American rococo, 1750-1775: elegance in ornament

American Rococo, 1750-1775

Arnerican Rococo, 1750-1775: Elegance in Ornament

American Rococo, 1750-1775: Elegance in Ornament

MO R R ISO N

LESL IE

TH E

LOS

H.

H E CK S CH ER

G REE NE

M ETROPOLITAN

ANGELES

COUNTY

B O WM A N

MUSEUM

MUSEUM

OF

OF

Di stributed by H arry N. Abrams, Inc., N ew York

ART

ART

This book is presented as a benefit of your museum membership. The exhibitions and programs of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art would not be possible without your generous support.

This book has been publish ed in co nju nc tion wi th the ex hibitio n Am ericall Rococo, '750- 1775' Elegance ill O rt/amellt, held at The M etrop ol itan Mu seum of Art, N ew York, fro m 26 J anu ar y to 17 M ay, and at th e Los An geles County Mu seum of A rt from 5 Jul y to 27 Septem ber 1992. Th e ex hib itio n is m ad e po ssibl e b y The H enr y Luce Fo unda tio n, Inc. , and th e N ati on al Endo wment fo r the Arts. T he exhibitio n was o rga n ized by T he M et ropolit an M useum of Art and th e Los An geles Coun ty Museum of A rt. Addit ion al su ppo rt for th e ex hibitio n in N ew Yor k has been provide d by T he Real Estate Counc il of T he M etropolitan M useum of Art. Additio nal su ppo rt for th e ex hib itio n in Los An geles has been pr o vided by the Rob ert and N an cy Daly Fo undatio n . The exhibitio n is also suppo rte d at th e M etrop ol itan Mu seum by grants fro m An nett e d e la R ent a , H . R ich ar d Die t rich, J r. , M r. an d M rs. Antho ny L. Ge ller, M r. and M rs. Rob ert G . Go ele t, Grace Foundati on In c. , M r. an d Mr s . R obert A. Hut , J oulli an & Co ., M r. and Mr s . Geo rge M . K aufman , M rs. Al exand er O . Vi et or, and M r. and Mrs . Erving Wo lf. The book th at acco m pan ies th e ex hibi tio n is ma de possible in part b y a generous gra n t fro m th e Lu ce Fund fo r Scho larsh ip in Am eri can Art , a prog ram of T he H enry Lu ce Found ati on, In c. Additio nal fund in g was received fro m The W ill iam C u llen Br yant Fell o w s o f Th e Am eri can W ing a t th e M etrop olit an Mu seu m , The Ch ips to ne Found ati on, Sothe by's, J ohn L. M ari on , and th e Am eri can Decor at ive Arts Dep artm ent of C hristie's, N ew Yor k .

Cove r-jacke t: Sla b tab le, P h ilad elp h ia, ca. 1770 . Th e M etr op olitan Mu seum of Art , J ohn Stewar t Kenn ed y Fund, 1918 (18.[10.27) Fr onti spie ce : Co ffee po t, ca . 1753, Ph ilip Sy ng , j r,; Phil ad elph ia. Phil adelph ia M useu m of Art , Purchased : J ohn D . Mcilhenn y Fund (6620-1)

Co py rig h t © [992 by The M etr opol it an Mu seum o f Art , N ew Yo rk . All ri ghts reserved . N o part of th is publi cati on m ay be reproduced or transmitt ed in any form o r b y any m ean s, elec tro n ic or mechanical, in clud in g ph o to cop yin g , recordin g . o r any in form ati o n storage and retriev al sys tem , w itho ut w ritt en perm ission fro m the pub lisher. J ohn P. O' Ne ill, Editor ill C hief and Genera! Manager of Publications M ar y-Al ice Rogers, Editor, Th e William C I/llell Bryalll Fellol/'s Publications, Th e A mericall Willg Elizabeth Finger . Designer Helga Lose, Production T yp eset by C raftsma n Type ln c., D ayt on , O hio Colo r reproduction by Rep ro co lor Int ern ation al s. r.l.. M ilan, Italy Pr int ed and bound b y Arti G rafiche M otta, S.p.A ., M ilan, Italy

Libr ar y of Congress Ca talogi ng - in- Publication Da ta Heckscher, M orrison H . Am eri can ro co co , 17 50- [77 5: elega nce in o rna me n t / M o r riso n H . Heckscher, Leslie Greene Bowm an. p. em. Includes bibliographical refere nces and index . ISBN 0-87099-630- 4. - ISBN 0-87099-63 I - 2 (pbk.). - ISBN 0-810964[2-0 (Ab rams) l. De cor at ion an d o rna ment, Roco co-Unit ed States-Exh ibiti ons. 2. D ecor at ion and o rna me nt - Unit ed Sta tes - H isto ry - r Sth centuryExhibition s. I. Bo wm an, Leslie G reene. II. Ti tle . NKI403· 5·H4 199 2 745. 4' 4974'09033074747[ - dc20 9 1- 29595 C IP

CONTENTS

F O HE W O H D

PH E FA C E

AC KNO W LE DG MEN TS

LENDE HS TO TH E E X H I B IT ION

VII

V II I

XI

XV

The Am erican Ro co co A rchi tcctu re

17

En gravin gs

37

Silver

71

Furn iture

133

Cas t Iron, G lass, and Porcelain

2 19

N OT E S

BIB LI O GH APHY

257

E X H I B IT ION C HEC K L IS T

I N D EX

PH O T O GHAPI I C HE D ITS

288

FOREWORD

th e ex h ib itio n h as been provi ded by th e N at ion al End o wm ent fo r th e Art s . At a c r ucia l mome n t , members of t he Vi sitin g Co m mi ttee o f the D ep artm ent of A m erican D eco rativ e Arts at th e M etrop olitan too k u p the cause o f th e proj ect with hand som e indi v idu al g ifts . We are also obliged to th e Wi lliam C u lle n Br yant Fell o w s of T he A m e rican Wing of th e M etr op ol it an Mu seum , w hose ed ito r , M a r y- A lice Ro gers, saw th e book th rou gh to publicat ion . Th e presentati on o f th e ex h ibition in N e w Yo r k is m ad e possibl e in part b y th e fin an cial assistan ce provided by The Heal Est ate Co u nci l o f T he M et rop olitan M useu m of Art . Additi on al su p po rt for th e ex hib itio n in N ew Yo rk has been pro vided b y Ann ette de la Rcn ta, H . Rich ard Diet ric h , J r. , Mr. an d Mrs. Anth on y L. Ge lle r, M r. and M rs. Hobert G . Go ele t , G race Found ati on In c. , M r. an d M rs . Ho b ert A . Hut, J oulli an & Co .; Mr. an d Mrs. Geo rge M . Kaufm an , Mrs. Alexande r O . Vi et o r, an d Mr. and Mrs. Ervi ng Wolf. W e a re furth er o b liga te d to th e Ho b e rt a n d N ancy Da ly Foundati on for its co nt ributio n towa rd th e produ cti on o f the ex hibitio n in Los An geles. W e a re ind ebt ed t o th e Lu cc Fu nd fo r Sc ho la rs hip in Am eri can Art, a pr o g ram o f Th e H enr y Lu ce Foun da tio n , Inc. , for pro vidin g a ge ne ro us gra nt to w ar d the pu bli cati o n o f th e b o ok . Addit ion al fu nd ing was r e ce iv ed fr om Th e C h ips to ne Found ati on, So t he b y ' s, J ohn L. M a r ion , a nd th e Am eri can D e co rati ve Art s D ep artm ent of C h ris t ie's, N ew Yo rk.

T he ro co co sty le was amo ng th e pr im ar y a rtis tic co nt ributio ns o f th e eig hteen t h ce n tu ry . It s m anifest ati on s throu gho u t E u rope h ave been co m p re he n siv ely ac k now ledged and chro n icled , but its in flue nce in Am erica, w he re it was pr obabl y th e ce nt ury's crow ni ng desi gn ac hieveme nt (co m m o nly referred to as th e C h ip pe n da le sty le), has n ever been th oro ug h ly exa m ine d . It w as a la vi sh tast e that found sur p risin gl y fertile g ro u nd in th e co lo nies , w he re affluent m ember s o f society , rejoi cin g in th eir har d- w on pr osper it y, stro ve to adop t Lond on fashi on s. T he ir su ccess in so doin g is ri ch ly de mo ns t ra ted in t he pag es that foll ow and in th e ex hibi tio n that thi s bo o k acco rn pan ies . We are es pecia lly pl eased th at American R O((l ((l, '750- 1775: E lc<s:a llcc ill O n/a IllCII! sho uld be jointl y o rga niz ed by o ur two in stitution s. The u nd ertakin g beg an w it h the d esire of th e Los An geles Co unty Mu seum of Art to m ount an ex hibitio n of Am er ic an C h i p pe n d a le furn itur e in a c ity w he re s uc h o bjects ha ve always b een in sho rt su p ply. Wi t h th e real ization th at th er e had ne ver been a co m pre he ns ive exa m ina tio n o f th e ro co co sty le as it was pr acti ced in th e Am eri can co lo nies , and th at su ch an ex hibi tio n mi ght be of int er est o n th e eas t coas t as well as on th e wes t, th e M etropol itan Museum joine d fo rces wi th Los An geles. This bi co ast al ve n ture results fro m th e effo rts of M orrison H . H eck sch er , C u ra to r, Am eri can Decorati ve Arts, at The M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art, and L esli e G ree ne Bo wm an , C ura to r o f D e cor at iv e Art s a t th e Lo s An gel es Co u n ty Mu seum o f Art. S uc h a pa r rrrcrxh ip ack now le dge s th e cc n -

Mu s eum s h a v e a lways d epc nded for th e ir ver y exi s te nce

t u r y of co m mi t me n t t o Am eri c an d e cor ati v e a r ts a t Th e M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art and the ex trao rd ina ry g ro w t h o f th e Los An gele s Co unty Mu seum o f Art since it s found-

o n th e s po nso rs h ip o f th eir frie n ds a nd bene factors . T hat tan gibl e o u tpo u ring o f ca re and in te res t has never been m ore vital th an it is in th e wo rl d of to day, n o r ha ve we eve r had m ore reason to che rish it.

ing in 1913 . We take pl easure in ex te n d ing o u r g ra tit ude to a number of in stitution s an d individu als for th e ge ne ros ity th at m ad e A merica n R O((l CO p o ssible , p arti cul a rl y Th e H enr y Lu ce Fo u n da ti on, In c . , wh o se gi ft t o w a rd th e boo k in 198 5 launc he d th e undertakin g an d w hose furth er co nt ribut io n in 19 91 m at eriall y ai de d t he en deavor. Additi on al su p po r t fo r

Philippe de M onteb ello , D irector T he M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art Earl A . Po w ell III, D irector Los An geles County Mu seum of Art

V II

PREFACE

Alll cricall R ococo, 1750-1775; E lcoaucc ill O rname nt is a bo ok abo u t a s ty le . In plannin g it an d th e e x h ib itio n it acc o m panies, th e aut ho rs decided o n t w o arbitrary restricti on s: that th e definition o f ro co co b e limited to th e o rna me n tal as pec t o f th e eig htee nt h-century sty le and th at th e w or ks chose n for inclu sion be limited to th o se o f Am eri can m anu facture . O b vio us ly , however , th er e had to be so me flexibi lit y in th e ran g e o f d at es defin ed in t h e titl e . l n additi on, th ou gh a hand ful o f En gli sh-m ad e pi eces are present to illu strat e the esse n tial En gli sh qualit y o f th e sty le as w ell as th e m ann er o f its tr an sm ission to Am er ica, we chose to co nce nt ra te not o n th e ad mix ture of imported an d nativ e-m ad e o bjects th at was th e rea lity o f th e fu rnis h ings of th e co lo nial elite but o n the best exa m ples o f d om esti c crea tivi ty, whi ch w e sel ecte d for th eir ex ception al w orkm an ship an d aes t he tic m erit . A s is always th e case with a lo an ex h ibi tio n, becau se o f co n servation concerns, fin an cial ex ige nc ies, and o the r pr acti cal limitatio ns, we had to for go certa in o bjects we wo u ld o the rw ise hav e chosen. Th e b o ok d o es n ot pu rp o rt to be a survey o f th e arts in Am eri ca in th e third quarter of th e eig htee n th century. Silv er and furniture-in thi s co u n try the t w o categ o ries m ost co ngenial to rococo o rna men ta tio n - form the prin cip al sec tio ns and are th er efore di scu ssed a t grea tes t len gth . Am on g the ave n ues of a rt is t ic e n deavo r we excl u de d a rc Am eri can p ain tin gs (s uc h as mid-centur y portraits b y Blackburn an d th e yo u ng Co p ley) n o w genera lly co ns ide re d t o be o f a ro co co sensi bi lity but h avin g littl e, if any th ing, to do wi th rococo o rn a mc ntat io n. T he incl usio n of ce rtain d o m esti c neo classical p ortraits is j us tifie d b y th eir b ein g en closed in th eir o rig ina l, lu xuriou sly ro co co fram es. Un rep resented are so m e of th e era's m ajor regi on al schoo ls. eithe r becau se their o u t p ut is n ot in th e ro co co m od e (t he fa mo us b ar o qu e bl o ck- and- sh ell fu rn i t u re o f N e wp ort. fo r i ns tance) o r

becau se their in vo cati on of th e sty le is so far removed from th e Englis h so urce as to co ns tit u te a to ta lly differe n t image (furn it ure b y Eliph alct C ha p in of Windsor , Connecticu t-an idi o syn cr ati c o ffs hoo t o f Ph ila delph ia design - im m edi ately co mes to mind). Prim aril y , th e bo ok and th e ex h ib itio n were co nce ived to add ress the fundam ental q ues tio n: Did th e rococo sty le exist in colo n ial Am er ica? The relevan ce o f th at q ues tion became in cr easin gl y a ppa re n t th rou gh o ur lo n g p repara tion by the o m n ip rese n t specter o f J oh n H en ry Belt er . w hose fos te ring o f th e r o co co-r e vi v al s ty le in mid -nin et ee nth- ce n t u r y Am eri ca is so widel y recog nized as to o bfuscate the original ro co co ' s flouri shin g o n th ese sho res. Baroque & R (l( (l( O ; A rch itecture & Decoration, ed ite d b y Anth on y I3lunt (Lo ndon . 1978), a m ajor int ern ati onal survey of th e do m in an t styles of the seve nteen th and eig h tee n t h ce n t uries , never even m entions Eng land's co lo n ies in th e N ew World . A s au t hors. we o w e a debt of in spirati on to R ococo: Art and D esiy n ill H oo arth '5 E nyla nd, an ex h ib itio n at th e V ictoria and Al be rt Mu seum, an d it s acco m pa ny ing ca ta log ue (Lo ndon. 1984 ). w h ich pro vid ed a co rn uco pic view of th e sty le 's pr esen ce in En gland ; it is o ur aim to ac h ieve so me thi ng co mpa rab le for its pr esen ce in Amer ica. The fir st cha pter of th e book, a su m ma ry of th e Euro pean o rig ins and th e Am eri can m anifest ati on s of the rococo. conclu de s with a br ief discuss io n o f fir earm s, w hose ornament co ns ists eq ua lly o f e ng raved m et al an d carve d wood . and textil es, whi ch arc to o few in number to wa rra n t a separa te s t u dy . Th e seco n d c ha p ter is d e v o t ed t o arc hitec ture . Th ou gh littl e o f it survives an d o n ly o ne exa m ple is contain ed in th e ex hib itio n, it pr o vided th e setting for th e style's usc in th e o ther m edium s and in it sel f served as a show p lace fo r th e carve r 's art. Th e res t o f th e boo k is arranged in chapter s acco rd ing to m ed ium (pa pe r; silve r; wood; iron . glass .

