ANALYTIC SYNTAX Otto Jespersen
With an Introduction by James D. McCawley
The University of Chicago Press
LInguistics...
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ANALYTIC SYNTAX Otto Jespersen
With an Introduction by James D. McCawley
The University of Chicago Press
LInguistics
ere the great Danish linday when ignorance of Analytic Synt8JC on guist Otto Jespersen puts the part of a linguist will be as unthinkable forward his views on gramas ignorance of the B minor mass on the matical structure in a kind part'of a musical scholaJ." of shorthand formalism, de- -James D. McCawlf' . from the Introduction vising symbols that represent various grammatical "Jespersen's continuing appeal lies in the . elements and then analyzing numerous sheer scholarly quality of the man: our sentences in terms of these symbols. The 'awareness in reading him that we are encontemporaneity of these analyses is re~ . gaged with a supremely learned and cultfmarkable, for they allude to concepts that vated mind. He is indeed the most distinwere uncongenial to linguists in 1937 when guished scholar of the English language who has ever lived, in my view: no small the bwk was first published, but which have come to be generally accepted in the claim when we reflect on the distinguished linguistics community during the past scholarship that has for centuries been de-' twenty-five years. voted to our;language. A further and related reason is this. While being a deeply serious theoretical linguist to whom such "[Analytic Syntax] gives the most concen-' daunting labels 'as phonetician and gramtrated dose of syntactic analysis to· be found in the whole Jespersen canon and marian preeminently apply, Jespersen was presents an integrated summery of the syn- above all a philologist in the older senses tactic research that had engaged much of of this word, a lover of language and of the his efforts for ~fty years. Its position among arts that are realized in language." -Randolph Quirk, from the Foreword to his works can Perhaps best be likened to the position among Bach's works of the B Growth and Structure of the English minor mass, a work that Baeh .put together Language late in his life out of arrangements of moveOtto Jespersen (1860-1943) was professor ments from many of his cantatas. In both of English at the University of Copenhagen. cases the result is a monumental work in Among his many works is Growth and which a major creative figure surveys his output in a gt;nre that was particularly close Structure of the EngHsh Language, also pub to his heart. I hope that the appearance of lished by the University of Chicago Press. '. this reprint ...will speed the arrival of the
CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
xi
PREFACE
xxi
PART I SYMBOLS AND EXAMPLES CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
3
CHAPTER 2 SYMBOLS
6
2.1. Capitals. 2.2. Small Letters. 2.3. Numerals Indicate Rank. 2.4. Brackets. 2.5. Kinds of Sentences. 2.6. Auxiliary Signs. - 2.7. Languages.
CHAPTER 3 JUNCTION
9
3.1. Ordinary Adjuncts. 3.2. Secondary or Tertiary. 3.3. Genitival Adjuncts. 3.4. Prepositional Phrases or Adverbs. 3.5. Equipollent. 3.6. Irregular Junction. 3.7. Implied Predicatives. 3.8. Unc1assifiable. 3.9. Secondaries that have become Primaries.
CHAPTER 4 APPOSITION I
13
4.1. Limits. 4.2. Regular Cases of Apposition. 4.3. With Prepositions. 4.4. Apposition with 0/. 4.5. French Appositions with que.
15
CHAPTER 5 QUANTIFIERS 5.1. Adjectival. Prepositions.
5.2. Substantival.
5.3. Genitival.
5.4. With
CHAPTER 6 COMPOUNDS
16
6.1. The Ordinary Type. 6.2. Equipollent Compounds. 6.3. Genitival Compounds. 6.4. Prepositions and Adverbs. 6.5. Adjuncts with Compounds. 6.6. Adjunc:;t Substantive Compounds. 6.7. Blue-tytd. 6.8. Dissolved Compound. 6.9. Isolated First Part
+
CHAPTER 7 INDEPENDENT NEXUS 7.1. :t'he Ordinary Type. 7.2. Indirect Object. 7.3. Object of Result. 7.4. Object of Tertiary. 7.5. Prepositional Group.
v
20
vi
Contents
CHAPTER 8 VERBAL SENTENCES CONTINUED
23
8.1. Bracketing. 8.2. Reflexive. 8.3. Special Cases. 8.4. Reciprocal. 8.5. Complex Verbal Phr~ses. 8.6. Stars. 8.7. Passive. 8.8. O/S. 8.9. Lesser Subject.
CHAPTER 9 PREDICATIVE
28
9.1. Ordinary. 9.2. Predicative of Results. 9.3. Adverbs and Prepositional Groups. 9.4. Subjunct-Predicatives. 9.5. Predicative after a Particle (J>reposition). 9.6. Predicatives without a'Verb. 9.7. O/P. 9.8. No Predicative. (.
CHAP'ttR 10 TERTIARIES, ETC.
31
10.t. Tertiaries. 10.2. Quaternaries, etc. 10.3. Prepositional Groups. 10.4. Place of Preposition. 10.5. 3/s.
CHAPTER 11
RECIPIENT
33
11.1. R. 11.2.. Dative of Various Languages. 11.4. Final Examples.
11.3. Continued.
CHAPTER 12 EXTRAPOSITION AND APPOSITION
35
12.1. ExtrapositioD. 12.2. Transition to Predicative. 12.3. Sentences with Apposition. 12.4. Special Cases. 12.5. As. 12.6. Restrictive Apposition. 12.7. Vocative. 12.8. A Whole Idea.
CHAPTER 13 VARIOUS KINDS OF SENTENCES
38
13.1. Request. 13.2. Question. 13.3. "X-Questions." 13.4. Request in Form of a Question. 13.5. Exclamation (Wonder, Emotion generally). 13.~. Wish.
CHAPTER 14 DEPENDENT NEXUS (NOMINAL)
42
14.1. Object. 14.2. Junction Virtually Nexus. 14.3. Various Instances. 14.4. Nexus after a Preposition. 14.5. Nexus Tertiary.
CHAPTER 15 DEPENDENT INFINITIVAL NEXUS
43'
15.1. Object. 15.2. Continued. 15.3. After Preposition. 15.4. Bracketed Infinitives. 15.5. Infinitive-Nexus as Subject. 15.6. Infinitive-Nexus as Tertiary.
CHAPTER 16 SPLIT SUBJECT OR OBJECT 16.1. Passive. 16.2. Active. Relative Clauses.
16.3. Split
O~iect.
16.4. In
45
Contents
vii
CHAPTER 17 INFINITIVE 17.1. Subject and Predicative. 17.2. Object. 17.3. Infinitive as Secondary. 17.4. Pauive Import? 17.5. After haul, etc. 17.6. Passive as Secondary. 17.7. After Adjectives. 17.8. Analogous Cases.
48
CHAPTER 18 INFINITIVE CONTINUED 18.1. Infinitive of Purpoae, etc. 18.2. Infinitive of Reaction, etc. 18.3. After 1110. 18.4. After Various Prepotitions. 18.5. Infinitive Understood. 18.6. Infinitive in Compound.. 18.7. Subatantivea
52
from Infinitives.
CHAPTER 19 GERUND 19.1. Ordinary. 19.2. Passive Meaning? 19.3. With Adjectives and Adverbs. 19.4. Gerund in Compounds. 19.5. Concretes
55
from Gerunds.
CHAPTER 20 NEXUS-SUBSTANTIVES 20.1. Various Examples. 20.2. With Adjectivea and Adverbs. 20.3. Nexu..substantives in Compounds. 20.4. NexusSubstantive in Apposition. 20.5. Concrete. AGENT-SUBSTANTIVES AND PARTICIPLES 21.1. Agent Substantives. 21.2. Participles, etc. 21.3. Apposition. 21.4. Adjectives, etc. 21.5. Y in Compounds.
57
CHAPTER 21
59
CHAPTER 22 CLAUSES AS PRIMARIES 22.1. Content-Clauses. 22.2. Continued. 22.3. Dependent Questions (Interrogative Clauses). 22.4. Infinitive in Dependent Questions. 22.5. Relative Clauses as Primariea.
62
CHAPTER 23 RELATIVE CLAUSES AS SECONDARIES 23.1. With Pronouns. 23.2. Continued. 23.3. Relative Adverbs. 23.4. That. 23.5. As, Than, But. 23.6. Relative Contact Clauses. 23.7. Concatenated Clauses.
65
CHAPTER 24 CLAUSES AS TERTIARIES 24.1. Simple CouJunctions. 24.2. Composite Conjunctions. 24.3. So that, etc. 24.4. Prepositions and Conjunctions. 24.5. Various Combinations. 24.6. Word-Order. 24.7. Comparison. 24.8. Indifference. 24.9. Abbreviated
68
Claus~.
viii
Contents
CHAPTER 25
PARENTHETIC CLAUSES
72
25.1. Ordinary Parenthetic Remarks. 25.2. Referring to a Whole Sentence. 25.3. Symbolization of it is. 25.4. Cleft Sentences. 25.5. Criticism. 25:6. Symbolization. 25.7. With Tertiari('s. 25.8. German and Scandinavian. 25.9. Speaker's Aside.
'CHAPTER 26 AMORPHOUS SENTENCES
79
26.1. Introduction. 26.2. Half-analyzable Sentences. 26.3. Answer. 26.4. Retort. 26.5. Amorphous Combinations. 26.6. Clauses. 26.7. Deprecation.
CHAPTER 27
COMPLICATED SPECIMENS
27.1. From Samuel Johnson. 27.2. Brother Juniper. a German Newspaper. 27.4. From Cicero.
PART II
82 27.3. From
COMMENTS
CHAPTER 28 GENERAL
87
28.1. Previous Attempts. 28.2. Brji1ndal. 28.3. My Own. 28.4. Meaning of the Small Letters. 28.5. What not Symbolized.
CHAPTER 29
FORM-FUNCTION-NOTION
95
29.1. Morpheme. 29.2. Morphoseme. 29.3. Notion, Extralingual and Intralingual. 29.4. Meaning of Our Symbols.
CHAPTER 30
CASE
30.1. Recent Treatments. 30.2. Latin. 30.4. Comparison. 30.5. Genitive.
CHAPTER 31 31.1. 31.3. 31.6. 31.9.
