A History of Farming Systems Research (Cabi Publishing)

Ef/!t~f,~rg~lniz,~tio oi the Uriitc~dN,~tionsconcerning th(, Ie,gal status ot ,iny cocrntry, territory, city or ,lrcv or of its ,luthoritic~,, or concerning thc tlclirnit,ition of i t s frontiers or l)ountl,lrics. I hc des~griatroris'de~ve~lopcti' ,ind 'ticvclop~ng'cconomlcs are ~ntendetitor statistic,~l (onvenlencc ,ind tlo not nc,c t~ss,lr~ly express , Ijutlgrnient about the \t,lge re,lchecl I)y a p,irt~cul,ir country, tc,rritor\i or are~i111the development process The, vicws cxpresscti licrein arc thosc ot the autliors an(l do not necessarily represent thosc of the Foocl ,inti Agriculture C)rg,~nir,ltion of the United Nations.

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Contents

Contributors' Biographies ;\bbreviations and Acronyms

vi X

xii ('1iaptc.r 1 Introduction Ilrlki, ('ollrrraorr I';\R'I' I: FSK - IINI)ERS'I'ANI)IN(;I:AKMI;r- I le i \ al\o a past I're\ident of tlie ~ \ s s o c i ~ r l i o ~ l . ;rgc~co~i.lis~~.~cl~~ lur-ing multi-;rge~icyc'omrnl1nily-l1;1sc(1ri;rtu~-al / , ~ r t t i i I ;clr1or1ii:1li~(i I-csourcc m;~rlagcriicntinili;rti\es. James Olukosi. Jalncs is a profc.ssor of / ~ 1 t r 1 r f / ; S I , ~ ; I I I ( ~ I iirfric~:~.coli~.t~i~ .\gric~~rltur:~I l l ~ i s l i t ~ ~ofl c ~~r:rl Kdiyoi is tlic C'l~icl' , \ g ~ - i c ~ ~ ~ l Ild on a rathc,r small thr-o~rgliiril 11i1i.scll-study reading groups and by riurnber of sirnplc rule sets which \'verc: nested: making off-caliip~~s lirilts to community- i ~ n d . triggered hy evcrlts: iritcrcorincctc.d: liril\cd to I';~rmcr-basetia c t i o ~ i'l'he regular prograrnmc is aclditional sets, stable, in rctsponsc to stress (such \vliat tI1c.y have to d o to qualify. not nrh;~tthcy m7ant to do to I c ; ~ r r ~ILleanm,hilc~, . collahorativc ;IS prolongecl clrought): adaptive to lorig-lerm initiatives amorig cot~litionsof those with a pertrends in systerri states: irltcrprctntivc: ; ~ r ~su11d of multi- sonal comrnitrnent to chiungc processes are creportivc of sirnultarlcous n~ariagcrncr~t ating new institution~tls t r u c t ~ ~ rarld e s rictnrorlis ple indicators of system pcrli)rriiance. I\ focus or1 thc rn;~n;~gcrnent of ur~c.crtainty which bypass cxisting structures'. It is encouri~gingto find that even in tlie also suggests 21 need for greater cniph;~sis in FSK-F, practice on collaboration between farm- linancii~lly titrrd-pressed educational environers and scientistsi. l k s t practice has, in fact, ment of eastern and southern Africa, such innovations are occurring. For example. ;I conalready moved in this directiorl. a movement rcinl'orccd by crncrging concerns about the rela- sortia of non-government organizations whose tion bctnrccn on-farm developments and land- activities fbcus o n various forms of ecological scape scale resource rnanagerncnt. FSK-li is now farming in partnership with farmers and in collaboration with the llniversity of Zimbabwe, being ch;~llcngedto investigate the relationships a m o n g on-farm systems development. ecologi- have now developed a degree course which supcal systems management and agricultural pol- plements classroom study informed by systems

