A Pictorial Record of the Qing Dynasty - Old Manchu Capital

Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library A PICTORIAL RECORD OF THE QING DYNASTY OLD MANCHU CAPITAL Compiled by th...

Author: Liaoning Provincial Library

260 downloads 2029 Views 93MB Size Report

This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form

DOWNLOAD PDF

Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library

A PICTORIAL RECORD OF THE QING DYNASTY

OLD MANCHU

CAPITAL Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library

A PICTORIAL RECORD OF THE QING DYNASTY

OLD MANCHU

CAPITAL Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States

A Pictorial Record of the Qing Dynasty: Old Manchu Capital

© 2009 Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd and China Renmin University Press

Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library

Original Chinese Edition © China Renmin University Press

Publishing Director: Paul Tan Project Editor: Yang Liping Translator: Gong Wengao Copy Editor: Rosemary Lim

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Senior Product Director: Janet Lim Product Manager: Vincent Cheah

For permission to use material from this text or product, email to [email protected]

Cover Designer: Melvin Chong Layout Design: Redbean De Pte Ltd

ISBN-13: 978-981-4246-17-0 ISBN-10: 981-4246-17-4

Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd 5 Shenton Way #01-01 UIC Building Singapore 068808

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For product information visit cengageasia.com

Printed in Singapore 1 2 3 4 5 12 11 10 09 08

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Preface to the Series

vii

Introduction

xi

List of Advisers and Editors

xv

Acknowledgments

xvii

About Liaoning Provincial Library

xix

Part I

Three Capitals in Northeastern China Xingjing dongjing Shengjing

1

3 13 17

Part II

The Administration of Shengjing

43

Part III

Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing

99

Yongling Mausoleum 101 fuling Mausoleum 107 Zhaoling Mausoleum 119

Part IV

The Mountain Resort and Eight Outlying Temples

141

Part V

History of the Liao–Shen Area

195

Wars of the early Qing dynasty 197 the first Sino–Japanese War 200 the russo–Japanese War 204

Part VI

Culture and Education

209

confucius temples 211 Kuixing towers 216 the Wensu Pavilion 219

Part VII

Religious Beliefs

229

Buddhist temples 231 taoist temples 242 Mosques 246 churches 250

Part VIII Rites and Customs agricultural activities 255 daily Life 260 Stages of Life 268 Social etiquette 280 festivals 283

253

Preface to the Series

After the initiation of the national Project for the Compilation of the History of the Qing Dynasty, the director of the compilation committee, Professor Dai Yi, proposed a new framework, having consulted with scholars from home and abroad. This new framework consists of general records, gazettes, biographies, historical charts, and pictorial records. It was indeed an innovative decision to include pictorial records in the compilation of the history of the Qing Dynasty. Because of this, we started to collect true-to-life paintings, old photographs, pictures, and drawings of objects and documents with historical value, both at home in China and from abroad. We compiled some of these pictorial resources into a series entitled A Historical Record of the Qing Dynasty. China’s historical records are all textual documents. Yet, despite this, generations of scholars repeatedly proposed using texts and pictures or illustrations side by side to make the records livelier. Due to various constraints, it was almost impossible to record history in a format that was both textual and pictorial. Fortunately imperial court painters and folk artists in each dynasty of Chinese history left a large number of paintings depicting real people and events of their time. This has not only greatly compensated for the deficiency of textual records, but also presented more accurate and vivid information than mere text.

vii

P r e fac e to t h e S e r i e s

True-to-life paintings can be divided into two types:

Kangxi’s 60th Birthday, executed by a group of court

those showing people and those covering events. The

painters. During the last years of Emperor Kangxi’s reign,

paintings produced by court painters, such as Mao

a group of Chinese court painters, under the influence

Yanshou of the Western Han Dynasty, depict emperors,

of Giuseppe Castiglione, began to work on true-to-life

empresses, emperors’ concubines, famous ministers,

paintings, either independently or collaboratively, on a

and also major social and historical events. For example,

range of topics such as emperors’ portraits, their southern

in The Scroll of the Royal Carriage, Yan Liben of the Tang

inspection tours, troop inspections, autumn hunting,

Dynasty vividly recorded Emperor Li Shimin receiving the

worshipping ceremonies, and entertainment, leaving us

envoy sent by Tibetan King Songtsän Gampo to welcome

with lively historical data for studying the history of the

Princess Wencheng. The Scroll of Welcoming the Emperor

Qing Dynasty.

portrayed Cao Xun’s mission to Jin in order to escort

Although these paintings were mainly used

back the bier of Emperor Huizong (Zhao Ji) in the Song

to propagate the authority, virtues, and military

Dynasty. Hence, paintings can be of great importance

accomplishments of the emperors, they also carry other

for historical research as the renowned Song Dynasty

rich socio-historical information. One example is The

historian Zheng Qiao (1104–1162) pointed out.

Imperial Banquet at the Garden of Ten-thousand Trees,

Western missionaries brought Western painting

depicting Emperor Qianlong at the mountain resort of

skills to China. Some of them won the recognition of

Chengde personally receiving the three chiefs of the

Chinese rulers and were appointed court artists. Among

Mongolian Dorbod tribe who led their tribesmen to

them were such well-known painters of the Qing Dynasty

migrate to the Central Plains. Emperor Qianlong conferred

as Giuseppe Castiglione (Chinese name Lang Shining),

titles upon the three Mongolian chiefs, presented them

Jean-Denis Attiret (Wang Zhicheng), Ignaz Sichelbarth

with precious gifts, and held a grand banquet that lasted

(Ai Qimeng), Louis Antoine de Poirot (He Qingtai), and

ten days. The celebrations went on for more than 50

Giovanni Damasceno Sallusti (An Deyi). In order to cater

days. Under the decree of Qianlong, foreign court painters,

to the artistic tastes of Chinese emperors, these missionary

such as Giuseppe Castiglione and Jean-Denis Attiret,

artists absorbed Chinese painting techniques, integrating

took part in this activity. They witnessed the whole

these with European oil painting skills and evolving their

process and objectively recorded the event and people

unique painting styles. Giuseppe Castiglione also trained

with their paintbrushes. Abasi Defeating Rebels with

a group of court painters, such as Ding Guanpeng, Zhang

Spear depicts the Mongolian warrior Abasi, extolling his

Weibang, and Wang Youxue.

extraordinary courage in repulsing 10,000 rebels with

During the reign of the Qing Emperor Kangxi, court

only 24 soldiers. The Scroll of Wanfaguiyi Temple

painters, such as Jiao Bingzhen, Leng Mei, Chen Mei,

portrays Emperor Qianlong at the Temple of Wanfaguiyi

Tang Dai, and some famous folk painters, began to record

receiving Wabashi, the chief of the Turghut tribe, who

actual events in their works. Two examples in this regard

led his tribesmen back to his mother country after a trek

are The Scroll of Emperor Kangxi on His Southern

of thousands of miles. The Scroll of Emperor Qianlong

Inspection Tour (12 scrolls), painted by Wang Li and

Quelling the Western Regions is a series of 16 copperplate

others, as well as The Celebration Ceremony for Emperor

etchings that show military events launched during the

viii

A P icto r ial Reco r d of the Q ing D y nasty


reign of Qianlong to put down the Jungar rebellion in

Houses in Guangzhou, and A Picture of Hong Kong

the northwest.

Opening as a Commercial Port.

There are also many true-to-life paintings that mirror

After the Qing government took back Taiwan during

the culture, local customs, and commercial activities of

the reign of Emperor Kangxi, many officials and scholars

the Qing Dynasty. For instance, while focusing on the

visited the island. The emperors ordered the officials

emperors’ activities, The Scroll of Emperor Kangxi on His

there to report back using paintings and drawings on the

Southern Inspection Tour (16 scrolls) and The Scroll of

customs of the Gaoshan people and Taiwanese products.

Emperor Qianlong on His Southern Inspection Tour (16

That was how The Pictorial Collection of Customs in

scrolls) are true-to-life records covering mountains,

Taiwan and The Pictorial Collection of Local Produce in

rivers, cities, the countryside, garden designs, and famous

Taiwan came into being.

historical and cultural sites from Beijing all the way to

Apart from the paintings produced by imperial

the region south of the Yangtze River. They also record

painters, true-to-life folk paintings, especially those

the everyday lives of people from all walks of life, as well

intended for overseas markets during the 18th and 19th

as the busy scenes of water transportation and business

centuries, are also noteworthy. Europeans of the time

activities along the Beijing–Hangzhou Canal. The

not only bought Chinese products but wanted to learn

Celebration Ceremony for Emperor Kangxi’s 60th

more about the processes for making ceramics (fine

Birthday covers almost half of Beijing city at that time.

china), silk, and tea, among others. Folk artists in the

The first of the two scrolls shows scenes from Shenwu

coastal cities of Guangdong were highly skilled and

Gate, within the Forbidden City, to Xizhi Gate, while the

they knew full well how to cater to European curiosity

second scroll begins at Xizhi Gate and ends in Changchun

about China, churning out large numbers of export-

Garden in the northwestern suburb of Beijing. These

oriented, true-to-life paintings. As a result, folk paintings

scrolls together present a vivid picture of the buildings,

reflecting the lifestyles and local customs of Chinese

gardens, streets, shops, soldiers, and ordinary people at

people flourished.

that time.

Besides paintings, a considerable number of

The Scroll of Beijing in Spring presents a bird’s-eye

late-Qing Dynasty photographs have been preserved.

view of the capital city’s central area. Shops and stalls

Photography is an important means of recording,

are clustered outside the Zhengyang Gate; the streets are

storing, and transmitting visual images of people,

dotted with horse-drawn carriages and pedestrians against

events, places, and objects. Historical photographs

the background of the Forbidden City and Jingshan Hill.

allow people today to visualize what happened in the

Apart from the paintings already mentioned, there

past. However fragmentary and temporary they may

are also works dealing with agriculture, handicraft

appear, they are real, concrete, and vivid images packed

industries, animal husbandry, and commerce during the

with historical information.

Qing Dynasty. Examples include A Picture of Ceramics-

After the Second Opium War (1856–1860), a

making, A Picture of Weaving and Plowing, A Picture of

Westernization movement was launched by some Chinese

Tea-making, A Picture of Cotton, A Picture of the Salt

compradors and officials. They imported foreign capital

Wells in Southern Yunnan, Thirteen Foreign Trading

and technology to open factories, build railways, and set

Old Manchu Capital

ix


up mining companies. They took photographs to record

and pictures of such historical and cultural sites as

the progress of their projects and compiled them into

buildings and gardens. Abundant as these materials are,

albums for sale. Some of these albums advertised major

it is difficult to obtain a complete collection of them, as

social events while others featured historical cultural

they are now owned by public or private collectors both

sites and opera performances. In the late Qing Dynasty,

in China and abroad. Moreover, there is the issue of

the concubines of the emperor, princes, and ministers

authentication. Some paintings are anonymous, making

enjoyed taking photographs. The Palace Museum houses

it difficult to ascertain their age. The authentication of

a collection of more than 20,000 such photographs.

photographs is also challenging, especially those taken

Photography became popular as an art form when

during the late Qing Dynasty, because at that time

Western powers forcibly opened the door of the Qing

photographic technology was basic and negatives were

Dynasty. As an oriental country with a long history of

not always clear. Even when the photographs are clear,

civilization, China would naturally attract numerous

it is not always possible to identify the subjects as they

curious photographers. Traveling photographers, foreign

are often taken in isolation. More research is required

missionaries, and foreign soldiers took a large number

before these pictures can become useful. Fortunately

of pictures for various purposes. Notwithstanding this,

academic circles are paying greater attention to the

all these pictures have played a positive role in providing

collection and study of these types of materials. Only by

graphic information about social life in China at that time

doing this can we gradually restore the historical truth.

and bridging Chinese and Western cultures.

Pictorial history follows on from oral history and the

Apart from true-to-life paintings, export-oriented

publication of A Pictorial Record of the Qing Dynasty

paintings, and old photographs, other important sources

Series will surely speed up the advent of this new era

of first-hand data for us to study the history of the Qing

of historical studies.

Dynasty include: drawings of objects, such as clothes, inscribed couplets, pictures of official documents, ancient books, rubbings from stone inscriptions, local customs,

Zhu Chengru


Introduction

One of the major tasks of a public library is to explore and make full use of its collection of historical documents to serve academic research. At the end of 2004, in order to support the national Project for the Compilation of the History of the Qing Dynasty, the Liaoning Provincial Library started to categorize pictures and drawings about the history of the Qing Dynasty from its collection of historical documents, aiming at making itself a resource center for the project and related research in the future. The paintings of the Qing Dynasty are historical records of the Qing Empire. In a certain sense they can present actual history in a more direct way than textual records. Liaoning Provincial Library has categorized 4,100 precious historical paintings from its collection of ancient books, old Japanese documents, and some documents in Western languages that reflect the Qing Dynasty in terms of politics, economy, culture, military affairs, architecture, folk customs, and religion. Old Manchu Capital consists of 500-plus photographs and paintings about the organizational system of the Liaoning area, its war relics, religious temples, culture, and education during the Qing Dynasty. Some of the photographs or paintings are from first editions or rare editions of published materials, for instance, the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette carved and produced by Wuying Hall in 1784 or the 49th year of Emperor Qianlong’s xi

Introduction

reign, the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced

reign of Kangxi, Chengde County was set up under

during the late Qing Dynasty, the Records of the Sino–

the jurisdiction of Fengtian Prefecture, marking the

Japanese War published by the Japanese Hakubunkan

implementation of the policy of “one district, two systems”

in 1894, and the Photograph Album of Scenes during the

characterized by the separate management of the Manchu

Russo–Japanese War published by the Japanese

people and the Han people. After that, the Han people

Yamamoto Photograph Studio in 1906. Some of them are

from other provinces of China began to migrate to the

rare paintings, for instance, the Complete Maps of

Liaoning area, making it a place where people of different

Paddocks and Kaluns in the Territory of Shengjing and

ethnic groups lived together. Because of this, the Qing

the Blueprint of Lüshun Shipyard. Some are originals of

government abolished the separate ruling policy

old pictures, for instance, the pictures in the Photograph

implemented in the early years and adopted a centralized

Album of Historical Relics in Shenyang taken by Kuroda

administrative system by setting up a province in Liaoning.

Genji in the early 20th century.

This had promoted the political and economic integration

For nearly 30 years before the Qing forces captured

of Liaoning with other parts of the country.

Shanhaiguan, Liaoning had been the political center of

During the Qing Dynasty, Liaoning was not only the

the early-Qing government. Moreover, Liaoning was the

political and economic center of the Northeast, but also

“rising land of the dragon” where the ancestors of Qing

a place where cultures from different ethnic groups came

emperors were buried, therefore, the imperial court

into close contact. It also spearheaded the development

attached great importance to the administration and

of modern education in the Northeast. As a result, Liaoning

development of Liaoning. After the Qing Dynasty

exhibited unique features in terms of architecture, culture,

established its capital in Beijing, the emperors turned

folk customs, and religion. They are a combination of both

Shengjing (present-day Shenyang) into the co-capital

its regional features and multiethnic features involving

and set up the General of Shengjing and Five Boards of

Han, Manchus, and Mongols. World-famous historical

Revenue, Rites, War, Punishment, and Works to implement

relics, such as the three capitals outside the Shanhaiguan,

special administration over this area. They also established

the three imperial mausoleums in Shengjing, the Imperial

the so-called Shengjing Special Administration Area

Palace in Shenyang, and many other ancient buildings,

to replace the Ming administration system, transforming

towns, and cities, not only tell us amazing stories about

Shengjing into a major city in the Northeast and a place

how the founders of the Qing Dynasty built their empire,

of strategic importance in China.

but also demonstrate how they managed to integrate

In 1657 or the 14th year of the reign of Emperor

their Eight Banners system with the traditional Han culture

Shunzhi, an organization for dealing with local

in terms of architecture. All these masterpieces were the

administrative affairs in Shengjing—the Fengtian

results of the integration of different ethnic groups and

Prefecture—was set up. In 1664 or the third year of the

their cultures.

xii


Introduction

This book is divided into six parts according to

of the photographs and paintings stored in our library.

the unique regional features of Liaoning during the

In the process of sorting out the material, we have

Qing Dynasty:

conducted necessary research for each photograph and

• Three Capitals in Northeastern China

painting in terms of date, photographer/painter, source,

• The Administration of Shengjing

publisher, and year of publication.

• Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing

It is a great pity that we could not identify the

• History of Liao–Shen Area

sources of some of the photographs and paintings due

• Culture and Education

to certain constraints. We sincerely hope that our readers

• Religious Beliefs

can give us constructive feedback on this book.

We have also added two more parts to the book— The Mountain Resort and Eight Outlying Temples and

Wang Xiaowen

Rites and Customs—taking into consideration the features

Old Manchu Capital

xiii

List of Advisers and Editors

Publishing Board, the China national Committee for the Compilation of the History of the Qing Dynasty Chen Hua Cheng Chongde Dai Yi Li Wenhai Ma Dazheng

Meng Chao Xu Zhaoren Yu Pei Zhu Chengru Zou Ailian

Editorial Board for A Pictorial record of the Qing Dynasty Series DIRECTOR MEMBERS

: :

Zhu Chengru Kong Fang'en Li Fan Liu Lu Lu Xingsu ren Wanping

Xu Kai Yu Heping Yu Qingxiang Zhu Fenghan

Editorial Board for this Book EDITOR CO - EDITORS

: :

Wang Xiaowen Kang Erqin Liu Bing Wang Lei

Wang Qingyuan Wu Liwei

xv

Acknowledgments

As the birthplace of the Qing Dynasty, Liaoning boasts a rich cultural legacy of the Qing Dynasty. The Liaoning Provincial Library hosts a rich literature on the Qing Dynasty and northeastern China. After the national Committee for the Compilation of the History of the Qing Dynasty approved the project A Pictorial record of the Qing Dynasty Compiled by the Liaoning Provincial Library at the end of 2004, the library officially kick started a systematic collection and categorization of its pictorial documents concerning the Qing Dynasty. The present book is the product of this project. A number of people have taken part in the compilation of this book. They are: Wu Liwei (compiler of parts three and eight), Liu Bing (parts two and six), Kang Erqin (parts four and seven), and Wang Lei (parts one and five). The entire book was finalized by Wang Xiaowen. Over the book’s compilation process, we tried our best to ensure an appropriate combition of pictures and text in order to accurately and objectively reflect the history of the Qing Dynasty. We prepared the descriptive text for the photographs and paintings in this book on the basis of such books as Shengjing Gazette, Fengtian Gazette, The Manuscript of the Qing History, The History and Culture of the Early Qing Dynasty, Shengjing of Its Time, Qing Forces Capturing Shanhaiguan Pass and the Society of China, Historical Research on the Origin of the Manchu People, Changbai Series: Documents of the Early Qing Dynasty, Old Images of Shenyang, Maps of Shenyang, and A Brief History of Fushun. We would like to express our special thanks to the national Committee for the Compilation of the History of the Qing Dynasty for its support in making possible the publication of this book. During the compilation of this book, we also received great encouragement and support from the Director of the Liaoning Provincial Library. All errors are ours. xvii

About Liaoning Provincial Library

Liaoning Provincial Library (LPL) is a center for book collection, bibliography compilation, inter-library cooperation, as well as academic research and exchange in Liaoning Province. Its precursor was the northeast China Library, which was officially established on August 15, 1948 in Harbin and relocated to Shenyang in november of the same year. It changed to its present name in 1955. The new library building was officially opened to the public in October 1998. LPL now boasts a book collection of 3.6 million copies in more than ten languages. Among its 560,000 copies of ancient books, reliable texts add up to 120,000 copies including nearly 100 books printed in the Song and Yuan dynasties. In addition, it also houses a huge amount of literature on northeastern China, the Manchus, Qing Dynasty, and Puppet Manchu Guo Government. In 1998, the library was rated by China's Ministry of Culture as a “First-class State Library.”

xix

Three Capitals in Northeastern China

01

By the late Ming Dynasty the Jurchens, a minority group living in mountain areas in the eastern part of present-day Liaoning Province, had already grown into a formidable force. In 1583 or the 11th year of the reign of Ming Emperor Wanli, the leader of one of the three Jurchen tribes, Nurhaci, began an expedition to unify the group. In the process of establishing what was to become the Later Jin Dynasty or Qing Dynasty, three capitals were set up in present-day Fushun, Liaoyang, and Shenyang and Chinese historians refer to these as the Three Capitals in Northeastern China. Emperor Taizu of the Qing Dynasty, a title given posthumously to Nurhaci, ordered the building of Fo’ala at the foot of Yantong Hill (also called Zaotu Hill) to consolidate his military achievements and expand his territory. Fo’ala was later known as Old Laocheng (literally meaning “old old-city”). It was built of stone and citron wood in three sections: the outer city, inner city, and wooden-fenced city. Watchtowers were built on the city walls. The wooden-fenced city enclosed the residential palaces for Nurhaci and aristocrats and the Khan’s Palace occupied the major part of the town. In 1603 or the 31st year of Ming Emperor Wanli’s reign, Nurhaci moved his base to Hetuala, 2.5 kilometers from Fo’ala, and constructed a new capital. Hetuala was renamed Xingjing (literally “prosperous or rising capital”) after the Qing Dynasty established Beijing as its capital. Hetuala, also known as Laocheng (literally “old city”), was the first capital of the Qing Dynasty before 1

T H R E E C A P I TA L S I N N O R T H E A S T E R N C H I N A

Beijing. It was built with an outer city and an inner city

Nurhaci’s relocation of the capital from Dongjing to

on the terrace at the confluence of the Suzi and Erdao

Shenyang to 1644, when the Qing Dynasty established

Rivers. In Xingjing, Nurhaci proclaimed himself Khan and

Beijing as its capital, Shengjing was the political center

named his kingdom Jin (meaning “gold”), often referred

of the Later Jin government that had occupied most of

to as the Later Jin.

northeastern China. Taking this as their base, the

In 1621, after a series of major victories against the

Manchurians conquered the heartland of China. Later,

Ming government in the Liaoning–Shenyang area, Nurhaci

Shenyang was renovated and expanded several times

relocated his capital from Hetuala to Liaoyang and built

because of the arrival of several Qing Dynasty emperors

a new capital, Dongjing (literally “east capital”). The new

on inspection tours. The city wall of Shenyang was built

capital was built on a broad, flat piece of land east of

with brick and stone. The city was a rectangular shape

the Taizi River in Liaoyang, covering an area of 0.75 square

and had eight gates. Its streets were arranged in the

kilometers. The city was shaped like a rhombus and had

pattern of a hash (#). Shengjing Palace (now known as

eight gates: Neizhi Gate, Fujin Gate, Huaiyuan Gate,

Shenyang Imperial Palace) was constructed at the center

Wairang Gate, Desheng Gate, Tianyou Gate, and Dizai

of the town. The palace consists of the Eastern, Central,

Gate. These gate names were later copied during the

and Western Sections. The Eastern Section includes

construction of Shenyang. Watchtowers were built on

Dazheng Hall and Shiwang Pavilions, built when Nurhaci

the four corners of the city wall and the palace was built

relocated the capital to Shengjing. The Central Section

on a hilltop in the northwestern part of the city. Dongjing

takes the Daqing Gate, Chongzheng Hall, Fenghuang

was built of brick and stone, giving it a more substantial

Tower, and Qingning Palace as its axis, with halls and

appearance. In 1624, Nurhaci reburied his grandfather,

opera stages standing on both sides. The Western Section

his brother, and his sons on Yanglu Hill, northeast of

comprises such buildings as Wensu Pavilion, Jiayin Hall,

Dongjing, a place that was later known as Dongjing

and Yangxi House, built during Qianlong’s reign. A bell

Mausoleum, the cemetery for the ancestors of the Later

tower was built inside the palace’s Fusheng Gate and a

Jin imperial family.

drum tower inside Dizai Gate. Both had commanding

In 1624, Nurhaci relocated his capital again, this

views of Shengjing in their day. There were also places

time to Shenyang where he constructed the last capital

for offering sacrifices and worshipping ancestors at the

in northeastern China. After Huangtaiji succeeded to the

Temple of Heaven, the Altar of Earth, and the Temple for

throne, he decreed that Shenyang be renamed Shengjing

Imperial Ancestors. In addition, four pagoda temples

in 1634—two names that are often interchangeable.

were built on the east, west, south, and north outside

Shengjing was pronounced Mukden in Manchu, meaning

Shengjing city. These temples were all Tibetan Buddhist

”grand and prosperous capital.” Over the 20 years from

pagodas with simple, exquisite, yet majestic patterns.

2

A P I C T O R I A L R E C O R D O F T H E QI NG D YNASTY


XINGJING In 1587, Nurhaci decided to move his army to Fo’ala and reconstructed the castle. Fo means “old” in Manchu. Being older than the old city of Hetuala and the new city of Dongjing in Liaoning, it was often referred to as Old Laocheng (meaning “old old-city”). The term Xingjing here includes both Old Laocheng and Laocheng.

Old Laocheng Old Laocheng (Fo’ala) was reconstructed on the site of a Kocoryo mountain town, between the Suzi and Erdao Rivers, backing on to the Harsa Mountain in the south, flanked by Jiming Mountain in the east and Hulanhada in the west. Fo’ala had an outer city and an inner city. The perimeter of the outer city was five kilometers while that of the inner city was only the size of two racecourses. The town was built using the technique of rammed earth with framed wood logs. The height of the outer city was around three meters and the base width was around 1.5 meters. The city walls had battlements, archery platforms, and defensive trenches. The inner city had two main residential areas, one for Nurhaci and the other for Surhaci (Nurhaci’s half brother), with Nurhaci’s residence located at the highest point in the center.

A brick wall divided the inner city into two equal-sized courtyards, the East Courtyard and the West Courtyard. The East Courtyard contained six houses with more than 20 rooms, most of which were made of brick and tile with only a few thatched houses, all having living rooms, drum towers, and roofed corridors. The West Courtyard had nine houses with around 20 rooms. The three thatched houses standing in the middle of the West Courtyard were Nurhaci’s bedrooms. Judging from the distribution of the houses within the inner city, the halls for Nurhaci to handle governmental affairs were in the East Courtyard while the palaces in which he and his family lived were in the West Courtyard. Nurhaci lived in Fo’ala for 16 years from 1587 when he ordered Fo’ala to be built to 1603 when he relocated to Hetuala where he was born.

016 Suzi River DATE:

Early 20th century Sonoda Kazuki SOURCE: Qing Emperors’ Inspection Tours to the Northeast (Okawa Publishing House, 1944) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

The Suzi River, also known as Nansu River, runs across the present Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County. Old Laocheng was built on the fertile land beside the river.

3


025

036

View of Old Laocheng

East Section of Old Laocheng

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Inaba Iwakichi SOURCE: Old Laocheng on the Erdao River of Xingjing (Kenkoku University, 1939)

Early 20th century Inaba Iwakichi SOURCE: Old Laocheng on the Erdao River of Xingjing (Kenkoku University, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHER:

044 South Section of Old Laocheng DATE:


4



055

066

Layout of Old Laocheng

City Wall at the North Section of Old Laocheng

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Inaba Iwakichi SOURCE: Old Laocheng on the Erdao River of Xingjing (Kenkoku University, 1939)

DATE:


Old Laocheng was constructed using a technique called “rammed earth with framed wood.” Its city wall was built on layers of beatenearth and stone alternating with wooden logs.

074 Site of the Northeast Gate of the Inner City of Old Laocheng DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

5


085

096

Site of the West Gate of the Outer City of Old Laocheng

Site of the Northwest Gate of the Inner City of Old Laocheng

DATE:

DATE:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

Early 20th century Inaba Iwakichi SOURCE: Old Laocheng on the Erdao River of Xingjing (Kenkoku University, 1939)

6

Early 20th century Inaba Iwakichi SOURCE: Old Laocheng on the Erdao River of Xingjing (Kenkoku University, 1939)



105 Excavation Site of the Khan’s Palace in the Inner City of Old Laocheng DATE:

Early 20th century Watanabe Sansan SOURCE: A History of Fushun (Fushun News, 1940) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Nurhaci’s residence was located at the highest point in the center of Fo’ala. The residence had seven gates. A brick wall divided the fenced city into two courtyards of equal size: the East Courtyard for dealing with governmental affairs, and the West Courtyard as the living space.

113 Base of Old Laocheng’s City Wall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

7


124 Bird’s-eye View of the Site of the Khan’s Palace DATE:


136 Walls at the Site of the Khan’s Palace DATE:


144 A Small Temple and Ancient Elms at the Southeastern Corner of Old Laocheng DATE:


8



153 Wall of a Folk House in Old Laocheng DATE:


Laocheng Known as Hetuala in Manchu and Henggang in Chinese, Old Laocheng of Xingjing was situated on a terrace south of the Suzi River, four kilometers east of present-day Yongling Town in Xinbin Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province. The town was surrounded by water on three sides with the fourth side backing on to a hill. In 1603, Nurhaci relocated his capital from Fo’ala to Hetuala, which later became the first capital of the Later Jin. The inner city was completed in 1603, while the outer city was built in 1605. The inner city was shaped like a rectangle with an area of 2.5 square kilometers. The city wall was around three meters wide at base and one meter at the top with a height of three meters. The inner city had four gates, two in the east, one in the south, and one in the north. The outer city had a perimeter of nine kilometers with nine

gates, three in the south, three in the north, two in the east, and one in the west. The city slopes from south to north, enabling people standing on the wall of the inner city to overlook Old Laocheng to the south. Nurhaci and his families lived in the inner city while his best warriors were deployed in the outer city. The Big Yamen of the Khan’s Palace, also known as Zunhaotai or Jinluandian, was located on the high ground in the northwestern corner of the inner city and it was where Nurhaci lived and handled military and administrative affairs. The Eight Banners offices (Yamen) were built on either side of the Khan’s Palace. Hetuala was renamed Xingjing (meaning “the capital of emergence”) after the Qing Dynasty conquered the heartland of China.

