Advanced Biological Treatment Processes: Volume 9 (Handbook of Environmental Engineering)

Advanced Biological Treatment Processes

Humana Press Handbook of Environmental Engineering Series Volume 1: Air Pollution Control Engineering. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 504 pp. (2004) Volume 2: Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 526 pp. (2005) Volume 3: Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.) 723 pp. (2005) Volume 4: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.) 690 pp. (2006) Volume 5: Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Technologies. L. K. Wang, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.) 710 pp. (2007) Volume 6: Biosolids Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 820 pp. (2007) Volume 7: Biosolids Engineering and Management. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 800 pp. (2008) Volume 8: Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira, Y. T. Hung, and N. K. Shammas (eds.) 818 pp. (2009) Volume 9: Advanced Biological Treatment Processes. L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) 738 pp. (2009) Volume 10: Environmental Biotechnology. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, V. Ivanov, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) (2009) Volume 11: Environmental Bioengineering. L. K. Wang, J. H. Tay, S. T. Tay, and Y. T. Hung (eds.) (2009)

V OLUME 9 H ANDBOOK OF E NVIRONMENTAL E NGINEERING

Advanced Biological Treatment Processes Edited by Lawrence K. Wang, PhD, PE, DEE Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY

Nazih K. Shammas, PhD Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA

Yung-Tse Hung, PhD, PE, DEE Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH

Editors Lawrence K. Wang Ex-Dean & Director (retired), Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA Assistant to the President (retired), Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA Vice President (retired), Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY, USA [email protected] [email protected] Nazih K. Shammas Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant Ex-Dean & Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA Advisor, Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA [email protected] [email protected] Yung-Tse Hung Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Cleveland State University Cleveland, OH, USA [email protected]

ISBN: 978-1-58829-360-2

e-ISBN: 978-1-60327-170-7

DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-170-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008931192 c 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Humana Press, c/o Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

Preface The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide that positive actions be taken to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution—air, water, soil, and noise. Because pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for “zero discharge” can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long as waste continues to exist, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? This book is one of the volumes of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series. The principal intention of this series is to help readers formulate answers to the last two questions above. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution problems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a “methodology of pollution control.” However, the realization of the ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental problems renders it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken. Prerequisite to such planning is an understanding of the performance, potential, and limitations of the various methods of pollution abatement available for environmental scientists and engineers. In this series of handbooks, we will review at a tutorial level a broad spectrum of engineering systems (processes, operations, and methods) currently being used, or of potential use, for pollution abatement. We believe that the unified interdisciplinary approach presented in these handbooks is a logical step in the evolution of environmental engineering. Treatment of the various engineering systems presented will show how an engineering formulation of the subject flows naturally from the fundamental principles and theories of chemistry, microbiology, physics, and mathematics. This emphasis on fundamental science recognizes that engineering practice has in recent years become more firmly based on scientific principles rather than on its earlier dependency on empirical accumulation of facts. It is not intended, though, to neglect empiricism where such data lead quickly to the most economic design; certain engineering systems are not readily amenable to fundamental scientific analysis, and in these instances we have resorted to less science in favor of more art and empiricism. Because an environmental engineer must understand science within the context of application, we first present the development of the scientific basis of a particular subject, followed by exposition of the pertinent design concepts and operations,

v

vi

Preface

and detailed explanations of their applications to environmental quality control or remediation. Throughout the series, methods of practical design and calculation are illustrated by numerical examples. These examples clearly demonstrate how organized, analytical reasoning leads to the most direct and clear solutions. Wherever possible, pertinent cost data have been provided. Our treatment of pollution-abatement engineering is offered in the belief that the trained engineer should more firmly understand fundamental principles, be more aware of the similarities and/or differences among many of the engineering systems, and exhibit greater flexibility and originality in the definition and innovative solution of environmental pollution problems. In short, the environmental engineer should, by conviction and practice, be more readily adaptable to change and progress. Coverage of the unusually broad field of environmental engineering has demanded an expertise that could only be provided through multiple authorships. Each author (or group of authors) was permitted to employ, within reasonable limits, the customary personal style in organizing and presenting a particular subject area; consequently, it has been difficult to treat all subject material in a homogeneous manner. Moreover, owing to limitations of space, some of the authors’ favored topics could not be treated in great detail, and many less important topics had to be merely mentioned or commented on briefly. All authors have provided an excellent list of references at the end of each chapter for the benefit of interested readers. As each chapter is meant to be self-contained, some mild repetition among the various texts was unavoidable. In each case, all omissions or repetitions are the responsibility of the editors and not the individual authors. With the current trend toward metrication, the question of using a consistent system of units has been a problem. Wherever possible, the authors have used the British system (fps) along with the metric equivalent (mks, cgs, or SIU) or vice versa. The editors sincerely hope that this duplicity of units’ usage will prove to be useful rather than being disruptive to the readers. The goals of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series are: (1) to cover entire environmental fields, including air and noise pollution control, solid waste processing and resource recovery, physicochemical treatment processes, biological treatment processes, biosolids management, water resources, natural control processes, radioactive waste disposal, and thermal pollution control; and (2) to employ a multimedia approach to environmental pollution control because air, water, soil, and energy are all interrelated. As can be seen from the above handbook coverage, no consideration is given to pollution by type of industry, or to the abatement of specific pollutants. Rather, the organization of the handbook series has been based on the three basic forms in which pollutants and waste are manifested: gas, solid, and liquid. In addition, noise pollution control is included in the handbook series. This particular book Volume 9, Advanced Biological Treatment Processes, is a sister book to Volume 8 Biological Treatment Processes. Both books have been designed to serve as comprehensive biological treatment textbooks as well as wide-ranging reference books. We hope and expect it will prove of equal high value to advanced

Preface

vii

undergraduate and graduate students, to designers of water and wastewater treatment systems, and to scientists and researchers. The editors welcome comments from readers in all of these categories. The editors are pleased to acknowledge the encouragement and support received from their colleagues and the publisher during the conceptual stages of this endeavor. We wish to thank the contributing authors for their time and effort, and for having patiently borne our reviews and numerous queries and comments. We are very grateful to our respective families for their patience and understanding during some rather trying times. Lawrence K. Wang, Lenox, MA Nazih K. Shammas, Lenox, MA Yung-Tse Hung, Cleveland, OH

Contents Preface.....................................................................................................................................

