A History of the Crusades, Vol. VI: The Impact of the Crusades on Europe, Together with a Bibliography of the Crusades

A HISTORY OF THE CRUSADES

Kenneth M. Setton,

GENERAL EDITOR

A HISTORY OF THE CRUSADES Kenneth M. Setton,

OBI'ffiRAL EDITOR

I The First Hundred Years II The Later Crusades, 1189- 1311 III The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries IV The Art and Architecture of the Crusader States V The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East VI The Impact of the Crusades on Europe

Volume VI THE IMPACT OF THE CRUSADES ON EUROPE

Mehmed In, "the Conqueror." Pomait by Gentile Bellini. National Gallery, London

A HISTORY OF

THE

CRUSADES KENNETH M. SETTON GENERAL EDITOR

Volume VI THE IMP ACT OF TH E CRUSADES ON EUROPE EDITED BY

HARRY W. HAZARD A."'D

NORMAN P. ZACOUR

THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN PRESS

Published 1989 The University of Wisconsin Press 114 North Murray Street Madison, Wisconsin 53715 3 Henrietta Street London WC2E 8LU, England Copyright © 1989 The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System All rights reserved First printing Printed in t he United States of America For LC CIP information see the colophon ISBN 0-299-10740-X

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AMICO NOSTRO ET LABORIS CONSORT! HOC VOLUMEN UITIMUM HISTORIAE EXPEDITIONUM AD TERRAM SANCTAM LIBERANDAM MISSARUM DEDICAMUS

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CONTENTS

Foreword

XV

..

Preface

XVII

A Note on lfansliteration and Nomenclature Abbreviations I

•

XIX XXlll

The Legal and Political Theory of the Crusade

3

Norman Daniel, Cairo, Egypt II

39

Crusade Propaganda

Norman Daniel III

The Epic Cycle o f the Crusades

98

A/fred Foulett (Princeton University) IV

Financing the Crusades

116

Fred A . Cazel, Jr., The University of Connecticut

v

The Institutions of the Kingdom of Cyprus

150

Jean Richard, Universite de Dijon VI

Social Evolution in Latin Greece

175

David Jacoby, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem VII

The Ottoman Thrks and the Crusades, 1329-1451

222

Halil Inalcik, T he University of Chicago VIII

The Crusade of Varna

276

Martin Chasin, Bridgeport, Connecticut IX

The Ottoman Thrks and the Crusades, 1451-1522

Halil Inalcik

.

XI

311

xu X

CONTENTS

Crusader Coinage with Greek or Latin Inscriptions

354

John Porteous, London, England

Xl Crusader Coinage with Arabic Inscriptions

421

Michael L. Bates, The American Numismatic Society and D. M Metcalf, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford University Gazetteer and Note on Maps

483

Select Bibliography of the Crusades

511

compiled by Hans Eberhard Mayer, Universitat Kiel, and Joyce McLellan edited by Harry W. Hazard Index

665

MAPS

following page 238 1 The Near East

2

Western Europe

3

Central Europe

4

Frankish Greece

5 The Straits and the Aegean 6

Northern Syria

7

Palestine

8 Cyprus 9

Venice and the Levant in 1300

10 The Ottoman Empire 1300- 1451 11

The Ottoman Empire 1451-1522

12

Mongols and Missions in the Thirteenth Century

13

Missions and Mongols in the Fourteenth Century Maps compiled by Harry W. Hazard and executed by the Cartographic Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, Madison

Xlll

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FOREWORD

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As I observed in the Foreword to the preceding volume, it has been a long, hard journey. There were times when I wondered whether we should ever reach the end but now, after many years, we have finally done so. From time to time we have had to institute changes in o ur initial plans. At least some of these changes have been for the better. In some cases, to be sure, we have been forced to yield to practicality or to one circumstance or another. Also we have unfortunately lost along the way several of our contributors and two of our fellow editors, Marshall W. Baldwin and Robert Lee Wolff, who labored with a steadfast devotion to the first and second volumes of this History of the Crusades. I am saddened by the thought that they will not hold this last volume in their hands. It is a pleasure, however, to express my indebtedness to Dr. Harry W. Hazard and to Professor Norman P. Zacour, who have made possible the appearance of these volumes. With the courage and determination of a true crusader Dr. Hazard has borne a heavy load. Fur thermore, we are most grateful to Mary Hazard for her valiant help. I am glad at last to be able to express in print my thanks to Professor Hans Eberhard Mayer, who, despite his numerous responsibilities, agreed amicitiae gratia to prepare a bibliography for all six volumes. We are pleased to welcome into our midst o ne of the outstanding crusading historians of our time. We are grateful to Dr. Susan Babbitt, who is now with the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. for her help with this volume as well as with Volume V. I am also pleased at long last to acknowledge our indebtedness to Mrs. Elizabeth A. Steinberg, assistant director of the University of Wisconsin Press, whose conscientious attention to detail has been of endless assistance to us. It is now more than thirty years ago (in 1955) that I sketched in the Foreword to Volume I what I might call the historical background to this work. There I dwelt upon the interest taken in it and the impetus given to it by Dana C. Mumo, August C. Krey, Frederick Duncalf, and John L. LaMonte before any plans had really been made or a single word had been written. Without the enthusiasm of these scholars, however, all of whom left us many years ago, this work would never have come XV

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XVI

FOREWORD

into being. Therefore my fellow editors and I want once more to recall them to our readers and again to render thanks to all four of them. KENNETH

M.

