs, 159–160 EIFS. See Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 8" nominal wall, 315 Electric erasers, 46 Electrical box, 431 Electrical circuit design, 432–433 Electrical conduit, 448 Electrical design considerations in, 435–437 energy efficiency and, 434 layout techniques, 440 maximum spacing requirements, 440, 441 recommendations for, 433 special notes for, 440 typical installations, 439 typical layouts, 440, 441 universal design and, 437, 439 Electrical drawings, 17, 22–23 Electrical engineers, 9 Electrical plan, 387 for commercial projects, 1050–1052 drawing, 448–453 drawing checklist for, 449 drawing in CADD, 431 drawing upper floor, 449 placement of, 431 Electrical schedules, 446–447 Electrical service entrance, 447–448 Electrical symbols, 438–440, 443, 448, 454–455 Electrical terms/definitions, 431–432 Electrical wiring specifications, 447–448 Electrical work, 432 Elevation change symbols, 1020 Elevations, 19 alternative, 603–604 annotations on, 595–596 bathroom, 618 of cabinets, 617–619, 624–625 in CADD, 586, 600–606 CADD symbols for, 586 chimneys on, 585

for commercial projects, 1029–1030, 1032, 1034 considerations of drawing, 567–572 doors on, 581–582 drawing method for, 571 eave vents on, 585 fireplace, 928 front, 15 green applications of, 587 identifying, 572 kitchen, 617–618 laying out, 589 for loan application, 33 as multiviews, 76–77 openings layout of, 592–593 overall-shape layout of, 589–591 placement of, 572 plants in, 941 presentation, 567–568, 570, 935–936, 941–943 rails on, 583–584 rendered, 935–936 representing materials in, 572–585 required, 567 roof layout of, 591–592 roofing materials on, 573–575 scales of, 571–572, 586 shutters on, 584–585 skylights on, 574–575 structural, 1042, 1044, 1046 types of, 567–571 windows on, 582–583 working, 23, 568–569, 571 Elevator drawings, 1036–1037 Elizabethan style, 220 Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, 458 Emergency openings, 158 Employment opportunities, 6–8 End nailing, 996 End-result specifications, 146 Energy conservation, 434, 465, 650–651 Energy efficiency construction practices and, 237 electrical design and, 434 Energy Star program and, 236 healthy buildings and, 247 solar energy design and, 237 verification of, 236 water consumption and, 481 Energy Information Administration, 130 Energy recovery ventilator (ERV), 250, 493 Energy Star, 236 Energy-efficient design, 232–233 Energy-efficient framing methods, 638–649 concrete masonry units, 642–643 engineered lumber framing, 640–641 insulated concrete forms, 646–648

1118

Energy-efficient framing methods (continued) platform framing, 638–639 solid masonry construction, 643–646 steel framing, 641–642 structural insulated panels, 641 Energy-efficient platform framing, 638–639 Engineered beams, 720 Engineered lumber, working with, 699, 703 Engineered lumber framing, 640–641 Engineered stamp markings, 661–663 Engineered Wood Association (APA), The, 637, 661, 663 Engineered wood products, 1003 Engineers, 9–10 Engineer’s calculations, 1009–1011 English bond, 644 English Cottage, 220 English Tudor, 220 Entertainment centers, automation and, 434 Entries foyer, 179 lighting in, 435 main, 178 service entry, 179 EnviroHome Initiative, 236–237 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 236, 247, 682, 776 Environmentally friendly materials, 649–650, 682 EPA. See Environmental Protection Agency EPS. See Expanded polystyrene Erasers, 45 cleaning agents, 46–47 dusting brushes for, 47 tips for, 46 types of, 46 Erasing shields, 46 ERV. See Energy recovery ventilator Escalator drawings, 1037 Ethics, 5 Evapotranspiration, 301 Excavation, 395 Exercise center, 202 Exhaust fans, 433 Exhaust systems, 495 Exits determining, 966 locations of, 966–967 paths to, 965 Expanded polystyrene (EPS), 641, 646, 784 Expansion bolts, 1000 Extension lines, 90, 91, 360 Exterior caulking, 671 Exterior design factors elements of design for, 211–212 principles of design for, 212–214 site considerations, 209–210

Index

Exterior dimensions, 360–363 laying out, 387–388 Exterior envelope, 169. See also Building envelope HVAC requirements and, 498 Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS), 643 Exterior styles American Foursquare, 225 Bungalow, 226 colonial, 216–220 contemporary, 227, 229–230 Craftsman, 226–227 Dutch, 220–221 English, 220 Farmhouse, 225 French colonial, 221–222 green, 228–229 Italianate/Italian Villas, 222–223 Prairie, 225–226 ranch, 227 Victorian, 223–224 Exterior walls drawing, 314–316 laying out, 381, 383 moisture/air barriers for, 670–671 protection for, 670–671 water barriers for, 670 Extreme fiber stresses, 709 Extrusion, 608

F Face nailing, 996 Face-of-finish material dimensioning method, 363, 364 Face-of-stud dimensioning method, 363, 364 Facility model, 109 Family room, 180, 182–184 Farm Home Administration (FmHA), 141 Farmhouse style, 225 Fascia, 527, 532–533, 672–673 Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), 141 Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 13, 33–34, 141, 156 bedroom requirements of, 188 closet recommendations of, 189 septic system requirements of, 473 Federal style, 218–219 Felt, 665, 671 Fenestration, 169, 171, 325, 530 FHA. See Federal Housing Administration FHA Description of Materials, 141–145 FHLMC. See Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation Fiber cement siding, 577, 579 FIC. See NIBS Facility Information Council Field, 371 Field nailing, 997

File management, 113, 114 Fill lighting, 445 Final inspection, 36 Financial considerations, 12–13 Finish electrical, 432 Finish schedules, 328, 330 Finished flooring, 663 Finished roofing, 674 Finished-quality lines drawing with AutoCAD, 600–602 fireplace and, 925–926 manually drawing, 593–594 section layout and, 864–867, 877–880, 883–884 Fire blocks, 631 Fire brick, 346 Fire cuts, 645 Fire department access, rural residential, 287–288 Fire sprinkler systems automatic, 162, 472–473 residential, 473 Firebox, 915 Fireplace opening, 915 Fireplaces air supply to, 922 alternatives for, 914–915 CADD symbols for, 384 cleanouts for, 348 code requirements for, 917 combustion air for, 348–349 components of, 918 direct-vent, 347–348, 914 drawing, 383, 384 drawing section for, 921, 923–926 drawing with CADD, 930 electric, 349 elevations for, 928–929 energy-efficient, 922–923 on floor plans, 346–350 footings for, 784 fuels for, 922 gas-burning, 348 multilevel, 349–350 section checklist for, 926–928 size of, 916 steel, 346–347 terms for, 915–916, 918 top-vent, 914 vent-free, 348, 914 wood storage for, 348 zero-clearance, 347 Fit house, 400 Fixed windows, 323 Fixed-sum contracts, 35 Fixtures for commercial projects, 1052–1054 common sizes of, 337 dimensions for, 368 symbols for, 332–337 Flashing, 543, 642 Flat artwork, lighting of, 445 Flat roofs, 533–534 Flathead screws, 997 Flemish bond, 644

