A working method approach for introductory physical chemistry calculations: numerical and graphical problem solving

A WORKING METHOD APPROACH FOR INTRODUCTORY PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY CALCULATIONS Numerical and Graphical Problem Solving R...

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A WORKING METHOD APPROACH FOR INTRODUCTORY PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY CALCULATIONS

Numerical and Graphical Problem Solving

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A WORKING METHOD APPROACH FOR INTRODUCTORY PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY CALCULATIONS Numerical and Graphical Problem Solving

BRIAN MURPHY', CLAIR MURPHY~AND BRIAN HATHAWAY2 Department of Chemistry University of Wales, Cardiff, UK, and 2Department of Chemistry, University College Cork, Ireland

em& &

THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY Information Services

ISBN 0-85404-553-8 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

0The Royal Society of Chemistry 1997 All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review as permitted under the terms of the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any m e w , without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK,or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemhtry at the address printed on this page.

Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 4WF, UK Typeset by Computape (Pickering) Ltd, Pickering, North Yorkshire, UK Printed by Athenaeum Press Ltd, Gateshead,Tyne and Wear, UK

Preface

The basis of physical chemistry is the ability to solve numerical problems. It is generally agreed that it is not with inorganic and organic chemistry that first-year and preliminary-year undergraduate students have the greatest difficulty, but instead the numerical problem-solving aspect of physical chemistry. The global trend of below-average marks in physical chemistry in first-year and preliminary-year chemistry papers needs to be addressed. The preparation of textbooks has been made much easier by the improvements in the technology of book production. This has resulted in the production of much more colourfully attractive textbooks of general and introductory chemistry. This would not be a problem if the basic principles of chemistry were still clearly identifiable. Unfortunately, often this is not the case and the principles, even when well described, are lost beneath a wealth of factually unconnected data, that is unnecessary for the student to learn. This is particularly apparent in the sections on basic introductory physical chemistry. Although many of these 1000-page textbooks contain well-written individual chapters on thermochemistry, equilibrium, electrochemistry and kinetics, with attractive diagrams, the fundamentals are sometimes lost in a sea of historical facts. No connectivity between the chapters is introduced and the impression is that each subject is divorced from the other sections. What is more disturbing is that although numerical problems and solutions do appear in such textbooks, no logical stepwise procedure is presented, leaving the student totally isolated when faced with a similar problem. Equally, the appearance of 60-70 numerical problems at the end of each chapter is unrealistic and inappropriate at this level. This approach is fine in more advanced physical chemistry textbooks, but such complexity and number of problems is not

vi

Preface

suitable for a basic undergraduate introductory course on physical chemistry! The ability to solve numerical problems is the foundation of any physical chemistry course. This text-book is dedicated to those firstyear and preliminary-year chemistry students who have not previously taken A-level or Leaving Certificate chemistry, or any student who finds major difficulty with physical chemistry problems at this level. Sadly, the skill of numerical problem-solving is being relegated to a bare nothing in secondary-level chemistry courses. The amount of physical chemistry that is taught is progressively being eroded away in schools, leaving first-year and preliminary-year chemistry students facing a complete cultural shock when posed with the volume of numerical problems which they must solve, on entrance to universities and tertiary-level institutions. This worrying trend may account for the poor first-year and preliminary-year examination results returned in physical chemistry papers. Current textbooks do little to identify and confront this problem. A gentle systematic step-wise approach of a ‘Working Method’ is one method of addressing this decline in marks and the difficulty that students face with physical chemistry. Ironically, in many textbooks, working methods are mentioned; however, these appear with great infrequency. The aim of this textbook is to treat each numerical problem in introductory physical chemistry with the systematic stepwise approach of the ‘working method’. Students need to gain confidence in tackling numerical problems and a systematic approach can certainly help. The text does not imply offering ‘recipes’forsolving such problems, but hopefully it will encourage students to think out their own approach. We believe that if students can get started on such problems, this approach will encourage the students to think for themselves when faced with morz challenging problems. Equally, a working method on graphical problems is presented, a rarity in physical chemistry textbooks at this level, and yet essential in so many other subjects in science, such as physics, biochemistry, nutrition, geography, optometry, food science, etc.; undergraduate students of these courses rely on a good basic chemistry course to develop such a skill. The present text tries to overcome the limitations of these texts, by covering the basic principles of introductory physical chemistry in a short and concise way. Each chapter contains an introduction, followed by a typical examination question at the appropriate level, and then takes the student stepwise through the working method.

Preface

vii

This text is written against a series of computer-aided learning (CAL) tutorials. These tutorials have been in use for the past four years at University College Cork (UCC) (and more recently at the University of Wales, Cardiff and Dublin City University), and are extremely popular with the 300 students per year taking the course. With such a back-up to the courseware, the main recommended physical chemistry textbook, the large and small group tutorials and the lecture course, the student should not feel so isolated with the problems associated with physical chemistry. The use of the CAL courseware in UCC is entirely optional and supplementary to the normal teaching programme (namely, lectures, practicals, large and small group tutorials), but the interactive nature of the courseware, especially for numerical problem solving, is very attractive to the students, particularly to those with a weak chemistry background. As the courseware is based upon UCC-type examination questions and also reflects the UCC lecturer’s approach to his teaching, the tutorials are not 100% transferable to other third-level institutions, but the physical chemistry tutorials are available from the authors to illustrate the approach taken in writing the courseware and are available free of charge on the Internet at URL:http://www .cf.ac.uk/uwcc/chemy/murphybm/bm 1.html. This generally follows the approach of the individual chapters in the present text and, in any case, the authors firmly believe that the best courseware should be written in-house, to best reflect the approach of the course lecturer involved. One final point. This text is based on the current first-year science chemistry course of a four-year B.Sc. degree course taken at University College Cork. The majority of students taking this course are non-intending chemists. Although the text covers most of the main areas of a typical general chemistry course, the authors do not claim in any way that this material is the most appropriate for such a course; indeed, many universities may include topics such as spectroscopy in such a course, and may prefer to change the order of the subjects taught. This, however, is not the purpose of this text. For example, the two chapters on kinetics are relegated to the end of the text, as the authors have found that students have trouble with some of the maths in this section. Also, the two chapters on electrochemistry are slightly expanded, since many students have expressed concern over the presentation of such material in other texts. So, in conclusion, this text is in many senses in response to the needs of the non-intending chemistry students who have struggled for far too long in physical chemistry at this level. However, it is hoped that lecturers and teachers

...

Preface

Vlll

will also find this a useful text, and will use this text as a basis for encouraging students to think out problems for themselves, before going on to more challenging problems! Note: while every effort has been made to eliminate errors in this book, inevitably some will have crept through. The authors would appreciate notification by readers of any errors. They may be contacted as follows: Brian Hathaway: Tel. 353-21-902379 Fax 353-21-274097 e-mail [email protected],ie Brian Murphy:

Tel. 353-1-7045000 Fax 3 53-1-7045503 e-mail [email protected] Brian Murphy and Brian Hathaway

Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction to Physical Chemistry: Acids and Bases,’ The Gas Laws, Numerical and Graphical Problem Solving Introduction States of Matter Acids and Bases The Gas Laws - Idea of Proportionality Kinetic Theory of Gases The General Gas Equation Importance of Units in Physical Chemistry A General Working Method to Solve Numerical Problems in Physical Chemistry Working Method for Graphical Problems Conclusion Multiple-Choice Test

Chapter 2 Thermodynamics I: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, First Law of Thermodynamics, State Functions, and Hess’s Law Introduction Definition of Thermodynamics - Introducing the System and the Surroundings Internal Energy, U Enthalpy, H The First Law of Thermodynamics State Functions Hess’s Law Worked Example Using the Working Method of Hess’s Law

10 12 15 15

17 17

17 18 18 20 20 20

22

X

Chapter 3 Thermodynamics11: Enthalpy, Heat Capacity, Entropy, the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics and Gibbs Free Energy Introduction Enthalpy, H Heat Capacity Entropy, S, and Change in Entropy, A S Gibbs Free Energy, G, and Change in Gibbs Free Energy, AG Working Method for the Calculation of AG Type Problems Worked Example Summary of Chapters 2 and 3 on Chemical Thermodynamics Multiple-Choice Test Long Questions on Chapters 2 and 3 Chapter 4 Equilibrium I: Introduction to Equilibrium and Le Chstelier’s Principle Introduction The Law of Chemical Equilibrium Working Method for the Solution of Standard Equilibrium Type Problems Examples Relationship between AG and K p Le Chiitelier’s Principle Summary Chapter 5 Equilibrium 11: Aqueous Solution Equilibria Acids and Bases Common Ion Effect Dissociation of H20 and pH Hydrolysis Buffer Solutions Advanced Equilibrium Problems - Working Method Polyprotic Acids Solubility Product Summary Multiple-Choice Test Long Questions on Chapters 4 and 5

Contents

24 24 24 27 29

31 33 34 34 34 35

36 36 37 40 42 44 44 46

47 47 48 50

52 53 55 59 59 60 61 62

Contents

Chapter 6 Electrochemistry I: Galvanic Cells. Introduction to Electrochemistry Redox Reactions - Revision Galvanic Cells Working Method for Galvanic Cell Problems Chapter 7 Electrochemistry 11: Electrolytic Cells Electrolysis Types of Electrolytic Cells Examples of Electrolytic Cell Type Problems Summary Multiple-choice Test Long Questions on Chapters 6 and 7 Chapter 8 Chemical Kinetics I: Basic Kinetic Laws Rate of a Reaction Rate Law Order of a Reaction Half-Life Examples Determination of the Order of a Reaction Working Method for the Determination of the Order of a Reaction by the Method of Initial Rates How Concentration Dependence, i.e. the Order of a Reaction, Can be Used to Develop a Mechanism for a Reaction Summary Chapter 9 Chemical Kinetics 11: The Arrhenius Equation and Graphical Problems Molecularity The Activation Energy of a Reaction The Arrhenius Equation Working Method for the Solution of Graphical Problems in Kinetics Worked Examples Rate Constants and Temperature

xi

63 63 65 67 78

89 89 97 104 110 110 111

113 113 114 115 118 120 121 122

125 127

128 128 129 130 133 136 139

xii

Contents

Summary of the Two Chapters on Chemical Kinetics Multiple-Choice Test Long Questions on Chapters 8 and 9

142 142 143

Answers to Problem

145

Further Reading

147

Periodic Table of the Elements

148

Subject Index

149

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge Dr Ross Stickland, Physical Chemistry Section, Department of Chemistry, University of Wales, Cardiff and Gillian Murphy, Department of Chemistry, University of Cork, for proof-reading this text. The following are also acknowledged for useful suggestions and continued support: Professor Wyn Roberts, Head of Department, University of Wales, Cardiff, Dr Gary Attard, Dr Eryl Owen, Physical Chemistry Section, and Professor Michael B. Hursthouse, Structural Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Wales, Cardiff.

Chapter I

Introduction to Physical Chemistry: Acids and Bases, The Gas Laws and Numerical and Graphical Problem Solving

INTRODUCTION This chapter is a brief introduction to many of the assumptions made in the remainder of this text and the basis of physical chemistry type problems. The spider diagram of Figure 1.1 illustrates the various sections.

Solid, Liquid and Gas

State Conditions

Figure 1.1 Summary of the contents of Chapter I

2

Chapter 1

STATES OF MATTER Mutter is the chemical term for materials. There are three states of matter: the solid phase (s), the liquid phase (1) and the gaseous phase (g). In the solid phase, all the atoms or molecules are arranged in a highly ordered manner [Figure 1,2(a)], whereas in the liquid phase [Figure 1.2(b)], this ordered structure is not as evident. In the gaseous phase [Figure 1.2(c)), all the particles are moving at high velocity, in random motion. The disorder or entropy, S, is at its maximum in the gaseous phase [Figure 1.2(c)].

(a) Solid (s)

(b) Liquid (1)

(c) Gas (g)

Increasing disorder or entropy, S

Figure 1.2 States of matter-solid, liquid and gas

If a species is dissolved in water, it is said to be in the aqueous phase (aq), and the symbol can be represented as a subscript, e.g. HCl(aq)*

ACIDS AND BASES An acid is a proton (H+) donor and a base is a proton acceptor, e.g. (OH-). Examples of acids include HCl, H2SO4, HN03, HCN and CH3C02H. A monoprotic acid is an acid with one replaceable proton, e.g. HCl (eA = 1); a diprotic acid is an acid with two replaceable protons e.g. H2SO4 (eA = 2) etc., where eA is the number of reactive species. A dilute acid is an acid which contains a small amount of acid dissolved in a large quantity of water, whereas a concentrated acid is an acid which contains a large amount of acid dissolved in a small quantity of water. Examples of bases include NaOH (eB = l), KOH (eB = l), Ba(OH)2 (eB = 2), Ca(OH)2 (eB = 2), Mg(OH)2 (eB = 2), Na2C03 (eB = 2), N H 3 and CH3NH2, where eB is the number of reactive

3

Introduction to Physical Chemistry

species. e.g. OH-. An acid combines with a base to form a salt and water:

I i.e.

ACID

+

BASE

-+

SALT

+

WATER^

e.g.

HN03

+

NaOH

-+

NaN03

+

H20

In general, an acid can be represented as HA, where HA -+ H + + A- or, more precisely, HA + H20 -+ A- + H 3 0 + , since all aqueous protons are solvated by water. Likewise, a base containing hydroxide anions, OH-, can be represented as MOH, where MOH M + + OH-. When an acid donates a proton, H + , it is said to form the conjugate H + + A- (conjugate base). The base of the acid, i.e. HA (acid) conjugate base is a base since it can accept a proton to reform HA, the acid. Similarly, when a base accepts a proton, H + , the conjugate acid of the base is said to be formed, i.e. B (base) + H + HB+ (conjugate acid). The conjugate acid is an acid since it can donate a proton, H + , and reform the base, e.g. NH4+ (conjugate acid) --+ NH3 (base) + H + . ---$

*

Ions, Cations, Anions, Oxyanions and Oxyacids Ions are charged species, e.g. N a + , Cl-, NH4+ etc. Cations are positively charged ions, e.g. Na+, NH4+, Mg2+, H 3 0 + etc. Anions are negatively charged species, e.g. OH-, C1-, 02-etc. A useful way of remembering this is the two n’s, i.e. anion = negatively charged ion! An oxymion, as its name suggests, is an anion containing oxygen, e.g. NO,, SO:- etc. An oxyacid is the corresponding acid of the oxyanion, e.g. HN03 and H2SO4 are the oxyacids of the nitrate and sulfate oxyanions respectively. The oxidation state or oxidation number of the nitrogen, Nv and the sulfur, Svl, is the same in both the oxyacid and the oxyanion. Table 1.1 is a summary of some of the common oxyanions and their corresponding oxyacids.

Chapter I

4

Table 1.1 Summary of some of the common oxyanions, the corresponding oxyacidr, charges, oxidation numbers and the number of replaceable hydrogens Charge

Oxyanion

Oxyacid

eA

-1 -1

N"'0; (Nitrite) NVOi (Nitrate)

H N1"02 (Nitrous acid) H Nv03 (Nitric acid)

1

-2 -2

~ ' ~ 0(Sulfi : - te) ~ ~ ' 0(sulfate) :-

H2StV03(Sulfurous acid) H2SV104(Sulfuric acid)

2 2

-3 -3

PI"0:- (Phosphite) PvO!- (Phosphate)

H3p11103(Phosphorous acid) H g V 0 4(Phosphoric acid)

3 3

-1 -1

ClvOy (Chlorate) Clv"O;(Perchlorate)

HClV03(Chloric acid) HClV"04 (Perchloric acid)

1 1

-2

CIvO;-(Carbonate)

H2CIV03(Carbonic acid)

2

THE GAS LAWS-IDEA

1

OF PROPORTIONALITY

Boyle's Law Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area, i.e. p = F/A. The unit of pressure is the newton per square metre, N m-' or the Pascal, Pa. At sea level, the pressure due to the weight of the earth's atmosphere is approximately lo5 Pa. The bar, is often used as the unit of pressure in problems in physical chemistry, where 1 bar = lo5 N m-' or lo5 Pa. Consider the effect of a piston pressing down on a fixed mass of gas of initial pressure Pinitial and initial volume Vinitial, (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Application of pressure on a definite mass of gas at constant temperature


5

As the pressure applied by the piston is increased, the volume of the gas decreases (i.e. the space it occupies), if the temperature is kept constant. This is Boyle’s Law - the volume of a definite mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to its pressure. i.e. Boyle’s Law: Voc l/p or V = k/p,where k is a constant of proportionality.

Example: A sample of gas G used in an air conditioner has a volume of 350 dm3and a pressure of 85 kPa at 25°C. Determine the pressure of the gas at the same temperature when the volume is 500 dm3. Solution: The gas is at constant temperature, and therefore Boyle’s Law can be applied: Hence initially, V1 = k/pl or k = p1 V1 k = (85 kPa) x (350 dm3) Hence = 29750 kPa dm3 However finally, p2 = k/V2 = 29750/500 = 59.5 kPa Answer : Final Pressure

=

59.5 kPa

Charles’s Law In contrast, if the pressure is kept constant, the volume of a definite mass of gas will increase, if the temperature is raised. This is Charles’s Law: the volume of a definite mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its temperature. i.e. Charles’s Law: V oc T or V = kT,where k is a different constant of proportionality.

I

Example: A sample of gas G occupies 200 cm3 at 288 K and 0.87 bar. Determine the volume the gas will occupy at 303 K and at the same pressure.

Chapter I

6

Solution: The gas is at constant pressure, and therefore Charles’s Law can be applied: Hence initially, Vl = kT1 or k = V l / T l Hence k = (200 m3)/(288 K) = 0.694 cm3 K-’ NOWV2 = kT2, S O , V2 = (0.694 cm3 K-’) x (303 K) = 210.42cm3 Answer: Final Pressure

210.42 C&

=

Avogadro’s Law This states that equal volumes of gases, measured at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.

r

i.e. Avogadro’s Law: V a n, where n in moles).

=

the amount of gas (measured

The mole is defined as the amount of a substance which contains as many elementary species as there are atoms in 12 g of the carbon-12 particles, where NA is defined isotope. A mole contains 6.02205 x mol-’. as Avogadro’s constant i.e. NA = 6.02265 x

Ideal Gases

An ideal gas is a theoretical concept, a gas which obeys the gas laws perfectly. If the three gas laws are combined, the resulting equation is the equation of state of an ideal gas: (a) Boyle’s Law : V oc 1/ p (b) Charles’s Law : V oc T (c) Avogadro’s Law : V a n (a), (b) and ( 4

V a(TUP +pVanT +p V = knT, =$

where k is another constant of proportionality called the Universal Gas Constant, R. [Zdeal Gas Equation: p V

=

nRT

I


7

where p = pressure of the gas (measured in bar); V = volume of the gas (measured in dm'); n = amount of gas (measured in mol); T = temperature of the gas (measured in IS);R = Universal Gas Constant = 0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-' (or 8.314 J K-' mol-I). The above equation can also be modified to take into account changes in temperature, AT, changes in volume, A V , and changes in the coefficients of gaseous reagents, Au, respectively, i.e. pV = nRAT, p A V = nRT and pV = Au,RT. ugrepresents the coefficients in a chemical equation. For 4 2NH3(g), example, in the reaction N2(g) + 3H2(, Aug = C[v(Gaseous products)]-C[u(Gaseous reactants)] = [(2)]- [(l) + (3)] = -2.

Molar Volume 1 mole of an ideal gas measured at 25 "C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3(where 1 dm' = 1000 cm3).

1

i.e. 1 mole of an ideal gas at 25 "C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3.

Example: Calculate the amount of gas in moles in 2000 cm3 at 25 "C and 1 bar pressure. Solution: At 25 "C and 1 bar pressure, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 24.8 dm3 i.e. 24.8 dm' = 1 mol 1dm3 = (1/24.8) mol 2000cm' = 2dm3 = (2/24.8) mol = 0.081 mol Answer: 0.081 mol.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion. The molecules of gases travel at high velocity and hence have high kinetic energy. The kinetic theory of gases is used to explain the observed properties of gases, of which Brownian motion provides good evidence. Brownian motion is the irregular zigzag movement of very small particles suspended in a liquid or gas. If tobacco smoke is placed in a small cell, well-illuminated on a microscope stage, the tiny particles appear to be moving at random, as shown in Figure 1.2(c). This is due to the smaller invisible

8

Chapter I

molecules of the air, colliding with the particles of the smoke. This is Brownian motion. The kinetic theory of gases is a model proposed to account for the observed properties of gases. In order that the model is applicable, certain assumptions are made. For this reason, gases are categorised into two types: (a) ideal gases (as defined previously) and (b) real gases (defined as non-ideal gases). Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory for an Ideal Gas 1. Gases consist of tiny molecules, which are so small and so far apart that the actual size of the molecules is negligible in comparison to the large distance between them. 2. The molecules are totally independent of each other, i.e. there are no attractive or repulsive forces between the molecules. 3. The molecules are in constant random motion. They collide with each other and with the walls or sides of the container, which changes the direction of linear motion. 4. For each elastic collision, there is no net loss of kinetic energy. However, there may be transfer of energy between the particles in such a collision. 5 . The average kinetic energy, of all the molecules is assumed to be proportional to the absolute temperature T (measured in K) i.e. kinetic energy oc T.

Validity of the Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory for an Ideal Gas Assumption I This is largely true, since the compressibility of gases is very high. However, at high pressures, when a gas is highly compressed, it is not valid to state that the physical size of gas molecules is practically negligible compared with the distances between the molecules. Assumption 2 This assumption is approximate, since gases diffuse or spread out to occupy all space available to them, i.e. there must be no appreciable binding force between the molecules. However, van der Waals forces exist (intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion), and with polar molecules, other attractive forces exist. Assumption 3 This assumption is valid, as shown by Brownian motion. Assumptions 4 and 5 These assumptions are true, since in any elastic collision, kinetic energy is not lost.


9

Conclusion of the Kinetic Theory of Gases The kinetic theory of gases is a good approximation, used to explain the behaviour of real gases. The theory has to be modified at very high pressures and in the presence of van der Waals forces, and for polar molecules where stronger intermolecular forces of attraction are involved.

THE GENERAL GAS EQUATION Consider a gas at temperature T I , pressure p 1 and volume V1, and another gas at temperature T2 and pressure p2. The volume of the latter gas can be determined easily using the equation:

A useful way of remembering this is 'peas and Vegetables go on the Table'! In fact, given any five of the above variables, the sixth can be evaluated using the equation. This will form the basis of the worked example at the end of this chapter. Standard State The standard state of a body is the most stable state of that body at 25°C and 1 bar pressure (its symbol is ",e.g. E", AH", AS", defined later in Chapters 2 , 3 and 6 respectively).

I Standard State-Most

Stable State-S.S.-25

"Cand 1 bar pressure.

1

IMPORTANCE OF UNITS IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY In physical chemistry questions, the International system of units (SI) should be used. In any problem, one of the first steps is to convert all units to SI; note especially that temperature must always be given in kelvins, never degrees centigrade:

1

Remember: T(K)

=

T ( " C )+ 273

I

e.g. 25 "C is equal to 298 K since (25 + 273) K = 298 K. Table 1.2 lists (a) the basic SI units, (b) the derived SI units, and (c) some examples of non-SI units, which are commonly used in physical chemistry.

Chapter I

10

Table 1.2(a) Basic SI units Physical quantity

Name of unit

Symbol

Length (1) Mass ( m ) Time (t ) Electric current ( I ) Temperature ( T ) Amount of substance (n)

Metre Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Mole

m kg S

A K mol

Table 1.2(b) Some derived SI units Physical quantity

Name of unit

Symbol

Area (A) Volume (V) Density ( p ) Force (F) Pressure (p) Work ( w ) Electric charge (Q) Potential difference (V) Heat capacity ( C ) Specific heat capacity (c)

Square metre Cubic metre Kilogram per cubic metre Newton (N) Newton per square metre Joule (J) Coulomb (C) Volt (v) Joule per kelvin Joule per gram per kelvin

m2 m3 kg m-’ Jm-’ N m-’ Nm As

J A - : s-I J KJ g-’ K-’

Table 1.2(c) Examples of some nun-SI units

Physical quantity

Name

SI equivalent ~~

Volume (V) Pressure (p)

Litre (1) Bar

1 I = 10-3m3 1 bar = 10’ N m-’

A GENERAL WORKING METHOD TO SOLVE NUMERICAL PROBLEMS IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Read the question carefully-do not be put off by the sheer length or intricacy of a question. If you do not see the wood for the trees immediately-don’t worry -all will be revealed fi you use a stepwise systematic approach! Just break down the question, step by step! If a chemical equation is involved, identify all the species present, along with their states, i.e. (s), (l), (as) or (8). This is particularly relevant in thermodynamics, equilibrium and electrochemistry questions.


