Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in Time. ABCD Research Method

Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in time ABCD  research method Dr. Ir Hielkje Zijlstra

Figure 1 (cover): UN building New York. Photographs by the author, 1990 and 2004. II ■ A B C D  re search method

Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in time ABCD  research method Dr. Ir Hielkje Zijlstra

This publication is an extended version of my PhD thesis: Bouwen in Nederland 1940-1970, Continuïteit + Veranderbaarheid = Duurzaamheid (Building Construction in The Netherlands 1940 – 1970: Continuity + Changeability = Durability). I wrote this thesis between 2001 and 2006 at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology. The thesis supervisors were Prof. F. Bollerey and Prof. A.P.J.M. Verheijen. The doctoral committee included the thesis supervisors, the vice-chancellor and Prof. H.M.C. Heynen of Catholic University Leuven, Prof. M. C. Kuipers of Maastricht University, Prof. J.M.J. Coenen of Delft University of Technology and Prof. H.A.J. Henket of Delft University of Technology. Graphic Design by CO3, Woltera Niemeijer, www.co3.org Translated by TechTrans vertalingen, The Hague Published by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press IOS Press BV Nieuwe Hemweg 6b 1013 BG Amsterdam The Netherlands tel: +31-20-688 3355 fax: +31-20-687 0019 email: [email protected] www.iospress.nl www.dupress.nl Legal notice The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following information.

Printed in the Netherlands © 2009 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved. ISBN 978-1-60750-020-9

doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-020-9-i

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Contents

Introduction..................................................................................................................................VII

5

ABCD  research method: Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in time:

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Building: what was meant to be ................................................... 139 Space.............................................................................................................................................. 140 Structure .....................................................................................................................................142 Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 146 Services ....................................................................................................................................... 152

6 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Building: what has been ............................................................................ 153 Space.............................................................................................................................................. 153 Structure .................................................................................................................................... 164 Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 166 Services ....................................................................................................................................... 169

7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Building: to be or not to be ................................................................... 173 Space.............................................................................................................................................. 173 Structure .................................................................................................................................... 177 Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 177 Services ....................................................................................................................................... 179

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Conclusions and ABCD  research matrix .................... 181

9

Recommendations............................................................................................... 187

1

Context....................................................................................................................................... 01

1.1 Period: 1940 - 1970..........................................................................................................02 1.2 Area: the Netherlands...................................................................................................11 1.3 Earlier research methods..........................................................................................16 2 2.1 2.2 2.3

Research themes ....................................................................................................... 25 Technological observation.......................................................................................26 Research analysis ...............................................................................................................39 Regenerative conclusions.........................................................................................43

3 3.1 3.2 3.3

ABCD  research method: .......................................................................... 61 Frame of reference .......................................................................................................... 64 Matrix .................................................................................................................................................74 Application of the ABCD  research method ..................................75

Literature and sources............................................................................................... 191

Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden Index ....................................................................................................................................................... 203 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Context....................................................................................................................................... 79 Brief..................................................................................................................................................... 79 Site ........................................................................................................................................................87 Architect ........................................................................................................................................ 98 Typology ..................................................................................................................................... 101 Design process................................................................................................................... 125

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Introduction

Progress does not amount to destroying the future, but to preserving its essence, to generate the impetus to do it better today.1 This is my free translation of a comment by J. Ortega Y Gasset. It was quoted in its original form by one of my thesis supervisors, Franziska Bollerey, in ‘Modern Heritage’ for Unesco in 2002. My other thesis supervisor, Fons Verheijen, interprets it as ‘stand on the shoulders of those who went before you to reach greater heights.’ 2 Working in the areas of history and construction technology, the spirit of these statements guided the PhD thesis which I defended in.3 In my view, when studying buildings it is essential to consider not only the art history, social and urban planning factors, but especially the construction engineering aspects. In this way, we can develop a deeper understanding of the underlying design and building methods used in our built environment. There have been many historical and architectural studies of buildings in the Netherlands. The period since the Second World War has received particular interest. Unfortunately, most of these studies do not address the technical aspects of the construction of these buildings. However, these issues were covered by publications at the time these buildings were constructed. See Figure 2.

The built environment is continuously changing. Changes frequently have to be made when buildings are included in regeneration projects. Such changes add value to the buildings and facilitate new uses. Existing ‘historical’ buildings provide continuity and IRUPDQLGHQWL¿DEOHWLPHVSHFL¿Flayer. At present, the many buildings constructed between 1945 and 1970 are unlikely to be listed as National Monuments and have little protection.4 Based on their own qualities, which need to be explained, changes can lead to ‘Preservation through development’.5 My research covered buildings in the Netherlands, constructed in the period 1940 - 1970. The issues considered were based on the following themes: technical observation; research analysis, and regenerative conclusions. My work included a study of the relevant literature and sources, and covered seven buildings. It also led to a new research method: building technology research. Later I developed this into the ABCD  research method. 7HFKQRORJ\SURYLGHVWKH¿UVWDQJOHIRUDQ\VWXG\WKHGHVLJQ and construction of buildings are greatly dependent on technology. Transferring knowledge obtained by analysis also provides an opportunity to learn from what exists already. As architect Hugh Maaskant (1907-1977) put it ‘Building is a deed for the future, using the information from the past.’ 6

4 1 2

3

Compare: Y. Ortega Y Gasset, Bespiegelingen over leven en denken, historie en techniek (The Hague: H.P. Leopold N.V., 1951), 196. F. Bollerey, “Innovation. A Critical View,” Modern Heritage, Unesco, (May 2005) and F. Verheijen, Het schijnbaar onmogelijke en omgaan met de twijfel, inaugural address, Delft University of Technology 2002. H. Zijlstra, “Bouwen in Nederland 1940-1970. Continuïteit + Veranderbaarheid = Duurzaamheid”(PhD diss., Delft University of Technology, 2006, Publicatiebureau Bouwkunde).

5

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Normally, only buildings at least 50 years old are considered for national listing. The National Service for Archaeology, Cultural Landscape and Built Heritage is currently surveying the architecture of the reconstruction period. No monuments will be listed during this period, barring exceptional circumstances. This slogan is used by the Belvedere project office in Utrecht. It was set up by the national government to guide the allocation of restructuring grants in the Netherlands. “Technikon, monument voor het beroepsonderwijs Ik ben een rustig mens, interview with Maaskant, Van Dommelen and De Koning”, Bouw no. 52 (1971): 1891. A B C D  re search method ■ V II

The third theme concerns regeneration. This is where continuity, change and durability meet. A regenerative approach provides the conditions to add a further generation to the life cycle of a building. Hence, the overall conclusion of my PhD thesis was: Continuity + Changeability = Durability. After obtaining my doctorate I joined the staff of the ®MIT department of the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology. I then felt the need to take the method I developed for my thesis further, and to make it more accessible - this book is the result. I also presented the method at congresses and developed it in greater detail as Analyzing Buildings from Context to Detail in time: ABCD 

PhD research I undertook my doctoral research in the Construction Engineering department, with support by the Chair of Architectural History. First I will discuss the context of the work: the period 1940 1970, the limitation to the Netherlands and an overview of existing methods. Secondly, I will discuss the research themes in greater detail. Thirdly, I will introduce the ABCD  method developed further to the work. The relevant concepts will be introduced, and one example application will be developed.

In my PhD work I developed seven case studies which were combined with a general section to form the thesis. This time I will be using one example to explain the method: the building of the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden. This building was completed in 1966 and extensively refurbished in 1999. The refurbishment was managed by the original architect, Piet Tauber (1927), based in Alkmaar.

ABCD  research method The ABCD  research method can be applied in education as well as in professional practice. ®MIT will use the method in the follow-up research by the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology, in the Design and History programme. This programme aims to analyse buildings and intervention methods. Architectural practices can also use the method for GHVLJQSURMHFWV7KLVZDVFRQ¿UPHGE\P\FROOHDJXH-RERoos ZKRPDGHWKHIROORZLQJFRPPHQWZKHQUHÀHFWLQJRQWKH profession as an ®MIT architect and the teaching process. With respect to the regeneration of the Energiehuis in Dordrecht, which had come to a halt, he commented ‘An unusual facet of the UHÀHFWLRQRQWKHDVVLJQPHQWDQGWKHresearch is that up to the present this has led to a critical attitude that actually demands a PRGL¿HGOHVVH[WUDYDJDQWGHVLJQ¶7

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J. Roos, Discovering the assignment , (Delft: VSSD, 2007): 136.

Figure 2: Rijksverzekeringsbank (National Insurance Bank) in Amsterdam under construction, as drawn by Wim Wouters in 1938. He made an artist’s impression of the building under construction, showing the steel frame and the outline of the building, and a sign proudly proclaiming the name of the steelwork supplier: De Vries Robbé & Co. Municipal Archive Amsterdam.

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1

Context

History contains much, if not all, of what still concerns us today. Without history we can never understand the present. Many don’t like ‘history’ - they are wrong.8 7RGH¿QHWKH¿HOGRIP\UHVHDUFK,¿UVWGHWHUPLQHGLWVcontext. I should explain why I opted for Dutch architecture from 1940 to 1970. Many overviews of ‘reconstruction period architecture’ consider 1965 as the end of the reconstruction period following the Second World War. I avoid the term ‘reconstruction period architecture’ as my study concerned buildings from a period which, in social and HFRQRPLFWHUPVZDVLQLWLDOO\LQÀXHQFHGE\ the Second World War, then by the immediate post-war period DQG¿QDOO\HQGHGDWDtime of growing awareness of the results and the consequences of the reconstruction of the Netherlands. Furthermore, the study is limited to buildings in the Netherlands. I refer to developments in neighbouring countries, to place my work in an international context, but I do not address them in detail. However, the approach and the method operate at a level of abstraction such that they can be applied in other countries. International theories and examples are also linked to the themes discussed in Chapter 2 as these have had a GHFLVLYHLQÀXHQFHRQEXLOGLQJconstruction and theory in the Netherlands. After analysing existing research methodologies, such as architectural history UHVHDUFK,GH¿QHGWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVWREH made of a new research method. During the research for my PhD I gradually developed the ABCD  research method. Hence, it incorporates aspects from the other methods, and it is the result of the need to develop another type of method.

The concept of ‘context’ is also considered in the method itself, and the structure of the research and investigations. By analysing the FRQWH[WZHFDQGH¿QHWKHDUHDEHLQJ investigated. We start by broadening the perspective of the investigation and then develop it in depth. When dealing with an existing building which is to be changed, the building sets the context. At times we will consider the parallels between buildings and people. The KXPDQERG\KDVDVWUDWL¿HGstructure: skin, skeleton, muscles, organs, nerves, veins and brains. These may be compared with: wall cladding, load-bearing structure, spaces, interior furnishing, cables, pipes, building services plant and the way they are used by people. The Exner brothers, Johannes (1926) and Inger (1926), took the comparison a step further, and this also relates to the themes of my research: Buildings are like human beings. They are born and develop; they become ill and are cured; they grow old, ZDVWHDZD\DQGGLH7KH\VKRZWKHLQÀXHQFHRIHYHQWV people and adversities. They change from the freshness of youth maturity, sometimes attaining beauty in their old age. Thus their identity is not only the one that was given to them at birth by the architects and artists who FUHDWHGWKHPLWDOVRUHÀHFWVDOOWKHFKDQJHVDGGLWLRQV DQGLQÀXHQFHVWKDWWKH\KDYHH[SHULHQFHGGXULQJ their life.9

9 8

J.J. Vriend, Links bouwen rechts bouwen (Amsterdam: Contact, 1974), 12.

J. Exner, “Koldinghus: the conversion of an old Royal Danish Castle,” Monumentum no. 4 (1984): 285. A B C D  re search method ■ 1

1.1

Period 1940 – 1970

The post-war period resulted in a wave of construction projects which demonstrated that, although construction technology did not avoid the challenge posed by architectural concepts, in many areas it failed to deliver. Similarly, we have found that during this period the ÀH[LELOLW\UHTXLUHGWROHDUQIURPRXUPLVWDNHVZDV rarely there. Furthermore, we now know that during this period the emphasis was on minimising the investment, and that the cost of maintenance was disregarded. […] Many aspects of this period are particularly interesting, partly due to the economic and social aspects, which we cannot discuss here. It has proven to be a learning opportunity, from which many did learn, and many more made money. We can call it a learning opportunity because of our conviction that construction in the Netherlands will become more dominated by engineering, and that individual ideas of what is or is not responsible will become less dominant. Seen in that light, it was a wonderful period.10 In 1965, J.C. Spek drew this conclusion in a study of twenty years of postwar architecture in the Netherlands. I found this ‘wonderful period’ to be an interesting and enlightening subject to study, and it inspired me to develop the ABCD  research method. I decided to restrict the research for my thesis to the period 1940 - 1970. It was not possible to draw a sharp line to determine the period within which buildings to be included in my study were created. When I started my research project, buildings constructed in 1940 and later could not be listed as national monuments. Hence, the analysis of these buildings would not be affected by possible listing. However, the options for listing buildings from this period from the listing system were being discussed at that time. As these buildings in particular are

10

J.C. Spek, “Bouwkunde 1945-1965,” Polytechnisch Tijdschrift no. 1 (1965): 12B.

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likely to be considered for regeneration in future, I will also discuss the choice of this period in the context of the ABCD  research method.

1940 Starting the period in 1940 appears a logical choice to me. Buildings constructed in the Netherlands between 1850 and 1940 have now been surveyed by the National Service for Cultural Heritage and the national monuments have been designated.11 This resulted in the designation of 14,000 recent monuments among the total of some 60,000 nationally designated monuments in the Netherlands.12

11

12

This name is used after May 1 2009. Before that it was called National Service for Archaeology, Cultural Landscape and Built Heritage (Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten, RACM) and before that National Service for Heritage Care (Rijksdienst voor de Monumentenzorg, RDMZ). A.M. ten Cate, “Wennen aan wederopbouw,” Heemschut no. 4 (2000): 4. See also: M.H. Voigt (ed.), Restaureren. Toekomst voor verleden. (Rotterdam: BNA 1998), 8-9: ‘Wat is een monument?’. Here we read: ‘According to the Monuments and Historic Buildings Act 1988, monuments are constructed objects, at least 50 years old and of national interest given their beauty, scientific value or cultural-historical value. If a building meets these conditions it can be included in the register of protected national monuments. This is generally know as “listing”. The Monuments and Historic Buildings Act also defines conservation areas in towns and villages. These are groups of buildings and other structures which are important because of their beauty, spatial and structural coherence, or their scientific or cultural-historical value. These groups may also include one or more monuments. The aim of this protection is to maintain the historically grown structure of a town or village. In 1961 the Monuments and Historic Buildings Act was passed, to address the statutory protection of monuments and conservation areas. This was the first time that the powers of the authorities and the responsibilities of the owners of protected monuments were defined. In 1988 this act was replaced by the Monuments and Historic Buildings Act 1988. Initially, the care of monuments and historic buildings was centralised. However it has now been decentralised and many central government tasks and powers have been transferred to municipal authorities. For example, they now have greater responsibility for restoration projects and are required to inform and support owners, building managers and others.’

After completing its initial survey of monuments (MIP, 1987 1994), the National Service for Cultural Heritage decided that, in principle, no further monuments would be designated until 2006. Similarly, since 2005 the central government has emphasised the preservation of designated monuments, rather than increasing their number. Since then, the National Service for Cultural Heritage has considered buildings from the period 1940 and beyond and has published its surveys in a number of reports.13 On 15 October 2007, one hundred buildings were proposed for designation as national monuments.14 The 63 buildings I considered for inclusion in my project counted one opened in 1940, the Rijksverzekeringsbank in Amsterdam, and one opened in 1941, the Schouwburg theatre in Utrecht. The next one was the BIM building in The Hague which was opened in 1946. I did not consider buildings which were FRQVWUXFWHGVSHFL¿FDOO\IRUWKHZDUVXFKDVbunkers, given that WKH\ZHUHGHVLJQHGIRURQHVSHFL¿Ffunction and therefore less relevant to the development of a general research method. As far as the architectural history of the period until 1970 is concerned I refer to a number of books and articles which provide a good overview of the context within which the research was set. My research included an extensive consideration of the contextual aspects relevant to the creation of a building.15 I chose 1940 as the start of the period covered by my research. Hence I started my research with the Rijksverzekeringsbank in Amsterdam (1935-1940). Early in 1940 the architect and

13

14 15

See: A. Blom, A. et al., Wederopbouwrapporten (Zeist: National Service for Cultural Heritage 2004 and 2005). Town halls, railway stations, schools, sports facilities, care facilities, churches in Noord-Brabant, theatres, homes for the elderly, provincial authority buildings, detached dwellings, monastries, shopping centres and bridges. J. van Santen, M.C. Kuipers, et al, Monumenten van Herrezen Nederland (Amersfoort: National Service For Cultural Heritage, 2007). Dutch architectural history: K. Bosma et al, Bouwen in Nederland 600-2000 (Zwolle: Waanders Publishers, 2007); H. van Dijk, Architectuur in Nederland in de twintigste eeuw (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers 1999); J.P. Kloos, “The Dutch Melting-pot. Recent Architecture in Holland,” Architectural Review no. 616 (1948): 137-156; J.H. van den Broek, “50 jaar Nederlands bouwen,” Bouwkundig Weekblad (1958): 581-604; J.H. van den Broek, “Stroomingen in de Nederlandsche Architectuur, ” Bouw no. 1 (1946): 4-11. For developments outside the Netherlands, see: J. Buch, Een eeuw Nederlandse architectuur 1880-1990 (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1993); W.J.R. Curtis, Modern Architecture since 1900 (Oxford: Phaidon, 1987) and, with an emphasis on developments in construction engineering, B. Addis, 3000 Years of Design Engineering and Building Construction (London: Phaidon, 2007).

builders handed the Rijksverzekeringsbank over to the users. In terms of the engineering of its time, just before the start of the Second World War, it provided an excellent starting point for my research. Over time it also proved to be a good frame of reference for a range of important qualitative aspects.16 In February 2002 I wrote an article ‘Integratie als uitgangspunt’ (Integration as the Starting Point).17 In this article I considered not a building completed in 2001, but the Rijksverzekeringsbank. After analysing this building I concluded that even today, it would provide a good reference for a schedule of requirements for an RI¿FHEXLOGLQJ,Q,UHDGDQDUWLFOH about the new buildings for the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of the Interior to be built in The Hague. This included the following section: There is now more information about the exteriors of the new buildings of the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of the Interior: one tower will be masonry, the other one stone. A small park will form the entry to the atrium, four storeys high, which will form a covered courtyard between the two buildings. The complex will include some innovative details, such as ceiling cooling and windows allowing natural ventilation. Concrete core climate control. This is one of the major innovations which will be used in the new buildings for the Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of the Interior. Concrete core climate control? Project Director Hans Heemrood of the van de Government Buildings Agency explains: ‘Unlike houses, which need KHDWLQJRI¿FHVQHHGcooling. Especially in summer, RI¿FHVVRRQJHWWRRKRWEHFDXVHRIDOOWKHHTXLSPHQWLQ them. We will incorporate hoses in the concrete ceiling slabs which cold water circulates through, to cool the URRP,W¶VUDWKHUOLNHXQGHUÀRRUheating, but in reverse. Of course, there will also be small radiators to heat the rooms in winter. So far, concrete core climate control has not been applied on a large scale in the Netherlands. 16 17

Seen internationally, the Second World War started with Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939. H. Zijlstra, “Integratie als uitgangspunt. Een voorbeeld van Nederlands bouwen in de twintigste eeuw, De Rijksverzekeringsbank van architect ir. Dirk Roosenburg,” TVVL Magazine no. 2 (2002): 22-29. A B C D  re search method ■ 3

Figure 3: Sectional drawing of Rijksverzekeringsbank, 1940, showing the heating and cooling integrated into the ceiling. From Copius Peereboom, 1939.

Figure 4: Diagram of a ceiling cooling system suitable for refurbishment projects. From Cofaigh, A Green Vitruvius, 1999.

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These two PLQLVWULHVDUHWKH¿UVW$OWKRXJKLWZLOOJUHDWO\ improve the indoor climate, it makes the acoustics ZRUVH$FRXVWLFVDQGKDUGFHLOLQJVFRQÀLFWLQfuture we ZLOOKDYHWR¿QGsound attenuating alternatives for this.’ 18 7KLVDUWLFOHLVLQFRUUHFWLQFODLPLQJD¿UVW:KHQWKH5LMNV verzekeringsbank was completed it included a similar system. This is still present in the building but has been decommissioned and is now hidden by a false ceiling. In the context of sustainability and repurposing, a publication in 1999 referred to a similar ceiling system as an example which is particularly suitable IRUUHWUR¿WDSSOLFDWLRQVVHH)LJXUHVDQG  &DSLOODU\V\VWHPVFRQVLVWLQJRID¿QHgrid of small-bore plastic tubes installed under a wall or ceiling plaster or imbedded in gypsum board. They provide an even surface temperature and have an intermediate heat storage capacity between the other two types of system. 7KH\DUHLGHDOIRUUHWUR¿WDSSOLFDWLRQV¶19 Concrete core climate control and cooling through additional ceilings are now widely used in both new construction projects and the regeneration of existing buildings.

the Dutch government decided that the Ministry of Housing VKRXOGQRORQJHUEHVSHFL¿FDOO\GHGLFDWHGWRreconstruction. Given that the time it takes to construct a building, in my GH¿QLWLRQDPRXQWVWRDWOHDVW¿YH\HDUVDQGDOVRJLYHQWKH situation in Dutch VRFLHW\,GHFLGHGWRPRYHP\HQGGDWH¿YH years forward. The architecture and urban development after the Second World War illustrated the positive attitude of the construction industry, which was focussed on production. In this period, construction engineers still had a wide variety of materials available, which could be used by skilled workers at relatively low labour costs. When wages started to rise and the costs of construction had to be reduced, the construction industry focussed even more on production. In residential construction in particular, rationalisation and standardisation were introduced in the form of ‘system building’. The lack of building materials immediately after the war meant that concrete was widely used. The large scale of the projects emphasised the optimism of quantity, space and modernity. In urban design we see that house plans are still developed rationally, but that the blocks of dwellings are arranged in honeycomb patterns and lines which are anything but straight. Examples include the Bijlmermeer in Amsterdam and the Slaaghwijk in Leiden which has a completely chaotic plan. One of the drivers for this was that the Dutch government provided generous grants for the system building of dwellings, through the Stichting Ratiobouw.

1970 For the end date of the research period I could have chosen 1965, in line with the National Service for Cultural Heritage. Marieke Kuipers (1951), who works at the National Service for Cultural Heritage and was a professor at Maastricht University until September 2008, when she joined Delft University of Technology, also chose 1965 as the cut-off date in her book Toonbeelden van Wederopbouw when selecting objects from the reconstruction period.20 She chose this year as this was when

18

19 20

J. Huisman, “Man en vrouw in het Wijnhavenkwartier. Definitief ontwerp voor torens Justitie en Binnenlandse Zaken laat meer verscheidenheid zien,” SMAAK no. 14 (2003): 51. E.O. Cofaigh et al, A Green Vitruvius. Principles and Practice of Sustainable Architectural Design (London: James and James, 1999), 110. M.C. Kuipers, Toonbeelden van de wederopbouw (Zwolle: Waanders, 2002), 9.

The change in architectural and town planning philosophy is clearly illustrated by the plans for extending cities. In Delft, Jaap Bakema (1914 - 1981) made a plan in 1969 for the Tanthof district which was still based on rectilinear, crossing structures of tall buildings. In 1972 this was replaced by a more diverse plan with mostly low-rise buildings placed in an apparently chaotic urban plan.21

21

K. Mans, K. and W. van Winden, Architectuurgids van Delft (Delft: Publicatiebureau Bouwkunde, 1992), 41. A B C D  re search method ■ 5

This change happened around 1970. As part of the reconstruction of Rotterdam, where the Chamber of Commerce and a number of industrialists, organised in the Club Rotterdam, had a major LQÀXHQFHRQWKHSODQVIRUWKHconstruction projects, Len de Klerk noticed this change in 1970: The consensus about economic development lasted until around 1970. Increasing environmental problems (Rijnmond was designated as a remediation area), the rise of the environmental movement and radicalisation of local politics brought its end about. De Goey concluded that the distance between the municipality and industry had to be increased, as a result of which the effectiveness and speed with which decisions were taken (which characterised the period 1945 - 1970) were largely lost. For example, since the 1930s there had been an advisory committee on the harbours which included industry representatives, but this was replaced by a committee of town council members only.22

become less attractive in the 1970s. It is not a coincidence that in this period the uniform image of modern architecture and town planning, the International Style, was finally buried by the diverse architecture inspired by the ‘other story’ of the Forum Group.23 According Hans van Dijk (1948) the city of Rotterdam had not been completed by 1965: In 1965 it was not just the Coolsingel which had been torn up to build the metro, but several other projects were also underway. The last of the blocks of flats on the Lijnbaan was being finished. The De Doelen concert hall was close to completion. At Lijnbaanplein square the extension of the shopping area was almost finished.’24 With respect to Amsterdam, Richter Roegholt (1925 - 2005) also mentioned a number of developments linked to 1970: In December 1966, the Municipal Executive still managed to get the ABN plan [Algemene Bank Nederland] adopted by the Municipal Council by a large majority. However, as Roel de Wit [council member responsible for public works] immediately realised, it was no more than a pyrrhic victory, a victory which would only be repeated occasionally, if ever. He was still successful in 1968. But in the same year the municipality did not manage to transfer the Barlaeusgymnasium from the centre to an outlying area. We almost wrote ‘banish’, as that was how the plan was experienced by the students and their parents who wanted to preserve the quality of life in the old, familiar city centre and did not want to be displaced by ‘clumps of offices’. 1968 was still a year of successes: the IJ tunnel; the first house in the Bijlmer; the plans for the urban railway (metro) were accepted; the offices of

According to Cor Wagenaar (1960), there was also a change in the 1970s which was related to the reconstruction of Rotterdam: In the 1950s and 1960s the reconstruction was indeed a mirror of the development of a new society, the welfare state. In this heroic phase, which as the 1950s progressed was characterised by increasing optimism, the Basic Plan became rather like a manifesto of innovation, through which modern architecture and town planning could fulfil the promises they had made before the war. The colourful Lijnbaan, the imposing Groothandelsgebouw, the generously laid out districts with extensive greenery, the cautious increases in car-ownership and with it access to ever larger areas for recreation - they were all ingredients of an evocative image which the Basic Plan appeared to be leading the Netherlands to. This course only seems to 23 22

L. de Klerk, Particuliere plannen. Denkbeelden en initiatieven van de stedelijke elite inzake de volkswoningbouw en de stedebouw in Rotterdam, 1860-1950 (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1998), 295.

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24

C. Wagenaar, Welvaartstad in wording. De wederopbouw van Rotterdam 1940-1952 (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1992), 315. H. van Dijk, “De gezelligheidsrevolutie 1965-1970,” in: M. Aarts, Vijftig jaar wederopbouw Rotterdam. Een geschiedenis van toekomstvisies (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 1995), 161-208.

Mobil Oil and the Dutch Central Bank were opened; the Confectiecentrum garment centre and the Lucasziekenhuis hospital; homes for the elderly; Purmerend as a centre for expansion; adoption of the Noordzeekanaal regional plan and the Spaandammerbos woods. […] The design of the Bijlmer housing estate was meant to be welcoming but initially made the opposite impression. Visitors were confronted with impersonal concrete walls of dwellings without clear visual relationships, and buzzing motorways, apparently not leading anywhere. This technical mass production, the separation of functions - what convictions did they spring from? Here they were building an urban district for the 1980s based on the ideas of the 1920s, as defined in the Charte d’Athènes of 1933. But was it not especially around the 1970s that there was a reaction, a longing for traditional designs, smaller scales and mixed functions? The Bijlmer was not the only new town in Europe created from nothing in the 1960s by technocrats riding the wave of economic success. The Bijlmer generally compares favourably with other such towns as its designers did not give in to the seduction of artifice and technical exaggeration, but stayed sensible and clear-minded, as is their national characteristic. In the long term this will undoubtedly prove advantageous. Furthermore, the houses are larger and more varied than we have seen in similar developments in other countries.25

25

R. Roegholt, Amsterdam in de 20e eeuw. Deel 2 (1945/1970) (Amsterdam: Aula 1979), 295 - 298.

Changes in demand However, what had to be built also changed: reuse and refurbishment of existing buildings became more common. In the Netherlands this was especially apparent in the growth of urban regeneration projects. During the reconstruction period, repurposing was hardly considered as a credible option. This was forcefully argued by J.P. Mieras (1888 - 1956) an important architecture critic of the period: The purpose of an architectural work cannot be changed without affecting its architectural qualities. This is the difficulty with preserving an old building where, to make preservation possible, its purpose has to be changed. Practice may occasionally prevail over theory, but usually when the purpose of a building is changed its architectural value will be diminished.26 The year 1975 was designated as European Architectural Heritage year and in addition to the restoration of designated monuments, there was a growing interest in the repurposing and refurbishment of existing buildings which could not be demolished because of their cultural-historical or technical qualities, but which instead were to be regenerated into new buildings with additional qualities related to the new context: the existing, historical layer. I selected 1970 as the end of the period to be covered by my UHVHDUFK+RZHYHUWKHUHLVQRRQHGH¿QLWHtime which can be LGHQWL¿HGJLYHQWKHtime it takes to realise a building. The 1970s were the start of a new period, also for other reasons. After the development of social awareness and a trend towards smaller scales towards the end of the 1960s, shortages would again have DVLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFW7KHUHZDVDQoil crisis in 1973 and greater interest developed in HQHUJ\HI¿FLHQWEXLOGLQJ,QLWLDOO\WKLVZDV limited to improving thermal insulation and using more environmentally acceptable energy sources.27 Integrated solutions were developed later, and ‘sustainable building’ became a common term. 26 27

J.P. Mieras, Naoorlogse bouwkunst in Nederland (Amsterdam: Kosmos, 1954), 17. Roegholt, Amsterdam in de 20e eeuw. Deel 2 (1945/1970), 179-185. A B C D  re search method ■ 7

per 1000 married couples

per 1000 unmarried men age 15 year or older

90

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20 Marriages (left scale)

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45

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8 4

15 Dissolved marriages (left scale) 0 1800

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0 2000

Figure 5: Numbers of marriages and divorces, 1800 – 1999. The two curves met around 1970. Adapted by the author from Tweehonderd jaar statistiek in tijdreeksen 1800-1999, 2001.

1970 = 100 300

Various statistical indicators show a clear change around the year 1970: the numbers of marriages and divorces approached each other, the current account balances increased rapidly after 1970, the number of televisions sold and the number cinema of tickets sold approached each other, and car ownership increased steadily. Similarly, the number of square metres of living space per resident increased continuously in the Netherlands, from 10 m2 in 1900 to 34 m2 in 2004.28

275

The development of the raptor population is another clear indicator. The number of birds of prey rose rapidly after 1970 as the consolidation of agricultural land ended, and the insecticide DDT was banned under pressure from the environmental movement. Nature was given an opportunity to recover.29 See Figures 5 - 9.

125

250

225

Cinema visits 200

175

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100

75

50

Televisons sold 25

28

29

C. Terwindt, Meervoudig en Intensief Ruimtegebruik in de Stad, public lecture 13 October 2004, Hogeschool van Amsterdam. (http://www.hva.nl/lectoraten/ ol05-041013- cilianterwindt.pdf), 11-12. E. Taverne and K. Schuyt, 1950 Welvaart in zwart-wit. Nederlandse cultuur in Europese Context (The Hague: SDU Publishers, 2000), 160-161 and J.L. van Zanden, Groene geschiedenis van Nederland (Utrecht: Spectrum, 1993), 49-51.

8 ■ A B C D  re search method

0 1956

1960

1965

1970

Figure 6: Number of televisions and cinema tickets sold, 1955 - 1975 These curves also met around 1970. Adapted by the author from 75 jaar statistiek van Nederland, 1975.

1800

4,0 Cars Commercial vehicles

1600

3,5

1400 350

buzzard hawk sparrow hawk honey buzzard

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Figure 7: Number of cars in the Netherlands, 1930 – 1975.

Figure 8: Raptor pairs in the Netherlands.

This curve rises continuously. Adapted by the author from 75 jaar statistiek van Nederland, 1975.

Their numbers increased greatly after 1970, when the consolidation of agricultural land came to an end and the pesticide DDT was banned. Adapted by the author from Van Zanden, 1993.

6 Current account balances on transaction basis, in 1000 million guilders Current account balances on transaction basis, progressing 3-year average 5 1 guilder = 0.45 Euro Registered surplus labour, in percentage of the total manpower 4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2 1945

1950

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Figure 9: Dutch current account balances, 1945 – 1975.

The balances increased enormously after 1970. Adapted by the author from 75 jaar statistiek van Nederland, 1975. A B C D  re search method ■ 9

Figure 10: Hangar designed by Alfred Hardy, in Grimbergen near Brussels (1947). From Strauven, 2002.

Figure 11: Detail of the administrative building of the municipal executive (1957 - 1967) in Antwerp, designed by Renaat Bream. Photograph by the author, 2003.

Figure 12: Cross-section of Hardy’s hangar in Grimbergen. In his book about Hardy, Strauven (1974) also discusses the experimental concrete structures.

From Strauven, 2002.

10 ■ A B C D  re search method

1.2

Area: the Netherlands

My PhD research concerned buildings in the Netherlands constructed in the period 1940 - 1970. To provide a broader context I also looked at some surrounding countries, again largely focussing on buildings built in this period.30

Agency will protect.32 In October 2007 a list of 100 monuments which, in the view of the National Service for Cultural Heritage, deserved to be designated as national monuments was presented to Ronald Plasterk, Minister of Education, Culture and Science. 33

The Netherlands

Germany and Belgium

In the Netherlands, the reconstruction period has regularly been covered in books and exhibitions. Currently, the buildings from the period 1940 - 1970 present a number of unique aspects concerning their preservation and possible reuse. These aspects are mentioned in the literature, in relation to the Netherlands in JHQHUDO+RZHYHULQP\YLHZWKHUHLVOLWWOHVSHFL¿FLQIRUPDWLRQ about the buildings constructed in this period. Nevertheless, there are some surveys covering particular towns or themes. Marieke .XLSHUVPDGHWKH¿UVWOLVWRI'XWFKH[DPSOHVDQGLQ 1993 Hans Ibelings (1963) wrote an architectural history treatise accompanying an exhibition at the Netherlands Architecture Institute (NAi) on the 1950s and 1960s.31 This included descriptions of the historical and current condition of the buildings, and the conditions under which they were created. In 2004 a list of government buildings in the Netherlands, from the period after 1940, which demanded special attention was published under the leadership of the then government architect Jo Coenen (1949). He took the initiative of adding a new building every year to the list of buildings which the Government Buildings

Several surveys of the architecture of the reconstruction period have been made in countries bordering the Netherlands. In Germany a website is being made of the buildings of this period in Nordrhein-Westfalen. This project is led by Uta Hassler, formerly with Dortmund University.34 In Belgium, a book was published with a list of buildings constructed between 1945 and 1970. It also included studies of a number of high-rise projects in Brussels built during this period, and plans for their regeneration.35 The Atomium in Brussels (1958) was restored and there was some interest in the architecture of Renaat Bream (1910 - 2001) and Alfred Hardy (1900 - 1965). Iwan Strauven discussed some technical aspects of Hardy’s architecture.36 See Figures 10-12.