V III

g ive n. it is th e g rea test; wher e th er e ar e t w o o r three. unl ess o t he rw ise n oted. th e y a re in o rde r o f hei ght . width . an d depth . For wo rks o n pap er , th e m easurem ent s a re of th e pl ate mark . if it ex is t s. o r of th e im ag e. if it d o es n ot. For o bjects o f w o od . th e se m ico lo n afte r th e prim ar y w o od denotes that th os e that foll o w a re seco n da ry. Th e bibli o graph y (pp. 257-( 3) co nta ins not o nly all refer en ces em ployed in sho rt form in th e text and in th e end no tes but also so urces o f gene ra l importan ce to any in ve sti g ati on o f th e Am erican ro co co .

and cera m ics) . with th e fo cu s o f the text on th e st yle o f an objec t an d w it h m att e rs o f co nst ruc t io n . co n d itio n . an d pr o ven an ce tou ch ed o n o nly insofar as was deemed relevant. O bjects w hose illu strati on s are identified by a number and a b rief ca p tio n are part o f th e ex hi b itio n and are recorded in full in it s chec k lis t (p p. 2 04-75). Th e numb er ap pea rs in bo ldface typ e at th at point in the text w he re th e o bject is di scussed at le ng t h. in a sec tio n se t o ff b y sp ace s. sugges ting w ha t w ould be an en t ry in a sta nda rd ex hibitio n cata log ue . Illu strati ons ide nt ified b y a fig ur e nu mber are o f object s that co u ld n ot b e included in th e ex h ib it io n o r o f im ages th at we re adde d to th e text for co m pa rative purpos es. Dim en sion s are g ive n in inche s. to th e near est eighth o f an in ch. an d i n ce n t i me te rs. Wh er e o n ly o ne dim en s ion is

M orrison H . H eck sch er Leslie G ree ne Bo w m an

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We ow e s p ec ial thank s to th e int ern s an d vo lu n tee rs w ho d evoted th eir ene rg ies to v ar iou s as pec ts o f thi s pr oj ect : Gord on Frey, Eli zab eth J. Kalm an, Floren ce Klein , Andrew J. Kron enberg, J ordan a P om er o y, Lesli e Sy m ing to n , an d Ca rla Yanni. At Los Angel es, we particul arl y app rec iate th e forb ear an ce and su p po rt o f memb ers o f th e decorati ve arts d ep artment : M artin G. Chapm an, J ean ett e H an isce , R o g er E . J on es , M arth a D . Lynn , Jud y And er son, and form er d ep artm ent h ead Timoth y Schr od er , as we ll as d ep artm ent int ern s D eidre Cron cnb ol d , Kath y Go d dard , an d Wend y Wasson . Resear ch assistan ce wa s also pr o vid ed by Eleano r H artm an, Anne Diederick , an d o the r members o f th e librar y staff. Fo r help with g ra n ts, co n t rac ts, an d fu n d - raisi ng, we th ank Ron ald B. Br atton, deput y dir ector; Elizab eth H. Al germissen, assistant director; Julie A. J ohnston , director o f dev elopm ent , and her ass ista n t, T om J acobson; and M ark Mitch ell , bud get man ager. For th eir in valu abl e ass is ta nce with th e ex hibition in Los An geles we acknowledge ass ista nt di rect or Arthur Owens and hi s sta ff m emb er s M ar y Lou ghlin an d Willi am Stahl ; h ead o f ex h ib it io n pr o gram s J ohn P assi , exhibition de sign er Bern ar d Kest er , spec ial eve nts pl ann in g director J anis Dinwiddi e and her sta ff; we also cre dit St even N. Oliver for hi s photo graph y. For ex h ib itio n in st all ati on we are o b liged to R oma Alli son , Lou M assad , Willi e Willi am s, and th ei r sta ffs; fo r regis trarial ass ista nce, Ren ee Mont gomer y an d C ha n d ra Kin g; for co nse r va tio n co n s u lta tio n , Pierer M eyer s, Ste ve Cristin-P ouch er , an d D on Men ve g; for tr avel arra nge me n ts , Jani ce Elli s and Fer oza Vimadalal. We a re indebt ed to o u r co lleag ues at in num er abl e mu seums , librari es, an d historical so cieties for m aki n g th eir co llec tio ns access ib le (a n d in m an y cas es al so fa cilitatin g loan s), for assistin g with resear ch , and for pr ovidin g illu strati on s. In parti cul ar , we sa lu te th e foll owin g in d iv id ua ls and th eir in stituti on s : Alb an y In stitute o f H ist or y an d Art :

An ex h ib itio n of th e sco pe and co m plex ity of Am eri can R O([1CO is po ssible o n ly with the co m b ine d efforts of co un tless pe ople o f div er se talents. We ac k now ledge th e almo st uni ver sal en th us ias m and coo pe ra tio n w ith whi ch w e were gree te d durin g o u r yea rs o f travel and resear ch . Our fir st debt is to Phil ipp e de M onteb ell o and Ea rl A . Powell III, direct or s o f Th e M et rop olitan Mu seum o f Art and th e Los An g eles Co u n ty Museum o f Art, resp ectivel y, for their stea dfas t su p port, w hich m ad e po ssible thi s join t venture of the tw o institution s. At th e M etropolit an, sco res o f indi vidu al s w orked to ma ke Am eri call R O([1 ([1 happen . In th e director's o ffice we ar e pa r t ic u la rly in deb te d t o M ahrukh T ar apor and Marth a D eese; in th e d ev el opm ent o ffice, Em ily Kern an Raffert y, N in a M cN . Di efenbach , and Carol Ehler; for all regi strari al det ails. J ohn Bu chan an an d Nin a S. Maru ca; for ex hibitio n design. David Harvey, for g ra phic design , Jill Hamrncrbcr g. an d for li ghtin g, Z ach Z an oll i; for th e co nse r v atio n o f o bjects, J ohn C ano n ico , Rud olf C o lb an , Sh err y D o y al, Kathr yn J. G ill, H erm es Kn auer, Willi am Lou che, D o roth y Mah o n , Mark Min or, M arj o rie N . Shell ey , Ca t h er ine Turton, Antoin e M . Wilm er in g ; fo r ph oto graph y, Barbara Bri d g e rs, Al ex ander Mikh ail o vi ch , Karin L. Willi s, an d Ca rmel W ilson . Assist an ce was also gracio usly pr ovided by Co lta Iv es , D a vid W . Ki ehl , an d T om R ass icu r of the D ep artm ent of P rints and Ph oto graph s, an d b y C la re LcC o r be ill er , J essi e M cNab , an d Willi am R ied er of th e De partme nt o f Euro pea n Sculpture and Decorative Arts. We are gra te fu l to all o ur co lleag ues in th e Ameri can Win g : J ohn K. Howat , The Lawren ce A . Fleischm an C ha irm an o f th e D epartments of Am eri can Art ; cu rato rs Ali ce Coo ney Frelin ghu y sen, Pet er M . Kenn y , Ameli a P eck , Fr an ces G ru be r Safford , an d es pecia lly Ca the rin e Ho over Voorsan ger; ad m in istra tive assist ants Ellin Ro sen zweig and Sera p h ine Wu ; d ep artm ental te chni ci an s G ary Burn ett, Edwa rd D i Farn ecio. Sea n Farrell , and D on E. T empleton .

XI

Ta m m is K . Groft , C h ri s ti ne Ro bin son ; Am eri can Antiq ua ria n So cie ty : Georgia B. B arnhi ll; The A rt In stitute o f C h icago : And ora M org in son , M il o M . N aev e; Th e Baltim ore Mu se um of Art : We n dy A . Coo pe r , Will iam Vo ss Elder III, D eb or ah A . Fcd er h cn : B o st on M arin e So ci et y : Har old F. Lyn ch ; Bost on Pu bli c Libr ar y: Sinclair Hitchin gs; T he Br o o kl yn Mu seum : Ke vin Stay to n ; Th e J ohn Ca rte r Br o wn Libr ar y : Sus an L. D anfor th, N o rm an Ficr ing ; Burl in gto n Co u n ty Hi st ori cal Socie ty : Rh ett Per n ot: Th e Ca rnegie Museum o f Art : Ph illip M . J ohnston ; The C ha rlesto n Mu seum : C h ris to p he r T. Lo cb lc in: Th e C h ips to ne Fo un da tio n: Luk e Bcck erd ire: St erl in g an d Fr an cin e C la r k A rt In st itute: Beth Ca rve r Wees; Co lo n ia l Willi am sburg : Wallace 13 . G us ler , G ra ha m H ood, Ron ald Hurst , M ar gar et Prit ch ard ; Co lu m bia U nive rsi ty : H oll ce H as w ell, H erbert M it ch ell ; Co n nec t ic u t Hi st or ical Soc ie ty : C h ris to p he r P. B ickfo rd ; Th e Co rn ing Mu seum o f G lass : D wi ght P. Lanm on, J an e S. Sp ill ma n ; D ep art m ent of Sta te : C le me n t Conger, M ar y Itscll , Ga il Serfari: Di ckinson College Lib rary : M ar ie B o oth Ferre, Geo rge Hin g ; The Di etri ch Am eri can Fo u n da tio n : D eb orah M cCrack en Rebu ck ; Essex Institute: Rob ert Weis; Fir st Troop Phil ad elphia Ci ty Cava lry : J ohn C. D ev er eu x ; Fogg Art Mu seum : Loui se T odd Amb ler , M arj orie 13 . Coh n, J an e M ontgom er y; Henry Ford Museum & G ree n field Vi llage: M ich ael J. Ettcma: Ge nea log ica l Soc iet y of Penn syl vani a: Anto inette J. Seg raves; Gi bbes Mu seum of Ar t : An g el a D . M ack ; H e rsh e y M useum : Lesli e A . Bcllais. J am es M cM ah on ; Hi gh Mu seum o f Art : Don ald C. Peirce; Hi stor ic C h arlest on Foundation : J o nath an H . Poston , J. Th om as Savage, Jr . ; H is to r ic C her ry Hill : An n e W. Acker son ; Hi st ori c D eerfield , Inc. : A m and a M crull o , Bru ce M osel y, J anin e Ske rry, Ph ilip Zea: T he H ist o rical Socie ty o f Pen n s yl van ia : Dav id Cassedy ; H o pew ell Fu rn ace Natio na l Hi st o ri c Site: Lee Bo y le, D ian e C ram; In d ep end en ce Na tio nal H istor ic P ar k : Karie Di crh orn , D ori s D . Fanell i;

Librar y Co m pa ny o f Phil ad elphi a : J ohn C. Van H orn e; M arbleh ead Hi stori cal So ciet y : Bette Hunt, M ary Parrish; M ar yl and Hi st ori cal So ci et y: J ennifer F. Go ldsbo ro ug h, G regory Weidm an ; M oravi an H ist ori cal So ciet y : Susa n M . Dr eyd opp el; M ount Vern on Ladi es' Asso ciat ion o f th e Uni on : C h ris t ine M ead ow s; Mu seum o f th e C ity of N ew York : D eborah Dependahl Wat er s, J an S. Ramirez; Mu seu m o f Earl y So u the rn D ecorative Arts: J ohn Bi vin s, J r. , Fra nk L. H orton, M ad el yn M oeller , Br adford L. Rau schen berg , M ar g ar et Vin cent ; Mu seum of Fin e Arts, Bo st on : Elle no r Alc orn, Edwa rd S. C ooke, Jr., J on athan Fairbank s, J eanni ne Falin o , Rach ael M onfred o , J effrey Mun ger , J anice So rkow, Lind a Thom as, J ohn Wool f; Mu seum o f Fine Arts, Hou ston : Mi ch ael K. Br own; N ati on al Trust for Hi stor ic Preservation: J ennifer Esler , Elizab eth M . Laurent , Frank E. Sanchis; T he N ew J er sey Hi stori cal So ciet y : Ro salind Libbey , Wilson E. O 'D onn el l; N ew J er sey Sta te Mu seum : Su zann e Co rlc tte C ri lley, Su san Fink el ; Th e New-York H istorical Socie ty: Tim oth y An glin Burg ard, Nin a R . Gr ay, H oll y H ot ch ner , Wend y Sh ad w ell; Th e N ew York Publi c Librar y: Ro b er ta Waddell ; Phil ad elphia Museum o f Art : Beat rice B. Ga rvan, J ack L. Lind sey, N an cy Qu ailc; Portland Mu seum o f Art : M arth a R . Scv cr ens: Rh od e lslan d Sch o o l of Desig n : Thom as S. Mi chi e, C hristo phe r P. M onkhou se, Frankl in W. Robinson ; The Soc iety for the Preservation of N ew Eng land Antiquiti es: Br o ck J ob e, Ri ch ard N yl ander ; Sta te Mu seum o f Penn s yl v ani a: J am es Mit ch ell; Van Cort la n d t H ou se : Elizabe th 13 . Lecki e; Vir ginia Mu seum o f Fine Arts: William M . S. R asruu sscn : Wad sw orth Athen eum : Wi llia m H osley, Elizabe th Kornhau ser ; W interthur Mu seum: Kenneth Ames, Burt D enk er, N an cy G . Eva ns , D on ald L. Fe n n imo re , E. M cSh er r y Fo wble, Th o m as A . G raves , Paul B. H en sl ey , C har les F. Humm el , Ani zi a K ar m az y n , J ohn Kri ll , Greg Landrcy, Rich ard M cK in str y, Kath arin e M artinez, M ich ael S. Podm ani czk y , Ian M . G . Quimb y , C he ry l Ro b ert so n ,