11

3. Write down the balanced chemical equation if necessary, including the stoichiometry factors, VA, vB, vc and VD respectively: V A A+ V B B + V C C+ vDD. 4. Identify all the data given in the question, including any constants which are involved, e.g. R = 8.314 J K-' mol-', 1 F = 96500 C mol-' (defined later), 1 mole of a gas behaving ideally at 25 "C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3. 5. Convert all units to the one system, i.e. change "C to K, hours to seconds, etc. Watch out especially for (a) standard state conditions, e.g. E", AH", AS" and AGO parameters: 25°C (298 K) and 1 bar pressure, and; (b) R = 0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-' (used when the pressure is expressed in bar) or more generally R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'. For example, suppose you were asked to calculate the volume occupied by 0.5 mol of N2(g) at 280 K and 0.93 bar, using the ideal gas equation, i.e. p V = nRT, and rearranging, V = nRT/p. Since p , the pressure of the gas, is given in bar, R = 0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-' must be used, not R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'. Therefore, V = (0.5 mol) x (0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol- ') x (280 K)/0.93 bar = 12.52 dm3. 6. Identify the unknown in the question, i.e. what quantity is being looked for specifically? Do not be afraid to sketch a simple diagram if this identifies the problem for you! 7. Write down all relevantformulae. The question will most likely involve just one or, less likely, more than one, of these equations. 8. Substitute the known data into the equations in step 7 above (this may help to identify the unknown) and solve for the unknown. Remember, it is easier to rearrange the equations before substituting the numerical values. 9. Write down your answer (never have 'x = 0' as your final answer) and ensure that the appropriate units are given. Remember, logarithmic values are dimensionless, i.e. they have no units. For example, suppose that the concentration of H 3 0 + ions in a solution is 0.04 M. Then, the pH (defined in Chapter 5) can be calculated using the standard equation, pH = -loglo[H30+] = -log10(0.04 M) = 1.40, i.e. although the units of concentration are mol dm-3, there are no units for pH, since logs are involved. 10. Re-read the question and answer any riders to the question! Armed with such an approach, most numerical problems in intro-

Chapter I

12

ductory physical chemistry can be broken down and tackled, no matter how difficult they may first appear. Worked Example Example: A gas G, occupying 2.5 dm3 at 0 "C and 1 bar pressure, is transferred to a 5.5 dm3 container, where the pressure is 0.25 bar. In order for the gas in the new vessel to attain this pressure, what must the temperature of the gas be?

Solution: 1. Read the question carefully-looks complicated. . . ? Just break it down! 2. No balanced chemical equation is involved, so step 2 can be skipped in this case. 3. One species involved-a gas G(gI! 4. Identify the data in the question: V1 = 2.5 dm3; TI = 0 "C;p1 = 1 bar; V2 = 5.5 dm3;p2 = 0.25 bar. 5. Convert temperature to kelvins: Tl = (0 + 273) K = 273 K. 6. Unknown = TZ! 7. Pressure, volume and temperature suggest that the required equation is: (plVl)/Tl = (p2V2)/T2,i.e. 'Peas and Vegetables go on the Table'! 8. Rearrange the equation before substituting the numerical values: T2 = (p2/p1)(V2/V1)(T1). Solve for T2, i.e. T2 = [0.25 bar/l bar] x [5.5 dm3/2.5 dm3]x [273 K] = 150.15 K. 9. Answer: Temperature is 150.15 K. Notice how the units cancelled each other conveniently in step 8. In this question the temperature could have been left in "C,but it is good practice always to convert temperature to the absolute temperature, measured in K. WORKING METHOD FOR GRAPHICAL PROBLEMS

A corresponding working method can be applied to graphical problems in physical chemistry, adopting the same approach. 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify the tabulated data given to you; tables of data normally mean a graph has to be plotted. Remember, you might not necessarily be told this in a problem.


13

3. Convert all units to the SI system, i.e. T should be expressed in K etc. 4. Having identified the data, try to establish a linear correlation between the two sets of data-remember it is not simply a case of plotting one set of data points on the x-axis and the other set of data points on the y-axis. Identify the linear equation in question: y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the graph and c is the intercept, the point where the graph cuts the y-axis when x = 0. 5. Create a table of the appropriate data, taking special care of: (a) logs: did you use natural logs to the base e, for example, or loglo? (b) did you convert direct values ( x ) to their reciprocal values (llx)? (c) units (e.g. logs: dimensionless; l/T: K- ’, etc.). Add as many extra columns as required. Keep the tabulated data vertical (i.e. go down the page); this will ensure you do not run out of space! x-axidunit

y-axidunit

6. Examine the table from step 5. From this, write down the maximum and minimum values of x, and also the maximum and minimum values of y: Maximum value of x = 0;Minimum value of x = Maximum value of y = 0;Minimum value of y = 0. This determines an appropriate scale for the graph. At this point, you might want to return to step 5, and ‘round off’ any

n;

14

Chapter I

numbers for plotting purposes. Add additional columns to the table if necessary. 7. Draw the graph (on graph paper!), and remember the following points. (a) Every graph must have a title. (b) Label the two axes. (c) Include the units on the axes, but remember, there are no units for logarithmic values. (d) Maximise the scale of the graph for accuracy. (e) Draw the best-fit line through the set of points. It is not essential that the line contains any of these experimental points. y-axidunits

8. Determine the slope or gradient of the graph, by choosing two independent points on the line, at the two extremities, ( X I , y l ) and (x2,y 2 ) respectively. Then apply m = Ay/Ax = ( y 2 - y 1 ) / ( x 2 - x I ) , and do not forget that the slope has units too. 9. The intercept of the graph, c, is then determined by examining where the graph cuts the y-axis (at x = 0). The units of c are obviously the y-axis units. If however, you find from the scale of your graph, that x = 0 is not included, c can still be determined, without extrapolating (extending) the graph. To do this, choose another independent point (xc, yc) on the line in the centre of the graph, and use the formula: y = mx + c + y , = mx, + c + c = y, - mx,, since m has already been determined in step 8.


15

10. From the values of rn and c, determine the unknown parameter(s). 11. Answer any riders to the question. In Chapter 9 on Chemical Kinetics, a worked example on graphical problems will be considered, using the above working method.

CONCLUSION In Chapter 1, some of the basic concepts of physical chemistry are introduced, as well as the systematic step-by-step working methods which should be used where appropriate to tackle numerical or graphical problems in physical chemistry.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST 1. Charles's Law states that: (a) V = kn (b) Vocp (c) V = kT (d)pV = nRT 2. Which of the following statements is incorrect? (a) The conjugate base of CH3C02H is CH3C0,; (b) A concentrated acid is an acid which is dissociated completely in solution; (c) H2C2O4, ethanedioic acid, is an example of a diprotic acid; (d) Avogadro's Law states that equal volumes of gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. 3. The volume of a sample of carbon monoxide, CO, is 325 cm3 at 15 bar and 520 K. What is the volume of the gas at 3.92 bar and 520 K? (a) 12.4 dm3 (b)0.00124 dm3 (c) 1244 dm3 (d) 1.24 dm3 4, How many of the following statements are incorrect? * The pH of a 0.08 M solution of HC104 is 1.10 M. * Standard state conditions are 298 K and 1 bar pressure. * 1 bar = lo5 Pa. * The kinetic theory of gases is valid at high pressure. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) All 4 5. What is the density of C2Hqgl at 175 kPa and 20 "C? (C, 12.01, H, 1.01; R = 8.314 J K-' mol-' = 0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-')

Chapter I

16

(a) 2.16 g dm-3 (b) 0.072 g dm-3 (c) 7.28 g dmb3 (d) 216 g

dm-3 6. For the reaction, 2S0,(g) Av,? (a) + 5

(b) + 1

+ 02(g) ( 40

--+

2SO3,,, what is the value of (d) -1

Chapter 2

Thermodynamics I: Internal Energy Enthalpy, First Law of Thermodynamics, State Functions, and Hess’s Law INTRODUCTION 2. Internal Energy, AU

1. System +

-q +

w

3. Enthalpy, H

\ / Thermodvnamics - Chapter 2

Surroundings = Universe

5. First

Law of Thermodynamics

7. Worked Example

Figure 2.1 Summary of the contents of Chapter 2

DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS-INTRODUCING THE SYSTEM AND THE SURROUNDINGS Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the energy transformations that occur during chemical and physical changes. The part of the universe that undergoes such a change is termed the system. Everything else outside the system is termed the surroundings. Hence, system + surroundings = universe.

18

Chapter 2

INTERNAL ENERGY, U Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. The unit of energy is the joule, J. The internal energy, U,is defined as the total energy of all forms within a system. Energy is transferred into or out of a system in two ways: (a) by heat transfer, q, and/or (b) by work, w, as shown in Figure 2.2. SURROUNDINGS

SURROUNDINGS

OUT: w -ve

IN: q +ve SYSTEM

Meat (9)

Work (w)

IN:w +ve

OUT q -ve

SURROUNDINGS

SURROUNDINGS

Figure 2.2 Transfer of energy into and out of a system

If the work is done by the system on the surroundings, w is -ve, whereas if work is done by the surroundings on the system, w is + ve. Hence, by definition,

1-

The change in internal energy is defined as A U = Ufinal - UinitialENTHALPY, H Consider the expansion of a gas, of initial volume, Vinitial, to a final volume, Vfinal, as shown in Figure 2.3, at constant pressure. In this situation, the gas expands, and hence work is done by the system on its surroundings, i.e. w is -ve.

Expansion

~~

U

Figure 2.3 Expansion of a gas. Since the gas expands, the system does work on the surroundings, therefore, w is - ve

Thermodynamics I

19

From physics, work = force x distance (w = F x d ) and pressure = force/area (p = F / A ) , as defined in Chapter 1. Therefore, force = pressure x area, i.e. w = (pA)d. But since volume = length x breadth x height = area x height, this means w = P A Y , where A V is the change in volume, i.e. Vfinal - Vinitial. Since w is - ve, then w = -pAV. But, AU = q w. Therefore, q = AU - w = AU - (-pAV) = AU+pAV. At constant pressure, p , for a system with internal energy, U and volume V , the enthalpy H(= q p ) is defined as H = U + p V . More specifically, AH, the change in enthalpy, is defined as AH = AU +pAV. This will be discussed further in Chapter 3.

+

I Change in Enthalpy AH

= AU

+ P AV

I

Under standard state conditions (i.e. 1 bar pressure and 25°C K), AH is written as AH".

=

298

Some Examples of Reactions

Consider the following four reactions at constant pressure. In each case, answer the following questions: (a) Is work done by the system on the surroundings or by the surroundings on the system? (b) What is the sign of w in each case, i.e. is w +ve, is w -ve or is w = O?

Reaction I : H20(,) + H,O(,). At constant pressure, w = -pAV = -p( Vfinal - Vinitial). But Vinitia, > Vfinal, from Chapter 1. Hence, AV is -ve. Therefore, w is +ve, i.e. work is done by the surroundings on the system. 2NaN03(,) + HEAT + 2NaN02(,) + 0 2 ( g ) . Reaction 2: At constant pressure, w = -PAY = -p( Vfinal - Vinitial). But Vfinal > Vinitial, from Chapter 1. Hence, A V is + ve, and therefore, w is - ve, i.e. work is done by the system on the surroundings.

Reaction 3: 2 N ~ 0 5 (-+ ~ )2N204(,) + 0 2 ( g ) . At constant pressure, w = -pAv,RT, from the equation of state of an ideal gas, Chapter 1. Av,, is the change in the coefficients of gas reagents = C[v(Gaseous products)] - C[v(Gaseous reactants)] = (2 + 1) - (2) = (3) - (2) = + 1. Hence, w is -ve, i.e. work is done by the system on the surroundings.

20

Chapter 2

Reaction 4:

Freezing of water, i.e. H20(1) --+ H,O,,).

At constant pressure, w = -PA V = -p( Vfinal - Vinitial). But Vinitial is approximately equal to Vfinal,from Chapter 1 . Hence, A V = 0 . Therefore, w M 0 i.e. no work is done. Note that water does in fact expand slightly on freezing, which is very unusual. This is why water pipes burst in winter. Heats of Reaction The standard molar enthalpy of formation, A H ; , is defined as the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance is formed from its free elements in their standard states (i.e. a solid, liquid or gas at 1 bar pressure and 25 "C = 298 K). For example, for the reaction C(,) + 0 2 ( g ) + CO,,,, A H ; , the standard molar enthalpy of formation of carbon dioxide gas is equal to -394 kJ mol-', i.e. AH;, = A H ; = -394 kJ mol-'. The enthalpy of combustion, A H , is defined as the change in enthalpy when one mole of a substance is burnt in excess oxygen gas at 1 bar pressure and 0 "C = 273 K. For example, for the combustion of propane, C3Hg(l) + so,(,)--+ 3co2(,, + 4H20(1),AH,,, = A H , = - 2220 kJ mol- * (rxn = reaction). THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy, i.e. energy cannot be created or destroyed, but is converted from one form to another. Expressed in an alternative way, the First Law of Thermodynamics states that the total energy of the universe is constant, i.e. AUuni,,,, = 0 . STATE FUNCTIONS When a certain property of a system (such as U, the internal energy) is independent of how that system attains the state that exhibits such a property, the property is deemed to be a state function, i.e. it does not matter which path is followed when a system changes from its initial state to its final state; all that is relevant is the value of such a function in its final state. This concept forms the basis of Hess's Law. HESS'S LAW Defiition of Hess's Law: Hess's Law states that a reaction enthalpy is the sum of the enthalpies of any path into which the reaction may be divided at the same temperature and pressure.

Thermodynamics I

21

i.e. the change in enthalpy is independent of the path followed. For this reason, enthalpy, like internal energy, is also a state function, a quantity whose value is determined only by the state of the system in question. Figure 2.4 shows an example of the application of Hess’s Law. Consider the combustion of carbon (graphite) in oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide. COz(,, can be formed in two ways: (a) direct combination of elemental carbon with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, or (b) in two stages, first the combustion of carbon in oxygen to form carbon monoxide, CO,,), followed by the burning of CO,,) in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. If A H is measured for both pathways, it is found that each pathway involves the same quantity of heat at constant pressure. This is always true for any chemical reaction.

Direct Pathway

-

AH -393.5 H mol-’

2-Step Pathway

Step I : AH

= -1 10.5 kl mol-’

Figure 2.4 Application of Hem’s Law

In the above example, the sum of the A H values of the two-step pathway is equal to the value of A H for the direct reaction, i.e. (- 110.5) + (-283.0) = -393.5 kJ mol-*. Working Method on Hess’s Law Type Problems

The following working method is a step-by-step procedure on how to determine AH,,, using Hess’s Law.

22

Chapter 2

1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify all the species involved, i.e. the reactants, the products and their states, i.e. are they in the solid (s), liquid (1) or gaseous (g) phase? Remember also that hydrocarbons (compounds containing hydrogen and carbon only, such as CH4, C2H6 etc.) burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water: e.g.

CH4(g) + 202,g) C02(g) + 2H20(1); C2H6(g) 3.502(g) 2co2(g) + 3H20(1). Write a chemical equation for the reaction in question, and balance it. Identify the data given in the question, and write any corresponding formation reactions of the species from their component elements. Identify the unknown in the question, e.g. AH:xn, AH:, etc. Examine each of the equations in step 4, and re-arrange them so that the reactants and products required in step 5 are on the same side as those in step 3. However, if the direction of a reaction is changed, the sign of A H also changes. Now add the reactions, and find the sum of their enthalpies, by applying Hess's Law, i.e. if a reaction is the sum of two or more reactions, then AH,,, = AH( 1) AH(2) . . . etc. Answer any riders to the question. +

+

3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

+

8.

+

WORKED EXAMPLE USING THE WORKING METHOD OF HESS'S LAW Example: Use Hess's Law to determine the standard enthalpy of combustion of methane (natural gas), CH4(g),given the following data: AH,"(CO,(,)) = -393.51 kJ mol-', AH,"(H20(1))= -285.83 kJ mol-' and AH;(CH4(g,) = -74.81 kJ mol-'. 1 . Read the question carefully4ombustion is involved, and all the data given refer to standard enthalpies of fonnation! 2. Identify the species involved (remember hydrocarbons burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water-don 'tforget this!):

CHqg), 02(g), C02(g)and H20(1). 3. Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion reaction: CHq,) + 02(g) + C02(,) + H20(1) . . . not yet balanced! CHqg) + 202(,) + C021,) + 2H20(1) . . . balanced!

Thermodynamics I

23

4. Identify the data given in the question, and write any corresponding formation reactions of the species from their component elements: AH,"(C02,g))= -393.51 kJ (a) C(,) + 0 2 ( g ) + C02(,) (b) 2Hqg) + Oqg)+ 2H20(1) AH,"(H20(1)) = (2 x -285.83) = - 571.66 kJ mol(c) C(,) + 2Hqg) + CHqg) AH,"(CHqg))= -74.81 kJ 5. Identify the unknown in the question. CHqg) + 202(g) CO2(g) + 2H20(1) AHRn = AH: 6. Examine each of the three equations in step 4, and re-arrange them, such that the reactants and products required in step 5 are on the same side as those in step 3. However, if the direction of a reaction is changed, the sign of AH" also changes. AH;(C02(gl) = -393.51 kJ (a) C(,) + 0 2 ( g ) CO2,,) No problem here, as COz(,) is on the right-hand side. (b) 2Hqg) + Oqg)+ 2H20(1) AH;(H20(1)) = -571.66 kJ Neither is there a problem here, as H,O(,) is also on the righthand side, and the stoichiometry is correct (i.e. 2), so AH" does not have to be changed. (c) C(,>+ 2Hqg) + CHq,) AH,"(CHqg))= -74.81 kJ In this equation, CH,,,) should be on the left-hand side. Hence, if the direction of the reaction is changed, the sign of AH; also changes. Hence: (c)CHqg) -+ C(s) + 2H2,,) AH;(CH4(g)) = +74.81 kJ 7. Now add the three reactions, and find the sum of their enthalpies: (a) $(,) + 0 2 ( g ) C02(,) AH,"(CO2(g))= -393.51 kJ (b) 2$fqg)+ Oqg)+ 2H200) AH;(H20(,)) = -571.66 kJ (c) CH4(g) $(s) + 2g2(g) AH;(cH,g)) = +74.81 kJ +

-+

+

+

( 4 CHqg) + 202(g) C02(g) + 2H20(1) AH:x, = AH: = (-393.51) + (-571.83) + (+74.81) = - 890.36 kJ mol- '. The value of AH: means that when methane is burned in a stream of oxygen gas, 890.36 kJ mol-' of heat is given out. This is an example of an exothermic reaction, since AH;xn is negative. This will be discussed further in Chapter 3. +

Chapter 3

Thermodynamics 11: Enthalpy, Heat Capacity, Entropy, the Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics, and Gibbs Free Energy

INTRODUCTION

1. Enthalpy:

Thermodvnamics - Chapter 3

5 , Second

and Third

H-U+pV

Laws of Thermodynamics

7. Long Questions

6. Multiple-Choice Quiz

4. Gibbs

Free Energy: G

=

H - TS

Figure 3.1 Summary of the contents of Chapter 3

ENTHALPY, H At constant pressure p , for a system with internal energy U and volume V , the enthalpy is defined as, H = U + p V . The change in enthalpy, A H , is then expressed as A H = A U P AV . From Chapter

+

Thermodynamics II

25

2, we know that the internal energy of a system can be expressed as: AU=q+w+q=AU-w+q=AU+pAV. This means that q (or more precisely, qp, at constant pressure) is the change in enthalpy, AH. Change in Enthalpy, AH The amount of heat, qp, exchanged when the work done by the system is expansion work at constant pressure is termed AH, the change in enthalpy (AH = q p ) AH = Hfinal - Hinitial = (Ufinal PVfina1)(Uinitial +pViniti,l). Since the pressure is a constant, AH = (UfinalUinitial) + P( Vfinal - Vinitial) = AU + PA V , where PA V is related to AugRT, from the equation of state of an ideal gas, Chapter 1 (pAV = AugRT), where Avg = change in the coefficients of gaseous reagents,

*

+

i.e. Aug = C[u(Gaseousproducts)] - C[u(Gaseousreactants)]

For example, in the reaction, C ~ H Q )+ 3.502,,) -+3H,O,l) + 2C02,,,, Aug = (2) - (3.5 + 1) = -2.5. If the system is at both constant pressure and constant volume (A V = 0), AH = AU +PA V = A U.

+

+

Summary: AH = A U PA V = A U AugRT at constant pressure; AH= AU at constant volume, since AV = 0.

Under standard state conditions, i.e. 1 bar pressure and 25 "C (298 K), A H = AH". AH:, can be easily determined, using the expression: I

I ATxn

=

C [ A q (Products)] - C [ A q (Reactants)]

I

i.e. for the reaction, UAA+ u B B + u& + vDD, where U A , uB, vc and U D are the stoichiometry factors, AHRn = [ ( v c A H ~ , ) ) (uDAH;(~))] - [hAH)(A))+ (mAH;iB))I-

+

Changes in the Enthalpy of an Element The standard molar enthalpy of formation of an element in its most stable state (solid, liquid or gas) is zero, since the formation of an

26

Chapter 3

element from itself is not a reaction. Hence, AH; (element) AH0(02(g))= 0, AHo(Ag(s)) = 0, etc.

=

I AH;(element)

=

0

0, e.g.

I

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions The sign of A H indicates whether a reaction is exothermic (heat given out, A H -ve) or endothermic (heat taken in, A H + ve). For example, in the reactionC(,) + 02(g)-+ CO,,,), AH:x, is equal to -393.5 kJ mol-'. Since AH;, is negative, this means that heat is given out in this reaction, and hence the burning of coal is an exothermic reaction.

I A H -ve exothermic reaction;

AH

+ ve endothermic reaction

I

Example Example: Determine the standard heat of combustion of the sugar, sucrose (C12H2201I(s)), to form C02(g) and H20(1), given that AHF(C12H22011(s))= -2219 kJ mol-', AH;(C02(g)) = -393.5 kJ mol- and AHF(H20(1)) = - 285.8 kJ mol-'. Solution:

1. Identify the species ~ r e s e n t 4 ~ 2 H ~C02(g), ~ O ~ H,O(l) and 02(g), since combustion means burning in oxygen gas! 2. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction: + 02(g, C02(,) + H200). . . not yet balanced! C12H22011(s) l(s) + 1202(g, --+ 12C02(g)+ 11H20(,). . . now balanced! C12H2201 3. Ensure that all units are the same (all kJ mol-') so can proceed to step 4. 4. Apply the formula: AH; = C[AH;(Products)] - C[AHF(Reactants)] -+

+

[12AH;(c02(g)) llnH;(H20(1))] - [lAHfO(C12H22011(s)) 12Af-q ( 0 2 ( g ) 11* 5. Check to see whether any of the species are elements. If so, AH; = 0. Oxygen is an element, hence AH;(OZ(~))= 0. =

+

Thermodynamics 11

27

6. Substitute the values, including the stoichiometry factors: AH: = ('12 x (-393.5) + 1 1 x (-285.8)]) - ([I x (-2219) + 12 x (O)]) = - 5646.8 kJ mol-

'.

Answer: AH,"= -5646.8 kJmol-'

HEAT CAPACITY The heat capacity of a body, C, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of that body by 1 kelvin. The spec@ heat capacity, c, is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a In general, body by 1 kelvin, i.e. C = c x molar mass (M). heat lost or gained = mass x specific heat capacity x change in temperature of a body, i.e. q = rncAT, from which c = q/(mAT). Summary: Heat capacity Specific heat capacity

C = q/AT q/(mAT)

c =

JK-' J g-' K -

'

Therefore, Cm,pis the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of I mole of a substance by 1 K, at constant pressure, and Cm,vis the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of I mole of a substance by 1 K , at constant volume. From this, two important equations can be derived:

+

I . At constant pressure: A U = qp wP. But, the work done by the system on the surroundings (expansion work) at constant pressure is -PA V , as shown in Chapter 2. + A U = qp - p A V + qp = AU+pAV= A H . But, since qp = nCm,pAT, this must equal A H , i.e. qp = A H = nCm,pAT. 2. At constant volume and constant pressure:AH= AU+pA V = A U , since A V = 0. Hence, qv = nCm,vAT= AU. Summary: 1. At constant pressure: qp = A H = nCm,,AT 2. At constant volume: qv = AU = nC,,"AT

No. I ; When a flask containing 500 g of water is heated, the temperature of the water increases from 25 "C to 75 "C. Determine the amount of heat the water absorbs, given that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.184 J g- K-

'

28

Chapter 3

Solution: = mcAT = mc(Tfina1 - Tinitial) = (500 x 4.184) x (348-298) = 104600 J = 104.6 kJ. Notice that the sign of q is +ve. This means that the water has absorbed heat.