England The situation in England needs to be considered in greater detail as progress there has been greater as a result of detailed studies and research. These provide more detailed information about

33 30 31 32

For a general international overview see: S. Ward, Planning the TwentiethCentury City. The advanced capitalist world (Chichester: Wiley, 2002). Kuipers, Toonbeelden van de wederopbouw and H. Ibelings, De moderne jaren vijftig en zestig (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 1996). W. Rölling ed. A. de Back, J.M.J. Coenen and M.C. Kuipers, Gesloopt Gered Bedreigd. Omgaan met naoorlogse bouwkunst (Rotterdam: Episode Publishers, 2004)

34

35 36

Santen, Monumenten van Herrezen Nederland. “Über Risiken des Verschwindens und Chancen intelligenter Schrumpfung. Ein Gespräch mit Uta Hassler.” Detail no. 10 (2002): 1212-1217. Web site: www.nrw-architekturdatenbank.uni-dortmund.de. G. Bekeart and F. Strauven, Bouwen in België 1945-1970 (Brussel: Nationale Confederatie van het Bouwbedrijf, 1971). I. Strauven, Alfred Hardy 1900-1965 (Gent: GUAEP, 2002). A B C D  re search method ■ 11

buildings from that period than is available in the Netherlands. 37 See Figures 13 and 14. In England a building can normally not be listed within 30 years of its construction. A number of congresses and publications addressed this issue and an overview of listed buildings from this period has been written.38 The eighth

Opposition to listing revolves around four principal premises:

Docomomo congress in 2004 followed this up with the theme: Import – Export: Postwar Modernism in an Expanding World, 1945 – 1975.39 With respect to the listing of buildings as monuments, Martin Cherry made the following statements:

„

There is a misconception that listing ‘freezes’ buildings. Changes have taken place. We have to be concerned about managing change rather than fossilizing buildings. It is an inherently flexible system which flags the architectural and historic character of buildings in order to ensure that it is taken fully into account when changes or demolition are proposed. Structural and technical problems, costs of repairing, list buildings which are considered to be of special architectural and historic interest. It does not necessarily mean that a building must be preserved whatever it costs; its main purpose is to ensure that care is taken over decisions concerning its future. […]

37

38 39

E. Harwood, England. A Guide to post-war listed buildings (London: Ellipsis, 2000); S. Macdonald, Modern Matters. Principles and Practice in Conserving Recent Architecture (Shaftesbury: Donhead, 1996); S. Macdonald, Preserving Post-War Heritage (Shaftesbury: Donhead, 2001) and E.M. Stratton, Structure and style. Conserving Twentieth Century Buildings (London: Spon, 1997). Ten Cate, ‘Wennen aan wederopbouw’, 4-6 and Harwood, England. A Guide to post-war listed buildings. Contribution by H. Zijlstra: Groothandelsgebouw Rotterdam Revised, Paper presented at the Docomomo International Conference: Import – Export: Postwar Modernism in an Expanding World, 1945 – 1975, 28 September 2004.

12 ■ A B C D  re search method

Statutory protection unreasonably erodes private property rights.

„

Listing is inherently anti-democratic, a fait accompli. It inhibits much-needed development. „The fear of terminal decline and the creation of a museum culture. […] „

But the protection of recent buildings raises further specific issues: It concerns objectivity and distance. Are we really far away from the period in question to assess the buildings dispassionately? How long is a cooling-of period? „Public perceptions are difficult to gauge. Will modern buildings ever be widely accepted as cultural products worthy of protection? „Understanding of historic buildings. „The intrinsic character and use of materials. A revolutionary change in building form. „Economic viability. The economic performance of listed commercial buildings can equal (ore exceed) that of unlisted buildings. „Listing affects a building’s value. Temporary dip in its longtime history. „Procedures needed interests of the owner and the wider community. „Listing does not necessarily occur at a time when there are proposals for change. […] „

Three main ingredients in a successful conservation policy are: The selection of buildings is safe and sound, based on rigorous research, and that the designation is appropriate.

„

Public support must be secured through debate and education. „Planning environment must facilitate sound management and reduce unnecessary delay and uncertainty. […] „

The main thrust of English Heritage’s listing survey work is the programme of research-based assessments based on specific building types. Only by providing an academically watertight basis for our recommendations for ministers will they feel able to take our advice. This is particular important with unfamiliar or contentious buildings, and this thematic approach to listing will continue to characterize our strategy for some year to come. Use media: exhibitions, conferences and publications. Besides listing are important factors: the economic performance, social benefits, historic environments and sustainability. Also management is important. Listed buildings consent procedures especially in relation to the larger and more complex sites. Fully understanding the building in question, its historic interest and character and the nature of its construction techniques and the performance of the materials used, especially those pioneered in the twentieth century, is a central and urgent requirement.40

40

M. Cherry, “Listing Twenty-century Buildings: The Present Situation,” in: Macdonald, Modern Matters. Principles and Practice in Conserving Recent Architecture, 7-14.

Figure 13: Heinz Headquarters by SOM in London, England 1962-65. From Macdonald, 2001.

Figure 14: Detail of the Sanderson showroom by Slater and Uren in London, England 1950. The work also included construction engineering studies, in this case into the development of clad frame constructions, by Peter Ross. From Macdonald, 2001. A B C D  re search method ■ 13

These quotes touch on a number of subjects developed in greater detail in my research. This academic study concerned the qualities of the buildings, with the aim of ‘understanding the building’. Apart from architectural elements we need to study the technical aspects of buildings. Not with the aim of freezing buildings, but to discover what changes will be possible.

Practice Back to the Netherlands. In the Netherlands, buildings constructed in the period 1940 - 1970 are occasionally saved from demolition or excessive refurbishment through the intervention of interested architects.41 Similarly, Docomomo, which aims to document and conserve buildings and urban and landscape ensembles of the Modern Movement, is increasingly shifting its focus to the period after 1940.42 The impression is that buildings from earlier periods are now adequately protected. Theodore H.M. Prudon demonstrated this in 2008 with the publication of his study into the preservation of modern architecture.43 In my view, the approach taken by Hubert-Jan Henket (1940), one of the founders of Docomomo, should be adopted more widely and internationally, particularly with respect to buildings not protected by listing as monuments. This is supported by the following quotations from interviews with Henket in 1983 and 1985: However, the authorities do not consider the lifespan of the building in construction engineering terms, or the impact on its operation. Neither the provincial nor the municipal authorities consider these issues. We only think in terms of new buildings. We are not yet attuned to maintaining objects or to their different use. […]

41

42

43

A good example is provided by the professional debate on 2 October 2002, chaired by Maarten Kloos, about Frankendaal, a residential area in Amsterdam. It was eventually decided that the area should not be demolished. However, after a number of plans had been developed, in 2005 it was decided not to take any action, due to a lack of financial resources. See: Zijlstra, Bouwen in Nederland 1940 – 1970, sub section 4: Jeruzalem Frankendaal Amsterdam. The tenth international congress of Docomomo International, The Challenge of Change (13 – 20 September, Rotterdam) placed special emphasis on post-1940 buildings. Th.H.M. Prudon, Preservation of Modern Architecture (Hoboken: Wiley & Sons, 2008).

14 ■ A B C D  re search method

The monuments’ departments really focus on what the building is like now, not what we can do with it. I think that the monuments’ departments do fit into what I have drawn, as one of the assessment criteria if the object has a particular social or cultural value. I can imagine one might say ‘We are only leaving this building intact because it has a particularly high architectural value’. The only problem is that you can’t keep doing that all the time in the Netherlands because then we would be bankrupt in ten minutes. So you’ll have to set priorities. This means that you have to find an instrument for assessment. And this balance of interests also includes the problem of the monument. […] I agree with the comments made by Bax [then Dean of Architecture, Eindhoven University of Technology] during the discussion on education, i.e. that there is no need for revolutionary techniques. Bricks and masonry are fantastic materials. We shouldn’t want to turn everything upside down. There have been so many changes in the last 70 years, first we have to sort out the numbers. The culture of handing over, the handing over of basic details, that information is getting lost, which means you can only change construction engineering aspects. That’s where you can compromise. So that results in a construction engineering creation which is below par. […] So, it takes searching and probing to get a grip on the existing stock [of buildings]. That means that to be able to talk about this issue with any coherence, we need to develop a terminology for the existing stock of buildings. […] Reuse could be considered as a new investment, i.e. as a new design challenge. […] To manage the lifecycle of buildings, you first have to be able to predict accurately what the likely consequences will be of the available options. The information needed for that is best derived from the experiences obtained with the products, components and structures used. We can obtain this information by analysing the lifecycle process, the biography of building elements and the junctions of these elements, and drawing practical solutions about the trends based on that. Using experience pragmatically

is an essential condition for meaningful renewal as only that helps us what to expect, and when and why.44

rejecting what exists, instead we see it as a necessary step towards the future. It is an attempt at reconciliation. Two moments of creativity touch - they can coexist. If the past is overestimated then we may get an imitation, or a building with an artificial theatre set. If, in a deliberate attempt to be progressive, we consider everything in the present to be better than the past then we cannot give this past an opportunity. Rehabilitation respects the history of the use of a building; if changes are required then these are based on the continuity of the architecture. That is transformation without alienation.47

In 1985, Henket also referred to: life-cost planning, building biographies, function mobility and reuse analysis.45

Redevelopment of postwar residential areas Several ministries in the 1HWKHUODQGVSURYLGHGVLJQL¿FDQWJUDQWV for housebuilding programmes in the context of the redevelopment of areas built between 1940 and 1970. The Stichting Belvedère controlled part of the funding, to guide the planning which was largely related to urban planning issues. There are now some examples of the positive regeneration of postwar districts to new urban areas.46 H. For example, Henk van Schagen developed regeneration plans for parts of the Delfgauwse Weije in Delft, Pendrecht in Rotterdam, Osdorp in Amsterdam and the south-west of The Hague. He commented: Rehabilitation refers to developing new architectural designs which are coherent with the existing architecture. The analysis of the design is primarily concerned with the required programme changes, i.e. the construction of the shell. But it is also concerned with the changes which have to be made in the way in which the buildings connect to their surroundings. If the design aims to accept the past then you have to develop a positive relationship between the old and the new, and illustrate the continuity between them. In that case we are not

44 45 46

H.J. Henket, “The proof of the pudding remains in the eating,” Bouw no. 26 (1985): 49. H.J. Henket, “Van produceren naar gebruiken en beheren,” Plan no. 3 (1985): 24-25. The ‘Grote Verbouwing’ exhibition at the NAi in 2004 presented an overview of residential areas which had been regenerated in full or in part, or which plans had been developed for. There was also a list comparing the number of demolished dwellings and the number of new ones replacing them. Between 1990 and 2001, 71,418 dwellings were demolished and 31,136 new ones were constructed. See: J. Tellinga, De Grote Verbouwing. verandering van naoorlogse woonwijken (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2004).

7KLVFRQFHUQVWKHUHÀHFWLRQDQGFRQWLQXLQJYLVLELOLW\RIWKHSHULRG in which the building was created. However, I would like to note that, as Van Schagen puts it, if we overestimate the past, there is the risk that we create an imitation, i.e. a building rather like a theatre set. In my view this is not so much an overestimate, but more of an underappreciation. In this case, the past is considered DVDSXUHO\IRUPDODQGVXSHU¿FLDOlayer, which is considered to be easy to copy. At present, harking back to the past is more popular than ever in the Netherlands, in both residential and nonresidential construction projects.

Single buildings My PhD work was largely aimed at single buildings, rather than residential building projects. In this area there have been some studies, and statements about the issues. However, considering the use of existing buildings for new design assignments, and promoting this approach, is still an exception. This should change in future, and it will. Hence, the ABCD  research method I developed includes some of the aspects referred to by Cherry, Henket and Van Schagen: understanding, not freezing, change, reuse analysis, continuity, history, creativity, quality, basic details, and building biography.

47

Lecture by Henk van Schagen for Delft Design, 7 October 2004 and see: H. van Schagen, “Transformatie zonder vervreemding; rehabilitatie van de naoorlogse wijken,” Tijdschrift voor de Volkshuisvesting no. 3 (2004): 12-17. A B C D  re search method ■ 15

1.3

Earlier research methods

%HIRUHFRQVLGHULQJWKHVSHFL¿FWKHPHVRIP\research and the ABCD  research method developed further to it, I would like to present a number of earlier methods to study buildings. To supplement the aspects referred to earlier, an analysis of these methods and the demands for ‘a different method’ can lead to elements in the existing methods which could be adopted. Both the literature and architectural practice present a range of methods, all of which include elements which could be applied to DJUHDWHURUOHVVHUH[WHQWLQP\ZRUN+HQFH,ZLOO¿UVWpresent a critical overview, before presenting the themes I have adopted.

Architectural history studies Architectural history studies, as required by the National Service for Cultural Heritage, include ‘The search for all relevant information, and its analysis and interpretation, which may lead to a description of the history of the construction and use of the buildings or structures.’ 48 In this context, terms such as: ‘all relevant information’ and ‘history of the construction and use’ are relevant. A range of different studies are then described, each of which provides a more accurate description of the building. The emphasis is on identifying the qualities in order to determine the value. This can then be used to decide whether or not the building should be listed. Given this perspective, the book De inleiding tot de bouwhistorie became a reference work about documenting and surveying buildings and other monuments in the Netherlands.497KLVFRQFHUQVVSHFL¿FVWXGLHV

its status and how that came about. Such studies do not consider the context of the building or a look forward to the future.

Quick scans and scorecards The concept of ‘determining the value’ has been widely discussed with reference to buildings from 1940 - 1970. My PhD UHVHDUFKGLGQRWDLPWRGHYHORSDPHWKRGWRGH¿QHWKHvalue in terms of a point score. However, several such methods have been described.50 These methods range from complex scorecards to quick scans requiring only one day of observation on site to give the client an indication of the options for reuse. One such quick scan method has been developed by ABT in Velp, a building construction consultancy.51 This method is primarily concerned with the technical aspects of the building. According to the introduction to the brochure, the architectural and cultural-historical values are considered in the study. However, they are not included in the assessment form at the end. In my view, it is impossible to identify these values in one day. ABT gives some examples where the consultancy assisted with regeneration projects: Sanatorium Zonnestraal in Hilversum, Van Nellefabriek in Rotterdam and Glaspaleis in Heerlen. However, in each of these cases it was known in advance that the building had such values. Less well known buildings, especially those constructed since 1940 cannot be analysed in one day and it is impossible to determine their value in this way.

of the history of a building, which are primarily concerned with

50 48 49

J.A. van der Hoeve, Richtlijnen Bouwhistorisch Onderzoek (The Hague: Rijksgebouwendienst, 2000): definitions. R. Stenvert, G. van Tussenbroek et al. Inleiding in de bouwhistorie (Utrecht: Matrijs, 2007).

16 ■ A B C D  re search method

51

R. Gereadts, R. and Th. van der Voordt “Van leegstand naar herbestemming,” Real Estate Magazine no. 39 (2005): 12-14 and M. Hek, J. Kamstra and R.P. Geraedts “Herbestemmingswijzer: herbestemming van bestaand vastgoed,” (Delft: Publicatiebureau Bouwkunde, 2004). R. Boer, Quickscan hergebruik gebouwen (Velp: ABT, 2005).

When assessing if a building still meets the needs or can be preserved or reused it is quite common to use scorecards and allocate point scores. However, such methods have never resulted in unanimous and universally applicable results. %XLOGLQJVDUHVRGLIIHUHQWDQGXQLTXHWKDWLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRFDSWXUH them in numbers.52 Similarly, in her exposition on the

Otakar 0iþHODVVRFLDWHSURIHVVRURIarchitectural history at Delft University of Technology described his approach to historical research: I depart from the object, the building. On that basis I try to explain the different steps of the study of architectural history: heuristics; analysis and interpretation. […] I would like to make clear from the start that the way to proceed as described should be applicable for an object dating from the fourth century B.C. as well as for an object of the fifties of the twentieth century. 55

disappearance of industrial architecture, Uta Hassler developed a method which can be expressed as a formula.53 Hence, the objective of my PhD research was not to value the buildings in QXPHULFDOWHUPV,WGLGQRWLQWHQGWRSURYLGHD¿OOLQWKHEODQNV method to value a building in general terms.

Object and context Ad van Nunen, a researcher with the Monuments Department of the FLW\RI¶V+HUWRJHQERVFKZDQWHGWR¿QGµWKHKLGGHQWUXWK behind observable facts.’ 54 The interpretation of the results of his research, and the conclusions which may be drawn from this are interesting. Van Nunen looks beyond the individual object. He considers the whole block when studying one building. The context is relevant to the object. This interpretation relates to urban planning, but provides an interesting example. The UHVHDUFKWKHPHVLQYLWHXVWRORRNEH\RQGWKHFRQ¿QHVRIWKH building, and include the impact of the environs in the study.

52

53

54

J. Benes, J. and J.K. Vrijling, Voldoet dit gebouw? Het bepalen van de functionele kwaliteit (Rotterdam: Stichting Bouw Research, 1990); J.W. Smid, De KÆW tool. Het herbestemmen van kantoren naar woningen (graduation paper, Delft University of Technology, 2003) and D. Spekkink D, Een verouderd gebouw; wat nu? Aanpak van een upgradingsproject (Rotterdam: Stichting Bouw Research, 1990). Uta Hassler defined a complex, and in my view impractical, formula to express the ‘likely survival’ of buildings numerically. See: U. Hassler, Das Verschwinden der Bauten des Industriezeitalters (Berlin: Ernst Wasmuth Verlag, 2004), 256. However, an earlier part of the book includes a list of methods which provides a good starting point: construction history, study of the construction, historical development of economics and geography, life cycle assessment, building structure, process analysis, analysis of human and ecological aspects, statistics, visual interpretation, data analysis and developing data models. Ibid, 91. On 22 May 2001, Ad van Nunen received his doctorate from Delft University of Technology, further to his development of a research method based on ’s-Hertogenbosch. His PhD supervisor was Professor Frits van Voorden. See also: H. Bollebakker, “Bouwhistorie is basis voor monumentenzorg,” Heemschut no. 1 (2002): 8.

Here the building itself provides the initial and most important source for the research, but in my view it is certainly not the only one. Furthermore, he promotes a method which can be applied universally. In 1993, Wouter Vanstiphout, architectural historian and co-owner of Crimson Architectural Historians, stated that preferably he would only consider the building as a source: Apparently, Dutch cultural historians still think they have to preach, to help develop a consensus, to support the reconstruction of our country. However, apart from the ideology and choice of subject, this form of writing history is also problematic for other reasons. As loyal clerks or archivists they believe that the truth about the residential plans and designs and the expansion plans can be found at the bottom of old cardboard boxes. They undertake extensive studies of statistics, correspondence, minutes of meetings, etc. […] How can we escape from an architectural history tradition which is deterministic, ahistorical and completely divorced from what it is supposed to describe (cities and buildings, both imagined and built)? The easiest option is to leave the archives, to go into the city, to look at the buildings, whatever they are, and wring history from them.

55

O. 0iþHO³+LVWRULFDO5HVHDUFK´LQ70GH-RQJHGWays to study (Delft: University Press, 2002), 61. A B C D  re search method ■ 17

Architectural historians could write a pedestrian’s history, enter into a tactile relationship with the city, and leave her the initiative to tell her story.56 When describing the 1955 Thomson building in Rotterdam (Figure 15), designed by Van den Broek and Bakema, in the same publication, he restricts himself to an emotional and enthusiastic report on his visit to the building. He provides no further information, and the reader who has become interested learns no more from him. Similarly, there are no references or pointers to support further study. This is emphasised by the fact that the majority of publications on buildings which have been PRGL¿HGE\RWKHUVWKDQWKHRULJLQDODUFKLWHFWVUDUHO\PHQWLRQWKH original architect and the year of completion. It is as if the present prevails over the past, although the current situation could never have come about without that present.57

Multidisciplinary research In many monographs about architects we notice that the most interesting information is often provided by the people concerned, i.e. through oral history. Living architects are an important source of information, although their presentation of the facts will always have to be considered with some reservations. The information provided by people working in a building, and especially those responsible for its upkeep have been a value source of information for my research. In my view, we need multidisciplinary research which ranges from cultural history to construction engineering.

56 57

W. Vanstiphout, “Het einde van de Wederopbouw,” in: Atelier Stad, De stad van morgen no. 1 (1993). Vanstiphout received his doctorate from Groningen University, on 16 July 2005, for his study of the architecture of J.H. van den Broek in Rotterdam, see: W. Vanstiphout, Maak een stad. Rotterdam en de architectuur van J.H. van den Broek (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2005). According to the introduction, he changed the subject of his work while studying the archives and literature. Hence, this means that Vanstiphout himself is one of those ‘loyal clerks or archivists’. However, in the discussion of the Thomson building the footnotes only refer to the literature, although all the documents about this building are in the collection of the NAi.

18 ■ A B C D  re search method

Such research should be based on the widest range of sources: literature, drawings, correspondence, diaries, material from the archives, interviews, meetings with architects, users and building managers and, most of all, the building itself. I am convinced that buildings should be studied ‘differently’. All aspects should be included in the analysis to allow us to draw conclusions about WKHWKHPHVLGHQWL¿HGLQP\GRFWRUDOZRUNRQconstruction in the 1HWKHUODQGVLQWKHSHULRG7KHLQÀXHQFHRI construction engineering, the extent to which we can learn from it at the present, and the way in which the building can accommodate change all determine the chances a building will get to survive as the sum of continuity and change. A careful and creative analysis, combination and interpretation of the information will enable us to make discoveries which can be used to design and redesign the assignment, and for other projects. After my doctoral research I participated in the Integrated Plan Analysis project. An integrated analysis method was developed, covering all aspects from concept through to operation. This project was undertaken jointly by the four departments of the Faculty of Architecture: Architecture, Building Technology, Urbanism, and Real Estate and Housing.58 This method also provided an overview of the existing analysis methods. However, Integrated Plan Analysis largely excludes regeneration aspects. Nevertheless, the lifecycle and sustainability are becoming increasingly important.59 When analysing a building in terms of its potential regeneration, the ABCD  method is more appropriate. Prudon’s work is largely concerned with the preservation of modern buildings. However, he does consider the technical aspects which are essential to this.60

58 59 60

Th. Voordt, H. Zijlstra, A. van den Dobbelsteen and M. van Dorst Integrale Plananalyse – Doel, methoden en analysekader (Delft: VSSD, 2007). A. Pereira Rodes, Re-Archtecture. Lifespan rehabilitation of built heritage (PhD diss., Eindhoven University of Technology, 2007). Prudon, Preservation of Modern Architecture.

Figure 15: Afrikahal of the Thomson building, Van den Broek and Bakema, Rotterdam, 1955. Wouter Vanstiphout describes the building in a way which arises our curiosity, but fails to satisfy it. From Vanstiphout, 1993.

A different method When working on these projects I began to feel the need for ‘a different method’ and this eventually led to the development of the ABCD  research method. My search was initially based on the experiences of others. However, it developed further to the questions and themes which I came across, and the guidance given to me by my thesis supervisors rooted in their respective disciplines: history and construction engineering. During my work I also came across others who concluded that there was a need for ‘a different method’: Fons Asselbergs (1940), director of National Service for Cultural Heritage until 2005 makes the following claim in the epilogue of Kuipers’ book I referred to earlier:



,QJHQHUDOWKHUHLVDQLQVXI¿FLHQWDZDUHQHVVRIWKHculturalhistorical values of the reconstruction period. […] It is therefore necessary to develop a method to analyse the cultural-historical values of the construction programme of the reconstruction period and inform those who currently undervalue this cultural heritage and to operate it in different ways.61

Further to the discussions I had with Gerrit-Jan Nusselder, Peter Nijhof and Anita Blom of the National Service for Cultural Heritage, it appeared that the technical elements of the studies LQSDUWLFXODUO\WHQGHGWREHLQVXI¿FLHQW62

61 62

Kuipers, Toonbeelden van de wederopbouw, 174. These discussions were held on 17 November 2003 and 15 January 2004. See also: M.C. Kuipers, Conserveren in de wegwerp maatschappij. Pleidooi voor een plychrone cultuur (Maastricht: University Press, 2001), 25. A B C D  re search method ■ 19

On the Monuments Study Day in 2000, Vincent van Rossem of the Monuments Department of the municipality of Amsterdam commented: Academic research has been overly focussed on the leading architects in the Netherlands and abroad. By now, I know way too much about Van Eesteren and Berlage! […] There is a huge division between academic research and the practice, i.e. the care of monuments. Architecture in the Netherlands is far more varied than one might conclude from current research. […] And why has there, so far, been little interest in the craft aspects of architectural designs? The Public Works department in Amsterdam has enough material for at least ten doctoral theses.63 He also emphasised that the research should be more practical and that greater consideration should be given to the craft, the making. In 1997, the municipality of Rotterdam organised a ‘designbased study’. This was in preparation of a survey of reconstruction period buildings in Rotterdam. Five teams were asked to present new uses for a building, as well as designs.64 Organiser Gerda ten Cate (one of the founders of the Rotterdam Reconstruction Committee) wrote:

designer, introduced as an experiment in design-based study, will always benefit the results.65 The teams included FRQVXOWDQWVLQWKH¿HOGVRIstructural engineering and building physics. It was expected that these consultants would limit themselves to assessing the designs and interventions resulting from them. However, it was discovered that the designers needed information at the start, about what the buildings made possible in technical terms.66 During the design process it was concluded that there was also a need for construction engineering investigations before the design started. This may also provide an opportunity for a different interpretation of the architectural history discipline. In 2004, architectural historians worried that in future there would be no need for their discipline, as suggested by the Away Day for Architectural Historians: Most people no longer have a clear understanding of what this profession means. This is related to the reducing social significance of architectural historians. […] The conclusion of this day is that academic architectural history will probably cease to exist as a discipline. This is also associated with the introduction of the bachelor/master systems at universities, as well as general developments in society. If architectural history wants to survive, then it will have to free itself from the constraints of art history, and open itself up to interdisciplinary research. Some architectural historians presented a daring hypothesis. They wondered if it was time to release the study of architecture from the ‘historical’ label. Isn’t there a future for architecture as a social science, which does not only consider architecture from a historical perspective, but also from psychological, sociological or more intrinsically architectural perspectives? 67

Architectural history studies undertaken before the design is made are essential, as well as the contributions architectural historians make to the design process. The equality of the architectural historian and the 63 64

Ten Cate, “Wennen aan wederopbouw”, 6. The ‘design-based study’ assignment was initiated by G. ten Cate and W. Vanstiphout and included: the Thalia cinema (by J.P.L. Hendriks, W. vander Sluys and L.A. van den Bosch, 1954-1955); the Ben Maltha garage and St. Lucasschool (by L. de Jonge, 1954-1958); the Huf shop and offices (by Van den Broek and Bakema, 1952-1954); the telephone exchange (by the Public Works department 1943-1947) and the station post office (by E.H. and H.M. Kraayvanger, 1954-1959). The assignment did not specify the new uses. The purpose was to develop a method which can be applied generally to the redevelopment of postwar buildings at urban sites. See: W. Galema, “Wederopbouw in wegwerpcultuur,” Bouw (May 1997): 4-9. This design excercise was held as the Committee on Valuing the Reconstruction Period in Rotterdam was about to publish its report. See: W. de Jonge et al, Het gebruik van de stad. Rapport van de Commissie Waardestelling Wederopbouw Rotterdam (Rotterdam: Commissie Waardestelling Wederopbouw, 1997).

20 ■ A B C D  re search method

65 66 67

G. ten Cate, “Wederopbouwarchitectuur: geen louter beschermende houding”, Heemschut no. 6 (1996): 14-16. G. Hulstein, “De bouwfysicus: in samenhang bekijken,” Bouw (May 1997): 3 and J.G. Kraus, “De constructeur: skelet respecteren,” Bouw (May 1997): 30. R. Hoekstra, “Eerste landdag voor architectuurhistorici,” De Architect (March 2004): 13-14.

This article is all the more remarkable as earlier we read in the same journal that the 1953 NatLab building (Philips, Eindhoven) was only saved from demolition thanks to a study by Zita Messchaert, an architectural historian.68 Finally, an example which supports the need for interdisciplinary research before any plans are developed. When the 1973 Willis Corroon building by Norman Foster (1935) was listed as a monument, a manual was written for the building: Having decided that guidelines would be likely to assist the process of managing change, from the local planning authority point of view, guidelines are likely to include some or all of the following points: The status of the document, who has prepared it, who has agreed it, who can be contacted about it and who else might need to be aware of its contents „The definition of special interest, and what is considered to be not of interest „An analysis of the design philosophy, and context, plan form, structure and materials, internal and external treatment, the decorative schemes and finishes, any fixed integral machinery and fixed original art works „Future intentions in significant programmes of demolitions, alterations, extensions and any schedule for the modification or replacement of machinery „The legal position „What will be likely to require listed building consent and what is likely to be acceptable any matters likely to require separate planning permission „Any departures from the list description or significant changes between the list description and the guidelines „Clear delineation of curtilage and any associated structures a timetable for review of the document’ 69 „

68

69

T. Tummers, “Nieuw leven voor NatLab”, De Architect (March 2004): 12. At the initiative of A.H. Geuze (1960) of West 8. The NatLab (Physics Laboratory) was designed by D. Roosenburg (1887-1962). It is included in the Strijp-S redevelopment plan for the Philips site in Eindhoven. In 2008, ®MIT was commissioned to study Strijp-S, with the objective of monitoring the process and undertaking preliminary research into potential developments. B. Kindred, “Management Issues and Willis Corroon,” in: Macdonald, Modern Matters. Principles and Practice in Conserving Recent Architecture, 35-36.

ABCD  research method A study of existing buildings really demands that we investigate them, so we can understand them. As I mentioned in the introduction, there have been many cultural-historical publications on twentieth century Dutch architecture. My method addresses both technical and other aspects. All are relevant to the design, construction, SUHVHUYDWLRQDQGPRGL¿FDWLRQRIEXLOGLQJV The aspects I distilled from the existing methods and the demand for ‘a different method’ provided the basis for my multidisciplinary ABCD  method: location/urban context

design/process

building regulations

commission/client

grid

use of materials

programme

building mass

interior elements

design principles

load-bearing structure current situation

spatial structure

structure

use/reuse

functional structure

services

changes

As there are major differences in approach to buildings from before and after 1940, studies of these buildings demand appropriate PRGL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHPHWKRGVGLVFXVVHGDERYH These differences concern: number, technique, intention, performance, viability and appeal.70 These differences are important when deciding how to approach a building. Not just in terms of their preservation and their continuity, but especially in terms of the extent to which these buildings can accommodate change - their changeability. Change can provide opportunities for the preservation of buildings and their long-term development. When dealing with buildings from the period 1940 - 1970, the question if the building can be changed is more important than considerations of preservation and conservation. It is about regeneration rather than restoration. Or, as Coenen put it:

70

Ibid., A. Saint, “Philosophical Principles of Modern Conservation,” 15-28. A B C D  re search method ■ 21

To me, restoration does not just mean copying what was there before. At the moment that is affecting many monuments. They are shielded in a way which denies them further life. I am convinced that in the course of history many buildings underwent a Metamorphosis during their restoration. Consequently many Interventions were accommodated, hence the buildings were Transformed (MIT).71

71

J.M.J Coenen, “Gebouw en Geschiedenis,” in: Röling, Gesloopt Gered Bedreigd. Omgaan met naoorlogse Bouwkunst, 44.

22 ■ A B C D  re search method

The analysis of the technical aspects of a building is essential to be able to decide what is technically possible or impossible. The options are often technical in nature. Similarly, the loss of the original function is often associated with technical possibilities and impossibilities. In terms of space, structure, materials and services a building proves its qualities only with the passing of time. In my view, all these aspects should be incorporated into these studies, as well as some contextual aspects.

Figure 16: The Federal Centre in Chicago by

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1969. Photograph by the author, 1990.

A B C D  re search method ■ 23

24 ■ A B C D  re search method

2

Research Themes

You don’t have to be able to do all this yourself, but you do have to understand it.72

This is what architect Roosenburg said in 1949 when they arrived in the boiler room, when he gave a tour of the KLM building in The Hague which was under construction at the time, and this is the key: appreciating the subject, thoroughly understanding it. As I wrote in the introduction, the three themes of my PhD research were: technological observation, research analysis, and regenerative conclusions. The names of these themes indicate the methodical approach. These themes interact, and overlap in the research areas. A university of technology which trains students to become building construction engineers, most of whom will be working as architects, aims to transfer knowledge, and teach students to use technology to create and assess architecture which is forever changing. Architecture is more than just constructing buildings.73 Architecture adds meaning to buildings created with technology. In principle, buildings should have a long life, and therefore change during that life. Here we are concerned with both financial aspects and the lifetime of buildings. The lifetime of a building depends on its ability to accommodate change. Being aware of this, learning from this, becoming aware of this, considering this in new design commissions and in assignments related to existing buildings, where technology needs to be applied to realise the design, are the challenges associated with contemporary durable and sustainable building practices. Durability and the ability to change appear to be inextricably linked to guarantee some continuity in our built environment, hence one could argue that: Continuity + 72

73

Changeability = Durability The issues covered by the ABCD  research method are based on the three research themes which I will now discuss in depth. First I will address ‘technological observation’. This includes issues such as engineering, technology, the way architectural critics view engineering, and the views of practising architects. Building construction methods changed after 1940, however the role of engineering in the building process saw little change. Secondly I will address ‘research analysis’ to demonstrate that learning from existing buildings, as part of our education, is essential for the understanding and skills we need to be able to build and observe effectively. Finally, I will explain what I mean by ‘regenerative conclusions’. The results from observation and analysis are used to draw conclusions relating to the opportunities for the regeneration of buildings. Here we are concerned with both past changes and potential future changes.

As told to the author on 3 January 2002 by Piet Tauber (1927). He attended the visit to the KLM building in The Hague, in 1949. Tauber always remembered this comment. E.O. Cofaigh ed., “The Future of Architecture. UAI Whitebook,” in: Resource Architecture Main Congress Report and Outlook (Berlin: Birkhaüser, 2002), 258. A B C D  re search method ■ 25

2.1

Technological observation

I will first consider the term ‘technology’. After that I will present the views of some architectural critics and practising architects. The building processes changed after 1940, but the role of technology in the design and construction process remained the same, although the technical possibilities did change. By observing we can become aware of how designers and architects use technology and how technology determines the building which is eventually constructed. In this chapter about technology and engineering I am concerned about the concept of technology in the broadest and original sense of the wordIJƿǒnjdž(technè): making, in this case, buildings. In his article on Techne, Technology and Tragedy, David Tabanach explained the meaning of the term ‘technology’. According to him, ‘techne’ and ‘technology’ essentially mean the same, and concern our knowledge of technology:

do not hold ethical dimensions and moreover result in poetic revealings - then the true potentials of technology have not been unfolded. Its essence has not been realized.76 Both Frampton and Beim refer to buildings by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886 - 1996) to support their tectonic theories.77 See Figure 16. Mies van der Rohe had a very clear view of the role of technology in architecture, as illustrated by some quotations selected by Beim: Architecture wrote the history of the epochs and gave them their names. Architecture depends on its time. It is the crystallization of its inner structure, the slow unfolding of its form.78 The industrialization of the building trades is a matter of materials. That is why the demand for new building materials is the first prerequisite. Technology must and will succeed in finding a building material that can be produced technologically, that can be processed industrially, that is firm, weather resistant and sound and temperature insulating. It will have to be a lightweight material, the processing of which not only permits but actually demands industrialization. The industrial production of all parts can only be carried out systematically by factory processes, and the work on the building site will then be exclusively of an assembly type,

So, techne, is best translated as ‘technical knowledge’ because it gives the specific sense of knowledge directed toward the production of something without confusing that knowledge with the product itself.74 Kenneth Frampton (1930), in his book Studies in Tectonic Culture discusses his concept ‘tectonic’ in detail. He derives it fromIJƿǒnjdž, similar to the concept ‘technology’, to eventually arrive at a comparison between ‘tectonic’ and ‘atectonic’. 75 Anne Beim (1964) developed the concept ‘tectonic’ further in her study Tectonic Visions in Architecture. She drew the following conclusion: Therefore, one might conclude that if architectural visions

76 77

74 75

D.E. Tabachnick, “Techne, Technology and Tragedy,” Techné no. 7 (2004), 92. K.D. Frampton, Studies in Tectonic Culture (Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2001), 1-27.

26 ■ A B C D  re search method

78

A. Beim, Tectonic Visions in Architecture (PhD diss., Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture Copenhagen, 1999) 49-65 and 177. Frampton, Studies in Tectonic Culture, 159-208 and Beim, Tectonic Visions in Architecture, 72-85. Beim, Tectonic Visions in Architecture, 21. According to Beim ‘Architecture and Technology’, was a speech presented at the IIT in Chicago, 1950. L. Mies van der Rohe, “Achitecure and Technology,” Architecture Review no. 10 (1950): 30.

bringing about an incredible reduction of building time. This will bring with a significant reduction of building costs. The new architectural endeavours, too, will find their real challenge.79 One does not gain anything if one makes a curve instead of a right angle. Round is also difficult to furnish, there everything is mode to measure. And to construct anyone who does it once is cured. [...] One can understand the preference of the round, we were born with it, but the circle is limited, the rectangle on the contrary is illimitable, increasable and divisible. The system of the order is based on the square.80

in typical ‘reinforced concrete architecture’ cannot be defined in a simple truth or essence. [...] Hence, the truth is no longer simple. And not only because of reinforced concrete but also because of the entire range of innovations in construction engineering, architecture in the second quarter of this century changed direction such that instead of amounting to a simplicity of the essential it appears to be a multitude of inessentials.81 Paul Bromberg (1893 - 1949) also sounded a critical note about technology: However, we should not overestimate the technical aspects of the new way of building. Last century introduced electricity as an aid to ‘better living’, and lavatories and running water in the kitchen and bathrooms, and countless other improvements. However, because of the technical improvements in the last century we have lost sight of the meaning of life. The greatly increased struggle for existence has driven people to the cities, which have swollen like an overflowing river. Old values have been lost: contact with nature, rest and contemplation of one’s work, time for reflection, the close contact with the work of others when one walked down the roads and saw a craftsman in his workshop. People now live longer due to improvements in hygiene and progress in medical science, but they have less sense of what to do with their lives. The roads have been paved, the houses have sewers and running water, gas and electricity, but the greenery has disappeared and long, disconsolate, boring rows of houses only have a view of each other’s monotony. And then they are now disparaging prefabrication, as if the worst architectural crimes had not been committed already.82

But although the vision and interpretation of Mies van der Rohe’s concept of ‘less is more’ might appear straightforward, there have been countless interpretations of the concept of technology, particularly in connection with building construction and architecture, in architectural practice since 1945. Before considering this in greater GHWDLO,ZLOO¿UVWpresent some comments by architectural critics. This is because observation and recording information amount to the larger part of the initial research work.