SETION

The Institute for Advanced Study Princeton, New Jersey March 21, 1988

It is now some days ago that the sad news came of the death of Dr. H arry W. H azard. H e left us on 5 February (1989). My comradein-arms for almost forty years, as we wended our way through the long history of the Crusades, he will be sorely missed. His death led me to reread the Foreword to the first edition of Volume I of this History of the Crusades (1955) outlining the part played so many years ago by Munro, LaMonte, Duncalf, and Krey in planning a work that was initially to be in three volumes but, as time went on, became four, then five, and finally six. As one after another the volumes have appeared, they seem to bear almost no relation to the original planning. Year after year changes had to be made. We would have second thoughts. Contributors died, withdrew from the project, or failed to write their chapters. "Hap" Hazard was more patient than I as the almost endless changes had to be made. Despite months of illness, H ap H azard spent much time on this last volume, but it would not have been finished within the current year except for the assistance of his wife, Mary H azard. She has retyped the Bibliography and the Gazetteer, added all the page references to the index cards from which the printers set the type, and shared with us the proofreading of the entire volume. But now I fear we must agree with our old friend Shakespeare that "H ector is dead: there is no more to say!"

K. M. S.

Princeton February 12, 1989

PREFACE

This is the last volume of A History of the Crusades. It marks an end neither to the conflict with Islam nor to the very idea of crusade as a mass movement divinely sanctioned. The crusading impulse remained a vital force in the West whether directed towards a holy war to win Jerusalem or, later, a defensive struggle against Turkish aggression. Bede had long since taught the West about Ishmael, the father of Islam, whose hand was raised against all men, and against whom the hands of all men were raised in turn. Islam, then, remained an enemy with whom peace was unthinkable, war a duty. The duty would be all the more pressing in coming centuries when, as the Thrkish threat grew, the very future of Christian Europe seemed to hang in the balance. Like so much else in medieval Europe, the crusade demanded both legal definition and theological justification, to say nothing of financial and military organization, constant preaching, and propaganda. Three centuries of crusading fervor accompanied by incredible hardships, massive sacrifices, legends of heroism, and propaganda of hatred, left for the future a heritage of profound consequence impossible to measure. How sad that our colleague, H arry Hazard, was not allowed to hold this finish ed volume in his hands. But he was determined to see it through its final preparation. H ardly a page has not felt his touch. H e was one of many who inspired the entire History and for whom in turn it has become something of a monument. It was with some pre. science that, just before his death, he recalled the comments of Bil Gilbert: "By caring about and being moved by the persons and deeds of our ancestors, we give assurance-and are assured -of a sort of immortality." 1 Norman P. Zacour

Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto 1bronto, Canada August 15, 1989 I. Sports Illustrated, XLIV (June 21, 1976), 76. 00

XVll

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A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND NOMENCLATURE

One of the obvious problems to be solved by the editors of such a work as this, intended both for general readers and for scholars in many different disciplines, is how to render the names of persons and places, and a few other terms, originating in languages and scripts unfamiliar to the English-speaking reader and, indeed, to most readers whose native languages are European. In the present volume, as in most of the entire work, these comprise principally Arabic, Thrkish, Persian, and Armenian, none of which was normally written in our Latin alphabet until its adoption by Turkey in 1928. The analogous problem of Byzantine Greek names and terms has been handled by using the familiar Latin equivalents, Anglicized Greek, or occasionally, Greek type, as has seemed appropriate in each instance, but a broader approach is desirable for the other languages under consideration. The somewhat contradictory criteria applied are ease of recognition and readability on the one hand and scientific accuracy and consistency on the other. It has proved possible to reconcile these, and to standardize the great variety of forms in which identical names have been submitted to us by different contributors, through constant consultation with specialists in each language, research in the sources, and adherence to systems conforming to the requirements of each language. Of these, Arabic presents the fewest difficulties, since the script in which it is written is admirably suited to the classical language. The basic system used, with minor variants, by all English-speaking scholars was restudied and found entirely satisfactory, with the slight modifications noted. The chief alternative system, in which every Arabic consonant is represented by a single Latin character (1 for th, h for kh, g for dh, ~ for sh, g for gh) was rejected for several reasons, needless proliferation of diacritical marks to bother the eye and multiply