1 Example No. 2: Show that for an ideal gas, Cm,p

=

Cm,v

+R

1

Proo$ At constant pressure: A H = AU + pAV + nCm,,AT = nCm,vAT + pAV = nCm,,AT + nRAT, since from the equation of state of an ideal gas, PA V = nRAT. But, for 1 mole of an ideal gas, n = 1. + (l)Cm,pAT = (l)Cm,vAT + (1)RAT. Then, dividing across by AT, Cm,p = Cm,v + R. In the above expression, Cm,p has to be greater than Cm,v, since a certain amount of heat is needed to increase the temperature at constant volume. However, at constant pressure, more heat is required to raise the temperature and do the work, expanding the volume of the gas (Chapter l-Charles' Law: V oc T, for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure).

Example on Heat Capacities Example: C (Au) = 25.4 J K-' mol-' and Cm,p(HzO) = 75.3 J K-' mol-"iP. If a gold stud initially at a room temperature of 25 "C is dropped into 12 g of water at 8 "C, the final temperature of the water reaches 13 "C.Given that the molar masses of Au, H and 0 are 197, 1 and 16 g molrespectively, determine the mass of the stud. Solution:

1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify the data: M(H20) = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g mol-'; M(Au) = 197 g mol-'; 12 g of H20 C,,p(Au) = 25.4 J K-' mol-'; Cm,,(H20) = 75.3 J K-' mol-'; Tinitial(Au) (K) = T("C)+ 273 = (25 + 273) K = 298 K; Tfin,l(Au) (K) = (13 + 273) K = 286 K; Tinitial(H20) (K) = (8 + 273) = 281 K; Tfinal(HZO)(K) = (13 + 273) = 286 K.

Thermodynamics 11

29

3. Draw a simple diagram to visualise the problem:

4. Write down the appropriate equations: Mass (in g) m = nM; Cm,p = qp/(nAT) 5. Substitute the values: Au: qp = n(Au)Cm,,(Au)AC H20: qp = n(H20)Cm,p(H20)AT, wheren = m / M . 6. Manipulate the equations: heat lost by Au = heat gained by H20 i.e. n(Au)Cm,p(Au)AT = n(H20)Cm,p(H20)A T 3 - [(m/197) x 25.4 x (286 - 298)] = + [(12/18) x (75.3) x (286 - 281)] Note the signs on both sides: heat loss is - ve and heat gain is -k ve. r ~ = m [(75.3 x 5 x 197 x 12)/(25.4 x 12 x 18)] = 162.2g. Answer: Mass = 162.2g

ENTROPY, S, AND CHANGE IN ENTROPY, A S Entropy, S, is a measure of the disorder of a system. In Chapter 1, the three states of matter-solid, liquid and gas-were introduced. As you change from the highly regular and ordered solid state to the disordered gaseous state, the disorder or entropy, S, increases (Figure 3.2).

(a) Solid (s)

(b) Liquid (1)

Increasing disorder or entropy, S

Figure 3.2 Entropy, S

( c ) Gas (g)

30

Chapter 3

Consider the situation in a lecture theatre, when the lecturer leaves for 10 minutes. What is the result? Chaos and disorder! The class will not maintain the same order as that assumed when the lecturer is present! Such an analogy is basically the Second Law of Thermodynamics, i.e. the entropy or disorder, S, of the universe tends to a maximum (i.e. chaos). The first two laws of thermodynamics (Law of Conservation of Energy and the tendency for the entropy of the universe to increase to a maximum) can be summarised as follows:

First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics: The energy of the universe is constant (First Law) and the entropy, S, of the universe tends to a maximum (Second Law). Consider the following three examples: (a) N203(g)+ NO(,) + NOz(,). Here, 1 mole of gas 2 moles of gas. Hence, the disorder has increased, i.e. A S is + ve. (b) NH3(,) + HCl,,, + NH4C1,,). Here there is a change of state from the highly disordered gaseous state to the more ordered crystalline solid state. Hence, the disorder has decreased, i.e. A S is -ve. (c) H20(s) + H200). A liquid is more disordered than a solid; hence, AS is + ve for this reaction. AS is defined as the change in entropy. A T (at standard state conditions) can be determined in the same way as AH" is evaluated: --.)

I ASo

= C[S"(Products)] - C[S"(Reactants)]

I

The Third Law of Thermodynamics At 0 K, the vibrational motion of a molecule is at a minimum, and in a pure crystalline solid, with no defects, the entropy or disorder, S, of the crystal at this temperature is actually zero. This is the Third Law of Thermodynamics.

Third Law of Thermodynamics: At absolute zero (i.e. 0 K or -273 "C),the entropy, S, or disorder of a perfect crystalline substance is zero. This concept is shown in Figure 3.3.

Thermodynamics II

31

***** *** *w** ***a@ **** ***a@ (a)T=O K

(b) 1’> 0 K

Figure 3.3 ( a ) A perfect crystalline solid, AB, at 0 K ( S = 0), and ( b ) at above 0 K , when the molecules start to vibrate. The regular array now becomes slightly disordered, i.e. S increases. This is an illustration of the Third Law of Thermodynamics

GIBBS FREE ENERGY, G, AND CHANGE IN GIBBS FREE ENERGY, AG

AH and AS can be combined to give another state function, AG, which is the change in Gibbs Free Energy. G, the Gibbs Free Energy, is defined as:

I

Gibbs Free Energy: G

=

H

-

TS (remembered by Gibbs HaTS)

I

AG is a measure of the spontaneity of a reaction, i.e. AG -ve for a spontaneous reaction; AG + ve for a non-spontaneous reaction; AG = 0 for a reaction at equilibrium (discussed in Chapter 4)

As AH and AS can assume both + ve and -ve values, this generates four possible combinations: AG = AH - TAS 1. AH +ve and AS -ve =$ AG +ve, i.e. non-spontaneous at all temperatures. 2. AH -ve and AS +ve j AG -ve, i.e. spontaneous at all temperatures. 3. The other two combinations, A H +ve/AS +ve and A H -ve/AS -ve respectively, are temperature dependent. AH +ve and AS +ve (a) low T j TAS small =$ AG +ve, i.e.

Chapter 3

32

non-spontaneous at low temperature; (b) high T 3 AG -ve, i.e. spontaneous at high temperature. 4. A H -ve and A S -ve (a) low T TAS small + AG -ve, i.e. spontaneous at low temperature; (b) high T + AG +ve, i.e. non-spontaneous at high temperature. This is illustrated in Figure 3.4.

AG +ve

Non-spontaneous

0

Spontaneous

AG -ve

Temperature, T (K) Figure3.4 The dependence of AG and the spontaneity of a reaction on temperature, showing the four possible combinations of A H and AS respectively

AGO can be easily calculated, using the expression:

I AGK,

= C[AG;(Products)]

Note: AG; (element) = 0.

- x[AG;(Reactants)]

I

Thermodynamics II

33

WORKING METHOD FOR THE CALCULATION OF AG TYPE PROBLEMS A common problem on examination papers is, when given a set of AH" and So data, you are asked to evaluate AGR,. The following working method describes a skeleton step-by-step outline on how to approach such a problem. 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify the species involved (the reactants and the products) and identify their states, i.e. (*) = (s), (1) or (g). 3. Write down a balanced chemical equation, with the states indicated, i.e. vAA(+)+ VBB(+)--+ v&+) + nDD(*), where V A , vB, vc and v D , are the stoichiometry factors. 4. Determine AH;xn = [ ( vc x AH;(,,) ( V D x AH;(,,,)] [(VA xAH;(A)) (vg x AH&,))], i.e. AH&, = C[AH;(Products)] - C[AH;(Reactants)]. Remember AH;(element) = 0, and do not forget the units. 5 . Determine ASK,, in a similar fashion: ASR, = C[S"(Products)] - C[S"(Reactants)], but S"(e1ement) is not equal to O! Write down the units of AS". 6. Determine the temperature, T in K. Remember T(K) = [T("C)+ 2731 K. 7. Convert AH" and AS" to the same system of units, i.e. AH" in J mol-' and AS" in J K-' mol-' or AH" in kJ mol-' and AS" in kJ K - * mol-'. 8. Determine the value of AGO, using the equation AGO = AH" - TAS", i.e. 'Gibbs HaTS'! 9. Answer any riders to the question. For example: AH" -ve, exothermic reaction; AH" + ve, endothermic reaction; AS" - ve, decrease in the entropy or the disorder of the reaction; A S ' + ve, increase in the entropy or the disorder of the reaction; AGO - ve, spontaneous reaction; AGO + ve, non-spontaneous reaction; AG = 0 reaction at equilibrium (explained in Chapter 4), where K is defined as the equilibrium constant. 10. At equilibrium,

+

+

1

AG = AGO + RTlnK= 0

I

+ 1nK = -AG"/(RT).

34

Chapter 3

WORKED EXAMPLE Example: Determine AGO for the reaction of N2(,) and H2(g)to form NH,,,), given the following data. Comment on the sign of AGO.

'

AHfO/kJmolSo/JK-' mol-'

N2(g) 0 191.61

HW 0 130.684

W3(g)

-46.1 1 192.45

Solution:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Read the question carefully. Species involved: Nz(~), H2(,) and NH3(,). Balanced chemical equation: 0.5N2(,) + 1.5H2(,) -+NH3(,). AHg, = [1 x ( -46.1 1)] - [O. 5 x (0) + 1.5 x (O)] = -46.1 1 kJ mol - . ASR, = [l x (192.45)] - [0.5 x (191.61) + 1.5 x (130.684)] = -99.381 J K-' mol-'. 6. AGO = AHo - TAS" = (-46 110) - [(298) x (-99.381)] = - 16494.462J mol-' = -16.49 kJ mol-'. 7. AGO -ve + spontaneous reaction.

'

SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS 2 AND 3 ON CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS The multiple-choice test and the accompanying three longer questions which follow act as a revision of both Chapters 2 and 3 on thermodynamics.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST 1. A gas expands from a volume of 2.5 dm3 to 3.7 dm3 against an external pressure of 1.5 bar, while absorbing 78 J of heat. What is the change in the internal energy of the gas (in joules), given that 1 dm3 bar = 99.98 J? (a) + 198.0 (b) +258.0 (c) -101.96 (d) -258.0 2. Which of the following four combinations guarantees that a reaction will proceed spontaneously:

Thermodynamics 11

35

(a) A H +ve, A S -ve (b) A H -ve, A S +ve (c) A H +ve, A S +ve (d) A H -ve, A S -ve 3. How many of the following equations are incorrect? AU=nCm,,AT AG=RllnK, AU=AH+pAVAH=nC&AT (a) All four (b) three (c) two (d) one 4. Given that for NH3, AHtap = 23.3 kJ mol-' and AS;,, = 92.2 J K-' mol-', what is the boiling point of NH3 in K? (a) 21 (b) 525 (c) 293 (d) 253 5. Given that AH,"(FeC12(s)) = -341.8 kJ mol-' and AH;(FeCl3(,)) = -399.49 kJ mol-', what is AH;, (in kJ mol- ') for the reaction: FeCl,,,) + 0.5Cl,,,) 4 FeCl,,,)? (a) -57.7 (b) +714.3 (c) +57.7 (d) 0 LONG QUESTIONS ON CHAPTERS 2 AND 3 1. Use Hess's Law to determine AH;,, for the burning of ethanol to form carbon dioxide and water, given the following data: AH,"(C02(g)) = AH;(CH3CH20H(l$ = - 277.7 kJ mol- 393.51 kJ mol- and AH;(H20(,)) = - 285.83 kJ mol2. Determine AG;m for the reaction CHqg)+ N2(g)-+HCN(g) + NH3(g) from the followingdata: CH,, N2W HCNW M 3 ( g ) AH,"/kJmol-' -74.81 0 135 -46.1 1 So/JK-' mol-' 186.15 191.5 201.7 192.3 Comment on the significance of the value of AGK,. 3. Calculate AGR, for the oxidation of B(sl to B203(g, given the following data:

',

'

'

ow

%)

B203(s)

AH,"/kJ mol0 0 - 1272.8 ASo/JK-' mol-' 205.03 5.86 53.97 Comment on the significanceof the value of AGkn.

'.

Chapter 4

Equilibrium I: Introduction to Equilibrium and Le Chitelier’s Principle

INTRODUCTION

When reactants combine in a chemical reaction to form products, the conversion of reactants to products is often incomplete, no matter how long the reaction is allowed to continue. In the initial state, the reactants are present at a definite concentration. As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of reactants decreases and after a certain time, t , the concentrations of the reactants level off and become

Concentrationhl

Timds Figure 4.1 Concentration of reactants and products as a function of time for the reaction A B C + D

+

Equilibrium I

37

constant (Figure 4.1). A state of equilibrium is established when the concentrations of reactants (in this example, [A] and [B]) and of products ([C] and PI)remain constant. At this point, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. Once the state of equilibrium is established, it will persist indefinitely, if the system is undisturbed. Definition of Equilibrium: Equilibrium is defined as a state of dynamic balance when two opposing reactions occur at the same time and the same rate. i.e. Rate of forward reaction = rate of backward reaction.

THE LAW OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Every chemical reaction has its own state of equilibrium, in which there is a definite relationship between the concentrations of reactants and products in the reaction. If the conditions of the reaction are varied (e.g. if different initial concentrations are used), the concentrations at equilibrium will be changed, but will still assume a constant value. If the concentrations at equilibrium are expressed in mol dm-3 (M), there is a single expression which holds for all experimental conditions for a given reaction. For example, for the reaction, A + B C + D, at equilibrium:

*

Kc = [cl[D1 where Kc is termed the equilibrium constant and is [A1 PI ’ characteristic of a given reaction. In general, for the reaction: vAA + VBB+ VCC+ VDD, where V A ,V B , vc and V D now represent the stoichiometry factors,

i.e. of the form ‘products/reactants’. For the reaction

38

Chapter 4

Partial Pressures When gases are involved in a reaction, the partial pressure of each gas has to be considered. For the general reaction

where p is the partial pressure of the gas and pc is the standard pressure. Kp denotes the equilibrium constant obtained by using the partial pressures of the gases, instead of their concentrations. For this reason, Kp is always dimensionless, as all pressures are divided by the standard pressure. This is implicit in the definition of the standard Gibbs free energy change, AGO. Therefore, the above equation can be expressed in a more convenient form as

where p(A)‘ = p(A)/p+,p(B)‘ =p(B)/p+, etc.

For simplicity, the prime will be dropped in subsequent equations involving partial pressures, but it is always implied. For example, for the reaction involving the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process,

But, Kp is related to Kc: for the reaction

But, from Chapter 1, the equation of state of an ideal gas is defined as:

Equilibrium I

39

pV=nRT =+ p = (nRT)/V, where n = amount of gas (expressed in moles)

since concentration [ X = (nx/ V x ) is expressed as the number of moles per cubic decimetre.

+

K,,

=

K,(RT)*"

where Aug = change in the coefficients of gaseous reagents i.e. ug (gaseous products) - ug (gaseous reactants).

I

This is a very important relationship, which relates Kp to K,. Do not, however, mix up the order; this can be remembered by PC-'political correctness' (not the other way around!). Note: While the units of & are always derived from the equations as stated previously, e.g.:

i.e. M ~ / ( M M )=+ no units;

i.e. M2/(MM3) =+ units of M-2;

Kp is always dimensionless, as all pressures are divided by the standard pressure, e.g. in the latter reaction:

i.e. (bar/bar)2/(bar/bar)1(bar/bar)3 =$ dimensionless!

R

Since the partial pressures of gases are normally expressed in bars, = 0.08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-I should always be used in Kp

40

Chapter 4

problems, and not R = 8.314 J K-' mol-', e.g. for the reaction 2NOCl,,) + Cl2(,)

+ 2NO(,)

+ K p = K, (RqA''g

=

K,

=

(3.75 x

3.75 x

at 1069 K

x ((0,08314 dm3 bar K-' mol-')

x (1069K))',

Au = (1 + 2) - (2) Hence, K p = 3.33 x

=

1, where K p

=

(p(C12)' P ( N O ) ~ } / ~ ( N O C ~ ) ~ .

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria (a) Homogeneous equilibrium.-This is an equilibrium involving all species in the one phase, e.g. all gases, such as N2(g) + 3H2(,) + 2NH3,g). (b) Heterogeneous equi1ibrium.This is an equilibrium when more than one phase is involved in the process, e.g. if calcium carbonate (limestone or marble) is heated, carbon dioxide gas is evolved [which can be detected by bubbling it through calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 (limewater), which turns milky], i.e. CaC03(,)+ HEAT + CaO(,) + C 0 2 ( g ) .Two phases are involved here, the solid phase and the gaseous phase, and hence this is an example of a heterogeneous equilibrium reaction, where K , = ([CaO(,)][C02(,)])/[CaC03(,)]. But since the concentration of a solid is constant, this means K, = [C02(,)] and K p = p(C02). In fact, concentrations and pressures are approximations of the activity, a, of a substance, and the activity of a pure = 1. solid or pure liquid is unity, e.g. H,Oe), K, = [H20(g)], since the For the equilibrium H20(1) activity a of pure H,O(,) = 1 and Kp = p(H20).

*

WORKING METHOD FOR THE SOLUTION OF STANDARD EQUILIBRIUM TYPE PROBLEMS 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify all species involved, including their states, i.e. are they (s), (1) or (g)? Identify the type of equilibrium, i.e. homogeneous or heterogeneous equilibrium. Remember the activity, a, of a solid or pure liquid is unity. 3. Write down the balanced chemical equation, with all states included. This may not necessarily be given in the question. This is the most important step in any equilibrium problem, as it dictates the expression for K, and subsequent equilibrium

Equilibrium I

41

concentrations. Hence, it is essential that the equation is correct, with the appropriate stoichiometry factors, uA, uB, uc, uD,etc. 4. Having checked that the equation is completely balanced in step 3, write down an expression for the equilibrium constant for the reaction of the form, K , = products/reactants. i.e. for the reaction v A A + uBB S ucC + vDD, K, = [C]uc [D]””/[A]vA [B]””. 5. If gases are involved, write down an expression for Kp:

and relate Kp to &, by determining the change in the coefficents of gaseous reagants! i.e. Au = u (gaseous products) - u (gaseous reactants) K~ = K,(RT)*” Remember the order: PC- ‘political correctness’! 6. Convert any concentrations to mol dmW3( M ) , etc. Create a table of the initial and final concentrations at equilibrium, letting x = the change in concentration. This is related to the stoichiometry factors, uA, vB, vc,etc. For example, in the reaction: Initial conc./M Change Final conc./M

N2(g) 0.12

+

-3x

--x

0.12

A

3*2,, 0.25

-

x

0.25

-

3~

2NH3(,, 0

+ 2x + 2x

0

7. Substitute the final equilibrium concentrations into the expression for K , (step 4), and solve for x. 8. If the change (i.e. x ) is assumed to be considerably less than the initial concentration, this can be neglected. If x is then found to be < 5 % of the initial concentration, the assumption made is valid. If not, a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 -b f I/2a 9. Determine the final equilibrium concentrations. 10. State the units of K,. Remember also that Kp is dimensionless. may need to be solved, with solution, x =

42

Chapter 4

EXAMPLES Example No. I : Determine the concentration of all species at equilibrium at 973 K, when 2 moles of 02(g)m in 4.0 dm3 are mixed with 2.25 moles of N2(g)in 3.0 dm3, according to the equilibrium + N2(,) .C 2NO(,), given that Kc = 4.13 x lo-’. Is reaction: 02(,) this an example of a homogeneous or a heterogeneous equilibrium? Evaluate Kp, given that R = 0.08314 dm3 bar IC-’mol-’. 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify the species involved: 02(g), N2(g)and NO(,). All species are in the gaseous phase; therefore this is a homogeneous equilibrium (one single phase). 3. The balanced chemical equation is already given in the question: 02(g)

+ N2(g)

2NO(,).

4. K, = ~ O I ~ / { [ N ~ ~=[ O 4.13 , ~ )x lo-’. 5. Kp = p(N0)2/(p(N2)p(02)} = K , (RT)*”,where Av = (2) - (2) = 0. Hence Kp =K,(RT)O = 4.13 x lo-’, since from the rules of

indices, xo = 1. 6. Initial concentration of O ~ ( S=>2 mol in 4.0 dm3 + 0.5 mol in 1 dm3, i.e. 0.5 M Initial concentration of N2(,) = 2.25 mol in 3.0 dm3 + 0.75 mol in 1 dm3, i.e. 0.75 M

2

02(t3)

Initial conc./M Change Final conc./M

0.5

0.75

--x

0.5

+

-X

-x

0.75

-X

2NO(f3) 0

+ 2x + 2x

0

7. K,=~O]2/{[N2J[02]}= 4 . 1 3 ~ (2~)~/{(0.5 -x)(0.75 - x ) } . 8. Since K, 'P(H~)~I. This is an exothermic reaction, i.e. AH" is -ve. A G = AGO + RTln Kp At equilibrium, A G = 0 +- lnKp = (-AG")/(RT) = (-AH"/RT) + (TAS"/RT), since AGO = AH" - TAS". Hence, cancelling Tin the second term, the expression rearranges to: In Kp = ( -AH"/RT) + (ASo/R). Therefore, if the temperature is increased, the (- A H " / R r ) term is decreased (since AH" is -ve for an exothermic reaction), and so Kp = P ( N H ~ ) ~ / ( P ( N ~ ) ' P ( H is~decreased, )~} i.e. if the temperature is increased, the system can absorb heat by the dissociation of NH3(,) into N2(g)and Hz(~).Hence, K p will be decreased, i.e. the reaction shifts in an endothermic direction to the left, as predicted by Le Chiitelier's Principle. Similarly, for the abovti reaction, if the temperature is decreased, Kp is increased and the equilibrium shifts to the right. (b)

*

N2(g) + 0 2 ( g ) 2NO(,), Kp = P (NW2/(P"2)P (02)) This is an endothermic reaction, i.e. AH" is +ve. At equilibrium, In Kp = ( -AH"/RT) + ( A S o / R )as , above. Therefore, if the temperature is increased, the (- AH"/RT) term is increased (made less negative, since AH" is +ve), and so Kp = ~ ( N O ) ~ / ( p ( N ~ ) p ( 0is 2 )increased. ) The equilibrium then shifts to the right. If Tis decreased the equilibrium shifts to the left. Changes in Pressure

Consider the reaction

N(,)+ 3H2(,2 + 2NH3(,), K~ = p w 3 ) I ( P ( W P ( H ~ ) ~ ) . If the pressure of an equilibrium mixture of N2(g),H2(,) and NH3(,>is

Chapter 4

46

increased, there is a shift in the position of equilibrium in the direction that tends to reduce the pressure as predicted by Le Chiitelier. From the equation of state of an ideal gas, pY = AnRT, i.e. p = ( A n / V ) R T . Therefore p oc A n For a reduction in pressure to occur, n must decrease. Therefore, the total number of molecules must decrease. This is done by shifting the position of equilibrium from left to right, i.e. four gaseous molecules to two gaseous molecules. It must be emphasised here that although the position of equilibrium shifts to the right, the value of the equilibrium constant does not change. Conversely, if the pressure is decreased, the equilibrium shifts to the left. In the case of changes in temperature, the value of Kc does change. Changes in Concentration BiC13(aq)is a cloudy solution due to a hydrolysis reaction (reaction with water): BiCl,,,,) + H200) F-= BiOCI,,) + 2HCl(aq,. If some concentrated hydrochloric acid is added, the position of equilibrium shifts in the direction that will absorb the acid, i.e. from right to left. Therefore the hydrolysis reaction is considerably decreased resulting in the formation of a clear solution. However, the solution does not absorb all the acid.