Mistrust in technology Earlier, I quoted the architecture critic Mieras. He had little FRQ¿GHQFHLQtechnology after 1940: The truth is that spiritual expressions are not simple truths, and neither is architecture. In this respect, it is remarkable and typical that Berlage, for example, never accepted reinforced concrete as anything other than supporting framework (which might as well have been made of steel). But the application of reinforced concrete 79

80

Beim, Tectonic Visions in Architecture, 73: Mies van der Rohe, “Industrial Building,” G, no. 3 (1924) and F. Neumeyer, The artless Word: Mies van der Rohe on the Building Art, (Cambridge: MIT University Press, 1991), 248-249. Beim, Tectonic Visions in Architecture, 77-78: Mies in a conversation with Heinrich Rasch after a lecture by Hugo Häring of 1925 (on the question of a Leitungsform, which was to be found in forms of the nature). Mies sketched while he talked. S. Honey, “Who and what inspired Mies van der Rohe in Germany,” Architectural Design no. 3/4 (1979): 100.

81 82

Mieras, Na-oorlogse Bouwkunst in Nederland, 35. P. Bromberg, Bouwen in nieuwe banen (Amsterdam: N.V. de Arbeiderspers, 1947), 108. A B C D  re search method ■ 27

An approach which he felt he had to state, after presenting his view of the future of the progress of technology in building construction:

There should be no restrictions on the choice of material, as long it meets certain requirements in terms of fire resistance. The local regulations which have been established about this, under the influence of local prejudices, have long frustrated anyone not party to the system. Finally: how do industrial building methods fit in with the National Plan for our reconstruction? With great effort, this wonderful organisation was set up in our country which covers the expansion plans and regional plans. Industrial building methods do not conflict with this organisation. On the contrary, the national plan, and all its elements, will ensure that industrial building methods cannot degenerate into unbridled speculative building with all rueful consequences. Industrial building methods will purely become a means to ensure that the reconstruction will amount to more than just hollow phrases - which do not provide a home.84

And anyone who keeps insisting that for the Dutch house there is nothing more beautiful and practical than our pantiles and our bricks restricts Dutch building construction to its most backward stage of development. That the art of architecture will stand or fall with maintaining or letting go of this backwardness is just as unlikely as horse-drawn boats being closer to ‘art’ than aeroplanes. Poor art, which can only maintain itself in a preserved condition!83 With respect to the regulations, Bromberg already foresaw a method which would only be adopted in the Netherlands in 1992 when the Buildings Decree, the new government regulations concerning buildings, came into force: Industrial building also makes demands on the government with respect to another important issue: new building regulations! In England, the widely publicised Burt report made the radical proposal that new building constructions should not longer be assessed on the basis of existing regulations but that there should be objective assessments in which their individual performance is considered. For example, the report that it is folly to state that ‘a load-bearing wall shall always be at least this thick’ as such regulations fail to accommodate new materials, designs and techniques. Furthermore, it was always nonsensical to say that a load-bearing wall should have a particular thickness, irrespective of it being made of concrete, brick, steel or wood. Such requirements should be replaced by regulations setting the permissible loads. New regulations concerning insulation should be added. Similarly, the regulations about whether or not materials are acceptable in terms of fire safety should be changed.

Outside the Netherlands, Lewis Mumford (1895 - 1990) stated in 1952 that craftspeople, as masters of the process, would have to give up their power to a more industrialised and impersonal process.85 A separation was made between standardisation and the freedom to choose, between art and technology. Reproducibility through mass production resulted in major changes in the appreciation of art and made art more democratic.86 Hence, Mumford was critical of the largely technical and plain character. His vision of architecture was:

84

85 86

83

Ibid., p. 26.

28 ■ A B C D  re search method

Ibid., 54. The Buildings Decree (Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment) came into force in 1992 and replaced the earlier building regulations. The Buildings Decree was based on performance standards rather than prescriptive minimum solutions. See also: Addis, 3000 Years of Design Engineering and Building Construction, 337-340. This includes a character description of Lewis Mumford. Mumford, L., Art and Technics (London: Oxford University Press, 1952): 62-88 (chapter: From Handicraft to Machine Age).

In that art, beauty and use, symbol and structure, meaning and practical function, can hardly even in a formal analysis be separated; for a building, however artless, however innocent of conscious speech on the part of the builder, by its very presence cannot help saying something. Even in the plainest esthetic choices of materials, or of proportions, the builder reveals what manner of man he is and what sort of community he is serving. Yet despite this close association in building between technics and art, doing and saying, the separate functions are clearly recognizable in any analysis of an architectural structure: the foundations, the inner drainage system, or in later days the heating and cooling systems, plainly belong exclusively to technics; while the shape and scale of the structure, the elements that accentuate its function or emphasize its purpose in order to give pleasure and sustenance to the human spirit, is art.87

The 1953 UN headquarters in New York, designed by Harrison & Abramovitz, caused Mumford to take a particularly critical look at modern architecture: If technics could not, by itself, tell the story of the pioneer, moving through the gateway of the continent, the story could not, in the architectural terms of our own day, be told. This failure to do justice to the symbolic and expressive functions of architecture perhaps reached its climax in the design of the United Nations Headquarters, where an office building has been treated as a monument, and where one of the these great structures has been placed so as to be lost to view by most of the approaches to the site. […] How hard it is to achieve such structures, at once functional in all their offices and arrangements and duly symbolic of their own human purposes, we can see when we examine a building near at hand: the new Secretariat Building of the United Nations. That great oblong prism of steel and aluminium and glass, less a building than a gigantic mirror in which the urban landscape of Manhattan is reflected, is in one sense one of the most perfect achievements of modern technics: as fragile as a spider web, as crystalline as a sheet of ice, as geometrical as a beehive. On this structure almost a score of the best architectural and engineering minds of our day were at one time or another at work. But unfortunately, the genius presiding over this design was an architectural doctrine altogether too narrow and superficial to solve the actual problem itself. The very decision to make the Secretariat building the dominant structure in this complex of buildings reveals at the start either a complete indifference to symbolism, or a very wry reading of the nature and destiny of the United Nations.89

According to Mumford, modern architecture had become: Modern architecture crystallized at the moment that people realized that the older modes of symbolism no longer spoke to modern man; and that, on the contrary, the new functions brought in by the machine had something special to say to him. Unfortunately, in the act of realizing these new truths, mechanical function has tended to absorb expression, or in more fanatical minds, to do away with the need for it. As a result, the architectural imagination has, within the last twenty years, become impoverished: so much so that the recent prizewinning design for a great memorial, produced by one of the most accomplished and able of the younger architects, was simply a gigantic parabolic arch.88

87 88

Ibid., 111-112 (chapter: Symbol and Function in Architecture). Ibid., 114 (chapter: Symbol and Function in Architecture). He was referring to the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Arch (1964) by Eero Saarinen. However, in 1957 Mumford spoke highly of the Lijnbaan in Rotterdam, see: L. Mumford, “The Skyline. A Walk Through Rotterdam,” The New Yorker, October 12, 1957, 174-183.

89

Ibid., 114 and 128 (chapter: Symbol and Function in Architecture). A B C D  re search method ■ 29

Figures 17 and 18: The UN headquarters in New York and a facade detail.

Designed by Harrison & Abramovitz, 1953. Photographs by the author, 1990.

See Figures 17, 18 and bookcover. Mumford continued criticising the UN building for several pages and then moved on to Frank Lloyd Wright (1869 - 1959) whose work he was more positive about (see Figure 22): Accordingly, the more sensitive the architect is to expression, the more capable he is of transforming “building” into “architecture,” the greater the need for his own self-knowledge, self-control, self-discipline: above all, for subordinating his own inner wilfulness to the character and purposes of his client. On this latter score, Frank Lloyd Wright’s work is sometimes not impeccable; for all too rarely has he been faced with a client sufficiently strong in his own right to stand up to Wright’s overbearing genius, in a way that will do justice to every dimension of the problem. But one thing is usually in 30 ■ A B C D  re search method

evidence in Wright’s architecture – not the machine but the human person has taken command. […] In Wright’s fertile and inventive use of the machine, combined with a refusal to be cowed by it or intimidated by it into a servile disregard of his own purposes, his work has been prophetic of a future in which art and technics will be effectively united.90 Finally, Mumford concludes: Along such lines art and technics, the symbol and the function, are now in process of being reconciled in the best works of modern architecture; and to the extent that this is actually taking place there is reason to hope

90

Ibid., 127-128 (chapter: Symbol and Function in Architecture).

that our civilization, which shows so many signs of disruption, may in fact be able to halt its insane expansion of power without purpose, and find ways of bringing into effective unity the now hostile and divisive tendencies of men. But this is no easy road; and such backward-looking buildings as the UN Secretariat Building-of all buildings in all places!-are a proof of that fact. Hence in my final lecture, I purpose to examine the more general.91

when the flats at the Parklaan had been completed, that day God was with me, do you understand? It had been a disaster because I didn’t know anything. I just started on that building with some contractors and I just did it. Of course, I had learned a little architecture in Bandoeng, but nowhere near enough. I just put that building together, I still don’t understand it, I still consider it one of my best buildings. Of course I was ... it was in the middle of the depression and I was at the mercy of those building contractors. It was a disaster, I was walking on the scaffolding, like, well if there’s a plank out of place and I fall down, then, well, thank God, it’ll all be over, do you understand? I really thought that. But when it was finished we went to look at it with De 8 and Opbouw [Dutch architectural magazine on the Modern Movement from 1932 to 1943]. We were standing in front of it, there was a beautiful blue sky with white clouds, and the sun was shining. We were standing there, looking at it. I heard Van Loghem whisper to C. van Eesteren ‘Who helped Van Tijen with this?’ Yes, that was all rather odd. And yet I was the architect. It was me, I felt that at that moment, yes.93

Mumford’s views of the UN building in New York demonstrate that the time and the personal perception of architecture have an effect on the nature of architecture criticism. We saw this earlier when discussing Vanstiphout. The UN building was featured on the cover of the invitation to the eighth Docomomo congress: Import – Export: Postwar Modernism in an Expanding World 1945 – 1975, held in September 2004 in New York. The appreciation of architecture in its association with technology depends on the timespan, the historical period and the person making the assessment.92 From the perspective of professional practice, the views of some architects on technology were occasionally debatable, while architect Willem Van Tijen (1894 - 1974), who trained as a civil engineer (structural HQJLQHHU IRXQGLWGLI¿FXOWWRDFWDVDQ architect. He essentially grew into the architectural profession and initially referred to himself as a ‘house engineer’, and only UHIHUUHGWRKLPVHOIDVDQDUFKLWHFWDIWHUKLV¿UVWEXLOGLQJWKH 3DUNÀDWLQ5RWWHUGDPKDGEHHQcompleted in 1933: Then it got very messy, with little building companies. And of course I got help, I was helped by De Jonge van Ellemeet, Director of the Rotterdam Housing Department, and by Reesink and Plate. Initially I called myself a ‘house engineer’ but there came a time, well, when I was an architect. The time I really had that feeling, that was

91 92

Ibid., 134 (chapter: Symbol and Function in Architecture). H. Zijlstra, “DoCoMoMo in New York,” Monumenten no. 6 (2005): 14-17. Gerrit Rietveld (1888 - 1964) was also critical of the UN building, see: G. Th. Rietveld, Rationele Vormgeving, (May, 1953) lecture at the Centraal Museum Utrecht.

Initially, Van Tijen considered his one-sided education as a shortcoming, but it was to be an enrichment as a result of which he could integrate engineering as a logical profession in architectural practice. In the research on the Provinciale Bibliotheek in Leeuwarden (discussed elsewhere in this publication) we see that architect Piet Tauber (1927) went through a similar struggle with the profession. In his case that was because his father, a bricklayer and foreman, had taught his soon the technical aspects of the profession before he started his architecture course in Delft.

93

D.A. Ruler and D. van Woerkom, “Ir. W. van Tijen: ‘Ik ben een rationalist, maar er is meer op de wereld,’” Plan no. 9 (1970): 522. See also: Zijlstra, Bouwen in Nederland 1940 – 1970, sub section 5: Groothandelsgebouw Rotterdam, 23-26. A B C D  re search method ■ 31

Architect - structural engineer

contaminated. I mean, it is contaminated by money, time, power, and sometimes politics. You have to develop yourself by experiencing these contaminating realities. This project was also a great opportunity for me to learn about teamwork. Projects of that type only become possible when people work well together and when you are happy to mix your creativity with that of others. From this project, I learned the value of collaboration. I have worked with Peter Rice, an engineer with Ove Arup & Partners, constantly since that time.97

After 1940 the roles in architectural practices were more clearly separated. Consultants were engaged for specialised technical aspects. Maaskant, who worked with Van Tijen, was one of the ¿UVWDUFKLWHFWVWRexperience these changes, during the construction of the Groothandelsgebouw. He became an engineer-organiser, i.e. a manager.94 In contemporary Dutch architectural practice, architects always work together with engineers. There are only a few architects who are trained in both architecture and structural engineering. In some cases (e.g. Maaskant and van Tijen) an architectural practice might include a structural engineering department. In the partnership between engineer and architect, the creativity of the two partners is the key to a good result.95 Many well-known architects always work with the same engineer. For example, in the Netherlands the engineers of ABT (established in 1953) regularly work with the architects such as Zwarts & Jansma and Mecanoo.96 See Figure 19. To give a practical example of the cooperation between architects and engineers, and how they think about technology I include some observations about the cooperation between Renzo Piano (1937) and Peter Rice (1935 - 1992). Piano is an architect who grew up in the construction industry, his father was a contractor. He found this background most valuable when working as an architect. He had become familiar with construction materials by playing with them as a child. Piano and Rice met when working on the design of the Centre Pompidou in 1970 and worked together continuously until Rice’s death in 1992, forming a perfect team: architect – engineer. See Figure 20. Piano explained how the cooperation came about:

Piano on the way he works as an architect: For me creativity is a quit game. […] This type of creativity is the same as craftsmanship. An architect must be a craftsman. Of course, any tools will do. These days, the tools may include a computer, an experimental model, and mathematics. However, it is still craftsmanship - the work of someone who does not separate the work of the mind from the work of the hand. It involves a circular process that draws you from an idea to a drawing, from a drawing to an experiment, from an experiment to construction, and from construction back to an idea again. For me, this cycle is fundamental to creative work. Unfortunately, many have come to accept each of the those steps as independent. An architect too easily passes the results of his experiments on to the builders. Truly creative work is a circular process, and if an architect makes himself part of this process he can gain the technical ability to grasp in essence what he is working on. Creativity can be realized through teamwork. The word teamwork is another mystery which everyone talks about but which is rarely practised. To tell you the truth, in the world of architecture, there are few people who employ real teamwork in their work. It is rare for exchanges to take place between architects, engineers, and builders. But teamwork is essential if creative projects are to come

I learned a lot about the architectural profession through my work on this project [Centre George Pompidou in Paris, design competition in 1970 with Richard Rogers (1933)]. Architecture is a difficult profession because it is 94

95 96

The growth in the complexity of the work of engineers and the increase in the number of parties involved in the design process are discussed in: Addis, 3000 Years of Design Enigneering and Building Construction, 57-81. A. Vlot, “Creativiteit is het hart van het ingenieurswerk,” de Ingenieur no. 10 (1993): 8-12. E. Melet et al, ABT 1953-2003, (Arnhem: ABT, 2003).

32 ■ A B C D  re search method

97

R. Piano, “Renzo Piano Building Workshop,” Process: Architecture no. 100 (1992): 10.

Figure 19: 2QHRIWKH¿UVWEXLOGLQJVZLWKDSUHVWUHVVHGconcrete structure.

Arnhem town hall, 1964, architect: J.J. Konijnenburg, engineers: ABT. Photograph by the author, 2004.

Figure 20: Centre George Pompidou in Paris (1971 - 1977), R. Rogers, R. Piano and P. Rice. The building which Rice referred to as the real start of his career. Photograph by the author, 1985.

about. Teamwork requires the ability to listen and engage in dialogue. I’m not moralizing here. Put yourself into the creative cycle - think, draw, spend time at the site, and go back to thinking again. If this can be defined as creation, then there is no real contradiction between art and science, modernity and tradition, and freedom and obligation. I hope to discover the meaning of balance, the theme of this issue, through the ideas I have expressed above.98

of engineer who is more imaginative and design-orientated than a normal engineer. This is because in the minds of the public and of other professionals, the engineer is associated with unimaginative dull solutions. If people find an engineer making original designs, designs which only an engineer can make, they feel the need to grant him or her a higher accolade, hence ‘architect engineer’. It is not that I object to being called an architect engineer. Occasionally it may even be appropriate, but mostly it is not because there is a designer. To call an engineer an ‘architect engineer’ because he comes up with unusual or original solutions is essentially to misunderstand the role of the engineer in society.99

Rice explained how people viewed him, as an engineer: I am an engineer. Often people will call me an ‘architect engineer’ as a compliment. It is meant to signify a quality

98

Ibid., 14.

99

P. Rice, An Engineer Imagines (London: Artemis, 1994), 71. A B C D  re search method ■ 33

Rice on the differences between architects and engineers: I would distinguish the difference between the engineer and the architect by saying the architect’s response is primarily creative, whereas the engineer’s is essentially inventive. The architect, like the artist, is motivated by personal considerations whereas the engineer is essentially seeking to transform the problem into one where the essential properties of structure, material or some other impersonal element are being expressed. This distinction between creation and invention is the key to understanding the difference between the engineer and the architect, and how they can both work on the same project but contribute in different ways. Indeed, now it is important that engineers start to educate both people within the profession and the public at large on the essential contribution that the engineer makes to even the most mundane project.100

Faith in technology In general, immediately after the Second World War there was great faith in technology. Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895 - 1983) is one example of someone who thought that many problems could be solved through technology: Technology represents philosophy resolved to the most cogent argument ... If man did this, such would result. In technology man is empowered to explore and develop his own ‘if’ without reference to the limiting response of other preoccupied egos. Through technology alone the creative individual can of free will arrange for the continuing preservation of mankind despite individual man’s self frustrating propensities.101 See also Figure 48. After 1945, technology was largely applied in the construction industry to construct more buildings, more TXLFNO\DWORZHUFRVW+RZHYHUWKLVGLGQRWDOZD\VEHQH¿W 100 101

Ibid., 72. J.Meller ed., The Buckminster Fuller Reader (Londen: Cape, 1970), 231.

34 ■ A B C D  re search method

quality.102 The great demand for both residential and nonresidential buildings resulted in great activity in the construction industry, which supported by new developments in technology. System building, i.e. constructing dwellings using industrial methods, was subsidised by the central government, and new materials (e.g. plastics and aluminium) and applications were introduced.103 Due to supply shortages the industry resorted to materials which were available quickly, such as concrete, calcium silicate bricks and plaster. The brickworks had been destroyed and for steel the Netherlands was largely dependent on other countries, as it was before the war. The same applied to timber, lead, zinc, glass, paint and wallpaper.104 In the years following this period, the steel industry started to produce I, H and U steel SUR¿OHVLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKinternational standards.105 New manufacturing, processing and joining technologies also made innovative applications possible, as did new engineering and calculation methods. The concrete industry started using new techniques, such as prestressing, high-grade steel reinforcement, new information about the properties of materials, mathematical methods, concrete grades and aggregates. To reduce the time required for construction the industry tried to keep working through winter.106 Processes had to be managed better, which required standardisation, legislation, planning and cooperation. The (XURSHDQ5HFRYHU\3URJUDP(53 UHFHLYHG¿QDQFLDO support from the American Marshall Plan. Although the war effort had resulted in technical innovations in some European countries, nobody could resist the American technical hegemony

102 103

104

105 106

R. Kronenburg, Spirit of the Machine. Technology as an Inspiration in Architectural Design (Chichester: Wiley-Academy, 2001), 84. J.W. Schot ed., Techniek in Nederland in de twintigste eeuw. VI: stad; bouw en industriële productie (Zutphen: De Walburg Pers, 2003), 219 and H.R. Hitchcock, “Een overzicht van de veranderingen in de architectuur ten gevolge van het ontstaan van nieuwe technieken en materialen,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 13 (1961): 259. See: “Onze Bouwmaterialen,” Bouw (October, 1945): 27-31, “Nederlandsche houtindustrie wacht op grondstoffen,” Bouw no.2 (1946): 214 and H.G.J. Schelling, “Constructie van gewapend-betonvloeren zonder toepassing van houten bekisting, ” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 29 (1941): 244-245. J.K. van Genderenstort, “Staalbouw 1945-1965,” Polytechnisch Tijdschrift no. 1 (1965): 20B. J. van Zutphen, “Betontechniek 1945-1965,” Polytechnisch Tijdschrift no.1 (1965) 13B-16B.

around 1947.107 As early as 1932, planning was the tool of the American New Deal to manage the tasks and work of the American government.108 In Europe after the Second World War, National Plans were developed to manage matters of national interest, in the longer term. Planning also provided industry with a tool to coordinate and check work and became an essential instrument in architectural practices. When preparing construction projects, there was an increasing need to work with consultants specialising in structural engineering, building services plant and building physics. For example, to promote effective cooperation, Evert Jelles (1932 - 2003) set up the ‘Ring of consultancies’ in 1970.109 Additionally, construction teams were set up as organisational units. The intention was to involve the parties preparing for the building process and those doing the actual building work during the design stage, to optimise the design. Unfortunately, the optimisation was mostly aimed at controlling costs. The construction team, based on cooperation, suddenly became a serious alternative to the tendering system traditionally used in the Netherlands, where the contract was given to the lowest bidder. The construction industry, which had traditionally taken a craft approach, introduced a division of labour similar to that used in the manufacturing industry. Joiners (carpenters) in particular were affected by the reduction in the number of tasks they undertook and the division of labour. These changes were DFFRPSDQLHGE\VLPSOL¿HGSURFHVVHVRQWKHEXLOGLQJsite. More and more work was shifted to the preliminary phase, which became increasingly industrialised. The construction site became more of an assembly site, and the general contractor a coordinator of suppliers such as subcontractors.110 Prefabrication of building components became an essential part of the construction process. However, a fully industrialised building process never developed. As Professor J. Hryniewiecki concluded in 1961, much was still done by hand:

107

Taverne, 1950 Welvaart in zwart-wit. Nederlandse cultuur in Europese Context, 67-68. 108 M. Pieterson, Het technisch labyrint, (Leiden: Werkgroep Techniek, Technologie en Samenleving, 1981) 225. 109 E.J. Jelles, “Zoeken naar een adequate werkwijze,” Plan no. 9 (1970): 560. 110 A. Hendriks, “Multidisciplinair onderzoek dient het bouwen te begeleiden,” Plan no. 9 (1970): 555.

What industrialisation we see is more like industrialised crafts. It is limited to factory production of components, and the maximum dimensions of these components are determined by the transport available, transportability, weight and handling on site.111 In architecture, development and progress are generally considered to be the result of external factors such as new building materials or new demands made by society, which have developed independently of architecture, and which architecture has to respond to, whether it wants to or not. Architecture appears to be rather passive, and without an inherent drive to renew its own aesthetics. Classic forms have survived for centuries, in fact so long that the new modernist architecture of the twentieth century is best analysed as a form of covert classicism. So, although there are many reasons to consider architecture more as the art of repetition than the art of difference, we have to ask how the development of knowledge over time in this repetitive pattern was organised.112 This conclusion was drawn by Joost Meuwissen, who considered how the volume of knowledge within the architectural profession was expanded. My view is the opposite, I think that these ‘external factors such as new building materials’ are actually an agent of innovation in architecture. The architecture of Auguste Perret (1874 - 1954), who used reinforced concrete, combined structural engineering and aesthetics. For example, we can regularly recognise classical column capitals in his work, but he applied them in a contemporary way with only a hint of the classical order. For example, the Musée des Travaux (1936 1948) in Paris includes columns with and without capitals. These capitals are inspired by the Egyptian lotus capital. The stairs are completely self-supporting. See Figures 23 to 27. Perret was more aware than any of his colleagues of the role of technology

111 112

J. Hryniewiecki, “De invloed van de industrialisatie op de architectuur,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 13 (1961): 259. J. Meuwissen, “Groei van kennis in de architectuur,” OASE no. 62 (2003): 7. A B C D  re search method ■ 35

Figures 21 and 22: Columns in the Glaspaleis Schunk in Heerlen by F.P.J. Peutz, 1942 (regenerated by Jo Coenen and Wiel Arets) and a column in th e

Johnson Wax building in Racine, by Frank Lloyd Wright, 1951. Photographs by the author, 2004 and 1990.

in his architecture.113 After the Second World War, Dutch architects had to learn how to use materials such as concrete in an original way, or, as Tauber put it ‘We did use concrete, but the design was based on stacked beams, as we normally used when working with timber or steel. An architecture which was truly based on concrete only developed later.’ 114 The Schunck department store (1936 - 1942) designed by Frits Peutz (1896  ZDVDQH[FHSWLRQWRWKLVWUHQG,WVPXVKURRPÀRRUVDUH an expression of both technology and architecture.115 In the 113 114

115

Frampton, Studies in Tectonic Culture, 121-157. H. Zijlstra, Interviews with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002 and 6 March 2002, further to research element 4.3: Provinciale Bibliotheek Leeuwarden. Around 1960 the work of these architects was discussed in the Dutch press, for example: P.L. Nervi, “De invloed van de ontwikkelingen in het gewapend beton, de bouwtechniek en de bouwwetenschap op de hedendaagse architectuur,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 13 (1961): 257-258. W. van der Schrier, “Betonskeletbouw,” Bouw (1946): 179 and W. Graatsma, Schunck ‘s Glass Palace (Nuth: Rosbeek Books, 1996).

36 ■ A B C D  re search method

United States, Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture shows an evolution to a plastically deformable building material, but even WKHUHZH¿QGHOHPHQWVGHULYHGIURPFODVVLFDOFDSLWDOV6HH Figures 21 and 22. Finally, with reference to the theory of technology and architecture, I include some quotes by Perret, as published in 1952 in Contribution a une Theorie de L’Architecture. See also )LJXUH7KHVHVSHFL¿FDOO\FRQFHUQVRPHtechnical aspects which he considered necessary to realising architecture, and which are still equally valid today. If architects can combine technology and DUFKLWHFWXUHLQWKLVZD\WKH\ZLOOEHQH¿WIURP the synergy between the two. For many, this awareness only develops while training as an architect as not everyone who chooses to study design is lucky enough to have a parent who works in the construction industry. Observation, with an engineer’s eye, is a tool to look methodically at what exists

already, and to learn from it. Perret: ‘L’Architecture est l’art d’organser l’espace, c’est par la construction qu’il s’exprime.’ […] Architecture is the art of organising space, as expressed by the construction.

‘L’Architecture est, de toutes les expressessions de l’art, celle qui est le plus soumise aux conditions matérielles.’ […] Of all the expressions of art, architecture is the form most dependent on the properties of materials. ‘La construction est la langue maternelle de l’architecte. L’architecte est un poète qui parle en construction.’ […] The construction is the material language of the architect. The architect is a poet whose language is expressed through construction. ‘Technique, permanent hommage rendu a la nature, essentiel aliment de l’imagination, authentique source d’inspiration, prière, GHWRXWHVODSOXVHI¿FDFHODQJXDJHPDWHUQHOOHGHWRXWHV créateur.’ […] Technology, a continuing homage to nature, essential nourishment for the imagination, an authentic source of inspiration, the most effective of all prayers, mother tongue of all designers. ‘Technique parlée in poète nous conduit en architecture.’ […] Technology, voiced in poetry leads us to architecture. ‘/¶HGL¿FHFpVWODFKDUSHQWHPXQLHGHVHOHPHQWVHWGHVIRUPHV imposées par les conditions permanentes qui, le soumetant a la nature, le rattachehent au passé et lui confèrent la durée.’ A building is the framework with the elements and the forms necessary for permanent conditions which, subject to nature, provide a link to the past and result in durability.116

116

I developed the following hypotheses in relation to the research theme of technological observation:  %\IRFXVVLQJRQWKHLQÀXHQFHRItechnology on architecture, as a central theme during the observation stage of investigating existing buildings (especially those built between 1940 and 1970) we arrive at fundamentally different conclusions in terms of the architectural interpretation of these buildings and their elements than if we observe them without considering the technology involved. 2: Technological observation means that the results of the research can be applied to the regeneration of buildings. 3: Technology, i.e. the knowledge, is essential to realising a design, maintaining it, making considered changes to it, and then analysing it again.

The relevant pages are included in their entirety in: K. Britton, Auguste Perret (London: Phaidon, 2001), 230-237. A B C D  re search method ■ 37

Figures 23-27: Musée des Travaux (1936-1948) in Paris, by Auguste Perret. Architecture in concrete, with typical stylistic elements such as capitals, but still making the best use of the material in structural engineering terms. Page from Contribution a une Theorie de L’Architecture by Auguste Perret. From: Britton, 2001. 38 ■ A B C D  re search method

2.2

Research analysis

I did my PhD research while working at the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology. The Dutch name of the faculty, Bouwkunde, actually sounds more like ‘faculty of construction engineering’. However, a building science course is quite different from an architecture course. For example, a construction engineer needs to learn about both architecture (the art and science of designing and supervising the construction of buildings) and construction or structural engineering (the science of the requirements relating to buildings). The existing built environment is the primary source of study for the development of construction engineering and architecture.

Learning Researching is learning, and learning is about researching and studying - and similarly, designing is about researching and studying, and learning results from teaching. When designing either completely new objects, or objects to be incorporated into an existing structure, we have to learn from the past. This is not about slavishly copying, but about analysis and applying what we have learned in a way which respects the existing context.117 Both architecture students and practising architects have to assess the existing knowledge and methods to develop their own design methods. In 1967, Siegfried Giedion (1883-1968) wrote about the way in which architects interpreted the past:

117

During Herman Herzberger’s lectures in the 1980s at Delft, his students were presented with a mass of examples from historic architecture throughout the world to use as source materials for analysing the environment they lived in and to apply in their design assignments. H. Herzberger, Het Openbare Rijk. Samenvatting Colleges 1973-1982, Part A (Delft: University Press, 1982) and H. Herzberger, Ruimte maken ruimte laten. Samenvatting Colleges 1973-1982, Part B (Delft: University Press, 1984).

The attitude to the past of Utzon’s [architect Jørn Utzon (1918-2008)] generation differs from that of the historian, at least from that of those historians who lack an inner relation to the contemporary scene. The architect is little interested in when or by whom a certain building was erected. His questions are rather: What did the builder want to achieve and how did he solve his problems? In other words, the architect is concerned with searching through previous architectonic knowledge, so that he can immediately confront contemporary architectural aims with those of a former period. Travel gives the best possibility for such immediate questioning.118 /HDUQLQJLVRIHYHQPRUHVSHFL¿FDQGGLUHFWUHOHYDQFHZKHQDQ assignment concerns an existing building. Obviously, new builds also have a context, but when dealing with an existing building, that building forms the context and thus becomes one of the starting points for the architectural challenge. In the interview referred to earlier, Henket described this as follows: The real difference with refurbishment [relative to new building] is that you have to deal with two factors. Firstly the load-bearing structure, that’s already there, and secondly with the people who are already there, and that is the greater problem. It is more complex. […] Incidentally, it is not only about maintaining what is there, but primarily about the question: What should you replace, change or keep, where to build something new, where to start with a clean sheet of paper. I think that it’s time for us not only to think in terms of growth, but to start thinking from the inside out. And to train architects 118

S. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture. The growth of a tradition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 670: ‘Jørn Utzon and the third generation’. A B C D  re search method ■ 39

in that way. [...] What it is about is to make sure that the discussion is as objective as possible. That way you can say: in construction engineering terms the situation is like this, and in building physics terms like that, and in terms of town planning and architecture it fits in like so. In building physics terms, removing an exterior wall means the cost of heating will rise. Architecturally it means that we suddenly have a view, and functionally that, suddenly, I can’t build any houses any more.119

Knowledge transfer However, according to Henket there is not enough knowledge or a system to manage it: Interest in the existing housing stock is rapidly increasing. Both in the Netherlands and in other countries, studies are being published about the lifecycles of buildings, and their management and reuse. However, there is a huge knowledge gap. Apart from the social housing sector, we know little about the housing stock. There is no systematic information about the age or the quality in technical and usability terms. Furthermore, different definitions of life and depreciation are in use. We do not know how the way buildings are used changes over time. Simply gathering the basic data provides an immense research challenge.120 ,QZKHQUHÀHFWLQJRQKLVFDUHHU9DQTijen claimed that architects aren’t that keen on extending their knowledge by UHDGLQJDQGOLVWHQLQJ+HDOVRUHÀHFWHGRQWKHµDoornse Leergangen’ The Doornse Leergangen were held during the Second World War. They gave Dutch architects an opportunity to discuss the issues and design challenges they would be faced with after the war. The discussions mostly related to the different design approaches of the ‘Delftsche School’ and the ‘Nieuwe Bouwen’ (Modern Movement). Van Tijen commented: 119

G. ten Cate and R. Rovers, “Opdrachtgever moet bewijzen dat slopen zinvol is. Een interview met Hubert-Jan Henket,” Bouw no. 20 (1983): 35. 120 Henket, “Van produceren naar gebruiken en beheren,”: 24. 40 ■ A B C D  re search method

We tried to listen to each other and understand each other’s ideas. But the discussions were not really steered, despite the impact of personalities such as Molière, Rietveld, Merkelbach and Van Embden. As architect Van den Berg recently stated ‘Architects are poor listeners, poor speakers and poor leaders.’ Consequently, the discussions soon became less effective. However, we did get to know each other personally, especially the many young people. I don’t think ‘Doorn’ resulted in much more than that.121 Van Tijen saw a decline in the quality of residential building projects and he accused architects of a lack of both the drive to learn and an urge to obtain more knowledge: Designers too, still pick up too little of the available knowledge. They weren’t really taught to do this and often have little interest in it as they are more interested in their own ideas about shapes and spaces. If they apply anything like this at all, it is largely because government regulations force them to.122 I know from experience that architects own many books about their profession, but that there are only a few (like Jo Coenen) who actually read the texts. Architects collect pictures and prefer WREHLQVSLUHGGXULQJ¿HOGWULSVVHHGiedion’s view discussed above). Studying criticism, experience, interviews and making thorough multidisciplinary analyses of the work of others is not adequately incorporated in architectural training. Hence, there appears to be an opportunity, especially in construction engineering courses (which aim to teach their students about how to make buildings), to teach the students the skills to do WKLVDQGEHFRPHDZDUHRIWKHEHQH¿WV3RVWZDUEXLOGLQJ projects in particular offer many opportunities for learning:

121

W. van Tijen, “De vier uren van de moderne architektuur,” Plan, no. 9 (1970): 538. For further information on the Doornse Leergangen, see: M.J. Grandpré Molière et al., De architectuur (Amsterdam: Architectura et Amicitia, 1942) and S.J. van Embden et al., De techniek en de architectuur (Amsterdam: Architectura et Amicitia, 1946). 122 Van Tijen, “De vier uren van de moderne architektuur,”: 550.

Figure 28: Fish auction in Scheveningen, near The Hague, 1963, designed by Sjoerd Schamhart. There are now calls to redevelop the site for housing. From 2005 to 2007 this building was studied by the Bachelor 5 architecture course at Delft University of Technology. The students’ plans were presented to the municipality of The Hague and exhibited in the town hall. Photograph by the author, 2005.

It is impossible to condense the last two decades [19451965] of building in the Netherlands in a brief overview. There are so many names, so many buildings, so many city districts and so many styles, and even then you could easily overlook dozens of architects and buildings. This is not an excuse for any lack of documentation for this overview, but serves to emphasise what may well be the most important aspect of this period in architecture: excess. Rushing, shortages, renewal, expansion, they are all issues which are now inseparable in the way we live and work and in our culture. They determine a large part of architectural concepts as they are the cause of the rushed building activities of our period. It is therefore hardly an exaggeration to state that the myriad, or rather the complex, of causes which have led to this multitude forms one of the primary characteristics of post-war construction in the Netherlands. 123

123

I developed the following hypotheses in relation to the research theme of research analysis: 1: When analysing information derived from the study of an H[LVWLQJEXLOGLQJZHDLPWRGHYHORSLQVLJKWVZKLFKFDQEHQH¿W the building concerned, and also for designing new buildings in an existing context. 2: Research analysis of the information obtained by observation should be one of the tasks of an architect when making a design for an existing building. 3: By analysing several buildings constructed in the same period (here: 1940 - 1970) in the same way and combining the results we can draw general conclusions which can be applied to the design and construction of buildings.