100 30.3. Finnish.
RANK
109
General Theory. 31.2. Quaternaries, etc. Specializing. 31.4. Coordination. 31.5. Subordination. Genitive. 31.7. Used as Primaries. 31.8. Compounds. Results.
CHAPTER 32 QUANTIFIERS
117
32.1. Quantifier and Quantified. 32.2. Difference from Qualifier. 32.3. Partitive. 32.4. Symbols.
CHAPTER 33 NEXUS 33.1. Predication .. 33.2. Junction and Nexus. 33.3. Diagram 33.4. Rank in Nexus. 33.5. Objection. 33.6. Specializing.
120
ix
Contents
CHAPTER 34 SUBJECT
125
34.1. Definition. 34.2. Case. 34.3. No Subject. 34.4. Plu;t. 34.5. Infinitives, etc. 34.6. The Weak There. 34.7. Introductory There. 34.8. Subject Indefinite. 34.9. Analogous Expressions.
CHAPTER 35
SUBJECT AND PREDICATIVE
35.1. Sis P. 35.2. Hammerich. 35.4. Case of Predicative.
132
35.3. Rank of Predicative.
137
CHAPTER 36 OBJECT 36.1. Ordinary Objects. 36.2. Complex Verbal Expressions. 36.3. Doubtful Cases. 36.4 .. Case of Object. 36.5. Indirect Object. 36.6. Two Direct Objects. 36.7. 0 without O. 36.8. F. d, E. to. 36.9. Sp., Pg. a.
CHAPTER 37 CHAPTER 38
144
PASSIVE
37.1. Symbols.
37.2. Infinitive.
37.3. Participle, etc.
REGIMEN. RECIPIENT
38.1. Regimen.
145
38.2. Recipient.
CHAPTER 39 VERBIDS 39.1. Infinitive. Substantive.
CHAPTER 40 40.1. That.
CHAPTER 41
39.2. Y.
147 39.3. Gerund.
39.4. Nexus-
CLAUSES 40.2. Contact-Clauses.
151 40.3. Various ~emarks.
CONCLUSION
152
41.1. Latent. .~1.2. Possible Extension of the System. 41.3. Notes on "The Philosophy of Grammar."
INDEX
158
INTRODUCTION JAMES
D.
MCCAWLEY
As Jespersen's Analytic Syntax again comes back into print, I can for a second time cross it off the top of my list of important out-of-print linguistics books. I hope that it will not become eligible to hold that position of honor a third time; better that it should have a different honor that it deserves more but so far has been denied: that of remaining continuously in print and being widely read. I first heard of Analytic Syntax (henceforth, AS) in Edward S. Klima's "Structure of English" course at M.LT. in autumn 1961, where it was recommended to the students as an unparalleled source of insight into English syntax, but it was not until five or six years later that I actually followed Klima's advice and read AS. Since AS consists mainly of example sentences and formulaic analyses, it is not a book that one might expect to read from cover to cover in just a couple of sittings, but 1 did exactly that, with fascination that increased as I progressed from each group of formulas to the next. Jespersen, 20 years before the beginnings of transformational grammar (AS was originally published in 1937), had dealt with many of the same syntactic phenomena that were occupying transformational grammarians, had given analyses that had much in common with what in the mid-60s were the latest and hottest ideas in transformational grammar, and had gone in considl!rable depth into many important syntactic phenomena that merited but had not yet received the attention of transformational grammarians. AS represents He promised her to go and He allowed her to go as differing with regard to whether the 'latent' subject of go is coreferential with he or with her (p. 49), and the advance of science and the advancement of science as differing with regard to whether science is the subject or object of the nominalization (p . .58):
(l) a. He promised her to go. S V 0 O(SOI) a'. He allowed her to go. S V 0 O(S~(O)I) b. The advance of science. X pS b'. The advancement of science. X pO (In these formulas, the
0
incl.icate~
'latent,' i.e. 'understood,' and re-
xi
Introduction peated relation letters are used to specify corefer· tiality, so that the repeated S in (lei) indicatc:s an understood NP coreferential to the subject and the repeated 0 in ( I b) an understood NP coreferential to the indirect object.) AS gives an analysis of John is easy to deceive in which John is represented as both surface subject of is and underlying object of deceive (p. 52), an analysis of She seems to notice it in which she to notice it is a sentential subject of seem (p. 47), and an analysis of I am not sure he is ill in which the complement is the object of an understood prep.:Jsition (p. 62): (2) a. John is easy to deceive. 8(0*) V P(2 pI*) . b. She seems to notice it. is V i8(10) c. ~ am not sure he is ill. 8 vn P pOI (S2 V P 2) Some'important things that AS helped me to see for the first time are the po~ib). This conception is bascd on th(' fact that infinitives as being originally substantives arc n('utral with regard to "diathnis" ("turn", the distinction betw('!'n active and passive) - -a vir'w which is hi~torical ly (dhchronically) imppcc:lhle, but whiPh shows perhaps nothing as to the present (synchronic) feding which it is our task to inwstigate and d('note in our symbols. I shall therefore iT} the following pagt's t('ntative!i give a different analysis in which the infinitive is lookcd upon as active and as governing a preceding item as its object. This manner of viewing matters will be seen to be particularly mcful in the instances treated in 17.5, where grammarians will probably hesitate to speak of a passive meaning of the infinitive. It is inter('sting to note that in a great many cases in which the other West-European languages have active infinitives, English tends to replace them by passive ones (see below 17.6). A house to let; F. Une maison a Jouer; la methode a suivre; un resultat a esperer; de l'eau a boire; It. acqua da bere 1 (0*)2(1*). Sp. Un hecho por averiguar 'a fact to be investigated' 1(0*)2(1*) The first thing to settle; F. la premiere chose a decider 21 (0*) 2 (1*). The only thing to drink was stale beer 8(21 (0*)2(1*)) V P(21). This house is to let; The Cabinet is to blame 8(0*) V P(I*). F. II est a plaindre; G. Er ist zu beklagen; Dan. Han er at beklage 8(0*) V P(I*). F. Un bon resultat n'est pas a attendre; Dan. Et godt resultat er ikke (til) at vente; G. Ein guter erfolg ist nicht zu erwarten S(O*) (21) V" P(I*). (Note the German development of a participle in der tU er-
Passive
51
wartende erfolg 2 (yb) 1; cf. Du. De later te behandelen vraagstukken 'the problems to be treated later on' S2(1*) 1 (0*). There ate many questions to settle S/s V S(2Ql (0*)2(1*». There was no time to lose; Dan. Der var ingen tid at spilde S/s V S(2 Ql(0*)2(1*». There is nothing for you to do SIs V 8(ln(0*)2(p8. 1*».
17. 5. After have, etc. You have nothing to fear; G. 8ie haben nichts zu fiirchten S V 0(1(02*)2(1*». You have nothing to be afraid of; Dan. De har intet at va:re bange for 8 V 0(1(02*)2(lw*». We've have got a lot to be thankful for 8 V 0(1 (0.*)2(1\"{*». He had no one to love 8 V 0(1(0.*)2(1*». A spinster with no one to love 1 pl(I(0*)2(1*». Cf. the similar, but different, example above 15.S. It would, of course, look simpler to write You have nothing to fear 8 V 0(0. I), and corresPQndingly in the other cases, but it would not really express the notional relation and would be too similar to the construction dealt with in 15.1-2 (Er liess ihn toten). 8he wants someone to love 8 V 0(1(0*)2(1*». Can you give me anything to eat? ; Dan. Kan du give mig noget at spise? v 8 V 00(1(0*)2(1*» ? F. Pouvez-vous me donner quelque-chose a manger? v 8 0 V 0(1(0*)2(1*»? 8he eats nothing to speak of 8 V 0(1*2(Ip*», or S V 0(1(0*)2(lw*».
17. 6. Passive Infinitive as Secondary. This never-to-be-forgotten day 22(snlb) 1. In a way never to be forgotten pl(12(snlb». Money is not a thing to be spent rashly 8 vn P(12(lbS». This is a subject not to be mentioned before young girls 8 V P(12(3"Ibp l(21»). The house is to be let next year 8 V P(IbS(21»). 8uch things are to be seen any day 8(21) V P(l bS(21». A good result is not to. be expected 8(21) vn P(Ib).
52
Chap'., 17 . Infinitiv.
There is nothing to be done 3/s V 8(12(lb». 1bere was no time to be lost 3/s V 8(2Q I2(lb». Is there nothing decent to be had? V 3/s 8(122(lb»? Note that there is nothing corresponding to this use of the passive infinitive in any of the other West-European languages. In some 0{ the sentences the I has not been marked explicidy as .2.
17. 7. After Adieetivea. It is easy to deceive John; F. II est facile de tromper Jean; Dan. Det er let at narre Jens s V P 8(10); G. Es ist leicht, Hans zu tiuschen s V P 8(01). John is easy to deceive; F. Jean est facile a tromper; Dan. Jens er let at narre; G. Hans ist leicht zu tiuschen 8(0*) V P(2 pl*). It. Questa cosa c facile a sapere 8(0*)(21) V P(2 pl*). For some reason not easy to divine pO*2(3n2 pI*). F. Ceci est difficile a expliquer 8(0*) V P(2 pl*)-but: II est difficile d'expliquer ceci s V P 8(10). This fruit is good to eat; F. Ce fruit est bon a manger; It. Questo frutto c buono a mangiare; Sp. Ese fruto es bueno de comer S(O*) (21) V P(2 pl*). I find this impossible to believe 8 V 0(8.(0*)P pl*).
