Advances in Psychology Volume 38 The Roots of Perception

THE ROOTS OF PERCEPTION Individual Differences in Information Processing within and beyond Awareness ADVANCES IN PSYC...

Author: Uwe Hentschel | Gudmund Smith

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THE ROOTS OF PERCEPTION Individual Differences in Information Processing within and beyond Awareness

ADVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY 38 Editors

G. E. STELMACH

P. A . VROON

NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM . NEW YORK . OXFORD .TOKYO

THE ROOTS OF PERCEPTION Individual Differences in Information Processing within and beyond Awareness Edircd b y

Uwe HENTSCHEL Psychology Department Mainz University Mainz FRG

Gudmund SMITH Psychology Departmenf Lund University Lund Sweden

Juris G. DRAGUNS Psychology Department Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvariir U.S . A .

NORTH-HOLLAND AMSTERDAM. NEW YORK . OXFORD .TOKYO

QELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.. 1986 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprotluced. stored in a retrieval system, o r transmitted, in any form o r by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying. recording o r otherwise. without the prior permission of the copyright owner

ISBN: 0 444 70075 7

Publish ers: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V P.O. Box 1991 1000 B Z Amsterdam The Netherlands Sole distributors for the U.S . A . nnrl Cnriricla: ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING COMPANY. INC. S2Vanderbilt Avenue NewYork, N.Y. 10017 U.S.A.

Library of Congress Catalogingin-PublirrtionData

The Roots of perception. (Advances i n psychology ; 3b) Includes indexes. 1. Perccption. 2. Human information procession. 3. Subconsciousness. 4. I n d i v i d u a l i t y . I. Hentschel, W e . 11. Smith, Gudmund John Wilhelm, 1920111. flraguns, Juris G., 1932IV. Series: Advances i n psychology (Amsterdam, Netherlands) ; 38. BF311. Abh 198t 153.7 CC-lb563 ISBN 0-444-70075-7

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PRINTED I N T H E NETHERLANDS

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vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xv

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

xvii

PART I: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

Chapter 1. Subliminal perception, microgenesis, and personality. Uwe Hentschel, Gudrnund Smith, & Juris G. Draguns ......................................

3

PAR J 11: EXPERIMENTS ON PRECONSCIOUS PROCESSING: EFFECTS RELA TED TO DIFFERENT METHODS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Chapter 2. Personality factors and subliminal perception. Norman F. Dixon & Susan H.A. Henley .............................................................

39

Chapter 3. The subliminal psychodynamic activation method: Comprehensive listing update, individual differences, and other considerations. Lloyd H. Silverman & Carol J. Geisler ............................................................. 49 Chapter 4. The effects of subliminally presented sexual and aggressive stimuli on literary creativity. Maxine J. Antell & Leo Goldberger ..................................................................... 75 Chapter 5. Perceptual defense: A paradigm for investigating psychopathology? Susan H. A. Henley ............................................................................................... 93 Chapter 6. Size and shape of the subliminal window. Donald P. Spence, Lorrie Klein, & Ricardo J. Fernandez ...............................

103

PART 111: THE FURTHER UNFOLDING OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS: JHREA T AND DEFENSE IN PERCEPT-GENETIC PROCEDURES

Chapter 7. Life panorama under the microscope: A paradigmatic case study. U l f Kragh ................................................................................................................

145

Table of Contents

viii

Chapter 8. Activation of intrapsychic conflict and defense: The amauroscopic technique. Bert Westerlundh & Hans Sjoback ..................................................................... 161 Chapter 9. Percept-genetic defenses against anxiety and a threatened sense of self as seen in terms of t h e Spiral Aftereffect Technique. Alf L. Andersson & Margot Bengtsson ............................................................. PART

IV.

RELATING

SEMANTIC

PRECONSClOUS

STRUCTURES:

PROCESSES

SUBLIMINAL

TO

COGNlTlVE

PERCEPTION

AND

217 AND

MICRO-

GENESIS COMBINED

Chapter 10. Psychodynamic personality correlates of creativity. Uwe Hentschel & Uta Schneider ..... .................................................... Chapter 11. Identification with another person: Manipulated by means of subliminal stimulation. 277 Gudmund Smith, Ingegerd Carlsson, & Anna Danielsson ........... Chapter 12. Schizophrenic perception and i t s psychopathological implications: A microgenetic study. Hans Kreitler & Shulamith Kreitler ..................... I ............................................ 301 Chapter 13. Subliminal perception as the first stage of the perceptual process: Can personality be revealed so early in the sequence? Juris G. Draguns .................................................................................................

331

PART V : PSYCHOPHYSlOLOGlCAL CORRELATES OF T H E PERCEPTUAL PROCESS: EEG A N D CBF AS INDICATORS

Chapter 14. Regional changes in cerebral blood flow during increased anxiety in patients with anxiety neurosis. Aki M. Johanson, Jar1 Risberg, Peter Silfverskiold, & Gudmund Smith ..... 353

Chapter 15. Evoked potentials as unconscious indicators of cognitive control. Wolfram Ehlers & Dietrich Munz ......................................................................

361

Chapter 16. Anxiety and covert changes of attention control. Peter Glanzmann & Werner D. Frohlich ..........................................................

381

Table of Contents PART

VI.

A

ix

CRITICAL

MICROGENESIS:

LOOK

COMMENTS

AT AND

SUBLIMINAL REVIEWS

PERCEPTION FROM

AND

DIFFERENT

STANDPOINTS

Chapter 17. Percept-genesis and the 'scientific method'. Martin Johnson ....................................................................................

.... 403

Chapter 18. Looking at some New Look problems from an information processing point of view. Wolfgang Prinz ............................. ............................................ ..... 419 Chapter 19. Microgenesis and general systems in psychology. Kazimierz Obuchowski ........... .................................................

..... 427

Chapter 20. A metatheoretical analysis of the percept-genetic personality theory. 441 K. A. M adsen ......................................................................................................... Name index 1 ................................

...............................................

455

.............................

.....................................................

465

Subject index


xi

PREFACE

In searching for empirical avenues of assessing personality, psychologists almost inevitably come to grips with the phenomena of perception in their several guises. Even in responding to simple questionnaire items self-observation is indispensable, When person perception comes into play, the impression of the other, based a6 it is on the perceiver's characteristic style and mode of perceiving the external environment, in turn offers clues to the distinguishing features of the perceiver, It is this latter approach that is typical of the contributions of this volume. It is prominently exemplified by the operations of experiments in which different groups of subjects are compared by means of their perceptual responses. This avenue of investigation has a long research history. It acquired prominent international visibility through the efforts of the pioneers of the New Look movement. In the chapters of this book, the authors have ns a rule not chosen objects of perception arbitrerily for purposes of personality assessment. Nor have they focused upon the automatized perceptual processes that loom large in traditional experimental psychology research. Rathe r , the question has been posed about the perception of two kinds of s t i m uli: those that remain below the absolute threshold for protracted periods of time (subliminal perception/preconscious processing) and the perception of which is followed over time from tcmporary subliminality to a point of clear recognition ( Aktualgenese , microgenesis, percept-genesis) Under the title of "The Roots of Perception'' the temporal portion of each perceptual process is articulated which is relevant to individual or group differences in the variables identified by the several subheadings of the volume. Preconscious processing and microgenesis are at this point not parts of the mainstream of psychology. They are, however, separately and jointly, two active and dynamic branches of research. A t the very least, they may be expected to provide an invigorating effect upon individually oriented psychology of perception in the future. Each of these two research topics has its own history of development, marked by some features that have remained constant over time and by others that have undergone dramatic transformations. Some of these changes are so pronounced that they can be accommodated under the original label only with the greatest of difficulty. In the case of subliminal perception, it is above all the area of

.

xii

Preface

methodology that has proved to be very sensitive to change. In the course of time, a considerably increased degree of objectivity has been achieved as a result of these methodological refinements. A s the mainly German enterprise of microgenesis (Aktualgenese) was transmuted to percept-genesis in Sweden, the objectives shifted from general to differential psychology and came to be focused upon the standardization and validation of personality assessment procedures. The vitality of a research area is attested not only by the number of relevant publications, but also by meetings and conferences for face-toface exchange of technical and scientific information. In 1977, the First Conference on Microgenesis took place in Mainz. In 1980, the Second Conference was held in Lund under the title of "Microgenesis and Related Issues. It The proceedings of both of theae international meetings have been published (see References in Chapter 1). At the Second European Conference on Personality in Bielefeld in 1984, chaired by A. Angleitner, one of the editors (U.H.) organized a symposium composed of contributions by investigators of both of the topics represented in the present volume : preconscious processing and microgenesis. These presentations were followed by a panel discussion at which a number of invited speakers provided an appraisal of these two lines of research from their respective theoretical points of view. After the tlymposium, the editors tried to supplement the papers given with other contributions relevant to the several topics of the volume. They also preparcd an introductory chapter. Each of the contributions was written to be understandable on its own. Only in those chapters in which a critical appraisal of preconscious processing and microgenesis is undertaken is the knowledge of the principles of these two phenomena presupposed. A s editors, we have tried to make sure that the connection between the two planes of data and theory is at all times clear to the reader. This aspiration, however, does not go so far as to make the volume a "practical manual" for the application of the experimental procedures in question. Those readers who may want to undertake studies with these methods are encouraged to solicit further relevant information from the respective authors who, as we know, will respond to these inquiries readily and gladly. The formulation of specific research questions and the development of methods tailor-made in response to these conceptualizations is a charncteristic feature of these two topics of investigation. These special and, sometimes, unusual methods are in turn linked to the theoretical assumptions on

Preface

xiii

which the investigation of these topics rests. In this manner, it imbues the several chapters with their specific and differentiating accents. In the introductory chapter we have attempted to pinpoint the commonalities among t h e several contributions. Even though the various arguments for or against preconscious processing and/or microgenesis may be found in Part VI of the volume and thus may anticipate the conclusions of the reader, we have striven to leave our readers' judgment enough play for them to arrive at their own evaluation of the concepts and findings presented here. We would be happy i f we have managed to communicate some of the personal fascination with preconscious processing and microgenesis that the three of us share. The three editors proceeded from a common conception about the book from the very s t a r t , shared much of the editorial work among them, and arrived at high ?'interrater reliability" in judging proposals for the final version. However, team work also meant division of labor: Uwe Hentschel collected most of the material and corresponded with the contributors: for obvious geographical reasons, only he and Gudmund Smith were able to meet before preparing the final version of the manuscript; Juris Draguns undertook to scrutinize and improve the language of several chapters and to translate some contributions originally written in German. Mainz, West Germany

U.H.

Lund, Sweden

G.S.

. .

University Park, Penn , U S . A . March 1986

J.G.D.


xv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

When preparing a book with contributions from several authors, editors depend on the generous help of many hands. The beginning of the present editorial endeavor was facilitated b y the conference board and program committee of the Second European Conference of Personality in Bielefeld, West Germany, of May 1984. When the group of oontributors was enlarged beyond the participants at that conference, the editors encountered very cooperative and encouraging responses from the new authors. All of the contributors offered their cooperation from the very beginning and up to the point when the final edition of the manuscript was ready for processing. The cooperation with North-Holland and its representatives has also been rewarding throughout. The road from the initial conception of a book to a camera-ready manuscript is full of obstacles. The publisher gave

US

all the advice and support we asked for and needed.

Mr. Alfred K. Weber deserves special thanks, not only for his typing of the final manuscript but for his competent solutions of many intricate editorial problems, not least, problems of language. He readily accepted the responsibility for bringing the manuscript into i t s final form and for adapting the reference lists to the APA standards.

M s . Barbara Pitzer assisted him most competently in typing several of the manuscripts.

MS. Sunhild Kohz redrew several of the figures, often found radically new solutions to improve them, and generally offered useful advice about lay-out

.

For the drawing on the half-title page we are indebted to the original to be found in Descartes' Discours De La Mkthode as first published by Jan Maire, Leyden, in 1637.

M r . Gernod Pfeiffer read and corrected all the galley-proofs. hlr. Manfred KieRling accomplished the final paging on the word processor.

Ms. Andrea Wigand helped compile the subject and name index. We gratefully acknowledge the permissions granted for the use of the following figures: chapter 1, Figure 1: Joseph R . Royce, University of Al-

xvi

Acknowledgements

berta, Edmonton and Academic Press, Orlando, Florida; chapter 1, Figure

2: Norman F. Dixon, University College, London; chapter 1, Figure 3: U11chapter 9 , Figures 1,2,3: Bouvier Verlag, Bonn. The Scandinavian Journal of Psychology generously allowed us to reprint material and text appearing in chapter 9 and 11; for chapter 4 copyright permission was granted by the Psychological Research Bulletin. We are grateful to tho Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat of Mainz for giving us access to their word processors, to the 'Verein zur Farderung pershlichkeits- und sozialpsychologischer Forschung e . V . I , and to the Swedish Humanistic and Social Science Research Council for various forms of financial support. stein Verlag, West-Berlin;

xvii

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Andersson, Alf L. Department of Applied Psychology. University of Lund, Lund, Sweden Antell, Maxine Joan Department of Psychology, New York University, Hew York, N Y 10003, USA

Bengtsson, Margot Department of Applied Psychology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden Carlsson. Ingegerd Department of Psychology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden Danielsson, Anna Department of Psychology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden Dixon. Norman F. Department of Psychology, University College London, London WCIE 6BT, UIC Draguns , Juris G

.

Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA Ehlers, Wolfram Forschungsstelle fur Fernandez , Ricardo J

.

Psychotherapie,

Stuttgart

70,

West

Germany

Department of Psychiatry, UMDNJ-Rutgers Medical School, Piscataway , NJ 08854, USA Frohlich , Werner D. Institute of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg-University , Mainz , West Germany Geisler, Carol J. Department of Psychology, N e w York University, New York,

N Y 10003, USA Glanzmann, Peter Institute of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg-University , Mainz , West Germany Goldberger , Leo Department

of

NY 10003, USA . '.

.

Psychology,

New

York

University,

New

York,

List of Contributors

xviii

Henley, Susan H.A. Department of Psychology, University College London, London WCIE 6BT, U K Hentschel, Uwe Institute of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg-University , hlainz , West Germany Johanson. A k i M. Department of Psychiatry, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden Johnson, Martin Parapsychological Laboratory, University of Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands Kreitler, Hans Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel Kreitler , Shulamith Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel Madsen, K . B . Department of Education and Psychology, The Royal Danish School of

. .

Educational Studies, Copenhagen N V , Denmark Munz , Dietrich Forschungsstellc ftir Psychotherapie, Stuttgart 7 0 , West Germany Obuchowski, Kazimierz Department of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan, Poland Prinz, Wolfgang Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld , West G e r many Risberg, Jar1 Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital, Lund , Sweden Schneider , Uta Institute of Psychology, Johannes Gutenberg-University

, hlainz , West

Germany Silfverskidld , Peter Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital, Lund , Sweden Silverman, Lloyd H . Department of Psychology, New York University, New York,

N Y 10003, USA Sjoback, Hans Department of Psychology, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden

List of Contributors

xix

Smith, Gudmund J.W. Department of Psychology, University of Lund, Lund , Sweden Spence, Donald P . Department of Psychiatry, UMDNJ-Rutgers Medical School, Piscataway , NJ 08854, USA

Westerlundh, Bert Department of Psychology, University of Lund , Lund, Sweden


PART I INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW


The Roots of Perception U.Hentechel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

3

SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION, MICROGENESIS, AND PERSONALITY

U w e Hcntschel University of Mainz Gudmund Smith Lund University Juris G . Draguns The Pennsylvania State university

PERCEPTION : A GENERAL PERSPECTIVE Perception abides by general laws, yet it is at the same time a highly individualized phenomenon. It is this apparent contradiction that makes the study of perception relevant both from a general psychological as well as from R differential point of view. The contradiction is dissolved if general species-specific regularities are effectively differentiated from processes which are individually structured and invested with meaning on the basis of their personal and subjective significance. In the present volume we propose to concentrate on the latter, individualized, aspects of perception. This kind of emphasis is not novel, yet it remains somewhat unusual. For this reason, it may be useful to specify the distinguishing features of the present volume : (1) We view perception as an evcnt over tine rather than a s an in-

stantaneous reaction to outside stimulation; ( 2 ) We also consider perception as an event the roots of which are to

be found beyond the restricted confines of awareness, often closely intertwined with the observer's private world of memories and emotional experiences. It may be illuminating, however, to begin this chapter with a few examples from the traditional areas of research in perception. These examples are chosen to show that even when experimenters have tried to keep perception isolated from such contaminating influences as motivation, emotion, or

past

biographical

experience

they

are

likely

to

confront

many

4

U.Hentschel, G. Smith, and J.G. Draguns

complications as they attempt to demonstrate the identity between an external object and its perceptual representation, which has been the core assumption of most of the classical or traditional theories of perception. In the case of color vision, the physical conditions which are necessary for color to be experienced are well established a s are also the physiological processing mechanisms. Yet, it has not been possible to this date to formulate a direct immediate connection between wave length and color perception. Thus, the Rtatement that "an object reflecting waves in the range of 7600-6500 Angstrom is upon qualitative transformations in the perceptual apparatus perceived as red by a human observer" is usually valid but subject to modification under certain conditions. On the stimulus side, perception can be influenced by admixture of white light and, even more importantly, by the variation of temporally and spatially contiguous stimulus objects. On the perceiver's side, social perception experiments have convincingly demonstrated the subordination of colors to concrete objects on the basis of individually characteristic or socially shared expectancies. In order to be able to say anything nhout the perceived color properties of a physically defined stimulus, the reaction of the perceiver must be taken into account. The psychometric identification of differences is also dcpendent upon the method. used, e.g., color naming, cancellation methods, or multidimensional scaling techniques (cf. Boynton, 1 9 7 5 ) . This example highlights the dependence of R general perceptual reaction upon the specific physical stimulus characteristics, the general stinulus field, the internal systemic features of the observer, and the method of measurement. The relationship of a theoretical statement to the method on which it is based encompasses both the interrelatedness of physical stimulus characteristics and their links to the responses. The clarification of this methodological dependence is indispensable for the formulation of a theory. Indeed. according to Coomhs, Raiffa, and Thrall (1954), it constitutes the very core of o theory.

PERCEPTION AS A PROCESS Even at the risk of further complicating the complex objectives of this inquiry, it must be admitted that not all the relevant aspects have been considered so far. In everyday experience, environmental stimuli are reg-

5

Subliminal Perception, Microgenesis, and Personality

istered

quasi-automatically

.

Shaped

by

experience

and

motivational

objectives, a restriction of meaning has almost inevitably taken place in such a case. This kind of narrowing of meaning and function is most likely traceable to the development of various codes for the representation of stimuli. In the course of ontogenesis, the focus is shifted from "enactive" through r5conict7to "symbolic representation" (cf. Bruner , 1964). Yet, the former two categories are never quite discarded, even in the adult portion of the human life span. A cherry tree may be constant in its symbolic rcp-

resentation across the seasons. Its meaning, however, in relation to concrete courses of action may be subject to dramatic changes. For example, at the end of winter the tree must be expertly trimmed, in spring its blossoms are admired and in summer its fruit is harvested, Perception then, as we have already pointed out, is not a momentary final product,but a process extended in time and culminating in conscious representation and meaning. The fact that in everyday functioning meaning is assigned to perceptual inputs virtually instantaneously obscures the realization of the temporally extended character of human perccption. The momentary recognition of most objects of our experience, however, only comes about through multiple repetition going back to the earliest phases of human development. This process is objectively and subjectively cxperienced only as perceptual conditions are restricted or impoverished. In the case of vision, such restrictions are brought about upon presentation time, brightness, masking by other stimuli, and impovcrishrnent of stimulus form and content. By means of these methods, the signal to noise ratio of a specific representation can be changed and such ratios of a progression of stimuli can be serially arranged. Even in relcitively simple recognition tasks, information processing appears to be inextricably linked with a demand for integration. This formulation is in keeping with Llarr's (1982) approach, which is neurophysiological, but clearly emphasizes events over time. Massaro and Cohen (1983) investigated the conditions for the integration of exclusively auditorily presented stimuli which were supplemented by visual stimuli (lip movements of the speaker) for the perception of syllables. In other experinents simple variations of visual configurations (i.e., letters and words) were used. These experiments, conceived in a different theoretical tradition, appear to have a degree of similarity with the findings of percept-genetic studies. To be s u r e , ndditional assumptions (see below) are indispensable for the percept-genetic approach, which typically is applied to stimuli of

6

U. Hentschel, G. Smith, and J.G. Draguns

much greater complexity. The global objective, however, which animates the percept-genetic approach, can be defined, as recognized by Linschoten (1959) as an integrative "effort after meaning" (Draguns 1984a). The foregoing discussion has introduced the incompatibility of perceptual functioning with a pure stimulus-response model. We agree with Kelly (1955) and Laing, Phillipson, and Lee (1966) that organisms respond on the basis of their subjective experience with a stimulus, and not to the objective-physical stimulus pattern, Once again, this recognition points to the central significance of meaning and thereby opens allusively yet anothe r aspect of perceptual experience. The final product of conscious perceptual apprehension of an external object is in many cnses but an intermediate step in a more extended sequence of information processing. It may also be a point of departure, an instrument, or a trigger for further cognitive processes. In the case of concept formation problem solving, thinking, and attitude development, these progressions nny take place exclusively within the individual. Natur d l y , major differences in the functional integration of perceptions can appear in the course of these operations. In contemplating a sunset at the end of a summer day, i t makes a major difference whether this activity is an end in itself or whether it is focused upon the detection of a lighthouse or another kind of landmark against the setting sun while sailing. In person perception, we approach the interpersonal dimension which is also implicated in communicating personal contents. At the same time, we are forced to leave behind the perspective whereby perceptual responses are considered as a purely experimental object of investigation. Human beings can and must communicate about their perceptions. The moaning of the events and actions of others is typically attributed on the basis of communicative everyday experience (cf. Habermas, 1970). If the communication process is emphasized and placed in the foreground, this results in according greater prominence to hermeneutics over experimentation. At the same time, the ability to perceive a stimulus objectively, independently of its social field, is called into question by the proponents of the hermeneutic point of view. The clash between the hermeneutic vs. experimental approach need not be absolute nor require an either-or decision (cf. Hentschel. 1985). An elegant solution of this dilemma is foreshadowed in Kelly's (1955) personality theory in which constructs, essentially based on perception, determine the goodness of predictions of external events. In Kelly's framework, adequacy of interpersonal communications is crucially


7

dependent upon the similarity of individual construct systems. It is in this case as though various events were viewed through another person's glasses. The social context of perception, however, need not necessarily constitute the cornerstone of a conceptualization of perceptual activity. On the plane of experimental research on perception, such an objective would not be very easy to realize. As a background variable, however, the social context has an important role to play, a s exemplified by studies of perceptual process in the "percept-geneticT1tradition in which "social schemata" are taken into account in interpreting individual differences in object perception (cf. Hentschel & Smith, 1980; Kragh & Smith, 19708; Smith & Westerlundh, 1980). In this perspective, the investigators proceed from an objectifiable final product, in the form of verbal reports about what the subjects perceived in tachiutoscopic presentations. They interpret individual differences by means of an epigenetic node1 against the background of subjective experience in the course of social development.

PERCEPTION A N D KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION It is not surprising that perception as our link to the natural and cultural environment has had a major impact upon metatheoretical and epistemological considerations.

Plato's cane metaphor comes to mind. It is

interpretable epistemologically. Virtually all theoriefi of philosophy of science contain statements about the role of perception, either explicitly or implicitly. This state of affairs is especially apparent in the case of empirical realism and of phe~~omenological and positivistic conceptualization. The role of perception is less emphasized in Popper's (1963) critical realism, with its highly complex chain of appropriate proofs for theoretical statements. Similarly, perception has less of a central role to play in those conceptualizations which emphasize the action aspects of scientific knowledge (e.g., Holzkamp, 1972). Royce (1974), among others, pointed to the parallels between psychology and philosophy, which, however, do not constitute identical modes of knowing, in such cognitive structurcs as "reality image ,'"'cognitive processes, I' and "epistemological criteria. '' In hi6 assumption about the three fundamental pathways to knowledge (see Figure l), emphasis upon perception is placed in the lowest route. However, Royce cautioned against viewing these three pathways as independent. How this knowledge is to be viewed in an ontological context when it transcends

U.Hentschel, G.Smith, and J.G. Draguns

8

subjective experience ie a philosophical, and not a psycholodcal, problem, Popper and Eccles (1977) have postulated A world of its own ("World 3") for this kind of knowledge. It is accessible to subjective experience (of "World 2") and helps comprehend the real objects of 9Vorld 1."

Processes o f man

U

Figure 1. I h e basic paths

t o knowledge

(after Royce, 1974, p . 153)

PERCEPTIOtI AFIU CONSCIOUSNESS The problem of consciousness is intimately connected with that of knowledge based on subjective expcrience and perception by means of which it is mediated. For the present volume, it iR important to elucidate consciousness because the majority of contributors concern themselves with the assumptions and consequences of preconscious perception.

For the

start, let us define preconscious perception simply as the nbsence of conscious perception. This is not the time to attcnpt a derivation of consciousness from i t s neurophysiologlcal substrates, even though we may not be able to avoid discussing certain indispensable physiological assumptions, In everyday speech, consciousness is deternined by intersubjective agreement on introspectively experienced mental states. A gencral definition of consciousness, especially one with potentially operational criteria, is, however, not easy to provide. Lowenhard (1981) provided an overview of the


9

various definitions of consciousness. In particular, he analyzed the conceptualizations based on systems theory, information processing theory, and evolutionary principles and identified points of contact among these three views. From the evolutionary perspective, a parallel can be drawn to the phenomenon of life. The ability to process stimuli consciously improves the chances of adaptation to a complex environment. The evolutionary principle can be interpreted in terms of higher adaptive performnnce (negentropic flexibility, Sayre, 19761, of conscious individuals in receiving and processing information. From the biological point of view, however, it would be highly wasteful to let all of the information that impinges upon u s become conscious. For perception research, of both general and differentinl varieties, it is highly relevant to follow, in Lowenhard's terms, the fate of information. Of the 1 08 bits per second of the retina input, approximately 50 bits are transmitted to higher centers. Even these 50 bits are a rela-

tively vague and uncertain estimate since measurement in bits lends itself poorly for the assessment of human information processing. The assumption of processing in terms of gestaltlike units would allow a more adequatc representation. It i s , however, not biologically meaningful to make the reactions of potentially conscious organisms exclusively dependent on conscious representation and to proceed from the assumption of a restricted channel capacity of conscious stimulus processing. Everyday experience teaches us that conscious processing can be dispensed with even for many complex reactions. I t is also generally known that contents of consciousness are not directly linked to external stimuli. Dixon (1981) captured this state of affairs in a scheme (see Figure 2 ) which recognizes the possibility of a perfect correlation of subjective experience and information flow, but

I

Subjective exDerience

Max. Cn w

.-o

c)

u m* .-

E uE) L

o c

L m -C I - 'L

Max.

Zero Response determination by external stimuli

Figure 2. Schematic representation of the relationship between information flow and subjective perceptual experience (after Dlxon, 1981, p. 2 )


10

also allows for their reciprocal independence.

"As we move along the

continuum of subjective experience, through such intermediary stages as those of illusions, hypnogogic imagery, dreams, and hallucinations, there may be no fall-off in such perceptual attributes as vividness, salience, clarity, and emotional significance. But, over the same range of external stimulus control, the relationship between information read in and that contained in the output drops to zero" (Dixon, 1981, p. 2). "Expressed behavior" is not yet incorporated into this scheme. Such behavior can vary freely in terms of its stimulus dependence and conscious representation. The possibilities of combining information inputs from external and internal sources, from conscious and preconscious representation, and from silcnt and overt reactions would provide little opportunity for planned investigation,

THE ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONS OF PERCEPTION

Fortunately, these variations are not very arbitrary since our behavior may be regarded as being for the most part adaptive and certain pntterns of behavior are effectively explained by virtue of their being embedded into functional sequences of biological adaptation, Such a perspective appears to be one of the few available justifications for choosing an experimental approach for the investigation of human perception and for gathering leads by experimental mcans about characteristic group modes of reaction. One of the first to attempt the formulation of interdependence between the milieu and the perceptual and behavioral performance of animals which inhabit i t was J. von Uexkiill (1921) with his schema of a functional circle (Funktionskreis) (see Figure 3 ) . This interdependence is best illustrated in the case of the tick. Even for very simple reactions von Uexkiill assumed a series of concentric information circles, as elucidated by the acts of seeing, grasping, and eating an apple. The visual index for grasping, the tactile index for bringing i t to the mouth, the taste index for eating !'blend the three partial acts into a holistic act of consuming the apple" 1 (v. Uexkiill, 1980, p . 373) Integration of three sensory modalities into

.

an experience of action is assumed in this example. The interdependence of subject and milieu can be generally extended without difficulty to subliminal indicators. Such indicators may acquire a

Su blimiml Perception, Microgenesis, and Personality

11

Perceptual World

e

Organ

-u L' 0 O9

Organ

E O C C -4J

Receptor Carrier of the Perceptual Index Interrelational Structure Carrier o f the Activating Index Effector

Effectory World Figure 3. Schema of the functional circle (Funktionskreis)(after

v.Uexkul1, 1980,

pp. 330, 372)

special meaning in the perceptual world

(Merkwelt) of the individual

through the influence of psychodynamic subject variables. What is less precisely specified in most of the postulates of subliminal perception - implicitly extending the scope of the functional circle - is the point of attack for the effector. An approach of another provenance, which, however, shows a certain degree of similarity to the assumptions underlying functional circles, is the Gestalt region theory (Gestaltkreis, cf. von Weizsacker, 1940). This conceptualization has provided many demonstrations of integrative cooperation of perception and motion in the so called biological acts of fitting living organisms into their environment. According to the equivalence principle postulated by the Gestalt-region theorists, a perception can be substituted for a motion, and vice versa. A s an example, the experiment by v . Auersperg and Sprockhoff (1935) can be mentioned. These investigators used a cylinder rotated on its vertical axis, which was provided with a series of holes in i t s outside wall and with a light source located within the cylinder. A s the cylinder was rotated, the points of light merged into a continuous line. When the subjects were asked to perform vertical eye movements, so called irregular after image strips were experienced. In the objective control experiment with a camera two horizontal merger lines were represented instead of the subjectively perceived horizontal main line. The

U.Hentschel, G. Smith, and J.G.Draguns

12

phenomenal correlate preserves from the objective comparison a reduced representation. Moreover, the merged line appears to be constant in space and time and independent of the spatially displaced retinal images.Thus the discrepancies between the physical sequence and the subjective phenomena can be summed up in terms of reduction, phenomenal constancy, and simultaneity of temporally disparate events. The Gestalt region theory has formulated the general tenet according to which no percept can be conceived as involving identity between an object and i t s experience. "Each perceptual act is experienced as the appearance of the object and its predicativefl (von Weizsacker, 1947, p. 1 0 9 ) . l Each object then can have several modes of appearance. Von Weizsiicker cites the simple example of several possible perceptual experiences of two points on a white background. They can be perceived as being horizontally adjacent, as a pair, as two discrete objects, each of which possibilities represents different modes of contact with various aspects of the objective environment. Both of the above theories attempt to incorporate the subject-object relationships into a comprehensive observational framework. They also emphasize the coherence of subject and environment. The perceiver is viewed as an active subject; the rhythmic properties of all living phenomena are highlighted. Thus both theories are implicitly relevant to many contributions in this volume, with its emphasis upon interpenetration between external stimuli and internal systemic variables and between perceivers and objects of perception, even if no chapter, outside of this introduction, refers to these formulations explicitly. The relevance of these two theories can be elucidated by way of contrast. If attempts at integration into a more complex functional reference system are abandoned --with the attendant apparent advantages of easier operationalization and experimental manipulation

-

the putative dimensions could easily disintegrate into a multi-

plicity of discrete variables and these variables, in t u r n , would decompose into dichotomous contrasts. That the reverse route by way of accumulation of discrete experimental findings would result in integration is most unlikely, Allen Newel1 (1973) commented upon this state of affairs by saying: "You can't play twenty questions with nature and win" and thereby indicated his opinion of the prospects of blind empiricism in perceptual research.

13

Subliminal Perception, Microgenesis, and Personality THE BASIC THEME OF THIS BOOK: PERSONALITY FACTORS I N PERCEPTION

With respect to the danger of blind empiricism, the task of the contributors to the present volume is considerably easier. Even though there is a great deal of heterogeneity in method and findings among the authors,

their contributions converge upon the research topics of subliminal percep-

.

tion and microgenesis or percept-genesis One of these two research areas is variously in focus or both of them are combined. In the last section of the volume, attempts are made to 8stablish the conceptual locus of the two types of phenomena investigated, to relate the findings metatheoretical issues.

reported

to

other

theories,

and

to

address

Thus all the problems of a personality centered perceptual research program, so far but cursorily mentioned in the introduction, reappear in another guise. even though by this time they are channeled into one of the two topics of investigation. These considerations are relevant to the issues of stimulus, person, and methodological influences, various modes of coding of perceptual experiences,

their observability in process, even

their interpersonal significancc, together with sundry metatheoretical considerations. The product of perceptual information processing sequences is relcvant in the normal range of functioning: in everyday behavior, to responses to potential dangers, successful problem solving performances, and creative productions. In psychopathology, the investigation of these phenomena is potentially applicable to the diagnosis of aberrant behavior patterns and psychological disturbance and may even be therapeutically useful. AS the general objective of these empirical contribution8 we can posit the description and prediction of adaptive processes which bring to light the potentials and limits of perceptual information processing in various groups of subjects. The concept of adaptation is understood here not just as passive fitting in, but as an active process of possible restructuring of objects as they are given, similar to what is observed in all kinds of creative achievements. Its component processes may be elucidated by reference to Piagst's terms of assimilation and accomodotion. Each approach to the investigation of individual differences in perception and personality must proceed from at least two postulates: the existence of individual diffcr-

14


ences in perception and information processing of stimuli and the relntionship of these individual differences to the personal biographical experience of the individual in question. The first postulate can be understood to imply that the active perceiver forms hypotheses about the perceptual object, constructs or reconstructs i t , and evaluates it in accordance with his or her momentary or long-range cognitive and emotional goals. Extensions of the second postulate can be derived from virtually all personality theories and can be verified by multiple demonstrations of formal and content differences in perception. The long-term effect of "selective visual exposure" in the early stages of development upon functional cell characteristics, interpretable as a neuronal substrRte of fixation, has been demonstrated in animals as well as in humans (see the review of literature by Hirsch and Jacobson, 1975). The lasting effect of certain spatial structures (e.g., carpentered world vs.open vistas) upon habitual perceptual performance has also been verified in cross cultural studies (e.g. , Segall, Campbell, & Herskovits, 1966; see Deregowski, 1980, for a comprehensive review of relevant research). There are numerouR studies of iridividual differences in formal perceptual principles, "cognitive controls" as Klein (1970) , Frenkel-Brunswik (1949) and Witkin, et al. (1962) called them. Their moderating influence upon behavior and experience is well documented. There is a multiplicity of investigations which proceed from the assumptions of regression and fixation. These studics have attempted to trace differences in perception and cognitive processing to specific stages in the development of personality. These then are the common threads running through the volume; its heterogeneity in content, methods. and conclusions is the result of the manifold possibilities of construing human behavior, experience, and dispositions, of fitting these characteristics with different situations in experiments and of verifying them through group comparisons and ctme studies. Since, however, all of the contributions were chosen on the basis of their relevance to the thcoretical frame of reference adopted here and were consequently focused upon preconscious processing or microgenesis, we express the hope that the reader will not find it difficult to establish similarities among these chapters on a higher plane and to fit the many discrete colorful pieces into a mosaic with clearly delineated component structures.


15

EXPER /MEN TS ON PRECONSCIOUS PROCESSING

In addition to the present overview, there are five more sections in this volume. Part 11 is basically devoted to experiments on preconscious processing. A s Dixon (1981) pointed out, the existence of preconscious perception has been successfully upheld against all reasonable objections and criticisms. Resistance against accepting the accumulated research findings has, however, remained, probably because subliminal perception runs counter to everyday experience and can not be easily reconciled to i t . The belief in freedom of will also appears to be threatened by these findings. The indignation of the critics has above nll been directed at the alleged danger of behavioral manipulation by advertisers or at the service of moral or political courses (cf, Brand, 1978). This potential area of application

is, however, not discussed in the several chapters in Section 11. Enough controversies remain, however. One of these pertains to the alleged effectiveness of symbiotic subliminal stimuli as a therapeutic technique whereby the question of influencing behavior is raised once again, albeit with a different objective and by means of a much more sophisticated methodology (see Silverman & Geisler, chapter 3). Werth (1983) proposed to introduce natural science criteria for the determination of consciousness in psychological and physiological experiments. These standards could be operationalized by so-called experiments of the l s t , 2nd, and 3rd rank. According to the 1st rank critcrion,the subject should be capable of discovering the stimulus, localizing it, and differentiating it from other stimuli. Conforming to criterion of the 2nd rank would require awareness of ability to discriminate and meeting the criterion of the 3rd rank would entail being cognizant of the connection of discriminatory ability with a state of consciousness. At a minimum, the criterion of the 1st rank must be satisfied for sublimiiially effective stimuli whereby diEcriminatory ability mny also be evident through its secondary effwts, such as neurophysiological reactions, dream content, memory, needs and emotions, defenses, and behavioral changes (cf. Dixon, 1971; Dixon, Hentschel, & Smith, in press). An important question which is explicitly discussed in several chapters in Part I1 concerns the intactness or the completeness with which the subliminal message is received as well as the involvement of "ambient vs. foveal vision" (Leibowitz & Owens, 1977). The experimental possibilities of varying the general as well as the personal relevance of stimulus materials and their reconstructability are as

16


yet by no means exhausted. Pespite the apparent partial convergence between microgenesis and subliminal perception, the answer to the question, "Why subliminal effects?" is different in accent from the response to the question, "Why microgenesis?" (Draguns, 1984b). With the development of awareness of ability to discriminate stimulus configurations, largely unconscious strategies lead to gestalt completion and filling of gaps in the available information which, in combination with the techniques of stimulus presentation, lead to a typical microgenetic process. The cognitive mechanisms of reconstruction and transformation constitute its central postulates, as they are retrieved from the subjects' reports. In a series of slowly increasing presentation times, form and content are successively determined by the subject, i.s., in the course of this process experiences can be accumulated, irrelevant options eliminated, inappropriate ones rejected and, i f necessary replaced by spontaneous new creations (cf. Kragh & Smith, 1970b; Smith, Kragh, & Hentschel, 1080). The reversal of this process, to the extent that the effortfully achieved stimulw meaning can be discarded or, in Kelly's (1955) terminology, constructs can be loosened, has proved to be another relevant technique of investigating perception perstinnlity variahles (see Smith, Carlsson, 6 Danielsson, chapter 11, and Hentschel 6 Schneider, chapter 1 0 ) . In subliminal perception experiments, on the other hand, the traditional signal to noise ratio is kept below the absolute threshold for conscious recognition for the given individual. This is true of presenting discrete stimuli as well as for repeated stimulus presentation. In neither case is the recognition process directly explored in so far as it does not even come about on the conscious plane. Rather, the focus is exclusively upon the effect of the subliminal stimulus. In many experiments with anxiety-arousing as well RS reinforcing stimuli what is astounding is the innocuousness of these stimuli. Their effectiveness is difficult to explain unless one posits a "restricting effect of awareness" (Spence & Holland, 1962). The correctness of this assumption is indirectly corroborated by the observation that the identical stimuli presented supraliminslly Rcarcely lend themselves to the demonstration of either general or differential effects. What this amounts to is that under conscious control the negative stimulus configurations do not appear especially dangerous nor do the positive ones appear particularly attractive. Under what kind of marginal conditions do subliminal stinuli show effects

Su bliminal Perception, Microgenesis, and Personality

17

boils down in the general psychological perspective to a question concerning the function and capacity of the perceptual apparatus. In this connection, the reader is referred to Dixon's (1971. 1981) monographs in which he discusses thoroughly the physiological prerequisites for the experience of subliminal perception. In the present volume, some of the positions espoused by the contributors are controversial on the issue of ideal stimulus features and optimal stimulus localization for receptivity to subliminal stinuli. Spence, Klein, and Fernandez (chapter 6 ) varied stimulus complexity and regions of registration. Their results point to the limits in receptivity to subliminal stimuli and stand in certain contrast (as long as verbel stimuli are exclusively used) to the effects demonstrated with more complex symbiotic messagcs (not controlled for laterality) by Silverman and Geisler (chapter 3 ) in their review of this specialized research area. A s yet, neither point of view can be rejected on logical grounds and through operationalization of experimental conditions. It is quite certain that these two research teams have proceeded from different points of departure, above all through the use of verbal or pictorial stimulus materials, or a combination of both. A s editors we hope that the juxtaposition of these two contributions will stimulate discussion on H higher plane of specificity, thereby facilitating operationalization and narrowing down the range of possible explanations. Should this objective be achieved, it would justify the title of the series in which this book is included. Part I1 of the volume is opened with a contribution by Dixon Fnd Henley (chapter 2 ) in which a new method for the generation of subliminal stimuli is introduced. The authors have also pioneered a new approach in the detection of subliminal effects in subjects. Subliminality was attained by means of apparently superimposed letter strings on the computer screen, mostly in the form of nonsense syllables with n few critical words thrown in. The effects were investigated by means of free associations, ratings, and picture selection. The objective of the experimenters was to determine the nature of individual semantic networks through the receptivity of subjects to specific stimuli. In their review Silverman and Geisler (chapter 3) summarize the results of over sixty investigations using the subliminal paychodynarnic activation method. This method was applied on the basis of psychoanalytically derived hypotheses for symptom reinforcement by means of generating conflicts specific to various psychopathological disorders, for improving per-

18


formance in sports by activating unconscious oedipal fantasies and for facilitating adaptive behavior through the activation of symbiotic fantasies, The authors arrive at cssentially positive conclusions concerning the support received for their hypotheses in research conducted so far. They provide a multiplicity of technical and procedural hints which should be useful to all potential experimenters in this research area. They also point t o the importance of taking individual differences into account in choosing appropriate psychodynamic activating stimuli. In the process, they demonstrate that moderating influences of the percciver are operative in subliminal stimulation. Consequently, pcrsons should not be regnrded as equally passive receivers of a more or less generally effective message. In their study Antoll and Goldberger (chapter 4 ) investigated the effect of sexual and aggressive drive derivatives activated b y means of subliminally presented pictorial stimuli upon creative achievement. Subliminal activation with sexual stimuli was shown to facilitate simple, associative performance, but had a counterproductive effect upon the formation of metaphors. When the group was divided into creative and noncreativc subjects, the aggressive stimulus impaired performance, more so in noncreative than in creative participants. Creative subjects expericnced no n e p tive effects of the sexual stimulus upon nctaphor formation, contrary to their noncreativc counterparts. The authors' hypotheses were not generally supported, but the investigators succeeded in demonstrating the interaction of stimuli and subject group characteristics upon positive and negative stimuli, deliberately cho5en to correspond to the two basic drives in psychoanalytic theory. Susan Henley presents a case study (chapter 5 ) . Her subject, a heavy smoker, WHS confronted with various emotional and neutral stimuli. The effects of verbal and pictorial stimuli, presented subliminally to the right eye were controlled by means of the dependent variable of awareness threshold for light in the left eye. Threshold for awareness for light varied as a function of subliminal stimuli with contrary tendencies for threatening verbal and pictorial stimuli. The experiment was also structured as R reliability study. For the case in question i t provided an important demonstration of temporal stability and consistency of the effects over a series of trials. The final chapter in Part I I is the report mentioned before, by Spence, Klein, and Fernandez (chapter 6 ) which is concerned with the capacity of the sensory system for processing subliminal stimuli nnd with the


19

related methodological issues of stimulus presentation, Four experiments nre reported in which subjects were asked to respond to target words. In two experincnts targets presented at subliminal exposure speeds focally vs. peripherally to the right vs. left visual field with different semantic characteristics (relatedness , concreteness, complexity) were prececded by primes. Various modes of influence of priming stimuli upon the torgets were tested by means of correctness and fipeed of target recognition. In two more experiments, commands varied in visual field, location, positive vs. negative nodes, spacing, and length of message preceedod target presentation. This very complex research design allowed conclusions to be drawn conccrning general conditions for the effectiveness of subliminal stimuli in relation to their quality (semantic relations) as well as their formal structure, such as the length of message, its peripheral vs. focal localization in the perceptual field and the chances of their transfer across hemispheres. The authors conclude that there is no unlimitcd rimorphous receptivity in the human perceptual system even for subliminal stimuli. Instead, they propose a "subliminal window'' for structuring the flow of infornation,

T H R E A T A N D DEFENSE IN PERCEPT-GENESIS

In Part I11 of the volume are to be found investigatioiis in which the perceptuol process is followed through a series of threatening (i.e., aggression and deprivation pictures) and sexual stimuli and the defensive niechanisms mobilized for coping with these threats are observed. All of the three chapters in this section are strongly influenced by the psychcfnalytic frame of reference and all of them rely upon the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) developed by Kragh (1969) or a closely related procedure. The fundamental assumption shared by the authors is that the presentation of such pictures provokes secondary anxiety. The following sequence io then experienced: Stimulation of id-impulses , experience of a threat situation by the ego, anxiety signals for the activation of defenses against the internal threat. Pictures of DMT feature a central or hero figure. It is assumed that subjects identify with it. A peripheral figure, which is typically threatening, is also included in the picture. Pictures are designed to represent direct aggression as well as sexual attacks, sexually deviant behavior, and

20


various manifestations of deprivation. Threat is directed against the projections of the subject's ego. As a result o€ the indirect mode of the projective releaser, anxiety can remain below the overt level of manifestation (Kragh, 197Oa). In the contribution by Kragh a case study is presented (chapter 7 ) . At the Second European Conference on Personality in Bielefeld, his paper provoked a very lively discussion and generated considerable controversy. Kragh proceeds from the so called postulate of micro-macro correspondence which posito that percept-genetic processes reflect biographical events in their chronological succession (cf. Kragh, 1970b). His case study is so structured that the experimenter with access to the DMT percept-genesis formulates retrospective predictions concerning biographical events, facts, subjective experiences pertaining to particular periods of the subjects life. It is as though the experimenter made a bct that he would be able to arrive at a blind diagnosis on data concerning his subject's ontogenetic development on the basis of the DMT protocol alone. To this end, the experimenter formulated his interpretations in writing. He then asked the suhject to respond to these statements and to confirm or refute them. Some difficulties of fttranslatingfftest data into life events appeared, but a major share of predictions were confirmed subject to the a priori criteria which Kragh had formulated. In each of their three experiments Westerlundh and Sjoback (chnpter 8) provide baseline data for the percept-genetic amauroscopic technique. N r s t , a neutral picture is serially presented with increasing brightness levels, starting with a subliminal range. The second portion of the task consists of the determination of the awareness threshold for light in the left eye. Alternatively, time estimation is demanded for the span of activating one of the two light diodes, Simultaneously, the conflict-arousing picture is presented to the right eye subliminally, i.e., at a low level of brightness. The effects of this stimulation are followed through the perceptgenetic sequence of presenting a neutral picture tachistoscopically at increasing exposure speeds. In the first and second expcriment the experimental effects are compared to the reactions o€ a control group receiving a neutral stimulation. In the third experiment there is no control group and the observations are focused exclusively upon the characteristics of subliminal threat. In all of the three experiments reality-distorting indicators of defense appeared which could be distinguished across stimuli and groups of subjects.


21

These manifestations of defense were interpreted as a consequence of subliminal stimulation in partial interaction with individual differences in susceptibility to experiencing conflict. Andersson and Bengtsson present in chapter 9 a comparison of DMT results and spiral after effects. In experimenting with the Spiral After Effect Technique (SAT) it is especially important to ascertain the length of the after cffects at the conclusion of ten separate trials.The temporal trends of the phenomenon reported by the subjects over ten trials are also recorded. The spiral after effect sequences were interpreted by Andersson (1984) in terms of a dialectical conception of cognitive growth. In keeping with this conception and with psychoanalytic assumptions (cf. Gedo 8 Goldberg, 19731, the authors predicted a hierarchical succession of stages each of which is concerned with resolving a specific conflict. SAT processes were classified and particular patterns of experience were then related to defense mechanisms as they were expressed in the DMT. In an earlier study (Andersson 6. Weikert , 1980) a pronounced relationship between defenses and SAT progression was demonstrated. From the authors' point of view, their present study is an attempt at cross-validation with a female sample. At the same time, however, the results are utilized in order to extend their developmental frmework and its relationship to the developmentally relevant assumptions of other psychoanalytic theoreticians.

SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION A N D MICROGENESIS COMBINED

In section I V of the volume experiments are described which attempt to relate subliminal stimulation and microgenetic perceptual processeo. The focus of the several chapters is placed upon the role of cognitive variables and on the assessment of mcaning in the course of microgenesie. Hentschel and Schneider (chapter 1 0 ) attempt to predict creative performance among design students. Their dependent variables are based upon the reports of subjects in the course of an inverted percept-genesis, similar to the procedure used earlier by Smith and associates. The basic objective was to ascertain how the subjects can free themselves from a once attained reality-based stimulus recognition in the course of a series of presentations at progressively decreasing exposure times, i.e. , achieve a loosening of their constructs in Kelly's (1955) sense. Measures derived from these reports were found to be related to external criteria of creative

22

U.Hentschel, G. Smith,and J.G. Draguns

performance. The independent variables consisted of receptivity to an aggressive stimulus subliminally presented at low levels of illumination and defense mechanisms established by means of a sclf-report inventory. The results showed interactions between susceptibility to an aggressive subliminal stimulus and modes of defense. In this investigation also the merger of the perceiver with the object of perception became clearly apparent. In discussion, the authors attempt to relate these findings to a functionalist frame of reference, proceeding from the assumption of internal and external influences upon perception viewed here in accordance with the microgenetic tradition as a process. Smith, Carlsson, and Daniolsson (chapter 11) also combine subliminal stimulation with microgenetic procedures. The authors present two experiments on poychopathology and creativity, respectively. In both of these studies, they attempted to demonstrate identifications and resistances by means of the subliminal presentation of the word I1I". In the first study with paranoid and borderline patients, identification with the aggressor and with the victim was compared. In the second experiment in which professional artists served as subjects, the word IfI" was projected subliminally upon a human figure placed either before an open background or before a wall. In both experiments the effectiveness of subliminal manipulation of identification was clcmonstrated and the patterns of responses could be grouped on the basis of psychiatric symptomatology or level of creativity. Hans and Shulamith Kreitler (chapter 1 2 ) proceed from their earlier work with normal subjects in applying the method of meaning analysis for purposes of microgenetic pcrceptual diagnosis in a group of schizophrenics whose responses were compared with those of a normal control group examined earlier. Three kinds of stimuli, distinguished on the basis of their ease of recognition were varied in terms of their ease of presentation and placed on three comparable interval scales, with five steps below and four above the threshold. Exposure values were varied by means of blurring, illumination, and presentation time. Each subject was shown twenty stimuli at ten different exposure times. Phase 1 is characterized by a stepwise progression toward object recognition, or the astlignment of meaning values of a few dimensions to the referent. In Phase 2 , the meaning of a referent is elaborated in a specific interpersonally shared manner. In Phase 3, meaning assigrirnent is shifted to the more individually preferred meaning dimensions. These three stages were also predicted for schizophrenics, but


23

with important deviations in process. The results showed among other things that schizophrenics identify stimuli later in the sequence, attribute to them inappropriate meaning values and in the more idiosyncratically structured Phase 3 rely more prominently on metaphors and symbols. The results of these studies confirm earlier clinical observations by Conrad (1958) and Matussek (1953) both of whom emphmized the predominance of atmospheric and connotative meaning in responses of schizophrenics, especially in the early phases of the disorder. (In English these findings are described by Fish, 1961). The Kreitlers attempted to identify the reasons for the differences between normals and schizophrenics in perception and information processing. In addition to i t , they pursued the promissing possibility of changing the types of relation between referent and meaning values in schizophrenics by means of a specialized type of training. Draguns poses the question in his contribution (chapter 13) on how early in the perceptual progressions, with which most of the authors in this volume are concerned, personality factors come into play. He advances a number of theoretical considerations and illustrates them by empirical results. The studies he cites are notable for the attempt to capture both subliminal processing and microgenetic perceiving in one progression. H i s conclusions pertain to the present state of investigation in this area and provide a plan of possible future investigations. Even though the question posed in the title of Draguns’ chapter is not conclusively answered, it can be inferred that different personality processes are implicated in the subliminal and supraliminal segments of the perceptual progression. Within the limits of personality measures used and personality characteristics investigated, it would appear that 8 greater number of correlates appear in the supraliniinal rather than in the subliminal part of the sequence. But, as indeed many of the other contributions to the volume denonstrate, subliminal responding is by no means irrelevant to personality functioning.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL

CORRELATES OF

THE

PERCEPTUAL

PROCESS: EEG AND CBF AS INDlCATORS

Part V comprises studies concerned with psychophysiological correlates of perceptual and recognition processes. The comparison of physiological processes with perceptual operations has only recently attracted the attention of investigators of microgenesis (cf. Frohlich, 1984). Altercative-

24

U.Hentschel, G.Smith, and J.G.Draguns

ly, the search for connections and parallels between these two modes of responding was stinulated by the recognition of theoretical similarities bctween the formulations of psychophysiologists and those of microgenetically oriented researchers (e.g., Lindsley, 1984). A s Leibowitz (1984) emphasized and Marr (1982) demonstrated in their work on three-dimensional perception, there are several ways to come to grips with the temporal development of perception. An interdisciplinary approach must, therefore, include psychophysiological parameters. An integrated conception encompassing both physiological and cognitive progressions together with their possible diverse interactions remains, even if parallel recordings have bcen obtained, an exception rather than the rule. The focus is typically upon the explanation of one set of variables in the process while the other set i R treated as a correlate. The studies in Part V , however, demonstrate how promising i t is to use physiological indicators. Through these kinds of research the understanding of the process as a whole is advanced and the individually patterned reactions can be more realistically described. In the study by Johanson, Risberg, Silfverskiold, and Smith (chapter 14) regional cerebral blood-flow (CBF) is used as an indicator of anxiety reactions in a group of anxiety-neurotics. These subjects were given the percept-genetic Meta-Contrast Technique (MCT, Smith, Johnson, B Almp e n , 1982). Answers indicating anxiety were identified in their protocols. During the measurement of the patients' regional cerebral blood-flow , their own individual anxiety answers were presented to them with the instruction to associate. Nearly all patients reacted with signs of heightened anxiety, even with near-panic, incidentally a proof of the power of the MCT. Compared to a basic blood-flow level when no anxidty was induced, the patients showed a simultaneous increase of cerebral activity in the leftfrontal-orbital region. The meaning of this increase was discussed in relation to other pertinent findings. Ehlers and Munz (chapter 15) use EEG evoked potentials as physiological indicators. They presented Stroop Test items (Stroop, 1935) to a mixed sample of neurotics and normals individually on a projection screen. First, subjects were divided on the basis of the difference between their time scores for incongruously colored color names and a conventional color naming task into high interference-prone and low interference-prone groups. Then subjects' EEG measures were obtained in three positions ( C 2 ; P2; 03) during the simple word-reading and color-naming task under the interference condition. The authors' hypotheses concerning discrete


25

evoked potential components refer to latencies and amplitude differentials. At P300 and also at NZo0 amplitude differentials between the word-reading

and color-naming tasks appeared at all of three electrode positions, as hypothesized. These findings were interpreted as evidence of a higher-cognition effort of color-naming under interference conditions. Differences between high and low interference-prone groups were limited to latency differences in the very early components of EEG. Ehlers and Munz interpret their evoked potential findings in conformity with their theoretical model for coping with the interference task, i.e., that EEG indicators which precede the onset of the verbal reaction required suggest the operation of an unconscious information processing process involved in search. Glanzmann and Frohlich (chapter 16) also use an EEG parameter as their physiological measure. The central theme of their study concerns differences in information processing between groups differing in trait-anxiety

.

Contingent-negative

variation

(CNV)

was chosen

as

an

event-related slow potential. Typically, the CNV appears following a warning stimulus which in turn precedes an imperative stimulus after which a specific reaction to warning stimulus is expected to take place. Glanzmann and Frohlich used high-pitch and low-pitch tones as warning stimuli. In response to the high tone (GO-condition). a button was to be pressed after the onset of the imperative stimulus; no reaction was expected to the low tone (NOGO-condition) Thirty subjects were administered the German version (Laux, Glanzmann, Schaffner, 81 Spielberger, 191tl) of the State-

.

Trait-Anxiety

Inventory

(Spielberger, Gorsuch,

&

Lushene,

1970)

and

were divided in a high and a low anxious group on the bRsis of extreme scores on this test. Five subjects from each group were randomly assigned to ego-involving, pain-threat

, or

neutral experimental conditions. Low anx-

ious subjects were found to be more strongly influenced by pain threat than high anxious subjects. Under this condition, they showed no differential CNV between GO- and NOGO-condition. For the anxious subjects, this differential was reduced above all in the ego-threat condition. In discussion, the significance of these findings for the concept of attention was emphasized and related to the assumptions underlying microgenetic processes.

26

U.Hentschel, G. Smith, and J.G. Draguns A CRlTlCAL LOOK A T S U B L l M l N A L PERCEPTION A N D MlCROGENESlS

At the symposium at the Second Conferencc on Personality in Bielefeld, there were four invited discussants. In this volume, they hove been given the opportunity to develop their arguments pertaining to subliminal perception and microgenesis at greater length. Martin Johnson critically analyscs percept-genesis in his contribution (chapter 17). Following Popper, he evaluates these investigations on the basis of their falsifiability , i. e. , whether incremental information conccrning the usefulness of a theory is obtained even in the case of negative results. Within this conceptual framework, quality, variety, and precision are more essential criteria than the mere number of hypotheses confirmed. In this connection, Johnson scrutinizes critically the demonstrative power of case studies and proposes studios with a greater emphasis upon the examination of basic concepts. Proceeding from specific percept-genetic studies he discusses concretely the psychometric criteria of objectivity, reliability, and specific validity. On balance, despite a number of doubts, objections, and limitations, Johnson's judgment of the prospects of this line of investigation is quitc positive. Wolfgang Prinz (chapter 18) propounds the view that a new orientation away from perceptual content toward formal analysis would facilitate the progress in research on perception and personality. The active role of the perceiver is more strongly accented thereby as information transmission has given way to information processing in which an assured place is found for subjective experiences and selective conditions of a perceiver. In Prinz's view, the assumption of subliminal perception is compatible with this new approach. While in hi6 opinion, several aspects of subliminal perception remain unsolved, the major unsolved problem, however, is that of functions of consciousness. Its solution is impeded by attributing an ever greater number of control functions to the preconscious region. Prinz also looks critically R t the serial responses of subjects in microgenetic experiments which, in his opinion, inevitably result in falsification of perception. Kazimierz Obuchowski attempts in his contribution (chapter 1 9 ) to forge a link between the assumptions of subliminal perception and microgenesis and general considerations based on systems theory. In the first part of his contribution he discusses the various codes of information processing. He summarizes the essential differences between the various modes

Sublimiml Perception, Microgenesis, and Personality

27

of function. In particular, he differentiates the patterns of behavior (1) acquired according to laws of contiguity and subsequently automatically operating in accordance with monoconcrete codes from ( 2 ) the pictures of policoncrete codes acquired through coordinated learning as well as ( 3 ) the hierarchical models which make the representation of reality possible in a model and ( 4 ) the creative code built upon the information of preceding codes and not limited to the reproduction of concrete experience, but represented by a multidimensional process. Obuchowski deals with the significance of emotional processes as a consequence of selection of the various codes and attempts to develop a general model of psychological processes. This ultimately empirically untestable 'la priori model" contains eight interconnected systemic elements. In the context of this volume, he proposes alternative interpretations of microgenetic and subliminal perception findings and elucidates the potential of this model by means of several pertinent examples. The contribution by K .B. Madsen (chapter 2 0 ) evaluates percept-genetic research principally from the metatheoretical and philosophy of science perspective. In his analyses, Madsen distinguishes three planes: those of data, hypotheses, and philosophical statements, the last pertaining to the implicit image of man and to basic epistemological and methodological assumptions. He arrives at the conclusion that the empirical data are predominant over theory in percept-genesis.

This circumstance results in its

tenets being testable.

SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTIOM AND MICROGENESIS IN RELATION TO GENERAL THEORY

All of the contributions to this volume pertain to perception, through the avenues of subliminal perception and microgenesis. Most of them are conceived as presentations of systematic programs of experimental investigations. One of the contributions presents a review of literature on a specialized method of preconscious investigation. In two chapters the empirical results serve mostly as points of departure for extending theoretical considerations. Contributions in Part VI analyze from a variety of vantage points research in both of the domains included in this book. In the present chapter we have already tackled the task of comparing the two areas of research. Time has now come to pursue this undertaking

U.Hentschel, G.Smith, and J.G. Draguns

28

and to delimit and specify a number of points, even if a residual degree of imprecision will unavoidably remain. First, the close conceptual proximity of these lines of investigation to the information-processing approach, implicit in the title of the volume, deserves to be mentioned. Haber (1969) has speculated that microgenesis could be subsumed under the heading of information processing. Even though process description is one of the cornerstones on which microgenetic approaches rest (cf. IIentschel, 1984), certain doubts do arise upon the comparison of the two types of investigation a s to whether their goals are really identical. Information processing has principally dealt with general psychological questions in aiming to describe all operations spanning the interval between stimulus onset and the response (Ilaber, 1969). The thrust of microgenetic investigation also was originally toward the elucidation of questions of general psychological interest, above all the process of emergence of gestalten and the interplay of meaning and structure (cf. Flavell

&

Draguns, 1957; Graumann, 1959;

Sander, 1928/1B61; Werner, 1956). Gradually, however, microgenetic researchers turned to problems of differential psychology, broadening thereby the scope of microgenetic conceptualization. Assumptions about the effect of specific pictorial or other stimuli, principles for classifying groups of subjects or other variables were borrowed in microgenetic studies, including those represented in this volume, from other sources, mostly from personality theories including formulations concerning normal and deviant behavior, and from psychiatry in the more restricted sense of the term. Hence the multiplicity of methods of stimulus presentation, apparent even from the preview in this chapter and even more readily observable upon examining the various contributions to this volume.

For the domain of

subliminal perception this state of affairs can be summarized as follows: stimuli can be kept below the threshold by low intensities, short exposure times, and other means of reducing signal to noise ratio, i . e . , keeping the proportion of signals low. The range of concrete content of these stimuli is unlimited. Restricted to certain domains, but still diverse, are the possibilities of controlling the effects of these stimuli. The situation is similar in the case of microgenetic investigations. There are different techniques and procedures for representing the sequence of phases prior to the recognition of the stimulus and the stabilization of perception (cf. Smith,

1984). What binds all of these approaches together is the possibility of dividing the final product of perception into stages, with the fascinating opportunity for observing this process in action. The focus of interest in


29

following these progressions may be placed upon the formal aspects, such as fluctuations in the duration of after effects, or upon the content, a s in the case of reality-distorting interpretations of a threatening stimulus. A s in the case of subliminal stimuli, there is no restriction upon the specific content of the stimuli. For the investigation of this process, verbal reports by the subjects and sometimes their drawing productions are used. The validation of this approach is undertaken by means of the comparison of various kinds of stimuli or by the use of moderator variables drawn from personality psychology. The reader should not get the impression that any stimulus material can be exploited in experiments on subliminal perception and nicrogenesis. Newcomers to the field all to often encounter unexpected difficulties when attempting to translate their ideas into experimental designs. Abstract figures

devoid

of

meaning,

for

instance,

cannot

be

used

to

obtain

mierogeneses. They do not "make contact" with the subject's personal history as a face or a group of persons would. Even carefully thought out, meaningful stimuli can produce unexpected results. One of the present authors found that a still-life with a bottle for alcoholic beverages in the foreground was almost useless for i t s original, rather neutral purpose when reformed alcoholics served a s subjects : they simply refused to recognize the bottle as long a s possible. Variations in light and shadow, shifts in emphasis on one structure or another, etc., may be very important. As we have seen already in this chapter analogous problems pertain to experiments in subliminal perception.

Even i f a perceptual process generally

starts as an flarousal'f of a broad spectrum of developmental possibilities, this spectrum is always restricted by the stimulus meaning. To put i t in more general terms, in order to get a reasonably true picture of a personls functional landscape you have to use a carefully balanced selection of stimuli, often tried out in laborious pilot studies. The task may seem difficult sometimes, much more difficult than throwing in some well-known questionnaire, but, as attested by experiments described in this book, in the end it can be surprisingly rewarding. The impression of diversity of formulations concerning content is derived from the major personality theories which provide the background

and dictate the choice of stimulus material and the use of group comparisons in microgenetic experiments. If recurrent trends are in evidence, this may stem from the fact that a large number of investigations have been conceived in relation to psychoanalysis or to psychoanalytically derived

30


constructs. This circumstance is not accidental, but is traceable to the prominence accorded to the unconscious in psychoanalytic theory, even though, as Shevrin and Dickman (1980) emphasized, no psychological theor y can neglect the concept of the unconscious. Moreover, as Dixon (1981) pointed out, the effects of subliminal stimuli need not be exclusively explained in terms of psychoanalytic concepts. Another important series of contributions toward a more uniform approach to problems has likewise been impregnated by psychoanalytic terminology, We are referring here to conceptualizing conflict-related distortions of reality on the basis of defense mechanisms. All major personality theories with the exception of pure behaviorists have incorporated this construct, even though some of them have imbued i t with new meaning. This has been a major priority of percept-genetic investigation which has made a major contribution to making defenses amenable to experimental investigation. However, as several of the chapters show plainly, psychoanalysis is not the only conceptual background for microgenetic and percept-genetic research.

Indeec , several of the participating authors would vehemently

oppose such an assertion if i t were to be made. Cognitive constructs and behavioristic and psychometric points of departure are detectable in several of the studies included in this volume. This heterogeneity of theoretical assumptions and conceptions poses as much of an obstacle for the construction of a common frame of reference as the variety of methods and techniques. In 1984, the proceedings of two earlier microgenesis confercnccs, held in

Llainz

Draguns,

and &

Lund

respectively,

were

published

Hentschel, 1984; Smith, Frohlich,

&

(Frijhlich,

Smith,

Hentschel, 1984). In both

of these volumes, points of contact to subliminal perception were already in evidence. In the present book, this contact has been further extended and developed, through the inclusion of symposium papers from the Second European Conference on Personality in Bielefeld and the addition of other pertinent contributions. In many of them, the convergence of outlooks of the exponents of these two research areas is quite readily apparent. A s editors, we consider this development to be natural and are hope-

ful that this rapprochement will stimulate and enhance research on both of these topics. Both areas of investigation are essentially experimental in their orientation. In applying the experimental method to psychology, the questions


31

of relevance and generalization have forever been paramount. Within this context, moreover, there has been an implicit clash between content and precision, with the former often being sacrificed for the benefit of the latter. In contrast to a major share of experimental research in psychology, investigators of subliminal perception and nicrogenesis have demonstrated that meaningful content-oriented problems which often pertain to the core of human modes of experience and behavior are amenable to experimentation. In this chapter, w e have tried to identify and analyze what we consider to be some meaningful dimensions of perception in coping with reality in relation to the biologically oriented models of adaptation to the environment. Proceeding from this model, we have tried to follow closely the entire span from subliminal reactivity to the conscious recognition of stimuli. The degree to which the generalizability of these observations is limited by methodological or conceptual considerations varies from chapter to chapter, Many of the contributions, moreover, clearly provide leads for clinically diagnostic and therapeutic application as well as for practical personality assessment.

A s w e see i t , research programs on microgenesis and subliminal perception exercisc a strong integrative effect in a number of directions. This effect is achieved,

first

of all, by virtue of the

generally relevant

questions investigated. It is also the result of a "suction effect" upon the various general theories, brought about by the diverse theories being applied and evaluated in light of the results of one or both of these research approaches. The multiplicity of theoretical explanations then is one of the advantages in these two fields of rcsearch. A s efforts toward greater conceptual convergence continue, the gap between the various omnibus theories of psychology can be expected to shrink.

NOTE

I) Translated from German by the authors.


32

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Experimentelle Persiinlichkeitspsychologie

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Hentschel, U., & Smith, G. (in press). Subliminal perception and

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(1980). Perception. In H.C.

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tal Science, 107, 828-838. Flavell, J.H., & Draguns, J.G. (1957). A microgenetic approach t o perception and thought. Psychological Bulletin, 54, 197-217. Frenkel-Brunswik,

E. (1949). Intolerance of ambiguity as a n emotional and

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(1984). Processing through search. In W.D. Frohlich, G. Smith,

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fiir experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 6, 410-448. Haber, R.N. (1969). Introduction. In R.N. Haber (Ed.), Information-Processing Approaches t o Visual Perception (pp. 1-15). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winst on. Habermas, J. (1970). Zur Logik der Soeialwissenschaften. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. Hentschel, U. (1984). Microgenesis and process description. In W.D.

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Cognition and Personality (pp. 59-70). Washington: Hemisphere. Hentschel, U. (1985). Zur Validitat d e s Abwehrkonstruktes: Experimentelle Belege. In D. Czogalik, W. Ehlers, & R. Teufel (Eds.),

Perspektiven der

Psychotherapieforschung (pp. 157- 175). Frei burg: Hochsc hulve rlag. Hentschel, U., & Smith, G. (1980). Experimentelle Pers6nlichkeitspsychologie. Wiesbaden: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Hirsch, H.V.B., & Jacobson, M. (1975). T h e perfectible brain: Principles of neuronal development. In M. Gazzaniga & C. Blakemore (Eds.), Handbook

of Psychobiology (pp. 107-137). New York: Academic Press. Holzkamp. K. (1972). Kritische Psychologie. Frankfurt: Fischer. Kelly, G.A. (1955). The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton. Klein, G.S. (1970). Perception, Motives, and Personality. New York: Knopf. Kragh, U.

(1969). Manual till DMT. Defense Mechanism Test. Stockholm:


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Skandinaviska Test forlaget. Kragh, U. (1970a). Defensive Orgnization in Percept-Genesis.

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(1966). Interpersonal Perception Lon-

don: Tavistock. Laux, L., Glanzmann, P., Schaffner, P., & Spielberger, C.D.

(1981). Manual fur

das State-Trait-Anxiety Inventar (STAI). Weinheim: Beltz. (1984). Foreword. In W.D. Frohlich, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns,

Leibowitz, H.W.

& U. Hentschel (Eds.),

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ality. Washington: Hemisphere. Leibowitz, H.W., & Owens, D.A. (1977). Nighttime driving accidents and selective visual degradation.

Science, 197, 422-423.

Lindsley, D.B. (1984). Brain potentials, brain mechanisms, and the complexity of visual information processing. In W.D. Frohlich, G.Smith, J.G. & U. Hentschel (Eds.),

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ality (pp. 231-245). Washington: Hemisphere. Linschoten, J. (1959). Aktualgenese und heuristisches Prinzip. Zeitschrift fur experimentelle und angewandte Psychologie, 6, 449-473. Lowenhard, P. (1981). Consciousness: A biological view. Giiteborg Psychological Reports, ll(10). M a r r , D. (1982). Vision. A Computational Investigation into t h e Human Re-

presentation and Processing of Visual Information San Francisco: Freeman. Massaro, D.W., & Cohen, M.M. (1983). Evaluation and integration of visual and auditory information in spatial perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 9, 753-771. Matussek, P. (1953). Untersuchungen uber die Wahnwahrnehmung. 2. Mitteilung: Der abnorme Vorrang der Wesenseigenschaften.

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& McNeil, E.B.

(1958). Subliminal stimulation:

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& Eccles, J.C.

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(1977). The Self and Its Brain.

New

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Springer. Royce, J.R.

(1974). Cognition and knowledge: Psychological epistemology.

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E.C. Carterette & M.P. Friedman (Eds.), Handbook of Perception (Vol. 1, pp. 149-176). New York: Academic Press. Sander, C.F. (1928). Experimentelle Ergebnisse der Gestaltpsychologie. Bericht iiber den 10. Kongress fiir experimentelle Psychologie. (Reprinted in C.F. Sander & H. Volkelt (Eds.), Ganzheitspsychologie (1961). Munchen: Beck.) Sayre, K. (1976). Cybernetics and t h e Philosophy of Mind. London: Routledge. Segall, M.H.,

Campbell, D.T.,

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(1966). T h e Influence of

Culture on Visual Perception. New York: Bobbs-Merrill. Shevrin, H., & Dickman, S. (1980). The psychological unconscious: A necessary assumption for all psychological theory? American Psychologist, 35, 421434. Smith, G. (1984). Stabilization and automatization of perceptual activity over time. In W.D.

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(1982). MCT

-

Metakontrasttekniken

Stockholm: Psykologiforlaget. Smith, G., Kragh, U., & Hentschel, U. (1980). Historische und methodologische Ubersicht uber perzeptgenetische Verfahren. In U. Hentschel & G. Smith (Eds.), Experimentelle Personlichkeitspsychologie (pp. 33-63). Wiesbaden: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Smith, G., & Westerlundh, B. (1980). Perceptgenesis: A process perspective on perception-personality. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology (pp. 94-124). Beverly Hills: Sage. Spence, D.P.,

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(Edited by Thure von


36

Uexkiill.) Frankfurt: Ullstein. Weizsacker, V. von (1947). Der Gestaltkreis (3rd. ed.). Stuttgart: Thieme. Werner, H. (1956). Microgenesis and aphasia. Journal of Abnormal and Social

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PART I1 EXPERIMENTS ON PRECONSCIOUS PROCESSING: EFFECTS RELATED TO DIFFERENT METHODS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguna (editors) 0 Elaevier Science Pu bliahera B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

39

PERSONALITY FACTORS AND SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION

Norman F. Dixon and Susan H.A. Henley University College London

Whether one thinks of pcrsonality in terms of traits or reactions to particular situations, it is surely the case that many of the factors which determine how a person feels, thinks, and reacts are not available to conscious scrutiny (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). The most extreme version of this

v i e w is that embodied in psychoanalytic theory. If, to parnphrase Rannister (19661, man were a dark cellar in which a well bred spinster was locked in combat with a sex crazcd monkey while the whole contest was refereed by a nervous bank clerk, then personality would be the noise coming up the cellar nteps and how i t is perceived would depend upon who is listening. Two reasons may be given for the concealment of underlying psychopathology. First, the very limited channel capacity of conscious experience precludes representation of all but a fraction of past events or current inflow. Secondly there are thorn various defense mechanisms which militate against conscious representation of unconscious emotional material. However, there ere at least three ways of uncovering those aspects of underlying psychopathology which may play a significant role in determining manifestations of personality. They include: the use of drugF and hypnosis to circumvent defenses : the obtaining of responses to supraliminal projective tests wherein the subject remains unaware of the significance of what he is saying; and, finally, applications of stimuli at signal to noise ratios below the conscious threshold. The last paradigm includes studies of meta-contrast (Smith & Danielsson, 1982; Smith & Westerlundh, 1980), and the Defense Mechanism Test (Kragh, 1965) wherein the subject's description of a neutral picture or 'hero' figure, respectively, is biased, without his knowledge, by R masked or peripherally presented threat stinulus. Another model involving subliminal perception, of considerable relevance to personality is that pioneered by Poetzl (1917) and later Fisher (1960). The data from a typical

N.F. Dixon and S.H.A. Henley

40

experiment suggest that it is those parts of a briefly exposed picture which are

n o t

consciously perceived at the time of i t s presentation

that make contact with unconscious psychopathology, and become manifest in subsequent dreams or associations. As for the extensive studies of perceptual defense (Dixon, 1981),

they might be said to constitute a sensitive measure of the extent to which particular stimuli or events excite defensive responses in the recipient. Finally, there is the paradigm of subliminal psychodynamic activation developed by Silverman (1976; see also Dixon, 1981) through which significant changes in underlying pathology and overt behavior can be achieved as a result of presenting verbal messages below the conscious threshold. The common denominator of all these paradigms is that since the subject is unaware of the fitimulus and therefore unaware of being stimulated he remains oblivious of contingencies between the stimulus and the responses which he gives. From noting the effect of particular stimuli upon say dreams or projective tests, the experimenter is better able to deduce possible content of underlying psychopathology. Conversely (and more importantly), he can test hypothcses by comparing differences between complex-related and neutral stimuli. It is in this context that we would like to outline some ongoing research which attempts to explore underlying psychopathology with a new paradigm involving continuous successive backward masking. The general method entails using a Commodore PET 2001 micro-processor, so programmed as to display a sequence of letter strings with each string exactly superimposed upon its predeccssor. Sincc the SOA for each string is only 35 msec. and the I . S . I . is zero, all that the subject consciously perceives is a flickering jumble of letter elements. From a number of pilot experiments (Dixon, Henley,

&

Weir,

1984) using this method, it was concluded that: 1.

When asked to stop the display whenever they thought a word was present among a series of strings, subjects could do this significantly often even when unaware what the word was.

2.

There was a significant tcndcncy to avoid stopping the display when the embedded word or phrase (sequence of 4-lett e r words) was aversive.

3.

Occasionally for some subjects critical words appeared to "jump out" and become consciously perceptible.

Personality Factors

41

On the basis of these findings we have run a second experiment of a slightly modified design in which letter Etrings are presented. When viewed through a synoptophore. the letter strings, which are in fmt presented alternately to the two eyes, appear superimposed. By thus combining backward and forward masking in the context of a binocular rivalry situation, the %ubliminalityl' of the stimulus is increased, although the actual rate of gain of information to each eye is halved. For a pilot investigation using this method, a young female subject (who was not a psychologist) was asked to give free associations following each of the following four words - B I R D , HARP, NUDE, and SHIP. Om each trial, one of these words was embedded in a sequence of 49 4-letter nonsense strings recycled five t i m e s . On control trials the procedure wos the same except thnt an additional nonsense string WQS substituted for the experimental words. In addition to giving free associations after each of the control trials and each of the experimental trials, at the end of the control trials and each of the experimental trials, the subject was asked to sort 32 cards, each one bearing a word, four of which were the words actually used in the experimental trials ('critical' words), into three piles "certain it was presented", %ncertain", and "certain it was not presentedl'. The results from this treatment were as follows: after the control trials, the subject assigned 3 of the 4 stimulus words to the "certain it was not presented" category, and 1 to the Tfuncertain"category. Following the experimentnl trials, however, the word about which she had previously been %ncertain" was now placed in the "certain it was presented" categor y , aa were two of the three words previously assigned to the "certain it was not presented" category. The remaining word (previously in the %ertain i t was not presented" category) was now assigned to the "uncertain" category. In other words, following the experimental trials, all four 'critical' words were moved to categories in the direction of the "certain it was presented" judgement, a result which is significant at beyond the 0.0258 level, one tail (Mc Nemar teRt for the significance of changes). It is of some interest that, between control and experimental trials, judgements for synonyms of the critical words also 'moved up'. A s can be seen from Table 1, a comparison between the free asswietions given by the subject after the experimental trials and those given after the control trinls also indicate that her choice of words is influenced by the masked stimuli.

42

N.F. Dhon and S.H.A. Henley Table 1 Associations following masked verbal s t i m u l i

Stimulus

Responses Experimental

Ship

Control

men near water,

antiques ,

b o a t s and buoys,

barns, cows,

t r a v e l agency,

carriage, carts,

s a i l s , blue water

harness,

and palm t r e e a ,

t a p room,

ocean l i n e r ,

oats,

sound recording s t u dio. tube s t a t i o n .

Bird

l o t s of planes,

f o o t b a l l stadium,

old fashioned b i -

plastic seats,

planes,

s t a t u e s of

black crows over a

m i l i t a r y men.

field, sky d i v e r s .

Harp

church,

sounds of singing,

orchestra p i t ,

room with white

clarinet,

walls, desk,

trombones

,

and carpet.

wunan with key tuning a harp.

Nude

workshop with nude

Street o r modern

pinup on wall.

buildings.

Personality Factors

43

Encouraged by these results we introduced further modifications of the paradigm. On the assumption (Dixon, 1981) that subliminal stimuli are processed by the right hemisphere, we used picture selections as independent variables.

Instead of giving free associations, the subjects were

asked to select pictures from a complex display. For this cxperiment all subjects were presented with the word COCK and, in addition, since vtc were concerned with exploring semantic networks underlying personality, words especially selected in the light of what was known about the subjects in question. By way of checking the significance of pictorial stimulus selections, each subject underwent a sccond administration of the entire experiment one week after the first, with the stimulus words presented in a different random order, the question being, would subjects choose the same pictures for the same stimulus words as on the previous occasion? The following table shows for each of the five subjects the number of identical selections made on the two occasions.

Table 2

Number of Repeated S e l e c t i o n s

Sub

S t i m u l u s Words

jects 1

p .OO2

2

3

p .0006

p .005

4

p .03

5

6

p -036

7

8

9

10

p .0003

p .036

p .018

p .018

p .027

1

5(5)

(NUDE)

(GIRL)

(BABY)

(SHIP)

(HILL)

(YANK)

(CAKE)

(COAT)

(CATS)

4(5)

2(2)

4(4)

8(9)

6( 9)

6(6)

1(1)

5(6)

5(5)

44


5(8)

(NUDE)

(JACK)

(PRAM)

(HAND)

(BATH)

(WASP)

5(5)

5(7)

11(11)

4(5)

5(7)

7(10)

p .003

p ,00016 p $02

p .001

p .001

p .001 p .007

9(11)

p .00005

3

4(5)

(SHIP)

(BIRD)

(CATS)

(NLTDE)

(BABY)

(BATH)

(HARP)

(HILL)

(JILL)

5(6)

5(5)

5(5)

4(4)

6(8)

4(4)

7(7)

6(6)

4(5)

p .001

p ,001

p .02

p .0067

p .056

p .0019

p .OOZE

p .05

p 026

p .007

p ,015

p .016 p .002

4

p -08

p .09

p .10

p .33

p .02 5

*

Figures i n parentheses refer to 'repetitions' before corrections for sequential dependencies.

When considering these data, the following points should be born in mind: 1 . T o control against the possibility that the number of repeated selections might be artificially inflated due to sequential dependencies hetween responses, intercorrelations were computed between all selections made, and the actual number of repeated selections reduced accordingly (i.e. if the correlation between any repeated Selections for a particular stimulus were

significant, only one of them would be counted for the purpose of computing the final probability value of the selections made). 2. The probability, using Chi-square, of any repeated selections nlso occurring for other stimulus presentations was also computed. In those cases where the Chi-square value proved significant, no significance was claimed for the repeated solections in question (e.g. in the cases of subjects 4 and 5 , significance cannot be claimed for repeated selections for the stimuli

BIRD, C A T S , HARP, o r NUDE, respectively).

Personality Factors

45

3. In the case of subjects 3 and 5 , because of the exploratory nature of

this investigation, four of the stimulus words used in the first administration of the paradigm were not in fact used in the second administration. This was to see whether the introduction of new stinulus words would produce any change in the overall results. Despite the foregoing adjustments and modifications, it is possible to draw the following conclusions from the results of this experiment: 1. Out of the total of 45 cases in which the five subjects were

presented with the same stimulus words on a suhsequent occasion, 36 resulted in a significant number of repeated selections. Over all five subjects, three of whom scored significantly above chance, the metln probability of repeated selections was 0 . 0 4 1 (one tail probability). 2 . Clearly, there arc considerable individual differences in the effects of masked stimuli upon subsequent picture selection. 3. As exemplified by the picture selections following stimulation with the word COCK, the tendency to choose symbolic responses to subliminal words, shown in earlier research (see Dixon, 19811, may also occur for masked words.

Table 3 Response s e l e c t i o n s of p i c t u r e s made by Subject No. 3 following stimulus word COCK

Expts. 1 and 2

Expts. 1 and 3

Elephan

Teapot

K nife

Cannon Fork

p-0.001

Horse

Peg

Dog

Train

Ring Hammer B all

Pump Crane Bike

p - 0 . 00005

46


Of particular interest in this context are the responses of subject 3 to the stimulus word WASP. For this subject. unlike for the others, the entire experiment was administered on no less than three occasions. On all three she selected the response "PLANE" for the stimulus WASP. The probability of this occurring by chance - based on the total number of times she used the response "PLANE" throughout the experiment - is 0,008.

Obviously there is a long way to go, but we feel that through a number of pilot investigations we are developing a new paradigm for investigating semantic networks underlying individual personality structure. The following advantages can be claimed for the method being used: 1. The position and nature of the stimulus material can be quickly and

easily changed from trial to trial. 2 . Though psychologically subliminal, the presence at receptor level of the

stimuli which are presented can be assured. 3. By using dichoptic presentation it is poseible to investigate the effect

of different temporal relationships between any primes to one eye and targets to the other o r , S R ~ of , amounts of summation between o r within eyes of structurally identical or semantically similar words for their effect upon subsequent responding. The results to date, from using this method, suggest that for some subjects information extracted from a display of masked letters which is changing so rapidly as to defy consciouR comprehension may affect the subsequent selection of items from a pictorial array. The content of the responses made in this paradigm appear to reflect the activation of preconscious semantic networks with implications for underlying determinants of personality.

41

Personality Factors REFERENCES

Bannister, D. (1966). Psychology a s an exercise in paradox. Bulletin of t h e British Psychological Society, 19, 21 -27. Dixon, N.F. (1981). Preconscious processing. Chichester: Wiley. Dixon, N.F., Henley, S.H.A., from

continuously

& Weir, C. (1984). The extraction of information

masked

successive

stimuli.

Current

Psychological

Research and Reviews, 3,1, 1-7. Fisher, C. (1960). Subliminal and supraliminal influences on dreams. American Journal of Psychiatry, 116, 1009-17. Kragh, U. (1969). Manual till DMT

-

Defense Mechanism Test.

Stockholm:

Skandinaviska Test forlaget. Nisbett, R.E. & Wilson, T.D. (1977).Telling more than w e know: verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 23 1-59. Poetzl, 0. (1917). The

relationship between

images and indirect

vision.

experimentally induced

Monograph No.7,

Psychological

dream

Issues,

2,

41-120 (1960) Silverman, L.H.

(1976). Psychoanalytic theory: "the reports of my death are

greatly exaggerated. I' American Psychologist, 31, 62 1 - 37. Smith, G.J.W.

& Danielsson,

A.

(1982). Anxiety and defensive strategies in

childhood and adolescence. Psychological Issues, Monograph No. 52, N e w York: International Universities Press. Smith, G.J.W. & Westerlundh, B. (1980). Perceptgenesis: a process perspective on perception-personality. In L. Wheeler (Ed.) Review of Personality

and Social Psychology, Vol. 1. (pp. 94-124). Beverly Hills: Sage.


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.(North-Holland), 1986

49

THE SUBLIMINAL PSYCHODYNAMIC ACTIVATION METHOD: COMPREHENSIVE LISTING UPDATE, INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

Lloyd 11. Silverman and Carol J. Geisler New York University

REVIEW OF THE METHOD: ITS APPLICATIONS AND RESULTS In this paper, we shall address a number of matters related to subliminal psychodynamic activation research. It is intended as a follow-up to a recent publication (Silverman, 1983) describing the yield of studies in this area through 1981. In part, the current paper brings this summary up to date and in part it deals with a number of issues raised by subliminal psychodynamic research, particularly the role of individual differences. There are now over 60 articles and doctoral dissertations reporting clear evidence of subliminal psychodynamic activation effects.

That is,

when a visual stimulus (verbal message and/or picture) is tachistoscopical1 ly exposed at a subliminal level t o groups of subjects for whom the stinulus is psychodynamically relevant, it produces changes in behavior that do not appear after the subliminal exposure of neutral stimuli. Overall, these findings can be viewed a s providing strong support for a key psychoanalytic proposition : behavior

-

particularly psychopathological behavior

motivated in part b y "psychodynamic motives"

-

- is

i .e, , unconscious wishes,

fears, and fantasies. In addition, the results yielded have supported particular psychodynamic relationships, some of which have attained a consensus in the psychoanalytic literature, whereas others arc more controversial. Among the former are the postulates that: 1) homosexual feelings in men frequently involve a flight from incest (supported by experiments by Silverman, Kwawer , Wolitzky , and Coron, 1973 ; and Silverman, Bronstein, and Mendelsohn, 1976); 2) depressive feelings often are motivated by unconscious hostile wishes turned against the self (Supported by Cox, 1974; Miller, 1973; Rutstein and Goldberger, 1973; and Varga, 1973); 3) stuttering frequently involves a displacement upward of unconscious conflict over

L.H. Silverman and C.J. Geisler

50

anality (supported by Silverman, Klinger, Lustbader, Farrell, and Martin, 1972; and Silverman, Bronstein, and Mendelsohn, 1976); and 4) schizophrenic pathology expresses, in part, conflict over unconscious ornlaggressive wishes (supported b y Litwack, Wiedemnnn, and Yager, 1979; Lomangino, 1969, and ten other studies reviewed in Mendclsohn and Silverman, 1982). Among the more controversial psychodynamic relationships thnt have been supported are the postulates that : 1) behavior, in general, bccomes more adaptive nfter unconscious symbiotic fantasies are activated (supported by over thirty experiments summarized in Silvermnn, Lachmann, and Milich, 1982); and 2 ) effectiveness in sports competition can be enhanced o r impeded after different kinds of unconscious oedipal fantasies are activated (supported by Carroll, 1979; Clennon, 1983; Hayden and Silverstein, 1983; Lonski anti Palumbo, 1978; Palumbo, in press; er.d Silverman, ROSR, Adler, and Lustig, 1978). In judging the effectiveness of the subliminal psychodynamic activation method for studying psychodynamic activation method for studying psychoanalytic psychodynamic postulates, one needs to know more than simply the number of studies that have reported positive results. The following questions are germane: 1 What is the ratio of studies reporting positive results to those re2 porting negative Sindings? The ratio is 4:l. 2 Is it possible that the positive to ncgative results ratio is artifactually weighted on the former side since positive results studies may be more apt to be reported? It would not appear that way since what is true of articles is not true of doctoral dissertations. Once a dissertntion study is carried out, the results are reported whether they are positive or negative, and an objective determination can be made of all doctoral dissertations conducted in an are8 through a search of Psychological Abstracts and Dissertation Abstracts. Almost all of the studies reported both in Silverman, 1983, and in note 2 in this paper were Sirst reported as doctoral dissertations . 3 Could artifacts have been responsible for the positive findings? The two most frequently operative artifacts in psychological experiments are experimenter bias and subject expectations. These, we believe, for all intents and purposes have been eliminated through the use of double-blind procedures. Subjects nre blind to stimulus conditions since the tachistoscopic exposures m e subliminal (see Note 1).

Experimcntcrs are blind in

The Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation Method

51

that when they insert the stimuli. they view only the backs of the cards which have been coded beforehand by someone else.3 One could, of course, ask if we arc certain that the experincnters maintain their "blindness," so that the following findings are relevant. In each instance, the results reported could not be attributed to experimenter bias even if the experimenters had not maintdned their blindness (which they claimed they had maintained) : a) In investigations by Cohen (19C7), Kaye (1975), and Clendelsohn (19811, the strongest subliminal psychodynamic effects emerged from stimuli that the investigators predicted would have either no or weak effects. b) In one of the experiments reported by Silverman et al., 1978, the experimenters, who were students, were unaware that the senior investigator who designed the experiment had predicted that experimental effects would occur under low illumination conditions but not under high illumination conditions. (The experimenters were simply instructed to set the illumination dials differently for different subjects.) The hypothesized interaction was borne out. c ) In several studies (Dauber, 1984; Fribourg, 1981; Geisler, in press; Schmidt, 1981) interactions were predicted and borne out between experimental effects and subject characteristics in which the experimenter: either was a student who had no knowledge of the hypothesized interaction, or had no way of knowing which subjects fell into one category or the other, since the subject characteristic variable was scored either after the experiment was completed or by someone else. blhereas in the above mentioned studies there was evidence beyond tho experimenters' claims of blindness for experimental conditions that experimenter bias was not ~ p e r a t i v e , in ~ the great majority of subliminal psychodynamic activation studies there was no additional evidence. Thus, it is of some importance to consider the number of positive result studies that were carried out in independent laboratories. There POW have been 5 over 20 such studies. 4 What was the quality of the positive result studies? In our judgment, the quality of the overwhelming majority of these studies was very high (certainly nc lower than the quality of the studies that have reported negative findings), though interested parties should read through the 6 studies themselves, all o f which are accessible.

L.H.Silverman and C.J. Geisler

52

How robust have the effects been in the studies reporting positive findings? The answer to this question varies across the studies. There have been a number of investigations in which the results could be characterized as robust in the sense that the differences between the experimental and the control conditions were of noteworthy magnitude, and there have been other studies in which the results have been robust in the sense that they have been highly consistent from one experiment to the next. And there has been one series of studies in which the findings have been both highly consistent across studies and of notable magnitude. We are referring in the last mentioned category to the treatment adjunct studies of "high dosage". These are studies in which subjects received Rubliminal stimulation three or more times a week for 3-6 weeks QS an accompaniment to either therapeutic or educational interventions, with one group receiving MOMMY AND I ARE ONE and the other a control stimulus. To date, ten studies of this kind have been carried out? all having produced positive findings, and in most, the difference between the experimental and control groups has been not only statistically significant but of considerable magnitude. These studies can be contrasted with what we have termed "laboratory studies" in which the same subjects receive both the experimental and control condition on only one occasion and the effects of the two are compared. In one group of the latter studies (eummarized in Silverman, 1983) involving the effects of the symbiotic stimulus (the verbal message MOMMY AND I ARE ONE) on schizophrenics, the findings have been consistently positive, but not of notable magnitude. The high dosage treatment adjunct studies can also be contrasted with the laboratory studies involving the effects of Oedipal messages on sports competition (dart throwing ability), in which the findings acrow studies have been notably mixed (Silvermar,, 1983). In some of these experiments (Silvermart, Ross, Adler, L Lustig, 1978), the findings have been of greRt magnitude. Although the results from Rtudies that have been carried out with the subliminal psychodynamic activation method have been preponderantly positive, there have been negative findings in about 20% of the experiments. When a subliminal psychodynamic activation experiment yields negative reFults, a number of possibilities need to be entertained. 1 The hypothesis being tested may be invalid. However, before entertaining this possibility, one should consider whether there is evidence to support any of tho other explanatory possibilities that follow. 5

53

The Subliminal Psychodynamic Activation Method 2

The hypothesis may be valid but subliminal registration mny not

have taken place. Regktration can be interfered with under the following circumstances : a) Crucial information from the stimulus does not enter the fovea. This can occur if either the stimulus is not properly centered or thc stimulus extcnds too far to the sides of the stimulus card so that the entire stimulus does not register in the fovea.* According to Vinnett and van Santen (19811, this was likely the case in thc recent study by Heilbrun (1980) who reported wgative results in a dart study.

9

b ) "Bleaching" (Kaufman, 1974) interferes with visual registration. (See Silverman et nl.,

1978, pp. 3 5 0 - 3 5 3 , for

A

probable example.)

This can take place i f : 1- the illumination of the blank field is sct too high in relation to the ambient illumination o r the illumination of the stimulus field is too high in relation to the blank field;"

2- i f the

glare from a lightbulb nakes contact with the subject's eyes just prior to tachistoscopic stimulation; 3- if the blank field does not go off during the four-msec period when the stimulus field comes on so that the latter is doubly illuminated; 4- i f the subject has been keeping his eyes closed so that when they are opened right before tachistoscopic stimulation there is a sudden sharp increase in the amount of light entering thc eyes. c) The stimulus may be exposed at a level too close to or even above threshold." The exposures should be such that no partial cues are available: and even beyond this, the cxposure level should bc comfortably below threshold.12 A t four msec, the stimulus may be a t , or too close to, threshold i f the lines of the stimulus tire too dark in relation to the illumination of the blank and stimulus fields. 3

The amount of subliminal stimulation provided may be insufficient.

Thus Packer (1982) found that whcr. subliminal psychodynamic stimulation was administered four times

weekly as an accompaniment to behavior

assertiveness training, it affected outcome in a way that twice-weekly stimulation did not. And both Arian and Siller (1982) and Parker (1982) found that symbiotic stirnulation when delivered several times weekly inproved gradcs after six weeks of the intervention but not after three weeks. Thus "dosage" is important both in terms of frequency of utimulation (i.e., sessions per week) and duration (number of weeks of stimulation). 4

The hypothesis may be valid but the failure to use a verbal and

pictorial stimulus together may have eliminated (or weakened) the effects.

54


In different subliminal psychodynamic activation experiments, the stimuli used have sometimes been only pictures, sometimes only verbal messages, and sometimes both. In the pathology intensification studies, positive results have emerged under all three circumstances. though there are pilot data from our laboratory suggesting that the strongest effects occur when pictures and words are uued together. In the pathology reduction studies - at least thoRe in which the M O M M Y AND I ARE ONE stimulus has been used, the picture alone (of a man and a woman merged at the shoulders like Siamese twins) has not produced effects. In this type of study, an even stronger case can be made for using the verbal messages and pictures together than in the pathology intensification investigations. For in two dissertation studies (Bryant-Tuckett , 1980; Kaplan. 19761, whereaR subjects who received words alone produced subliminal psychodynamic RCtivation effects, these were weaker than the effects produced by subjects receiving both pictures and verbal messages. As to why words and pictures work better, one possibility is that both hemispheres of the brain are more apt to be activated if both types of stimuli are used. Another possibility - and the two are not mutually exclusive - is that the words and pictures potentiate each other. That is, it may be that pictures are a more powerful eliciter of reactions ("one picture is worth a thousand words") but that words are necessary to code the meaning of the picture that the experimenter wants to convey. In any case, it would seem desirable for experiments to uue both kinds of stimuli unless there are compelling reasons to use only one. l 3 Experimenters should note that when both words and pictures are used, they should be presented alterrwtsly, rather than together on the same stimulus card. 14 5 The hypothesis may be valid for the group under study, but the stimulus chosen to "ceptureIt the psychodynamic content that is to be activated may have been a bad choice.15 A s is discussed elsewhere (Silverman, 1983, pp.79-80), the use of the MOMMY AND I ARE ONE stimulus with subjects who did not use the word Tbnommyfqduring their childhood is 16 R striking example. 6 The hypothesis may be valid, but particular experimenter characteristics could have interfered with psychodynamic effects. Citrin (1979) and Silverman et al. (1978) reported that in the dart experiments referred to earlier female experimenters did not elicit the psychodynamic effects that male experimenters did.


55

7 The hypothesis may have merit but not for the particular sample being investigated. Individual differences that are relcvant to the hypothesis that is being tested n a y have to be taken into account.l7 In the remainder of this paper, we will cite evidence from a variety of studies to

support this point.

EFFECTS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES The importance of taking into account personality differences among individuals when engaging in clinical research is implicit in psychoanalytic theory. If one is to test a psychoanalytic postulate in which a psychodynamic motive has been posited as rclnted to a specific form of pathology, it is mandatory to have some basis for assuming that such a motive is present and active in the subjects being studied.18 The minimal step to be taken is to use subjects who share in common a particular diagnosis, symptom, set of attitudes or behaviors which would allow one to infer the presence of the particular motive under consideration. The value of taking such characteristics into account in subliminal psychodynamic activation research has been demonstrated in a series of experiments by Silverman, Bronstein, and klendelsohn (1976). In this investigation, groups of schizophrenics, depressives, homosexuals, and stutterers were seen, each for three (counterbnlanced) conditions, in which the following stinuli were subliminally exposed: (1) e. wish-related stimulus that the clinical psychoanalytic literature deems as "relevant1' for the pathology in question and that had actually intensified this type of pathology in earlier studies : oral- aggressive for the schizophrenics and depressives, incest for the homosexuals, and anal for the stutterers;19 ( 2 ) a wish-related stimulus that the literature dGes not view as relevant and for which there was no empirical support for R psychodynamic relationship : incest for the schizophrenics and stutterers, aggressive for the homosexuals. and anal for the depressives; and (3) a neutral control stimulus. The findings for each of these groups were consistent. Whereas further support wa5 obtained for the original relevant psychodynamic relationship studied, in no instance did the second (non-relevant) wish-related condition influence the pathology under consideration : that is, in each case the effect of the latter stimulus did not differ from that of the neutral control condition.