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XlX

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A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND NOMBNCLATUIUi

occasions for error, absence of strong countervailing arguments, and, most decisively, the natural tendency of non-specialists to adopt these spellings but ontit the diacritical marks. The use of single letters in this manner leads to undesirable results, but the spellings adopted for the present work may be thus treated with confidence by any writer not requiring the discriminations which the remaining diacritical marks indicate. The letters used for Arabic consonants, in the order of the Arabic alphabet, are these; ', b, t, th, j, 1:1. kh, d, dh, r, z, s, sh, $, Q, t, ~. ', gh, f, q, k, I, m, n, h, w, y. The vowels are a, i, u, lengthened as a, I, u, with the a/if bi-$ilrati-l-yii' distinguished as li; initial 'is omitted, but terminal macrons are retained. Diphthongs are au and ai, not aw and ay, as being both philologically preferable and visually less misleading. The same considerations lead to the omission of I of atbefore a duplicated consonant (Nur-ad-Din rather than Nfir-ai-Din). As in this example, hyphens are used to link words composing a single name (as also 'Abd-Allah), with weak initial vowels elided (as Abfi-1l:Iasan). Normally al- (meaning "the") is not capitalized; ibn- is not when it means literally "son of," but is otherwise (as Ibn-Khaldun). Some readers may be disconcerted to find the prophet called "Mohammed" and his followers "Moslems," but this can readily be justified. These spellings are valid English proper names, derived from Arabic originals which would be correctly transliterated "Mul:lammad" and "Muslimun" or "Muslimin." The best criterion for deciding whether to use the Anglicized spellings or the accurate transliterations is the treatment accorded the third of this cluster of names, that of the religion "Islam." Where this is transliterated "Islam," with a macron over the a, it should be accompanied by "Muslim" and "Mul:lammad," but where the macron is omitted, consistency and common sense require "Moslem" and "Mohammed," and it is the latter triad which have been considered appropriate in this work. All namesakes of the prophet, however, have had their names duly transliterated "Mul)ammad," to correspond with names of other Arabs who are not individually so familiar to westerners as to be better recognized in Anglicized forms. All names of other Arabs, and of non-Arabs with Arabic names, have been systematically transliterated, with the single exception of Salal)-ad-Din, whom it would have been pedantic to call that rather than Saladin. For places held, in the crusading era or now, by Arabs, the Arabic names appear either in the text or in the gazetteer, where some additional ones are also included to broaden the usefulness of this feature.

A NOTE ON TRANSUTERATION AND NOMENCLATURE

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XX1

Large numbers of names of persons and groups, however, customarily found in Arabicized spellings because they were written in Arabic script, have been restored to their underlying identity whenever this is ascertainable. For example, Arabic "SaljOq" misrepresents four of the six component phonemes: s is correct, a replaces Thrkish e, for which Arabic script provides no equivalent, I is correct, j replaces the non-Arabic ch, u substitutes a non-Thrkish long u for the original ii, and q as distinguished from k is non-existent in Thrkish; this quadruple rectification yields "Selchiik" as the name of the eponymous leader, and "Selchiikid" - on the model of 'Abbasid and Timurid - for the dynasty and the people. It might be thought that as Thrkish is now written in a well-conceived m odified Latin alphabet, there would be no reason to alter this, and this presumption is substantially valid. For the same reasons as apply to Arabic, ch has been preferred above ~. sh above ~. and gh above ~. with kh in a few instances given as a preferred alternate of h, from which it is not distinguished in modern Thrkish. No long vowels h ave been indicated, as being functionless survivals. 1\vo other changes have been made in the interest of the English-speaking reader, and should be remembered by those using map sheets and standard reference works: c (pronounced dj) has been changed to j , so t hat one is not visually led to imagine th at the Thrkish name for Tigris- Dijle/ Dicle-rhymes with "tickle," and what the eminent lexicographer H. C. Hony terms "that abomination the undotted 1" has, after the model of The Encyclopaedia of Islam, been written I. Spellings, modified as above indicated, have usually been founded • on those of the Thrkish edition, Is/lim Ansiklopedisi, hampered by occasional inconsistencies within that work. All names of Turks appear thus emended, the Thrkish equivalents of almost all places within or near modern Thrkey appear in the gazetteer. In addition to kh, Middle Thrkish utilized a few other phonemes not common in modern Thrkish: zh (modern j) dh, ng, and ii (modern e); the first three of these will be used as needed, while the lastmentioned may be assumed to underlie every medieval Thrkish name now spelled with e. Plaintive eyebrows may be raised at our exclusion of q, but this was in Middle Thrkish only the alternate spelling used when the sound k was combined with back instead of front vowels, and its elimination by the Thrks is commendable. Persian names have been transliterated like Arabic with certain modifications, chiefly use of the additional vowels e and o and replacing rJ and dh with z and z, so that Arabic "Adharbaijan" becomes Persian "~erbaijan," more accurate as well as more recognizable. Omission

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A NOTE ON TRANSUTBRATION AND NOMENCLATURE

of the definite article from personal names was considered but eventually disapproved. Armenian presented great difficulties: the absence of an authoritative reference source for spelling names, the lack of agreement on transliteration, and the sound-shift by which classical and eastern Armenian b, d, g became western Armenian p, t, k and- incredible as it may seem to the unwary- vice versa; similar reciprocal interchanges involved ts and dz, and ch and j. The following alphabet represents western Armenian letters, with eastern variants in parentheses: a, p (b), k (g), t (d), e, z, e, i, t. zh, i, I, kh, dz (ts), g (k), h, ts (dz), gh, j (ch), m, y, n, sh, o, £!!, b (p), ch U), f, s, y, d (t), r, ~. u or v, p, \