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total cultivated area of 2 million h a was desigrlated as a 'needs protection' area in the face of widespread soil erosion. In the space of 4 years, thc interventions raised thc percentage of dryland wheat farmers in the vulnerable areas who SOME EXAMPLES A N D LESSONS FROM had adopted one or rnore l';llloczr management BEST PRACTICE practice from 30'XIlo 75'X, some 1 6 0 0 farmers. 'I'his success was the more remarlcable for being 1,orrrrrirlg Tog(~t/r(~r, by l l a g m a n n . Murnrira a n d achieved through a period of deepening drought Churna in 1 9 9 h I 0 , docu~ncrltsthe devcloprnent and ccorlorrlic liartiship. An interdisciplinary and extension of soil and water conservalion team of scicrltists and cxtcr~sionadvisers worked technologies in Masvingo arid C'hivi. Zirnbabmv. with I';~rnlers on joint systcnls analysis, and 'I'his example of a new approach was called throlrgh periods of so~nctirnespairll'ul and con( t o try) by the I'r~rmcrs- a translatior1 Ilictual rc,flcctiorl on what was being learned arld krrt~rrrc,~/tr of 'resc:~rch' into Shona. I t was based on dia- Ilow thcblei~rrli~lg process nrils occurrirlg. A series logue, on hrrncrs' own real time, o n wholc-sys01' tools nrcbrcdevised, i~gi~irl lilrgely i r l collabor;~t a n cxpcrirncrlls ~und on ;I strcngthcnir~gof tior1 with l':~rmcrs, to e n h ; ~ r ~ cindividual c ar~d sc.lf-organiztrtior~i~l cap;~cityat cornniunity level. sh:rrcd Icarr~irlgabout systerns st;~lrsa n d pcrl'orAfter two seasons each participatirlg L~rmcr. niance. 'l'hcsc included: a rainfall si~nulator,a brsiclcs tied ridging, had at Icast two other trials soil corer. I low Wet ( a computcr-aided clctcisiorl ongoing, selected fronl arnorig expcrimcrlts sug- support tool). the F;~llow Managcrnent (;arnc gested by projcct stafl', local rc.scarcl1 stations (which allows players lo expand o n and intcrand farmer irlrlovators, or arising out ol' discus- rogate scc,narios gc~nc>r:rlcdhy thc usc of tI1c siorl of I~rrriers'indigenous linowlcdgc. More olhcr three, lools) arid LVith and Without ( a user t h a n 1 0 options li;~vec~ncrgedli-om this join1 fricndly cx)~nparalivc'conomic analysis tool). procr3ss,includirlg rnccllanical, agronomic. bio- 'l'llrce Iessorls stand out: the import:rncc of pill!lo I:SI( processes, thc powcr logical and water savingiirrigalio~l 111e1hods ing c,xplicil ;~tlc'ntior~ and tcchnologjcs. \Yithirl three seirsor~s li-0111 of slirnul;~tirigshared I\rlom~lcdgccrcatiorl and tllc' nccd li)r sc,icncc>leaders and policy malicr-s to 1992-9 3 , at Ic;~st SO'X, of Ihc total of I I 3 h accept that t11c process will not lead to irdoptio~i households within orl? ~rd~riinistrative unit in ('hivi 1)istrict mrcrc pr;~ctising soil and mr;lter of uniform or- standardixe(l resolutio~isacross ; i r l conservation. 'l'llc irnporttrnt lessons irlc.luclc ccosyste~n.Ill~s; I I I ~ Rli~dcdling. ~ 'l'lir Socii~l ('onstruction of 1)ivcrsity. i e i ~ l i o ~ l in I)111et1 IIortic~~IIurc i~nd A g r i c ~ ~ l i ~ ~ r i ~ l I<nowledgc. Il~fornl;~tioni ~ l r c l ( ' o ~ ~ ~ l i ~ l ~ ~ l'I1c~~l~~iologic~ I:utcrlsior~.I'ublisl~cdI'hl) tlic.si.;. \4';1gc11ir1gcn. :\gricirl(urt~lIlr~ivcrsity. Cox, P.G., iZ.1). Shulman, PI.Ridge, M. 1:o;lle & A.1,.C;lrsidr, 1995. / \ r ~ intcrrog;~tivcappro;~chto ayslctns diagnosis: an invitalion lo the tl;~r~cc. journ;~lof I:;~rmingSyste~nsResearch and I:xlcnsion. 5 ( L ) .h7--X 1. Sperling, I,. & I? Berkowila, 1994. I'arlncrs in Selection. I3e;ln 13rccdcrs ;rnd Womcn I3c;tn 1:xpcrts in 1l\vanda. ('(;IAlr:111islor111ir1g 4115. 40f1 agroc~cologic;rlresources 3 7f> 3 7 7 alterr~;lli\/coplioris l i ~ ;1groccosy.s11~111 r m;1riagelnc111 374 bioresourcc tlow m o t l c l l i ~ i g 370-37 1 I5r;ixil agricultur;~lenvirorl~ncnlali1rlp;lcl 33')-340 cropping systelrl rliodellilrg 340-348, 149 lield study plan L 36 I'ralicoptione methodologies Ihf1-2h7 CIS 319. 334-335 system hierarchies 3 38-340 land use 3 38-3 39 projects 2 h 5-200 remote sensing system hierarchies 3 38-340