56


The above results point to the importance of taking into account the particular defining characteristics of the subjectu in testing the impact of particular psychodynamic activating stimuli. It may, however, not always be sufficient to only take into account the primary characteristic which defines a particular sample. If such a sample is further differentiated on the basis of a secondary characteristic, which there is reason to believe has relevance for the lrariable under study, psychodynamic effects may be revealed that would have remained obscure if only the primary characteristic was considered, This, in fact, has been demonstrated in one group of the studies OP the adaptation-enhancing effects of activating unconscious symbiotic fantasies. In eleven studies carried out with male schizophrenics (reviewed in Silverman, Lachmann, and Milich, 1982, chapter 4 1 , the subliminal exposure of the MOMMY AND I ARE O N E stimulus resulted in decreased pathology that was not in evidence after subliminal control stimulation. This well replicated finding was subject to the following qualification, however. The pathology reduction that was €ound only held for Schizophrenics who could be characterized as Itrelatively differentiated from their mothers" - that ifi for those who gave evidence of having an image of themselves that was somewhat differentiated from their image of their mothers." Fur less differentinted schizophrenics, on the other hand (and this was the case in four of the studies cited - Fribourg, 1981; Leiter, 1982; Silverman et al., 1969; T. Spiro, 1975), the stimulation of the symbiotic fantasy did not lead to pathology reduction. In one study it even led to its intensification (Leiter, 1982). The explanation offered for this finding (Silverman, Lachmann, and Milich, 1982, chapter 4) was the following. Unconscious oymbiotic fantasies can serve a number of adaptation-enhancing functions such as the fulfillment of libidinal wishes, insurance against object loss, and as a protection against both destructive wishes and external destruction. However, such fantasies also can pose a thrent; they can lead to a loss of sense of self, an experience that schizophrenics are particularly vulnerable to. Thus. whether or not a schizophrenic will respord positively to the stinulation of a symbiotic fantasy will depend on the degree to which this threat is mobilized. For schizophrenics who are relatively differentiated, the balance of forces favors an adaptation-enhancing outcome, while for those who are highly undifferentiated, this is not the case.


51

Another characteristic of schizophrenics also has proven to be decisive in terms of whether or not the MOWMY AND I ARE ONE stimulus led to decreased pathology - whether they were men or women. Whereas in almost all of the experiments carried out with male schizophrenics there has been pathology reduction after the MOMMY AND I ARE ONE condition, in the two studies wherc there were samples of female schizophrenics (Cohen, 1977; Jackson, 19831, this condition had no effect.

However, in both

studies just cited, a different stimulus - DADDY AND I ARE ONE 21 found to reduce pathology. The failure of the MOMMY AND I ARE ONE stimulus to diminish pathology

in

schizophrenic

women is

paralleled

by

three

studies

with

non-schizophrenics in which this same stimulus was adaptation-enhancing for the males in the sample but not for the females (Hobbs,

1983;

Silverman h Grabowski, 1982; Zuckerman, 1980). And looking at all studies in which MOULlY AND I ARE ONE was used with non-schizophrenic women, only about half have produced positive findings, while with male samples there were adaptation-enhancing effects in almost every study. Why should it be the case that women do not react as reliably to the MOMMY AND I ARE ONE stimulus a s men do? It has been proposed (Silverman, Lachmann, and Milich, 1982, chapter 5 ) that it is the result of the difference between men and women in the degree to which they are differentiated from their mothers. The following evidence has been marshalled to support this position: Bernstein (1980), after considering both the clinical literature and case material of her own, concludes that women tend to be less differentiated from their mothers than men. Her conclusion seems particulnrly warranted given the following considerations. First, as Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) have noted, many kinds of observations support the proposition

that females are notably less aggressive than males,

and it has been

posited by such psychoanalytic writers as Jacobson (1964) that aggression

aids infants in differentiating from their mothers.

Moreover,

because

daughters are the same gender as their mothers, they have less of a basis for differentiating themselves from their mothers than do sons (Silverman, Lachmann,

&

Milich, 1982, pp.112-113).

In keeping with our earlier discussion of relatively undifferentiated schizophrenics, we postulate that because women are less apt to have differentiated themselves from their mothers to a high degree, the MOMMY

AND I ARE ONE fantasy is more apt to pose a threat to their sense of self.


58

This then would account for why this fantasy is less reliably adaptation-enhancing for females. Such a supposition can also render understandable one other finding from subliminal psychodynamic activation research. In Cohen's (1977) and Jackson's (1983) studies it already has been noted that the female schizophrenics did respond positively to DADDY A N D I ARE ONE. And in the Silverman and Grabowski (1982)

study cited

above, a sample of non-schizophrenic women (college students), though not responding with greater adaptive ability after this same stimulus, did show better adaptation after a new stimulus message: MY LOVER AND I ARE ONE. Both these findings can be explained by the assumption that oneness with someone other than "mommyTTfrom whom the women felt more differentiated did not threaten their sense of self. Characteristics bcyond primary designations also have proven to bc important in subliminal psychodynamic activation studies of depression. Dauber (1984) in an initial study found that a sample of depressed college women manifested increased dysphoric reactions after the guilt inducing subliminal stimulus LEAVING M O M IS WRONG. In a second study Dauber, following Blatt

(1979),

reasoned that only some depressions are guilt

induced and that if he identified deprcssives whose depressions were so based, such a group would more clearly be responsive to the guilt-related subliminal message. He thus administered to a new group of depressive women Quinlan,

the

Depressive

1976)

Experience

Questionnaire

(Blatt ,

that was designed to distinguish between

D'Afflitti,

b

guilt-related

("introjective") and loss-related (vtanaclitic") depression. A s Dauber predicted, whereas the 'anaclitic subgroup showed no response to the LEAVING M O M IS WRONG message, the introjective subgroup showed an increase in depression. Brennan (19831, studying another group of depressed college women, used the same LEAVING MOM IS WRONG stimulus and divided her subjects on the basis of the Depressive Experience Questionnaire into subgroups that were high and low for introjective depression. Like Dauber, Brennan found that only the high introjcctive subgroup showed increased depression after the experimental condition.

In addition, Brennan found that

when she further subdivided her subjects into those who lived on campus and those who lived at home, i t was only the former who had become more depressed. She interpreted this as implying that when young women move away from hone they become particularly prone to feeling guilty over "leaving mom." This latter finding further argues for the value of looking


59

for individual differences beyond the primary group designation. Finally, Schmidt (1981) also used the Depressive Experience Questionnaire and divided a group of college students into those prone to introjective depression and a group prone to anaclitic depression. It was hypothesized that the introjective group would show increased depression after the subliminal message, I HAVE BEEN B A D , but not after the message, I HAVE LOST MOMMY, and that the anaclitic group would respond in the

converse way. These hypotheses were borne out. The results from these three studies of depression strongly support the view that, in addition to assessing a particular pathology, the assessment of additional subject characteristics (such as the presence of anaclitic or introjective proclivities) makes it more possible to demonstrate subliminal psychodynamic activation effects. A study which further makes this point, but for a group with a different type of pathology was recently carried out by Geisler (in press). Her study was designed to demonstrate repression and used a group of women found to be high in sexual guilt on the basis of a sexual guilt questionnaire. Geisler reasoned that the subliminal activation of Oedipal conflict (using the verbal message, LOVING DADDY IS W R O N G , accompanied by a picture of a nude man and woman in a sexually suggestive pose) was more likely to have an impact on sexually guilty women whose personality development was at a higher level. That i s , such a subgroup could be expected both to be burdened specifically by oedipally related sexual guilt and to use repression as a defense. Accordingly, Geisler divided her group on the basis of Draw-a-Person

scores into a subgroup

with more highly developed personalities and another one with less developed personalities. A s she predicted, only thc former subgroup showed repression when presented with the Oedipally related subliminal stimulus. A further series of studies yielded post hoc findings that further pointto the importance of assessing additional characteristics of subjects for determining thcir responsiveness to subliminal psychodynamic activation (Carroll,

1979; Glennon,

1983; Litwack,

Wiedemann,

&

Yager,

1979;

Silverman et al., 1976). In the Litwack et a1.(1979) study, i t was found that for the two experimental stimuli that intensified pathology in a schizophrcnic sample - the aggressive stimulus, CANNIBAL EATS PERSON, and the anxiety-over-separation stimulus, I AM LOSING MOMMY

-

the effectiveness of the experi-

mental conditions depended upon the degree to which the subjects dc-


60

fended against aggressive and anxiety-related ideas, The overall effects of each of the psychodynamic stimuli were "carried" by those schizophrenics who independently could be characterized as l'relatively nondefended The more defended subjects, on the other hand, did not react with increased pathology, presumably because they found more adaptive ways of handling the psychodynamically related contents that were stirred up by 23 the experimental stimuli, The Silverman et

a1.(1976)

study included,

a s noted earlier,

a

depressive group and this was divided post hoc into one subgroup that used denial against dysphoric affect and another that did not. An increase in dysphoria after subliminal aggressive stimulation was in evidence only for the latter group presumably because the former subgroup was able to deny the depressive feelings that were stirred up. Both Carroll (1979) and Glennon (1983) were among those carrying out the dart throwing experiments noted earlier. College males, after being primed for competition, particularly in relation to their fathers, threw several series of eight darts, each series being preceded by tachistoscopic stimulation. The Oedipal-level stimuli that were used included one that was intended to sanction surpassing father in competition (BEATING DAD IS O K , accompanied by a picture of an older man looking approvingly at a

younger man) and another one condemning such competition (BEATING

DAD IS WRONG, accompanied by a picture of an older man looking disapprovingly). In three experiments that were initially conducted in our laboratory (Silverman, Ross, Adler, 8 Lustig, 19781, the OK stimulus led to significantly higher dart scores than the WRONG stimulus. Carroll and Glennon both obtained replications of these results.

In

addition, each of them independently examined subject variables that correlated with their experimental effects and reached a similar conclusion: the overall group effects obtained were carried by subjects whose defenses could be characterized as relatively "ineffective or unsuccessful" (Carroll, 1979, p.31). From the studies of Litwack et al.,

1979, Silverman e t al., 1976,

Carroll, 1979, and Glennon, 1983, there is evidence to suggest that responsiveness to subliminal psychodynamic activation is less likely to occur in subjects who are relatively well dofended against the psychodynamic content that the experimental stimuli activate. So far this evidence has emerged for such diverse dynamic contents as oral aggression, anxiety over separation, and Oedipal Competition, and with groups ranging from


61

schizophrenics through depressives to nonclinical populations. Further experiments are in order both to seek replications of these findings and to test the generalizability of the formulation that has been suggested. In conclusion, over a dozen studies have examined individual differences in subliminal psychodynamic activation research. Responsiveness to the activation of particular psychodynamic motives has been found to be dependent not only on membership in groups with particular primary designations - e . g . ,

schizophrenics - but

also on subgroup characteristics

such as whether the schizophrenics are relatively differentiated or undifferentiated; are men or women; or are relatively well defended or undefended

against

disturbing

ideation.

Future

investigators

using

the

subliminal psychodynamic activation method would do well to consider the role of individual diffcrences for whatever psychodynamic relationship they are studying. They also should keep in mind the other conditions that need

to

be

fulfilled

to

maximize

the

chances of

finding

subliminal

psychodynamic activation effects. These include: 1 alerting oneself to conditions that could interfere with subliminal regis-

tration; 2

providing a high ”dosage” of subliminal psychodynamic activation (both

in terms of frequency and duration) whenever possible; 3 employing verbal and pictorial stimuli together whenever feasible; 4

using stimuli that best capture the psychodynamic content that one

wants to activate; and 5 considering experimenter characteristics that might facilitate or interfere with experimental effects. One final note can be added. The subliminal psychodynamic activation method and the research studies which have derived from this method comprise a counterexample that refutes Popper’s (1962) contention, recently discussed by Grunbaum (19841, that psychoanalysis is an “untestableT7theory. The examination of individual differences in particular (in addition to making it more possible for the investigator to obtain results with otherwise may be obscured when a group as a whole is examined) allows for the refined testing of the theory and can yield data that support, extend, or challenge particular psychoanalytic dynamic relationships.


62 NOTES

1) "Subliminal level" is defined as one at which subjects cannot discriminate the exposures of one stimulus from those made by another, This

is ascertained by the use of a "discrimination task" described in detail elsewhere (e.g., Silverman, Ross, Adler, B Lustig, 1978, pp. 346-347). In all but three of the studies reviewed in Silverman (1983), the stimuli were subliminal by virtue

of

very

brief

exposures

-

typically

4-msec tachistoscopic exposures. In the remaining three studies (Hines, 1977; Lodl, 1980; Sackeim, 197?), the stimuli were subliminal by virtue of

very low illumination, with their having been projected onto a screen. Since these studies reported subliminal psychodynamic effects and since their procedure allows for group "delivery" of the stimuli (as well as group administration of tests to assess effects), further exploration of this modality is clearly in order. 2 ) Since the Silverman (1983) article was written, additional studies have been reported

by Augenbraun

(1982), Ausubel (19811, Brenner

( 1 9 8 0 ) , Brush (1982), Burkham (19811, Conte ( 1 9 8 2 ) , Geisler (in p r e s s ) ,

Glennon (1983), Gordon (19821, Haspel and Harris (19821, Hayden and Silverstein (1983), Hobbs (1983), Meyers (19811, Mindes (1983), Newman and Hirt (1983), Packer (19821, Pfanner (19821, Robertson (19821, Schmidt (1981), Silbert (1982), and Trieber (1983). Using the same criteria as were employed in the Silverman, 1983 listing ( p . 901, the studies of Conte, Geisler , Glennon , Hayden and Silverstein, Hobbs , Mindes Packer, Robertson, Schmidt, and Silbert can be classified as "clearly supportive ,'I those of Ausubel, Rrenner, Brush, Meyers, Newman and Hirt, Pfanner, and Trieber as "mixed, weak, or as providing Inonhypothesized support', and those of Augenbraun, Burkham, Gordon, and Haspel and Harris as "clearly nonsupportive

.

It

3) There have been r a m occasions when experimenters have been accidentally deblinded ( e . g . ,

a stimulus card might fall to the floor) and

when this happens we have proceeded a s follows: (a) the experimenter informs another member of the research team of what has happened so that the cards can be recoded; ( b ) the data from such a subject are not included in the data analysis.


63

However, while this procedure makes sense in “laboratory experiments”

-

i . e . , where a subject is seen for a single experimental and single

control session - i t does not make sense in treatment adjunct studies where a subject receives the same stimulus (either experimental or control) in many sessions as a treatment aid. While none of our experimenters has yet become deblindcd in this type of study, we have prepared for this eventuality by preparing separate stimulus cards for each subject (with the subject’s name written on the back) so that if the experimenter does become deblinded for a subject, i t does not deblind him or her for the other subjects. If feasible, we would replace any subject for whom the experimenter was not blind to stimulus conditions; if not feasible, we would report separately results for such subjects. One final point about experimenters hnvin-g been blind for stimulus conditions: the cards on which the stimuli appear have been of sufficient thickness so that no part of the stimulus could be seen through the back of the card.

4) In considering the possibility that unconscious experimenter bias can influence the results of subliminal activation experiments (as they can in any experiment - see Rosenthal, 19661, it should be kept in mind that this possibility would apply to negative result studies as well as positive result studies. In fact, there is a greater likelihood of this being the case, since the mechanism by which a bias could lead to negative results is considerably more apparent. That is, an experimenter could simply forget to set a dial correctly or forget to check the light bulbs for proper illumination. 5 ) The recent studies listed in Note 2 by Conte, Hayden and Silver-

stein, Mindes, and Schmidt can be added to those listed in Silverman,

1983, p . 9 0 . 6) The doctoral dissertations are available either on microfilm or in printed form from University Microfilms International, P.O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Fifteen of the dissertation studies also have been either published o r accepted for publication, ten of these having been listed in the Silverman, 1983 article

and five others by Ariam and Siller

(1982), Bronstein and Rodin (1983), Bryant-Tuckett and Silverman (19841, Jackson (1982), and Leiter (1982). Several other of the dissertation

L.H. Silverman and C.J. Geider

64

studies have been submitted for publication, 7) Ariam and Siller (1982), Bryant-Tuckett and Silverman (1984), Hobbs (1983), Packer ( 1982). Parker (1982), Qureshi (in preparation), Palmatier and Bornstein (1980). Robertson (19821, Trieber (1983), and Zuckerman(l980). 8 ) To ensure that the entire stimulus registers on the fovea, the horizontal visual angle of the stimulus should be under 5 . 5 O . The visual angle

is calculated by using the following formula: Tan 112 =

112 width of message viewing distance

Thus, if the width of the message is 4 " and the viewing distance 40", tan1 / 2 = 2/40 = 1 / 2 0 = .05. In a tangent table, this yields a value of 2.36 for half the angle and hence 5.72 for the full visual angle. In terms of the above mentioned criterion, this angle is slightly too large so that tho letters

of the message should be made somewhat less wide, thus reducing the angle. 9) Winnett and van Santen (1981) called to our attention that Heilbrun

(1980) used the same stimuli as did Silverman e t al. (1978) but reported a viewing distance that was . 3 meters less than in the original experiment. This, they calculated, resulted in visual angles that were 10-308 higher than those of Silverman et a1.(1978). (1980) were incorrectly calculated;

(The angles reported by Heilbrun Heilbrun

(1982)

hns

acknowledged

this.) Consequently, Winnett and van Santen point out, it is quite possible that one or two letters of each stimulus message did not register, thus changing the meaning of these messages. 10) In our laboratory, the blank field illurnination has been set at

about the same level as the room illumination (typically between 4 and 15 footlamberts) and the ratio of blank field to stimulus field illumination has ranged from 1:l to 3 : l . The setting of the stimulus field illumination within this range will depend on the darkness of the stimulus lines: the darker the lines, the lower the setting would have to be in order for the stimulus to register %omfortably below threshold" (see note 13)

.

Illumination level should be determined with the use of a photometer, In measuring the illumination

of

the blank

and

stimulus

fields,

the


65

photometer should be focused through the eyepiece of the tachistoscope onto the field being measured, with a blank white card in the field and the field in the "constant on" position. In measuring the illumination of the room (ambient illumination) the photometer should be focused on the area the subject's eyes will be most in contact with during the experiment. 11) This is what w e believe occurred in a study by Emmelkamp and

Straatman (1976). Two of their subjects were able to report the entire content of the MOMMY A N D I ARE ONE message so that obviously their exposures were not below threshold. The negative results obtained in this study can be contrasted with other treatment adjunct studies reporting positive findings ( e . g . , Linehan & O'Toole, 1982; Parker, 1982) where careful questioning of the subjects failed to elicit even one instance in which any aspects of the stimulus could be correctly described. 12) The criterion for ttcomfortably below threshold" is that no lines should be visible during an ascending threshold task (starting at 4 msec and increasing exposures at 3-msec intervals) at less than 1 3 msec for any pilot subject. That i s , before an experiment is begun, it is recommended that at least five subjects view the stimulus at increasing exposures and if any can see even a single line at less than 13 msec, then one should either lighten the stimuli or lower the illumination of the stimulus field. While we do not know at what level a stimulus is too weak to subliminally register, we have obtained subliminal effects with stimulus field illumination settings and the lightness of lines such that no pilot subject could report A line until exposures were for more than 50 msec. Thus, the range of first report for even a line should be between 13 and 50 msec for the most acutely perceiving pilot subject. 1 3 ) For example, an experimenter might want to use words alone be-

cause they were used in a study that he or she wants to replicate; o r because the experimenter wants to equate experimental and control stimuli for structural characteristics and it is easier to equate verbal messagcs than pictorial content. 14) In

D

study of schizophrenics by Silbert (1982), the words M O M M Y

A N D I ARE ONE were put on the same stimulus card as a symbiotic-like

picture. This led to increased pathology - an effect opposite to what has


66

been obtained in studies where the verbal message and the picture viere on different cards and also the opposite of what Silbert himself found for the verbal message alone. This paradoxical finding for the verbal message and picture being on the same card was (tentatively) attributed to the message-picture

combination

producing

a kind

of stimulus overload that

stressed the subjects and rendered the emotion-laden

words

patholo-

gy-inducing rather than adaptation-enhancing as they usually are. 1 5 ) To avoid this problem, Ariam and Siller (1982) conducted a pilot

study to determine the appropriate stimulus for testing their hypothesis. 16) Subjects who come from homes in which English was not the main

language spoken during childhood, have not been expected to respond in the same way as subjects from English speaking homes (when verbal stimuli are used). Thus, we have either avoided using such subjects or have used them but considered their data separately. The criterion for %sin language used" is the language in which the parents spoke to the child during childhood. If more than one language was used, i t is better to consider these subjects, for the purposes of the experiment, as not "from English speaking homes. I' 17) Condon and Allen's (1980) failure to replicate Silverman, Frank,

and Dachinger's (1974) finding that subliminal symbiotic stimulation facilitntcd systematic desensitization in the treatment of insect phobias may have been due to notable differences in the two subject samples. The subjects in the original investigation were women who answered a newspaper advertisement offering treatment for insect phobias and who were troubled enough by their phobias to travel to the hospital where the study was conducted. Condon and Allen ( 1 9 8 0 ) , on the other hand, used introductory psychology students fulfilling a course requirement. Thus i t was likely that the latter subjects were considerably less motivated than the former, and, more importantly, that they werc less phobic than those of Silverman et al. (1974). 18) See Ceisler (1985) for a discussion of the failure to consider indi-

vidual differences in experiments using a vmiety of experimental paradigms in the testing of the psychoanalytic concept of repression and the consequent failure of the investigators to find evidence supporting this concept.


67

19) The oral-aggressive stimulus was a picture of an angry looking man with teeth bared and about to stab a woman, accompanied by the verbal message, DESTROY MOTHER. The incest stimulus was a picture of a nude man and a woman in a sexually suggestive pose, accompanied by the verbal message, FUCK MOMMY. The anality stimulus consisted of a picture of a rear view of a person crouched and defecating, accompanied by the verbal message, GO SHIT. 20) Subjects

have

been

classified

on

the

differentiation

variable

through the administration of an adjective rating scale (Silverman et al.,

1969). Subjects first rate themselves on a 6-point scale for 20 descriptive Then, on the same scale, they rate either their own mothers o r a picture of a woman in-

adjectives (e.g. , happy, nervous, sociable, depressed).

tended as a mother figure for the same adjectives. The difference between the self- ratings and the ratings of either the actual nother or the mother figure constitutes the differentiation score, with a total of 2 4 or more qualifying a subject as "relatively differentiated.

If

In various hospital sam-

ples, anywhere between 50% and 80% of the patients have been classified as differentiated. A study by Fribourg (1979) found that 75% of subjects given the Adjective Rating Scale a second time a month after they were originally tested retained their classification as either "differentiated" or %ondifferentiated. ?( Thus, the differentiation variable appears to be stable for the majority of schizophrenics. However, because there was n sizable number (25%) for whom this was not the c m e , it would seem important to administer the Adjective Rating Scale the same day as the experiment proper. This would ensure that the subjects who qualify as "relatively differentiated" would still come under this heading when the subliminal oneness condition is administered. 2 1 ) The DADDY AND I ARE ONE stimulus failed to reduce pathology

in two studies of male schizophrenics: (I) a study by Kaye (1975) in which there was pathology reduction after MOMMY AND I ARE ONE; ( 2 ) Jackson's (1983) study referred to earlier in which both a female and male sample of schizophrenics were seen. The males responded positively only to the MOMMY AND I ARE ONE stimulus and the females only to DADDY A N D

I ARE ONE. 22) "Nondefcnded"

subjects were

those whose associations to the

L.H. Silverman and C.J.Geisler

68

aggressive and separation stimuli (after the subliminal part of the experiment was completed) showed no evidence of attempts to mute the impact of what was assumed to be disturbing content, 23) A second subject variable that contributed to the differences between the experimental and control conditions was whether or not the subject's associations to the control stimuli were "neutral." A s hypothesized, the experimental effects were carried by those subjects whose associations to the control stimulus were indeed neutral. A s Litwack et a1.(1979) argue: "labeling a stimulus 'neutral' does not make it so, and a subliminal stimulus designed to elicit pathology should not be expected to do so relative to another stimulus which also elicits pathology." (p.87)

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Ross, D., Adler, J., & Lustig, D. (1978). A simple research

paradigm for demonstrating subliminal psychodynamic activation. Journal

of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 341-357. Silverman, L.H.,

Spiro, R.H., Weissberg, J., & Candell, P. (1969).The effects of

aggressive activation of the need to merge on pathological thinking in schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 148, 39-51. Spiro, T. (1975). The e f f e c t s of laboratory stimulation of symbiotic fantasies and bodily self-awareness on relatively differentiated and non-differentiated shizophrenics.

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York Uni-

versity. Trieber, E. (1983) The e f f e c t s of supraliminal stimulation combined with subliminal symbiotic stimuli on academic performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, School of Education.

14


Varga, M. (1973). An experimental study of aspects of the psychoanalytic

study of elation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University. Winnett, R., & van Santen, J. (1981). Personal communication, March. Zuckerman, S. (1980).The effects of subliminal symbiotic and success-related stimuli on the school performance of high school underachievers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, N e w York University, School of Education.

The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel. G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

75

THE EFFECTS O F SUBLIMINALLY PRESENTED SEXUAL AtID AGGRESSIVE STIMULI ON LITERARY CREATIVITY Maxine J . Antell and Leo Goldberger Ncw York Univcrsity

INTRODUCTION Great creators, as Hanns Sachs (1942) points out, have across the centuries been called "dreamers . I t Freud's (1900) conception of mental processes as the dynamic interplay between primary and secondary process levels of psychic functioning providcs R framework within which this nearly universal metaphor acquires spccific aptness. For psychoanalytic theorists believe that the creative process entails a shift in what has been termcd the "cathexis of certnin ego functions ,'I a regression to primary process modes of ideation, similar to that of the dream, which allows in both cases communication with repressed wishes and phantasies, that is, with id impulses and their close derivatives. This corresponds to the stage of the creative process called "inspiration, Ir characterized not only by more fluid and drive dominated thinking, but also by intcnse emotionality and heightened tension and excitement. But the dream of course is formless aesthetically, egocentric, and obscure; the formal bcauty and social meaningfulness of the artistic work i m plies that the creative process which begins in a primitivization of ego functioning must culminate in a second or elaborative stage of slow, secondary process work, during which the ore gleaned from commerce with the deepest layers of the mind is refined, given aesthetic form and rendered meaningful to others. The conceptualization of changes in cathexis of ego functions a s corresponding to stages in the creative process is rooted in Freud's idea of "flexibility of repression" first put forth in 1905 in Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious and developed under the aegis of ICris's (1952) concern with the integrative function of the CEO. As in any situation in which id impulses intrude, there is a dangerOUB,

potentially pathologic aspect to this process. In this sense pathologic

76

M.J.Ante11 and L. Goldberger

dispositions may be part of what constitutes the artist's increased psychic capacity. However the increased psychic capacity can have extremely beneficial adaptive consequences for the artiat RS well, not the least of which is the gratification of the id wishes in a displaced symbolic form arid the reduction of guilt by "seduction" of the audience into sharing conflictunl phantasies. Thus, the gaining of access to id material without being overwhelmed by it through the making of appropriately rapid shifts in levels of psychic functioning has been called lTadaptiveregression" or "regression in the service of the ego." In stressing the special relationship between conflict and a r t , we do not intend to suggest that all creative work remains tied to conflict. Like other ego capacities for which psychological conflict provides an essential ingredient and incentive in development, creativity can emerge from conflict involvement and acquire relative autonomy - Hartmann's "secondary autonomy" (1958). Kris (1964) even hints that such relative autonomy may be required for the highest achievement of a r t . Nevertheless, in time of intensification of conflict we would expect the genetic relationship between modes of' handling drives and creativity to show up dynamically. Kris's hypotheses require the study of creativity as a dynamic process, an interplay between different levels of psychic functioning and the factors, such as drive activation, that affect this interplay. While previous research in the area of creative process has not been extensive, there have been scmp studies which support the above formulations. D. Silverman (19631, in an attempt to investigate the dynamic events surrounding the creative sct , scored the verbalizations of fourthgrade pupils a s they painted for adaptive regression, using R modified vcrsion of the Holt and Have1 Rorschach Kanual (1960). The paintings, four per subject, were rated for creativity by artists. When individual paintings were considered, the relation of degree of adaptive regression to creativity was as predicted. (However, adaptive regression scores did not correlate with subject's average creativity scores. Cohen (1960) scored Rorschachs of two groups, a r t students rated creative versus random a r t students, for form level of responses showing primary process, High form level, or maintaining perceptual accuracy during primary process production, was taken as an operational memure of adaptive regression. As predicted the more creative subjects showed a higher form level. The groups did not differ on form level of non-primar:r responses, showing that i t was not a simple difference in perceptual accu-

Effects o f Subliminally Presented Stimuli on Creativity

77

racy but a different way of integrating primary process production. Rogalsky (1960) used the same measure on creative and uncreative third-grade children. She found that form level rating of primary process production did not differentiate the groups. However, for boys, the creatives showed higher form level in non-primary process material, as well as more primary process material. Thus, more primary process and better control seemed present, but in different responses, leading to the speculation that their integration is a later developmental task. The measures of control were better predictors than the measures of amount of primary process. Bowers (1967) examined the effect of hypnosis and suFgeEtions of reduced defensiveness on creative test performance. While for non-creative subjects hypnosis made no difference, for creative subjects there was a significant difference between hynotized and waking groups on the creativity battery, showing that creative subjects could use the ego regression induced b y hypnosis in the .service of creative functioning. Thus, the general validity of Kris's concept of adaptive regression has received some experimental confirmation while much remains to be learned about its phenomenology, genetic history, and its specific role and range of applicability in various kinds of creative functioning. In a recent series of papers, L. Silverman has described an experimental mcthod for studying the effects of the activation of drive dcrivatives on ego functioning (summarized in Silverman, 1971, 1975). He found that when drive-related , especially aggressive, stimuli were presented to subjects tachistoscopically at a subliminal level, various pathological processes appeared, in particular, "regressed" thinking. The presentation of stimuli had to be subliminal for the effects to appear; and in non-schizophrenic subjects they did not appear unless a "priming" procedure or external activation of aggrescjve ideas occurred first (Silverman, 1965 ; Silverman & Goldweber, 1966) in contrast to schizophrenic subjects who responded with regressed thinking simply on the basis of the subliminal drive activation (e .g., Silverman, 1966). The necessity of subliminality of stimuli is not clearly understood. One possibility, deduced from the model of Spence and Holland (1962, p. 164) is that "reduction of awarenem.. (leads) to a greater spread of activity. One idea can spread more freely

.

throughout the system than is possible in conscious thinking. One percept can make contact with e. wider range of traces ,'I The relationship between lack of awareness and altered possibilities for discharge may also be

M.J. Antell and L. Goldberger

78

involved. In any case, it supports the clinical notion of the efficacy of awareness in dissipating the effects of drive and conflict activation. Silverman's (1971, 1975) investigations have focused exclusively on the pethologlcal consequences of this process, such as on regressed thinking. We have already pointed to the close relationship in psychoanalytic thinking between creativity and pathology: the person averts danger by controlling and making use of the very regression that proves overwhelming in other cases. If this conception is correct, it should be possible to show that creative people can make adaptive use (that is, respond with creativity) of the arousal pigocess that produced pathologic81 regression in people without this capacity. This was the purpose of the present study. An additional set of quostions was: to what extent is this specific to either aggressive or sexual stimulation? If both are effective, is oce more effective than the other? Psychoanalytic theory postulates that the impetus for creativity is in large part sublimated sexuality, so it was predicted that sexual stimulation would be more effective. Since the aggremive drive in its 'tneutralized" form is believed to have an intimate connection with enerdzing the ego functions (cf. Hartmann, 1940). aggressive stimulation was also expected to have a facilitating effect.

HYPOTHESES

1. Creative subjects would show a grenter incrense in creativity than non-creative subjects under conditions of subliminal drive stimulation. 2 . This heightening of creativity would be grcnter for sexual than for aggressive stimulation.

METHOD DESIGN

Each subject was seen for throe sessions. In each sossion subjects were te8ted on two measures of creativity after exposuro to subliminal stimulation with a "baseline neutraltt stimulus, and then again after subliminal stimulation with three kinds of stimuli (conditions) : aggressive, sexual, and neutral (control) again for the control condition. Each subject served


79

as his own control that is, each subject appeared for three sessions during each of which he got one condition. The order was counterbalanced so that the same number of subjects received each of the six possible orderings of the three conditions. One could then ascertain the effects of the drive stimulation by comparing the change in performance during the sessions when the second stimulus was aggressive or sexual with the session when it was neutral. The statistical method was analysis of co-variance.

SUBJECTS A total of 30 creative and 30 non-creative subjects were used. The

"creative" subjects were students enrolled in creative writing courses in two local liberal a r t s colleges. Enrollment in thesc courses is dependent upon submission of previous writing of sufficient accomplishment to the instructor of the course. Fourteen of the 30 plan careers in writing. Noncreative subjects were 30 students from the same schools who were English majors but who had never taken writing courses. None was considering a career that involved creative writing. This control group was chosen to eliminate general intellectual level and interest in literary expression a s variables. The two groups were balanced almost equally for sex and for proportion coming from each college.

A PPA R A TUS

The neutral stimulus consisted of drawings of two men with rather benign expressions. The aggressive stimulus was a drawing of a man with his mouth twisted into a ferocious grimace, holding a long dagger poised above the head of a cowering woman, The sexual stimulus was a drawing of a naked man and woman, the woman standing in such a posture that her breasts and genitals arc exposed. The pictures were mounted on 2 x 2 slides. The slides were shown from an Anscomatic slide projector equipped with an Ilex Universal Shutter No. 4 . Shutter speed averaged 23.1 msec. The power output was 72.8 watts. Amount of illumination coming from the screen averaged 0 . 0 2 6 foot candles for the slide plus background. The screen was located 19.3 feet in front of the projector and 9.75 feet in


80

front of the subjects. The size of the image on the screen was 4 1 inches for the three initial (neutral) stimuli and about 5 2 inches for the critical stimuli. (Further specification of the experimental set-up can be obtained from the authors.)'

PROCEDURE The back bone of each session was essentially: a priming procedure, followed by neutral stimulation and administration of a set of baseline measures of the dependent variables,

followed by the critical stimulation

(either aggressive, sexual or control) and a critical administration of the dependent variable measures,

1. PRIMING

The passages intended to produce the priming (arousal of ideas associated with a particular drive) were presented as part of a memory task. Subjects were told that the experimenter would play two passages on a tape recorder to which they should listen very carefully because after each one they would be asked to write as much 8s they could remember of the passage. The first, "buffer", passage in each case was a neutral one presented solely to obscure the experimenter's intentions. The subject matter was Italian medieval universities, changes in U . S

. census

procedures, and

the derivation of the name of the element mercury, The second passage was filled with either sexual or aggressive images depending on the condi-

tion. In the neutral condition half of the subjects (selected at random) got sexual priming, half aggressive, so that any difference between the drive conditions and the neutral condition could not be attributed to the simple effect of having used drive priming for the forner and not the latter. None of the subjects guessed the true nature of this manipulation.

2. N E U T R A L S T I M U L A T I O N A N D BASELINE MEASURES

Subjects were now told that at various points during the experiment, the experimenter would ask them to look at the screen and would darken

Effects of Subliminally Presented Stimuli on Creativity

81

the room. They were told they must be s u r e to keep looking at the center of the screen where they would see flashes of light, that they should keep focusing on the center regardless of what they saw, especially when experimenter said the words, "ready, get set" over the intercom. Questions were discouraged at this point. The experimenter flashed the neutral picture on the screen four times at 15 second intervals, preceding each flash with the alerting signal, "ready, get set." Subjects were then given the Metaphor Task. They were again told to look at the screen and four more flashes of the same neutral stimulus ("refresher" flashes) were shown, that is, to renew the effect of the stimulus. Finally subjects were given the Remote Associates Test.

3. CRITICAL STIMULUS A N D CRITICAL MEASURES

This step was exactly like the one preceding it in all details except that the content of the stimulus was now the aggressive slide, the sexual slide or the control slide. It should be clear that the subjects were never told how many sets of stimuli were in each session (two); those who believed that there was anything at all being flashed on the screen tended to believe therc were four sets. Moreover, the rhythm of the procedure apparently did not lend itself to disclosing the pre-post

format despite the two parallel sets of

measures.

4. DlSCRlMlNATlON

TASK TO CHECK FOR T H E SUBLlMlNALlTY OF

THE STIMULUS

In a third session subjects were told that the experimenter wanted to see how well they could distinguish between two slides, A and B , which the experimenter was going to show them at a very rapid rate of speed; that they would be shown four flashes of A , then of B , and then of A and

B in random order 10 times. In each case they were to write down which they thought was being shown. They were also told the best performance would be rewarded by a five dollar prize. The exposure procedure was the same as i t had been during the experiment proper, including time interval between flashes and the alerting signal. If, following Silverman, one con-


82

siders eight or more correct answers out of the 10 trials as a non-chance performance ( p < 0.10, two-tailed t e s t ) , no subject in the present study met this criterion. Thus, the finding of differential effects of the drive and control stimuli was not a function of differences (partial cues) of which the subject was aware.

THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES 1. R E M O T E ASSOCIATES TEST ( R A T )

The RAT, devised by Mednick (1962), is a test not of literary creativity per se but of the kind of flexibility in thinking, associative freedom, and ability to form connections between disparate elements believed by many to be involved in literary creativity. This test asks subjects !'to form associative elements into new combinations by providing mediating connective links." A test item consists of a set of three words drawn from "mutually remote associative clusters" and subjects must respond with a word that serves as an associative link between the three. Mednick reports that in two studies of the test's reliability (Spearman-Brown) , high scores were attained (0.92 and 0.91) and in a series of validation studies, the test was able to predict: creativity in architecture students and psychology graduate students (Mednick, 1962). "atypical attitudes" and high scores on the artist, psychologist, physician, mathematician, and author-journalist scales of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (Kowalski, 1960), originality and quality in an anagrams test (Karp, 1960), and originality on thc IPAR scalc (Mednick, 1962). RAT scorcs correlated negatively or did not correlate with Miller Analogies Test scores, grade averages of undergraduates in a school of technology, and summer Rchool grades in an Eastern liberal arts collegc (Mednick, 1962; Miller, 1960). Sixty published RAT item8 were divided at random into six sets of 10 each and the sets were assigned at random for the three baseline and the three 3 critical assessments. The score was the number of correct items. The range of scores was from zero to nine. In the present study the mean was 4.06, the standard deviation 1.97. Test-retest reliability (correlation between baseline and critical scores in the neutral condition) was 0.59 for the non-creatives and 0.36 for the creative subjects.


83

2. METAPHOR TASK

This task was made up by the first author. Subjects were provided with a set of stems, for example, "The day was as dark a s . . . .I1, and asked to compose metaphors or similes with them. They were told to make them as expressive as possible. The time allowed was eight minutes for a set of four. All subjects received the same set of metaphors with a particular kind of stimulation. To establish comparability of the six sets used in the study, the six forms were divided among 70 college students in a separate administration. The metaphors were rated in the same way as were those in 3 the experiment proper by four raters. The metaphors were rated by four judges - an assistant professor of English, two graduate students in English, and the first author ( B . A . in English). The judges were all unaware of which subjects had produced which responses and even of which responses were given by a single subject. Thus there was no halo effect. Aside from the experimenter, judges had no knowledge even of what the experiment was about. Judges were instructed to rate each metaphor from one to six (six being the highest score) for creativity and to take into account such factors as originality, imaginativeness, aptness, expressiveness, vividness, and the formal skill it shows. An anchoring description of what the various cores should suggest was provided. The sum of the ratings for all four metaphors in a set was taken as the metaphor score for that set. Subjects were well represented across B wide range of scores, from 12 to 5 9 . The mean was 30.63, the standard deviation, 7 . 7 0 . The range of cqrelation coefficient between pairs of judges was from 0 . 4 5 to 0 . 5 4 . The average value was 49.33 which, using the Spearman-Brown Prediction Formula, yields a reliability quotient of 0 . 7 9 . The correlation between baseline and critical scores in the neutral condition which is analogous to a test-retest reliability quotient was 0.73 for creatives and 0 . 4 9 for non-creatives, so that test reliability was deemed adequate,

84

M.J. Antell and L. Goldberger RESULTS 1. REMOTE ASSOCIATES TEST 1. G R O U P BASELINE P E R F O R M A N C E :

The point-biserial correlation coefficient betwecn group membership and baseline scores summed over the three conditions was found to be zcro. The interaction between groups and conditions was predicted on the basis of a presumed initial difference between the two groups that the data does not bear out. The kind of creativity represented by performance on the RAT appears to have been equally distributed in the groups we are calling creative and non-creative

.

2. EFFECT O F T H E S T I M U L A T I O N :

The analysis of covariance results are presented in Table 1. Table 1 Analysis of Covariance for the Remote Associates Test.

Source of v a r i a t i o n

ss

A (cr. v s . non-cr.)

4.0611

1

193.3789

57

3.3926

67,8853

2

33.9426

Subj.

W.

A

B (agg. vs. s e x . v s . n e u t . ) AB

B x Ss

W.

A

df

MS

F

4.0671

1.1988

1.9098

2

.9578

211.1544

115

2.3578

14.3958.' .4050

.*p < .001

A s the table reveals, the conditions factor was significant, not the

interaction nor, as foreshadowed by the non-significant point-biserial r for the baseline, the groups factor. In order to see which specific comparisons carried the significant effect, adjusted means were computed (Table 2) and t tests performed (Table 3 ) . All the comparisons were significant and all in the predicted direction. That is, not only were both drive conditions higher than neutral but

Effects of Subliminally Presented Stimuli on Creativity

85

Table 2 Adjusted Means on Remote Associates Test.

Stimuli Aggressive

Sexual

Neutral

Groups Non-creative

4.53

5.27

3.61

Creative

4.58

5.61

3.93

Table 3

t Values for Condition Comparisons on Remote Associates Test.

Groups

Non-creative

Creative

Conditions

t

P

neut.

5.10

< .005

sex. vs. neut.

12.63

e .005

agg.

VS.

sex.

VS.

agg.

1.808

e.05

agg.

VS.

neut.

2.65

e.02

sex. vs. neut.

12.41

< .005

sex. vs. agg.

6.510

C.005

the sexual was higher than the aggressive. The difference between the sexual and aggressive change scores was significant for the creative subjects (t=3.32) at beyond the 0 . 0 1 level; there was a non-significant trend in the same direction for the non-creatives - for all subjects combined, the difference was significant (t=3.76, p e 0.001).

/I: METAPHOR TASK 1. G R O U P BASELINE P E R F O R M A N C E :

The point-biserial correlation coefficient between creative and noncreative group membership and the sum of the baseline measurements for each subject was 0 . 4 2 , a significant value (p. 1 0 , 1 / 7 d . f. ) , and thus no evidence that the full sentence had been processed. What is more, Spacing did not interact with either Command or Location.

Recognition. After both lists had been presented, we sampled awareness of the subliminal clue by presenting the target word for a fixed period (500 msec.) and asking the subject to report the target word and, in addition, whatever else he had seen. None of the subjects were able to make out the complete clue on either trial. Correct recognition of specific clue parts is presented in Table 2 for each trial. It can be seen that on Trial 1 more

132

D.P.Spence, L. Klein, and R.J. Fernandez

information is picked up when the clues are presented alone than when they are accompanied by visual noise; that more clues are perceived in the right visual field than in the left; and that the word "Left" is slightly more visible than the word "Right." About the only finding of interest in Trial 2 is the recognition of the word "Press." Errors. Errors per subject ranged from 0 to 9 on Trial 1 and from 0 to 7 on Trial 2 . In both trials, more errors occurred when the target word was preceded by a misleading clue (tfRight'f). On Trial 1 , F for Location is 6.7, p c - 0 5 , 1/9 d . f . , and on Trial 2 . F for Location is 4.34, p c .08, 1 / 7 d.f. DISCUSSION The results from the first set of clues in Experiment IV tend to support the hypothesis that spaced formats are more effective than crowded formats. The results from both sets of clues support the hypothesis that what is registered in the right visual field takes precedence over what is registered in the left, and in neither trial do we find any evidence that both hemispheres can collaborate in processing a verbal message. In Trial 2 , Command did not interact with Location, and in Trial 1 , although we found an interaction. we also found that the effective meaning of 1'Press7' and "Avoid" was the opposite from what we would have predicted. Clearly, the effect of a stimulus which spans both visual fields cannot be predicted from the words alone; the effective stimulus under these conditions is apparently quite different from i t s literal meaning. We are on somewhat safer ground in trying to predict the effect of a stimulus in the right visual field but a long way from learning the meaning of stimuli in the left visual field, and equally in the dark in trying to understand the conditions under which the two visual fields can work together to process a sentence or phrase that falls on both sides of the fixation point. These findings have obvious implications for subliminal research. Because the left hemisphere appears to assume priority, it may be necessary to learn to "read" from right to left and become aware of the fact that the right side of the stimulus may assume semantic priority. Its meaning will either not be modiried by left-side stimuli (as in Trial 21, or it will be modified by a peculiar distortion of left-side stimuli (as in Trial 1 where ffAvoidTf was more facilitative than "Pressfr). It may also be true that leftside stimuli may actually interfere with right-side processing. The best ev-

Size and Shape of the Subliminal Window

133

idence for this statement comes from a comparison of Experiments 111 and IV. Only when both Command and Location were presented in the right visual field did we find a significant effect of the first on the second. To

share the same message between the two hemispheres (as in Experiment IV) would seem to eliminate the first part and limit the effect to the right side.

GENERAL DISCUSSION Choice of visual field would seem to place a much more significant restriction on the impact of the subliminal stimulus than distance from central fixation. With both simple and complex stimuli, it would not seem to matter (within the limits under study in the present set of experiments) whether the critical clues fall within the focal or peripheral regions of the viewing rield. Further experiments will be needed to determine the outer limits of this window, but it seems clear from the present data that words falling as tar a s

7O

from the fixation point can still be meaningfully processed (see

Experiments I and 11, and the Location effect in Experiment 111, right visual field). Which hemisphere is invoked is a much more important question, and this difference does not appear clearly until we move from simple to complex stimuli. In Table 3 , we have brought together the relevant data from Experiments 11, 111, and I V to show how effect size varies with complexity of stimulus and region of registration (only the 30 msec. conditions are included). Single words facilitated lexical decision equally well in both right and left hemispheres, with high associate primes producing a greater effect than low associate primes. When we moved from simple stimuli to the more complex phrase used in Experiment 111, w e found it to have considerably more effect when i t was presented to the left hemisphere than when i t was presented to the right. When a complex stimulus was presented to both hemispheres, we found no evidence for syntactic processing; the combined effect of command and location w a s either negative or not significant. It seems clear that the impact of a complex phrase can change significantly depending on whether it is presented entirely in the left visual field, half in left and half in right, or entirely in the right. changes, the role of eye fixation becomes crucial.

Because of these

D.P.Spence, L.Klein, and R.J. Fernondez

134

Table 3 Summary o f E f f e c t s of Cueing Stimuli Presented a t 30 msec. Left Hemisphere

Right Hemisphere

Facil.

Facil.

Eff.

Eff.

(meec.) -

F P -

(msec.) F P -

Unilateral

Single Words

*

(Exp. 11)

High Assoc.

122

12.48

.005

83

15.12

.005

Low Assoc.

43

3.02

.10

56

4.05

.05

6.66

.05

-7

Phrase (Exp. 111)

**

144

Bilateral

**

.04

.SO

Facil. Eff.

F P -(msec.)

Phrase (Exp. IV)

* **

** **

Trial 1

-78

13.25

.01

Trial 2

57

2.39

.10

Combined focal and p e r i p h e r a l e f f e c t s We computed t h e combined e f f e c t of Command and Location by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e Left-Right d i f f e r e n c e following t h e negative command from the Left-Right d i f f e r e n c e following the p o s i t i v e command.