XII

Willm an Spawn, Laura F. Sprag ue, Pat ricia A . Teter, Gi lbert T. Vin cent, Barb ar a and Gera ld W. R. Ward . At th e M etropolitan Mu seu m , w e ex p ress o u r ap p rec iation to m ember s of th e ed ito rial dep art m ent for th e prod ucti on o f th e b o o k : J ohn P . O'N ei ll, Ed itor in C hief an d Ge nera l M an ager o f Publi cati on s; Barb ara Bu rn , Exe cu tive Editor ; T e resa Ega n, M an ag in g Edito r ; Ken d ra H o , pro ofre ad er ; Su san Br adfo rd , ind exer ; Steffie Kapl an , m echa nica ls art ist; Pet er Anton y an d es pec ia lly H elg a Lo se, produ ction assoc iates. O ur g rea tes t debts, ho w eve r, are to Elizabeth Finger, fo r th e tim el ess beaut y of he r b ook design ; D av id Al liso n , for th e fin e an d se ns itive n e w p ho to g rap h y fo r th e b o ok ; an d Fra nces Br crt cr , fo r her de di cated and m eti culo us assistan ce in all ph ases o f the e xhibitio n. M ar y-Al ice Ro ger s, m aste r wo rds m it h , lab ored un stintin gl y to ach ieve w ha tev er clari t y and elega nce are found in th is vo lu me . Our fin al ac kn o w ledg m e n t is to o u r famili es a nd fri e nd s fo r t he ir ste ad fas t forbearan ce and encou rage m ent .

K ar ol A . Schmi eg el , Su san Sw an , N e vill e Th omp son , R ob ert F. Trent, Philip D. Zimm erm an ; W or cest er Art Mu seum : Sall y R. Fr eitag, Su san E. Stri ckl er ; Yale Uni versit y Art Ga llery: D avid L. Barqu ist, Di ane Hart, Patri cia E. Kan e, Jul es D . Pr own . M any indi vid ua ls also deserve m ention and th ank s: Rob ert Bark er, H enry L. P. Beck with , jr. , Philip H. Br adle y, Ali ce Br aun feld , C h r is to p her Burr , Ma rg ar et B . Ca ldwe ll an d Ca r lo M . Flo re nt ino , M ari an S. Carso n , M r. a n d Mr s . Robert A . D aly , Will iam K. du Pont, Mr. and Mrs. Ca rly le C. Euba nk II , Marth a Ga ndy Fales, J oAnn and Julian Ga nz , Wen dell D . Gar re t t, Robert Geo rge, William H . Guthm an, Mi ch ael H all , Kenn eth H a wkin s, Grego ry A . Hi g gin son, Jam es P. J enkins, Mr. and Mrs. Will iam S. Kilro y , J oe Kindig III , Mr. a n d Mrs . B ern ad ott e P. Lest er, Jr., Bern ard Levy , S. D ean Le v y , Arthu r Li v cr anr , Isr ael Li ver ant , Jo se p h H . M cG ee , Pet e r M an ig ault, Al an Mill er , Ruth M ill er , M r. an d M rs. J am es L. Nu gent , Jr. , M ax P alcv sk y, Arl en e P alm er, Ll o yd A. P ear son , Ad ol ph a n d Bev erle y Pl aczek , D. J. Puffert, R ich ard H . Rand all, Jr. , Mi ch ael Rebi c, Barb ar a Roberts, Alexandra W. Rollins, Al bert Sack , H ar old Sac k , Rob e rt Sack, J eann e Sloa ne, Mi ch ael Sn odin ,

M o rrison H . H cck sch er Leslie G reen e Bo w m an

X I II

LENDERS

TO

THE

Alban y Insrirur c o f Hi sto ry and Art Am erican Antiqu ari an So ciet y Aver y Ar chitectural and Fine Arts Libr ar y, Columbia Uni ver sit y Mrs. Gra ham J ohn Barbcy, Courtesy of th e M ar yland H istorical Socie ty Birdsboro Commu ni ty M em ori al Ce nte r Boston M arine Society M rs. M ur ray Br aun feld Da vid M . , N elson F. , Pet er R., and Ro bert W. Brinckcrhoff, and th eir fami lies T he Brookl yn Museum The J oh n Carte r Br o wn Librar y at Brown Univer sit y Burl in gto n Cou nty H istorical Societ y The Ca rnegie Museum o f Art The C har lesto n Museum Th e C hipsro nc Foundati on C livcdc n, a co-s tew ardship propcrty of th e N ationa l T rust for Hi stori c Pr eservation Th e Colo nial Willi am sburg Fo undation Connec ticut H isto rical Societ y The Co rn ing Museum o f G lass The Rich ard Henry D an a fam ily Dic ki nso n College The Die trich Am eri can Foundation H . Richard D ietrich, J r. D iplo m at ic Recept ion Ro oms, Dep artm ent o f State Wi lliam K. du Pont Geo rge G. M eade Easb y Essex Institute First Sco ts Pr esb yter ian Church, C ha rlesto n Gib bes M useum o f Art Harvard Univer sit y Art Museums Henry Ford Museum & Gr eenfield Vill age Hersh ey Museum Hi gh Museum o f Art

EXHIBITION

Hist ori c C herry Hill Hi storic Deerfi eld, Inc. The Hi stori cal Soc iety o f Penn syl vani a Mr. and Mrs. Geor ge M . Kau fm an Joe Kindig III Rob ert E. Lee M em ori al Association, Inc. , Str atford Hall Plant ation Bern ar d and S. D ean Levy. Inc. The Libr ar y Com pany of Ph iladelph ia Los An geles County M useum of A rt M arbl ehead Hi storical Socie ty Mr. and Mrs. Frank A. M aur i The M etrop olitan Museum of Art M or avian Hi stori cal Soc iety Mu seum o f Art, Rh od e Island School o f Design Museum o f th e C ity o f N ew York M useum of Earl y Southern Decor ati ve Arts M usc um of Fine A rts, Boston T he Na tio na l Societ y o f Colonial Dam es in the St ate o f New York; Van Cortland t H ou se The New Jersey Hi storical Societ y N ew J ersey State Museum The N ew-York Hi storical Socie ty The N ew York Public Lib rar y Eri c N oah Mr. and Mrs. Edwa rd J. Nusr ala Ph iladelphia M useum o f Art The Sta te Museum o f Penn sylvania Philip Van Rensselaer Van Wyck Wad sworth Ath eneum The Winterthur Libr ar y Winterthur Museum Ervin g and J oyce Wolf Wor ccster Art Museum Yale University Art Ga llery Private co llecto rs (six)

xv

THE

A ME R I C A N

R O C O C O

T he wo rd " rococo" was ev ide n tly fir st coi ne d in 179 6 o r 1797 by M auri ce Qu ai" , a pupil ofJ acqu es-L ouis D avid ' s, w ho used it as a pej orative descr ipt ion of th e sty le associated w ith Louis X V . ' Q ua i" was almos t ce rtai nly co rru p ting th e term "rocaille," one o f th e rococo 's cha rac te ristic m oti fs. " Roca il le" was origi na lly u sed t o r efer to th e tortuous ro ck wo r k fabricat ed for arti fic ia l caves o r gro ttoes , th emselves evoca tive of aq ua tic fant asi es, in th e seve n tee n t hce n tury pl easu re garde ns o f th e aristocracy . "Ro co co " lo st its negative co nno ta tio n by the 1840S, and sin ce th at time has bee n u se d t o n am e a sty le that d u r ing th e fi rs t h alf o f the eig h tee n t h cen tu ry p e rm eat ed all br anch es o f ar t is t ic endeavo r in E u ro pe, fro m th e fin e arts to th e d ecorati ve, expressing a n ew, u n con vention al , an d hi ghl y o rna me n ta l sp iri t of fan tasy, elega nce, an d m o vem ent. In it s dep arture from classica l o rde r an d sym met ry, th e ro co co sco rned th e ru le and th e co m pass in favo r of em bellish me nt th at required s k il lfu l free ha nd ren deri ng an d an imagi na tio n th at transcended the bo un ds of acade mic co nve nt ion. Traci ng its o rigins to so urces in Italian bar oque design s, the ro co co was nu rtu red to m at urit y in Fran ce in the [730S, largely at th e h and of the g ifted design er just e-Aurele M eissonn ier (1695 -1750), arc h i tec t, p aint er , sc u lp to r, and silversmi t h, w ho fro m 1726 u nt il h is d eath wa s th e o ffic ia l co u rt des ig ner to Lo ui s XV. 2 Am on g th e ea rl ies t Fr en ch rococo manifesta tio ns arc M eisson ni cr 's des ig ns o f 172 8 for a

scu lp tu ra l ca nd lestick o n w h ich froli ckin g putti intertwine wi th sp ira li ng sc ro ll wo r k ;" h e wen t o n to p rodu ce awide ra nge o f ot her design s for arc hi tec tu re, sculpture , furni ture, and silve r in the r o co co m od e . H is or na me n ta l print s o f arc hi tec tura l ca p rices ami d sur rea l land scap es o f fountain s,

Side chair (No. 147) after Ch ippendale desigll (No. r)

FIGURE I . Ornam ental design , Oel/v re de[us te-A urele M cissonn icr (Paris, ca. '7 50), Plate D22. Engraving on paper , 4V2 x 8 in . ( 11. 4 x 20.3 em .). T he M et rop olitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 ( 18.62·5)

shells . and ro caill e (nc . I ), at tra ct ing co nsi de ra ble atte ntion and wi del y imitat ed . ca me to cha rac te rize th e ~(!CIIl'C pittoresque (the Fre nc h ro co co). As o ne o f hi s co nte m pora ries observed , " Meisso nnie r began to dest ro y all th e stra ig ht lines th at we re o f the o ld u sag e . . . he inv ented co n t ras ts, th at is to say he ban ish ed sy m me try ."4 In Eng la nd , t rad itio n all y dep endent o n Fren ch examp le in matter s o f tast e, th e ado p tio n of th e ~(! e ll /'c pittoresquc wa s fo st ered by a su bs ta n tia l co m m u n ity of Fr en ch Hu gu en ot cra fts me n w ho h ad co me to live in Lond on . T hey in cl uded m an y o f th e best m etalsm ith s. eng ravers, an d woodworke rs who fled th eir co un t ry afte r 1085, w he n Louis X IV revok ed t he Ed ic t o f N ant es. w h ic h h ad pr ote ct ed th e r ight s of Fren ch Protest ants. Co llec tiv ely. w he ther recently arrived or o f a succee d ing ge ne ra t io n, th o se e m igres not o n ly tr an sformed En g li sh d esi gn but also eleva te d sta n dards of cr aft sm an ship to new heights. Amon g th e first ex po ne nts of th e ro co co style an d the ar tisa n w ho subseq ue n tl y exercised g rea t infl ue nce o n En gl ish silve r was Paul de Lam crie ( 168817 Sf). a silve rs m ith born in London o f Hu gu en ot ex traction, wh o se oe uv re d em on stra ted ro co co tend en cies as earl y as 1731 . S E ng lis h e ng rav ing was s imi la rly a ffected by t he Fren ch drafts.man and eng rave r Hubert Gravclo r ( 1099- 1773), wh o a r r i ve d in Lond on in 1732 a nd w hose in fl uen ce ex te nde d well beyond hi s spe cialty. A s a teach er at the Saint M artin 's Lan e A cad em y . th en th e chief sc hool for Englis h ar tists and o ne th at becam e th e ne xu s o f t rainin g in rococo design. G ravelo r intro d uced the ro co co into all bran ch es of Eng lis h art. T he aca de my an d th e o the r schoo ls o f d raw ing th at took up the st yle we re vita l to its develop m ent , for the y ed uc ate d th e draft sm en and th e m odelers w ho su pplied pattern s for carvers. en gr avers, silve rs m iths. and o the r artisa ns. Two d esi gn er s fi gur ed pr omin entl y in th e d ist in ctl y Eng lis h interpret ati on of ro co co o rna me n t th at emerged in t h e 1740s: M atthi as Lo c k a n d Henr y Co plan d . (, Lo c k (d . 17( 5) was a wood-carver w ho be twee n 1744 and 1746 etched seve ra l su ites of d esi gn s for ca rve d furnitu re (fra m es an d tab les). H e also pub lish ed bo okl et s o f o rna me ntal shields, or carrou c hcs, and . abo u t 1746, issu ed T he Principles (~r O runIIl C/II. (l /, the Youtli's G uide 10 Dral Fillg of Foliage. an instru ctio n man ual in drawin g ragged- ed ged aca n th us leaves, know n in ro coco parl an ce as ra ffl es (HG. 2). Co pla nd (d. (753) wa s an acco m p lis he d engraver w ho a lso p u blis he d sui tes of orn am ental p rints . Hi s s ha r p sty le o f eng rav ing and hi s as ym m et r ical a n d fanta sti c sc he mes , co m b iui ng scro lls and roca illc w it h naturalisri c flo w er s and g rasses ( 1'( (;. 3). set t he ton e fo r succee d ing E ng lis h e ng raved o rna me n t. In 175 2. Lo ck and Co p la nd issu ed join tly A Ne ll! B ook 40malllCIIIS w ith T w el ve L eaves. T he ir de sign s. w h ich we re often m ore in vc n tivc, e nerge t ic, a nd b iza rre than Fr en ch prece dents.