163 Overlooking Laocheng from Old Laocheng DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

9


174 Ruins of Laocheng DATE:

Early 20th century Koakira Katsue SOURCE: A Corpus of Oriental Cultural History—Asia during the Qing Dynasty (Seibundo Shinko Company, 1938) PHOTOGRAPHER:

184 Lush View of Laocheng DATE:

Early 20th century Zhang Yaodong and Li Shuchun SOURCE: Xingjing County Annals (1936) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

194 Nurhaci’s Residence at Laocheng DATE:

Early 20th century Naitou Torajirou SOURCE: A Supplement to the Collection of Manchuria Photographs (Kobayashi Photoengraving Publishing Department, 1935) PHOTOGRAPHER:

10



205 Exterior of the Earthen City Wall of Laocheng DATE:


213 Dry Moat of Laocheng DATE:


223 Westward View from the Backyard of a Yamen (government office) at Laocheng DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

11


234 North Gate of Laocheng DATE:


246 South Gate of Laocheng DATE:


12



DONGJING In 1621, Nurhaci decided to relocate the capital to Liaoyang. A new capital was built on the east bank of the Taizi River, four kilometers east of the Liaoyang ancient city. In 1622, Nurhaci moved to this new capital. Unlike Xingjing, which backed up against a hill, Dongjing was built on open ground surrounded by flat plains. It was built of brick and stone in the shape of a rhombus with eight gates, two on each side of the city wall. The names of these gates were later copied by Shenyang. On a ridge in the northwestern corner of the city, the palace and hall were constructed separately, a far cry from the previous style where no distinction was made between palaces and halls. The Octagonal Hall, named after its shape, housed Nurhaci’s offices. The Khan’s Palace, about seven meters high, was built on a man-made, earthen podium 100 meters away from the Octagonal Hall. This marks a breakthrough in the history of the Qing Dynasty architecture.

254 South Gate of Dongjing DATE:

Early 20th century Miyake Toshio SOURCE: Liaoyang (Manchuria Association for the Preservation of Ancient Books, Antiquities, Historical Relics, and Natural Monuments, 1942) PHOTOGRAPHER:

263 East Gate of Dongjing DATE:

Early 20th century Bai Yongzhen et al SOURCE: Liaoyang County Annals (1928) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

13


275

286

Site I of the Khan’s Palace in Dongjing

Site II of the Khan’s Palace in Dongjing

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Miyake Toshio SOURCE: Liaoyang (Manchuria Association for the Preservation of Ancient Books, Antiquities, Historical Relics, and Natural Monuments, 1942)

14




Dongjing Mausoleum Dongjing Mausoleum is located on Yanglu Hill in the eastern suburbs of Liaoyang City. A white pagoda stands in front of the mausoleum, behind it is Hala Hill, on its left is Dongjing City, and on its right the Taizi River. In 1624, Nurhaci ordered his clan brother, Dobi, to build a mausoleum in this spot, which later became the resting place of the Later Jin’s royalty. After Dongjing Mausoleum was constructed, Nurhaci relocated the tombs of Giocangga (Nurhaci’s grandfather; temple name: Jingzu), Taksi (Nurhaci’s father; temple name: Xianzu), Empress Xiao Ci, Liden (Nurhaci’s uncle), Surhaci (Nurhaci’s brother), Murhaci (Nurhaci’s brother), and Beile Yarhaci (Nurhaci’s cousin) to the new burial place. In 1654, Emperor Shunzhi relocated

the tombs of Nurhaci, Nurhaci’s grandfather, and father back to Yongling Mausoleum in Hetuala: only four tombs were left in Dongjing. They are the tombs of Nurhaci’s brother, Surhaci, Nurhaci’s eldest son, Cuyen, Nurhaci’s half brother, Murhaci, and Murhaci’s son, Darcai. Dongjing Mausoleum has fence walls, a main gate, and a stele pavilion that stands in front of Nurhaci’s tomb. The pavilion is a single-eave, saddle-roof building with four arches with a coffered ceiling decorated with colored drawings. Inside it stands the marble stele of Surhaci (Prince Darhan Baturu) with inscription in both Chinese and Manchu. The inscription is elegant and legible.

294 Front View of Dongjing Mausoleum DATE:


306 Tomb of Prince Cuyen in Dongjing Mausoleum DATE:

Early 20th century Bai Yongzhen et al SOURCE: Liaoyang County Annals (1928) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

This is the tomb of Nurhaci’s eldest son, Cuyen. Cuyen was well known for his military achievements when he was young but later was killed by his father. When the tombs of Nurhaci and his father were relocated to the imperial ancestral mausoleum in Xingjing, Cuyen’s tomb was left behind. Old Manchu Capital

15


314 Outer Corridor of the Tomb of Liden Baturu in Dongjing Mausoleum DATE:


323 Tomb of Liden Baturu in Dongjing Mausoleum DATE:


336 Stele Pavilion at Liden Baturu’s Tomb DATE:


Liden was Nurhaci’s uncle. He was awarded the title of Baturu (meaning “brave warrior”) due to his brilliant achievements in war. He died just before Nurhaci rebelled against the Ming Dynasty. Nurhaci moved Liden’s remains to Dongjing Mausoleum and in 1639, and Liden was posthumously awarded the title of Prince Wugong. In 1658, the imperial court relocated Liden’s remains to Xingjing (Hetuala), but the tomb buildings in Dongjing Mausoleum remained.

16



SHENGJING Shengjing (also known as Shenyang) lies east of the Liaohe River and north of the Hunhe River. It was the territory of the Yan State during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. During the Western Han Dynasty it was governed by Houcheng County, Liaodong Prefecture. During the Wei and Jin periods, it became the territory of the Murongs of Xianbei and in the Tang Dynasty, the Balhae Kingdom set up Shenzhou Prefecture here. It was still called Shenzhou in the early Yuan Dynasty but was later renamed Shenyang Lu (a level of government higher than county). It became Shenyangwei (Fort Shenyang) in the Ming Dynasty. Shenyang’s city wall was believed to have been first built during the Warring States Period and reconstructed in the Jin and Yuan dynasties on the foundation of Shenzhou. In the Ming Dynasty, the thitherto eathen city wall was rebuilt with brick. Shenyang was severely damaged due to prolonged lack of repairs in the late part of the Ming Dynasty. After the Later Jin relocated its capital to Shenyang, the city underwent large-scale reconstruction. For over 20 years, from Nurhaci’s relocation of his capital from Dongjing to Shenyang to the establishment of Beijing as the capital of the Qing Dynasty in 1644, Shenyang was the political center of the Later Jin government which held sway over most of the Northeast, making it the “most important town in the Northeast.”

Shengjing’s City Wall and Gate Sites During the early period of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Huangtaiji renamed Shenyang Tianjuan Shengjing, or Mukden in Manchu, meaning “prosperity.” The city had eight gates: Desheng Gate and Tianyou Gate in the south, Fusheng Gate and Dizai Gate in the north, Fujin Gate and Neizhi Gate in the east, and Huaiyuan Gate and Wairang Gate in the west. The names of these eight gates were copied from the gate names of the Dongjing city in Liaoyang. During Emperor Kangxi’s reign, an earthen city wall called Guanqiang (literally “pass wall”) was built along the outer circle of Shenyang. The area between the Guanqiang and Shenyang’s city wall was called Guanxiang, within which eight passes were set up. There were also eight side gates in the outer city: the Big South Gate, the Small South Gate, the Big East Gate, the Small East Gate, the Big North Gate, the Small North Gate, the Big West Gate, and the Small West Gate. Together they were known as Eight Gates and Eight Passes.

Old Manchu Capital

346 Shengjing’s City Wall I DATE: Early 20th century SOURCE: Survey of Manchuria (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1935)

17


355 Shengjing’s City Wall Il DATE:

Early 20th century Iibuchi Hiroshi SOURCE: Historical Sites of Fengtian (City Government of Fengtian, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHER:

364 Shengjing’s Big East Gate DATE:


18



375

386

Ruins of Shengjing’s Temple of Heaven

Gate Tower of Neizhi Gate

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Kuroda Genji SOURCE: Photographic Collection of Shenyang’s Historical Sites

Old Manchu Capital

Early 20th century Kuroda Genji SOURCE: Photographic Collection of Shenyang’s Historical Sites PHOTOGRAPHER:

19


395

406

Outside View of Shengjing’s Small East Gate

Shengjing’s Small West Side Gate

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Kuroda Genji SOURCE: Photographic Collection of Shenyang’s Historical Sites

20




415

426

Shengjing’s Big South Gate

Site of Shengjing’s South Gate

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Iibuchi Hiroshi SOURCE: Historical Sites of Fengtian (City Government of Fengtian, 1939)

Old Manchu Capital


21


The Bell Tower and Drum Tower

435 Shengjing’s Bell Tower DATE:

Early 20th century Ito Chuuta SOURCE: Chinese Architecture and Decoration Volume II (Institute of Oriental Culture, 1941) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Built in 1637, the bell and drum towers were used mainly as timing devices at night. Shengjing’s Bell Tower was built inside Fusheng Gate and the Drum Tower inside Dizai Gate. The distance between the two towers is 580 meters with one in the east and the other in the west. The south-facing towers were built on two square podiums measuring six meters high. The main part of each tower is also six meters high. Beneath the podium is a cross-shaped arched gate. Above the podium is a wooden pavilion with double-eave, saddle roofs, where the upper part of a pavilion is for hanging the bell or drum while the lower part is for placing steles.

444 Shengjing’s Drum Tower DATE:


22



Shengjing’s Tangzi, Temple of Heaven, and Altar of Earth Shamanism was a common religion among the Manchus from an early age and every family had its own shaman. The Qing emperors practiced shamanistic rituals at the Tangzi (the ancestral temple of the Qing imperial courts), Temple of Heaven, and the Altar of Earth. The rituals can be roughly divided into two types: worshipping gods (in the morning and evening) and worshipping heaven in the Tangzi. After Huangtaiji assumed the throne, he decreed that ordinary people be forbidden from setting up a Tangzi for worshipping, elevating Tangzi worship to a national event. Rituals were held on the first day of New

Year when the emperor would go to the Tangzi in person to practice the heaven-worshipping rituals. Nurhaci set up a Tangzi in the east of Shenyang. The main hall was an octagonal pavilion surrounded by lush trees and bushes. The portraits of Nurhaci’s father and grandfather and their memorial tablets were honored inside the hall. During Huangtaiji’s reign, another building was constructed and named Xiang Hall—a five-bay building with corridor pillars. There were also auxiliary buildings, such as the Heaven-worshipping Hall, the Dining Hall, and the Monk’s Room.

453 Map of the Tangzi DATE:


464 The Tangzi outside Neizhi Gate DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

23


474 Front Gate of Shengjing Tangzi DATE:


The front gate is a three-bay, gable-roofed structure with a pillar-supported porch. Pine trees and cedars are planted in front of the gate.

484 Front View of Xiang Hall in Shengjing Tangzi DATE:


494 Shengjing Tangzi’s Octagonal Hall and Xiang Hall DATE:


24



505

516

Octagonal Hall

Paved Path inside Shengjing Tangzi

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Naitou Torajirou SOURCE: A Supplement to the Collection of Manchuria Photographs (Kobayashi Photoengraving Publishing Department, 1935)

Old Manchu Capital


25


The Site of the Temple of Heaven

525

In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, the royal family still worshipped their ancestors according to shamanistic rituals. It was until after Emperor Huangtaiji succeeded the throne that the Qing imperial court accepted the suggestion of Han officials to build the Temple of Heaven and the Altar of Earth in Shengjing. The site of the Temple of Heaven was located five kilometers away from Shenyang’s Big South Gate. The temple stood like a round hill with three levels of concentric circles paved with bricks. The upper level had nine brick circles with a circumference of around five meters. The middle level had seven brick circles with a circumference of around 11 meters. The bottom level had five brick circles with a circumference of around 16 meters. All three levels were about one meter high. Brick steps were built on four sides of the circles and the entire temple was enclosed by a 340-meter wall. Each side of the wall had a gate with the south gate acting as the front gate.

Map of the Temple of Heaven in Shengjing SOURCE:

Shengjing Gazette (1784)

534 Site of the Temple of Heaven in Shengjing DATE:


544 Site of the Outer Protection Wall of the Temple of Heaven DATE:


26



The Site of the Altar of Earth The Altar of Earth, built in 1640, was about 1.5 kilometers away from the Small East Gate of Shenyang. It consisted of two levels, around which raised brick ridges were built to hold water. Both levels were in the shape of a square and paved with bricks. The upper level was a square with a side length of around 18 meters and a height of 1.8 meters. The lower level was a square, 0.7 meters in height and 24 meters in length. The altar was also enclosed by a 340-meter wall. There were four gates facing south, north, east, and west respectively. The first level was for worshipping the God of Earth who was located in the north; the second level, with the symbol of Five Mountains and of Five Towns on the east and the west, was the place for emperors to offer sacrifices to the God of Earth. After Emperor Shunzhi relocated the capital to Beijing, the Altar of Earth in Shengjing was only repaired once. Later it was abandoned due to disrepair.

553 Map of the Altar of Earth in Shengjing DATE:


566 Site of the Altar of Earth in Shengjing DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

27


Shenyang Imperial Palace

576 Layout of Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


28

Located at the center of Shenyang, Shenyang Imperial Palace was once the imperial palace of the early Qing Dynasty. It was first called Shengjing Palace and then renamed Fengtian Regional Palace after the Qing replaced the Ming in Beijing. Later, it was called Shenyang Imperial Palace. The palace buildings are well preserved, occupying an area of 67,000 square meters with more than 100 buildings and 500 rooms, presenting a distinctive Manchurian style. Constructed in 1625, the palace was made up of Eastern, Central, and Western Sections. The Eastern Section consists of buildings constructed during Nurhaci’s time, including Dazheng Hall and the Shiwang Pavilions. Buildings in the Central Section were constructed during Huangtaiji’s reign, including Daqing Gate, Chongzheng Hall, Phoenix Tower, Qingning Palace, Guanju Palace, Yanqing Palace, and Qifu Palace. The Western Section consists of buildings constructed during Qianlong’s reign, including Wensu Pavilion, Jiayin Hall, and Yangxi House.



The main building in the palace’s Eastern Section is Dazheng Hall where the Khan, the princes, and the ministers deliberated on state affairs or important celebration ceremonies were held. It is an octagonal building with a pointed roof, double eaves, and a large, wooden framework. The eight angles symbolize the Eight Banners, an organizational system adopted by the Manchus.

583 Map of Dazheng Hall in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


596 Full View of Dazheng Hall in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:

Early 20th century Photographs Archived by the Museum (Museum of Northeastern China, 1943)

SOURCE:

Old Manchu Capital

29


Dazheng Hall is 21 meters high and consists of a top, a main body, and a base. There is a two-meter-high, multicolored glazed top on the highest point of the roof. The pavilion is supported by 32 red pillars arranged in two concentric circles with golden dragons twisting up the two pillars by the south gate. Propped up by a two-meter-high Sumeru podium of brick and stone at the bottom, Dazheng Hall has stone steps on four sides.

605 Close-up of Dazheng Hall in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


613 The Emperor’s Throne in Dazheng Hall DATE:


30



626 Dazheng Hall and Shiwang Pavilions in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:

Early 20th century Ito Kiyozou SOURCE: Architecture of China, Manchuria, and Mongolia (Osaka Yago Bookstore, 1929) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The Shiwang (Ten Princes) Pavilions have square-shaped, tiled, saddle roofs with surrounding corridors. The ten pavilions line up south of Dazheng Hall, five pavilions on the eastern and western sides respectively. The pavilions on the eastern side are, from north to south, the Left Wing Commander Pavilion, Plain Yellow Banner Pavilion, Plain Red Banner Pavilion, Bordered Blue Banner Pavilion, and Bordered White Banner Pavilion. On the western side from north to south are the Right Wing Commander Pavilion, Bordered Yellow Banner Pavilion, Bordered Red Banner Pavilion, Plain Blue Banner Pavilion, and Plain White Banner Pavilion.

Central Section of Shenyang Imperial Palace The Central Section consists of buildings and palaces constructed during Emperor Huangtaiji’s reign: Daqing Gate, Chongzheng Hall, Phoenix Tower, Qingning Palace, Guanju Palace, Linzhi Palace, Yanqing Palace, and Yongfu Palace. The buildings along the central axis were places for Huangtaiji to reside and handle state affairs. These buildings are a combination of Han Chinese and Manchu styles.

634 Wende Archway in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


The two entrances to the Imperial Palace: the East Archway of Excellent Administrations (Wende) and the West Archway of Military Achievements (Wugong). Old Manchu Capital

31


645 Wugong Archway in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


653 Pavilion for Musical Band in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


Two musical pavilions stand on the eastern and western sides in the southernmost part of the Dazheng Hall courtyard. Both pavilions have a pyramid roof with glazed tiles. Each pavilion sits on top of a two-meter square base. Beneath one side of the base is an arched gateway leading up to the pavilion where musicians played music. These two pavilions were built during Emperor Huangtaiji’s reign. Musical performances would be held there during important celebrations. They were still in use after the Qing Dynasty captured Beijing when emperors came for inspection. 32



The Daqing Gate, also known as Wuchao Gate, is the front gate of Shenyang Imperial Palace. Its rooftop is constructed with golden-glazed tiles with green borders. It has five rooms of which the three middle rooms are gateways.

663 Daqing Gate of Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


SOURCE:

Chongzheng Hall This five-bay hall has a gabled roof with corridors on both the front and rear sides. The hall is built on a one-meter-high balustrade podium. In front of the hall lies a 0.5-meter-high rectangular platform measuring 22 meters long and 13 meters wide. On the eastern side of the platform stands a sundial (ri gui). On the western side stands a stone pavilion containing the instrument of standard measures (jia liang). Chongzheng Hall is also known as Jinluan (Emperor’s Throne) Hall or the main hall where Emperor Huangtaiji handled governmental affairs and met with foreign ambassadors. Later, when Qing emperors were on inspection tours to the Northeast, they used this hall to deal with governmental affairs. Old Manchu Capital

675 Chongzheng Hall in Shenyang Palace DATE:


SOURCE:

33


The interior of Chongzheng Hall adopts an open-frame roof structure without ceilings, as a result of which the beams and rafters can be seen clearly. The structural parts are painted with patterns of dragons swimming in the sea. The beam columns are all a deep red and decorated with golden flying dragons, blue waves, and white clouds. The roof boards are decorated with sky and cloud patterns.

683 Inside View of Chongzheng Hall in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


SOURCE:

The Emperor’s Throne This is a miniature of the emperor’s throne in Qianqing Palace of the Forbidden City built at Emperor Qianlong’s decree. The throne and the screen are decorated with nine dragons and covered with golden paint. There are 12 lines of four-word sentences inscribed on the throne, exactly the same as those on the screen in Qianqing Palace. These are all quotations from classical Chinese texts selected by Emperor Kangxi as mottos for himself and the later emperors. Ceremonial articles are placed both in front of and behind the throne, such as craneshaped candle stands, smoking stoves, tower-shaped incense pavilions, a ludan (a legendary beast), and a statue of a vasecarrying elephant.

694 The Emperor’s Throne in Chongzheng Hall DATE:

Early 20th century Photograph Album of Scenic Spots in Fengtian (Southern Manchurian Railway Company)

SOURCE:

34



705 The Phoenix Tower in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


SOURCE:

Old Manchu Capital

The Phoenix Tower, originally known as Xiangfeng (meaning “flying phoenix”) Tower, is the archway of the inner courtyard of Qingning Palace. As one of the Eight Scenic Spots of Shengjing—“The Phoenix Tower at Daybreak,” it is a three-story tower with a saddle roof of glazed tiles. Built on a four-meter-high podium, the main body of the tower is above 20 meters, making it one of the tallest buildings in Shengjing. During Emperor Huangtaiji’s reign, it was often used as a place for recreation and banquets. After the Qing Dynasty captured Beijing, this tower was used for storing historical records.

35


714 Yanqing Palace and the Holy Pole DATE:


Yanqing Palace ranks second to the Eastern Palace out of the five palaces. It is the residence for Shufei, the second highest-ranking concubine. The Holy Pole, also known as Solo Pole, stands in the courtyards of Manchu houses as the focal point for shamanistic practices and sacrificial rites in heavenworshipping ceremonies.

725 Qingning Palace of Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


SOURCE:

36

Qingning Palace is the bedchamber of Emperor Huangtaiji and Empress Borjigit. Located behind the Phoenix Tower, it is the most uniquely Manchustyled structure of all the buildings in Shenyang Imperial Palace. The gate of the five-bay palace is set in the second bay on the eastern side. All four bays on the western side are connected. This kind of building is often referred to as a bag house. Qingning Palace was used for holding shamanistic sacrifice, often held in the three bays on the western side, which were also called the Holy Shrine.



The Eastern Residence (Dongsuo) and the Western Residence (Xisuo) The Eastern Residence and the Western Residence refer to the buildings on the east and west sides of Chongzheng Hall, constructed in 1746 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign. These buildings had two main purposes: as short-stay palaces and as places for storing confidential records collected by the the imperial court. The Eastern Residence consists of Yihe Hall, Jiezhi Palace, A-ge Place (destroyed), and Jingdian Pavilion, and was mainly used as the dwelling place for the emperor’s mother and young princes when they were accompanying the emperor during inspection tours to the Northeast. The Western Residence comprises Diguang Hall, Baoji Palace, Jisi House, and Chongmo Pavilion, and was the dwelling place for the Emperor, his wives, and concubines. Jingdian Pavilion stands in a courtyard on the far north of the Eastern Residence. It is a two-story building with a saddle roof of glazed tiles, used for storing historical and confidential records of the Qing Dynasty.

733 Jingdian Pavilion in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


743 Diguang Hall in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


Diguang Hall is a provisional palace constructed for Emperor Qianlong when he went on an inspection tour to the Northeast. It stands to the right of Chongzheng Hall. Similar in style to Yihe Hall, Diguang Hall was where the emperor reviewed memorials and handled state affairs. Old Manchu Capital

37


754 Chongmo Pavilion in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


Chongmo Pavilion has a unique architectural style featuring a parabola roof. It was built during Emperor Qianlong’s reign to store important documents, such as records of the imperial courts, emperors’ teachings, and old Manchu documents.

766 The Temple of Imperial Ancestors, built during Emperor Qianlong’s reign, stands east of Daqing Gate in Shenyang Imperial Palace and is enclosed by a red wall. Inside the courtyard, the distance between the north and the south is about 40 meters while east to west is about 35 meters. It was used for worshipping the tablets of the emperors and their ancestors.

38

The Temple of Imperial Ancestors in Shenyang DATE:




The Western Section of Shenyang Imperial Palace The Western Section of the Palace consists of buildings constructed between 1781 and 1783 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign, such as Wensu Pavilion, Jiayin Hall, and Yangxi House. The major function of these buildings was to store the Siku Quanshu (The Complete Library of the Four Treasures). When the emperors were staying in Shengjing on their inspection tours, they would read books, write poems, watch operas, and hold banquets, apart from holding ceremonies and handling state affairs.

775 The Stage in Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

The stage faces north in front of Jiayin Hall. Built on a podium of around 0.6 meters in height, the stage measures about 30 square meters under a blue-tiled parabola roof. This was where the Qing emperors held banquets and watched opera performances during their inspection tours to the Northeast.

39


785 Wensu Pavilion of Shenyang Imperial Palace DATE:


Wensu Pavilion of Shenyang Imperial Palace Wensu Pavilion, constructed for storing the Siku Quanshu, is a major building in the Western Section of Shenyang Imperial Palace. It is modeled on Fan Qin’s Tianyi Pavilion (Fan Qin was a famous book collector of the Ming Dynasty) that features two stories, three floors, and a gabled roof.

794 The Inscribed Tablet of Wensu Pavilion DATE:


40



805 The Stele Pavilion of Wensu Pavilion DATE:

Early 20th century Ito Chuuta SOURCE: Chinese Architecture and Decoration (Institute of Oriental Culture, 1941) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

Next to the east wall of Wensu Pavilion stands a square stele pavilion with red walls and yellow tiles. Inside the pavilion is a stone stele with Chinese and Manchu inscriptions on both sides. The front inscription is about the construction of Wensu Pavilion while the rear inscription is about filial piety. Both inscriptions were written by Emperor Qianlong.

41

The Administration of Shengjing

02

The Shengjing area was the land of emergence for the Qing Dynasty. Shengjing was referred to as a co-capital after the Qing Dynasty captured Beijing and established that city as its formal capital. The Imperial Court turned the Shengjing area into a special administrative region. Frontier city walls were built, Kaluns (a frontier defense system) were set up, and exclusion policies were practiced. Unlike the heartland of China where an administrative system based on provinces was practiced, Shengjing implemented a policy of “one district, two systems” with the Manchus and the Han people ruled by different systems. A post called Fengtian General was set up to pacify the former capital and administer the Banner people (the Manchu people). At the same time, an organization called Fengtian Prefecture was established to rule the Han people who were reluctant to join the Banner system. As a result, a unique administrative system took shape under the various levels of bifurcated government, each with separate governmental offices for dealing with Banner people or Han people. In the early years after the Qing forces conquered the Shanhaiguan (Mountain and Sea Pass) and Beijing, Shengjing was put under the charge of a garrison minister who was Governor-in-Chief of the entire Shengjing area. The five boards of Revenue, Rites, War, Punishment, and Works came under the minister. The territory under the minister’s jurisdiction was much larger than that of the later General of Shengjing (or General of Fengtian), 43

T H E A D M I N I S T R AT I O N O F S H E N G J I N G

covering the whole of northeastern China. In 1646 or the third year during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, the Qing government changed the title of Shengjing garrison minister to that of Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian, whose duties at that time still included the garrison of all Northeastern China, overseeing the military, Eight Banners men, frontier, and foreign affairs. In 1653, the Imperial Court appointed another Commander-in-Chief in Ningguta to strengthen control over the northern part of Northeastern China. As a consequence, the territory under the control of the Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian began to shrink. Later, the title Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian was changed into Garrison General of Liaodong and Garrison General of Fengtian. During Emperor Kangxi’s reign, the General of Ningguta and the General of Aihui were appointed. The Garrison General of Fengtian was changed into the Garrison General of Shengjing. Thereafter, northeastern China was under the administration of the General of Shengjing (also called the General of Fengtian), the General of Ningguta (later renamed the General of Jilin), and the General of Aihui (later renamed the General of Heilongjiang). General of Shengjing had command over the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Jinzhou, and Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Xiongyue. In 1876, the Deputy Commanderin-Chief of Xingjing was added to the list. They were responsible for commanding the Eight Banners army, garrisoning important cities, frontier castles, and checkpoints. In 1657, the Qing Imperial Court set up Fengtian Prefecture in Shengjing to handle the affairs of the Han people, forming an administrative system in which the Manchu affairs in the Shengjing area were managed by the General of Shengjing and his subordinates while the Han people affairs were managed by the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture and his subordinates. Under Fengtian Prefecture were such lower-level governments as sub-prefectures, departments, and counties distributed throughout the major towns and cities under the jurisdiction of the General of Shengjing. They worked well with the Eight Banners garrison institutions under the General of Shengjing, realizing an effective management of the Manchu people and Han people in the Shengjing area and contributing to its political, economic, military, and cultural development. During the late Qing Dynasty, with the gradual abolition of the exclusion policies practiced in the Northeast and the worsening domestic situation, the Imperial Court removed the General of Shengjing in 1907. In its place a unified provincial organizational system was adopted, already in practice in central China, abolishing the separate ruling system for Manchu people and Han people and effecting the political and economic integration of Shengjing into the rest of China. This produced a far-reaching influence on the development of northeastern China. 44



015 Complete Map of Shengjing Territory SOURCE:

Shengjing Gazette (1784) Carved copy SIZE: 31 x 39 cm VERSION:

Old Manchu Capital

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong, shows the boundaries of the Shengjing area as follows: Shengjing extends 2,150 kilometers east to the shoreline of the sea, 400 kilometers west to Shanhaiguan, 365 kilometers south to the sea, and 2,550 kilometers north to the Russian border along the Wai Xing’anling (Outer Xing’an Range) in Heilongjiang. The map also shows the boundaries of the area under the jurisdiction of the Minister Garrisoning Shengjing (later changed into the Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian) before 1653. The map is in rough binding; the top is north and the bottom south.

45


025 Topographical Map of the Territory under the General of Fengtian

Based on this map, the territory under the General of Fengtian borders the frontier walls of Xingjing (Jilin boundary) 140 kilometers to the east, Shanhaiguan 400 kilometers to the west, the sea 365 kilometers to the south, and the Willow Palisade 130 kilometers to the north.

SOURCE:


46



035 A Complete Map of Shengjing SOURCE:

Complete Map of the Imperial Territory (Late Qing Dynasty) VERSION: Hand-drawn copy SIZE: 27 x 36 cm

This map is taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory) and shows the Shengjing territory bordering the boundary walls of Xingjing in the east, Shanhaiguan in the west, the sea in the south, and the Willow Palisade in the north. This area was under the jurisdiction of the General of Fengtian after 1653. The map is thread-bound; the top indicates north and the bottom south.