Why is the left visual field not able to participate in syntactic processing when we have evidence (from Experiments I and 11) that it is capable of simple semantic priming? Zaidel (1983) reports that in two commissurotomy patients, the right hemisphere is somewhat impoverished relative to the left; simple words are "decoded consistently better than the longer phrases" and "syntactic structures are available but limited by load on short-term memoryTt ( p . 5 4 2 ) . If we apply these findings to the current

Site and Shape of the Subliminal Window

135

study, we could argue that some of the grammar necessary to parse the commands in Experiments I11 and I V is stored only in the left hemisphere. If the verb (when presented to the left of the fixation point) is first processed by the right hemisphere, it may be necessary to transfer its meaning to the language hemisphere before it can be coupled with the object (the words "Left" or "Right"). The time necessary for this transfer may exceed the offset-onset time of 230 msec., and as a result, we do not see any evidence of Command interacting with Location. But there is a further complication that is suggested by the results of Experiment I V , Trial 1. When the command "Avoid" preceded the words "Left" o r TIRight",we found a greater Location effect than when they were preceded by the command flPress.fl One way to understand these paradoxical findings is to argue that the right hemisphere is primarily responsive to such variables as word frequency, concreteness, and imagery. If an abstract o r infrequent word is presented, it may not be registered at all. From this rule we can conclude that "Avoid" may have been ignored, and thus the effective stimulus was either "Left" or 1fRight.f7But how do we account for the weak effect of "Press"? We have already argued that right hemisphere information cannot be used to modify left hemisphere information; the former may simply be represented as a rival stimulus which somehow competes with the meaning of the other parts of the message. Both "Press" and "Left"/"Right" may have been interpreted as separate and independent commands rather than as a verb modified by a noun. Assume that single-word processing can be accomplished equally well by either hemisphere. Then stimuli in the left visual field have a slight advantage because they arrive first at the right motor cortex which is the trigger point for a left-hand key press. Information about location would arrive slightly later, but if the "Press" command was obeyed, it could not affect choice of key. Thus the verb becomes an interfering stimulus which effectively obscures the information about location. Further interference seems to occur in the crowded condition where both 'lXXXX" and "Press" may have been processed before "Left"/ llRightqt(see Figure 5 ) . We are now in a position to return to the evidence presented in Table 1) and consider i t with enlarged understanding. Suppose that the subjects' fixation was always central. Then it is not surprising that the majority of the effects were non-signiricant because, in the first place, the full message could not be syntactically processed (Experiment I V , Trial 2 ) and. in the second place, because whatever was in the right side of the mes-

136

D.P. Spence, L. Klein, and R.J. Fernandez

sage and processed by the left hemisphere might be canceled by words in the left side (Trial 1). Only if fixation was maintained at the starting point of the message would we expect that complete (right visual field) processing would take place, and no subliminal experiment provided unambiguously for this possibility. What about those subliminal studies which report positive results with a complex message? It seems more than likely that such effects are carried by the right-side words in the stimulus which register in the right visual field (left hemisphere). I t may be no coincidence that the single significant finding tallied in Table 1 was provided by the Hebrew stimulus "MOMMY AND I ARB ONE", because only in this case (because of the right-to-left rules of the language) would M O M M Y be presented to the right visual field (left hemisphere). The significant results may have been a consequence of that accident. In all the other studies in Table 1, the critical parts of the message (MOMMY, DADDY, and BEATING) would be sent to the non-dominant hemisphere, and none of these results were significant. Whether we are correct in all aspects of this argument, it seems safe to conclude that a detailed knowledge of differential hemisphere processing is needed before we can predict the effects of a complex subliminal stimulus. As soon as the message impinges on both visual fields, its effective meaning will necessarily be quite different from its literal meaning - in other words, a message will mean one thing when foveally processed in the usual left-to-right manner, and quite another when i t is presented to focal and peripheral regions of the right and left visual fields. The significant aspect of subliminal processing may thus be less the factor of speed of exposure and much more the factor of region of registration. and up to this point, the first variable has not been separated from the second. Because region of registration has never been brought under experimental control, much of the unreliability in subliminal studies in general may stem more from problems of message processing than from problems of acuity and the consequences of reduced information. When region of registration (and the correlated variable of handedness) is brought under stricter experimental control, we may begin to see much greater regularity emerging from subliminal experiments. What, finally. is the relation between subliminal effects and the Freudian Unconscious? The verdict is still out. We have seen (in Experiments I11 and IV) that the effective stimulus may be significantly different from the stimulus as read, but the transformations may be less a function


137

of the primary process and more a consequence of peculiarities of hemisphere processing. Complex messages presented to the left visual field do not seem to be syntactically processed, and we might speculate (from Experiment 111) that what happens instead is that the more concrete words take precedence over the more abstract, and nouns take precedence over verbs. To what extent this effect is the result of region of registration will need to be explored in future studies. We also found (in Experiment

IV) that right-hemisphere information is not necessarily integrated with the left-hemisphere remainder of the message; as a result, the right side of the message sometimes takes precedence over the left, depending on the frequency and concreteness of the latter, and that where fixation happens to fall will significantly determine the impact of the stimulus. Consequences of eye position are clearly of a different order from consequences of the primary process, and it begins to appear as if the latter cannot be properly studied until we understand more about the former. A stimulus outside of awareness may be processed according to a quite different set of operotions than we find in conscious processing, but pains must be taken to make sure that the intended message reaches the processing centers with its meaning intact. We can then begin to study the ways in which its meaning is subsequently transformed by primary process or similar kinds of mechanisms. But unless an intact message reaches the higher centers,

none of these questions can ever be asked. Whatever the final standing of the primary process, it seems more parsimonious at the moment to assume that the unconscious system is content-free and that it should be distinguished from conscious processing largely along formal lines. This approach would suggest that brief stimuli are registered intact; that they are not automatically subject to the categorical transformations which are assumed to be part of the primary process; and that what appears as changes in form and meaning is due more to the effects of the visual processing system (and the subject's effort to make sense of these changes) than to something called The Unconscious. What are these formal differences? It might be useful at this point to summarize the main discrepancies between conscious reports (as gathered in the Recognition section of each experiment) and the subliminal and nearliminal priming effects, because at the very least, they support Marcel's hypothesis that "the structural languages of conscious representations are not directly mappable onto those of non-conscious representations, i.e. neither commensurate nor coextensive" (Marcel, 1983b, p. 2 5 6 ) .

p

they are

138

D.P. Spence, L. Klein, and R.J. Fernandez

1. In the faster part of Experiment I1 (30 msec. exposure), the priming effect was equally strong in both right and left visual fields, and in both focal and peripheral locations. On the other hand, correct identification of the priming stimulus signiticantly favored focal over peripheral primes ( p e .001) and right visual field over left visual ( p e .001). Marcel has suggested that conscious awareness results from the "imposition of a particular interpretation on what otherwise consists of multiple interpretations" ( p . 2431, and it may be that the pattern of correct identifications reflects a tendency (favored by reading) to sweep the visual field [after the query "WORD?") in a left-to-right direction. This tendency would favor the right visual field and (assuming a gradual decay of information) the right focal over the right peripheral field. But it is clear from the findings that recognition reports are not isomorphic with stimulus registration and should not be taken as necessarily indicative of the full spectrum of stimulus processing. 2 . A similar left-right bias was evident in Experiment I11 where recognition of the priming stimulus favored the right over the left visual field, and the left portion of each visual field (see Table 2 ) . There was a clear discrepancy between the very strong subliminal effects of Location ( p e ,001) and the failure of any subject to report seeing the words "Left" or "Right" in either visual field. Once again, correct recognition did not predict the precise form of the subliminal effect: once again, the information available to the subject in the priming part of the experiment was not adequately sampled by the recognition trials. 3. Another kind of discrepancy was manifested in Experiment I1 when we divided the subjects into two groups according to correct recognition and looked at the difference in priming effects. In neither the slow nor the fast condition did we find an interaction between awareness of the stimulus and degree of priming, which indicates that conscious awareness does not predict amount of subliminal priming, and which again suggests that what is consciously reported is not a simple transform of what is unconsciously available. And it is also well known that the kind of information gathered during recognition or threshold trials is extraordinarily sensitive to the questions being asked (and, by implication, to the expectation of the subject). 4 . In Experiment IV, Trial 2 , we found a clear preference for recognition of the command "Press" and no awareness of the location terms fTLeftttand llRight.ff Yet the priming effect was almost entirely accounted


139

for by the two location cues (see Figure 5) with a main effect for Location which was highly significant ( p < . 0 0 5 ) . Once again, conscious report does not represent all the information available. Not apparent from Table 3 but clearly evident during the recognition procedure was the difficulty experienced by the subject in trying to report on fleeting impressions and the way in which conventional categories were used to shape his or her sensory experience. Partial cues were more often reported as words than as strings of letters, and once a response was coded as a word, the same label tended to be used in subsequent trials, often in response to different cues. Fleeting left-hand cues were often located on the right (and it is this distortion which accounts in part for the strong right-side bias shown in Table 2 - the left-hand cues were underreported), and in Experiments I and 11, the somewhat more unusual primes were often distorted to make rather common words. These are not systematic data, but our overall impression docs support the assumption that conventional categories (equivalent to Marcel's "culturally given presuppositions") played a strong role in giving final form to the subject's conscious sense impression. It is worth noting, in conclusion, how these conventions were implid t l y missing from unconscious processing of the same stimuli. The content of the more unusual primes was maintained intact, for otherwise a facilitated response to the associated target word would not have appeared. The predominant right-side bias was not in effect, and primes in both Visual fields were equally effective. Most impressive of all, the overriding preference for focal over peripheral registration was set aside with the result that offsets of T o to left and right of fixation did not prevent the meaning of the prime from being registered and influencing the subsequent lexical decision. Data such as these would suggest that information processing outside of awareness is exquisitely responsive to a full range of stimulus vanations and that information filtered through conscious reports tells us more about stereotype and convention than about the true capacity of the sensory system.

140

D.P.Spence, L.Klein, and R.J. Fernandez NOTE

1)

Eye movements were not monitored during the experiment and the skeptical reader might ask how we can be sure that central fixation was maintained during the lexical decision trials. We draw attention, first, to the fact that position of the prime was always changing, and no two successive locations were the same. Second, it is well established that the latency of saccadic eye movements is of the order of 180 to 250 msec. (see Haber and Hershenson, 1973, p. 207). Third, it is known that saccadic eye movements are ballistic in that path and distances are determined prior to movement. If a fixation were caused by a brief peripheral stimulus, the eye would first fixate the stimulus and then return to the center of the screen in order to process the word. The two saccadic movements would each consume about 200 msec. Thus, a failure to maintain central fixation would increase lexical decision time by at least 400 msec. and add substantial variance to the data, thus reducing the chances of finding significant differences. It would seem to follow that the facilitation effects reported here must come about as a result of priming caused by stimuli which were presented to specific parts of the peripheral visual field and which could not be centrally fixated. It might also be argued that the exposure speeds used in these studies are not truly subliminal because the stimulus could sometimes be identified. We were constrained in this respect b y the limitations of the Apple micro-computer which does not permit exposures much below 25 msec.; future studies, using a somewhat different technology, will explore the lower limits of the exposure continuum. It should be kept in mind, however, that shorter exposure speeds would not affect region of registration; differences due to visual field or degree of offset should continue to appear, If syntactic processing, for example, fails to take place in the right hemisphere at 30 msec., it seems unlikely that it will begin to reappear at 4 msec.


141

REFERENCES

A r i a m , S., & Siller, J. (1982). Effects of subliminal oneness stimuli in Hebrew on academic performance of lsraeli high school students: Futher evidence on the adaptation-enhancing

effects of symbiotic fantasies in another

culture using another language. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 343349. Condon, T.J., & Allen, G.J.

(1980). The role of psychoanalytic merging fanta-

sies in systematic desensitization: A rigorous methodological examination.

Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 437-443. Crawford, P. J. (1981). The effects of word-type and laterality on the priming

of word associates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University. Day, J. (1977). Right hemisphere language processing in normal right handers.

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 518-528.

Ellis, H.D.,

& Shepherd, J.W.

(1974). Recognition of abstract and concrete

words presented in left and right visual fields. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 103, 1035- 1036. Erikson, B.A.,

& Eriksen, C.W.

(1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identi-

fication of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Perception and Psycho-

physics, 16, 143-149. Haber, R.N.,

& Hershenson, M. (1973). The Psychology of Visual Perception.

New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Haspel, K.C.,

& Harris, R.S.

(1982). Effect of tachistoscopic stimulation of

subconscious Oedipal wishes on competitive performance:

A failure to

replicate. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(6), 437-443. Heilbrun, K.S. (1980). Silverman's subliminal psychodynamic activation: A failure to replicate. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 89, 560-566. Kulera, H.,

& Francis,

W.

(1967). Computational Analysis of Present-Day

American English Providence: Brown University Press. Levy, J. (1983). Language, cognition, and the right hemisphere. American Psychologist, 38, 538-541. Mackworth, N.H. (1965). Visual noise causes tunnel vision. Psychonomic Science, 3, 67-68. (1983a). Conscious and unconscious perception: Experiments on

Marcel, A.J.

visual masking and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 197-237. Marcel, A.J. (1983b). Conscious and unconscious perception: An approach to the

D.P. Spence, L. Klein, and R.J. Fernandet

142

relations between phenomenal experience and perceptual processes. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 238-300. Marcel, A.J., & Patterson, K.E. (1978). Word recognition and production: Reciprocity in clinical and normal studies.

Attention and Performance, 7,

209-226. Meyer, D.E., Schvaneveldt, R.W., & Ruddy, M. (1975). Loci of contextual effects on visual word-recognition. In P. Rabbit & S. Dornic (Eds.), Attention and Performance V. New York: Academic Press. Oldfield, R.C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologica, 9, 97-113. Oliver, J.M., & Burkham, R. (1982). Subliminal psychodynamic activation in depression: A failure t o replicate. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 337-342. Palermo, S., & Jenkins, J. (1964). Word Association Norms: Grade School through College. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Silverman, L.H. (1976). Psychoanalytic theory: The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated. American Psychologist, 31, 621-637. Toglia, M.P., & Battig, W.F. (1978). Handbook of Semantic Word Norms. New York: Wiley. Zaidel, E. (1978). Lexical organization in the right hemisphere. In P.A. Buser & A. Rogued-Buser (Eds.), Cerebral Correlates of Conscious Experience. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.

PART 111 THE FURTHER UNFOLDING OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS: THREAT AND DEFEtISE IN PERCEPT-GENETIC PROCEDURES


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Dmguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

145

LIFE PANORAMA UNDER THE MICROSCOPE: A PARADIGMATIC CASE STUDY

Ulf Kragh Lurid University

INTRODUCTION The ain of the present study is to demonstrate, by means of an illustrative case, thRt a parallelism exists between the successive phases of two perceptgeneses on the one hand Rnd the life history of the subject or, the other.

*

This has sometimes been called the correspondence of micro-macro

theory. The notion of such a parallelism between perception and life histor y is difficult for most present-day psychologists to accept. Still, the phenomenon terned "panoramic memory, " somewhat related to the "micro-macro theory, recently attracted an increased interest. Thc very conception of perceptual development occurring in a given situation, termed microgenesis or Aktualgenese, is given little attention, if any, in most textbooks on perception and cognition. There are many reasons for this state of affairs. The notion of microgenesis itself is counter-intuitive. On the basis of unsophisticated observation and reflection it seems quite evident that perception is momentary and that there are no pre-stages involved. One should note, however, that intuition and conmon sense tell us nothing specific either about the existence of atoms or cells, or of billions of galaxies. The stimulus-response scheme, supported by common sense, has prevailed throughout the history of the psychology of perception. To focus attention on the process of construction of the percept virtually amounts to a reversal of most psychologists' habits of thinking in the realm of perception. Instituting such a reversal would require a revision of the ingrained notion of memory traces, so closely associated with the S-R scheme. --

*

The client was remitted to me by the courtesy of D r . K . von Krogh, Oslo, Norway.

146

U.Kragh

It would also lead to a change from emphasis upon geometric or supposedly "simpletv stimuli to "socially relevant" ones like human faces. Such a change of emphasis tends to move the concept of personality into the realn of perception proper. At the same time, contemporary textbooks on personality often use concepts and ideas tailored after the model of a subject's possessing attributes, This too represents an ingrained common-sense mode of thinking, one frequently evident in the interpretation given to such concepts as personality, ego, self, organism, or even TTsubject.ff The attributes in question are termed abilities, traits, functions, structures, and the like. I t is also difficult perhaps to visualize personality in terms of a genctic/hierarchical sequence in micro-time which in some respects is easy and in other respects difficult to change. Difficult or not, conceiving of personality in this manner seems to me, for the reasons just alluded to, to be important for an adequate understanding of the human being, as regards the aspects of perception and of personality alike. Although the "micro-macro theory" was formulated as early as 1955 (Kragh, 1 9 5 5 ; Smith 8 Kragh, 19551, no really comprehensive and systematic presentation of it has been provided heretofore. In the present paper, a few steps will be taken toward this goal. Some of the major factors which impede or preclude attempts to assess "micro-macro parallelism" in a perceptgenetic (PC) series on a strictly cmpirical basis will be listed: 1. METHODOLOGICAL FACTORS a ) Stimulus intensities may be too strong or too weak, preventing the relevant as well as the sufficient range of pre-phases in perception (P-phases) from appearing. b) The use of trial experiments or of retesting after less than one year may make the perceptgeneses too short, abolishing all or most of the P-phases. c ) The instructions used, unless properly worded and presented, may induce the subject to report only what is clearly recognizable. d) In early PC phases most subjects cannot assess the historical relevance of the concrete information involved; they are unable to remember as far back, for example, as the age of three years. At the same time, and at the other end of the PG, phase contents is increasingly dominated by "stimulus properties" and the number of historically identifiable events reduced.

Life Panorama under the Microscope

147

2. FACTORS OF DEFENSE

a) True instances of isolation or of other defenses may be misinterpreted by the psychologist

as representing concrete life history

events. Examples are reports of eye glasses or of a moustache in series 11, phases 18-19 in the case study presented below. This is true a s well of structural anxiety manifest in the PG as black color. At the same time, a sign of defense or anxiety sometimes not only represents a structure but also has reference to life history. In one phase in DMT (Defense Mechanism T e s t ) , for example. one subject saw a black judo belt on the threatening person. The real historical person actually did carry a black judo belt and in addition provoked anxiety in the subject - but was not recognized and identified by the subject at the testing proper (cf. also I , 4 . 1,16, and I,19 in the case study below). b) Generally, high frequencies of the mechanism of isolation - notably in compulsive subjects

-

impedes the assessment of parallelisms be-

tween DMT contents and life history. The same is true of the mechanism of repression, in particular when the stimulus depicts a relation between a man and a woman. It is also valid for the mechanism of introjection in states of depression involving stereotypy and retardation and of regression in schizophrenics with T'symbolic'Tor strongly distorted phase contents, 3. STATE FACTORS

States of strong affects or wishes (hunger, sexual desire, etc.) can readily affect phase contents, although they tend to do so in a more or less uniform way. The situation here is similar to that in a psychoanalytic session with a hungry patient who mainly associates to food. In spite of such restrictions it is possible to observe parallelism in the great majority of P G s , if they are administered with appropriate apparatus and with adequate instructions which motivate the subject to describe carefully his impressions. The example presented here is in no way extraordinary. In this introduction a short comment should be made on the use of a geometrical series of presentation times. This methodological device is related to the fact that throughout our lives (and particularly from one to

U.Kragh

I48

about twenty years of age) a fixed unit of time, say one year, seems to be expcrienced by u s according to a "law of diminishing returns." By using a geometrical series of presentation times in the tachistoscope an arithmetical increase of years is obtained in PGs where "micro-macro" correspondence can be assessed.

METHOD The first (male) picture of the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT, clinical version; ILragh, 1984) was applied twice to a man 23 years of age at the first and 26 at the second testing. It depicts a centrally placed boy and a threatening, peripherally placed, elderly man. There were 20 tachistoscopic presentations ( 0 . 0 2 - 2 sec.) in succession, with presentation times being increased geometrically. The subject reported what had been seen after each prcsentation, both verbally and by means of a simple drawing. The PGs of the same subject have been analyzed in a previous paper (Kragh, 1983) from the point of view of therapy outcome. For details of the method see Kragh

Smith (1970) and Kragh (1984). A f e w months after the second testing the subject was asked by letter to write his comments upon some written questions formulated by the au&

thor. The introductory instruction was: "Here are two pages with qucstions or gucsses based on your test. The questions refer to events in your life. On the left margin I have written the age t o which I hypothetically attribute the event. The questions, I think, have been so formulated that you will be able either to reject or to accept them. Please put a cross at 'yes', 'no', or 'don't know', and perhaps also add a comment. This will be of great help to me in interpreting the test . I '

ANALYSIS

In the following (cf. Table 1 a-k), the portion8 of the subject's reports on which the hypotheses (questions) are based are given in sequencc, together with the serial number of the exposure. In some instances the drawing which the subject made simultaneously with giving his verbal report is also presented. The third column presents the author's

I49


hypotheses and the next column the subject's comments, the correctness or incorrectness of the outcome being shown by + or - in the last column. I , 1 in the first column, for example, means the first presentation in the first of the two PGs. In both PGs the first presentation also represcnts the first phase. It should be stressed that only those sentences o r parts of sentences that generated predictions have been documented here and that no predictions have been omitted. The author's statements always refer to a specific age; both the age and the event have to be correct for a positive score to he given. Table l(a-k) Excerpts from the subject's DMT protocol together with the author's comments

Presen-

Author's statements

Report, drawings

tation

Subject's

Gut-

comments

come

Age: 3 years (Table la)

1,l

A small girl with a white collar, You wore a white dress.

NO

and an old lady, 65 years of age, Grandmother often supervised with grey hair and a hair knot.

you.

lhey had no contact with each

She had grey hair and wore

other.

No

Yes

a hair knot. The contact between her and

Yes

you was poor.

II,1

A small boy with curled hair

Your were wearing a sailor's

and sailor's suit.

suit.

Yes

Age: 5 years (Table lb)

I,4-5

The boy is wearing garters and a

You were in the habit of

white shirt with black stripes.

wearing trousers with garters.

An old lady with grey hair and

Grandmother still exerted

Somewhat

a knot.

great influence on you.

uncertain

Ye8

U.Kragh

150

Pig. 1: Drawings of the s u b j e c t a f t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s 1 and 4 i n the f i r s t PG

Reren-

Report, drawings

Author's statements

tation

II,4-5

Subject s

Out-

comments

come

A five-year old boy t o g e t h e r

You were a goodlooking boy

with a woman....The

i n your opinion.

Yes

+

The boy was n i c e l y dressed.

You were n i c e l y dressed.

Yes

+

The woman wants t o e x e r t power

Your grandmother was an au-

over t h e boy.

t h o r i t a r i a n person.

Yes

+

boy looks

nice.

The wman is not t h e mother

-

a l i t t l e more d i s t a n t r e l a t i v e .

(This underpins t h e hypot h e s i s of grandmother i n s e r i e s I )

Age: 6-7 years (Table lc)

I,6-9

The o l d woman and t h e boy a r e

B e t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between

s i t t i n g c l o s e t o each other.

you and your grandmother.

The woman's a t t i t u d e is s t i l l

She is s t i l l e x e r t i n g power

authoritarian.

over you.

She has grey h a i r .

Her h a i r became grey a t t h a t

She s t i l l wears a knot.

She is s t i l l wearing a knot.

Her hands a r e r e c l i n i n g i n h e r

A c h a r a c t e r i n t i c p o s i t i o n of

lap.

h e r s : s i t t i n g with h e r hands

time

.

i n h e r lap.

Uncertain

Yes

?

+

Yes

+

Yes

(+I

Yes

+

Life Panorama under the Microscope Report, drawings

Presen-

151

Author's statements

tation

II,6-7

Subject's

Out-

comments

come

The woman c o n t r o l s t h e boy.

Age: 8 years (Table Id)

II,8

The boy is 8 years old; he is

You were p a r t i c u l a r l y well

very nicely dressed.

dressed a t t h e age of 8.

The boy i s idealized by h i s

You were idealized by your

mother.

mother,

The boy looks dressed up.

You considered yourself a t

+

Yes

Don't know.

?

the time t o be very well

+

Yes

dressed.

Age: 9 years (Table 1 e )

1,lO-12

The c h i l d i s crying l i k e in old drawings: desolation, poverty.

A sudden change t o the worse i n t h e family

-

of t h e finan-

c i a l s i t u a t i o n perhaps?

Don't know.

'Ihe old lady gives the boy

Your grandma has turned l e s s

conso l a t i o n ,

severe and gives you consolation.

No

There i s l i t t l e defiance i n

You d i d n ' t oppose her.

Yes

the boy. Age: 10 years (Table l f )

I,14

She suddenly looked younger, i t

Your grandma d i e s

could be h i s mother, 30 years

suddenly.

old.

No, she died a f a f t e r a prolonged disease when I was 1 2 . Due t o h e r long s t a y in bed, with complete p a r a l y s i s , she t e r r o r i z e d t h e family, myself.

including

U.Kragh

152

Presen-

Report, drawings

Author's statements

S u b j e c t ' s comments

tation

Outcome

+

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between the

Grandma stood between you

two persons was a l o t friend-;

and your mother; a f t e r h e r

Partially

l i e r t h e d i s t a n c e was smaller.

death t h e r e l a t i o n between

c o r r e c t . I was bound

you and your mother be-

t o mother during

came c l o s e r .

t h a t period, although

Yes.

she gave l i t t l e i n return. But she d i d give me much care.

AIJ3 Fig. 2: Drawings of t h e subject of t h e presentations 13 and 14 i n the f i r s t PG

Age:12 years (Table lg)

I,15

II,13

She looks very demanding

You begin t o experience

and fussy.

your mother a s demanding

She is obtrusive, d e c e i t -

and fussy; she i n t e r -

f u l and s i l l y .

f e r e s too much with your affairs.

I ,I4

153

Life Panorama under the Microscope F'resen-

Report, drawings

Author's statements


tation

I,16

Outcome

(Hero is a woman,

'Ihe r e l a t i o n between your

the o t h e r person is a man.)

mother and your f a t h e r

Yes,

+

probably, but mostly

There is a bad r e l a t i o n s h i p

is bad: he is c r o s s ,

t h i s was fought out

between them: he was c r o s s ,

she is not i n t e r e s t e d

behind closed doors,

she was uninterested.

i n him.

and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p had been s t r a i n e d throughout the sickness of my my grandmother.

Age: 12-13 years (Table Ih)

I,l6

There was a change.

Your f a t h e r now de-

A man was s i t t i n g t o

f i n i t e l y e n t e r s the

t h e r i g h t , in t h e

stage a s an authority.

Yes.

+

Yes.

+

background. He looked grim, cross, f o r no reason. He had a white s h i r t .

Your f a t h e r o f t e n wore white s h i r t s .

II,16

A man s i t t i n g there,

Before t h a t time he

cross and very grim.

Contact before was s c a n t ,

lacked a u t h o r i t y due

I think, but he had pro-

t o t h e f a c t t h a t con-

bably exerted considerable

t a c t with him was r e -

a u t h o r i t y due t o h i s being

stricted.

absent.

?

Age: 13-14 years (Table l i )

I,17

A c r o s s man, 30-40

Serious c o n f l i c t s

There were s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s

years old. He pressed

s t a r t with your f a -

but st t h e age of 15-16 r a t h -

t h e boy down, com-

ther. Your f a t h e r was

e r than a t t h e age of 13-14.

35 years old a t t h e

Father was then 45 years of

manded him.

t ime II,17

.

The boy, 13-14 years

Your f a t h e r was very

o l d , dominated by t h e

authoritarian.

angry man, 40-50 years old.

+

-

age.

Yes

+

154

U.Kragh

I,18

II ,17 Fig. 3: Drawings of the subject after presentations 15 and 18 in the first PG and after presentations 14 and 17 in the second PG.

Presen-

Report, drawings

Author's statements

Subject's coments

tation

cutcome

Age 14 years (Table lj)

1,18-19

A book on the table:

Conffrmatlon. Father

the Bible o r lessons.

wanted you to study

m e boy was not inte-

the Bible and to do

this.

rested in the book.

your lessons well.

Partly true. I was much

Yes,

*

but also mother was keen on

You were not much in- against doing lessons, but terested in doing

I read much more literature

SO.

and history than my classmates, without atimulation from my parents.

+

155

Life Panorama under the Microscope Presen-

Report, drawings

Author's statements


tation

Outcome

II,18-191he man was c r o s s .

F a t h e r ' s mood towards

Yes

you: c r o s s .

He had a moustache,

+

He had a moustache

looked l i k e Strindberg. and looked l i k e S t r i n d -

No

berg.

Age: 15 years (Table l k )

I,20

The man looked l i k e

You t h i n k your f a t h e r

a worker i n t h e twen-

was ill dressed

t i e s , with f r i e z e

a worker in t h e twen-

-

He wore an alpen cap and was

l i k e perhaps r a t h e r informally

c l o t h and a cap.

t i e s , with a cap.

The man is dominating.

Your f a t h e r has on the

dressed in h i s l e i s u r e time.

+

He h a s a u t h o r i t y s i n c e whole been a powerful he i s a powerful

person; he has a genuine

person.

authority.

Yes

+

DI S C U SSION T H E C H R O N O L O G Y OF P-PHASES

The analysis of parallelisms between the PGs and the subject's life history is mainly based on four characteristics of the phases: 1. Phase contents which can easily be identified in terms of some historical

event in the subject's life. These often concern some traumatic event, such as the death of a parent, the phase contents of which tend to appear at a corresponding level in any PG obtained from the subject. Such phases have been called ?'key phases." They represent the point of departure for ordering the phases of several PGs of the subject in question in relation to each other and to the subject's lifc history (cf. Kragh, 1960; Kragh Smith, 1970). Phases of this kind can be seen in 1.14 and 11, 6-8,

&

in

U.Kragh

156

which the old woman disappears and changes into a young one. This m i r rors the mother's taking over

-

with modifications - of the grandmother's

role as administrator of norms. 2 . Phase contents which refer to a particular historical event without clear

traumatic significance and without correspondence being evident between series. An example of this is "the Bible" in I,19. 3. Instances of obvious correspondence of visual organization and meaning

between two or more P G s without direct reference to any historical event; Phases I , 1 7 and II,12 exemplify this: an angry, cross, and oppressive man enters the scene, and the size of the boy diminishes (cf. Kragh, 1980). 4.

Series of phases in which the age of the hero increases by several

steps. This we find in a portion of the second DMT, e.g. in exposures 5-11,

in which the age increases almost regularly about a year at a time

through six phases, from five years in Phase 5 to twelve years in Phase 11.

COMMENTS ON POSITIVE ANSWERS

The reason for identifying the old lady in both PGs with the parental grandmother is that she is located at the place of the elderly man in the DMT (cf. the concept "C-phase identity," Kragh, 1955, pp. 92-94 and 140141). The attribution of the age of fivc to the subject in Phases 4-5 refers to the hero's age. The black braces in I,4 give evidence of the "double

function" of particular phase contents : there is connection with a historical fact, and at the same time, the contents carry the meaning of latent anxiety (cf. Westerlundh, 1976). In Phase I , 1 6 a shift takes placc in the sex of the hero, and the relation between the two persons is described in terms of a scene between a wife (protagonist!) and a husband. The two persons a r e identified by the author a s the subject's mother and father, and thc author's statement, sustained by the subject, is formulated accordingly. However, it cannot be determined in what way this internalization of the mother should be interpreted. The white shirt of the %ross man" in I,16 corresponds to a historical fact; it is possible that it also conveys the dynamic structural meaning of the defense of isolation.


157

COMMENTS ON NEGATlVE ANSWERS

As regards the first period, the age of about three years, it is natural that impressions and facts that far back should be difficult to recall from memory and to assess. We also find an equal proportion of yes ( 3 ) and no (3) answers for that period. This suggests that the subject has not slanted his comments so a s to please the investigator. Two negative answers corresponding to the age of nine are connected with the paternal grandmother. The subject rejects the statements that the grandmother was kind and consoling towards him; what he remembers is her authoritarian strain of character. For age ten we find two negative comments. The first concerns the subject's age at the death of his grandmother; the investigator's prediction was ten years, and the correct one twelve. Secondly, the grandmother did not die suddenly, but after a prolonged disease. - The author's prediction of a sudden change from grandmother to mother was based on the sudden decrease in the old woman's age in 1,14, a s well a s on the reports that "now she looked like the boy's mother'' and that the relationship between the two persons had become "much more friendly, harmonious

." The

temporal m i s s in connection with grandmother's death was by just two years, but due to the rather rigorous standards used here, a negative score is given. In addition, since the old lady's influence remained unbroken until the very end, i t may well be that her death was actually experienced by the subject as a sudden and unexpected event. This instance illustrates how difficult i t can sometimes be to directly translate phase contents, which represent the experiential world, into historical events. One miss concerns the father's age when he took over the directing, evaluating, and punishing role. The wrong prediction of thirty-five years was derived from the peripheral person's age in I,17. In the corresponding phases of series 11, phases 11-13, the age of the "cross-looking man'' is 6 5 , 40, and 4 7 , respectively. The mean value of these ages, combined with the age in 1,17,

would have agreed closely with the correct age ( 4 5

years). The moustache finally, erroneously assumed to have adorned the father's face, was based on I , 1 9 . The dark surface covering the peripheral person's mouth and reconstructed b y the subject in terms of a moustache, would constitute a visual expression of latent anxiety, located a t , and assigned to, the threatening, scolding, and criticizing mouth of the periphe-

U.Kragh

158

ral person. But there existed no counterpart for it in the father's real exterior.

SUMMARY T H E VlClSSl TUDES OF E X T E R N A L A N D INTERNALIZED PARENTAL POWER REPRESENTATIVES

Applying the micro-macro theory of parallelism between the two DMT reports and the subject's life history, it has been possible to demonstrate how the grandmother prescribed the rules of conduct for the subject through the ages of about three to twelve years. Her introject would have contributed to the larger part of his superego structure (she is at the place of the threatening man in the DMT picture! 1. It was possible to predict the shift which took place after the grandmother's death, the mother intermittently replacing the grandmother and substituting mild standards for the old woman's rigorous ones. In puberty, as represented by phases in the last third of the DMT series, the subject's father finally enters the scene , re-instituting the authoritarian power of the grandmother.

OUTCOME OF PREDICTIVE STA TEMENTS

The results obtained here are in line with those of a number of previous investigations involving the micro-macro theory of parallclism (Kragh, 1955. 1060. 1982, 1 9 8 0 , 1983; cf. also chapter 6 in Kragh 8 Smith, 1970). In the present study 38 predictive statements were formulate d , of which 2 6 , or 68.4% of all the ones made, were substantiated by the subject while 7 ( 1 8 . 4 8 ) were rejected, and 5 (13.2%) were undecided. This outcome supports the theory of parallelism.


1.59 REFERENCES

Kragh, U. (1955). T h e Actual-Genetic Model of Perception-Personality.

Lund:

Gleerup. Kragh, U. (1960). Pathogenesis in dipsomania: An illustration of the actualgenetic model of perception-personality. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavia, 35, 207-222, 261-288, 480-497. Kragh, U. (1962). A case of infantile animal phobia in adult precognitive organization. Vita humana, 4, 166-172. Kragh, U. (1980). Rekonstruktion verschiedener Aspekte einer Personlichkeitsentwicklung mit dem Defense Mechanism Test. Eine Fallbeschreibung. In U. Hentschel & G. Smith (Eds.), Experimentelle Persiinlichkeitspsycholo-

gie. Wiesbaden : Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Kragh U. (1983). Studying effects of psychotherapy by the Defense Mechanism Test: Two case illustrations. Archiv fiir Psychologie, 135, 73-82. Kragh, U. (1984). DMT Manual. Stockholm: Swedish Psychology. Kragh, U., & Smith, G. (1970). Percept-Genetic Analysis. Lund Gleerup. Smith, G.,

e(

Kragh, U. (1955). Do micro-genetic sequences reflect life histo-

ry? An illustration. A c t a Psychologica, 11, 504-512. Westerlundh, B. (1976). Aggression, Anxiety, and Defence. Lund: Gleerup.


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

161

ACTIVATION OF INTRAPSY CHIC CONFLICT AND DEFENSE: THE AMAUROSCOPIC TECHNIQUE Bert Westerlundh and Hans Sjoblck Lund University

THEORY, METHOD, AND BASIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Attempts to examine psychoanalytic hypothescs by means of experimental methods began rather soon after the publication of Freud's first great works. The experiments by Poetzl (1917) are well-known. However, over decades, most endeavors to study Freudian ideas were, on the whole, restricted to the use of classical projective techniques and various psychometric methods. The greater part of the work done to this day, as reported by Kline (19811, is of this kind. The insurmountable difficulties connected with the use of projective techniques in this context were irrefutably pointed out by Heath (1958). The highly restricted value of questionnaires cannot be a question of dispute. Among the percept-genetic

techniques of personality measurement,

there are some that have been developed to examine Freudian hypotheses. They avoid the pitfalls that mar the use of the methods mentioned above (and most others a s well) and yield data of singular rclevance and reliability. The basic information provided by thc two standardized methods, the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) and the Meta-Contrast Technique (MCT) , consists of signs of defensive processcs in operation. To a certain extent, "disturbance" s i p s of intrapsychic conflict, signs of activation of painful affect, and impulse breakthrough may be observed, hut these are generally secondary data (cf. IZragh

&

Smith, 1970; Westerlundh

%

Smith, 1983).

Kragh's DMT and Smith's MCT follow the development of reports to a stimulus presented tachistoscopically at increasing exposure times. Initial Presentations are (generally) subliminal; final ones call forth veridical reports. The difference between the methods is primarily that the DMT uses single-tachistoscopic presentations of one stimulus whereas the MCT uses two component stimuli in a backward masking design. In the following,

B. Westerlundh and H.Sjobiick

162

"percept-genesis" will be used a s an adjective and a s a noun to refer to such series of presentations, and/or the series of reports on them, These methods, and the results obtained with t h e n , have earned highly favorable comments in the pertinent international literature (cf. , e . g . , Dixon, 1981; Kline, 1981). They have, of course, also been subject to criticism. The latter has mainly focused on the objection that the distortions and the omissions of picture contents, as observed during a percept-genetic series and interpreted as signs of defensive processes at work, can be explained in terms of incomplete or primitive cognitive analysis. We will have reason to return to these objections, as the results of the experiments to be reported below - where a percept-genetic method is employed as a dependent variable - contribute to their refutation.

GENERAL THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

We will approach the question to which extent and in which way these percept-genetic methods can be said to yield results which arc reasonably interpreted as experiential referents of mechanisms of defense. However, wc shall first describe those psychoanalytic propositions which are fundamental for the endeavors to test hypotheses about the activity of the diverse postulated mechanisms of defense. There are five such propositions: (1) In the course of an intrapsychic conflict around objectionable impulses, defense is directed not only against the impulse as such, against the represcntations of danger that make the impulse objectionable and conflict-arousing , and against the painful affect (mostly anxiety and guilt) which is unleashed by the representations of danger and which is the proximal cause of the defensive effort. Attempts at warding off are directed outward as well - against the perception of objects and events which are interpreted as temptations for proscribed impulses or as threats, i . e . , as reminders of the basic situations of danger which are situations of tfpunishment.TtCf. Freud (1926), SE X X , pp. 158-159, where he discusses I t . . .the task of defence against dangerous perceptions. . ,It and Fenichel's discourse on "The External World In Neurotic Conflicts" (Fenichel, 1946, pp. 130-131). ( 2 ) The mechanisms of defense employed against intrapsychic stimuli are, with certain exceptions, likewise employed against distressing external

.

Zntmpsychic Conflict Activation

163

stimuli. In her work on the mechanisms of defense, Anna Freud developed some notions of her father and introduced this hypothesis in psychoanalytic thinking when she launched the concept of I ! . .parallels be-

.

tween the ego's defensive measures against external and against internal

.

. I f ( A . Freud, 1946, p. 1 9 0 ; cf. Sjoback, 1973, pp. 209-238.) These assumptions imply that the defense directed outward does not only consist of suppression, but also contains transformations and distortions of perceptual contents before they attain conscious representation. This presupposition may be considered problematic, as it is gainsaid by the conception of the perceptual process in classical psychoanalysis. Thus

danger.. (3)

Hartmannian ego psychology (Hartmann , 1964) entailed a "mirror" conceptualization of perception which was seen a s an imiliediately conscious reflection of reality (cf. Westerlundh & Smith, 1983). However, clinical experience a s well as laboratory work on such phenomena as unconscious percepts and perceptual defense have necessitated reformulations of Hartmann's conception. For such theorists as Rapaport ( 1 9 5 1 and 1960) and Sandler and Joffe ( 1 9 6 9 ) , perception is no longer an immediate reflection but a process of oonstruction of reality. They propose that percepts, just as drive stimuli, have unconscious and preconscious stages before they reach conscious representation. Processing of internal and external stimuli is essentially identical. Since its inception, this has been one of the cornerstones of percept-genetic theory (cf. Kragh & Smith, 1 9 7 0 ) . ( 4 ) The analytic theory posits concatenations between different types of impulses and different types of defense. These concatenations emerge during early development, a s the different defense mechanisms appear a s potentialities in a predetermined order concomitant with the phases of instinctual development (cf. Fenichel, 1946, pp. 522-524). Thus, the proscribed phallic sexual impulses are kept out of consciousness by repression, whereas the anal-sadistic impulses of the obsessive-compulsive character are warded off by means of isolation, reaction formation, and undoing. In general, phallic sexual impulses tend to be countered by repression and aggressive impulses by isolation. ( 5 ) This assumption leads to the corollary that individual differences in defenses mainly come to the fore in typical combinations of "specific proscribed impulse-specific defense against it. It Fenichel states that It the fixation to certain defense mechanisms and character attitudes" among oth-

er things depends on "the nature of the instinctual impulses that have to be warded off" (Fenichel, 1946, p. 5 2 3 ) . Individual salience of such corn-

B. Westerlundh and H. Sjoback

164

hinations is explained in terms of a parallel impulse and ego fixation (cf. Sandler 8 Joffe, 1965). These five assumptions form the theoretical justification for all endeavors to investigate postulated processes of defense through attempts a t their activation from without. The two last assumptions provide the specific basis for experiments in which stimuli representing 9 h r e a t s t t and I'temptations" are systematically varied, with the expectation that these stimuli lead to predicted shifts in the overall arrays of signs of defense. This general assumption is, of coursc, specified according to the nature of the stimuli used and the assumed or known characteristics of the persons taking part in an experiment of this kind.

TYPES OF EVIDENCE

With these analytic theoretical preconditions in mind, of all attempts to study the experiential and behavioral referents of intrapsychic conflict, and especially processes of defense, we may proceed to describe the types of research data that so far have been gathered supporting the assumptions of the inventors of the pertinent percept-genetic techniques that the latter reveal signs of classical defense mechanisms and of some other aspects of intrapsychic conflict as defined in analytic theory. There arc five types of evidence: (1) There is, in some instances, a clear structural identity between the signs of defense, a s they are observed in protocols of percept-genetic series, and the workings and results of the classical mechanisms, as defined in the theory (cf. Kragh, 1969). ( 2 ) Comparisons between clinical groups (e.g., groups of obsessivccompulsive neurotics and groups of hysterics) have revealed differences in predominant signs of defense in accordance with analytic expectations concerning such differences in defense (cf. Kragh & Smith, 1970). (3) Comparisons between the rcsults of percept-genetic testing of patients in psychoanalysis with the ratings of thcir analysts a s to their predominant defonsive efforts during the analysis have yielded positive results (cf. Sharma, 1977; Kragh, 1980). ( 4 ) Studies of the defensive endeavors of children, form the age when they are amenable to percept-genetic investigation on upward

-

-

i.e.,

from four

have revealed a development of defensive strategies with in-

Intrapsychic Conflict Activation

165

creasing age that essentially corresponds to psychoanalytic conceptions about the ontogenetic development of the defensive organization (Smith

&

Danielsson , 1982). (5)

Finally, we may systematically vary different kinds of stimuli

whose contents, according to analytic theory, represent various "threats" ("warnings of punishment , I 1 according to Fenichel (1946) ) or "temptations" (reminders or provocations of repressed objectionable impulses), and then examine the effects of such variation of stimuli on defense as revealed in the contents of the percept-genetic series. Thus, the latter is here e m ployed as an experimental dependent variable, According to analytic theory, every adult individual is characterized by a rather stable defensive organization. Actually, this organization is regarded a s one of the most stable and most striking of those personality characteristics which differentiate individuals. Sinultaneously , however, it is postulated that we change defensive strategies

depending

on

the

nature

and

the

intensity

of

the

de-

fense-provoking event (cf. the general assumption of concatenation between impulse and defense described above)

.

Specific analytic assumptions

of such concatenations make these shifts of defense to a certain extent predictable.

EX PER IMEN T AL PA R A DIG M

There a r e two ways of employing experimental manipulation in attempts to influence a person's defensive organization. (1) The first type of experimental operation refers to overt provoca-

tion or threat. Classical examples of the use of such operations to test Freudian hypotheses can be found in Sarnoff (19711, for instance. Within the field of percept-genetic research on defense, Westerlundh (1976) has performed a successful series of such experiments. The theoretical justification for such experiments is, of course, that even an overt provocation, of which the subject is clearly aware, gives rise to an intensification of conflict and defense because it has unconscious repercussions that a r e repressed. Infantile fantasies about impulses and threats are aroused but remain inaccessible at a conscious level of representation. The technique of overt provocation has certain limitations which drastically reduce its applicability, but we need not digress on these problems here.

B. Westerlundh and H.Sjobiick

166 (2)

The second type of experimental operation refers to the use of

subliminal presentations of conflict-arousing stimuli. This method has become well-known through the research work of L.M. Silverman and his co-worker8 (Silverman, 1982; Silverman & Geisler, this volume, chapter 3 ) . The research work done by these investigators has two aspects of relevance here: a) the subliminal activation is accomplished by means of very short (tachistoscopic) presentations of the stimuli that function as independent consist conflict toms").

variables (invariably 4 msec) ; b) the dependent variables mainly of direct signs of aggravations or alleviation of an intrapsychic (aggravation v s . alleviation of "symptomsft and of "signs of sympIn other words, these investigators have not studied experiential

and behavioral referents of defensive processes per se. Within the field of percept-genetic investigation, we find studies where a subliminal "priming" stimulus is employed to influence the perceptgenesis of a second stimulus (cf. Smith & Henriksson, 1955) and where a systematic variation of such priming stimuli is employed (cf. Smith, Spence, 8 Klein, 1959), but these experiments do not refer to defensive operations. In the Meta-Contrast Technique, likewise, priming stimuli are used, but these stimuli are allowed to intrude into the main pictures of the percept-genetic series - presenting the subject with the task of assimilating them into those latter pictures. In addition, no research has been conducted in which these priming stimuli have been systematically varied and referred to one and the same percept-genetic main picture. Thus, the experiments to be reported below are the first in which visual stimuli, systematically varied and consistently presented under the intensity limit of conscious perception, were employed to influence the contents of a percept-genetic series.

METHOD

We use the term "amauroscopic" (amauros: Gk.=dark) to refer to relatively protracted, low intensity presentations of stimuli. An amauroscopic subliminal stimulus is thus a stimulus of such low intensity that i t is not phenomenally represented at all, or at least not represented in terms of meaning, for the subject.

This type of stimulation has been used in


Dixon's perceptual defense paradigm

167

(Dixon,

1971),

for instance.

An

amauroscopic percept-genesis is the presentation of a stimulus at increasing intensities and the sequence of reports given by the subject on this stimulus. The intensities range from weak, when the stimulus is subliminal, to strong, when the stimulus allows correct recognition. BASIC DESIGN

The experiments to be presented all follow the same basic design (see Table 1). Subjects are seen individually for one session, with a standard duration of about an hour, but varying from around 45 to around 90 minutes. The first part of the session involves the administration of a tachistoscopic or amauroscopic criterion percept-genesis. Experimental data are later to be related to this criterion genesis. Thc second part, the experiment proper, has three components, a masking task with a concurrent subliminal amauroscopic presentation of experimental stimuli, and a following tachistoscopic percept-genetic presentation of a neutral stinulus (dependent measure). These components constitute a trial. Trials are continuously repeated with unvarying masking task and amauroscopic presentation, but with successively increased tachistoscopic presentation times. The series is terminated at the 20th trial , or earlier if the subject reaches a stable correct recognition ( C phase), i.e.. gives a correct report on the tachistoscopic presentation three times in a row. Examples of amauroscopic and tachistoscopic stimuli are found in section 111 of this chapter.

APPA R A TUS

The apparatus is a box with a viewing aperture, divided by two tubes with inner diameter of 75mm into channels for the separate eyes. All internal areas of the apparatus seen by the subject are black, except for the stimulus fields proper. The tubes are covered by a standard DMT foam rubber eyepiece and shaded by a cover to avoid light reflexes. The left eye channel is used for the masking task. At a distance of 150mm from the eye, two standard red LEDs with a diameter of 4mm (horizontal visual angle of 1 . 5 O ) are mounted vertically, with their centers being 13mm apart. The upper one is covered by a 50%, the lower one by n 10% (threshold task) or, respectively, a 50% (time estimation task) gelatine grey filter. The right eye channel is used for amauroscopic and tachisto-

168

B. Westerlundh and H. Sjobiick Table 1 Design and conditions summary

EXPERIMENT

SUBJECTS

CRITERION PERCEPTGENESIS

RANDOMI-

ZATION

EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS

masking task

dependent

and amauro-

tachistoscopic

scopic presen-

percept-genetic

tation

presentation

absolute light amauroscopic,

threshold and aggressive

1

40

neutral

_ _ _ _ _male _ _- male _ _ theme __

woman-child

- - - - _ _ _ _ -_male _ _theme

120 d

homosexual 40

male

neutral theme

40

amauroscopic,

male

neutral male

-

male

theme

- male theme

time estimation and

neutral

castrative 40

- - - - _ _female-male _ _ _ _ _theme 2

120 $

woman-child

best Fa1 40

--_________ theme 40

1 neutral

female-wolf theme

female

neutral

theme

-

male

female-male theme

absolute light tachisto-

threshold and

scopic,

oral-sexual

man 3

8o

40

woman-child theme -----------

threatening boy theme

40

neutral

oral-deprivative

woman

woman-child theme

theme

- child

(DMT)

scopic presentations. Nearest to the eye, at 60mm, is a x2 magnifying lens. Behind i t , there are two interchangeable Agfascope slide viewers


169

(horizontal visual angle of 35O). The upper one is an arnauroscope. It has a standard 220V, 15W milky projection lamp. Light intensity can be varied by a copper-coil resistor. The viewing area is covered by gelatine grey filters, reducing light emittance by 97.5%. Presentation time is regulated by a timer. Amauroscopic percept-genetic presentations are alwRys for 5 seconds, start at 40V, and proceed in 1OV intervals. Amauroscopic subliminal presentations are for 20 seconds and at 50V (experiments 1 and 2 ) or 45V (experiment 3 ) . hydrogen

gas lamp with

The lower viewer is a tachistoscope. I t has a a

12mm,

14

filament

receiving a

13.25V,

0.75amp, highly stabilized, direct current via a timer. The latter gives impulses from 10 to 2000msec arranged in 20 steps on a logarithmic scale (for time values, see Kragh, 1969). The viewing area is covered by gelatine filters, reducing light emittance by 90%. Light meter readings, with the sensor at the place of the eye, give ca 0 lx when no stimulus or a 50V amauroscopic stimulus is presented, and ca 0.10 lx with a tachistoscopic stimulus shown at extended time.