v

Contributors.......................................................................................................................... xxi 1. Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes Nazih K. Shammas, Yu Liu, and Lawrence K. Wang...................................................... 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................. 2. Basic Microbiology and Kinetics.......................................................................................................................................... 2.1. Microbial Growth Requirements................................................................................................................................... 2.2. Kinetics of Microbial Growth in an Ideal Medium...................................................................................................... 2.3. Kinetics of Biological Growth in an Inhibitory Medium ............................................................................................ 2.4. Minimum Substrate Concentration............................................................................................................................... 2.5. Mathematical Approximation for Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................................... 3. Kinetics of Activated Sludge Processes................................................................................................................................ 3.1. Brief Description of Activated Sludge Processes......................................................................................................... 3.2. Kinetics of Completely Mixed Activated Sludge Process........................................................................................... 3.3. Oxygen Requirements.................................................................................................................................................... 3.4. Biosolids Production...................................................................................................................................................... 4. Factors Affecting the Nitrification Process........................................................................................................................... 4.1. Factors Affecting the Half-Velocity Coefficient, Ks .................................................................................................... 4.2. Factors Affecting the Maximum Rate Constant, k....................................................................................................... 4.3. Design Criteria of Nitrification Systems....................................................................................................................... 5. Kinetics of the Nitrification Process...................................................................................................................................... 5.1. Analysis of Nitrification Data........................................................................................................................................ 5.2. Allosteric Kinetic Model ............................................................................................................................................... 5.3. Application of M–W–C Model to Nitrification............................................................................................................ 5.4. Determination of Kinetic Parameters............................................................................................................................ 6. Denitrification by Suspended Growth Systems.................................................................................................................... 6.1. Effect of pH.................................................................................................................................................................... 6.2. MLSS and MLVSS......................................................................................................................................................... 6.3. Effect of Temperature .................................................................................................................................................... 6.4. Size of Denitrification Tank........................................................................................................................................... 6.5. Carbonaceous Matter..................................................................................................................................................... 6.6. Other Requirements....................................................................................................................................................... 7. Design Examples.................................................................................................................................................................... 7.1. Example 1....................................................................................................................................................................... 7.2. Example 2....................................................................................................................................................................... 7.3. Example 3....................................................................................................................................................................... 7.4. Example 4....................................................................................................................................................................... Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................... References....................................................................................................................................................................................

1 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 15 15 17 18 20 27 32 32 33 36 37 44 45 45 46 46 46 47 49 49 50 51 52 52 54

2. Vertical Shaft Bioreactors Nazih K. Shammas, Lawrence K. Wang, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock................. 59 1. Process Description................................................................................................................................................................ 60 2. Technical Development.......................................................................................................................................................... 63

ix

x

Contents 3. Vertreat Bioreactor.................................................................................................................................................................. 67 3.1. Key Process Features and Advantages.......................................................................................................................... 68 3.2. Process Applications...................................................................................................................................................... 68 3.3. Reactor Features............................................................................................................................................................. 69 4. Process Theory and Design Basis.......................................................................................................................................... 70 4.1. Process Fundamentals.................................................................................................................................................... 70 4.2. Biological Properties...................................................................................................................................................... 72 4.3. Oxygen Transfer............................................................................................................................................................. 72 4.4. Organic Loading............................................................................................................................................................. 76 4.5. Solids Separation............................................................................................................................................................ 78 5. Variations of the Basic VSB .................................................................................................................................................. 79 5.1. Single Zone Vertical Shaft Bioreactors......................................................................................................................... 79 5.2. Multi-Zone Vertical Shaft Bioreactors.......................................................................................................................... 80 5.3. Multi-channel Vertical Shaft Bioreactors..................................................................................................................... 80 5.4. Multi-Stage Vertical Shaft Bioreactors......................................................................................................................... 81 5.5. Thermophilic Vertical Shaft Bioreactors...................................................................................................................... 81 6. Process Design Considerations.............................................................................................................................................. 81 7. Operation and Maintenance Considerations......................................................................................................................... 84 8. Comparison with Equivalent Technology............................................................................................................................. 85 8.1. Equivalent Conventional Concept................................................................................................................................. 85 8.2. Land Area....................................................................................................................................................................... 86 8.3. Cost ................................................................................................................................................................................. 86 8.4. Energy............................................................................................................................................................................. 88 9. Case Studies............................................................................................................................................................................ 89 9.1. Dairy Plant Wastewater Treatment................................................................................................................................ 89 9.2. Refinery Wastewater Treatment .................................................................................................................................... 94 9.3. Municipal Wastewater Treatment..................................................................................................................................100 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................105 References....................................................................................................................................................................................105 Appendix......................................................................................................................................................................................108

3. Aerobic Granulation Technology Joo-Hwa Tay, Yu Liu, Stephen Tiong-Lee Tay, and Yung-Tse Hung............................109 1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................................109 2. Aerobic Granulation as a Gradual Process ........................................................................................................................... 110 3. Factors Affecting Aerobic Granulation.................................................................................................................................112 3.1. Substrate Composition...................................................................................................................................................112 3.2. Organic Loading Rate....................................................................................................................................................113 3.3. Hydrodynamic Shear Force...........................................................................................................................................113 3.4. Presence of Calcium Ion in Feed...................................................................................................................................116 3.5. Reactor Configuration....................................................................................................................................................116 3.6. Dissolved Oxygen..........................................................................................................................................................117 4. Microbial Structure and Diversity.........................................................................................................................................117 4.1. Characteristics of Aerobic Granule...............................................................................................................................117 4.2. Layered Structure of Aerobic Granules........................................................................................................................119 4.3. Microbial Diversity of Aerobic Granules.....................................................................................................................119 5. Mechanism of Aerobic Granulation......................................................................................................................................120 6. Applications of Aerobic Granulation Technology................................................................................................................121 6.1. High-Strength Organic Wastewater Treatment.............................................................................................................121 6.2. Phenolic Wastewater Treatment....................................................................................................................................122 6.3. Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Aerobic Granules.....................................................................................................123 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................124 References....................................................................................................................................................................................124

Contents

xi

4. Membrane Bioreactors Lawrence K. Wang and Ravinder Menon........................................................................ 129 1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................130 1.1. General Introduction..................................................................................................................................................130 1.2. Historical Development.............................................................................................................................................130 1.3. Membrane Bioreactors Research and Engineering Applications ........................................................................... 134 2. MBR Process Description....................................................................................................................................................137 2.1. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Submerged in the Bioreactor......................................................137 2.2. Membrane Bioreactor with Membrane Module Situated Outside the Bioreactor.................................................138 2.3. MBR System Features...............................................................................................................................................139 2.4. Membrane Module Design Considerations..............................................................................................................141 3. Process Comparison.............................................................................................................................................................142 3.1. Similarity....................................................................................................................................................................142 3.2. Dissimilarity...............................................................................................................................................................144 4. Process Applications............................................................................................................................................................146 4.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment...............................................................................................................................146 4.2. Municipal Wastewater and Leachate Treatments.....................................................................................................146 5. Practical Examples...............................................................................................................................................................147 5.1. Example 1. Dairy Industry ........................................................................................................................................ 147 5.2. Example 2. Landfill Leachate Treatment..................................................................................................................148 5.3. Example 3. Coffee Industry.......................................................................................................................................150 6. Automatic Control System...................................................................................................................................................151 6.1. Example 4. Cosmetics Industry.................................................................................................................................152 7. Conclusions...........................................................................................................................................................................153 7.1. Industrial Applications...............................................................................................................................................153 7.2. Municipal Applications ............................................................................................................................................. 153 Acknowledgement.......................................................................................................................................................................153 Commercial Availability ............................................................................................................................................................. 154 References....................................................................................................................................................................................154