044 Seal of the General Department of Imperial Household in Shengjing SOURCE:

Collection of Manchu Official Seals (1753) SIZE: 10.2 x 10.2 cm

Old Manchu Capital

This is the official seal of the Imperial Household Department in Shengjing made by the Board of Rites in 1753. Inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese, it has a silver handle and is numbered Qianzi 334 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty. Shengjing Imperial Household Department was in charge of the servants of Plain Yellow Banner, Bordered Yellow Banner, Plain White Banner, and the institutions of the imperial palace. Under its administration were the Office of Storage, Office of Accountancy, Office of Ceremony, Office of Military Affairs, Office of Construction, Wensu Pavilion, the Weaving House of the three Banners, and so on. 47


Shengjing Enclosure Established in the early Qing Dynasty, the enclosure included 105 fenced areas, 11 of which were reserved as imperial hunting grounds when the emperor was in the region for an inspection tour. Eleven others were for the Shengjing Imperial Household Department to acquire and hunt tributes, 63 were used as drilling grounds for Eight Banners soldiers, and the remaining 20 were used for other purposes. It covers an area extending to the Northern Yitong River in Ajigesehele, Huifa town in the east, the Weiyuanbao checkpoint in the west, Luotuolazi in the southeast, Bazhule’alin in the northeast, Sanyinhada in the northwest, and the Yin’e checkpoint in the southwest. The distance between east and west is 240 kilometers and that between north and south, 445 kilometers. Kaluns (military camps or posts) were set up along the enclosure as garrisons. The enclosure was not open to ordinary people until 1878 or 1879.

055

This map is a colored drawing produced during the Qing Dynasty and bound in an album. The top is north and the bottom south.

Complete Map of Enclosures and Kaluns in the Territory of Shengjing SOURCE:

Complete Maps of Enclosures and Kaluns in the Territory of Shengjing (Late Qing Dynasty) SIZE: 68.5 x 137 cm

48



Fengtian Prefecture In 1657, Fengtian Prefecture was set up and governed by a prefect whose official residence was in Shengjing City. The area under his jurisdiction bordered Fushun and Xingjing in the east, Shanhaiguan in the west, the sea in the south, and Kaiyuan County in the south. Initially there were two sub-prefectures, six counties, and three departments within the prefecture. In 1664, a new sub-prefecture of Jinzhou was established within Fengtian Prefecture. In 1773, one more department was set up.

065 Map of Fengtian Prefecture SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong. It shows the boundaries of Fengtian Prefecture, which reached the boundary of the area under General of Jilin 650 kilometers away in the east, Guangning County of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture 50 kilometers to the west, the shoreline of Haining County 365 kilometers to the south, and the Mongolian border close to the Songhua River 435 kilometers to the north. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

49


075 Map of the Northern Part of Fengtian Prefecture in Shengjing

This is a map of the northern corner of Fengtian Prefecture’s territory taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory). The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom south.

SOURCE:


50



085 Map of the Southeastern Part of Fengtian Prefecture in Shengjing

This is a map of the southeastern corner of Fengtian Prefecture’s territory taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory). The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom south.

SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

51


095

This is a map of the southwestern corner of Fengtian Prefecture’s territory taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory). The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

Map of the Southwestern Part of Fengtian Prefecture in Shengjing SOURCE:


52



Jinzhou Sub-prefecture In 1664, the Qing government set up a sub-prefecture under Fengtian Prefecture to rule the Han population in the western part of Liaoning area more effectively. This sub-prefecture borders Xinmin Department in the east, Shanhaiguan in the west, the sea in the south, and the Checkpoint of Qinghe in the north. Ningyuanzhou, Yizhou, Jin County, and Guangning County were under its jurisdiction. Jinzhou Subprefecture was under the governance of the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture.

105 Topographical Map of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong. It shows the boundaries of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture, which bordered Liaoyang near the Hali River in Guangning County 120 kilometers to the east, Shanhaiguan in Ningyuan Prefecture 145 kilometers to the west, the sea 15 kilometers to the south, and the Yangximu River 190 kilometers to the north where Guangning County and Kaiyuan County shared borders. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

53


115 Map of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture in Shengjing

This is the map of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture’s territory taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory) bordering Fengtian Prefecture in the east, Shanhaiguan in the west, the sea in the south, and the Willow Palisade in the north. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

SOURCE:


54



125 The Willow Palisade DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Shouakira Katsue SOURCE: An Outline of Oriental Cultural History—Asia in the Qing Dynasty (Seibundo Shinko Company, 1938)

The Willow Palisade First built in 1661, the Willow Palisade was an exclusion wall designed by the Qing Dynasty to protect the birthplace of their ancestors. It was one meter high and one meter wide with three rows of willow trees planted 1.5 meters apart and bound together by wicker. Also known as the Frontier Walls, it had two sections: the eastern section started from the sea south of Fenghuang City (Phoenix City) and extended to Weiyuanbao in the northeast of Kaiyuan County; the western section started from Weiyuanbao and extended to Shanhaiguan. These two sections were also known as the Shengjing Frontier Walls or Laobian (“old frontier”). The section extending from Kaiyuan in the south to the Northern Liangjiashan (in today’s Jilin City) is often referred to as Xinbian (“new frontier”).

134 The Ruins of the Willow Palisade DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

55


145 The Checkpoint of Weiyuanbao DATE:


Weiyuanbao (Weiyuan Castle) The Qing Imperial Court set up 17 checkpoints along the Willow Palisade. Troops were stationed at each of these checkpoints for defense purposes. Weiyuanbao was one of them. It was situated 15 kilometers east of Kaiyuan City and 60 meters east of Faku Checkpoint, the route for people traveling to Jilin and Heilongjiang during the Qing Dynasty. The castle had a 1.5-kilometer perimeter with one checkpoint in the north and one in the south garrisoned by a commanding officer, a clerk, five junior officers, and 45 Manchu and Han soldiers

Shenyang Zhongwei In 1398, the Ming Dynasty set up Shenyang Wei (Garrison). In 1625, Nurhaci relocated the capital of the Later Jin from Liaoyang to Shenyang after it was captured from the Ming army. In 1634, Shenyang Zhongwei (Central Garrison) was renamed Mukden (a Manchu word meaning “prosperity”) or Shengjing in Chinese.

154 Map of Shenyang Zhongwei DATE:


This map shows the territory of Shenyang Zhongwei in the Ming Dynasty. The top is north and the bottom is south. 56



165 Map of Shengjing City SOURCE: VERSION:

Shengjing Gazette (1784) Carved copy

Shengjing City Shenyang City was built in 1631 on the basis of the original Shenyang Zhongwei. The wall of the expanded city was about nine meters high, and five meters wide, having a total length of around five kilometers. There were eight gate towers and four watchtowers. The streets were expanded from the original cross shape into a crisscross shape in connection with the eight city gates. In 1680, an outer city wall was built of brick around the city and eight side gates were opened, after which Shenyang became well known as a city having eight gates and eight passes.

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong. This is a map of the city area of Shengjing. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

173 City Wall of Shengjing DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

57


185

195

The Fujin Gate Board Inscribed in Manchu

The Fujin Gate Board Inscribed in Chinese

DATE:

DATE:



The City Gates of Shengjing

206 Shengjing’s Neizhi Gate DATE:


58

In 1634, Shenyang was renamed Shengjing (or Mukden in Manchu). The city gates also got new names: Fujin Gate (the Big East Gate), Neizhi Gate (the Small East Gate), Desheng Gate (the Big South Gate), Tianyou Gate (the Small South Gate), Huaiyuan Gate (the Big West Gate), Wairang Gate (the Small West Gate), Fusheng Gate (the Big North Gate), and Dizai Gate (the Small North Gate). The names of the city gates were inscribed in Chinese on the inside front and those on the outside front were in Manchu.



215 The Upper Part of Shengjing’s City Wall DATE:


236 The Official Seal of Fengtian Prefecture DATE:

1906 Collection of Manchu Official Seals

SOURCE:

225 A Street in Shengjing City DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Moriya Hideya SOURCE: Photographs of Manchurian Local Products (Manchuria Daily News Agency, 1918)

Old Manchu Capital

This is the official seal of Fengtian Prefecture made by the Board of Rites in 1906, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 2082 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty. 59


244 Liaoyang City DATE:

Early 20th century General Affairs Department of Southern Manchurian Railway Company SOURCE: Survey of Manchuria (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1935) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The Ming Dynasty set up Liaodong Dusi in Liaoyang and constructed Liaoyang City on the base of the previous town. In 1621, Nurhaci captured Liaoyang and stationed Eight Banners soldiers to garrison the city. In 1653, the Qing Dynasty established Liaoyang Prefecture, which was downgraded into Liaoyang County in 1657, but then elevated into Liaoyang Sub-prefecture in 1664.

The City Gates of Liaoyang There were six gates in Liaoyang that were renamed during the Qing Dynasty. The two gates in the east were called Pu’an Gate and Suiyuan Gate. The west gate was called Shun’an Gate, the north gate Gongji Gate, and the two south gates Fengle Gate and Wenchang Gate. The gate boards were inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese.

255

265

The East Gate of Liaoyang

The North Gate of Liaoyang

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHERS: Bai Yongzhen et al SOURCE: Liaoyang County Annals (1928)

60

Early 20th century Yamamoto Seiyou SOURCE: Photograph Album of Scenes during the Russo–Japanese War (Yamamoto Photo Studio, 1906) PHOTOGRAPHER:



273 Liaoyang Yamen (Governmental Office) DATE:

Early 20th century Moriya Hideya SOURCE: Photographs of Manchurian Local Products (Manchuria Daily News Agency, 1918) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This is the official seal of Liaoyang made by the Board of Rites in 1905, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 2033 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

283

296

Official Seal of Liaoyang

A Street in Liaoyang

DATE:

DATE:

1905 SOURCE: Collection of Manchu Official Seals SIZE: 8 x 8 cm

Old Manchu Capital


61


Xingjing City By the late Ming Dynasty, the Jurchen tribes had established their own government called Later Jin with Hetuala as the capital. In 1634, Huangtaiji renamed Hetuala as Xingjing after the former capital where his ancestor Nurhaci began his rise to power. In 1689, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to administer this city. In 1877, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, the title of the commander was changed into Xieling (a very high military rank in the Qing Dynasty). In 1773, Xingjing Department was set up. It was elevated from department to prefecture in 1909.

304 Full View of Xingjing DATE:

Early 20th century Li Shuchun SOURCE: Xingjing County Annals (1936) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This is the official seal the Prisons Registrar of Xingjing Sub-prefecture, made by the Board of Rites in 1878 inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 248 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

313 Seal of the Prisons Registrar in Xingjing Sub-prefecture DATE:

1878 Collection of Manchu Official Seals SIZE: 6.5 x 6.5 cm SOURCE:

This is the official seal of Xingjing Prefecture made by the Board of Rites in 1910, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Xuanzi 152 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

323 Official Seal of Xingjing Prefecture DATE:

1910 Collection of Manchu Official Seals SIZE: 8 x 8 cm SOURCE:

62



335 Full View of Fushun DATE:


Fushun In 1384, the Ming Dynasty constructed Fushun City at the foot of Gao’er Mountain on the northern bank of the Hunhe River to prevent the invasion of the Jurchen tribes. The Chinese word ”fu” means “pacifying the border area,” while ”shun” means “guiding the minority people.” That was exactly why the city was called Fushun. In 1690, the Qing Dynasty appointed a general to garrison Fushun, under the direct command of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian. In 1902, Renxing County was set up under the jurisdiction of Fengtian Prefecture. In 1907, it was renamed Fushun County.

344 Outside View of Fushun DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

63


354 City Wall of Fushun DATE:

Early 20th century General Affairs Department of Southern Manchurian Railway Company SOURCE: Survey of Manchuria (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1935) PHOTOGRAPHER:

363 The Inscribed Board on the Guangrun Gate of Fushun DATE:


This is the official seal of Fushun County made by the Board of Rites in 1909, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Xuanzi 39 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

374 Official Seal of Fushun County DATE:

1909 Collection of Manchu Official Seals SIZE: 7 x 6.8 cm SOURCE:

64



Tieling Tieling was Jinyinzhou town in the Liao period and Tieling Garrison during the Ming Dynasty. As a key garrison post in Shengjing, it was under the command of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Fengtian. In 1664, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to garrison this place. Tieling County was set up under the jurisdiction of the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture.

383 The Bell Tower of Tieling DATE:


394 A Street of Tieling DATE:


This is the official seal of Tieling County made by the Board of Rites in 1904, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 2803 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

403 Official County Seal of Tieling DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

65


Kaiyuan Kaiyuan was where Sanwan Garrison, Liaohai Garrison, and Anle Sub-prefecture were located during the Ming Dynasty. In 1664, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to strengthen the management and control of the Kaiyuan Checkpoint. In the same year, a county was set up under the direction of Fengtian Prefecture.

415 Kaiyuan DATE:


Kaiyuan Kaiyuan was where Sanwan Garrison, Liaohai Garrison, and Anle Sub-prefecture were located during the Ming Dynasty. In 1664, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to strengthen the management and control of the Kaiyuan Checkpoint. In the same year, a county was set up under the direction of Fengtian Prefecture.

This is the official seal of Kaiyuan County made by the Board of Rites in 1782, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Qianzi 15470 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

423 Official Seal of Kaiyuan County DATE:


66



435

446

A City Gate of Kaiyuan

A Street of Kaiyuan

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Izui Keiji SOURCE: The Evolution of the Management of Affiliated Area of the Manchurian Railway (Manchuria Daily News Agency, 1939)

Old Manchu Capital

DATE:


67


455 Huanren Town DATE:

Early 20th century Zhao Guodong SOURCE: Huanren County Annals (1937) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Huanren County Town Huanren County was called Huairen during the Qing Dynasty. In 1877, a county was set up in the east of Youyan to harness the Liudao River, which was under the jurisdiction of the Prefect of Xingjing. In 1909, it became a part of Xingjing Prefecture.

This is the official seal of Huairen County made by the Board of Rites in 1878, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 239 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

463 Official Seal of Huairen County DATE:


68



Jinzhou Jinzhou was built in 1391 during the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu. In 1675, the Qing Dynasty appointed a garrison commandant to garrison the city. In 1727, the post of Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Jinzhou was set up. In 1662, Jinzhou was changed into Jinxian (the County of Jin). In 1664, it was upgraded into Jinzhou Subprefecture under the jurisdiction of the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture.

475

485

Jinzhou

A Street of Jinzhou

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Yamazaki Mouichirou SOURCE: Prospects of Jehol (Taisho Photographs and Arts, 1940)

Early 20th century Collection of Photos about East Asia SIZE: 15.2 x 10.8 cm SOURCE:

This is the official seal of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture made by the Board of Rites in 1782, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is included in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

493 Official Seal of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

69


Haicheng County Haicheng was where Haizhou Garrison was located during the Ming Dynasty. It was reconstructed in the early Qing Dynasty. In 1653, the Qing Dynasty set up Liaoyang Prefecture and Haicheng County, with the latter put under the jurisdiction of the former. In 1657, Liaoyang Prefecture was abolished and Haicheng County was re-allocated under the jurisdiction of the Prefect of Fengtian.

505 Haicheng DATE:

Early 20th century Zhang Fuxiang SOURCE: Haicheng County Annals (1924) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This is the official seal of Haicheng County made by the Board of Rites in 1890, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 1259 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty.

513 Official Seal of Haicheng County DATE:


70



524 The Linqing Gate of Haicheng DATE:

Early 20th century Yamamoto Sansei SOURCE: A Corpus of Japanese Geography: Manchuria and Southeast Asia (Kaizousha, 1930) PHOTOGRAPHER:

536 A Street in Haicheng DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

71


545 Ningyuan DATE:


Ningyuan Ningyuan was first built between 1426 and 1435, during the reign of Emperor Xuande in the Ming Dynasty. From 1621 to 1627, Yuan Chonghuan reconstructed the city. In 1644, the Qing Dynasty placed Eight Banners soldiers to garrison the city after they captured it. An official was also appointed to oversee the garrison. In 1664, a Garrison Commandant was appointed and in the same year Ningyuan Sub-prefecture was set up, subordinate to Guangning Prefecture. Later it was re-allocated under the jurisdiction of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture.

This is the official seal of Ningyuan Sub-prefecture made by the Board of Rites in 1836, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Daozi 4234 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals in the late Qing Dynasty.

553 Official Seal of Ningyuan Sub-prefecture DATE:


72



Guangning Guangning was where Guangning Garrison was located during the Ming Dynasty. In 1622, the Manchu forces captured Guangning and stationed Eight Banners soldiers to garrison the city. In 1680, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to command the Banner soldiers. In 1664, Guangning Prefecture was established with Guangning County under its administration. Later, Guangning Prefecture was abolished and Guangning County was re-allocated under the jurisdiction of Jinzhou Prefecture.

563 City Map of Guangning SOURCE:

Guangning County Annals (Late Qing and Early Republican period) VERSION: Hand-drawn copy SIZE: 42 x 35 cm

.

573 A Tower in Guangning DATE:

Early 20th century Yamazaki Mouichirou SOURCE: Prospects of Jehol (Taisho Photographs and Arts, 1940) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

73


Yizhou Yizhou was where Yizhou Garrison was situated in the Ming Dynasty. In 1676, the Qing Dynasty set up a frontier inspection office and appointed a Garrison Commandant to govern the town. In 1722, a Controller General was appointed to administer Yizhou. In 1733, Yizhou became a district governed by a magistrate reporting to Jinzhou Sub-prefecture.

583 Map of Yizhou SOURCE:

Yizhou County Annals (Late Qing to Early Republican period) VERSION: Hand-drawn copy SIZE: 24 x 32 cm

593

606

Official Seal of Yizhou

The Gate Tower of Yizhou

DATE:

DATE:

1867 SOURCE: Collection of Manchu Official Seals SIZE: 7.5 x 7.3 cm

Early 20th century Yamazaki Mouichirou SOURCE: Prospects of Jehol (Taisho Photographs and Arts, 1940) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This is the official seal of Yizhou made by the Board of Rites in 1867, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Tongzi 1787 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals in the late Qing Dynasty.

74



Zhonghousuo Zhonghousuo was where the Zhonghou Qianhu Garrison Post was situated under the jurisdiction of Qiantun Garrison of Guangning in the Ming Dynasty. In 1644, the Qing Dynasty placed Banner soldiers to garrison the town. In 1900, Suizhong County was set up to administer Zhonghousuo under the jurisdiction of Jinzhou Sub-prefecture.

623 Official Seal of Suizhong County DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

615 The South Gate of Suizhong County Seat DATE:

Early 20th century Fan Bingxun SOURCE: Suizhong County Annals (1929) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This is the official seal of Suizhong County made by the Board of Rites in 1904, inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 1917 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals produced in the late Qing Dynasty. 75


Zhongqiansuo Zhongqiansuo was where the Zhongqian Qianhu Garrison Post was situated under the jurisdiction of Qiantun Garrison of Guangning in the Ming Dynasty. It became an encampment under the command of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Jinzhou during the Qing Dynasty and a Garrison Commandant was appointed to administer the town.

633 Street scene of Zhongqiansuo Town in Suizhong County DATE:

Early 20th century Fan Bingxun SOURCE: Suizhong County Annals (1929) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Panshan Department Panshan Department was set up in 1906 by merging part of Guangning County and part of Pansheyi Pasture to administer Shuangtaizi. In 1907, it became subordinate to Jinzhou Sub-prefecture.

643 The Official Seal of the Controllers General of Panshan Department DATE:

1910 Panshan Department Annals VERSION: Hand-drawn copy SOURCE:

This is the seal impression on the signature page of the hand-drawn copy of Panshan Department Annals, compiled by Yang Shaozong in 1910 during the reign of Emperor Xuantong. The text of the seal reads, “The Official Seal of the Controllers General of Panshan Department,” in both Chinese and Manchu.

76



654 The South Gate of Xiongyue Town DATE:

Early 20th century Murata Jirou SOURCE: Historical Sites of Manchuria (Zayu Takara Publication, 1944) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Xiongyue Town The Ming government set up Xiongyue Post and a Garrison General was appointed during the early Qing Dynasty. It was later co-governed by the Deputy Commander-inChief of Xiongyue and the Garrison Commandant. In 1842, during the reign of Emperor Daoguang, the Office of Deputy Commander-in-Chief was relocated to Jinzhou, so only the Garrison Commandant was left to command the Eight Banners soldiers stationed in the town.

Gaiping Town Gaiping Garrison was built in 1372 or the fifth year of the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu. After the town yielded itself to Later Jin forces in 1621, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to command the Eight Banners soldiers. The town was under the command of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Xiongyue. In 1664 or the third year of the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Gaiping County was set up under the jurisdiction of the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture. In 1778, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Gaiping Town was rebuilt.

663 Gaiping Town I DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

77


675

686

Gaiping Town II

The Bell and Drum Tower of Gaiping Town

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Yamamoto Sansei SOURCE: A Corpus of Japanese Geography: Manchuria and Southeast Asia (Kaizousha, 1930)

78

DATE:

Early 20th century Wang Yuyun SOURCE: Gaiping County Annals (1930) PHOTOGRAPHER:



694 Ninghai Town DATE:


Ninghai Town Ninghai Town was first built in the first year of the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu under the name of Jinzhou Garrison. During the Qing Dynasty, a Garrison Commandant was appointed to administer the town. In 1733, during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, Ninghai County was set up under the administration of the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture. It was subsequently changed into Jinzhou Department and Jinxian.

704 Inside Jinzhou DATE:


713 Outside Jinzhou DATE:

Early 20th century Department of General Affairs of Southern Manchurian Railway Company SOURCE: Survey of Manchuria (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1935) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

79


Fenghuang (Phoenix) City This city, first built in 1481 during the reign of Ming Emperor Chenghua, was an eastern border town of strategic importance. During the Qing Dynasty, it was garrisoned by Eight Banners soldiers under the command of a Garrison General. In 1776, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, a frontier inspection office was set up. In 1876, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, it became Fenghuang Department.

725 The Gate Tower and City Wall of Fenghuang City DATE:


734 City Gate and Gate Tower of Fenghuang City DATE:

Early 20th century Yamazaki Mouichirou SOURCE: Prospects of Manchuria (Osaka Yago Bookstore, 1934) PHOTOGRAPHER:

80



This is the official seal of the Prefect of Fenghuang Department. The seal was made by the Board of Rites in 1878 and was inscribed in both Manchu and Chinese. It has a brass handle and is numbered Guangzi 237 in the Collection of Manchu Official Seals published in the late Qing Dynasty.

744 Official Seal of the Prefect of Fenghuang Department DATE:


756 Streets in Fenghuang City DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

81


Lüshun Shipyard

766 The Blueprint of Lüshun Shipyard DATE:

Guangxu period The Blueprint of Lüshun Shipyard SIZE: 107 x 72 cm SOURCE:

From the late 1870s to the early 1880s, the Qing government purchased and built a fleet of ships. In order to anchor and repair the large ironclad warships and smaller, faster ships, the Governor General of Zhili Province, Li Hongzhang, made several proposals to the imperial court, calling for the building of shipyards and harbors. Upon obtaining the approval Li decided to build a large shipyard for the Qing navy in Lüshun. On November 9, 1890, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Lüshun Shipyard was completed. It was designed and constructed by Western designers and contractors.

This is a photograph of the blueprint of Lüshun Shipyard, drawn during the reign of Emperor Guangxu. It was bound in the form of an album.

82



773 Guandong Governor’s Official Residence at Lüshun DATE:


Guandongzhou

786 The Military Affairs Department under Guandong Governor’s Office DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

In 1898, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Russia forcibly leased Lüshun and Dalian from the Qing government. Due to the fact that both places were located east of Shanhaiguan, this area was named Guandongzhou. After the Russo–Japanese War in 1905, Japan forcibly occupied Guandongzhou. In May 1906, the office of Guandong Governor General was relocated from Liaoyang to Lüshun. In September 1906, it was changed into the Office of Guandong Governor, which governed the Civil Affairs Department and the Military Affairs Department. There were three branches under the Civil Affairs Department in Dalian, Lüshun, and Jinzhou respectively. In October 1908, the Jinzhou branch of the Civil Affairs Department was downgraded to a sub-branch.

83


793 The Bank of the Liaohe River at Yingkou DATE:


The Liaohe River Known historically as the Liao River or Daliao River, the Liaohe River is one of the major rivers in the Shengjing area. Its upper stream, Laoha River, is called Xiliao River after it converges with the West Mulun River. The Xiliao River breaks into two streams at Taihekou: the south stream and the north stream. The former is the main stream while the latter is called Xinkai River. Both streams meet again at Shuangliao and flow southward before being joined by Dongliao River at Fudediao. From this point on the river is called Liaohe River. After flowing through Tieling, the river turns southwest. When it comes to Liujianfang, it divides again into two streams. One stream, called the Outer Liaohe River, flows southward and meets the Hunhe River and the Taizi River at Sanchahe and is called Big Liaohe River from that point on. This river then flows into the Bohai Sea through Yingkou. The other stream, called Shuangtaizi River, flows southwest and joins the Raoyang River south of Panshan Mountain from where it flows into the Bohai Sea.

806 Fishing Boats on the Liaohe River DATE:


The Hunhe River In ancient times the Hunhe River was called the Liao or Small Liao River. It got its name because its waters were muddy due to swift currents. The upper stream of the Hunhe River is called the Nagu or Red River. The section that flows through Shengjing is called Shenshui (River Shen). It joins the Taizi River at Sanchahe before flowing into the Big Liaohe River.

813 Ferry on the Hunhe River DATE:

Early 20th century Izui Keiji SOURCE: The Evolution of the Management of the Affiliated Area of the Manchurian Railway (Manchuria Daily News Agency, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHER:

84



The Taizi River Legend has it that the Taizi River got its name from a prince of the Yan State during the Warring States period who fled to this place. It was called the Yan River before the Han Dynasty. During the periods of Liao and Jin, it was called the Liang or Big Liang River or East Liang River. During the Ming Dynasty, it was called the Daizi River or the Taizi River. The upper section of the Taizi River has two streams: the south stream and the north stream. The north stream is longer, originating from present-day Pingdingshan Township in Xinbin County. The south stream originates from present-day Caomaodingzi Mountain in Dongyingfang Township, Benxi County. Both streams converge at Xiawaizi, Benxi County, forming the main stream of the Taizi River, which then joins the Hunhe River at Sanchahe to become the Big Liaohe River.

823 The Upper Stream of the Taizi River DATE:


836 Rafts on the Yalu River DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

The Yalu River The Yalu River rises in Mount Baitou, the main peak of Changbai Mountain in the southeast of Jilin Province. It flows southwest through Huanren County, Kaidian County, and Dandong City before emptying into the Yellow Sea in Donggou County.

85


Qianshan Mountain Also known as Jicui Mountain, Qianhua Mountain, Qianding Mountain, or the Mountain of a Thousand Lotus Flowers, Qianshan Mountain is an offset of Changbai Mountain. The whole mountain range extends more than 200 kilometers from northeast to southwest. It is famous for its unique mountain peaks, steep cliffs, and ancient temples.

845 A Map of Qianshan Mountain SOURCE:

Shengjing Gazette (1748) Carved copy SIZE: 30.5 x 39 cm

An illustration from the 32-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled during the reign of Qianlong. It shows Qianshan Mountain—one of the three famous mountains in Shengjing. This map is in rough binding.

VERSION:

854 Ridges of Qianshan Mountain DATE:


86



Yiwulü Mountain Known historically as Weilü or Wulü Mountain, Yiwulü Mountain is at the end of the Yinshan Mountain range. According to historical records, Yiwulü Mountain was one of the 12 famous mountains conferred titles by Emperor Shun. According to the Annals of Liaoning, Yiwulü Mountain was the most beautiful of all the mountains in Liaoning. It tops the list of the three most famous mountains in the Northeast (the other two are Qianshan Mountain and Changbai Mountain).

865 86 Map of Yiwulü Mountain SOURCE: SIZE:

Shengjing Gazette (1784) 31 x 39 cm

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong

873 Yiwulü Mountain DATE:

Early 20th century Collection of Photos about East Asia SIZE: 10.5 x 14.8 cm SOURCE:

Old Manchu Capital

87


Changbai Mountain Changbai Mountain was where the Jurchens, the ancestors of the Manchu people, lived. The offspring of Jurchens—Yilou, Huji, Paotuo, Nuzhen, and Manchus—all lived there, which was why the Qing Emperors took Changbai Mountain as the origin of their ancestors and held it in great esteem. It was conferred the titles of Holy Mountain and Sacred Mountain and was worshipped every year. It was also listed as a forbidden land for ordinary people.

885

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong.

Map of Changbai Mountain SOURCE: SIZE:


894 Distant View of Changbai Mountain DATE:

Early 20th century Wang Ruixiang SOURCE: Full-View Sceneries in Changbai Mountain PHOTOGRAPHER:

88



905 Topographical Map of the Territory of the General of Jilin SOURCE: SIZE:


Old Manchu Capital

An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong. According to this map, the territory of the General of Jilin reached the East Sea, 1,750 kilometers to the east, Weiyuanbao near the border of Kaiyuan County of Fengtian Prefecture, around 300 kilometers to the west, the border of Korea at Changbai Mountain, 650 kilometers to the south, and the Mongolian border at Lahafulashi, 300 kilometers to the north. This map is in rough binding; the top is north and the bottom is south.