Flex space, 250 Flood hazard, 165 Floor bracing, 660–661 Floor construction conventional framing, 654–663 post-and-beam construction, 663 Floor diaphragms, 661, 732, 1039 Floor drains, 353, 461 Floor framing plans, 759–766, 769 Floor joists components for, 817–818 crawl space systems and, 814–818 engineered, 699, 704 floor sheathing and, 815 foundation plan checklist for, 835 foundation plan layout for, 831, 833–835 girder support for, 815–816 green, 826 I-joists, 657–658 open-web trusses, 658–660 section layout for, 876–879 sizes of, 657 sizing, 695–697, 699, 704 steel joists, 660 Floor live loads, 685 Floor plan, 21, 380, 450 additional symbols on, 351–354 architectural feature sizes for, 337–339 architectural information on, 729 attics on, 352 basement layout, 394–398 bathroom, 333–334 cabinets in, 619–620 CADD symbols for, 354–357 closets on, 336 commercial, 1017–1020, 1032 composite, 398 concrete slab representation on, 352 concrete-block construction on, 369–370 crawl spaces on, 352 cross-section symbols on, 353–354 design considerations for, 177 dimensioning of, 118, 360 drawing checklist for, 398–399 drawing with CADD, 317–318 enlarged, 1032 extension lines in, 360 fireplaces on, 346–350 floor drains on, 353 halls on, 345–346 heat loss/gain calculations and, 501–503 kitchen, 332–333 laundry chutes on, 336 laying out, 379, 381–392 for loan application, 33 masonry veneer on, 369 materials in, 339–341 notes/specifications on, 370–371

Index

plumbing information in, 475, 476 presentation, 936, 943, 945 room labels in, 390 room titles on, 351 scale on, 381 second-floor layout, 392–394 solid concrete construction on, 370 stairs on, 343–345 structural information on, 728 structural masonry on, 369–370 styles of, 214–216 symbols for commercial, 1018–1020 symbols in, 311 using standard construction modules in, 372 utility room, 334–336 wall symbols in, 311, 313–314 wardrobes on, 336 window wells on, 353 Floor sheathing stamp markings on, 661–663 types of, 661 Flooring, 663, 682 Floors earthen, 249–250 insulation of, 172 Flue, 349–350, 919, 921 Fly-through, 106–107 FmHA. See Farm Home Administration Folk Victorian style, 224 Font, 94, 97, 98, 118 Footings, 774, 781, 784, 795 Footprint, 400 Forest certification, 650 Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), 650, 1003 Form, 211–212 Formal balance, 213 Formaldehyde, 493, 682 Foundation, 365 anchor bolts in, 785 continuous/spread, 779–780, 782 dimensioning components of, 798–799 fireplace footings, 784 grade beams, 783–784 green, 800 metal connectors in, 797, 798 on-grade, 803–814 pilings, 777–779, 781 section layout and, 865 termite protection in, 785–786 windows in, 792 wood floor support, 786, 788 Foundation plan, 27, 30, 768 above-ground slab on, 806–807 for commercial projects, 1047–1049 components of, 787 drawing with CADD, 847–848 full basement on, 824 laying out for combination slab/crawl space, 840–844

1119

laying out for concrete slab, 828–832 laying out for full basement, 844–847 laying out for joist construction, 831, 833–835 laying out for post-and-beam construction, 835, 837–840 partial basement on, 823 post-and-beam floors on, 821 retaining walls in, 796 Foundation wall code requirements for, 784 insulation of, 788–789 interior supports for, 794–795 reinforcement of, 789 stem wall construction, 784–786 types of, 784 Four-center method, 74–75 Foyer, 179 Foyer lighting, 435 Framed wall construction, 664 frame construction, 665–666 let-in bracing /blocking, 668 modular framing, 669–670 openings in, 668–669 structural wall sheathing, 667–668 wall sheathing, 666–667 Framing lumber determining characteristics of, 694 size/span determination for, 694 types of, 694 Framing members, 727, 731 Framing methods energy-efficient, 638–649 green, 637 lightweight steel, 988–991 metal connectors for, 998 modular, 648–649 space frames, 991 steel, 993–995 wood, 631–638 Framing plans, 26. See also Roof framing plans braced wall lines on, 749–751 building standards in, 23, 27 checklist for, 764, 768 for commercial projects, 1039–1042 completing, 751–753 dimensions on, 733 drawing with CADD, 769 framing members on, 727, 731 laminated beams in, 978–979 major components on, 727, 731–734 notes for, 23, 24, 27, 734 roof structure, 25 section references, 734 section views, 23, 28, 29 seismic/wind resistance on, 731–733 steel on, 994 structural information on, 730 Freeze depth, 775, 776

French colonial style, 221–222 French curves, 50. See also Irregular curves French doors, 320 French Mansard style, 222 French Normandy style, 221 French plantation style, 222 French Provincial style, 221 Fresnel lenses, 326–327 Front elevation, 15 Frost line depth, 165 Frost penetration, 775 Frost-protected footings, 172, 173 FSC. See Forest Stewardship Council Full basement, 394 Full sections, 853–855 Functional elements, 148 Furnace, 486, 499. See also Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Furniture common sizes of, 182 in living areas, 181 room planning and, 14, 16 Furring, 314, 370

G Gable end wall truss, 679 Gable end wall vents, 585 Gable roofs, 534–535, 547–552, 558, 598, 753–755 Galvanized pipe, 461 Gambrel roofs, 535–537 Gambrels, 220 Garage, 202–203 doors of, 321, 365 electric outlets in, 433 lighting/outlets in, 436 portal frame adjacent to, 741 retaining walls and, 795 sealing from home, 511 solar energy design and placement of, 238 Garbage disposal, 332 Garden windows, 324 Garrison style, 217–218 General contractors, 36 General lighting, 443 General notes, 371, 390 Generative Design, 105 Geographic/climatic design criteria, 163–168 Georgian style, 216–217 Georgia-Pacific, 637 Geothermal systems, 244–245 GFCI. See Ground fault circuit interrupter GFI. See Ground fault circuit interrupter Gingerbread, 224 Girder truss, 679 Girders engineered, 656 floor joist support with, 815–816 laminated, 654–655 steel, 656, 994 supports for, 656–657

Glass, insulating, 325 Glass box viewing method, 77–79 Glass sliding doors, 320 Glu-lams, 976, 1039 Google, 105 Google Earth, 82 Google SketchUp, 80–83, 105 Gothic Victorian style, 223 Grade beams, 783–784 Grades, projecting, 600 Grading plan, 18, 23, 272 for commercial projects, 1013, 1016 drawing, 294–295 features of, 275, 277–278 Grains, 500 Grand Lighting Web site, 443 Grand room, 186 Graphic models, 518 Graphic scales, 116 Graphic Symbols for Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (ANSI), 517 Graphisoft, 105 Gravity, 685 Gray water reclamation, 248–249, 481 Graze lighting, 445 Great land surveys, 268–270 Great room, 186 Greek Revival style, 219 Green board, 672 Green building guidelines, 152–155, 173, 233 Green construction goals construction impact reduction, 650 environmentally friendly materials, 649–650 key questions for, 649 material savings, 650 reducing impact after construction, 650–651 Green design, 12. See also Sustainable design exterior styles and, 228–229 indoor water use and, 481–482 material considerations for, 1003–1004 planning and, 207 urban homes and, 248–250 Green floor systems, 826 Green foundations, 800 Green framing, 637 Green Globes, 1004 Green Home Guide Web site, 234 Green homes, 234 Green power systems, 242 Green roofs, 241, 248, 544, 637 GreenFormat, 148 Greenhouse gases, 232 Grid markers, 1020 Grid survey, 291 Ground, 432 Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFI/GFCI), 433, 449 Ground snow load, 163

1120

Group R occupancy categories, 959–960 Grout, 643 Guardrails, 160, 385, 902 for decks/patios/balconies, 206 drawing, 317 on elevations, 583–584 Guidelines, 87 Gutters, 556 Gypsum, 314 Gypsum board, 645, 672