5. SBR Systems for Biological Nutrient Removal Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................... 157 1. Background and Process Description..................................................................................................................................157 2. Proprietary SBR Processes .................................................................................................................................................. 159 2.1. Aqua SBR...................................................................................................................................................................160 2.2. Omniflo.......................................................................................................................................................................161 2.3. Fluidyne......................................................................................................................................................................162 2.4. CASS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 162 2.5. ICEAS.........................................................................................................................................................................163 3. Description of a Treatment Plant Using SBR.....................................................................................................................164 4. Applicability.........................................................................................................................................................................165 5. Advantages and Disadvantages ........................................................................................................................................... 165 6. Design Criteria......................................................................................................................................................................166 6.1. Design Parameters......................................................................................................................................................166 6.2. Construction...............................................................................................................................................................171 6.3. Tank and Equipment Description..............................................................................................................................172 6.4. Health and Safety.......................................................................................................................................................173 7. Process Performance............................................................................................................................................................173 8. Operation and Maintenance.................................................................................................................................................175 9. Cost........................................................................................................................................................................................175 10. Packaged SBR for Onsite Systems......................................................................................................................................177 10.1. Typical Applications..................................................................................................................................................178 10.2. Design Assumptions..................................................................................................................................................178

xii

Contents 10.3. Performance................................................................................................................................................................179 10.4. Management Needs....................................................................................................................................................179 10.5. Risk Management Issues...........................................................................................................................................180 10.6. Costs............................................................................................................................................................................180 References....................................................................................................................................................................................180 Appendix......................................................................................................................................................................................183

R 6. Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification (SymBio Process) Hiren K. Trivedi.................................................................................................................. 185

1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................186 2. Biological Nitrogen Removal..............................................................................................................................................186 2.1. Nitrification.................................................................................................................................................................187 2.2. Denitrification.............................................................................................................................................................187 2.3. Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification ........................................................................................................ 188 3. NADH in Cell Metabolism..................................................................................................................................................189 R Process for Simultaneous Nitrification 4. The Symbio and Denitrification................................................................................................................................................................192 4.1. NADH Proportional Control Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 193 4.2. NADH Jump Control Strategy..................................................................................................................................195 4.3. Process Design...........................................................................................................................................................198 5. Case Studies..........................................................................................................................................................................201 5.1. Big Bear, CA..............................................................................................................................................................201 5.2. Perris, CA...................................................................................................................................................................204 5.3. Rochelle, IL................................................................................................................................................................205 6. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................206 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................206 References....................................................................................................................................................................................207

7. Single-Sludge Biological Systems for Nutrients Removal Lawrence K. Wang and Nazih K. Shammas.................................................................... 209 1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................210 2. Classification of Single-Sludge Processes..........................................................................................................................211 3. Stoichiometric and Kinetic Considerations........................................................................................................................213 3.1. Routes of Nitrogen Removal in Single-Sludge Systems.........................................................................................213 3.2. Stoichiometric and Metabolic Principles..................................................................................................................214 3.3. Endogenous Nitrate Respiration (ENR)...................................................................................................................215 3.4. Nitrogen Removal by ENR and Aerobic Sludge Synthesis .................................................................................... 217 3.5. Nitrogen Removal by Substrate Nitrate Respiration and Anoxic Biosolids Synthesis.........................................219 3.6. Design Alternatives for Compartmentalized Aeration Tanks..................................................................................221 4. Multistage Single Anoxic Zone...........................................................................................................................................222 4.1. Background and Process Description.......................................................................................................................222 4.2. Typical Design Criteria..............................................................................................................................................225 4.3. Process Performance..................................................................................................................................................226 4.4. Process Design Features............................................................................................................................................228 5. Multistage Multiple Anoxic Zones......................................................................................................................................229 5.1. Background and Process Description.......................................................................................................................229 5.2. Typical Design Criteria..............................................................................................................................................232 5.3. Process Performance..................................................................................................................................................233 5.4. Process Design Features............................................................................................................................................236 6. Multiphase Cyclycal Aeration.............................................................................................................................................236 6.1. Background and Process Description.......................................................................................................................236 6.2. Typical Design Criteria..............................................................................................................................................238 6.3. Process Performance..................................................................................................................................................239 6.4. Process Design Features............................................................................................................................................240

Contents

xiii

7. Phosphorus Removal by Biological and Physicochemical Technologies.........................................................................240 7.1. Phosphate Biological Uptake at Acid pH.................................................................................................................240 7.2. Emerging Phosphorus Removal Technologies.........................................................................................................240 8. Coxsackie Wastewater Treatment Plant—A Single-Sludge Activated Sludge Plant for Carbonaceous Oxidation, Nitrification, Denitrification, and Phosphorus Removal.................................................................................242 8.1. Background Information............................................................................................................................................242 8.2. Plant Operation and Parameters................................................................................................................................242 8.3. Performance Results..................................................................................................................................................255 8.4. Solids Management....................................................................................................................................................261 8.5. Sludge Chlorination Treatment.................................................................................................................................261 Acknowledgment.........................................................................................................................................................................263 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................264 References....................................................................................................................................................................................264

8. Selection and Design of Nitrogen Removal Processes Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................... 271 1. Factors that Affect Process Selection..................................................................................................................................271 1.1. Wastewater Characteristics........................................................................................................................................271 1.2. Site Constraints..........................................................................................................................................................272 1.3. Existing Facilities.......................................................................................................................................................273 2. Costs......................................................................................................................................................................................274 2.1. Capital Cost................................................................................................................................................................274 2.2. Operational Cost.........................................................................................................................................................275 3. Design Considerations ......................................................................................................................................................... 275 3.1. Primary Settling ......................................................................................................................................................... 275 3.2. Aeration Systems.......................................................................................................................................................276 3.3. Mixers.........................................................................................................................................................................277 3.4. Recycle Pumping ....................................................................................................................................................... 277 3.5. Reactor Design...........................................................................................................................................................277 3.6. Secondary Settling.....................................................................................................................................................278 3.7. Selectors......................................................................................................................................................................278 4. Process Design......................................................................................................................................................................279 4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................279 4.2. Summary of Design Procedures................................................................................................................................280 5. Design Examples..................................................................................................................................................................281 5.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................................281 5.2. Design Example 1: Plant B with Less Stringent Limits..........................................................................................282 5.3. Design Example 2: Plant B with more Stringent Limits.........................................................................................290 5.4. Design Example 3—Plant A with Less Stringent Limits........................................................................................294 5.5. Design Example 4—Plant A with More Stringent Limits.......................................................................................298 Nomenclature...............................................................................................................................................................................298 References....................................................................................................................................................................................300 List of Appendixes.......................................................................................................................................................................303