17. 8. AnaIOiou Cues. This is a hard nut to crack 8 V 1»(21)(0* pl*). He is an easy man to make fun of 8 V P(21) (0* pl-*). This is a delightful room to work in 8 V P(21) (1* pI p*). This is a delightful room in which to work 8 V P(212(pIC pI). He is not an easy man to get money out of 8 va P(21) (1* pI 0 p*). 8uch books cost a lot to print 8(0*)(21) V 0 pI*. I want a big room to work in S V 0(21){1* pI p*). Sp. Pocas palabras me quedan por decir S(2QI==O*) R V pl*. In most of these (21) should perhaps stand after the starred item. CHAPTER 18.
Infinitive Continued. \\. \. \a\~'ttve 0\ l'upott, t\e. In most of the following aentencel Co bef~ the inf'mitive baa its oripnal force of motion to or towards j other 1anpapa often have
With Preposition
53
some other preposition before the one that corresponds to E. to: G. um tu, Dan. for at or til at, in some cases med at, F. pour with the bare infinitive. For composite prepositions we may write pp. The infinitive with its preposition functions as a tertiary. This led him to think deeply on the question S V 0 pI (13pl). He is inclined to welcome any stranger S V P(Ypl(IO)). His inclination to welcome any stranger S2Xpi (10). He is ready to go S V P(2pl). He had no motive to hurt her S V 0(2 q l) pl(IO). They found an opportunity to escape S V O(Xpl). I have no time to wait; G. Ich habe keine zeit zu warten S V 0(2QI) pI. He came to see you S V pI (JO). He came in order to see you S V ppI (10). F. II est venu pour vous voir; G. Er kam um Sie zu sehen S V pJ (01). Dan. Han er kommet for at se dig; Sp. EI a venido a verte S V pI(IO). Women are made to be loved, not to be understood S Vb pIb, '3 D pl2b • The motor car has come to stay S V pl. We were forced to remain there S Vb pI ( 13 ) . G. Wir waren genotigt, dort zu bleiben S Vb 3* pl*. He will live to be ninety S V pI (IP). He opened his eyes to find a stranger in the room S V 0 pI (10 2 3). (She made her clothes herself, and) made them to last V 0* pI (S2*°1) --different from "made them last" V or(S21). He helped her to cook the food S'l 0 pI (SOl&2 102 ), To understand Dickens, one must know London pI (10) S VO •. 18. 2. Infinitive of Reaction, etc. I am glad to see you here S V P pI (103). You were lucky to get a job S V P pI (10). Who am I, to quarrel with Providence? P? V S pI(! pI). He was in a mood to cry S V P(plpl). 11 a etc deux heures a Ie trouver S V 3(2q l) pl(OI).
54
Chapter 18 . Infinitive. Continued 18. 3. After too.
This is too good to be true S V P(32pl(IP.». I was too tired to walk; F. J'etais trop fatigue pour marcher; O. Ich war zu miide um zu laufen; Dan. Jeg var for tnet til at gl S V P(32pl). The story is too long to amuse me S V P(32pl(10». The story is too long to be impressive S V P(32pl(IP». The story is too long to be read at one sitting S V P (32p I (lb 3 ) ) . The story is too long to read at one sitting S* V P(32pl(IOO*3».
18. 4. After Vuious Prepositions. Very often an infinitive after a preposition,' other languages corresponds to an English gerund. F. II est parti sans vous voir; O. Er ging ohne Sie zu sehen S V pl(OI). Dan. Han gik uden at se Dem S V pi (10). 1!'. San" coup ittl:l:; It. Sema co\-po ieute 'P\~Ol).
F. II est parti apres avoir mange; Dan. Han gik e£ter at have spist S V pl. It. Sto per scrivere; Sp. Voy a escribir { SV} pl. G. Er ist beim anziehen S V pl. Sp. Cuidado con hablar! 'Stop that talking!' X pI I &..mewhat different is the construction if the infinitive is not immediately dependent on the preposition. as in O. Ich muss darauf verzichten, ihn zu iiberzeugen
Sv 3(1*-p) V 1*(01). In Portuguese in some cases the S is added·: Esta laranja e para eu comer 'this orange is for me to eat' S(21) V pi (S.I). :2 tempo de eu partir V 8 pi (S.I). Depois de eu publicar estas linhas ppl(SIO). Cf. the inflected Pg. infinitive t5.4. Similarly in Spanish: Es causa bastante para tener hambre yo? 'Is that reason enough for me to be hungry?' So V P(!2) pl(I~}? Muri6 mi do antes del cumplir yo 101 trece aiios V 8(1·1) ppl(IS.0(2Q l».
Varic us Instances
55
18. 5. Infinitive Understood: (Can he sing? Yes,) he can 8 V 0°(1). (8hall you go?) I want to, but I can't 8 V 0 (1) & 8 (He wants to go) Let him! V 0(81°)1 (He ran, for) I made him 8 V 0'(8.1°). (He ran when) I asked him to 8. V 0(8.1 0 ).
0
vn
0°(1).
18. 6. Infinitive in Compounds. These cannot easily be sCjJarated l'rom those cases in which the infinitive is treated as an adjunct and written 2(1) 1 without a hyphen; I here may be considered a kind of Y; cf. also A regular sit-down supper 21(2(13)-1). Go-ahead nations 2(13)-1. 8tay-at-home people 2(1 pI)-l. Dan. drikkepenge; sovekammer 2 (I) -1. F. Chambre a coucher 1-2(1). F. Pourboire p-I. F. Savoir-vivre 1-0(1).
'1 •. 7. When infinitives have become substantives, especially when their meaning is concrete, they should not be symbolized I, but as ordinary primaries e.g. F. un diner, 2tftl, devoir, portvoir, G. das befinden, essen, vermogen, It. piacere. The same remark applies to such English substantives as a fight, find, look, love, wash, will, etc., which now look as infinitives tho. historically in many or ~ost cases formed independently of the infinitive.
CHAPTER 19.
Gerund. 19. I. Ordinary. Complimenting is lying S (G) V P (G) . Thinking is the most unhealthy thing (Wilde) S(G) V P(321). He likes travelling 8 V O(G). It is no use crying s V P(21) S(G). It is nJ use your crying s V P(21) 8(S2. G).
56
Chapter 19 . Gerund
It is no use you crying s V P(21) S( S2G). I remember my grandfather describing this S V 0(S2GO,..), or (S2YO.), if W(' take describing a~ a participle. There is a chance of some wine being left 3/s V S (X pi (S2Gb) ) . In the beginning of the war pi (G pS). I call that talking S V O(S.P(G);. I don't call lying in b:rllivinff S vn O(S(G3) P(G 2 There is no denying thi, 3/s V S(2 q GO). Is life worth li\'ir,g? V S P(2R(G». (I thank you, Jew) for teaching me that word pl(GOO(21». On account of then' b(·il.g no taxis ppl (3/sGS(2 Q l». Parliamt'nt brt'aking up g"vc tht' officials a good t'xcusc for doing nothing S(Sp:~) V 0 0(21 pi (GO»). Sophia's having ~e("n thf'm did not surpri~e u~ S(S/GO) vn O 2 , Sophia's being SC( n by them ... 8(S2' Gb pS.)
».
19. 2. Passive Meanin,? The garden want, \,('(ding S(O*) V O/G*), or S V O(GIJb). This will be the m;d,mg of vou S V P(GpO). This will be your u"d"lllg S V p(02G). He was dissatisflt'd \,itll hi~ own hringillg up ~ V P(Ybp l(02*2G*).
19. 3. With Adjectives and Adverbs. On account of hl~ dciiht-rate buyillg up of stocks ppl (S'2(3)GpO). On account of 'l \. Mock-turtle-scup 2{YO) 1. Mock-heroic poems '2 (YO (P) ) 1. A would-be wit 2 (YI*) 1 (P*). This symbolization is specially difficult, because wit besides being the primary to which would-be is an adjunct, is also predicative of be, one part of the composite Y; cf. above 3.7. One might also think of writing would-be as Y....
62
Cha~ter
21 . Agenl-S",bst4ntives and ParticillZes
21. 5. Y in Compounela. Innkeeper; shoemaker; house-owner; G. schuhmacher; Dan. akamager 2(O)-Y. Rope-dancer; sleep-walker; eye-witness; G. seiltinzer; Dan. linedanser; IIIMlgaenger 2-Y. Loud-speaker; forerunner; F. avant-coureur; G. vorliufer; Dan. Q"jttaIer; forl"ber 2(3)-Y. Wireless operator 2(O)-Y or 2m_y. Godsend 2(S)-Y. A sunburnt face; a tailor-made dress; a God-forsaken country . 2(2(S·)-Yb) 1. London-made goods i hand-made shoes; Dan. hlndgjorte sko 2(2-Yb) 1. Ready-made clothes; a free-born Roman; Dan. fzrdigsyet tej 2(P-Yb)1. A God-fearing man 2(O-Y)1. Non-smoker; Dan. ikke-ryger; G. nicht-raucher 2(3)n-y. Civil servant 2+Y or 2my. F. CerC-volant 1+2(Y). A self-conscious man; G. ein selbstbewusster mann; Dan. en selvbevidst mand 2 (O=S-Y) 1 ; but the adjectives do not mean the same thing. Gk. patrokt6nos .'parricide' o_ya; patr6ktonos 'killed by his father' S_Yb (thus Vendryes, Le langage 91; but the actual occurrence of the latter seems ddubt£ul). In the following instances the base of the verb is used: Pickpocket; breakwater; F. porte-manteau; perce-neige; It. passatempo, spazza-cammino; Sp. templa-plumas; G. wippsterz Y-2(O) ; d. 39.2. A run-away slave 2(Y3)-1 or 2(Y3) 1, if run is taker. as the participle. A non-stop train 2(yn)-1. A go-between Y-2(3). Cpo F. reveil-matin Y-2(3). CH~PTER
22
Clauses as Primaries. 22. 1. Content-Clauaes. That he is ill is indubitable S(3 e S. V P) V PI' G. Dass er krank ist, ist sieher sese s. P V) V p •.