89


915 Map of Jilin I SOURCE:


90

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by Jilin Deputy Commander-in-Chief, Boduna Deputy Commander-in-Chief, and Alechu Deputy Commander-inChief. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.



925 Map of Jilin II

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by Ningguta Deputy Commander-inChief. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

91


935 Map of Jilin III

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by Sanxing Deputy Commander-inChief. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

SOURCE:


92



945 Map of Jilin IV SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the Sakhalin area within the territory administered by the Sanxing Deputy Commander-in-Chief. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

93


955 Topographical Map of General Heilongjiang’s Territory SOURCE: SIZE:

94


An illustration from the 130-volume Shengjing Gazette (Wuying Hall carved copy), compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Qianlong. According to this map, the territory of the General of Heilongjiang reached the border of Jilin at the Erbekeyi River, 1,100 kilometers to the east, the border of Chechnya at Kerke, 450 kilometers to the west, the border of Ningguta at Songhua River, 250 to the south, and the Russian border at Wai Xing’anling, 1,650 kilometers to the north. This map is in rough binding; the top is north and the bottom is south.



965 Map of Heilongjiang I SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Qiqihar and the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Mo’ergan. The map is threadbound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

95


975 Map of Heilongjiang II SOURCE:


96

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of Heilongjiang. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.



985 Map of Heilongjiang III SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

Taken from the Kangxi Atlas (Complete Map of the Imperial Territory), this map shows the territory administered by the Governor General of Hulunbei’er. The map is thread-bound; the top is north and the bottom is south.

97

Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing

03

Shengjing or Mukden was the land from where the Qing Dynasty emerged. Three mausoleums were built for the founding emperors of the Qing Dynasty (Nurhaci, Huangtaiji, and their ancestors): Yongling Mausoleum, Fuling Mausoleum, and Zhaoling Mausoleum, together known as Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing. They are also known as the Three Imperial Mausoleums outside Shanhaiguan. Unlike the East Imperial Mausoleum and the West Imperial Mausoleum inside Shanhaiguan, the Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing were built when the Qing Dynasty had not yet conquered the Shanhaiguan and its territory was still limited to the Liaoning– Shenyang area and when laws and rituals were all newly established. Despite their smaller scale, in comparison with the East and the West Imperial Mausoleums inside Shanhaiguan, the Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing combine the construction of castles with that of mausoleums, displaying a perfect integration of Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Han Chinese cultures. Yongling Mausoleum is located in Xinbin County, Liaoning Province. It was first built in the late Ming Dynasty and expanded several times since the reign of Emperor Kangxi during the Qing Dynasty. This is the burial place for Nurhaci, his father Taksi, his uncles, his grandfather, Giocangga, his great-grandfather, and his great-great-grandfather. Yongling Mausoleum is the smallest of the three yet it has the longest history and is the best preserved. 99

THREE IMPERIAL MAUSOLEUMS IN SHENGJING

This mausoleum complex has the most prominent features

along the hill, symbolizing the 36 Heavenly Spirits and

of Manchu culture. The owners of the tombs were not

72 Earthly Fiends. Fuling Mausoleum was designed in full

emperors when they were alive, as the imperial titles

compliance with ancient Chinese feng-shui. The site

and imperial mausoleum status were posthumously

selection and planning aimed at achieving a harmony

awarded by the Qing Imperial Court. As a result, there

between the natural environment and the mausoleum.

were no square castles or underground palaces in

Fuling Mausoleum was a major site for the imperial family

Yongling Mausoleum. Nevertheless, it has a unique

to conduct veneration rituals during the Qing Dynasty.

natural environment and architectural style. Yongling

Zhaoling Mausoleum is the resting place of Emperor

Mausoleum is surrounded by hills on four sides with

Huangtaiji and his empress, Xiaoduanwen, located north

Yancong Hill in front, Qiyun Hill behind, Jiming (Crowing

of Laocheng in Shenyang. It is also known as the Northern

Rooster) Hill in the southeast, and Fenghuangling (Phoenix

Mausoleum. As the largest of the three imperial

Hill) in the southwest. It is also flanked by a number of

mausoleums, it has a well-preserved crematorium

rivers: the Suzi River in the south, the Caocang River in

system. The architecture and decoration of Zhaoling

the east, the Yueyapao River in the west, plus the Wudao,

Mausoleum also stands above the other two imperial

Majigou, Zhaoyanggou, Erdao, and Jiaha Rivers on the

mausoleums in Shengjing. The construction of Zhaoling

upper stream of the Suzi River. This is an ideal feng-shui

Mausoleum began in 1643 and was basically completed

environment for building the mausoleum. Yongling implies

in 1651. It was later expanded and reconstructed during

“perpetual security of the throne.” By so naming the

the reigns of Emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, and Jiaqing,

mausoleum the Qing emperors hoped that their ancestors’

eventually forming a unique mausoleum complex.

spirits would bless the Qing Dynasty, enabling it to

Zhaoling Mausoleum was built on flat ground. Due to the

last forever.

fact that most imperial mausoleums were constructed

Fuling Mausoleum is the burial place of Nurhaci,

on sites backing onto mountains and facing water, a

the founder of the Qing Dynasty, and his empress,

man-made hill was constructed behind the mausoleums,

Yehenala. It sits against Mount Tianzhu in the eastern

which was later named Longye Hill by the emperor. An

suburb of Shenyang and faces the Hunhe River. It has

abundance of pine trees and cedar trees were planted

been designed in such a way that the terrain rises

on the hill, making it comparable to Qiyun Hill and Tianzhu

gradually from south to north. The mausoleum was built

Hill. An artificial lake was also dug.

in 1629 and was officially named Fuling Mausoleum in

As an excellent example of the mausoleum culture

1636. It was expanded during the reign of Emperor Kangxi

of the early Qing Dynasty, the Three Imperial Mausoleums

and Emperor Qianlong. It has a square castle and

in Shengjing are a perfect epitome of the political,

underground palaces. One defining feature of the

economic, cultural, and artistic achievements of the

mausoleum lies in a brick stairway of 108 steps built

Qing Dynasty.

100



YONGLING MAUSOLEUM Yongling Mausoleum complex consists of four tombs of Nurhaci’s ancestors and two subordinate tombs occupying an area of 1.137 hectares. With hills behind and water in front, Yongling is fully integrated with nature. Entering from the front gate in the south, people are greeted by four tablet pavilions. The front gate of the Square Castle, north of the four pavilions, is called Qiyun Gate and has left- and right-wing walls embedded with decorative, color-glazed, and coiled dragons. Qiyun Hall stands at the center of the Square Castle, supported by side halls on the east and west sides. A Joss Silk Burning Pavilion stands in front of the West Side Hall. The six tombs are arranged into a circle from east to west. Yongling was simple and crude when first built, but became more complex through reconstruction and expansion during the reigns of Emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi.

015 Layout of Yongling Mausoleum SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

101


Qiyun Hill is where Yongling Mausoleum was built. “Qiyun” is a title conferred by the emperor, meaning defining a grand ambition and working toward imperial accomplishments. Qiyun Hill was regarded as the Qing Dynasty’s sacred and mysterious land of emergence.

023 Qiyun Hill DATE:


Yancong (Chimney) Hill, also referred to as Three Stone Hill, is in the central lowmountain area of Changbai Mountain on the southern slopes of the Laolonggang Range. Chimney Hill is 840 meters above sea level and stands in front of Yongling Mausoleum. With three peaks shaped like a pen stand, Chimney Hill forms a natural shield for Yongling Mausoleum.

034 Yancong Hill DATE:


Jiming (Crowing Rooster) Hill lies southeast of Yongling Mausoleum. Its inaccessibility makes it another natural shield for the mausoleum. It looks like a crowing golden rooster standing on the left side, guarding the mausoleum.

043 Jiming Hill DATE:


102



The Suzi River (Sukesuhubila in Manchu) means “cormorant river.” It originates in Wufenglou Mountain and flows from east to west. The river provides good feng-shui to Yongling

055 The Suzi River DATE:


063 An Elm in Yongling Mausoleum DATE:


Inside the Treasure City of Yongling, an elm tree with luxuriant growth of leaves and branches grows on the upper podium in front of the tomb of Nurhaci’s great-grandfather. The elm tree is more than ten meters high. Its trunk divides into three main branches at about one meter above the ground. These three branches grow straight, forming a huge umbrella that covers the entire Treasure City. In 1743, when Emperor Qianlong led his officials to Yongling to worship his ancestors for the first time, he saw this tree and was so impressed that he wrote a poem entitled “An Ode to the Sacred Tree.” In the poem, Emperor Qianlong said that the tree was neither pine nor cedar; instead it was a holy tree that stemmed from heaven and was irrigated with water from the Milky Way. This elm tree was called the Holy Tree ever since. Old Manchu Capital

103


074 Yongling Mausoleum’s Zhenghong Gate (Red Gate) DATE:


Zhenghong Gate has a gabled roof and consists of three pairs of red doors. The roof is covered with golden-colored, glazed tiles. This gate is a full embodiment of Manchu cultural features.

085 Yongling Mausoleum’s Four Tablet Pavilions DATE:


104

Entering Yongling, people are greeted by the Four Tablet Pavilions that record the achievements and virtues of the four founding emperors. From left to right, they are the Merit and Virtue Tablet Pavilions for Emperor Jingzu, Emperor Zhaozu, Emperor Xingzu, and Emperor Xianzu. The tablet pavilions have single-eave, saddle roofs. The top is covered with golden-colored, glazed tiles and is decorated with upturned eaves and corbel arches. Each pavilion has two arch gates at the front and back. The semi-circular front stone at the gate top is engraved with the pattern of two dragons playing with a pearl. On each of the two foundation stones in the gate is a relief sculpture of a sitting dragon, like a dog crawling on the ground, which is also where Yongling Mausoleum differs from other Qing imperial mausoleums. A P I C T O R I A L R E C O R D O F T H E QI NG D YNASTY


095 Qiyun Gate of the Yongling Mausoleum DATE:


The Qiyun Gate (also known as Neigong Gate) is a three-bay building with a single-eave, saddle roof. The top is covered with yellow, glazed tiles, the horizontal roof-ridge decorated with six pearl-chasing dragons, and the four sloping ridges are bedecked with images of beast heads, immortals, and animals. Each bay has a pair of doors, each with 81 gilded-brass nails and a knocker in the shape of an animal carrying a ring. During the Qing Dynasty, Qiyun Gate only opened during veneration ceremonies.

103 The Screen Wall at Qiyun Gate DATE:

Early 20th century Koakira Katsue SOURCE: An Outline of Oriental Cultural History—Asia in the Qing Dynasty (Seibundo Shinko Company, 1938) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

At the center of the red walls on both sides of Qiyun Gate are colored screen walls with suspension roofs. At the center of the screen wall is a relief sculpture of flying dragons, seas, cliffs, and clouds. Its four corners are decorated with clouds and twisted lotus patterns. The screen walls are exquisite in shape, rich in color, and unique in craftsmanship. Yongling is the only Qing imperial mausoleum with such quasiglazed screen walls sculpted with mud and tiles. 105


114 Yongling Mausoleum’s Qiyun Hall DATE:


Qiyun Hall is the major place for worshipping the tablets of the four ancestral emperors and empresses. The saddle roof of the hall is covered with yellow-glazed tiles and the main hall is decorated with red-paint drawings inside and out. The hall was only opened during worshipping ceremonies. During the Qing Dynasty, worshipping ceremonies would be held during the Tomb-Sweeping Festival, the Hungry Ghost Festival, or on the first day of lunar October and the close of the Year. Emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, Jiaqing, and Daoguang once held grand banquets in Qiyun Hall.

124 Interior of Qiyun Hall DATE:


There was a large warming chamber set aside for Emperors Jingzu, Zhaozu, Xingzu, and Xianzu in Qiyun Hall. The chamber is furnished with golden satin, curtains, pillows, and a throne. Inside the large warming chamber are four small warming rooms dedicated to the memorial tablets of the four emperors and the four empresses, and eight plates covered with satin. At the front are eight thrones, four altars, and eight lamps. Four thrones are decorated with dragon heads and four with phoenix heads.

106



FULING MAUSOLEUM Fuling Mausoleum is the mausoleum of Nurhaci, the founder of the Qing Dynasty, and his empress, Yehenala. The mausoleum was built in full accordance with imperial architectural rules and furnished with a full range of ritual facilities. The major buildings look grand and majestic. Enclosed by red walls, it has Zhenghong Gate (Red Gate) at the center. In front of the gate stand horse dismounting steles, stone archways, ornamental pillars, and stone lion statues. On each of the stone archway’s four pillars stands a statute of a stone beast shouting at the sky. Stone statues of lions, horses, camels, and tigers are lined up inside the gate along both sides of the Sacred Path. At the end of the flat ground are 108 brick steps, symbolizing the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends. The Square Castle stands proudly on top of the hill with a pavilion tower in front. There are gate towers in the castle and four watchtowers at each corner. Entering the Long’en Gate, one can see Long’en Hall, a main hall standing on a huge Sumeru podium. This building has a single-eave, saddle roof. Two side halls are attached to the main Joss Silk Burning Pavilion in front on the western side. Behind the hall are gates with stone columns, five stone offerings, and a cave door. Above the cave door stands the Ming Tower in which a stone stele stands with the inscription, “The Mausoleum of Emperor Taizu.” Behind the Square Castle is the dome-shaped Treasure City. The area in between is shaped like a crescent, which is why it is also called the Crescent City. In the middle of the Treasure City is the Treasure Dome, a mound beneath which is underground tombs.

136 Map of Fuling SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital

107


Four kinds of black pine, a special species found only in northeastern China, are planted around the Fuling Mausoleum complex. The solemn and awe-inspiring Fuling Mausoleum nestles in the luxuriant green sea of pine trees. Two natural scenes with the pine trees in Fuling Mausoleum as the theme have been included in the Eight Scenic Spots of Shenyang and the Ten Scenic Spots of Shengjing.

144 Pine Trees in Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


The Stone Archway of Fuling Mausoleum On both sides of the front gate of Fuling Mausoleum stand two four-pillar, three-part stone archways with saddle roofs. The corbel arches under the eaves are engraved wooden structures. On top of each of the four high-standing pillars is a round, stone dew-holding plate in the shape of an upward-facing lotus flower on which sits a wangtianhou (shouting at the sky)—a sacred animal symbolizing luck and auspiciousness. The stone base of the pillar is a unique drum shape. The archway has a saddle roof supported by a sculptured beam with relief patterns of two dragons playing with a fireball. The central part of the painted beam bears inscriptions in Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese which say, “Whoever reaches this point must dismount from his horse; otherwise, he will be punished according to law.” Of all the Qing imperial mausoleums, only Fuling Mausoleum has two stone archways standing in front of the main gate.

154 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Archway I DATE:


108



164 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Archway II DATE:

Early 20th century Ito Kiyozou SOURCE: Chinese Architecture and Decoration (Institute of Oriental Culture, 1941) PHOTOGRAPHER:

173 Fuling Mausoleum’s Zhenghong Gate DATE:


Zhenghong Gate or the Red Gate is the main gate of Fuling Mausoleum. In front of the gate stand two stone lion statues. The gate is a simulated wooden structure with a single-eave, saddle roof. The three doorways have different names and functions. The middle one is the doorway for gods, the eastern one for emperors, and the western one for officials.

183 Fuling Mausoleum’s Sacred Path DATE:


Starting from Zhenghong Gate, a stone-paved path leads to the Worshipping Hall, Long’en Hall, and the Treasure Dome. The path is called the Sacred Path and only the officials who carried the sacrifices could walk it. The stone animal statues lining up both sides of the Sacred Path insipire a sense of dignity and majesty. Old Manchu Capital

109


194 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Camel Statues DATE:


The first group of animal statues is a pair of reclining camels. Camels are an important means of transportation in northern China. The Mongolians, with whom Nurhaci forged alliances, presented the Later Jin with eight white horses and a white camel as tributes.

204 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Horse Statues DATE:


The second group of animal statues is a pair of standing horses. Horsemanship and archery were highly regarded by the Manchus. It is no wonder that horses were of great significance to Nurhaci, who spent most of his life on horseback, commanding his troops in the Battle of Sarhu and laying a solid foundation for the Qing Dynasty.

110



216 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Lion Statues DATE:


226 Fuling Mausoleum’s Stone Tiger Statues DATE:


The third group of animal statues is a pair of lions. There is something special about this particular pair of stone lions. Chinese lion-pairs are usually made of a lion with a ball and a lioness with a cub at its foot. The statue of the lioness in Fuling Mausoleum, however, is different from this stereotyped image. The cub is seen playing naughtily with its mother’s foot. The fourth group of animal statues is a pair of squatting tigers. The shape of the tigers is unique with their tongues sticking out of their mouths, showing no sign of arrogance and looking more like a pair of cats. For the Chinese, the tiger, as the king of all animals, is believed to be able to drive away evil beings; therefore it can protect the owner of the mausoleum.

Old Manchu Capital

111


235 The 108 Steps of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


112

The main buildings of Fuling Mausoleum were built on the peak of Tianzhu Hill, while the main gate, Zhenghong Gate, and the stone animal statues were erected on the flat ground at the foot of the hill. Between them is a slope of around 45 degrees. The architect of Fuling Mausoleum built a stairway by taking full advantage of the slope’s natural contour. It has 108 steps paved with blue brick, 40 meters long and seven meters wide.



256 Rubbings from the Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Stele DATE:


245 The Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Stele Pavilion DATE:


Also known as the Big Stele Pavilion, the Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Stele Pavilion was added to the mausoleum in 1688. It was built on a 0.5-meter-high podium. There was a single arched doorway in each of its four sides. Below each door was a five-step stairway. The outer eaves, under the colored corbel arches, are decorated with color paintings and golden-thread circular patterns. The ceilings of the inner eaves are bedecked with hash-shaped, colored patterns and other patterns of religious significance, as well as paintings of red peonies, all displaying striking regional characteristics.

Inside the Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Stele Pavilion stands a seven-meterhigh stone stele. The inscriptions, around 2,000 words, are in both Manchu and Chinese. Gu Guanlu, a well-known calligrapher whose calligraphy was highly praised by Emperor Kangxi, copied the original Chinese words. Old Manchu Capital

113


264 The Front of Long’en Gate DATE:


Long’en Gate of Fuling Mausoleum The Long’en Gate is located south of the Square Castle. It has a three-storied gate tower built on the city wall of the Square Castle. The gate tower has a triple-eave, saddle roof. The three-storied gate tower exhibits obvious Manchu features. During the Qing Dynasty, Long’en Gate would only be opened when the emperor went there for worshipping ceremonies.

273 The Back of Long’en Gate DATE:


114



When Long’en Hall went through major renovations, the sacred tablets would be moved to the East Side Hall. Another major function of the East Side Hall was to store joss silk and worshipping materials.

283 East Side Hall of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


296 West Side Hall of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


The West Side Hall of Fuling Mausoleum was only open on the anniversary of the death of Nurhaci or his wife for a special memorial ceremony. It was where monks chanted prayers and performed other rites for the deceased.

Old Manchu Capital

115


305 Long’en Hall of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


Long’en Hall is the core building in Fuling Mausoleum. It has a single-eave, saddle roof. With a platform in front, the podium is enclosed by a stone fence with beautiful engravings. The Sumeru pedestal on the podium was also covered with engravings. The podium stones were engraved with vivid patterns of flying dragons and clouds, showing distinct regional features. The roof of the hall is covered with golden glazed tiles and the eave corners are curving upwards. Under the eave is an inscribed board with the golden characters “Long’en Gate” in Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese against a blue background. Long’en Hall is the central place for holding sacrificeoffering ceremonies, especially those attended by emperors.

313 Five Stone Offerings of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


Lingxing Gate is a two-pillar building with a gable roof covered with golden glazed tiles. On top of the two pillars stand two wangtianhou (shouting at the sky). A long, stone table, known as the stone sacrifice-altar, is placed behind the gate. A stone stove stands at the center of the table with stone candle holders and incense vases lined up on both sides. Together they are known as the Five Stone Offerings.

116



There is a stele pavilion in the Square Castle called Daming Pavilion. An inscribed board hangs on the front side of the eave, with the Chinese characters Fu Ling and their Manchu and Mongolian equivalents. Daming Pavilion is the tallest building in Fuling Mausoleum.

325 Daming Pavilion of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:

Early 20th century Photograph Album of Scenic Spots in Fengtian (Southern Manchurian Railway Company)

SOURCE:

334 The Stele inside Daming Pavilion DATE:


A stone stele stands at the center of Daming Pavilion, with its top covered by a dragon head sculpture inscribed with the Chinese characters “Da Qing“ (literally “Great Qing”). The stele’s main body is inscribed, “The Mausoleum of Emperor Taizu” in Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese. Old Manchu Capital

117


345 Treasure Dome in the Treasure City of Fuling Mausoleum DATE:


118

The Treasure City is built with blue brick in the shape of a three-quarter circle. At its center stands a large, high dome known as the Treasure Dome, built with a mixture of limestone, mud, and sand. To reinforce each layer, glutinous rice glue was mixed into the mud in the process of five-round tamping. On top of this, the surface of the Treasure Dome was coated with lime, giving a smooth surface that was able to withstand erosion from wind and rain. The Treasure Dome, known as the Shiny Dome, is one of the eight famous scenes in Fuling Mausoleum.



ZHAOLING MAUSOLEUM Zhaoling Mausoleum is the burial place for the second emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Huangtaiji and his empress, Xiaoduanwen. It is the largest and best-preserved imperial mausoleum of the Three Imperial Mausoleums in Shengjing. Zhaoling Mausoleum can be divided into three parts. The first part starts from the Horse Dismounting Stele and ends at Zhenghong Gate, with horse dismounting steles, statues of stone lions, and ornamental pillars lining up the eastern and western sides. Crossing the three-arched stone bridge in the north, there is a stone archway. Behind the archway and before the Zhenghong Gate is a courtyard. On the eastern side stands the Changing Pavilion, on the western side the slaughterhouse and food house, places for preparing offerings for worshipping ceremonies. The second part of Zhaoling Mausoleum starts at Zhenghong Gate and ends at the Square Castle. Inside Zhenghong Gate six pairs of stone statues line both sides of the Sacred Path: elephants, camels, horses, kirins (a Chinese mythical creature), lions, and xiezhi (a Chinese mythical unicorn-type animal). A stele tower stands on the northern side of the statues with a tea and food house on its east side for serving the officials and soldiers guarding the mausoleum. The third part is the main part of the mausoleum where the Square Castle, the Crescent Castle, and the Treasure City are interconnected. At the center of the Square Castle is Long’en Gate. The grand Long’en Hall is the mausoleum’s Xiang Hall. To its north, inside the Square Castle, is the Ming Pavilion. There are also watchtowers on the four corners of the Square Castle. The Crescent Castle, next to the northern part of the Square Castle, has a semi-circular dome rising from its center. Called the Treasure Dome, it has an underground palace. Zhaoling Mausoleum underwent several rounds of expansion and Full Map of Zhaoling reconstruction during the reigns of Emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, and Jiaqing, Mausoleum making it a venue rich in cultural value. SOURCE: Shengjing Gazette (1784)

356 VERSION: SIZE:

Old Manchu Capital

Carved copy 31 x 39 cm

119


364 Horse-dismounting Stele of Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:

Early 20th century Sada Koujirou SOURCE: Photograph Album of Fengtian Zhaoling (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1927) PHOTOGRAPHER:

There are six horse-dismounting steles in Zhaoling Mausoleum. In the early days of the Qing Dynasty, the horse-dismounting signs were made of wood. In 1783, while on an inspection tour to the Northeast, Emperor Qianlong decided to replace the wooden plates with stone steles. The Board of Works in Shengjing undertook the construction of these stone steles. In 1784, the steles were built and each carried inscriptions in five languages: Manchu, Mongolian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Uygur.

376 Pine Trees in Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:


Like Fuling Mausoleum, northeastern black pines were also planted in Zhaoling Mausoleum to create an atmosphere of solemnity. 120



383 Peach-shaped Ornamental Pillar in Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:


There are three pairs of ornamental pillars in Zhaoling Mausoleum. One pair stands outside the Zhenghong Gate, one in front of the stone animal statues, and the third one in front of the Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Pavilion. The pedestals of these pillars are all of hexagonal Sumeru style. The pillars themselves are either round or hexagonal in shape, but all are engraved with vivid sculptures of dragons flying in the midst of clouds. The cloud-plate is placed close to the top of the pillar. Above the plate is a disc called the heaven disc, above which lies the top of the pillar. There are two kinds of pillar top in Zhaoling Mausoleum: one is peach-shaped and the other takes the shape of a mythical creature.

394 Mythical Creature Ornamental Pillar DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

121


405 Stone Archway at Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:


Zhaoling Mausoleum’s stone archway was built during the reigns of Emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi. It has four pillars and is a saddle-roof, threestoried, three-bay building with exquisite sculptures. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the archway slanted slightly. In 1801, two groups of pillarholding statues were placed front and back of the structure to support it. Eight stone lions and two xiezhi sit along on the podium supporting the Sumeru pedestal. These five pairs of stone animals sit back-to-back to each other, making the archway more solid and impressive.

413 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Slaughter Room DATE:


This tile-roofed buoilding on the western side of Zhenghong Gate is the sacrificial slaughter room. Each time when a grand worshipping ceremony was held, a cow, a pig, and a sheep would be slaughtered as sacrifice. 122



425 Zhenghong Gate DATE:


Zhenghong Gate (Red Gate) is Zhaoling Mausoleum’s main gateway. It is a saddle-roof building covered with golden glazed tiles and has three arched doors. The middle one is called the Holy Door, designed for the holy spirit of the mausoleum owner. This door was only opened for grand worshipping ceremonies. The eastern one is the Emperor’s Door. The western door is the Officials’ Door, for officials accompanying the emperor during the worshipping ceremonies.

433 The Screen Wall of Zhenghong Gate DATE:


On the east and west side of Zhenghong Gate stands a glazed screen wall. At the center of the wall is an oval-shaped, glazed box inlaid with high-relief sculptures of colored dragons flying over the sea and through floating clouds. The two screen walls add a finishing touch to the whole architecture of Zhenghong Gate. Old Manchu Capital

123


The fierce and tough lion is believed to be the king of animals. Placing stone lion statues in Zhaoling Mausoleum was to show the power and authority of the imperial court and suppress evil.

443 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Lion Statue I DATE:


454 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Lion Statue II DATE:


124



Xiezhi is a mythical creature that looks like a unicorn. As legend has it, the xiezhi lived in the wilds of the Northeast. Each time it came across people quarreling, it would drive away the person who was unreasonable. The stone statue of xiezhi in Zhaoling Mausoleum was a symbol of justice.

464 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Xiezhi Statue I DATE:


473 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Xiezhi Statue II DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

125


Kirin is also a mythical animal, believed to appear only during prosperous times and therefore a sign of good luck and prosperity. It has the head of a dragon, the antler of a deer, the tail of a bull, the feet of a horse, and scales all over. It is one of the so-called Four Spirits (the other three are dragon, phoenix, and tortoise). The kirin statue symbolizes luck, prosperity, and peace.

483 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Kirin Statue I DATE:


494 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Kirin Statue II DATE:


126



503 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Horse Statue I DATE:


The stone horses in Zhaoling Mausoleum were modeled after Emperor Huangtaiji’s two favorite horses, a large white horse and a small white horse. They accompanied him in numerous battles, helping him win victories. In 1783, while on an inspection tour to the Northeast, Emperor Qianlong wrote a poem entitled “Ode to the Stone Horses in Zhaoling Mausoleum.”

513 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Horse Statue II DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

127


Camels are an important means of transportation in northern China. Legend has it that camels once helped Emperor Huangtaiji. The camel statues were erected in memory of their contributions.

525 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Camel Statue I DATE:


534 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Camel Statue II DATE:


128



Elephants are big and tall yet mild in temper. The elephant statues in Zhaoling Mausoleum symbolize good luck, universal peace, and social stability.

545 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Elephant Statue I DATE:


553 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stone Elephant Statue II DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

129


565 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Stele Pavilion DATE:


130

Also known as the Large Stele Pavilion, the stele pavilion in Zhaoling Mausoleum was built in 1688. It is a double-eave, saddle-roof building covered with yellow glazed tiles. The beam and columns are covered with colored paintings. An arched doorway opens on each side of the four red walls. The pavilion, solemn and magnificent, was built on a Sumeru podium with four stairs.



573 Rubbings from the Divine Merit and Holy Virtue Stele at Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:


Emperor Kangxi wrote the original 1,810-word text in Manchu and Chinese found on the top part of the stele inside the Stele Pavilion. A famous Qing calligrapher, Gu Guanlu, copied the text before it was inscribed onto the stele.

Old Manchu Capital

131


The Fruit House, Cleaning House, Tea and Food House, and Costume House were built in front of Long’en Gate using blue brick and tile. They are located on the east and west sides, and were service facilities for worshipping purposes. Sacrificial offerings were prepared in the Tea and Food House.

584 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Tea and Food House DATE:


595

Sacrificial offerings were prepared in the Fruit House, one of the mausoleum’s service facilities.

Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Fruit House DATE:


132



605 Long’en Gate at Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Sada Koujirou SOURCE: Photograph Album of Fengtian Zhaoling (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1927)

Long’en Gate Long’en Gate is an arch gateway with its name carved on the lintel in three languages—Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese. Long’en Gate is a three-storied gate tower with a saddle roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. Its main roof ridges used to be joined together by four gold chains, symbolizing the longevity of the Qing Dynasty.

There are two Liangguo Buildings south of the East and West Halls. Two-storied with gabled roofs covered with yellow glazed tiles, both have outer corridors front and rear. They were used for airing sacrificial offerings.

614 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s West Chamber DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

133


625 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s West Side Hall

The West Side Hall was where lama monks chanted prayers for the souls of departed emperors and empresses on the anniversary of their deaths. The Manchus believed in Lamaism.

DATE:


134



The Joss Silk Burning Pavilion, a small, saddle-roofed building with marble stonework, was used for burning joss silk and other materials during worshipping ceremonies. According to the rites concerning imperial mausoleums, silk-burning pavilions should all be glazed buildings, but the three imperial mausoleums in the Northeast were an exception.

633 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Joss Silk Burning Pavilion DATE:


646 Long’en Hall at Zhaoling Mausoleum DATE:


Long’en Hall, also known as Xiang Hall, is Zhaoling Mausoleum’s main building used for enshrining holy tablets and holding sacrificial ceremonies. Standing on a Sumeru podium, the hall has a single-eave, saddle roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. There are two warming rooms inside the hall, one large and one small. The larger room contains a bed, streamers, and pillows. The tablets of the emperor and the empress are placed in the smaller room. A throne and altar are located in the larger room, with five black-enamel tablets with gold decoration lining up both sides of the altar. Old Manchu Capital

135


655 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Square Castle DATE:


The Square Castle The square castle where Long’en Gate is located was built using blue brick. Battlements were constructed on the east, west, and south sides of the castle and on the city walls. A dwarf wall stands on the north side. Bridle paths run from both sides of the gate around the wall. The bridle path is a feature of the early Qing imperial mausoleums, showing that the emperors of that time were involved in conquering wars.

663 The Bridle Path in the Square Castle DATE:


136



675 Archway and Five Stone Offerings DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

Behind Long’en Hall is a towering archway with a suspended glazed roof. As there are two stone pillars in the archway, it is also called Erzhu Gate (literally “two pillar gate”). Two wooden doors with colored paintings open in the middle of the archway, with a wangtianhou (shouting at the sky) sitting on top of each of the pillars. Behind the Erzhu Gate is a white marble table for placing sacrificial offerings. The finely carved table is built in the Sumeru Style and has five stone containers for offerings. 137


The Ming Tower has overlapping eaves and a nine-ridge saddle roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. It is the mausoleum’s tallest building with a semicircular arched door on each of its four sides. The lower part of the tower is the square podium along the four sides of which are stairways leading to the ground. “Zhaoling,” in Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese, is inscribed on the board hanging on the tower’s front eave.

685 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Ming Tower DATE:


694 Ming Tower’s Stone Stele DATE:


A stone stele with a dragon-head sculpture stands inside the Ming Tower with the two Chinese characters “Zhao Ling” inscribed at the center of the top part of the stele. The stele’s main body reads, “The Mausoleum of Emperor Taizong” in Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese. Four sides of the stele were engraved with patterns of flying dragons. The stele’s pedestal is of the Sumeru style.

138



On each of the four corners of the Square Castle stands a two-storied watchtower, or corner tower, with red walls, yellow glazed tiles, and a glazed gourd-shaped top. Wind chimes hang on the tower’s four eaves, which are decorated both inside and outside.

703 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Watchtowers DATE:


The Crescent City, a special space between the Square Castle and the Treasure City, got its name from its shape. A colorful glazed screen wall was inlaid on the north part of the city wall. Legend has it that it was the entrance to the underground palace.

713 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Crescent City DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

139


723 The Screen Wall of the Underground Palace DATE:


In the north of the Crescent City there is a glazed screen wall. The red screen wall is inlaid with a red glazed brick at its center on which a relief sculpture of a green vase with nine lotus blossoms emerging out of it is engraved. The yellow glazed top of the screen wall is in the shape of a house.

The dome at the center of the Treasure City is called the Treasure Dome, enclosed by a blue-brick wall. The enclosed part was built with a mixture of lime, sand, and loess through the process of tamping. The smooth and firm dome looks bright in the sun, forming one of the ten scenic spots of Zhaoling Mausoleum.

734 Zhaoling Mausoleum’s Treasure Dome DATE:


140


The Mountain Resort and Eight Outlying Temples

04

The Mountain Resort of Chengde, also known as Chengde Ligong or Jehol Temporary Palace, is located in a valley along the west bank of the Wulie River north of Chengde City in Hebei Province. It is the largest existing imperial garden in China. Construction began in 1703 and continued for 90 years through the reigns of three emperors, Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. The Mountain Resort, which maintains the principle of being simple yet elegant, covers an area of 5.64 million square meters and hosts more than 120 buildings that integrate architectural styles from different parts of China. The Mountain Resort consists of various types of buildings, such as halls, houses, pavilions, chambers, verandas, and temples, to name a few. The resort can be roughly divided into two parts: the palace area and the garden area. The garden area can be subdivided into three parts: the lake area, the plain area, and the mountain area. The four major building complexes of the palace area are the Front Palace (Zhenggong), the Pine Crane Hall (Songhezhai), the East Palace (Donggong), and their annexes. The Front Palace, the main building in the palace area, has a main hall called Danbo Jingcheng Hall (Hall of Frugality and Placidity) where grand celebrations were held. Behind this are the Study of Four Knows, Yanbo Zhishuang Hall (Hall of Cool Mists and Ripples), and Yunshan Shengdi Hall (Hall of the Panorama of Cloud-covered Mountains). These were places for the emperor to reside, handle state affairs, and read books. Most of the landscape and buildings in the lake area are modeled on famous scenic spots south of the Yangtze River. For example, Yanyulou (House of Mists and Rains) is 141

T H E M O U N TA I N R E S O R T A N D E I G H T O U T LY I N G T E M P L E S

modeled on the Yanyulou at the South Lake in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province. The layout of Jinshan Islet is modeled on Jinshan Hill in Zhenjiang, Jiangsu Province. The plain area consists mainly of grassland and wooded quarters. Wanshuyuan (Garden of Ten-thousand Trees) was where Emperor Qianlong received the princes of minority people, religious leaders, and foreign envoys. Wenjinge (Knowledge Imparting Hall) and Yongyou Temple which houses a stupa are also located in the plain area. The mountain area is located in the western and northern parts, with peaks, crags, and luxuriant forests. Chuifeng Luozhao Pavilion (Pavilion of the Hammer Peak in the Glow of the Setting Sun) is located in this part of the Mountain Resort. Qingchui Peak (Sledgehammer Peak) is bathed in golden sunlight at sunset. Chuifeng Luozhao Pavilion derived its name from this beautiful natural scene. During the heyday of the Qing Empire, from the reign of Kangxi to that of Qianlong, eight temples were built in the northeastern section of the Mountain Resort: Puren Temple, Pushan Temple, Puning Temple, Anyuan Temple, Putuo Zongcheng Temple, Shuxiang Temple, Temple of Sumeru Happiness and Longevity (Xumifushou), and Guangyuan Temple. Together they are known as the Eight Outlying Temples. The temples can be classified into three architectural styles: Tibetan, Han Chinese, and Han-Tibetan. Puren Temple and Pushan Temple are the earliest Han-Chinese-style temples. Puning Temple is a classic example of the hybridization of Han Chinese and Tibetan styles. The front of this temple features a HanChinese garan seven-hall arrangement, while the rear part is in the Tibetan Mandala style characterized by its architectural adherence to the Buddhist universe: the Mahayana Pavilion is placed in the middle, symbolizing the Sumeru Mountain, while the halls built around it signify the Four Buddhist lands. Puning Temple houses the world’s largest goldlacquered, wooden statue of the Avalokitesvara

142

Bodhisattva with a thousand eyes and a thousand hands. Anyuan Temple, marked by its black tiles, is modeled on the Gulzha Temple in Yili, Xinjiang. Pule Temple is the only one of the Eight Outlying Temples with a domeshaped roof for its main hall. The Xuguang (Morning Light) Pavilion inside the temple has a coffered ceiling decorated with flying dragons and it houses the largest existing three-dimensional wooden Mandala model. Putuo Zongcheng Temple is the most Tibetan in architectural features and also the largest of the eight. Dahongtai or the Red Tower, the main part of the temple, is 42.5 meters high and 59.7 meters wide. This imposing structure reminds people of a castle hanging in the air. In the middle of the Red Tower stands Wanfaguiyi Hall (Hall of All Laws into One), a hall with double eaves and a pointed roof covered with gold-coated tiles at four corners. This was where Emperor Qianlong received the Torghut tribal chief Ubashi Khan and his attendants who returned to the Qing Empire after a march of thousands of miles. Xumifushou Temple was built for the Sixth Panchen Lama—the then political and religious leader of Tibet— who came to congratulate Emperor Qianlong on his 70th birthday. The roof of Miaogao Zhuangyan Hall, its main hall, is covered with gold-coated brass tiles. There are eight dragons cast from eight tons of brass for each of the four roof ridges, which are positioned as if they were flying into a mist of clouds. All these architectural works vividly reflect the unity of different races. The Mountain Resort and the Eight Outlying Temples form a vast cultural landscape area. As an important place for the Qing emperors to pass the hot summer and conduct state affairs, the resort was a political center next in importance to Beijing. It has witnessed the development and consolidation of China as a multi-ethnic country. Housing many rare historical relics, the Mountain Resort has become a perfect place for scholars to conduct research into the cultural history of the Qing Dynasty.



Built in 1754, Lizheng is the main gate of the Mountain Resort and also known as the first of the 36 Qianlong Scenic Spots. The gate board bears the inscription “li zheng men” in Manchu, Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Uyghur. The name originates from The Book of Changes (I Ching), meaning “shiny and bright,” symbolizing fairness, righteousness, benevolence, harmony, and universal unity.

015 Lizheng Gate (Gate of Beauty and Righteousness) DATE:

Early 20th century Sekino Sada and Takeshima Takuichi SOURCE: Jehol (Zayu Takara Publication, 1937) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

024 Danbo Jingcheng Hall (Hall of Frugality and Placidity) DATE:


This is the main hall of the Front Palace, first built in 1710 and reconstructed in 1754. It is also known as Nanmu Hall because it was built of a fine-grained, fragrant hardwood called nanmu (Phoebe nanmu). The hall has seven columns and was built with blue brick and grey tile, but has no colored paintings. It was where the emperor received important envoys and held major celebrations. Old Manchu Capital

143


034 Yiqingkuang Hall (Hall of Luxuriant Clarity) DATE:


This is where the Qing emperors stopped for a rest and changed their clothes en route to and from the court. They also received court ministers, princes, and chiefs of minority groups here. Emperor Kangxi wrote the name of the hall. It was later renamed the Study of Four Knows by Emperor Qianlong, inspired by a quote from The Book of Changes (I Ching) which says, “A noble person should know what humility is, what profundity is, what softness is, and what hardness is.”

043 Yanbo Zhishuang Hall (Hall of Cool Mists and Ripples) DATE:


This is the main hall of the imperial sleeping palace. The three rooms at the center of the hall were places for the emperor to receive respects from his empress and concubines. The second room on the west side is a family hall for worshipping the Buddha. The west warming room is the emperor’s bedroom. The room on the east side was where the emperor summoned his ministers. When Emperor Qianlong came to the resort, he would summon his ministers for secret discussions about important issues. In 1860, when the British-French allied forces invaded Beijing, Emperor Xianfeng fled to the resort and died in this hall the following year. 144



053 Hall of Yunshan Shengdi (Panorama of Cloud-covered Mountains) DATE:


This hall is behind Yanbo Zhishuang Hall. Built in 1710, it has two stories with five rooms at the front and two rooms at the rear. There is no stairway inside. To go upstairs, one needs to follow the steps in the stonework in front of the building. There is a small stage in the west room of the first floor where the emperor watched performances and operas.

065 Main Gate of the Songhe Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

This gate lies on the east side of the Front Palace of the Mountain Resort. It was built in 1749 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. This building complex consists of the Gate Hall, Songhe (Pine-Crane) Hall, Suicheng Hall, Leshou Hall, and Changyuan Pavilion. Crown Prince Chayan once studied and lived in Suicheng Hall. In 1832, it became a place for enshrining and worshipping the portraits of all the emperors before Daoguang. Leshou Temple was the bedchamber of Empress Dowager Shengxian. 145


075 Ji’en Hall (Hall for Thanksgiving) DATE:


This is the main hall of the Pine Soughing Valley, built in 1708 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. Here the emperor received officials, reviewed their memorials, and appreciated the landscape. Emperor Qianlong renamed it Ji’en Hall after he assumed the throne in memory of his study sessions here.

083 Shenshou Pavilion in the East Palace DATE:


This pavilion lies due north of Qingyin Pavilion. It is a two-storied building with five columns. On the second floor are seats for the emperor, the empress, and the concubines to watch operas. There are also skirt chambers on both sides of the building linked to the dressing room for princes, aristocrats, and foreign envoys to watch operas or performances. 146



This pavilion was one of the three performance chambers. It is a three-storied building with three bays in length and in depth. Through the second and third levels is a sky well for performing stunts during the show. For instance, it can be used for special effects, such as fairies ascending to the sky and deities descending from heaven. There is a five-well cellar under the floor of the first level for amplifying the sound effects.

094 Qingyin Pavilion in the East Palace DATE:


103 The Water Chestnut Collecting Ferry DATE:


At the northern end of Huanbi Island (Island Surrounded with Green) a bamboo-hat-shaped thatched pavilion was built by the lakeside and named Cailian Du (Water Chestnut Collecting Ferry). This was where the imperial concubines collected water chestnuts by boat. Between the end of summer and the beginning of autumn, lotus leaves rose high above the lake, sending gusts of fragrance and presenting a charming rustic picture. Old Manchu Capital

147


115 Cool Summer Hall DATE:


At the center of Ruyi Islet (Happiness Islet) is a three-row courtyard. On its gate hall hangs an inscribed board with the characters “Wushu Qingliang” (cool without summer heat). This was the third scenic spot with an inscription by Emperor Kangxi.

123 Yanyulou (Tower of Mists and Rains) DATE:


This tower is located on Qingpeng Islet (Green Lotus Islet) north of Ruyi Islet. It was modeled after Yanyulou on Mandarin Duck Island in the South Lake of Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province. Completed in 1781 during the reign of Qianlong, it was a place for the emperor to watch mists and rains.

148



The Lake Center Pavilions were built in 1709 where the sluice gate of the southeastern palace wall of the Mountain Resort used to be. Due to the expansion of the resort, a stone bridge was built over the sluice gate and three pavilions were built on this bridge. The three-bay pavilion in the middle has a double-eave, saddle, paraboloid roof. The other two on the south and north sides have double-eave, pointed roofs. Emperor Kangxi named these pavilions Lake Center Pavilions. He once went fishing here.

135 Lake Center Pavilions DATE:


144 The Lion Forest of Wen Garden DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

This garden was built in 1767 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, taking the Lion Forest in Suzhou as an example. The garden has rugged, man-made hills. The buildings are small and exquisite, exhibiting the southern China gardening style as captured by famous Yuan Dynasty painter Ni Yunlin in his paintings of private gardens such as the Lion Forest: seeing the grand within the small. 149


155 Qingshushan Mansion DATE:


165 The Islet of Moonlit River DATE:


150

Qingshushan Mansion was built in 1709 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. It is located north of the Lion Forest of Wen Garden with a lake lying to the east. The Islet of Moonlit River (Yuese Jiangsheng) overlooks the mansion from the other side of Yuanbao Lake in the west, and in the south the mansion is linked with the Lake Center Pavilions. The main hall of the mansion was where Prince Yinzhen lived when he accompanied Emperor Kangxi on a tour beyond the Great Wall.

On the Islet of Moonlit River, north of the Lake Center Pavilions, stands a group of four-row courtyards that were completed in 1703 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. Emperor Kangxi wrote the inscription “Yuese Jiangsheng” on the board of its gate hall. He named the main hall “Jingji Shanfang” (meaning “tranquil mountain lodge”). This was the imperial study. Behind this hall was Yingxin Hall, another study for the Qing emperors. Behind Yingxin Hall was Hushan Yanhua Hall.



173 The Hall of Jingshui Yuncen DATE:


The Hall of Jingshui Yuncen (Limpid Water and High Clouds) is located on the west side of Jinshan Islet. Its main hall faces west with man-made hills in the east. The hall is surrounded by water on three sides and has a gate hall. Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong used to go to this hall to appreciate the lake view.

185 Tianyu Xianchang Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

Tianyu Xianchang Hall is located on the flat ground on top of Jinshan Islet. It has three halls. Emperor Kangxi wrote the name for this hall, which means “the sky is broad and the sunlight from the sky shines over the entire earth,” implying that the heavenly god is bestowing benevolence on the human world.

151


196 Pavilion of God DATE:


On the highest raised area of Jinshan Islet stands a three-story pavilion with a hexagonal pointed roof, which is called Pavilion of God and also known as Yuhuang (Jade Emperor) Pavilion. There is an inscribed board for each level of the pavilion. The inscription on the board of the first floor says “Huangqiong Yongyou”.This floor was where the altar and other sacrificial instruments were enshrined. The board inscription of the second floor says “Yuanwu Weiling”.This floor was where the statues of gods and deities were enshrined, such as Zhenwu (the “Perfected Warrior”), the Supreme Lord of Laozi, Lord Guan Yu, Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), the God of Fortune, and the God of Fire. The inscription on the third-floor board reads "Tiangao Tingbei." It was where the statue of the Jade Emperor was enshrined.

204 Jehol Spring DATE:


Jehol Spring lies at the source of Chenhu Lake and is the main water source for Saihu Lake. The spring comes out from an opening in a rock. The temperature of the spring water is around 8˚C even on winter days, which means it never freezes. By the side of the spring stands a stone tablet inscribed with the characters “rehe”. Even in a freezing, snowy winter, the spring water is warm, with steam creating a beautiful misty scene. 152



213 Wenjin Pavilion DATE:


Wenjin Pavilion was built in 1774 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Modeled after the Tianyi Pavilion of Ningbo, Zhejiang, it is one of the four north pavilions. Viewed from outside it appears to have two stories while in fact it has three. The second floor was a library protected from direct sunlight. This was where A Collection of Books of Ancient and Modern Times and The Complete Library of the Four Treasures (Siku Quanshu) were stored.

This garden is located in the northeast of the flat area of the Mountain Resort. Inside the garden stands a stone tablet with the inscription “Wanshu Garden” (Garden of Ten-thousand Trees) written by Emperor Qianlong. The garden was once dotted by towering old trees, luxuriant grasslands, and herds of elk, pheasants, and hares. There were no buildings, only Mongolian yurts. The Qing emperors Kangxi, Qianlong, and Jiaqing all came here many times to receive and hold banquets for chiefs of minority tribes and foreign envoys. Old Manchu Capital

225 Wanshu Garden DATE:


153


This south-facing Buddhist temple is located in the northeast of Wanshu Garden. It was constructed in 1751 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Its gate hall has three columns and the inscription on the gate board was written by Emperor Qianlong. “Yongyou” means “blessed forever with peace.”

235 Yongyou Temple DATE:


244 Yongyou Temple’s Stone Stele DATE:


The stone stele is about seven meters high and consists of three parts: the head, the main body, and the pedestal. The inscription on the stele records the course of the construction of the temple.

154



254 The Stupa at Yongyou Temple DATE:


This stupa stands in the northeast of Wanshu Garden and is also known as Liuhe Pagoda. Its construction started in 1754, but was only completed in 1764, taking an entire decade. Emperor Qianlong decreed the building of this temple to commemorate his mother. It is modeled on the Liuhe Pagoda in Hangzhou and Bao’en Temple in Nanjing. The 66-meter octagonal pagoda has nine stories with a roof of multiple eaves. It was built on a high podium with the first level of the pagoda enclosed by walls. The eight interior walls of the pagoda are decorated with stone statues and colored frescoes. The top of the pagoda was made of cast brass coated with gold, weighing around 400 kilograms. This pagoda stands high in the vast expanse of open space in the Wanshu Garden, creating another landscape in the Mountain Resort.

263 The Stele of Imperial Poems DATE:


This stele is 2.54 meters high, its head carved with patterns of auspicious clouds and flying cranes and its foot carved with patterns of waves, fish, and dragons. Seven poems written between 1775 and 1806 are inscribed on the main body of the stele. Emperor Qianlong wrote the first six and the other one was written by Emperor Jiaqing. Old Manchu Capital

155


275 Full View of Guangyuan Palace DATE:


Guangyuan Palace is a large Taoist temple modeled on the Temple of Bixia Yuan Jun (the Princess of the Rosy Clouds, a Taoist deity) on Mount Tai. The temple sits astride a stream at the top of a mountain. It has a glazed roof, gates on four sides, and faces south. The gate board on the temple’s south gate is inscribed with the name “Guangyuan Palace” written by Emperor Qianlong. Behind the gate are the drum and bell towers, which have two doors and five bays each. Together the two towers form Renyu Gate. Entering the gate, there is a double-eave incense pavilion called “Xinde Pavilion.” In the north of the incense pavilion stands the five-bay main Renyu Hall. On both sides of the main hall are the east and west three-bay side halls. The east side hall is called Aoshan House and the west side hall Yunqi House.

283 Gate and Bell Tower of Guangyuan Palace DATE:


156



295 Renyu Gate of Guangyuan Palace DATE:


303 Xinde Pavilion of Guangyuan Palace DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

157


314 Lihua Banyue Hall (Hall of Pear Blossoms Greeting the Moon) DATE:


In the middle of the Pear Tree Valley (Lishuyu) is a southwest-facing building complex constructed on flat ground at the foot of a hill. This well-designed complex has a three-column gate hall whose gate board carries the inscription “Lihua Banyue” (Pear Blossoms Greeting the Moon) written by Emperor Kangxi. There is a pond with crystal clear water inside the courtyard in addition to artificial hills. Outside the courtyard is a pear tree garden. In early spring days, the entire hill is covered with pear blossoms, filling the air with fragrance. The blossoms, together with wild flowers and luxuriant grass, present a quiet and beautiful scene.

325 Zhuyuan Temple DATE:


158

Zhuyuan Temple stands on a hillside west of the West Lake. It is a large Buddhist temple built in 1761 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. The temple is close to the source of a waterfall to its north, where spring water splashes like dancing pearls, giving the temple its name. It has a three-bay gate hall called Dingci Gate, behind which is the Bell Tower, the Drum Tower, Tianwang Hall (The Hall of Deva Kings), the stone archway, Zongjing Pavilion, the Big Sumeru Pavilion, and the thirteen-columned tower called Small Western Paradise. A P I C T O R I A L R E C O R D O F T H E QI NG D YNASTY


334 Zongjing Pavilion DATE:


Zongjing Pavilion is the main hall of Zhuyuan Temple, also known as the Bronze Hall. It is a two-story, Buddhist pavilion where the statue of Sakyamuni was enshrined. The entire pavilion weighs about 207 tons because the beam, pillars, doors, windows, roof, inscribed boards, couplets hanging on pillars, and statues of Buddha were all made of bronze. All the bronze-cast objects, which were produced with the care and precision of great craftsmanship, are all rare treasures.

345 Full View of Bifeng Temple (Green Peak Temple) DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

This east-facing Buddhist temple is reached by walking westwards on the stone path along the Zhenzi Valley. Along the central axis from east to west are the stone bridge, the entrance gate, the bell and drum towers, Tianwang Hall, the left- and right-side halls, the main hall, and the sutra chamber. The gate hall has three columns and its gate board carries the inscription “Bifeng Temple” written by Emperor Qianlong.

159


353 The Gulige Stele DATE:

Early 20th century Sekino Sada and Takeshima Takuichi SOURCE: Jehol (Zayu Takara Publication, 1934)

PHOTOGRAPHERS:

This stele stands north of Bifeng Temple. It is 2.54 meters high and faces south. The stele head and foot on the south-facing side are carved with the figures of 19 famous people. The main body of the stele is inscribed with eight poems, seven of which were written by Emperor Qianlong and the last by Emperor Jiaqing.

365 Chuifeng Luozhao Pavilion (Pavilion of Hammer Peak in the Glow of Sunset) DATE:


160

Chuifeng Luozhao Pavilion, named by Emperor Kangxi, stands on a hill in the north of the Zhenzi Valley facing the lake. The pavilion has a paraboloid, saddle roof and is without walls. At sunset the hills in the east are gray and only Panchui Peak, which towers above the other peaks, looks golden and rosy pink, presenting an irresistibly charming view.



375 Puren Temple DATE:


Puren Temple is a standard Han-Chinese-style temple built in 1713 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. It faces south and is the southernmost of the Eight Outlying Temples. The temple was constructed according to the traditional garan seven-hall structure consisting of the gate hall, Tianwang Hall, main hall, east and west side halls, and rear hall. In the Grand Hall, the main hall of the temple, the statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future are enshrined and lined up on both sides are the statues of the Eighteen Arhats. Inside the rear hall, nine statues of the Buddha Amitayus are enshrined, blessing the emperor for longevity.

383 The Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future at the Main Hall of Puren Temple DATE:


The main hall of Puren Temple is called the Grand Hall. It is seven-bay at the front and five-bay at the back. The gate board carries the inscription “Ciyun Puyin,” meaning “benevolence for the whole universe.” Enshrined in the hall are the statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future: Buddha Dipamkara (the past), Buddha Sakyamuni (the present), and Buddha Maitreya (the future). Old Manchu Capital

161


395 Pushan Temple’s Main Hall DATE:


Pushan Temple was constructed in 1713 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. It is characterized by its Xianzong Buddhist architectural style from the central plains of China. Its main buildings include the entrance gate, the bell and drum towers, Tianwang Hall, the Buddha Pavilion, and side halls. The statue of the Buddha Amitayus enshrined in the temple is made with perfect craftsmanship. There is a throne on the first floor of the Buddha Pavilion for the emperor to hear prayers and birthday congratulations from the monks. Special seats were also set out for lama monks to chant sutras. The second floor of the pavilion was for storing Buddhist scriptures.

403 Full View of Puning Temple DATE:


Puning Temple, also known as the Great Buddha Temple, was built in 1755 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It is located in the northeast of the Mountain Resort, occupying an area of 33,000 square meters. The name of the temple embodies the meaning of “blessing peace for the entire universe.” It is a temple that integrates both Chinese and Tibetan architectural styles. The front part of the temple was constructed according to the traditional Han Buddhist structure of seven-halls, while the rear part was modeled after the Samye Monastery in Tibet, which takes the Mahayana Pavilion as the center and is laid out on the basis of Sumeru and Nine Mountains and Eight Seas. 162



The main gate is a five-bay hall with three stone archways in the middle, thus it is also known as Sanmen (three gates). According to the doctrine of Buddhism, the three gates symbolize three moksas, which are called the Gate of Emptiness, the Gate of Formlessness, and the Gate of Non-action.

415 Puning Temple’s Main Gate DATE:


423 Puning Temple’s Drum Tower DATE:


The Drum Tower of Puning Temple is at the northwestern side of the main gate. It is a square, three-bay tower with a single-eave, saddle roof. On ordinary days, the large drum placed inside the tower would be struck 108 times every morning, a signal to summon all the monks to start sutra reading and other religious practices. On the first day, the eighth day, the 15th day, and the last day of each lunar month, the drum would be struck in two rounds of 108 beats. On the occasion of important religious activities, the drum would be struck for three rounds. Old Manchu Capital

163


The Grand Hall is seven-bay at the front and five-bay at the back. It has a double-eave, saddle roof covered with golden glazed tiles with green borders. At the center of the roof ridge is a brass stupa coated with gold. Enshrined in the middle of the hall are the statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future with the statues of the Eighteen Arhats lined up on both sides. There are colored frescoes of Buddhist stories on both gable walls.

435 Puning Temple’s Grand Hall DATE:


444 The Eighteen Arhats and the Frescoes in Puning Temple DATE:

Early 20th century Itsumi Baiei and Nakano Hanjirou SOURCE: The Fine Arts of Manchu and Mongolian Lamaism (Hozokan, 1943) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

164



453 Puning Temple’s Mahayana Pavilion DATE:


As Puning Temple’s main building, the Mahayana Pavilion is a unique Han-style wooden structure. It is 36.75 meters high and its top is composed of five pointed roofs (one large roof plus four smaller roofs) forming the shape of a vajra-based pagoda.

464 The Guanyin Bodhisattva of a Thousand Arms in Puning Temple DATE:


A gold-lacquered wooden statue of the Guanyin Bodhisattva of a Thousand Arms stands in the Mahayana Pavilion. It is 22.28 meters high, weighs 110 tons, and is arguably the largest wooden Buddhist image in the world as well as one of the best examples of China’s ancient carving arts.

Old Manchu Capital

165


474 The Crescent White Tower of the Mahayana Pavilion DATE:


485 Full View of Puyou Temple DATE:


166

Puyou Temple is an auxiliary temple of Puning Temple and it was built in 1760 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. At that time, its main buildings included the main gate, Tianwang Hall, the Hall of the Wheel of Law, and the Sutra Chamber. As the seminary for the lama monks in the Eight Outlying Temples, the temple consists of four departments: Xianzong, Mizong, Medicine, and Calendar calculation



493 Hall of the Wheel of Law in Puyou Temple DATE:


PHOTOGRAPHERS:

This is the main hall of Puyou Temple where the lama monks studied scriptures.