H Habitable space, 157 Half-timbered exterior, 220 Halftone, 62 Halls egress requirements and, 158–159 on floor plans, 345–346 lighting/outlets in, 436 traffic patterns in, 203 Hand-compass method, 68 Handrails, 160, 343, 385, 583–584, 902 Hard metric conversion, 341, 372 Hardboard, 577, 579 Hardie, James, 577 Hardiplank, 577 HDF. See High-density fiberboard Header truss, 683 Headers, 668–669, 677, 727, 731 Headroom, 902 Health center, 202 Healthy buildings construction of, 246–247, 251 designing, 246–247 Healthy soil, 302 Hearth, 916 Heat loss, estimating, 499 Heat pumps, 245, 490–491 Heat recovery and ventilation (HRV), 493–494 Heat transfer multiplier, 500 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), 9, 485 air filtration in, 509 CADD and, 517–519 CADD layers for, 519 CADD symbols for, 517 central forced-air, 485–486 chases for, 381 code requirements for, 162, 498–499 for commercial projects, 1054, 1056 detail drawings, 514 double-line plans, 513–514 drawing checklist for, 516–517 drawings for, 511–516 energy efficiency and, 236 energy use modeling and, 132 heat pumps, 490–491 hot water systems, 490 IECC and, 169 mold prevention in, 510 pictorial drawings, 515–516, 518

Index

plans for, 485, 487–489, 512–514 radiant heat, 492 RCP and, 446 reducing load on, 650–651 schedules for, 515, 516 section drawings, 514–515 single-line plans, 512, 513–514 specifications for, 511 symbols for, 495–497 terminology for, 499–500 thermal calculations for, 499 universal design for, 497–498 UV light systems in, 509 water use modeling and, 130 zoned heating systems, 491–492 Heating cycle, 486 Heating plan, for loan application, 33 Heavy timber construction, 976 Heels, 679 Herman Miller, 356 HERS. See Home Energy Ratings Systems High-density fiberboard (HDF), 682 High-performance windows, 650 Hinge point, 795 Hip beams, 712, 713 Hip rafters, 675 Hip roofs, 535, 537–538, 552, 559, 755–757 Hip truss, 683 Hold-down anchors, 740, 797 Home automation, 434–435 Home Depot, 614 Home Energy Ratings Systems (HERS), 236 Home networking, 435 Home office, 183, 185 Home theaters, 185, 187 Hopper windows, 322–323 Horizontal shear, 712, 717 Hose bibb, 352, 462, 469 Hot water circulation systems, 465 Hot water heating systems, 490 House wraps, 670–671 Housing development, 34 Housing subdivision, 34 HRV. See Heat recovery and ventilation HUD. See Department of Housing and Urban Development Hue, 212 Hurricanes, 686 HVAC. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Hydroelectric power, 246 Hydrozoning, 302

I IBC. See International Building Code ICBO. See International Conference of Building Officials ICC. See International Code Council

ICC-ES. See International Code Council-Evaluation Services Ice barrier underlayment, 165 ICF. See Insulated concrete form IECC. See International Energy Conservation Code IESNA. See Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IGCC. See International Green Construction Code IIDA. See International Interior Design Association Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), 10 Illustrators, 11 Inclined planes, projection of features from, 79–80 Included angle, 288 Individual appraisal, 33 Indoor air pollution, 493, 682 Indoor air quality, 509–511 Indoor environmental quality, 235 Indoor temperature, 500 Industrial piping, 461 Infiltration, 500 Informal balance, 213 Initial working drawings, 16–17 Insects, 302 Inspections code, 37 disbursement, 37 final, 36 lender, 37 Inspectors, 11 Insulated concrete form (ICF), 172, 646–648, 650, 1004 Insulated windows, 325 Insulating glass, 325 Insulation of basement walls, 172 batt, 641 of ceilings, 172 of floors, 172 foil-based, 682 of foundation wall, 788–789 frost-protected footings, 172, 173 green homes and, 248 International Energy Conservation Code and, 171 of mass walls, 172 minimum requirements for, 170, 172 of on-grade slabs, 811–812 of plumbing, 465 structural insulated panels, 641, 650 of windows, 325 Intensity, of colors, 212 Interface, 80 Interior architecture, 9 Interior decorators, 6 Interior designers, 7–8 Interior dimensions, 364, 387–388 Interior finish, 672

Interior moisture protection, 671 Interior walls drawing, 314–315 laying out, 381, 383 International Building Code (IBC), 156, 953 accessibility and, 157, 967–971 allowable floor area in, 961–962, 964–965 building materials in, 955 building systems in, 955 exits and, 965–967 organization of, 954 prescriptive path method and, 735 residential categories in, 959–960 safety requirements in, 954–955 using, 971–972 International Code Council (ICC), 11, 12, 152, 155, 173, 236, 953 International Code CouncilEvaluation Services (ICC-ES), 1004 International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), 156 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), 156 building envelope requirements and, 170 determining building envelope and, 169–170 fenestration and, 169, 171 glazing area in, 396 insulation and, 171 International Green Construction Code (IGCC), 152 International Interior Design Association (IIDA), 7 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 60, 474 International Plumbing Code (IPC), 162, 471 International Residential Code (IRC), 12, 155–156, 236, 959 accessibility and, 157 automatic fire sprinklers in, 471 bedroom requirements of, 189 braced wall lines in, 748 chimney height in, 924 decks in, 205 floor joist sizing and, 695 foundation wall in, 784 guardrails in, 317 heating requirement in, 485 maximum stud height in, 633 prescriptive path method and, 735 span tables by, 694 steel joists and, 660 International System of Units (SI), 51, 372 IPC. See International Plumbing Code IRC. See International Residential Code

Index

Irregular curves, 50 Irregular shapes drawing, 597 sketching, 71 Irrigation, 266, 302 ISO. See International Organization for Standardization Isolation joints, 805 Isometric circles/arcs, 74–75 Isometric lines, 74 Isometric sketches, 73–75 Italian villa style, 223 Italianate style, 222–223

J Jack rafters, 675 Jack studs, 668–669 Jalousie windows, 323 Jefferson, Thomas, 155 Jeld-Wen, 356 Job supervision, 31 Joist space, 489 Joists floor framing with, 814–818 on framing plan, 731 open-web steel, 991 sizing, 695–699 steel, 953, 991 Junction box, 432 Justified text, 94, 99–100

K Key lighting, 445 Kickblock, 902 Kicker, 902 King studs, 668–669 Kitchen accessibility requirements for, 616, 968–969 appliance arrangement, 198–199 cabinets in, 619, 622–623 cleaning center, 194–195 counter arrangements in, 196–197 counter/cabinet sizes, 197–198 electric layout for, 442 electric outlets in, 433 floor plans of, 332–333 lighting/outlets in, 436 placement of, 191–192 preparation areas, 192, 194 size of, 192 storage areas, 192, 193, 616 traffic flow in, 196 work areas of, 192, 193–195 work triangle, 195–196 Kitchen and bath designers, 6–7 Kohler, 356 K-Shield, 682

L Lag screws, 997 Laminated beams, 976, 978–979 Laminated strand lumber (LSL), 640 Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), 640