?.!,

r I ,.,,,/,.,, Ihill",II;~rR~f. . "

r .

) (1'1'0 '

n,.."r " ,,:,,~.,nll. 1 I II " /''/' 'r /

. ~·o·, ·,,1'

2. Title page. M. Lock. The Principles (~r 0 ,.,,
AJ~ by T . Oll"on , Jk>.~r · I

---:i _~"; ~

'..

J'"l '''

·1

Fish er 's m onum ental char t of 17 56 was not reissued until th e Revolution and th en o n ly in a redu ced form at and showing a lar g er area , all th e way up th e rive r to Phil ad elphi a. While und at ed, it p robabl y was eng raved in 177 5, in an ticipat io n o f arme d co n flict an d in tim e to serve as th e m odel for a spa te of pira te d Lon d on ed itio ns, all d at ed 1776 an d all ac k no w ledg ing th at th e y we r e t ak en fr om th e cha rt pu bl ish ed b y Fi sh e r in Phil ad elph ia . In thi s war , unlik e th at w ith the Fren ch , bo th sides we re to have cha rts! A w ater col or vers io n o f th e seco nd editio n (N o . 39 ) differ s littl e fro m th e eng ra vin g excep t th at th e three ca rto uc hes have been co nso lida te d in to o ne, and the dedicati on , the author's na me , and th e list o f su bscri be rs are o m it te d. In p lace o f th e Penn ar ms are a chev ro n an d thr ee fi sh es, p erh ap s a p u n o n th e a u t ho r's n am e, w hic h h as led to th e specu la tio n t ha t thi s m ay h a ve been Fish er 's own co py .s, The expert ly d raw n carto uc he, in g risa ille exce p t fo r green spiky leaves an d red flo w ers, is a ta me r, m ore sta te ly ve rs io n of th e ro co co th an t ha t T u rner had used tw o decad es befor e.

39 C hart oj D elawavc Bav and R iv er Prob ably by J oshu a Fisher Ph iladelp hia, ca. 177 5 Ink and wa te rcolor on pape r. 17'/" x 27 1/~ in. The H isto rical Soc iety of Pennsylvania

Ni cholas Scull ( 10 87- 170 () was surveyo r ge neral o f the Pr ovince of Penn sylv an ia from 1748 almos t until his death . In th at po sitio n, he was occ u pie d in m ak in g th e m o st im po rta n t m ap s of Phil ad elphi a: in 17 5 2 , o ne o f th e cit y an d " Pa rts A dj acent "; in 17 54 , an " East P ro sp ect " ; in 17 59, o ne of th e w ho le pr ov in ce, eng raved b y Turn er and h avin g a ro co co carto uche. Scu ll di ed in 17°1 , before co m ple ting a det ail ed m ap of Ph iladelph ia based on his surveys o f th e city's streets and lot s, but his dau ghter and exe cu tor , M ary Biddle, saw it to co m ple tio n th e foll o win g yea r. Dedi cat ed to the elec te d o ffi cia ls and free m en of Phil ad elphi a, " T his Pl an of th e improved part o f th e C it y surveyed an d laid d o wn b y th e lat e N icho las Sc u ll Esq r. " (N o . 40 ) was publi sh ed o n 1 N o vem ber 170 2 and so ld by " the Edit ors, " M ar y Biddl e and M atthew Cla rkso n . Cla rkso n was first heard o f in an adve rtisem ent of 17°1, w hich pr oclaim ed: "Copper- Plate Printin g/ B y a wo rk ma n fro m Lond on, / Is pe rfo rm ed , in all it s B r an ches , for M atth ew C la r kso n . s s xz Whil e C la r kso n, a tr ad esm an, ne ver d iv ulged th e nam e o f th e eng ra ve r , th e sk illfu l re n dering of th e t itl e ca rto uc he has th e qu al it y o f Lon d on wo rk . (W ith Turn er dea d, Dawkin s is a likel y cand i d atc . ) Th e ma p is th e fir st th at acc ura te ly record ed th e placement of individua l buildings in Phil adelphia.

40

Plan oj Philadelphia Possibly by Henr y Dawkins, after N icholas Scull, Philadelp hia, 1762 En gravin g on paper, 20 1/H x 26·% in. T he N ew York Pub lic Libr ar y

63

......

......-: In ad di tio n to thi s salver, a pu nch bo w l survives from his hand , also beauti full y engraved w it h a ro coco ar mo ria l fo r Pi err e Va n Co rtlan d t. Heath's bi ll for t he pu n ch b o wl cha rged Van Cortla nd t one pound ste rling for engraving "A Cot Arm es & a C ris t. " 1.;7 T he th ir d sa lver in th is im p ress ive N e w York gro u p was ma rked by Daniel C h ristian Fuerer (N o . 74) and m ad e for a me mber of t he p rom ine n t P ro vo st fam ily of Fre nc h Hug ue not ex t rac tio n. Of th e three salvers, th is has th e m ost vigo rous borde r, d e fin ed b y bo ld pe a k s an d curves an d rimmed with ga d roo ni ng . T he Pr o vo st fam ily ar ms g race the elabora te cen tra l carto uche. C h ased deco ra tion is ex tre mely rar e o n A m eri can sa lve rs. No t sur pris ing ly, th e o n ly ins ta nces known occur o n t w o examp les from Phil ad elph ia. q K Th e fin e r of th e t w o (N o . 75 ) , dating to T754 a n d m arked by Ph ilip Sy ng, J r. , was , like the R ic hardson coffee po t (No. 05) , p a rt of th e we d d ing si lve r of Edwa rd and Sa ra h Penin gt on (see p . 104 ). Th e sa lver, se t o n th ree cas t sc ro ll feet , is rimmed w it h a hi ghl y in t rica te cas t b o rd e r o f asy m me t rica l raffl es, scro lls , a nd fo liage . Th e interi or sur face is ex q u is ite ly chased wi th raffles, fl o w e r s, lea fag e , C -sc ro lls , a n d di ap er ed pa nels in a broad ban d encircli ng a cent ra l eng raved cipher. So simi lar is t he chase d d ecorat ion to th at of th e Sy ng coffee pot m ad e for th e Ga lloway fam ily (N o . (2) that o ne m ay pres ume th ey were deco ra ted by th e same unidentified chaser.

75

Salver, ca. 1754 Philip Syn g , Jr., Philadelphia Silver, Di am . : 8 1;S in. The H istor ical Societ y of Penns ylvani a

I I]

SAU CEBOATS M ost of th e per iod 's sa uce boa rs resem ble the pair m ade b y Revere fo r the Paine service (see N o . 49), a form est ab lished by Eng lish exa m ples in th e pr ero co co peri od and accommod at ed to th e new style b y th e add ition of she ll and sc ro ll cas t ings at handl e and feet. Th e o u tstanding Ameri can sa uce boa ts are a pair (N o . 76 ) sup plie d b y Richard H u m ph reys to George Em len ( 1741- 18 12) , a wea lt hy Quaker me rcha nt w ho m arried Sara h Fish bo urne (1756-1823 ) in 1775. In st ead of the t ypi cal th ree-fo oted base, each o f th e Humphreys pair is elega n tly upl ift ed on a ped esta l foot hav in g flut ed , curving bo rders. The shaped design of the foot is re pea te d in t he rim of th e vesse l, w here it is edg ed with ga droo ning t o co rres po nd t o th e fl u tin g be low. T he rim resolves into a g rac eful, sc ulp tu ra l scro lled term inal at th e handl e j u nct ure, an d a cas t sc ro lle d han dl e comp lete s th e co m posit io n an d b al an ces th e m ass o f the pour in g s po u t. Su p crbl y pr op orti on ed an d g racefu lIy d esig ned, the tw o sauceboa rs arc furth er enlive ne d b y th e add itio n of engraved ca rtouc hes enclos ing th e sc ri p t in iti als CE, for th e ori gin al owner.

011e oj a pair oj sal/ceboats, 1770 - S 0 Richard Hu mp hreys, Philadelphia Silver . H. : (d 4 in . Pr ivat e collec tion

Iq

Rare Forms

So me o f th e fin est ac hie ve me n ts in A m e rican ro co co si lvc r are ex t re me ly r ar e fo r ms. Thoug h a nu m ber of th e m are relat ed to t he ri tual o f tea and the serving o f mea ls, the y are st ill so sca rce as to wa rrant inclusion he re. Silver dish ri n gs, cake bas ke ts, an d teak ettl es, and gold shoe b uck les and snuff boxes we re lu xuries, even amo ng tho se w ho mig h t regard a silve r teap ot as a social necessity. The very selection of such for ms was an act of conspicuous consumption o n the part of th e owners ; th at the rococo style was chosen for their interpre ta tio n fo llowed in natural progression . It is therefo re " no t su r p ris ing th at e ng rav ing , the most modest kind of ro coco o rna me n t, is, when present , overshadowed by more p re te n tio us, an d m o re expensive, chased, p ie rced, or cas t deco ra tio n. M oreover, it is a mo ng th ese precious, singu la r fo r m s th at th e rar e in cid en ce of go ld is fou n d. In the eig h teent h cent ur y, th e terms "golds mi th" and "s ilvers mi th," referrin g to an a rt isa n wh o wo rke d in p reci ou s m et al s, we re intercha ngea b le. Even in E ng la n d , w here th e titl e o f th e silve rs m iths ' g uild w as th e " Wo rshipful Co m pa ny of Go ld smi ths," m embers se ldo m had t he o p po rt u ni ty to wo rk in so lid gold, more fre q ue n tly using it only in measured q ua ntiti es fo r gi ld ing obje cts of silve r (a tec h niqu e prac ticed infreq ue n tly in th e co lonies). Wi thout exceptio n, eig h teenthce n t ury Am eri can go ld objects a re sma ll, pe rsona l accessor ies, suc h as b u tto n s , shoe buckles, or snuff boxes, attribu tes reser ved fo r th e very wea lthy. On e o f th e m o st engagi ng forms in Am e rican gold is th e w his tle a n d b ell s , an ornament p opul ar in Eur op e in t he seve n tee nt h a n d eig h teen t h ce n turies. M ad e fo r a c hi ld 's am use me nt and co m p lete wi t h a b ran ch o f co ra l (co ns ide red as h a vin g prote cti ve po w e rs) fo r teethin g, it is d epi ct ed in paintin gs han ging fro m th e sma ll owne r's wa ist. 14\) G old and si lve r exa m pi es im ported from Lo nd o n are d o cum ented in co lo n ia l n e w sp ap e r advertisements. I S O J o seph Rich ard so n

I 15

77 WI/istle and bells.

17 55-(j H

N icho las Roosevelt . N ew York Go ld; co ral, H . : (NH in . The Metrop olit an Museum of Art

ll (j

o rd e red both pl ain an d c h ased "Correll & Bells, " usuall y w it h the specifica tio n " 8 Bell s to E ach. " Between 1758 and 1773, he sen t fo r se ven ty -s ix plain and fift y-four "chas e": on 27 Jun e 17 59 , he o rd ere d "2 C hast Co rre ls w it h 8 Bell s G ilt w ith Gold," th e o nly two so speci fied . O ccasion all y, he also req ueste d "Co rrell Pie ces for Whisels & Bell s," evidentl y for to ys m ad e in hi s own sho p. 151 Paul Revere recorded a " Silve r child s Wi sel" in 1762 (t ho ug h th e fo rm is o the rwise virtua lly ab se n t fro m h is led g ers) , an d, o n 18 Au gu st 177 0, Ph il ip Sy ng , Jr. , received fort y sh illi ngs nin epence from J oh n Ca dwalade r for a w histle and bells. P" Onl y fo u r e xa m p les in g o ld b y Am eri can a rtisa ns a re k nown. P:' A g old w histle marked by Ni chol as Roosevelt has sur v ived w itho u t proven an ce, but the luck y recip ien t got an ex t ravaga n t pla ythin g (N o . 77 ) . Su ch trinkets , whether in go ld o r silver, we re u su all y the gift o f a dotin g re lat iv e; '>' often a t th e c h il d 's ch riste n ing . Th e form lend s it self to a style th at se eks to cha r m and am u se. The Ro o sevelt exa m pl e, w h ich retain s six o f it s o rig in al ei ght b ells , is meti cu lou sly decorat ed with ro coco flowers , leafage, ro caille, and a fo u n ta in, o n a s t i p p le d g ro u n d , all framed in p anels an d reserves o f she lls an d C -sc ro lls . A ch ild's pl easure in th ese preci ou s t o y s is re flec te d in Th e Rambl er, w he re Samu el J ohn son rem arked : " Of all th e to ys with which child ren are de lig hte d , I va lued o nly m y co ral. " 155 Ni ch ol as Ro o sevelt ( 1715- 1769) w as b orn in Ne w York an d prob abl y ap p ren ticed to Co rneliu s Wynkoop (b . 1701 ). H e was m ar ried tw ice; fir st to C athe rine Con foort, in 1737, t he n to Eli zab eth Thurm an, in 1754. H e was ac tiv e as a silvers m ith from 173 7 th rou gh 1768 . In J anu ar y 1769, he ad verti sed for let p ro perty o n th e wharf th at in cluded a "ro om y an d co n ve n ient h ou se, w ith seven fir e-pl aces, " as we ll as a silve rs m ith's sho p , to ol s of th e tr ad e, an d "a par cel o f read y m ade silve r . .. w hic h h e w ill sell ve ry reason abl e , as h e intend s d eclinin g bu sin ess, an d to m o ve in th e Co u n t ry in th e spring . " 15(' Nichol as, th e grands o n o f th e fir st Ro os evelt to settle in N ew Am st erd am , w as related to th e pr esid ential Roosevelt s, w ho descended from his brother. A gold shoe bu ckle m ark ed by M yer M yers (N o . 78) furth er ill us t ra tes th e ro co co sty le's suita b ility for ac cen t uatin g th e impor ta nce o f s ma ll, v alu a b le o bjects . Its cas t an d chase d deco ra tio n , fo rm ed vari ou sly o f in te rw o ven leafag e, flower s, and scrolls, w ould have glit tered in th e lig ht, drawin g atte ntion to thi s o rna te , gro und- level accesso ry. Wh ile Am er ican go ld exa m ples are extr emel y rar e, lar ge q uan tities o f silve r bu ckl es we re m ade o n both sid es o f th e Atlan tic for Ameri can bu yer s. A sing le London o rde r placed in 17 59 b y J o seph R ich ard son includ ed 11 0 p air s , but th e p ro d uctio n o f hi s own sho p wo u ld ap pea r to have b een far