505 Guangyuan Temple’s Main Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

Guangyuan Temple was built in 1780 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Emperor Qianlong wrote the inscription “Guangyuan Temple” on the gate board. Located on the east side of Puyou Temple, the buildings in Guangyuan Temple followed the Han Chinese style. The five-bay main hall houses the statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future. The seven-bay rear hall is the residence of the temple’s abbot—Living Buddha Normanhan. 167


Anyuan Temple was built in 1764 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Modeled on Gulzha Temple on the banks of the Yili River in Xinjiang, it is also known as Yili Temple. It was built for the Dashiwa tribe of Mongolians to practice religious activities. Later it became the place for the Mongolian princes and aristocrats to pay tribute to the emperor or to participate in celebrations. Anyuan Temple occupies an area of 26,000 square meters, consisting of buildings such as the main gate, the stele pavilion, Pudu Hall, and the back gate.

515 Anyuan Temple’s Main Gate DATE:


524 Anyuan Temple’s Pudu Hall DATE:


This is the main hall of Anyuan Temple. Seen from outside, it appears to have four stories while in fact it has only three. The first floor is where the statue of Green Tara is enshrined. On the second floor stand the statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future. The third floor is where the statue of the Thunderbolt Bearer, Vajrapani, was enshrined and also where Emperor Qianlong’s armor and weaponry for hunting used to be stored. The building has a double-eave, saddle roof covered with black glazed tiles. Temples or imperial buildings covered with black glazed tiles are few and far between. 168



535 The Statue of Green Tara in Anyuan Temple DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

Tara, also known as Green Tara (Drolma in Tibetan) is the name of a goddess in Tibetan Buddhism. Legend has it that she was the incarnation of Buddha Amithaba and a kind goddess who saves people from bitterness and distress. It was said that enshrining the statue of Green Tara can help people get rid of eight kinds of fear and relieve themselves of eight kinds of suffering. 169


545 Full View of Pule Temple DATE:


170

Pule Temple was built in 1766 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It is also known as the Round Pavilion because of the dome-shaped roof of its hall. The buildings in the temple feature an integration of the Han-Chinese and Tibetan styles. The eastern part of the temple was constructed according to the Han Chinese style, which consists of the main gate, Tianwang Hall, the bell and drum towers, side halls, and the main hall. The western part of the temple followed the Tibetan style.



This hall was built in 1766 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It is where statues of the three warrior attendants of Buddha are enshrined.

555 Pule Temple’s Shengyin Hall DATE:


564 Pule Temple’s Zongyin Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

This hall was built in 1766 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It is seven-bay at the front and five-bay at the back. The hall was built on a podium that is over one meter high. The statues of the Buddhas of the Past, Present, and Future, stand at the center of the hall while the statues of eight other Bodhisattvas are lined up on both sides. 171


Xuguang Pavilion is Pule Temple’s main building. It has a double-eave, pointed roof covered with yellow glazed tiles. The 12 eave columns and the 12 hypostyle columns are arranged in two concentric circles. The interior top of the pavilion is a round caisson ceiling decorated with patterns of curving dragons. On the round stone Sumeru pedestal at the center of the pavilion stands the largest existing wooden Mandala in China, on top of which is the statue of the Happy Buddha.

573 Pule Temple’s Xuguang Pavilion DATE:


585 Putuo Zongcheng Temple DATE:


172

The Putuo Zongcheng Temple stands on the southern slope of the North Hill, which is to the north of the Mountain Resort. Its construction started in 1767 and was completed in 1771 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Occupying an area of 22 hectares, it was modeled on the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet in terms of architectural style and layout. Hence it is also called Small Potala Palace. As the largest temple of the Eight Outlying Temples, it also shows more Tibetan architectural features than any other temples. Putuo Zongcheng is the transliteration from the Tibetan word potala. The temple was built for the Dalai Living Buddha to have an audience with the emperor. A P I C T O R I A L R E C O R D O F T H E QI NG D YNASTY


593 The Three-arch Five-pagoda Gate at Putuo Zongcheng Temple DATE:


On top of the Five-pagoda Gate stand five lama pagodas in red, green, yellow, white, and black, representing the five schools of Tibetan Buddhism. This gate symbolizes the Qing Empire’s religious policy of respecting all the schools of Lamaism. Anyone who walks through the gate will be taken as worshipping the Buddha.

604 The Elephant Statue before the Five-pagoda Gate DATE:

Early 20th century Kishida Hideto and Tsuchiura Kamejou SOURCE: Historical Relics of Jehol (Sagami Bookstore, 1940) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

A pair of stone elephant statues stands in front of the Five-pagoda Gate, symbolizing the Mahayana School of Buddhism. As elephants are capable of carrying heavy burdens, these statues imply that the Mahayana school carries the most important responsibility of saving people’s souls. Old Manchu Capital

173


615 The Glaze Archway of Putuo Zongcheng Temple DATE:


174

This is a three-bay, four-column, seven-storied glaze archway in the Han Chinese style. The stone board in the middle of the front side of the archway carries the inscription of four Chinese characters “Pumen Yingxian” written by Emperor Qianlong, meaning “Guanyin Bodhisattva opening the door to save all fleshes.” On the back of the archway are inscribed another four Chinese characters “Lianjie Zhuangyan,” meaning “the site where Guanyin Bodhisattva resides and practices is holy and awe-inspiring.”



625 Full View of White Towers in Putuo Zongcheng Temple

Around 30 white towers stand in the central part of the Putuo Zongcheng Temple complex, featuring different sizes, shapes, levels, and functions. The white tower groups contrast with the Red Tower, forming a microcosm of the temples at the foot of the Small Potala Palace.

DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

175


634 Putuo Zongcheng Temple’s Red Tower DATE:


The Red Tower is 43 meters high with six levels of blank windows. The main body of the tower is 25 meters high and is built on a broad, 18-meter-high podium. There are six glazed niches in the middle of the Red Tower with a large Buddha Amitayus and several small ones inside each.

644 Putuo Zongcheng Temple’s Wanfaguiyi Hall DATE:


This hall is at the center of the Putuo Zongcheng Temple complex. It is a square hall with a double-eave pavilion roof covered with goldcoated, fish-scaled tiles and decorated with sculptures of animals and bells. There are several brass statues of Buddha inside the hall. This hall was mainly used for holding important religious ceremonies or for the emperor to meet important ministers or chiefs of minority tribes. 176



655 Inside View of Wanfaguiyi Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

177


665 Full View of Shuxiang Temple DATE:


178

Shuxiang Temple is on the west side of Putuo Zongcheng Temple. It was built in 1774 in the Han Chinese style during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. The front section of the temple includes the main gate, the drum and bell towers, Tianwang Hall, and Huicheng Hall. The rear section includes Baoxiang Pavilion and Qingliang Tower. Shuxiang Temple was the only one of the Eight Outlying Temples where Manchu lamas could study scriptures in Manchu.



673 Shuxiang Temple’s Huicheng Hall DATE:


Huicheng Hall is Shuxiang Temple’s main hall. Three statues of seated bodhisattvas are arranged from west to east: Guanyin, Manjusri (Wen Shu), and Samantabhadra (Pu Xian). Normally Guanyin is placed in the middle, but Manjusri is the primary statue enshrined in this temple and therefore takes the place of honor. The Manjusri Bodhisattva was sculpted in the image of Emperor Qianlong.

684 Pagoda and Sutra Chamber in Huicheng Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

179


695 Full View of Baoxiang Pavilion in Shuxiang Temple

Baoxiang Pavilion is a double-eave, octagonal structure covered with yellow glazed tiles with green borders. It stands on the manmade hill behind Huicheng Hall. Gates open on four sides and windows at the four corners.

DATE:


180



705 The Statue of Manjusri Bodhisattva in Baoxiang Pavilion DATE:


On the stone Sumeru pedestal inside Baoxiang Pavilion stands an 11.6-meter wooden statue of Manjusri Bodhisattva riding an elephant, two meters taller than a similar statue at Mount Wutai. It is said that the statue was modeled after Emperor Qianlong. On either side of the statue stands a three-meter warrior statue.

PHOTOGRAPHERS:

Old Manchu Capital

181


715 Full View of the Site of Guang’an Temple DATE:


182

Located west of Shuxiang Temple, Guang’an Temple is also known as Jietai Temple (Ordination Terrace Temple) because of its two-storied ordination terrace in the rear section surrounded by a circle of houses. As a perfect Tibetan-style temple, the temple was where Emperor Qianlong and the Mongolian princes and aristocrats held religious ceremonies. This temple no longer exists.



The Arhat Temple is located west of Guang’an Temple, occupying an area of 1.3 hectares. As a Han-Chinese garan seven-hall structure, it is the only temple out of the Eight Outlying Temples that is modeled after the temples of southern China. It was constructed in 1774 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. There used to be 508 arhat statues made of gold-coated fir, but only 196 statues remain. These statues have been moved to Puning Temple for tourists to view. Only the ruins of the temple remain today.

725 Arhat Temple DATE:


734 Arhat Temple’s Drum Tower DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

183


Tianwang Hall is five-bay in area, having a single-eave, saddle roof. A vertical board under the eave carries the inscription “Tianwang Hall.” At the center of the hall is the statue of the Large Stomach Maitreya Buddha with Skanka Bodhisattva standing behind and four deva kings on both sides.

745 Arhat Temple’s Tianwang Hall (The Hall of Deva Kings) DATE:


754 The Gold-coated Wooden Statue of Bodhisattva in the West Side Hall of the Arhat Temple DATE:


184



765 Buddha and Arhat Statues in the Grand Hall of the Arhat Temple DATE:


774 The Arhat Statues in the Grand Hall DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

185


785 Full View of Xumifushou Temple DATE:


186

Xumifushou Temple lies north of the Mountain Resort, to the east of Putuo Zongcheng Temple. It was built in 1780 on the model of the Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse, Tibet during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Its main body is the three-storied Great Red Tower. Miaogao Zhuangyan Hall stands at the center. The East Red Tower lies to southeast of the Great Red Tower and to the west stands Jixiang Faxi Hall (Hall of Luck and Happiness), the quarters of the Panchen Lama. Jinhe Hall and Wangfa Zongyuan Hall are to the north; both were residences of the Panchen’s disciples. Further north is a seven-storied, octagonal, glazed longevity tower surrounded by buildings such as the Nine-bay Tower, Gangzi Hall, and the Single-pagoda White Tower. This temple is an exemplar of the integration of Tibetan and Han Chinese architectural styles.



795 Xumifushou Temple’s Five-arch Stone Bridge DATE:


803 Xumifushou Temple’s Main Gate DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

The south-facing main gate was built on stone blocks. It has three arched doorways on top of which stands a hall, three bays in length and one bay in width. The statue of Deva King of Treasure was enshrined inside. 187


814 Xumifushou Temple’s Stele Pavilion DATE:


This pavilion is three-bay in area and has a double-eave, saddle roof. It was built on a Sumeru pedestal with steps on four sides. There are drum-bearing stone fences on the pedestal and four arched doorways on its four sides. The Stele of Xumifushou Temple is placed inside the pavilion.

823 The Stele of Xumifushou Temple DATE:


PHOTOGRAPHERS:

This eight-meter-high stele was erected in 1780 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. The main body of the stele bears inscriptions in Manchu, Chinese, Mongolian, and Tibetan. The inscriptions tell why the temple was constructed. The stele was supported at the bottom by a stone tortoise.

188



835 Xumifushou Temple’s Glazed Archway DATE:


This archway adopts the three-bay, four-column, seven-story structure. The inscription on the gate board reads “Zongchi Fojing,” meaning “commanding all religions.” Only officials who held titles below Mongolian prince and above first-class taiji could enter this gateway; all the others could only kowtow before it.

PHOTOGRAPHERS:

Old Manchu Capital

189


845 Full View of Xumifushou Temple’s Big Red Tower

The Big Red Tower consists of three-storied skirt buildings and the threestoried Miaogao Zhuangyan Hall, forming two concentric squares. At each of the four corners of the Red Tower, there is a side hall, symbolizing the four deva kings guarding the Sumeru.

DATE:


190



853 A Distant View of the Big Red Tower in Xumifushou Temple DATE:


863 View of the Skirt Buildings of the Red Tower in Xumifushou Temple DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

191


875 Xumifushou Temple’s Miaogao Zhuangyan Hall DATE:


Miaogao Zhuangyan Hall, also known as the Hall of Golden Tiles, is 29 meters high with a roof covered by gold-coated brass tiles. Eight goldcoated brass dragons ride the four ridges of the hall, each of which was cast from one ton of brass. Statues of Sakyamuni and Tsongkhap are enshrined on the first floor of the hall. On the east side of these statues is a chair that was once used by the Sixth Panchen while reading the sutra. Statues of Sakyamuni and two of his disciples, Kassapa (Kasyapa) and Ananda stand on the second floor while the third floor houses three statues of guardian warriors.

883 The Northeast Buddha Room in the Red Tower DATE:


192



895 Xumifushou Temple’s Jixiang Faxi Hall

This hall was where the Sixth Panchen stayed. The three-storied building is five-bay in length and three-bay in width. It has a double-eave, saddle roof covered with gold-coated brass tiles. Inside the hall stands a statue of Sakyamuni.

DATE:


904 Xumifushou Temple’s Sheng Huanxi Xin Hall DATE:


This hall stands east of the Big Red Tower. It was where Emperor Qianlong stayed when he visited the temple. Old Manchu Capital

193


915 Xumifushou Temple’s Longevity Pagoda DATE:


194

The Longevity Tower is a seven-storied, octagonal glazed tower located on the highest point and also the northernmost point of Xumifushou Temple. The main body of the tower was built with green glazed bricks. Its base is a raised platform on which stands the octagonal Sumeru podium. The top of the tower is covered with yellow glazed tiles. The seven floors symbolize the 70th birthday of Emperor Qianlong.


History of the Liao–Shen Area

05

The plethora of historical relics in northeastern China are witnesses to the rise of the Later Jin, the development and expansion of the early Qing Dynasty, as well as the decline of the Qing Empire, the last feudal empire of China. The unification of the Jurchen tribes and early emergence of the Manchu people began with a series of wars. The Jurchens formed three tribes in the northeastern area of China after long-term migration and integration. These tribes, Jianzhou, Haixi, and Donghai, were independent of one another and the Ming Dynasty implemented a divide-and-rule strategy against them. Nurhaci, the chief of the Jianzhou Tribe, started a war, using the 13 armors inherited from his father and grandfather, which unified his own tribe and conquered the other two tribes. The first key battle broke out between Nurhaci and the allied forces of the nine tribes, which ended with a great victory for Nurhaci due to his unflinching bravery, despite being outnumbered. This victory laid a solid foundation for Nurhaci to unify the three tribes, a process that took more than 30 years of bitter warfare. After putting an end to the long-time division among tribes and the subsequent unrest, the Later Jin continued to expand in power and influence, causing a great panic within the Ming imperial court. As the tension between the Later Jin forces and the Ming Dynasty intensified, military attacks became more frequent. The famous Battle of Sarhu took place in the area of Tiebei Hill and Sarhu Hill, south of today’s Dahuofang Reservoir in Fushun. The 195

HISTORY OF THE LIAO–SHEN AREA

battle ended with a major victory for the Later Jin army. In 1776, Emperor Qianlong wrote the “Record of the Battle of Sarhu,” which was later inscribed onto a memorial stele at the foot of Sarhu Hill. After losing this battle, the Ming Dynasty became the defensive side in its engagement with the Jurchen tribes. Despite winning the Ningyuan Battle, which led to the death of Nurhaci, the Ming Dynasty could not prevent its own decline and being replaced by the Qing Dynasty, due to rampant corruption that exhausted its national strength. By the late Qing Dynasty, declining national strength made the Qing Empire prey to both Western and Eastern powers. Japan was eager to expand its territory. The Liaodong Peninsula was the major battlefield for the First Sino–Japanese War (1894–1895). After the Yellow Sea Battle in which the Chinese Beiyang Navy lost 30 percent of its warships, the Japanese army attacked Lüshun. They landed at Huayuankou in Shengjing and captured Jinzhou and the fort at Dalian Bay. When the Japanese army captured Lüshun, they carried out a large-scale massacre. The war ended with failure for the Qing government and the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. The Russo–Japanese War, which took place from 1904 to 1905, ended with the defeat of Russia. As a consequence, the southern part of Liaodong Peninsula came under Japan’s control. The war brought great suffering to the people in northeastern China, leaving indelible traces in the Liao–Shen area.

196



WARS OF THE EARLY QING DYNASTY Most of the wars during the early Qing Dynasty period were launched by Nurhaci to unify the Jurchen tribes and attack the Ming Dynasty. Nurhaci adopted the strategy of befriending distant neighbors while attacking those closer to home. It took him 36 years to unify his own tribe and conquer the Donghai and Haixi tribes. After the establishment of the Later Jin government, Nurhaci mounted a series of battles against the Ming government, including the Battle of Sarhu and the Battle of Ningyuan. The Ming Empire lost the war against the Later Jin due to rampant corruption and weakened national strength.

013 Vicinity of Gule DATE:


This was where Nurhaci’s grandfather, Giocangga, and his father, Taksi, were killed. Both of them were loyal to the Ming government. They were killed by the Ming army at the instigation of Nikan Wailan, another Jurchen tribal chief. The incident made up Nurhaci’s mind to rebel against the Ming Dynasty.

023 The Jiahe Plain DATE:


This is where Nurhaci defeated the allied forces of nine tribes. In 1594, the four chiefs under the Haixi Jurchen tribe banded together to challenge Nurhaci. Headed by the Yehe tribe, the 30,000 allied troops attacked the Jianzhou tribe from three directions. The troops from both sides started a fierce battle at Gule, with Nurhaci winning a great victory. Old Manchu Capital

197


034 Site of the Battlefield for Ming–Qing Armies: The Shisan (Thirteen) Mountain DATE:


044 Tiebei Hill DATE:

Early 20th century Inaba Iwakichi and Yano Hitokazu SOURCE: A History of Korea and Manchuria (Heibonsha, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

Tiebei Hill (Iron Back Hill) stands where the Suzi River and the Hunhe River converge. It is surrounded by water on three sides, like a huge screen wall lying between two rivers. Nurhaci built a defensive border castle here, resisted the attacks of the Ming army, and killed Du Song, a Ming general, with the help of the natural barrier of Tiebei Hill.

054 Distant View of Sarhu Hill DATE:

Early 20th century Inaba Iwakichi and Yano Hitokazu SOURCE: A History of Korea and Manchuria (Heibonsha, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

The Battle of Sarhu broke out between the Ming government and the Later Jin in 1619 during the reign of Ming Dynasty Emperor Wanli. This was a crucial battle and the turning point for the Later Jin’s rebellion against the Ming Dynasty. This battle is a typical example in China’s military history, which was characterized by fighting a battle of annihilation through mustering superior forces and defeating an enemy that was superior in number. Sarhu Hill lies on the southeastern bank of the Dahuofang Reservoir east of today’s Fushun City, Liaoning Province. 198



065 076 Stele Pavilion at Sarhu Hill

Broad View of the Battlefield at Sarhu Hill DATE:


DATE:

Early 20th Century Sonoda Kazuki SOURCE: Eastern Tours of the Qing Emperors (Daiwa Shoin, 1944) PHOTOGRAPHER:

086 Ningyuan City DATE:


In 1776, Emperor Qianlong wrote “Record of the Battle of Sarhu Hill,” which was inscribed onto a stele. A pavilion was built at the foot of Sarhu Hill to host this stele, which was made of blue stone. Standing on a stone pedestal, the stele has a rectangular upper part. On the front of the stele is an inscription in Chinese, consisting of 94 lines and more than 6,000 characters. On the back the inscription runs up to 93 lines written in Manchu. On the side of the stele is the inscription of a poem written by Emperor Jiaqing. The stele used to be at the foot of the southern slope of Sarhu Hill. It is now preserved in Shenyang Imperial Palace. Old Manchu Capital

Ningyuan City (today’s Xingcheng County in Liaoning Province) was built by the Liaodong General of the Ming Dynasty, Sun Chengzong at the suggestion of Yuan Chonghuan to strengthen the defense of Ningyuan City. In 1626, Nurhaci’s army laid siege to Ningyuan but experienced fierce resistance from the Ming army led by General Yuan Chonghuan and was eventually defeated. After this defeat, Nurhaci became dispirited and died soon afterwards. 199


THE FIRST SINO–JAPANESE WAR In 1894, the Tonghak Rebellion broke out in Korea. The Korean government requested the Qing Imperial Court to send forces to put down the rebellion. Taking this opportunity, the Japanese government also sent troops to interfere with this event. After the rebellion was put down, Japan refused to withdraw its army, saying that they wanted to reform the internal affairs of Korea. They started an undeclared war against the Qing army, triggering off the First Sino–Japanese War. The barely prepared Qing army suffered crushing blows in both the land war in Pyongyang and the subsequent sea battle on the Yellow Sea. After the Qing army withdrew from Korea, the Japanese army took advantage of their victories and crossed the Yalu River to occupy cities and towns in the Liaodong Peninsula. Soon after, they attacked Weihaiwei and destroyed the Beiyang Fleet. The Qing Imperial Court was forced to seek peace. In 1895, the imperial court sent Li Hongzhang as its representative to Shimonoseki, Japan, and signed the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Japanese government.

093 Ma Yukun DATE:

Late Qing Dynasty Saiki Hidenao SOURCE: Record of the Russo–Japanese War (Hakubunkan, 1904) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Ma Yukun, whose literary title was Jingshan, led the Qing army into battle in Korea in 1894. After retreating back to China, he and his army bravely fought the Japanese in Jinzhou, Haicheng, and Dashiqiao.

105 The Dingyuan of the Beiyang Fleet

The Dingyuan was the flagship of the Beiyang Fleet. Purchased from Germany, it was a large ironclad battleship with strong firepower.

DATE:

Late Qing Dynasty Kawamura Tadashi SOURCE: Record of the First Sino–Japanese War (Hakubunkan, 1894) PHOTOGRAPHER:

200



113 Liu Buchan, Battalion Commander of the Battleship Dingyuan DATE:

Late Qing Dynasty Kawasaki Saburou SOURCE: A History of the First Sino-Japanese War (Hakubunkan, 1897) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Liu Buchan was born in Houguan, Fujian Province. In 1867, he was enrolled into the Fuzhou Shipping School and sent to study at the British Royal Academy of Naval Forces. He participated in the formulation of the rules and regulations of the Beiyang Fleet after returning to China. During the Yellow Sea Battle, he and his battleship fought the Japanese bravely. He ordered the scuttling of his own battleship after it was severely damaged and lost its fighting capacity before Weihaiwei was captured by the Japanese.

125

Like the the Dingyuan, the Zhenyuan was also a Germany-made ironclad battleship in the Beiyang Fleet.

The Zhenyuan of the Beiyang Fleet DATE:

Late Qing Dynasty Kawamura Tadashi SOURCE: Record of the First Sino–Japanese War (Hakubunkan, 1894) PHOTOGRAPHER:

134 The Damaged Zhengyuan DATE:

Late Qing Dynasty Kawasaki Saburou SOURCE: A History of the First SinoJapanese War (Hakubunkan, 1897) PHOTOGRAPHER:

Old Manchu Capital

201


143 Ding Ruchang, Commander-in-Chief of the Beiyang Navy DATE:


Ding Ruchang was born at Dingjiakan Village, Beixiang in Lujiang County of Anhui Province. He was promoted to Commander-in-Chief of the Beiyang Navy in 1888. When the First Sino–Japanese War broke out, he led his fleet and fought the Japanese army bravely. He gave his life for China.

153 Lin Yongsheng, Battalion Commander of the Battleship Jingyuan DATE:


Lin Yongsheng was born in Houguan, Fujian. He went to Fuzhou Shipping School to study how to become a pilot and was later sent to Britain for further study. He was appointed Battalion Commander of the Jingyuan after returning to China. He died at his post during the First Sino–Japanese War.

164 The Yellow Sea Battle DATE:


On September 17, 1894, a sea battle broke out between the Qing Dynasty Beiyang Navy and the Japanese Joint Fleet near the Great Eastern Trench of the Yellow Sea. The Chinese navy pooled almost all of its strength for the battle, during which five Beiyang Fleet battleships were sunk and the Battalion Commander, Deng Shichang on the Zhiyaun and the Battalion Commander Lin Yongsheng on the Jingyuan, died. The Yellow Sea Battle was a decisive battle between the Qing and Japanese naval forces. To avoid the enemy and preserve the battleships, the defeated Beiyang Fleet retreated to Weihaiwei only to be destroyed wholesale at the end. 202



173 Full View of Lüshun after Being Captured by the Japanese Army DATE:


186 The Streets of Jinzhou during the First Sino–Japanese War DATE:


193 The Cannon Fort on Liugong Island DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

203


THE RUSSO–JAPANESE WAR The Russo–Japanese War was fought for control over northeastern China and Korea. After the First Sino–Japanese War, Japan forced the Qing government to sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki under which the Qing government ceded the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan. In order to get the warm-water port of Lüshun and better control northeastern China, the Russian Tsar’s government, together with France and Germany, applied pressure on Japan to relinquish its claim on the peninsula. As a result, the Qing government was forced to pay an additional 30 million tael of silver in indemity to buy back the Liaodong Peninsula. Soon after, the Tsar’s government grabbed the privilege of constructing railways in northeastern China. Later, the Tsar’s government leased Lüshun and Dalian by forcible means. In 1900, the Tsar’s government occupied

205 Lüshun Port’s Dry Dock DATE:

Early 20th century Saiki Hidenao SOURCE: Record of the Russo–Japanese War (Hakubunkan, 1904) PHOTOGRAPHER:

204

the whole of northeastern China, taking advantage of the crackdown on the Boxer Movement. Japan, Britain, and the United States were very unhappy about this. After ten years of preparation, Japan’s national strength had increased considerably. In 1902, Japan and the United Kingdom formed the Anglo–Japanese Alliance, aiming to stage a comeback in northeastern China. In 1903, the talks between Japan and Russia failed regarding the division of territory in Korea and northeastern China. On February 8, 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on Lüshun, triggering off the Russo– Japanese War, which lasted for 328 days and ended with the defeat of Russian forces. On September 5, 1905, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Port Arthur to re-divide their interests in China, plunging the country into more grave crisis.

Lüshun is located at the southwestern end of the Liaodong Peninsula. Surrounded by hills and overlooking the Jiaodong Peninsula to the south, the Liaodong Peninsula is of great strategic importance. Before the Russo–Japanese War, Lüshun Port was the naval base of the Russian Pacific Fleet.



214 The Japanese Memorial Tower on Baiyu Hill DATE:

Early 20th century Survey of Manchuria (Southern Manchurian Railway Company, 1935)

SOURCE:

Baiyu Hill stands on the northern bank of Lüshunkou Bay between the old and new city areas. The Japanese army built the Japanese Memorial Tower on the hill after the Russo–Japanese War to flaunt their military achievements and commemorate the servicemen who died in battle. After 1945, the tower was renamed Baiyushan Tower.

223 Site of Wanbaoshan Battlefield DATE:


Wanbao Hill (also known as Yanlong Hill) stands in the east of the Weijialouzi Village, Shahepu Township of Sunjiatun and was one of the main battlefields of Fengtian Battle during the Russo–Japanese War. Old Manchu Capital

205


235 Full View of the North Fortress on East Jiguan Hill DATE:

Early 20th century Yamamoto Sansei SOURCE: A Corpus of Japanese Geography: Manchuria and Southeast Asia (Kaizousha, 1930) (Kaizousha, 1930) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The North Fortress of East Jiguan Hill was an important castle built by the Russian army after they occupied Lüshun in March 1898. Able to be used for both defense and attack, the fortress was one of the key battlefields during the Russo–Japanese War. Its construction started in January 1900, using cement and cobblestone with the outer layer covered with sand bags and earth two meters in height. The interior structure is complex, consisting of a command office, dormitories for soldiers, ammunition depot, bunkers, posterns, artillery position, and stairways. The castle was shaped like an irregular pentagon with a perimeter of 496 meters and an area of 9,900 square meters. It was surrounded by a six-meter-deep moat that was eight meters wide. High-voltage electric net was placed on the slope outside the moat. During the Russo–Japanese War in 1904, Japan and Russia were engaged in a fierce positional battle here. After huge losses on both sides, the castle was eventually captured by the Japanese army.

244 The Site of East Jinguan Hill Battlefield DATE:


206



The Qing government built a castle on Erlong Hill before the First Sino–Japanese War. The castle went though both the First Sino–Japanese War and the Russo–Japanese War. During the Russo–Japanese War in 1904, the Russian army expanded the castle to 30,000 square meters and installed 50 cannons thereon. At the same time, they placed a reinforced battalion to guard this castle. The Russians and the Japanese fought a two-month fierce battle for the castle, with the Japanese winning the victory.

255

Located at Sanliqiao in Lüshun, the 203 Highland (originally known as Houshi Hill) got its name because it is 203 meters above sea level. It was a major battlefield in the west line during the Russo–Japanese War. Both parties fought fiercely over this place, leaving large casualties. Remnants of guns and bullets can still be excavated today.