K. Wiekart, “Architectuur 1945-1965,” Polytechnisch Tijdschrift no. 1 (1965): 2B. A B C D  re search method ■ 41

Figures 29 and 30: Examples of change within the building fabric: silo, 1932, Akron, Ohio, USA, converted to a hotel in 1990.

From: Brand, 1994.

Figure 31: Brand’s layers of change. From: Brand, 1994. 42 ■ A B C D  re search method

2.3

Regenerative conclusions

The theme regenerative conclusions sets the direction of my conclusions. Initially I referred to this theme as ‘changeability’ or ‘mutability’. Once the method I had developed became part of the outcome of the research, I integrated the activities which led to those results (observation, analysis and conclusions) with the themes. Regeneration amounts to more than just change. It concerns changes which add a new period, or generation, to the lifecycle of a building. In his description of the plan Carré d’Art in Nîmes, Norman Foster referred to a regeneration process: ‘The regeneration process examines the possibility of extending the life of existing structures.’ 124

Change Change can be interpreted in many ways. As change is all around us, I use some statements to discuss the essential aspects of the change process. I start with theory and then progress to more practical matters to explain the link with the building process. Next I move on to examples of buildings which have been changed and which I consider to be good examples of regeneration. These buildings are therefore used as examples in teaching. The views of the original architects of buildings which are changed emphasise that not all architects think that their buildings can or should be changed.

Demolishing structures which have a relatively long remaining technical lifespan diminishes the sustainability of our society. Demolition and construction waste have inspired ideas about the regeneration of building materials. Although this was not the main theme of my thesis, I will consider this issue to show that the intentions are good, but are normally the result of political decisions which may not be as essential as decision makers claims. At present, sustainability, energy conservation and waste prevention, are essential issues. This leads to the theory of lifecycle design, i.e. not from cradle to grave, but from cradle to cradle.125 In the near future, reducing the volume of construction waste will have a high priority. Here too, the ABCD  research method provides a tool for analysing how a building can be regenerated. Suggestions have been made for methods to regenerate buildings and the built environment, and projects have been initiated. Regeneration can apply to a single building or to a town planning issue. This results in evolution rather than revolution: Creative re-use is to be encouraged; combining innovation with tradition it can truly represent a balanced civilised society at peace with its past, present and future. There is a growing awareness that evolution is more productive than revolution, it is better to retain what is good rather than destroy the lot and start again afresh. Hence the principles set out for the creative re-use of buildings can also be applied to whole areas in the urban design of our cities.126

125 124

N. Foster, “Appropriate Technology,” in: H.J. Henket, The Ecomomy of Achitecture (Eindhoven: University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, 1996), 24.

M. Braungart and W. McDonough, Cradle to Cradle: the Way We Make Things (New York: North Point Press, Farrer Straus & Giroux, 2007). 126 D. Latham, Creative Re-use of Buildings. vol. 1. Principles and Practice (Shaftesbury: Donhead), 124. A B C D  re search method ■ 43

Kevin Lynch emphasised that we, as living creatures, are part of a world which is ever changing. Life means change:

The world is in a constant state of flux. We are aware of change in a variety of ways.129

Change and recurrence are the sense of being alive things gone by, death to come, and present awareness. The world around us, so much of it our own creation, shifts continually and often bewilders us. We reach out of that world to preserve or to change it and so to make visible our desire. The arguments of planning all come down to the management of change.127

An important element in the way Aylward develops his theory is the extent of decay which is accepted. He explains change as a whirlpool which needs to be constantly supplied with energy to stay in motion. Furthermore change would not be possible if we ZHUHXQDEOHWRGH¿QHcontinuity: In all our day-to-day experience, change is observed as the mismatch between the current state of things, people and places, and our memory of the former state: the subjective perception of difference. […] Stability, identity, imageity and structure in the environment transform otherwise evanescent actions into predictable repetitions, enabling learnt behaviour patterns to be confidently applied. […] Many intervening changes may have occurred but a prevailing sense of history embodied in a building or place gives roots to this sense of stability and security. Thus continuity is maintained, or thought to be maintained, into the future.130

Hannah Lewi wrote about how the past can help us move forward: The past is not perceived as a dead weight, nor does it pull one back. On the contrary, the past pushes forward in the guise of tradition and remembrance, and the future drives back antagonistically towards the past.128 In 1979, Graeme Aylward took an abstract approach to change, especially changes in the built environment and related elements:

The capacity for change in a modern building probably lies in the neutral qualities of similar spaces and minimum structure, whereas an old building is endowed with ‘soft’ structure that can be easily carved, and a variety of spaces that could suit a large proportion of most activities. These qualities in old buildings occurred quite by chance as a legacy of past levels of construction and environmental technology. However, the realization of their potential does call for more careful ‘design’ of activity systems to fit such structures, avoiding the assumption that neutral spaces are the only answer. […] We require stable environments, that is, with a steady state illusion of comfortable change. We need continuity with time past and a sense of direction for the future.131

A change in one set of problems, for example physical improvement, is not enough on its own. It is the total system that requires attention. This is the essential theme of this chapter; the problem of re-orientating the direction of change towards improvement is a massive one. It is reinforced not only by those suffering the substandard environment but by the external perceptions of society as a whole on the “outside”. The flight to decay occurs at an exponential rate; conversely, to reverse this tide becomes increasingly difficult as the level of decay increases. […] Naturally when we think of rehabilitation it is normally in terms of some historical building or place, or a derelict housing area. The problem is of course broader than this. […] 129 127 128

K. Lynch, What Time is This Place? (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972), 1. H. Lewi, H, “Paradoxes in the Conservation of the Modern Movement,” in: Henket, Back to Utopia, 356.

4 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

G. Aylward, “Conversion and Rehabilitation,” in: T.A. Markus, Building Conversion and Rehabilitation. Designing for Change in Building Use (London: NewnesButterwoths, 1979), 1. 130 Ibid., 2. 131 Ibid., 13.

Mutability

physical lifetime has to be brought into line with the functional lifetime. This can only be done by making the function of the building flexible, that is, adaptable to future requirements we are not yet aware of. This is the meaning and background of the concept of flexibility which has been discussed so extensively by architects in recent years. De Meerpaal in Dronten, by architect Frank van Klingeren, is a brilliant example of a building with such a flexible function. A negative example is the fact that most kitchens in post-war houses were too small for the appliances (fridges, dishwashers, etc.) which we wanted to install in these kitchens in the 1960s. When these houses were built, the changing requirements of the future were not adequately considered. Consequently, these houses perform poorly and have really lost a significant part of their economic value, long before they have been forgotten.133

The concept of mutability could imply a constant FKDQJHRIÀX[ In 1971, Simon Pruys (1927-1980) in his book De nieuwe onzakelijkheid. Design Kritiek managed to identify the centre of the change process, in which both economics and technology are relevant: The two key factors of the changes around us are the technical factor and the economic factor. Technology has given us new and amazing opportunities in terms of transport, communications (electronics) and design (plastics), not to mention the rest. The economic factor (more money and more leisure time) means that we are increasingly able to use the fruits of technology. Hence these two factors of change bring us to the third one: communication. Our world is full of unimaginably intensive communication through the mass media, tourism and the ownership of consumption goods. This rapid and intensive communication is the cause of the equally rapid and deep changes in our taste, in our opinions, our beliefs and our standards. In short, these three change factors lead to ever more rapid changes in our behaviour and our life pattern, that is, the way in which we live, work and relax. These changes in our life pattern are directly reflected in our material environment, our cities, our homes and our tools for living.132

In more practical terms this means that when we are dealing with an existing building the objective is not only to conserve it, but also to be aware of the fact that there have always been changes made during the process of conservation and restoration. In the spirit of the earlier Jo Coenen quotation, Johan Allen (1945) described this as follows, in 1996: In other words, architects who depend on finding and keeping clients as a precondition of doing any work at all see conservation not so much as an application of theory as practising the art of the possible. […] As you can see, even in a list containing three grade I buildings and eight grade II* from a total of 77 buildings, there is not a single conservation project which has not or will not have required some sort of intervention in the fabric, even if there were one or two that have not required listed building consent. This is why I am inclined to regard conservation not as a matter of keeping something as it is, but more as a specialized way of changing it. Dealing with such interventions is always more difficult than straight repair, if

Pruys then discusses the concept of ÀH[LELOLW\+HUHIHUVWRWKH example of De Meerpaal in Dronten designed by architect Frank van Klingeren (1919-1999). This was initially threathened with demolition but has now been regenerated. Originally it was a community centre with a theatre and some sport facilities in an open plan. It has been regenerated as a private theatre with a music school and a library. If a building is only used for ten years because the requirements have changed, then this means that the building has become five times as expensive. Hence, the 132

S.M. Pruys, De nieuwe onzakelijkheid. Design Kritiek (Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1971), 122.

133

Ibid., 123-124. A B C D  re search method ■ 45

indeed there is such a thing, but is correspondingly more interesting because it calls for architectural judgement. In other words conservation is ultimately about priorities. And this is why, when confronted by the sort of universal questions mentioned above, I have found that the only answer which is always correct is ‘it depends. . .’ 134

Active conservation

The existing building, once refurbished, should be equally as efficient in its new role as a purpose-designed building would be, given the usual number of restraints which always impede the designer realising the ideal in new or refurbished merit and will, by its preservation, improve the amenity of the environment, so much the better.136 To accommodate the degree of PXWDELOLW\6WHZDUW%UDQGGH¿QHV six layers:

In 2002 Allen referred to active conservation: „

I have learnt that acceptance of change is the essential precondition of real conservation, and that those MoMo [Modern Movement] Gatsby’s intent on ‘fixing everything just the way it was before’ will find their dream eludes. […] There are always going to be disagreements about detail; after all, active conservation is only a sub-set of architectural design in which value judgement cannot be avoided. Of course authenticity is a desideratum but it must include spiritual authenticity, which in MoMo’s case certainly embraces a commitment to change. In the end conservation is about vitality, and serving life as it is lived is the oxygen of building survival. […] The past is not for living in; it is a well of conclusions from which we draw in order to act. […] In any stocktaking for the future, history becomes more, not less, vital.135 In 1983, Paul Marsh emphasised that these projects should not result in second-hand buildings. Instead, they should result in completely new buildings: Refurbishment is the hard-headed business of making use of what is usable in the ageing building stock; the skilful adaptation of a building shell (which is valuable in its own right and not due to any historic mystique) to a new, or an updated, version of its existing use.

134

J. Allen, “Conservation of Modern Buildings: A Practitioner’s view,” in: Macdonald, Modern Matters. Principles and Practice in Conserving Recent Architecture, 123-124. 135 J. Allen, J. “A Challenge of Values,” in: Henket, Back to Utopia, 21. 46 ■ A B C D  re search method

„

„

„

„

„

SITE - This is the geographical setting, the urban location, DQGWKHOHJDOO\GH¿QHGORWZKRVHERXQGDULHVDQGcontext outlast generations of ephemeral buildings. ‘Site is eternal.’ STRUCTURE - The foundation and load-bearing elements are perilous and expensive to change, so people don’t. These are the building. Structural life ranges from 30 to 300 years (but few buildings make it past 60, for other reasons). SKIN - Exterior surfaces now change every 20 years or so, to keep up with fashion or technology, or for wholesale repair. Recent focus on energy costs has led to reengineered skins that are air-tight and better-insulated. SERVICES - These are the working guts of a building: communications wiring, electrical wiring, plumbing, sprinkler system, HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning), and moving parts like elevators and escalators. They wear out or obsolesce every 7 to 15 years. Many buildings are demolished early if their outdated systems are too deeply embedded to replace easily. SPACE PLAN - The LQWHULRUOD\RXWZKHUHZDOOVFHLOLQJVÀRRUV and doors go. Turbulent commercial space can change every 3 years or so; exceptionally quiet homes might wait 30 years. STUFF - Chairs, desks, phones, pictures; kitchen appliances, lamps, hair brushes; all the things that twitch around daily to monthly. Furniture is called “mobilia” in Italian for good reason.137

See Figures 29 to 31.

136

137

P. Marsh, The Refurbishment of Commercial and Industrial Buildings (Londen: Construction Press, 1983), 3. S. Brand, How buildings learn; what happens after they’re built (New York: Viking Penguin, 1994),13.

Figures 32 and 33: Castelvecchio in Verona, adapted by Carlo Scarpa from 1956 to 1964. From: Los, 1993 and Albertina, 1988.

Figures 34 and 35: Extension (1934-1937) of the court building in Göteborg by Erik Gunnar Asplund. From: Caldenby, 1990.

A B C D  re search method ■ 47

Figures 36 and 37: ANBD building in Amsterdam, converted in 1991 to the National Trade Union Museum by Atelier PRO.

The lift is installed behind the doorway on the left. Photographs by the author, 1991 (left) and G. Jeager, 1991 (right).

Figures 38 and 39: The 1923 Lingotto building by G.M. Trucco, converted by Renzo Piano from 1988-1997.

Photographs by the author, 2007.

4 8 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 40 and 41: Tate Modern in London, regenerated by Herzog & de Meuron between 1994 and 2000. The original building was designed by G.G. Scott and completed in 1963. Photographs by the author, 2004.

Figure 42: Renovation of the Free University Berlin by Norman Foster (1997-2004). Originally designed by Candilis, Josic and Woods. The plans include a new library. From: Http://www.fuberlin.de/bauplanung /bauplanung_projekte.html, www.fosterandpartners.com. A B C D  re search method ■ 49

Examples The literature includes many examples of changes in an existing context, in different countries: the Castelvecchio in Verona (1956-1964) was adapted by Carlo Scarpa (1906-1978), and the extension of the court building in Göteborg, which was expanded by Gunnar Asplund (1885-1940) between 1913 and 1936.138 See Figures 32 to 35. When I was studying, these examples showed me that although designing new buildings (possibly surrounded by an existing context) is fascinating, adaptation (where the building itself sets the context) is actually a far greater challenge. The existing building adds a layer of history which cannot be obtained in new construction projects. I was involved in the design and construction of the Vakbondsmuseum (trade union museum) in Amsterdam, which is housed in the 1901 building of the Algemene Nederlandse Diamant-werkersbond (ANDB, diamond workers union) by Hendrik Petrus Berlage (1856-1934). This introduced me to the issues associated with listed buildings and making changes to them. I was surprised to discover that only the exterior, the interior of the hall and two rooms had been listed. Removing the FHLOLQJVDQGÀRRULQJH[SRVHGWKHglass ÀRRULQWKHhall. Around 1979, large ventilation ducts had been installed underneath it. Here, technology violated the original design concepts. The ducts were relocated and this allowed daylight to reach the basement of the building, as in the original design. A lift (of a type normally used in residential refurbishment projects) was installed in the hall, behind the doorways originally provided for cupboards. See Figures 36 and 37. During a later project in Arnhem, for the Government Buildings Agency, a building completed in 1986 LPSRVHGVLJQL¿FDQWUHVWULFWLRQVRQLWVuse. Several relatively minor changes to the LQWHULRUZHUHVXI¿FLHQWWRSURYLGHWKHpeople working in it with more light and air, and meet contemporary statutory requirements concerning workplace conditions. 139

In my teaching I now use recent examples by well known architects to show how buildings (mostly post-war) have been regenerated: the Lingotto building in Turin, by Renzo Piano whom I quoted earlier; Tate Modern by Jaques Herzog (1950) and Pierre de Meuron (1950), Bankside Power Station in London built between 1955 - 1963 and designed by Giles Gilbert Scott (1880), which was regenerated as a museum for contemporary art between 1995 and 2000; and Norman Foster’s plan for the Free University in Berlin, originally designed in 1967 by Candilis, Josic and Woods.140 See Figures 38 to 42. The new buildings by these architects obviously inspire today’s architecture students in Delft, but their regenerated buildings also deserve to be discussed.

Immutability I have twice quoted Mieras, an architecture critic who commented on the developments in the 1940s and ‘50s. His outspoken views about the future can be placed in the context of his views of architecture: the art of building, resulting in a perfect work of art when the works are completed. The idea that an architect would consider the potential extension or change of their building in advance was completely incompatible with his vision. Hence, he was scathing about the fact that Roosenburg, when designing the Rijksverzekeringsbank in Amsterdam, had already considered the H[WHQVLRQRIWKHEXLOGLQJE\WZRÀRRUV Architecture is not the form in which the requirements are cast, but the form in which the architectural programme based on the requirements is implemented as an architectural concept. […] Hence, if this building was the realisation of an architectural concept, then this realisation would therefore be completely dependent of the number of employees of the Rijksverzekeringsbank.141

138

I. Solà Morales, “Form contrast to analogy. Developments in the concept of architectural intervention,” Lotus no. 46 (1985): 39-41. 139 I was involved in both projects while working as an architect for Atelier PRO in The Hague. The Trade Union Museum in Berlage’s ANDB building (1901) was completed in 1991. The Government Buildings Agency office in Arnhem was designed by A. Oosting (Oosting & Beunderman) and completed in 1986. In 1999, Atelier PRO developed a plan to modify it for use by the National Archives. This project was never executed as the basements could not be adequately waterproofed. In 2001, Atelier PRO regenerated the building. 50 ■ A B C D  re search method

140

141

K. Powell, Architecture Reborn (London: King, 1999) 24-27 (Lingotto) and 224-227 (Tate Modern). N. Foster, “The Economy of Architecture,” in: Henket, Back to Utopia, 26-37 (Free University Berlin), 26-37. J.P. Mieras, “Het nieuwe gebouw der Rijksverzekeringsbank te Amsterdam,” Bouwkundig Weekblad Architectura, no. 28 (1940): 208-214. See also: Zijlstra, Bouwen in Nederland 1940-1970, sub section 4.1: Rijksverzekeringsbank Amsterdam.

Even now, a few generations later, architects sometimes cannot accept any changes to their buildings. In his theses ‘Kader en generieke ruimte’ (Framework and generic space), my colleague Bernhard Leupen (1943) compared some statements by Mies van der Rohe en Aldo van Eyck (1918-1999).142 Mies van der Rohe, whom I quoted earlier, said ‘Only a clear expression of the structure could give us an architectural solution which would last.’ Van Eyck made the following comments about the Burgerweeshuis (1957-1960), an orphanage for 125 children in Amsterdam which he designed: Another programme, another organism, that demands a different building with a different structure and a different nature. [...] A structure with such flexibility would have led to an unacceptable neutrality = like a glove which does not suit anyone, because it fits all. After being left empty for years, the Burgerweeshuis initially housed an architects’ college and now the head RI¿FHRI(VSULW Nederland. Fortunately, this glove was not tailored as tightly as Van Eyck assumed. Bernhard Leupen concluded ‘Given the current, different, use of the Burgerweeshuis it appears that Mies was right.’ Structure is an element which is also considered in my method. If a building loses its function or no longer meets the requirements then it is likely to be demolished. Politicians and project developers may value a building or site quite differently than architects, who are interested in what exists now. Incidentally, the term ‘developers’ suggests that they build on something which exists already. The views expressed by George van Gent, director of DTZ Zadelhoff (estate agents and project developers), in 1997 about the redesign of existing buildings provide a good example of the attitude of many property developers. However, he does change his position during the discourse.

142

B. Leupen, Frame and Generic Space (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2002), 64: D. Spaeth, Mies van der Rohe (New York: Rizzoli, 1985), 117 and 89 and A. van Eyck, “De milde raderen van de reciprociteit,” Forum no. 5 (1960): 205-206.

When we asked George van Gent, director of DTZ Zadelhoff in Rotterdam, if there is a growing interest in early post-war offices and industrial buildings his immediate reply was ‘no’. He cannot image that there is any real interest in reconstruction architecture. ‘After the war, many ugly and impractical buildings were built, and only a few attractive and usable ones. There were many issues they didn’t have to worry about at the time: there was no legislation on workplace conditions, they could use asbestos, and large glazed areas were fine, although they lead to large energy losses. If you have to deal with all that, it’s better to demolish the building’ [...] ‘There’s nothing wrong with demolition, is there? You shouldn’t take the preservation of buildings too far. Buildings are constructed for a particular function. If they look beautiful then that is appreciated by everyone. But if they lose their function then that’s it. That’s not a problem, is it? The objective is to have functioning buildings, not to preserve them, with the exception of some special and historic buildings. The reconstruction buildings simply don’t meet that requirement. Investors have a clear criterion: they want to get a reasonable return on their investment, and the value should increase in the long term. The building must also be let to a tenant, otherwise the investment has a negative value.’ [...] Van Gent also claims that the desire for preserving the bank buildings at the Blaak is partly related to their appearance. He admires the brick facades and extensive ornamentation of the exterior and interior. ‘I hope that there will be options for a good use of the bank buildings, preferably while preserving their facades. But you do have to find a use for the buildings. They have many restrictions. However, they did not skimp on the building costs, something which affected many other early postwar buildings. The dimensions are a problem when they are used for something other than a bank. The basements contain many safes, the ground floor has counters, and the floors above are deep offices where the clerks used to make the bank transfers. If the buildings cannot be used as offices and are used for A B C D  re search method ■ 51

other purposes, such temporary accommodation for the Hogeschool Rotterdam college then that detracts from the Blaak. It is a road of first class offices, and it should stay like that. However, I think that the RO Theater using the Salvation Army building on William Boothlaan is a good solution. It has a positive impact on Witte de Withstraat and is a compatible use as the building already includes a theatre. The former Mees & Hope building at the end of the Blaak has also found a suitable use now that it houses the Art College. Another building with a special impact, the Stationspostkantoor (station post office), with an area of 20,000 m2, is still vacant, despite its perfect location next to Central Station. Given the height and depth of the floors it would be difficult to convert to offices. It would be good to come up with a different function for it, particularly as it is on a good site close by the railway. Architect Rob van Erk suggested creating a large double-height space and I think that’s a good idea. However, he will have to get the owner interested, because a costly adaptation which results in a lower rental income isn’t going to help the owner. But I do think that the owner will be interested, because the building isn’t generating any income now. However, demolition isn’t a decision to be taken lightly either, as it is extremely expensive. Initially, an owner will not want to demolish a building. But if there are no other feasible functions then you can hardly leave it empty.143

buildings. Like Aylward, who I quoted earlier, he referred to the energy lost as a result of demolition and decay. He also explained, that given a long-term view (which project developers rarely take), the assignment can be viewed in a different perspective: If we demolish an old building, then we have to be aware of the twofold environmental impact. Firstly, the demolition waste will have to be landfilled somewhere. Apart from the high costs of that these days, we are now turning our planet into one large waste tip. Secondly, the building constructed to replace the old one will use a lot of non-renewable energy and resources. Finding a new purpose for a building will have a much lower environmental impact. Another advantage is that, in relative terms, an old building will age less quickly than a new one. The new building still has to prove if it will have any value in the future. If a building is already considered as a monument today, then its historical value will only increase. An investor who takes a long term view, which means most of them, may consider this as compensation for any initial reduction in the return on investment.144 The next two quotations concern the volume of construction and demolition waste in the Netherlands. In 2000, Arthur Rauwerdink described an attempt made by a housing association in The Hague to sell reusable building components:

,QFLGHQWDOO\WKHPDLQEHQH¿WRIUHJHQHUDWLRQWRproject developers is the shorter construction period.

The large-scale restructuring of residential areas will lead to some major demolition projects in the next few years. The current volume, 16 million tons of demolition waste per year, is likely to double. By sending less to landfill, by reusing it or supplying it to industry as a secondary raw material we can help close the building materials cycle. […] Every year, 16 million tons of building and demolition waste are generated in the Netherlands. Ten million tons of this are generated by residential and non-residential

Demolition We can use the statements by former Professor of property economics Frits Seyffert (Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture) to put Van Gent’s approach in perspective. In 1995, Seyffert addressed the impact of the demolition of

143

G. Cate, G. ten and D. Dubbeling, “Een gebouw is er voor de functie. Niet overdrijven,” Bouw (May 1997): appendix, 34.

52 ■ A B C D  re search method

144

F. Seyffert, “Kan idealisme een drijfveer zijn?” in: P.G. de Boer, Oude fabrieken nieuwe functies (Zeist: projectbureau industrieel erfgoed, 1995) 10.

construction projects. The government’s objective was that 90% of the waste should be reused by 2000. That target was reached in 1997. Most wood which cannot be reused is incinerated, for example to generate energy. Hard materials are crushed and used in civil engineering, as site fill and foundation material. Although these forms of reuse result in significant environmental benefits they are still low-grade. Given the potential uses of the materials, there are options for improvement, for example by slowing down the decay of building materials. Reusing materials in their original form and function is the best guarantee for that. [...] Late last year, the Federation of The Hague Housing Associations (HaagWonen, Staedion and Vestia) and the municipality of The Hague started a feasibility study on the reuse of demolition wastes. […] In the next five years, over 10,000 houses will be demolished in The Hague. Over 60% were built after the war. And 60% were refurbished in the past 15 years.145 Similarly, Rypke Zeilmaker referred to the large volume of construction waste, in 2004: The Netherlands is at the top in Europe in terms of the use of building materials. We use no less than 12 tons of building materials per capita, on average other countries use half of that. The limited space available forces us to recycle. Every year, the Dutch produce 26 million tons of construction waste. For comparison, the figure for 1980 was 6 million tons.146

Housing association Vestia Den Haag Zuid-Oost started a pilot project in the Spoorwijk district of The Hague in November 2000. Over the next six years they will be demolishing 1,300 dwellings in that area. The first tranche of 430 dwellings has now been ‘sustainably demolished’. […] The objective is to offer these materials, which are literally as good as new, for sale at a price two-thirds below the price of new materials. […] High-grade reuse also reduces the volume of waste, saves waste disposal costs, reduces the need for primary resources, and makes relatively cheap used building and installation components available. These benefits mean that sustainable demolition is attractive for management, environmental and financial reasons.147 With respect to demolition there is another aspect worth mentioning: copyright. Earlier, I referred to Van Eyck’s Burgerweeshuis. For years there were plans to demolish the building. However, it was saved after a campaign by architects, led by Herman Herzberger (1932). It was used to house the Berlage Institute which had been set up in that period. Under Dutch law, an architect’s copyright is only protected against changes to a building. The law does not provide protection against the demolition of a building. For example, architect Jelles tried to save his Wavin factory in Zwolle, but was unsuccessful: The High Court ruled that the demolition of the Wavin building did not infringe Jelles’ intellectual property rights. According to the High Court, the demolition of a building which is the expression of a work protected by copyright is not considered as a ‘violation’ of the work within the scope of the copyright legislation. This means that, in principle, an architect cannot obstruct the planned demolition of a building. Hence, demolition is permitted. However, according to the High Court, this does not mean that the building owner is always entitled to demolish the building and that the interests of the

He described a method for recovering aluminium as a raw material, by methodically removing it from the buildings and collecting it, before demolition. As there is a large volume of ZDVWHDQGWKHFRVWVRIODQG¿OOLQJDUHKLJKUHF\FOLQJVRRQ EHFRPHV¿QDQFLDOO\DWWUDFWLYHLQWKHNetherlands:

145

A. Rauwerdink, “Hergebruik voor tweederde onder de nieuwprijs,” Gebouwbeheer, no. 1 (2000): 20. 146 R. Zeilmaker, “Nederland recyceld er lustig op los,” Delta no. 5 (2004): 2.

147

Ibid., 21. A B C D  re search method ■ 53

Patijn. He commented ‘Hence, I conclude that you can indeed consider the demolition of the Wavin building and that there are no decisive arguments against this. However, I would recommend that the building is documented in detail, given its historical and architectural significance.149

Regeneration

Figure 50: Disassembly of the Aviodome (1971) by Buckminster Fuller.

The dome was disassembled and stored for some WLPHEHIRUH¿QGLQJD new use as a church in Lelystad. A technician’s head is just visible, at the bottom centre. From: de Volkskrant, November 30, 2003.

architect are subjugated to the powers of the building owner. Depending on the situation, demolition may be unjustified. The owner may only be permitted to demolish a building if there are justifiable reasons and after the building has been suitably documented. In this way the High Court provides some accommodation to architects.148 7KHFDVHWRRN¿YH\HDUVIURPWRZKLOHWKHWavin plant had been demolished in 2003. Jelles died before the High Court made its decision on appeal. At the time, the arguments in favour of demolition were as follows: The building could not be reused as housing for the elderly due to the presence of asbestos and the high cost of converting the building. Similarly, the community centre did not want to be housed in the former office block. Consequently the municipality decided to demolish the building. However, Jelles objected against that. The municipality consulted then Government Architect Wytze 148

“Sloop en auteursrecht,” http://www.archined.nl/archined/3880.0.html, (accessed February 9, 2004) and http://www.vandersteenhoven.nl/index. php?pageid=71 (accessed April 22, 2004).

54 ■ A B C D  re search method

Sometimes, buildings are relocated rather than demolished. See Figure 50, Buckminster Fuller’s Aviodome and Rietveld’s (1888 - 1964) Aula Wilgenhof in Hoofddorp which was reconstructed by Bertus Mulder (1929). Occasionally architects are asked to regenerate their own buildings. Herzberger developed plans for a new music performance centre in Utrecht in which only the concert hall he designed earlier would be retained. Tauber was asked to redesign the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden while maintaining the exterior walls and loadbearing structure. The study of this library is included in this book. The original architect will know better than anyone else what the principles of the original design were. However, they may not be able to take the step back which is needed to approach the building as a new assignment. The case of an architect regenerating a building they designed themselves is more likely to occur if legislation makes it possible to list buildings constructed less than 50 years ago. To provide a real opportunity for regeneration, the parties initiating the project have to prepared to consider this approach. Occasionally, when several initiatives lead to good results, there is a preparedness to participate. In 1997, Herman Meijer, alderman on the Rotterdam town council, supported ‘Designbased study’ competition referred to earlier. He compared the design challenge with the option of demolition:

149

“Sloop en auteursrecht,” http://www.archined.nl/archined/3880.0.html, (accessed February 9, 2004).

Such interest, even if it is a private initiative, helps to protect a building. In itself, the detailed analysis and documentation of a building is an impediment to its demolition. […] To preserve these buildings [included in the assignment] you will have to defend yourself against allegations that you are conservative and against renewal. In Rotterdam there is often a strong urge to ‘get rid of the old stuff’. So, you have to show that a building can be used for other functions and that the transformation provides a better result than new building. So, we are talking about ‘quality’, although that’s a frightfully fashionable term. In these buildings you can see an interesting historical series of layers, in the form of beautiful brickwork, high ceilings and details which would simply be too expensive to include in new construction. And you get that quality given to you for free.150

A study concerned with the transformation of reconstruction era buildings as an architectural challenge. The position of the Committee for the Reconstruction of Rotterdam was that a defensive approach, purely aimed at conservation, did not have adequate support with respect to the reconstruction architecture in the dynamic city of Rotterdam. It would be better to view these buildings as raw materials, waiting for a second period of use. Furthermore, conservation would mean ignoring the innovations (structural engineering, new typologies, multiple uses of the site, mixed functions) which are often typical of this architecture.152

However, in my view, this design in particular does not suggest that a study of the type Meijer refers to was done before the new design was made. The new buildings dominate the original Doelen building. See Figures 43 and 44. Similarly, Wijnand Galema, when discussing the design challenge, indicated that they wanted to get away from the conservative approach normally applied to monuments:

The location of existing buildings has a major impact on their potential reuse. According to a study carried out in Hamburg in 1996, the location is the main reason why businesses decide to move into a listed monument instead of a new building. The architecture of the building came second. The LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ of the users with the building was also given as an important reason to invest in a monument. Seventy percent of those interviewed, mostly businesspeople, would again choose a monument when relocating. In general, the costs of refurbishment were lower than the costs of demolition and new building, and the atmosphere of the buildings was highly appreciated. Natural ventilation was considered as essential, and all technical PRGL¿FDWLRQVZHUHIRXQGWREHIHDVLEOH,WZDV expected that there would be even fewer problems in the future, due to the growing use of wireless communications systems. The VWXG\LGHQWL¿HGWKHIROORZLQJWDVNVFRQFHUQLQJWKHpreservation of monuments: the need for academic research into the protection and maintenance of monuments, and creating broader support in society by demonstrating how monuments can be used.153 In my view these aspects also apply to buildings constructed between 1945 and 1970. These buildings hold promise for the future. In 2003, halfway during the demolition, part of the Stationspostkantoor in Amsterdam was temporarily

150

152

Meijer gave the following example of good practice: With his new building for the Hogeschool Rotterdam college at the Kruisplein, Jan Hoogstad leaves De Doelen intact; not a single piece of marble will be removed. But I admit that others might not agree. Hoogstad’s plan is on the edge, as it imposes a major programme requirement on a site of limited dimensions. And that leads to conflicts. In my view, a city should be able to accommodate that. However, not all architects can deal with that.151

G. ten Cate, and K. de Graaf, “Gestolde sociale geschiedenis. Wethouder Herman Meijer over belangstelling voor wederopbouw,” Bouw (May 1997) appendix, 32. 151 Ibid., 33.

153

Galema, “Wederopbouw in wegwerpcultuur,”: 5. N. Haß, and V. Konerding, Studie zu gewerblich genutzten und gesetzlich geschützten Denkmalen in Hamburg (Hamburg: Denkmalpflege Hamburg, 1996). A B C D  re search method ■ 55

Figures 43 and 44: The Doelen in Rotterdam, 1966, designed by E.H and H.M. Kraaijvanger (1899-1978) and (1903-1981) and the extension in 2000 by J. Hoogstad (1930). From: Devolder, 1992 and photograph by the author, 2004.

Figures 45 to 47: Stationspostkantoor in Amsterdam, partly demolished and partly regenerated to temporary accommodation for the Stedelijk Museum.

Photographs: the building site before the new construction work started, new stairs in the museum and the ceiling of the restaurant, by the author, 2004. 56 ■ A B C D  re search method

reused to house the Stedelijk Museum and various architectural and design practices.154 See Figures 45 to 47 and 257.

pointless. They can’t meet the demands which will be made of them at one time or another. It is the job of an the architect to help the client determine what his choices are, and that it is also a choice not to meet all the requirements of the functions he wants to put into it, because of operational issues.157

I have included the following quotes by Henket and Michelle Provoost (1964) because their ideas can be applied in practice in the regeneration of buildings. Henket: The attitude is still that new construction is better than using old buildings. The burden of proof should be placed on the client: they should prove that demolition is better than leaving the building. They should provide evidence for that, only then should it be possible to amend development plan to permit demolition. […] But we have to balance preservation, conservation, modification and new building in terms of their social impact and the visual cultural aspects. That building has created a history around it; I don’t want to sound like an arty-farty architect, but you’ve become attached to that building.155 We only think in terms of new building. We

Striking a balance between conservation and change is a challenge the architect is faced with when designing around an existing building. In this context, Michelle Provoost of Crimson Architects uses the term ‘re-architecture’: The value of the rearchitecture concept lies in its advocacy of preserving the paradox: in allowing incompatible buildings, components or concepts to coexist. It is not possible to define an all-encompassing principle for this, in fact, a general concept will only be an impediment. Allowing incompatible concepts to interact can contribute to the unpredictable creation of something which is truly new.158

are not yet attuned to maintaining objects or to their different use.156

According to Provoost, architects should work as follows: Henket also emphasised that we should not only be concerned with changes to the existing situation, but also with the way new buildings are designed:

Designers should look for latent architectural qualities in the old building. The new design may not be based on an all-encompassing concept, but perhaps on the smallest detail. For the architect, this method means that the unique aspects of the existing building create a closer tie between the design and the construction work. During both the preparation and the construction period the architect will have to be more involved, and present on site, than during a new build project. The remit of the architect is being extended, in that all aspects from concept through to completion have to be monitored constantly.159

I believe that we should create much more pragmatic buildings, which accommodate different user demands. That means that the architecture will also change. That doesn’t matter, architects should not be afraid of that. If they are, then they haven’t designed a good building. Hence I think that all those overdesigned buildings, which your publication tends to feature, are 154

M. Zwarts and R. Jansma, “Zwarts & Jansma architecten ontwerpt tijdelijke huisvesting voor het Stedelijk museum in Amsterdam,” http://www.zwarst.jansma. nl/article/1004.943.html, (accessed March 18, 2004). Apart from the Stedelijk Museum it housed Het Packhuis, the Zwarts & Jansma and Jo Coenen & Co architectural practices and Restaurant 11. See: Zijlstra, Bouwen in Nederland 1940-1970, sub section 4.5: Stationspostkantoor Amsterdam. 155 Henket, ‘The proof of the pudding remains in the eating,’: 49. 156 G. ten Cate, R. Rovers, ‘Opdrachtgever moet bewijzen dat slopen zinvol is. Een interview met Hubert-Jan Henket,’: 36-38.