Effect of a Catalyst on Equilibrium A catalyst is a reagent which accelerates or retards (anti-catalyst) the rate of a chemical reaction, but is not itself consumed in the reaction, and it has no effect on the equilibrium concentration or the value of the equilibrium constant. An iron catalyst is used in the Haber process, used to manufacture ammonia according to the equation: N2(g) + 3H,,,) 2NH3(g),K p = P ( N H ~ ) ~ / ( P ( N ~ ) ' P ( HHere ~ ) ~ }the . role of the catalyst is to make the reaction attain equilibrium more rapidly at the relatively low temperature employed (400-600 "C).

*

SUMMARY The most important feature of this chapter is the working method for solving simple equilibrium type problems. Two important equations should be memorised: Kp = Kc(RT)A"#and A G = AGO + RTln Kp, where at equilibrium AG = 0.

Chapter 5

Equilibrium 11: Aqueous Solution Equilibria

ACIDS AND BASES

A Brsnsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor (H+). Ionic dissociation is the breaking up of a reactant to form a cation and an anion. There are two types of acid. A strong acid is an acid which dissociates compfetely (100%) in solution, i.e. HA + H20, + H 3 0 + + A-, where H 3 0-t represents the hydronium cation (simply water with an added proton). An example of a strong acid is H N 0 3 , since H N 0 3 + H 2 0 -+ H 3 0 + + NO,. Table 5.1 provides other examples of strong acids. Since strong acids are dissociated completely in solution, the reverse reaction does not occur and hence an equilibrium is not established. Therefore, a forward arrow is used to illustrate the reaction. A weak acid is an acid which does not dissociate completely in solution, and hence has an equilibrium condition, i.e. HA + H20 + H 3 0 + + A-, where Ka = {[H30'][A-]}/[HA], since the activity, Q, of a pure liquid (water) is unity, as described in Chapter 4. Ka represents the equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid. Examples of weak acids are organic acids containing the carboxylic acid functional group RC02H (R = alkyl group), e.g. CH3CO2H + H20 .P CH~COT+ H3O+, where Ka = ([CH3C02-] [H30+]}/[CH3C02H]. A base is defined as a proton acceptor or a producer of OH- ions. There are two types of base. Strong bases, such as NaOH, KOH etc., dissociate completely in solution, according to the reaction MOH + M + + OH-. Weak buses, such as ammonia and the amines, e.g. NH3, CH3NH2, do not dissociate 100% completely and so they exist in, equilibrium, e.g. CH3NH2 + H20 CH3NH3+ + OH-,

*

Chapter 5

48

where Kb = ([CH3NH3+][OH-])/[CH3NH2] is the equilibrium constant for base dissociation. Table 5.1 summarises some common strong and weak acids and bases, which need to be identified in problems (R = an alkyl group e.g. CH3, CH3CH2 etc.) Table 5.1 Some examples of strong and weak acids and bases Strong acids: Weak acids: Strong bases: Weak bases:

1. HCl 1. HN02

1. NaOH 1 . NH3

2. H N 0 3 3. HC104 4. H2S04 2. HC102 3. Carboxylic acids: RC02H 2. KOH 2. Amines: 1" (RNH2), 2" (RzNH), 3" (R3N)

COMMON ION EFFECT A common ion is an ion (charged species) common to two substances in the same mixture, e.g. in a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3C02H and sodium ethanoate, CH3C02Na, the common ion is the ethanoate anion, CH3CO:. The common ion effect occurs when the presence of extra (common) ions in the solution represses or restrains the dissociation of a species. To explain this, consider the following example: Example: A solution is prepared by adding 0.6 moles of sodium ethanoate, CH3C02Na,and 0.8 moles of ethanoic acid, CH3C02H, to water, to make up 1 dm3. Determine the concentration of all at 25 "C. solute species, given that Ka(CH3C02H) = 1.8 x Solution: To solve this problem, the working method of Chapter 4 is applied. 1. Read the question Carefully-K, problem! 2. Species present in solution: CH3C02Na(,,), CH3CO,H(,,) and the corresponding ions (step 3 below). 3. (a) CH3C02Na(,,) is a salt and undergoes 100% dissociation into its anion and cation, CH3C02Na(,,) + Na+(,,) + CH,CO,(aq), i.e. the equilibrium lies completely to the ionic products! (b) CH3C02H(,,) is a weak acid. Weak acids do not dissociate completely into anions and cations. Hence, the reaction is at equilibrium, i.e. CH3C02H + H20 + CH3C0; + H 3 0 + . In this solution, both reactions (a) and (b) occur simultaneously, and so both must be considered when calculating the

Equilibrium 11

49

concentration of CH3C02, since each reaction acts as a source of CH3CO$ ions. 4. (a) Initial Final

CH3C02Na(aq) 0.6 0

Na+(aq) 0 0.6

+

CH3CO,(aq) 0

0.6

At the end of the reaction, nothing remains of the salt, since 100% dissociation of CH3C02Na has occurred! Therefore, from the dissociation of sodium ethanoate, 0.6 mol of ethanoate anion, CH3C0,, is generated.

+

H20 +

+

(b)

CH3C02H

Initial Change Final

0.8

0

-x

+X

+X

0.8-x

X

X

CH3C0,

H30+ 0

But the dissociation of the salt produces 0.6 mol of CH3C0,. Hence the actual equilibrium concentration of CH3COT is not x, but (0.6 + x)! i.e. Final

CH3C02H 0.8-x

+

H20

+

C H ~ C O T + H3O+ 0.6 + x X

where Ka = { [CH3C0,][H30']}/[CH3C02H], since the activity of H20, a = 1. 5. Hence, K, = ((0.6 + x)(x)}/(0.8-x) = 1.8 x lo-'. 6. Assume that x /([H20][H20But, ]). since the activity, a, of pure water is unity, the equilibrium can be described by Kw = [H30+][OH-], where Kw has a value of and is termed the dissociation constant of water. PH The pH (the power of the hydronium or hydrogen ion concentration) is defined as the log to the base 10 of the hydronium ion concentration and is a means of expressing the acidity or basicity of a solution: pH = -loglo[H30+] or pH = -loglo[H+] Similarly, an expression for the OH- ion can be defined as pOH = -loglo[OH-] and remembered by definition as: pH + pOH = 14. For example, the pH of a 0.15 M solution of HN03 = -loglo[H30+] =-logl0[0.15] = 0.82. Likewise, the pH of a 0.001 M solution of NaOH = 14-pOH = 14-(-loglo[OH-1) = 14-3 = 11. The pH scale is a scale ranging from 0 to 14, with pure deionised water having an intermediate value of 7.0. The scale is shown in Figure 5.1. It is not necessary to remember the exact values, just the relative positions on the scale of both strong and weak acids and bases respectively.

Equilibrium II

Units ofpH: 14

-

51

Strong bases e.g. 0.1 M NaOH (13.0)

Weak bases e.g. NH3 (1 1.8)

7

Neutral

e.g. Pure deionised water (7.0)

Weak acids

e.g. CH3C02H (2.8)

Strong acids e.g. 0.04 M HCl(l.4) 0Figure 5.1 p H scale

Acid/Base Titrations and Indicators As stated in Chapter 1, an acid combines with a base to form a salt and water, i.e. acid + base -+ salt + water. The end-point of a titration is the point at which equal numbers of reactive species of acid (H+) and base (OH-) have been mixed. This is indicated by the colour chavge of an indicator added to the solution. Acid-base indicators are either complex weak organic acids, HIn, or complex weak organic bases, InOH. The pH of a solution can be plotted in the form of a titration curve, which shows the pH of a solution as a function of the volume of titrant added. The correct indicator needs to be chosen for a specific titration. There are three types of titration curves, shown in Figure 5.2(a-c).

7.0

.__ - _. _._.. .._ .__ _ _ .

Base added (cm3) Figure 5.2(a) Strong acidlstrong base, e.g. HCllNaOH

An indicator which shows a colour change in the region 4-10 is needed, e.g. PHENOLPHTHALEIN (colourless + red).

52

Chapter 5

pH

9.2

cb) Base added (cm3) Figure 5.2@) Weak acidlstrong base, e.g. CH3C02HINaOH

Suitable indicator: PHENOLPHTHALEIN (colourless + red).

Base added (cm3) Figure 5.3(c) Strong acidlweak base, e.g. HCIINH3

Suitable indicator: METHYL RED (red + yellow).

HYDROLYSIS Hydrolysis is the reaction of an ion with water. There are two types of hydrolysis: (a) Anion hydrolysis: This is the equilibrium reaction of the anion of a weak acid ( A - ) with water, i.e. A- + H20 + HA + OH-. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is expressed by Kh = {[HA] [OH-])/[A-], since the activity, a, of pure water is unity. An example of such a hydrolysis is: CH3CO: + H20 + CH3C02H + OH-, with Kh = { [CH3C02H][OH-]}/[CH3C02-]. CH3CO; hydrolyses since it is the anion of a weak acid, CH3C02H.

Equilibrium ?I

53

I In particular:

~~

K,

=

Kh K a (remember the order: ‘WHAle’!)

1

(b) Cation hydrolysis: CH+ + H20 S C + H 3 0 + . The equilibrium constant is expressed by Kh = {[C][H30+])[CH+],since the activity, a, of pure water is unity. An example of such a hydrolysis is: NH4+ + H20 ==N H 3 + H 3 0 + , with Kh = {[NH3][H30’])/[NH4+]. Only the conjugate acids of weak bases (such as NH3) undergo cation hydrolysis.

In particular:

pFxq BUFFER SOLUTIONS

A buffer solution is a solution with an approximately constantpH. A buffer contains an acid and its conjugate base in similar concentrations. Such a solution changes pH only slightly when H 3 0 + or OH- is added. Therefore, buffers are used when the pH has to be maintained within certain restricted limits. In the reaction CH3C02H + H 2 0 + CH3C0, + H 3 0 + , if both the acid and anion are present in equal concentration, the equilibrium can shift in either direction, to the right- (RHS) or to the left-hand (LHS) side:

(a) If H 3 0 + is added, the equilibrium shifts to the LHS to consume H ~ O. (b) If OH- is added, the equilibrium shifts to the RHS as H 3 0 + is removed by OH- ion, in accordance with Le Chatelier’s Principle. +

For either case, the concentration of the buffer remains the same. Therefore, the pH does not change to any great extent, remaining practically constant. How to Solve a Buffer Problem on Equilibrium Buffer problems are solved using the standard Working Method described in Chapter 4. Example: Given that Ka(1) for the first ionisation of H3P04 = 7.5 x H3P04 + H20 + H 3 0 + + H2P0,, determine the pH of the buffer solution that contains equal volumes of 0.35 M H3P04, and 0.25 M NaH2P04respectively.

54

Chapter 5

Solution: 1. Read the question carefully-notice that the solution is a buffer + constant pH. 2. Identify the species present: H,P04(aq, -acid; NaH2P04(aqlsalt. 3. (a) H3P04 + H20 + H30+ + H2PO;; (b) NaH2P04 -+ Na+ + H2P0,. 4.

0.35 mol in 1 dm3 of H3P04

0.25 mol in 1 dm3 of NaH2P04

Therefore in the buffer solution: 0.35 moles of H3P04 in 2 dm3 + 0.175 moles H3P04in 1 dm3, i.e. 0.175 M; 0.25 moles of NaH2P04 in 2 dm3 0.125 moles NaH2P04 in 1 dm3, i.e. 0.125 M. 5.

Initial Change Final

+

H3P04 0.175

H20

+ H30f

+

0

-x

+X

(0.175 - x)

X

HZPO, 0.125 +X

(0.125 + x)

6 . Ka= ([H2P0,][H30f])/[H3P04]= ((0.125 + ~)(~))/(0.175- X)

= 7.5 x 10-3 ..... (t). 7. Assume x cations. Likewise, K + cations will travel across the salt bridge towards the cathode. +

+

The Electrochemical Series or the Activity Series An important application of standard electrode potentials is in ranking substances according to their reducing and oxidising powers. The electrochemical or activity series is summarised in Table 6.2. Table 6.2 The Electrochemical or Activity Series Scale

E”IV

Reduction

-3.09 -2.93

Li+ + e + L i K+ + e + K Na+ + e + N a M$+ + 2 e + M g

- 3.00

-2.71

-2.36 - 2.00 - 1.66 -1.18

A13+ + 3 e - t A l

-0.76

+ 0.80

Zn2+ + 2 e - t ~ n Fe2+ + 2e + Fe 2H+ + 2 e -+HZ cu2++ 2e+ cu Ag+ + e + A g

+ 1.69

Au+

- 1.00

-0.44 0.00

+ 1.00

0.00

+ 0.34

Mn2+

+ 2e-tMn

+ e -+

Au

There is a simple way of memorising this series, which must be known (it is not necessary to remember the numerical values, these will be

Electrochemistry I: Galvanic Cells

75

given to you in an examination; what you must be familiar with is the relative positions of the elements). 'Little Potty Sammy Met A Mad Zebra In Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes'! i.e.

Little Potty Sammy Met A Mad Zebra In Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes

Lithium Potassium Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Manganese Zinc Iron Lead Hydrogen Copper Silver Gold

Li K Na Mg A1 Mn Zn Fe Pb H cu Ag Au

-3.09 V

0.00 v +1.69V

The Electrochemical Series can be summarised as follows. Elements with large positive reduction potentials, E", are easy to reduce and are good oxidising agents, e.g.

F2 + 2e + 2F-

E" = 2.87 V

Elements with large negative reduction potentials, E", are difficult to reduce themselves, but are good reducing agents, e.g. Na+

+ e+Na

E0=-2.71V

Species with low E" values reduce species with high E" values and species with high E" values oxidise species with low E" values, i.e. low reduces high and high oxidises low (HOL).

zqs)+ CU2+(aq)-, C U ( ~ ) + Zn2+(,,). E"(Zn2+,Zn) = -0.76 V; E"(Cu2+,Cu)

=

+0.34 V.

Reduction potentials vary in a complicated way throughout the periodic table. Generally however, the most negative are found on the left side of the table and the most positive are found on the right side. The Electrochemical Series will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7, with respect to electrolytic cells. In such cells, the position of an element in the activity series will determine the appropriate electrode half-cell reaction.

~

Chapter 6

76

Thermodynamics and the Determination of K, the Equilibrium Constant for a Reaction In Chapter 3 of this text, the idea of a spontaneous reaction was related to AG, the Gibbs free energy change of a reaction. In particular,

AG - ve spontaneous reaction AG + ve non-spontaneous reaction AG = 0 reaction at equilibrium where AG was defined as:

A G = A H - TAS AH = change in the enthalpy (measured in J mol-'), T = temperature (measured in K) and AS = change in the entropy (disorder) (measured in J K - mol - '). From physics, there is an expression for the voltage or potential, V: V = w/Q + w = VQ, where w is the work done (i.e. the energy, measured in joules, J) and Q is the charge (measured in coulombs, C ) . In electrochemistry, one or multiple numbers of moles of reactants are considered, and specifically for charge:

'

The Faraday constant is 96 500 C moli.e. the charge of 1 mole of electrons = F = 96 500 C mol-' + electrical energy = potential x charge (i.e. w = VQ)

+ AG = Ere" (- vfl, where AG, the change in Gibbs free energy is, in fact, the change in electrical potential energy. This is normally written as AG = - vFEre, where rev indicates reversibility. This leads to a very useful expression, which connects thermodynamics calculations to electrochemistry, and moreover to the determination of K , the equilibrium constant: AG

=

I-vFEI

where v = the number of electrons participating in the reaction, as defined by the equation describing the half-cell reaction (e.g. Fe2+(, + 2e + Fee(,>; u = 2); F = the Faraday constant = 96 500 C mol- ?; E = the electrode potential. At standard state conditions, i.e. 25 "C and 1 bar pressure, the expression becomes:


77

whereEo,ll = E O R H E - E O L H E . From this, one of the most important equations in electrochemistry, the Nernst equation, can be derived: AG = AGO + RTln K , where R = Universal Gas Constant = 8.314 J K-' mol-'. But, AGO + -uFE Dividing across by - uF: E

=

E',J

= =

-uFEO,II -uFEocell

+ RTlnK

- (RT/uF) lnK, the Nernst equation

I

For the general reaction: uAA

I

+ vBB

--+

ucC

+ uDD, where UA,uB,

uc and U D represent the stoichiometry factors, K , the equilibrium

constant can be written as follows:

i.e. of the form 'products/reactants' + SCN-(aq) + Fe11(NCS)2+(aq), (aq)III K = [F~"(NCS)~ + (aq)l/{[ ~ e ( a q ) [scN-(~~)II ~

e.g. for the reaction Fe"'

As mentioned in Chapter 4, the activity, a, of a solid is unity, i.e. on examination of the balanced chemical equation, any substance with an (s) subscript implies the substance is in the solid state and therefore has unit activity. At equilibrium: AG = 0 + -vFE = 0 + E + For the Nernst equation: E = Eocell- (RT/uF)ln K , i.e. 0 = Eocell- (RT/uF)ln K +-(RT/uF)ln K = EocelljIn K = (uFE",II/RT),

=

from which K, the equilibrium constant can be determined. In conclusion, three equations should be remembered:

0

78

Chapter 6

(a) EOceii = E'RHE - E'LHE (b) AGO = -vFEocelI (c) E = Eocell- (RT/vF)lnK(the Nernst equation) Do not forget that at equilibrium, E = 0, since AG = 0, i.e. 1nK = (vFE",II)/(RT)

WORKING METHOD FOR GALVANIC CELL PROBLEMS The following is an outline of the stepwise procedure on how to approach a problem on a galvanic cell: 1. Read the question very carefully. Remember, if you see the words 'electrolysis' or 'electrolysed', this refers to an electrolytic cell and not a galvanic cell. The working method which follows is only applicable to galvanic cells. 2. From the one-line representation of the cell, the balanced chemical equation or the two standard electrode potentials, identify the two types of electrodes involved. For example:

(a) Metal-metal-ion electrode, e.g. Fe(,)[Fe +(as); (b) Metal ion in two different valence states, e-g. ~ t ( s ) I+~(as), e ~~e~+ (as); (c) Gas-ion electrode, e.g. PtlH2(g)lH+(as); (d) Metal - insoluble salt anion electrode, 3. You should now re-examine the problem. This is probably the most important or most critical step in the working method. (a) If the E" values alone are given (i.e. if a balanced chemical equation is not given in the question), then the more positive E" value will indicate the electrode acting as the cathode. Remember, E" values are standard reduction potentials and reduction in any electrochemical cell (both galvanic and electrolytic) takes place at the cathode ('CROA'). (b) If a balanced chemical equation is given in the question, you now have to determine, from the oxidation numbers, which species is oxidised and which species is reduced, remembering: Reduction is a decrease in the oxidation number, e.g. Fe3+ (aq) + e -, Fez (as) Oxidation is an increase in the oxidation number, e.g. ce3+(as) + ce4+(aq) + e 4. Once you have determined which electrode is acting as the +


79

cathode and which electrode is acting as the anode in the cell, write down the one-line representation of the cell, and follow convention by keeping the cathode as the right-hand electrode:

Anode

Cathode

Single vertical lines, (I) should be used to represent phase boundaries or junctions and a double line (11) should be used in the centre to separate the two half-cells, which can be a salt bridge (e.g. KN03). Write down the two electrode half-reactions, remembering: (a) ‘CROA’: cathode-reduction, anode-oxidation (b) ‘OILRIG’: oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons (c) Reduction is a decrease in the oxidation number, oxidation is an increase in the oxidation number (recall the two vowels!) It may now be necessary to balance these two half-reactions, such that the number of electrons lost, or the number of electrons gained, is identical for both. This will then yield v, the number of electrons in the Nernst equation: E = Eocell - (RT/vF)In K . The two balanced electrode half-reactions should now be added, to give the net cell reaction. The electrons should cancel each other on both sides of the net cell reaction. Draw the cell, and indicate clearly: (a) The cathode (RHE) and the anode (LHE). (b) The salt bridge, e.g. K N 0 3 (if present). (c) The direction of electron flow in the wire or solution (remember electrons move from the anode to the cathode, just remember the vowels again!). (d) The spontaneous direction of current, I(simp1y the opposite direction to the movement of electrons in the wire). (e) The ion flow: -ve ions from the salt bridge migrate to the anode and +ve ions from the salt bridge migrate to the cathode. Figure 6.8 shows a typical galvanic cell diagram. Determine Eocell from the equation Eoce.l = E o R H E -

EoLHE,

80

Chapter 6 \

/ \

Voltmeter

1

+ions

current I

-.+

Salt Bridge CottonWool

WAnodt

WCathode

Figure 6.8 Schematic diagram of a galvanic cell

where the RHE is the cathode. Note that if the LHE transpires to be more positive than the RHE, this signifies a non-spontawill be greater (i.e. more +ve) neous cell, as normally EoRHE than E o L H E (more - ve) for a spontaneous galvanic cell. 9. Apply the Nernst equation: E = Eocell - (RT/uF)ln K , where: R = Universal Gas Constant = 8.314 J K-' mol-' (given in question); T = temperature in K (not "C) (standard state conditions imply 298 K, i.e. 25°C and 1 bar pressure); F = 96 500 C mol-' (given in question); Eoce.l = EORHE - EoLHE in V, obtained from step 8; K = equilibrium constant; u = defined and determined previously in step 6. Remember also that at equilibrium, E = 0. 10. Determine E, K or whatever unknown parameter is required, and do not forget to state the units! 11. Answer any riders to the question, e.g. determination of the solubility product, Ksp,etc. Examples 1-4 now apply this working method.

1 Example No. I : Draw the cell represented by: P~(~)IHz(~)IH+(~~)IIC~-(~~)IA~C~(~)IA~(~) where E" (Ag(s)(AgCl(s)ICl-(aq))= +0.222 V. If the cell was shortcircuited, indicate clearly on the diagram the cathode, the anode, the direction of spontaneous current, the electron flow and the ion flow. Write down the two respective half-reactions and the net cell reaction. Determine the equilibrium constant of the reaction at 298 K, given that R = 8.314 J K - ' mol-' and F = 96 500 C mol-'.


81

Solution:

1. There is no mention of 'electrolysis' or 'electrolysed'; therefore the cell in question is a galvanic cell. 2- pt(s)IH2(g)I~ +(as) II Cl-(aq)IAgCl(s)IA&s) (a) LHE is a gas-ion electrode, namely the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). (b) RHE is a metal-insoluble salt anion electrode.

3. No balanced chemical equation is given. Hence, the E" values can be used to determine which electrode is acting as the cathode: Eo(Ag(s)lAgCl(s)lCl-(aq))= +0.222 V; EO ( ~ + ( a q ) ( ~ 2 ( g=) ) 0.000 V (the SHE; value not given but should be known). Therefore Ag(s)lAgCl(s)JCl-(aq)acts as the cathode as this is the more positive E" value, and the SHE is the anode. 4. One-line representation of the cell: Pt(s)IH2(g)I~+(aq)IIC1-(*q)IAgC1(s)IAg(s) 5. Anode reaction (SHE): H2(g) (0); H+(a (I). 9 Hence, 0 -1 (oxidation), i.e. H2(g)+ H (aq) + e oxidation Therefore, H2(!) 2H+(,) + 2e or iH2(g)-,H+(,q) + e Cathode reaction: Ag(,) (0); Cl-(,,) (-1); AgCl(s): Ag (I); -+

c1

(-1).

There is no change in the oxidation state of the chlorine (-1 -, -I), but there is a change in the oxidation state of the silver (I -+ 0).

6 Anode reaction: iH2(g)-,Hf(,) + e Cathode reaction: AgCl,,) + e Ago) + Cl-(aq) -+

7. Diagram of the cell (Figure 6.9) 8. E"=ll = E " R H E - E O L H E = (+ 0.222) - (0.000) V

=

+ 0.222V.

82

Chapter 6

+

Voltmeter

T

/ \

+ions

c1-( r q )

H+(,) LHE/Anodc

RIWCathode

0.000 v

4.222 v

Figure 6.9 Cellfor Example No. I

9. Nernst equation: E

=

AgCL,,) + $*(g)

Eocell- (RT/vF)ln K . + H+(aq) +

Ag(s) + Cl-(aq)

K = { [H'(aq)][Cl-(aq)])/~*(~)]''2,since the activity, u, of both AgCl,,) and Ag(,) is unity (both are solid). At equilibrium: AG=O+-VFE=O+E=O + For the Nernst equation: E = Eocell- (RT/vF)ln K : 0 = Eocell- ( R T / v F )In K + In K = (uF/RT)E",ll = [(l x 96500) / (8.314 x 298)] x 0.222 = 8.6467719 =+ K = exp 8.6467719 = 5.6917 x lo3. Answer: K = 5.6917 x Id

Example No. 2: Give a fully-labelled diagram of the galvanic cell represented by: Pb(,,lpbSOq,,( SO:-(aq) (0.219 M)llSn4+(,q) (0.349 M), Sn2+(,q) (0.248 M),IPt,,). If the cell was short-circuited, indicate clearly on the diagram the cathode, the anode, the direction of spontaneous current, the electron flow and the ion flow. Write down the two respective half-reactions and the net cell reaction, where E" (Pb(,)IPbSO4(s)ISO:-(aq)) = -0.356 V and E" (Sn4+(,,), Sn2+(,,)) = +0.154V.GiventhatR=8.314JK-'mol-'andF= 96500C mol- determine E, the theoretical cell potential. Suggest also another standard method of analysis for the sulfate oxyanion, S042-, other than PbS041.