crop nl;lll;lgcllrcnt research (raining (C',iIK'I') 230-2 3 1 I:;+vt /\Iric;~l~Hconomics 1'rogr;lln (18 l ~ - c ~ ~ !l'I1l3~ c l i i ~ g ;(>I 1r;iining 2 30 cottoll ;14 scici1ti\ts 32 'I., < i t.. i ~ ~ i t ~34, i t r ;5-36, 4 0 4 country '.h. ~ ..c~cterislics . i i 4 10- 4 1 I plall'i~rmfor l:Sli itnpletnent;ition 41 h C'l:,Yl'S;\ 2 6 5

credit progrtrmrnes 1 5 crisi\ situations, problems 329-3 30 crop(s) Aildean 2h9-270 motlclling 2 physiology 4 3 polcntial 7 v:irielic. ant1 I';trl~lerprekrcncc. 1 3 5 yiclcl i i ~ l p r o v c n ~ c r ~329 ls crop in~l>rovcrncrtl 35 I h . I Oh-1 0 7 strategy lor p;~rlicip;itory plan1 breeding (1'1'1%) 3 55 crol) ~ I I ; I ~ I ; I ~ ~ I I I ~ * ~ I ~ ol,l:s 107-I I 0 opliriiuili 1 1 X r r s c r c i r ~ i i t i i t (g ' I l l 2 3 2 5 I cro~111itlgsystct~is i ~ g r o t ~ i ~ 3i lI ~2 y Ilr;~tlliclcl'sc o t ~ l r i b ~ ~ t i o2r8r c.oi~cc[)lu;~lli-anlcworl~ 20-27. 42. 4 3 el(~\,clopn~ct~t 44 i ~ ~ o ~ l c ~346 l l i ~ $~4g8 . j.40 Ol'l(s I OX I'lall I'ucbl;~.Llexico 2 6 2 rcsciircll 2. 1' i.l I 2 ('rol)[)iiig S~slctrishcs1\vorl,, ;\si:t 2Xh ( ' r o l i l ~ i n gS~Y~CIIISI ' r o g r i ~ i n t i ~ cI 0 2 clll~Lll-;lle~clllllgy 30 I ('ullurc k111c1 , \ g r i c l i l I ~ ~ (:roup r~ 30s