9. Column Bioreactor Clarifier Process (CBCP) Anatoliy I. Sverdlikov, Gennadij P. Shcherbina, Michail M. Zemljak, Alexander A. Sverdlikov, Donald H. Haycock, Andrew Lugowski, George Nakhla, Lawrence K. Wang and Yung-Tse Hung..............................................313 1. Background...........................................................................................................................................................................314 2. Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................................314 3. Description of Novel Treatment Technology......................................................................................................................315 3.1. Concepts of Biological Processes.............................................................................................................................315 3.2. Distinction of Biosorption and Oxidation Processes in the Pseudoliquified Activated Sludge Bioreactor ......... 316

xiv

Contents 3.3. Process Configuration.............................................................................................................................................318 3.4. Operating Process Parameters................................................................................................................................323 4. Development and Implementation of Model Pilot Plant.................................................................................................334 4.1. System Capabilities and Need for Technology Refinement.................................................................................334 4.2. Project Objectives....................................................................................................................................................335 4.3. Methodology............................................................................................................................................................336 4.4. Conceptual and Detailed Design of Mobile Pilot Plant........................................................................................336 4.5. Manufacturing, Installation, and Testing of the Mobile Pilot Plant.....................................................................338 4.6. Development of Sampling and Monitoring Program............................................................................................338 4.7. Testing of the Pilot Plant at Municipal Wastewater Facilities..............................................................................339 4.8. Detailed Analysis of Pilot Plant Testing Data.......................................................................................................340 4.9. Overall System Performance..................................................................................................................................350 4.10. Municipal and Industrial Wastewater Treatment—Process Applicability...........................................................351 5. Computer Modeling...........................................................................................................................................................351 5.1. Model Descriptions.................................................................................................................................................351 5.2. Wastewater Characterization..................................................................................................................................352 5.3. Determination of Model Stoichiometric Coefficients...........................................................................................353 5.4. Process Modeling....................................................................................................................................................353 6. Summary and Recommendations.....................................................................................................................................360 Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................361 References.................................................................................................................................................................................361

10. Upflow Sludge Blanket Filtration Svatopluk Mackrle, Vladimír Mackrle, and Oldˇrich Draˇcka.......................................365 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................366 2. Theoretical Principles of Fluidized Bed Filtration..........................................................................................................366 2.1. Hydrodynamic Similarity and Dimensionless Numbers......................................................................................366 2.2. Characteristics of Granular Porous Medium.........................................................................................................367 2.3. Flow Through Fixed Porous Medium....................................................................................................................368 2.4. Filtration .................................................................................................................................................................. 369 2.5. Single Particle Sedimentation.................................................................................................................................370 2.6. Turbulent Flow........................................................................................................................................................372 2.7. Coagulation..............................................................................................................................................................372 2.8. Hydrodynamic Disintegration of Aggregates........................................................................................................373 2.9. Fluidization in Cylindrical Column.......................................................................................................................373 2.10. Fluidization in Diffuser...........................................................................................................................................376 2.11. Upflow Sludge Blanket Filtration .......................................................................................................................... 378 3. Principles of Integrated USBF Reactors Design ............................................................................................................. 380 3.1. Types of Sludge Blanket.........................................................................................................................................380 3.2. Water Treatment Systems with USBF...................................................................................................................382 4. Examples of USBF Integrated Treatment Reactors Implementation.............................................................................385 4.1. Chemical USBF Integrated Reactors.....................................................................................................................386 4.2. First Generation of Biological USBF Integrated Reactors...................................................................................388 4.3. Second Generation of Biological USBF Integrated Reactor................................................................................394 5. Advanced Wastewater Treatment Systems ...................................................................................................................... 396 5.1. Upgrading of Conventional Municipal WWTP .................................................................................................... 397 5.2. Decentralized Sewerage Systems...........................................................................................................................401 5.3. Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse ...................................................................................................................... 403 6. Design Example of Advanced Treatment Systems ......................................................................................................... 406 6.1. Upgrading of Classical Municipal WWTP............................................................................................................406 Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................408 References.................................................................................................................................................................................410

Contents

xv

11. Anaerobic Lagoons and Storage Ponds Lawrence K. Wang, Yung-Tse Hung, and J. Paul Chen .............................................. 411 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................411 Process Description...........................................................................................................................................................412 Applications and Limitations............................................................................................................................................413 Expected Process Performance and Reliability...............................................................................................................413 Process Design...................................................................................................................................................................413 5.1. Minimum Treatment Volume ................................................................................................................................. 413 5.2. Waste Volume for Treatment Period......................................................................................................................416 5.3. Sludge Volume.........................................................................................................................................................416 5.4. Lagoon Volume Requirement.................................................................................................................................417 5.5. Anaerobic Lagoon Design Criteria........................................................................................................................419 5.6. Data Gathering and Compilation for Design.........................................................................................................420 6. Energy Consumption and Costs of Anaerobic Lagoons.................................................................................................420 7. Waste Storage Ponds.........................................................................................................................................................422 7.1. Process Description.................................................................................................................................................422 7.2. Process Design ........................................................................................................................................................ 422 8. Design and Application Examples................................................................................................................................... 424 8.1. Example 1................................................................................................................................................................424 8.2. Example 2................................................................................................................................................................424 8.3. Example 3................................................................................................................................................................425 8.4. Example 4................................................................................................................................................................427 8.5. Example 5................................................................................................................................................................429 8.6. Example 6................................................................................................................................................................430 8.7. Example 7................................................................................................................................................................430 Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................431 References.................................................................................................................................................................................432

12. Vertical Shaft Digestion, Flotation, and Biofiltration Lawrence K. Wang, Nazih K. Shammas, Jeffrey Guild, and David Pollock...............433 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................433 1.1. Biosolids Treatment................................................................................................................................................433 1.2. Vertical Shaft Bioreactor and Vertical Shaft Digestion ........................................................................................ 434 1.3. Vertical Shaft Flotation Thickening Process......................................................................................................... 436 1.4. Gas-Phase Biofiltration...........................................................................................................................................436 1.5. Biosolids Digestion and Stabilization....................................................................................................................437 2. Principles of VSD and Optional Anaerobic Digestion....................................................................................................438 2.1. Theory and Principles of Aerobic Digestion.........................................................................................................438 2.2. Theory and Principles of Optional Anaerobic Digestion ..................................................................................... 440 2.3. Combined Vertical Shaft Digestion and Anaerobic Digestion.............................................................................440 3. Description, Operation, and Applications of VSD System.............................................................................................441 3.1. Process Description.................................................................................................................................................441 3.2. Process Operation....................................................................................................................................................441 3.3. Process Applications...............................................................................................................................................442 4. Design Considerations of a Complete VSD System.......................................................................................................443 4.1. Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion Using Air....................................................................................443 4.2. Autothermal Thermophilic Digestion Using Pure Oxygen..................................................................................444 4.3. Flotation Thickening after Vertical Shaft Digestion.............................................................................................445 4.4. Optional Dual Digestion System............................................................................................................................447 4.5. Biosolids Dewatering Processes.............................................................................................................................449 4.6. Gas-Phase Biofiltration for Air Emission Control................................................................................................449 4.7. Operational Controls of Biofiltration.....................................................................................................................453

xvi

Contents 5. Case Study..........................................................................................................................................................................454 5.1. Facility Design and Construction...........................................................................................................................454 5.2. Vertical Shaft Digestion Demonstration Plan........................................................................................................457 5.3. Design Criteria Development for Vertical Shaft Digestion..................................................................................458 5.4. Capital Costs............................................................................................................................................................472 6. Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................................473 References.................................................................................................................................................................................474 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................477