Shoe huck lc, 17 5 5-7 5

Myer Myers, New York Gold; steel. L.: 2-% in. Garvan Co llection, Yale Un iversity

I 17

79

Sill/if box. 1755- 75 M ycr M yer s. Ne \~ York Go ld D iarn . : 2 '% 111 . , etr op o I'iran M useum of Art T he M

I I

X

in excess o f that figure. In [7 61, he ord ered seven te en gro ss (2 , 448) o f stee l chapes and tongues in varyin g sizes for m ak-

in g bo t h sho e an d kn ee bu ckl es . 157 The personal qualit y o f th e bu ckle form m ad e it particul arl y suita b le as a gift. The M yer s exa m p le, it s s tee l cha p e and ton gue probably imp ort ed fr om Lond on, is e ng ra ve d "The Gift o f Robt . A rcd eckne Esqr. to D anl. M cCormi ck." M cC ormick (1742[834) was an ill us t rio us New York bank er who later became an alde rma n o f th e East Ward . 15 K An oth er lu xur y was the sn u ff box, a rar e form em plo yed in th e a r is t oc r a t ic pr a cti ce o f inh alin g th e co s tly tob a c coder i ved s u bs ta nce. Am eri c an sn u ff boxes o f go ld ar e ex t re rne ly sca rce, sin ce th eir size required more o f the precio us m etal than sma lle r fo rm s su ch as button s o r bu ckles . Th e e la bo ra te ly chase d exa m p le marked b y Myer M yers (N o . 79 ) was prob abl y cr eat ed as a spec ia l g ift ; its bibli cal icon o gr aph y and M yer s's J ewish heritage sugges t that it may have b een co m m iss io ne d for u se in a sy nagogue with snuff o r p e rh ap s with s p ice, as o n the D ay o f At on e m enr. P ? It s p ri ma ry de cor ati on, a d epi ction o f D avid b efore Saul, reco un te d in I Sa m ue l [6: [7-22 , fill s th e box 's co ve r, unimpe ded b y tr aditi on al p an el s or d ecorat iv e d evi ces ."?" The sce n e i ts e lf is n arr ativ e , but its h igh-relief ch as in g an d a rococo diap ered p anel contain ed within an S-scroll a t th e edge o f t he b ox (abo u t four o 'clock ) sig na ls its st ylistic debt . O n th e b ott om is an unusu al ro co co ca rt o uc h e , in d esi gn vigo ro us a n d ana rc h ic in co m pariso n with typi cal En gli sh exa m ples an d , lik e the unfetter ed co ve r scene , evo ca tive o f Contine nta l int erpret at ion s. M ore En gli sh in stylis tic derivat ion is a silv er sn uff box (N o . So) w it h th e m ark o f J oseph Rich ard son . The pr eciou s vessel fea t u res th e asy m m et rica l ar ra ng em ent ch aracteri stic o f the ma ture rococo style, as illus t ra te d by a ca rto uc he co m po sed of C -sc ro lls en closing a b ask et o f fruit an d surround ed b y more C -sc ro ll s, ra g ged s he lls, an d festo on s, all co n ta in ed w ithi n th e box' s se rpent ine -s ha pe d lid. H ere dem onstrated in m ic rocos m are th e sa me ass u re d h andlin g , fluid compo sitio n, and so ph is tica te d voc abul ary used m ore ex te nsive ly o n a to ur d e fo rce f ro m th e Ri chard son s ho p , th e Plum sted tea ke ttle o n sta nd (No. 88) . In shape and decoration, th e bo x is sim ila r to o ne d o cum ented fr om 17 57, which al so bears Ri ch ard son 's m ark . In [7 59, th e s ilve rs m it h o rde re d fr om Lo n do n three " Ch ast Silver Snuf Bo xes G ilt in sid e with Gold."'61

80 T ho ug h chasi ng cha rac te rizes th e full est ex p ress io n o f th e sty le, pier cin g was an eq ua lly su ita b le form of rococo de cora tio n o n a p p ro p ria te form s. M ore fun ction al than decorative o n ea rlier eig h te ent h -cen t u ry Am eri can siIver - cast er

SIl llJJ box , 1755- 70

J oseph Richard son, Phil ad elphia Silve r. L.: 3 in . Private collect ion

1 1' T h e en t i re d esign, in cl u d ing s p la t an d knee , is co p ied fr om an En gl ish ch air (N o . 10 1 ) o w ne d III eig hteenth-c ent ur y Bost on b y one Willi am Phillips. 53

100

10 1

Side (hair. Bo ston . 1765-H5 M aho gan y; m aple. H .: 37 '12 in .

S ide (hair. Engla nd. ca . 1750 M ah og an y; be ech, H.: 37 '14 in . Mu seum o f Fine A rt s. Bo ston

T he C h ips to ue Fo unda tion

Ap art fro m th o se pieces m ad e in Bo st on and in Salem , abo ut th e o n ly N ew En gl and furnitur e th at ca n b e sa id t o h av e se r io us ro co co asp ir at ion s is a g ro u p of chi na tabl es fro m Portsm outh. Of th e four o f th e g ro u p t ha t have histories o f descent in th at ci ty, o ne ca n be identified w ith th e " raild Tea Tabl e " va lue d at fort y-eight s h illi ngs in m er ch ant W illi am Whippl e 's inve n tory of 1788. 54 The fr am e o f ano t he r (N o . 1 02 ) , w hic h o nce b el on g ed to th e m er ch ant Ste p he n C hase (d. 180 5), is b y far th e m o st e la bora te : th e tab le is covered w it h blind fr et w ork in a C hi nese p attern of int erl aced d iam onds on th e skirts, a Gothic pa tter n of repeat ed arc hes o n the legs. The fu ndamen ta l design - a rim med rectan gul ar top an d fou r le g s j o in e d b y c rosse d arc he d s t re tc hers- has a fam il y resem bl an ce to a Di rector p att ern fo r a china tabl e (P la te t.r), b u t th e o rna m e n t o n th e s kirt is tak en d ire ctl y from a dressin g tabl e (Plate XL) in [n ee and M ayh ew 's Uuiversal Sys tem, a boo k not reco rded as havin g been in co lo nia l Bosron .r"

102

C hina table. Portsmouth, 170Z-S0 Mahogany; white pine, L.: 30 V" in. The Carnegie Museum of Art

the ce n t ury. A Ro y al C ol on y, ce n t ra lly lo cat ed , wit h abou t twent y- tw o hundred hou ses an d a popul ati on of th irt een thousand an d fort y soul s, th e cit y was chose n in 1755 as th e western termin us for th e newl y instituted British m ail packet service and as the sea t of Britain 's ad m itted ly m od est general admini stra tive a u t ho rity in Am eri ca. Lo cal m erch ant s d ev eloped t h riv in g bu sin esses throu gh th e pro vi sionin g o f

New York

th e Britis h forces e ngage d in th e Fr en ch a n d Indi an War ( 1754- 63). As hi storian and New York jurist W illi am Smith o bse rved in '759: In th e city of N ew -Yor k, th rou gh our inte rco u rse w ith the

Europeans, we foll ow the Lond on fashio ns ; thou gh by the time w e ad opt th em , th ey becom e d isused in En gl and . Our affluence durin g th e late wa r introduced a degr ee of lu xury in tabl es. dr ess, and furniture w ith which we we re befor e una cqu ainted . But still we are not so gay a people, as o u r nei gh bor s in Bo ston and severa l o f th e So u the rn colonies. "?

New York Ci ty d e vel op ed i ts o w n int erpret ati on of th e rococo in fu rn it u re d esign durin g the third quarter of t h e eig h tee n th ce ntury. M ajor exa m ples of th e local rococo style, lon g o ve rs ha dowed b y the g lo rio us Phil ad elphi a Chippenda le of n earb y Penn syl v ani a, lon g overloo ke d beca use th ey we re n ot always di stin gui sh ab le fr om En gli sh protot ypes an d be cau se so me o f th e be st pi ec es mu st h av e be en taken abroad b y th eir Lo y ali st ow ne rs at th e tim e o f the Revolu-

Wi th t h e pe ace , London in stituted su ch rev enue-produ cin g taxes as a sugar act in 1764 and th e Stam p Act o f 1765, which New Yorkers were quick to denoun ce. The city's m er ch ants form ed a society to enc o urage local m an ufacturer s and in st it ut ed the fir st nonimportation ag ree m en t, which held until

tio n, are o nly no w bein g ide nt ified. Furniturem ak in g w as a bi g bu sin ess in co lo n ia l N ew York . Some hundred an d forty- eight cra fts men, th eir sho ps s p rea d thr ou gh out th e c ity, are reco rde d as h avin g b een engaged in th e trad e prior to 1775. O f th at num bcr, six tyt h ree ca bi ne t makers, th irt y-four cha ir ma ke rs and turners, fo u r tee n u p ho ls te rers , an d six ca rve rs b egan w ork a fte r '750. 56 What littl e is kn o wn abo ut th ose men, m an y o f them Englis h tr ain ed , co mes in good part from th e ad vertisements wi th w hic h th e y beg an to pepper th e Ne w York pr ess in the m id- 1750s. 57

t h e re p e al o f t h e Stamp A ct in 1766 . B y 177 0 , th e port o f N ew York w as fo urth in o rde r o f tonn a g e s h ip pe d in an d out of Am erica , com in g a fte r Phil ad elphi a , B o st on, an d C ha rle sto n . E x actl y when th e ro co co st y le o f o rna me n t in w o odw ork w as introdu ced into N e w York ca n no t b e pinn ed down, bu t it could not have been before th e lat e '750S. There is no men tio n of o rn ame nt in any o f D elapl ain e' s acco u n ts. The prize for a lotter y ad vertised in th e New -York Gazette or th e Weekly Post-Bo y for 31 De cemb er 17 53 w as "a goo d M ahogan y Ch est o f Dr awer s, with E a gl e' s C law Fee t , a Sh ell on eac h kn ee, a n d flut ed Co rne rs , with goo d Brass Wor k and Lo ck s." The unu suall y co m plete description o f th e stylistic features of the chest m ak es it pat ently clear that none

Few of th e era's hou seh o ld inventories or o ther forms o f doc u men ta tion ex is t. Th e o n ly N e w York cabin etm aker's acco u n ts surv iv i ng fr om th e p eriod a re tho se o f jos hu a De la plai ne , a Qu ak e r. T ypi cal amo ng th em is hi s d aybook fo r th e yea rs 1753 to 17 55, which records th e manufacture o f la rge numb er s o f b ed s a n d tabl es. 5s Unfortun a te ly, little

of t hem could yet be co ns ide re d ro co co . N ot until th e late 1750S ca n the fir st tra ce abl e g lim me r o f the rococo s ty le b e see n in N ew York work, vi sible in th e leaf-car ved o rna ment on the knees o f a sett ee th at b ear s the lab el of joseph C o x , up ho lsterer, at t he Do ck Street address he m aintain ed from 175 7 to 1760.(" T he first of the six kn o wn ca rvers active before 1775 wa s H enry Hardcastle, who wa s list ed in '75 1 as a freeman carver in New York , where h e remained active until abo u t 175 5, wh e n h e moved t o C ha rles to n. 62 He h as been associa te d with wh at are ce rta inly th e ea rl iest su rv iv ing in stances of th e ro co co in New York arc h itec t u re, th e so u t heas t parlor an d

furni ture ca n b e ascri bed to a n indi vidu al a rt isa n, but m an y

pieces ca n be id entified as o f local o rig in b y their hi stories in p ro m ine n t eig h tee n t h-cent ury famili es. Th e large bod y of wo rk represented mu st ha ve be en wh at Go ve rn o r Willi am T ryo n w as referr in g to wh en h e rep ort ed t o t h e Briti sh Bo ard o f T rad e in 1774 th at m o st h ou seh old go o ds w ere o f En gli sh m anufa cture "except C a b ine t an d j oin er's Work, w hic h is Ge nera lly made here. " 5') The 1750S, a pro sperou s tim e for N ew Yo rk er s, for ged th e unusu all y close ti es w ith the m other countr y th at wo uld affec t all as pects o f social life and style for th e rema inder of

153

Lab el ofSamuel Prince, New York, 1760- 75. Engraving on paper, 41/ 2 x 5Y2 in. (11.4 x 14 cm.), all chest of drawers. Museum of the Cit y of New York, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Eric M. Wunsch (70.4) FI GUR E.\7.