PROCEDURE

General experimental conditions, such as room and light arrangements, are very much like those of individual testing with the DMT. Instructions and reporting to the criterion percept-genesis completely parallel those for the DMT (Kragh, 1969). The subject is told to report what he has seen and to make a simple drawing of it at the same time. A s instruction to the experiment proper, the subject is told that he will see pictures and should report on them a s before, but that this time, he is to do something else before each such picture. He is then given the instruction to attend to the diodes. In the threshold task he is then asked to report when each diode disappears and reappears. Here, the intensity of the diodes is regulated by the experimenter with a potentiometer. There is one descending and one ascending run in each trial. During this task, an amauroscopic presentation of the experimental stimulus is given for 20 seconds. Immediately afterwards, the subject is given a tachistoscopic presentation and has to report on i t (dependent variable). In the time estimation task, on the other hand, the subject is given the instruction to attend to the diodes and then to estimate the time the upper diode is lit (actually 6.3 seconds) and, after 10 seconds, to reproduce this interval himself by

B. Westerlundh and H. Sjobiick

170

turning the diode on and off. The subject has 15 seconds for this task. The lower diode, which has been on from the start of the r u n , then goes off as a sign that the run is over. During the last 20 seconds, an amauroscopic subliminal prescntation is given, followed by a tachistoscopic one as above.

SUBLlMlNALlTY

Dixon's (1971, p . 18) third and most important criterion for inferring subliminal perception is stated as follows : "The occurrence of contingent responses, without reported awareness of the stimulus, that differ qualitatively from those elicited by the same stimulus when presented above the awareness threshold." Silverman (1982) has demonstrated that within his paradigm, supraliminal presentations of the experimental stimuli do not result in psychodynamic activation. Thus, in the studies to be reported, reports which differ strongly from both amauroscopic and tachistoscopic stimuli but are related to them as transformations following psychodynamic laws, are ips0 facto evidence of subliminal perception. However, we can also rely on more direct evidence of the subliminality of the independent variable presentations. Their duration (20 seconds) as well a8 their presentation intensity (50V in experiments 1 and 2, 45V in experiment 3) were chosen on the basis of pretests to give subjects no phenomenal representation or, at most, a "primal mist" representation anteceding the stage of subjective Gestalt construction (cf. Sander & Volkelt , 1962 for this microgenetic approach). There are no inquiry data for experiment 1, but such data for 30 subjectR in each condition of experiment 2, and for all in experiment 3. These data show that no subject was able to report any structured impression of these amauroscopic stimuli. Data from the amauroscopic percept-geneses in experiments 1 and 2, which are in many ways comparable to the amauroscopic subliminal presentations, show that a very considerable number of subjects (85-9091) reach the stage of primal mist before any can report subjective Gestalt. The highest percentage reporting primal m i s t to the amauroscopic subliminal presentations is as low as 5 0 , a fact which substantiates the claim that no subject ever reached the level of subjective Gestalt construction for the independent amauroscopic presentations,


171

D A T A A N D ANALYSES

The dependent measures in these experiments are percept-geneses

.

These reports contain a complex pattern of drive-related and affective stimulus interpretations as well as defensive transformations of stimulus content which aim at saving the individual conscious displeasure. They are scored for such signs with an adapted version of Kragh's DMT scoring scheme. The main difference to standard DMT scoring is that the so-called sequential signs (of the type, "12 reports in a row with unchanged hero"), which are specially tailored to the DMT format and indicative of some degree of psychopathology, are excluded. Some reports of affect (fear, etc.) have been added. Scoring dimensions will be introduced in the presentations of the results. Scoring gives information about thresholds and sign variants, The latter are combined to sign classes, the main unit used for further analyses. Two forms of this measure are reported: a) raw frequency, number of subjects in each group ascribed to a certain sign class; b ) weighted frequency. Incidence of a sign class in a subject's report on the first exposure is ascribed a weight of 11, in that on the second exposure one of 12, etc. to the maximum of 30 in that on the 20th exposure. These weights are added, giving a class weight for each subject. Groups are later compared for frequency of subjects over class weight median, or for extreme subjects. The basic idea behind the weighting procedure is that while a specific operation may not be efficient enough to increase frequency base rate, it can still influence incidence in the individual protocol. Further, reports of the sign in question towards the end of the series, where stinulus as operator has B stronger influence, should be considered more clear-cut instances of experimental influence. Three types of analysis can be made in regards to this material: (1) Between-group comparisons of sign class frequency as a function of different experimental operations. This is the basic analysis of experimental outcome. No single conflict theme can be made completely unambiguous for the subject. Individual psychodynamics will determine i t s relationship to othex conflict themes. However, there are typical

impulse-anxiety-defense constellations. Clinical and developmental psychoanalytic theory gives some indication about what to expect in different conditions. (2)

Within-group analyses of reaction subgroups. Theoretically, we would

172


expect that for each conflict theme a number of different processing strategies would be open to the subjects. An appreciable proportion of subjects, those who lack fixations relating to the theme in question, would not react at all. In other subjects, the theme could give rise to one or more of many possible forms of scorable reports. In these analyses, attempts are made to study i f clear-cut reaction patterns exist and, if so, to identify them. ( 3 ) Comparisons to the criterion percept-genesis. The question asked here is whether the criterion genesis will predict experimental results. This touches upon the issue of the specificity versus traitlikeness of defensive reactions (operationally, no relationship versus a perfect one between the geneses). Psychodynamic theory posits that defenses in normals are organized in a complex hierarchical system. Determinants of what defense is chosen in a specific situation are, among other things, type of provocation and type and intensity of anxiety. This theory points to a criterion-experimental genesis relationship, but not on a sign-to-sign correspondence basis. The theory also implies that these analyses can reveal something about the psychological level at which the subliminal operations are effective. Westerlundh (1976) found no relationships between the DMT and experimental effects when the latter were caused by a fantasy-level operation in reaction to a film. However, when caused by interpersonal operations, effects had complex relations to the DMT.

SJA JlSJlCAL JREA JMENT

The resulting crossbreaks have been tested for significance by use of the

standard

tables

(Mainland,

Herrera,

&

Sutcliffe,

1956; Finney,

Latscha, Bennett, & Hsu, 1963). Estimates of the quantitative association between variables, the Goodman-Kruskal A B-index of predictive association (Hays, 1973) and the Holley-Risberg (1972) D estimate of item discrimination, have been obtained. When no variable is superordinate, A A B and an index DD are given, the latter simply being the combined D estimates, using each variable as superordinate, divided by 2 (see Westerlundh, 1976).

173

Zntrapsychic Conflict Ac tiuation EXPERIMENT I: A STUDY ON MOTIVE STRUCTURE IN MALES

In this section, a first application of the technique is presented. Responses of young male subjects to a tachistoscopic percept-genetic series

of a picture depicting two young men in neutral interaction are influenced by immediately preceding amauroscopic (relatively long-term, low intensity) subliminal presentations of stimuli depicting the same two young men in a) aggressive (AGG), b ) homosexual (SEX), and c) neutral ( N E U ) interaction. The neutral stimulus is the same as that used in the following percept-genetic presentations. The N E U stimulus shows the two young men standing u p , evidently engaged in discussion. In the AGG stimulus, the young man to the right is aggressive and raises a knife towards the other who is bleeding and suffering. In the SEX stimulus, they t u r n towards each other with looks of longing, without pants, and exposing erect male organs.

SUBJECTS

The subjects were 120 male university students, paid volunteers, randomly distributed over conditions as shown in Table 2 . Table 2 Distribution of subjects over conditions in Experiment -

N

I.

AGG

SEX

NEU

40

40

40

Age Mean

23

23

23

Age Range

19-28

19-32

18-33

CRITER ION GENESIS

The first part of the session, the criterion percept-genesis, consists of amauroscopic presentations of a stimulus of 5 seconds duration, starting at 40V and proceeding in steps of 1OV to 170V. The series is administered for these 1 4 exposures or until the subject reaches the C phase (correct recognition). The stimulus is the distractor picture of the DMT (Kragh,


174

1 9 6 9 ) , depicting an adult, reclining woman with a small boy, touching her

bosom, in her lap. The interaction between them is positive or neutral. The C phase criterion is two phases in a row with this content and no scorable signs.

EXPERIMEN T A L CONDlTlONS

The subliminal stimuli are always presented for 20 seconds at 50V. The immediately following tachistoscopic stimulus is presented ad modum DMT for 20 exposures or less, if the subject reaches C phase. The C phase criterion is reports of two young men, 15-39 years old, in neutral interaction, with no scorable signs, for three phases in a row. MASKING TASKS

The threshold task was administered omauroscopic subliminal presentations.

concurrently

with

the

SCORING

The percept-genetic material in this experiment was scored independently by both authors. The few disagreements were resolved in discussion.

HYPOTHESES

The AGG and SEX conditions are considered to be conflict activating according to the impulse-anxiety-defense scheme. The hypotheues concerning experimental outcome are of three kinds: a ) general measures, b ) signs common to the provoking conditions, and c ) signs uniquc to one provoking condition. GENERAL MEASURES

Corresponding to many measures of thought disturbance, etc. , these concern thresholds and number of scored signs. Two types of threshold are registered, first P (preparatory) phase (the first report mentioning localized and specified object) and C phase (correct recognition according to given definitions). The location of first P phase seems primarily to bc determined physiologically and is not expected to be influenced by the provoking operations. However, these should complicate and lengthen


175

percept-geneses by the activation of defenses. Thus, ( I ) the location of the first C phase ( i . e . , the exposure number corresponding to the report) is expected to be later, and (11) the number of scored signs is expected to be greater in conditions AGG and S E X in comparison to condition N E U . COMMON SlGNS

Both provoking operations are expected to produce increased anxiety in predisposed subjects. Two signs of anxiety are scored in the material, blackening of reported configurations (a perceptual anxiety equivalent), and reports of fearlunpleasure. Thus, (111) signs of blackening, and of fearIunpleasure (sign classes 520+, 620+, and 520+620+; the construction of the experimental measures is presented below), are expected to be more prevalent in conditions AGG and S E X in comparison to condition N E U . U N l Q U E SlGNS

Two defenses, important in persons with conflicts around aggression, are supposed to become activated in the AGG condition: ( I V ) in this condition, all signs of reaction formation against aggres-

sion ( i . e . , reports where perceived persons are said to have a positive relationship; sign class 4+) are expected to be more prevalent than in conditions S E X and N E U . ( V ) In the same way, all signs of isolation (all sign classes with a

number beginning with 2 ) are expected to be more prevalent in this condition than in the other ones. In the S E X condition, a type of report equivalent to ( I V ) above and defenses theoretically and clinically associated with sexual identity problems, are supposed to become activated: ( I V ) In this condition, signs of reaction formation against homosexual

arousal ( i . e . , reports where perceived persons a r e said to have an aggressive relationship o r this is explicitly denied; sign class 310+ 510+) are expected to be more prevalent than in conditions AGG and NEU.

( V I I ) In the same way, all signs of sexual identity diffusion and distortion (all sign classes with a number beginning with 7 ) are expected to be more prevalent in this condition than in the other ones.

(VIII) Further, "multiplications,I' a sign of polymorphous identification

176

B. Westerlundh and H.Sjaback Table 3 Sign v a r i a n t s and c l a s s e s . (For explanation, s e e t e x t . "Hero" r e f e r s t o t h e l e f t person depicted i n t h e stimulus, "pp" ( p e r i p h e r a l person) t o t h e r i g h t one.)

Sign v a r i a n t

Sign c l a s s

1+ Repreasion

110

Both hero and pp a r e r i g i d , inanimate beings.

111

Hero i s a r i g i d or inanimate being.

112

Pp i s a r i g i d or inanimate being.

120

Both hero and pp a r e animals.

121

Hero i s an animal.

122

Pp i s an animal.

130

Both h e r o and pp a r e "face masks" or "dressed up."

131

Hero i s "face mask" or "dressed up."

132

Pp i s "face mask" or "dressed up."

140

Both hero and pp a r e o b j e c t s .

141

Hero i s an object.

142

Pp i s an o b j e c t .

Note As regards c a t e g o r i e s 130, 131, 132, only the s p e c i a l instance "shows the backside"

i s found

i n the material. See Kragh (1969, 1971).

132

Sexual symbolism, pp, I

2+ I s o l a t i o n

132 210

Hero and pp a r e i s o l a t e d from each o t h e r by a s e p a r a t i n g l i n e o r area.

211

Hero moves away from pp.

212

Pp moves away from hero.

213

The d i s t a n c e between hero and pp i s increased from

214

Hero or pp r a i s e s an arm so t h a t eye contact between

220

T h e faces of both h e r o and pp a r e o u t l i n e d , r e l a t i v e l y

l a s t report.

them i s impossible.

homogeneous white or shining s p o t s .

221

Hero's face i s such a white or shining spot.

222

P p ' s face is such a white or shining spot.

230

S t r u c t u r e disappears over the whole f i e l d in one phase.

231

Hero disappears i n one phase.

2 32

Pp disappears i n one phase.

940

S t r u c t u r e i s completely lacking in a t l e a s t two phases i n a row.

241

Hero i s lacking i n at l e a s t two phases i n a row.

177

Intrapaychic Conflict Activation Sign v a r i a n t

Sign c l a s s

242

210

Barrier isolation, I

210

214

B a r r i e r i s o l a t i o n , I1

214

Pp i s lacking i n a t l e a s t two phases i n a row.

210+ Barrier i s o l a t t o n , 111

210, 214

220+ D e f i c i e n t reconstruction

220, 221,

310+510+ Aggression

310

Aggression is e x p l i c i t l y denied, a s regards t h e p i c t u r e

311

Aggression is denied aa regards hero.

2, 230, 231,

21

1, 24

i n i t s t o t a l i t y , a s i n t e r a c t i o n or f e e l i n g .

4+ Reaction formation

312

Aggression is denied as regards pp.

510

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between hero and pp is aggressive.

511

Hero i s aggressive towards pp.

512

Pp i s aggressive towards hero.

410

Hero and pp have a mutual p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p : they

are dancing, etc. 411

Hero i s p o s i t i v e , h e l p f u l , or laughs, e t c .

412

Pp is p o s i t i v e , h e l p f u l , o r laughs, e t c .

420

The t o t a l mood of t h e p i c t u r e i s s a i d t o be p l e a s a n t , quiet, etc.

520t Anxiety I

520

Hero and pp a r e a f r a i d , scared, e t c .

521

Hero i s a f r a i d , scared, e t c .

522

Pp i s a f r a i d , scared, e t c .

530

'Ihe mood of t h e p i c t u r e is s a i d t o be dangerous, unpleasant, etc.

610+ Introaggression

610

Both hero and pp a r e h u r t , bleeding, have some kind of bodily i n j u r y or m u t i l a t i n g i n v a l i d i t y .

611

Hero is h u r t a s above.

612

Pp is h u r t a s above.

613

A h u r t or i n f e r i o r o b j e c t i s located i n t h e f i e l d .

650

A l l of t h e f i e l d i s c h a o t i c , denoting violence and destruction,

and

decidedly

stimlus

inadequate.

B. Westerlundh and H.Sjoback

178

Sign class

620+ Anxiety I1

Sign variants

620

Both hero and pp are stimulus inadequately blackened.

621

Hero is blackened in a stimulus inadequate way.

622

Pp is blackened in a stimulus inadequate way.

623

An object (objects, animals, and persons except hero

and pp) in the field is blackened in a stimulus inadequate way.

52Ot620t Anxiety I11

520, 521, 522, 530, 620, 621, 622, 623.

710

Feminization I

710

Both hero and pp are ascribed incorrect sex.

711

Heterosexualization I

711

Hero is ascribed incorrect sex.

712

Heterosexualization I1

712

Pp is ascribed incorrect sex.

711t Heterosexrla1ization I11

711, 712.

720+ Feminization I1

720

Incorrect sex ascription of hero and pp remains even in the last exposure.

721

Incorrect sex ascription of hero remains even in the last exposure.

722

Incorrect sex ascription oi pp remains even in the last exposure.

710t Feminization I11

710, 720, 721, 722.

130+ Sexual symbolism

130, 131, 132, and 730

Both hero and pp carry attributes which belong to incorrect sex ascription (round, hollow, “feminine“

at-

tributes).

132+ Sexual symbolism, pp, I1

731

Hero carries such an attribute.

732

Pp carries such an attribute.

132, 732.

740t Inadequate sex

attribution, I

740

Both hero and pp change sex from correct to undecided.

179

Zntrapsychic Conflict Activation Sign v a r i a n t

Sign c l a s s

750+

741

Hero changes sex from c o r r e c t t o undecided.

142

Pp changes sex from c o r r e c t t o undecided.

Inadequate sex a t t r i b u t i o n , I1

750

Both hero and pp change sex from c o r r e c t t o i n c o r r e c t .

751

Hero changes sex from c o r r e c t t o i n c o r r e c t .

752

Pp changes sex from c o r r e c t t o i n c o r r e c t .

740+750+ Inadequate sex a t t r i b u t i o n , I11

810

Duplication

740, 741, 742, 750, 751, 752.

8 10

Hero and pp a r e very much a l i k e , are dressed a l i k e , a r e equal-aged brothers, a r e twins.

820+

Kultiplications

820

There i s a t h i r d person i n the p i c t u r e .

8 30

Except hero and pp, t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t two persons or f a c e s belonging t o persons i n t h e p i c t u r e .

840+ Old age r e p o r t s

840

Both hero and pp a r e a t l e a s t 40 y e a r s o l d i n a t l e a s t

841

Hero i s aL l e a s t 40 y e a r s o l d i n a t l e a s t t h r e e phases

842

Pp is a t l e a s t 40 years old i n a t l e a s t t h r e e phases

t h r e e phases i n a row.

i n a row.

in a row.

000

Infant i l i z a t ion

000

Hero and pp a r e c h i l d r e n under 15 years of age.

(reports where more than two persons are perceived and reported; sign class 820+), are expected to be more prevalent in this condition than in the other ones. Clinically, this type of report in males is indicative of genital problems and passive sexual organization (Nilsson , Colleen, & Mardh, 1975).


180 CONSTRUCTION OF E X P E R I M E N T A L MEASURES

In this section, we will illustrate the construction of experimental measures (sign classes) by presenting the percept-genetic scoring schemc and demonstrating how the classes are constructed from the basic sign variants. This is shown in Table 3. The classes are given in the left column, and those variants which form the class are listed to the right. \Wen defenses or signs of defense are mentioned in this chapter, this always refers operationally to phenomenal reports on the percept-genetic stimuli, with contents specified by the sign variant listing.

RESUL TS G E N E R A L MEASURES

The cumulative number of subjects reaching first C phase at different exposures shows stable, significant differences in the expected direction between the provoked conditions and the neutral one. There is also a significant difference (at the 0.01 level) for number of subjects not reaching C phase: In AGG 16, in SEX 18, and in N E U 7 . The hypothesis for a greater number of scored signs in these conditions is also supported. The grand median for scored signs is 13.5. Number of subjects over this median is 2 2 in AGG. 29 in SEX, and 11 in N E U . The A G G / N E U contrast is significant at the 0 . 0 5 level, the SEXlNEU one at the 0.001 level. Evidently, the provoking experimental operations have been efficient in activating conflict. The SEX stimulus seems to have been a somewhat more cfficient provocation than the AGG one. C O M M O N SIGNS

Results for the anxiety signs are given in Table 4 . A s discussed in the first section, the table gives raw and weighted frequencies for the signs. The hypothesis of anxiety increase is supported for the SEX, but not for the AGG condition. Again, the SEX stimulus might have been B more efficient provocation. Alternatively, defenses in the AGG condition might be so effective as not to permit leaking anxiety.


181

Table 4 C m n signs. The frequency of anxiety signs i n the t h r e e conditions.

': onetafled tests.

AGG

SEX

NEU

520+

1

7

1

NS

--X

620+

4

6

2

NS

--X

NSX

520+620+

5

12

3

NS

NSX

.or

Anxiety

P

~

~ P

> ~

~ ~

~ ~

raw .05x

weighted: no t e s t a b l e r e s u l t s

U N I Q U E SIGNS: T H E AGG CONDITION

Results for signs of isolation and reaction formation against aggression are presented in Table 5 . As can be seen, the hypothesis of an inTable 5 Unique s i g n s , aggression. The frequency of i s o l a t i o n and reaction formation

i n t h e three conditions. ':

Isolation

AGG

SEX

NEU

onetailed t e s t s .

~WSEX

EAGONEU

%EX>NELI

raw 2+

31

30

23

NSX

.05'

NS

210+

26

20

13

NSX

.0 l X

NS

210

16

10

7

NSX

.05'

NS

214

16

11

9

NSX

NSX

NS

220+

16

16

13

NSX

NSX

NS

2+v

19

15

8

NSX

.0 l X

NS

weighted

210+v

14

13

3

NSX

.0lX

210v

8

7

2

NSX

.05'

214V

8

7

3

NSX

NSX

NS

220+v

8

8

8

NSX

NSX

NS

15

24

15

.05x

N Sx

NS

8

13

7

NSX

NSX

NS

.05 NS

Reaction formation raw

4+ weighted

4+v

~ >

~


182

creased frequency of isolation in the AGG condition is supported in the AGG/NEU comparisons, generally and especially as regards barrier isolation. The prevalence of such reports in the SEX condition is in between that in the AGG and NEU conditions, and in one instance reaches a significance in comparison to NEU The impossibility of creating unambiguous provocations was discussed in the first section of the chapter. The hypothesis of an increased frequency of reaction formation against aggression in the AGG condition is not supported. Instead, this sign ( i . e . , reports of friendly interaction or atmosphere) is most prevalent in the SEX condi tion. Here, it evidently has the character of a break-through of the drive-related stimulus message, a somewhat unexpected finding.

.

U N l Q U E SIGNS: T H E SEX CONDITION

Results for the signs predicted to be more prevalent in the SEX condition are found in Table 6. The hypothesis concerning reaction formation against homosexual impulses, i. e. , reports of aggression, does not receive support in this group of subjects. The hypothesis concerning person multiplications is supported in the S E X / N E U comparison. The results for signs of sexual identity disturbance are somewhat more complicated. The sign 710+, the most inclusive class of feminization, is significantly more prevalent in the AGG and SEX conditions than in NEU. However, this way of introducing women in the perceived is perhaps most easily interpreted as a way of denying the personal relevance of the situation, i . e . , as a species of denial. The categories which are clearly dominant in the SEX condition are those of inadequate sex attribution: 740+, 750+, 740+750+. Hallborg (1971) found such percept-genetic signs to be true manifestations of introjectivc defenses. A s for the AGG condition, the strongest contrast to the results in the SEX condition is provided by NEU. Again, the other provoking condition seems to be in between.

183


-

Table 6 Unique signs, homosexuality. The frequency of aggression,

sexual identity disturbance, and multiplications in the three conditions, K:

Aggression

onetailed tests.

AGG

SEX

NEU

5

6

7

NSX

NS

N Sx

2

6

1

NSX

--

NSX

P

~

~ P

> ~

~ ~ 'SEX>NEU ~ >

~ ~

raw 310+510+

weighted 310+510+V

Sexual identity disturbance raw 710

7

6

2

NSX

NS

NSX

711

7

13

11

NSX

NS

N Sx

712

25

24

24

NSX

NS

NSX

711+

26

29

28

N Sx

NS

NSX

740+

13

21

9

N Sx

NS

.or

750+

9

14

5

NSX

NS

'05'

19

28

11

NS

.0OlX

740+750+

.05'

720+

5

7

3

NSX

NS

N Sx

710+

12

13

4

NSX

.05

.oSX

710V

2

5

1

NSX

--

NSX

711V

1

8

6

NS

NSX

weighted

.05'

712V

13

13

11

NSX

NS

NSX

711+V

12

17

13

NSX

NS

NSX

740+V

7

11

5

N Sx

NS

75wv

2

9

3

.05'

740+750+V

8

16

5

.05'

5

11

3

NSX NSX

NS

.or

NS

.OSX

Multiplicw raw 820+

NSX

weighted: no testable results

Note:

Due ta the specific scoring requirements of sign variants 720, 721, 722, classes 720+

and 710+ are not included in the weighting system.

~

B. Weeterlundh and H.Sjobiick

184

UNPREDICT E D RESULTS

A few significant results outside of those predicted are presented in table 7. The signs 130+V and 132+, denoting a person or persons in the picture a s seen from behind o r holding a female attribute, have been interpreted as instances of sexual symbolism. The strong difference between Table 7 Significant non-predicted differences.

Repression,

ACC

SEX

NEU

4

11

3

NS

--

.05

1

8

2

.05

--

NS

20

22

8

NS

.01

-01

P

~

~P

~~

> ~P

~ ~~

sexual symbolism raw 132+

weighted 130+V

Infantilization raw 000

the provoking conditions and N EU a s regards infantilization (000) is interesting. This seems to be a denial strategy implying "this does not concern me, it is childish." It can be seen as a parallel to the feminization reports. IN J E R R E L A TIONSHIP OF SIGNS

The structure and meaning of defensive strategies can be further elucidated by studying how the signs that show increased frequency at R specific provocation are interrelated. Results of such an analysis are presented in Table 8. In the AGG condition, reports of infantilization ( 0 0 0 ) and feminization (710+) tend to be positively related. We have interpreted both at attempts to deny the personal relevance of the situation. Further, the typical reports of isolation ( 2 . , ) are related to the many-scored-signs category. Since reports of isolation are what boosts the number of signs in this condition, it can be stated that those who resort to isolation as R defense against fantasies of victimization tend to give reports with this content to many exposures in the series.

.

~ >~

~~

185

Zntrapsychic Conflict Activation

Table 8 Relations between independent signs significantly more prevalent in conditions AGG and SEX: significancies and tendencies and the measures of association DD andAAB. 'Pwotailed tests.

Signs Mdn

AGG

710+

tot

No C phase

.02

+.43

.29

2+

.oi

+.4a

.26

210

.10

+.33

.18

2+v

.10

+.36

.30

210+v

.10

+.35

.13

210v

.01

+.46

.15

000

.10

+.30

.26

Signs

SEX

Mdn

.10

+.33

.19

mAB 132+

tot

740+

p

.10

No C phase 132+

-05

+.38

.OO

130+V

.10

+.31

.OO

210+v

.10

+.31

.OO

4+

.05

+.44

.19

+.35

m

711V

A

B p

C R I T E R I O N GENESIS R E L A TIONSHIPS

As in the earlier study, signs which are influenced significantly by

the experimental operations have been related to the criterion genesis classes in all three conditions. The results are, however, on chance level. R E A N A L Y S I S OF E X P E R I M E N T A L D A T A

Even though there are no systematic relationships bctween the geneses, it could possibly be argued that the experimental results were produced, not by the experimental operations, but by initial group differences. To check for this, 15 subjects with class ltot were randomly ex-

cluded from each of conditions AGG and SEX. The resulting groups do not differ from N E U on criterion genesis classes. When experimental outcome is studied in these groups, the main results

-

significant dominance for the

SEX condition for signs of repression, barrier isolation, and reaction formation, a s well a s for both provoking conditions for disturbed sex attribution - all reappear. No other significant results are found. Evidently, criterion genesis distributions do not offer alternative hypotheses to the experimental ones.

~

~

199

Intrapsychic Conflict Activation DISC USSlO N

Hypotheses and results are recapitulated in Table 17. Table 1 7 Summary of hypotheses and r e s u l t s i n experiment I1

AGG

Late C phase

More s i g n s Anxiety

SEX

no yes no

Repression Barrter i s o l a t i o n Reaction formation

no

The only non-predicted result concerns 710+, disturbed sex attribution, which is more frequent in both provoking conditions than in NEU. We have interpreted it as an attempt to deny the personal relevance of the situation, equivalent to strategies found in the earlier experiment. Results for the AGG condition amply demonstrate that the stimulus has not functioned as intended. There are generally more signs in A G G than in N E U , but not distributed as expected. For instance, there is a tendency for the repression category 130+ to be more frequent in A G G than in N E U . The exposed penis of the male seems to have been a more effective provocation than the castrative intent of the woman. The lack of conflict in the sphere of aggression is remarkable. In the group of women studied, fantasies of castrating the male do not seem to be ego-dystonic. The results for anxiety point to provocation inefficiency in the A G G and to defense efficaciousness in the SEX condition. In the latter, the libidinal element of the stimulus is used to ward off the aggressive component. Thus the results for reaction formation against aggression stand in contrast to the hypothesis. Otherwise, the SEX condition gives results much as expected. This, together with the results of Westerlundh (1979), allows us to state that structural similarity of provoking subliminal and dependent percept-genetic stimulus is not a necessary condition for obtaining conflict activation effects in the research paradigm used. In the earlier experiment, the provoking stimuli constituted rather unequivocal meaning totalities, resulting in unitary main results for the


200

conditions: an increased frequency of barrier isolation for AGG and an increased frequency for introjectionlidentificationwith the opposite sex for SEX. In this experiment, the SEX stimulus has two main meaning components: the coitus and the violence towards the self representation. AS in Westerlundh ( 1 9 7 9 ) , the former, heterosexual taboo, leads to increased frequency of repression, the latter, to increased frequency of barrier isolation. Different subjects seem to react to the different aspects of the provocation. In this investigation, there were no systematic relationships between the criterion and the experimental geneses. AS stated in the first part of the chapter, defensive functioning in normals, as studied by percept-genetic methods, has been found to be flexible. This often causes little agreement between geneses. Many factors play a role here: technical differ- MCT, Palmquist, 1974); importance for the

ences (differences DMT

psychic dynamic of the conflict activated by the percept-genetic stimulus (e.g., good rf?l€itiOnShipS of the DMT to results frorn experiment on aggression, Westerlundh, 1976) ; and thematic relationship between the different percept-genetic stimuli ( e . g . , serial correspondence in the DMT) . This last factor should perhaps be stressed in the present context. A father daughter stimulus would have been more apposite for the conflicts studied. In the present investigation, the amauroscopic technique has been used to investigate certain conflict reactions in women. The results for the SEX condition provide further experimental support for Kragh's ( 1969) DMT scoring scheme. In this case, especially percept-genetic signs of repression have functioned according to theoretical expectations.

EXPERIMENT 111: A STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF SUBLIMINAL STIMULI WITH INFANTILE CONTENT Relying on the same basic ideas as in the preceding two experiments, an application of the technique with subliminal stimuli of a different kind is presented in the third one. This time the depicted person, intended as self-representation distinguished by it 8ex, is an infant. This is important since such stimuli open a possibility to investigate developmental and etiological psychoanalytic hypotheses. A t the same time it can be expected that the number of non-hospitalized subjects, who react to specific themes like that, will be rather smail.

20 1

I n trapsychic Conflict Activation

Further, there is no control group in the study. This is a dangerous research strategy at best, but i t had to be used for reasons of cost efficiency. In these studies, we have often seen that the neutral control establishes an anxietyldefense baseline, and that a specific provocation leads to an increase in certain kinds of defensive reports. Results in the third group, with a contrasting provocation, often fall in between. The reason for this is twofold. Anxieties developmentally lean on one another, which leads to idiosyncratic interpretations, with a mixing of meanings, of the experimental stimuli. Secondly, a content used to ward off a certain provocation may in itself activate anxiety and further defensive activity. This means that to have a chance of achieving differentiation in a contrasting provocations design, it is necessary to use stimuli for which rathe r clearly differentiated predictions can be made. In this case, stimuli were chosen on the basis of the earlier studies in this series and Westerlundh's (1979) prior research. Both of the changes mentioned suggest a further type of data analy-

sis. Beside raw and weighted frequencies, the distribution on conditions of those with extremely high weights will be studied for certain frequent

signs. A s in the earlier studies, the meaning of the experimental operations determines the name given to the conditions. A s usual, they are called A G G and SEX.

SUBJECTS

The subjects werc 80 male university students, paid volunteers, randomly distributed over conditions, as shown in Table 18. Table 18 Distribution of subjects over conditions in Experiment 111

AGC

SEX 40

N

40

Age Mean

22

22

Age Range

21-28

21-25

202

B. Westerlundh and H. Sjobiick CRI JERlON GENESIS

The criterion genesis was studied by means of tachistoscopic presentations of the DMT M 2 , the picture for the second series of the male version of the DMT. Test administration and scoring completely followed that of the DUT.

EXPERIMEN JAL CONDITIONS

The subliminal stimuli depict two mother-child scenes. In the AGG condition, a crying, possibly starving baby is shown lying in a crib. A fat woman is sitting, turned away from i t , eating. In the SEX condition, a standing woman with a satisfied baby at her breast is shown. The meaning of the stimuli is discussed in the hypotheses section. They were always presented for 20 seconds at 45V. The tachistoscopic dependent stimulus following the subliminal presentations, was the DMT distractor picture showing an adult, reclining woman with a small boy, touching hcr bosom, in her lap. The interaction between them is positive or neutral. It was presented, ad modum DMT, for 20 exposures, or less if the subject reached C phase. The C phase criterion is three correct reports in a row. MASKING TASKS

The threshold task was administered concurrently with the amauroscopic subliminal presentations. SCORING

The percept-genetic material was scored by one author. All scoring was performed blindly.

HYPOTHESES

Since two conditions with supposedly different provoking content are being compared, the only type of hypothesis relevant in this investigation is that which concerns signs unique to the separate provoking conditions. Whereas the stimuli used in the earlier experiments were evidently provoking on common sense grounds, this is not the case with those of the pre-


203

sent one. However, they were developed on the basis of psychoanalytic developmental theory to relate to infantile conflicts. The theme of the tachistoscopic dependent stimulus is constructed so as to have clear oedipal connotations. The body contact of mother and child is centered on the erogenous zones of the woman and refers to the sexual aims of the oedipal child. But the satisfaction of such desire on the body of the mother is prohibited, a prohibition built into the child by the development of the superego at the resolution of the oedipus complex. The SEX stimulus depicts the most self-evident

of such satisfactions. In the

present context, it should strengthen the oedipal theme and give rise to phallic castration anxiety and to associated defense. Westerlundh (1979) found a differentiation in reports of anxiety: a phallic-sexual theme gave an increase in reports of anxiety (blackening) bound to objects, whereas an aggressive object theme increased reports of fear lunpleasure. A special developmental percept-genetic study of these phenomena has been made by Smith and Danielsson (1982). For S E X , in comparison to AGG , we thus expect:

( I ) an increasc in reports of anxiety bound to objects (620+), and especially, (11) an increase in reports of anxiety located on the intended self representation (castration anxiety, 621). A s for defenses, in line with earlier studies, we expect

(111) an increase in signs of repression (l..) in S E X . The AGG stimulus in this experiment relates to anxieties of being victimized by the bad, aggressive object. In this case it is an aggression by neglect, a theme of deprivation. The theme opens possibilities for oral-paranoid interpretations: "she is starving me while she gorges herself." In accordance with the earlier discussion, we expect that

(IV) if any form of anxiety increases in the AGG condition (in comparison to S E X ) , this should be of the fear/unpleasure kind (520+). Moreover it is expected:

(V) that reports of aggression and introaggression, generally (510+ 610+), and (VI) reports of aggression on the part of the self representation, turned towards object or self, in particular (511U611), will be more frequent in the AGG than in the SEX condition. Finally, since the theme is an aggressive one, we expect

(VII) an increase in reports of isolation (2. .) in AGO in comparison

B. Westerlundh and H. aob6ck

204

to the SEX condition. However, since the threat is not directly aimed at the body of the self representation, in which case we would have expected an increase especially in barrier isolation, we cannot predict exactly in what subgroup of isolation the increase will fall.

SCORING VARIANTS AND EXPERIMENTAL MEASURES

The scoring scheme used for the distractor picture i s , with few exceptions the same as that presented earlier. The boy is regarded as hero, the woman as pp. The exceptions are as follows: Repression: for a variant of repression to be scored for pp. the configuration corresponding to the sign must be located a t , or include, the upper part of the depicted womanls body, not just her legs and hips. Isolation: there are just two variants of the 2 1 category, 210, as before, and 211, hero and pp being separated in space and having no body contact. 2 4 2 is not scored before pp has been reported (DMT initial 242b:s are not scored). With the stimulus used, pp often has a higher threshold than hero. This was not the case with the stimuli used in thc earlier studies, where all such reports were of the DMT 242a kind. Reaction formation: as regards 420, only reports of positive mood which have been given spontaneously and not as a result of inquiry, have been scored. Existence of variants of sign 4 is compatible with C phase ascription. Identification with the opposite sex: the scoring of variants of sign 7 is adapted to the stimulus. Thus 710 means that hero is given female and

pp malc sex, etc. A category 991, hero is an adult, is added. Extreme weights: In order not to multiply analyses in studying the extreme groups, a simple cut-off criterion was applied. When a weighted sign was found in more than 15 subject in A G G and SEX together, the distribution on conditions of the 5 to 6 most extreme subjects was studied. M e n such a sign was found in more than 20 subjects in AGG and SEX together, the distribution of the 10 to 1 2 most extreme was studied. The comparisons of extremes are indicated by a rlW1’ after the sign designation ( 1 + W , etc.).


205

RESUL TS

In accordance with expectations, the conditions do not differ as rcgards C phase and number of scored signs. The results for signs predicted specifically to increase in the AGG condition are presented in Table 19. The hypothesis of an increase in the Table 19 Unique signs, aggression. The frequency of isolation, aggressionlintroaggression and fearlunpleasure in the conditions. Onetailed tests.

AGG

SEX

2+

36

37

__

210+

33

32

NS

220+230+

27

23

NS

230

17

7

.05

240+

10

4

.10

2+v

20

16

NS

210+v

15

17

NS

220+230+240+V

16

9

.10

2+w

5

5

NS

210+w

4

7

NS

9 20+230+240+W

9

2

.05

51G+610+

12

11

NS

511U6ll

9

3

.10

510+610+V

7

5

NS

511U611 V

6

1

.10

3

4

Isolation raw

weighted

extremes

Aggressionlintroaggresston raw

weighted

Fearlunpleasure raw 52W


206

anxiety sign of fearlunplcasure was not supported. This, as stated earlie r , can be due to inefficiency of the provocation or efficiency of the defenses used. The hypothesis of an increase of reports of aggressionhntroaggression is not generally supported, but as expected, there are tendencies showing an increase of such reports as regards the hero. A number of tendencies and significances show an increase in a subcategory of isolation, compulsive discontinuities. Thus there is the expected increase of isolation, but in a subgroup of reports hitherto not influenced. Table 20 gives the equivalent results for the SEX condition. Table 20 Unique signs, sexuality. The frequency of repression and blackeningjanxiety in the conditions. Onetailed tests.

AGG

SEX

1+

18

19

NS

110+140t

11

12

NS

120+

10

10

NS

Repression

PACG>SEX

raw

weighted

11

NS

10+140+V

8

.10

120+v

6

NS

0

6

.05

620+

8

16

.05

621

5

14

.05

1+v

extreme s 1tw Rlackening/anxiety raw

weighted 620+V

3

9

.10

621V

2

8

.05

As can be seen, the hypothesis of an increase of reports of blacken-

inglanxiety is well supported, both generally and as regards the hero. The hypothesis for repression receives an amount of support. There is a tendency for increasc of rigid repression in the comparison for the weighted sign, and a significant difference for the sign generally, as regards

Intropsychic Conflict Activation

201

extremes. There seems to be a subgroup of subjects who are very much influenced b y the experimental operation in this condition and thus increase their use of repressive defense. Table 2 1 presents the results that were not predicted. Since reports Table 21 Non-predicted d i f f e r e n c e s . Significances and tendencies, twotailed tests.

Reaction formation

AGG

SEX

P

~

~

~

raw 25

24

NS

410+

14

22

.10

420

18

8

.05

2

9

.05

4+

Adult hero extremes 991w

of positive interaction or mood could be expected to increase in both conditions, no hypotheses were formulated for this type of report. In the SEX condition, they could increase as a result of break-through of the libidinal theme (as seen earlier in these studies), whereas they could increase a s defensive reaction formations in AGG. What is actually found is a differen-

tial increase.

There is a weak tendency for reports of positive interaction

to be given by more persons in the SEX condition, whereas reports of positive mood are significantly more prevalent in AGG. Finally, in SEX, i . e . ,

the incest taboo condition, there are signifi-

cantly more often long series of reports of hero as an adult. This is another instance of the defensive meaning transformation strategies used to save persons from conscious unpleasure. I N T E R R E L A TIONSHIP OF SIGNS

No significant relations or tendencies were found between the independent signs which significantly or tendentiously increase in a condition. Evidently, such signs are distributed over many persons. The total number of persons (category ttTotal't) showing such signs is 34 in the AGG condition and 31 in the SEX condition.

>

~


208 T H E C R I T E R I O N PERCEPTGENESIS

The criterion genesis stimulus was, as stated, the DMT M 2 picture administered and scored ad niodum DMT. Thirteen classes were created. Those significantly related to experimental categories are presented, with ascription requirements and group frequencies, in Table 2 2 . A s can be seen, there are no significant differences between the conditions. Table 22 The DMT classes.

DMT classes

120t

variants

120, 121, 122.

designation and

condition frequencies

ascription requirements

AGG

SEX

Less rigid repressions;

5

3

15

21

9

11

10

15

9

11

11

7

appearance

210

210a, 210b, 210c.

Barrier isolation; appearance

243

243.

Affectless perception; at least 6 scored in genesis

4t

410, 411, 412, 420, 4 3 0 .

Reaction formation; appearance

41Ot

410, 411, 412.

Reaction formation 11; appearance

620

620.

Blackeninglanxiety appearance

E X P E R I M E N T A L - C R I T E R I O N GENESIS R E L A T I O N S H I P S

A s in earlicr studies, the 15 signs, which have shown experimental increase in frequency, have, together with the "Total" category, been related to the criterion genesis. Results are shown in Table 23. Predictions are from the DMT. There are R number of interesting relationships between the geneses. In the SEX condition, affectless perception (243) in the DklT tends to be negatively related to the Total category, indicating that persons with this

1

Fa V

a

a V

m

. i D

9

m

00.

rl

?

0

0 m

00.

m

9

0


r D ,

4 d

+

0 rl N

V

a

U

LI

o

m

c1

ri

0

0

?

m

0 m

4

00.

m

m

9 9

m

+ +

d

? ?

4

5‘9

x Y cn

0

I

x 9

209

B. Westerlundh and H.Goback

210

type of adaptation do not react to the experimental operation. Those with barrier isolation (210) in the DMT tend to react to the aggressive provocation, especially with reaction formation. There are some relations between blackeninglanxiety (62. .) in the DMT and in the S E X condition, indicating an activation of oedipal castration anxiety common to the themes despite their difference as regards content. There are also R number of further relationships between signs in the geneses.

DISCUSSION

Hypotheses and outcome are recapitulated in Table 2 4 . Table 24 Summary of hypotheses and results in Experiment I11

AGG

Isolation

yes (discontinuities)

Aggressionlintroaggression, generally

no

Aggressionlintroaggression, hero

(yes)

Fearlunpleasure

No

SEX

Repression

Yes

Blackeninglanxiety, generally

yes

Blackeninglanxiety, hero

Yes

There is some support for all hypotheses, except that for fearlunpleasure in the AGG condition. In all experiments in this series, results for the SEX condition have been stronger generally, especially so for affect manifestations. This may be due to the activation of the defense of affect isolation in some AGG subjects which results in stimulus adequate reports to the neutral tachistoscopic stimuli. The non-predicted results of an increase in reports of positive interaction in SEX and of positive mood in AGG, as well as in long sequences of reports of adult hero in S E X , are in line with our general expectations for the operations used. These results allow us to conclude that the contrasting groups design has worked in this experiment. This is especially interesting, since pictures of mother-child interactions were used as experimental stimuli, and


21 1

the subjects were non-hospitalized. Evidently, early self and object representations remain dynamically active even in members of such a group. There were no significant interrelations between the increasing signs, which implies that they are widely distributed over persons in a condition. However, in contrast to results in the second experiment, there were a number of relationships between experimental and criterion percept-genesis classes. This highlights the central position of the conflict evoked by the DMT, especially for male subjects. In the comparison of experimental and criterion geneses, somc negative relations between DMT 243, affectless perception and reactions to the provocation of the AGG condition were found. This should be related to the equivalent result for few scored signs in the criterion genesis in the first experiment. A s w e have just argued, few signs in the neutral percept-geneses may well be another instance of isolation of affect. Such inhibitions of aggression and affect are often characterological, i.e. , have a traitlike character (Fenichel, 1946). The same type of criterion-experimental genesis relationships were found by Westerlundh (1976). A point of importance in the present study is that the interaction of meaning between independent and dependent stimuli is rather complex in

the SEX condition. There, i t is not just an introduction of a provocation affecting a neutral stimulus, it is an activation of contents which relate to a prohibited oedipal aim by the use of an independent oral t'aim'l and a dependent oedipal "forepleasure" stimulus. When object cathexes are abandoned, internal object relationships remain. The use of stimuli such as those of the present experiment opens an avenue for the study of psychoanalytic developmental and etiological hypotheses. This step towards central theoretical propositions has, of course, already been taken by Silverman ( e . g . , 1982) whose stimuli have moved from "a tiger chasing a monkey" to directly incestuous and oedipal messages.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Evidently, the experimental testing of psychoanalytic propositions hinges upon the correspondence of the experimental variables to the theor y . The concepts underlying the present operationalization were discussed in the first section of the chapter. Roughly, we build upon the following two basic conceptions:


212

(1) The proposition that internal and external stimuli are processed equivalently by the mental apparatus (Rapaport, 1960; Sandler & Joffe, 1969), opens a way for systematic experimental activation of drive and affect states by subliminal stimuli. ( 2 ) The possibility to study the consequences of this in mental functioning is assured by the compatibility of percept-genetic data with those obtained b y psychoanalytic observation methods ( c f . , Westerlundh & Smith, 1983). This has been discussed by Kline (19811, who concludes that the perceptgenetic methods assess defenses as conceivcd of in psychoanalysis. This conclusion is strengthened by the present research. The experimental strategy used has a number of limitations (frequent conflict themes have to be used; the hypotheses have to concern frequent types of defensive transformations). Yet, it has been possible to substantiate psychoanalytic descriptions of the nature and components of intrapsychic conflict and to provide experimental validation of a number of important scoring dimensions of Kragh's (1969) DMT. In particular, we have demonstrated that the cognitive reinterprctation of percept-genesis is not tenable, A s stated, this reinterpretation tries to explain the effectiveness of percept-genetic instruments in diagnosis and high-stress job selection in cognitive terms : that percept-genesis reveals a generally incomplete or primitive type of sense data analysis. However, the predicted differential results of these and other experiments using percept-geneses as dependent variables show that the scoring dimensions actually function in the manner of defenses as described in psychoanalytic theory. Genernlly, the results of this series of experiments on normals seem to point to the prevalence and importance of conflict in human mental functioning. They are not compatible with theoretical orientations that play down the role of intrapsychic conflict in the mediation of human behavior (e.g., Bandura, 1969).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The reported research was supported by the Swedish Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences.


213

REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Dixon, N.F. (1971). Subliminal Perception: The Nature of a Controversy. London: McGraw-Hill. Dixon, N.F. (1981). Preconscious Processing. Chichester: Wiley. Fenichel, 0. (1946). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Finney, D.J., Latscha, R., Bennett, B.M., & Hsu, P. (1963). Tables for Testing

Significance in a 2 x 2 contingency table. Cambridge: The Biometrika trustees. Freud, A. (1946). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. New York: International Universities Press. Freud, S. (1959). Inhibitions, symptoms, and anxiety. Standard Edition (Vol. 20, pp. 87-172). London: Hogarth Press. Hallborg, A. (1971). En undersbkning med storleks-avstandstecknik av kathek-

tiska preferenser jiimfbrt med personlighetskarakteristika i DMT och AlS. Unpublished FiLIic. thesis, Dept of Psychology, Lund University. Hartmann, H. (1964). Essays on Ego Psychology. New York: International Universities Press. Hays, W.L.

(1973). Statistics for t h e Social Sciences (2nd ed.).

New York:

Holt, Rinehart RC Winston. Heath, D. (1958). Projective tests as measures of defensive activity. Journal

of Projective Techniques, 22, 284-292. Holley, J.W., & Risberg, J. (1972). On the D estimate of discriminatory effectiveness. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 12( 12). Kline, P. (1981). Fact and Fantasy in Freudian Theory (2nd ed.).

London:

Met huen. Kragh, U.

(1969).

Manual till DMT. Defense Mechanism Test.

Stockholm:

Skandinaviska Test forlaget. Kragh, U. (1971). Kodshema f o r DMT. Mimeo, Department of Psychology, Lund University. Kragh, U. (1980). Rekonstruktion verschiedener Aspekte einer Personlichkeitsentwicklung mit dem Defense-Mechanism-Test: U. Hentschel 81 G.J.W.

eine Fallbeschreibung.

In

Smith (Eds.), Experimentelle PerGnlichkeitspsy-

chologie (pp. 107-131). Wiesbaden: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. Kragh, U., & Kroon, T. (1966). An analysis of aggression and identification in

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(1970). Percept-Genetic Analysis. Lund: Gleerup.

Mainland, D., Herrera, L., & Sutcliffe, M.I. (1956). Statistical Tables for Use with Binomial Samples. New York: Department of medical statistics, N.Y.U.

college of medicine.

Nilsson, I.-K., Colleen, S., & Mardh, P.-A. (1975). Relationship between psychological and laboratory findings in patients with symptoms of nonacute prostatitis. In D. Danielsson, L. Juhlin, & P.-A. Mardh (Eds.), Genital Infections and Their Complications. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksel International. Palmquist, A. (1974). JHmfbrelser av DMT och MCT baserade p a fyra kliniska grupper. Unpublished fiL1ic. thesis, Lund: Department of Psychology. Poetzl, 0. (1917). Experimentell erregte Traumbilder in ihren Beziehungen zum indirekten Sehen. Zeitschrift fiir die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 37, 278-349.

Rapaport, D. (1951). Toward a theory of thinking. In D. Rapaport (Ed.), Organization and Pathology of Thought. New York: Columbia University Press. Rapaport, D. (1960) The structure of psychoanalytic theory. Psychological Issues, (Monograph No.6). New Y o r k International Universities Press. Sander, F., & Volkelt, H. (1962). Ganzheitspsychologie. Munchen: Beck. Sandler, j., & Joffe, W. (1965). Notes on obsessional manifestations in children. The Psychoanalytic Study of t h e Child, 20, 425-438. Sandler, J., & Joffe, W. (1969). Towards a basic psychoanalytic model. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 50, 79-91. Sarnoff, 1. (1971). Testing Freudian Concepts. New York: Springer. Sharma, V.P. Application of a perceptgenetic test in a clinical setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lund University: Depart ment of Psychology. Silverman, L.H. (1982). The subliminal psychodynamic activation method: Overview and comprehensive listing of studies. In J. Masling (Ed.), Empirical Studies of Psychoanalytic Theory (Vol. 1, pp. 69-100). New jersey: Erlbaum. Silverman, L.H., & Geisler, C.J. (this volume, chapter 3). The subliminal psychodynamic activation method: Comprehensive listing update, individual differences, and other considerations. Sjobiick, H. (1973). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Defensive Processes. York: Wiley.