13. Land Application of Biosolids Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................. 479 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................480 Recycling of Biosolids Through Land Application.........................................................................................................480 Description.........................................................................................................................................................................481 Advantages and Disadvantages.........................................................................................................................................482 Design Criteria...................................................................................................................................................................484 Performance.......................................................................................................................................................................485 Costs of Recycling Through Land Application...............................................................................................................486 Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill).............................................................................................................................487 Biosolids Landfill Methods...............................................................................................................................................487 9.1. Biosolids-Only Trench Fill.....................................................................................................................................487 9.2. Biosolids-Only Area Fill.........................................................................................................................................489 9.3. Co-Disposal with Refuse........................................................................................................................................491 9.4. Landfilling of Screenings, Grit, and Ash...............................................................................................................493 Preliminary Planning.........................................................................................................................................................493 10.1. Biosolids Characterization......................................................................................................................................493 10.2. Selection of a Landfilling Method..........................................................................................................................494 10.3. Site Selection...........................................................................................................................................................494 Facility Design...................................................................................................................................................................497 11.1. Regulations and Standards......................................................................................................................................497 11.2. Site Characteristics..................................................................................................................................................498 11.3. Landfill Type and Design........................................................................................................................................499 11.4. Ancillary Facilities..................................................................................................................................................499 11.5. Landfill Equipment ................................................................................................................................................. 502 11.6. Flexibility, Performance, and Environmental Impacts..........................................................................................502 Operation and Maintenance..............................................................................................................................................502 12.1. Operations Plan.......................................................................................................................................................504 12.2. Operating Schedule.................................................................................................................................................504 12.3. Equipment Selection and Maintenance..................................................................................................................504 12.4. Management and Reporting ................................................................................................................................... 506 12.5. Safety .......................................................................................................................................................................506 12.6. Environmental Controls..........................................................................................................................................506 Site Closure........................................................................................................................................................................507 13.1. Ultimate Use............................................................................................................................................................508 13.2. Grading at Completion of Filling...........................................................................................................................508 13.3. Landscaping.............................................................................................................................................................508 13.4. Continued Leachate and Gas Control....................................................................................................................508 Costs of Biosolids Disposal on Land (Landfill) .............................................................................................................. 508 14.1. General.....................................................................................................................................................................508 14.2. Hauling of Biosolids...............................................................................................................................................509 14.3. Energy Requirements..............................................................................................................................................511 14.4. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................512 Examples............................................................................................................................................................................512 15.1. Example 1. Typical Biosolids Application Rate Scenario....................................................................................512 15.2. Example 2. Hauling of Biosolids...........................................................................................................................515

Contents

xvii

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................516 References.................................................................................................................................................................................516 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................520

14. Deep-Well Injection for Waste Management Nazih K. Shammas, Charles W. Sever, and Lawrence K. Wang..................................521 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................522 Regulations for Managing Injection Wells ...................................................................................................................... 523 Basic Well Designs............................................................................................................................................................526 Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well Site..................................................................................................................532 4.1. Confinement Conditions.........................................................................................................................................533 4.2. Potential Receptor Zones........................................................................................................................................534 4.3. Subsurface Hydrodynamics....................................................................................................................................535 Potential Hazards-Ways to Prevent, Detect, and Correct Them.....................................................................................537 5.1. Fluid Movement during Construction, Testing, and Operation of the System....................................................537 5.2. Failure of the Aquifer to Receive and Transmit the Injected Fluids....................................................................538 5.3. Failure of the Confining Layer...............................................................................................................................538 5.4. Failure of an Individual Well..................................................................................................................................540 5.5. Failures Because of Human Error..........................................................................................................................540 Economic Evaluation of a Proposed Injection Well System...........................................................................................541 Use of Injection Wells in Wastewater Management........................................................................................................541 7.1. Reuse for Engineering Purposes ............................................................................................................................ 542 7.2. Injection Wells as a Part of the Treatment System................................................................................................542 7.3. Storage of Municipal Wastewaters for Reuse........................................................................................................543 7.4. Storage of Industrial Wastewaters..........................................................................................................................543 7.5. Disposal of Municipal and Industrial Sludges ...................................................................................................... 544 Use of Injection Wells for Hazardous Wastes Management...........................................................................................544 8.1. Identification of Hazardous Wastes........................................................................................................................545 8.2. Sources, Amounts and Composition of Injected Wastes......................................................................................546 8.3. Geographic Distribution of Wells...........................................................................................................................549 8.4. Design and Construction of Wells..........................................................................................................................549 8.5. Disposal of Radioactive Wastes ............................................................................................................................. 551 Protection of Usable Aquifers...........................................................................................................................................553 9.1. Pathway 1: Migration of Fluids through a Faulty Injection Well Casing............................................................553 9.2. Pathway 2: Migration of Fluids Upward Through the Annulus between the Casing and the Well Bore....................................................................................................................................................554 9.3. Pathway 3: Migration of Fluids from an Injection Zone through the Confining Strata......................................555 9.4. Pathway 4: Vertical Migration of Fluids through Improperly Abandoned or Improperly Completed Wells.........................................................................................................................................................................557 9.5. Pathway 5: Lateral Migration of Fluids from Within an Injection Zone into a Protected Portion of Those Strata.............................................................................................................................................................560 9.6. Pathway 6: Direct Injection of Fluids into or Above an Underground Source of Drinking Water....................562 Case Studies of Deep Well Injection................................................................................................................................563 10.1. Case Study 1: Pensacola, FL (Monsanto)..............................................................................................................564 10.2. Case Study 2: Belle Glade, FL...............................................................................................................................567 10.3. Case Study 3: Wilmington, NC..............................................................................................................................569 Practical Examples............................................................................................................................................................ 571 11.1. Example 1................................................................................................................................................................571 11.2. Example 2................................................................................................................................................................573 11.3. Example 3................................................................................................................................................................573 11.4. Example 4................................................................................................................................................................574 11.5. Example 5................................................................................................................................................................575 11.6. Example 6................................................................................................................................................................575

xviii

Contents

Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................575 References.................................................................................................................................................................................576 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................582