cham be r in t he m an o r h ou se b u ilt in Yonk er s b y Fred e ri ck Phi lip se (see p. 22, w he re see also FIG . H e and M artin Ju gi ez specialized in carving coa ts o f ar ms, suc h as th at o f Kin g Geo rge III, for th e Cou ncil C ha m ber o f C ha rles to n's new Sta te Hou se, an d , for T ho mas , Lo rd Fair fax , pr opriet o r of five m illion acres in the N orthern N eck o f Virgin ia, th at of hi s famil y, featured in a patt ern to be cas t int o chi m ney back s. !"? In 1766, Benj amin C he w paid th e m en for arc hitec tural carv ing at C live den, his co u n t ry h ou se (see p . 26 ) . A ft er th eir ad v er tise m en t s in Ph iladelphia papers in 1767 and 1769, th eir bu sin ess took off. W he n Bern ard an d Ju gi ez sig ne d th e fir st Phil adelphi a n oni mp o rt ati on agreeme n t , o n 25 Octo be r 176 5, th ey w er e j o in ed b y ano t her rece ntly ar rived ca rvc r.I'" one Hercul es Courtenay, a m an w ho had bee n tr ain ed in the hotbed o f th e London rococo . O n 13 M ay 1756, he had begun a seve n-year ap p re n tices h ip w ith " T ho: J ohnson o f St G iles in th e fields Carver" ; dut y o r tax o f £30 o n th e ind enture wa s not paid unti l 14 Februa ry 1760 . ' (,'.1 In th e yea rs immedi ately foll owin g th e fir st edi tio n o f Th e Director ( 1754), Thoma s J ohnson (b. 1714) was th e m o st ac tive pro mo te r o f car vin g in th e ro coco sty le. The fift y-th ree engraved pl at es h e issu ed in 1756 and 1757, w hile Courtenay was in his sho p, and reissu ed in book form in 1758 and 1761 , had g rea t in fluen ce. '7° Co ur te nay en tered the em p loy o f Benj amin Randolph by lat e 1766 . Bet w een 1766 an d 1769, there are num erou s referen ces to him in R and olph 's acco un ts, th e m o st ins tructi ve o f w h ic h is a tail or' s cha rge fo r " ma k ing yo ur Ca rve r Co u rte ney a . .. C oa t. "'71 H e fin all y we n t o u t o n hi s own in 1769. O n 14 Au gu st, h e ad ve r tised in th e Penn svl vania C hronicle as "Ca rve r an d G ilder, fro m Lond on, " wh o "undert ak es all Ma n ne r o f Carv ing an d Gi ld ing , in th e n ew est T ast e , at hi s H o u se in Fr ont-Str eet, b et ween C hest n u t and Wa ln u t Street s. " B y th e su m me r o f 1770 , he was bu sy w ith th e fines t co m missio ns in town . The last of th e im m ig ran t carvers abo ut w ho m any thing mu ch is kn o wn is J am es Reyn ol d s (d. 1794) .1 72 Hi s arriva l wi th hi s wi fe was ann o u nced in th e Pennsvlvania Gazette o f 21 Au gu st 1766 . An adve r t ise me n t a p pea red in th e sa me newspap er wi th in two wee ks: "J am es Reyn olds, carve r and gi lde r, Ju s t arrived fro m Lon d o n . . . at hi s H ou se in D o ckStree t . .. und ertak es to execute all th e va rio us B ran ch es o f Carving an d G ild ing in th e new est , neat est , an d g cn tcc les t

Taste . " 173 Th e next ye ar, Reyn olds m o ved to Fr ont Street, between C hestn u t and Walnut (j us t where Courte nay was to settle in 1769). He ad vertised he avil y in th e fall o f 1767 and in 176 8, o fferin g imp orted lo okin g g lass es as we ll as "All th e seve ra l Br an ches o f Ca rving and Gildin g. " By 1770, he too w as in volv ed in m an y o f th e city 's major p roj ects. Whil e those m en were to b e th e key pl ayer s in th e Philadelphia ro coc o up to th e Rev olution , th er e we re o the rs ac tive in th e sty le , th ou gh gene ra lly at a less brilli ant level. N ative-b orn Jame s Gillingh am ( 1736- 1781), a p artn e r of H enry C lifto n 's between 1761 and 1768, lab eled cha irs based o n Pl at e x in Th e D irector and at least o n ce em ployed Bern ard an d J ug iez to em be llis h hi s work. Thom as Tufft (d . (788), who se label (FIG. 44) is affi xed to som e co m pe te n tly carve d piece s, took o ver Gillin gham 's sho p in 1773. By th e end o f the 1760s, there had been a sea cha nge in Phil ad elphi a hi gh fashion . Whereas at the be ginnin g of th e de cade carving had be en limited in scope and heavy in execution , now, in th e hands o f th e London-train ed talent , it was exhibitin g a sp irit o f da zzlin g excess, just w ha t th e rococo did best. What happened n ext viv id ly dem onstrates th e factor s th at nouri shed the s t y le in Phil ad elph ia : J ohn Cad wa lade r an d Samu el Pow el , two ri ch an d influ enti al yo u ng men , b oth recentl y m arri ed, bou ght fin e, nearl y new town hou ses and se t abo u t having the interiors totall y rem o dele d in th e m o st ela bora te ro coc o m anner. T he wo rk o n t h e h ouse s an d th eir furni shin g s , pr o ceedin g co nc u r re n tly, required th e co m b ine d effo rts o f th e b est woo dwo rke rs in th e city. Affl eck an d Randolph (the two lead in g cabine tmakers) an d Bern ard andJu gi ez, Cour te nay, an d Reyn olds (the four leadin g ca r ve rs) w er e all engage d . Th e result was ar chitecture an d furniture in the full est roco co sty le Am erica was to achi ev e . There after, until w a r br ok e o u t, anyone aspiring to th e height of fashi on-including Benj amin C hew, w ho purchased J ohn Penn 's town hou se in 1771 ; Penn himse lf, w ho built Lan sd own e, the m o st m agnifi cent of th e regi on 's co untry seats, in 1773; and Ca d wa lade r's co usin Joh n Di ckin son, wh o redid th e g rea t hou se ofJ ohn Ross (see p. 85) in 1774 (all buildin gs now go ne w itho ut a tr ace) - wo uld hav e look ed to th e Cad wa lade r an d the Powel hou ses as th e sty listic benchmark . A b o ok o f Prices of Cab inet & C hair JVtJrk , publish ed in Phil adelphia in [772, 17< is a uniq ue docu mcllt of ro co co furniture; th er e is noth in g co m pa ra b le in the o ther co lo n ies or in En gland . Com piled in an effo rt to reg ulate w hat cab ine tmakers sho uld pa y journeym en for speci fic task s and w ha t th ey sho u ld cha rge th eir cl ie n ts for co mple te d pieces , the b o ok gives a rem ark abl y det ailed pi cture o f th e furn iture obtainable in Phil ad elphia durin g the hei ght o f th e ro co co. (Trad iti on al form s from th e Qu een Ann e p eri od , w h ic h h ad

Label of Thomas T ufft, Philadelphia, ca. 1770. Engraving on paper, I'VB x 2% in. (3.5 x 6.7 em .). Private collection

F[GURE 4 4 .

bee n th e fashion in th e 17Sos, we re also in cluded .) Listed in th e Price Book we re th e vari ous o ptio na l em be llish m ents for eve ry ty pe of cha ir, tabl e, an d ches t, and th e g oing rat e for eac h , according to th e pat ron 's cho ice o f wood, w hich could be either Pennsyl vania wa ln ut o r th e m o re cos tly Ca ribbea n ma hoga ny. Thus, a Philad elphia hi gh ches t, m ad e o f w alnut, having a flat top an d n o ca rvi ng, was pri ced at £ 13 (inc lu ding th e jo u rney ma n 's p a y o f £3 -10 -0); a no t her ch es t, o f ma hoga ny, h aving a scro ll pedim ent and carved w ork ; cos t £21 (t he jo urney man receivin g £S-IO-0) . Th e full ro co co style- imp lici t in th e list ed chairs an d tabl es w it h croo k ed (ca brio le) legs an d leaves o n th e kn ees o r M arlborou gh feet (straig ht legs) wi th bases, brackets, and fret s; an d ches ts w ith scroll or pitc h pedim ents w it h de n ti ls, fret s, an d shieldswas by far th e mos t ex pe ns ive . Philad elphi a chai rs o r tabl es w ith straig h t, sq ua re leg s, us ua lly eit her m ol ded o r pl ain an d en ding in app lie d cu ffs, are descr ib ed by th e so briq ue t M arl bor o ugh . O n exce ptio na l pieces, th e sides of th e legs are cut away to form o rna me n tal pa n els of n aturali stic fol iag e an d blind fr et w ork in Go th ic and C hi nese p atterns, and are linked to th e cha ir o r th e table ski rt b y pi er ced brack et s. These are the ro co co features of the M arlbo rou gh style . The M arlborou gh leg an d th e alte rna te cabrio le t yp e w er e prob abl y b oth o ffe red si m u lta ne o us ly fro m t he 17s os , though the ea rl ies t kn o wn u se of th e eponymo us term is in 1766, o n Philadelphi a ca b ine t ma ke r Sam uel Mi ckl e's drawing o f a st raig h t- leg cha ir.'?" The Price Book , in d ev o tin g sepa ra te sec tio ns to "C hai rs M arlbrou gh

fe et," " Soffas M arlb orou gh fee t," and "Ca rd tabl es w it h M arlbrough feet, " shows ho w important th e straigh t leg had b ecome . The sa me o p t ion ap pears in all editions o f The Director, but th e term " Ma rl bo ro ug h " see ms n ot to h a ve been used in Eng land . Its o rig in and any co nnec tion wi th th e du cal hou se have yet to be determined . J ohn C ad wa lader m ay be co nsi de red th e exe mplar of th e grea t Phil adelphi a patro ns of th e rococo .'?" Born to th e w ife o f an eminent ph ysician , Ca dwalade r atte nde d th e College of Phil ad elphia befo re co m pleting his ed uca tio n in Eng land and d oin g th e g ra n d tour in Fra nc e an d It al y. Hi s m arri ag e in 1768 to M ar yland heir ess Elizabe th Llo yd p rovide d him w ith trem end ou s resources . B et w een 1769 and 1772, h e s pe n t so me £3, SOO o n rem od elin g his hou se and ano ther £ I, SOO o n it s furni shin gs (Nos. [24 , 12S; IS3 -Is6 )-a n al toge t he r prin cel y su m. H e alo ne sha re d wi t h Gove rnor P enn th e di stin cti on o f ownin g "a ll so rts" of carriages . 17 7 On 3 Jun e 1774, Sil as D eane , a m emb er o f th e Co n ti ne n ta l Cong ress from Co n nec t ic u t, wro te: " I din ed yesterday wi t h M r. C adw alla de r, wh o se furn iture and ho u se exceeds any th ing I hav e seen in th is city or else w he re ." 17 X Wash in gt o n , w hose ad m i r atio n o f h is " mi li tary ge n ius " led to Ca d wa la d e rs ap po in tm en t to the rank of bri g adi er gene ra l in [776 , was a not infrequent visitor. Thou gh Ca dwalade r 's hou se was torn do w n abo ut 1820, th e volumin ou s s u rv iv ing record s of i ts remo deli ng an d furni shin g give a detail ed po rtrait of th e crea tio n of a co lo ni al ro co co setting . M o reo ver, m uc h of th e furnit ur e, all of w hich Ca d wa lade r had ma de locally (mos t o f it by cra ftsmen fre sh fr om Lond on ) , ca n n o w b e id entifi ed. The up stai rs pi eces, o f w alnut and un ca rv ed , we re made by the n ati veborn joiner W illi am Sa very (1722-1787) . Th e pa rlo r su ites we re the wor k of Affl eck , wi t h B ern ard an d Ju gi ez a n d Re yn old s . Of th e sea t ing furn itu re, th ree sofas we re uphol st ered by th e n ati ve cra fts man Plunket Fleeson, bu t th e blu e an d ye llo w silk d a m ask cove rs we re fi tted b y J ohn Web ster, uphol st erer from Londo n, w ho in th e Pennsvl uania j ot/m al o f 20 Au gu st 1767 adve rt ise d th at h e h ad " had the honour o f w orking w ith app lause , for several of t he nobility an d ge nt ry in En gland and Sco tla nd . " 179 Cadwalader lim ited th e ord er s h e m ad e throu gh h is Lond on age n t , M atthi as Ga le, to wh at co u ld n ot b e m ad e in Ph il adelphi a : th e silk d am ask s an d Wil ton ca r pe ts fo r h is p arl ors; d am ask tabl ecloths an d n apkin s, kni fe cases, an d flat w ar e fo r hi s dinin g t abl e ; an d a four- in -h and ca rriage for hi s p eregrin at ion s abou t town . Andirons, in cluding "one Par e o f th e Best Rote [wrou ght] fier D o g s wi th C rin the n [C orinthian] Co loms ," we re m ad e b y Daniel Kin g , b rass founder, at a cos t o f £2S; an d a d o zen leather fir e bu ck et s were p ro vi d ed an d p ainted by th e artist J ames C lav poo lc. Y"

FRAMES Th e o n ly k n o w n P h ilad e lp h ia- m ad e rococo picture frames are a m at ch in g g ro u p o f five enclosi ng th e portraits of members o f J ohn Ca dwa la ders fa m ily, w hic h h e commissioned o f C ha rl es Willson Peale ( [747- (827) and inte nded as part of th e furn iture in th e parl ors o f his hou se. The frames for the lik en esses o f h is parents, Dr. and Mrs. Thom as Cadwalader, an d of his brother, Lambert (N o . 124), all paint ed duri ng the su m m e r o f [770 , we re ma d e b y J ame s Re y n o ld s. On IS M arch [77[ , th e ca rver bill ed C ad walader " To 3 [h alf-l en gth ] Picture frame s in Burnish 'd Gold @ £[8 ," fo r a t ot al of £S 4. 1 8 1 Sin ce P eal e h ad cha rge d £ 12- [2 -0 p er canvas, th e fr ames cos t a th ird agai n as mu ch as the pi ctures. T he o t her portraits foll owed : th at o f J ohn 's siste r, M artha, is da ted 177[, as is a famil y g ro u p (N o . 125 ) -J ohn , h is wife, Elizabeth, and th eir dau ghter, Anne - begun at th at tim e but com pleted th e foll owin g su m me r a t a cos t o f £2S - 4-0 . Though the ca rve r's bill s for th e frames of th e las t t w o pictures are lost, th e fra mes a re iden tical to t h o se of t he first t hree portraits and are pres umably by the same hand .f" Unfortu n at el y, the scro lle d p roj e ct io ns at ea ch corner and at th e m iddl e of each si de of all th e fra mes were sawed o ff so m e yea rs ago, w hic h dest ro yed much of the open qualit y o f th e wo r k . T h e B o st o n-m ad e fr a m es used by John Sin gl et on Copley (see N o s. 89-9[), ho w ever, are of the same ge ne ra l m odel-n ar ro w ca r ve d m oldin g next to the picture, de ep co ve w ith le af-and-fl ower fr ond s, an d projecting pi er ced C -s cro lls flankin g ce n t ra l shells - an d suggest how the Philadelphia co unte rparts were intended to loo k. Peale, who m oved to the city in '7 7S , w as th e first artist of real sta ture in Phil adelphia.!"! Born in M ar yl an d , he was se n t to London in [766 to st u dy painting an d re tu rned th ree yea rs lat er , se t tli ng in Ann ap oli s. In [770, h e was commissio ne d to paint the law yer J ohn D ick in so n , recen tl y made famo us b y h is L etters frail! a Farmer ill Pennsylvania ('768) , w ho in turn introdu ced Peale to his cousin John Cadwalader. The o rigina l bl ack and gold m o ld ed neo classical frame of the D ick in son picture (H isto rical Socie ty of Pennsylvania) is of a t y pe described exactly by ca rver G ab riel Valois in an ad vertise me nt in th e Pennsylvania J Oll m al of 30 M ar ch [774: "Family Pi ctures, Neatly framed in the newest tas te , varnished in b lack, w it h th re e me mbe rs ca rved a nd gilt in burnished go ld. " 18 4 Consiste nt with Peale 's neo class ical-s t yle portraitu re, it was to be h is favo rite ty pe o f frame, w hich helps to ex p lain th e d earth of Phil ad elphia-m ad e rococo enclosures. The Cadwa lade r fr am es, in th e fu ll roco co tas te, must have been th e choice not of th e ar tis t but of th e client, pa rt of the o rna me n tal pro gr am for a particul arl y lu xurio us room .