Clauses
6S
I believe that he is ill S V 0{3 C S. V P). G. Ich denke, dass er krank ist S V 0(3 C S. P V). I believe he is ill; G. Ich denke, er ist krank S V 0 (S. V P). It is certain that he is ill; F. II est certain qu'il est malade s V P S(3C S. V Pa). Too bad, that he should be ill P(32) S(3C S. V p.). I think it probable that he is ill S V 0(5 P S.(3 C Sa V I know nothing except that he is ill S V 0 p1 (3 C S. V Pl. You overlook the fact that he i~ ill S V 0 [3 C S. V PJ. Her idea that he will die is absurd S(121 [3 C S V) V P. I am not sure he is ill S vn P p01(S. V p.); cf., however. 36.3. F. Pas wai? elle est charman te; Dan. Ikke sandt, hun er sed? P(3n 2 ?) S (S. V p.). What do you suppose had happened? S.*? v S V O(V*). What do you suppose he said? O.*? v S V O(S.V*). In these two one nnnot consider do you suppose as a mere parenthetical insertion (which should be symbolized by [ ]), but the final words are really objects of suppose; otherwise we should in the latter sentence have had did he say. Cf. Dan. "Hvad tror du der var sket?" and "Hvad tror du han sagde?" The stan show that what is the subject, resp. the object of the final V. Thus also: How old did you say she was? P*(3?2) v S V O(S.V*).
p.».
22. 2. Continued. Dan. Det ~rgrer mig at jeg ikke kan komme; Du. Het spijt me dat ik niet komen kan s V 0 S(3 cS.3n V). G. Mich freut es, dass du singen wint 0 V s S(3 cS.V). I take it that you will pay S V 0 O(3 C S. V). It never struck him that Bolshies are human beings s 3n V 0 S(3C S. V Pl. He never gave it a thought that Boishies are human beings S 3n V 0 0 0 (3c 8. V P). Dan. Jeg Mber ikke det vii regne 8 V 3n* 0 (S. V*). No wonder that he is angry P(2 Q1) 8 (3 C S. V p.). F. Cela tient a ce qu'its sont mariees S V pI (3 C 8. V Pl. F. II faut que tu viennes S V O(3 C S. V). 22. 3. Dependent Questions (Interrogative Clauses). I wonder is he ill? S V O(V S. P ?). I don't know if (whether) he is ill S yn V O(3 C S, V P ?).
64
Chapter 22 . Clauses as Primaries
G. Ich weiss nicht, ob er krank ist 8 V 3n 0(3 e 82 P V?). G. Dann wird (es) sich zeigen, ob er kommen wird 3 v (s) 0 V S(3 e S. V?). F. Je me demande si c'est vrai 8 0 V 0(3 e 8. V P ?). When he leaves he always tells us when he will be back 3(3 e 8 V) 83 V 0 0(3e ? S V 3). G. Wenn er geht, sagt er immer, wann er zuriick kommen wird • 3(3 e S V) V 8 3 0(3 e ? 83 V). It does not interest me whether he is ill or not s vn 0 8(3 e 8. V P & 3n ?). It does not interest me who is ill s Vn 0 8(82 ? V Pl. How he did it is another problem 8(3 e ? 8. V 0) V P(21). F. Comment il l'a fait, c'est une autre question; G. Wie er das getan hat, das ist eine andere frage [3 e ? 8. 0 V] 8 V P (21). I should like to know how and why he did it ~ V 0(1 02(3 e ? & 3e.? 8. V 0). He will give an account of why he did it 8 V 0 pI (3 e ? S V 0). I do not know the reason why he did it 8 vn 0 [3 e ? 8 V 0].
This is why he was afraid S V P(3t? S. V P). I have no idea of what you charge me with S V 0(2 QI pI (1*? S2 V Op*). He had no idea how this should be done 8 V 0(2 Q l) [3 e ? S2 Vb]. He was puzzled by the question, who had killed the man S Vb pI [S2? V 0]. 22. 4. Infinitive in Dependent Questions.
He knows how to play 8 V 0(3? I). I don't know what to think 8 vn V 0 (O.? I). F. Je ne sais pas que penser 8 3* V 3n* 0(02? I). Ru. Ja ne znal eto d'elat' 'I did not know what to do' 8 3" V O(O.? I). 22. 5. Relative Clauses as Primaries.
Who steals my purse steals trash 8 (se V 0) V O 2 , Whoever says that is a liar 8(8e V 0) V P. Lat. Qui boni sunt amantur P V) Vb. F. Qui dort dine 8(8e V) V. G. Wer etwas wiinscht, der sage es 8(8e 0 V) s V ot or [80 0 V] 8 V ot
sese
Relative
65
What you say is quite true 8(oe 8. V) V P(32). What I want is money P(OC8V) V 8 2, or 8(oe82V) V P. He took what he wanted 8 V 0 (oe8V). He took what money I had 8 V 0(02(2ct) 8 2 V). What money I have is at your disposal 8(0(2Cl) 8 2 V) V P(pl(PX». He was angry with whoever crossed his path 8 V P pi (8. cVO(Pl». Whom the gods love die young 8*(oc8.V) V [2*]. You may dance with whom you like S V pi (OC8V). f'. II raconte l'histoire a qui veut l'entendre S V 0 pO (sevoV). Things are not what they seem S vn P(PCSV). This is what publishers would like us to read S V P(0*S2VO(S,I*». This is where you are mistaken 8 V P(3 CS2V). He ran away from where he had been lying S V 3 pi (3 C8V).
CHAPTER 23.
Clauses
~s
SecondarieJ.
23. 1. With Pronouns. The man who killed Jaures was not punished; F. L'homme qui a tue Jaures n'a pa~ ete puni S(12(8CV 0» Vbn. The man whom he killed was Jaures; F. L'homme qu'il a tue etait J. 8( 12(OC 8 2 V» V P. F. Je sens mes jambes qui tremblent encore 8 V O(P12(SC V 3». ·F. Une chambre dont la porte etait fermee 12(S(2ct) V P(Yb». These poems which you admire were written by Heine; F. Ces poemes que vous admirez ont ete ecrits par Heine; G. Diese gedichte, die Sic bcwundern, sind v()n Heine geschrieben 8(212(OC S. V» Vb psa. Heine, whose poems you admire, was a German Jew; G. Heine, dessen gedichte Sie bewundcrn, war ein deutscher jude S(12(O(12. Talking of golf, have you met Nelson lately? .., S V 0 3? Oddly enough, I met him yesterday S V 0 3. Strange to say, I met him ye~tcrday S V 0 3. He is a regular magician S V P( 1). He fairly screamed S V. It amounted to practically nothing S V p 1. He kind of smiled S < 1p> V. He smiled like S V . He fell rather than climbed into bed S V pl. A full account of ~,uch asides a~ Linguistic Self·Criticism will appear in Trac-t 48 of the Society for Pure F.nglish; cr. J.iso Sproglig selvkritik -lDet....!lttende nord. filologmode 1935, p. 33 [f.)
CHAPTER 2ii
Amorphous Sentences. 26. L
IlltrOQ I1rtiOD,
Many sentences cannot be analy;!t'(l .\~ containing a nexus. They consist of only one member, though tIllS may contain more than ont: word. While the sentenc('~ of c0mpkte predicationai llexuses are (often, at any rat~) intcl\('ctual and ('7:-:nfd Sf) as to ,,,tisfy thp strict requirements of logicians, amorphous sl':ntpr,res are mort~ \uitable for the emotional side of hUInl1n nature. 'Nh~n anyone wants to give vent to a strong feeling he do(. not ttop to consider the logical ana· lysis of his ideas, but language fllrnisl1!'~ him with vario'.!s adequate
80
ChUjJler 20 . Amorpnous Sentences
means of bringing the state of his mind to the consciousness of his hearer or hearers. Such amorphous sentences range from sounds which are not otherwise used in ordinary speech, such as the click (suction-stop) of compassion, annoyance or impatience, conventionally, but imperfectly, written tut or tck, through single ordinary speech sounds like [S.] to enjoin silence (com'entionally spelt hush), or sound-combinations like hm! or ha hal and conventional "interjections" like alas! hullo! or hurra! to single words or word-combinations capable of being used also in full nexlls-sentences. Fully unanalyzable sentences are .here denoted Z: ! . and clicks, etc. Z! Yes! Z! Goodbye! Z!
26. 2. Half-analyzable Sentences. Not a few ~entences which some grammari2.ns would probably recko'J among amorphous sentences have been placed here and there amollg our examples of analyzable phenomena, e.g. "Splendid!" (9.6) and "Silence!" (13.1). When a substantive stands alone it is often impossible to decide whether it should be regarded as the subject or an object of an imaginary verb: those who are fond of explaining grammatical facts by means of ellipses are often at liberty to choose either explanation. When the street-criers shout "Strawberries!" is this to be taken as subject or object? As Madvig somewhere remarks we know accidentally tint in ancient Rome such cries were in the accusative and thus felt as object, for the cry "Cauneas!" ('Figs I') was taken as a warning not to go, as it was pronounced like "Caue ne eas!" G. "Guten morgen!" in the accusative may similarly be taken as thl' object (of something like "Ich wiinsche Ihnen"), but thcre is nothing to show whether E. "Good morning !", Dan. "God dag!" is S or 0. Therefore I write 1 instead of a possible S or in cases like the following (cp. also instances in 13.1.): 0, these women! Z 1 (21) ! What about a drink? I? pI. Hence his financial difficulties 3 1 ( 1221) (this rather like S). F. Apres nous Ie deluge! pI I! G. Viel geschrei, wenig wolle 2ql 2q1. Thanks! I John! I Heavens! I An aeroplane! I!