15. Natural Biological Treatment Processes Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................. 583 1. Aquaculture Treatment: Water Hyacinth System............................................................................................................583 1.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................583 1.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................584 1.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................585 1.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 585 1.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................585 2. Aquaculture Treatment: Wetland System.........................................................................................................................586 2.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................586 2.2. Constructed Wetlands ............................................................................................................................................. 587 2.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................588 2.4. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................589 2.5. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 589 2.6. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................589 3. Evapotranspiration System................................................................................................................................................590 3.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................590 3.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................592 3.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................593 3.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 593 3.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................593 3.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................593 4. Land Treatment: Rapid Rate System................................................................................................................................594 4.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................595 4.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................596 4.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................596 4.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 596 4.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................597 4.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................598 5. Land Treatment: Slow Rate System.................................................................................................................................599 5.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................599 5.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................600 5.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................601 5.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 602 5.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................602 5.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................603 6. Land Treatment: Overland Flow System ......................................................................................................................... 605 6.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................605 6.2. Application..............................................................................................................................................................606 6.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................606 6.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 606 6.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................607 6.6. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................607 7. Subsurface Infiltration.......................................................................................................................................................609 7.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................609 7.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................612 7.3. Limitations...............................................................................................................................................................612 7.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 612 7.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................613 References.................................................................................................................................................................................613 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................617

Contents

xix

16. Emerging Suspended-Growth Biological Processes Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................. 619 1. Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment (PACT)..............................................................................................................619 1.1. Types of PACT Systems..........................................................................................................................................619 1.2. Applications and Performance...............................................................................................................................620 1.3. Process Equipment..................................................................................................................................................623 1.4. Process Limitations.................................................................................................................................................623 2. Carrier-Activated Sludge Processes (CAPTOR and CAST Systems)............................................................................623 2.1. Advantages of Biomass Carrier Systems...............................................................................................................623 2.2. The CAPTOR Process............................................................................................................................................624 2.3. Development of CAPTOR Process........................................................................................................................624 2.4. Pilot-Plant Study ..................................................................................................................................................... 624 2.5. Full-Scale Study of CAPTOR and CAST ............................................................................................................. 624 3. Activated Bio-Filter (ABF)...............................................................................................................................................632 3.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................632 3.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................633 3.3. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 634 3.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................634 4. Vertical Loop Reactor (VLR) ........................................................................................................................................... 634 4.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................634 4.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................635 4.3. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 636 4.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................636 4.5. EPA Evaluation of VLR..........................................................................................................................................637 4.6. Energy Requirements..............................................................................................................................................638 4.7. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................638 5. Phostrip Process.................................................................................................................................................................638 5.1. Description...............................................................................................................................................................638 5.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................640 5.3. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 641 5.4. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................641 5.5. Cost..........................................................................................................................................................................641 Nomenclature............................................................................................................................................................................643 References.................................................................................................................................................................................644 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................648

17. Emerging Attached-Growth Biological Processes Nazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. Wang.................................................................. 649 1. Fluidized Bed Reactors (FBR)..........................................................................................................................................649 1.1. FBR Process Description........................................................................................................................................650 1.2. Process Design ........................................................................................................................................................ 651 1.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................651 1.4. Design Considerations............................................................................................................................................653 1.5. Case Study: Reno-Sparks WWTP..........................................................................................................................653 2. Packed Bed Reactor (PBR)...............................................................................................................................................654 2.1. Aerobic PBR............................................................................................................................................................654 2.2. Anaerobic Denitrification PBR .............................................................................................................................. 656 2.3. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................658 2.4. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................................ 658 2.5. Performance.............................................................................................................................................................660 2.6. Case Study: Hookers Point WWTP (Tampa Florida)...........................................................................................661 2.7. Energy Requirement ............................................................................................................................................... 663 2.8. Costs.........................................................................................................................................................................664

xx

Contents 3. Biological Aerated Filter (BAF).......................................................................................................................................665 3.1. BAF Process Description........................................................................................................................................665 3.2. Applications.............................................................................................................................................................667 3.3. BAF Media..............................................................................................................................................................667 3.4. Process Design and Performance...........................................................................................................................668 3.5. Solids Production....................................................................................................................................................671 4. Hybrid Biological-Activated Carbon Systems.................................................................................................................672 4.1. General Introduction...............................................................................................................................................672 4.2. Downflow Conventional Biological GAC Systems..............................................................................................672 4.3. Upflow Fluidized Bed Biological GAC System (FBB-GAC)..............................................................................675 References.................................................................................................................................................................................676 Appendix...................................................................................................................................................................................681

Appendix: Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers Lawrence K. Wang............................................................................................................683 Index ....................................................................................................................................... 729

Contributors J. PAUL C HEN , Ph.D. • Associate Professor, Division of Environmental Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore ˇ ˇ O LD RICH D RA CKA , Prof. RNDr. DrSc. • Scientific Consultant, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic J EFFREY G UILD , MS • Engineering Manager, NORAM Engineering and Constructors, Ltd, Vancouver, BC, Canada D ONALD H. H AYCOCK • Conestoga-Rovers and Associates, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Y UNG -T SE H UNG , Ph.D., P.E., DEE • Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, USA J OO -H WA TAY, Ph.D., P.E. • Professor and Division Head, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore S TEPHEN T IONG -L EE TAY, Ph.D. • Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Y U L IU , Ph.D. • Assistant Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore A NDREW L UGOWSKI • Senior Manager, Conestoga-Rovers and Associates, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada S VATOPLUK M ACKRLE , Prof. Ing. CSc • President, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic V LADIMÍR M ACKRLE , Dr. Ing. CSc • Vice-President, Ecofluid Group Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic R AVINDER M ENON • Formerly Senior Principal Engineer, Industrial Biological Systems, ONDEO Degremont Inc., Richmond, VA, USA G EORGE N AKHLA • Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada D AVID P OLLOCK , MS • Engineering Technical Director of Environmental Group, NORAM Engineering and Constructors, Ltd, Vancouver, BC, Canada C HARLES W. S EVER • Retired, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA N AZIH K. S HAMMAS , MSSE, PhD • Professor and Environmental Engineering Consultant, Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA; and Advisor, Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA G ENNADIJ P. S HCHERBINA • Senior Manager, Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine A LEXANDER A. S VERDLIKOV • Senior Manager, Wastewater Treatment Department, Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine xxi

xxii

Contributors

A NATOLIY I. S VERDLIKOV • Senior Manager, Wastewater Treatment Department, Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine H IREN K. T RIVEDI , MSChE • Director and General Manager, Eimco Water Technologies, GL & V India Pvt., Ltd., Bombay, India L AWRENCE K. WANG , Ph.D., P.E., DEE • Ex-Dean and Director, Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Lenox, MA, USA; Assistant to the President (retired), Krofta Engineering Corporation, Lenox, MA, USA; and Vice President (retired), Zorex Corporation, Newtonville, NY, USA M ICHAIL M. Z EMLJAK • Wastewater Treatment Department, Research and Development Institute for Municipal Facilities and Services, Kiev, Ukraine