157

Ibid., 36. M. Provoost and W. Vanstiphout, Re-Arch. Nieuwe ontwerpen voor oude gebouwen (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 1995), 33. 159 Ibid., 35 158

A B C D  re search method ■ 57

Figure 48: Exterior of the DOK public library in Delft. The regeneration of a VXSHUPDUNHWZKHUHVSHFL¿Fqualities inspired a surprising approach by Liesbeth van der Poll (DOK) and Aat Vos (AEQUO). The library was completed in 2008. Photographs by the author, 2008.

58 ■ A B C D  re search method

Hence, Provoost agrees with Renzo Piano’s recommendation which I quoted earlier: What is called industrial design is more appropriate than what is called architecture, because there’s a unity of process - a better connection. The designer has to invent the whole manufacturing process, not just the finished product. An architect can learn a lot from the motor industry, not high-tech, just perfection.160 Without the past there would be no future, and change depends on continuity. A creative reuse, from chair to city, as Latham and Bakema put it, can result in a built environment which shows the layers of time, and is therefore rich in visual elements and experiences. Sometimes demolition is the obvious choice, and there is no need to preserve everything. However, a selective approach in which repurposing, reuse and regeneration are seriously considered offers many opportunities for developing a rich variety of properties. The views of architects should help convince politicians and clients of the opportunities in the Netherlands. Buildings from the period 1940 - 1970 offer particularly good opportunities as they are not yet affected by listing which would require conservation. The question arises if the ABCD  method can be applied to all buildings. Yes, in principle that is possible. However, the building should have enough features of interest to justify such an investigation. When selecting the buildings for my PhD research I chose buildings whose context inspired me to draft, assess and develop my method. This includes buildings which initially would not seem to demand such an investigation. However, during the investigation elements may become apparent which justify it. Hence, the ABCD  research method has proven itself in supporting, and possibly initiating, a regenerative approach to buildings in the Netherlands.

160

I developed the following hypotheses in relation to the research theme of regenerative conclusions: 1: When dealing with existing buildings, before any design work is commissioned, and in addition to studying contextual factors such as the brief, site and architects, a thorough investigation should be undertaken of the design history of the building to determine the potential for adaptation which can lead to regeneration of the building. Only then will it be possible to decide on any interventions. 2: The options for regeneration of a building will be increased if more funding is available when it is built, and fewer resources are available during the life of the building. 3: The mutability which allows for the regeneration of a building could be a starting point for the design of new building projects. This could lead to socially acceptable buildings, where continuity is guaranteed by the mutability. Hence, the buildings will have a long life and be sustainable, and their appearance will be attractive in the long term: Continuity + Changeability = Durability

A. Nahum, “Italy’s Brunel,” Blueprint (April, 1989): 53. A B C D  re search method ■ 59

60 ■ A B C D  re search method

3

ABCD  research method

Past, present and future: these were the key elements of my PhD research. Studying buildings led to a link with the past. Investigating the history of the creation of a building became almost addictive, and I felt compelled to discover, collect and study everything. From this wealth of information obtained in the observation stage, I had to select the elements to use for the analysis and then to draw conclusions about future use. Past, present and future were relevant to all the buildings I studied. These three periods resulted in the three levels of analysis in the ABCD  research method. When dealing with buildings, we are interested in their creation, current existence, and future existence (or, sometimes, decay). The objective of my method is to identify the qualities of a building which we have to consider when we want to stop its decay and shape its future. I use a number of terms in my research which I will explain LQWKLVFKDSWHU+RZHYHU,ZLOO¿UVWGLVFXVVWKHPHWKRGLWVHOI After that I will explain the Building Construction Matrix which is used to draw conclusions. Finally, I will discuss the application of the method, using the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden as an example. The objective of my research is to emphasise that all the aspects of a building, as discussed above, have to be analysed. 7KHLQÀXHQFHRIconstruction engineering, the extent to which we can learn from it, and the way in which the building can accommodate change all determine the chances a building will get to survive as the sum of continuity and change. Careful and creative analysis of the information obtained in the research and drawing conclusions further to this can help us make discoveries to support the redesign of a building and to help us understand it.

The objective of my PhD research was not to develop a method for assessing the value of buildings in general. The values of a building are determined by the whole of the complex IDFWRUVZKLFKDUHUHOHYDQWDVZHOODVWKHVSHFL¿FIDFWRUVDWWKH time the building is assessed. The relevant factors vary greatly from one building to another. They are largely determined by the attitude of the individuals or bodies who want the building’s value to be assessed. The determination of a value is always a subjective assessment.161

Qualities The concept of ‘value’ or ‘valuation’ is associated with many questions. However, it always arises during a construction engineering, construction history or cultural history investigation of a building. This is particularly relevant with respect to architecture from a period where not all buildings have value, as in this case the architecture from the period 1940 to 1970 in the Netherlands. In the context of building technology research I refer to ‘qualities’, in the neutral sense of the word.162 Quality as Noud de Vreeze (1948) described it: The concept of ‘quality’ can be interpreted non-judgmentally: quality in the sense of nature or condition, without making a value judgment. However, in day-to-day use, the concept of quality usually includes an assessment of that condition. In this sense, quality is generally associated with good, valuable, with a nature which is appreciated. In expressions 161

Collins English Dictionary, Glasgow 1998: value: 2 an amount, esp. a material or monetary one, considered to be a fair exchange in return for a thing; assigned valuation. 162 Collins English Dictionary, Glasgow 1998: quality: 1 a distinguishing characteristic, property, or attribute; 2 the basic character or nature of something; …; 4 degree or standard of excellence, esp. a high standard. A B C D  re search method ■ 61

such as: ‘the quality of a building’ or ‘aiming for quality in housing’ reference is made to undeniably positive properties, however, in ‘an analysis of the quality of a building’, the term usually has a less judgmental meaning. Quality is discussed in relation to all aspects of society, politics, culture, engineering and the economy. We talk about the quality of health care, or the quality of the interpretation of a piece of music by Bach.163 Much has been said and written about quality. Examples include the discussions about the qualities of reconstruction period architecture and the policy documents which Building Aesthetics Committees in the Netherlands had to write until 2004. Again these focus on quality.164 Even in 1959, Coenraad Temminck Groll (1925) was already writing about ‘old values and DHVWKHWLFV¶+HLGHQWL¿HGVL[IRUPV of value: due to 1. age, 2. rarity, 3. history, 4. art, 5. urbanism and 6. use. He also had a personal view on renewal and change, based on restoration: In general we can argue that renewal will reduce values 1 to 5 and only increases the use value. […] Until the beginning of the last century, the new which replaced the old was never decidedly ugly. […] … that when something old is replaced by something new, even if the new object has an equal art value, there will always be a loss.165

The building aesthetics policy documents were supposed to objective rules, which could be understood by everyone, to assess buildings, primarily in aesthetic terms. In my view this is an impossible task. Given my seven years’ experience as a member of the Building Aesthetics and Monuments Committee in Delft, I am aware that it is almost impossible to assess aesthetics on the basis of objective criteria. The assessments are subjective, but are given an air of objectivity by the policy document on aesthetics. However, research using the ABCD  research method is guided by the following themes: technological observation, research analysis, and regenerative conclusions. These three themes link the contextual elements and building elements in terms of the creation, existence and decay or continued existence of the building. The objective qualities of a building range from a rough sketch of the site through to details of durability and sustainability. In my view, all qualities are interrelated. The following two quotes concern the two qualities of a building which may be considered to be objective: Tjeerd Dijkstra (1931) in 2001: This observation means that one of the most important quality characteristics of the composition is the least tangible DQGWKHUHIRUHWKHPRVWGLI¿FXOWWRDVVHVV$IWHUWKH discussion of concepts such as function and construction, object and context, clarity, complexity and associative meanings, we lack the words for what is really the essence of a composition: the proportions. There is only one way in which we can learn to master the qualitative aspects of that: practicing by looking [at architecture], often, alert and perceptively, and - for architecture students: designing, and exchanging experiences with others. In this way, our assessment of proportions can develop a more general, intersubjective character. However, it will never be possible WRREMHFWLYHO\GH¿QHJRRGDQGEDGSURSRUWLRQV166

163

N. de Vreeze, Woningbouw, inspiratie & ambities. Kwalitatieve grondslagen van de sociale woningbouw in Nederland (Almere: NWR, 1993), 22. See e.g.: J. Huisman, “Lelijk is geen argument,” Vrij Nederland, June 12, 2003, 62-66 and: M.C. Kuipers, Toonbeelden van de wederopbouw. This book aims to give a more positive image of reconstruction period architecture by presenting some outstanding examples. 165 C.L. Temminck Groll, “Oude waarden en welstand,” Bouw no. 4 (1959): 94-97. 164

62 ■ A B C D  re search method

166

T. Dijkstra, Tj. Architectonische kwaliteit (Rotterdam: 010 Publishers, 2001), 20.

Eoin Cofaigh in 1999: Quality of DUFKLWHFWXUHDWWKHVWDWHRIWKH¿[WXUHRU¿WWLQJ involves suitability for use, durability in performance, and visual delight. Suitability for use involves ergonomic considerations, especially for those who are not able bodied or strong, and correct selection of materials, related to the functions they will support. Durability of performance involves proper length of life, taking all costs into account including the environmental. Delight derives from elegance, style and the contribution to the building’s architecture made by even the smallest details.167 In studies using the ABCD  research method it is essential to start by gathering as much relevant information about the building as possible in the observation stage, from the following sources: the literature, the building itself, archives and interviews.168 As I indicated earlier, the people who live or work in a building, who use it and maintain it, are an important, informative and often entertaining source of information. On all my site visits, I have met building and facility managers who were truly proud of their building, or faced its demolition with tears in their eyes. The second research stage, the analysis stage, involves the structuring, analysis and interpretation of the information obtained. In the third stage, drawing conclusions, we arrive at conclusions which cover all three periods.

167 168

Figure 49: Interior of the DOK public library in Delft. The regeneration of a VXSHUPDUNHWZKHUHVSHFL¿Fqualities inspired a surprising approach by Liesbeth van der Poll (DOK) and Aat Vos (AEQUO). The library was completed in 2008. Photographs by the author, 2008.

Cofaigh, A Green Vitruvius. Principles and Practice of Sustainable Architectural Design, 2. O. 0iþHOUHIHUVWRWKHEXLOGLQJDQGRULJLQDOdrawings and models of the building as primary sources, and the literature and interviews as secondary sources. See: O. 0iþHO³+LVWRULFDO5HVHDUFK´LQ'H-RQJWays to study, 61. A B C D  re search method ■ 63

3.1 Frame of reference

When structuring the information, the list of items to be included in a study following the ABCD  research method is used to demarcate the information.169  7KH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHVWXG\FRQFHUQVWKHcontext. It analyses the contextual aspects (brief, site, architect, typology, and design process), one after another, over all periods. The information provided by observation is sifted to obtain the contextual information which is or was relevant to the design, creation, existence and decay or future existence of the building. Where typology is concerned we should not only consider a functional or chronological order of buildings, based on building types. Instead, the buildings should be analysed primarily on the basis of a spatial typology, as the spatial conditions will remain, or may have to change when the function of the building is changed. The second part of the study considers the building in greater detail and initially considers the following periods: creation, existence and decay/continued existence. The building is then analysed on the basis of the following aspects: space (interior and exterior); structure (load-bearing structure and elements which determine the VWUXFWXUH PDWHULDOVWKHGH¿QLWLRQ of space by materials, determined by: light, colour, texture, surface, sound, radiation, smell, dimensions and weight); building services (plant and installations to support climate control, comfort, maintenance and communications). Analysing the four elements at the three levels (periods) leads to a matrix at the level of the whole building: the Analysing

169

When developing this list I referred to the following publications: Benes, Voldoet dit gebouw? Het bepalen van de functionele kwaliteit . H. Frey, “Building Conversion,” in: Markus, Building Conversion and Rehabilitation. Designing for Change in Building Use. Latham, Creative Re-use of Buildings. Vol. 1. Principles and Practice. N.J.M. Nelissen, Herbestemming van grote monumenten, een uitdaging (’s-Hertogenbosch: Adr. Heinen, 1999). J. Molema, Antonio Gaudí, een weg tot oorspronkelijkheid (PhD diss, Delft University of Technology, 1987).

6 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Building Construction in time matrix, or ABC  matrix. When this matrix is combined with the considerations based on the contextual factors it forms the regenerative conclusion of the ABCD  study of the building. Such studies need a uniform terminology, hence I will DGGUHVVWKLVLVVXH¿UVW7KH$%&  matrix is then extended to form the ABCD  matrix. Finally, I will explain why I decided to develop the method on the basis of my study of the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden. I will now discuss the terms related to building technology research. I will now explain how I interpreted them and applied them in my research. The terminology of the themes which guide the research: technical observation, research analysis, and regenerative conclusions was discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

Context The contextual part of the study concerns the factors relating to the context of the building: brief, site, architect, typology and design process. However, the emphasis is always on the building and its current condition. The contextual factors have affected the creation and existence of the building and will affect its decay or continued existence. The aim is not to document the complete history of its creation, but to gather the information relevant to the creation of the building and its current and future condition (the three periods).

Figure 51:

The International Institute of Social History commissioned Atelier PRO to regenerate the Willem I warehouse in Amsterdam, originally built in 1963 designed by C. Wegener Sleeswijk. Photograph by the author, 1987.

A B C D  re search method ■ 65

Figures 52 to 54:

Section and plan of the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden with the heights of the rooms indicated by shades of grey (the lighter the shade, the higher the room) and the same plan with the functional characteristics in 1960. See also research element 4.3. Adapted by the author, from: Tauber, 2000.

66 ■ A B C D  re search method

Brief This describes the reasons for deciding to construct the building. The aspects relevant here determined the decision to construct WKHEXLOGLQJLQWKH¿UVWSODFHDQGWKHIXQFWLRQVWREHIXO¿OOHGE\ the building at that time. The client, schedule of requirement, local authority regulations and other constraints will be discussed in so far as these determined the design, construction and appearance of the building and the options available for the future. Socially relevant aspects can also be included here.

Site This includes town planning aspects associated with the building. Again, we are only concerned with historical issues which affected the design, construction and appearance of the building and the options available for the future.

Architect Obviously, the architect or architects originally responsible for the building have to be considered, but there is no need to include a complete monograph on them. The building is placed in the context of the other work by the architect(s) or the practice in which they worked. Occasionally, personal circumstances, contacts or other jobs may have affected the design of the building. If the designing architect made statements or used a particular method relevant to the research themes then I include such information under ‘conclusions’. Architects who later PRGL¿HGWKHEXLOGLQJDUHLQFOXGHGXQGHUµEXLOGLQJSDVVDJHRI time’. Hence, ‘architect’ refers to the original designers.

Example of a typology: set of buildings:

type (function):

type (space):

public buildings

libraries

schools

museums

atrium

hall

corridor

So ‘type’ is not the same as ‘typology’. Within a typology, EXLOGLQJVDUHFODVVL¿HGE\Dnumber of common characteristics. The terms ‘type’ and ‘typology’ are regularly confused. Often, typological descriptions are no more than a common, chronological listing of a number of buildings of the same functional type.170 In my view, a typology goes beyond this and should add at least one layer to this list. By combining several type characteristics we develop a categorization of buildings where the FODVVL¿FDWLRQRUUHFRJQLVHGqualities of a building are not solely determined by the function. This categorization is relevant when a building still exists, but its function has been FKDQJHG7KHVDPHEXLOGLQJPLJKWIXO¿ODGLIIHUHQWfunction. In this way we can identify aspects which relate to options for changing the building. Hence, a study based on the ABCD  method includes several ways of considering a building as a type, in which the IXQFWLRQLVRQO\WKH¿UVWlayer. The typological approach may be different for each particular building, to provide the most useful information for the study as a whole. Hence, it may be possible to include a building in several typologies. Here, function will normally be one of the aspects considered, but this is not strictly necessary.

Typology Before looking at the building as such we place it in the context of its typology. We can distinguish: Type: group of objects marked by common characteristics and qualities. Concerned with function. Typology: system of a number of types whose buildings have some common characteristics.

170

See e.g.: N.A. Pevsner, A History of Building Types (New York: Princeton University Press, 1979). He is correct in not referring to it as a typology, however, others quote this work as an example of a typology: 0iþHO³+LVWRULFDO5HVHDUFK´ in: De Jong, Ways to study, 66. See also: Typologie van stationsgebouwen, part of a graduation project, Delft 1987, in which Hielkje Zijlstra and Marvin Nieuwenhuis used this multiple typological approach to develop a typology. A B C D  re search method ■ 67

Umnutzung und Folgekosten erbauter Anlage n published in 1985, LGHQWL¿HGWKHvalue of comparative typological studies (in additional to historical studies), which can provide an opportunity to understand the factors which determine the continuity of a building:

7KHUHDUHVHYHUDORSWLRQVIRUGH¿QLQJVHWVRIEXLOGLQJV Gene Bunnell used a relatively abstract approach:172 „ public buildings „ commercial buildings „ „

A new building or reconstruction in historical clothing or turning the forms of town planning into a new architecture as a declaration of loyalty to the present? An important basis for this decision is provided by an analysis of types of buildings. Such an analysis establishes the constant factors which have come about as a result of historical development, FXOWXUDOLQÀXHQFHV requirements as regards utilisation, technical standards and climatic conditions.171 For each building we can identify the typology which is most relevant to our work. Some examples: function + architect, function + historical development of the type, function + space, or space + materials. By comparing several studies undertaking using the ABCD  method, possibly of the same type, we can identify links or common factors which provide a more useful outcome than that resulting from an arbitrary set of unrelated studies.

Spatial typology If several buildings are studied using the ABCD  research method, then the typology is relevant to the selection of the buildings. Here we are concerned with the f which combines the type of building based on the function with the type of building based on the spatial qualities. Example: a library is a type of building, and a square building arranged around a courtyard (atrium) is a type of building. One example of this typology, function + space, can be applied to the Friesland Provincial Library in /HHXZDUGHQ6HH¿JXUHVWR

„ „

Nicolaus 3HYVQHU UH¿QHGWKHFODVVL¿FDWLRQZLWKW\SHV based on functions and proposed the following list:173 „ national monuments (and monuments to genius) „ government buildings, 11th - 17th century „ government buildings, 18th century: houses of parliament „ government buildings, 18th century: ministries and public RI¿FHV „ government buildings, 18th century: town halls and law courts „ theatres „ libraries „ museums „ hospitals „ prisons „ hotels „ banks and exchanges „ warehouses and RI¿FHEXLOGLQJV „ railway stations „ market halls, conservatories and exhibition buildings „ shops, stores and department stores „ factories So each set of buildings includes several other types. Given that the function of a building can change, it would be inappropriate to select buildings purely based on one property. The building itself, the space it provides and occupies, makes it possible to distinguish types of buildings. Consequently, there is the need to use a typological approach to selecting buildings, as described 172

171

P.P. Schweger et al, “Dealing with Available Building Space,” in: Reuse and Subsequent Costs of Buildings (Stuttgart: Krämer, 1985), 5.

68 ■ A B C D  re search method

industrial buildings residential buildings and hotels churches and institutional buildings educational buildings

G. Bunnell, Built to Last; a Handbook of Recycling Old Buildings (Washington: Preservation Press, 1977), 3. 173 Pevsner, A History of Building Types, 5.

above. Building W\SHFODVVL¿FDWLRQVDUHRIWHQEDVHGRQfunction, HJGZHOOLQJVRI¿FHVVWDWLRQVPXVHXPVHWF7KHUHDUHRQO\ IHZFODVVL¿FDWLRQVE\type which are not primarily arranged by the function of the building.174 Even lists of buildings which have found new uses are initially arranged on the basis of their new function.175 When the function changes a building is transferred to a different functional type, while the spatial type characteristics remain the same. A typology that includes spatial characteristics is more useful when we are concerned with the regeneration of buildings. Example: Tate Modern London KDVEHHQFODVVL¿HGDVD museum since 2001, while it was originally a power station. This introduces a dilemma when classifying buildings by their function. When a building is described as a type, by spatial or structural characteristics, it does not matter if it is a museum, station or power station.176 See Figures 55 to 57. This emphasises the value of applying a typology in the ABCD  method which is based on spatial characteristics rather than types based on functions. Here, Rietveld’s approach is relevant. His architecture was based on creating spaces in which various functions could be provided, rather than on the function of the building as a whole. Apart from creating architecture, we also have to recognise these factors. Rietveld described this as follows:

Figures 55 and 56: Design drawing for Tate Modern in London, 1995, by Herzog & de Meuron and the removal of the ÀRRURIWKHWXUELQHhall in 1997. From: Moore, 2000.

Seeing what an object intends to be, making a visual correction, is not something everyone is able to do. It is one of the most interesting aspects of our profession. A construction has its own appearance, but now we can say: the appearance should not be determined by the construction, but by the function of the building (i.e. a representation) and it is odd that for some time we thought that was necessary. If you immediately construct that representation and you immediately make a town hall into a town hall, and a school a school, in terms of appearance, yes, 174

A start is provided by: F.D.K. Ching, Architecture. Form, Space & Order (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1979). 175 See e.g.: Powell, Architecture Reborn, 4-5. This distinguishes: ‘Living & Working’, Leisure & Learning’ and ‘Museums Transformed’. Both the Museum of Contemporary Art in the former Hamburger Bahnhof station in Berlin and Tate Modern in the former Bankside Power Station are included under ‘Museums Transformed’. 176 R. Moore and R. Ryan, Building Tate Modern, Herzog & de Meuron Transforming Giles Gilbert Scott (London: Tate Gallery Publishing, 2000). A B C D  re search method ■ 69

Figure 57: Tate Modern after regeneration. Photograph by the author, 2004.

then you get a sort of traditional formalism which really does not have anything to do with architecture. In that case you would often have to hide the construction, and that is an unhealthy approach which can never lead to a clear result, unless the construction is so interwoven with the function that they both use the same vocabulary of forms. But that will happen only rarely, and only when following examples which have been developed and accepted long ago. If the building is composed of more elements or if it is a completely QHZEXLOGLQJWKHQZH¿UVWKDYHWRselect the construction to 70 ■ A B C D  re search method

match the function. The better the IXQFWLRQLVGH¿QHGDQG the better the plans are and the better the internal and external areas have been judged and the better the construction matches them, the fewer visual corrections will be needed and the easier it will be to design the building. The nature of the building will be correspondingly purer and FOHDUHU,IWKHGLYLVLRQRIIXQFWLRQVGH¿QLWLRQRIVSDFHV construction and LQVWDOODWLRQDUHULJKWWKH¿UVWtime then this will lead to strong and clear architecture. It takes a lot of H[SHULHQFHWRJHWLWULJKWWKH¿UVWtime, and if you do not get

it right at once then you can try to make adjustments, but there really is not much you can do. Hence, the right building will essentially appear by itself, and a good example of architecture is a spontaneous creation, although it may take a lot of perseverance to maintain that spontaneity.177

Design process Here we are concerned with the way in which the concept for a building is developed and what considerations and events were relevant to this. An analysis of the information obtained from interviews, the literature, photographs, models and drawings allows a division into chronological steps of the development of the design and the design method, and helps to understand them. The key question is why certain choices were made at the time, to help us understand the answers and solutions. We have to identify the essential aspects and starting points which have a major impact on the continued existence of the building. This process is affected by many factors: changes in the construction industry (with delegation to consultants and subcontractors), tendering procedures, construction project WHDPVDHVWKHWLFFULWHULDDQGGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKRI¿FLDOERGLHV about regulations, requirements and legislation. Additionally, the ¿QDQFLDODVSHFWVRIDGHVLJQDUHDVVHVVHGGXULQJWKHprocess. The outcome of that will often affect the design and therefore the design SURFHVV7KHVHIDFWRUVDOVRLQÀXHQFHWKHpreservation and maintenance of a building and affect the options for making changes. The requirement of intervening in a building ‘with respect for what exists’ can only be met if we have an adequate understanding of the creation and existence of the building.

Building Elements Wiek Röling (1936) referred to the following concepts in his leaving address as professor of non-residential construction at Delft University of Technology: space, materials and structure. These related to the remit of his chair: spatial and material

structures.178 These concepts create the link between ‘building’ and ‘architecture’, from context to detail. These elements largely determine the appearance of a building. This applies with respect to design, construction and the end result. Of course, other aspects are also relevant, but these three elements are used in the ABCD  research method as the key analysis elements for the building in terms of the themes and the three levels (periods). I added the element ‘services’ (building services plant and installations).

Space ‘Space’ refers to both the space occupied by the building and to the space created inside the building. Space is a decisive element in the experience, operation and options provided by a building, over time. Space is largely determined by its boundaries and the interfaces between those boundaries. These boundaries are generally created by materials. Dimensions, light, colour, texture, sound, timbre, smell and atmosphere are other aspects which determine how we experience space.

Structure ‘Structure’ refers both to the load-bearing structure and the system of measures used. By analysing plans, cross-sections and elevations we can learn about the elements which lend a structure to the building. This structure (in the sense of organisation or arrangement) is contained in the volume, form, system of measures, construction, texture, space and materials. The structure is generally determined by the space, the division of the key dimensions into system dimensions, the boundaries of the space and therefore by materials. The building services installations can also lend structure to a building. They form their own structure, although this generally takes second place to the load-bearing structure.

178 177

F. Bless, Rietveld (Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 1982), 236-237.

W. Röling, De kunst van de ingenieur, de verantwoordelijkheid van de architect en zicht op Delft (Amsterdam: University Press Salomé, 2002), 13. A B C D  re search method ■ 71

Materials Materials implement the structure and space, and also play a key role in our experience of the atmosphere, mood and wellbeing. The ageing of the materials used may have a positive or negative impact. Light, colour, texture, surface, timbre, radiation, smell, size and weight are all factors which determine how we experience materials. The use of materials is often an indicator of the timelessness of a building.

GHFLVLRQVSRVVLEO\LQÀXHQFHGE\WKHconstruction process, have a major impact on the end result. Making things, the construction method, techniques which have to prove themselves, are often only tested in practice. Changes in the schedule of requirements, regulations, legislation, budget cuts or deferred decisions can have a major impact on the design as it is built, and the possibilities and impossibilities for future use.

What has been Services The building services installations are not always simply added on to a building. They are also determined by the space, structure and materials. Building services may be integrated with or separate from other elements. They may affect the system of dimensions of the space, structure and materials. The building services are important when designing or redesigning a building given legislation and regulations, and the requirements concerning climate, comfort, maintenance and communications.179

Time Levels The WLPHDVSHFWZDVUHIHUUHGWRLQWKHGH¿QLWLRQVDERYH For these studies, it is essential that the elements of the buildings studied are placed in time. Hence, the elements space, structure, materials and services are studied at the three time levels of analysis.

What was meant to be Once the design is complete, the building is constructed. However, design activities usually continue until the building has been completed. Often the changes made further to late

179

Building services installations such as climate control systems often determine the options available when looking for new uses for post-war buildings. Increasingly, the ceilings will be too low for the installation of new building services plant. There is a need for inventive solutions. See: J. Parkes, “Towards the Fully Integrated Building: Serving Post-War Buildings,” in: Macdonald, Preserving PostWar Heritage, 43-54.

72 ■ A B C D  re search method

We are studying existing buildings in a context which is subject to change. As mentioned earlier, everything changes, eventually. There are many things which can happen to a building during its OLIHF\FOHZKLFKLQÀXHQFHLWVFXUUHQWcondition. Time itself, in terms of aging, is one aspect. Over time, the building owners make changes and interventions in the original design. The extent to which the original design principles are respected, the FKRLFHVPDGHDQGWKHUHTXLUHPHQWVWREHIXO¿OOHGDUHDOODVSHFWV to be included in a study. When considering change, the funding available for making changes is also important. When constructing a building it is advisable to make investments which KDYHDORQJOLIHHYHQWKRXJKWKH\PD\KDYHDKLJKHU¿UVWFRVW My PhD research showed that during the lifecycle of a building a limited EXGJHWRIWHQEHQH¿WVWKHqualities of that building more than a generous budget.

What is to be or not to be The results from the analysis levels discussed above provide the input for an assessment of the options available with respect to the building in the longer term. The original concepts and changes over time are analysed to draw conclusions about the qualities and potential of the building. Investigating the elements space, structure, materials and services at the three time levels of analysis produces the Analysing Building Construction in Time matrix: the ABC Matrix. When the matrix is combined with the considerations based on the contextual factors it forms the regenerative conclusions of the ABCD  research of the building.

Figure 58:

Multifunctional halls of Twente University of Technology, designed by Van Embden, Choisy Roorda van Eysinga, Smelt and Wittermans in 1963. Still in use by artists in 2005 but unfortunately demolished shortly after that. Photograph by the author, 2005. A B C D  re search method ■ 73

3.2 Matrix

The Analysing Building Construction in time matrix (ABC  matrix) which I used earlier, only incorporates study outcomes which relate to the building itself.180 At that time, the contextual aspects were not included. However, these contextual aspects can also be analysed at the three time levels to draw conclusions which

are relevant to the future existence of the building. The ABC  matrix can be extended with the contextual factors to result in the ABCD  PDWUL[7KLVSURYLGHVDVXPPDU\RIWKHNH\¿QGLQJV of the studies. In the study of the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden this was developed using the following matrix:

ABCD  matrix   meant to be Brief Site Architect Typology Design process Space Structure Materials Services

180

H. Zijlstra, “Analysing Building Construction in Time, the ABC£ Research Matrix” in: G. A. Yildiz (ed.), SHH07, Studies on Historical Heritage (Istanbul: Technical University Research Centre for Preservation of Historical Heritage TA-MIR, 2007), 67-74.

74 ■ A B C D  re search method

  has been

  to be or not to be

3.3

Application of the ABCD  research method

From the range of buildings studied for my PhD research I selected the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden (Tresoar) as an example to illustrate the ABCD  research method. The building was the result of a design competition and has an apparently timeless neutrality in plan and section as well as the choice of materials for the interior and exterior. See Figures 59 to 61. Furthermore the original architect, Piet Tauber (1927), was asked to regenerate the building extensively at the end of the twentieth century. There were only modest changes to the exterior of the building. The original design, plans and sections facilitated change. This is an excellent example of: Continuity + Changeability = Durability In a recent survey of architecture in the Province of Friesland, the Provincial Library was described as ‘... undoubtedly one of Friesland’s most remarkable 1960s buildings.’ 181 Piet Tauber, working with his son Frans, was given the opportunity to completely refurbish the building which had been in use IRU\HDUVDQGWR¿WLWZLWKWKHODWHVWtechnology, without affecting the original design. In fact, this provided an opportunity to develop the original concept better and more clearly than was possible in 1966. An essential element of this regeneration project was the role given to the original architect in the regenerative design process. After the opening in 1966, the local press commented ‘You can immediately see that a building has been created which will withstand the centuries. Now it is a new building, but there will come a time when it will have a history.’ 182 In 1966, when the building had 50% more space than needed, librarian Sjoerd Douma (1912-1980) commented ‘The library will grow faster than

you would expect. But we hope to have spare capacity for around thirty years.’ 183 Thirty-three years, later, at the time of the second handover after the regeneration in 1999, librarian Gerard van den Broek wrote ‘A building has a rigid structure which can only be changed with great effort and corresponding cost. Often one would rather leave the old, inadequate building than modify it. However, some built structures appear to be so ÀH[LEOHWKDWWKH\FDQDSSDUHQWO\ effortlessly accommodate the new functional requirements made of them. The building of the Friesland Provincial Library proved to be one of those.’ 184

183 181

J. van der Bout (ed.), Bouwen in Fryslân 1940-2000 (Leeuwarden: Friese Pres Boekerij, 2000) object 61. 182 “De Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland in zijn nieuwe paleis,” Franeker Nieuwsblad, October 7, 1966.

“Friesland heeft weer plaats voor zijn boekenschat,” Friesland no. 5 (1966): 12-14. 184 P.H. Tauber, F. Tauber en G.J. van den Broek, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis (Leeuwarden: Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 2000), 30. A B C D  re search method ■ 75

76 ■ A B C D  re search method

Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden This example shows how the ABCD  research method is applied. The following three chapters cover all aspects, from context through to detail. Perceptions and appreciation change over time. We want to identify the qualities of the building so we can drill down to the essence. There is RIWHQDFRQÀLFWEHWZHHQtime and quality. Especially when analysing buildings with a view to their redesign it is important to be aware of all the elements which made the building into what it is today. We have to understand the building during the different stages of its lifecycle before we can add a new stage. Apart from written documents, illustrations are also essential. The interpretation of the information obtained during the study (archives, literature, interviews, etc.) is expressed in the analysis of the visual material. The conclusions do not provide guidelines for a new design. Instead, the comprehensive TXDOLW\LGHQWL¿HVWKHqualities which allow for an affective consideration of the changes based on an understanding of the building. Finally, the contextual factors and building elements of the library are summarised as the three time levels in the ABCD  matrix.

A B C D  re search method ■ 77

78 ■ A B C D  re search method

4

Context

4.1

Brief

In 2000, the Friesland Provincial Library housed not only its own collection of 450,000 items (compared with 290,000 in 1968), but also the Buma Bibliotheek collection. The history of this collection goes back to a legacy left in 1876 by Dr. L. A. Buma. The collection includes documents in Latin and Ancient Greek, available for loan throughout the country. In 1977 this collection included 45,000 items.185 From 1849 to 1897 both libraries were housed in the Palace of Justice at the Zaailand in Leeuwarden, and from 1897 to 1939 in the Chancery. The Chancery dates from the sixteenth century and was originally built as the Friesland court. It was subsequently used as a hospital, prison, library, archives and museum.186 See Figure 62. The library management had saved the funds for a dedicated building, which they moved into in 1934. From 1934 to 1966 the Buma Library was housed in a building at Grote Kerkstraat, as an independently operating unit of the Provincial Library. As the library had limited opening hours and required few personnel it was merged with the Provincial Library in 1955.187 The Provincial Library was based on the collection of Franeker University (1585 - 1811). A royal decree was issued in 1843 to the effect that part of the Provincial Archives and Library were to provide public access.188 At that time the collection included 11,000 books and in 1852 a dedicated reading room was 185

D.W. Kok, “De Buma Bibliotheek te Leeuwarden. Bibliotheekbeschrijving,” Open: vaktijdschrift voor bibliothecarissen, no. 6 (1977): 307-312. 186 G.P. Karstkarel, Leeuwarden 700 jaar bouwen (Zutphen: Terra Publishers, 1985), 26-28. 187 S. Douma, “Een nieuw gebouw voor de Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland en voor de Buma-Bibliotheek te Leeuwarden,” Bibliotheekleven no. 44 (1959): 112. 188 J.J. Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek (Leeuwarden: Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek van Friesland, 1991), 5.

opened. The Provincial Library was officially opened on 1 October as a public library for study purposes. Until 1921 the post of librarian was combined with that of national archivist. After that the library had its own director. From 1941 to 1977 the library was headed by Sjoerd Douma (1912 - 1980), who previously worked as a junior librarian at the Delft College of Technology. Initially the people of Leeuwarden objected as Douma was not from Friesland. However, he turned out to be an inspiring leader and held a number of national and provincial offices. The National Archives and Buma collection were moved to different sites in 1936 but even so it was concluded in 1939 that the Chancery building was too small for the collection. Hence, sections of the collection were moved to alternative sites.189 During the Second World War the conditions under which the books were stored, as well as in the reading room, were particularly poor. In winter they could not be heated above 11 degrees and the reading room could only accommodate 28 visitors. See Figure 63. In 1957 the collection was still spread across four sites in the city but plans were being developed for a new building. In 1959 the minimum age for library users was reduced from 18 to 16, as a result of which many secondary school students went to the quiet library to do their homework. The lack of space for library users and shortage of facilities grew, as did the need for new accommodation. From 1961 on, the library suffered from serious space shortages in the Chancery. As a result it was not possible to absorb major collections, and at the same time the number of loans increased to 33,000 per year.190

189 190

“Friesland heeft weer plaats voor zijn boekenschat,” Friesland no. 5 (1966): 13. “Friesland heeft weer plaats voor zijn boekenschat,” Friesland no. 5 (1966): 12. A B C D  re search method ■ 79

Figure 59: Aerial photograph of Leeuwarden with the Provincial Library. Adapted by the author, from Wetting, 2000. 80 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 60 and 61: Provincial Library in Leeuwarden in 1968 and the plan of the upper ÀRRULQ)URP3+7DXEHUarchives and Tauber, 2000.

Figure 62: The Chancery (1571) where the

Figure 63: Reading room in the Chancery. From Huizenga, 1991.

Provincial Library was housed. From Leeuwarden in contrast, 1999.

A B C D  re search method ■ 81

In 1947 the Provincial Executive of Friesland decided that the Provincial Library needed a dedicated building. Once that was built, the Chancery would only have to accommodate the National Archives. In 1951 a site was bought on Turfmarkt, but two years later it was sold to the PTT. The Oldehoofsterkerkhof was selected as the new site.