265

Old Manchu Capital

The Site of Erlong Hill Battlefield DATE:


203 Highland DATE:


207


273 Da‘anzi Fortress DATE:


This fortress lies southwest of Yizi Hill Fortress. It forms a line with the Fortress of Yizi Hill and the Fortress of Xiaoanzi Hill in the southeast, overlooking the castle at East Jiguan Hill, building up a full defensive system for the Russian army.

284 The Meeting Place for the Russo–Japanese Armistice Committee DATE:


295 The Naval Camp DATE:


208

On May 1, 1905, the Commander-in-Chief of the Third Army of Japan and the Commander of the Russian army in Lüshun signed the Instrument of Surrender of the Russian Army at the Lüshun Naval Camp of the Qing government.


Culture and Education

06

The Shengjing area is where the Qing Dynasty emerged and also where the Manchu culture originated. After the Qing Dynasty established its capital in Beijing, different generations of Qing emperors went on inspection tours to Shengjing to worship their ancestors and heaven, testifying to the special status Shengjing enjoyed in politics, economy, military, and culture. The Qing government also set up frontier walls and kaluns to protect this “land where the dragon rose.” The Qing Dynasty basically followed the Ming system in its cultural and educational policy, focusing on the research and dissemination of Confucianism and taking the philosophy of Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi as the national orthodox ideology. Although culture and education in the Shengjing area was more or less the same as that advocated by the Qing rulers, it also had its own unique features. The rulers of the Qing Dynasty took the Shengjing area as the cradle of their ancestors and therefore attached great importance to revitalizing education and cultivating talents. Because of this, many educational institutions, such as the Confucius Temple, schools, Eight Banners public schools, and private schools, were set up in prefectures, sub-prefectures, departments, and counties. The government-run schools in the Shengjing area during the Qing Dynasty can be divided into two kinds. Firstly, there were schools especially set up for Manchu aristocrats and Eight Banners 209

C U LT U R E A N D E D U C AT I O N

children, including schools for royal families, schools for Eight Banners children, and private schools. Secondly, there were schools for Han Chinese landlords’ offspring, such as Confucius schools, rural schools, and private schools. The Eight Banners offspring, according to the stipulation of the Qing government, had to learn horse riding and archery, as well as Manchu and Chinese, so that they could still maintain their Manchu military skills when they were learning Chinese culture. The academies of classical learning in the Shengjing area were a supplement to the government-run schools. As government-run schools and some academies advocated “learning without teaching,” the Shengjing area developed an educational system dominated by private schools. After the Opium Wars, the Confucianism-based educational concepts experienced serious challenge. As Western learning developed into a social trend, more new-type schools were set up, marking a breakthrough in the old educational system. The Qing Dynasty had always paid great attention to cultural development in the Shengjing area. Beginning in the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the Qing Imperial Court ordered that copies of all books printed by the government should be sent to Shengjing Imperial Palace for collection. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, as soon as the second volume of Siku Quanshu was completed, it was sent to the Wensu Pavilion in Shengjing. Local officials in the Shengjing area knew full well the importance of education in developing people’s intelligence and conducting ideological control over people. As a result, schools were set up in places ranging from areas under the jurisdiction of generals and the garrison stations of Deputy Commanders-in-Chief to prefectures, sub-prefectures, and counties. These efforts greatly promoted cultural exchanges between the Shengjing area and the heartland of China and helped produce a number of established poets, writers, and painters, such as Nalan Xingde, Han Ke, Wang’erlie, and Gao Qipei. The Manchu culture, which originated in the Shengjing area, played an extremely significant role in achieving and consolidating national unification. At the same time, the Manchu culture’s tolerant reception of the Han Chinese culture in Shengjing was a hallmark of cultural progress.

210



CONFUCIUS TEMPLES The Confucius Temple at Shengjing The Confucius Temple at Shengjing was built in 1628. It is located inside the Big South Gate at the southeastern corner of the city, occupying an area of 1,733 square meters. The temple consists of the three-bay Dacheng Hall, the three-bay Chongsheng Hall, two three-bay secondary halls at the east and west sides, Lingxing Gate, and a stele pavilion.

013 Full View of the Confucius Temple at Shengjing DATE:

Early 20th century Kuroda Genji SOURCE: Photo Collection of Shenyang’s Historical Sites PHOTOGRAPHER:

023 Lingxing Gate in the Confucius Temple at Shengjing DATE:


033 Dacheng Hall in the Confucius Temple at Shengjing DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

211


044 The Altar in Dacheng Hall in the Confucius Temple DATE:

Early 20th century Murata Jirou SOURCE: Historical Relics of Manchuria (Zayu Takara Publication, 1944) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The Confucius Temple at Liaoyang The Confucius Temple at Liaoyang was constructed on the former site of a Ming Dynasty Confucius Temple in 1673. It was later expanded and reconstructed during the reign of the Qing emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, Qianlong, Daoguang, Xianfeng, Guangxu, and Xuantong.

053 Plan of the Confucius Temple at Liaoyang DATE:

Early 20th century Bai Yongzhen et al SOURCE: Liaoyang County Annals (1928) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

212



065

076

The Paved Path Leading to Dacheng Hall in the Confucius Temple at Liaoyang

The Pond beside the Confucius Temple at Liaoyang

DATE:

DATE:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

Early 20th century Miyake Toshinari SOURCE: Liaoyang (Manchuria Association for the Preservation of Ancient Books, Antiquities, Historical Relics, and Natural Monuments, 1942)

Old Manchu Capital

Early 20th century Murata Jirou SOURCE: Historical Relics of Manchuria (Zayu Takara Publication, 1944)

213


085

096

Lingxing Gate and the Pond beside the Confucius Temple at Liaoyang

Chongsheng Hall in the Confucius Temple at Liaoyang

DATE:

DATE:

PHOTOGRAPHERS:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

Early 20th century Bai Yongzhen et al SOURCE: Liaoyang County Annals (1928)

214

Early 20th century Murata Jirou SOURCE: Historical Relics of Manchuria (Zayu Takara Publication, 1944)



106 The Confucius Temple at Haicheng and Wenchang Chamber DATE:

Early 20th century Zhang Fuxiang SOURCE: Haicheng County Annals (1924) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The Confucius Temple at Haicheng The Confucius Temple at Haicheng was first built in 1385 during the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu, and later underwent several rounds of expansion and reconstruction. In 1727, during the reign of Qing Emperor Yongzheng, the Haicheng Confucius Temple was rebuilt south of Cuoshi Hill in the new town of Haicheng. The new temple occupied an area of 3,333 square meters, comprising a three-bay Dacheng Hall, two three-bay secondary halls at the east and west sides, Lingxing Gate, and Qisheng Hall. The temple was enclosed by a 240-meter-long red wall.

113 The Confucius Temple at Tieling DATE:

Early 20th century Chen Deyi SOURCE: Tieling County Annals (1933) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The Confucius Temple at Tieling was built in 1699 during the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi, and was later expanded during the reigns of Kangxi and Qianlong. It occupies an area of 720 square meters and consists of a three-bay Chongsheng Hall, two three-bay secondary halls at the east and west sides, Ji Gate, Lingxing Gate, and the Pond. Old Manchu Capital

215


In 1384, during the reign of Ming Emperor Hongwu, Confucian schools were set up in Jinzhou and Fuzhou prefectures. Due to the wars in Liaodong during the late Ming Dynasty, these schools were relocated to Laizhou Prefecture in Shandong. In 1729, in view of the huge influx of immigrants, the Qing government decided to restore the schools in Jinzhou and Fuzhou and put them under the administration of Fengtian Prefecture. In 1734, during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the Confucius Temple was also constructed in Jinzhou. All these contributed to the development of education in these places.

124 The Confucius Temple at Jinzhou DATE:

Early 20th century Matsuo Tamesaku SOURCE: A General Survey of Religious Practices in Southern Manchuria (The Foundation for the Promotion of Culture and Education, 1931) PHOTOGRAPHER:

KUIXING TOWERS

134 Kuixing Tower at Shengjing DATE:


This Kuixing (God of Lierature) Tower stands on the city wall at the southeastern corner of Liaoyang. It was first built in 1761 during the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong. It has an octagonal roof with a saddlepointed structure on top. The whole building sits on a three-level stone podium. The city wall is 20 meters high and the tower itself is also about 20 meters high, thus the distance between the tower top and the ground is about 40 meters.

216



144 Kuixing Tower at Liaoyang DATE:


This Kuixing Tower stands by a river to the southeast of Shengjing. It was first built in 1628 during the reign of Ming Emperor Chongzhen, and was reconstructed in 1838, 1861, and 1882 during the reigns of Qing emperors Daoguang, Xianfeng, and Guangxu.

153 Kuixing Tower at Haicheng DATE:

Early 20th century Izui Keiji SOURCE: The Evolution of the Management of the Affiliated Area of Manchurian Railways (Manchuria Daily News Agency, 1939) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This tower is located in the southeastern corner of Haicheng. It was first built during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Originally it was a hexagonal tower. In 1992, it was reconstructed into an octagonal tower with a square podium.

164 Kuixing Tower at the Dragon Head Hill of Tieling DATE:

Early 20th century Chen Deyi SOURCE: Tieling County Annals (1933) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This tower is located in the southeastern corner of Tieling City. It was first built in 1754 during the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong, and was later destroyed. In 1922, it was reconstructed at the Dragon Head Hill. The tower had colored paintings, such as Eight Deities Crossing the Sea, and pictures of zither, chess, calligraphy, and painting. It is unique in that it has upturned eaves at the four corners of the roof as well as four lattice windows. Old Manchu Capital

217


174 Kuixing Tower at Suizhong DATE:

Early 20th century Xi Wenhui SOURCE: A Sequel to Suizhong County Annals (1933) PHOTOGRAPHER:

This tower stands in the southeastern corner of Suizhong City. It was first built in 1724 during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, later reconstructed in 1774 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong and again in 1839 during the reign of Emperor Daoguang. It underwent renovations in 1799 and 1803 during the reign of Emperor Jiaqing.

186 Kuixing Tower at Gaiping DATE:

Early 20th century Wang Yuyun SOURCE: Gaiping County Annals (1930) PHOTOGRAPHER:

218



THE WENSU PAVILION The Wensu Pavilion was built in 1783 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong to store the Siku Quanshu (The Complete Collection of Books in Four Treasures). It was modeled on the Tianyi Chamber built by the Ming famous book collector Fan Qin in Ningbo, featuring a double-eave, gable roof, and two floors looking from the outside but in fact with three floors inside. It is six-bay in area. The building’s main colors are cold, such as blue, yellow, white, and black. Its roof is covered with black and green glazed tiles and its vertical ridges are carved with patterns of sea and clouds, symbolizing water descending from heaven to suppress fire.

194 Wensu Pavilion DATE:


204 Plan of Wensu Pavilion SOURCE:

Shengjing Gazette (1784) Carved Version DIMENSION: 31 x 39 cm VERSION:

This is an illustration from the 130volume Shengjing Gazette compiled by Ah Gui et al during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It is in a rough binding; the top is north and the bottom is south. Old Manchu Capital

219


213 Inside Wensu Pavilion DATE:

Early 20th century Ito Chuuta SOURCE: Chinese Architecture and Decoration (Institute of Oriental Culture, 1941) PHOTOGRAPHER:

226 Covers of the Siku Quanshu (Classics and Philosophy) DATE:


220

Siku Quanshu (The Complete Library of the Four Treasures) Siku Quanshu seen here at Wensu Pavilion was compiled during the reign of Emperor Qianlong and copied into seven volumes. The four parts of the collection—classics, history, philosophy, and literature—used respectively green, red, blue, and green silk in cover design. The collection was thread-bound. The Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion was the second hand-copied edition, consisting of 79,897 volumes, 36,313 books, and 6,199 cases.



235 Covers of the Siku Quanshu (History and Literature) DATE:


243 A Sample Page from the Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion (Classics) DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

221


254 A Sample Page from the Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion (the Opening Page of Classics) DATE:


266 A Sample Page from the Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion (“Preface to Records of the Grand Historian”) DATE:


274 A Sample Page from the Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion (Records of the Grand Historian) DATE:


222



285

296

The Bookshelves Holding the Siku Quanshu at the New Wensu Pavilion

View of the Siku Quanshu at Wensu Pavilion

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Iibuchi Hiroshi SOURCE: Historical Sites of Fengtian (City Government of Fengtian [Shenyang], 1939)

Old Manchu Capital

DATE:


223


This book is actually a classified dictionary compiled in five languages: Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uygur, and Chinese. It was completed in the final years of the reign of Emperor Qianlong. The photograph here shows a condensed edition which follows the same style as the revised and enlarged edition of the Imperial Qing Wen Jian but with the Manchu explanations deleted.

305 Qing Wen Jian by the Imperial Order with Five Languages of China DATE:


314 Quotations of A Hundred and Twenty Old Men AUTHORS:

Song Jun and Fu Jun Quotations of A Hundred and Twenty Old Men (1789) VERSION: Hand-written Copy SIZE: 24.5 x 17.3 cm SOURCE:

This book was compiled by Song Jun and translated by Fun Jun in 1789 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. Based on the tales told by 120 old Manchus, the book covers a wide range of topics such as the rise of the Manchu people, the major historical events after the establishment of the Qing Dynasty, the Eight Banners affairs, national religion, and social etiquette of the Manchu people.

224



323 Yuzhi Shengjing Fu (“The Imperial Ode to Shengjing”) AUTHOR:

Emperor Qianlong Yuzhi Shengjing Fu (1748) VERSION: Red-ink chromatograph edition SIZE: 26 x 16.4 cm SOURCE:

The Yuzhi Shengjing Fu was written by Emperor Qianlong and annotated by Ertai and others. This is a red-ink chromatograph edition carved and produced by Wuying Hall. Emperor Qianlong wrote the preface and Ertai et al wrote the postscript. This more-than-3,300character essay was written by Emperor Qianlong when he was worshipping his ancestors in Shengjing. The essay was punctuated with red ink and annotated with red lines.

333 Thirty-two-styled Ode to Shengjing in Seal Script (Manchu) DATE:

Qianlong period Emperor Qianlong SOURCE: Thirty-two-styled Ode to Shengjing VERSION: Hand-copied edition SIZE: 35 x 21.5 cm AUTHOR:

Written by Emperor Qianlong and edited by Fu Heng and others, this book consists of the Chinese and Manchu versions of “Ode to Shengjing.” It was copied in 32 different styles of the seal script. In other words, for each style there were two versions: one in Chinese and the other in Manchu.

Old Manchu Capital

225


343 Thirty-two-styled Ode to Shengjing in Seal Script (Chinese) DATE:

Qianlong period Emperor Qianlong SOURCE: Thirty-two-styled Ode to Shengjing VERSION: Hand-copied edition SIZE: 35 x 21.5 cm AUTHOR:

354 Genealogy of Eight Banners Manchus AUTHORS:

Ertai et al Genealogy of Eight Banners Manchus (1744) VERSION: Carved Version SIZE: 31 x 19.5 cm SOURCE:

This 80-volume book was compiled by Ertai et al at the decree of the imperial court. The book was carved and produced by Wuying Hall in 1744 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. It records the origins of the Eight Banners families and their places of residence. The royal family—Aisin Gioro—was not included in the genealogy.

226



363 The First Edition of Eight Banners Gazette AUTHORS:

Ertai et al The First Edition of Eight Banners Gazette (1739) VERSION: Carved Version SIZE: 33 x 22 cm SOURCE:

This book underwent two rounds of compilation. The first round was done in 1727 during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, when Ertai et al compiled The First Edition of Eight Banners Gazette into 250 volumes. The second round began in 1786 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong and ended in 1799 during the reign of Emperor Jiaqing. Tie Bao and others expanded it into the 356volume Authorized Edition of Eight Banners Gazette. The First Edition of Eight Banners Gazette records the development of the Eight-Banner system, social conditions, and biographies of famous people from the reign of Emperor Taizu (Nurhaci) to that of Emperor Yongzheng. The Authorized Edition incorporated the major historical events on the Eight Banners system that took place during the reign of Emperor Qianlong.

373 Shengjing Gazette SOURCE:

Shengjing Gazette (1784) Carved Version SIZE: 31 x 19.5 cm VERSION:

In 1684 during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture, Dong Bingzhong and others compiled 32 volumes of Shengjing Gazette under the decree of the imperial court. In 1734, during the reign of Emperor Yongzheng, the Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture, Lü Yaozeng, expanded the book into 33 volumes. In 1736, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the book was again expanded into 48 volumes by Song Jun and others. In 1748, during the reign of Qianlong, Wang Shidun and others recompiled the book into 32 volumes. In 1778, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, Ah Gui and others embarked on another authorized re-editing of the book, finalizing it into 130 volumes. What the photograph shows here is the 130-volume edition carved and produced by Wuying Hall during the reign of Emperor Qianlong.

Old Manchu Capital

227


385 A Letter from the King of Korea

This is a letter from the King of Korea to the Qing Emperor Huangtaiji. It used to be housed by the Shengjing Imperial Palace in its Chongmo Chamber.

DATE:


228


Religious Beliefs

07

During the Qing Dynasty, Liaoning was not only the political, economic, and cultural center of northeastern China, but also a region where different ethnic groups lived together. Cultures from different ethnic groups grew and flourished in this land, evolving a distinct religious culture and a unique religious architecture. Throughout the Qing Dynasty, many religious faiths were practiced in Liaoning: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism, and Christianity. The original religion of the Manchu people was Shamanism; yet, they began to be exposed to Buddhism before they entered the Shanhaiguan. They first came into contact with Lamaism, which was widespread in Tibet and Mongolia. In 1615, during the reign of Ming Emperor Wanli, Nurhaci built Buddhist temples outside Hetuala. After the Qing Dynasty unified China, the Qing government made special efforts to pacify Lamaism. In 1636, Qing Emperor Taizong ordered the building of the largest Lama temple in the Northeast—Shisheng Temple. From 1643 to 1645, four pagodas and four temples were built. In 1656, Changning Temple was built by decree. In 1707, Taiping Temple was built and regarded as the family temple of the Xibe ethnic group. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, there were more than 280 Tibetan Buddhist temples in Liaoning. Taoism spread into Liaoning no later than the Tang Dynasty. During the Qing Dynasty, the Longmen Sect of Taoism, headed by its eighth-generation 229

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

leader Guo Shouzhen and his followers, was widespread in Liaoning. In 1663, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, Guo Shouzhen left Tiecha Mountain for Shenyang to pray for rain and built Sanjiao Hall (also known as Taiqing Palace). In 1666, Liu Tailin and Wang Taixiang went preaching at Qianshan at the order of Guo Shouzhen and built Wuliang Temple. In 1685, Taoist priest Wang Yiguan rebuilt Nanquan Nunnery in Qianshan. In 1737, Taoist priest Wang Qingming built Sanqing Temple in Qianshan. In 1779, the Sanjiao Hall was expanded. In 1805, Taoist priest Chen Bendao built Cixiang Temple in Qianshan. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Liaoning area was dotted with many Taoist temples that enshrined various gods and deities. Islam spread to Liaoning as early as the reign of Tang Emperor Taizong, when the Hui ethnic group migrated to Liaoning. During the Qing Dynasty, the Muslim population expanded sharply in Liaoning due to the rapid influx of the Hui people from various provinces. As a result, many mosques were built. In 1662, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the South Mosque was constructed, the first mosque in Shenyang. In 1785, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the North Mosque was built. In 1803, during the reign of Emperor Jiaqing, the East Mosque was constructed. In addition, mosques were built in Yingkou, Fuxin, Liaoyang, and Haicheng. Catholicism first came to China during the Yuan Dynasty. In 1696, during the reign of Kangxi, the Catholic Church came to Liaoning. In 1840, during the reign of Daoguang, a bishop’s office was set up in Yingkou. In 1856, during the reign of Emperor Xianfeng, the Songshuzuizi Church was built in Changyang. In 1869, during the reign of Emperor Tongzhi, Niuzhuang Catholic Church was built. In 1878, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Nanguan Catholic Church was built in Shenyang and in 1901, three Catholic churches were reconstructed or expanded and 11 new churches were built in Yingkou alone. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, there were more than 30 Catholic churches in northeastern China, attracting 9,700 believers. Most of these churches were located across Liaoning. Other Christian faiths spread into Liaoning along with the incursion of Western powers into China after the Opium Wars. Many foreign missionaries built churches with financial support from their home countries and Christianity spread very quickly in Liaoning. In 1852, during the reign of Emperor Xianfeng, the Presbyterian Church became the first to preach its faith in Liaoning. In 1889, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, Dongguan Church held its inauguration ceremony in Fengtian. In 1891, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, the Presbyterian Church was formally set up in Fengtian with the entire northeastern China under its care.

230


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

BUDDHIST TEMPLES Four Pagodas in Shengjing On each of the four sides of Shengjing City there was a lama temple, each with a white pagoda. They were collectively known as Four Pagodas and Four Temples. The four pagodas were built between 1643 and 1646 in architectural styles that were more or less the same. All were made up of three parts: the podium, the main body, and the xianglun (wheel-like neck of the tower). The square podium was very high and based on the Sumeru style. On each of the four sides of the podium are three bottleshaped doors. The door in the middle was carved into the shape of a flaming basin while the other two were shaped like lions. The main body of the pagoda was in the shape of an upturned alms bowl with rounded shoulders. On the front-south side there was peephole door inside which a statue of Buddha was placed. Around the door were inlaid green cloud beads. On top of the main body stands the 13-level xianglun in the shape of a cone. On the very top of the pagoda stands a two-level brass canopy that holds statues of the sun, the moon, fire, and the precious pearl. Brass bells hang on the edge of the canopy.

015

025

Shengjing’s East Pagoda

Shengjing’s South Pagoda

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Iibuchi Hiroshi SOURCE: Historical Relics of Fengtian (City Government of Fengtian [Shenyang], 1939)

DATE:

The temple hosting the East Pagoda is called Yongguang Temple, with the pagoda symbolizing “the light of intelligence that shines forever.”

The South Pagoda stands inside Guangci Temple, with the symbolic meaning of “pacifying the people in the universe.”

Old Manchu Capital


231

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

033 Shengjing’s West Pagoda DATE:

Early 20th century Iibuchi Hiroshi SOURCE: Historical Relics of Fengtian (City Government of Fengtian [Shenyang], 1939) PHOTOGRAPHER:

The temple hosting the West Pagoda is called Yanshou Temple. The pagoda was designed with the sincere hope for longevity.

044 Shengjing’s North Pagoda DATE:


The temple hosting the North Pagoda is called Falun Temple, with the pagoda designed to symbolize “the true laws.”

232


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

053 Shengjing’s Yanshou Temple DATE:


This was one of the four pagoda temples Emperor Huangtaiji decreed to be built in the early Qing Dynasty. A statue of the Buddha Amitayus is enshrined inside the grand hall. An inscribed board hangs in the main hall with the inscription of “Jinshu Xiangguang” (golden grains and auspicious light) written by Emperor Qianlong during his inspection tour in Shengjing in 1743.

Shisheng Temple This temple’s full name is Lianhua Jingtu (Lotus and Pure Land) Shisheng Temple. It is one kilometer away from Shengjing City’s Wairang Gate. It was first built in 1636 at the decree of Emperor Huangtaiji, and was therefore also called Huang (Imperial) Temple. It has another name, Yellow (also pronounced huang in Chinese) Temple because it was built for the Yellow Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. It is the oldest and largest Tibetan Buddhist temple in Shengjing. The south-facing temple consists of such buildings as Tianwang Hall (Hall of Deva Kings), Grand Hall, Mahagela Buddha Chamber, pagoda courtyard, bell and drum towers, and stele pavilion. The Mahagela Golden Buddha was enshrined in the namesake chamber. Emperor Huangtaiji presented the temple in person with a large seal with the inscription of “Lianhua Jingtu Shisheng Si.”

063 Shisheng Temple’s Main Hall DATE:

Early 20th century Itsumi Baiei and Nakano Hanjirou SOURCE: The Fine Arts of Manchurian and Mongolian Lamaism (Hozokan, 1943) PHOTOGRAPHERS:

The main hall of Shisheng Temple is about ten meters high and has 24 visible pillars. It is enclosed by corridors and has a single-eave, saddle roof covered with golden glazed tiles with green borders. The hall is five-bay in length and threebay in width. Old Manchu Capital

233

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

074 Shisheng Temple’s Tianwang Hall DATE:


This hall lies west of the main gate and has three columns. Four-meter high clay sculptures of the Four Deva Kings are enshrined in the hall.

084 Shisheng Temple’s Statue of Mahagela Buddha DATE:


This standing golden Buddha was bronze-colored, holding demontaming sticks in both hands. It was about 40 centimeters high, weighing around 33 kilograms. Each time the Qing emperors came to Shengjing, they would come to worship this golden Buddha. All newly appointed officials would also come to Shisheng Temple to worship this Buddha. In 1946, the golden Buddha went missing.

234


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Temple Fair at Shisheng Temple From the seventh to fifteenth day of the first month of each lunar year, Shisheng Temple would hold a large temple fair with a view to exorcising ghosts. During the event more than 100 lama monks would disguise themselves as heavenly gods and generals and dance with another group of monks wearing the masks of ox, horse, deer, dragon, black ghosts, and white ghosts in front of the grand hall. The dancing was accompanied by music produced by drum, large cymbals, flute, and other wind musical instruments.

093 Masks Used in the Temple Fair at Shisheng Temple DATE:

Early 20th century Anonymous SOURCE: Photograph Album of Lamaist Temple Festivals PHOTOGRAPHER:

106 A Group Photo of Six Maskwearing Lamas DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

235

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

113 Two Mask-wearing Lamas DATE:


126 Group Photo of Eight Mask-wearing Lamas at Shisheng Temple DATE:


236


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

135

146

Group Photo of Four Mask-wearing Lamas at Shisheng Temple

Grand Lama with his Followers during the Temple Fair

DATE:

DATE:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

Early 20th century Anonymous SOURCE: Photograph Album of Lamaist Temple Festivals

Old Manchu Capital


237

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

155

166

Lamas of the Drum Band at Shisheng Temple

Scene of the Temple Fair at Shisheng Temple

DATE:

DATE:

Early 20th century PHOTOGRAPHER: Anonymous SOURCE: Photograph Album of Lamaist Temple Festivals

238



RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

175

186

Lamas Playing Musical Instruments during the Temple Fair at Shisheng Temple

Lamas during the Temple Fair at Shisheng Temple

DATE:

DATE:

PHOTOGRAPHER:

PHOTOGRAPHER:


Old Manchu Capital


239

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Bawang Temple was originally called Dafa Temple (Temple of Grand Law) and was first built in 1415 during the reign of Ming Emperor Yongle, then reconstructed in 1638 during the reign of Qing Emperor Huangtaiji. Due to the fact that the 12th son of Nurhaci, Prince Ajige, funded the reconstruction of the temple, the abbot of the temple built a temple on the left side in his honor. From then on this temple became the family temple of Ajige. After two further rounds of reconstruction and expansion, the temple became more magnificent. There was once a clear spring in the temple, whose water Emperor Kangxi drank on an inspection tour to Shengjing, resulting in the name of Imperial Spring Water.

193 Bawang Temple DATE:


206 Changning Temple DATE:


240

Changning Temple was built during the reign of Nurhaci. It was first called the Imperial Garden. In 1656, during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, it was renamed Changning Temple (Temple of Long-lasting Peace). It was one of the seven largest temples in Shengjing in the early years of the Qing Dynasty. A stone stele was erected between the main gate and the front hall at the decree of Emperor Kangxi in 1687. Under the eave of the front hall hangs a board with the inscription of “Yixin Weizong” written by Emperor Qianlong. This temple was once an important place for the royal family to stave off chicken pox.


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

216 Front Door of the Main Hall of Guanghua Temple

Guanghua Temple in Fuxin was built in 1738 during the reign of Qing Emperor Qianlong. In 1826 during the reign of Emperor Daoguang, it was given the name Guanghua Temple by decree of the emperor. There are more than 200 rooms and buildings in the temple complex, including the main gate, Tianwang Hall, and main hall. There were around 130 lama monks in this temple, a place where the princes and nobles worshipped the heaven, the earth, gods, and Buddhas.

DATE:


The main hall of Guanghua Temple has three floors (15 meters high) and 81 rooms. A brass statue of Buddha is enshrined inside.

225 Front View of the Main Hall of Guanghua Temple DATE:


233 Side View of the Main Hall of Guanghua Temple DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

241

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

TAOIST TEMPLES Taiqing Palace is located at West Shuncheng Street in Shenyang. As the center of Taoism in the Northeast, it was founded in 1663 by Taoist priest Guo Shouzhen with the original name Sanjiaotang. In 1765, Sanjiaotang was flooded and most of its halls collapsed. Later, the abbot Zhao Yichen reconstructed and expanded the palace into a building complex with 88 rooms and renamed it Taiqing Palace.

This is the Jade Emperor Chamber reconstructed in 1907 during the reign of Emperor Guangxu. It is located at the center of the northern section of the three-row courtyard. It has a two-level gable roof. It is three-bay in area and the upper level is structured in the veranda style with a balustrade painted bright red. The statue of the Jade Emperor stands in the middle of the floor.

245 Taiqing Palace’s Jade Emperor Chamber DATE:


254 Taiqing Palace’s Laojun Hall and Stone Steles DATE:


Laojun Hall has a gable roof covered with grey tiles with corridors running in the front and back. It is three-bay in area and has a raised bucket arch. The statue of Laozi stands in a wooden chamber inside the hall. 242


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

263 Taiqing Palace’s Guozu Pagoda DATE:


This pagoda was built in memory of the founder of Taiqing Palace, the well-known Taoist priest Guo Shouzhen. It was originally located in the four-row courtyard of Taiqing Palace and was later relocated to Qianshan.