1121

Landscape architecture, 9 Landscaping, 206 CADD plans for, 299–300 commercial project planning and, 1014, 1017 environmentally sound practices for, 265–266 sound control with, 264 wind control with, 262–263 Lateral bracing, 667 Lateral load resistance braced wall panels for, 736, 738–739 combined reinforcement for, 742 portal frame adjacent to garage opening, 741 portal frame with hold-downs, 740 prescriptive path method for, 735 Simpson Strong-Wall for, 741–742 Lateral loads, 685, 732, 733 Lath, 670 Latitude, 239, 269 Laundry chutes, 336 Laundry rooms, 336 accessibility in, 616 electric outlets in, 433 lighting/outlets in, 436 Lawns, environmentally sound practices and, 265 Layers, 104 drawing on, 120–121 naming standards for, 122–124 using in CADD, 124–126 Layout space, 127, 128 Leach lines, 472 Lead paint test kits, 651 Leader lines, 90–91 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System (LEED), 12, 132, 152–154, 228, 587, 631, 637 fireplaces in, 922 floor framing and, 826 foundations and, 800 goals of, 233 wood product standards of, 1003 Leads grades of, 45 line quality and, 593 polyester, 45 for presentation drawings, 938 special, 45 Ledgers, 819, 980–981 LEED. See Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Green Building Rating System LEED for homes, 233–235, 248 Legibility, 96 Lender inspections, 37 Lettering in CADD, 94, 97–100 height of, 96

legibility of, 96 rules for, 96–97 on sections, 870–871 single-stroke, 95–96 slanted, 96 styles of, 95 terminology of, 94 Liability insurance, 35 Library files, 112 Light scallop, 445–446 Light switches, placement of, 437 Lighting accent, 445 ambient, 443 electrical design considerations for, 435–436 fill, 445 of flat artwork, 445 general, 443 graze, 445 key, 445 low-voltage, 443 non-uniform down-lighting, 443–444 placement of, 433 recessed, 443, 444, 446 task, 444–445 uniform down-lighting, 443 universal design and, 437, 439 wall, 445 Lighting outlet, 432 Lighting requirements, 161–162 Line contrast, 858 Linear weight, 716 Lines. See also Finished-quality lines break, 91, 92 in CADD, 92–94 construction, 87 dashed, 90 as design elements, 211 dimension, 90, 91 extension, 90, 91 finished-quality, 600–602, 864–867, 883–884, 925–926 guidelines, 87 leader, 90–91 object, 87, 89 in presentation drawings, 940 styles and weights of, 88 techniques for, 91 thickness of, 89, 117 types of, 87–91, 118 weights of, 117–118 Linkages, 234 Lintel, 916 LISP. See List-processing language List-processing language (LISP), 3 Live loads floor, 685 moving, 685 roof, 686 snow, 686 Living area, 177 arrangement of, 177, 184 den/study/office, 183, 185 dining room, 183, 185, 186

entries, 178–179 family room, 180, 182–184 furniture in, 181 great/grand room, 186 home theater, 185, 187 lighting/outlets in, 435 living room, 180, 182 nook, 183 sizing floor joists for, 695 solar energy design for, 237–238 sunroom, 186 Living Building Challenge, 248 Living room, 180, 182, 384 Living Smart program, 400–402 Load design, 688, 690 Load distribution, 690 ceiling, 692 lower floor, 692 roof, 691–692 upper floor, 691 walls, 692 Load path, 688 Load-bearing walls, 721, 752. See also Bearing walls Loads. See also Lateral load resistance concentrated, 721 lateral, 685, 732, 733 occupant, 965–966 seismic, 688–690 snow, 163, 686, 702–703 span tables and, 694 types of, 685–690 Loan applications, 33–34 Local notes, 370 Longitude, 269 Longitudinal section, 854–855 Lot and block system, 271 Lot plan. See Site plan Lots, 34 Louisiana-Pacific, 637 Low-emissive glass, 325 Lowe’s Home Improvement Center, 614 Low-impact construction, 650 Low-voltage lighting systems, 443 LSL. See Laminated strand lumber Lump-sum contracts. See Fixedsum contracts LVL. See Laminated veneer lumber

M Machine bolts, 999 Magnetic declination, 259–261 Magnetic north, 259 Main entry, 178 Maintenance reduction, 651 Mansard roof, 222, 224, 538–539 Mantels, 610–611 Manual drawing reproduction, 59 Manual of Acts and Relevant Regulations, 333, 334 Manual of Steel Construction (American Institute of Steel Construction), 993

1122

Masonry, 314. See also Solid masonry construction concrete, 642–643 structural, 369–370 wall covering, 578–581 Masonry veneer, 314, 369, 646 Masonry wall construction, 644–646 Mass walls, IECC rules for, 172 Master appraisal, 34 Master suites, 188–189 MasterFormat, 1009 LEED and, 153 numbering system of, 11, 112 specifications system of, 141, 146–148, 149 Material indications, 316, 390 Material symbols, 390 Matte, 59 Maximum bending stress, 711 MDF. See Medium-density fiberboard MeadowBoard, 682 Mean annual temperature, 165 Measurement lines/proportions, in sketching, 68–71 Mechanical drawings, 1054–1055 Mechanical engineers, 9–10 Mechanical pencils, 44 Mechanical solar systems. See Active solar systems Mechanical system, 485 Mechanical ventilation, 500 Mechanically evaluated lumber (MEL), 708 Medite, 682 Medium-density fiberboard (MDF), 682 MEL. See Mechanically evaluated lumber Meridians, 269 Metal flashing, 543 Metal framing connectors, 998 Metal roofing panels, 542–543 Metal ties, 646 Metal wall covering, 581 Meter (electrical), 432 Meter base (electrical), 432, 447–448 Metes, 268 Metes and bounds system, 268 Method specifications, 141 Metric conversion, 341, 372, 475 Metric dimensions on drawing, 372 in plumbing, 474–475 rules for writing, 372 using, 373–374 Metric scale, 51–53, 372–373 Microfilm, 62 Microsoft Excel, 331 Microsoft Word, 129 MicroStation, 105, 109, 129 Milling, 608 bookshelves, 612 railings, 612

Index

Millwork baseboards, 608 casings, 610, 611 chair rails, 609 construction details for, 621 cornices, 609–611 drawing in CADD, 625–626 mantels, 610–611 types of, 608–612 wainscots, 609 Minimally processed products, 650 Model codes, 155–156 Model files, 110–112 Model Green Home Building Guidelines, 235–236 Model makers, 10 Model space, 127, 128 Modular cabinets, 613–614 Modular framing methods, 648–649 Modular wall framing, 669–670 Modulus of elasticity, 711 Moisture barriers, 670–671, 810–811 Mold prevention, 510 Moment, 717 Mono truss, 683 Monolithic construction, 803 Monuments, 268 Moving loads, 685 MR16 lamps, 443 Mudroom, 179, 199. See also Service entry; Utility room Mudsill, 654, 663, 785 Mullions, 320 Multilevel floor plans, 216 Multiview alignment, 72 Multiview projection, 71, 75 elevations in, 76–77 glass box viewing method and, 77–79 inclined planes in, 79–80 view selection in, 79 Multiview sketches, 71–72 Muntins, 320 Murco, 682 Mylar, 45, 59. See also Polyester drafting film

N NAHB. See National Association of Home Builders Nail-and-string method, 68 Nails patterns for, 997 placement of, 996–997 sizes of, 996 specifications for, 996 types of, 995–996 National Association of Home Builders (NAHB), 12, 152. See also Model Green Home Building Guidelines National Association of HomeBuilders Research Center (NAHBRC), 236

National Brownfield Association (NBA), 247 National Building Code (NBC), 156, 953 National building codes, 155–156 National CAD Standard. See U.S. National CAD Standard National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ), 7 National District Heating Association, 499 National Energy Conservation Code, 498 National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC), 325 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 162, 474 National Forest Products Association, 712 National Green Building Standards (NGBS), 12, 152, 154–155, 173, 228, 236, 1004 National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), 3, 108 National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA), 6–7, 192 counter recommendations of, 197 sink recommendations of, 195 storage area recommendations of, 192 National Standard Taper Pipe Threads (NPT), 475 Natural light, 161 Natural Resources Defense Council, 641 Naturescaping, 301–302 NBA. See National Brownfield Association NBC. See National Building Code NCIDQ. See National Council for Interior Design Qualification NCS. See U.S. National CAD Standard Nestled joists, 991 Net size, 708 Net-zero energy, 248 Neutral axis, 709 Newels, 612 NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association NFRC. See National Fenestration Rating Council NFRC labels, 325 NGBS. See National Green Building Standards NGBS-ICC 700, 152, 154–155 NIBS. See National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS Facility Information Council (FIC), 108 NKBA. See National Kitchen & Bath Association Nominal size, 708 Nonbearing walls, 664–665 Nonhabitable space, 157