The Provincial Competition Council appointed a building committee and they had to whether to appoint an architect directly, or select one after an open competition. Library director Douma was in favour of the first option as he thought there should be close cooperation between the architect and the librarian to develop a good design. However, at the end of 1953, the Provincial Council decided to hold a competition: Not a single large library had been built in the past 25 years: a competition would attract architects’ attention; it would give good young architects an opportunity; a commission would face the administration with a difficult choice between a few well known architects.191 A schedule of requirements had to be drawn up. This took long as it was first necessary to decide on the functions to be accommodated in the building. The Municipal Library and Fryske Academy were also to be integrated. When considering these issues, not having an architect to discuss the potential impact of the various options on the design was considered as a disadvantage. The procedure to develop a schedule of requirements made slow progress. Eventually the Provincial Executive proposed that the Chief Government Architect, Jo Vegter (1907-1982) from Leeuwarden, be asked to develop a plan. However, in 1955 this proposal was rejected, due to pressure from the Royal Institute of Dutch Architects (BNA) and an open competition was launched. The schedule of requirements was finally completed in the summer of 1955 and included the following key requirements: 191

Huizenga, Vijfentwintig jaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 17.

82 ■ A B C D  re search method

public awareness of the Provincial Library and Buma library should be improved; a hall would be required for lectures and exhibitions and there should also be two meeting rooms; there should be open shelves for some 15,000 books and it should be possible to give tours of the building.192 Until 1985, when the new Provincial Hall was opened, the Provincial Council held its meetings in the large hall of the new library.193 A jury was appointed to judge the results of the competition. Its members included: J.A.G. van der Steur (1899 - 1966) (then chairman of the BNA)194, W. Bruin (architect), W.J. Gerretsen (architect), D. Tuinstra (architect and chairman of the Provincial Building Aesthetics Committee) and Douma, the librarian. Douma gathered extensive information on the subject and visited libraries in: Groningen; Leiden; The Hague; Delft; Rotterdam; Copenhagen; Malmö; Halmstad; Göteborg; Stockholm and Århus. He also studied the libraries in: Cologne, Wiesbaden, Heidelberg, Tübingen, Fulda, Marburg, Paderborn, Lugano, Bern, Heidelberg and the Zentralbibliotheek in Luzern which opened in 1954. Douma also visited the library in Enschede which had recently been completed. In his view, the library in Luzern was a particularly good example for the Friesland Provincial Library.195 By 1 May 1958, 165 designers had entered the open competition. The designs were judged in twelve meetings. Because of the large number of submissions, the jury period of three months was extended by another three months. The conclusion was that no winner could be selected. However, one second prize was awarded, to Onno Greiner (1924), and three third prizes were awarded, to Hendriks and Van der Velden, Van Ooy and Tauber, while Kelderman received a commendation. See Figures 64 and 65.

192

Douma, “Een nieuw gebouw voor de Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland en voor de Buma Bibliotheek te Leeuwarden,” 214. 193 Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 21. 194 J.A.G. van der Steur (1899 - 1966) see: Bouw no. 36 (1966): 1388. 195 Huizenga, Vijfentwintig jaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 18.

Figure 64: *UHLQHU¶V¿UVWGHVLJQIRUWKHFRPSHWLWLRQ)URPµ3ULMVYUDDJYRRUELEOLRWKHHNJHERXZWHLeeuwarden’, 1959.

Figure 65: 3HUVSHFWLYHGUDZLQJRI7DXEHU¶V¿UVWGHVLJQIRUWKHFRPSHWLWLRQµ¶)URP7DXEHU A B C D  re search method ■ 83

The jury advised the Provincial Executive to hold a closed competition as a second stage, or even to select the design which won the second prize as the basis for the design. Douma disagreed with this. Despite the protest of the rest of the jury, he submitted a minority report to the Provincial Executive with a different award of the prizes. Furthermore, he did not want a further competition to be held. Instead he wanted to work with one of the architects on his short list.196 However, the competition did have its use in that four architects in their early thirties received prizes. In January 1959 all 165 submissions were shown at an exhibition in the Leeuwarden Exchange. It was decided to hold a closed competition among the four prize-winning architects. The jury was extended with P.E. van Krevelen of the Provincial Executive and, at Douma’s request, with M. van Elsen of the Enschede library. Douma also managed to get some changes made to the schedule of requirements, such as a strict separation between the Provincial Library and the Buma collection. Greater attention was to be given to the position of the lending desk relative to the entrance. Furthermore the lending desk personnel would have to be able to keep an eye on the visitors in the central hall and in the open shelves section.

Tauber’s plan After four meetings, Tauber from Alkmaar, then aged 32, was selected as the winner of the second competition. See Figures 66 and 67. Douma was not in favour of Tauber’s design for the first round ‘In my view, the structure of the “271258” (Tauber) and “BOOM” (Van Ooy) designs is in appropriate. In design “271258” the lack of separation between the administrative section, lending desk and reading room of the Provincial Library do not appeal to me.’ At that time he preferred Greiner’s design. However, he did see many shortcomings in it, some of them insurmountable. Hence he proposed that Greiner be awarded second place and that Van Ooy and Tauber should only receive a commendation. Even in 1968 the architectural profession still had some doubts about the selection of the winner of the second round of

196

S. Douma, “Prijsvraag Bibliotheekgebouw Leeuwarden,” Forum no. 2 (1959): 47.

8 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 66 and 67: Perspective drawings, Tauber’s Perystilium design for the second competition. From Tauber, 2000.

the competition in 1968.197 According to Tauber, the reason that he was eventually commissioned was that he was the only one of the four architects who had made a completely new design for the second round. At the time he thought that this was the only right way to respond to the criticism on his first plan, and to meet the revised requirements. According to him, the other architects had only adjusted and detailed their original designs. In 1960 the whole concept of competitions was criticised. 197

A. Buffinga, “Commentaar. Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek te Leeuwarden,” Bouw no. 16 (1968): 590-591. He wrote “I do not believe the rumours according to which the notes with names had been seen before the prizes were awareded. They shouldn’t say things like that, especially as it is unlikely that the members of the jury would not have guessed the sources of the four designs in this round given their presentation.”

In a letter to Greiner, who was disappointed by the outcome, Professor Peter Pennink advocated the use of competitions to generate ideas but felt that they were not the best way of translating the schedule of requirements into the perfect design ‘A client who, after initiating a competition based on a fixed schedule of requirements and a given site plan, has high hopes is likely to be disappointed when the results are announced. The competition in Friesland put a greater emphasis on the development of the requirements (which obviously had some flaws) than on presenting a concept. Hence, a second round was unavoidable.’ 198

In principle, Tauber was happy about the cooperation between architect and client, which is what Douma envisaged at the start of the project. In 1990 he wrote ‘It is important to me that the client has spontaneity. I need somebody who responds, that really helps me. On the other hand, especially as I do listen so much to my clients, participating in a competition is a liberating experience.’ 199 In 1964, Tauber said the following about the importance of ‘the brief’ ‘In my view, and more so than “function/purpose”, “brief” refers to: the whole range of factors, the use it is put to, the nature of the client, the social aspects, the interrelationship

198

199

P.K.A. Pennink, “Een brief over prijsvragen. Beste Greiner….,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 8 (1960): 451.

H. de Haan and I. Haagsma, Tauber Architecten. Bouwen naar opdracht (Haarlem: Architext, 1990), 17. A B C D  re search method ■ 85

with the surroundings and the place in the overall urban structure, and as many expressions of human relationships and activities.’ 200 The FOLHQW¶VUHVSRQVHZDVWRSOD\DVLJQL¿FDQWUROHLQWKH development of the plan for the library. Additionally Tauber’s introduction to then Chief Government Architect Vegter which UHVXOWHGIURPZLQQLQJWKHFRPSHWLWLRQZDVWRKDYHDVLJQL¿FDQW impact on the practice of the young Tauber. The projects which resulted from this included the embassy in Washington and the National Archives in Friesland which were to be built close to the Provincial Library at the edge of the Noordelijke Bolwerk IRUWL¿FDWLRQVLQLeeuwarden. The way the competition for the library in LeeuwardenZDVKHOGGLGQRWKDYHDVLJQL¿FDQWDGYHUVH impact on the relationship between Tauber and Greiner. On the contrary, they were still good friends in 2002 and regularly met through the ‘de Roosenburg Groep’.201

Tresoar Since 2000 the number of users visiting the Provincial Library in SHUVRQKDVIDOOHQ+RZHYHULQLWZDVRQHRIWKH¿UVWlibraries in the Netherlands to introduce a computer-based catalogue.202 The number of visitors to the library has fallen as the catalogue can now be accessed over the Internet and photocopies and digital data can be sent by post. In 2001, the library developed plans for greater cooperation with the National Archives next door, especially as their visitor numbers were rising. Certain functions could be merged. As of 1 September 2002, the Provincial Library, Buma library, the National Archives, the Friesland Literary Museum and Documentation Centre have cooperated under the name Tresoar (Frisian for ‘treasury’). As the buildings were linked, the activities of the library and the archives are now combined. In future, the extension of the storage space for the Tresoar may be combined with space for a new Friesland Museum.

200

P.H. Tauber, Bouwen naar opdracht, inaugural address, Delft University of Technology 1964, 11. 201 Interview with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002. “De Roosenburg Groep” was named after architect Dirk Roosenburg (1887 - 1962) from The Hague who set the group up. Tauber attended the tour of the KLM building in The Hague in 1956 or 1957 which was given by Roosenburg, see:research element 4.1: National Insurance Bank, Amsterdam. On that occasion, Roosenburg proudly presented the building services plant rooms and commented “You don’t have to be able to do all this yourself, but you do have to understand it,” which Tauber always remembered. 86 ■ A B C D  re search method

202

G.J. van den Broek, “Het vernieuwde huis vol verhalen, 500.000 boeken aan de Boterhoek” and Tauber, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, 35.

4.2

Site

The Friesland Provincial Library was built on a site in Leeuwarden with a long history: the Noorder Plantage (Northern Plantation) on the former rampart and at the square in front of the Oldehove, the tower of a church which was never completed. See Figure 68. In 1435, three villages on mounds (Nijehove, Oldehove and Hoek) were combined to form the town of Leeuwarden.203 Even maps from the thirteenth century already show the Oldehove, the earliest inhabited part of the current town centre of Leeuwarden.204 See Figures 69 and 70. The tower of the former church at Oldehove (built between 1529 and 1633) became the symbol of the city of Leeuwarden. ,QWKH¿UVWHDUWKHPEDQNPHQWVZHUHEXLOWDVGHIHQVLYH structures, adjoining the Oldehove site. These were extended in 1620 and GHPROLVKHGLQ7KLVZDVRQHRIWKH¿UVWFDVHVLQ the Netherlands where the defensive structures around a town were demolished. The site of the rampart then became a town park. However, plans were soon developed for the construction of a number of large public buildings which could not be accommodated elsewhere, e.g.: a prison, a hospital, stables for horses and a mercantile exchange. However, the park-like northern part of the original rampart was mostly preserved as it did not fall victim to large-scale urban expansion. It is now known as the Noorder-Plantage and has incorporated the Prinsentuin gardens since 1652.205 In the nineteenth century the housing shortages were solved by expanding into areas outside the city borders, rather than within the town. There was only limited house construction between the old boundary of the inner 203

Karstkarel, Leeuwarden 700 jaar bouwen, 9. A. Jager, “Leeuwardens vroegste verleden op de schop,” www.gemeentearchief. nl/oldehove.html (accessed Februari 28, 2002). Also published in: Leovardia, no. 2 (2000). 205 Karstkarel, Leeuwarden 700 jaar bouwen, 64. The planting of the former ramparts was designed by L.P. Roodbaard. 204

town and the Noordelijke Plantage. See Figures 71 to 74. These working class areas were redeveloped in stages, between 1950 and 1966. See Figures 75 and 76. They were replaced by a number of public buildings such as the Provincial Library and National Archives, on an open site along the canal.206 The remaining greenery was incorporated into a green walking route through the town. Later a second route from the town centre, through the Oldehoofsterkerkhof would connect to it. See Figure 78. In 1964 it was decided to provide access to the centre of Leeuwarden by creating a system of main access roads. The north access road was not built outside the core of the city centre, instead it ran between the Oldehoofsterkerkhof and the rampart. As a result, this busy route isolated the green zone from the city centre. The Oldehoofsterkerkhof was used as a site for transferring parcels to messengers for delivery and as a car park.207 See Figures 77 to 81. Plans for an underground car park under the VTXDUHZHUH¿UVWGHYHORSHGLQ208 The entrance to the car park was designed as a slope parallel to the Boterhoek, the busy ring road between the library and the Oldehoofsterkerkhof. In 2002 Tauber made his own plan for the redesign of the Oldehoofsterkerkhof. The plan by architect Fons Verheijen (1949) of the VVKH practice in Leiden was implemented in 2006. See Figures 83, 84, 245 and 246. 206

R.A.F. Smook, Binnensteden veranderen (Zutphen: De Walburg Pers, 1984), 132-135. 207 P. de Groot, “Jeugdherinneringen: de jaren vijftig onder de Oldehove,” Leovardia no. 1 (2000): 21-24. 208 Tauber, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, 43. The plan for the underground car park and the square were made by VVKH architects in Leiden, working with Fons Verheijen. Other plans were proposed in 2002. The pedestrian route from the city centre would cross a bridge to reach the Noorder Plantage. Tauber resisted the plan in the press. See: P.H. Tauber, P.H., “Oldehoveplein vraagt om totaalvisie,” Leeuwarder Courant, (25 November 2002) and P. Groot, “Brug te veel,” Leeuwarder Courant, 30 November 2002, 9. The excavations for the underground car park started in 2005. A B C D  re search method ■ 87

When the 1957 competition was held, the connecting road was assumed to be in the place where the ring road was built later. In 1959, Tauber designed one building mass surrounded by greenery, with the main entrance on Boterhoek: I chose a single mass because of the cultural nature of the building and the site near the square and the rampart. A rotation relative to the border of the plot both strengthens its independence from the rest of the road and enhances the effect of the wall on the square relative to the rest of the space of the square. The single, extended facade enhances the effect of the Oldenhove. The partly raised pavement, which serves as an extension of the rampart, emphasises the relationships between the square, the building and the rampart. To the right of the building there is space for parking nine cars.209 Hence, the library building was not constructed parallel to the ring road, but slightly offset from the imaginary plot line parallel to that road. As a result, the building was positioned in the park and more detached, but still formed the wall at the end of the Oldehoofsterkerkhof. This line could even be recognised in the ¿UVWSODQLQ$IXUWKHUVWXG\VKRZHGWKDWWKHIURQWelevation could actually be parallel to a connecting line between the former blocks of buildings on the other side of the Oldehoofsterkerkhof. This line soon became unrecognisable when the block on the east was demolished to create space for the construction of the new town hall. Tauber claimed that he determined the direction of the front elevation instinctively and that it was not related to the direction of the blocks on the other side of the large square. See Figure 82. A key feature of the site was the slope of the rampart, ZKLFKVWDQGVRXWLQWKHÀDWVXUURXQGLQJV7KHGLIIHUHQFHLQ elevation was used in the design of the building. This allowed part of the mass on the park side to disappear into the slope while the VHPLEDVHPHQWRQWKHVLGHRIWKHVWUHHWFRXOGEH¿WWHG ZLWKURRÀLJKWVDQGFRXOGWKHUHIRUHEHXVHGDVDZRUNLQJDUHD

209

“Besloten prijsvraag bibliotheek Leeuwarden,” Bouw no. 5 (1960): 37.

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In 1998 good use was made of the slope to create more storage space. The semibasement was excavated to the west, into the rampart. See Figures 85 and 86. In exchange for this land, the freestanding storage and plant building on the east side, between the National Archives and the library had to be demolished. This created space for the connection between the city centre and the Prinsentuin. However, this was never actually created. In 2004 an air bridge was built between the library and the archives, and in 2005 a fence was installed underneath it. See Figure 247. The area between them was closed off due to problems with homeless people and the staff car park. Tauber considered the fence to be particularly ugly. It will probably be moved back in 2009 and painted dark blue.210 Starting in 1988 the Boterhoek became the cultural centre of Leeuwarden with the library, National Archives, Fryske Academie, Fryske Kultuerried and the Dutch Open University.211 In 2007 the Leeuwarden Historical Centre was built on the other side of the National Archives. Since 2006 the Oldehoofsterkerkhof has again been used as a square and forms part of the area. An ice skating rink is built here in December and January. See Figure 68. However, in 1966 the solution seemed a long way away: Much has changed in this area. The many old houses behind the circular wall of the cemetery have been demolished and they have been replaced by this impressive new building designed by P.H. Tauber. The wall around the garden has been demolished and they are now creating a sloping bank there. A street is being created in front of the new building and they are working hard on placing this book palace into a harmonic environment. So, there is still much to be changed at the Boterhoek.’ 212

210

Interview with Sijbe Sevenster on 3 December 2008 and phone call with Frans Tauber on 4 December 2008. 211 “Friesland heeft weer plaats voor zijn boekenschat,” Friesland no. 5 (1966): 12-14. 212 “De Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland in zijn nieuwe paleis,” Franeker Nieuwsblad, 7 October 1966.

Figure 68: The Provincial Library seen from the Oldehoofsterkerkhof, with a skating rink being erected, and the National Archives to the right. Photograph by the author, 2008.

Figures 69 and 70: Leeuwarden in 1200 and 1400. From Toekomstbeeld.

Structuurplan van de gemeente Leeuwarden, 1971. A B C D  re search method ■ 89

Figures 71 and 72: Town plans of Leeuwarden, from 1825 and 1980. From Smook, 1984.

Figures 73 and 74: Details of the 1825 and 1980 plans of Leeuwarden. From Smook, 1984. 9 0 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 75 and 76: The buildings which used to be on the site of the Provincial Library, and the library during the building works in 1999.

From Leeuwarden in contrast, 1999. A B C D  re search method ■ 91

Figures 77 and 78: Structure plan for Leeuwarden, 1971, showing the main access roads, greenery and one of the pedestrian routes to the Noorder Plantage. From Toekomstbeeld 1971 (left) and from Brouwer, 1995 (right).

Figure 79: Aerial photograph of Leeuwarden and the surrounding area, with the Noorder Plantage marked. From Brouwer, 1995. 92 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 80: Around 1960 the Oldehoofsterkerkhof was used to transfer parcels from vans to couriers or local delivery. The difference in elevation between the square and the Boterhoek is clearly visible. From Viruly, 1960. A B C D  re search method ■ 93

Figure 81: Aerial photograph of the Oldehoofsterkerkhof being used as a car park, around 1982. From Viruly, 1972.

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Figure 82: Site plan, 1967. From Tauber, 2000.

Figure 83: Final situation as designed by architect Fons Verheijen of VVKH in Leiden, with the entrance and exit to the car park in the centre of Boterhoek. From Tauber, 2000

Figure 84: Tauber’s 2002 plan for a square at two levels. From Tauber, 2002.

A B C D  re search method ■ 95

Figures 85 and 86: Part of the back of the library disappears into the rampart.

Side elevation with the semi-basement extension built in 1999, now completely overgrown. Photographs by the author, 2008.

96 ■ A B C D  re search method

A B C D  re search method ■ 97

4.3

Architect

Pieter Hendricus Tauber was born in April 1927, in the area within the West Friesland ring dyke, where it meets the Alkmaar town centre along the Frieseweg (road). At that time this was part of the municipality of Oudorp.213 The factors which guided his development as an architect included: growing up in a family involved in building construction, his school in the village of Oudorp, which was almost as peaceful as it had been in the nineteenth century, and the rural countryside around Alkmaar. These environs instilled a yearning for clarity and simplicity in him. His mother was good at drawing and sewing and encouraged him to draw, tinker and assemble cardboard models. He started by drawing hollow trees with gnomes living in them, and then gradually went on to drawing houses. His father was a building site supervisor and, at home, also made construction drawings for someone planning to build his own home. Hence he taught his son the basics of the profession and became his most important source of inspiration. In January 2002, Tauber compiled a book of 80 impressive drawings his father made while at technical school when he trained as journeyman bricklayer (1914 to 1917) and then as a master bricklayer.214 When he was nine years old, Piet was given his own small drafting board and used the straightedge and set square to draw houses at scale 1:100. He spent a lot of time drawing and later also took up painting. His time at secondary school (HBS) coincided with the Second World War and he had a lot of time to himself. The family had many books and magazines about architecture and he also borrowed many books from the public library. He witnessed the ODWWHUGD\VRIWKHLQÀXHQFHRIWKHAmsterdam School, the drive of 213

214

I obtained most of this information from meetings with Tauber. Interview with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002. I also included his comments of 14 June and 15 August 2002. M. ten Berge and H. de Raad, “Een interview met de Alkmaarse architect Piet Tauber,” Oud Alkmaar no. 2 (2002): 1-20.

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the De 8 and OpbouwDUFKLWHFWVDQGWKHWUDGLWLRQDOLQÀXHQFHVLQ the Wieringermeer area. In 1943 he still draw a romantic cottage. But when the schools were closed September 1944 he designed a secondary school along functionalist lines. In his secondary school essays he always wrote about architecture and explained that at ¿UVWKHDGPLUHGWKHKRQHVW\RIWKHPDQVLRQVLQWKH+HW*RRLDUHD because the oak beams were visible. After reading a 1936 issue of Bouwkundig Weekblad (Architecture Weekly) devoted to Gerrit Rietveld until it fell apart, he appreciated the honesty of Rietveld’s work with its spatial compositions of white planes. In this way he discovered that -isms develop when one aspect of the overall vocabulary of architectural elements is isolated and emphasised. As a result of this development he wanted to familiarise himself ZLWKWKHZKROH¿HOGDQGXVHit in his work. During his studies at Delft and throughout his career he always took an impressionistic approach, reacting spontaneously to a brief.

At Delft University of Technology When he started his course at the Architecture Department of the Delft Technical University in 1946, Tauber was keen to start GHVLJQLQJIRUUHDO+RZHYHUKH¿UVWKDGWZR\HDUVRIVWXG\LQJ architectural forms and the basics of construction engineering. This approach was based on centuries of practical training. First you had to learn about construction, and then do it. Later, when he became a lecturer and professor he regretted it when this V\VWHPZDVDEDQGRQHG%XWDVD¿UVW\HDUstudent he was unhappy about it and together with some other students he wrote a letter to architect Jacobus Oud (1890 - 1963) who regularly wrote in De Groene Amsterdammer in favour of modern architecture. He was against the traditionalism advocated by Marinus Grandpré Molière (1883 - 1927) who, was the only professor of architecture in Delft in the immediate post-war

period. As a follow-up Tauber visited Oud at home in Hillegersberg and also visited Grandpré Molière, who told Tauber that the rest of his studies would not be affected by his course of action. However, Henk Brouwer, as the representative of a group of older students who wanted to introduce a more modern approach slowly, did criticise him severely. Even so, soon after that they invited Tauber to join their study circle, ‘Semper Spatium’. A few years later, when Tauber was secretary of this circle, he and the chairman at that time, Wim Snieder, visited Kees van der Leeuw (1890 - 1973) the then president curator of Delft Technical College, to promote the appointment of more modern professors to the department of architecture. This PHHWLQJZDVKHOGLQDÀDWRQWKHVijzelstraat in Amsterdam, with interiors by Bart van der Leck and architect Ben Merkelbach (1901 - 1961) also attended. Some time after that, Cornelis van Eesteren (1897 - 1988) became mentor of the Semper Spatium study circle.215  7DXEHUJUHDWO\EHQH¿WHGIURPWKHGLYHUVLW\LQWKHarchitecture department and made designs for Nicolaas Lansdorp (late Amsterdamse School), Gerard Holt (1912) (romantic modern) and Johannes Berghoef (1903 - 1994), Granpré Molière and Johannes Van den Broek (1898 - 1978). When studying under Berghoef he appreciated the houses and architecture which became more beautiful over time, under Granpré Molière the theoretical issues, and under Van den Broek dealing with large, modern design briefs. Around the time of the fourth year of his course, he worked for three months in Berghoef’s practice and nine months at Van den Broek’s practice and he also got married in this period. In 1952 Van den Broek asked him if he wanted to represent Delft at a CIAM summer school in Venice. Tauber explained that he would like to go but could not afford it, as he had also registered for a Stylos (society of students in Architecture at the Delft University) trip to Scandinavia. Van den Broek then gave Tauber 200 guilders so he could go on the trip. 7RZDUGVWKHHQGRIWKH¿YHDQGDKDOIZHHNV9DQGHQ%URHN went to Venice himself to talk about developments in the Netherlands. The architectural history essay he wrote about seventeenth century architect Philips Vingboons (1607 - 1678) 215

S.J. Mulder and M. Kloos, Jonge Architecten in de Wederopbouw 1940 1960 (Bussum: Thoth, 1993), 17.

helped Tauber with his development as an architect. It helped him appreciate good plans and windows clearly delineated in the wall planes. We can recognise Tauber’s discovery of the ‘Raumplan’ developed by Adolf Loos (1870 - 1930) and Le Corbusier’s (1887 - 1965) ‘Plan Libre’ in his closed plan for the Provincial Library and the open plan for a crematorium in Schagen.

His own office After completing his studies and period of military service, Tauber set up his practice in 1955 in Alkmaar, in a house of his own design with the RI¿FHRQWKHVHFRQGÀRRU)URPWKHVWDUW his wife, who had trained as a stenography and typewriting teacher, did the bookkeeping for him. He actually completed his ¿UVWDVVLJQPHQWDUHVLGHQFHLQDen Dolder in 1950, before graduated. His father worried that this might too much time in addition to the architecture course, so he made the drawings for the window frames. When Tauber went to Alkmaar for Christmas in 1949, his father showed him the preliminary drafts of the window frame drawings. However, over Christmas, Tauber Sr suffered and asthma attack and died, aged 53. He did not live to see his son’s success and to work with him. Shortly after his graduation, Tauber designed 500 houses in the Kuyperwijk district of Delft. While doing his military service he managed to make arrangements so he could keep working. One of the ways he tried to get work was by participating in competitions. There was a regular group of young architects such as Tauber and Greiner who often did well in these competitions. Wining the competition for the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden in 1959 provided the foundations for his architectural practice. 6KRUWO\DIWHUWKH¿UVWURXQGRIWKHFRPSHWLWLRQVegter, then Chief Government Architect, commissioned a court building and post RI¿FHLQAlkmaar. In the summer of 1960, Tauber won a closed competition for the chancery of the Dutch embassy in Washington. In 1961 both the family and the practice moved to the Beatrixlaan in Alkmaar. Again, Tauber wanted to built a FRPELQHGUHVLGHQFHDQGRI¿FHVIRUWKHDUFKLWHFWXUDOSUDFWLFHEXW in the end he decided to build two separate houses, one of which ZDVXVHGIRURI¿FHVZKLOHWKHIDPLO\OLYHGLQWKHRWKHURQHDQG still do today. A B C D  re search method ■ 99

In 1990, the practice had seven architects, including his son Frans, who worked independently on their projects. According to Tauber this was both the strength and the weakness of the practice. The strength was that everyone enjoyed their work, which resulted in high quality designs for the clients. However, the weakness of the practice was that it did not present a uniform image to colleagues and the architectural press. 216 Tauber worked on more than 375 commissions and 30 competitions. His work was inspired by architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright (1876 - 1959) and Edwin Luytens (1869 - 1944). ,QWKHVDQGVKHZDVDOVRLQÀXHQFHGE\6FDQGLQDYLDQ architects such as Arne Jacobsen (1902 - 1971) and Alvar Aalto (1898 - 1976). Tauber stuck closely to the schedules of requirements of the competitions as ‘you didn’t want to lose a project because of that’. He carefully compared the schedule of requirements with his design.  ,Q7DXEHURI¿FLDOO\ZLWKGUHZIURPKLVDUFKLWHFWXUDO practice which he managed jointly with his son, an interior architect. However, Piet Tauber continued to work on some projects which were particularly important to him, such as connecting the Friesland Provincial Library to the adjacent National Archives in Leeuwarden which he had also designed. A unique feature of the Provincial Library is that Tauber was also involved in later interventions. In 1990, in an artcile about the practice, Ids Haagsma wrote that for him there were three elements in Tauber’s work which stood out: the craftsmanship, the straightforward and clear ground plans and the intriguing location of the windows in the exterior walls. He thought that the dynamic elements in particular contributed to the unique nature of the buildings ‘They are largely responsible for the independence, the autonomy of the building.’ 217 In the same booklet, Tauber himself wrote ‘After all, I am a construction engineer, which is why I usually use rectangular shapes. Sometimes I think I’m more of an engineer with a feeling for architecture, than an architect.’ 218

216 217 218

De Haan, Tauber Architecten. Bouwen naar opdracht, 11. Ibid., 18. Ibid., 10.

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Later, Tauber rarely used a neutral main volume surrounded by exterior walls with an abstract design, as he used for the library. The language of truncated volumes, such as the book tower of the Provincial Library, and the use of copper and brickwork became more recognisable and contemporary elements of his architecture.

4.4

Typology

This chapter on the typology related to the Friesland Provincial Library in Leeuwarden is based on a functional an historical typology of library buildings in general, and a functional and spatial typology of the library building as a rectangular box with a URRÀLJKWLQSDUWLFXODU „ Examples from history which were particularly relevant to the development of this type of building. „ Examples of buildings with elements which recur in the design of the Provincial Library. „ The library at Luzern which the client noticed in particular GXULQJ¿HOGWULSV „ For comparison: the Friesland Provincial Library itself. „ A range of international examples of libraries with corresponding spatial characteristics built in the same period. „ Some examples of libraries built in the Netherlands between 1940 and 1970. „ A development of the building type, based on the spatial characteristics of the building of the Provincial Library (i.e. a rectangular box with a URRÀLJKW EDVHGRQWKHVHH[DPSOHV

or the recesses along the walls, this arrangement is known as the wall system or ‘Saal-System’ (room system).220 The latter system could be combined with galleries along the bookcases. Pictures of the library of the British Museum in London (1854 - 1856) show a combination of both systems. See Figures 88 and 89. When the number of books grew, a distinction had to be made between books on open shelves and those in closed stacks.  7KH¿UVWSODQZKLFKVKRZVDFOHDUGLYLVLRQLQWKUHH function dates from 1816 and was designed by Leopold della Santa. This resulted in a division into: a reading room; a catalogue/lending area, and book stack for storage.221 See Figure 87. The stacks with the bookcases gradually developed and the cast iron (later steel) ERRNFDVHVZHUHHYHQ¿WWHGZLWKmezzanine ÀRRUV7KLVPDGHLWSRVVLEOHWRVWDFNWKHERRNVFRPSDFWO\LQKLJK URRPV7KHÀRRUVZHUHDFFHVVHGE\stairs integrated in the cabinets. These systems were also selected for the libraries designed around 1960. In 1977, when designing the university library in Groningen, he wrote: As a matter of principle, none of the sketches for the stacks shows a completely different structure, such as load-bearing cabinets in their own shell. This approach was actually used by the old storage buildings of 1898 and 1919 which had to be demolished. In the purely functionalist period, it was an expression of the stacks section. In Germany we find examples of this, using steel Pohlschröder bookcases. These were characteristic for the 1950s and 60s. This certainly does not help the flexibility of the building as a whole.222

In terms of the historical development of library buildings, there DUHVHYHUDOJHQHUDODQGVSHFL¿FDVSHFWVUHOHYDQWWRWKHFriesland Provincial Library.219 Firstly, the ways in which the books are stored and delivered to readers have changed over time. Initially, the books were presented on lecterns. Later, bookcases were installed over the lecterns. These lecterns were arranged around the room, this arrangement is known as the stall system. Later there was a preference for placing the books in the bookcases in 219

For a survey of typologies, see: A. Kortüm and E. Schmidt, “Bibliotheken,” in: J. Durm, Handbuch der Architektur. Vierter Teil. 6. Halbband: Bebäude für Erziehung, Wissenschaft und Kunst. 4. Heft: Gebäude für Sammlungen und Ausstellungen (Darmstadt: Diehl, 1893), 41-173; Pevsner, A History of Building Types, 91-110 (Libraries); R. Stromeyer, Europäische Bibliotheksbauten seit 1930 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1962).

220

Pevsner, A History of Building Types, 96. M. Brawne, Bibliotheken. Libraries (Teufen: Niggli, 1970), 18. 222 W.R.H. Koops and Ch.J.J. Klaver, Het nieuwe gebouw van de Universiteitsbibliotheek te Groningen (Groningen: Groningen University, 1987), 41-42. 221

A B C D  re search method ■ 101

This system was used in the Provincial Library in 1966, but removed in 1999. After that, storage was mostly in archival cabinets in closed, environmentally-controlled rooms. The cabinets are on rails and slide so only limited space for access aisles is needed. Later, apart from the storage, which was made as compact as possible, the control of the conditions under which the books are stored became more important. In fact, the legislation introduced for DUFKLYHVZKLFKGH¿QHGVWULFWstorage conditions, was eventually also applied to special library collections. However, after the initial increased separation between the stacks and lending desk, there was also an increasing demand for open shelves. In recently built libraries this is sometimes referred to as the supermarket model. There was a trend towards neutral layouts which could be divided in many different ways. This type was particularly popular in the United States. See Figure 90. There was a notable reduction in the degree of monumentality, the expressiveness of the rooms. The central reading rooms with their high ceilings became more intimate. In 1990, Tauber wrote: What I notice in 19th century libraries is the emphasis put on the temple of science. The two libraries in Paris, Geneviéve and the Bibliothéque Nationale, and also the Reading Room of the British Museum, have large, monumental rooms with walls covered in several tiers of bookcases. In the middle of that large room you have these tiny people at the reading tables. Intimacy is limited to the space between the lamp shade and the desk. It is interesting to note that the renowned Swedish architect Gunnar Asplund still used this approach between 1918 and 1927 when he built the public library in Stockholm. Less than ten years later he was at the forefront of the move in Swedish architecture to functionalism. This history was also relevant, albeit in the background, to my designs for the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden, in 1958 to 1959. There, the stairs to the upper floor are located in the double-height catalogue room. It was only during the construction, between 1964 102 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 87: Plan of a library designed by Della Santa in 1816 with the three

separate functions. Boekenopslag = stacks, leeszaal = reading room, catalogi = catalogues. Adapted by the author, from Durm, 1893.

and 1966, that the design was changed from a doubleheight reading room with book gallery to reading rooms on the upper floor around the double-height space. This approach is developed further in the sketch designs for the Groningen University Library. Gradually the stairs and double-height space move from the centre, from the catalogue room, towards the edge.223 Tauber illustrated this with some sketches, see Figure 91.

223

P.H. Tauber, “Het ontwerp van de Universiteitsbibliotheek,” in: Koops, Het nieuwe gebouw van de Universiteitsbibliotheek te Groningen, 41-42. Also: P.H. Tauber, “De bibliotheek als gebouw,” in: L.J. Engels et al., Bibliotheek, wetenschap en cultuur (Groningen: Library of the University, 1990), 172-183.

Figures 88 and 89: The reading room in the British Museum. From Brawne, 2004.

A B C D  re search method ■ 103

Figure 90: The library as a supermarket, based on an American example. From Barbieri, 1997.

Figure 91: Spatial development of libraries according to Tauber. A = Medieval monastery library in Hereford 16th century; B = Lorenzo library in Florence; C = Baroque library 17th - 18th century; D = St. Geneviève, Paris 19th century; E = Functionalism, mid-20th century; F = Development 1970 - 1990. From Engels, 1990. 10 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 92 - 95: Asplund’s library in Stockholm. From Caldenby, 1990. A B C D  re search method ■ 105

Figures 96 - 98: Library in Gent by H. van der Velde. From Thompson, 1963.