124

Pictureframe, 1770-7[ James Reynolds, Philadelphia White pine, gilded, 60 x 50 in. With portrait of Lambert Cadw alader by Charles Willson Peale Philadelphia Museum of Art

[8 6

T he man ufac tu re and sa le o f lo okin g g lasses wa s a sp ecial bra nc h o f th e furniture t rad e. Mirror glass , whi ch required techniqu es o f g ri nding and poli shing un av ailable in co lon ial America, was always imp orted , but th e su ppo rt ing fram es co uld be lo call y m ad e. So me Phil ad elphia artisa ns w ent into the bu si ness of im po rting fram ed lo ok in g g lasses : in [757, cabi ne tma ker J ohn Ell io tt w as th e fir st to adve rtise a lo oking-g lass store in Ph il ad elphi a. H e w as followed into th e trad e b y th e ca rve rs B ern ard and Ju gi ez in T762 and J am es Rey no lds in [768. N o lo oking glasses m ad e o r so ld b y Bernard and Ju g iez have been id entified (thoug h in M ar ch [773 J u gi ez offe red "fra mes o f any kind , to co me as n earl y as cheap as ca n be im por te d"), I Hs but w e have a numb er of im po rtant do cum ented exa m ples from Reyn old s. Ellio tt, best kn own from th e nu m be rs of lookin g glass es he la be led, fi rst an no u nced in th e Penn svl vania Gazette of 30 Decem be r [756 th at he imp orted and had fo r sa le " A N eat asso rtmen t o f lo o kin g g lasses"; also " Looki ng g lasses new quick si lver'd , o r frame d, in th e ne atest ma nner." The next Sep tember, he me ntioned " his Lo o kin g- gl ass sto re in " and, by Ap ril [758, at " the Sign o f th e C hes tn ut -s tree t, ",N Be ll and Lo okin g- gl ass. "' H7 Four years lat er , he m o ved th e business to Walnut Stree t, w here it was to remai n until afte r the wa r. M o re th an a hundred lo o kin g g lasses are k now n w ith Ellio tt's pri nted pa pe r lab el affixed to th e backb oard . r' " Those wi th the C hestn ut Str eet add ress can be dated bet ween '758 and [762; those w ith the Wa ln ut Street ad d ress , fr om '762 or later. A few, having a varia tio n on th e Waln ut Stree t label , I N\} m ay d at e fro m th e lat e 1760s or th e ea r ly [ 77 0 S. O nly in th e exam ples of the later period, suc h as th at of the looking glass he sup plied to Richard Ed w ard s (N o . 126), is Elliott fo und selling frames made in Phil adelphia of northeas tern w hi te pin e. !"" Edwa rds ([744 - [799), a m er ch ant in nea r by B url in g ton Co u nty, New J er sey, comm iss io ne d in [77 5 severa l sty lis h rococo pieces o f fu rni ture from T ho mas Tu fft , incl ud ing a d imi nut ive, pier ced-sk irted pi er t abl e, above w hich h is lo ok in g g lass lon g hun g . '\} ' The acco u n t book that recorde d those pieces a lso co n tai ne d a t r an saction

with Ellio tt . I\}2 The Tum co m m ission came at th e end o f th e interva l from [769 to 1775 w he n Elliott did not advert isenonim portatio n o r th e spirit of nonimportation cram ping his norma l tr ade. Edwards's lo okin g g lass , th e o nly fully carved rococosty le exa m p le havin g an Elli ott lab el , re tai ns it s o rigi na l whi te- painte d surface, a tr eatm ent th en pop ul ar fo r look ingg lass fr am es int end ed t o be se t aga ins t a co lo red w al l. 1\} 3 Ellio tt eithe r ret ailed it o r repaired it, but he did not m ake it. T he frame consis ts of p arall el- g o ug ed she ll wo rk w ith an

125 Pictureframe, 1772 Probably by J ames Reynolds, Philadelphia White pine , gilded , 60 x 50 in. With portrait of the J oh n Ca dwalader family by Ch arles Willson Peale Phil adelphia Museum of Art

1 26

L ooki ng-gla ss fra me Phil ad elphia, ca. [775 White pine, painted; ceda r, 48 x 26 in . T he Metropo litan Museu m o f Art

[ 88

o u te r m antl e o f pierced sc ro llw o rk. At th e top is a vibrantl y asy m me t r ica l aca n t h us leaf, a t th e sides are pendent le aves an d flo w ers, an d at th e b ottom is a se re ne l y flo atin g sw an . T he w ork, ve ry m uch in th e m anner o f Reynolds, be sp eaks th e hand o f an art isa n d edi cat ed to carv ing . In th e Penn syl van ia C hronicle o f 14 N ovember 1768, Reynolds offere d im p orted lo okin g g lasses " in ca rve d and white , or ca rved an d g ilt fr am es. "I Y4 During the early 1770s , he made elabo ra te fr am es fo r a number o f leading fam ili es, including t h e Ca d wa lad er s , th e C hews , th e Pemb ert on s , a n d th e Pe n ns. H e b ille d Ca d wa la de r for four larg e car ve d lookin g g lasses o n 5 D e cem b cr 1770 an d fo r ano t he r large o ne the next O ct ob er. They mu st h av e ca p t u re d th e imagin ation o f

Philade lphians.'?'

127

Looleino-olass frame, 1772 Probably by Jam es Reynolds. Ph iladelph ia White pine. paint ed. 7H x 4 2 in. C liveden of the Na tional Trus t

Two pairs of Chew famil y lo okin g g lasses at C livedcn are lik el y th e work for w h ic h Reyn old s rece iv ed £51- 10 o n 20 April 1772 .ly6 One pair, amo ng th e g ra ndes t and lar gest o f all American examples , ha v e mirr o rs c o m p o se d of t w o pieces of g lass with an overa ll size of five feet b y t w o (N o . 12 7 ) . Here, Re ynold s u sed remn ant s of tall a nd n ar r o w Queen Ann e lookin g g lasses , h on orin g h is adve r tise me n t in th e P enn svl vania C h ron icle o f 14 N o v e mb e r 176 8: " O ld Glasses new fram ed an d qui ck sil vered . "I Y7 T he fra mes , o n the low er p an e s fl ank ed by co lone t tes; o n th e upp er , b y r ocaille w ork, are not a per fectl y u n ifi ed des ig n , b u t th e y g ive th e effect o f a n ex t rao r di na ry co n fec tio n o f r o co c o motifs . I'" The o t he r C hew pair , o f th e g ira n do le t ype ( FIG. 45 ), have the m o st irregul arl y sha pe d o f all Am erican mirrors, a cen t ral g lass ar ea o f ro co co vasiform sha pe .

FIGU RE 4 5 . Lookillg-gll1ssfi'clllJ c. Pro bably by Jam es Reynold s, Philadelph ia, 1772. White pine. paint ed , 381f2 x 23 1f. in . (\17. 8 x 59 . 1 cm .). C livcde n, a co-s tewa rds hip prope rt y of the Na tional T rust for Histo ric Preservation (N T 73-55 .2 4 [2 ])

T ogether with looking-glass and picture fram es, wall bra cket s are a kind of furniture th at w as the ex clusive dom ain of the wood-carver. The book of Prices of Cabinet & Chair Work published in Phila delphia in 177 2 therefore contains no mention of tho se form s. Th e o n ly kn own carved ro coco wall br ack et of local o rig in is an exa m p le (N o . 128 ) wh o se design -a bird in a ne st of C -s cro lls , it s o uts tretc hed wings suppo rting th e shelf - w as inspired by an engraving (FIG. 46) in Johnson's book o f designs. In thi s instance, however, th e carv er deleted the spiky gr asses and sim plified the scheme to

suit hi s sta nda rd rep ertoire o f scroll s, leafage, and feath ers. The bracket is carved from a sing le piece of wh ite pin e, plus a top board wh ose elega ntly scallo ped bottom edge is visible when th e bra cket is m ounted high on th e wall. The translucen t golden brown surface is th e result of a thin pigm ent ed coa ting ov er layer s of white g ro und . 1
bo okplat es eng raved b y , 39, 40 , 42 , 96, 110 ; N o s. 10, 17 ; butter b o at s, 83 : N o . 49: canns, 83, 106; N o. 49 ; ce rtifica tes eng rav ed b y, 39, 52 ; N o . 29; coffee pot s m ar ked b y , 7. II, 71, 83 , 95 -90, 99: 97; N o s. 47 ,49, rio; co p ies of eng ravings b y, 46, 85; crea m pots m arked b y. 80, 83 . 93. 11 0 ; N o . 58: as eng rav er, 37 -38 , 39 , 49, 51, 74, 75,85, 93; as Fr eemason , 39, 51; as golds m ith , 75 ; m ap ca rto uc he s eng ra ve d b y. 59 ; maturity in th e ro co co sty le of, 51; music book en g raved b y, 40; n ew spaper illustration s b y . 46 ; n otificati ons o f m eetin gs eng raved b y, 51; N o . 28 ; porringer s, 83; printed ep he mera eng ra ved b y, 51-52; N o s. 27 -29; Revolution ar y acti vities of, 39 ; salver m arked b y, 42, 11 0 , 174: N o . 71; sauc eb oars marked by , 114; N o . 49 ; as silvers m ith, 37, 39, 74 , 75, 85; sn u ffers m ark ed b y, 126 ; sn u ffer " d ish" m ark ed by, 120; spo on s m arked b y , 83 ; N o . 49 ; su gar di sh es mark ed b y , 80,93, 110; N o . 58: tankard m arked b y, 83; teapot en graved b y (?), 85; No. 50; te ap ots m ark ed b y. 4. 77. 80, 83, 85 , 87,96, 131; Nos. 49, 51: tea se rv ice m arked b y. 83 . 85, 96 , 114. 122: 97; No. 49; tea ton gs m ark ed b y, 83; N o . 49 ; tr ad e card s engraved b y. 5, 37, 39, 51, 220; N os. 13, 27; trainin g o f, 39. 75; whistl e recorded b y , \ \7 Re yn olds, J am es, 28 , 184, 18 5, 20 5: look-

.in g- gla ss fr ames by, 187, 189 , 217; N o. 127; Fig . 45 ; pi cture fr am es b y , 180, 217; N os. 124, 12 5; wa ll bracket b y (?), 190; N o. 128 Rhett, William, h ou se o f, C ha rleston , 35 Rhode Island , sil ver pr odu ced in , 73 Richard, William , 228