Nonisometric lines, 74 Non-uniform downlighting, 443 Nook, 183 North arrow, 1018, 1020 Note block, 116 Notes in CADD, 392 delta, 371 for electrical fixtures, 440 in framing plans, 23, 24, 27, 734 general, 370, 390 lettering, 870–871 local, 370 section layout and, 878, 881, 885 on sections, 870–871 specific, 370

O Object lines, 87, 89 Object-oriented CADD, 331 Occupancy groups, 956–960 Occupant load, 965–966 Office, 183, 185 Office lighting/outlets, 436 Office of Education, 8 Office practice drawing placement, 1013 residential v. commercial projects and, 1009 On-grade foundations components of, 812–814 floor elevation changes and, 812–813 moisture protection, 810–811 plumbing/heating requirements, 812–813 post-tensioned concrete reinforcement, 809–810 slab for, 803 slab insulation, 811–812 slab joints, 803–805 slab placement, 805–806 slab preparation, 806 slab reinforcement, 806–809 Open railings, 612 Open-web steel joists, 991 Open-web trusses, 658–660 Optimum Value Engineering (OVE), 638 Oriel window, 323 Oriented strand board (OSB), 641, 661, 667, 682 Origin, 93 Orthographic projection, 71, 75, 76. See also Multiview projection OSB. See Oriented strand board Outdoor area design, 203–206 Outdoor outlets, 436 Outdoor temperature, 500 Outlet box, 431 Outsourcing, 129 OVE. See Optimum Value Engineering Overall-shape layout, 589–591

Index

Overhangs, 527, 674 roof pitch and, 528–529 size of, 530–532 sun angle and, 530–532 Ozone, 650

P Palladian windows, 219 Pantries, 333, 616 PAR. See Parabolic Aluminized Reflector Parabolic Aluminized Reflector (PAR), 443 Parallel bar, 48–49 Parallel circuit, 435 Parallel strand lumber (PSL), 640 Parallels, 269 Parametric symbols, 386, 454 Partial basement, 394, 396 Partial sections, 855 Partial walls, 316–317 Partial-height retaining walls, 793 Partitions, 314. See also Interior walls; Nonbearing walls Passive solar gain, 500 Passive solar systems, 237, 248 green roofs, 241 roof ponds, 241 solariums, 241–242 south-facing glass, 239–240 thermal storage walls, 240–241 Patios, 205, 206, 435 PB. See Polybutylene Pencil motions, basic, 45, 46 Pencils/leads automatic pencils, 45 basic motions for, 45 establishing measurements with, 69 lead grades, 45 mechanical pencils, 44 polyester/special leads, 45 for sketching, 66 Pendant light, 444–445 Penny, 996 Percolation test, 473 Performance bond, 35 Permeable surfaces, 265, 482 Permit procedures, 31 Perspective layout method, 935 Pesticides, 302, 651 PEX. See Cross-linked polyethylene PFG. See Portal frame adjacent to garage opening PFH. See Portal frame with hold-downs Photocopy reproduction, 62, 938 Photorealistic rendering, 106 Photovoltaic modules, 242–243, 248 Pier sizes, 716–717 Pilaster, 980 Piling foundation systems, 777–779, 781 Pinkwrap, 665

1123

Piping, 461 in CADD, 479 elevation of, 478 sizes of, 474–475, 478 Pitch, 528, 674. See also Roof pitch Plan examiners, 11 Plane of projection, 71, 75 Planned unit development, 281, 283 Plants, 941 Plaster, 313, 581 Plasterboard, 314 Plastic leads. See Polyester leads Plate, 665 Platform framing, 631, 633–634, 637–639, 975–976 Plats, 34, 272 Plots, 34, 268. See also Site plan Plotting CADD guidelines for, 125, 127–129 to files, 129 model/sheet layout and, 127, 128 preparing for, 127, 129, 603 scale factor and, 125, 127 Plumbing, 461. See also Piping CADD symbols for, 479–480 drawings for, 466 energy conservation and, 465 of insulation, 465 isometric drawings of, 470–471 metrics in, 474–475 on-grade slabs and, 812–813 piping sizes, 464 schedules for, 466 symbols for, 463, 468, 477–478 terms/definitions for, 462 universal installations, 464–466 Plumbing plans checklist for, 478 commercial drawings, 475, 477–478 for commercial projects, 1055–1058 in floor plan, 475, 476 need for, 461 Plumbing riser diagram, 470 Plumbing wall, 462, 467 Plywood siding, 575 Plywood subfloors, 633, 661 POB. See Point of beginning Pocket doors, 319, 402 Point entry, 92 Point of beginning (POB), 268 Polar coordinate entry, 93 Poly pipe, 461. See also Polybutylene Polybutylene (PB), 461 Polycarbonate, 650 Polyester drafting film, 45, 59 Polyester leads, 45 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 461, 650 Porches, 205 lighting/outlets on, 435 Portal frame adjacent to garage opening (PFG), 741

Portal frame with hold-downs (PFH), 740 Porticos, 219 Portland cement, 983 Post-and-beam floor systems, 818–821, 835, 837–840, 879–881 Post-and-beam framing, 634–636, 637, 638, 663 Postchlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), 461 Posts, 395, 727 Post-tensioning, 809 Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI), 809 Poured concrete construction, 983 cast-in-place, 984–985 precast, 986–987 structural elevations for, 1044 tilt-up, 987–988 Power-driven studs, 997 Prairie style, 225–226 Precast concrete construction, 986–987, 1004, 1042 Prefabricated joint reinforcement, 646 Prefabricated steel structures, 992–993 Preliminary design studies, 14 Preliminary floor plan, 14 Presale, 33 Prescriptive design, basic terms of, 735 Presentation boards, for interior details, 16 Presentation drawings with CADD, 948 drawing materials for, 938–940 elevations, 935–936, 941–943 floor plans, 936, 943, 945 line techniques, 940 media for, 936–937 methods of presentation, 936–940 plants in, 941 rendering procedure for, 941–947 sections, 936, 947 site plans, 936, 947 types of, 935–936 Presentation elevations, 567–568, 570 Prevailing winds, 260 Principle meridians, 269, 270 Prints folding, 61–63 for loan applications, 33 Private sewage systems, 472–474 Probable construction cost, 36 Professional certifications architects, 8 designers, 6 interior designers, 7–8 kitchen and bath designers, 6–7 Profiles, drawing, 293–294 Project cycle, 109 Property lines, laying out, 288 Proportion, 213–214

Proportional dividers, 48 Proprietary product specifications, 141 Protek, 682 Protractors, 54 PSL. See Parallel strand lumber PTI. See Post-Tensioning Institute Public land states, 268 Public sewers, 472, 473 Public Utility District (PUD), heat loss calculation from, 33 PUD. See Public Utility District Purlin, 676, 976 Purlin braces, 676 PVC. See Polyvinyl chloride