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Earlier, Tauber mentioned a building which provided some of the inspiration for the Friesland Provincial Library: the library in Stockholm (1918 - 1927) by architect Asplund (1885 - 1940). Visitors enter the building by stairs and then reach a central hall. This is where the catalogues are found, as well as a limited number of tables. The books are arranged around them. The reading rooms are reached from the central hall. Daylight enters the central hall through tall windows.224 The central hall with a corridor around it, daylight, catalogues and a few tables are elements we also recognise in the design of the Friesland Provincial Library. See Figures 92 to 95. The storage of the books in a separately designed building volume which lends expression to the interior became more common after the introduction of multi-tier shelving in the 1950s. An earlier example, the library in Gent (1935 - 1940) designed by Henry van der Velde (1863 - 1957) also had a book tower with a square plan, an element of Tauber’s design for the library in Leeuwarden.225 See Figures 96 to 98. Alvar Aalto’s designs were a major source of inspiration to Dutch architecture after the Second World War and also LQÀXHQFHG7DXEHUPHQWLRQHGEHIRUHAalto worked on the library in Viipuri (Viborg) from 1927 to 1935.226 Aalto’s later library designs often feature fan-shaped rooms (Wolfsburg 1962, Seinäjoki 1963, Rovaniemi 1965 - 1968, Otaniemi 1965 - 1969, Kokkola 1969 and Mount Angel, Oregon, U.S.A. 1967 - 1970).227 However, when designing the plan for the library in Viipuri he combined two rectangles. The largest volume again contains a large hall with stairs leading to the upper level. The roof has ODUJHURRÀLJKWVZKLFKDOORZdaylight to reach deep into the building. The entrance is placed asymmetrically in the building. Visitors go up the stairs, turn 90 degrees and then enter the main hall. The way of entering the library, the central hall with 224

C. Caldenby and O. Hultin, Asplund (Stockholm: Stockholm Arkitektur Förlag & Grinko Press, 1990) 92-102. 225 A. Thompson, Library Buildings of Britain and Europe (London: Butterworths, 1963). 226 M. Spens, Viipuri Library 1927-1935 Alvar Aalto (London: Academic Editions, 1994). 227 K. Fleig, Alvar Aalto (Barcelona: Editorial Gustavo Gill, 1981), 115-133 and: Brawne, Bibliotheken. Libraries, 22-29.

VWDLUVURXQGGRPHGURRÀLJKWVDQGWKH¿QLVKZLWKZKLWHplaster and bare wood are also recognisable in the design for the Provincial Library. See Figures 99 to 102. In addition to Aalto’s library in Viipuri, several other Scandinavian libraries were featured in the press. Two of these, in Solna and Östersund, are worth mentioning because their basic rectangular plan, central hall, straightforward elevation designs and use of materials are similar to Tauber’s design.228 See Figures 103 to 106 and 107 to 110. After visiting the Zentralbibliotheek in Luzern the client suggested it as an example for the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden.229 This building also had a rectangular plan. It is accessed through stairs and a small balcony. After crossing a hall with cloakroom, visitors reach the central hall with the catalogues, lending desk and some tables. A number of rooms are arranged around a courtyard garden. The stacks are located in an elongated volume which is the tallest and most visible part of the building. Stone is used as the exterior wall cladding, for the walls in the entrance KDOODQGDVÀRRULQJLQpublic areas. See Figures 111 to 113. Here are some drawings and photographs of the Friesland Provincial Library to support the typological comparisons. I will discuss the design and its construction in the following chapters. In terms of the typology, the following elements stand out: the rectangular plan; the book tower as the expression of the volume; the neutral design of the elevations; the central hall with URRÀLJKWVDQGDGRXEOHKHLJKWspace; the EDOFRQ\RQWKH¿VW ÀRRUWKHDV\PPHWULFDUUDQJHPHQWRIWKHentrance and the central hall which is approached by going around the corner. See Figures 114 to 118.

228

S. Frölén, “Stadsbibliotek I Solna,” Architektur, The Swedish Architectural Rieview no. 2 (1966): 58-62. B. Cederlöf, “Bibliothek I Östersund,” Architektur, The Swedish Architectural Rieview no 8 (1961): 165-167 229 Huizenga, Vijfentwintig jaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek. Zentralbibliotheek Luzern, see: O. Dreyer, “La Bibliothèque Centrale de Lucerne (Suisse),” La Technique Des Travaux, no. 1/2 (1954): pp. 25-32; “Bibliothek te Luzern,” Bouw no. 41 (1952): 733 and: Thompson, Library Buildings of Britain and Europe, 197. A B C D  re search method ■ 107

Figures 99 to 102: Viipuri library by Alvar $DOWR7KHSODQRIWKH¿UVWÀRRUFOHDUO\VKRZVWKHcentral hall with stairs.

From Spens, 1994 and Stromeyer, 1962. 108 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 103 to 106: The library in 6ROQDDQGSODQRIWKH¿UVWÀRRU)URP)U|OpQ A B C D  re search method ■ 109

Figures 107 to 110: The library in gVWHUVXQGDQGSODQRIWKH¿UVWÀRRU)URP&HGHUO|I 110 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 111 to 113: Luzern library and plans of the ground ÀRRUDQG¿UVWÀRRU)URP7KRPSVRQDQG'UH\HU A B C D  re search method ■ 111

Figures 114 to 118: Provincial Library in Leeuwarden shortly after its completion. Tauber’s archive (photographs) and from Tauber, 2000. 112 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 119 to 122: The library in Marburg. From Wild, 1972. A B C D  re search method ■ 113

Figures 123 to 126: The library in Braunschweig. From Wild, 1972. 114 ■ A B C D  re search method

Many of the elements employed in the Friesland Provincial Library can also be recognised in libraries in other countries, especially Germany. German examples: the university libraries of Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, Münster, Mainz, Kiel, Hannover and, especially, the library of Marburg University, designed in 1967 by G. Barth, with a tall book tower at the centre of an open, rectangular plan.230 See Figures 119 to 122. The library of Braunschweig University of Technology (1968) by Wilhelm. Kraemer also has a rectangular plan incorporating a central hall with stairs leading to a balcony. The reading rooms open onto the double-height space. The service areas are arranged along an exterior wall near the double-height space and the central hall. This structure is also apparent in the plan of the Friesland Provincial Library after the renovation of 1999.231 See Figures 123 to 126. The National and University Library in Jerusalem (1961) by Avraham Alexandroni also has some remarkable similarities with the Friesland Provincial Library.232 The simple arrangement of volumes with a single structure on the roof and the stone cladding underline the neutrality of the building. The rectangular plan features two courtyards and the central hall with single VWDLUZD\WRWKH¿UVWÀRRUbalcony. See Figures 127 to 130. Two smaller libraries are excellent examples from Scandinavia: the library in Rødovre in Denmark (1967) by Arne Jacobsen and the library of Växjö in Sweden (1963 - 1966) by Erik Uluots. The former building has a main hall at the central of the rectangular SODQ7KHRWKHUURRPVDUHGH¿QHGE\¿YHVPDOOHUFRXUW\DUGV233 See Figures 131 to 135.

The library at Växjö has an apparently straightforward square plan with rooms around a central double-height space. This symmetry is also apparent in the exterior. The interior is less rigidly arranged.234 See Figures 136 to 139. The Phillips Exeter library (1965 - 1971) by Louis Kahn (1901 1974) in New Hampshire is another example of a symmetrical square plan.235 The central hall as a distribution area has regained the monumentality realised in 1927 by Asplund in Stockholm. However, the stacks and reading rooms and the recesses in the elevations have the closed character mentioned by Tauber in 1990. See Figures 140 to 144. Remarkably, in the this period there are hardly any library designs in the Netherlands similar to the type of library which Tauber created in Leeuwarden. Only the library in Assen, by van Nijenhuis and Ebbinge, built in 1968, has a similar simplicity in terms of its plan and design of the elevations.236 See Figures 145 to 147. The library of Nijmegen University, built in 1969 by Kraaijvanger, Van Putten, Kuit, Knol and Maas, has a concept comparable to the Friesland Provincial Library.237 See Figures 148 to 152. However, the clearest similarities between the Friesland Provincial Library and other libraries are found when we look at libraries in other countries. Few libraries were built and discussed in the literature between 1940 and 1970.238

234

E. Uluots, “Bibliotheek te Växjö, Zweden,” Bouw no. 16 (1968): 595-599. H. Ronner, and S. Jhaveri, Louis I. Kahn Complete Work 1935-1974. (Basel: Birkhaüser, 1987), 292-301 and: U. Barbieri and L. van Duin, Plannenmap bibliotheken (Delft: Publicatiebureau Bouwkunde, 1997), 56-61. 236 Nijenhuis en Ebbinge, “Openbare bibliotheek en leeszaal in Assen,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 8 (1968): 136-137. 237 “Bibliotheekgebouw Katholieke Universiteit te Nijmegen,” Bouw no. 36 (1969): 1366-1373. 238 Apart from the libraries mentioned above, Bouw magazine no. 8 (1968) also covered a circular library in Utrecht, while Bouwkundig Weekblad magazine no. 8 (1968) featured a library in Wassenaar. The library in Enschede, designed by C. Nicolai in 1955 was discussed in detail in Mevissen, W., Bücherei. Public Library Building (Essen: Heyer, 1958), 202-205. 235

230

F. Wild, Design & Planning. Libraries for Schools and Universities (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1972), 24-25. 231 Wild, Design & Planning. Libraries for Schools and Universities, 220-223. 232 “Nationale en Universiteitsbibliotheek te Jeruzalem,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 26 (1961): 524-526. 233 “Einer der letzten Bauten von Arne Jacobsen †. Hauptbiblothek in Rødovre,” Bauen und Wohnen no. 5 (1971), 223-228.

A B C D  re search method ■ 115

Figures 127 to 130: University library in Jerusalem. From ‘Nationale en Universiteitsbibliotheek te Jeruzalem’, 1961. 116 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 131 to 135: Rødovre library. From ‘Einer der letzten Bauten von Arne Jacobsen †. Hauptbiblothek in Rødovre’, 1971. A B C D  re search method ■ 117

Figures 136 to 139: The library in Växjö with an open plan ground ÀRRUDQGFORVHGSODQZLWKWKHinterior courtyard on the upper ÀRRU

From Uluots, 1968. 118 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 140 to 144: The Phillips Exeter library by L. I. Kahn in New Hampshire.

From Büttiker, 1993; Brownlee, 1992; Barbieri, 1997 and photographs by the author, 1991. A B C D  re search method ■ 119

Figures 145 to 147: The library in Assen. From Nijenhuis, 1968. 120 ■ A B C D  re search method

Fragment of the plan

High-rise section

Figures 148 to 152: Nijmegen University Library. From ‘Bibliotheekgebouw Katholieke Universiteit te Nijmegen’, 1969. A B C D  re search method ■ 121

Figures 153 to 157: The library in Zeewolde. Left: plan of the ground ÀRRU5LJKWSODQRIWKH¿UVWÀRRU3KRWRJUDSKE\WKHDXWKRUDQGdrawings from Barbieri, 1997. 122 ■ A B C D  re search method

Later designs rarely feature the simplicity of these geometric plans. Increasingly, the buildings were designed in sections, UHÀHFWLQJWKHLUVHSDUDWHIXQFWLRQV,QVWHDGZHVHHIDQVKDSHV and irregular shapes such as in the designs by Hans Sharoun (1893 - 1972) for the National Library in Berlin (1964 - 1978), later libraries by Aalto and the University Library in Cambridge (1968) by James Stirling (1926 - 1992).239 The building of the Friesland Provincial Library was extensively refurbished in 1999. Essentially, it was completely redesigned. The rectangular shell was the framework within which the functions were relocated. This assignment is comparable with the library in Zeewolde which was designed by Koen van Velzen (1990). The square plan returns, but is interpreted as a shell within which the functions were given shape and represented by different materials. The square framework was replaced by an irregular plan within which the functions obtained their own structured shapes.240 See Figures 153 to 157. This discussion of typology is concluded with the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (1989 - 1995) designed by Dominique Perrault  7KLVEXLOGLQJDOVR¿WVLQZLWKWKHWKHPHRIEXLOGLQJVEDVHG on a rectangular plan. However, in this case it provides a framework rather than a rigidly imposed shape. Perrault accommodated the different parts of the building below the raised ground level, with the exception of four towers at the corners. The freedom which Van Velsen incorporated in the plan of the Zeewolde library is implemented in the cross-section here.241 The only option to expand the Friesland Provincial Library substantially, without affecting the original volume, was to extend the basement, see Figure 86. See Figures 158 to 162.

239 240 241

Brawne, Bibliotheken. Libraries, 24-29, 100-103 and 114-119. Barbieri and Van Duin, Plannenmap bibliotheken, 86-91. Barbieri and Van Duin, Plannenmap bibliotheken, 106-109. A B C D  re search method ■ 123

Figures 158 to 162: The Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris by D. Perrault. Photographs by the author, 2001. Drawings from Barbieri, 1997 and Sens, 2002. 124 ■ A B C D  re search method

4.5

Design process

$OWKRXJK7DXEHU¶VGHVLJQVDUHGH¿QLWHO\UHFRJQLVDEOHWKHUHDUH many differences between them. He commented ‘My familiarity ZLWKDUDQJHRIDUFKLWHFWXUDOLQVWUXPHQWVZKLFKDUHLGHQWL¿DEOH in architectural styles, provided me with the means of expression to make each building unique where possible, in relation to the brief and the site.’ 242 Later he rarely used the simple structure of a rectangular box with stone elevations, with holes in a certain pattern, as used for the library in Leeuwarden. However, the elevations of the building had similarities with other designs of the period. See Figures 163 and 164. In 1958, Tauber participated in his twelfth competition: the Friesland Provincial Library. As we saw in the preceding section. He was inspired by several architects of his time, especially those from Scandinavia. The MXU\UHSRUWRQ7DXEHU¶VGHVLJQIRUWKH¿UVW competition stated: Motto 271258. The placement on the site is good and the arrangement of the mass of the building in relation to the surroundings is more than acceptable. In functional terms, the building is good with respect to the library services. The intended openness of the library operations around the closed stacks will probably lead to objections. The stacks have a good location and form. The entrance, central hall and reception area cannot be seen from the lending desk. The entrance to the Buma Library is not attractive but could probably be improved. The construction and structure are clear and simple. The external appearance is a clear and fair reflection of the overall structure of the building, with a clear separation between the lower section, upper section and stacks. 243

242 243

De Haan and Haagsma, Tauber Architecten. Bouwen naar opdracht, 18 “Prijsvraag voor bibliotheekgebouw te Leeuwarden,” Forum no. 2 (1959): 34-44.

See Figures 165 and 166. The design had the motto: 271258. Tauber explained this as follows ‘27: the year I was born; 12: the 12th competition I entered; 58: 1958 (the year of the competition).’ 244 In this design, Tauber placed the elongated building along Boterhoek. The plans for the two levels showed a linear approach and the entrance was reached via a corner, along steps and balconies. The public areas and rooms were placed in the lower ÀRRUDWWKH front of the building. In the centre behind that the design envisaged a strip to accommodate the VHUYLFHVZKLOHRI¿FHVDQG other functions were located at the back. The lending and reading rooms were envisaged on the upper level, at the front, with service rooms at the back. The elongated volume was interrupted by the section for the stacks, which extended to three levels, in contrast to the rest of the building. The stacks were designed as a vertical structure, like the library in Bonn. The horizontal VWUXFWXUHLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHHOHYDWLRQV7KHORZHU level has a recessed plinth of stone and brick. The glass upper section extended slightly over this. The projecting stone stacks block was clearly recognisable at the back. Tauber completely revised his design for the second competition. This time the motto was ‘Peristylium : a range of columns around a courtyard or the area itself.’ This provided the key theme of the building. The jury’s comments on the second design were:

244

Interviews with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002 and 6 March 2002. A B C D  re search method ■ 125

The urban planning aspects are good, and so is the main design structure. The building has a very efficient structure, the work areas are cleverly arranged around the lending desk. The reception area is also well laid out and thoughtfully connected to the central hall which can be monitored from the lending desk. The location of the stacks relative to the adjoining areas is particularly good. The Buma section is also laid out effectively. The difference in level between the two parts of the open shelves could be a disadvantage although it does not conflict with the schedule of requirements. The structure of the stacks is not clear. The spatial aspects of the interior are harmonic and refined. The exterior is unpretentious. The exterior walls form a shall which does not emphasise the load-bearing structure. These exterior walls will require careful detailing. The overall nature of the building is inviting. This design stands out from the others because of its harmonic concept which combines a good urban planning approach, high efficiency and sophisticated design.245 Tauber’s starting point for the design for the second competition was to arrange the required functions on one level where possible, up high enough to give a view across the rampart. &RPSDUHGWRWKH¿UVWGHVLJQWKHEXLOGLQJZDVODUJHUEXWWKH main volume had become more compact. The main shape was now a rectangular box from which a smaller rectangular volume rose up like a tower. The horizontal divisions in the exterior walls had gone. The were replaced by a stone-like shell behind which the various rooms were placed. A small subbasement with stacks and service areas was added. The stacks in the tower were still vertically structured while the stacks in the subbasement were horizontally arranged. The architect used the main ÀRRUUHDFKHG by the stairs, for functions used by library users such as the open shelves, various rooms and lending desk. Only a small part of the upper ÀRRUQRZDmezzanine, was used for library visitors. Another part was occupied by the void of the double-height ground ÀRRU7KHVWDFNVWRZHUH[WHQGHGWKURXJKWKHWKUHHÀRRUV 245

“Het winnende ontwerp in een prijsvraag voor een bibliotheekgebouw te Leeuwarden,” Bouwkundig Weekblad no. 2 (1960): 37.

126 ■ A B C D  re search method

as a clearly recognisable volume. It is interesting to note that the VHFRQGGHVLJQLQFOXGHGIDUIHZHURI¿FHVDQGVHUYLFHDUHDVWKDQ WKH¿UVWRQH7KHFHQWUDOatrium was enclosed by glazing on both ÀRRUVDQGURRIOLJKWVDGPLWWHGdaylight far into the building. See Figures 167 to 169, 223 and 224. In 1959 the Provincial Council asked Tauber to develop his design in detail. A construction committee was formed at the request of Douma, the librarian. Douma ‘You have to start by trusting the architect you select and the librarian you have’.246 The initial meetings with 'RXPDUHVXOWHGLQDPRGL¿HG)LQDO Design, in 1960.247 Between January 1960 and spring 1961 this design was detailed further. In the following long wait for government approval, Douma and Tauber had many long discussions. The Final Design drawings show few differences with the initial draft with the abstract shell, and the main entrance was little changed. The book tower was slightly taller and now fully incorporated into the building. The interior and exterior walls of this rectangular volume were clad in stone. The main entrance was moved slightly closer to the centre of the facade. The plans were changed more extensively. A semibasement was added across the full area. This mostly housed horizontal stacks and some service areas. The layout of the main ÀRRUZDVVOLJKWO\FKDQJHG7KHVWDFNVtower was placed centrally in the volume, and the main reading room was relocated. Some of the double-height spaces were closed up to create more VSDFHIRUVHUYLFHDUHDVDQGRI¿FHVRQWKH mezzanine. On the rear of the ground ÀRRUWKHcentral hall was closed off by a wall. The mezzanine now had galleries on two sides of the main double-height space. The corners of the stacks tower were truncated and only the outer surface was clad in copper. Its volume became less recognisable in the interior. See Figures 170 to 175, 223 and 224. As I mentioned earlier, Douma had some concerns about the competition. Later he wrote:

246

Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 20. 247 See the additional set of drawings for the book by Tauber, De provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, handed over at 3 January 2002, incorporated in Figures 231 and 232. “Final Design” is a term used by architects. The stages in a project are: Preliminary Design, Final Design, and Preparing for Construction.

Figures 163 and 164: The Provincial Library (1958 - 1966) by Tauber and De Doelen in Rotterdam (1955 - 1966) by E.H. en H.M. Kraaijvanger. From Tauber, 2000 and Van Toorn, 1992.

First of all, a schedule of requirements should be defined which lists all the rooms and areas required, with a sketch of the operations in the organisation which should include information about the arrangement of the rooms and their dimensions. Secondly, this schedule of requirements should be implemented in a design. You could say that the first task is the business of the librarian, and the second of the architect. And in general that is correct. However, one could claim, as has been done repeatedly in the literature on library buildings, that to get the best results both tasks have to be left to the librarian and architect working together. As a librarian, it is in discussions with the architect that you are likely to discover how you really want it to be. Translating the schedule of requirements into a design is definitely the architect’s job. However, in most cases they will be making one sketch after another, especially when working on a building as complicated as a large public library. However, even if there have been extensive discussions beforehand it is almost impossible to avoid misunderstandings which are revealed in the design. It is therefore important to leave the option to change the design or the schedule of requirement open for as long

as possible, as long as both parties agree. And that is perfectly feasible when cooperating in an open manner. When working on it and discussing it, hopefully, we will develop a design to satisfy both parties.248 (YHQDIWHUWKH¿UVWIRXQGDWLRQSLOHKDGEHHQGULYHQRQ0DUFK 1964, further changes were made at Douma’s request. These changes can be seen in the as-built plan of 1966, discussed HOVHZKHUHLQWKLVSXEOLFDWLRQ7DXEHUDFNQRZOHGJHGWKDWWKH¿QDO changes did detract from the initial clear layout of the building.249 See Figures 176 to 181, 223 and 224. A unique aspect of the Provincial Library is that Tauber was involved in all later changes to the building. The importance of this in the way the building has changed over time is discussed in the next few chapters.

248

Douma, “Een nieuw gebouw voor de Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland en voor de Buma-Bibliotheek te Leeuwarden,” 214. 249 Interviews with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002. A B C D  re search method ■ 127

Figure 165: Design for the competition in 1958, plans. From Tauber, 2000. 128 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 166: Design for the competition in 1958, section and elevations. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 129

Figure 167: Design for the competition in 1959, plans. From Tauber, 2000. 130 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 168: Design for the competition in 1959, plan of the mezzanine and sections. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 131

Figure 169: Design for the competition in 1959, elevations. From Tauber, 2000. 132 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 170 and 171: The ¿QDOGHVLJQLQHOHYDWLRQV)URP7DXEHU A B C D  re search method ■ 133

Figures 172 and 173: The ¿QDOGHVLJQLQSODQVRIWKHbasement and ground ÀRRU)URP7DXEHU 134 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 174 and 175: The ¿QDOGHVLJQLQSODQRIWKHmezzanine and sections. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 135

Figures 176 and 177: Design as built in 1966, plans of the basement and ground ÀRRU)URP7DXEHU 136 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 178 and 179: Design as built in 1966, plans of the mezzanine and sections. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 137

Figures 180 and 181: Design as built in 1966, elevations. From Tauber, 2000. 138 ■ A B C D  re search method

5

Building: what was meant to be

In September 1966 the building of the Friesland Provincial Library was taken into use and it was officially opened on 20 February 1967.250 There was still a need for a link between the Friesland Provincial Library and the National Archives. In 1967 Tauber finished the plans for the new National Archives building next to the Provincial Library. The costs of building the library amounted to 2.6 million guilders (approx. 1.18 million euro) excluding the cost of the building services plant and furnishings (approx. 204,000 euro and 250,000 euro).251 Douma, the librarian, was happy with the building. According to him it fulfilled all expectations. There was enough space for tours of the building and arranging the collections effectively, and in the first year the number of loans increased by 32%. By 1990 the number of loans had doubled, from 30,000 to 60,000.252

250

“De Provinciale Bibliotheek van Friesland in zijn nieuwe paleis,” Franeker Nieuwsblad, October 7, 1966 and see also: “Naast materiële het culturele. Nieuwe Prov. Bibliotheek is vanmiddag geopend,” Leeuwarder Courant, February 20, 1967. 251 “Nieuwe Prov. Bibliotheek is vanmiddag geopend,” Leeuwarder Courant, February 20, 1967 and Tauber, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, 23. 252 Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 20. A B C D  re search method ■ 139

5.1

Space

The building was constructed on a site of 3,000 m2, the built area was 1,890 m2, the floor area was 5,120 m2 and the volume 20,500 m3. The single building mass included a ground floor (1.65 metres above street level) with a semibasement and mezzanine. Two elements had key roles in the rectangular plan: the central lending area marked by columns (the peristylium) and the stacks of the Buma department, in an independent block. These stacks were fitted with a small vertical storage system which could be expanded if required. This part of the building was externally clad with copper and became ‘the expression’ of a tower in terms of both volume and materials.253 See Figure 182. Further stacks were provided in the basement. Here, a horizontally split system of bookcases was used. So far, the building corresponded with the drawings of the Final Design in 1960. While awaiting government approval, and even during the construction, Douma asked the architect to make some major changes to the design. Tauber wrote about this: We only had the detailed discussions, which the librarian, Mr Douma, had always wanted, during this period. Compared with the situation today, that was all incredibly relaxed.254

253

Tauber, “De bibliotheek als gebouw,” in: Engels, Bibliotheek, wetenschap en cultuur, 172-183. 254 Tauber, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, 8. 140 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 182 and 183: The volume structure of the Friesland Provincial Library as seen from the rampart. The exterior walls with recessed windows, as seen from inside the building, give a great feeling of intimacy. Tauber archives.

Figures 184 to 187: The double-height lecture room, the workshops in the VHPLEDVHPHQWZKLFKEHQH¿WIURPdaylight, the central hall with the catalogue FDELQHWVLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRWKHZDOOVDQGWKHUHDGLQJURRPVRQWKH¿UVWÀRRURQWKHbalcony around the double-height area. From Huizenga, 1991 (photograph at the top left) and Tauber archives.

At first sight there are not that many changes to the semibasement and the first floor. However, on closer inspection of the first floor we notice that some of the rooms are no longer double-height as originally envisaged. More area was provided for study rooms for library users. The entire open shelves section was now accommodated on this floor.

Only the central hall still had a double-height area around which the study rooms were arranged on the upper level, with open connections to each other. Additional provisions were made for library users, such as a canteen. The rooflight domes allowed daylight to enter the central hall. However, on the ground floor most of the openness was lost due to the installation of the walls with catalogue cabinets. See Figures 182 to 187. A B C D  re search method ■ 141

5.2

Structure

The load-bearing structure of the Provincial Library is a straightforward combination of columns, beams and floors.255 The dimensions of the building were determined by the functional sizes of the bookcases and aisles in the basement and the division of the exterior walls into open and closed areas. The bookcases resulted in the following pattern: 1 bookcase + 1 aisle = 1.30 metres; 1.30 metres x 4 = 5.20 metres. However, a grid of 5.18 metres was used for the building. The 20 millimetre difference was due to the division of the exterior faces of the walls. The open and closed parts were divided into multiples of 70 mm. Openings: 8 x 70 mm = 560 mm; 12 x 70 mm = 840 mm; 16 x 70 mm = 1.12 m and 20 x 70 mm = 1.40 m. The piers between them are 4 x 70 mm = 280 mm or 6 x 70 mm = 420 mm. Tauber based his design on 70 millimetres, or as he saw it, on 7 centimetres ‘It’s nothing complicated, I just like the number seven’. Hence, the horizontal grid was reduced by 20 mm to obtain 5.18 m (74 x 70 mm). The length of the building was 12 times 51.8 m plus twice the wall thickness (420 mm), resulting in an overall length of 63 metres. The width amounted to 4 times 5.18 m plus twice 3.78 m (54 x 70 mm), resulting in an overall width of 29.12 m. The smaller span of 3.78 m was related to the FRQ¿JXUDWLRQRIWKHVWDFNVLQWKHbook tower. The vertical grid is also based on 70 mm, and the round and square columns measured 420 mm. See Figures 188 to 193. Hence, the bookcases in the stacks determined the structure of the plan, albeit with a small correction by Tauber of 20 mm. Today I would simply have used 5.1 or 5.4 m, as a multiple of 300 mm. The original storage system in the stacks tower was based on a vertical system with FDVWLURQJUDWLQJÀRRUVDQGFROXPQVDQGWKH

255

Tauber, De Provinciale Bibliotheek Friesland. 40 jaar ontwerp- en bouwgeschiedenis, 23.

142 ■ A B C D  re search method

bookcases.256 The University Library in Bonn (1958) with selfsupporting Pohlschröder cabinets was referred to as an example.257 In 1977, when designing the Groningen University library, Tauber discussed the grid based on the system used for the stacks: As a matter of principle, none of the sketches for the stacks shows a completely different structure, such as load-bearing cabinets in their own shell. This approach was actually used by the old storage buildings of 1898 and 1919 which had to be demolished. In the purely functionalist period, it was an expression of the stacks section. In Germany we find examples of this, using steel Pohlschröder bookcases. These were characteristic for the 1950s and 60s. But this certainly does not benefit the flexibility of the building as a whole. He then commented on the way the stacks were built: Was it such a good idea to accommodate the stacks in a tower? Was a light-weight steel structure for the stacks a good choice in terms of climate stability? Were the reading rooms, 4 to 5 m high with equally high glass walls, actually of comfortable dimensions with an adequately stable climate? 258 This last comment referred both to the buildings which inspired him and to his library in Leeuwarden.

256

Tauber, “De bibliotheek als gebouw,” in: Engels, Bibliotheek, wetenschap en cultuur, 180. Compare the floors of the archives of the ring building of the National Insurance Bank by D. Roosenburg in Zijlstra, Bouwen in Nederland 1940-1970, element 4.1: National Insurance Bank, Amsterdam. 257 P. Vago and F. Borneman, “Biblotheque de Bonn, Alemagne,” L’Architecture D’Aujourdhui, no. 100 (1962): 60-64. 258 Koops, Het nieuwe gebouw van de Universiteitsbibliotheek te Groningen, 41-42.

Figures 188 to 190: Plan of the ground ÀRRUGUDZLQJE\7DXEHUGDWHG0DUFKDQGDQDO\WLFDOdrawings of the internal structure of the ground ÀRRU and basement, by the author. A B C D  re search method ■ 143

Figure 191: Cross-section with dimensions. Adapted by the author from drawings by Tauber dated 3 March 1993.

Figure 192: Part of the cross-section of the central hall. Adapted by the author. Tauber DUFKLYHVVSHFL¿FDWLRQGUDZLQJ'HFHPEHU 14 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 193: Wall dimensions. Tauber DUFKLYHVVSHFL¿FDWLRQGUDZLQJ'HFHPEHU

Figures 194 and 195: The apparently random division of the elevation. The window frames on the left appear to be white. From Erkamp, 1981. A B C D  re search method ■ 145

5.3

Materials

The changes during the process made the concept behind the building less apparent. For example, the book tower was originally envisaged as an independent element, inside the double-height space. However, it was enclosed by ÀRRUDQGWKH original large double-height space was divided into two smaller ones. Hence Tauber chose different materials for the tower as it was now more apparent as a volume projecting above the roof. It was no longer necessary to extend the exterior cladding onto the interior walls of the double-height space. The original plan was to use dark stone for both the interior and exterior of the rectangular block. It was later decided to use copper cladding for the exterior and a plaster ¿QLVKIRUWKHinterior. Tauber mentioned this in several publications about the library and was not particularly happy with it.259 The original concept of the peristylium was VLJQL¿FDQWO\GHSDUWHGIURPGXULQJWKHconstruction and not all WKHFRQVHTXHQFHVZHUHXQGHUVWRRGRUFRXOGEHUHFWL¿HG Furthermore, according to Piet Tauber, the contractor was not SDUWLFXODUO\JRRGDQGWKH¿UVWsupervisor was ineffective. Then, as now, these were key factors to obtaining a good result. The as-built design, completed in 1966, used a limited range of materials. The thin stone cladding meant that it was possible to install the window frames close to the exterior face of the walls. The walls had a thickness of 630 mm (9 x 70 mm) and the window frames close to the outer face and the range of vertical dimensions resulted in an unusual daylight entry. The tall, narrow windows, surrounded by deep reveals, let a lot of light in but also created intimacy. The different window sizes resulted in different light intensities on the reveals. This resulted in an attractive variation. The different widths of the windows in the 259

“Provinciale bibliotheek van Friesland te Leeuwarden,” Bouwkundig Weekblad, no. 8 (1968): 141, see also: N. Erkamp, B. Gmelig and F. van Hoeken, Architectuur, vak van ontmoetingen, (Alkmaar: Architectenbureau Tauber, 1981), 14.

146 ■ A B C D  re search method

walls gave the simple volume a playful appearance. This corresponded to the trend at the time and the design still looked modern later.260 When, in 2002, Tauber converted the Alkmaar main post RI¿FHKHKDGGHVLJQHGLQWRDEDQNKHXVHGWKLV feature to give the building a new appearance.261 See Figures 255 and 256. The exterior walls of the Provincial Library were clad with shell limestone and the book tower with copper. The sills, glazing SUR¿OHVDQGURRIHGJHVZHUHDOVRPDGHRIcopper. See Figures 196 to 202. The tall window frames were made of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and painted dark grey-blue. According to Tauber it had always been planned like that. However a magazine article from 1960 claimed: ‘The relatively narrow steel windows SODFHGDOPRVWÀXVKZLWKWKHexterior face, which are painted white, resulted in reveals of approx. 350 mm, which [ …].’ 262 A photograph from 1968 gives a different impression. The dark blue-grey of the window frames reinforces the impression of windows as randomly placed apertures in a plane. See Figures 194 and 195.

260

D. Haskel, “Jazz in Architecture,” Architectural Forum, (September 1960): 110-115. 261 P.H. Tauber, “Van Postkantoor naar ABN AMRO-bank,” BNA Regio Alkmaar, 25 May 1999. 262 “Besloten prijsvraag bibliotheek Leeuwarden,” Bouw no. 5 (1960): 140-143. In the notes by the architect on page 143. In August 2002 Piet Tauber told me that he had probably been initially thinking of white window frames as he used those in all his other buildings. However, the library always had blue-grey window frames.

Figures 196 and 197: Roof edge with copper cladding. Tauber archives, VSHFL¿FDWLRQGUDZLQJ'HFHPEHU Photograph by the author, 2002. A B C D  re search method ■ 147

Figures 198 and 199:

Copper sills. Tauber DUFKLYHVVSHFL¿FDWLRQ drawing, December 1964. Photograph by the author, 2002. 14 8 ■ A B C D  re search method

Vertical cross-section, frame head

Vertical cross-section, sill Figures 200 to 202: Details of the window frames in the stone-clad wall. Parts of the frames are hidden by the cladding. The frame head detail shows the gap for ventilation. Tauber DUFKLYHVVSHFL¿FDWLRQGUDZLQJ December 1964.

Horizontal cross-section, frame jambs

A B C D  re search method ■ 149

Figures 203 and 204:

Ceiling grid and daylight in the central hall. Photographs by the author, 2008. 150 ■ A B C D  re search method

The load-bearing structure of the interior included concrete FROXPQVEHDPVDQGÀRRUV7KHVXUIDFHVRIWKHIUHHVWDQGLQJ round columns had an abrasive-blasted ¿QLVKZKLOHWKH rectangular columns were plastered, as they were incorporated into the walls. The LQWHULRUZDOOVZHUH¿QLVKHGZLWKplaster with a rough WH[WXUH7KHÀRRUVRIWKHentrance, access stairs and central hall were covered with VWRQHDQGWKHRWKHUÀRRUVZLWK cork.  0RVWRIWKHFHLOLQJVZHUH¿WWHGZLWKSDLQWHGacoustic panels (Bruynzeel Antisone). A grid of planks painted in a light colour ZDV¿WWHGEHORZWKHURRÀLJKWVRIWKHcentral hall. This gave the impression of a single, extended surface which allowed the ¿OWHUHGdaylight to enter. Both the hall and the rooms around it gave the impression of being very light. See Figures 203 and 204. On the upper ÀRRUDQXSVWDQGRIYDUQLVKHGhardwood was ¿WWHGDURXQGWKHOLJKWZHOO7KLVLPSURYHGWKHDFRXVWLFVRIWKH central hall and also served as a seat along the perimeter of the double-height space. The bare hardwood, also used in the Scandinavian libraries, was used for the stairs, handrails, cladding and ceilings. See Figures 205 and 206.

Figures 205 and 206: Baluster along the edge of the double-height space

of the central hall with wooden cladding and main entrance with wood ceiling. Upper photograph by the author, 2008 and the lower by Tauber. A B C D  re search method ■ 151

5.4

Services

Initially the use RIXQGHUÀRRUheating was considered for the Friesland Provincial Library. However, in 1966 the building was ¿WWHGZLWKDKRWZDWHUheating system with radiators. See Figure 207. In general the building was passively ventilated with fresh air. Some rooms such as the stacks had mechanical ventilation. At the time, the stacks did not have any plant to condition the IUHVKDLUGUDZQLQ7KHVSHFL¿FDWLRQdrawings included conveyor belts in the stacks but these were not installed. It took little time to take the books from the semibasement to the lending desk. Initially they were taken to the lift by scooter (non motorised). However, the library staff working in the stacks were embarrassed to be seen using the scooters, which they associated with children’s toys, and their use was abandoned.263

263

Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 24. See specification drawing 55 B, 1 December 1964, P.H. Tauber archives.

152 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 207: Inner face of the exterior walls with the recesses which used

to contain radiators behind panelling. Photograph by the author, 2002.

6

Building: what has been

In 1986 the Friesland Provincial Library underwent some minor changes. The next project was the full regeneration of the building which was completed in 1999: the interior was stripped out completely and replaced by a ‘new’ library. Further changes were made when the library was merged with the National Archives. Although this section focuses on the regeneration of 1999, the other changes will also be addressed. In the next chapter, To be or not to be, I will discuss both the interventions in 2009 and the impact of the range of earlier interventions and the options for the future.