',


83

Solution: 1. There is no mention of 'electrolysis' or 'electrolysed'; therefore the cell in question is a galvanic cell. 2. Pb(s)JPbS0q,)IS042 - (aq)11 Sn4+(aq), Sn2+(aq)lPt(,). This time, identifying the two types of electrodes is more difficult. Remember however, all you need do is determine which of the four types of electrode is involved in each case.

(a) Pb(s)IPbSOy,)lSO~-(aq)is a metal-insoluble salt anion electrode; (b) Sn4+(,,), Sn2f(aq)lPt(s) is a metal ion in two different valence states (note the inert metal, Pt). 3. No balanced chemical equation is given, therefore the E" values can be used to determine directly which electrode is acting as the cathode: E" (Pb IPbSO ISO:-(aq)) = -0.356 V; 8 %( )= E" (Sn (as), Sn aq) +0.154 V. The latter has the more positive value +-cathode. 4. One-line representation of the cell: P~(,)IP~SO~(~)ISO~~-(~~) llsn4+(a 1, sn2+ (aq)lPt(si(Figure 6.10). 5 . Cathode reaction: ('CROA') Sn40(aq) (IV); Sn +laq) (11). Hence, 4 + 2 (reduction), i.e. Sn4'(aq) + 2e -+ Sn +(as); Anode reaction: Pb(,) (0); PbSOq,) has Pb (11) and S042(-IT); also S042- (-11) present. There is no change in the oxidation state of the sulfur or oxygen, but the oxidation state of the lead does change (0 + 11), i.e. Pbo(,) -, Pb2+(,q) + 2e. Therefore, Pbo(,) + SO?-(aq) -+PbSO,,,) + 2e 6. Cathode reaction: Sn4+(,,) + 2e + Sn 2+(aq) Anode reaction: Pb,,) + S 0 2 - ( a q ) -+ PbS04(,) + 2e Cell reaction: + Pb(,) + S02-(aq) -+ PbSOqs) + Sn2+(aq) 7. Diagram of the cell (Figure 6.10) 8. E o c e l l = E o R H E - E o L H E =(+0.154)-(-Oa356)V= +0.510V. 9. Nernst equation: E = Eocell - (RT/vF)In K . Sn4+(,q) + Pb,,,

+ SO:-(aq)

* PbSOq,) + Sn2+(,q)

K = [Sn2+(,,)]/([Sn4'(,,)) [S0,2-(aq)]), since the activity, a, of both Pb(,) and PbS04(,) is unity (both are solid). j E = 0.510 - [(8.314 x 298)/(2 x 96 500)] x In [0.248/(0.349 x 0.219)] = +0.495 V. Answer: E

=

+0.495 V

84

Chapter 6 /

Voltmeter

\

current I

4-

- ions

+ions

LHWAnodc

-

RHWCathode

-0.356 V

+0.154V

Figure 6.10 Cell f o r Example No. 2

10. Precipitation reaction: Ba2+(,,)

+ SO:-(aq)

-,BaS04(,)J.

Here are some other important precipitation reactions which you are liable to meet in your chemistry course:

~~

~

Example No. 3: Give a fully labelled diagram of the galvanic cell based on the following redox reaction: Cd',,) + Pb2+(,,) -, Cd2+(,,) + Pb',,). If the cell was short-cricuited, indicate clearly on the diagram the cathode, the anode, the direction of current, the electron flow and the ion flow. Assuming the following standard electrode potential values (Pb,,)lPb2+(,q), -0.126 V; Cd(,)ICd2+(,q), +0.403 V), estimate (a) the standard potential of the cell, and (b) the EMF at 25 "C,of the following slightly modified version: Pb(,)l Pb2 (aq) (0-0008 M) IICd2 (aq) (2.32 M) ICd(y (R = 8.314 J K-' mol-' and F = 96 500 C mol- ) +

+


85

Solution: 1. There is no mention of 'electrolysis' or 'electrolysed'; therefore the cell in question is a galvanic cell. 2. For part (a), since a balanced chemical equation is given, this determines which electrode will act as the cathode, and which electrode will act as the anode. Therefore, the oxidation state of each species must be written down: 2 + 0 decrease -, reduction

0

CdO(,,

+ I1

0

O+ 2

increase

T

+ oxidation

i.e. the Pb(,)lPb2+(,,) electrode will act as the cathode (RHE) and the Cd(,,lCdZ+(,q)electrode will act as the anode (LHE), in this galvanic cell. 3. RHE is a metal-metal-ion electrode, LHE is a metal-metal ion electrode. 4. One-line representation of the cell: Cd(,)(Cd2+(aq)IIPbZf(aq)IPb(,) 5. Cathode reaction ('CROA'): Pb2+(aq) (11); Pb(,) (0) Hence, 2 -+ 0 (reduction) i.e. Pb2+(aq)+ 2e -+ Pbo(,) Anode reaction: Cd2+ (11); Cdo(,) (0) Hence 0 -+ 2 (oxidation) i.e. Cdo(,) Cd2+(,,) + 2e 6 . Cathode reaction: Pb2+(aq)+ 2e Pb',,) Anode reaction: Cd',,) Cd2+(aq)+ 2e -+

-+

--+

Cell reaction: Cd(,) + Pb2+(aq)-+ Cd2+(aq)+ Pb,,) 7. Diagram of the cell (Figure 6.1 1) 8. Standard potential of the cell Eocell= EoRHE- EoLHE(-0.126) - (0.403) V = -0.529 V. But, since AGO = -vFEo = - uF x -0.529), AGO is + ve, i.e. a non-spontaneous reaction is indicated! This is consistent with the values of the standard reduction potentials. The more positive Eo value is associated with the Cdo(&d2+ electrode and hence in a spontaneous cell, this should act as the cathode. However, from the direction of the balanced chemical equation, it is the Pb0(,)lPb2+(aq)

86

Chapter 6

'-

Voltmeter current I

c

T

-ions

+ions

__*

mo3 Cotton WoolCd0W

t

I Cd*+(a@ WAnode

/

Pb0(S)

/

Pb*+W

RWCathode -0.126 V

0.403 V

Figure 6.11 Cell for Example No. 3

electrode which acts as the cathode, and hence results in a nonspontaneous cell. 9. In part (b), the EMF at 25°C of the modified cell has to be determined. In the latter case, since the Cdo(s)ICd2+(aq) electrode is on the right-hand side of the one-line representation of the cell, i.e. Pb0(,)lPb2 (as) (0.0008 M) IICd2 (aql(2.32 M)I Cdo(s), this implies that the cadmium electrode is now acting as the cathode. Hence: Eocell= E " R H E - E O L H E = ( + 0.403) - (-0.126) V = + 0.529 V (spontaneous cell). Nernst equation: E = Eocell - (RT/vF)ln K . +

+

Pbo(,>+ Cd2+(aq)+ Pb2+(aq)+ Cdo(,)

K = pb2+(aq)]/[Cd2+(aq)], since the activity, a, of both Pb(,) and Cd,,) is unity (since they are both solid) + E = 0.529 - [(8.314 x 298)/(2 x 96 SOO)] x ln(0.0008/2.32) = 0.631 V. Answer: E

=

+0.631 V

Example No. 4: The standard potentials of Ag(,)lAg+(,,) and Ag(,) IAgCl(,)lCl-(,,) are +0.799 and +0.222 V respectively at 25 "C. Use this information to determine the solubility product of silver chloride. Draw the galvanic cell in question. If the cell was shortcircuited, indicate clearly on the diagram the cathode, the anode, the direction of current, the electron flow and the ion flow. (R = 8.314 J K-' mol-' and F = 96,500 C mol-')


87

Solution: 1. There is no mention of ‘electrolysis’ or ‘electrolysed’, therefore the electrochemical cell is a galvanic cell. 2. In this problem, the solubility product of silver chloride has to be determined. The solubility product equilibrium reaction first has to be written down: p [Ag+(aq)I[Cl-(aq)I AgCl(s) + Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq), where ~ s = since the activity, a, of AgCl,,) is unity. This is the net cell reaction that has to be obtained. From the standard electrode potentials, Ag(s)lAg+(aq)has the greatest E” value and therefore would act as the cathode (RHE), whereas Ag~,>lAgCl(,)ICl-(aq) would act as the anode (LHE) in a spontaneous galvanic cell. However, this will not generate the desired chemical equation, concerning the solubility product equilibrium of silver chloride. Put in a different way, in this question, you are given the equation in an implicit manner, and therefore, as before, you have to examine the equation to see which substance is oxidised, and which substance is reduced. 3. Cathode reaction (‘CROA’): Ago(s) (0); Cl-(aq) (-1); AgCl,,) has Ag (I) and C1 (-1). There is no change in the oxidation state of the chlorine (-I to -I), but there is a change in the oxidation state of the silver (I + 0). Therefore: I + 0 (reduction) &(s) AgCI,,, AgCl(s) + e -+ Ag(s) + Cl-(aq) I -I 0 -I Anode reaction: Ag+(,) (I), Ago(,) (0) Hence 0 -+ 1 (oxidation), i.e. Ago -+ Ag+ + e Hence: Cathode reaction: AgCl,,) + e Ago(,>+ Cl-(aq) Anode reaction: Ago(,) --+Ag (aq) + e

*

+

Cell reaction:

AgCl (,)

+ Ag+(aq) + Cl-,,,)

4. RHE is a metal-insoluble salt anion electrode, LHE is a metal-

metal-ion electrode. 5. One-line representation of the cell:

Ag(s)IAg+(aq)IIC1-(aq,IAgCl(s) 6 . Diagram of the cell (Figure 6.12).

88

Chapter 6 \ /

r

Voltmeter

electrons

/

current 1

r

c

-

1

ions

+ions

-

KNO3

Ag+(acl)

LHW Anode

RHWCathode

+0.222 v

+0.799 V

Figure 6.12 Cell for Example No. 4

7. Standard potential of the cell Eocell = E'RHE - E'LHE (+ 0.222) - (0.799) V = -0.577 V. 8. Nernst equation: E = EoceN- (RT/vF)ln K. AgCl(s) + Ag + (as) + C1-

(as)

Ksp = [Ag+(aq)][Cl-(aq)] since the activity, a, of AgCl is unity (since it is solid). At equilibrium, E = 0 + In Ksp = (vF/RT)Eocell. Hence, Ksp = exp [(l x 96500 x -0.577)/(8.314 x 298)] = 1.7368 x lo-''. Answer: Ksp = 1.7 x lo-''

At the conclusion of Chapter 7, there is a multiple-choice test, consisting of 10 questions, and three further examples for you to try. In Chapter 7, a second type of electrochemical cell is considered, the electrolytic cell.

Chapter 7

Electrochemistry 11: Electrolytic Cells

ELECTROLYSIS Galvanic cells convert chemical (potential) energy into electrical (kinetic) energy, as described in Chapter 6. Electrolytic cells convert electrical (kinetic) energy into chemical (potential) energy and therefore an electrolytic cell requires an external source of electrical energy, such as a battery, for operation. For this reason, electrolysis can be defined as the input of electrical energy from an external source, such as a battery, as direct current to force a non-spontaneous reaction to occur, i.e. AG + ve. The electrolyte is the solution, which can be either an ionic or covalent compound that melts to produce ions or that dissolves to give a solution that contains ions (charged species), such as Na+ and Cl-. The electrode is the metalplate used to bring the electrical energy to the solution, which then brings about the chemical change in solution. Active electrodes are metals which have the same element as that contained in the solution, i.e. the electrolyte. A typical active electrode is copper. The copper is immersed in a solution of its own ions, C U ~ + ( Znactive ~ ~ ) . electrodes consist of a metal which does not react with the solution in which it is immersed, but brings the electrical energy to the solution. Platinum and graphite are examples of inactive electrodes. Faraday 's Laws of Electrolysis are the governing laws which form the background to electrolysis.

90

Chapter 7

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis Faruday’s First Law of Electrolysis states that the mass of a substance (element) deposited at the cathode (‘CROA’) during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of charge (measured in coulombs) passing through the solution. Faraday’s Second Law of Efectrofysis states that the number of moles of electrons needed to discharge one mole of an ion at an electrode is equal to the number of charges on that ion. In summary :

+

m oc Q m oc It m = kZt

(since Q = It from physics)

(since a proportionality sign can always be replaced by

+

=

k’)

m =zIt

where z is de_finedas the electrochemical equivalent of the element.

The electrochemical equivalent of an element is the mass of that element produced (deposited, in the case of a solid, or evolved, in the case of a gas) at the cathode when 1 coulomb of charge passes through the electrolyte solution. Note the correct units: Z = current, measured in ampires, A; t = time, measured in seconds, s; Q = charge, measured in coulombs, C; rn = mass, measured in kilograms, kg (the unit of mass is the kilogram, kg, not the gram, g). Hence, since m = zlt, z = m/(It) and so kg A- I s- is the unit of the electrochemical equivalent. The quantity of electricity can then be measured in terms of the number of moles of electrons passing through the electrolytic cell. The amount of substance undergoing the chemical change is related to the number of electrons involved in the respective half-reaction, and can be expressed in terms of the number of moles of substance or the number of reactive species, i.e. the number of chemical equivalents. The concept of a redox reaction and the number of reactive species is used to determine the amount of substance deposited or the volume of gas evolved during electrolysis, e.g. cu2+(aq)+ 2e -, C U O ( ~ ) =+ 2 electrons are needed to reduce Cu2+(aq) to metallic copper, CU’(~).

Electrochemistry II: Electrolytic Cells

91

+ 2 mol of electrons reduce 1 mol of copper, CU(~),and 1 mol reduces 0.5 mol of copper. =+ the mass of 1 chemical equivalent of copper is the mass of 0.5 mol. This leads to the definition of the faraday. The faraday is defined as the quantity of charge carried by 1 mol of electrons. 1F = 96500 C When 1 F of electricity is passed through an electrolytic cell, 1 mole of electrons passes through the cell and 1 chemical equivalent is deposited at the cathode, i.e. since ‘CROA’ still applies in electrolytic cells, this could be expressed as 1 equivalent of substance reduced at the cathode.

I =. 1 F

=

charge carried by 6.022 x

(1 mol) electrons

=

96 500 C

I

Examples:

+ e -+ Ago(s) 1 F --+ 1 mol Ag; 96 500 C -+ 1 mol Ag; 96 500 C -+ 107.868 g of silver, produced at the cathode during electrolysis, since 1 mol of Ag contains 107.868 g. ( b ) Consider the half-reaction: Mg2+(aq)+ 2e + Mgo(s) 2 F -+ 1 mol Mg; 1 F -+ 0.5 mol Mg; 96 500 C -+ 0.5 mol Mg; 96 500 C -+ 0.5 x 24.305 g = 12.1525 g of magnesium produced at the cathode during electrolysis, since 1 mol of Mg contains 24.305 g. ( c ) Aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, A1203 dissolved in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6. Determine the mass (in kg) of aluminium produced in 12 hours, in an electrolytic cell operating at 95 kA, given that the molar mass (M) of A1 is 26.982 g mol-’ and 1 F = 96 500 C.

( a ) Consider the half-reaction: Ag (as) +

First, the oxidation state of A1 in the oxide has to be calculated: 2x + 3( -11) = 0; 2x = 6; x = 111, i.e. Allll(aq).Then, aluminium will be deposited at the cathode (reduction), according to Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis, i.e. A13+(aq)+ 3e + AlO,,) 3 F 4 1 molofAl; 1 F - + ~ m o l o f A l ; 9 6 5 0 0 C - - + ~ m o l o f A l . But, Q = It + Q = 95000 x (12 x 60 x 60), since 12 hours = 12 x 60 x 60 s =+ Q = 4.104 x lo9 C 96 500 C + f (26.982) g = 8.994 g of A1 Hence, 1 C -+ (8.994/96 500) g of A1 4.104 x lo9 C + (8.994/96500)(4.104 x lo9) = 382501.31 g Answer: 382.5 kg of aluminium

92

Chapter 7

Electrolytic Cells Electrolytic cells are much easier to represent than galvanic cells, all having the standard form shown in Figure 7.1. In physics, electric current is defined as the flow of electrons from the negative pole of a battery (cathode) to the positive pole of a battery (anode) through the cell or the conventional direction of flow of current I from the positive pole of a battery to the negative pole through the cell. Therefore, current, by convention always goes from the positive pole of a battery to the negative pole of a battery, and electrons travel in the opposite direction (Figure 7.2).

Anode

+

-

I

Cathode

I

Figure 7.1 Schematic diagram of an electrolytic cell

current I

7

electrons Figure 7.2 Direction of electric current and electrons in an electrolytic cell, external to the battery


93

A useful way to remember this is the mnemonic ‘CNAP’, i.e. cathodenegative anode-positive. In electrolytic cells, the electrode connected to the negative pole of the battery is the cathode and the electrode connected to the positive pole of the battery is the anode. Summary: ( a ) CROA: applicable to both galvanic and electrolytic cells. ( b ) CNAP: applicable to electrolytic cells only.

Figure 7.3 summarises the standard electrolytic cell.

+ -

Ill

electrons

LHE

RHE

Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

Oxidation

Reduction

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.3 Schematic diagram of an electrolytic cell

The principle of electrolysis can be used to deposit metals from aqueous solutions. The next two sections describe a working method to determine the half-reactions involved in each type of the four different types of electrolytic cell. Working Method for Electrolysis Type Problems 1. Read the question carefully. Ensure that the electrochemical cell

concerned is definitely an electrolytic cell, and not a galvanic cell. 2. Is the substance to be electrolysed molten or aqueous? 3. Identify all species present. In the case of an aqueous solution, water is involved, e.g. in the electrolysis of a solution of sodium

Chapter 7

94

chloride, NaCl,,,,, not only are the N a + and the C1- ions present, but also H20, i.e. H 2 0 S H + + OH-. 4. Determine which substances/species are present at the cathode and which substances/species are present at the anode ('CNAP'): Cathode is - ve, attracts + ve species Anode is + ve, attracts - ve species

This procedure is modified further if water is present. 5 . Examine the species at both electrodes carefully. If the electro-

lysis is that of a molten substance, this step can be ignored and you can go directly to step 6. If, however, the electrolysis is that of an aqueous solution, there will be a choice of two reactions at both the cathode and the anode. To determine which reduction half-reaction and which oxidation half-reaction actually occur, the following rules of thumb should be applied: I. Cathode reaction (reduction: M"+ + ne 3 M'): Write down the Electrochemical Series in detail: Little Potty Sammy Met A Mad Zebra In Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes

Lithium Potassium Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Manganese Zinc Iron Lead Hydrogen Copper Silver Gold

Li K Na Mg A1 Mn Zn Fe Pb H cu Ag Au

- ve

0.00 v

+ ve

(a) If the element is above zinc in the Electrochemical Series, then H2cg, will be discharged at the cathode, according to the following reduction half-reaction:

95


(b) If the species is below zinc, the positive MI+ cation will be reduced to the metal: Ago(,, (c) If the electrolysis involves an acid (i.e. a proton donor), write down the appropriate ionisation reaction for the acid with water. This.wil1then generate H 3 0 + ions at the cathode: e x . &+(a,)

e.g. H20 H20

+e

+

+ H2SO4 + H 3 0 + + HS04+ HS04- -+ H30+ + SO,'-

11. Anode reaction (oxidation):

Examine the position of the anion in the following series:

\

Ease of Oxidation Anions on the left-hand side of the above series such as iodide will be easily oxidised, whereas those on the right-hand side, such as the sulfate oxyanion, SO:-, will not be easily oxidised. In sulfate, S is in a (VI) oxidation state, having the stable pe]sopo inert gas core configuration (cf. S(0): Pe]3s23p4). For this reason, the oxidation of water, H20, will occur instead, with oxygen gas evolved at the anode: 2~20(aq)

-+

02(g)

+

4e

+

4~+(aq)

0

I

-11

-2

+ 0 (increase in oxidation number

I

u + oxidation)

If the anion is chloride, this 'sits on the fence' within the series, and which oxidation occurs is concentration dependent, i.e. if the solution is concentrated, chloride will be oxidised to chlorine gas, according to the reaction: 2C1-(aq1 + C12(,) + 2e. If, however, the solution is dilute, water will be more easily oxidised, and the half-reaction above will take place. All this relates to the E" values. In the case of chloride, E" = - 1.36 V, and in the case of water the corresponding value is - 1.23 V. As stated previously, it is not necessary to memorise these values. All that is required is

96

Chapter 7

a knowledge of the relative position of each species within the Electrochemical Series, as shown in Table 6.2 of Chapter 6. 6. Having established the exact reduced species and the exact oxidised species at the electrodes, write down the cathode and anode half-reactions, remembering (as for galvanic cells) that reduction takes place at the cathode, and that oxidation takes place at the anode, i.e. 'CROA' and 'OILRIG'. 7. Balance the two half-reactions, so that the number of electrons transferred is the same for both, and from these reactions, determine the net cell reaction 8. Draw the electrolytic cell (Figure 7.3). Label clearly: (a) the anode (LHE) and the cathode (RHE); (b) the direction of current, I; (c) The direction of electrons; (d) the direction of ion flow, as derived from the half-cell reactions in step 6. 9. Re-read the question, to see exactly what you are asked to determine. 10. Apply Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis: Mn+ + n e + M * --+ 1 mol of M =+ nF -+ l/n mol of M 1F 96 500 C --+ l / n moles of M

where Q = charge (measured in coulombs, C), I = current (measured in amperes, A); t = time (measured in seconds, s). 1 1 . Answer any riders to the question: (a) Standard state conditions: most stable state at 25 "C(298 K) and 1 bar pressure. (b) 1 mol of an ideal gas at 25 "C (298 K) and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3.

Remembered by 'Peas and Vegetables go on the Table!' (d) pH = -loglo[H,O+]; pOH = -l~glo[OH-]; pH + pOH = 14


97

TYPES OF ELECTROLYTIC CELLS Electrolysis of Molten NaCl 1. Determine whether or not the electrolysis involves (a) a molten (melted) or (b) an aqueous substance. In this example, the electrolyte is molten sodium chloride. 2. Identify all species present. If the electrolysis involves a molten substance, this step is easy, since the species present are simply the ions of the substance, i.e. water is not involved. Molten sodium chloride contains equal numbers of sodium Naf cations and chloride C1- anions, respectively i.e. NaCl(1) + Na+(l) + Cl-(,) 3. Having identified all species present, determine which species are attracted to the cathode, and which species are attracted to the anode, remembering that the cathode is negative and the anode is positive (‘CNAP’), and also that like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract one another. Cathode -ve Na+ Anode +ve C14. Determine the two respective half-reactions, recalling that reduction takes place at the cathode and oxidation takes place at the anode (‘CROA’). Cathode reaction: Na+(l) + e Nao(l) Anode reaction: Cl-(,) -+ Cl,,,, + e --+

In the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, a pool of sodium metal deposits at the cathode, and bubbles of chlorine gas form at the anode. 5 . Draw the cell (Figure 7.4). The porous separator permits the diffusion of ions from one side of the cell to the other, and prevents the sodium produced at the cathode reacting with the chlorine produced at the anode. The experimental set-up above is used commercially in the Downs cell for the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.

98

Chapter 7

+

7

electrons

LHE

RHE

Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.4 The Downs cell for the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride

Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous NaCl 1. Determine whether or not the electrolysis involves (a) a molten salt or (b) an aqueous solution of a salt. In this example, the electrolysis involves aqueous sodium chloride. Therefore, there is now an additional factor to be considered, water! 2. Identify all species present: Na+(aq),Cl-(aql and H20. 3. Having identified all the species present, determine which species accumulate at the cathode, and which species accumulate at the anode: Anode +ve C1-, H20 Cathode -ve Na+, H20 4. The question now to be asked is which half-reaction occcurs at the cathode and which half-reaction occurs at the anode, because there are two possible half-reactions at each electrode. Before determining which half-reaction occurs, write down all possible half-reactions. In this example, this step is carried out, but a very quick way to determine which half-reaction takes precedence is subsequently provided, using the Electrochemical Series and a convenient rule of thumb.