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& Henriksson, M. (1955). The effect on an established percept

of a perceptual process beyond awareness. Acta Psychologica, 11, 346355. Smith, C.J.W.,

Spence, D.P., & Klein, G.S.

(1959). Subliminal effects of verbal

stimuli. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 167-176. Smith, G.J.W.,

& Danielsson, A.

(1982). Anxiety and defensive strategies in

childhood and adolescence. Psychological Issues (Monograph No. 52). New York: International Universities Press. Westerlundh, B. (1976). Aggression, Anxiety, and Defence. Lund: Gleerup. Westerlundh, B. (1979). Conflict activation: Two experimental operations and their influence on percept-genesis. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund

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The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Dmguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

217

PERCEPT-GENETIC DEFENSES AGAINST ANXIETY A N D A THREATENED SENSE OF SELF AS SEEN IN TERMS OF THE SPIRAL AFTEREFFECT TECHNIQUE Alf L. Andersson and Margot Bengtsson Lund University, Sweden

INTRODUCTION The Spiral Aftereffect Technique (SAT) (Andersson, 1969, 1972) and a modified version of the Kragh (1960) Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) are both so-called perceptgenetic tools (Kragh

&

Smith, 1970; Smith

&

Wester-

lundh, , 1980) developed for personality research and diagnostic purposes. They were employed in the present study with the aim of exploring relationships between measures they provided and of cross-validating, i f possible, the findings of a previous investigation involving male subjects (Andersson 8 Weikert, 1 9 7 4 , 1980). Subjects in the present study were female university students. The DMT was administered as an individual test, rather than as a group test as in the previous study, Moreover, the second of two tachistoscopically presented motifs in the DMT was varied from that normally employed with women subjects, the peripherally placed figure of a threatening woman bcing exchanged for that of a threatening man. Thus the version of DMT used here allowed perceptgenetic defenses to appear in relation to a "threatening other" of each sex. Despite these differences a s compared with the earlier investigation, our expectation was that the same basic relationships between SAT and DMT measures would be found as previously. In the SAT the subject reports the duration of the aftereffect experience resulting from viewing a rotating spiral line. Ten trials are given in direct succession, thus providing ten duration scores in sequence. One of the major measures pertaining to the sequence is that of the final level of aftereffect duration ( f L ) , referred to a s SAT identity; another is an expression of linear regression or change in aftereffect duration over the ten trials ( R ) , referred to as SAT strategy. It turned out in the Andersson

&

218

A.L. Andersson and M. Bengtsson

Weikert (1974) study that the fL and R variables were both related to perceptgenetic defense indices in the DMT , but to basically different ones.

SAT STRATEGY A N D PERCEPT-GENETIC DEFENSES In the Andersson & Weikert (1974) study there was a pronounced difference in SAT strategy between subjects scored for repression and those scored for introaggression or turning (of aggression) against the self in DMT. (Details of scoring appear in the Method section.) A s predicted, repression tended to occur together with a minus trend (RcO) in SAT and introaggression together with a plus trend (R>O). When descriptions of negative intent were obtained regarding not the hero (introaggression) but the hero's attribute or the peripheral, threatening figure (projected introaggression), a minus trend in SAT tended to be more common than a plus trend, For the type of isolation in DMT, where a clear-cut barrier was introduced between the hero and the peripheral figure, the question of which SAT trend obtained was found to depend on whether or not the subject also displayed repression. When appearing without repression it was accompanied b y a plus trend. Unfortunately, we were unable to investigate such a relationship in the present study since practically no subject was found to score for isolation of the type just described. Regarding two other forms of isolation, namely loss of the total configuration reported in a previous exposure and the threatening figure being reported as a white or shining field or object, support was obtained in the previous study for the prediction that these would more often be found among subjects classified as LL or M,, in SAT (cf. Method) than among s other subjects. Another form of isolation, considered here, though not examined in the previous study, is characterized by a frame or contour reported at the location of the peripheral figure being empty of inside content. This defensive measure may be more closely akin to the form of isolation where a clear-cut barrier is introduced between the hero and the peripheral figure than to one where the threat is "whitewashed. There were two other indices of defense not considered in the previous study, indices based on specific scorings of repression and projected introaggression. The indices in question were named by Kragh (1969) after the clinical state to which they are assumed to relate. One, "depressive

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral Aftereffect Technique inhibition,

219

refers to repression scores of the peripheral figure appearing

in a consecutive series of phases. The other, 'Idepression without inhibition, involves projected introaggression scores appearing late in the DMT genesis, obtained for the peripheral figure. In a previous study concerning a clinical group, a plus trend in SAT was more often found with !la depressive mood not possible to divert" and a minus trend with !la depressive mood possible to divert" (Andersson, 1967). Since these characteristics appeared together with more and with less frequent occurrence, respectively, of clinically observed depressive inhibition, it was predicted that the DMT index of depressive inhibition would be linked with a plus trend in SAT, depression without inhibition with a minus trend. This prediction, to be s u r e , might seem at odds with a finding of Smith et al. (1971) that ratings of depressive retardation in a moderately depressive clinical group were more often linked with a minus rather than a plus trend. In that study, however, the SAT trend estimate was primarily determined by trials in excess of the ten of the standard technique used here. Another sign considered in the present, but not in the previous, study should strictly speaking be regarded not as an indication of defense but as an attempt by the subject to express the anticipated danger or anxiety experienced in the DMT. Rather than taking the form of (la specific meaning" (as in repression, introaggression or projected introaggression) or "an exclusion of meaning" (as in some forms of isolation), such an expression should be characterized by the reverse of this: looseness, vagueness, unstructuredness, etc. This is exactly what Kragh (1969) and Smith, Johnson,

&

Almgren (1982) have interpreted a s anxiety, and (as

described under Method) we have adopted from them two perceptgenetic varieties by which anxiety is assumed to be expressed. Since expressions of anxiety are centered on the personal self, it was reasoned that they should more often appear in connection with a plus trend in SAT ("self orientation") than with a minus trend ("nonself orientation"). It was also reasoned that the awareness and expression of anxiety should be more common among subjects who are prone to manifest anxiety, especially subjects who could be expected, in particular, to display an H+ pattern (cf. Method) in SAT (Andersson, 1972; Smith, Hentschel, & Andersson, 1980). There were also other DMT indices considered in relation to the R variable in the previous study. One of these, introaggressionlstereotypy, could not be dealt with here, since the shift in testing procedure made it


220

impossible to use the previous form of scoring. Another index, projection/ sensitivity, had been found in the previous study to be partly confounded with other indices, making an assessment of its separate contribution to variations in the R variable difficult. Because of this and because of difficulties which were soon observed in applying the previous form of scoring, we decided to make no use of this index in the present study either.

W e decided, on the other hand, to explore still another index of defense, reaction formation, not in relationship to the R variable as previously, but in relationship to the fL variable. This was due to a reconsideration of the possible relationships between SAT and DMT measures as presented below.

SAT IDENTITY A N D PERCEPTGENETIC DEFENSES

In the previous study, reaction formation was scored whenever the threatening figure was denoted as sympathetic andlor had, o r tried to get, a positive contact with the hero. In some subjects this perceptgenetic defense was even more pronounced, the hero and the peripheral figure also being judged a s having a mutually active and positive relationship. All subjects with this last-mentioned characteristic were likewise scored for some or one of various possible forms of introjection, namely introjection of the opposite sex (male subjects reporting the male hero in a long series of exposures as being female or reporting changes of the sex of the hero from male to female), polymorphous introjection (both hero and the peripheral figure being reported as children, or two persons being reported at the place of the hero, or report being given of many shifts of the scx of the hero), or projected introjection (the peripheral figure being explicitly denoted as the mother of the boylhero or a s a child younger than the hero). A s predicted, introjection indices in the Andersson

&

Weikert (1974)

study were more often found with subjects who obtained a SAT classification of LLs, LL, L , or H than with M subjects who have an intermediate fL (cf. Method). Moreover, projected introjection was more often found with H subjects than with other subjects. We expected the same results to appear in the present study. We also wanted to explore relationships between the

fL variable and other indices which, like introjection. could be subsumed under the category of perceptgenetic defense referred to recently as disavowal (Andersson, 1983), a category implying defensive denial through

22 1

PerceptGenetic Defenses and the Spiral AftereffectTechnique

a reversal in meaning of the "true" characteristics of a DMT motif. Such reversals were found to primarily apply to the sex, age, number, or threat characteristics of the hero andlor the peripheral figure; they were assumed to be used by the subject in the presence of anxiety due to a threatened sense of self. In contrast, M subjects, due to their more autonomous

and

self-providing

identity,

were

expected

to

be

less

vulnerable to anxiety of this sort as aroused by a threat external to the (projected) self, i . e . , as aroused by the kind of object relation brought about by the DMT. We were also interested in distinguishing, if possible, between two kinds of disavowal indices, those which at least in some sense corresponded to the distinction previously made between projected introjection and other forms of introjection. The guiding principle here was the (heuristic) idea of the hero figure representing the projected self (as a child or teenager) and of the peripheral figure representing the projected other (as a parental, threatening adult). These self and other representations are seen as part of the same unit o r totality, the assumption being that when the defense of disavowal is activated i t may indicate more of one than of the other of two basic interactional or relational conditions (Andersson, 1984). One of these, the more primordial one, implies a kind of subordination to the other a s a way of maintaining a secure sense of self. Within the selfother relationship which is activated here, there is more of a denial or devaluation of the subject's own sense of self than of the identity of the other. In contrast to this, a secure sense of self may be achieved or maintained by means of the reverse of subordination, where instead of denying one's own sense of self, the subject denies, devaluates, or takes over, the identity of the (powerful) other. Such a denial might take the form of what above was referred to as projected introjection. We could also think of the following percept-genetic expressions of this form of denial through reversal: substitution of the peripheral figure and of the hero for each other, taking on of characteristics by the hero, like those of old age o r , possibly, the peripheral figure's threatening character ( "identification with the aggressor!' in Kragh, 1969), shifts in the sex of the peripheral figure, and more than one person being seen at the place of the peripheral figure. None of these indices were used in the Andersson L Weikert (1974) study, but these or similar indices have been explored in other perceptgenetic

A.L. Andersson and M . Bengtsson

222

studies (Smith & Nordstrom, 1975; Sharma, 1977; Neuman, 1978; Smith B Danielsson, 1982 : Westerlundh, 1982) Since disavowal was understood as denial through reversal of mean-

.

ing, we were also interested in a kind of defense which could be referred to as plain denial - not to be confused with the psychodynamic defense of negation (cf. Sjoblck. 1973). Plain denial is a defensive measure which does not operate by means of reversal but is nevertheless directed primarily against external danger or something representing external danger. According to Anna Freud (1946). the counterpart of such a defense, if directed against internal danger, would be repression. This suggests that (plain) denial should be more related to the R variable than to the fL variable o r , possibly, to a combination of these variables. We could think of two varieties of denial, both subsumed by Kragh (1969) under the defense of isolation. The more clear-cut one is revealed by a long series in which no reference is made to the peripheral figure or in which there is a refusal to give an interpretation of this figure beyond that of it being "something." The other variety involves a refusal to report any kind of threatening or even unsympathetic connotation of the peripheral figure. This kind of denial might, however, be closer to the defense of disavowal than to plain denial. Accordingly, in the final scheme of scoring it was subsumed under the category of disavowal.

METHOD SUBJECTS

After the exclusion of two subjects who turned out to have been acquainted with the DMT beforehand, the present sample comprised 48 female students who had just begun their studies at Lund University. They were all tested with the SAT and DMT as part of a more comprehensive investigation, both of subjects' patterns of perceived similarity (identification) with their parents, and of their choice of an area for academic studies (Bengtsson, 1 9 8 3 ) . Half of the subjects had just commenced their studies in humanities, the other half in natural sciences. Their median age was 2 0 . 4 years. with an age range of 19 to 35 years (as compared with a median age of 22 years and an age range of 20 to 3 1 years in the previous, male sample).

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral AftereffectTechnique

223

SA T

The standard SAT procedure was employed, i . e . , each subject was f i s t acquainted with the aftereffect phenomenon before the main trials began about half an hour later. A s usual, the aftereffect was induced on each trial by means of the subject's watching for 45 seconds a spiral line seeming to rotate towards its center. Immediately thereafter, a stationary circle was shown onto which the subject "projected" her aftereffect experience of apparent expansion andlor approach of the circle. The subject's task was to determine when the aftereffect experience had terminated and to report this to the experimenter (cf. Fig. 1). For a full account of the SAT, the reader should consult Andersson (1972). The apparatus was the same as described in Andersson, Nilsson, and Henriksson (1970).

ROTATINQ SPIRAL WUlCH APPEARS TO CONTRACT

-

45 SEC -~ --T

TIME DIMENSION

+ I

AFTEREFFECT OURITION

n

POINTOF REFERENCE WHERE THE CIRCLE IS PERCEIVED AS STATIONARV

Figure 1. The SAT during one t r i a l (from Andersson, 1983).

The ten main trials were in direct succession and the scores of aftereffect duration obtained from them were used when calculating the appropriate measures. The arithmetic mean of trials 9 and 10 defined the fL

A.L. Andersson and M . Bengtsson

224

measure. The R measure was calculated according to the formula 4.5t10+ 3.5t +2.5t +l.5t7+0.5t6-(0.5t5+1. 5t4+2.5t3+3 .5t2+4,5tl), where tl, t 2 , etc. 9 8 denote the consecutive scores of aftereffect duration within a margin of exactness of half a second. The cutoff points for the fL and R measures used in defining various SAT groups (cf. Fig. 2 ) , were taken from Andersson (1969) and Andersson k Weikert (1974). The H group referred to subjects with fL above 16.5 seconds; the M group to fL being in the range of 7.5 to 16.5 seconds; the L group to fL being below 7.5 but above or at 3.25 seconds; the LL group

to fL being below 3.25 seconds. Subjects with none of their ten scores above 2.5 seconds were not placed in the LL group but in the LLs group. The minus (-) or plus (+) trend was indicated by appending the appropriate sign to the subject’s L , M , or H designation. LLs and LL subjects were always considered to have a minus trend. A zero ( 0 ) trend, used only with M subjects, was defined by the R range of -20 to +20. The subjects a s a whole showed the following distribution: 2LLs, 7LL, 12L-, 1L+, EM- (of whicb 3 were Mo), 6 M + (of which none was Mo), 5H-, and 7H+.

Figure 2. Schematic presentation of different spiral aftereffect (SAE) patterns over the t r i a l s (from Andersson, 1983).

Percept-Genetic Defenees and the Spiral AftereffectTechnique

225

DMT

The apparatus used for tachistoscopic exposure of the DMT motifs was the same as described by Kragh (1969).

The exposure times followed an

increasing scale of 1 5 steps from 10 to 50 milliseconds. This scale was used with each of the two main motifs in an attempt to repeat a s closely as possible the conditions employed in the previous study. A distractor motif was shown for 30 milliseconds three times: prior to presentation of the first main motif series, between presentations of the

first and second main motif series, and following the presentation of the second main motif series. The distractor motif was constructed to be a s neutral in content as possible, displaying a field of unpatterned dots. The reason for choosing this motif to frame the exposure series of the main motifs was experience from the previous study indicating that in some subjects distinct connotations of a distractor motif (as in the standard DMT) easily penetrate into the reports of the subsequent main motifs. The subject's task was to make a simple drawing of what she had perceived after each exposure and to supplement the drawing with a verbal statement which the experimenter recorded. In the instruction, the subject was told to report all impressions she might have of an exposure. She was also told to report any person she saw and, if she did see one, to t r y to report the person's state of mind, age, and sex. Using this instruction kept inquiries during testing at a minimum. The instruction was similar to the one used in the previous study, with one exception. In that study subjects were told beforehand (in line with the group testing procedure) to report any threat that might possibly occur. In the main motif shown to the subject first in the present study, the centrally placed hero figure was a girl sitting at a table with a plate on it. In the right-hand upper corner of the picture the upper part of the body of a middle-aged woman who had a threatening expression on her face was shown. In the second main motif the hero figure was a female teenager who was kneeling and holding a half-opened wrist-bag in her hands. Behind h e r , in the left-hand upper corner of the picture, was the upper part of the body of a middle-aged man who was stretching his hand towards h e r , displaying a threatening expression on his face. In scoring the DMT, the two main series were treated separately. If not otherwise indicated, the scoring as presented below refers to the occurrence of a sign in any phaselexposure of the two series. There was

226


practically total agreement between independently made scorings by the two authors. The only index where some uncertainty prevailed was the second category of anxiety. Here there were two cases where we had to settle the scoring by finding and agreeing on supportive signs in the DMT protocols as a whole. The scoring scheme was guided by the considerations mentioned in the introduction and was made as similar as possible to the onc used and presented in Andersson

&

Weikert (1974). When needed, for example, for

describing a defensive category more inclusively than previously or for determining the number of phases required for a scoring not previously used, Kragh's (1969) scheme was consulted. However, for two of his categories, to which we refer as disavowal 4a and 5a, it WAS decided on the basis of the present protocol material to introduce the requirement that a sign appear in at least two phases for the category to be scored. A s already noted in the introduction, some varieties of DMT defenses were not observed among the present subjects and consequently were not included in the scheme which follows. It should be observed that this scheme partly deviates from the one used by Kragh (1969) as it is described in chapter 9 . Repression. The (1) hero and/or ( 2 ) the peripheral figure or face is reported as (a) petrified, inanimate, or disguised. (b) an animal, or ( c ) a specified object. (3) Hero's attribute is reported as (a) a petrified or inanimate creature or (b) an animal. Repression l b and l c , as listed here, were not found among the present subjects. Introaggression , The hero is reported as injured, worthless, unhappy, exposed, or whatever, as directing aggression, criticism, and the like against her/himself, or as involved in situation of destruction or chaos. Projected introaggression. The (1) peripheral figure is reported as injured, tormented, dejected, unhappy, frightened, alarmed, worried, exposed, or whatever, or ( 2 the hero's attribute is reported as damaged, broken, worthless, something bad, as restricting, and the like, o r , in the exposure series of the second motif, as being dropped or missing. Isolation. (1) There is loss in one phase or in two consecutive phases of the total content reported earlier. The peripheral figure is reported as ( 2 ) a

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral Aftereffect Technique

221

light or shining object, surface or face, or as ( 3 ) an object, surface, or face in contour, i t s inside being empty. Depression. (1) Repression 2a or repression 2c is found in at least 5 consecutive phases, or ( 2 ) projected introaggression 1 is observed in at least 2 phases late in the series of exposures (exposures 11 to 15).

Anxiety. (1) Something dissolved, fragmentary, or shaded is reported at the location of the peripheral figure before it is reported as a person or a face; this scoring is not given when the peripheral figure is simply reported as a diffuse spot, something diffuse, or whatever, without further specification. ( 2 ) The report of the peripheral figure as a person or a face is changed to its being seen as something dissolved, diffuse, blurred, greyish, whitish, and the like, or to its being markedly smudged out (but not lost); i t is not scored when the peripheral figure is simply reported as less visible than before. Denial. There is nothing reported at the place of the peripheral figure, or this figure is not interpreted beyond being "something (light/dark)" in at least 7 consecutive phases from the first phase (exposure) onward. Disavowal. The following varieties of disavowal were seored, specified here according to the kind of more or less clear-cut reversal used by the subject: (1)

through doubling or multiplying (a) the hero figure ( b ) the peripheral figure

(2)

through substitution, that is (a) exchange in location of the hero and the peripheral figure (b) the peripheral figure being reported as looking like the hero

(3)

through inversed or indefinite sex (a) the sex of the hero i s changed from being correct in one phase to incorrect in the next and is denoted as incorrect or indefinite in the last (15th) phase (b) the same as (a) but the correct sex of the hero being denoted in the last phase (c) the sex of the hero being incorrect in all phases where it is denoted ( d ) the sex of the hero being incorrect in at least 8 consecutive phases where the sex is denoted

A.L. Andersson and M.Bengtsson

228

(el the sex of the hero being indefinite in all phases ( f ) the sex of the peripheral figure being changed from being correct in one phase to being incorrect in the next (not scored when the peripheral figure is denoted as unsympathetic or threatening at the phase where change occurs) through incorrect age (a) both hero and the peripheral figure being reported as children in at least 2 phases (not scored when the peripheral figure is denoted as unsympathetic or threatening in these phases) (b) the hero being reported as child or a young person and the peripheral figure as a (neither unsympathetic nor threatening) person younger than the hero (this category was not observed among the present subjects) (c) the hero being changed from a child or young person in one phase to an elderly person ( 3 5 years of age or more ) in the next ( d ) the hero being reported as an elderly person in at least 12 consecutive phases through inversion of threat or lack of recognition of it (a) the peripheral figure is denoted as positive, or both the hero nnd the peripheral figure are reported as positive or as having a positive relationship in at least 2 phases ( b ) the hero being reported as angry or threatening, whereas the peripheral figure is seen as neither unsympathetic nor threatening (c) the peripheral figure in the exposure series of the second motif being explicitly denoted as the hero's (neither unsympathetic nor threatening) mother (d) the peripheral figure, though reported as a person or a face, being reported in no phase as unsympathetic or threatening.

RESULTS Among the present subjects perceptgenetic indices of disavowal were more than twice as common for the first DMT motif, with the female threat, than for the second, with the male threat. This finding was the reverse of that for DMT indices other than disavowal, that were more than twice as frequent for the second motif as for the first.


229

Comparing the indices of repression and introaggression yielded results in the expected direction; introaggression occurred more often with a plus trend in SAT, repression more often with a minus trend (Table 1; Fisher's exact test of 2x2 tables, two-tailed, is used throughout comparisons, both in the tables and in the text). Table 1 Distribution of subjects on SAT patterns and on DMT indices of repression and introaggression

Characteristic

LLs, LL, L-, M-, H-

(a) Neither repression nor lntroaggression

13

(b) Repression but not introaggression

15

(c) Introaggression and repression

2

(d) Introaggression but not repression

4

Cf. (b)

VS.

(c) and (d):

p=0.002.

L+,

M+,

Ht

Cf. (a) and (b) vs. (c) and (d): p=0.0004.

Similar results appeared with the indices of introaggression and projected introaggression. A s predicted, the latter variable was linked with a minus trend, a close relationship between a plus trend and introaggression being found, except when this index occurred together with projected introaggression (Table 2 ) . Table 2 Distribution of subjects on SAT patterns and on DMT lndlces

of introaggression and projected introaggresslon

LL, L-, M-, H-

LL

Characteristic

L+, M+, H+

S'

22

1

(b) Projected lntrosggression but not introaggression

6

1

(c) Projected introapgresslon and introaggresslon

4

1

2

11

(a) Neither lntroaggtession nor projected introaggression

(d)

Introaggression but not projected introaggre8s ion

Cf. (b) and (c)

vs. ( d ) : p=O.002.

Cf. (a), (b), and (c)

VS.

(d): p=0.000002.


230

The prediction that isolation 1 and 2 should be more common among LLs and M o subjects than among other subjects was not supported. The

two LLs subjects showed one or the other of these indices, whereas the three M o subjects showed none. For isolation 3 , however, the results were in line with expectations, this index being more often found with a plus trend in SAT than with a minus trend (frequencies 4 vs. 2 and 10 vs. 3 2 , p=o . l o ) . Depression 2 was found in only one subject (an H-), while depression 1 was observed among 5 subjects and, as expected, was more frequently found with a plus than with a minus trend. A difference in SAT trend between subjects scored for depression 1 and those scored for repression but

not for depression 1 was also evident (Table 3 ) . Table 3 Distribution of subjects on SAT patterns and on DMT indices of repression and depressive inhibition (depression 1)

LLs, LL, L-, M-, H-

Characteristic

(a) Neither repression nor depressive inhibition

17

(b) Repression but not depressive inhibition

16

(c) Depressive inhibition

Cf. (b) vs. (c): p-0.03.

L+, M+, H+

1

Cf. (a) and (b) vs. ( c ) : p-0.04.

There was strong support for our hypothesis that anxiety would be more frequently associated with a plus trend in SAT than with a minus trend (frequencies 8 vs. 1 and 6 vs. 3 3 , p=O.OOOl). Among SAT patterns, H+ was, as expected, the one most closely related to anxiety (frequencies 5 vs. 4 and 2 vs. 3 7 , p=0.003). LLs and L subjects showed denial more

often than other subjects (frequencies 7 vs. 2 and 7 vs. 3 2 , p=0.002). Table 4 is a summing up of the more clear-cut findings concerning DLlT indices and SAT trend o r strategy.

Percept-Genetic Defenseu and the Spiral AftereffectTechnique

23 1

Table 4 Distribution of subjects on SAT patterns and on DMT indices of repression, introaggression, projected introaggression, depressive inhibition (depression 1) and anxiety

LLs, LL, L-, M-, H-

Characteristics

L+, M+,

H+

(a) Neither repression, introaggression, projected introaggression, depressive inhibition nor anxiety

9

0

21

0

4

14

(b) Repression and/or projected introsggression but neither introaggression without projected lntroaggression, depressive inhibition nor anxiety (c) One or more of: introaggression without projected introaggression, depressive inhibition, anxiety

Cf. (b)

vs. (c): p-0.0000004.

Cf. (a) and (b) vs. (c): p=O.OOOOOOOO.

The distribution of the present subjects with respect to SAT identity characteristics and those indices of disavowal also used in the previous study (but there referred to as introjection and projected introjection) is shown in Table 5 . Table 5 Distribution of subjects on SAT identity characteristics and on DMT indices of disavowal employed in the previous study (but referred to there as introjection and pro jected introjection)

maracteristic

LL

Disavowal la, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, &a, or 5c

LL, L

16

8’

Not these indices of disavowal

6

H

5

7

M

2

12

Cf. LL

8’

LL, L, and H

VS.

M: p-0.006,

The results were in line with what the previous findings could have led one to expect, M subjects being scored for these DMT indices less often than other subjects. However, among the present subjects, one of the two indices previously referred to a s projected introjection, disavowal 4b, was not observed and the other, disavowal 5c, appeared in only two


232

subjects, who were both classified a s M , where it had been expected that

it would instead be H subjects who would show this sign. The same two M subjects were also scored for disavowal 5d, a characteristic that otherwise was more often found in H subjects than in other subjects (frequencies 7 vs. 8 and 5 vs. 28, p=O.O5). Incidentally, all subjects with disavowal 5d were also scored for some other index of disavowal. Disavowal 2a-b and disavowal 4c-d,

respectively,

were more often

found in H subjects than in other subjects (frequencies 4 vs. 0 and 8 vs.

36, p=0.005; 6 vs. 0 and 6 vs. 36, p=0.0002). Disavowal l b and 3f were both observed among too few subjects to allow a definite conclusion to be drawn though three of the four subjects with these indices were also classified as H . Disavowal 3a-b and disavowal 3a-d, respectively, were more common among L subjects than among other subjects (frequencies 5 vs. 3 and 8 vs. 32, p=O.O5; 8 vs. 1 0 and 5 vs. 25, p=O.O8). Disavowal 5b was not found for any H subject, suggesting that this index should not be subsumed under the same subcategory as disavowal l b , 2a-b, 3f, and 4c-d. The presentation in Table 6 is merely an attempt to delineate subcategories as suggested by this finding, as well as by the ideas presented in the introduction and the assessment that indices in category 5 are of a different order than other indices of disavowal. In any case, the prediction that disavowal would be less often found with M than with LLs, LL, L, and H subjects was strongly supported. Table 6 Distribution of subjects on SAT identity characteristics and on DMT categories of disavowal A (la, 3a-e, 4a), B (5a-d), and C (lb, 2a-b, 3f, 4c-d)

LLs, LL, L

Characteristic

Disavowal

A and

B

H

9

M

1

1

0

A

7

1

B

2

0

1

1

4

0

A,

B, and C

A and C

0

0

0

B and C

0

3

0

Not A, B, or C

3

0

12

Cf. A, B, or C vs. not A, B, o r C f o r LL Cf. C vs. not C for H

VB.

LL

8’

LL, L and H vs. M: p=O.OOOOOl.

LL, L, and M: p=O.O000002. 8’

233

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral Aftereffect Technique DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS It can be concluded that the major findings in Andersson

&

Weikert

(1974) were successfully cross-validated in the present study, Thus, the

relationships between SAT and DMT data seem to be comparable across sexes and also across rather broad educational levels, the group of male conscripts tested in the earlier study being less selected in this respect than the present group of female university students. Moreover, use of the modified version of DMT called forth a broad repertoire of perceptgenetic expressions of defense. In the previous study, the conceptual frame of reference inherent in the SAT was used for interpreting different types of percept-genetic defense. This frame of reference will also be used here, but now as part of a developmental model formulated recently (Andersson, 1983) and shown in Fig. 3. That model aims at linking the SAT variables with a dialectical conception of cognitive growth (Andersson, Franzen,

&

Ruuth, 1972; An-

DANGER OF REALISTIC THREATS DANGER OF LOSS OF SENSE OF SELF DANGER OF LOSS OF SELF-ESTEEM DANGEI! OF UNREALISTIC, FANTASIED (E.G. OEDIPAL1THREATS DANGER OF LOSSOF LOVE OF LOVE-OBJECT151 .~. DANGEROF LOSS OF SELFOBJECT IS) DANGER OF TRAUMATIC OVERSTIMULATION TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL 4 DC ;11 yeorr CREATIVITY PRINCIPLE

__________________________

,

; I

PF -----o

I

-

; '

18monlhs

2

MODEL OF SELF AND OBJECT

' PLEASURE PRINCIPLE

I

I

,.'

SM I

TR

I

-

MODEL OF NUCLEI OF EGO A N D SUPEREGO REPETITION PRINCIPLE

I

& I

, ;

REFLEX ARC MODEL UNPLEASURE PRINCIPLE 2 3 4 L L L H + 0

5

6

7phon

M

LL,

Figure 3. Outline of cognitive growth as related to psychoanalytic conceptions of mind and to strategy (-, +, 0) and identity (LLs, LL, L, H, M) characteristics of SAT (from Andersson, 1983, somewhat modified).

234


dersson , Johansson , Karlsson , h Ohlsson , 1972 : Andersson, Ruuth, 8 Ageberg, 1977; Andersson, 1984) and with the hierarchical view of psychoanalytic theory of Gedo & Goldberg (1973). A s shown diagrammatically in Fig. 3 , the model contains two main lines of cognitive development, the SM-CO line ("sensorimotor actions toward signaled things" and "conceptual-operational transformations") and the PF-DC line ("perceptual-figural regulations" and '?dialectical constructions"), These are seen as having their counterparts in social-emotional growth, notably in the respective developmental lines of object love and narcissism of psychoanalytic theory (Kohut, 1971, 1977). The developmental lines of object love is rclated primarily to one particular motive for dcfense, namely anxiety as evoked by fantasies of as yet unconscious threats o r dangers. According to the model, such fantasies are at their height in phase 4 ("danger of unrealistic, fantasied - e.g. Oedipal - threats"), various forms of intrapsychic defense against them being assumed to be effective from the next phase (phase 5 ) on. The developmental line of narciss i s m is not primarily related to unconscious fantasies of danger as a motive for defense, but to preconscious ones conceived of as a threat to onels secure sense of self or feeling of identity. These fantasies are seen as being particularly activated in phase 6 ("danger of loss of sense of self"), with effective defenses against them appearing from the next phase (phase 7 ) on. Percept-genetic indices of defense aroused by an unconscious fantasy of danger are considered, according to the model, as being linked with the R variable, and those aroused by a preconscious fantasy of a threatened sense of self as being linked with the fL variable in SAT. The SAT strategies of minus, plus, and zero trends are considered to have their origin in phases 1, 2 , and 3 , respectively, along the SM line. Likewise, the roots of the LL or L , H, and M designations, all referring to different kinds of SAT identity, are viewed as being found in phases 3 , 4 , and 5 , respectively, along the PF line. LLs is a special case. Although related to phase 3 , just as zero trend and LL are, as well, its prototypical stage should primarily be at phase 1 on the TR line (Wopistic-reflex reactions to stimuli") . The prototypical phases are regarded as normal developmental positions. This means they are recognized primarily on the basis of the object relations, anxieties, and ways of handling anxiety specific to them. It is important to keep in mind, however, that these phases are reconstructed

23 5


under more structured mental conditions later in life. It is not until then that they receive their specific meaning and significance a s an asset or a liability within the formation of individual personalities (Andersson, 1984). That defenses employed against an unconscious fantasy of danger should not appear in a more mature form until phase 5 or later, is an idea supported by the findings of Smith

&

Danielsson (1982) who used the per-

cept-genetic Meta Contrast Technique (cf. Smith

&

Carlsson, 1983). From

then on, anxiety is thus more evidently due to intrapsychic conflict than before, with its more marked effects observable in various types of neurosis. The model of mind that Freud (1923) developed for understanding

such conflict is the tripartite or structural one. The major conflict there could either be one between the ego and the id (as in a refined form in hysteria, where the superego is still partly merged with the i d ) , between the ego and the superego (as in depressive neurosis), o r between the superego and the id (as in compulsive-obsessive neurosis, where ego and superego a r e strongly merged).

If one thinks of these conflicts as forming a developmental hierarchy, it should be possible to trace their roots back to long before the i d , ego, and superego can be inferred as being separate structures. The model of the nuclei of ego and superego (see Fig. 3) was referred to previously (Andersson. 1983).

in accordance with the scheme of Gedo

&

Goldberg

( 1 9 7 3 ) , as the model of the nuclei of self and object. The designation used

here is presumed to be in better agreement with our dialectical conception

of mental growth. Thus the ground plan of what later takes more distinct form should be estnblished during the first years of life, whereas the form which finally evolves after the Oedipal crisis has been solved can be understood in terms of the tripartite model. This idea seems to be in line with the thinking of Melanie Elein (cf. Segal, 1964). We believe i t to be more than a mere coincidence, in fact, that the developmental positions in her theory, namely the paranoid-schizoid, the depressive, and the (less well-known) manic-obsessional (Klein , 1935, 1940, 1 9 4 6 ) , can be linked with phases 1, 2 , and 3 , respectively, of the present model. Fairbairn (1944) should also be mentioned here, since he maintains that hysteria has its roots in the first Kleinian position, i.e., in the paranoid-schizoid one (cf. Klein, 1 9 4 6 ) . Other psychoanalysts ( e . g . Marmor, 1953) have also stressed the early origins of hysteria by pointing to i t s oral component alongside the commonly accepted phallic-narcissistic one.


236

The Kleinian view of developmental positions should be a help in interpreting what kinds of basic anxiety are subsumed under our broad concept of "unconscious fantasy of danger." The anxiety which originates in the paranoid-schizoid position is referred to as persecutory (paranoid) anxiety, i . e . ,

as the dread of being attacked by bad or evil (part-)

objects. Projection of bad o r (self-)destructive impulses o r splitting into good and bad parts are presumed to be the most typical defenses used against this form of anxiety. Repression is regarded by Rlein as a mature form of splitting defense. According to the present model, the SAT strategy of a minus trend, assumed to have its origin in phase 1, should be linked primarily with defenses that are used to deal with persecutory anxiety. The present results indicate the percept-genetic defenses involved here to be projected introaggression and repression, defenses which coincide well with the Kleinian

view just referred to (cf. Table 7 ) . One should note too the role played Table 7 Synopsis of the major r e s u l t s and t h e i r conceptual framework

Basic motive

P r o t o t y p i c a l phase

for defense

Related

o r developmental

Motive

activated in

percept-genetic

Related SAT

p o s i t i o n according

defense,

the DMT

defense

characteristic

t o model i n Fig. 3

specified

Unconscious

Projected introag-

Minus trend ( - )

fantasy of

gression o r

danger

repression

1

for

Persecutory anxiety

____________________________________ Ditto

Introaggression or

Plus trend (+)

2

depressive i n h i b i t ion

Depressive anxiety

(depression 1 )

________________------------

Preconscious

Disavowal A o r B

LL, including

fantasy of a

( c f . Table 6 )

LL

a'

3

or L

Feared l o s s of an

threatened

idealized

self-ob J e c t

sense of s e l f

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ditto

Disavowal C

H

4

Feared loss of a grandiose self

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral Aftereffect Technique

237

by the threatening DUT figure when persecutory anxiety is activated. Usually this figure is seen to represent (on an unconscious level) a punitive parental figure. This punitive figure is probably not as "trulyTrrepresentative of the superego in the case of persecutory anxiety as in the case of depressive (or obsessional) anxiety (cf. below). In the former case, such a figure might appropriately be characterized by features that Fairbairn (1944) refers to as those of "an unconditionally bad object" not yet linked with "the moral defense!' and its developmentally later level of organization. Perhaps this is the reason why the defense of repression is not restricted to appearing with the peripheral figure but can also appear with the other stimulus configurations in DMT, viz. the hero and its attribute. Depressive anxiety is aroused in the depressive position when, in accordance with Kleinian theory, the infant finds out that his love and his hate are directed towards the same (whole) object. The infant's solution to this basic conflict of ambivalence is to protect from its hatred the object which it depends on and to make reparation for what damage it can have done to that object. One prominent form of defense under such circumstances seems to be to direct aggression, not against the object, but against the self. This defense appears to u s , later in development, when the superego takes over the role of the ambivalently loved object, to be closely linked with guilt. It is thus the superego which gives rise to feelings of guilt and self-reproach, feelings which can reasonably be assumed to be severe when the forerunner of the superego appears in an early phase of the depressive position. Again our results seem to f i t quite well with the v i e w just presented. Thus the SAT strategy of a plus trend, assumed to be linked with phase 2 in the model, was most typically related to the percept-genetic defenses of introaggression (turning of aggression against the self) and depressive inhibition (depression 1). The last-mentioned defense seems to imply that repression is used to defend against a scvere superego. It is of interest to note that only the male (second DMT motif) and not the female threat was the one to arouse this defense in the present group. Isolation 3 might also be thought of as used against a stern superego. This must be a more tentative interpretation, though, since the relationship with the plus trend in SAT was not as evident here as for introaggression and depressive inhibition. Anxiety, on the other hand (the scoring of which was restricted here to the peripheral figure), was clearly linked with a plus trend. This form of anxiety could thus be an expression

238


of superego fear, perhaps having its roots in the Kleinian depressive pos ition. In the previous study, LLs and M,, subjects were characterized more often than other subjects by isolation 1 or 2. We were not able, however, to cross-validate this finding with the present subjects. For this reason we have not included in Table 7 the unconscious fantasy of danger which is referred to as obsessional anxiety and which should characterize the Kleinian manic-obsessional position corresponding to (one aspect of) phase 3 of the present model. Still, i t is of some interest to interpret the findings of the previous study in terms of the Kleinian ideas of this position. In the manic-obsessional position a strong intention of the infant, according to Klein, is to overcome dependency on the highly valued and ambivalently loved (whole) object created in the depressive position. Since this object represents an important part of the infant's internal world, a part later to be represented in the superego, an avoidance of such dependency can imply either a total or a partial restriction of psychic reality. This is referred to by Klein a s the manic defense, in its extreme leading to a loss of the inner or emotional significance of experience. Perhaps the percept-genetic defenses here referred to as isolation 1 and 2 are examples of this mode of operation. In any case, they are most typically found among compulsive-obsessive subjects (cf. Andersson & Weikert, 19741, i.e. among subjects who can be thought of as having reached a kind of quasi-independence due to a too strong identification with their ambivalently loved objects, These and similar defenses seem also to be revived in early adolescence (Smith 8 Daniolsson, 1982; cf. Nilsson, 1982; Westerlundh 8 Smith, 1 9 8 3 ) , which would be in phase 7 in terms of

the present model, a phase supposedly involving a higher-order reconstruction of phase 3. The percept-genetic defenses discussed thus far can be thought of as operating in accordance with what Freud (1900) referred to as the first censorship, the one which in his topographic model appears between the unconscious and preconscious system. This censorship is seen in the present model as being in operation after the solution of the Oedipus crisis, i.e. with the beginning of the latency period (phase 5 1 , when the superego is established as a separate structure. There is also a second censorship included in the topographic model, however, the one between the preconscious and consciousness system. Although this censorship might have primitive forerunners in phase 3 of the present model (cf. Basch,

239


1974, 1981), it cannot be particularly effective before the individual has

achieved

a

high

capacity

for

reflective

self-awareness

of

the

kind

appearing in early adolescence (phase 7 ) . The defenses used from early adolescence on to maintain a secure sense of self should primarily be determined by anxieties involved in the formation of narcissistic object relations earlier in life, especially those involved in the formation of relations between self and selfobjects (Kohut. 1971, 1977). From a "narcissistic" point of view, that is from the point of

view of creation of the self as distinguished from formation of the object (in connection with which the formation of the superego a s an internalized object has been particularly stressed already), the (whole) object established in phase 2 of the model can be regarded as a selfobject. By that we mean a highly valued and therefore emotionally invested object which the infant does not as yct experience a s an autonomous center of activities or events. This makes separation from such an object very traumatizing to the infant. However, the relation between the very young child's growing self and i t s selfobjects undergoes drastic changes as development proceeds. Especially important in this process is the need to establish idealized ("perfect and good") selfobjects which it is possible to rely on and be subservient to. Closely akin to this need is another, namely to take the place or position of the idealized selfobject, the child emphasizing thereby the omnipotent or grandiose part of i t s self. Iiohut is probably the modern psychoanalyst who has most convincingly advocated the view of an antithetical and complementary character of the idealized selfobject (parent imago) and the grandiose self. According to the present model, these formations of the mind are activated with particular strength (where one formation may dominate over the other) in phases 3 and 4 , respectively, and there as part of normal development. In the next phase, phase 5 , self-constancy is established (Andersson, 1983; cf. Steingart, 1969).

at the same time as the idealized part of the

superego, or what Freud (1914) referred to as the ego ideal, takes shape. The "individuation of the self" reaches i t s first more mature forms here, with possibilities of regulating self-esteem from within, although its truly advanced development has to wait until late adolescence o r early adulthood (cf. Blos, 1 9 6 2 , 1979). Against this background it is possible to specify different motives for defense in the DMT as related to a preconscious fantasy of a threatened

240


sense of self. Fundamental to this is the principle that the threatening person might represent not only a punitive superego figure with the allied anxieties and defenses discussed above, but also a nonempathic attacker on the integrity of the subject's projected self (hero figure). This might signal for some subjects the loss of an idealized selfobject (parent imago), and for others the loss of a grandiose self, where the kinds of narcissistic or disavowal defenses required would differ in these two cases. It should be observed, however, that it is more difficult to make a sharp demarcation between such defenses than between those connected with persecutory and depressive anxiety as motives for defense. In fact, in the present as well as in the previous study, H subjects, for whom phase 4 i s seen a s prototypical, frequently showed forms of disavowal also found in LL and L subjects for whom phase 3 is assumed to be the prototypical developmental position. According to Kohut (1971) there are two main forms of transference that can be observed in narcissistically disturbed patients during psychoanalytic therapy: mirror transference (where aspects of the grandiose self are reactivated) and idealizing transference. In mirror transference the analysand seems to strive for a diffusion that includes the analyst in the (grandiose) self; this is in contrast to idealizing transference, where the analysand's effort is more in the direction of reestablishing a merger with an idealized selfobject. These two forms of transference may be of some help in understanding disavowal defenses, since the DMT and the therapeutic situation seem to share at least one basic characteristic: the temporary loosening of the demarcation between self and selfobjects. Mirror transference would seem to correspond to disavowal C (Tables 6 and 71, especially a s regards the indices disavowal 2 and 4 c-d. These indices appear to possess basic characteristics similar to those of the oedipal conflict: the overstepping of the barrier between generations, the child taking the role of one of the parents (usually the one of the opposite sex) (cf. Stierlin, 1971). Note that these indices were most often found in H subjects, i.e. among subjects whose SAT identity is linked in the developmental model with the "true" oedipal period or phase 4 . The "true" oedipal period requires a more evident demarcation between the sexes than can be established by the pre-oedipal child. An important aspect of idealizing transference is that its pre-oedipal features often imply an overstepping of the barrier connected with the characteristics of the sexes (such as in perverse fantasies). A parallel might be seen in

Percept-Genetic Defenses and the Spiral Aftereffect Technique disavowal 3 a-d,

where

24 I

sex of hero either changes from correct to

incorrect, is incorrect in a long series of phases, or is incorrect each time

it is denoted. Such indices were most often found in L subjects, i.e. in subjects whose SAT identity is anchored in the model associated with the (pre-oedipal) phallic-narcissistic

stage late in phase 3 (cf. Edgcumbe

&

Burgner , 1975). LL and LL subjects should also be characterized by pre-oedipal moS

des of operation since they are, according to the model, assumed to have their roots at an earlier stagc than the phallic-narcissistic one. Unfortunately, no particular disavowal defenses, or cluster of such defenses, were found in LL and LL subjects that were not also found in L and H subS

jects. Therefore, we can only suggest that disavowal defenses, which we feel are primarily related to pre-phallic modes of functioning, are also used by subjects located at a later stage on the dimension of narcissistic development, though this would be less likely, of course, in the case of M subjects. Typical "pre-phallic" indices would be those of disavowal l a and 4b,

where

a replica of the (projected) self is reported,

a s well as

disavowal 5a and 5 c-d, which would express rather directly the defensive use of idealization a s a cover up for anger against a rejecting selfobject. Disavowal 5b would tend to be indicative of an I'aggressive dependency" on such an object. In the present study our concern has been mainly with the SAT variables R and f L taken separately, and only occasionally with SAT patterns where these variables are combined (except where the latter is the case by definition, a s with LLs and LL)

. One

exception to this. however, was the

confirmed prediction of the H+ pattern being closely related to anxiety scores in the DMT. However, there was one defense, denial, which appeared not to be connected directly with any particular SAT variable. It is therefore of some interest that denial was most often found among LLs and L subjects. In 1926 Freud linked denial with the character of hysteria. A s

noted above, hysteria can be assumed to have i t s roots both in phase 1 (paranoid-schizoid position) and late in phase 3 (phallic-narcissistic stage) of the present model, where the two taken together correspond to the L pattern. With respect to both SAT strategy and identity, the LLs pattern

is linked with phase 1. We would stress, in closing, that our primary aim has not been to test hypotheses derived from psychoanalytic theory, nor to evaluate the consistency of different theoretical and empirical approaches within


242

psychoanalysis. Rather, the study is part of an ultimate aim of constructing and exploring, with the help of percept-genetic techniques applied in both the non-clinical and clinical areas, a developmental franie of reference useful for personality research and diagnostics, It is obvious, however, that to be able to fulfill such an ambition, we must not only relate psychoanalytic models of mind to cognitive growth but also choose among such models on the basis of our empirical findings. In this sense, the interpretation of the results provided here could be seen as an attempt to integrate Freudian, Kleinian , and Kohutian conceptualizations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study was supported by grants from the Swedish Council for Social Science Research and the National Swedish Board of Universities and Colleges.

243

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niken. Stockholm: Psykologiforlaget. Smith, G.J.W., & Nordstrom, M. (1975). Anxiety and defense against anxiety in childhood and adolescence. Yearbook of the New Society of L e t t e r s at Lund (pp. 67-102). Lund: Gleerup. Smith, G.J.W., & Westerlundh, B. (1980). Perceptgenesis: A process perspective on perception-personality. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of Personality and Social Psychology (pp. 94-124). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Steingart, I. (1969). On self, character, and t h e development of a psychic

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P A R T IV RELATING PRECONSCIOUS PROCESSES TO COGNITIVE AND SEMANTIC STRUCTURES: SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION AND MICROGENESIS COMBINED


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Dragune (editors) 0 Elaevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

249

PSY CHODYNARIIC PERSONALITY CORRELATES O F CREATIVITY

Uwe Hentschel and Uta Schneider University of Mainz

INTRODUCTION Creativity as a concept evokes almost exclusively positive associations, ranging from flexibility of thought to originality, productivity, and the great cultural achievements in the history of mankind. These positive associations, together with the easy availability of individual examples that can be regarded as self-evident proofs of creativity, might help counteract the absence of a generally accepted definition of creativity. A common feature of many definitions of creativity is the emphasis upon new approaches, outcomes, or products. Novelty, however, is not a sufficient condition of creativity. Not all new solutions can be considered creative. Other important criteria are reference to reality, usefulness, and social acceptance - even, if not necessarily, an immediate one - by at least some groups. It is questionable whether creative acts can be compared directly when they relate to different products, such as scientific discoveries, technological inventions, or artistic creations. Like in other fields of personality research, different theoretical approaches to creativity stress either the situational influences or personality characteristics or t r y to combine different sets of variables that are specifically considered important. Earlier than in other fields of personality research, however, assumptions of a general underlying process prevailed, with more or less differentiated models attempting to describe a number of consecutive stages (cf. Wallas, 1926; Rossman, 1931). The four general stages postulated by Wallas (19261, preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification, are comparable to the four typical stages in microgenesis (Sander, 1927) which uses a person-related information processing "Gestalt-approach" : "intake and organization of stimuli", "desintegration and experience of chaos", "assimilation and hypothesis formation", and the final "meaningful solution.