6.1

Space

In 1986 wheelchair access was somewhat improved by enlarging a window at the front of the building to a door and installing a small platform lift for wheelchairs.264 The design for the second competition (1959) included a door on the west-side of the building for wheelchair access, but in the ¿QDOGHVLJQWKLVZDV changed to a stairlift along the main stairs. There were also complaints that the foyer and kitchen were too small and that there were not enough toilets. A training room was converted to a canteen and a reference library and quiet study room were created. Om the ground ÀRRUDERRNJDOOHU\ZDVFRQYHUWHGWRD double-height reception hall used as a legal reading room. From 1968, the Provincial Council had used the lecture room for its meetings and it was also used for congresses organised by a teachers’ training college. When new accommodation was built for the Provincial Council and for the training college the lecture room was no longer needed for these purposes. Due to the growing number of senior vocational colleges in Leeuwarden the number of library users continued to rise which meant that the main reading room became noisier. According to a library employee, what was once a temple in the chancery now felt like a supermarket. The wooden upstand of the reading room did not provide enough absorption to suppress the sound of voices from the lending desk. Hence, the opening of the quiet study room in 1986 was a great success. However, more radical change was needed given that the foyer was also used by homeless people and passers-by and because of the growth in the number of employees from 13 to 28 and the growth of the collection from 290,000 volumes to 455,000 by 1991.265 264

Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 21. 265 Ibid., p. 22. A B C D  re search method ■ 153

relocate the library twice, with all the impact on the personnel and collection this brought with it. During the 1966 relocation it took 126 trips with a 5-ton truck to move 290,000 books.266 The relocation also provided a good opportunity to introduce a new, computer-based catalogue.267

Figures 208 and 209: Extension of the semibasement and the new

entrance. Photographs by the author, 2002.

The library engaged consultants, in 1993 they advised not to engage an architect for the refurbishment. They claimed to have all the relevant expertise, although they suggested that it might be useful to work with an interior architect. A construction team was set up in 1996, led by S.T. Castelein. At the suggestion of building contractor Westerbaan, Piet Tauber and his son Frans joined the team in 1998. The decision in 1997 to restructure the building completely was a key moment. It meant that the whole collection would have to be housed elsewhere temporarily, while lending continued normally. Consequently it was decided to 154 ■ A B C D  re search method

The following changes were made in 1999:268 „ The layout was revised to be more functional. Some functions were relocated. More facilities were provided for library users, as well as separate lending desks for the two departments, and more reading/study rooms. See Figures 223 and 224. „ The semibasement of the building was extended by 450 m2 by excavating part of the rampart. The above-ground section is hidden by vegetation. The original freestanding boiler house was demolished and the land was swapped with the municipality. This made it possible to provide a route to the rampart. See Figure 208. „ All the stacks were relocated to the basement and the three-tier system in the tower was removed. Part of this system was reused by converting it to lower shelving. The stacks now had a horizontal rather than vertical structure. See Figures 213 to 218. „ The tower was used to accommodate plant rooms and a room for meetings of all the library staff. „ During the construction in 1968 the double-height space of the open lending area on the side of the rampart was covered with steel beams and a wooden ÀRRUDWDouma’s request. This created a completely open reading room around the double-height space. This ÀRRUZDVUHPRYHGLQ 1999 and replaced by VWHHOEHDPVSUR¿OHGsteel decking and concrete. At the same time the double-height space of the reception hall on the east-side (used as the legal study room since 1986) was also closed off using the same method.

266

“Friesland heeft weer plaats voor zijn boekenschat,” Friesland no. 5 (1966): 12-14. 267 Interview with S. Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of Friesland Provincial Library, 25 January 2002. 268 Interview with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002 and 6 March 2002, see also: Interview with S. Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of Friesland Provincial Library, 25 January 2002.

„

„

„

It was only then that the beam on the elevations, at the level RIWKH¿UVWÀRRUDFWXDOO\FDPHWRUHSUHVHQWWKHÀRRUDURXQG all sides of the building. The entrance at the front was replaced completely. A glazed entrance hall (built by Octatube, Delft) was added to accommodate the stairs and the entrance to the lift. In the hall two of the square columns were replaced by round ones. See Figures 209 to 212. The double-height space is again completely free in the space. The walls on the ground ÀRRUZHUHUHPRYHG The ground ÀRRUDQG¿UVWÀRRUDUHQRZKLJKO\WUDQVSDUHQWLQ line with the original concept. As a result the columns around the double-height space are now all freestanding. They include both round columns and the square ones which were originally incorporated into the brickwork. See Figures 219 and 220. The URRÀLJKWDERYHWKHGRXEOHKHLJKWspace was raised to accommodate building services plant. The incorporation of the air handling system is hardly visible from the central hall. See Figures 235 to 237.

In 2004 a connection was created between the Provincial Library and the National $UFKLYHV7KLVZDVGRQHE\LQVWDOOLQJD¿UVWÀRRU air bridge between the buildings, see Figure 221. The rooms close to the air bridge are often used for exhibitions, etc. The radiators in the recesses by the windows on the ground ÀRRU were removed. See Figure 222. The plans for 2009 include providing a more open reception desk in the hall. The panels will be replaced by a smoke curtain which is lowered in emergencies, and some of the facilities for library visitors will be improved. Archival documents in the stacks were transferred between the buildings to optimise the storage conditions of documents which are subject to the Dutch Archives Act. A climate control system was installed in the semibasement to meet all requirements concerning temperature, humidity and air SXUL¿FDWLRQLQSDUWRIWKHVWDFNVRIWKHRULJLQDOlibrary. Sliding cabinets were installed in the stacks. The maximum ÀRRUORDG has now been reached. Some of the ERRNFDVHVFDQQRWEH¿OOHG to the full height because of the space taken up by large ducts, etc. Remarkably, the space as a whole could accommodate these changes over the years.

A B C D  re search method ■ 155

Figures 210 to 212: The new entrance at the front of the building, exterior and interior views. Photographs by the author, 2002.

156 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 213 and 214: Plans of the semibasement in 1966 and 1999 to illustrate the extension on the west side. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 157

Figures 215 and 216: Plans of ground ÀRRULQDQGWKHtower now accommodates building services, the central hall was opened up on all sides

to create one large space and the entrance was extended. From Tauber, 2000. 158 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figures 217 and 218: 3ODQVRIWKH¿UVWÀRRULQDQG5RRPVIRUpersonnel and study rooms were created around the balcony, the tower now

accommodates an auditorium and the area of the original lecture hall is now used for other purposes. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 159

Figures 219 and 220: The central hall in 1966

and in 1999. The main difference relates to the great openness on the ground ÀRRUFUHDWHGLQ 1999.

160 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 221: The air bridge which has connected the Provincial Library and the National Archives since 2004. Photograph by the author, 2008.

Figure 222: Walls on the ground ÀRRUDIWHU

removal of the radiators. Compare with Figure 207. Photograph by the author, 2008. A B C D  re search method ■ 161

Figure 223: Functional analysis of the plans 1958-1959-1960. Adapted by the author from Tauber, 2000.

162 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 224: Functional analysis of the plans 1960-1966-1999. Adapted by the author from Tauber, 2000.

A B C D  re search method ■ 163

6.2

Structure

The structure of the Friesland Provincial Library allowed all these changes with relatively few problems. However, some of the columns in the central hall are now freestanding. In the original design the columns incorporated into the walls had square crosssections while the freestanding columns were round. After the changes of 1999, the central hall had both square and round freestanding columns. According to Tauber this was because the original load-bearing structure was not ‘designed neutrally’ enough.269 See Figures 225 to 227. To break through the facade, three new round columns were built in the hall and along the facade line. See Figures 228 to 230. In the run-up to the refurbishment the structural engineer was kept busy with calculations for the load-bearing structure in view of the many apertures which had to be cut through beams and the installation of heavy building services plant on the roof and in the tower. A further complication was that the original construction drawings had been lost and were only found later.270

Figures 225 to 227: The columns in the hall in 1966 - square at the top of the drawing and round at the bottom. Tauber DUFKLYHVVSHFL¿FDWLRQ drawing, December 1964.

269 270

Interview with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002 and 6 March 2002. Interview with S. Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of Friesland Provincial Library, 25 January 2002. The work was made more difficult as the original construction drawings had been lost. However, they were found during the second relocation.

16 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Figure 228: Demolition

of part of the original facade in 1998 to create the new entrance. Tauber archives.

Figures 229 and 230:

Temporary support of the facade, formwork for the new round column and the hall with new round columns. Photographs from the Tauber archives and by the author, 2002 (left). A B C D  re search method ■ 165

6.3

Materials

Few changes were made to the range of materials used in the Friesland Provincial Library. The exterior walls were cleaned but QRW¿WWHGZLWKWKHUPDOinsulation. Given the detailing of the EXLOGLQJWKLVZRXOGKDYHEHHQXQIHDVLEOHLQ¿QDQFLDODQGGHVLJQ terms. Piet Tauber’s son, Frans, designed the new interiors. 7KHÀRRUVZHUHRULJLQDOO\¿QLVKHGZLWKshell limestone and cork. The VWRQHÀRRUVZHUHJURXQGDQGSROLVKHG7KHstairs were clad in stone and in 2000 the ÀRRURIWKHentrance in the semibasement was also covered with stone. In 2008 it was observed that this ÀRRULQSDUWLFXODUKDGVXIIHUHGIURPUHSHDWHGÀRRGLQJ On several occasions the site drainage and sewers could not cope with the volume of rain. As a result the semibasement was ÀRRGHG7KHcontaminated water may have led to the spalling of the VWRQHÀRRULQJ6HH)LJXUH7KHFRUNÀRRULQJZDV replaced by carpet. However, according to Piet Tauber that was not actually necessary. The walls were plastered and the concrete columns were ¿QLVKHGE\DEUDVLYHEODVWLQJ$OOWKH¿QLVKHVXVHGLQZHUH reinstated where possible. Even the furniture was repaired and reused where possible. This was done for both idealistic and ¿QDQFLDOUHDVRQV7KHWDEOHVZHUHVDQGHGDQGYDUQLVKHGDQGWKH chairs were reupholstered. See Figure 250. In 1991, when the library celebrated its 25th anniversary, J.J. Huizinga wrote:

In August 2002 Tauber disagreed with some of these comments. According to him, it had been possible to open the windows from the start (this is supported by photographs taken in 1964), double glazing had been installed at that time, and there were vents above the windows (see Figure 201). However, the solar control changed in 1999. The orange awnings were replaced by screens which were less affected by the wind and which were lowered automatically if too much sunlight entered the building. An important detail was that the cabinet containing the screen was installed some distance from the top of the window frame. This avoided an excessively large window frame head on the inside and the ventilation slots could still be used. See Figures 231 to 233. In 2008 it was noticed that all the window sills had been affected by wood rot. The work in 1999 must have led to a change which affected the moisture management as the wood was found to have a moisture content of 80%.272 In 1999 all the facade FODGGLQJSDQHOVZHUHUH¿WWHGDQGWKHZLQGRZVZHUH¿WWHG with different glazing. The cause of the problem is still to be investigated. See Figure 234.

There were problems with the temperature control from the start. This got better when some windows could be opened. Later, solar control glass was installed [easily recognisable by its blue sheen] and finally double glazing. The heating control was also improved. We are now hoping that fans will help.271

271

Huizenga, Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 21.

166 ■ A B C D  re search method

272

Interview with Sijbe Sevenster on 3 December 2008 and phone call with Frans Tauber on 4 December 2008.

Figure 231: Elevation with awnings, opening steel windows and the blue solar control glass, before 1988. Tauber archives.

Figure 232: Reading room with bright ZKLWHEOXHÀRRULQJ and, at the far end, the window head and sun screen installed separately from the head. From Tauber, 2000. A B C D  re search method ■ 167

Figure 233: Sun screens installed in 2002.

Photograph by the author, 2002.

Figure 234: Window sills with wood rot due to water. Photograph by the author, 2008. 168 ■ A B C D  re search method

6.4

Services

Above, I included a quote from 1991: There were problems with the temperature control from the start. This got better when some windows could be opened. Later, solar control glass was installed and finally double glazing. The heating control was also improved. We are now hoping that fans will help.273 In 1991 it was concluded that the fans were not enough to provide adequate conditions for the people and books in the Friesland Provincial Library. The following measures were taken in 1999: „ All radiators and their cladding were replaced, but the JUDWLQJVRYHUWKHPZHUHUHXVHG7KHRI¿FHVZHUHSURYLGHG with individual temperature control and mechanical ventilation. „ The power and data cabling, installed above the ceilings, was H[WHQGHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\$GGLWLRQDOplant rooms were needed. ,QWKHUHDGLQJURRPVDQGWKHRI¿FHVWKHFDEOHVZHUHWDNHQ to the tables by columns coming down from the ceilings. See Figure 240. „ A plant room was created in the upper part of the former book tower, above the new meeting room. This space became available as all the stacks were relocated to the semibasement. Chillers were installed on the roof, unfortunately these are visible from the surrounding areas.274 See Figures 237 to 239. „ The acoustic treatment, initially required between the catalogue hall on the ground ÀRRUDQGWKHreading room on

„

„

„

WKH¿UVWÀRRUZDVUHWDLQHGEHKLQGWKHZRRGHQpanelling of the balustrade around the double-height space. The balustrade now also incorporates building services ducts. +HQFHLWVHGJHZDVPDGHVOLJKWO\ODUJHUEXW¿WVLQZLWKWKH original design. An air duct with grilles with integrated into the balustrade, along the lower edge. The distribution ducts were installed between the ÀRRUEHDPV+ROHVZLWKD diameter of 150 mm were made through the beams to accommodate the lateral branches. See Figures 235 and 236. The building services plant in the stacks was replaced. The new section on the west side, for the old collection of Franeker University, was equipped with a sophisticated climate control system. The balanced air handling system controls the temperature and humidity automatically. See Figures 242, 251 and 254. For 30 years the relative humidity had been too low in the stacks most of the time. After the refurbishment it was possible to maintain this at a constant 55 to 60%. $JDVHRXV¿UHVXSSUHVVLRQsystem was also installed. Moisture, water and smoke detectors were installed in all rooms in the semibasement and the gas cylinders were installed in a dedicated plant room.275 See Figure 241.

273

Huizenga,Vijfentwintigjaar aan de Boterhoek: een korte geschiedenis van de Provinciale en Buma Bibliotheek, 21. 274 As the original construction drawings were lost until the relocation it was only possible to calculate the permissible roof load at a later stage.

275

Every actuation of the gaseous fire suppression system costs EUR 20,000. Interview with S. Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of Friesland Provincial Library, 25 January 2002. A B C D  re search method ■ 169

Figures 235 and 236: Cross-sections of central hall before and after the 1999 refurbishment.

The roof was raised to create space for an air duct. Ducts are also incorporated in the balustrade which is now slightly larger than before. Tauber archives, drawings from 1964 and 1998.

The following changes were made in 2004: „ The radiators on the ground ÀRRUZHUHUHPRYHGDQGDQair handling system was installed. See Figure 222. „ A room with full climate control was provided in the stacks. In addition to controlling the temperature and relative KXPLGLW\WKHDLULVDOVR¿OWHUHG „ A refrigerated store was installed for the photographic archive. „ Various provisions were made for handling digital data. „ A smokers’ room was created in the semibasement.

170 ■ A B C D  re search method

Plans to improve the HQHUJ\HI¿FLHQF\ZHUHGHYHORSHGLQ The energy bill of the library was double that of the National Archives. In part this might be due to the climate control plant for the stacks. One option would be to separate the system for the stacks from that for the other areas of the building.

Figures 237 to 239:

Raised roof section over the central hall; new ventilation louvres in the old book tower; chiller plant on the roof. Photographs by the author, 2002 and 2008 (left).

A B C D  re search method ■ 171

Figures 240 to 242: The mains, data and low voltage cabling was replaced; the air ducts were installed between and through the cabinets in the VHPLEDVHPHQWJDVHRXV¿UHVXSSUHVVLRQ system. Photographs from Tauber archives (top) DQGWKHDXWKRUDQG¿UHVXSSUHVVLRQ system).

172 ■ A B C D  re search method

7

Building: to be or not to be

When the Provincial Library was being regenerated in 2000 the construction manager walked through the stripped building with Tauber and asked him if he was upset by that. Tauber replied: Now it’s empty you can really see the structure again, and I like that clarity. I’m now getting the opportunity to make my building better than it was, it’s not going to be demolished and it’ll be ready for the next 40 years, while the basics are staying essentially the same ...276

276

Interview with P.H. Tauber, 3 January 2002 and 6 March 2002.

7.1

Space

In terms of space on the floors accessible to library users, the Friesland Provincial Library should be able to accommodate further changes in the future. The design of the building has proven itself to be flexible enough to serve as a library and provide space for users of the National Archives. Further changes are planned for 2009. The desk in the hall will be moved back to the lending area and the stairs will be modified. See Figures 243 and 244. The layout of the hall and areas behind it will be opened up. The offices of the National Archives will be refurbished in 2009 and extended and the canteen in the library will be adapted so that it can be used for receptions. The fall in the number of loans and the greater use of information in digital format could all be accommodated within the existing spatial structure of the building. The digitisation of archival and other documents is likely to increase. This is done in the current building. However, digital data is also stored off-site. In 2004 the library and the National Archives were connected by the air bridge and adopted the name Tresoar.277 See Figure 247. After upgrading of the building services plant the archives could be housed in the stacks. The maximum capacity has now almost been reached. The management expects to run out of space by the end of 2011. The new Leeuwarden Historical Museum (close to the National Archives) and the Friesland Museum have insufficient space for their archives and are now also using storage at the Tresoar.

277

‘‘Tresoar”, project documentation BRT Architecten, September 2004. A B C D  re search method ■ 173

At the end of 2004 the excavations started for the car park under the Oldehoofsterkerkhof. Tauber’s plan for the redesign of the square was not adopted.278 See Figures 245 and 246. The underground car park was designed by Fons Verheijen of VVKH architects in Leiden. The route between the buildings, leading from Prinsentuin to the rampart, was never created. This area has now been closed off by a gate and fence. The ugly fence will be replaced and match those elsewhere on the rampart. The Oldehoofsterkerkhof is currently used for public functions such as parties, markets and other events. It has also been used for skating rinks, funfairs and circuses. In 2008 flooding of the area between the buildings due to heavy rain caused water to enter the semibasement. The stacks were flooded when the water entered through the door of the former bicycle parking. A solution will have to be found for this.

Figure 243 and 244: Entrance KDOORQWKH¿UVWÀRRUZLWKWKHdesk which will 278

Tauber, ‘‘Oldehoveplein vraagt om totaalvisie”, Leeuwarder Courant, November 25, 2002. P. Groot, ‘‘Brug te veel, ” Leeuwarder Courant, November 30, 2002.

174 ■ A B C D  re search method

be changed in 2009 to provide a more open plan. Photographs by the author, 2008.

Figures 245, 246 and 247: Air bridge between the National Archives and the Provincial Library installed in 2004 and construction

activities for the underground car park. Photographs by the author, 2008.

A B C D  re search method ■ 175

Figures 248 and 249:

Central hall during and after the regeneration in 1999. Tauber archives.

176 ■ A B C D  re search method

7.2

Structure

The columns, beams and floors of the concrete load-bearing structure could be changed quite extensively within the building envelope, and have the potential for further change. This was clearly demonstrated by the regeneration in 1999. At that time, a number of squares columns were revealed, which are anomalous. This demonstrated the vulnerability of ‘specific details in specific places’ or, as Tauber put it ‘building to the brief’. A box to be filled with the relevant contents still appears to be a useful type of building. Structural engineering analyses reveal the strength limitations in the short term. The floors of the stacks now carry the maximum acceptable load. Maintaining the concept of the original central hall, reinstated in 1999, with various functions surrounding it within a shell with elevations with an apparently random division provides a flexible basis to deal with any future changes. See Figures 248 and 249.

7.3

Materials

The use of plain natural materials of high quality has proven to provide great flexibility, in the past and in the future. The building now makes a timeless impression, one can date it, without it being dated. In my view, this will have to provide the starting point when considering any future changes which might be needed. The fact that the furniture from 1968 was reused in 2000 is an excellent demonstration of this. See Figure 250. The furniture will be replaced in 2009. There is not much to be criticised in terms of the choice of materials for the exterior walls. However, there are some problems with the details. A 50 mm cavity does not provide enough space for both thermal insulation and ventilation of the cavity. In 2008 it was noticed that the sills of all the window frames were suddenly affected by rot. See Figure f. It would be worth investigating what changes were made to the exterior walls in 1999. According to Frans Tauber all the stone cladding was removed and refitted at that time.279 This must have affected the moisture management of the cavity. See Figure 253. The flooding of the semibasement damaged the stone flooring. The original flooring on the upper floors is not affected by wear, but the flooring in the semibasement needs replacing after only 10 years. See Figure 252.

279

Telephone interview with Frans Tauber on 4 December 2008 by H. Zijlstra. A B C D  re search method ■ 177

Figure 250: Reused furniture. Photograph by the author, 2008.

Figure 251: Some of the climate control plant for the stacks with full climate control. Photograph by the author, 2008.

Figure 252: The stone ÀRRULQWKHsemibasement, installed in 1999, was

Figure 253: In 2008 the sills of all the original window frames were found

seriously damaged by the ÀRRGLQJLQ Photograph by the author, 2008.

to be affected by rot. Photograph by the author, 2008.

178 ■ A B C D  re search method

7.4

Services

It is likely that the greatest changes in future will be to the building services plant. Unfortunately the implementation of the designs by the building services consultant in 1999 led to serious problems. There were still many unresolved issues early in 2002 and the final accounts had not been settled. Furthermore, the costs of operating the plant were found to be three times higher than calculated by the consultants. The contractor who installed the plant managed to resolve some issues. However, the library’s maintenance department was left to solve many problems. A constant hum from the boiler house which reached the plenary meeting room below it (which is used for courses and exams) was a serious problem. In March 2002, Sijbe Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of the Provincial Library was somewhat concerned about the plans for cooperation with the National Archives. After a merger, the archival stores would have to meet the requirements of the Archives Act and be fully climate controlled with extensive plant required for air handling and safety.280 See Figures 251 and 254. The merger happened in 2004 and the building services plant was modified accordingly. Unfortunately, the climate control of the archives reduced the available storage capacity even further due to the restricted height of the basement. Air handling plant was installed in the library areas and the radiators were removed. Obviously, the safety and access requirements change regularly. Hence further changes will be needed in future. It appears that the building will be able to cope with this.

280

Figure 254: The ‘Franeker Folianten’ from the collection acquired in 1585. This is the essence of the building: storing books in controlled conditions to preserve them for use by future generations. Photograph by the author, 2008.

Interview with Sijbe Sevenster, head of the Facilities Department of Friesland Provincial Library, 25 January 2002. A B C D  re search method ■ 179

180 ■ A B C D  re search method

8

Conclusions and ABCD¡ research matrix

The conclusions about the future options for the Friesland Provincial Library are included in the previous chapter. Further to the study of the building we can draw some conclusions concerning the research themes. Next, the ABCD§matrix for the Provincial Library context lists the key aspects of the study which ranged from context to detail.

Technical observation The building of the Provincial Library was designed for a competition. The selected design served more as a means for testing the schedule of requirements than as a design for what was actually built. A design which met all the requirements was only developed at a later stage. The actual requirements and preferences of the user were only incorporated at that stage. The long time required to obtain approval gave the user a further opportunity to make numerous changes. The disadvantage of this approach is that the impact of some changes may be overlooked. In this case it was an excellent idea to engage the original architect again after 30 years to regenerate the building. The redesign provided him with an opportunity to reinstate some aspects of his original design. This means that a design as built does not necessarily correspond with everything the architect originally envisaged. However, the architect has to be able to take a step back from their work and be able to approach it as a new assignment. Given that, a period of 50 years before a building can be nationally listed in the Netherlands would be preferable over 30 years.

In this case, the original architect was familiar with all aspects of the building. Hence, a large part of the technical observation information was in his head and he had to communicate this to the construction team. The fact that the construction drawings were lost which resulted in additional work for the structural engineer is a reminder that every building deserves effective technical documentation. As far as the typology is concerned, this building type has proven still to be fit for use as a library. The neutral design of the elevations, which featured a beam even in the double-height areas, made it possible to add and remove floors. The materials selected for the exterior have proven themselves. The stone, hardwood and copper survived three decades without problems, although unusual damage has been observed in the most recent decade. The cork flooring was replaced by carpet, although Tauber commented that that was not actually necessary. This brings us back to the question whether or not the original architect can take the required step back. The tables in the canteens and reading rooms were refinished by sanding in 1999 and fitted with linoleum tops in 2008 and the chairs were reupholstered. This furniture will be replaced in 2009.

Research analysis Tauber based the dimensions of the building on multiples of 7 cm, i.e. 70 mm. Hence, all dimensions are divisible by seven. At that time, architects could still make that choice. At present, multiples of 300 mm are generally used. The main dimensions were based on the dimensions of the bookcases and aisles between them. This should have resulted in a grid of 5.20 m. However, the architect reduced this to 5.18 because of his personal preference. Nowadays, that would be unacceptable. It is likely that a grid of 5.40 m would be used now, to allow for future changes. A B C D  re search method ■ 181

The load-bearing structure of the building, i.e. its internal structure, made several options possible for the division the building and allowed for the relocation of functions. This was even done during the construction of the building. The 5.18 x 5.18 m grid did not conflict with that. The double-height space was originally built with both freestanding round columns and with square columns which were incorporated into the walls. When all the columns became freestanding, in 1999, there was no longer an apparent reason for the different shapes. As Tauber put is, the columns were not neutral enough to allow for this change. At the start of his career, Tauber thought that an architect had to build in accordance with the brief, and respect the client’s wishes. Later he realised that a certain neutrality of the design had some advantages over a design which was highly specific to one function. This would make it easier to regenerate the building once the client had left it. The maximum permissible floor load in the stacks was only reached in 2008.

Regenerative conclusions When the Provincial Library was regenerated history was at hand, in the person of the original architect. He essentially served as a human archive. This situation is quite unusual in the Netherlands. There are obviously examples of architects who oppose the demolition or change of their buildings. However, very few architects have an opportunity such as that presented to Tauber. Herman Herzberger (1932) is another example as he is working on the regeneration of the music centre in Utrecht. At the time the original buildings were designed, neither of them was presented with the ability to accommodate change as a requirement and they did not design the buildings with that in mind. We saw that the Provincial Library had to be changed on several occasions. The building provided the space for these changes, or space was found for them. Because of stricter requirements for the accessibility of public buildings the original design no longer provided adequate disabled access. An improvised solution was provided in 1968 but was improved on in 1999. At that time this could be accommodated in the new entrance section and new hall of the library. This also updated the appearance of the building: contemporary but restrained. 182 ■ A B C D  re search method

This significant intervention provided the space for functional changes and additions to the original schedule of requirements. These interventions themselves will be changed in 2009 to provide a more open plan. The selection of the site also determined the options for regenerating the building. The rampart made it possible to include a semibasement which could later be extended by 450 m2. However, the ceiling was only 2.94 m high, compared with 3.57 and 4.06 m on the higher floors. This made it difficult to install the required climate control plant. However, despite the problems it has so far been possible to fit the required building services plant. Given that the cooperation with the National Archives will lead to ever stricter climate control requirements for the stacks, the available space will have to be used creatively. For example, the voids in the cabinets to accommodate the ducts result in a lower floor load than with full cabinets. There are now several cultural buildings around the Oldehoofsterkerkhof which made the car park under the square viable. Additionally, a pedestrian route was created from the city centre to the Noorder Bolwerk. This section of the city was regenerated together with the buildings and because of the people they attract. The building services plant could be installed in the old book tower. However, the chiller on the roof, next to the tower, is rather unsightly when the library is viewed from the square or the rampart. The book tower was originally designed to allow extension by several floors. Hence the structure was strong enough for the building services plant. Originally, the only floors in the tower were formed by the bookcases. It was relatively easy to remove them. However, the noise nuisance which the plant causes to the lower floors has not yet been solved. The cross-sectional drawings show how the ducts could be incorporated above the roof, along the rooflights, and in the balustrade. In 1999, when the regeneration was completed, Tauber commented: ‘the structure of a building should be timeless, straightforward and clear. If not, then it will be difficult to change the building. The more you build to a brief, the more problems it causes later.’ He had a motto, which he mentioned during both his inaugural address and his leaving address to Delft University

Figures 255 and 256: Main post RI¿FHLQAlkmaar, 2002 and 1965. Photograph by Tauber (left), 1965 and by the author (above), 2002.

of Technology and used as the title of the book published on the occasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his practice in 1990: bouwen naar opdracht - building to a brief. Several of his buildings in Alkmaar are now empty and await demolition or reuse: the building of the Provincial Library Centre, the ABNAMRO bank district office and the palace of justice. Tauber often made sketch designs with proposals for the reuse of his buildings, but this was usually in vain. However, his post office in Alkmaar was given a second life. Its external appearance changed significantly. The original elevations were inspired by Aalto and featured brick and copper, with hardwood cladding. For the regeneration, Tauber clad the building with stone to give it the typical image of a bank. As a result it now looks similar to the Provincial Library in Leeuwarden.281 See Figures 255 and 256.

281

P.H. Tauber, ‘‘Van Postkantoor naar ABN AMRO-bank,” BNA Regio Alkmaar, May 25, 1999. A B C D  re search method ■ 183

ABCD  research matrix of the Friesland Provincial Library ABCD matrix

Meant to be

Brief

Q

Site

Government brief Q Competition Q The revised design is built On the rampart, the old fortifications, on the edge of the city centre Q The road isolates the rampart from the city Q

Architect

Q

Typology

Q

Design process

Q Q

Space

Structure

Materials

Services

18 4 ■ A B C D  re search method

Piet Tauber Rectangular box with atrium and tower [HVB: eerder gebruikte je steeds ‘vide’.] In three stages The client intervenes, the architect accepts this, which reduces the openness

Rectangular box with atrium and tower Q The atrium is closed Q

Based on multiples of 70 mm Q The grid of 5.18 m imposes limitations Q Square and round columns Q

Neutral Timeless Q Durable

Has been The function is continued Q Complete redesign within the existing volume Q

Q Q

Q

Q

Q

Extension into the rampart The surroundings become the cultural centre of the city

Piet and Frans Tauber Rectangular box with atrium and tower and glass entrance volume The original design (stage 2) provides the basis for the final design

The atrium is opened Accessibility is improved Q The entrance is added as a glass volume Q The functions are relocated within the existing volumes

To be or not to be Q Q

The underground car park and the square benefit its use Q The route to the rampart should be opened up Q

Q

Q

The original design is adhered to Optimising openness Q Implementing the requirements and legislation

The atrium and entire plan are opened up New functions, and accommodating other functions Q Optimising the use Q Providing a link to the National Archives Q Q

Few changes required Restrained and functional Q Repair and modification possible

Q Q

Q

Q

Q

Q

Q

Q

Q

Minimal

Strict statutory requirements and comfort lead to modification and additions Q Implemented within the available space Q

Rectangular box with atrium and tower, glass entrance volume and air bridge

Q

Q

Not neutral enough to accommodate change invisibly Q Sufficient load-bearing capacity

Frans Tauber (successor)

Q

Q

Q

The function is extended The merger with the National Archives offers opportunities for the future

Q Q

Load-bearing capacity reached Able to accommodate change

Ageing transformed into appreciation The flooring in the semibasement and the window frames require significant repairs

Replaced within the available space Future modifications will require creative solutions

Figure 257: Temporary chandelier at

the restaurant 11 in the former Post RI¿FHLQ$PVWHUGDP3KRWRJUDSKE\ the author, 2004. A B C D  re search method ■ 185

186 ■ A B C D  re search method

9

Recommendations

Technology provided me with the inspiration to develop a more comprehensive research method to assess buildings: Analysing Buildings from Context to Detail in time (ABCD¡). Technology, at academic level, should be considered in the analysis of a building. Here we are concerned with construction engineering, the study of the requirements associated with constructing buildings. Until 1970, most architectural and construction industry magazines and journals covered the technical aspects of buildings quite extensively. Later this coverage became less extensive. Archivists are also likely to discard technical information. However, a number of architectural elements can only be appreciated by analysing their technical aspects. Technology should be included as an essential aspect when investigating existing buildings in an attempt to understand them. The results of technical studies always relate to practice. Such information is also essential to the redesign of existing buildings. It is important to preserve photographs, drawings, etc. from the period when the building was constructed. Providing information on practice is a key element in construction engineering, which is a learning process. We are not solely concerned with the end result. Changes are made during the life of a building, and they might be made differently if the history and technical aspects of the building were studied in greater detail. Complex dimensional systems were not used in the period from 1940 to 1970. Instead, architects followed their personal preferences, such as Tauber who used the symbolic number seven for the Friesland Provincial Library. Later, the dimensions were based on multiples of 300 mm which would govern the whole construction process. Other studies also indicate that dimensions are increasingly based on multiples of 300 mm. Gradually ceilings became lower, though this trend has now been reversed in residential construction. Building services plant is

vulnerable and regularly replaced or refurbished, even when it is still working effectively. The accessibility or lack thereof of piping and cabling is a key issue in any building which is modified. Buildings are no longer designed by the architect alone, there are now consultants for structural engineering, climate control, sustainability, etc. This cooperation leads to better results than if the architect worked alone. Between 1940 and 1970 the architect became more of a designer-manager of the whole process. Shortly after the Second World War architects still found it difficult to convince clients that consultants were needed. There are examples to prove what problems could arise if consultants were not involved, or too late. At present the architect serves rather like the hub of a team of consultants. An ABCD¡ study requires relevant data. Between 1940 and 1970 there was greater interest in the technical aspects. Architectural publications included technical details. I would advocate the inclusion of more technical information in general architecture publications. Between 1940 and 1970 architects generally wrote explanations of their plans and always included technical aspects and innovations. We should return to that practice as it can provide primary information for later regeneration projects. Both maintenance and changes require us to understand the building concerned. All the aspects covered by my research method should be considered. In essence, a building can be described in detail using the ABCD¡ research method. This should start during its construction. A , available to all relevant parties, should be created, using a protocol yet to be developed. Experience obtained with other buildings can lead to better considered solutions when designing and building new buildings or intervening in existing buildings. Architects’ training should include the observation and analysis of buildings. This requires technical knowledge obtained A B C D  re search method ■ 187

by learning. The essentials of subjects such as forces, mechanics, building physics and materials science will become more interesting if the education includes practical examples. Multidisciplinary monographs on selected buildings would help us understand buildings. These publications should also include interviews with architects and other relevant parties. Project lectures are also an effective tool to teach students about buildings. Such publications should be disseminated widely. Moving images and sound would be welcome additions. However, we should also ensure that the diaries of construction managers and project leaders are included in the archives. The ABCD  research method is based on what exists today, and how it came into being. It is not a design method - it is a research method which can help designers to study and understand a building. Change is only possible if there is also continuity. We can recognise layers where changes may have led to interventions in what existed at one time. The ABCD  research method is an instrument to show us how changes happened, and what the original concepts for the building were. We have to investigate the history of the design and construction of a building to distil this essence. The funding available for constructing a building or maintaining it, and the way in which changes are made are all important in this context. Sufficient funding at the start should result in considered quality. If costs are cut then the architect has to make concessions which may lead to high costs in future. Hence were are concerned both with the life of the building and the costs associated with it. The building, the idea, the wish to do something with it, spontaneous ideas, surprises and the unique solutions created by taking the space provided by the building and the opportunities available to the designer. Decisions should not be taken lightly simply because there is enough funding available. This does not necessarily mean that when designing new buildings we have to consider their future regeneration. The best buildings often result from unexpected solutions. However, there should be the space for this: in terms of length, width and height between the load-bearing elements, to provide space for creative solutions.

188 ■ A B C D  re search method

The future is always uncertain. Hence we should not waste money on options for changes which we cannot predict. However, we should invest in space, in dimensions, in permissible loads. We should avoid using building components which are unique to the building and cannot be recreated. The ABCD  research method is the result of the development of my PhD research into a method which can be applied in practice. Initially we are concerned with what exists now, and determining why and how it was created, and if and how it can continue to exist. This will provide the basic information about the building. Its qualities can then be identified to help us understand it. This is done before the requirements are defined. We can then consider the options for change needed for the building to continue to exist, on the basis of wellconsidered decisions and respect. I encourage all architects to learn from existing buildings and enable others to learn from the buildings they design. And not only through publications about the completed building with impressive photographs. Instead, we should document the history of the creation of the building and tell our own stories. These should include the technical aspects and be made available for others for academic study. Learning from buildings, by investigating them, should be included in all architects’ education. At the ®MIT department of the Faculty of Architecture of Delft University of Technology we are not only interested in conservation. In fact, we are particularly interested in redesign, in regeneration within the existing context - which means that change is essential. This will also help existing buildings to continue to exist. In this way, continuity and change will lead to durability and sustainability.

Figure 258: Entrance hall of the UN building in New York, shortly before the start of an extensive regeneration project. Photograph by the author, 2008. A B C D  re search method ■ 189

19 0 ■ A B C D  re search method

Literature and sources In order of the last names of the authors.