I lcciaioll Support S y ~ l c ~ ml is~ /\gric~illtrr;il r 'I'c.cli~iology(I)SS/Z'I') 12 1 ~ l ~ ~ c i \ i ~ ~ t ~ - t ~ il~olistic i i I , i t i g viciv , 302 c l c ~ t ~ ~ o i i s l r ; ~ tIll i i ~nl corttc,t~l 2') 1-194 cco~~ornisls ; l g r o ~ l o r ~ ~rel;~tionships isl 11 1 rcscarctl 1 I 6-1 1 7 ccor!~sl'~n ecology 4 1 l ~ c ~ ~ i ~ ()I:!< c l o r f, ~ ~ ~ ~ c2l 17-2 i r ~ gI 8 1117 ctluci~lio~ ~ cl'licicncy. g c ~ l d c ;r ~ n ; ~ l y s i \72 7 3 l;b1l3l7 L>III~~~SIII 10 1-107. 307 clllplo\~lllclttloss, \h~otllcll (>X c ~ n ~ ~ c ~ ~ t ' r 10. . r nS~Ic. ~iVX. ~ l 4 0 I .4 1 I gcllder ;~n;~lysis7 1 l;llclosllrc~sl;cllct (Ilti] I 7 I cllviro~lll~crtl c l ( ~ g r ; ~ ( l ; ~ l i5oI~ ~ 1llilll;lgelllc~lll OX [)l;llll l~rcccllllg I 0 7 s u s t ; ~ i ~ ~ ; ~ h i l5i l v3 C I I ~ ~ ~ O I ~ I I I ~ * I I ~ i~lIl~~ p i ~01'c l 0I:I; I 2 I I 1 2 c'quily gctlticr ;111;1lyhis 7 1 [ ~ ~ l i isrues cy 4(1 I l l h ~ o p i i iXq i ~ ~ a l i t ~ ~ l i o ~ ~ ilc)2, ~ l i zI;Oh, ~ t ~197. o ~ ~1 [),S cslllllollistciry 30 1 cv;1lt1;tti1i11,l':~r~iirv: ~ s r c s s ~ l i c4~0~ i ~t c3volulionism 10 1 cx~)crimcrll;~l elcsig~larid c\~;tluation agrorlorny 11 1. 1 I 4 1 l (I i l l f;trn~crs'liclrls 3 I 3 3 l h experilr~cnl;~l utlits (1:II). Sc11cg;11 178-1 X 3 I ~ ~ p c r i m ~ r l t a t;III(I i o n Ir1I11r1nitlioriService .\('(ISI:I cul711rt crops, produc~ivit\l 59-00 cxlel~silic;~tion. Ilali 1X i exlcrlsiorl 87-88 agents 1 3 . 14 for Intc,r~l;tlional I)cvelopmcrlt ('onsorli~1111 (CII)) 1 4 5 cxperimcrlt;~l units ([:I sl i n Sc,r~cg;~l1XO. 1 8 1 farmer p;rrtici[~atory rescarch (I?I'K-1:) h 1 farming systems-based 1 4 2 1 4 3 1:rarlcc. 1 7 3 I'SK-E h 8 gcnder analysis 70-7 l projects i n 1,atin i\rnerica 2 6 4 ownership o l OFR process 8 8

rcscarcl~lirlhagc. 4 14 Ser~eg;~l 1 7 9 1 80. 1 8 2 1 IS!\ 1 1')- 144 cutension service (70. 4 0 8 1h0 i n l ~ r n l a t i oc.xch;~npe l~ lillhage 1 55 ol~-l;rrrn lealing 1 1 7 ~ 1~8 1 regional org;~lrix;~lionl h 5 - I h h rcscarcl~l o c ; ~ l i o ~ tl(10. 107