In reference to Guilford's

250

U.Hentschel and U.Schneider

(1956) distinction between convergent and divergent thinking, microgenesis

is, traditionally, an approach for the study of convergent processes in perception and thought. On a concrete level, composing a symphony, inventing a new machine, or designing an experiment in chemistry, for example, have not much in common. By registering a number of general stages or phases of information-processing which lead to good results in their respective fields, different tasks, however, can be compared and may reveal important similarities in the underlying creative process. Assuming that not everyone can reach the same solution under all conditions, the basic elements for explaining the creative process are necessarily personality and situation related. A s it is impossible to arrive at a complete taxonomy of situations, and as the creative climate can also be referred to the personal ability to establish such a climate, a process-oriented trait approach seems to be a good compromise, even more so within a functionalist frame of reference which includes at least some situational elements (according to their hypothetical functional relevance). One of the basic media between persons and external reality is perception. It carries an array of different functions. The fact that perception is not a completely objective mechanism provides the basis for its use as a central variable in theories of personality, in general, and makes it an experimentally interesting approach to creativity in particular, too. Perception, in a broader sense including, for example, attention, aesthetic appreciation, etc., can, in reference to creativity, even be regarded as a common element of different theoretical points of view - cf. Greenacres's (1957) formulation of a greater sensitivity to sensory stimulation of the creative child with Maslow's (1971) assumption of greater receptivity on the part of creative people. Differences in perception are to be seen more as a guiding line than as a distinct set of variables for creativity research, but some have been used repeatedly, among others "openness to experience It (cf. Mtzgerald, 1966; Schulman, 1966). The greater tolerance of creative people for apparent inconsistencies or for disorder (Barron, 1963; Ehrenzweig, 1967) is also related to perception. Perception could be regarded as a possible line of convergence for different theoretical views of creativity, but the hypothesized reasons for perceptual differences are still controversial, even within the restricted scope of theories that take psychodynamic variables into account. It is for example

25 1

Personality Correlates of Creativity

a matter of debate whether developmental personal conflicts are an unequivocal prerequisite for creativity. Neurotic conflicts are still given a central position by some theoreticians (cf. Rangell, 1978). This, however,

is no longer done along the lines that genius and insanity go together, but rather in the tradition of Freud's (1908) wish fulfillment assumption or with a view towards exemplifying individual conflicts in relation to creativity in case histories (e.g. Rubenstein

& Levitt, 1980; Anthi, 1981; Eissler, 1963). The contrary position does not deny the influence of primary process thinking, which is a central theme in psychodynamic creativity re-

search (Suler, 19801, but postulates either an intact ego control throughout the process or an easy return to the normal level. in either case with the assumption that ego controls have to be partially lowered (Schaefer,

1975) o r , to say it in Kris's famous words, a "regression in the service of the ego" or some form of "magic synthesis between primary and secondary process" (Arieti, 1976), has to take place. Schlesinger (1980/81), while not denying intrapsychic conflicts ' a s an essential element in creativity, still stresses subjective meaning and the capacity to construe incongruence in order to arrive at a creative individual solution more. Experimental studies striving for dynamic variables, including subconscious processes, must necessarily encompass broader dimensions which, in psychoanalytic tradition, are linked to the libido-aggression motivational dichotomy, with cognitive styles and defensive structures acting as interfaces to

ego-functions.

Holt

(1956) developed a scoring system

for

Rorschach protocols with the aim of assessing primary and secondary process thinking. This system has also been used in creativity studies (cf. Suler, 1980). In a study comparing experienced artists and students of a r t (painters and sculptors), Dudek and Chamberland-Bouhadana (1982), in using Holt's system, found deeper levels of regression and more efficient and adaptive defenses in the experienced group. In perceptgenetic theory, based on theoretical assumptions and empirical results (cf. Kragh & Smith,

1974; Hentschel

&

Smith, 1980; Smith, 1981; Westerlundh

&

Smith, 1983),

it has been acknowledged that creativity has a psychodynamic basis, but interest has been generally more directed to intentional moments and to cognitive processes, such as being able to see a stimulus objectively and at the same time t o maintain a subjective personal meaning of it. This has much in common with the already mentioned formulation of Schlesinger

(1980/81) which, however, is based exclusively on a theoretical analysis of while the terms used in percept genesis also have an

creativity,


252

operational meaning. From the above-mentioned considerations no common definition of creativity can be abstracted, but by selcctively combining theoretical postulates and empirical results, a circumscriptive approximation can be arrived at. Creativity is not an ahistorical trait. Rather, it usually has an individual history with dynamic intrapersonal sources of an eventually conflictual nature. Many people have psychic conflicts; to transform them into a creative solution of an objectively given problem obviously requires some additional capacity to overcome incongruence. A basic prerequisite in that direction seems to be a sensitivity for problems and the ability to think imaginatively and metaphorically (cf. Ricoeur, 1977; Miller, 1982). These requirements, often referred to as the functions of the right hemisphere (Torrance 8 Mourad, 1979; Gowan, 1979; Torrance, 1 9 8 2 ) , may, in combination with a tolerance for apparent disorder, lead to a harmonic restitution, a reality-adapted metamorphosis, of perceptions and thoughts of a higher order. In that process, the quality and level of defenses determining the proportions of subconscious and ego-control involvement seem to be of general importance. Subconscious impulses are not directly measurable, either by questionnaires or by the actual conscious reactions in experiments. There always have to be some extrapolations made or special techniques used. One hypothetical link is the already mentioned defensive structure, another the susceptibility to subliminal stimulation which, according to Dixon (19711, is enhanced by a state of low nrousal with broadened attention and cognitions not rigidly restricted by logical analysis. Indicators f o r CreatlVltY

Indicators f o r the habltual regulation o f S u b c o n s c i o u s and e g o - c o n t r o l l e d reaCtiOnS

INDEPENDENT

VARIABLES

Susceptibility to subliminal s t i m u l a t i o n w i t h an a y g r e r r i v e s t imu I u s

DEPENDENT

VARIABLES

differences in perceptual r e c o n s t r u c t l o n

PG-Test:

Figure 1. Hypothetical relation of the variables used i n the study

EXTERNAL

CRITERIA

Grades I n a deslyn Course


253

From the whole range of hypothetically relevant variables for creativi t y , as seen from a psychodynamic point of view, three sets of variables were chosen for the present study which theoretically and methodologically follows the approaches of percept genesis (PG) and subliminal stimulation. The general hypothesis states that there is a basic relationship between susceptibility to subliminal stimulation, the personal organization of defense mechanisms (used as independent variables), and the subjective perceptual constructions of an objective pictorial stimulus. This stimulus is presented by means of a PG-technique, and the resulting reports are uscd as the dependent variables for determining perceptual creativity in students of design. N o concrete predictions for specific groups were made, but a simple positive relationship of a high susceptibility to subliminal stimulation and creative performance seemed rather improbable, considering the kind of stimulus and the effects registered. In view of the relationship of the number of subjects tested to the number of possible single variable relationships, the specific hypotheses (cf. method-section) had to be

restricted to some variables within each set (cf. Fig.1).

METHOD SAMPLE

Subjects in the study were 40 students taking courses in one of their first five terms in visual communication and design at the Technical College in Mainz in the Federal Republic of Germany. There were altogether 20 males and 20 females, ranging in age from 20 to 30. Because of missing data, 5 subjects ( h a l e , 4 females) could not be included in all calculations (cf. the varying N in the tables).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE OPERA J l O N A L l Z A JlONS OF THE l N D E f E N D E N T V A R I A B L E S

a) Subliminal stimulation The subjects were introduced to the task with the comment that the experimenter was interested in the effect of very slight stimulus changes on the subjective recognition and impression formation of the observer. In

254


order to attain a subliminal stimulation, the individual thresholds were first determined by a method previously used, for example, by Allison (1963) and by Sackeim, Packer, and Gur (1977). The subject was placed at a distance of 140 c m in front of a seni-transparent screen ( 4 8 x 49 cm in size). The room was darkened (1 lux measured at the height of the subjects' eyes, without a stimulus on the screen). Two projectors P1 and P2 (Leitz Prada; lense: Leitz Hector, f=100mm, 1 : 2 . 5 ; bulb: Osram 58.8190 E , 100 Watt, 220 Volt) were used to present the supraliminal and subliminal stimuli. P1 was fixed in luminance and position. For P2 the luminance could be varied by means of a transformer ranging in voltage from 0 to 250 Volt. It could be adjusted in all directions so that, when using the same stimuli in P1 and P2, a congruent projection could be produced on the screen. For establishing the individual thresholds, a schematic neutral face was placed in P1, and the same stimulus was inserted upside down in P2. Starting with a luminance near 0 in P2, the voltage was increased in steps of 5 Volts, with the subject being asked at every step if he or she cold see any changes on the screen, until the first differences were reported (vague new lines, shadows). The voltage of that trial minus half a step (=minus 2 . 5 Volt) was registered. The procedure was repeated 5 times and the mean voltage of the five registrations was used for the proper experiment to follow. In that experiment a distractor stimulus was presented and then the experimental stimulus, both also with a subliminal stimulus added and with the instruction that a change might occur. The experimental stimulus was a neutral scene with two musicians, a guitarist and a singer, supraliminally shown. The neutral impression of the scene had been ascertained in a pilot study using different pictures. Under the subliminal condition, the content was only slightly different in terms of the figural composition but differed a great deal in meaning, with the singer threatening the guitarist. During the presentation of the experimental stimulus, the light was 12 - 15 lux at the screen (M=14lux) and 3 . 5 lux at the height of the subjects' eyes. There were two variations of the whole series: one in which the subjects had to give free reports, and one in which they had to rate their overall impressions of the presented picture on 53 &point scales of a Semantic Differential. The Semantic Differential was constructed on the basis of already existing scales (Hentschel & Klintman, 1974) with new items added and tested for their content validity and applicability in a pilot study (Burggasser, 1983).

255

Personality Correlates of Creativity Table 1 Order of stimulus sequence for subliminal stimulation

Trials

Stimulus presented 30 sec

Task of the subject in

in each trial

Trial 1

-

4 Trial 5

1 1 s

P 1 : dietractor stimulus

free

ratings

2 1 6

P 1 : distractor stimulus

reports

of atmo-

P2 : slightly dark-colored,

of

sphere

at-

on a

empty slide

-

3 1 1

P 1 : twa musicians (neutral scene)

mo

4 1 8

P 2 : twa msicians (aggressive scene)

sphere

-

8

Semantic Differential

The sequence of the stimulus presentation is summarized in Tablc 1. P1 was always used for projecting the supraliminal stimulus, P2 was individually adjusted at the previously established level below the threshold. In order to avoid subjects staring at the screen during the whole session, a time limit of 30 sec per trial was introduced. Variables comprising the susceptibility to subliminal stimulation were the differences on the factor scales 'Aggression' and 'Dysphoria' extracted from the Semantic Differential under the condition of neutral scene only and of neutral scene plus subliminal stimulus (trials 7 and 8 , cf. table 1). b) Defense mechanisms Defense mechanisms comprise behavioral constructs,

cognitive and

perceptual phenomena, and affective and motivational representations, Provided a workable definition is used, all these aspects could possibly be considered in clinical ratings. The test chosen for the present study, the German version of Gleser and Ihilevich's (1969) Defense Mechanism Inventory (Hentschel b Hickel, in preparation), deals only with imagined behavior and feelings in a frustrating situation. The DMI is a paper and pencil test. The subjects are given 10 short stories, in which persons appear in various conflict situations, and have to choose among 5 pre-stated reactions on the behavioral and emotional level, as i f he or she were in the situation described. By means of the test, 5 clusters of defense mechanisms can be discerned (cf. table 2 ) .

256

U.Hen tschel and U.Schneider Table 2 Five clusters of defense mechanisms

TAO

Turning against objects Aggressive reactions against an external object perceived as a source of frustration

PRO

Projection The object is attributed with negative intentions or characteristics

PRN

Principalization Splitting off affects by intellectualization, rationalization, and isolation

TAS

Turning against self Coping with the conflict is attempted by directing the action against subject himself

REV

Reversal Ihe frustrating object is attributed with positive or neutral intentions of traits characterizing reaction formation, undoing, repression, and reversal

DMI variables selected for the study were TAO and PRN. OPERATlONALIZATlON

was

OF THE DEPENDENT V A R I A B L E S

The method for registering the subjective perceptual reconstruction a PG-technique developed by Smith and Danielsson (1980). All

PG-techniques a i m at a comprehension of the adaptive perceptual process of the subjects. In contrast to the standard procedures which use threatening stimuli, the stimulus for evoking creativity-relevant reactions is a neutral still-life by the Finnish artist E. Aalto: a bottle and a bowl

which for many subjects possess physiognomic qualities. The requirements for an adaptive recognition by the subjects are twofold in the course of


257

the whole series. In the first part, the picture is presented with increasing presentation times, starting with very short exposition times (cf.Fig.2).

presentation times

1.

/I

Figure 2. Presentation times for Normal and Inverted PG

Particularly in the beginning of the series, the normal PG reveals the investment of subjective meaning which later on, usually over intermediate phases, converges into the recognition of the "objective stimulus", i.e., pictorial structures that most people can, with improved conscious control, extract under presentation times of sufficient length. In the second part with the inverted PG (cf. Fig. 21, presentation times are again reduced. This stimulates reactions to one's own earlier reports, i.e., the subject has to come to terms with his or her previous subjective interpretations. The process can thus reveal if a person is bound to the finally attained "objective meaning", or if he or she maintains preference for earlier subjective interpretations, of if he or she can find some form of integration of the early subjective interpretations within the final objective pictorial structure. Irrespective of the actual recognition times needed, the picture was shown 20 times (with the exposition times given in Fig.2) to all subjects, and then the inverted series was initiated. For subjects who did not reach a complete recognition, the two objects on the picture were named before starting the inverted PG, thereby ensuring that all subjects had the same information in the second part of the experiment. The subjects were asked to give reports of their actual perceptions as well as of their impressions, feelings, and possible recollections. The scoring categories

U. Hentschel and U, Schneider were derived with some minor changes from the system developed by Smith and Danielsson (1980) and are related to a dimension which might bc called stimulus boundedness-stimulus remoteness as outlined above. They are summarized in Table 3 . Table 3 PG-Variables

INVERTED PG

NORMAL PG

Level of recognition: LC

xx

The whole series is classified in

The C-phase content disappears and instead an 'incorrect' report is

P-phases and C-phases. P-phases are

given.

all presentations which evoke reports with some meaningful confi-

X

guration. C-phases start when one

The C-phase content disappears but returns directly at the next ex-

object is correctly recognized,

posure of the C-phase content and

final C-phase is reached when both

is maintained together with a de-

objects are recognized (cf.weights

viating interpretation ('now 1

for Ri).

understand why I saw the bottle as a bird').

Number of phases needed for a corNC

rect recognition.

A

X

The C-phase content is changed only in parts of an object ('the

Ri

Richness of ideas

shadow on

Sum of points given for different

an old man').

the bottle

looks

like

themes in the normal PG P 1.0 pt

1

- P

n for every theme reported

0

previous phases ('now it is like in the beginning').

('a burning newspaper' ) 0 . 5 pt

partial change of an already mentioned theme ('on

0

pt

Reports with a vague reference to

S

The C-phase content is maintained

that newspaper a picture

but formal changes are explicitly

with a round object')

mentioned (changes in form, size,

changes in light, contrast,

distance, depth, perspective, al-

etc.

so

scored for pictorial elements)


259

Normal PG

c1 - cn 1.0 p t

changes of theme reported f o r the second o b j e c t

0 . 5 pt

0

pt

p a r t i a l changes changes i n l i g h t , c o n t r a s t , e t c . , small changes, e.g.

from ' b o t t l e '

t o ' b o t t l e with a cork'.

Ri

Sum of points reached according t o the scoring categories weighted f o r meaningfulness, operationalized a s completeness of recognition ( t h e sum of p o i n t s f o r s u b j e c t s who recognized onl y one object c o r r e c t l y was weighted with t h e f a c t o r 0.75 and f o r those who d i d not reach C1, with the f a c t o r 0.5).

All protocols were rated independently by two judges. In case of differing decisions, the lower point estimate o r , respectively, the category indicative of creativity was taken as the final one. Ri, X , and S were included as dependent variables for determining the subjective perceptual reconstruction. TESTING PROCEDURES A N D SELECTION OF V A R I A B L E S

All subjects were tested individually. The mean duration of

B

test

session was 1 hour and 45 minutes. The tasks were presented to the subjects in the following order: normal and inverted P G , DMI, subliminal stimulation. The study was started with the general hypothesis as formulated in the introduction. Stated as a working hypothesis it anticipates that the kind of tackling of aggressive subliminal stimuli and the type of handling of one's own aggressive impulses will influence creative performance. The inclusion of all variables registered within the three sets (subliminal stimulation : three factors in the Semantic Differential: defensive structure : five

U. Hentschel and U.Schneider

260

groups of defenses ; perceptual reconstruction : nine variables) would have resulted in far too many statistical tests compared to the number of subjects - unless one wcre exclusively interested in multivariate relations. To reduce the number of variables in a meaningful way, a mixed strategy was chosen, based on the available formal test criteria for the different variables and content related decisions. It yielded three dependent variables and four - two for each set - independent variables for the analysis of variance design. It was furthermore postulated that the dependent variables should show relations to external criteria to be regarded as relevant in the context of creativity.

RESULTS CONSTRUCTION O F F A C T O R SCALES FOR M E A S U R I N G T H E S U B L I M I N A L EFFECTS

The Semantic Differential was submitted to a principal axis factor analysis. Three factors explaining 88% of the variance were extracted and, after a varimax rotation, interpreted a s Vicious aggression", "introverted relaxation", and "dysphoria". With regard to their direct content relation to aggression, positively and negatively pooled, it was decided to use the first and the third factor as independent variables for estimating subjects# susceptibility to aggressive subliminal stimulation. Items were placed on a scale according to their highest loadings (at least . 4 5 ) . The aggression and dysphoria measures were then constructed by summing up the differences in the ratings between the conditidon without and the condition with subliminal stimulation over all items in the respective scale (cf. Table 4 ) . C O N T E N T V A L I D I T Y A N D I N T E R C O R R E L A T I O N S OF T H E DMI-SCALES

A s measure for the DMI-scale, the reactions on both levels, that of the imagined behavior and that of feelings and thoughts, were summed up to one score for each cluster.

Studies with the original version (Gleser & Ihilevich, 1969; Blacha & Fancher, 1977) have, for the selected scales TAO and PRN, shown good content validity for PRN and a certain amount of items rated as %on-defensive" for TAO. Content validity ratings for the German version were very good for both scales (over 90% of the defenses correctly classified into the respective category). The five scales a r e however not independent of each other (cf. Table 5 ) .

26 1

Personality Correlates of Creativity Table 4 Items used for the construction of the two factor scales

Vicious Aggression

Dysphoria

rigid

depressive

rude

worried

chilly

discouraging

cruel

gloomy

ugly

apathetic

tense

unhappy

negative

sad

in timidat ing

hopeless

threatening

dissatisfied

cold

pessimistic

mean suspicious inconsiderate militant violent rejecting terrifying unpleasant stressed unsympathetic imbalanced bad unappreciative perfidious embarrassing


262

Table 5 Intercorrelations of the DMI-Scales (N-160; student sample)

1

2

3

4

5

TAO

TAS

PRN

PRO

REV

-

.05

-.37

1 TAO

2 TAS

-.33

*

*

3 PRN

-.33

-.09

-.22

-.46

*

*

* *

.19

*

4 PRO

5

.08

-.41

REV

*

p .c .05

PRN shows a negative relation to all other scales with the exception of REV. TAO is more independent but correlates negatively with REV and PRN with which it has roughly 14%of variance in common. O B J E C J f V l T Y A N D E X T E R N A L V A L f D l T Y OF T H E PG MEASURES

In Table 6 the results for the interrater reliability (of two independent raters are presented. Table 6 I n t e r r a t e r l i e l i a b i l i t i e s for the PG-Variables

NORMAL PG

Level of recognition (L )

Points given f o r d i f f e r e n t themes

1.00

.91

INVERTED PG

xx

.95

x

.84

(Rf) A

x

-74

0

.68

S

.85


263

On the basis of these results for all three measures uscd a s dependent variables, good reliabilities can be inferred. It was hypothesized that the normal and inverted PG should be interrelated. The result is presented in Table 7.

Table 7 I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n of Normal and Inverted PG

Ri> Mdn

-

Ri c -

no X and XX

no X and XX

Ri> -

I

Mdn

X and/or XX

x2corr= 9.19;

Ris -

Mdn

Mdn

X and/or XX

df = 39;

p c -01

Subjects who present many new themes in the normal PG can obviously also refer more often to their previous subjective reports in the inverted PG. Smith and Danielsson (1979) have reported very weak associations between the number of phases and the themes reported. In the present study, a correlation of r= .58 resulted betwccn the phase length and the number of different themes. The attempt was made to use ratings of the staff of the Technical College as external creativity criteria. As the estimates of objectivity based on the interrater correlations were very low, the ratings could not be used. Instead, the PG categories were compared to the grades in a course called "Basic Techniques of Design". The result indicates a relation to originality (X and X X v s . no X and no X X , F1,34=4.37 ; p c

.05) slightly

at the expense of convergent stimulus recognition in the perceptual process (level of recognition: grades, r= -0.27;

p < .05).


264

SUSCEPTlBlLlTY TO S U B L I M I N A L S T I M U L A T I O N , DEFENSES, A N D PERCEPTUAL RECONSTR UCTlON

The effects of defenses and susceptibility to subliminal stimulation on the PG test variables were analyzed by means of two way analyses of variance, carried out separately for each of the three dependent variables (X,S,Ri). With the combination of two defenses (TAO, PRN) and two scales for measuring subliminal effects (Aggression, Dysphoria), there were 1 2 analyses. For the classification of high and low groups on the independent variables, the median was used as cut-off point. In 4 cases the results were significant. In Table 8 the ANOVA results of the included variables for the 35 subjects with complete sets of data are summarized.

Table 8 Summary of t h e 2way ANOVA r e s u l t s

main effects

X

S

Ri

TAO

AGGR

TAO

DYSPHOR

PRN

AGGR

PRN

DYSPHOR

TAO

AGGR

TAO

DYSPHOR

PRN

AGGR

PRN

DYSPHOR

TAO

AGGR

TAO

DYSPHOR

PRN

AGGR

PRN

DYSPHOR

(TAO)

p e .04

interact ion

p e .03

p e -04

p c .01

p c .01

The nature of the significant results for the 4 combinations of defenses, reactions to subliminal stimulation, and the PG test variables is shown in Figure 3. This Figure suggests the occurrence of special group effects in some cases. In order to single out these effects, one-way analyses of variance


265

-

susceptibility to subliminal stimulation Aggr. low high+- - - - - 0

low

TAO

high

-

susceptibility to subliminal stimulation Aggr.

low

higho-----

TAO

I

low

high

a

-

susceptibility to subliminal stimulation Aggr. low higho---- - - o

jl

0

)

-0

b

'1\

-

susceptibility to subliminal stimulation Oysp hor.

low

high - - - - - a

0'

'0

PR N low

PRN

4,

low

high

high

C

d

Figure 3. Analyses of variance: Graphical presentation o f s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s

were conducted as follow-up tests, with estimates for the F-ratio of mean squares 'within' taken from the two-way analysis and a correction of the level of significance to n12 in comparison to the two-way analyses. The critical F-value for p c

.025

(F1131=5.57) was reached for special group

effects in the cases of Fig. 3 a , c , d , which is also in good congruence with the inferences one can draw from the graphic presentation of the results. In Fig,3a, significance for the follow-up test is reached for the difference between the groups with low vs. high scores on the aggrcssion scale in combination with high TAO-scores (F=7.58). In Fig.Bc, the group effect high vs. low aggression scores is more important in the combination with low PRN-scores (F=6.03). Fig.3d shows that a differentiation of the


266

groups with low vs. high reaction on the dysphoria scale (in consequence of the subliminal stimulation ) is more marked for the group with low PRN-values (F=7.52). If the respective dependent variables are included, the meaning of the revealed differences can be summarized verbally in the following way: a low undistorted susceptibility to aggressive subliminal stimuli (low scores on the AGGR-scale) combined with a high habitual tendency to react aggressively to frustrating objects (high TAO) tcnds to stimulate subjective contents in perceptual reconstruction (X, cf. Pig. 3a) and decreases reactions of sensitivity (S) which are also low for the combination high scores on the aggression scale and low scores on TAO. Sensitivity reactions (S) are more prominent in the groups showing a similar level on both scales (AGGR and TAO, low o r high, cf. Fig.3b). In the combination with PRN , this picture is almost reversed, sensitivity reactions in the PG test being more typical for the group with high susceptibility to aggressive subliminal stimulation (high score on the AGGR- scale and low defense scores of the intellectualization and isolation type (low PRN) than for the combination low susceptibility, low PRN (cf. F i g . 3 ~ ) . Being less influenced by aggressive subliminal stimulation in the dysphoric direction (low scores on the DYSPHOR-scale) , combined with less intellectualization (low PRN-scores), leads to more different meaningful themes in the normal PG ( R i ) than a high tendency to be influenced by the subliminal stimulation in a dysphoric direction (high scores on the DYSPHOR-scale and a low PRN defense score; cf. Fig.3d). Referring to the higher degrees of susceptibility to subliminal stimulation on both scales, the results indicate that being directly susceptible to subliminal aggressive stimulation (high scorcs on the AGGR-scale) hampers subjective content-related reconstructions (X) in combination with habitual aggressive reaction (high TAO) , but favors sensitivity reactions (S), if combined with high direct aggressivity (TAO) or low level of defensive control by intellectualization (PRN) (cf. Fig.3a,b,c). Subjects with a tendency to be strongly influenced in a dysphoric direction by an aggressive subliminal stimulation (high scores on thc DYSPHOR-scale) rcach only low Ri-scores when endowed with a low levcl of defensive control by intellectualization (PRN) .

267

Personality Correlates of Creativity DISCUSSION

The experiment was designed, and the basic hypotheses of the study were formulated under the assumption that creativity requires some form of integration of less structured, subconscious, subjective material into the normal functioning of consciously controlled convergent perceptions and thoughts and that the individual mode of coping with aggressive impulses could have a moderating effect upon this operation. Although the control of the experimental condition was a rather strict one. given the number of design students who served as subjects in relation to the number of variables included, the results have to be discussed more in terms of an exploratory data analysis than as the outcome of a completely controlled experiment. They should be interpreted merely as indicators in favor of, or in contrast to, the basic hypothesis. It is unavoidable that a number of open questions remain upon completion of this type of data analysis. The defense mechanisms have been selected with regard to a relatively open expression of age;ression (TAO) versus compulsive control (PRN: intellectualization, isolation, etc. ) , but what about the other mechanisms comprised in the DMI, and, more important, what about another representation of defense mechanisms a s , for example, in the Defense Mechanism Test (Kragh, 1969)? Also, susceptibility to aggressive subliminal stimulation might be operationalized in a completely different manner, such a s , for example, auditorily. And last not least, there is a number of different possibilities to measure creativity, even if in this study and in other research validity estimates for the way in which it was measured here could be ascertained (cf. Westerlundh

..

.% Smith,

1983,

e. g ) Some of the problems mentioned could possibly have been solved with a larger sample or by multivariate techniques of defining reliable dimensions for each of the three sets of variables and showing the intercorrelation of these dimensions. Even i f , as in the present study, the positive results seem rather clear cut, one is on safer grounds with such a small sample if there is also some independent support from other studies that, in a more or less direct way, can give greater weight to the indicators in question. Taking for granted the influence of subconscious activity on creative performance, different studies have used different techniques to find access to a level beyond preconsciousness. Hypnotic states, dreams, daydreams, and sensory deprivation and meditation techniques, all used as

268


hypothetically relevant variables in the context of creativity (cf, Krippner, 1981; Domino, 1982; Aquino, 1982; Bowers, 1967; Barrios & Singer, 1981/ 82; Aron s Aron, 19821, reveal this assumption in a rather straightforward manner. There are also some studies on creativity using subliminal

stimuli which, according to Shevrin and Dickman (1980), might be ranked among the means to explore the differences between unconscious and conscious processes. By analogy to Silverman's ( e . g . , 1975) technique, some studies on creativity have controlled the effect of subliminal stimuli on creative performance. Antell and Goldberger (cf. chapter 4 ) compared the effects of a neutral, sexual, and of an aggressive stimulus; Smith and coworkers (Smith & Danielsson, 1979; Smith & Carlsson, 1983) used a neutrnl and a threatening one. No common summary is possible for these studies, for the most part presumably due to differences in the dependent creativit y variables. The threatening stimulus in the studies by Smith and coworkers stimulated the performance during the inverted percept genesis ; in the Antell and Goldberger study, the sexual and neutral stimuli improved the performance only in an easy creativity task (remote associations), whereas the aggressive stimulus impaired the performance of both, the creative and the non-creative groups on the metaphor test, but was more detrimental for the noncreative group which showed impairment from subliminal sexual stimulation a s well. In our study, subliminal stimulation was used with a different aim and meaning. I t could by no means directly influence the performance on the PG-test, as i t was given first. Our subliminal stimulation could be regarded, rather, a s an attempt to register dispositions with a tendency to see the atmosphere of the neutral supraliminal picture as more aggressive or more dysphoric and to observe some consequences of the susceptibility to the aggressive subliminal stimulus. The influence to be expected form this kind of outside stimulation is of course hypothetically related to the disposition, for instance, of how the individual is able to channel i t s own aggressive impulses, a question which in psychodynamic theory is linked to the structure of defense. Defense mechanisms belong to those psychoanalytical constructs which have a good validity from an experimental point of view, too (cf. Hentschel, 1 9 8 5 ) . In other studies results have been reported that creative people tend to be more aggressive or to show a more direct acting out of aggressive impulses (see, for example, McKinnon, 1965; Barron, 1968; Rubin, 1980, quoted aft e r Strauss et al, 1981). Smith and Carlsson (in preparation), who in their study with 16-year-old boys found an easier identification with the aggres-


269

sor on the part of the creative group,

have nevertheless questioned

whether their creative subjects should be regarded a s more aggressive. Instead, they have stressed the absence of certain defenses, a certain tolerance of anxiety, and the active tackling of preconscious contents. In em phasizing active reconstruction, this interpretation is both in line with the basic assumptions in PG-theory, as well as bridging the gap to the more cognitive theories of creativity already mentioned or to postulated associations between conscious imagery and creativity (cf. Forisha, 1978; Gordon &

Poze, 1981; Hentschel, 1984; Barrios

&

Singer, 1981/82).

In a natural way of reaching a creative solution, functioning may shift from unconscious to conscious levels. In experimental studies the personality mechanisms to be observed of course show some correspondence to

the

experimentally imposed

requirements

for

adaptation,

too

(cf.

Draguns, chapter 13). PG-techniques of the kind used here for determining the dependent variables have the advantage of providing at least some insight into the adaptive process. The reactions to subliminal stimuli in the present study have to be interpreted in terms of a disposition and not as a situational effect. Being easily influenced by a subliminal aggressive stimulus to perceive a supraliminal neutral scene as aggressive or transposed into a dysphoric atmosphere is, in interaction with types of defense (mostly against aggressive impulses), important for a subjective perspective on objective stimuli. Taking the X and Ri variables of the PG-test as positive signs for creative perception and S as a negative or at least doubtful one, subjects susceptible to direct influence by aggressive subliminal contents and/or with defenses of a compulsive type (intellectualization, isolation) are worse off than subjects having a habitual open outlet of aggression (TAO)

. For

subjects, however, whose reactions shift into a dys-

phoric direction as a consequence of subliminal stimulation, a higher defensive control is not so detrimental. Vaillant (1974) has, in his attempt to define mental health, modified Freud's "love and work" postulate in an important way - turning it into the "joyful expression of sex and of anger.'! Mental health also implies the ability to cope with conflicts rather than the complete absence of conflicts. Through creative acts which may also serve onels self-realization, personal conflicts can be neutralized. We have not studied the influence of sexual subliminal stimuli, but "joyful expression of anger'9, in combination with a lack of an almost oversensitive early extraction of affective meaning (Zajonc, 1980) of a negative kind, seems to also be a good indicator of perceptual creativity. And there are also signs of a possible counterbalance of negative effects by defense mechanisms.

270

U.Hentschel and U.Schneider It can be hypothesized that interactions with susceptibility to positive

subliminal stimuli would show a completely different pattern. The proof for the effectiveness of subliminal stimuli can be found in many different studies (cf. Dixon, 1071, 1081). From an evolutionary perspective, reactivity to subliminal stimuli seems a necessary and meaningful mechanism for which physiological explanations can be provided as well. But despite the efficacy of subliminal stimuli in normal perception, its consequences are not only positive, for example, in case of an interactive process with traumatic experiences stored in long-term memory (tantamount to a complex) (Dixon, 1980). To study interactive links of this kind seems to bc a promising endeavor, especially if the elements involved can be related to broader dimensions and not only to idiosyncratic events. Trying to include external and internal variables in studies of perception is also in the tradition of the functionalistic approach a s advocated by Brunswik, for example. Pigure 4 shows an application of Brunswik's lens model (Brunswik, 1955) to the variables in the study. Without the assumption of probabilistic inferen-

ces by the observer of distal variables, a "recognition test" with the instruction to describe a stimulus, such as, for example, the objects in E . Aaltols still-life, could not be used as a creativity task. If perception were completely deterministic, there would simply be no room for subjective interpretations. Within the range from very short to relatively long presentation times, which for most subjects finally allow a "correct" recognition, the probabilities for the perceptual hypotheses of the observer are changed. The individual increase in the probabilities for a correct recognition and the decrease for subjective hypotheses determined by intrasystcmic constituents, can be conceptualized as the main process comprised in the normal PG. Figure 4 would represent one single presentation with a distinct exposure time within the range of 0.01 to 3 . 6 sec. If the stimuli were of very low complexity, the model would permit a quantification, for example, by changing the PG-test into a signal detection task. In creativity tests, stimuli have to be more complex. A s a con sequence of this complexity, the number of possible subjective alternative hypotheses makes a quantification by means of probabilities related to all objects reported by the subject very difficult. The model thus seems to be more useful for exemplifying the interrelatedness of internal and external constituents and the substitutability of stimulus cues, including subliminal ones, on a descriptive level. For subliminal stimuli the model implies that such stimuli have stronger impact if they are ecologically relevant or close-

27 1


functional validity

/ -

ecoloaical validitv

intrasvstemic constituent

7

distal v a r i a b l e

central response

Figure 4. Brunswik's Lens Model and t h e variables of the study

ly related to intrasystemic variables. By the tachistoscopic presentation with increasing times in PG-techniques, the quality of the cues in terms of a signal to noise ratio is changed over the series (cf. Dixon, Hentschel, & Smith, in preparation). This, in interaction with intrasystemic constituents, leads to different functional validities during the different phases of the process. The functional validity in the model is restricted to convergent recognition. Adapting the model to creativity research implies a necessary broadening of ''achievement" to divergent solutions as well, There are thus additional ends for which perception can provide the means.

U. Hentschel and U. Schneider

272

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responses. Journal of Projective Techniques, 20, 14-25. Kragh, U. (1969). Manual till DMT - Defense Mechanism Test: Stockholm: Skandinaviska Test f orlaget. Kragh, U., & Smith, G.J.W. (1974). Forming new patters of experiences: A classical problem viewed within a percept-genetic model. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 14(6). Krippner, S. (1981). Access to hidden reserves of the unconscious through dreams in creative problem solving. Journal of Creative Behavior, 15, 1 1-22.

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(1977). Hemisphericity, cognitive set,

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Bericht Qber den 10. Kongress far experimentelle Rychologie. (Reprinted in C.F. Sander & H. Volkelt (Eds.), Ganzheitspsychologie. (1961). Miinchen: Beck.) Schaefer, C. (1975). The importance of measuring metaphorical thinking in children. Gifted Child Quarterly, 19, 140-148.


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Schlesinger, K. (1980/81). On t h e c r e a t i v e process a n d t h e h u m a n c a p a c i t y t o const rue. International Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, 8, 483500.

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ceptional Children, 33, 89-94. Shevrin, H., & Dickman, S. (1980). T h e psychological unconscious. American

Psychologist, 35, 421-434. Silverman, L.H. (1975). An e x p e r i m e n t a l technique for t h e s t u d y of unconscious conflict: A progress report. British Journal of Medical Psychology,

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(1981). Creation and reconstruction. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 4, 275-286.

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& Carlsson, I.

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study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 24 107-115. Smith, C.J.W.,

& Carlsson, 1. (in preparation). Creativity and Aggression.

Smith, G.J.W.,

& Danielsson, A. (1979). T h e influence of a n x i e t y o n t h e urge

for a e s t h e t i c c r e a t i o n : An e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y utilizing subliminal s t i m u lation a n d a p e r c e p t - g e n e t i c technique. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 19(3,4). S m i t h , G.J.W.,

&

Danielsson, A.

(1980). Ideenreichtum, Ich-Beteiligung und

Effektivitat bei einer Gruppe von Natur- und Geisteswissenschaftlern.

In

Experimentelle Persijnlichkeitspsychologie (pp. 350-371). Wiesbaden: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft. U. Hentschel & G.J.W.

Smith (Eds.),

S t r a w s , H., H a d a r , M., Shavit, H., & Itskowitz, R. (1981). Relationship bet w e e n c r e a t i v i t y , repression a n d a n x i e t y in first graders. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 275-282.

(1980). Primary process thinking a n d creativity. Psychological Rulletin, 88, 144-165.

Suler, J.R.

T o r r a n c e , E.P. (1982). Hemisphericity a n d c r e a t i v e functioning. Journal of Re-

search and Development in Education, 15, 29-37. T o r r a n c e , E.P., & Mourad, S. (1979). R o l e of hemisphericity in p e r f o r m a n c e o n s e l e c t e d measures of creativity. Gifted Child Quarterly, 23, 44-55. Vaillant, G.E. (1974). Adaptation to life. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown, & Co. Wallas, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace. Westerlundh, B., & S m i t h , G. (1983). Perceptgenesis a n d t h e psychodynamics of perception. Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 6, 597-640. Zajonc, P.B.

(1980). Feeling and thinking: American Psychologist, 35, 151-175.

P r e f e r e n c e s n e e d n o inferences.


The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publihhers B. V.(North-Holland), 1986

271

IDENTIFICATION WITH ANOTHER PERSON : MANIPULATED BY MEANS OF SUBLIMINAL STIMULATION Gudmund J.W. Smith Ingegerd Carlsson Anna Danielsson Lund University

IMTRODUCTION Research using stimulation outside awareness was for many decades mainly concerned with ascertaining its effects, i f any, on the perceiver. A s is well known, the subject-matter still remains controversial. However, after the publication of Dixon's two books (1971, 1981), where the accumulated evidence in favor of subliminal perception seems overwhelming, it has become more opportune to exploit subliminal stimulation a s a tool in personality and clinical research. One reason for the efficacy of such stimulation would be that it can bypass the constricting effects of awareness and reach beyond the surface of everyday experience. Silverman (e.g., 1980) has been a pioneer in research using subliminal psychodynamic activation. In the present paper we utilize subliminal verbal material, like Silverclan, but do so within a meta-contrast design. The meta-contrast technique has been applied in studying certain assumptions concerning subliminal perception (Smith & Henriksson, 1955 ; Smith. Spence, & Klein, 1959) and in following the development of a new percept within the context of a stabilized one. The latter procedure has been formalized into the personality test called MCT (Smith, Johnson, & Alrngren, 1982). The present paper deals with a new application of the meta-contrast design presented in its first version some years ago by Smith and Danielsson (1979). In this test the subject is confronted with a drawing of two people symmetrically standing on either side of the vertical median. This picture (referred to in the text as B , with one of a variety of suffixes) is flashed tachistoscopically onto a screen. By systematically increasing the exposure values before the real test begins, the experi-

278

G. Smith,I. Carlsson, and A. Danielsson

menter allows the subject to perceive the two persons correctly. After that, using subliminal flashes of the word I (Swedish "JAG") on either the left hand or the right hand figure, the experimenter tries to direct the subject's attention to one figure o r the other. It is assumed that the figure thus subliminally reinforced (the subliminal stimulus referred to in the text as A, with one of a variety of suffixes), will also be the one with whom the subject attempts to identify. In particular, the use of the word I should promote such identification. After having tried this technique with a B stimulus depicting an aggressor and a victim facing each other, w e became aware of its intrinsic potential for elucidating a wide range of problems of identification and empathy. In order to test the assumptions underlying this application of the new technique, for which we have coined the term identification test ( I T ) , we needed a number of independent criteria to characterize our subjects and to enable predictions of their test behavior. For the B stimulus just described, we decided to use clinical subjects with problems of aggression. One such group of subjects, borderline patients, could be described by means of carefully sifted clinical evidence; another group, characterized by projective defense mechanisms, could be identified using the results of the MCT (see below). Since, however, we also wanted to apply the IT in groups of non-clinical subjects, another version of i t was included among the tests to be used in a creativity project. In this version, the B stimulus depicted two similar persons standing against different backgrounds, one representing the walls of a narrow room, the other an open horizon. The subjects were professional artists about whom w e collected information of both their creative functioning and their artistic production - the results of a creative functioning test and the evaluation of their work by a professor of art history having been selected to serve as independent criteria. These were a number of reasons for believing that the design would work. A s already mentioned, we tested several subjects before embarking on a more systematic study. We were also aware of the powerful semantic effects of words presented subliminally (Smith, Spence, & Klein, 19591, an effect even more striking when they are presented well below the threshold, rather than just above i t (Spence & Holland, 1962). Further evidence for this has been presented more recently by other experimenters ( e . g . , Somekh & Wilding, 1973; Henley , 1975; Silverman, 1980; Westerlundh, 1983) and been comprehensively and critically summarized by Dixon (1971,

Identification Manipulated by Subliminal Stimulation

219

1981) who has supplemented the tachistoscopic techniques with extended low intensity presentations. I t may well be that some subjects are more sensitive to subliminal stimulation than others, such individual differences presumably being open to exploitation by the experimenter. The presentation of the IT will be divided in three p a r t s , one part dealing with the first and more preliminary study of borderline and paranoid-sensitive patients, another describing the testing of professional artists, and a final one devoted to the discussion of the technique.

EXPERIMENT I: A STUDY O F BORDERLINE AND PARANOIDSENSITIVE PATIENTS METHOD AND DESIGN T H E IDENTIFICATION TEST, FIRST VERSION ( I T : 1)

The basic assumption underlying the test design was that, on a picture depicting an tfaggressorll and a l'victimtl face to face, subliminal projection of the word I on one figure or the other should affect a subject's impression of, or attitude to, the contrasting roles they represent. The tendencies derived from pilot studies with normal subjects were t h a t , when I was flashed on the llaggressorlt, subjects were inclined to vindicate him and to find fault with the lTvictimlf;and that, after I was then shifted to the "victim", subjects were no longer so certain of their first impression, but often considered the "aggressor" unfair and rather repellent, instead. The picture was drawn by D r . Bert Westerlundh. The aggressor and the victim, both male, stand half facing each other, the aggressor to the left. The victim is holding his arms stretched downwards in an open gesture, the aggressor's arms are bent at the elbows and his fists clenched. The mouths of both figures are half open a s if they were talking, and that of the aggressor is twisted to

R

snarl.

The picture and the word I were presented by an MCT tachistoscope having two projectors placed behind the projection screen. The subject sat in front of the screen, which had a projection area of 35x35 cm, at a distance of 1.6 m .

The room was dimly lit

approximately 1 . 2 Lux at the

screen surface, increasing slightly (to about 1 . 5 Lux) when the picture was projected. Exposure times began at 0.01 sec and could be prolonged

G.Smith, I. Carlsson, and A . Danielsson

280

step by step with a quotient of V2. Step 2 thus represents a value of 0 . 0 1 4 sec, step 3 a value of 0 . 0 2 sec. and step 6 a value of 0.057 sec, etc. When subliminal stimuli were used they were flashed immediately before the picture. The subject received the following instructions: W e are going to show pictures on the screen in front of you. Presentations will be brief so please bc prepared. Look towards the middle of the screen when I soy,

NOW." - "First of all I want you to describe what you saw. But I would also like you to tell me your impression of the figures in the picture, what kind of people they are, whether you like them, what you believe they are thinking and feeling. Also t r y to describe the atmofiphere in the picture." - qlSometimes you may think that the pictures we show are very much alike, sometimes that they change from one exposure to the next. Please, notice such changes. l1 The experimenter asked the subjcct to give a general description after each exposure of the picture. a characterization of the two persons and of the mood. At the end of the entire experiment she also asked whether the subject had glimpsed anything else - any trace of structures not belonging to the picture. Let us use the letter B1 to represent the aggressor-victim picture, the letters I for the word I when flashed at the place of the aggressor aggr and Idct when flashed at the place of the victim. As already mentioned, B was always exposed with the aggressor to the left a s seen by the sub1 ject. Starting with an exposure value of 0 . 0 1 sec, B1 was then presented in the series of increasing time values. This series continued until the

subject, if possible, had correctly recognized the aggressor and the victim. Thereafter, the following four series were given, the exposure for the I stimuli having been 0 . 0 1 4 sec and for the B 1 stimulus 0.057 sec: 1 . B 1 alone 5 times 2 . Iaggr + B1 5 times 3. Idct

+ B 1 5 times

4 . B1 alone 5 times

The order between 2 and 3 was randomized, the experimenter himself being unaware of the presentation order used. The manipulation the experimenter had to make in order to switch from I aggr to Idct, camouflaged by several faked manipulations.

o r vice versa, was

28 1

Identification Manipulated by Subliminal Stimulation THE M E T A -CON JRAST TECHNlQUE

The experimenter also presented the subject with the threat series of the MCT (Meta-Contrast Technique) unless, as in some cases, the test had already been given by a clinical psychologist at the psychological laboratory of the Psychiatric Clinic. The general rule was to give the IT1 first and the more provocative MCT afterwards. For those already tested with the MCT the interval between the testings was considerable, the patients being "old customers" at the Clinic. The MCT consists of two pictures, one of which (B) shows a young person sitting at a table with a window in the background wall. Once B has been presented in an ascending time series until it has been correctly recognized by the subject, the presentation time is cut back to step 6 (0.057

sec). Having first presented a series of B alone at this exposure

level, the experimenter then inserts stimulus A immediately before B . A depicts a threatening face and is projected on the same part of the screen as the window in B . Exposure times for A are prolonged step by step while that for B is kept constant. The subliminal registration of A may influence the perception of B. Eventually A appears as a perceptual struct u r e in its own right, and, finally, it is correctly recognized by most subjects. Over a period of two decades, several investigators have shown that changes in the B-percept and the distortions of A reveal whether a subject tends to defend himself against anxiety provoking threats and reflect the form of this defense. The test has been reported elsewhere (Hentschel Smith, 1980; Smith

&

Danielsson, 1982; Smith, Johnson,

&

summarizing more than 25 different validating papers).

&

Almgren, 1982, In the present

study we are particularly interested in projective defenses. SCORING OF THE TESTS

The MCT was scored by G . S .

and A.D.

There were no disagrec-

ments. The IRTl scoring entailed summarizing each subject's reports in each of the four series. Since the effects of the subliminal stimulation might not penetrate immediately or might carry over from one series to the next, we concentrated on the last three trials in each series (cf. the discussion).

The main emphasis will be on the difference between series

and those where it was where I was projected upon the aggressor (&) projected upon the victim ( E l . We also agreed on these summaries, some of which will be presented below (with the aggressor in the picture denoted by A and the victim by V). The first

control series served a s a

G.Smith, I. Carlason, and A. Danielsson

282

baseline for scoring the subliminal series Iaggr + B1 and Ivict + B 1 , i . e . , in order to be noted a subject's report should differ from the baseline.

SUBJECTS

The subjects were all in-patients at the Psychiatric Clinic I of Lund University Hospital. Because he may have glimpsed some letter in the B1 picture, one subject was excluded, stimuli at threshold level being apt to carry structural messages different from their actual meaning (Spence, 1962; Dixon, 1971, 1981). Of the remaining 18 subjects, 11 were women and 7 men. The age span was 15-57 years and the median age 28 years. The median age of subjects characterized a s indubitable borderline or projective-sensitive cases below was 27 years. Since we wanted to collect people with problems pertaining to identification and aggression, our subjects are not representative of the patient population. The following summary may illustrate this point: 11 subjects, including two marginal cases, were scored for projection-sensitivity in the MCT (see below); 9 subjects first focused the victim in the introductory percept-genesis (the victim was "easiest to see," seemed closer, was moving, was the person first described by the subject, or the person described in most detail); 3 focused the aggressor; 2 had difficulties in recognizing the B1 motif, one of the refusing to do so throughout the test; 3 subjects were clear borderline cases (see below). SCORING OF PROJECTIONISENSI J l V l T Y

The MCT signs used for this classification have been validated many times against symptom criteria (for an English summory, see Smith & Danielsson, 1982). Four categories were distinguished: 1. Clear signs of projection. Examples : interaction between thc threatening person and the young person; the young person reported as known to the subject; an additional figure spotted. 2 . Moderate signs of projection, generally reports of movement, 3. Clear signs of sensitivity. Examples: several spatial changes in the B

stimulus while A remains subliminal, changes more pronounced than in the control series. 4 . Marginal signs of projection-sensitivity or no signs at all.

283

Identification Manipulated by Subliminal Stimulation DlAGNOSlNG BORDERLINE CONDl TlONS

According to their therapists, the three borderline cases were all characterized by extreme self-centercdness and lack of genuine sympathy with other people, narcissistic vulnerability, and dread of open aggression. Their instable occupational life and impermanent personal relations were

typical.