°
Hall-a71aly~able
81
Thanks awfully! 13! Similarly X without specifying if S or what else in F. Defense de fumer X pO(I). When we say "Good, isn't it?" we use first a kind of amorphous sentence, and then improve it by adding a verbal question P, vn S? In telegraphese and in newspaper headlines half-analyzable sentences abound, e.g. Taken wrong train; returning to-morrow V 0(21) V 3. Young girl shot by mistake S(21) yb pI, or 0(21) V pI. But it should be remembered that sentences of this kind occur chiefly or exclusively in writing. See the full treatment in H. Straumann, Newspaper Headlines (London 1935).
26. 3. Answer. In answers unanalyzable or half-analyzable sentences abound; but generally they may be symbolized in the same way as if they were members of sentences corresponding to the question: (Who said it?)-John. S. (Whom did you see?)-Mary. O. (Is he rich or poor?)-Poor. P. (When did it h;lppen?)-Yesterday. 3. {Are you coming?)-Of course. pI. (How is it done?)-Thus. 3 (with a gesture). There are some words which are used exclusively in answers. namely ref and No. These fall outside our ordinary symbols, and are, as remarked above, denoted by the letter Z.
26. 4. Retort. In retorts, too, various more or less unanalyzable sentence-forms are frequent, e.g. (You unmitigated idiot!)-Idiot yourself! P S. (I want my revenge)-You and your revenge! 1 & 1'1. F. Toi et ton cil"':ma! 1 & 1'1. Dan. (Han har ingen apparater)-Du med dine apparater! 1 pl(1I1).
26. 5. Amorphous Combinations. In proverbial sayings we often find two members of which the first amorphously expresses a condition and the second what happens
82
Chapu7 26 . Amorphous Sentences
=
when the condition is fulfilled: No cure, no pay 'if there is no cure there will be no pay'. We may tentatively and crudely symbolize them as follows, 3 implying the condition as a te'rtiary in the sentence as a whole: No cure, no pay 3(2ql) 2q1. Least said, soonest mended 3 (Syb) 3 P (Yb) . First come, first served 3(3Y) 3 P(Yb), or P(3Yb). Like master, like man 3(21) 21. One man one vote 3(2q l) 2q1. G. Klein geld, kleine arbeit 3(21) 21. F. Point d'argent, point de suisse 3(2Qpl) 2Qpl.
26. 6. Clauses. We have amorpbaus clauses in: (Will he come?) I hope so S V 0(3). I hope not S V O(3t')--cf 249. F. J'espere que oui S V 0(3 CZ) ; thus also que non. 26. 7. Deprecation. He a miser! F. Lui avarc! Dan. Han gerrig! G. Der ein geizhals! S P""! (tlw meaning is: "How can you say that he is a miser?" By an unintf'ntional. coincidence our symbols for negatio~ nand not-expres~cd " together look as the answer to the question). G. Judenhetzer anstindige leutc! S P(2l)no! She talk to him! Dan. Han gift!" sig med hende! S Iplno! 'F. i oi hire ~'4 \ \t. \\\ hJ ~'Ut'i,\~ '. ~ 'l OM \ Lat. Mene inn'pto desistere victam? S* 3? 0 I [Yb*]n o ! Sp. Olvidarla yo? r Q sno! = I forget her! S I Ono I
CHAPTER 27.
Complicated specimens. Finallv (.
1 \1
't\.~a.~'I. ~\,'I. a.-re \"'\\ \ ,,'m:,,;wo. c.""'-'"c:"\ remarks. But I hop\: I may be forgiwll for thinking that his system with its shifting about of the four symbols is too much of an intellectual tour-de-force to fit the linguistical facts: language, i.e. the human mind, cannot be pressed into so strict a frame. Some of the views, e.g. about proper names and reflexives, appear to be extremely disputable, even paradoxical. It is not easy always to sce the purport
90
Chapter 28 • General
of his four categories, more particularly when they appear combined, and I must confess that when after an absence from his writings of a month or so I ask myself, what is meant by Dr or rD, the exact purport has slipped completely out of my mind,-though that, of course, may be due to a deficiency in my individual mental equipment.' Bnmdal's method is avowedly (see "Morf. og Synt.", p. 58) to set up first of all the theoretical possibilities of combinations of hb D, T, etc., and afterwards to make an attempt at finding them again (genfinde dem) in actual sentences: he succeeds, but not always without a visible effort. My own method has been diametrically opposite: I have everywhere started from sentences as occurring in actual living speech and have then tried to find out what they stand for and how they are to be understood and analyzed, making extensive use of traditional terms-,-while recognizing all the imperfections and deficiencies of existing terminology-and trying to construct on this basis a set of concise and easily memorable formulas. My aim is a much more modest one than Brendal's, as I do not pretend to create a logical system for human language in general. In the first insta~ce I wanted to understand and systematize the principal phenomena of the sentence structure of that one language which I have studied with special care, English, and thus to provide a means of distinguishing and describing all the various types found there. As, however, in analyzing English, I had to consider constantly the question, what is specially characteristic of that language, and t
Brendal on more than one occasion freely criticizes my own views, but that has not hindered him from dedicating his "Morfologi og Syntax" to me. In the same way my own opposition to some of his opinions does not detract from my admiration for his learning and brilliancy. If we take Brendal's terms descriptor and descriptum at their face value and then try to apply them to the combination "that grey-bearded journalist Jones", we may say: I,e, describes bea,d and is a descriptor (d), bea,d in relation to ,rey is descriptum (D), but it also describes the man, or rather, ,rey-bearded i. descriptor (d) to the descriptum (D) journalist, but this latter word, or the whole complex, is descriptor to 'Jones (D). But this proper name which here is D, in other connexions may be called descriptor (d), for if you answer the question "Whom did you meet?" by saying "Jonea", this to thc.se who know him contains a whole description. But in Brenda!'s system a oroper name is relatum (R) and has nothing to do with D or d. Thus we see that common-sense use of Brenda!'s terms leads us nowhere, at any rate not to Brendal's system.
M.v System
91
what may be termed universal, applicable to all human languages, or at all events to many languages (for the variety in language structure is so enormous that no single scholar dares to speak of all), I was gradually led to include examples from a dozen other languages, both where they agreed with and where they differed from English. In one respect I am, no doubt, more ambitious than Brendal, for I have gone into much more detail than he lias, and have dealt with many more concrete problems than are touched on in his books.
28. 3. My Own. In constructing a system based chiefly on the use of capital letters I was encountered by difficulties arising from the fact that so many of the usual grammatical terms begin with the same letter. Thus, the following letters might stand each for any of the ensuing terms: A: Active Adjective Adjunct Adnex Adverb Apposition Attribute Auxiliary. C: Compound Conjunction Connective. I : Iruperative Indefinite Indirect Infinitive Ing Interrogative. N: Negation Nexus (Nexus-substantive) Noun. 0: Object Nought (cipher). P : Participle Particle Passive Past Perfect Person Predicate Predicative Preposition Preterit Primary Pronoun. R: Recipient Reciprocal Reflexive Regimen Relative. S : Secondary Subject Subjunct Substantive. Under these circumstances a selection had to be made, and after a good deal of experimenting I arrived at the symbols enumerated in Chapter2 and illustrated in the rest of Part I. It must be admitted that X, Y, and Z are chosen arbitrarily, though X may remind one of the medial x in Nexus.
28. 4. Meaning 01 the Small Letters. Why have the small symbols, s, 0, OJ and v, been devised? To avoid misunderstanding it may not be superfluous to say expressly that they are not meant for some inferi~r kinds of subjec~s, objects, etc., exemplified by such short prononunal forms as F. leJ me (as contrasted with moi), etc. 1e and Ie in 1e Ie Taconte are
92
Chapter 28 . General
symbolized Sand 0 and are for our purposes on exac~ly the same footing as Jean raconte l'histoire. Therefore we write S, not s, for the subject in It rains, Il pleut, Es regnet, etc. The chief reason for these symbols is practical convenience. The small sand 0 are extremely handy for what I have elsewhere called preparatory it. This may be considered the real subject and object, respectively, in cases like "It is a great pleasure to see you" and "We have it in our power to do great harm", while the infinitive is put in extraposition (or, if you like, in apposition) at the end of the sentence. This may be written: S*Y P(21) [*IO]-and S Y 0* pl(S21) [*102(21)).1 It is, however, more convenient, and, by the way, more in accordance with the natural feeling of the unsophisticated mind, to look upon it as a mere preliminary or introductory word, a foreboding of the real subject, "a dummy subject", and thus to write: s V P(21) S(IO) and S V 0 pl(S21) 0(102(21)). Similarly when it prepares a whole clause as subject or object. The same remark holds go~d for the corresponding pronouns in other languages, ii, ce, es, det, etc. Examples are found in Chapters 22-24. It is also more convenient to transcribe familiar French sentences like "Henri viendra-t-il?" as S Y s? rather than putting Henri in extraposition: [1*] V S*? With the small v the case is similar, but not exactly the same. It is bcst, for the sake of convenience, to take forms like will drink, would drink, shall drink, should drink, has drunk, had drunk, is drinking, has been drinking, even can drink, may drink, etc., as wholes to be simply symbolized V. A more explicit but inconvenient way of symbolizing is the following: He will drink whisky; he should drink whisky, he can drink whisky S V 0(I0 2 )-with the infinitive as (part of) the objectHe is drinking whisky S V P(YO). He has drunk whisky S V o(yb/a O 2 ), He has been drinking whisky S V 0(YP(YP2))' So, instead, we write simply S V 0 for all of these. 1
cr. He is a humbug, that man Cranby, whom you seem S* V P [21*2 etc.].
to
admire
10
much
Small Letters
93
Now, this would be very plain sailing everywhere but for the rules which oblige speakers to separate these elements of a composite V in certain well-defined cases, when either the S or a tertiary is intercalated after the first element, and it is this that makes the small v so valuable an instrument: Will (shall, would, should, can, may, must ... ) he drink whisky? v S V O? Has (had) he drunk (been drinking) whisky? v S V O? WiP he be drinking whisky? v S V O? He will (would, etc.) always (on all occasions, under no circumstances, etc.) drink whisky S v 3 V O. Note that V after a small .., stands sometimes for an infinitive, sometimes for a participle. It was a different chain of reasoning that led to the adoption of the small p. This should properly be a capital like the other big letters, but the place of P happened to be occupied for another purpose, where it could not be easily replaced, viz. for Predicative; hence p, which thus does not at all stand in the same relation to Paso does to 0 or v to V. Compare the necessity of appropriating the small index b instead of p for passive. We shall now deal at greater length than was possible in Part I with some of the most difficult problems involved in our scheme.