Q Queen Anne style, 224, 225 Quick-growth product, 650

R R-2000 Standard, 237 Radial survey, 291 Radiant heating/cooling systems, 492 Radio frequency systems (RF), 435 Radius dimensions, 366 Radon, 493, 511, 776–777 Radon mitigation, 651 Rafter space, 489 Rafter/ceiling joist, 676–677 Rafters engineered, 699, 703, 705 on framing plan, 731 sizing, 699, 701–703, 705 supports for, 676 types of, 674–675 vaulted ceilings and, 676–677 Railings, 612 Rails. See Guardrails; Handrails Rain gardens, 482 Rainfall, 234 Rainwater catchment, 248 Rainwater harvesting, 481 Rakes, 532 Ramps, 1034–1036 Ranch style, 227 Ranges, 269 RCP. See Reflected ceiling plans Rebar, 982–983 Recessed lighting down-lighting with, 443 locating, 446 task, 444 Rectangular coordinates, 92 Rectangular survey system, 268–269, 271 Recycled content, 650 Reference bubble, 112 Reflected ceiling plans (RCP), 446, 1034 Refrigerants, 486 Reinforced masonry, 982. See also Structural masonry Relative coordinate entry, 93 Renderings, 106, 935, 941–947 Renewable energy, 651

1124

Reproduction of drawings Diazo, 62 manual, 59 photocopy, 62, 938 Residential cooling data sheet, 506–508 Residential description of materials, 141 Residential heating data sheet, 500, 502–505 Residential piping, 461 Residential wind power, 456–458 Retaining walls, 277 anchorage of, 790 components of, 793 in foundation plan, 796 framing, 794 garage doors and, 795 materials in, 789 moisture protection for, 790, 792 partial-height, 793 reinforcement of, 789 Review boards, 209 RF. See Radio frequency systems R-factor, 500 Rhythm, 213 Ridge, 527–528, 531 bay projections parallel to, 549 bay projections perpendicular to, 549, 551 representing varied heights of, 548–549 Ridge beam, 527, 676–677 Ridge board, 527, 674 Ridge brace, 527, 676 Riser, 902 Roof construction conventionally framed roofs, 674–677 terms for, 672–674 truss roofs, 677–680, 683 Roof framing plans, 527, 529, 530 base drawing for, 753 checklist for, 759, 762, 764 drawing with CADD, 769 Dutch hip roof with rafter framing, 758–760 Dutch hip roof with truss framing, 757–758 gable roof with rafter framing, 754–755 gable roof with truss framing, 753–754 hip roof with rafter framing, 756–757 hip roof with truss framing, 755–756 section layout for, 886–891 Roof intersections, 596–597 Roof live loads, 686 Roof pitch, 527–539, 674 Roof plan, 20, 528 annotation on, 557–558 chimneys on, 554–555 for commercial projects, 1023–1029

Index

dimensions on, 557 drainage on, 556 drawing Dutch hip, 560–561 drawing gable, 558 drawing hip, 559 drawing in CADD, 561–562 Dutch hip roofs on, 553 framing for, 25 for loan application, 33 representing basic gable shapes on, 547–552 representing hip roofs on, 553 representing nonstructural materials on, 554–557 representing structural materials on, 553–554 roof intersections with varied wall heights on, 551–552 skylights on, 555–556 types of, 527 vents on, 554 Roof ponds, 241 Roof sheathing, 673–674 Roof slopes, 529, 531 Roof tiles, 542, 574 Roofing materials, 539, 674 built-up, 540, 574 clay/cement tiles, 542, 574 on elevations, 573–575 green, 544 metal, 542–543 shingles, 540–542 Roofs A-frame, 535–536 common terms in, 527–533 cool, 544 drainage of, 556 drawing finishing materials for, 867, 869 Dutch hip, 537–538, 757–759 elevation layout of, 591–592 flat, 533–534 gable, 534–535, 753–755 gambrel, 535–537 green, 241, 248, 544, 637 hip, 535, 537–538, 755–757 load distribution on, 691–692 mansard, 222, 224, 538–539 openings in, 677–678 overhang of, 238–239 section layout and, 865 shapes of, 533–539 shed, 534 ventilation/access to, 543, 545 Room components, 367–368 Room dimensions minimum, 177 requirements for, 160–161 Room planning, 14, 16, 237–238 Room titles, 351 Rough opening, 369 Rough-in, 432 Roundhead screws, 997 Rub-ons, 16, 941 Rural residential fire department access, 287–288 R-value, 171, 369, 641

S Safety equipment, code requirements for, 162–163 Saltbox style, 217 Salvaged products, 649–650 San Bernardino Meridian, 269 Sanitary sewer system, 472 Sanitation requirements, 162 SAVE. See Sustainable Attributes Evaluation Services SBC. See Standard Building Code SBCCI. See Southern Building Code Congress International Scabbing on, 680, 681 Scale factor, 97, 99, 125, 127 Scales Architect’s, 53 civil engineer’s, 53–55 of elevations, 571–572 graphic, 116 metric, 51–53, 372–373 in NCS, 116 notation for, 51 for section drawings, 856, 858 selection of, 116 shapes of, 51 Schedules, 116, 370 for commercial projects, 1020–1023 content of, 324 electrical, 446–447 HVAC, 515, 516 key to, 324, 327–329 NCS and, 116, 324, 330–331 plumbing, 466 Scissor trusses, 679, 681 Screws, 997–998 SDC. See Seismic design category Second Empire style, 224 Second-floor plan layout, 392–394 Section markers, 1020 Section views, 23, 28, 29 Sections, 269, 271–272. See also Cross sections aligning, 853 commercial building stairs, 1036 for commercial projects, 1030–1032 details, 855–856 dimensioning, 869 drawing finishing materials on, 867–869 drawing notations on, 860 drawing scale of, 856, 858 drawing symbols on, 860 drawing with CADD, 872–874 evaluating needs for, 862 exterior stairs, 910–911 finished-quality lines for structural members in, 864–867 fireplace, 921, 923–926 full, 853–855 laying out for basement with slab, 881, 883–886

laying out for concrete slab foundation, 862–864 laying out for conventional (stick) roof framing, 886–891 laying out for garage/residence, 892–894 laying out for joist floor, 876–879 laying out for post-and-beam foundation, 879–881 lettering notes on, 870–871 locating materials on, 860 longitudinal, 854–855 L-shaped stairs, 910 open-layout stairs, 906–909 origination of, 853 partial, 855 presentation, 936, 947 representing materials on, 858–859 straight-layout stairs, 903–906 structural, 1046 transverse, 853 types of, 853–856 U-shaped stairs, 909–910 Security systems, 434–435 Seismic design category (SDC), 165, 742, 745–747 Seismic loads, 688–690 Seismic resistance, 731–733 Septic systems, 472–474 Septic tank, 472 Service areas bathrooms, 190–191 bonus room, 201–202 exercise center, 202 garage/carport, 202–203 kitchen, 191–199 placement of, 190 utility room, 200–201 wine cellar, 199–200 Service entry, 179 Setback, 257, 280, 289 Sewage disposal, 472–474 Sewer lines, 462 Shading, 301, 941, 943, 944 Shading devices, 239 Shakes, 541 Shear, 712 Shear panel, 667, 732, 735 Shear walls, 686, 1039 Sheathing, 633 double-wall construction and, 665–666 floor, 815 roof, 673–674 structural, 667–668 Shed roofs, 534 Sheet files, 110, 111, 113 Sheet grid coordinates, 112 Sheet identification, 113 Sheet layout, 114–116, 127, 128 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association (SMACNA), 108 Sheet names, 113 Sheet organization, 113–116