1 Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes Nazih K. Shammas, Yu Liu, and Lawrence K. Wang CONTENTS I NTRODUCTION BASIC M ICROBIOLOGY AND K INETICS K INETICS OF ACTIVATED S LUDGE P ROCESSES FACTORS A FFECTING THE N ITRIFICATION P ROCESS K INETICS OF THE N ITRIFICATION P ROCESS D ENITRIFICATION BY S USPENDED G ROWTH S YSTEMS D ESIGN E XAMPLES N OMENCLATURE R EFERENCES Abstract Biological technologies can be used to treat a vast majority of organic wastewaters because all organics could be biologically degraded if the proper microbial communities are established, maintained, and controlled. Before environmental engineers design and operate biological treatment systems that create the environment necessary for the effective treatment of wastewater, a sound understanding of the fundamentals of microbial growth and substrate use kinetics is essential. This chapter covers the above including basic microbiology and kinetics, kinetics of activated sludge process, factors affecting the nitrification process, kinetics of the nitrification process, denitrification by suspended growth systems and design examples.

Key Words Activated sludge r biological treatment r denitrification r kinetics r mathematical modeling r allosteric kinetic model r nitrification. 1. INTRODUCTION Microorganisms are found nearly everywhere in the biosphere and thus are a force in the environment. In the past decades, bacteria have been intensively exploited in wastewater treatment processes. It is therefore the task of the environmental engineer and scientist to understand the role of microorganisms first and then use them to beneficially transform the From: Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Volume 9: Advanced Biological Treatment Processes c Humana Press, New York, NY 2009 Edited by: L. K. Wang, N. K. Shammas and Y-T. Hung, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-170-7_1 

1

2

N. K. Shammas et al.

particular environment, such as water or soil. Theoretically, biological technologies can be used to treat a vast majority of organic wastewaters because all organics could be biologically degraded if the proper microbial communities are established, maintained, and controlled. In this regard, many environmental engineering principles have been developed for biological wastewater treatment. Before environmental engineers design and operate biological treatment systems that create the environment necessary for the effective treatment of wastewater, a sound understanding of the fundamentals of microbial growth and substrate utilization kinetics is essential.

2. BASIC MICROBIOLOGY AND KINETICS Microorganisms are powerful and cheap bioagents of biological wastewater treatment. The performance and stability of a biological treatment system relies on the interaction of different species of living organisms, typically including bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa (1).

2.1. Microbial Growth Requirements Biological processes designed for wastewater treatment must maintain rich microbial populations and enough biomass to metabolize the soluble and colloidal organic wastes. For a successful operation of the biological treatment process, several conditions must be fulfilled, such as the type and concentration of organic waste (as electron donor), electron acceptors, moisture, temperature, necessary nutrients, and the absence of toxic and inhibitory compounds. A sound understanding of these microbial growth requirements is essential for environmental engineers and scientists to design and manage biological wastewater treatment systems. 2.1.1. Electron Acceptors

Aerobic and anaerobic processes are the two main biological technologies used for wastewater treatment. Bacterial respirations for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria need different electron acceptors. The choice of electron acceptors depends on which treatment process is desirable for a specific wastewater (2). For aerobic biodegradation, dissolved oxygen (DO) serves as the terminal electron acceptor. However, under anaerobic conditions, a variety of inorganic compounds can be used as terminal electron acceptors, e.g., NO3 − , SO4 2−, and so on. In aerobic systems, the theoretical oxygen demand of an organic compound can be calculated from stoichiometry or determined by laboratory test. The theoretical oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required to completely oxidize the organic carbon to carbon dioxide and water. As an example, for the complete oxidation of phenol (C6 H6 O) the balanced equation is written as follows: C6 H6 O + 7O2 → 6CO2 +3H2 O 224 94

(1)

From the molecular weights in Eq. (1) the theoretical oxygen demand of phenol is: 224/94 = 2.38 mg O2 /mg phenol.

Principles and Kinetics of Biological Processes

3

2.1.2. Moisture

Because about 75% of cellular mass is water, and water is a good medium for nutrient transportation, adequate moisture concentration is strongly required in biodegradation of organic chemicals, especially in bioremediation of contaminated soil (3). It is generally accepted that the minimum moisture content necessary for bioremediation of contaminated soil is around 40% of saturation (4). In fact, there is no moisture-associated problem in biological wastewater treatment processes. 2.1.3. Temperature

The performance and response of a biological system depends on temperature variation. The effect of process temperature on microbial activity or the rate of biodegradation can be roughly described by the following simple equation: rT = r20 α (T −20)

(2)

where rT = biodegradation rate at temperature T r20 = biodegradation rate at 20◦ C α = temperature-activity coefficient T = temperature, ◦ C For most of biological treatment systems, α values are in the range of 1.0 to 1.14 (5). Different groups of bacteria have various temperature optimums. For example, methanogenic bacteria are slow-growing bacteria with a generation time of 3 days at 35◦ C and 50 days at 10◦ C, indicating that methane-producing bacteria are very sensitive to changes in temperature (1). 2.1.4. pH

Most bacteria can optimally function only at a relatively narrow pH range of 6 to 8. In biological treatment system, once the reactor pH falls outside the optimal range, the activity of microbial population would drop significantly, and such a decline of activity in turn causes a serious operation problem and may result in the failure of the system (1). Consequently, it is recommended that on-site operators need to regularly monitor the system pH and pay attention to its changes. 2.1.5. Nutrients

Typical elementary composition of bacterial cells based on dry weight is 50% carbon, 20% oxygen, 15% nitrogen, 8% hydrogen, 3% phosphorus and 95 100

requires complete removal of SS and organic matter to avoid rapid fouling and clogging of the membranes (see Section 1.2.1). In view of the respective capabilities of conventional biological processes, conventional physico-chemical processes, MBR, and RO, please recommend a solution to the landfill leachate treatment, which should be technically and economically feasible. Solution:

In view of the respective capabilities of various processes, a combination of MBR processes and RO could provide an integrated system able to treat highly contaminated leachates and produce high-quality effluent meeting current and future regulations. On the basis of results obtained during a 1-year pilot study, a full-scale plant was designed and installed to treat municipal leachates from a sanitary landfill site in the suburbs of Paris, France. The system consisted of an MBR process system followed by an RO unit. Results obtained are provided in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 shows that the MBR process system (with ultrafiltration and/or microfiltration membrane) was able to achieve the following percent removal efficiency while treating the landfill leachate: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

COD: 71.6%. TOC: 68.9%. NH3 -N: 98.3%. Cl− : 3.3%. TSS: 100%.