28. 5. What not symbolized. In order properly to understand the purpose of the system it may be well here at once to state what is not symbolized in it. Cf.41.2. It has no reference to the signification of the words or sentences indicated: whether S is a king or a peasant, a place or a feeling, whether 2 is big or small or heavenly or abominable, whether V is love or hate or see or omit, etc., all such things have no influence on the symbols. 1 The only exception is the index for negation, D. This exception is justified by the influence negation has in many languages on sentence structure, see, for instance, English don!t, won't, and especially the Finnish verbal forms:
/
, Therefore such an idiomatic expression as F. 1e lui en veux 'I bear him a grudge' with "unspecified en" must be symbolized in the same way as (de I'argent) 1e lui donnll 'I give him some' with "specified en": S 0 0 V.
.n
Chapter 28
94
General
En tuo I do net bring, Et tuo thou dost not bring, Ei tuo he (she) does not bring, Emme tuo we do not bring, Ette tuo you (pI.) do not bring, Evilt tuo they do not bring, En tuonut I did not bring, Et tuonut thou didst not bring, etc., which should all be sym-
bolized {S v o } V. Next, a great many grammatical things are not symbolized: Number: whether king 01" kings, etc. Tense: whether comes or came, has come or will come, etc. Person: whether I, or you, or he, or they, etc. Gender or sex: whether king or queen, he or she, del" tisch or die liebe, etc. Degrees of comparison: whether big or bigger or biggest. Further the symbols disregard the ordinary division into wordclasses (parts of speech) ; S may be a substantive or a pronoun or an adjective or an infinitive or a whole chuse, and similarly with 0, 0, P, R, 3, etc. Here, however, we have two noteworthy exceptions, the Finite Verb (V), which plays the most important part in the building up of the most usual type of sentences, and the Preposition (p), which ha~ likewise a special part to perform; which justifies the separate symbolization. It may, of course, also be said that by providing the symbols I for Infinitive and G for Gerund we have stepped outside the principle of not having separate symbols for·the "parts of speech". but they do not, however, constitute "parts of speech," but like V are included on account of their syntactic value. Finally we must say with some emphasis tbat as the purport of the system is to provide general syntactic symbols, it follows that forms as such have no place in the system. A purely formal element is in so far included, as the symbols follow the order in which the various items occur in the analyzed sentences, and word-order of course is formal in character. But nothing is said of the significance, if any, of the word-order, whether in the language analyzed it serves to show what is Subjec;, and what Object, etc. It may also be held that the admission of Infinitive and Gerund constitutes a breach of the principle here mentioned, as they may be considered forms. But without
Morpheme
95
them our analysis would have been incomplete and really futile, and their inclusion serves to bring home to us the incontestable truth that in grammar as elsewhere form and matter, outer and inner, cannot be rigidly separated: however much we may try to speak of pure syntax as apart from morphology (accidence), considerations of form will necessarily force themselves on us here and there.
CHAPTER 29.
Form - Fundion - Notion. 29. 1. Morpheme. After thus discarding various things in grammar which find no place in our symbolology it will be well to look at a diagram found in PhilGr, p. 56. It contains in three columns, superscribed (A) Form, (B) Function, (C) Notion, one example, the English preterit: A
B
-t (fixed)
knew)
-d (showed)
preterit -t with inner change (left)
kernel unchanged (put) inner change (drank) different kernel (was)
C past time unreality in present time (if we knew; I wish we
oed (handed)
future time (it is time you went to bed) shifted present time (how did you know I was a Dane?) all times (men were deceivers ever).
Let us look at each of these columns separately and the terminology to be used for each. Linguistic science has of late years been extremely fertile in new technical terms, but unfortunately there has been no real agreement as to the exact meaning to be ascribed to some of them, even if one and the same term is 'used by various scholars. There has been a lively discussion on the word phoneme, but that is outside the scope of this volume. Morpheme, however, must be mentioned here because it would be used by many linguists with regard to column A.
96
Chapter 29 . Form -
Function -
Notion
To Noreen (perhaps the first to use the term) dreieck and dreiseitige gradlinige figur are each of them one morpheme, but these two morphemes mean the same thing and are therefore one and the same sememe. Marouzeau: element de formation propre a conferer un aspect grammatical aux elements de signification; this may be an isolated word (preposition, etc.), but generally the term is used for "elements de formation qui s'ajoutent a la partie fondamentale du mot". Vendryes: morpheme is a linguistic element which expresses the relation between the ideas, thus the syllables or sounds added to the root to show the role in the sentence; also the vowel-change in man : men, in some languages accent and word-order; he and other French grammarians recognize a "morpheme zero", e.g. in the plural sheep . .The Prague Cercle de Linguistique (4.321) : unite morphologiqu~ non-susceptible d'etre divisee en unites morphologiques plus petites, c'est-a-dire une partie de mot qui, dans toute une serie de mots, se presente avec la meme fonction formelle et qui n'est pas susceptible d'etre divisee en parties plus petites posseJant cette qualite. Bloomfield (Language): morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit (lexically); he recognizes in "Poor John ran away" five morphemes: poor, 1ohn, ran, a- and way. "The total stock of morphemes in a language is its lexicon". Zipf (Psycho-Biology of Language 15) reckons as morphemes prefixes, roots, suffixes and endings; in un-tru-th-ful-ness we have five morphemes. Firth (Speech 49) seems to reckon among morphemes only prefixes and suffixes. J. R. Aiken (New Plan of English Grammar) : morpheme is an empty word which plays the same role as a flexional ending-a suffix thus is no morpheme. Thus, according to the writer whose definition we prefer, we have to say that untruthfulness is one morpheme, or five, or four morphemes. According to one drank is one indivisible morpheme, according to someone else, the vowel a, which makes this preterit distinct from the infinitive, is a morpheme, but what then is dr-nk? And if I exclude the "root" or "stern" from being called a morpheme, am I to say that in the three plurals wishes, locks, screws, in which the sound changes automatically according to the final sound of the "root", the ending is one and the same morpheme or three differe~t
Morpheme
97
morphemes? And if the same three forms occur again as the third perSOll singular of the corresponding verbs. is that again the same or a different morphcme? What about knives, in which the final sound of the "root" is changed as against the singular knife? Is it [z] or thc change of [f] to [v] + added [z] that is here the morpheme? Or the whole form knives? And when English plural forms are used for the genitive erwise identifying them. Compare also with a passive participle "he wounds him dangel'Ously" and "a dangerously wounded warrior".
33. 5. Objedion. Western in his Norsk n'ksmAlsgrammatikk followed my theory of ranks, but in a subsequent article (MAl og minne, 1934, p. 76) he says that the idea of rank can be applied to junctions only: a verb according to him falls outside the three ranks and forms a class by itself, the chief characteristic of which is that it may be determined by a tertiary. He is led to this conclusion by classing together the finite verb and the infinitive verb. It is true that both may be determined by a tertiary: he sings merrily, to sing merrily, this even when the infinitive is the subject, thus a primary. But Western overlooks the simple fact that an infinitive always denotes a neXus between a subject and the verbal idea, though the subject need not be expressly stated (see already in my first treatment of nexus, De to hovedarter, p. 35, ~ilGr 141 ff., and below 345). Therefore when we say that an infinitive is a primary (subject, or object), what we reaDy mean is that the infinitival nexus, not the infinitive as such, is subject or object.
124
Chapter 33 . Nexus
Now we understand why it is possible to have a tertiary in "to sing merrily is a pleasure" and "1 want to sing merrily", for these sentences, if fully symbolized, are S(SO 1 3) V P and S V O(SO I 3) : within earh of the parentheses we have the three ranks 123, and the verbal element here as in "I sing merrily" is secondary. The same remark applies to English "( live and) let live", "let go", "make believe", F. "j'entends chanter dans la rue", Dan. "lad vaske ude", etc., in which there is no subject expressed with the infinitive. The relation between the elements is the same as in "I make him sing merrily" S V Ot(S2 I 3). When an infinitive is combined with a secondary, as in G. "Ein muntres singen, das muntre singen der studenten", the infinitive is really a nexus-substantive (as infinitives were admittedly from the origin), and the cases are parallel to E. "A merry life, the merry singing".
33. 6. Specializin,. If a subject and an object (direct or indirect) are termed primaries and thus compared with and coordinated with primaries in a junction, it is because they denote comparatively definite and special notions,! whereas the notion expressed by a verb is less "substantial" and therefore in comparison with S, 0, 0 must be called secondary. But the relation between primary and secondary is not the same in a nexus as in a junction. There is this fundamental difference that while in a junction a secondary serves to make the primary more definite, more special, than it is in itself, this is not at all the case in a nexus. We ~ay even with a certain degree of justification say that the notion expressed by a verb is made more definite by the subje-et: goes is specified in different ways when we say that the mini~ter, the watch, time, a rumour goes, etc. It is even more true to say that an object "serves to make the meaning contained in the verb more special", PhilGr 158, where among other examples are found: she sings Frenc.h songs .he sings well send the boy for the doctor send for the doctor he doesn't smoke cigars. he doesn't smoke
This specializing power is especially evident with verbs of general I
On the indefinite S in sentences with there is see 34.S.