Index

Sheet sizes, 60, 114, 589 Sheetrock, 672 SHGC. See Solar heat gain coefficient Shingles, 540–542, 573 Showers, 333 Shutters, on elevations, 584–585 SI. See International System of Units Siding. See also Wall coverings aluminum, 577 fiber cement, 577, 579 installation of, 667 plywood, 575 vinyl, 577, 580 Sills, 318 Simple beams, 690 Simpson Strong-Tie, 738, 741–742, 998, 1009 Simpson Strong-Wall, 741–742 Single-span beams, 976 Single-stroke lettering, 95–96 Single-wall construction, 665 Sinks, universal design and, 464–465 SIP. See Structural insulated panels Site analysis plan, 277, 279–280 Site considerations access, 209–210 neighborhood, 209 review boards, 209 Site orientation solar, 259–260 sound, 264, 266 terrain, 257–258 view, 257, 259 wind, 260, 262–264 Site plan, 17–19, 23 CADD layers for, 298–300 for commercial projects, 1013–1017 contour lines in, 291–292 design considerations for, 286–287 drawing, 274–275, 276 drawing checklist for, 290–291 drawing in CADD, 296–300 laying out property lines in, 288 layout of, 285–286, 289–290 maximum building area in, 964 metrics in, 281 presentation, 936, 947 profiles in, 293–294 requirements for, 272 solar considerations for, 260 Sites, 268 SJI. See Steel Joist Institute Sketching block technique for, 69–71 circular lines, 67–68 irregular shapes, 71 isometric, 73–75 measurement lines/proportions in, 68–71 multiview technique for, 72 straight lines, 66–67 tools and materials for, 66

1125

Skip sheathing, 674 Skylights, 240, 324 on elevations, 574–575, 592 on roof plans, 555–556 Skystream 3.7, 456–458 Slab-on-grade floors, insulation of, 172 Slabs, 803 Slanted lettering, 96 Sleeping area, 185–186 bedrooms, 187–189 closets, 189 master suites, 188–189 sizing floor joists for, 695 Sliding doors, glass, 320 SMACNA. See Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association Small footprint home, 400–402 Smoke chamber, 918 Smoke detectors, 33 code requirements for, 162–163 electrical design considerations for, 436 requirements for, 437 Smoke shelf, 919 Snout house, 210 Snow loads, 163, 686, 702–703 Soffit, 527 Soffited eaves, 532 Soft metric conversion, 341, 372 SoftPlan Architectural Design, 105 SoftPlan Systems, 105 Soil classification of, 773–774 compaction of, 775 freezing, 775, 776 healthy, 302 radon and, 776–777 texture of, 773–775 water content of, 775–776 Soil absorption fields, 472 Soil stack, 315 Soil vent, 315 Solar access, 260 Solar collectors, 242 Solar energy design active systems, 237, 242–244 building codes and, 238 elements of, 237–238 living with, 238 passive systems, 237, 239–242 roof overhang in, 238–239 sun orientation and, 237 Solar greenhouse, 241 Solar heat gain, 171 direct, 239 passive, 500 Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), 171, 250, 325 Solar hot water collectors, 473 Solar orientation, 259–260 Solar rights, 238 Solar site location, 260 Solar space heating, 237 Solariums, 204, 241–242 Sole, 665 Solid concrete construction, 370

Solid fuel-burning appliances, 350–351 Solid masonry construction, 643–646 SolidBuilder, 105 Sound orientation, 264, 266 Sound-deadening board, 672 Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), 156 Southern colonial style, 219–220 Southern exposure, 259 Southern Forest Products Association, 637, 694 Southwest Windpower, 456–458 Space frames, 991 Span ratings, 662–663 Span tables, 694, 695, 712–714, 720 Spanish colonial style, 222 Spark arrester, 920 Specific heat, 245 Specific notes, 370 Specification writers, 11 Specifications for commercial construction, 146–149 defining, 141 general construction, 141, 146 for HVAC, 511 for loan applications, 33 for nailing, 996 for residential design, 146 Splash blocks, 556 Split-level floor plans, 214–215 Spread foundations, 779–780, 782 Sprinkler systems, 162, 471–472 Square footage calculations, 392 Stack vent, 315 Stainless steel piping, 461 Stair jack, 902 Stairs in CADD, 345–346, 385 in commercial buildings, 1036 design calculations for, 343 drawing with CADD, 912–913 egress requirements and, 159–160 exterior, 910–911 floor plan representation of, 343–345 as focal point, 204 laying out, 384 lighting/outlets in, 436 L-shaped, 910 open layout of, 906–909 planning, 341–343 rise/run determination for, 902–903 storage space under, 902 straight layout of, 903–906 terminology for, 901–902 traffic patterns in, 203 U-shaped, 909–910 Stairwells, 1032 Stamp symbols, 661–663 Standard Building Code (SBC), 156, 953

Standard construction modules, 372 Standard feature dimensions, 364–365 Standard Heat Loss Methodology (Bonneville Power Administration), 499 Standby heat losses, 465 Standpipes, 954 Staples, 997 Statement of probable construction cost, 36 Steel construction green properties of, 1003 lightweight steel framing, 988–991 prefabricated steel structures, 992–993 space frames, 991 steel-frame buildings, 993–995 Steel decking, 991 Steel framing, 641–642 for commercial projects, 1041 structural elevations for, 1042 Steel Joist Institute (SJI), 953, 991 Steel joists, 953, 991 Steel studs, 989–990 Steel-frame buildings, 993–995 Stem wall construction, 784–786, 794 Stilts, 257 Stock plans, 13 Stone, 314, 580–581 Storm sewers, 556 Stormwater management, 265, 482 Stringer, 902 Strongback, 676 StruCalc, 712 Structural details, 1046–1047, 1059 Structural drawings, 19, 1038–1049. See also Framing plans; Roof framing plans Structural elevations, 1042, 1044, 1046 Structural insulated panels (SIP), 641, 650 Structural lumber grading of, 708–709 loading reactions of, 710–712 properties of, 709–710 sizes for, 708 Structural masonry, on floor plan, 369–370 Structural wall sheathing, 667–668 Structured wiring systems, 435 Struts, drag, 1039 Stub walls, 364 Stucco, 313, 581, 670 Stud bolts, 1000 Stud frame, 360–361 Stud space, 489 Studs, 313, 362, 631, 665–666, 727 jack, 668 king, 668–669 maximum height of, 633 power-driven, 997 steel, 989–990

1126

Study, 183, 185 Subcontractors, 36 Subdivision, 33 Subdivision plans, 280–282 Subfloors, 633, 661 Subsill, 668–669 Subterranean construction, 229 terrain orientation and, 257, 259 wind protection with, 262 Sun angle, 530–532 Sun orientation outdoor area design and, 206 roof overhang and, 239 solar energy design and, 237 Sun studies, 107 Sunroom, 186, 204, 241 Supported area, 714–715 Surveyor’s units, in CADD, 288 Surveys, 35 control point, 291 great land, 268–270 grid, 291 radial, 291 rectangular system, 268–269, 271 Suspended ceilings, 446 Sustainable Attributes Evaluation Services (SAVE), 1004 Sustainable buildings, 233 Sustainable construction, 12 Sustainable design, 130–135 Sustainable energy use, 130 Sustainable Industries (magazine), 456 Sustainable material use, 130–131 Sustainable water use, 130 Swales, 482 Sweets Catalog, 4 Sweets Network, 1009 Switch leg, 432 Switches, placement of, 433 Symbol libraries, 355–357, 479 Systems, 148

T Takeoff, 105 Tankless water heaters, 465 Task lighting, 444–445 Tax incentives, for wind power, 458 TD Canada Trust, 237 Technical pens, 45 Telephones, electrical design considerations for, 436 Temperature, 500 Temperature difference, 500 Template drawings, 107–108 Templates architectural, 49 in CADD, 107–108 for furniture, 16 Temporary electric service, 432 Temporary loads, 685 Tension, 712 Termite barriers, 651, 785–786 Termite susceptibility, 165 Terrain models, 298 Terrain orientation, 257–258