At the cathode: - ve electrode (‘CNAP’)/reduction takes place here (‘CROA’/‘OILRIG’). There are two possible half-reactions: (a) Na+(,,) I

+ e + Na(l1 0

E“

=

-2.714V.

-


(b) 2H,O(aq) I -11

99

+ 2e + H2(g) + 20H-(aq) 0

E"

=

-0.08 V.

-11 I

1 to 0 (reduction)

In order to determine which half-reaction will occur, the E" values need to be considered. Since the standard electrode potential for sodium is -2.714 V, and that for the water is -0.08 V, this means that water, having the relatively greater E" value, will be more easily reduced at the cathode than Na+(,,), and therefore the half-reaction (b) will dominate. At the anode: + ve electrode ('CNAP')/oxidation takes place here ('CROA'/'OILRIG'). There are two possible half-reactions: E" = - 1.36 V. (a) Cl-(aq) -, $C12(g)+ e -I 0 E" = - 1.23 V. (b) 2H20(,,) + O-qg) + 4H+(aq) + 4e I -11 0 I I t -2 to 0 (oxidation)

This time, since E" for the chloride is - 1.36 V and E" for the water is - 1.23 V, the values are so close that it will be concentration dependent as to which half-reaction will actually occur, i.e. if the solution is concentrated sodium chloride, the concentration of chloride ion will be large, and chlorine gas will be evolved at the anode, but if the solution is very dilute, then oxygen gas will be evolved at the anode. In this example, let us assume that the sodium chloride is very concentrated: Cathode reaction: 2H20,aq) + 2e H2(g) + 20H-(aq) Anode reaction: 2Cl-(aq) C12(g) + 2e --+

--+

Cell reaction: 2H20(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + Hqg) + Clq?) + 20H-(aq) In the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride, hydrogen gas, H2(g)is evolved at the cathode along with hydroxide anion, OH- (link to pH), and chlorine gas, C1,(g), is evolved at the anode.

5. Draw the cell (Figure 7.5). In this cell, the sodium cation, Na+(,,) is termed a spectator ion, as it does not participate in the reduction half-reaction.

100

Chapter 7

+

LHE Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.5 Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride

Although this procedure to determine the respective half-reactions in each case makes logical sense, it is not trivial, and in many problems on electrolytic cells, the standard electrode potentials will not be given, unlike in the analogous galvanic cell problems. However, it should be stated that such half-reactions can quickly be determined, from a knowledge of the Electrochemical Series, and it is not necessary to memorise such halfreactions. Such a criterion leads to a simple rule of thumb: 1. Cathode Half-Reactions: In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions of salts containing metals above zinc in the electrochemical series, hydrogen gas is generally produced at the cathode, and the half-reaction is: 2H20(,q) + 2e -+ H2(g) + 20H-(,) 2. Anode Hal’Reactions: If two or more anions are present in aqueous solution, they are discharged selectively in the following order: I - > OH- > C1- > NO3- > S042\

Ease of Oxidation This forms the basis of the determination of the half-reactions at both anode and cathode, eliminating the need to examine all possible half-reactions. From this rule of thumb, the case of aqueous sodium chloride is straightforward, i.e. although water


101

is present, sodium is above zinc in the electrochemical series, and therefore hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode. Chloride ions will accumulate at the anode, and chlorine gas will consequently be evolved here. There is one further factor which must be addressed in these cells, i.e. concentration. The electrolysis of hydrochloric acid illustrates this effect, as shown in example (c) below. Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous HC1 1. Determine whether or not the electrolysis involves (a) a molten or (b) an aqueous substance. In this case, the electrolysis involves aqueous hydrochloric acid and therefore additional reactions involving water need to be considered. 2. Identify all species present: H+(aq),Cl-(aq) and H20. 3. Having identified all the species present, determine which species accumulate at the cathode, and which species accumulate at the anode: Cathode -ve H + , H20 Anode +ve C1-, H20 4. At the cathode, two species appear to be present. However, since hydrochloric acid is a strong acid (i.e. a good proton donor, which dissociates readily in solution), it will first ionise in the presence of water to undergo the following reaction: H20 + HC1 4 H 3 0 + + C1- i.e. generating H 3 0 + ions ( H + ) at the cathode. The cathode reaction then becomes much simpler: 2H+(,,) + 2e -+ H2(g).Hence, hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode. At the anode there are two possible half-reactions: (a) Cl-(aq)+@lZ(g) -1 0

+e

(b) 2H20(aq) I -11

+ 4H+,,,) I

-+

02(g)

0

u

E" = -1.36V

+ 4e

E"

= - 1.23 V

- 2 to 0 (oxidation) This time, since E" for the chloride is - 1.36 V and E" for the water is - 1.23 V, the values are so close that it will be concentration dependent as to which half-reaction will actually occur, i.e. if the solution is concentrated hydrochloric acid, the concentration of chloride will be large, and chlorine gas will be evolved at the anode, but if the solution is very dilute, then oxygen gas will

102

Chapter 7

be evolved at the anode. In this example, let us assume that the acid is very concentrated: Cathode reaction: 2H+(,q) + 2e- + H2(g) Anode reaction: 2Cl-(aq> + C12(g) + 2e Cell reaction: 2H+(,q)

+ 2Cl-(aq) -+

C1,(,)

+ Hqg)

The electrolysis of hydrochloric acid is very important in stressing the role of the initial acid ionisation reaction and the effect of concentration in these types of electrolytic cells. 5. Draw the cell (Figure 7.6).

+ -

LHE

RHE

Anode (CNAP)

Cathode(CNAP)

Cl2Cs)

i

Hz(g)

O

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.6 Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid

Electrolysis of Aqueous H2S04 1. Aqueous solution, so the additional factor of H20 has to be considered. 2. Identify all species present in solution: H+(,,, SOz-(aq) and H20. 3. Cathode -ve H f , H20 Anode +ve SOZ-, H20 4. Sulfuric acid is a strong diprotic acid (Le. contains two replaceable hydrogens) which will first ionise in the presence of water to undergo the following reactions:

H20 H20 i.e.

+ +

H2S04 HS04H2S04(aq)

--+

-+

HS04-

+ so42- +

H30+ H30+

2H+(aq) +

so42-(aq)


103

i.e. generating H + ions at the cathode. The leads to only one posssible reaction at the cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e + Hz(~). At the anode, there are two possible half-reactions:

(a) 2SOz-(aq) + S20:-(aq) + 2e E" = -2.05 V. SV1 Peroxydisulfate anion This is a very unfavourable half-reaction (as shown by a large -ve E" value, i.e. AGO very +ve, implying a non-spontaneous reaction). Sulfur is not oxidised, as in the VI oxidation state, it has the stable inert gas core configuration of me],i.e. oxidation of the sulfate will not occur, and water will instead be oxidised: E" = - 1.23 V. (b) 2H,O(aq) 4 Oqg) + 4H+(aq) + 4e 1-11 0 I I t -2 to 0 (oxidation) Cathode reaction: 2H+(,q) + 2e -+ H2ig) Anode reaction: 2H20(aq)+02(g) + 4H (aq) + 4e Multiply by two: Cathode reaction: 4H+(aq) + 4e + 2H2(g) Anode reaction: 2H20(aq)+O*(g)+ 4H+(aq)+ 4e Cell reaction: 2H20(aq)-+ 2H2(g)+

02(g)

5 . Draw the cell (Figure 7.7).

+ -

I

I

I LHE

RHE

Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

T

Porous separator

Figure 1.7 Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of aqueous sulfuric acid

Therefore, hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode, and oxygen gas is evolved at the anode in the electrolysis of aqueous sulfuric acid.

Chapter 7

104

EXAMPLES OF ELECTROLYTIC CELL TYPE PROBLEMS Example No. 1; Chlorine is produced by the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride. Draw the electrochemical cell, indicating clearly the anode, the cathode, the direction of electron flow and the direction of the current. Assuming that chlorine is the only species produced at the anode, determine how long it will take to produce 1 kg of chlorine gas, in a cell operating at 950 A. (F = 96500 C mol- molar mass ( M ) of CI = 35.453 g mol-’1.

’;

Solution:

1. Type of cell: electrolytic. 2. Type of electrolysis: electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride. Hence, water must be considered. 3. Identify all species present: Na+(aq),CI-(aq), 3 3 2 0 . 4. Cathode: -ve electrode (‘CNAP’): Na+(aq),€320. Na is above Zn in the electrochemical series; therefore H2(!) is discharged at the cathode, according to the half-reaction: H2(g)+ 20H-(aq)* 2H2O(aq) + 2e 5. Anode: + ve electrode (‘CNAP’): Cl-(aq), H20. In this question, it is stated that chlorine gas is evolved at the anode. Hence, 2Cl-(aq) + C12(,) + 2e. 6. Write down the two half-reactions: +

Cathode reaction: 2H,O(aq) + 2e + H2(g)+ 20H -(as) Anode reaction: 2Cl-(aq>-+ C12(,, + 2e

7. Draw the cell (Figure 7.8). 8. In this question, all that needs to be considered is the anode halfreaction: 2Cl-(aq) C1qg) + 2e 2 F + 1 mol of chlorine gas; 1 F + 0.5 mole of chlorine gas 96 500 C + 0.5 mol of chlorine gas = 0.5 x (35.453 x 2) = 35.453 g i.e. 35.453 g -+ 96 500 C; 1 g + (96 500/35.453) C = 2721.9135 C 1 kg = 1000 g + 2721913.5 C 9. Q = It =+ t = Q / I = 2721913.5/950 = 2865.172105 s = (2865.172105/60) min = 47.75 min. Answer: 47.75 min

105


+ -

T

Porous Separator

Figure 7.8 Electrolytic cellfor the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride ~

Example No. 2: Estimate the rate of chlorine gas evolution (in cm3 min-’) at the anode of an aqueous sodium chloride electrolysis cell, operating at a current of 650 mA, T = 300 K andp = 1.2 bar. Draw the electrochemical cell, indicating clearly the anode, the cathode, the direction of electron flow and the direction of current. (F = 96500 C mol-’; 1 mol of an ideal gas at 25 “C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3). Solution:

1. Type of cell: electrolytic. 2. Type of electrolysis: electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride. Hence, water must also be considered. 3. Identify all species present: Na+(,q), C1-(aq),H20. 4. Cathode: -ve electrode (‘CNAP’): Naf(aq),H20. Na is above Zn in the electrochemical series; therefore H2(!) is discharged at the cathode according to the half-reaction: 2H20(aq) + 2e H2(g) + 20H-(aq). 5. Anode: + ve electrode (‘CNAP’): Cl-(aq), H20. Chlorine gas is evolved at the anode (stated in question). Hence C12(g)+ 2e. 2Cl-(aql 6. Write down the two half-reactions: +

-+

Cathode reaction: 2H,O(aq) + 2e H2(g)+ 20H - (as) Anode reaction: 2Cl-(aq) -, C12(,) + 2e -+

Cell reaction: 2H20(aq)

+ 2Cl-(aql

4

H2(g)+ Clz(g)+ 20H-(aq)

106

Chapter 7

7. Draw the cell (Figure 7.8). 8. In this question, all that has to be considered is the anode halfreaction: 2Cl-(aq) + Clq,) + 2e Per minute, Q = It = 0.650 x 60 = 39 C; 2 F 4 1 mol of chlorine gas 96 500 C + 0.5 mol of chlorine gas = (0.5 x 24.8 dm3) at 1 bar pressure and 298 K 1 C (0.5 x 24.8)/96 500 dm3; 39 C 0.0050114 dm3 --+

--+

V2 = (1 x 0.0050114 x 300)/(1.2 x 298) = 0.0042 dm3 min-' i.e. 4.2 cm3min-', since 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3.

Answer = 4.2 em3 m'n-' ~

~~

Example No. 3: A slightly acidified solution of copper(I1) sulfate is electrolysed using inert platinum electrodes. Oxygen gas is evolved at one electrode, and copper metal is deposited at the other. Draw a fully labelled diagram of the cell, indicating clearly the cathode, the anode, the direction of current, the direction of electrons and ion flow. Write down the cathode, anode and cell reactions. How long would it take this cell to deliver 2 dm3of 02(g, at 1.5 bar pressure and 65 "C, using an electrolysis current of 475 mA? (F = 96 500 C mol- *; 1 mol of an ideal gas at 25 "C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3). Solution:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Type of cell: electrolytic. Type of electrolysis: electrolysis of aqueous copper(I1) sulfate. Identify all species present: Cu2+(aq),SO:-(aq), H20. Cathode: - ve electrode ('CNAP'): CU2+(aq),H2O. Cu is below Zn in the electrochemical series; therefore copper metal is deposited at the cathode: cu2+(aq) + 2e

--+

CUO(~)

5. Anode: +ve electrode ('CNAP'): S02-(,q), H20. But S042-(aq)

is not easily oxidised: I-

>

OH-

>

ci-

>

NO^-

It -

Ease of Oxidation

>

so,'-


107

Therefore water is oxidised at the anode, evolving oxygen gas, according to the half-reaction: 2H,O(aq) -+ 02(g) + 4Hf(aq) + 4e. 6. Write down the two half-reactions: Cathode reaction: CU2+(aq) + 2e CU'(~) Anode reaction: 2H20(,q)+02(g) + 4H + (aq) + 4e -+

Multiply by two: Cathode reaction: 2Cu2+(aq) + 4e -+2Cuo(,) Anode reaction: 2H20(aq)+02(g)+ 4H + (aq) + 4e

7. Draw the cell (Figure 7.9).

+ -

current I

T

Y

LHE/pt

RHE/Pt

Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.9 Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) suvate

8. Consider the anode half-reaction: 2HzO(aq)-, 0 2 ( g ) + 4H (as) + 4e Q = It; t = Q / I Therefore, since I = 475 mA = 0.475 A, Q must be determined at 65 "C and 1.5 bar pressure. +

.!!?!'

-'*

must be applied.

-

TI

T2

First, convert T2 to K: T2 = (273 V2 = (1.5 x 2 x 298)/(1 x 338)

+ 65) = 338 K. =

2.645 dm3.

108

Chapter 7

9. Apply Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis: 2~20,aq) 02(g) + 4 ~ + ( a q+) 4e 4 F 4 1 mol of oxygen; 1 mol of oxygen -+ 4 x 96500 C; 24.8 dm3+4 x 96 500 C; 1 dm3 4 (4 x 96 500)/24.8 = 15564.52C; 2.645 dm3 + 41 168.16 C. Now t = Q / I = 41 168.16 /0.475 = 86669.81 s = 24.07 h. +

Answer: 24.07 h Example No. 4: An aqueous solution of gold(II1) nitrate, A u ( N O ~ ) ~was , electrolysed with a current of 219 mA, until 150 cm3 of oxygen gas was liberated at the anode, at 1 bar pressure and 298 K. Draw a fully labelled diagram of the cell, indicating clearly the cathode, the anode, the direction of current, the direction of electrons and ion flow. Write down the cathode, anode and cell reactions. Find (a) the duration of the experiment and (b) the mass of gold deposited at the cathode during electrolysis. (F = 96 500 C mol-’; 1 mole of an ideal gas at 25 “C and 1 bar pressure occupies 24.8 dm3;molar mass (M) of Au = 196.97 g mol-I). ~~

Solution: 1. Type of cell: electrolytic. 2. Type of electrolysis: electrolysis of aqueous gold(II1) nitrate, ANN03)3. 3. Identify all species present: Au3 NO3-(,,), H20. 4. Cathode: -ve electrode (‘CNAP’): Au3 (as),H20. Au is below Zn in the electrochemical series; therefore gold metal is deposited at the cathode: +

Au3+(aq)+ 3e + Au(~)

5. Anode: +ve electrode (‘CNAP’): NO3-(aq), H20. But N03-(aq) is not easily oxidised according to its position in the electrochemical series:

I-

>

OH-

>

ci-

>

NO^-

>

SO^^-

II Ease of Oxidation Therefore water is oxidised at the anode, evolving oxygen gas, + 4e according to the half-reaction: 2H,O(,d 02(*) + 4H i6. Write down the two half-reactions: -+

109


Cathode reaction: Au3 (as) + 3e 4 Au'(,) Anode reaction: 2H20(aq>+02(g)+ 4H +(as)+ 4e +

Multiply by four: Cathode reaction: 4Au3+(as) + 12e 4 4Auo(,) Multiply by three:Anode reaction: 6H20(aq)-+302(g)+l 2W(aq)+l2e

7. Draw the cell (Figure 7.10).

+-

LIE Anode (CNAP)

Cathode (CNAP)

T

Porous separator

Figure 7.10 Electrolytic cell for the electrolysis of aqueous gold(III) nitrate

8. Q = It; t = Q/Z. Therefore, since Z = 219 mA needs to be determined. 9. Apply Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis: 6H,O(aq)

-+

=

0.219 A, Q

30qg) + 12H+(aq)+ 12e

3 mol of oxygen; 3 mol of oxygen 12 x 96 500 C; 12 F 1 mol of oxygen -+ 4 x 96500 C (t);24.8 dm3 + 4 x 96500 C; 1 dm3 -+ (4 x 96 500/24.8) = 15564.52C. But 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 + 150 cm3 = 0.150 dm3; 0.150 dm3 --+ 15564.52 x 0.150 = 2334.678 C. Now t = Q/Z = 2334.678/0.219 = 10660.63014 s = 2.96 h. -+

-+

Answer: 2.96 h

Chapter 7

110

10. Apply Faraday's Second Law again:

+ 4Au3+(aq)+ 4Auo,,) + 3O2(g) +

6H,O(aq)

12H+(aq)

3 mol of 0 2 ( g ) + 4 mol of Au; 1 mol of 0 2 ( g ) + (4/3) mol of Au; 4 x 96500 C + (4/3) mol of Au (t);1 C + (4/3)/(4 x 96500) mol of Au = 3.45 x mol of Au; 2334.678 C -+0.00805464 mol = 1.59 g of Au. Answer: 1.59 g

SUMMARY This completes the section on electrochemistry. The following multiple-choice test and the six subsequent longer questions contain questions on both galvanic and electrolytic cells. MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST 1. The oxidation state of boron in Na2BeB408.7H20is: (b) I1 (c) 111 (d) IV (a) I 2. For the reaction U A KMn04 + uB Fe(C103)3+, the stoichiometry ratio vA:vBis: (a) 6:5 (b) 5:6 (c) 7:6 (d) 6:7 3. What energy change occurs in an electrolytic cell? (a) chemical to electrical; (b) electrical to chemical; (c) both electrical to chemical and chemical to electrical; (d) you cannot say for sure-such changes are concentration dependent. 4. For the electrochemical cell Zn I Zn2 11 Fe3+,Fe2 JPt,which of the following statements is correct, given that E"(Zn2+,Zn)= -1.18 VandE"(Fe3+,Fe2+)= +0.44V? (a) Both electrodes are metal-metal-ion electrodes; (b) The Zn/Zn2+ electrode is the cathode; (c) ELn = -0.74 V; (d) Ekll = + 1.62 V. 5. When 1.48 A of current is passed through a solution of ZnS04 for 1.5 hours, the mass in g, of Zn deposited at the cathode is: (a) 0.045 (b) 5.42 (c) 0.00075 (d) 2.71 Molar mass ( M ) of Zn = 65.39 g mol-' and I: = 96500 C mol-'. 6. Determine AGO in kJ mol- at 25 "Cfor the following reaction: +

+

'

Sn2

+

(aq)

+ 2Fe3

+

(aq) --+

Sn4+(as)

+ 2Fe2

+

(as)


111

E"(Sn4+, Sn2+) = 0.15 V and E"(Fe3+, Fe2+) = 0.77 V and F = 96500Cmol-'. (a) +60 (b) 120 (c) -60 (d) -120 7. In the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, how many of the following statements are incorrect? * Only sodium cations are reduced; * Chlorine gas is evolved at the cathode; * Hydrogen gas is generated at the anode; * Chlorine gas is evolved at the anode. (4 2 (41 (a) All4 (b) 3 8. The volume of hydrogen gas in dm3 measured at 1 bar and 298 K, evolved by a current of 8 mA flowing for a period of 25 days, through a concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid electrolysis cell is: (a) 2.22 (b) 4.44 (c) 214272 (d)2220 (F = 96 500 C mol-' and 1 mol of an ideal gas at 1 bar pressure and 298 K occupies 24.8 dm3). 9. How many of the following equations are incorrect? Q = ItE"; E& = EEHE - E",,,; m = ZIT; AG = -nFE; (a) All4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1 10. How many of the following electrodes will cause hydrogen gas to be generated when they are coupled with a hydrogen electrode to form an electrochemical cell? E"(Fe2+,Fe) = -0.44 V; E"(Ag+, Ag) = +0.80 V; E"(Ca2+,Ca) = -2.87 V; E"(Sn4+,Sn2+) = 0.15 V. (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (41 LONG QUESTIONS ON CHAPTERS 6 AND 7

1. Give a fully labelled diagram of a galvanic cell based on the following reaction: PbS04(s) + 2FeS04(aq)

Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + Pb(s)

If the cell is short-circuited, indicate the direction of current, electron flow and ion flow. Label clearly the anode, the cathode, and give the electrode and cell reactions. Given that = -0.36 V, E"(Fe3+, Fe2+) = +0.77 V Eo(PbIPbS041S0:-) and F = 96 500 C mol- comment on the spontaneity of the cell. Explain your answer, by calculating the value of AGO. 2. Draw the Daniel cell. Determine the potential of the cell at 25 "C, in which the molar concentration of the Zn2+ ions is 0.22 M and that of the Cu2+ ions is 0.003 M, given that

',

Chapter 7

112

Eo(Zn2+I Zn) = -0.76 V and E0(Cu2+ I Cu) = + 0.34 V. (R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'; F = 96 500 C mol-'). 3. Calculate the equilibrium constant of the following reaction at 300 K: Sketch the cell that would have this as its cell reaction. If the cell is short-circuited, indicate clearly the cathode, the anode, the direction of current, the direction of electrons and the direction of ion flow, given that E0(Fe3+,Fe2+) = +0.77 V, E"(C12, C1-) = 1.36 V, R = 8.314 J K - ' mol-' and F = 96500 C mol-'). Comment on the value of the equilibrium constant. 4. Calculate the volume (in cm3) of hydrogen gas produced at 25 "C and 0.65 bar by the electrolysis of water when 0.045 mol of electrons is supplied. (1 mole of an ideal gas at 1 bar pressure and 298 K occupies 24.8 dm3.) 5. Chlorine gas is produced by the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride. Give a diagram of this process, in particular, illustrating the electron flow and the conventional direction of current. Assuming an anode efficiency of loo%, how long will it take to produce 0.0025 g of chlorine, in a cell operating at 760 PA? ( F = 96 500 C mol- and molar mass ( M ) of CI= 35.453 g mol- .) 6 . The same quantity of electricity that caused the deposition of 10.2 g of Ag from an AgN03 solution caused the discharge of 6.11 g of Au when passed through a solution containing gold cations of unknown charge, Au"+. Determine m,given that the molar masses ( M ) of Ag and Au are 107.87 and 196.97 g molrespectively, and F = 96 500 C mol-

'

'.

'

Chapter 8

Chemical Kinetics I: Basic Kinetic Laws

RATE OF A REACTION Any chemical reaction may be represented by the stoichiometric equation UAA U B B . . . 4 UCC+U D D . . .

+

+

+

where uA, uB, vc and U D are termed the stoichiometry factors. Chemical kinetics is concerned with the rate at which reactions proceed. The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the products (C, D, . . .) are formed and how fast the reactants (A, B, . . .) are consumed. The rate of a chemical reaction is related to the stoichiometry. Consider the reaction: A

where U A

=

1, V B

=

4, uc

+ 4B + 3C + 2D

=

3 and V D = 2.

-d[A1= rate

dt

of decrease of [A]

-d[B1= rate of decrease of [B] dt d[CI +- dt = rate of increase of [C]

+a dt

= rate of increase of [D]

where the rate is proportional to the reciprocal of time, i.e. l/time or d/dt expressed as a derivative.

Chapter 8

114

However, an examination of the equation for the reaction shows that the rates of these four changes are not equivalent, but are related to uA, uB, uc and U D respectively, i.e. the stoichiometry factors of the reaction. It can be seen in the above example, that B is consumed four times as fast as A, i.e. 1 mole of A consumes 4 moles of B, and this in turn is related to the rate of formation of C and D respectively, i.e.:

In general, the rate of a chemical reaction:

+

+

+

VAA UBB . . . + VCC U D D+ . . . can be expressed as:

or f--1 d[JI as a general formula. UJ dt RATE LAW This is the algebraic statement of the dependence of a chemical reaction on the concentrations of a number of species, normally the reactants. Consider the reaction: A+B-+C where uA

=

1, V B

=

1 anduc

1.