Although the TSS removal for an MBR process system was 100%, the removals of COD, TOC, and NH3 -N were moderate-high, and that of chloride was poor. The MBR system nevertheless was an excellent pretreatment unit for treating the sanitary landfill leachate, prior to the RO process system, due to reduction in silt density index (SDI), which is a very important parameter for satisfactory RO performance. With the combination of MBR and RO, the overall removal efficiency of COD, TOC, NH3 -N, Cl− , and TSS were all over 99%, which was very satisfactory. The definitions of RO are given in Section 1.2.1.

150

L. K. Wang and R. Menon

Table 4.3 Coffee factory high-strength streams composition Flow Influent Stream I Stream II Stream III Stream IV Total

TSS

S-COD

T-COD

BOD5

gpd

gpm

mg/L

lb/day

mg/L

lb/day

mg/L

lb/day

mg/L

lb/day

8,500 24,000 3,400 13,000 48,900

6 17 2 9 34

1,060 220 585 220 390

75 44 17 24 160

6,060 6,440 6,770 2,660 5,390

430 1,290 190 290 2,200

8870 7,000 7,460 2,800 6,240

630 1,400 210 305 2,545

3375 3,375 3,385 1,180 2,780

240 675 96 124 1,135

Contaminant concentrations for the “Total” is an average based on “Total” load and flow.

5.3. Example 3. Coffee Industry A coffee processing plant in Belgium produces 625 m3 /day (165,000 gpd) of combined WW, of which 70% is low-strength, and 30% is high-strength. The combined WW has the following characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

BOD5 : 1,150 mg/L. S-COD: 2,180 mg/L. T-COD: 2,700 mg/L. TSS: 280 mg/L. Temperature: 15◦ C.

The high-strength WW was the plant manager’s main concern. Table 4.3 summarizes the high-strength composition. The government had issued an effluent discharge permit with the following effluent limitations: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Total Flow: 237,600 gpd. TSS: 500 mg/L, and 220 lb/day. S-COD: no limits. T-COD: 2,000 mg/L and 3,000 lb/day. BOD5 : 400 mg/L and 600 lb/day.

If you were the plant’s environmental engineer responsible for WW compliance at this coffee plant, what would be your recommended engineering solutions to the plant manager? Solution:

The coffee plant’s environmental engineer decided to conduct a feasibility or treatability study, and selected an MBR pilot plant with the following specifications: 1. Skid dimensions = 13 × 7 × 8 H. 2. Weight = 4,000 lb (shipping); 8,000 lb (operating). 3. Connections = Influent = 1.5 hose clamp

Membrane Bioreactors

151 Excess Biosolids

Return Biosolids High-strength Wastewater

Effluent Discharge

pH Adjust Primary Settler

Mambranes Bioreactor

Final Control Basin

Low-strength Wastewater

Fig. 4.8. Coffee factory WWT flow schematic. Discharge = 2 male NPT Water supply = 5 to 10 gpm (3/4 hose clamp) 4. Electrical = 3 phase, 240 V, 60 Hz, 100 A, 2 grounds. 5. Flow rate = approximately 1 gpm (depends on influent BOD/COD).

6. AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM It was known that the MBR system is technically and economically feasible for treating high-strength and low-flow WW streams. It was then recommended by the plant’s environmental engineer that only the low-flow high-strength stream (representing 30% of total combined WW flow) would require treatment in an MBR system. The remaining 70% untreated low-strength streams could be post-blended with the treated effluent from the MBR, resulting in a combined, or blended effluent, which would meet the discharge permit’s effluent limitations (see Fig. 4.8). The 1-gpm pilot plant demonstration was very successful. The above proposed engineering solution was fully proven by the MBR performance. Accordingly an MBR process system was ordered, installed, started-up, and operated at the coffee plant. Fig. 4.8 shows the fullscale WWT flow schematic implemented by the coffee plant. The successful performance data of the installed process system are shown in Table 4.4. It is seen from Table 4.4 that the quality of the MBR effluent was very high. Critical effluent parameters were as follows: TSS = 0 mg/L S-COD = 250 mg/L T-COD = 250 mg/L BOD5 = 50 mg/L After blending the MBR treated effluent and the untreated low-strength WW together, the resulting blended final effluent, indeed, met all effluent limitations in the permit.

152

L. K. Wang and R. Menon

Table 4.4 Coffee factory effluent characteristics Effluent Flow TSS S-COD T-COD BOD5

MBR influent gpd gpm mg/L lb/day mg/L lb/day mg/L lb/day mg/L lb/day

MBR effluent

Untreated

Post-blended

Permitted

– – 0 0 250 100 250 100 50 20

114,915 80 230 220 820 785 1,230 1,180 460 440

163,815 114 160 220 645 885 930 1,280 335 460

237,600 165 500 990 – – 2,000 3,000 400 600

48,900 34 390 160 5,390 2,200 6,240 2,545 2,780 1,135

6.1. Example 4. Cosmetics Industry The WW discharged from a major cosmetics manufacturing plant in northern France was originally treated at the local municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Average flow rate was 160 m3 /day (42,240 gpd). In order to cut down sewer surcharge as well as fresh water costs, the plant set a goal to remove 90% of the total COD, and recycle at least 30% of the treated effluent for non-process uses within the plant. Solution:

A pilot aerobic MBR test program was conducted at the plant using a 1 m3 (264 US gal) pilot plant to determine treatability as well as to obtain full-scale design parameters. Results from the 5-month test program demonstrate the excellent overall performance of the MBR process system in terms of efficiency and reliability. Removal efficiencies obtained were 98 + % for COD, 99% for NH4 -N, and 99% for FOG (fats, oils, and greases). Removal of TSS was total; yielding an effluent that could satisfy the recycle criteria within the plant (15, 20). Following the pilot test program, a full-scale system was designed and installed to handle 150 m3 /day flow, and 1200 kg/day COD. The membrane filtration unit consisted of ceramic microfiltration modules, which were modular and suitable for expansion. The plant has been successfully in operation since the summer of 1994. Despite the variable flow rate and characteristics of the influent WW (COD 2 to 6 g/L; COD/BOD5 1.8 to 2.5), the treated effluent from the innovative MBR process system has been of consistent high quality (COD < 100 mg/L; BOD < 20 mg/L; TSS 0 mg/L; no bacteria). Part of the treated effluent is recycled for reuse in the factory lavatories, and for irrigation. The rest is discharged via a holding pond populated by fish, ducks, and reeds. The quantity of excess biosolids produced is lower than conventional aerobic systems. Approximate net yield is 0.1 kg volatile suspended solids (VSS) per kg COD removed. The plant is easy and economical to operate. One part-time operator is adequate to perform process

Membrane Bioreactors

153

Table 4.5 Aerobic MBR treatment of cosmetic factory wastewater in France Parameter

Influent quality (mg/L)

COD TSS NH3 -N FOG

6,500 240 40 2,500

Effluent quality (mg/L)