Index

Text, 94, 1064–1065 Text files, 112 Text style, 94, 97, 118 Texture, 212 Thermal brake, 325 Thermal calculations, 499 Thermal resistance, 171 Thermal storage walls, 240–241 Thermostats, 492–493, 497 Thermosyphon traps, 465 Three-dimensional drawings, 1059–1060 Three-hinged arch beams, 976 Throat, 916 Tile roofing, 542, 574 Tilt-up concrete construction, 987–988, 1044, 1046 Timber framing, 635–638, 976, 1039–1041 Timbers, 709 Title blocks, 61, 114 Toe nailing, 997 Toggle bolts, 1000 Topography, 272–273 Tornadoes, 686 Townhouses, 471 Townships, 269, 271 Traffic flow, 203 Traffic patterns interior, 203 between interior and exterior, 203–206 vertical circulation drawings for, 1034–1037 Trammel, 67–68 Transfer shapes, 16 Transformers, 443 Transit stations, 291 Transition fittings, 518 Transverse sections, 853 Tread, 902 Triangles, 49 Tributary width, 715 Trimmers, 668–669, 677 Trombe, Felix, 240 Trombe wall, 240 True north, 259 Truss roofs, 677–680, 683 section layout and, 864 terminology in, 678–679 types of, 679–681, 683 Trusses, 677–678 construction of, 679 on framing plan, 731 Tubular daylighting devices, 326–327 Tudor arch beams, 976 Tudor style, 220 Typar, 665 Type X gypsum board, 672 Tyvek, 665

U UBC. See Uniform Building Code UDS. See Uniform Drawing System U-factor, 500 Ultraviolet light systems, 509

Unfinished basement, 394 Uniform Building Code (UBC), 156, 953 Uniform down-lighting, 443 Uniform Drawing System (UDS), 3, 108, 109–110 UniFormat, 112, 148–149 Unity, 214 Universal design, 464–467, 469, 616 Universal electrical installations, 437, 439 Uplift, 685, 686, 732 Urban design, 9 Urban green homes, 248–250 Urban heat island effect, 241 Urban planning, 9 U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 130, 153, 173, 233 U.S. National CAD Standard (NCS), 3, 108–109, 120 CADD graphics, 117–118 commercial layer names in, 1063–1064 dimensions in, 360, 362, 374 drafting conventions, 116 drawing groups in, 1012 file management, 113 interior elevations and, 1034 layer names in, 122–124 model and sheet file-naming standards, 110–113 schedules, 116, 324, 330–331 sheet identification, 113 sheet organization, 113–116 Uniform Drawing System, 109–110 User interface, 80 USG Design Studio, 356 USGBC. See U.S. Green Building Council Utilities in CADD, 387 laying out, 386–387 Utility room, 200–201, 334–336 U-value, 325

V VA. See Veterans Administration Valley rafters, 675 Value, of colors, 212 Vanity, 333 Vapor barriers, 665, 671 Vaulted ceiling members, 676–677 Vaulted trusses, 679 Vellum, 58–59 Veneer, 610–611 grades of, 662 masonry, 314, 369, 646 Vent pipes, 461 Vent stack, 462 Vent systems, 469–470, 554 Ventilation. See Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Ventilation requirements, 161–162 Venting roofs, 543, 545 Vernier scale, 50–51

Vertical circulation drawings, 1034–1037 Vertical shear, 712 Vestibule, 238 Veterans Administration (VA), 13, 33, 141, 473 Vicinity map, 281–282 Victorian style, 223–224 View orientation, 257, 259 View selection, 79 Villas, Italian, 223 Vinyl siding, 577, 580 Virtual Building, 105, 106 Virtual reality (VR), 106–107 Visible transmittance (VT), 325–326 VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 510, 682 Volt, 432 VR. See Virtual reality VT. See Visible transmittance

W Wainscots, 609 Walk-in closets, 189 Walk-through, 106, 1060 Wall coverings brick, 578–579, 580 concrete blocks, 579–580 in elevations, 575–581, 595 masonry, 578–581 plaster/stucco, 581 stone, 580–581 wood, 575–577 wood substitutes, 577 Wall lighting, 445 Wall shading, 316 Wall sheathing, 665–666 Wall symbols, 311, 313–314 Wall wash lighting, 445 Wallboard, 314, 672 Walls bearing, 664–665, 752 load distribution on, 692 load-bearing, 721 nonbearing, 664–665 section layout and, 863–864 sheathing of, 633 sole/plate of, 665 Wardrobes, on floor plans, 336 Washers, 998–999 Washington, George, 155 Waste vent, 315 Waste by-products, 650 Water barriers, 670 Water closet, 462, 465 Water conservation, 651 Water consumption, 481 Water heaters, 469 solar, 473 tankless, 465 Water service lines, 462 Water systems, 466–469 Watt, 432 Weathering damage susceptibility, 165–166

Index

Web-based architectural collaboration, 129 Weep holes, 646 Weight room, 202 Welding, 1000–1002 Western platform framing, 631, 633–634 Western Wood Products Association, 637, 694, 712 Western Woods Use Book (Western Wood Products Association), 712 Wet-bulb temperature, 169 Weyerhaeuser, 637, 699 Williamette Meridian, 269 Wind bracing requirements, 743–744 Wind conditions, 260 Wind design, 165, 167–168 Wind energy, 246 Wind farms, 246 Wind loads, 686–688 Wind orientation, 260, 262–264 Wind power generation, 456–458 Wind protection, 262–263 Wind resistance, 731–733 Wind turbines, 246 Window wells, 353, 394 Windows. See also Skylights awning, 322 bay, 323, 599 in bedrooms, 189 bow, 323

1127

CADD symbols for, 385, 389 casement, 322 clerestory, 240 dimensions of, 338, 368 double-hung, 322 efficiency ratings of, 325–326 elevation layout and, 592 on elevations, 582–583 fixed, 323 garden, 324 high-performance, 650 hopper, 322–323 insulated, 325 Jalousie, 323 keying, 328 laying out, 384–385 oriel, 323 schedule for, 328 symbol representations for, 321–324 types of, 322–324 Wine cellar, 199–200 Winter design temperature, 163–164 Wire gauge, 448 Wood adjustment factors, 718 Wood beams, sizing, 714–718 Wood characteristics, determining, 694 Wood floors foundation support for, 786, 788 ventilation/access for, 788

Wood framing methods balloon, 631–632, 637 for commercial projects, 1039–1041 platform framing, 631, 633–634 post-and-beam, 634–636, 637, 638 timber, 635–638, 976 Wood grain, 709–710 Wood member loading reactions bending strength, 709, 710–711 compression, 712 deflection, 711 fiber bending stress, 710 horizontal shear, 712 modulus of elasticity, 711 tension, 712 vertical shear, 712 Wood parquet flooring, 682 Wood shingles, 541, 577, 579 Wood storage, 348 Wood Structural Design Data (National Forest Products Association), 712 Wood structural panel (WSP), 747 Wood substitutes, in wall covering, 577 Wood wall covering, 575–577 Woodwork Institute, 356

Work results, 146 Work triangle, 195–196 Workers’ compensation, 35 Working area, 379, 382 Working drawings, 17–31, 1059 Working elevations, 23, 568–569, 571 Workplace ethics, 5 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 225 WSP. See Wood structural panel Wythes, 644, 646

X Xeriscaping, 301

Y Yard space, 302

Z Zero-clearance fireplaces, 347 Zone control systems, 491–492 Zoned heating systems, 491–492 Zoning on architectural drawings, 61 design category and, 960–961 hydro, 302 setbacks and, 289 site plan layout and, 285 of subdivisions, 280

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