Rich ardson , J oseph , 77-7':1. , 10 7, 131 ; accou nt books of, 80, 104: coffee p ot m arked by. 78 , 88. 104 , 113: No. 05 : as execu to r o f Hulbearr 's esta te, 9 1: shoe buc kles m ad e in th e sho p of. 117, " 9 ; silve r imported fro m En gl an d b y , 80, 89, 91, 99 . 101, 104, 11 5, 117, 11 9 , 120:

sn uff bo xes m arked by, 11 9: No . 80 ; suga r dish m ark ed by, 87, 88, 104; teak ettle on sta n d ma rked by, 4. 78. 11 9, 131: 70; N o . 88; teap ot ma rked by, 87: N o . 52 Ri ch ey. Geo rge , 155 Riem er. Piet er d e. 76. 83; crea m po t m ar ked b y , 87, 91, 92 . 131; N o . 4 8; lad le m ark ed b y, 124 ; No. 84; sugar di sh m ar ked b y , 87, 9 1; No. 48; teap ot ma rked b y , 87. 9 1: N o. 4 8: tea se t m ar ked b y , 80 . 9 1, 92: N o . 48 rifle s, sec fir earms Rin g go ld . T ho mas, 28 ; hou se of, C hestertown, Mar yland , 28 Rittenh ou se, D avid, 183, 205 Ri vingt on, J am es, 58, 154 Riv in g to n & B ro wn, N ew Yo rk an d Philadelphi a, 154, 183 Ri voi re, Ap oll os, 39, 75 rococo sty le: ch ar acteristi cs of, I , 37; C hi nese mode of, 4 , 123. 13.1. 10 8- 09. 175: in Englan d, 2-4, 7, 54, 7 1; fantasy and w h imsy o f, 37, 239 : in France, 1-2; Fren ch , or Modern. m ode of, 4, 123 ; Go thic mode of, 4 , 123, 133: in Ireland , 123; m aturit y of. in Europe, 70: n aturalism an d , 37: ori gin s o f, I ; o rna m en tal nature o f. 3. 4 , 12. 72 : pat ron s o f, 4 ; pen ch ant for floutin g co nvention of, 84: su pplan ted b y neocl assicism , 5, 17 S. 17 8

ro co co sty le. in Ame rica, 4-7, 9- 13, IS: an ima l allus io ns , as m otif in , 91, 131; as ap p rox ima tion o f London rococo . 00; ca rto uc hes. as signa ture m otif o f, 84; co lo n ial modifi cati on s o f, as reacti on aga ins t En gland 's d om in ati on , S9, 0 4; econ omic co ns ide ra tio ns in th e de velopm ent o f. 37, 7 1. 78 : effec t o f Rev olution o n, 11-1 2, IS, 78 ; E ng lish prototypes as influen ce o n, S. 7, 9 , IS, 18, 37, 38, 40, 42, 47, 49, S2, 54, 234, 230 , 239 ; E ur o pea n influ en ce on, 12: hum an allu sio ns, as m otif in. 42, 89 -9 1. 121. 131 ,202. 20S , 210; im po rta nce of immigrant ar tisa ns to, 5, 7, 9 . 20, 39, 49, 71, 229 ; imported goods. in flue nce o n. 0-7, 9, 71, 219: int ro d uc tio n o f, fro m En gland. 5-7: late flo w erin g o f, in rural areas . 68 ; nonimportati on ag ree me n ts, effect o n . 10- 11. 15. 71,

134 , 153, 184 , 187, 219. 227, 229. 234;

pat ro nage fo r, 9, 17, 71. 78 . 23 4: pol itical clima te . as co ntex t for develop me nt of, 9- 12,83, 183; post-Revolu tionary m ot ifs in , 04; reg ional character of. 9; su p p lanted by neoclassicism, 12. 78, 90; urb an environ me n t necessary to the development of, 9. IS, 4 2, 71: sec also arc hi tec tural carving . d eco ration. and o rna ment: cas t iron ; eng ravi ngs; furniture (fu rni tu re rna king): glass: porcela in: silver Ro o sevelt, N icholas. 70. 83. 117: w histle an d bell s m ark ed by. 117; No. 77 Ross, J oh n , 85, 184 : tea po t of (Revere), 85 , 87: N o . 51 royal governo r 's chair (Elfe and Hu tchinso n). 10 5. 108; Fig . 40 Ru scles. J ames, 220 Ru sh , Benj amin , 234 Ru ssell. Walter. 109 R y ves an d Fle tche r, Ph iladelp h ia. 17

s Saint And rew 's Lod ges. Bos to n. 51: notifica tio n of m eeting for (Revere) . SI Saint M artin 's Lan e Acad em y, Lond on . 2. 5 Saint Mi ch ael' s C hurch. Cha rles ton. 3S Saint Paul's C ha pe l, N ew Yo rk C ity. 22, 2 S; in terior o f. Fig . 11 Saint Pet er's Lod ge, N ew b ur yp o rt . SI; notificati on o f m eetin g fo r (Reve re), SI: N o . 28 Sale m : furniture p ro du ced in . 135, 147. IS2; silve r produ ced in , 7 1 , 99 salve rs, 94, 110, 113. 174; (Fue ter) , 76. 11 3: N o . 74 ; (Hea th) , 94. 113; No. 73: (Myers), 70 , 110 : N o. 72: (Peas ron) , 174; (Reve re), 42. 110. 174; N o . 71; (Sy ng) , 78 , 101 , 11 3; No. 75 Sar g ent . Epes, 40 : boo k plat e of (Reve re) . 40 . 4 2; N o . 16 Sar gent, Paul Dudley , 96 sau ccb oars, porcelain: (A me rica n C hina M anufact ory), 7, 230; N o . 169: (Live rpool, Engl and), 236: (Ply mo uth Factory. En gl and), 7. 230 : N o . 170 sa uceboa rs, silve r, 114: (H u m ph reys). 114 , 2 30 ; N o . 70; (Re vere), 114; N o . 49 Savage. Mrs . Samuel P. , portrait of (Co pley), 137 Savage, Sam uel P., 137 Save ry , Willi am. 18 S Sch uy ler . Philip, 11 3 Sch uy ler famil y. 9 . 76, 110. 11 3 Schu yler M ansion, Alban y. 22

Sco tt. Pet er . 166. 167: cha irs b y. 167: tab les b y. 167: tea tab le fro m the sho p of. 174: No. 117 scroll fin ials. 204: N o . 140 Scu ll. N ich ol as. 63: m ap s o f Pen n sylv ani a by . 3') . 63: pla n o f Phi lad elphia. eng rav ing afte r (Dawkins"), 59. 63: N o . 40 Sears. Will iam Bern ard . 31. 32 se ttees. 14 7. 153: (P rince). ISS: 217: N o . 99 Sha r pe . H o ratio . 3 1: h ouse o f. near Ann ap o lis. 3 1: Figs. 17. 18 shiel d fini als. 204: No . 139 shi pb uilding. 135. 136 shoe b uc kles . 11 5. 117. 119: (Mye rs). 117. 11 9: N o . 78 side cha irs. 5. 7. 9. 135. 130 . 147. 151. 105. 183. 209: Nos. 90. 97. 100 . 101. 112. 148: (A fflec k). 214: N o . 155: (Be rna rd and Ju g iez?). 209; N o. 147: (W illett). 155 silve r. 12. 71-131 . 210. 219: absence of govern ment regulation in th e p ro d uc tio n of. 74: advert ise men ts . as do cum entati on for th e m aker s o f. 9. 74. 76. 77. 78. 9 1. 104. 107: app re nt ices hip. jou rney ma n sys te m an d. 74: b alu ste r sha pe u sed in . 10 5. 107. 127: b ask et s. 11 5. 121- 23. 127: N o s. 81. 82: bird fini als used in . 92: bow ls. 108-9: N o s. 69. 70: butter b o at s. 83; N o . 49: canns, 83. 105. 106. 109. 127: N o . 49: cartou ch es on. 72. 84. 85. 91. 96. 101. 100. 108. 109. 110. 11 3. 114. 11 9 . 121. 124. 126. 127. 129: cas ting o n. 72. 84. 92• 93. 96. 101. 103. 106. 11 3. 114 . lI S. 117. 121. 123. 124. 120. 127. 129. 131: chas ing o n . 72.73.74.70.77.78.8 4.85.87.89.91. 92.93.94.96. 101. 103. 104. 109. 11 3. lIS. 117. II 9. 127. 131: coasters. 121: co ffee po ts . 71. 72. 75. 78. 80. 83. 88. 9192.95-90.99. 101. 103- 4. 113. 129; 97. 99: N o s. 40. 47. 49. 00 -05: Figs. 20. 29: crea m pots. 80 . 83. 85. 87. 89.9 1-92. 93 .94. 110. 121. 131. 229: N o s. 4 8 • 55. 56. 58. 59: crue t sta n ds. 124 . 126: N o . 85: di sh rin gs. 115. 121. 123: Fig. 30: double-bellied sha pe used in . 72 . 84. 89 .91.93.96. 104. 127. 131: ea rliest ind ica tio ns o f rococo style in . 5. 71. 75 . 78. 121: eco nom ic fac to rs in pr odu cti on of. 121: En gl ish . 2. 7 1. 73. 74. 77. 99. 11 5. 121. 127. 129. 131: N o . 46; Fig s. 26. 27: eng rav ing o n. 3. 37. 7 2• 74. 76 • 84. 85.87.96.99. 101. 105-8 . 110. 113. 11 5. 123. 127. 129. 131.2 30: ewer . 91: fish slices. 121. 123-24; N o . 83 : foreigntr ain ed spec ialis ts. importan ce in th e pr odu cti on of. 9. 71. 74-78. 92. 10 1. 104 . 123. 131: im porte d fro m Englan d .

75 . 77. 78. 80 . 88 . 92 . 99. 101. 103. 10 4. 115 , II 7 , 119 , Il l. 12 2 , 12 6 , 142 :

im-

ported from Ireland. 123: influen ced b y English prototyp es. 85. 88. 99. 101. 103-0. 109. " 3. 114 . 119. 121. 123 . 124, 131: jug s. 76. 100 , 127: N o. 87: ladl e. 124: N o . 84: m ak er s' marks on. 73. 74. 76: mu gs. 100; n eocl assi cal clements o f, 96: nonimpo rt ati on ag ree men ts. effec t o n produ cti on o f. 71, 78; pat ronag e for. 71-72.75-78.85. 115. 121. 122: pier cin g o n, 72, 73. 76. 115. 119, 121- 23. 127. 236: p in eapple fini als used in, 93 . 96. 103: political climate. effe ct o n pr odu cti on of. 83. 95-90 : porringer s. 83; proced ures and m eth ods o f produ cing . 7374: punch bowl. 11 3: Qu een Anne sty le o f. 77, 78• 84, 91. 103, lOS: rep ousse decoration o n. scc chasi ng o n: salts, 121: sa lve rs, 94 , 110, 11 3, 174: N os . 71-75: sauce bo ats, 114 : N o . 70; sha pe s of. in rococo st yle, 72. 84, 85. 87, 89. 91, 93, 90 . 99 . 101. 103-5. 108. 127: shoe bu ckles. " 5. 117. " 9 : sn uff bo xes . " 5. 119: N o . 80: sn uffer sta nds. 120: N o . 86 : spoons, 83. 121: N o . 49: su gar cas te r, 85: suga r di sh es, 80. 87, 88. 89, 91- 93, 110. 131: N os . 56- 58: tank ards. 83, 105-7. 108. 109. 127: N os . 66-68: teak ettl es, 75. 11 5, 127, 129: teak ettl es o n sta n ds. 77. 78. 80, " 9. 129, 131: 70: N o . 88: Figs. 20. 27: teap ots, 72 . 77. 80 . 83, 84-85, 87-88 . 91. 92, 99. 101. 103. 104, 127. 131 : N o s. 49- 54: Fig . 28: tea se ts an d se rv ices . 77. 80. 83, 85,91, 92,96, 114 , 122. 131: 97: N o s. 48. 49; Fig . 27; tea ton gs, 83; N o . 49 ; tea urns. 101, 127. 129: Fig . 31: as urban lu xury, 71. 99; w his tle. 117; whistl es an d bell s. 11 5.117 six- plate stoves: (E liza be th Furnace), 227: (Ho pewell Furnace). 5, 4 5. 223; N o . 160 Sk illin , John. 136: chest-en-c hes t b y , 136 Ski llin, Simeon, 135. 130 Skillin, Simeon, jr. , 130; chest-on-c hest b y. 136 slab tabl es, 4. 133. 183. 191-92. 202. 217; N o s. 129. 130 Smith , Isaac. portrait of (Copley). 142 Smith . Mrs. Isaac. portrait o f (C o pley). 142 Smither. J am es. 39. 54. 90: adve rtisem ents b y. 39. 47. 183: N os . 32. 33: tr ade ca rds eng rave d b y , 7. 54, 57. 183: N o s. 32. 33 sn u ff b o xes. 11 5. 119; (M ye rs). 11 9: N o . 79: (Ric ha rdson) . 119: N o . 80 sn u ffe rs. 126 sn uffer sta n ds , 126: (Mye rs). 120: (Reve re). 126: (Sy ng). 126: N o . 86

so fas. 211: N o . ISO: (A fflec k), 214: (Fleeson), 185: (Pr ince) . 155 Somm er s. Humphrey . house of. C ha rles ton . 35: Fig . 22 Spea ke r's Cha ir (Fo lwell), 183, 213 spoons (Reve re), 83; N o . 49 sta ircases , 17. 18, 21; Fig. 7 St amp Act ( 1765), 10, 153 St amper , J ohn. 28; ho u se of. Phi lad elphia. 28; Fig. 13 stan da rd o f th e Philadelphia Light H orse tr oo p (Fo lwell an d C lay poole). 0. 15. 89: Fig . 4 Ste d man, C harles. 28, 225 . 227: house o f. Ph ilad elphi a, 28 Stevenson . Co rneli us, 19 5 St evens on . H amil ton , 170 St even son. J ohn . 170 Stiege l, H enr y Will iam , II . 225 . 227. 230 . 231: tab le glass b y, 229 -3 1; sa also Am eri can Flint Glass M anu fact ory ; Elizab eth Furnace sto newa re. 2]4. 236 stove pl at es. 220 . 223, 225, 227; (Ba tsto Furnace). 222 ; (Eliza be th Fu rnace), 225, 227: (Ho pewel l Furnace). 225 ; N o . 101: (Ma rlbo ro Furn ace). 5, 225: N o . 102 ; (Rea d ing Furnace), 227 -28; N o. 104 stoves, 5. 223, 225: (Ba tsto Fu rnace), wooden pattern fo r cas ting side pl at e of. 228: N o . 16 5: (E lizabeth Furnace). 5, 223. 225, 227; N o . 163; (Hopewell Furn ace), 5. 45, 223. 225: N o . 160 : front pl at e from . N o . 161: (Ma rl boro Furn ace). plat e from. 5, 225; N o. 162 St rac han. J am es. 154. 156; lo o k in g-gl ass frames b y. 155; picture fra mes b y, 155, 150. 170: No. 10 5 Stratford H all . St ra tford , Vi rgi ni a. 174 Stua rt , Gil bert, 92 stucco wo rk, 17. 28, 29, 35, 175 Suga r Act ( 1704). 10. 153 sugar-a nd-c ream se ts: (Mye rs), 91-9 2; N o. 56; (Revere). 93 . 110; N o . 58 suga r cas te r (Cobu rn) . 85 suga r d ish es, 80. 89; (Lansing). 5, 88. 92-93. 131; No. 57; (Myers). 91-