276 Wuliang Temple in Qianshan DATE:


Wuliang Temple, also known as the Old Temple, stands in the north valley of Qianshan Mountain. It was built in 1667 by Guo Shouzhen’s disciples, Liu Tailin and Wang Taixiang during the reign of Kangxi. It is the largest Taoist temple in Qianshan and one of the 21 best-known Taoist buildings in China. Old Manchu Capital

243

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

285 Tianhou Temple (Temple of the Queen of Heaven) in Yingkou DATE:


In 1726, during the reign of Qing Emperor Yongzheng, Tianhou Temple was reconstructed on the former site of the Dragon King Temple. The temple consists of the main hall, left and right side halls, bell and drum towers, the opera chamber, and the Guanyin Pavilion. Tianhou Temple is where Buddhism and folk religion blend into a harmonious whole.

293 Opera Chamber of Tianhou Temple in Jinzhou DATE:


Jinzhou Tianhou Temple is located at the southwestern corner of Jinzhou Town. It was built by a group of shipping businessmen from Shandong in 1740, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong to worship the god of the sea. The opera chamber is at the front and the stage is at the back. It has two floors, an upturned eave, saddle roof, round ridges, and bucket arches. 244


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

305 30 Performance Stage at Jinzhou Tianhou Temple DATE:


The podium of the performance stage at Jinzhou Tianhou Temple was constructed with blue brick. It is half a meter high, five meters long, and seven meters wide. People can watch performances from the front, the left, and the right sides of the stage.

313 Guandi Temple (Temple of Guan Yu) at Lingyuan DATE:


Guandi Temple is located at the East Street of Lingyuan Town. It was built between 1742 and 1749 during the reign of Emperor Qianlong. A three-bay main gate with saddle roof stands at the front. On entering the gate, the bell tower is on the left and the drum tower on the right. In the middle are the five-bay main hall and 20-bay side halls in addition to three more halls at the back. Old Manchu Capital

245

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

MOSQUES Fengtian South Mosque was first built from the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty. It later became one of the largest mosques in northeastern China after undergoing expansion and restructuring during the reign of four Qing emperors: Kangxi, Qianlong, Daoguang, and Guangxu. The major buildings in the mosque include the main gate, the grand hall, and Wangyue Tower. The grand hall is also known as the Worship Hall, occupying an area of 500 square meters. Wangyue Tower or the Moon-watching Tower is the mosque’s tallest building. It is a three-floor hexagonal pavilion-shaped building which is 30 meters high. On top of the tower stands a gold-coated, brass crescent. The corners of the eaves are upturned and on the tip of the eaves are sculptures of four watching animals wearing warning bells.

325 Fengtian South Mosque DATE:


334 Inside View of the Prayer Hall of Fengtian South Mosque DATE:


This hall serves as the place for Muslims to pray and worship. It is built of brick and wood and runs from east to west. A wooden board inscribed with verses from the Koran hangs above the hall. 246


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Fengtian North Mosque was first built by Imam Liu Jingyuan in 1662 or the first year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign. At that time, the mosque consisted of only three thatched houses. In 1785, during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the mosque was reconstructed using brick and tile. In 1850, during the reign of Emperor Daoguang, the height of the Moon-watching Tower was increased and Banke Tower was built. In 1892 and 1900, a nine-room sermon hall was added and the prayer hall renovated. The major buildings in the mosque include the Prayer Hall, Banke Tower, Moon-watching Tower, and the Sermon Hall. Inside the Banke Tower is a stone stele with an inscription on the history of the mosque.

343 Front of the Moon-watching Tower of Fengtian North Mosque DATE:


356 Side View of the Moon-watching Tower of Fengtian North Mosque DATE:


364 The Shrine of Fengtian North Mosque DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

247

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Fengtian East Mosque is located in Dongsi Lane of Xiaoxi Road in the Shenhe District of Shenyang. It was built by its first Imam Liu Taiyuan, consisting mainly of the Prayer Hall, the Moon-watching Tower, the South and North Lecture Halls, and the Ablution Room. In 1875 and 1890, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, it underwent renovation. This mosque was the prayer hall for Muslims from Hebei and Shandong and for holding Islamic religious activities.

375

385

Fengtian East Mosque

The Pulpit of Fengtian East Mosque

DATE:

DATE:



394 Kaiyuan Mosque DATE:


Kaiyuan Mosque is located in the north of a back street of the Dongmen Lane in the old Kaiyuan town. The date of Kaiyuan Mosque’s initial construction is unknown. Unlike other mosques, Kaiyuan Mosque faces the south. In 1680, during the reign of Emperor Kangxi, it was expanded into a solemn, magnificent prayer hall of 25 rooms.

248


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

Liaoyang Mosque is located in the southwestern corner of ancient Liaoyang Town. It was first built in the mid-Qing Dynasty. Facing east, the mosque has a prayer hall that is 17.5 meters long and 11.65 meters wide, able to hold 200 prayers at the same time. Behind it is the two-storied hexagonal Moon-watching Tower.

405 Prayer Hall of Liaoyang Mosque DATE:


413 Moon-watching Tower of Liaoyang Mosque DATE:


Old Manchu Capital

249

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

CHURCHES

425 Nanguan Catholic Church in Fengtian DATE:


250

Nanguan Catholic Church was first built in 1878 during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, and was rebuilt in 1912. Located on Xiaonan Street in the Shenhe District of Shenyang, the church is also known as Foreign Tower. As a typical Gothic architecture, it has 120 rooms or halls, making it the largest Catholic Church in Fengtian.


RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

433 Dongguan Presbyterian Church in Fengtian DATE:

Early 20th century The Yearbook of Christianity in Manchuria (Christianity Federation of Manchuria, 1938)

SOURCE:

This church was first built in 1889 during the reign of Emperor Guangxu. It is the largest and oldest Christian church in northeastern China. In 1900, the church was burnt down and religious services stopped. In 1907, it was rebuilt on its former site.

443 The Japanese Christian Church in Dalian DATE:

Early 20th century Matsuo Tamesaku SOURCE: A General Survey of Religious Practices in Southern Manchuria (The Foundation for the Promotion of Culture and Education, 1931)

PHOTOGRAPHER:

In 1905, during the reign of Emperor Guangxu, the Japanese Presbyterian Church set up a temporary church in Dalian. In 1907, a church was built with funds donated by its congregation and the Dalian Xitong Japanese Church was also founded.

Old Manchu Capital

251

Rites and Customs

08

Rites and customs as social phenomena are closely related to the development of the politics, economy, and culture of a society and influence various aspects of people’s lives. They are the mainstay of the history of a nation’s cultural life. The rites and customs of the Qing Dynasty are characterized by its strong Manchu flavors. At the same time, the spread of Western learning to China also makes it possible for foreign culture to infiltrate into Chinese folk customs. The first generations of Qing emperors (Shunzhi, Kangxi, and Yongzheng) paid special attention to the preservation of Manchu folk customs and culture for the purpose of enhancing the Manchu people’s self-awareness. During this period of time, the Manchu people and the Han Chinese lived by their own customs and conventions. However, as time went by, the ethical codes of the Han Chinese culture were gradually accepted by the Manchu people as well. With the increasing economic and cultural exchange between the north and the south, there emerged a tendency of Manchu–Han integration in terms of festivals, daily utensils, clothing, food, and means of production. The folk customs of the Qing Dynasty are rich and colorful. On the one hand, traditional customs, such as the Chinese New Year, the Lantern Festival, Qingming (Tomb-Sweeping Festival), and the Dragon Boat Race, were carried on. On the other, customs with Manchu and regional features, including 253

RITES AND CUSTOMS

temple fair, were also celebrated. In terms of costumes, there were long gowns and mandarin jackets and sinicized Manchu costumes. People wore braids and twisted hair knots. In terms of traveling, people either rode horses or used carriages or sedan chairs. In addition, post houses bloomed during the reign of Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. Marriage rites and customs also underwent great changes. The marriage customs of the Qing Dynasty values “three letters and six etiquettes,” coming up with rigid stipulations concerning the various aspects of the whole process starting with match-making to engagement and all the way to wedding. These stipulations cover, for instance, the engagement request letter from the groom’s family, the reply letter from the bride’s family, the envelope of the wedding letter, the bridal dowry, the reply letter from the groom’s family, the bride’s family testing the groom, the three letters from the groom’s family concerning the wedding, the bride’s sedan, the maid of honor accompanying the bride out of the inner bedroom, the bride-welcoming procession, the musical band entertaining the wedding guests, the wedding ceremonies, bride and groom presenting wine to each other, and the bride visiting her parents on the third day after the wedding. The drawings included in this section present some of the Qing Dynasty folk customs with striking historical features and portray a cultural landscape of that historical period.

254


RITES AND CUSTOMS

AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES

013 Plowing ARTIST:

Nakagawa Tadahide Records of Qing Customs (1799) COLLECTION: Setsuon Library SOURCE:

024 Transplanting Rice Seedlings ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

255

RITES AND CUSTOMS

034 Harvesting Rice ARTIST:


044 Bamboo Mesh for Screening Grain ARTIST:


The bamboo mesh is a device to screen rice grains. People put the grains on the mesh and swing it to and fro so that the very small grains pass through the mesh and the plump ones stay.

256


RITES AND CUSTOMS

055 Husking Rice ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

A water-powered trip-hammer is a device used for husking rice and grinding grain. The device is propelled by a vertical water wheel equipped with board lobes and a rotation shaft equipped with staggered boards. Each husking device has a beam, on one end of which a cone-shaped stone is bound while the other end is connected to the plank. A stone mortar for holding the grain to be processed is placed under the cone-shaped stone, which is attached to the beam. The current turns the wheel, causing the planks on the rotation shaft to prod the end of the beam and make the stone move up and down.

257

RITES AND CUSTOMS

065 Dung Depository ARTIST:


The dung depository in this drawing was used to store human and animal manure to produce methane for lighting and fuel. The residue and liquid produced were used for fertilizing fruit trees and vegetables and feeding fish and pigs. This drawing shows that as early as the Qing Dynasty people in China’s countryside had learned how to make use of methane.

074 A Moth VERSION: SOURCE:

258

Hand-written Copy Notes on Wild Silkworms (1898)


RITES AND CUSTOMS

083 A Silkworm VERSION: SOURCE:

Hand-written Copy Notes on Wild Silkworms (1898)

China has been a leading silk producer for centuries. During the Qing Dynasty, the silk-producing industry reached its peak of prosperity when sericulture was very popular. Special rooms and devices were designed to rear silkworms and reel silk. The silkwormraising farmers valued greatly the quality of mulberry leaves so as to ensure the fast and healthy growth of the silkworms.

094 A Loom ARTIST:


103 Silk Reeler ARTIST:


This drawing shows a silk reeler. Emperor Kangxi once wrote a poem for a painting entitled A Picture of Farming and Weaving, which reads: “A house is covered in luxuriant green; it’s very quiet when the silkworms are growing; when silkworms turn into cocoons in early summer, the noise of silk reelers will be heard.” Old Manchu Capital

259

RITES AND CUSTOMS

DAILY LIFE

115 Costumes of the Qing Dynasty ARTIST:


The most common type of clothing for men during the Qing Dynasty was long gowns and mandarin jackets. Manchu women tended to wear long gowns, while Han Chinese women preferred a dress plus skirts. Starting from the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Manchus and the Han Chinese began to copy each other’s clothing. By the late Qing Dynasty, it became very popular for Manchu people to model their clothes after Han-Chinese styles. Among the top Han-Chinese officials, there was a trend of modeling their clothes after the Manchu style.

124 Residential Housing ARTIST:


Rich families during the Qing Dynasty were very particular about their house construction. Some people preferred to divide their courtyard into three parts: the left part, the central part, and the right part. Each part was further divided into rows, forming several smaller courtyard, each performing a different function. The whole compound was like a small city with an impressive main gate and high enclosing walls. 260


RITES AND CUSTOMS

134 The Study ARTIST:


146 The Inner Bedroom ARTIST:


Rituals during the Qing Dynasty were strict and rigid, emphasizing that a strict distinction should be made between males and females. Applying this to house construction resulted in the functional distinction between the inner side and the outer side of the house. The inner house was where the females of the family lived and outsiders were not allowed in the inner rooms of the house. Old Manchu Capital

261

RITES AND CUSTOMS

Carriages and sedan chairs were the most important means of transportation for officials and rich people during the Qing Dynasty. There were two kinds of sedan chairs: those pulled by horses and those carried by humans. The latter can be further divided into four kinds, depending on the number of people needed to carry them, two, four, six, or eight people. Only the emperor had the privilege of sitting in a sedan chair carried by eight people. The sedan chairs pulled by horses were quite fast, good for long-distance traveling. The ones carried by people were also not too bad. Traveling this way, a traveler could cover tens of miles a day.

176 A Small Sedan Chair ARTIST:


155 A Carriage ARTIST:


164 A Big Sedan Chair ARTIST:


183 A Sedan Chair Carried by Mules ARTIST:


The sedan chairs carried by mules were a high-grade, passenger-carrying device. A sedan chair was tied to two mules. This kind of sedan chair could only hold one passenger; nevertheless, the passenger could lie down, so it was quite comfortable.

262


RITES AND CUSTOMS

193 Dalian Bag ARTIST:


The Dalian bag is a rectangular bag with an opening in the middle, which divides the bag into two pockets for holding money and other things. There were two kinds of bags: the bigger ones and the smaller ones. The bigger ones can be carried on shoulders or horseback, while the smaller ones can be hung on the waist belt. This bag was commonly used during the Qing Dynasty when people were traveling. It is very much like the backpacks we use nowadays.

204 A Traveling Bag ARTIST:


This was the traveling bag used during the Qing Dynasty. People used it to carry clothes, food, umbrellas, and so on, when traveling.

Old Manchu Capital

263

RITES AND CUSTOMS

213 A Food-carrying Bag ARTIST:


A food-carrying bag is what people during the Qing Dynasty used for carrying food when they were traveling.

224 Ever-lighting Lamp ARTIST:


During the Qing Dynasty, when people were traveling they would often be exposed to cold and wet on their journey. Many a time, they would have to stay in the wilderness at night, when this kind of lamp would be very useful to help drive away wild beasts and keep people warm. It could also be used for lighting when people traveled in the dark.

264


RITES AND CUSTOMS

235 A Post House ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

Post houses were places for messengers, post attendants, and government officials in ancient times to lodge or exchange their horses. The post house system reached a peak in China during the reigns of the Qing Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong.

265

RITES AND CUSTOMS

246

256

A Straw Chopper

A Manger

ARTIST:

ARTIST:

Nakagawa Tadahide SOURCE: Records of Qing Customs (1799) COLLECTION: Setsuon Library


264 A Loop with Bells ARTIST:


273 Xiaban (Slats) ARTIST:


During the Qing Dynasty, if people wanted to travel long distances they would either ride horses or sit on sedan chairs. In both cases they would have to bring such things as the straw chopper, the manger, the loop with bells, and slats.

266


RITES AND CUSTOMS

285 A Stable

A stable was where people in the Qing Dynasty put their horses to rest when they were traveling. The horses could get fed and take a rest.

ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

267

RITES AND CUSTOMS

STAGES OF LIFE Birth Rites The birth of a child signifies the beginning of a human life, thus rites and customs concerning this event constitute an important component of folk customs. During the Qing Dynasty, babies were delivered in a delivery room. Normally a midwife would be sent for to help with the delivery. After the baby was born, certain rituals would be performed. The father would go before the ancestral tablets to pray and inform his ancestors of the birth of the child. He would also inform his relatives of the good news.

293 Delivery Room ARTIST:


303 Zhuazhou ARTIST:


A ceremony called Zhuazhou would be held on the child’s first birthday. People placed various emblems, such as a pen brush, an ink stick, an abacus, a book, a seal, a ruler, silver coins, food, or a pair of scissors, before the child for him or her to choose. From what the child chose, people believed that they could tell the child’s level of intelligence, his or her personality, future career, and fortune. This practice was once very popular in various parts of China. The emblems used vary from one locale to another and from race to race. 268


RITES AND CUSTOMS

313 Accepting the Tea ARTIST:


Nacai (meaning “accepting the gift”) means the boy’s family asks the matchmaker to propose to another family’s daughter. Although Nacai is the first step, gifts should be presented. If the girl’s family agrees, the boy’s family prepares a red packet containing several silver coins. A red docket will be pasted onto the packet, with two Chinese characters “Cha-yi” written on the upper part, indicating that the boy’s family is willing to offer “good tea.” The matchmaker will present this red packet to the girl’s family. If the girl’s family accepts this gift, it means a preliminary consent. This is called “accepting the tea.” After the girl accepts “the tea,” she will be regarded as having a fiancé.

Marriage Customs Traditionally Chinese marriage was arranged by parents through matchmakers. There were rigid etiquette rules regarding marriage. During the Qing Dynasty, there were essentially six rituals generally known as “the Three Letters and Six Etiquettes.”

326

336

Engagement Invitation from the Boy’s Family

Engagement Invitation from the Girl’s Family

ARTIST:

ARTIST:

SOURCE:

SOURCE:

Nakagawa Tadahide Records of Qing Customs (1799) COLLECTION: Setsuon Library


The second ritual comes after the girl’s family accepts the gift: “asking names.” Both families inquire about such information of the boy and the girl as name, age, birth date, place of origin, as well as particulars about their three generations, their names, ranks, and so on. This is also called “requesting the eight characters” (the year, month, day, and hour of the boy’s birth and of the girl’s birth). Both families should provide each other with this information in a letter through the matchmaker. What follows is “comparing the eight characters.” If the eight characters of the two parties are considered incompatible, the marriage will not be allowed. If the comparison turns out positive, the other party will be informed. This is called Naji (literally “receiving the lucky sign”). After Naji comes Nazheng which means “accepting engagement tokens.” The tokens include engagement ring, bracelets, earrings, cloth, silk and satin, and so on. Accepting the engagement tokens is the most important part of Chinese marriage rituals. Old Manchu Capital

269

RITES AND CUSTOMS

345

355

Engagement Gifts: Satin

Engagement Gifts: Bracelets

ARTIST:


ARTIST:


363 Engagement Gifts: One-heart Bracelet ARTIST:


373 Engagement Gifts: Ring ARTIST:


SOURCE:

383 Engagement Gifts: Earrings ARTIST:


395 Engagement Gift Case ARTIST:


270


RITES AND CUSTOMS

405

415

Front of the Engagement Invitation Envelope

Back of the Engagement Invitation Envelope

ARTIST:

ARTIST:

SOURCE:

SOURCE:


Old Manchu Capital


271

RITES AND CUSTOMS

425

435

List of Dowry I

List of Dowry II

ARTIST:


ARTIST:


After the boy’s family presents the engagement tokens, the boy’s family will choose a good wedding date through astrologers and informs the girl’s parents of the date through the matchmaker. After giving their consent to the date, the girl’s family will send porters with an inventoried dowry to the boy’s house. The boy’s family will send somebody to welcome the dowry. After receiving the dowry, the boy’s family will write a note of appreciation. Both engagement gifts and dowry usually come with stereotyped letters.

272


RITES AND CUSTOMS

445 Sending the Dowry ARTIST:


454 Thank-you Note for Receiving the Dowry ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

273

RITES AND CUSTOMS

463 First of the Three Wedding Invitations from the Boy’s Family ARTIST:


473 Second of the Three Wedding Invitations from the Boy’s Family ARTIST:


484 Third of the Three Wedding Invitations from the Boy’s Family ARTIST:


274


RITES AND CUSTOMS

493 Bride’s Sedan Chair ARTIST:


Welcoming the bride is part of the wedding ceremony. The first step is the groom going to the bride’s house to escort the bride to his home. When the groom arrives at the bride’s house, the bride’s family will send someone to welcome him. When the groom steps into the house he will have to present tokens. The bride will be sent to the sedan chair with the support of the maid of honor or carried by her brother. After that, the bride-welcoming procession heads towards the groom’s house amidst loud drum beats.

504 Matchmaker Leading the Groom in ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

275

RITES AND CUSTOMS

515

525

Sedan Chair for the Bride and Groom

Maids of Honor Accompanying the Bride Going out of the Inner Bedroom

ARTIST:


ARTIST:


533 Procession of the Groom Escorting the Bride back to His Home ARTIST:


When the bride-welcoming procession returns to the groom’s house, they are not allowed inside immediately. Instead, the sedan chair will be stopped outside the gate for the purpose of taming the bride, to make her more obedient. After the bride’s sedan chair enters the gate, there will be certain rituals to perform, which vary from place to place. In some places, the bride will cross the fire basin, symbolizing that all the bad luck and bad things will be burnt away and the newlywed will start a happy life. 276


RITES AND CUSTOMS

543 Bride and Groom Performing Formal Bows ARTIST:


556 Before the bride and groom enter their wedding chamber, they will perform a formal wedding ceremony called Baitang in Chinese. The couple will pay respect to heaven and earth, to the groom’s parents, and to each other.

Entertaining Guests with Musical Performance ARTIST:


After the formal ceremony comes the wedding banquet. Rich families hire drum bands to entertain the guests. Old Manchu Capital

277

RITES AND CUSTOMS

After the newlywed couple enters their wedding chamber, they will perform the ceremony of drinking the nuptial cup. The bride and groom drink wine using two ladles made from one halved gourd. As the gourd is very bitter, the wine contained in the gourd ladle will taste bitter as well. That the new couple drinks wine from the gourd ladles symbolizes the two of them becoming one family and their commitment to sharing joys and sorrows.

565 Drinking the Nuptial Cup ARTIST:


574 Bride Returning to her Mother’s Home ARTIST: Nakagawa Tadahide SOURCE:

Records of Qing Customs (1799) Setsuon Library

COLLECTION:

On the third day after the wedding, the bride and the groom will prepare gifts and go to the bride’s home to pay respect to her parents and relatives. This is known as Huiqian or Huimen. The bride’s parents will hold a banquet to entertain them. When the newlywed couple is ready to go back to the groom’s home, the bride’s parents will also prepare gifts for the groom’s family. 278


RITES AND CUSTOMS

Funeral Rituals Funeral rituals are the most complicated and solemn of all rites and customs. The major funeral rituals during the Qing Dynasty include: Chuzhong (initial departing), Chengfu (dressing in mourning), Baosang (declaring death), Guanlian (encoffining), Diaoyan (paying homage to the deceased), Jiesan (welcoming the spirit of the deceased on the third day after the funeral), Chengzhu, and Fayin. During the funeral procession, the eldest son carries a streamer, walking in front of the procession followed by the second eldest son holding the tablet and other family and relatives “carrying crying-over-death sticks covered with white.” The eldest daughter-in-law will carry a special kind of pot. Other rituals include burning the pillow and breaking the basin. The funeral procession consists of a drum band, funeral wreaths, elegiac couplets, errand-men, Buddhist or Taoist monks, family and relatives of the deceased, the coffin, carriages and sedans, and so on. The scale and organization of the funeral procession varies considerably, depending on the wealth and status of the bereaved families.

583 Funeral Procession I ARTIST:


595 Funeral Procession II ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

279

RITES AND CUSTOMS

SOCIAL ETIQUETTE Greeting Etiquette The etiquette of greeting people during the Qing Dynasty include: Gongshou (bow with hands folded in front), kneeling, Kowtow, Kongshou, Daqian (salute by kneeling the left leg, slightly bending the right leg, with the right arm hanging at the side), and Daowanfu (a form of greeting by women with folded hands moving about at the lower right side). Gongshou was a common etiquette in the time of the Qing Dynasty. When friends met each other, they would cup their hands in front of their chest and bow with the left hand covering the right hand. The kowtow is the most impressive traditional etiquette.

605

615

625

Gongshou

Kneeling

Kowtow

ARTIST:

ARTIST:

ARTIST:


280




RITES AND CUSTOMS

633 Welcoming Guests at the Door ARTIST:


Etiquette of Welcoming Guests During the Qing Dynasty, the host should welcome the guests outside his door. If the guests were very honorable ones, the host should welcome them far away from his house. When the host met the guest, he would say such polite greetings as “Welcome your gracious presence” or “Forgive me for not welcoming you earlier.”

Etiquette of Entertaining Guests Confucius deemed it a delightful thing to welcome friends coming from afar, telling people that they should welcome their guests with smiles and courtesy. Apart from entertaining guests with wine and delicious food, the host would decorate his house with lanterns and colored hangings to show his respect to the guests.

645

655

A House Decorated with Lanterns

Hanging Small Lanterns on the Gate in the Evening

ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

ARTIST:


281

RITES AND CUSTOMS

Etiquette of Treating Guests to Meals Treating guests to meals is the most commonly practiced way of receiving guests. In the folk customs regarding feasts, people were quite particular about the seating arrangements. Most importantly, the location of the dining tables should be correct. Seats should be arranged according to age and social ranks. Senior, honorable, and kind guests would be invited to take the seats of honor. The host would normally take the least important seat to show humility. Improper seating arrangement was strictly forbidden.

665

675

Arrangements of Dining Tables and Seats for Guests

The Right-hand Seat of the Main Room

ARTIST:


282

ARTIST:



RITES AND CUSTOMS

FESTIVALS Chinese people have always attached great importance to festivals. The major festivals of the Qing Dynasty include the Spring Festival, the Lantern Festival, Qingming (Tomb-sweeping Festival), Dragon Boat Festival, Qixi (Double Seventh Night), the Mid-Autumn Festival, and Chongyang (the Double Ninth Festival).

New Year’s Eve New Year’s Eve is celebrated according to the Chinese lunar calendar. Of all the festivals in the Qing Dynasty, New Year’s Eve had the most rituals. In the morning, people hung portraits of gods and ancestors in the main hall of the house. In the afternoon, people put up portraits of door gods on their front gate. Spring couplets and pictures of gold ingots were also pasted at that time. After the gathering dinner, senior adults gave away red packets containing coins to the young children, who should pay respect to their seniors for this. At midnight, firecrackers would be set off and people would play and enjoy themselves until the next morning. A pole would also be erected in the courtyard and a red lantern lit and hung on the pole to last until the sixth day of the New Year.

685

694

Portraits of Ancestors in the Main Hall

Door Gods

ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

ARTIST:


283

RITES AND CUSTOMS

704 The Chinese Character Fu (Fortune) ARTIST:


714 Food for Ten-thousand Years ARTIST:


284


RITES AND CUSTOMS

Spring Festival The first day of the lunar New Year is the grandest event of the year. After opening the door and setting off firecrackers, the head of the family would go to the clan ancestral temple to worship their ancestors, together with the younger generation. After that, they went back to their own house to worship the portraits of ancestors hanging in the main hall. Following that, the younger generation paid respect and expressed their good wishes to the older generation who would give them earnest teachings and blessings in return. Finally, the younger generation would exchange New Year’s greetings among themselves.

723 Worshipping at the Family Temple ARTIST:


The Lantern Festival The Lantern Festival falls on the 15th day of the first month of the New Year. According to customs during the Qing Dynasty, people hung colorful lanterns almost everywhere. They watched lanterns and guessed lantern riddles. On that particular day, everyone could make and watch lanterns or play outside, be they royal family members, ordinary people, or girls (who were not supposed to be seen in public).

733 The Lantern Festival ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

285

RITES AND CUSTOMS

Qingming (Tomb-sweeping Festival) Of the traditional festivals still being celebrated today, Qingming is the only one that also refers to one of the 24 solar periods based on the traditional Chinese calendar. On that day, people pay respects to their ancestors, sweeping the tombs of deceased family members, having an outing, flying kites, playing on a swing, or kicking shuttlecock.

743 Worshipping at a Tomb ARTIST:


754 Kite Flying ARTIST:


286


RITES AND CUSTOMS

Dragon Boat Festival The Dragon Boat Festival falls on the fifth day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar. Legend has it that a famous poet named Qu Yuan drowned himself in the Miluo River. That festival is meant to commemorate him. In the time of the Qing Dynasty, people would wear a perfume satchel, paste the portrait of Zhongkui or Jiangtaigong on the doors, chop calamus into the shape of a wooden sword and hang it on the door or windows together with folium artemisiae argyi, eat rice dumplings, and hold Dragon Boat races.

763 Dragon Boat Racing ARTIST:


Qixi (Double Seventh Night) Qixi falls on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It is also known as Qiqiao or Girls’ Day. It is actually China’s Valentine’s Day. According to Chinese legends, this is the day when the Cowherd and the Weaving Maid meet each other on the bridge of Milky Way. During the Qing Dynasty, there was a custom of “begging the Weaving Maid for skills” (Qiqiao) on that day. At night, women placed fruits in their courtyards and prayed to the Star of the Weaving Maid to improve their embroidery skills.

774 Praying for Skills at the Double Seventh Night ARTIST:


Old Manchu Capital

287

RITES AND CUSTOMS

Mid-Autumn Festival The Mid-Autumn Festival falls on the 15th day of the eighth month according to the lunar calendar. People would place moon cakes, walnuts, peanuts, and fruit in their courtyards and burn incense to worship the god of the moon. Worshipping the moon is the most important part of the celebration. After that, the whole family would sit in a circle and enjoy watching the full moon.

785 Embroidering ARTIST:


794 Worshipping the Moon at the Mid-Autumn Festival ARTIST:


288


A Pictorial Record of the Qing Dynasty - Old Manchu Capital

Recommend Documents