=

ld[A] Rate= ---= 1 dt where -d[A]/dt

o(

ld[B] ---= 1 dt

ld[C] +-1 dt

[A] and -d[A]/dt oc [B] Rate = --d[A1oc [A][B] 1 dt Rate =

d[A1= k[A][B] 1 dt

i.e. Rate = k[A][B], where k, the constant of proportionality, is known as the specijic rute constant. Such an equation is an example of the rate law of a reaction, or more specifically, the experimental rate equation.

Chemical Kinetics I

115

ORDER OF A REACTION The order of a reaction is the sum of the exponents on the concentration terms in the rate equation, i.e. [ I", where n = the order of the reactant in question. In this text the abbreviations I", 2", 3" etc. will occasionally be used for simplicity. Consider a reaction, such that: Rate = k[AI3[B]' This reaction is: (a) third-order in A; (b) first-order in [B] and (c) (3 + 1) = fourth-order overall. Orders do not necessarily have to be whole numbers (e.g. -1, -2, + 3 , + 1 etc.), but can also take fractional values e.g. f, f etc.), i.e. orders can be intermediate, or even zero. Zero-Order Reactions Consider a reaction such that A + Products Rate = ---d[A1 = k[A]O = k 1 dt since xo = 1, from the rules of indices -d[A] = k dt -d[A] =kdt =3 -Sd[A] = k J d t -[A] =kt+c

* * *

0, [A] = [Ao] = the initial concentration =+ -[A] = kt

At t

=

[A] = y =

-kt rnx

+ (-[&I) + [&I +

+ c = -[A01

c (zero-order reaction)

This is a linear equation, which is the equation of a line, where rn = the slope or gradient = 0 2 - yl)/(x2 - XI) = Ay/Ax, i.e. (difference of the y's)/(difference of the x's), and c = the intercept, i.e. the point where the graph cuts the y-axis, at x = 0 (Figure 8.1).

Units of k for a zero-order reaction: -kt

+k

= [A] - [Ao] = - [A]/t

[&I

+ kt = [&I - [A] + units of k are M s-'.

It should be noted that zero-order reactions are rare, usually found in the case of surface reactions. First-order reactions are much more common, found for species in the gaseous or aqueous phase.

Chapter 8

116

Figure 8.1 Straight-line graph of a zero-order reaction

First-Order Reactions A --+ Products Rate =

kPl' kdt -

ksdt

= kt

+

C

since J i d x = lnlxl At t

=

0, [A] = [Ao] = the initial concentration + c j -ln[A] = kt-In[&] ln[A] = -kt In[&]

*

+

+

I

In[&] ln[A] = -kt = rnx + c (first-order reaction) y

= - ln[Ao]

Chemical Kinetics I

117

This is also the equation of a line, i.e. if the reaction obeys first-order kinetics (Figure 8.2), a plot of ln[A] versus t should yield a straight line graph of slope m = -k and intercept c = ln[Ao]. Remember, logs have no units!

t/seconds

.

Figure 8.2 Straight-line graph of a first-order reaction

Units of k for a first-order reaction: - kt = ln[A] - ln[Ao] j kt = In[&]

- ln[A]

+ k = {In[&] - ln[A]}/t; j units of k are s-'. Although the units of concentration are mol dm-3 (M), logarithmic values are always dimensionless.

Second-Order Reactions The equations that relate the concentrations of reactants and the rate constant, k, for second-order reactions are much more complicated, and will not be presented in detail in this book, as this is beyond the scope of this introductory course in physical chemistry. However, the equation involving the second-order reaction with respect to one reactant, i.e. A -+ Products, will be given:

118

Chapter 8

Rate

k[AI2

*

kdt

=+

kJdt

1

A

since J Y d x = n+l At t

=

0, [A]

=

[&]

=

the initial concentration + c

1 = k t [A1

y

= mx

=

I

+ -1 + c[A01 (second-order reaction)

This is also the equation of a line, i.e. if the reaction obeys secondorder kinetics, a plot of l/[A] versus t should yield a straight line graph, of slope m = k and intercept c = l/[Ao]. Units of k for a second-order reaction of the form A 1 - = k t [A1

+

Products:

+ -1

[A01

=+ units of k are M-'s-'.

HALF-LIFE The hay-fife is the time it takes one-half of a reactant to be consumed in a reaction (Figure 8.3).

119

Chemical Kinetics I

-

tl/2

tlseconds Figure 8.3 Ha&-life of a reaction

Half-Life for a Zero-Order Reaction For a zero-order reaction:

t1/2 = -

2k

(zero-order reaction)

Half-Life for a First-Order Reaction For a first-order reaction:

Chapter 8

120

From the rules of logs

* *

log(A/B) = log A - log B kt112 = ln[Ao] - {In[&] -In 2) kt112 = In 2 t1p =

ln2

(first-order reaction)

Half-Life for a Second-Order Reaction For a second-order reaction of the form A -, Products: 1 1 = kt [A01 [A1 When t = t112, [A] = [&]/2 1 2

+-

* (second-order reaction)

EXAMPLES Example No. I : (a) Compound A undergoes a decomposition reaction, which obeys first-order kinetics, with a specific rate constant k = 5.18 x s-l. Determine the concentration of A that remains 780 s after it commences to decompose at 83 "C, if the initial concentration of A is 53 mM. (b) How long will it take the concentration of A to decrease from 53 mM to 23 mM at 83 "C?

+

(a) First-order kinetics: ln[A] = -kt In[&] Given: k = 5.18 x s-l, t = 780 s and [Ao] = 53 mM + unknown = [A] ln[A] = -(5.18 x 10-4)(780) + ln(53) = 3.5663 and [A] = 35.38 mM (b) First-order kinetics: In [A] = -kt + ln[Ao] s - l , [Ao] = 53 mM and [A] Given: k = 5.18 x unknown = t

=

23 mM =+

Chemical Kinetics I

121

-kt = ln[A] - ln[Ao] and kt log(A/B) = log A - log B. + t = ln(53/23)/(5.18 x

=

=

In[&] - ln[A] 1611.58 s

=

=

ln([Ao]/[A]), since

26.9 min.

Example No. 2: Given that the initial concentration of a compound A, being consumed in a reaction obeying first-order kinetics, is 13.7 mM, determine how long it would take the reaction to be 80% complete, given that k, the specific rate constant, is 8.3 x s-l. What is the half-life of the reaction? First-order kinetics: ln[A] = -kt + ln[Ao] Given: k = 8.3 x s-', [&I = 13.7 mM. Since the reaction is 80% complete, this means only 20% of the initial concentration of A remains at this stage of the reaction. + [A] = (20/100)[&] = 0.2[&] =+ unknown = t

-kt = ln[A] - ln[Ao] and kt = In[&] - ln[A] = ln{[&]/[A]), since log(A/B) = log A - log B. Therefore, kt = ln([Ao]/(0.2[Ao]))= In 5. = 1939.1 s = 32.3 min. +t = (In 5)/(8.3 x = 835.12 s = 13.9 min. t 1 / 2 = (In 2)/k = (In 2)/(8.3 x

DETERMINATION OF THE ORDER OF A REACTION The order of a reaction may be determined by a number of different methods. Two of the most common methods are: Integrated Rate Equations In this method, a reaction order is assumed, and a graph is plotted for the corresponding rate equation. This is repeated until the order yielding the best fit line is obtained.

Advantage: 1. Needs only a single kinetics experiment. Disadvantages: 1. Assumes form of rate law and tests the assumption. 2. Depends on the accuracy of the measurement. 3. Can be sensitive to side-reactions, impurities or products.

122

Chapter 8

Initial Rates This method is much more common. The rate at the beginning of a reaction is measured and the reactant concentrations are known most accurately at this time. Advantages: 1. No assumption is made about the form of the rate equation. 2. Accurate known concentrations are used. 3. Minimal interference by the presence of impurities or products. Disadvantages: 1. Needs a number of separate experiments. 2. An extrapolation method is required, i.e. rates are measured by drawing tangential lines.

WORKING METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE ORDER OF A REACTION BY THE METHOD OF INITIAL RATES 1. Write down the chemical equation. 2. Determine the appropriate rate equation, taking care to include the stoichiometry factors, VA, vB, VC, VD, etc. 3. Using the given data, determine each of the following ratios: Rate 1 Rate 2 Rate 3 etc. Rate 2 ’ Rate 3 ’ Rate 4 ’ 4. From each ratio obtained in step 3, evaluate the partial orders, x, y , z etc. for the reaction, remembering xo = 1, from the rules of

5. 6.

7. 8.

indices and the rules of logs: log(AB) = log A + log B; log(A/B) = log A-log B; log A’ = p log A Evaluate the overall order of the reaction, from the sum of the partial orders: x + y + z + . . . etc. Determine k, the specific rate constant for the reaction for each set of data, Find the sum of these values, and divide to get an average value. Determine the correct unit of the rate constant, k. Answer any riders to the question.

Chemical Kinetics I

123

EXAMPLES Example No. I: Determine the partial orders, the overall order and the approximate value of k, the specific rate constant for the reaction: A + B + C -+ Products, from the following experimental data, obtained by the method of initial rates: Rate 1 Rate2 Rate 3 Rate4

[A]/M 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

[B]/M 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2

[C]/M 0.3 0.3 0.3

Initial Rate/M s-l 4.8

9.6 0.6 19.2

0.15

Solution: 1. A

+ B + C + Products

y and z are the unknown partial orders of the reaction. 3 and 4. (See note at end of question). Rate 1/Rate 2 = {k(0.1)"(0.2)Y(0.3)z}/{k(0.2)x(0.2)Y(0.3)2} = (0.1)x/(0.2)x = (0.5)x = (4.8)/(9.6) = (0.5)

Therefore, from the rules of indices, x Using x = 1,

=

1.

Rate 2/Rate 3 = (k(0.2)' (0.2)Y(0.3)z}/{k(0.1)'(0.1)Y(0.3)2} = 2(2)' = (9.6)/(0.6) = 16 Hence, 2y = 8, i.e. y = 3 by inspection (or take logs on both sides of the equation: In 2Y = In 8, since log Ap = p log A, i.e. y = 3) Using, x = 1 and y = 3,

=

In 8 =$ y In 2

Rate 3/Rate 4 = {k(O.l)' (0.1)3(0.3)'}/{k(0.2)' (0.2)3(0.15)z}

Hence, 2"

=

= (0.5)(0.5)3(2)z

=

= (0.6)/( 19.2)

=

(0.5), In 2"

=

In 0.5, z In 2

=

(0.5)4(2)" 0.03125 In 0.5, and z

=

- 1.

Chapter 8

124

5. Overall order of the reaction = x + y + z = 1 + 3 - 1 = 3". 6. Determination of k: Rate = k[A]'[B]3[C]-1. There are four initial rates given in the question. k must be evaluated for each of these rates and then an average value should be obtained:

k = (4.8)/(0.1)'(0.2)3(0.3)-1 = 1.8 x lo3 k = (9.6)/(0.2)1(0.2)3(0.3)-' = 1.8 x lo3 k = (0.6)/(0.1)'(0.1)3(0.3)-1 = 1.8 x lo3 k = (19.2)/(0.2)'(0.2)3(0.15)-' = 1.8 x lo3 Average value of k = 1.8 x lo3 7. Units of k: k - M-2 s-l

=

rate/[concentrationI3 + k has units of Ms-'/M3

Answer: The reaction is first-order w.r.t. A , third-order w.r.t. B and has order - 1 w.r.t. C. The overall order of the reaction is third-order. s-l Average value of k, the specific rate constant = 1.8 x 1d

Note: Sometimes, the partial orders can be obtained directly by inspection. For example, in the above problem, if the concentrations of B and C (0.2 and 0.3 M) are kept constant, doubling the concentration of A (0.1 to 0.2 M) doubles the rate (4.8 to 9.6 M s-I). Therefore the reaction must be first-order with respect to A. However, caution must be applied here, as this skill only comes with experience. In the next example, such an initial deduction is much more difficult, and hence the working method might be a better place to begin, to evaluate the partial orders.

Example No. 2: Determine the approximate overall order for the reaction: A + B + C + Products, from the following experimental data, obtained by the method of initial rates:

Rate 1 Rate2 Rate3 Rate 4

[A]/M

[B]/M

0.856 0.593 0.391 0.496

0.198 0.198 0.699 0.325

[C]/M 0.699 0.699 0.699 0.51 1

Initial Rate/M s-l 2.94 x 10-4 9.76 x 10-5 6.91 x 10-5 1.37 x 10-4

Chemical Kinetics I

125

Solution:

+ B + C+Products where x , 2. Rate = ---d[Al = - --d[B1= ---d[C1= k[A]X[B]Y[C]", 1. A

1 dt 1 dt 1 dt y and z are the unknown partial orders of the reaction. 3 and 4 Rate 1/Rate 2 = { l~(0.856)~ (0.198)' (0.699)') / { k(0.593)x(0.198)' (0.699)") = (0.856/0.593)" = (2.94 x 10-4/9.76 x + (1.4435076)" = 3.012295. Then, 1n(1.4435076)X= In (3.012295) and x (In 1.4435076) = In 3.012295 + x = 3 Rate 2/Rate 3 = {k(0.593)3(0.198)" (0.699)') / {k(0.391) (0.699)' (0.699)") = = 3.4884612 x (0.2832618)y = (9.76 x 10-5/6.91 x 1.4124457 (0.2832618)'' = 0.4048908. Then, ln(0.2832618)y = In (0.4048908) and y In (0.2832618) = In (0.4048908) 3 y = 0.72 Rate 3/Rate 4 = (k(0.391)3(0.699)0.72(0. 699)") /{ k(0.496)3(0.325)0*72(0. 511)") = 0.8502622 x (1.3679061)' = (6.91 x 10-5/1.37 x loA4) = 0.5043796 +-(1.3679061)" = 0.59320487. Then, In (1.3679061)" = In (0.5932048) =+ z = -1.67 5. Overall order of the reaction = x + y + z = 3 + 0.72 - 1.67 = 2.05, i.e. approximately 2.

Answer: The approximate overall order of the reaction is secondorder. Note: Fractional orders normally imply that the mechanism of a reaction is more complicated then expected, i.e. consecutive reactions may be occurring.

HOW CONCENTRATION DEPENDENCE, i.e. THE ORDER OF A REACTION, CAN BE USED TO DEVELOP A MECHANISM FOR A REACTION The bromination of propanone (acetone), in the presence of acid Hf, is a second-order reaction, whose rate was found to be independent of the concentration of the bromine Br2, i.e.

Chapter 8

126

CH3

CH3

H-

CH2

CH3 Ratedetcrminina -H+

Br-

x"

CH2

1

Br6-

CH3

A

BCH2

En01 CH2

+

CH3

H+

CH3

Figure 8.4 Mechanism of the acid-catalysed bromination of propanone

CH3COCH3 + Br2 - d[Propanone] dt

H+ -+

=

CHzBrCOCH3 + HBr k[CH3COCH3]'[H+]'[Brz]'

where propanone is CH3COCH3. It was found experimentally that the bromine concentration had no effect on the rate. This means bromine cannot be involved in the ratedetermining step of the reaction i.e. the slow step of the reaction. To explain this, a mechanism was postulated, which involved rearrangement of propanone prior to reaction (Figure 8.4). The first step of the reaction is the loss of one of the acidic protons in propanone (Y to the carbonyl group, to yield an enol as the intermediate (alkene alcohol). The electron pair of the double bond of the enol then attacks the positively polarised bromine atom, to

Chemical Kinetics I

127

give an intermediate cation. The final step of the reaction is the loss of the proton to give the a-brominated product. The proton is regenerated at the end of the reaction, and therefore is catalytic. The enolic equilibrium concentration in propanone at 298 K is only 0.0025%. The conversion of the ketone to the enol intermediate is the rate-determining step, or slow step of the reaction, since the subsequent bromination of the double bond is quite rapid. The existence of the enol intermediate and the mechanism of the reaction was first proposed, on the basis of the unique kinetic experimental results. SUMMARY In Chapter 8, the basic laws of kinetics have been introduced, including both zero-order and first-order reactions. A similar analysis can be proposed for second-order reactions, where the integration is slightly more difficult. In the final chapter of this text, Chapter 9, the Arrhenius Equation and a general working method to solve graphical problems will be introduced.

Chapter 9

Chemical Kinetics 11: The Arrhenius Equation and Graphical Problems

MOLECULARITY In Chapter 8, the order of a reaction was defined as the sum of the exponents of the concentration terms in the rate equation. This order is an experimentally determined quantity not to be confused with a term called rnolecularity. Most reactions consist of a number of steps, and each individual step is known as an elementary reaction. Each elementary reaction can be described by the rnolecularity of the process: (a) When a single particle is the only reactant, the reaction is unirnolecular, i.e. molecularity = 1. (b) When two particles collide, the reaction is birnolecular, i.e. molecularity = 2. (c) When three particles collide, the reaction is termolecular, i.e. molecularity = 3, etc. However, it should be borne in mind that a full reaction may have substeps, and tennolecular collisions are infrequent. This is summarised in Table 9.1 below. Table 9.1

Molecularity.

1. A + Products 2. A + A Products 3. A + B -+ Products 4. A + B + C + Products -+

Unirnolecular Birnolecular Birnolecular Terrnolecular

Molecularity Molecularity Molecularity Molecularity

1 2 2 = 3

=

= =

Chemical Kinetics 11

129

Therefore, the reaction 2C10(g)+ 02(g) + C12(,) is an example of a bimolecular reaction, i.e. A + A + Products, as the two C10 gaseous molecules collide with one another to form oxygen and chlorine gases respectively as the products. In order for gaseous molecules to react, they must collide with one another. The calculation of kinetic rates from this is called The Collision Theory. THE ACTIVATION ENERGY OF A REACTION In Chapter 1, kinetic energy was defined as the energy a body possesses by virtue of its motion, e.g. a moving car does work if it collides with a wall. In the Collision Theory, a reaction is said to occur when the two reacting molecules collide with a certain minimum amount of kinetic energy, i.e. if the energy is less than the activation energy of the reaction, Eact, (the minimum energy needed for a reaction to occur), the molecules rebound off one another, as shown in Figure 9.1 (a).

Energy < Eact

I

.-*

Figure 9.1 (a) First molecule rebounds off the second molecule

SMASH ... !

Figure 9.1 (b) First molecule interacts with the second molecule

130

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 (c) Activation energy of a reaction-minimum energy needed for a reaction to occur. Notice the initial energy barrier that must be overcome, before the reaction can take place

The molecules behave like billiard balls. They might not collide, but if they do collide, the reaction may be small or large [Figure 9.1 (b)]. The unit of Eact [Figure 9.1 (c)] is the J mol-', normally expressed in kJ mol-'. THE ARRHENIUS EQUATION The Arrhenius equation, k = Ae-E"JRT is an expression that relates k, the specific rate constant of a reaction, to ,!?act, the activation energy of a reaction, and to the temperature, T. A is termed the Arrhenius parameter or pre-exponential factor. Frequency of Collision Consider the bimolecular gas-phase reaction: A2(g) + B2(g)-+2AB In order for the reaction to occur, A2(g)must collide with Bz(~). + Rate oc frequency of the collisions, 2 (number of collisions per second) Rate = c,Z, where c, is a constant of proportionality. But, 2 itself is proportional to the concentration of both A2 and B2. i.e. 2 oc [A21 and 2 oc [B2] Z oc [A2][B2] = ZO[A2][B2],where 2, is another constant of proportionality.

*

I Rate = c,ZO[A2][B2]1


131

The Steric Factor, p

For a reaction to occur, the relative orientation of the molecules at the point of collision (Figure 9.2) must be favourable.

No reaction ......relative orientation incorrect!

-

d

No reaction ...... relative orientation incorrect!

Reaction ......correct relative orientation of A:! and B?!

Figure 9.2 Collisions leading to probable reaction: AZ(g) -+ BZ(g)+ 2AB

The steric factor, p, is the fraction of collisions in which the molecules have a favourable relative orientation for the reaction to occur. p is sometimes called the probability factor, the orientation factor or the fudge factor.

Activation Energy of a Reaction, EPCt

In any group of reactant molecules, only a fraction of molecules have energies at least equal to Eact,the activation energy of the reaction. It has been shown that this fraction of molecules is given by the expression: e- E d R T where E,,

=

activation energy of the reaction, measured in J mol-';

Chapter 9

132

R = Universal Gas Constant temperature, measured in K; e

= =

8.314 J K-' mol-'; T = absolute exponential = 2.71828 .......

Arrhenius Equation The rate of a reaction therefore is dependent on three factors:

(a) Frequency of collision:

Rate = [Azl[B21 (b) Relative orientation of the molecules, i.e. the steric factor, p: Rate ocp (c) The Activation Energy of the Reaction Rate oc e- EuJRT Taking (a), (b) and (c) together, Rate oc p[A2] [B2]e-EudRT Rate = c p[A2][B2]e-EsJRT where c is a constant of proportionality. But rate = k[A2][B2], from Chapter 8, where k constant.

+ * +

k[A2][B2] k k

=

c p[A2] [B2]e-EsJRT

=

Cpe-E-JRT Ae-EUJRT

=

=

the specific rate

i.e. k is independent of the concentration terms. A is known as the frequency factor, the Arrhenius parameter or the pre-exponential term. A has the same units as k, i e . zero-order reaction, Ms-'; first-order reaction, s-l, etc., where the order of a reaction is the sum of the exponents of the concentration terms in the rate equation, as described in Chapter 8. If natural logs are now taken on both sides of this equation: Ink = 1nAeAEsJRT Ink = In e-E-JRT + In A (since log AB = log A + log B) In k = (-Eact/RT) In e + In A (since log A" = x log A) Ink = (-Eact/RT) + 1nA (sincelne = 1) This generates a much more useful expression for the Arrhenius equation, as this represents the equation of a line, i.e. if a graph (Figure 9.3) is plotted of In k versus l/T, the slope or gradient of the graph, m = Ay/Ax, is given by -E,,/R, from which Eact, the activation energy of the reaction, can be determined. The pre-

*

133


exponential factor, or Arrhenius parameter A can be derived from the intercept, c, of the graph, i.e. c = In A . Eat 1 Ink = -R T Y

=

m

+

1nA Arrhenius equation

x + c

ID' (K-3 Figure 9.3 Plot of In k versus ZIT for the Arrhenius equation

WORKING METHOD FOR THE SOLUTION OF GRAPHICAL PROBLEMS IN KINETICS 1. Read the question carefully. 2. Identify the tabulated data given-tables of data suggest that a graph needs to be plotted. Remember, this may not be specified in the problem. 3. Convert all units to the SI system, i.e. T should be expressed in K and Eactin J mol- (or kJ mol- '). 4. Having identified the data, try to establish a linear correlation between the two sets of data-remember it is not simply a case of plotting one set of data points on the x-axis and one set on the y-axis. Identify the linear equation in question:

'

134

Chapter 9

i.e. zero-order

[A]

=

y

=mx

-kt

first-order

In [A]= -kt =mx second-order 1/[A] = kt y y

for A + Products Arrhenius In k

+ +

+ + +

[&I c

In [Ao] c

l/[Ao]

= m x + c

-Eact/RT + In A mx + c Remember if tlI2 values are given, this is equivalent to a set of k values since: Y

= =

(a) tl/2 = [&]/(2k) for a zero-order reaction (b) tl/2 = (In 2)/k for a first-order reaction (c) fl/2 = l/(k[&]) for a second-order reaction as shown in Chapter 8. Also, it is possible that a table of pressures may be given instead of concentration values [A]. A temperature T usually indicates that the Arrhenius expression is involved. 5. Create a table of the appropriate data, taking special care of: (a) logs-did you use natural logs, log, = In, to the base e, for example? (b) did you convert direct values (7') to their reciprocal values (1/T)? (c) units (e.g. logs: dimensionless; 1/T: K-', etc.) Add as many extra columns as required. Keep the tabulated data vertical (i.e. go down the page); this will ensure you do not run out of space!

x-axislunit

y -axidunit

Chemical Kinetics II

135

6. Examine the table in step 5. From this, write down the maximum and minimum values of x and y respectively: Maximum value of x = ; Minimum value of x = ; Maximum value o f y = ; Minimum value of y = , This now determines an appropriate scale for the graph. At this point, you might want to return to step 5, and ‘round off’ any numbers for plotting purposes, but be careful with the number of significantfigures for accuracy. Add an additional column in the table if necessary. 7. Draw the graph on graph paper, and remember the following points. (a) Every graph must have a title. (b) Label the two axes. (c) Include the units on the axes, but remember, there are no units for logarithmic values. (d) Maximise the scale of the graph for accuracy. (e) Draw the best-fit line through the set of points (Figure 9.4). It is not essential that the line contains any of these experimental points.

y-axidunits

x-axidunits Figure 9.4 Plot of y versus x

8. Determine the slope or gradient of the graph, by choosing two independent points on the line at the two extremities, (XI, y l ) and (xz, y2) respectively.