125 import: he does harm, IUIDI, IUs duty, WIOIIIi'tn: makes a noDe. makes way, peace; F. iI fait du bruit, etc. . An indirect object also apec:if'leI, compare thus ''he offen a reward" and "he offen the butler a reward". AI a tel Jary, too, baa the effect of tpeCializjng or derming a WIb (he walks fast, sings loud, etc.) we undentand how it is that the boundary between object aocl tertiary is often fluctuating: above (7.4) we laW instanc:es of 0/3 or 3/0, lee also below 16.4. If the ipeclfying power.
Of the different ranks were not in this
way the revene in a nexus of what it is in a junction, we should not
easily undentand the lbiftinp found espec:ia1Iy with nexus-substan· tives, where 'M doc'or (primary) tmiV.' (sec.) becomes ,1&. doe,wl (sec.) arrival (primary); d.J9.4.' . Though the terms primary and IeCOIldary are thus applic:able to the parts of a nexus, there is no need to mark this by means of numerals as the big initiala are IUfrlCient to show the relation.
CHAPTER. 34.
Subject. Sf. 1. DeliaJtioL What is a subject? How to derme it? That the grammatical subject cannot be sufficiently dermed u "that about which we speak" baa already been mentioned (33.4). This wu seen very clearly many yean ago by H. G. Wiwel (Synapunkter for dansk aproglaere. 1901) and baa be.en stated. independently. by 'P. B. Ba1\ard (Thoupt and Language. 1934, p. 90) in a pauase which 1 tranac:ribe: "The subject of a sentence ... is suppoeed to state what the speaker is going to speak about. How is the supposition reaIiIed in the f01lowing sentence : 1 law in ,1&. ti",.".rda, a W, fir. llladn, awa, witl& ,lair', , ••, lai,la? What am I ta1Idns about here? Grammar says it is myself ; common sense laYS it is a fire in the city. What arreatI my attention is not the explicit predication 1 law, but the predication lying latent in the phrue a W, fir. blGdn, awa1. The predications are here topsy.turvy. What is grammatically important is JoP:aIIy unim· portant; for 1 ,aw isluapd in u a mere exc18e for making .!-11 ordinary statement, and ia intended to be kept in the ~
,141M'
extra.:
126
Chapter 34
Subject
In MEG III 11. h I said: "the [grammatical] subject cannot be defined by means of such words as active or agent; this is excluded by the meaning of a great many verbs, e.g. suffer ... The subject is the primary which is most intimately connected with the verb (predicate) in the form which it actually has in the sentence with which we are concerned; thus Tom is the subject in (1) "Tom beats John", but not in (2) "John is beaten by Tom", though both sentences indicate the same action on the part of Tom; in the latter sentence John is the subject, because he is the person most intimately connected with the verb beat in the actual form employed: is beaten. We can thus find out the subject by asking Who (or What) foJ1owed by the verb in the form used in the sentence: (1) Who beats (John) ? Tom I (2) Who is beaten (by Tom)? John.-Subject as a grammatical term can thus be defined only in connexion with the rest of the sentence in its actual form. From such sentences in the most typical form the term is transferred to other forms of nexus (SP; SG; SI; SX) and even to the use in "Out with you!" 3 pSI (13.1) and analogous cases.
34. 2. Case. The case used to express the subject is generally the nominative, in dependent nexust's it may be the accusative. In some cases Russian has the genitive in negative sentences; Finnish has the partitive if the subject is indefinite. In a dependent tertiary (above 14.5) S is in the ablative in Latin, in the genitive in Greek, in the dative in Gothic or Slavic, in the accusative in German, in the nominative in English and Spanish (PhilGr 126-129) ; the same case is used in the P of such constructions. The S of a gerund may, and the S of a nexussubstantive generally must be in the genitive. The constructions dealt with in 14.5 are not well named in ~aditi~nal lP'ammar. In my school-days we spoke of "duo ablativi" In Latin (but the number is not decisive, and in other languages othe for than in sentences like "He is as big as John" and "he is bigger than John", where I now use only 3c (see 24.7), which says nothing but only connects the item with what precedes. As soon as we try to step outside the syntactic fields circumscribed in 28.5 we meet with unsurmountable difficulties, all of them due to the innumerable differences of linguistic structure which militate against any generally applic~ble symbols. Let me illustrate this with one example. One of the simplest syntactic distinctions seems to be that between singular and plural. One might imagine the rule that the singular should always be unmarked and the plural marked by the sign + placed under the symbol, thus He gave her a ring S V 0 0 They gave her a ring S V 0 0
=
+
He gave them a ring S V 0 0 + They gave them rings S V 0 0, etc.
+
+ +
But on closer inspection various difficulties arise. First, what is one to do with V? Should we mark the difference between (he) is and ( they) are? The distinction is observed in many languages, in English generally in the present tense, but not in the preterit, and in the present tense only in the third person. In Danish it has disappeared, and indeed it is superfluous (and really logically erroneous), as demonstrated by the fact that all recent systems of constructed languages (esperanto, ido, occidental, novial) make no distinction, and feel no want of any, in their verbs according to the number of the subject. The real logical application of the plural idea to a verb is found in frequentatives such as L. cantito 'sing frequently', Ru. strelivat' 'fire several shuts, shoot continually' (MEG II. 6.9). Further difficulties are found with collectives (the family ... it.. .its, or they... their), with mass-words (butter, oats, brain(s), verse, measles), and with generic e""Pressions (a (ther tiger is cruel, tigers are cruel, etc.). Similar, only greater, difficulties would be found were 'we to devise general syntactic symbols for such categories as time (tense), person, or gender. On case see above, Ch.30. All things considered,' I feel that I have done well in restricting my symbolization to the categories dealt with in this work.
Chapter 41 . Conelusion
156
41. 3. Notes on "TIle PldlOIOphy of Grammar". In this book I have so often taken up again the same matters that I dealt with in my previous work "The Philosophy of Grammar" (Allen & Unwin, 1924, abbreviated PhiIGr), criticizing, modifying, or amplifying my former views and expressions, that it will be found useful here to collect all such passages and refer to the corresponding chapters and sections in the present book. (P. refers to pages in PhiIGr.) P. 49 French superlative 29.2(5). P. 56 Form-Function-Notion 29.1. P. 75 Substantives on the whole more special than adjectives; P. 76 note extension of substantives and adjectives; P. 79 numerical test; greater complexity of qualities denoted by substantives 31.3 note. ' P. 85 Quantifiers 32. P. 85 -Relative that ~.1. P. 89 Conjunction and preposition 2f.4 and 4O.S. P. 91 Adjectives and adverbs with nexus-substantives 39. 4.
P. 9S
n. Rank 3t.
P. 96 For "one word of supreme ~mportance" read "one unit of supreme grammatical importance" 'and see definition 31.3. P. 96 the .example "a certainly not very cleverly worded remark" criticized 31.2. P. ~ Only three ranks distinguished 31.2. P. 98 Substantives as adjuncts; better cpordinatior 31.4 and 31.8. P. 100 Infinitives as primaries 33.5 and 34.5. P. 103 Clause better defined "a' member of a sentence having a form similar to that of a sentence" 40; see also 23-25. P. 104 "What you say is true"~.5; fl.l ; cf. MEG III 3,1. P. 107 line 12 from bottom read "the oblique cases (or rather some of them) are devices for turning the substantive ... into a secondary... or tertiary", etc. P. 111 "That noble heart of hers" f.4; see also S.P.E. Tract 25 and MEG III. 1.5. P. 113 Quantifier 32 and 5. P. 114 French partitive article '.5. P. 114-116 Difference between junction and nexus 33; rank in nexus33.4. N.B. P. 117-120 Infinitival nexus 15. P. 120 f. Nominal sentences 9.6. P. 122 Nexus-objectlf.1.
Notes on "The Philosoph, of Grammar"
P. P. P. P.
124 1"26 126 129 131 133 137 139 141 145 150 153 154 156 158 159 160 161 161 162 164 169 169 170 172 181 183 211 221 245 282
P. P. P. P.
301 306 309 311
P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. P.
157
"Post urbem conditam"14! .4. "Too many cooks" 1~.2. Nexus subjunct (tertiary) 1~.5 and 3f.2. Nexus of deprecation 26.7. Predicative 35. ff. Nexus-substantive 39.4 and 20. Cognate object 12.8. Infinitive and gerund 39.1 and 3. One member-nexus 3f.3. ff. Subject 34Subject comparatively definite 3f.6. Quotation from Keats 35.3. Existential sentences ("there is") 3f.6-9. Object, definition 36Object makes verb more defmite 33.6. O/P 9.7. f. OIS 8.8. Reciprocal 8.4. Two objects 36.5 ff. Object with adjective and adverb 38.1 CR). Passive 37 • "Pickpocket" 21.5. Subject and object with nexus-substantive 20 and 39 .4. Passive infinitive 37.2, 15.2, 16ff. Case 30. French partitive article 7.5. "Dem kerl 3Cin hut" 12.4-.
Plural of verbal idea ~1.3. Reflexive and reciprocal 8.2--4. French superlative 29.2(5). line 4 (will) read: "still in some combinations retains some trace of the original meaning". Classification of utterances 13. One-member sentence 3f.3 and 35.1. Suppression ~1.1 and 26. Signboards, etc. 26. . Addendum to 8.8.
Further examples of It. Ii = F. 011: Ie Ii ~ cristiani Ii ha it dovere d'obbediare 'a suo padre (Fogazzaro)/Perch~ non ti si vede in neuun luogo? (Verga). Sp. s.: suelen verse esas condescencias con los grande.. mientras se pemgue lin piedad Ii los pequenos (Gald6s). In America educated people say "se vende frutos", etc., see Lenz, La Oraci6n y sus Partes, 2. ed. 89,252.