They

always

seemed close

to

primary

process

break-

throughs. Two of them had brief psychotic episodes with bizarre fantasies and a blurred distinction between self and other. One of them lived a very protected life with an understanding husband and did not regress into psychoticism. Still, she remained peculiarly elusive, lacking, as it were, a real self. PREDICTIONS F O R SUBJECTS W l T H PROJECTlVE DEFENSES

The projective defense strategy implies that unacceptable impulses of an aggressive, sexual, etc. nature are not identified as part of oneself but as belonging to the outside world. In more pathological cases the person constructs elaborate systems of persecution. A more common, not necessarily pathogenic form of projection has been described by Nyman and Smith

(1961) under the name of sensitivity. The sensitive person is particularly aware of himself as the center of attention, even in innocent social gatherings. Like the paranoid person he is acutely sensitive to the undercurrent of person-to-person relationships, but more stimulus proximal in his reporting and more flexible. We predict that all subjects with projective defenses, above all those with strong projections according to the MCT hierarchy, will find it difficult to identify with the aggressor and thus to accept their own aggressive tendencies. Identification with the victim is likely to be easier for them, especially i f they can justify the victim in his relation to the aggressor. Moreover, identification with the victim would allow the subject to indulge in his fascination with aggression in others. PREDICTIONS F O R B O R D E R L I N E SUBJECTS

It may seem risky to include the borderline personality as a criterion dimension. Many clinicians regard borderline states as a diagnostic wastepaper basket. We prefer to agree with Kernberg (1967, 19751, however, that borderline patients do indeed have a specific personality organization which is not a transitory state fluctuating between psychosis and neurosis; in fact, of course, the uniqueness of the borderline condition was discovered long ago (Stern, 1938; Deutsch, 19421, even if systematic studies

G. Smith, I. Carlsson, and A . Danielsson

284

were late to appear (Grinker, Werble, b Drye, 1968). Diagnosis seems difficult because the clinician must confine his attention to basic metapsychological perspectives rather than focus upon specific symptoms (Meissner , 1978). The central defect is in the organizing structure of the self (Ross, 1976). a defect which becomes particularly glaring in unstructured settings. Except for brief psychotic episodes in some cases, borderline people differ from psychotics in their ability to maintain object relations and to preserve reality testing, and from neurotics in their inability to integrate positive and negative introjections and identifications as well as in their all too readily undertaken shifts toward primary process thinking. In this context we wish to emphasize signs of identity diffusion and narcissism. Borderline people, says Ross (1976), are likely to experience other people without recognition, as "mere surface." It is obvious that these people are bound to face grave difficulties in the IT1. Even i f any identification would be problematic for them, we expect them to differentiate between the aggressor and the victim as objects of identification and understanding. The crucial event in the etiology of most borderline cases seems to be a very early narcissistic damage ("the blow") to their fragile self-esteem and feeling of security. Giving expression to aggressive impulses can therefore be particularly dangerous to borderline persons because, as they see i t , the anticipated revenge would have severe and unbearable consequences. Even if less dangerous, however, the role of the victim is certainly not going to be easy either, Given tendencies to projection, the borderline person might find the victim more comforting, as the victim would then be entitled to fight back. While both paranoid and borderline subjects will thus find identification with the aggressor difficult, the latter will to some extent also tend to resist identification with the victim, owing to the feared revenge.

RESULTS

Summaries of IT1 protocols will first be presented for subjects who were scored for signs of projection-sensitivity in the M C T but were not considered as borderline personalities, and, thereafter, for the three borderline cases. & represents series where I was flashed on the aggressor (called A_ below), series where it was flashed on the victim (called V ) . All but one of the subjects were able to recognize the B1 motif before

285

Identification Manipulated by Subliminal Stimulation the subliminal series started.

N O N - B O R D E R L I N E SUBJECTS WlTH SlGNS OF P R O J E C T l O N I S E N S I J I V l J Y

=:

Subjects with clear signs of projection: The subject seems completely bewildered. 1. Vict : 2.

Correct differentiation. =: & is shrinking, seems inferior to UP

1;or

the two roles are mixed

-

Vict:

Correct differentiation. But

is perfectly in his rights and A_ is

now easier to identify. Subjects with more moderate signs of projection: The picture theme is subdued and the differentiation unclear. 3.

a: Vict: -

Correct differentiation and open identification with V_. This seems

to entitle the subject to a renewed interest in A_. V_ makes a gesture 4.

towards A's crotch. Both series incorrect, but

Vict

less so, since the aggressive atmo-

sphere is mentioned. Subjects with clear signs of sensitivity: 5.

Both series incorrect, but

6.

m:Doubtful

Vict

less

RO,

since the aggressive atmo-

sphere is mentioned.

Vict : -

differentiation at first, incorrect in the end.

Correct differentiation.

7.

Both series correctly differentiated, But V_ disappears in both.

10.

e: The subject finds the picture difficult

B O R D E R L l N E SUBJECTS

to perceive, mixes A_ and

x,is confused about their sex, softens the aggressive theme which fi-

nally disappears altogether. Vict: -

This series does not lead to perceptual difficulties. The subject

recognizes himself in both persons, however, wants to shift between them, combines man with woman and man with man in open sexual intercourse, shows signs of mounting anxiety and embarks on loose associations.

11.

e: No differentiation, both A_ and V_ are aggressive. Vict:

Correct differentiation. Finally, V_ gives up and falls to the

ground.

12.

a: Everything seems harmless, no differentiation. Vict: V_

is identified as the victim but gets the upper hand while

begins to behave like a submissive dog.

4

G.Smith, I. Corlsson, and A . Danielsson

286

All borderline subjects reacted very much like the foregoing group of subjects in the series. However, even in the Vict series they ran into complications total surrender, attempts at double identification, insurrection. One projecting borderline personality, subject 11, seems to accept the role of V_ rather easily. In the last control series, where the subject is no longer supported by subliminal stimulation for his choice of identification, the following happens in the borderline group. 10. There is no relation any more between A_ and V_, the subject does not like them, sees them as bad but disguised people, and shows signs of severe anxiety. 11. The differentiation is less clear now than in the series and the descriptions are more hypothetical. 12. The motif seems more threatening. Table 1 presents an overview of the results in the and Vict series. A s just pointed out, the borderline cases differ from the other cases with respect to their complicated Vict series, Most projective-sensiTable 1 Sumnary of results in the

Incorrect differentiation

& and Yice

Correct differentiation

in

in

Vict -

Vict -

partly correct but com-

mainly

less in-

correct

correct

correct,

correct,

and better

but not

not com-

aggr.

differen-

better

tiation

differen-

plex iden- plex iden- perceived tification tification

0

Not incorrect but evasive

Vict -

group

3

&

Vict -

Clinical

Borderline

series.

Vict _ I

tiation

0

0

0

0

Clear proj.

0

2

0

0

0

0

Movement

0

1

1

0

0

0

Clear sens.

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

I

5

1

Not more than marginal cases

287


tive subjects manage to differentiate A_ and V_ in the in the

Vict

series, but not

series. While these subjects make mistakes of differentiation

either in one or both series, the remaining subjects do not (one subject by evading the issue throughout the test). If we distinguish the borderline cases from the rest of the subjects, exclude the subject who was never able to recognize the picture motif, and divide the remaining group of 17 in two by a vertical median, we obtain a four-field table of (9-0):(1-7). A s tested by Fisher's exact t e s t , onetailed, the difference is significant

(p=0.0004) and remains highly significant (p=O.OOOS) even i f the subjects to the extreme right in the table were deleted as dubious.

EXPERIMENT 11: A STUDY OF PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS The second study was primarily concerned with creative functioning in a group of 32 professional artists but included a version of the identification tests (IT2) specifically adapted to the creativity area. The results of a creative functioning test and of an a r t historian's evaluation of the artists' productions were selected to serve as independent criteria.

METHOD AND DESIGN

THE IDENJlFlCAJlON TEST, SECOND VERSION ( I T : 2) The B2 picture was drawn by one of the present authors ( I . C . ) . Two human figures stand half facing each other. Except for minor differences in hair and dress they are quite similar, wearing trousers and lacking inobvious sex attributes. They are separated by a partition with a glass pane. The crucial difference between the two sides of the picture concerns the background, the left figures is standing against an open, diffusely structured background, the right figure against a wall close behind. IT2 was presented in exactly the same way as IT1.

The second and third

series in IT2 were thus Iopen (against the figure with the open background) and Iclosed (against the figure with the closed background) + B 2 , or vice versa for half of the subjects according to a randomized doubleblind design.

G. Smith, I. Carlsson, and A . Danielsson

288 SCORING OF I T : 2

Since the scoring of IT2 might be more open to subjective influences than the scoring of IT1. two of the present authors ( G . S . , I . C . ) , on the one hand, and an extra judge, on the other, scored the protocols independently of each other, the following scoring rulcs having been formulated: Use +, -, +/-, or 0 to characterize each of the two subliminally manipulated (middle) series. The latter three presentations in a series of five should be most decisive for the overall characterization. The control series should serve as a "baseline. I' + is given when the picture is described in clearly positive words; when the environment and sex of the figures are more clearly perceived than before; when the subject's interest in the picture is increasing; when there is more contact between the two figures.

-

is given when the picture is described in such clearly negative

words as aggressive, anxiety laden, etc.; when the subject finds it artificial, tries to deprecate the drawing, becomes irritated or tired, loses interest; when the sex of the figures is changed (within the series); when the environment is concealed or transfigured or when other defensive strategies are used; when the subject obviously attends to the "opposite" side. +I- is given when both the above alternatives can be applied to the snme series (even to thc same single projection). 0 is given when +,

-, or +I- do not apply, i . e . , when the subliminal

stimulation has no noticeable effect. The judges were also admonished not to rely on single, vague signs, particularly not in the beginning of a series, and to avoid drawing farreaching conclusions from temporary shifts of attention. They were also reminded that both the control series and the introductory series could be used to define a subject's habitual style of reporting and hence facilitate the judge's decision as to when to score real change in later series. Because the sex of the two figures was indeterminate, sex attribution varied considerably among the subjects. We used three classes to characterize this variation: No change, early attribution and no subsequent change; Change, sex attribution not later than the control series ( N o . l ) , change of attribution as a result of the subliminal stimulation (series No. 2 and/or No. 3 ) ; Indet, indeterminate about sex. THE C R E A T I V E F U N C T I O N I N G TEST (PG)

This test has been describedin detail in other recent publications (c.g., Smith

B

Cnrlsson, 1983), where validation data are also given.

289

Identification Manipulated by Subliminnl Stimulation

It rests on the assumption that creative people are willing and able to go beyond the confines of a stabilized perception impression. A still-life is presented on a screen in front of the subject using a percept-genetic technique - i.e., starting with sub-threshold exposure values which are gradually prolonged. After the subject has correctly recognized the stimulus, the procedure is reversed with gradually diminished exposure times. In this inverted series, subjects who eventually entertain subjective themes instead of the correct one, receive an X X score, whereas those who simultaneously retain the consensus meaning somewhere in the background, receive an X score. ( X ) refers to partial changes from correct to incorrect reporting; 0 to more fleeting impressions of alternative meanings; S to instances where the meaning of the picture does not change but only the apparent size of the structures or the perspective under which they are seen, etc. Protocols without changes receive a

- score. The series of

scores represents an approximate interval scale (Smith

&

Carlsson, 1983).

Here, clear changes (XX,X) are given a value of 3 , partial o r fleeting changes ( ( X I , 0 , S) a value of 2 , and no changes (-1 a value of 1. Human motifs reported in the ascending presentation series of the 'lstraightl' percept-genesis make for another useful scoring category, particularly known to reflect emotional involvement in creative work (cf. Stein, 1975). The protocols were scored b y two independent raters (G.S., I . C . ) . A s before, there were few disagreements, all of them easily resolved. A R J DIMENSIONS

The a r t specialist, Professor Sven Sandstrijm , working independently of the present authors, used 11 dimensions to describe the artistic production of 2 9 artists whose work he felt he knew well enough. The following dimensions will be used here: form (emphasis on formal matters), struct u r e , renewal, originality, expression, static (as opposed to dynamic), and pamphleteering (letting one1s products

be influenced by concern with

humanlsocial issues). A plus denoted certainty that the a r t products were, for instance, original, a minus equal certainty that they were not, and a zero uncertainty.

290

G.Smith, I. Carlsson, and A. Danielsson SUBJEC JS

The subjects were profcssional artists living in the southwestern part of Sweden not too far from the laboratory, a list of nrtists compiled by a local employment agency having served as a basis for selection. Our art specialist deleted what he considered %on-serious" artists from the list and added others instead. Altogether 33 subjects participated in the investigation and were paid a nominal fee for their trouble. Twelve artists declined to participate, for various reasons. One of the 33 subjects was excluded from the group because of suspected brain damage, leaving 32 subjects for the main comparisons. There were 23 men and 9 women; 7 subjects were younger than 40 and 13 older than 49. A s already mentioned, comparisons between tcst results and judgments by the art specialists was limited to 29 subjects,

PREDlCJlONS

Bg was drawn for specific use with professional artists. The main contrast between the two sides of the pictures should be open versus closed. Our first, rather simplistic assumption was that a preference for the open alternative would coincide with a strong urge to create. A s shown in previous studies (Smith & Carlsson, 1983), anxiety is part of the creativity complex, o r , to put it in other words, creative people seem relatively tolerant of the anxiety accompanying creative work. This was seen as an additional reason for creative subjects not shunning the open alternative with its relative lack of structure. A s we shall see, outright preference for the I open alternative is rare. Instead, we get a group of artists who are ambivalent when directed to identify with the open side, being sometimes negative to the other alternative and sometimes not. Moreover, few people are unequivocally positive when the subliminal stimulus points to the closed alternative. The two antagonistic preferences just do not materialize in the way we had anticipated. One reason might be that many artists viewed the picture with a rather detached, professional eye. Taking these response patterns into account, we had to include in the category of subjects expected to score high on the PG test, not only those who clearly prefer identification with the open side, but also all subjects


29 1

with ambivalent reaction to the Iopen alternative. A middle cluster of subjects ( l c , 2a, 2b, in the classification below) do not react positively to the open side and receive mostly negative scores. Before deciding what to expect of these people in the PG test, we should consider subjects who do not react at all o r whose reactions are at best doubtful, perhaps because they are insensitive to subliminal stimulation o r to the difference between the alternatives, or to both. Since the closed-open contrast seems to be no problem for these people, or since they are generally insensitive, w e assume that they do not really know what creative functioning implies. Unlike these insensitive subjects, the middle cluster subjects are all somehow sensitive to at least the introduction of subliminal stimulation, most of them even to the difference between the Iopen and 'closed alternatives. We therefore expect them t o show at least some signs of crcativity. It would be easy to extend the prcdictions to a number of dimensions included in the creativity project and known to be closely associated with the results in the PG test, e . g . , awareness of the discomforts of creative work, moments of inspiration, and oceanic experiences. We will, however, limit our comparisons to one reliable dimension : personal involvement in creative work as evidenced by the use of human motifs in the P G test. Other comparisons to be presented below concern the attribution of sex to the figures in the stimulus picture and evaluations of the subjects as painters made by the art specialist. Spesking very generally, we assume that subjects, who are relatively oblivious to the sex of the figures in B2 or who at least do not feel forced to change the sex attribution with the introduction or shift of subliminal stimulation, are more inclined to crcative empathy with these figures and more likely to score high on the PG test. Finally, artists whose work is very formalized and tightly structured would probably be less positive toward the open alternative in B2 or generally less sensitive to the thematic contrast between its left and right sides.

RESULTS R E L I A BIL ITY

Each subject was scored for two scries: Iopen + B2 and Iclosed + B2. Taking + and + / - scores as similar, the independent sets of judges agrced in 25 of 32 cases (groups l a , l c , 2 , and 4 , below). In 4 of the 7 cases of disagreement, the extra judge hesitated between one alternative implying

G.Smith, I. Carlsson, and A. Danielsson

292

full agreement with the other judges. and another, slightly different alternative, finally settling on the latter. The three remaining disagreements were also slight. GROUPlNG

When grouping subjects to test predictions, we took both agreements as well as disagreements into consideration, constructing groups l b and 3 to contain the latter. Group 1 All subjects in this group differentiate betweon the alternatives by reacting positively (ambivalently) to one of them and negatively to the other. la. Positive (ambivalent) in the Iopen series (consensus) - 1 4 subjects. l b . Positive (ambivalent) in the Iopen series (one set of judges; all judges agreeing that reactions in the Iclosed series are more negative) - 2 subjects. lc. Negative in the Iopen series (consensus) - 2 subjects. A transitional category. Group 2 No positive scores in this group; negative scores at least in the 'closed series. 2a. Negative in the Iclosed series only (consensus) - 2 subjects. 2b. Negative in both series (consensus) - 3 subjects. Group 3 Slight disagreement between judges in all cases because of the indeterminate character of the reports, close to the zero score line (in 4 subjects ( 5 , if the first assessment is considered), nothing but zero scores according to one set of judges; in the remaining subject very similar, vague reactions) - 5 subjects. Group 4 Only zero scores (consensus)

-

4 subjects.


293

COMPARISONS W I T H C R I T E R I A

Table 2 compares the IT2 groupings with the creative functioning

(PG) test, two quasi scales having been constructed, one for each dimension. The IT2 groups l a and l b have been separated from l c because the former subjects' reactions to the Iopen alternative are at least partly positive. The product-moment correlation is 0.70 ( p 0.01). Table 2 I T

2

groups and the c r e a t i v i t y s c a l e

PG test Creativity scale

-2

3

values

--

(X) / O D

XX/X

Scale IT2 groups

-1

Figures within parentheses show how s u b j e c t s a r e regrouped when sex a t t r i b u t i o n data a r e used t o redefine t h e middle IT

2

groups (see t e x t ) .

In order to render the differentiation between groups l c , 2a, and 2b, on the one hand, and group 3 , on the other, more reliable, we have used the sex attribution data. Subjects in groups l c , 2a, and 2b, who belong to class I1 (those who change sex attribution with the introduction andlor shift of the subliminal I ) , have been moved from the second to the third

row in Table 2 . The correlation increases to 0.82. Table 3 I T

2

groups and human themes In t h e PG t e s t

PG t e s t IT

2

groups

la, b the r e s t

Human themes

No human themes

16

0

7

9

G. Smith, I, Carlsson, and A . Danielsson

294

If the sex attribution classes Indet, No change, Change are given scale values of 3, 2 , 1, we can calculate their correlation with the creativity functioning test. It is 0.41 (p=0.05). Table 3 is a four-field arrangement showing the association between

human motifs in the ascending series of the PG test and the IT2 grouping. Fisher's exact p value is 0.0004 (one-sided test). The C index of agreement based on this contrast is 0 . 5 6 (Holley Ih Guilford. 1964). Correlation with the art dimensions form and structure is shown in Table 4 . We predicted a negative correlation between the IT2 scale as presented in Table 2 , on the one hand, and a formalized and tightly structured a r t production, on the other. We have distinguished between subjects with plus scores for both form and structure, subjects with a plus for either dimension, and one subject with no plus score at all, giving these three classes the values of 3 , 2 , 1. The correlation is - 0 . 4 4 ( ~ ~ 0 . 0 5 , two-sided test). Since, however, the distribution of scores is rather skewed, we decided to cut the left, double plus, column in two by using another related dimension: renewal. Subjects not scoring plus for renewal were placed in a new column given the value of 4 . The new correlation soars to - . 7 8 ( p e 0.01, two-sided test). Using the sex attribution data as above, the correlation value can be further enhanced. Table 4 IT groups and a r t i s t i c dimensions 2

Form and Structure Plus f o r both IT

Plus f o r one

No plus

Renewal

2 groups

considered Scale values

(4) (2)

-3

-2

-1

h,b

4

(2)

(4)

6

8

1

l c , 2a,b

3

(3)

(2)

5

1

0

3

2

(2)

(1)

3

1

0

4

1

(4)

(0)

4

0

0

Figures within parentheses show how subjects are regrouped when the column "Plus f o r both" is divided in two, one with no p l u s for "Renewal" such a score

(2).

(k),

the other with

295


Exploring certain other a r t dimensions we found a few additional correlations, most of them implying that IT2 group 4 differs from the others. These dimensions are originality (group 4 being less original), expression (group 4 and partly group 3 being less expressive in their art productions), and pamphleteering (groups 2b, 3 , 4 being less inclined in that direction). In Table 5 the a r t dimension static is grouped with the sex attribution classes. As expected, the work of subjects in group Change is more often judged as static. Contrasting Change with No change + Indeterminate we get an exact p value of 0.007 (one-sided Fisher test). The G index of agreement is 0.52. Table 5 Sex attribution groups in IT and the art dimension Static 2

Static

Sex attribution groups

Plus

No change

3

Indeterminate

a

Change

Not plus

10

DISCUSSION The aim of this paper has been to introduce a new test principle rather than to present a complete test instrument. Many concrete details remain to be discussed - e.g., the formal quality of the picture material. Nevertheless, the two sets of stimuli have served their original purpose: to manipulatc subliminally the observer's identification with either of two contrasting human figures. The term "identification" has been used in the sense adopted in the classical TAT tradition (Murray et al, 1938), where "to identify" is taken to mean: to assume the point of view of someone else, to make this someone the %era" of a story o r , in our arrangement, to see him or her as the center against the periphery, "the self" against ''the other." The results show (1) that this identification can be manipulated by means of a

296

G.Smith, I. Carlsson, and A . Danielsson

subliminal verbal stimulus, (2) that the identification may encounter various kinds of resistance in the subject. Both the sensitivity to subliminal manipulation and the resistance to it can be exploited diagnostically. We have found that some of our subjects respond as if they were generally insensitive to subliminal stimulation. After looking more closely at our data, however, we hesitate to say that these subjects are impervious to influence from all aspects of the subliminal manipulation (cf. Sackeim, Packer, & Gur, 1977). In experiment 11, for instance, while the IT2 groups 3 and 4 appear to be oblivious to the shifts of the subliminal I between the Iopen and the 'closed alternatives in B2, many of these zero score subjects nevertheless change their sex attribution. The insensitivity score in groups 3 and 4 apparently reflects only part of the thematic contrast between Iopen and 'closed' To some readers i t may seem too rash to conclude that the word trI" is a prerequisite for the success of the technique. A meaningless sign or the letter X would pcrhaps suffice to direct the subject's attention subliminally to one o r the other figure in B and to so control the process of identification. A s we have seen, however, it is not enough to draw the subject's attention to one of the persons in B to actualize problems of identification. A subliminal I may very likely have the necessary extra persuasive power lacking in a sign without meaning. A special experiment would, naturally, be needcd to clarify this issue, but even without it we can still exploit the IT principle. Spence, Klein, and Fernandez (see Chapter 6 of this volume) have recently drawn attention to the importance of a fixation point in experiments employing subliminal stimulation. Their results demonstrate that it is necessary to know if the stimulation is unilateral or foveal in order to predict its effects, particularly if stimuli are complex verbal messages. In our type of design, with the stimulation shifted from one side to the other, the use of either one, middle fixation point or two alternating points to the left or the right, would be unthinkable, for obvious reasons. In spite of all we got predicted effects. One reason could be that the word I is both short and "basic," another that the first subliminal projection (on one of the figures in B ) in a block of five directed the subject's attention to that figure and ensured at least approximately foveal stimulation in the following four. It may be recalled that we particularly emphasized the effects of the last three stimulations in each block of five. The reliability was not formally assessed in experiment 1 because both judges easily agreed on the scoring. In experiment I1 we compared the re-


291

sults of two independent sets of judges. While agreement was not perfect, it was good in view of the fact that judging experiment I1 protocols seems to be a more delicate task. The reliability of various criteria is more difficult to estimate. In experiment I , clinical diagnosis was mainly based on MCT data; in the case of borderline patients only very obvious symptoms were admitted. In experiment 11, the main criteria were taken from the PCi test. The evaluations by the a r t specialist were, he explained, on the whole supported by one of his colleagues. Judging by the general reliability of MCT and PG data and by the careful scrutiny of the "free" evaluations, we feel entitled to regard the criteria as quite reliable. The validity was tested against a broad range of criteria, the outcome being generally good. In experiment 11, sex attribution was added as an interesting dimension. The prerequisite for maintaining a satisfactory degree of validity, however, seems to be adherence to evaluation rules that are not only theoretically sound, but also strict and detailed. Indulgence in the ever present temptation to overexploit good test instruments (of which there are all too few in the field of personality) is, of course, a threat to their validity and reliability. A s far as experiment I is concerned, the introductory hypotheses, which were not very difficult to formulate, appear to have been confirmed. Both borderline and projection cases found identification with the aggressor difficult, even impossible. Some subjects reported bewilderment about the two figures in B and their relationship with each other, while others refused to recognize the central theme. Perceptual difficulties in a more limited sense were also noted. A s we had surmised, it was relatively easy for projecting people to accept open identification with the victim - i.e., to distinguish correctly between the aggressor and the victim when I was projected on the latter. They even indulged in the aggressor's aggression. For borderline cases, on the other hand, this shift of identification implied only marginal relief because any attempt at identification with another person must be difficult for them. The results of experiment I1 can be used to highlight different types of artists as defined, among other things, by their artistic work. This is not the place, however, to dwell on the artistic side of these problems. What is psychologically more interesting is, above all, the association between IT2 results and creativity scores. The more creative these subjects, the more sensitive they were to the thematic contrast, and the more willing also to affirm, at least to some degree, the open alternative. The same

298

G. Smith, I. Carlsson, and A. Danielsson

sensitivity is typical of those artists whose work is characterized by openness, expressiveness, originality, and renewal. There is also an interesting correlation between the static-dynamic dimension and sex attribution; the less dynamic hislher work the less flexible was an artist's sex identification. Naturally, the two pairs of identification alternatives tried in these experiments are not the only possible ones, and a number of variations could be suggested. With regard to sex roles, for instance, a man could be matched with a woman, a masculine man (woman) with a feminine counterpart, etc. Age contrasts would be another possibility. Varying the background as in experiment 11, a lonely person might be compared with one seen against a group of other people, Instead of the aggressor and victim, a sad person could be combined with a happy one. The permutations are as many as there are questions to be posed.

ACKMO\VLEDGEhIENT The present study was supported by a grant from the Swedish Humanistic and Social Science Research Council.


299

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& Smith, G.J.W.

(1961). Experimental differentiation of clinical

syndromes in a sample of young neurotics. Acta Psychiatrica et Neurologica Scandinavica, 37, 14-31. Ross, M.

(1976). The borderline diathesis. analysis, 3, 305-321.

Sackeim, H.A., Packer I.K.,

& Gur, R.C.

International Review of Psycho-

(1977). Hemisphericity, cognitive set,

and susceptibility t o subliminal perception. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 624-630. Silverman, L.H. (1980). A comprehensive report on studies using the subliminal psychodynamic activation method. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 20( 3). Smith, G.J.W.,

PC Carlsson,

1. (1983). Creativity and anxiety:

study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 24, 107-115.

An experimental

G. Smith, I. Carlsson, and A . Danielssov

300 Smith, G.J.W.,

& Danielsson, A. (1979). A test of identification using sublimi-

nal stimulation in a meta-cont rast design. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 19 (9-10). Smith, G.J.W., & Danielsson, A. (1982). Anxiety and defensive strategies in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Issues, (Monograph No. 52). New York: International Universities Press. Smith, G.J.W., & Henriksson, A4. (1955). The effect on an established percept of a perceptual process beyond awareness. Acta Psychologica, 11, 346355. Smith, G.J.W.,

Johnson, G.,

&

Almgren, P.E.

(1982).

MCT-metakontrasttek-

niken. Stockholm: Psykologiforlaget. Smith, G.J.W.,

Spence, D.P., & Klein, G.S. (1959). Subliminal effects of verbal

stimuli. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 167-176. Somekh, D.H., & Wilding, J.W. (1973). Perception without awareness in a dioptic viewing situation. British Journal of Psychology, 64, 339-349. Spence, D.P.,

Klein, L., & Fernandez, R. (this volume, chapter 6). Size and

shape of the subliminal window. Spence, D.P.,

& Holland,

B. (1962). The restricting effects of awareness: A

paradox and an explanation. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 64, 163-174.

Stein, M.I.

(1975). Manual for PCT, the Physiognomic Cue Test. New York:

Behavioral Publications. Stern, A. (1938). A psychoanalytic investigation of therapy in the borderline neuroses. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 7, 467-489. Westerlundh, B. (1983).

The motives of defence:

Perceptgenetic

studies.

1. Shame. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, 23 (7).

The Roots of Perception U.Hentschel, G. Smith, J.G. Draguns (editors) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B. V. (North-Holland), 1986

301

SCHIZOPHRENIC PERCEPTION AND ITS PSYCHOPATHOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS : A MICROGENETIC STUDY Hans Kreitler and Shulamith Kreitler Tel-Aviv University

INTRODUCTION The purpose of this study was to gain new insight into the process of schizophrenic perception by studying the sequence of perceptual events with a microgenetic method, interpreting the results in line with our psychosemantic theory of cognition (Kreitler 8 Kreitler. l98!2), and comparing these findings with the performance of normal subjects studied and interpreted in the same manner. Since Kraepelin (1896) pointed to the extremely poor attention deployment of schizophrenics and Bleuler (1950) emphasized their disturbed associational process, morbid aspects of schizophrenic cognition in general and perceptual disturbances in particular have become the major topic of experimental

investigations into the

psychological

of schizo-

deficiencies

phrenics. Attention was focused on these deficiencies partly because of their accessibility t o controlled and replicable experimentation, and partly because of the assumption that any abnormality in perception may eventually result in abnormal performance. One by one the common elements of perception were scrutinized. It was shown that there is in schizophrenics an abnormally prolonged reaction tine to perceptual stimuli (Shakow , 1962, 1963. 1974); a different approach to experimental tasks than in normals (Sutton, 1975), probably because of fears or hesitations to reveal hallucinations (Spring ure-background

&

Zubin, 1978); an alteration in depth perception and fig-

discrimination, especially during acute episodes

man, 1976); distortions due to response biases (Chapman 1973) ; excessive attention to irrelevant details (McGhie

&

&

( Freed-

Chapman,

Chapman, 1973) ;

and impaired size constancy (Maher, 1966; Spohn, Thetford,

&

Cancro,

1976) which has been identified by some a s underestimation, particularly in

paranoids and acute schizophrenics (Silverman, 1964a, 1964b) and by othe r s as overestimation (McKinnon

&

Singer, 1969).

302

H. Kreitler and S. Kreitler

In summarizing these and similar findings, Shapiro (1981, p. 59) concluded, "To date it appears that the difficulty is not in the reception and transmission of sensations to the cortex b u t , rather, in the integration of sensory impressions into a context andlor the attribution of meaning , I ' A different, more process-oriented claim - rather in line with the Wurzburg School - was made by Shakow (1962, 1963) who emphasized the schizophrenic inability to maintain a major set or - in terms of the concepts introduced by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram (1960) - to stick to a guiding plan (Callaway, 1972). There arc further experimentally studied schizophrenic characteristics that havc been suggested as factors affecting schizophrenic perception. These include mainly overinclusion (Cameron, 19641, the formation of chain concepts (Goldstein & Scheerer, 1964). identifying inputs in an ambiguous manner (Bateson, Jackson. Haley, & Weakland. 1956, 1963; Singer & Wynne. 1965; Wynne & Singer, 19631, lack of selective attention (McGhie & Chapman, 1961), response biases mainly in line with habitual or common associations (Chapnan & Chapman, 19731, and the impact of belief-induced meanings on initial input identification (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1976, Chap ter 12). Most of the above-mentioned investigators used their findings as a core for a more comprehensive theory of schizophrenia or of schizophrenic thought disorders. They did not, however, present a coherent description of the chain of operations or events that constitutes Schizophrenic perception in the sense of input identification. To our mind, there are two prerequisites for such a description: first, applying a microgenetic method of data collection, and secondly, analyzing the subjects' responses in line with a cognitive theory which - due to its psychosemantic foundation - allows for quantification and qualification of cognitive contents. The quantification would be required for the sake of comparisons, and the qualification for the sake of an interpretative analysis of the results and their integration in a cognitive theory of schizophrenia. The potential value of the microgenetic approach for the study of pathological cognition in schizophrenia was emphasized by Flavell and Draguns (1957). Previous attempts to investigate schizophrenic cognition by applying the microgenetic principle or methodology include Schilder's (1942, 1951) mostly theoretical explorations, and studies notably by Draguns (1961, 1963). Phillips and Framo (19541, and Smith et al. (Smith, Johnson, 8 Ljunghill-Anderson, 1970). These, as well as the microgenetic

Sch itophrenic Perception

303

studies of different neurotic groups of patients (Kragh, 1955, 1 9 5 9 , 1960, Magnusson. Nilsson. & Henriksson , 1977; Nilsson, 1 9 8 3 ) , 1983; brain-injured patients (Werner, 1956) and normals under stressful conditions (see review in Flavell & Draguns, 1957; Kragh, 1 9 5 5 ) , strongly suggest that microgenesis could promote substantial progress in understanding the key issue of input identification in schizophrenics. I t was the purpose of this study to contribute to the attainment of this goal by applying jointly microgenesis and a semantically-based cognitive approach. The contributions of such a combination to a better understanding of input identification were demonstrated by the results of IL previous study with normal subjects in which the same methodological procedure was applied (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1984a). Since the schizophrenic patients who served as subjects in the present study were chosen so as to match the subjects of the former study in all important respects (see Method Section) the results of the two studies can be compared. Indced, we use some of the more general findings of the former study as guidelines for the nnalysis and interpretation of the present study. The data collection in both studies was carried out in line with the hologenic microgenetic method (Draguns, 1984; for details of the 10 increasing Exposure Values, see Method Section). For coding the obtained data and for their initial interpretation we used variables and concepts derived from our psychosemantic theory of cognition. Therefore, the understanding of our previous and present studies requires a more detailed presentation of this theory at this point. We regard cognition as a meaning processing and meaning processed system, tho system that learns, assigns, develops, and manipulates meaning b u t , in t u r n , is influenced by the impact of meaning. This statement obviously requires further qualification, pmtly because of the claim that the processed takes part in the proccssing but mainly because of the lack of clarity of the term "meaningTT.As regards the double-faced and apparently contradictory designation of meaning which has come to be traditional - with meaning figuring once as a processed element and once as a processing agent - it is to be recalled that one of the great achievements of twentieth century thought has been unifying that which was once regarded as distinct, or even as contradictory. Mass and energy, particle and wave, event and observer in physics, form and content in the arts, normal and abnormal processes in psychoanalysis are only a few examples. Considering meaning according to function and circumstances at one time as contents

H. Kreitler and S.Kreitler

304

and at another time as process is well in line with this tendency; moreover, it is an empirical necessity and constitutes the core of a fruitful research strategy (Kreitler h Kreitler, 1985a, 198513, 1985c, 1985d). The lack of clarity of the term "meaning" is, to our mind, eliminated by the manner in which we define and measure meaning.

THE MEANING SYSTEM We define meaning as a referent-related pattern of cognitive content elements that are called moaning values (Kreitler 8 Kreitler, 1968; Kreitler & Kreitler, 1982). A referent is anything to which meaning values are assigned. It may be an experimentally presented stimulus, a part of this input, an illusion induced by the presented input, or a sudden idea of the subject. Meaning values are the minimal units of cognitive contents assigned to the referent, e. g. , 9 s red", "rather square", ltugly", Vnakes me shiver", etc. Thus, referent and meaning value are complementary terms, like mother and son. Referent is that to which meanings are assigned, whereas meaning values are the cognitive units assigned to the referent. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between stimulus or input, on the one hand, and referent, on the other hand, even in the case of normal adult subjects. Each meaning value is coded according to four principles or viewpoints: a) the kind of contents it conveys in regard to the referent (Meaning Dimensions); b) the formal aspects of its relation to the referent (Forms of Relation); c) representational aspects of its relation to the referent (Types of Relation); and d) indications about the referent to which the meaning value relates (Referent Shift Variables). In contrast to meaning values that present specific contents, meaning dimensions are categories of contents or basic types of references to inputs of all kinds. For instance, if the subject says or thinks about a visual input. "it is red", this meaning value would be coded in the dimension Sensory Qualities. Likewise, "it is in the left corner" would be coded in the dimension Locational Qualities; "it is fading away" would be coded in the dimension State and Possible Changes in I t , and "I dislike the color" would be coded in the dimension Judgments and Evaluations. On the basis of extensive research with thousands of subjects we determined 22 meaning dimensions (see full list in Table l ) , and found that they suffice for characterizing all cognitive contents.

Schizophrenic Perception

305

For the purpose of a more detailed analysis each meaning dimension can be divided into subdimensions. For example, the meaning dimension Sensory Qualities includes the subdimensions of visual, auditory, olfactory. internal, etc. sensations; the dimension Causes and Antecedents includes the subdimensions of cognitive-mental

causes, physical causes, emotional

causes, developmental antecedents, and so on. The subdimensions of any meaning dimension are defined by means of the other meaning dimensions applied to the contents of that dimension. Forms of relation specify whether the meaning value relates to the referent in an assertive, negative, conjunctive, or disjunctive manner, etc. For example, "it is either red or yellow" would be coded as a disjunction, and "it is neither a hare nor a rabbit" would be coded a s a double negation. Types of relation specify whether the representational relation between the meaning value and the referent is attributive ( e . g . , "it is crimson"), comparative (e. g. , "it is darker than the background"), exemplifying-illustrative ( e . g . , "it is the color seen at sunset in a tropical country"), or metaphoric-symbolic ( e . g . , 9 t is the color of a gloomy mood"). Table 1 Major Variables of the Meaning System

Types of Relation

Meaning Dimensions

Dim. 1.

Contextual Allocation

Dim. 2 .

Range of Inclusion

Dim. 3.

Function, Purpose, h Role

Dim. 4.

Actions h Potentialities for Action

TR 1.

la. Qualities to substance

lb. Actions to agent

(2a: Subclasses; 2b: Parts)

(4a:

Attributive

TR 2 .

Comparative 2a. Similarity 2b. Difference

by ref.; 4b: to ref.)

2c. Complementariness

Dim. 5 .

Manner of Occurrence h Operation

Dim. 6 .

Antecedents

Dim. 7.

Consequences & Results

Dim. 8.

Domain of Application

3a. Exemplifying instance

(8a: as subject; 8b: as object)

3b. Exemplifying situation

Dim. 9.

Material

3c. Exemplifying scene

Dim. 10.

Structure

Dim. 11.

State h Possible Changes in It

4b. Metaphor

Dim. 12.

Weight & Mass

4c. Symbol

&

2d. Relationality

Causes TR 3.

TR 4 .

Exemplifying Illustrative

4a. Interpretation

H.Kreitler and S.Kreitler

3 06

Forms of Relations

Meaning Dimensions

Dim. 13.

Size & Dimensionality

FR 1.

Positive

Dim. 14.

Quantity & Mass

FR 2.

Negative

Dim. 15.

Locational Qualities

FR 3.

Mixed

Dim. 16.

Temporal Qua1 ities

FR 4.

Conjunctive

Dim. 17.

Possessions (17a)

FR 5.

Disjunctive

Dim. 18.

Development

FR 6,

Obligatory

Dim. 19.

Sensory Qualities

&

Belongingness (17b)

(19 a: of ref.; 19b: by ref.) Dim. 20.

Dim. 21.

&

negative

Shifts in Referent

Feelings h Emotions (20 a: evoked by ref.;

SR 1.

Identical

20b: felt by ref.)

SR 3.

Partial

SR 4. Previous

SR 6. Higher-

SR 5.

Modified

SR 7.

Associative SR 8. Grammatical

SR 9.

Linguistic

level

Cognitive Qualities (22a: evoked by ref.; 22b: of ref.)

SR 2. Obverse

meaning value

Judgments & Evaluations (21 a: about ref.; 21 b: by ref.)

Dim. 22.

positive

referent

variation

SR 10. Unrelated

label

Referent shift indications exploit indices in the answer of the subject in order to determine whether the subject reacted to the presented input, whether (s)he deviated from his or her previous referent, whether (s)he reacted only to a part of the previous referent, and so on. For example, i f the subject spoke in the first answer of "something eliptic with two

points in it" and then said, ''the points may be eyes", the second answer relates to a part of the previous meaning value. A final remark about the double-faced nature of meaning. We consider

meaning as contents insofar as it answers the question implied in each of the meaning dimensions, as for instance, 'What does it look like or how does i t smell?' (Sensory Qualities), 'What does it do or what can it do?' (Actions and Potentialities for Action), Vhat is the more encompassing concept or system of which i t forms a part?' (Contextual Allocation), etc. But we consider meaning as an active agent whenever we focus our attention on the changes that meanings assigned to a referent undergo when further meaning is assigned to that referent, or when, in the course of meaning elaboration, one meaning value brings to the fore another meaning


307

value o r induces referent shifts or combines with other meaning values into a new belief (Kreitler Kreitler, 1985)

.

&

Kreitler, 1976, Chap. 4 ; Kreitler, Drechsler,

&

PERCEPTION I N NORMAL ADULTS In line with our approach to cognition, we regard perception a s a sequence of meaning assignments to a sensorily mediated input that stands in need of identification andlor clarification. Owing to the speed of perception under usual conditions, microgenesis is undoubtedly the most efficient method of observation because it enforces a reduction of the speed of perceptual processes to that which can best be called slow motion. Thus, the different acts and stages of meaning assignment become amenable to analysis. A s mentioned above, w e studied the sample of normal adults with the

same techniques applied in the present study. Details concerning the performance of normals can be found in the tables comparing the two groups (see Tables 2-5;

see also Kreitler

&

Kreitler, 1984a). In the present con-

text we will summarize only those aspects of normal perception that would facilitate a faster and more profound understanding of the unique features of schizophrenic perception and, moreover, enable u s to devote the discussion of the present results primarily to their psychopathological implications. The perceptual performance of normal subjects shows a clear distinction between predication and referentiation, between assigning meaning values and identifying a referent, notwithstanding their interactions. Since perception is referent focused, the findings can best be organized into three phases, each characterized by a common feature of referentiation. In the first phase, the referent is established; in the second phase, its clarification proceeds by focusing primarily upon those of i t s features that nre interpersonally

shared,

whereas referent

clarification in the third

phase is predominantly idiosyncratic. Phase 1. Across the 20 stimuli, each of which was presented microgenetically, in the first three projections all subjects (n=50) assigned meaning values of two out of the three following meaning dimensions: Sensory Qualities (e.g.,

"it is bright"), Locational Qualities ( e . g . , "down, in the

corner"), and Quantity and Number (e.g., "two parts").

In other words,

the subjects activated the meaning dimensions most adequate to the input.

H.Kreitler and S. Kreitler

308

Still, in the course of the first three projections 43 subjects (86%) attempted to formulate a referent, which at this early stage was necessarily mostly global and undifferentiated, e . g . , q'somethingT1,!' a blob",

kind of

drawing". During the next one or two projections more meaning values of the same meaning dimensions were used but now more frequently in specific subdimensions (e.g., "it is red", which is coded in the dimension Sensory Qualities, subdimension: Color). Moreover, two other meaning dimensions gained in frequency: Structure (e.g., "it is symmetrical") and Size and Dimensionality (e.g., "it is big", "it is thick"). In general, meaning values became more elaborate and previously assigned meaning values which were retained were amended. At the same time, the referent gained in specificity, e . g . , instead of "a picture", the subject would say now, Ira picture, not of an animal, maybe humant1, or 'Iperhaps a kind of map!'. In case a roferent had to be discarded, the whole sequence of predication and referentiation is repeated. However, more often than not, discarded referents are reintroduced in later phases, mainly in an auxiliary function (see below). Of considerable significance for theories of perception is the following very stable observation. Whereas meaning values are presented without any indication of doubt and only in 2% of the cases later renounced, formulation and tone of the stating of the referent suggest that the subjects consider their referent at first merely as an hypothesis or a guess. Obviously, Bruner's theory of hypothesis testing (Bruner, 1957; Bruner 6 Klein, 1960) holds true for the process culminating in the establishment of a referent. By contrast, the immediacy, speed, and conviction characteristic of the presentation and assignment of meaning values lend strong support to nativistic theories that stress immediacy, objectivity, and the role of genetic factors in perception (e.g., Gibson, 1960). In other words, both Bruner and Gibson are right, the former as regards the referent, the latter as regards meaning values. _ Phase __ 2 .~Whereas in phase 1 the meaning values were steps toward

the refcrent o r building blocks for a referent, in phase 2 i t is the referent and its label that dominate meaning value assignment. For instance, i f the referent is a human, 85% of the meaning values fall in the meaning dimensions State and Actions, e . g . , "the man is sitting, he reads a book." Notably, i f the meaning dimensions State and Actions appear, the sequence of a meaning value in State followed by a meaning value in Actions occurs in 94% of the cases. We do not know whether this tendency is culturally induced or stems from deeper roots. But the tendency to stick to this se-


309

quencc is so strong that it is preserved even if adequate meaning values are missing. In the latter case, an empty slot is often inserted in the sequence instead of the missing meaning value, as demonstrated in the following example: "A leisurely standing man; I don't know what he is doing." If the referent is an object, the most prominent meaning dimension is structure (48%). Concomitantly with more elaborate meaning values, the referent too gains in detail and elaboration, e . g . , a prior response, such as man" is followed by man with a beard, no, no, a cigar in his mouth." Phase 3. In order to demonstrate the idiosyncratic nature of phase 3 , a brief description of the meaning questionnaire administered to the subjects is required. In this questionnaire the subject was instructed to communicate the meaning of 18 stimuli (words, sentences, paragraphs, and drawings) to an imagined other who presumably understands language and other means of communication but does not know what the stimuli mean. The subjects' responses were coded in terms of the four sets of variables that constitute the system of meaning (Table 1). Normal adults use 1218 meaning dimensions, depending on intelligence and education. However, each of the thousands of subjects hitherto tested has one or more clusters of individually preferred meaning variables, including meaning dimensions, that correlate highly with his or her personality traits (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1983, 198413, 1985a). In phase 3 the individually preferred meaning dimensions clearly dominate meaning assignment: 95% of the subjects used at least one of their three most preferred meaning dimensions in further elaborating the meaning in this phase. Another characteristic of phase 3 is the tendency to revive formerly discarded referents (a process beginning already in phase 2 ) and to connect the previous and present referents b y means of a situational description or a short story. I f , for example, the subject previously identified Ira child" and then man", (s)he may now say, "There is a child near the bearded man, they are father and son; the child is bored and wants to play with the father."

METHOD SUBJEC JS

The subjects were 50 psychiatric patients (25 men, 25 women) in Israel in the age range 18-40 y r . (E=27.2 yr.; S.D.=1.1 y r . ) , of medium

H. Kreitler and S.Kreitler

310

SES, a mean of 13.1 y r . of education, 84%of European o r American cultural background and the rest of Middle Eastern or North African background. They were all chronic schizophrenics with no admixture of other functional or organic disorders. Fifteen had paranoid features, eight catatonic features, seven simplex features, seven hebephrenic features, and thirteen were undifferentiated schizophrenics. They were all hospitalized

(Z=28.3 months, S.D.=?.9), in one of three different hospitals (14-17 from each hospital). They were matched to the normals studied before (Kreitler & Kreitler, 1984a) in gender, age (E=26.8 y r . ) , SES, years of education (f=13.5 y r ) , and cultural background.

.

PROCEDURE

In order to project the stimuli to the subjects we used a 35-mm slide projector with a lens of 100-mm focal length and an aperture of 2 . 8 . In front of the lens an ILEX Number 3 Universal Shutter was placed. For the sake of studying the nicrogenetic process, i t was necessary to produce a sequence of Exposure Values (EVs) that would form at least an approximate interval scale. Such a sequence comprising 10 degrees was created by manipulating the exposure time and the aperture of the lens. Each degree of EV was defined in terms of these two factors, exposure time being either 50, 7 5 , o r 100 msec. and the aperture of the lens being one of the 1 2 degrees of aperture (i.e., minimum to 4 ) . In order to produce a scale of 10 degrees of E V s even in regard to relatively easily identifiable stimuli like words, the factor of focal sharpness was added. By adjusting the lens, three degrees of sharpness were produced: full or optimal sharpness, partly reduced sharpness (the lens was brought 6 mm nearer to the slide), and greatly reduced sharpness (the lens was brought 9 m n nearer to the elide). Thus, by manipulating exposure tine, aperture size, and focal sharpness, three different E V interval scales were produced: the scale of Series 1 , the scale of Series 2 , and the scale of Series 3. In each of the three scales we defined sequential steps a s intervals reflecting half the amount of light between one degree of an EV and the preceding one. We used the EV scale of Series 1 for the least easily identified stimuli (the stimuli of Series 1 were presented with full focal sharpness); the E V scale of Series 2 for stimuli of medium identification difficulty (the stimuli of Series 2 were


31 I

presented with partly reduced sharpness); and the EV scale of Series 3 for the most easily identified stimuli, i . e . , only words (the stimuli of Series 3 were presented with greatly reduced sharpness). The EV characteristic of threshold perception was about 10.16 for Series 1; and 12.16 for Series 2 and 3 , In each series there were five E V steps below threshold and four EV steps above i t . (For more details see Kreitler

&

Kreitler,

1984a). The stimuli projected microgenetically differed in color, contents, complexity, familiarity, etc. They included drawings of objects and geometric forms, magazine photographs, paintings, and words. They were selected from a larger pool of stimuli on the basis of two criteria:

great

variation in contents and structure, and intermediate difficulty in identification so as to provide for an increased generalization of the findings and the possibility of microgenetic s t u d y , respectively (see Kreitler

&

Kreitler, 1984a) , There were! two matched series of 20 stimuli each, each projected to half of the sample, randomly selected. Each stimulus was projected 10 times under conditions of one of the three EV scales, as determined b y pretests prior to the experiment. The subjects, tested in the hospital, were seated 2 . 5 m away from the screen on which the 50 x 80 cm image was projected.

They were instructed to report anything they perceived as fully and early as possible. Two months before or after the experiment each subject was administered the meaning questionnaire in which ( s ) h e was instructed to communicate through any expressive means the meaning of 11 words, 3 sentences, 2 paragraphs, and 2 drawings to an imagined other person.

The responses to the projected stimuli and to the questionnaire were elaborated in terms of the four sets of meaning variables (Table 1). The intercoder reliability between two independent coders was .93.

RESULTS The data were analyzed together because there were no significant differences between the genders, subtypes of schizophrenics, the two series of stimuli, and the subjects who got the questionnaire before or after the microgenetic session. In presenting the results we focus primarily on the three phases of perceptual meaning assignment described above, dwell-

H.Kreitler and S.Kreitler

312

ing in particular on the comparison of schizophrenics with normals as regards characteristics of referents and meaning values in each phase. Phase 1. Schizophrenics resemble normals in their reaction time to the projections (Table 2, row 31, and in the nature and sequence of meaning dimensions characterizing the meaning values they used in the first projections (Table 3, rows 1-3). Like normals. they (98%) focused first on meaning values of the dimensions Sensory Qualities (brightness), Locational Qualities and Quantity, then (84%) on Sensory Qualities (form) and Structure, followed by Sensory Qualities (color) and Size. But they differ from normals in using more meaning values in this phase (Table 2, row 4 ) . Since, however, they tend to use fewer meaning dimensions than normals (Table 2, row 51, it may be expected that they would use more frequently the major meaning dimensions characteristic for this phase. Indeed, mean comparisons of the two groups in the frequencies of meaning dimensions in this phase show that schizophrenics use more frequently meaning values of Locational Qualities (Schiz

. 1=3.5,

Norm. Z=2.9, p

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