136

Chapter 9

Then: m = Ay/Ax = b2- y1)/(x2 - xl), and do not forget that the slope has units too. 9. The intercept of the graph, c, is then determined by examining where the graph cuts the y-axis at x = 0. The units of c are obviously the y-axis units. If, however, you find from the scale of your graph that x = 0 is not included, c can still be determined, without extrapolating (extending) the graph. To do this, choose another independent point (x,, y,) on the line in the centre of the graph, and use the formula: y = mx + c + y, = rnx, + c + c = yc - rnx,, since m has already been determined in step 8. 10. From the values of rn and c, determine the unknown parameter(@,e.g. Eact,A, etc. 11. Answer any riders to the question.

WORKED EXAMPLES

Example No. I : For the reaction A --$ Products, the following data were obtained at 350 "C.Show graphically that this is a first-order reaction and determine k,the specific rate constant for the reaction: 0 10 20 30 40 t/min [Al/mM 2.51 2.05 1.53 1.10 0.86 Solution: 1. Read the question carefully-a graph needs to be drawn! 2. Two sets of data are given: time and concentration. 3. If first-order kinetics + ln[A] = - kt + ln[Ao]

y=mx+c m = -kand c 4. Need to obtain ln[A] values:

=

In [Ao] x-axis

y-axis

"/mM 2.51 2.05 1.53 1.10 0.86

In [A1 0.9202828 0.7178398 0.4252677 0.0953 102 - 0.1508229

In [A1 0.920 0.718 0.425 0.095 -0.151

5. Maximum value of x = 40; minimum value of x + A suitable x-axis scale is 0 to 50.

t/min 0 10 20 30 40 =

0.


137

Maximum value ofy = 0.92; minimum value of y = -0.151. + A suitable y-axis scale is -0.6 to 1.O. 6. Draw the graph: this is represented in Figure 9.5. Straight line graph: therefore first-order reaction confirmed. 7. Slope of graph: (xl, yl) = (0,0.96); (xz, y2) = (50, -0.44) m = Ay/Ax = (y2 - y1)/(x2 - xl) = (-0.44 - 0.96)/(50 - 0) = - 0.028 min. m = -0.028 min-'; then, as m = -k, k = 0.028 min.

'

Title of Graph: Plot of In [A] versus t

In [A] 0.2 - -0.2 1) -0.4 - -

10

20

30

-0.6

thin Figure 9.5 Plot of In [ A ] versus t for example 1

Example No. 2: Find the activation energy, EaCt, and the preexponential factor, A , for the reaction A2(g) + B2(g) -+ 2AB, given that R = 8.314 J K - ' mol-' and the following data: T/K k/M-'s-'

538 637 7.19 x 10-'6.32 x

734 792 2.37 x l o v 37.65 x

835 3.29 x lo-'

Solution: 1. Read the question carefully-a graph needs to be drawn! 2. Two sets of data are given: T, the temperature and k , the specific rate constant. Temperature suggests that the expression for the Arrhenius equation is involved. 3. Arrhenius expression: In k = -Eact/RT + In A 4. Need to obtain In k and l/Tvalues:

Chapter 9

138

x-axis 1/T M-ls-l K K-’ x 7.19 x 1 0 - ~ - 14.15 538 1.86 - 9.67 6.32 x lo-’ 637 1.57 - 6.04 2.37 x 1 0 - ~ 734 1.36 -2.57 7.65 x 792 1.26 -1.11 3.29 x lo-’ 835 1.20 5. Maximum value of x = 1.86;minimum value of x = 1.20. + A suitable x-axis scale is 1 .O to 2.0. Maximum value of y = - 1.1 1; minimum value of y = - 14.15. +A suitabley-axis scale is 2 to - 18. 6. Draw the graph (Figure 9.6). y-axis

k

In k

T

Title of Graph: Plot of In k versus I / T 1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

(1.11,O)

0

Ink -8

1

I

i

-10

2

-12

j

I

i

-14

I

-16 (1.9, -15.52)

-18 1!

1/T K” x 10” Figure 9.6 Plot of Ink versus ZIT for example 2

2


139

7. Slope of graph: (xl, y1) = (1.1 1,O); (x2, y2) = (1.90, - 15.52) m = Ay/Ax = 0 2 - yl)/(xz - x1) = (-15.52 - 0)/(1.90 1.11) = -19.646 103~. m = -E,t/R = -E,t/(8.314) = -18.354 x lo3 K Eact M 163.34 kJ mol-'. 8. Intercept of the graph: y = mx + c =$ c = y , - mx,. Choosing (xC,yc) = (1.3, - 3.76) J C = (-3.76) - (-19.646)(1.3) = 21.78 = 1nA + A = 2.88 x 109M-'s-'.

*

RATE CONSTANTS AND TEMPERATURE The Arrhenius equation states that: Ink = -E&RT+ 1nA If kl is the rate constant at temperature T1, and k2 is the rate constant at temperature T2, an expression can be derived relating these four parameters:

In kl

-

In k2 = (-E,,/RT1)

+ In A + (E,,/RTz)

- In A

= (4Ct/R)(l/T2 - 1/Tl) But since In kl - In k2 = log A - log B = log (A/B), then:

In ( W 2 )

I

=

(E,t/Jo(Tl

-

T2)/(TlT2)

y = m x + c

I

i.e. if a graph is drawn of In (kl/k2) versus (Tl - T')/(T17'2), a straight line of positive gradient m = (EacJR) would be obtained, from which the activation energy Eact could subsequently be determined. The graph would pass through the origin, (O,O), as the intercept c = 0. The major value of the above expression is that given any four of the five variables, k l , k2, Tl, T2 or Eact,the fourth can be determined from the equation.

Chapter 9

140

Examples Exumple No. 1: Determine the rate constant at 42 "C for the hydrolysis of a sugar, S, given that the activation energy of the reaction is 132 kJ mol-I and the rate constant at 53 "C is 1.12 x dm3 mol-' s-' and R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'.

1. Identify the data in the question: Ti T2 k2 Eact R

=

= = =

=

42°C 53°C 1.12 x 10-3dm3mol-1 s-' 132 kJ mol-' 8.314JK-'mol-'

2. Convert all units to SI: Ti T2 k2 Eact R

= = =

= =

(42 + 273)K = 315K = 326K (53 + 273)K 1.12 x 10-3dm3mol-' s-l 132kJmol-' = 132000Jmol-' 8.314JK-'mol-'

3. Identify the unknown@) in the question to be determined: the rate constant kl at temperature T I . 4. What expression is involved? = [(Eact/R)(TI - T2)1/(TI T2) In (k1/k2) 5. Rearrange the equation for kl before substituting the numerical values: In k~ - In k2 = [(Eact/MTI - ~'z)I/(TITz) In kl = [(Eact/R)(Tl - T2)11(TlT2) + In k2 6. Substitute the values into the equation, taking care of signs and brackets:

(132000/8.314)(315-326)/[(315)(326)]+ln (1.12 x loF3) -8.4951295 kl = -8.4951295 = 2.045 10-4 dm3mol-' s-' 7. What are the units of kl? kl = 2.045 x dm3 mol-'s-' Answer: kl = 2.045 x In kl

= =


141

Example No. 2: A first-order reaction, A + B, takes 5.8 minutes at 32°C to complete a 15% loss of A. If the activation energy of the reaction is 65.2 kJ mol-', determine the half-life of the reaction at 45 "C, given that R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'.

1. Identify the data in the question: 7'1 = 32°C t1 = 5.8 min T2 = 45°C Eact = 65.2 kJ molR = 8.314JK-'mol-' 2. Convert all units to SI: 7'1 = (32 + 273)K = 305K tl = 5.8 min = 348s 7'2 = (45 + 273)K = 318K Eact = 65200 Jmol-' R = 8.314JK-'mol-' 3. Identify the unknown, to be evaluated: the half-life, temperature 45 "C (7'2). 4. What expressions are involved?

fl12

at

(a) ln(kllk2) = (Eact/MTl - 7'2)/(7'17'2) (b) ln[A] = -kt + In[&], for a first-order reaction. (c) t l 1 2 = (In 2)/k for a first-order reaction. 5. To determine t1/2, k2 must first be evaluated from equation (a). Rearrange the equation for k2 before substituting the numerical values: In kl - In k2 = (&Ct/R)(7'1- 7'2)/(T1 T2) In k2 = - (EWt/R)(G - 7'2)/(7'17'2) + In kl 6. Substitute the values into the equation, taking care of signs and brackets: -(65200/8.314)(305 - 318)/[(305)(318)] + In kl In k2 = = 1.051124 + Ink1 (t) However, no explicit value is given in the question for kl. Hence, this must be determined from another expression, before substitution into the above equation. 1" reaction: ln[A] = -kt + ln[Ao]. Rearrange this equation for k, before substituting the numerical values: kt = In[&] - ln[A] + k = (l/t)(ln [Ao] - In [A]) = (l/t)(ln [&]/[A]), (since log (A/B) = log A - log B).

Chapter 9

142

But tl

=

348 s at 32 "C,when [A] = 85% [Ao].

+ kl = (1/348)(1n[AoJ/0.85[Ao]) = (1/348)(1n 1.1764706) = 0.000467 sTherefore, from step 6 (t) Ink2 = 1.051124 + lnkl = 1.051124 + ln0.000467 = -6.6180573

'.

Hence, k2 = e-6.6180573 = 0.001336023. 7. What are the units? k2 = 0.001336023 s-l 8. t l / 2 = (In 2)/(0.001336023) = 518.8 s, as k first-order reaction. Answer: tllz = 518.8 s

=

(In

2)/t1/2,for

a

SUMMARY OF THE TWO CHAPTERS ON CHEMICAL KINETICS There now follow the five sets of equations which should be remembered for kinetics type problems at this level. In the following two sections, a multiple-choice test and three longer questions, involving the working methods covered in Chapters 8 and 9, respectively, are given: 1. Zero-order

Half-Life 2. First-order

[A]

=

tl/2

ln[A]

= =

Y

= m x + = =

[&l/(2k) -kt + (ln2)/k kt +

Y

= m x +

tl12

=

Ink

=

Y

5.

+

= m x +

Half-Life tlj2 3. Second-order 1/[A] Half-Life 4. Arrhenius

-kt

Y

[&I ln[&]

for A + Products

c

l/[AO] for A + Products c

l/(k[Aol) -E,,/(RT)

=mx

In (kllk2) =

f o r A + Products

c

+ In A +

c

(~act/m(Tl- T2)/(Tl T2)I

MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST 1. The reaction A

+ B -+

Products obeys the rate law:

--d[A1- k[A]-'[BI2 dt


143

How many of the following statements are true? * The reaction is second-order with respect to B. * The reaction is third-order overall. * The reaction is first-order with respect to A. * A and B are consumed at the same rate in the reaction. (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (4 1 2. If the half-life of the first-order decomposition of A at 34 "C is 2.05 x lo4 s, what is the value of the rate constant in s-'? (a)2.05 x low4(b) 1.03 x lo4 (c) 3.38 x (d) 3.38 x lo5 3. The rate constant doubles when the temperature is increased from 35 to 53 "C.What is the activation energy of the reaction in kJ mol-'? (R = 8.314 J K-'mol-'). (a) -3.2146 (b) 32146 (c) 0.594 (d) 32.146 4. A zero-order reaction A + Products commences with [&I = 0.25 M, and after 2 minutes [A] = 0.032 M. Determine k, the rate constant for the reaction, in Ms-'. (a) 0.109 (b) 0.0018 (c) -0,109 (d) 0.018 5. In the reaction 2A(,) + B ,) + 2C(,) the following initial rates were observed for certain reactant concentrations: [AI/M [BI/M Initial rate/ M h-' 0.25 3.2 0.25 Rate 1 0.25 12.8 1 .oo Rate 2 1 .oo 6.4 1 .oo Rate 3 What is the rate equation for the reaction? (b) Rate = k[A]'[B]-0.5 (a) Rate = k[A]o.SIB]l (d) Rate = k[A]o*5[B]-' (c) Rate = k[A]'[B]0*5 6. For a second-order reaction, A + Products, what are the units of k, the specific rate constant? (a) (time)(b) (cone.)-'.(time)-' (c) (conc.).(time)-* (d) (conc.).(time)-

'

'

LONG QUESTIONS ON CHAPTERS 8 AND 9 1. A reaction obeys the stoichiometric equation A + 2B + 2C. Rates of formation of C at various concentrations of A and B are given in the following table:

Chapter 9

144

'

"/M PI/M Initial rate/M sRate 1 3.5 2.33 8.6 x 1.05 7 2.87 x 1 0 - ~ Rate 2 Rate 3 1.05 21 2.58 x 1 0 - ~ Determine the approximate overall order of the reaction. 2. Evaluate the activation energy of the reaction, Eact,for A + 2B --+ C, using a graphical procedure, given the following relative rate constants at various temperatures (R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'). T/"C 77 102 127 154 178 204 k 2 6 18 54 162 486 3. In a given reaction, k = 2.6 x lo-'' s-' at 32 "C and 8.7 x 10s- at 43 "C. Determine Eact,the activation energy of the reaction, the pre-exponential factor, A, and the value of k at 55 "C, given that R = 8.314 J K-' mol-'.

''

Answers to Problems

Chapter 1 Multiple-ChoiceTest (p. 15) l.(c); 2 (b); 3.(d); 4.(a); 5.(a); 6.(d). Chapters 2 and 3 Multiple-Choice Test (p. 34) 1.(c); 2.(b); 3.(a); 4.(d); 5.(a).

Long Questions (p. 35) 1. - 1366.81 kJ mol- *;2. 158.83 kJ mol- non-spontaneous reaction; 3. - 1193.78 kJ mol-', spontaneous reaction.

',

Chapters 4 and 5 Multiple-Choice Test (p. 61) 1.(b); 2.(c); 3.(d); 4.(a); 5.(a); 6.(c).

Long Questions (p. 62) 1.

[H30]'

=

[HC03]-= 2.51 x lov4 M; [CO,]*-

=

5 . 6 lo-" ~ M;

2.4.4; 3. 9.9. Chapters 6 and 7 Multiple-choice Test (p. 110) l.(c); 2.(a); 3.(b); 4.(d); 5.(d); 6.(d); 7.(a); &(a); 9.(c); lO.(c).

Long Questions (p. 111) 1. 218.09 kJmol-', non-spontaneous reaction; 2. 1.04 V; 3.6.72 x lo", spontaneous reaction; 4. 858 cm3; 5. 2.49 h; 6. I11 .

146

Answers to Problems

Chapters 8 and 9 Multiple-Choice Test (p. 143) 1 .(c);2.(c); 3.(d); 4.(b); 5.(b); 6.(b) Long Questions (p. 143) 1.4.7; 2. 59730 J K-' mol-I; 3. 87.984 kJ mol-I, 30461.2 s-', 2.43 x lo-'* s-I.

Further Reading

H.F. Holtzclaw, W.R. Robinson and J.D. Odom, ‘General Chemistry’, D.C. Heath and Company, 1991. P.W. Atkins, ‘The Elements of Physical Chemistry’, Oxford University Press, 1996. G.M. Barrow, ‘Physical Chemistry’, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996. P.W. Atkins, ‘Physical Chemistry’, Oxford University Press, 1994. I.N. Levine, ‘Physical Chemistry’, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.

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6s

5s

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111.69

Zr

I2231

Fr

132.9354

38,9055

89

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5

lKl.9179

Ta

92.-

Nb

50.9915

ACTINIUM SERIES

LANTHANUM SERIES

'17.0278

Hf

178.49

6

7

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a

9

12

Cd

Pt

M.ce

1244)

198.-

Au

107.-

Pd Ag Kl6.42

200.58

Hg

112.41

Zn M.3a

Cu 83.546

Ni 58.89

95

98

97 12u)

1247)

124))

1251)

Cf

98

100

lo1

1252)

1257)

G'W8

Es Fm Md

99

I mass numbers of most stable ismtops

Ir 192.21

m.2

m2.m

58.9332

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101.07

56.847

11

10

'hp "Pu A m Cm Bk

95.94

232.0331 .231.0359 238.0389 237.0482

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4f

228.0154

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157.31

91-22

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08.9059

47.88

44.9559

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85.4678

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7

15

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16 I9

17

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4.0028

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5P

4P

3P

3

14

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13

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Reproduced with the kind permission of Glaxo Wellcome plc.

Periodic Table of the Elements

Subject Index Absolute zero, 30 Acids(s), 2,4748 Brsnsted, 47 carboxylic, 48 concentrated, 2 conjugate, 3 dilute, 2 diprotic, 2 monoprotic, 2 pH, 50-51 polyprotic, 59 strong, 47-48 water, 50 dissociation, 56 weak, 47-48 Acid-base Bramsted-Lowry, 47-48 concepts, 2-3 indicators, 51-52 Activation energy, 129, 130 Activity, 40 Activity series, 7 4 7 5 , 9 4 9 5 Alkyl group, 48 Amines, 47-48 Ammonia, 47-48 Haber process, 46 Anions, 3,65 Anode, 68 Aqueous phase, 2 solution equilibria, 47-62 Arrhenius equation, 130-1 33

Avogadro’s constant, 6 law, 6 Balancing redox equations, 65-67 Bar, 4 Base(s) Brsnsted-Lowry, 47 conjugate, 3 strengths, 47-48 strong, 47 water, 50 weak, 47-48 Bimolecular reaction, 128 Boyle’s law, 4-5 Bransted-Lowry acids, 4 7 4 8 Brsnsted-Lowry bases, 47-48 Brsnsted-Lowry acid-base concept, 47-48 Brownian movement, 7-8 Buffer solutions, 53-54 Carbonate oxyanion, 4 Carbonic acid, 4 Carboxylic acids, 47-48 Catalysts, 46 Cathode, 68 Cations, 3,65 Cell@) diagrams, 73-74 electrolytic, 64, 89-1 12 galvanic, 63-88

Subject Index

150 Cell(s) (cont.) potential, 76-78 Celsius, 9 Charles’s law, 5-6 Chemical equilibrium, 36-62 kinetics, 113-146 thermodynamics, 24-35 Chlorate oxyanion, 4 Chloric acid, 4 Coefficients of gaseous reagents, 7, 25,39 Combustion, 22-23 Common ion effect, 48-50 Concentrated acids and bases, 2 Conjugate acids and bases, 3 Conservation of energy, 63-64 Constant(s) acid, 47 base, 47-48 equilibrium, 35 hydrolysis, 52-53 specific rate, 114 universal gas, 7 water, 50 Coulomb, 76 Daniel cell, 72 Density, 10 Dilute acids and bases, 2 Diprotic acids, 2 Down-hill process, 64 Downs cell, 97-98 Electrochemicalseries, 74-75,9695 Electrochemistry, 65 Electrode definition, 68 gas-ion, 69-70 metal-insoluble salt anion, 70-71 metal in two different valence states, 69 metal-metal-ion, 68-69 potential, 71 standard hydrogen (SHE), 70

Electrolysis aqueous concentrated hydrochloric acid, 101-102 aqueous concentrated sodium chloride, 98-101 aqueous sulfuric acid, 102-103 molten sodium choride, 97-98 Faraday’s laws, 90-9 1 Electrolyte, 89 Electrolytic cells, 92-93 Electromotiveforce (EMF), 71 Elementary reaction, 128 Endothermic process, 26 End-point, 51 Energy activation, 129-1 30 forms, 63 Gibbs free, 31 heat, 63 internal, 18 kinetic, 63, 129 light, 63 nuclear, 63 potential, 63 sound, 63 Enthalpy, 18-20 of formation, molar, 20 Entropy, 2,29-31 Equations balancing redox, 65-67 quadratic, 41 Equilibrium, 36-62 Ethanoate oxyanion, 48 Ethanoic acid, 48 Exothermic process, 26 Expansion work, 18-19 Faraday constant, 76 Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, 90-9 1 Free energy, 31 Galvanic cells, 63-88 Gas(es) ideal, 6,8

151

Subject Index

properties, 2 real (non-ideal), 6, 8 Graphs, 12-15 Groups 1: alkali metals, 65 2: alkaline earth metals 65 17: halogens, 65 18: noble (inert) gases, 65 Haber process, 46 Half-life, 118-1 20 Half-reaction(s), 66-67 Halogens, 65 Heat capacity, 27-29 specific, 27 combustion, 22 formation, 20 reaction, 21-22 Hess’s law, 2&23 Heterogeneous equilibrium, 40 Homogeneous equilibrium, 40 Hydrocarbons definition, 22 reaction with oxygen, 22-23 Hydrolysis, 52-53 anion, 52-53 cation, 52-53 Hydronium ion, 47 Ideal gas equation, 6-7 Indicators, acid-base, 51-52 Internal energy, 18 International System of Units (SI), 9-1 0 Ion@),3 anions, 3,65 cations, 3,65 common-ion effect, 48-50 oxyanions, 3-4 Joule, 10 Kelvin, 9 Kinetic energy, 63, 129

Kinetics chemical, 1 13-144 theory of gases, 7-9 assumptions, 8 validity, 8 Le Chiitelier’s principle, 4 4 4 6 Liquid(s) junction potential, 73 properties of, 2 Matter, 2 Metal(s) alkali, 65 alkaline earth, 65 transition, 66-67 Methane, 22-23 Methyl Red, 52 Molar enthalpy of formation, 20 solubilities, 59-60 volume, 7 Molarity, 55 Mole, 6 Molecularity, 128-1 29 Monoprotic acids, 2 Natural gas, 22-23 Nitrate oxyanion, 4 Nitrite oxyanion, 4 Nitric acid, 4 Nitrous acid, 4 Non-spontaneous change, 3 1 Order of reaction, 115 Oxidation balancing redox equations using, 66-67 definition, 74 numbers, 115 rules for, 65-66 Oxidation-reduction reactions, 67 Oxidising agents, 66 Oxyacids, 3-4 Oxyanions, 3-4

152 Partial pressure, 3 8 4 0 equilibrium constant, 39 Pascal, 4 Perchlorate oxyanion, 4 Perchloric acid, 4 PH, 11 definition, 50 relation to pOH, 50 scale, 51 Phase, aqueous, 2 Phenolphthalein, 5 1-52 Phosphate oxyanion, 4 Phosphite oxyanion, 4 Phosphoric acid, 4 Phosphorous acid, 4 POH defintion, 50 relation to pH, 50 Polar molecules, 9 Polyprotic acids, 59 Potential@) cell, 71 energy, 63 Precipitation, 84 Pressure(s) partial, 38-40 units of, 4 Proportionality, 90 Proton, 2,4748, 59 Rate constant, 114 -determining step, 126-1 27 law, 114 reaction, 113-1 14 Real gas, 6 , 8 Redox reactions, 65-67 Reducing agent, 66 Reduction definition, 74 potentials, 71, 74 Salt(s) bridge, 73

Subject Index definition, 3, 51 Second-order reactions, 117-1 18 half-life, 120 SI units, 9-10 Slow-step, see Ra te-determining step Solid(s), properties, 2 Solubilities, molar, 59-60 Solubility product, 59-60 Solution, equilibria, aqueous, 47-62 Spectator ion, 57 Spontaneous change, 31 Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), 72 reduction potentials, 71 state, 9, 19, 71 State(s) function, 20-21 matter, 2 non-standard, 9 standard, 9, 19,71 Stoichiometry factors, 33,41, 122 Sulfate oxyanion, 4 Sulfite oxyanion, 4 Sulfuric acid, 4 Sulfurous acid, 4 Surroundings, 17 System, 17 Temperature(s), 9 Termolecular reaction, 128 Thermodynamic(s), 24-35 Third law of thermodynamics, 30-3 1 Titration curves, 51-52 Unimolecular reaction, 128 Units, 9-10 derived, 10 non-SI, 10 Universe, 17 Up-hill process, 64 Van der Waals forces, 9 Volume, molar, 7

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