Index d, a 36.8, 36.9 a see Active Abbreviated Clause 24.9 Absolute construction 14.5, 34.2 Active, split subject 16.2, infinitive in active form 17.4 f., gerund 19.2' Adjectival compounds 6.6, 6.7, 31.8 Adjective 31.1; with infinitive 17.7, with gerund 19.3, with nexus-substantive 20.4, with object 21.4, primary 31. i Adjunct, ordinary 3.1, genitival 3.3, irregular 3.6, with compounds 6.5 ff. - Cf. Rank. Adverb 31.1 ; in junction 3.4, as predicative 9.3, with gerund 19.3, with nexus-substantive 20.2. relative 23.3. - Cf. Tertiary Agent-Substantive Ch. 21, 39.2 Amorphous Sentences Ch. 26 Answer 26.3 Apposition Ch. 4, Ch. 12, nexussubstantive 20.4, participles 21.3, clauses Ch. 25 Arabic, predicative 35.3 as, in appositive 12.5, relative 23.5 b see Passive Ballard 34.1 black, various combinations 3].9 Blake 30.1 blive, in cleft sentences 25.8 blue-.yed 6.7 Bologne 28.1 Brackets 8.1, 15.4, 28.5, 34.3 Bnmdal -28.2 bui, relative 23.5 c 2.2, 40.3. See Clauses, Conjunction, Connectiv~ Case Ch. 30; subject 34.2, predicative 35.4, object 36.4
cc 2.2. - See Clauses, Conjunctions, composite Clauses Ch. 40; as prim2.ries Ch. 22, as secondaries Ch. 23, tertiaries Ch. 24, parenthetic Ch. 25, amorphous 26.6 Cleft sentences 25.4 ff. Comparison 24.7 Complex v~rbal phrases 8.5, 36.2 Complicated specimens Ch. 27 Compound Ch. 6, 31.8; infinitive 18.6, gerund 19.4, nexus-substantive 20.3, Y 21.5 Concatenated Clauses 23.7 Concrete, infinitive 18.7, gerund 19.5, nexus-sabstantive 20.5 Conjunctions 24.1 f.; composite 24.2 Connective 40.3 Contact-Clauses 23.6, 40.2 Content-Clauses 22.1 Coordination 31.4. - Cf. Equipollent Copula 35.2; no copula 9.6 Dative 11.2 f., 30.2 Deprecation 26.7 Deutschbein 30.1 dont 23.1 ff. Ellipsis 6.9, 18.5, 24.9, 34.3 ff., 41.1 en 8.3, 8.6, 10.1, 19.4, 20.1, 23.2 Equipollent 3.5, 6.2 es 8.9; es ist 25.8; es gibt 34.9 ,-st-ce (que) 25.7 Exclamation 13.5 Existential 34.6 Extralingual 29.3 EJCtraposition Ch. 12; sentences with it is 25.6 fr. - Cf. Apposition Finnish, cases 30.3, bracketed forma
8.1, 28.5 Form Ch. 29 Fonnans 29.1
The numbers given refer to section numbers of the text.
Index Function Ch. 29 Fry, Isabel, 27.2
fd 21.2 G see Gerund Gardiner 35.3 Generic person 34.5, d. II, Ii. Genitive, adjunct 3.3, quantifier 5.3, 32.1, 32.3, compound 6.3, Latin 30.2, Finnish 30.3, secondary 30.5, 31.6, primary 31.7 Gerund Ch. 19, 39.3; subject of, 34.5 Half-analyzable sentences 26.2 Hammerich 31.4, 35.2 Hjelmslev 30.1, 30.3 f. I see I nfini tive il 8.9; il y a 34.9 Indifference, clauses of, 24.B Infinitive Ch. 15, Chs 17-1B, 39.1 ; in dependent queb:ions 22.4, subject of, 34.5, passive (17.4), 17.6, 37.2 Injunction 13.1, 13.4 Interrogative Clauses 22.3 ; cr. Question. Intralillgual 29.3 it is 25.3 ff. Judgment 33.1, 35.1 Junction Gh. 3, Ch. 31, 33.2; virtually nexus 14.2 Korner 36.1 Latent 41.1 Latin, cases 30.2, case of subject 34.2 Lesser subject, etc. B.9, 2B.4 m 2.2. -- See Modified adjunct Modified adjunct 3.B Morphem~
29.1
Morphos::mc 29.2, 30.4 n 2.2. -- SeC !'legation Negation 23.2, 28.5 Nexus Cr•. 7, Chs 14--15, Ch. 33, tertiary 14.5, 34.5 Nexus-Substantive Ch. 2Ci, 39.4 ; subject of, 34.5 Nominal sentences "9.6, 33.3 Notion Ch. 29 Numerals 32.4 0, 0, see Lesser subject etc. Object 33.3, Ch. 36; direct 7.1 ff., 33.3, 36.6, indirect 7.1 f., 33.3. 36.5, 36.7, 0/5 8.8, two objects
159
8.3, 36.6, in dependent infinitival nexus 15.1 f., split obj. 16.3, infinitive 17.2, gerund 19.1, nexussubstantive 20.1, with Y 21.1 ff., clauses 22.1 fl., lesser obj. 28.4 01, appositional 4.4 Oxenvad 34.8 P see Predicative p, pp see Preposition, Prepositional group Parenthetic clauses Ch. 25 Participle Ch. 21, 37.3, 39.2 Partitive 32.3; Finnish 30.3, Fr. paltitive article 7.5, 10.3 Passive 8.7, Ch. 37; with split subject 16.1, infinitive 17.4 fr., gerund 19.2, part,iciple 21.2 Paul 30.1 Philosophy of Grammar, notes on, 41.3 plu;t 34.4 Plural, possible symbolization of, 41.2 Por.tuguese, infinitive 15.4, 18.4, a 36.9 Possessive, primary 31. 7 (poss. pronouns treated like genitives) Predication 33.1 Predicative Ch. 9, 33.3, Ch. 35; implied 3.7, ~xtraposition 12.2, infinitive 17.!, gerund 19.1, rank 35.3 Preposition, with quantifiers 5.4, in compounds 5.4, place of, lOA, with infinitive 18.4, with gerund 19.1, with clauses 24.4, 40.3, reij'imen of, 31.9 Prt'positional group, adjunct 3.4, primary 7.5, prt'dicative 9.3, tertiary 10.3, nexus 14.4, 15.3 Primaries Ch. 3, 31.1; clauses Ch. 22. - Cf. Rank Pronouns, relative, 22.5, 23.1, 40.1, qu. 40.3. - Cf. Purpose, infinitive of, 18.1 q 2.2. See Quantifier Qualifier 32.2 Quantifier Ch. 5, Ch. 32 Quaternaries 10.2, 31.2. - Cf. Rank q'''', appositional 25, qUI, qui, qu'.stCI qUI, etc. 25.6
,h""
160
\J
Index
Queation 13.2 f., dependent 22.3 f. r 2.2. - See Result R 2.1. - See Recipient Rank Ch. 3, Ch. 31; in nexus 33.4, of predicative 35.3 Reaction, infinitive of, 18.2 Recipient Ch. 11, 38.2 Reciprocal 8.4 Reflexive 8.2 Regimen (= 'object' of preposition) 38.1. - Cf. Preposition Relative clauses 40.1; split object 16.4, as primaries 22.5, as secondariea Ch. 23 Requeat 13.1, 13.4 Reault 7.3, 9.2 Retort 26.4 S see Subject Sx see Reciprocal " see Lesser subject; 1/3 see th." Sandfeld 25.4 f. Sapir 28.1 Schubiger, Maria, 10.1, 25.6 I., Ii (=Oft) 8.2, 8.1, 8.4, 8.8; p. 167 Sechehaye 30.4, 38.1, 39.4 note Secondariel Ch. 3, Ch. 31; infinitive·... ' 17.3 ff., relative clauses Ch. 23. ~ Cf. Rank • , '.' Small letten 2.2, 28.4 • 10 tha' 24.3 Spanish If 36.9 ,. Speaker's aside 25.9 Specializing 31. 3, 33.6 • .. Split subject andt'Object Ch. 16 Stan 8.6,~ StOhr'l Algebra der. grammatilt 28.1 Subject 7.1, 33.3, Chs 34-35; S/O 8.8 f., 1/3 10.5, 34.6, with iafinitive 15.4, infinitive-nexus 15.~, Iplit
subj. Ch. 16, infinitive 17.1, serund 19.1, nexus-substantive 20.1, Y 21.1, clauses 22.1 ff., lesser subj. 8.9, 28.4 Subjunct see Tertiary Subjunct-Predicative 9.4 Subordination 31.5; d. Junctio:.! Substantive 5.2, 6.6, 31.1 Symbols, list of, Ch. 2, choice of, 28.3 f., meaning of, 29.5 Tertiaries Ch. 3, Ch. 10, Ch. 3.1, 3/0 7.4, nexus 14.5, infinitivenexus 15.6, clauses Ch. 24, with i' U 25.7. - Cf. Rank thaft, relative 23.5 that, relative 23.4, 40.1 th.r. 10.6, 34.6 ff. to 36.8 too, with infinitive 18.3 U ndentood see Ellipsis, Latent V, v see Verb Verb 33.3; lesser vb. 28.4, no lubject 34.3 f., copula 35.2 Verbids Ch. 39 Vocative 12.7 Voice, see Active, Passive wici 8.8 W 2.1. - See Complex verbal ; phrases Western 33.5 Wish 13.6 Wiwel 34.1 Word-Classes, not symbolized 28.5, relation to rank 31.1 Word-Order 10.4, 24.6 would-b. 21.4 X 2.1. - See' Nexus-Substantive Y 2.1. - See Agent Substantive, Participle Z 2.1. - See Amorphous Sentences