423

farrntxr(s)C'oirtiri~rc~tl I ~ r m production economics 175-1 76 participatory plant breeding 11'1'131 374. 355. k~rm typologies 1 7 4 359-360 greet1 l i l ~ v s 1 7 3 particip;rtory research l1~1'15. X I . l\ls';~rcl~ Iirrlrring. ccologic;~ltlirl~c~r~siorrs :OH gCrrdcr a ~ ~ t ~ l y sh i si h C ) .7 0 I ' ; l r r r r i ~ ~Systcnl g Supporl I'rojccl (I'SSI') 0 8 c.l'licic~~cy72-7 3 I ~ I ~ I I I ~sys1c111s II~ (3, 2 0 4 c.rripo\vc,rrrl~riI 7 3 c ' o n r p o ~ ~i~~tcr;rcliorl\ ~nl 318 I?) ccluily 7 3 d c v C l o p ~ n c ~(I:SI)) lt 1 if,. LC)O. 3211 lYllclr~ s o l v i ~ ~tccIrnolog~cs g 101 I:irrrt~ir~g Svstcr~rs'I'r;rirri~~g l ' r o g r : ~ ~ll posilivisni 316 ~ ~ o s i t i v ip;~r;ldigm sl 328 w,liolc l';rrni sy.;tcm I'r;~mc\vorl\ 32 3 I ~ o l ~ s tresource ic ~ n ; ~ t t a g e ~ r t(III<XlI ~ c ~ t t 14 3 IIOIIS~~IIOI(I 7 h o d p r o d ~ l c t i o 5q. ~ ~ (10 loot1 s l i ~ ~ r l i l g ci ns scn~i-;~ri(l It~y;~ 1 32- I 34 I'\rel lor devcloprne~~t 40') studies SO ('onsorli~~m lor I r l t c r ~ ~ a l i oI)cvcloprnc~rl ~~;~l (C-11)) 2 4 4 unit i n ~;I~IIIIII;III;~~~II~~II~ 29f> \VOIII~II IIC.;I~S 01' 7 I IIIII~~II~ ~ o c i i tol r g i ~ r i i x i ~ t i o n305-3Oh I ~ ~ ~ s t > ; ~pr;~clices.'l';~rlxatlia r~drv 1(1 l ~ ) ~ t l r o g r ; ~ ~ 11ni1. ~ l ~ i cclc-liniliot~ ;~l 38') ll\IV\l< .2(>5.1 f > 6 i~rcortlcloss. WOIIICII flX I N I l , \ I ' ( , \ g r i c ~ ~ l l ~ ~I)c*vc~loptncr1I r;~l I t ~ s l i l ~ ~('l1ilc,! tc. 145. 1-17, 14s-1.19 In(lvx 01' / \ ( ~ c ~ e ~ ) l i I ~2i l Ii t y IIIC~I;I. r:11111'ecl ~ : I ~ I Y I ~ I I ~ 35X indigcxnouslknowlc~tlgc~ ( I l i l 1 14. I I i 84, I I 2 ~ t l l l l g e l l l l ~lcclllllc;ll ls l\llo~~lcllg (l'I,l ; ~ l i x : ~ t i t4~11-4 ~~ 1 3 t i ~ i t t ~ ; ~ g c nprocess ~ c t ~ l 4 8 49, 5 0 \ourccs l 5 5-1 50 illforln;~liontc.clir~ology 102. 4 I 4 i t ~ l r ; ~ s l r ~ ~ c tbottlcrrcchs ur;~l 3.24- 1 L i i t i ~ ~ o v ; ~ t i I:SI< o n . f;~ilurc, 1.18 l?Yl'), 182 public service t r ; ~ d ~ t i o 1l ~TO SIZI) dep;~rtn~crlt1 71-1 75 I ~ ~ s l i lI'ri~liqilis ut de Kechcrclic Scienliliqklc pour Ic I)cvcl~1ppc~rnc111 c.11 C'oopcr:~tio~~ s(,izOI<S'I'OM I I I S ~ Ifor ~U i \ g~r C ~ c u l t u r ; ~I. 197. IL)X evolution of I?SK LO5 larmirlg systcnis-based extension 142-14 3 indicators 2 0 3-206 Kenya 1 9 2 - 1 9 3 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 . 1 9 9

42 5

I.;~tinr\rnerica 270-271 l;1lw\tzi 19 3-1 94. 196. 197. 198. 1 9 9 N t l l l l s IC)h-198 new ;~pproachcs 62-6 3 opcralior~alindicalors 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 org;~nix;~tional iridicators 205-206 particip;~toryp l i ~ thrcctling ~l (1'1'13) 357 .;low 39 7-398 .;l;tltcholtlrrs 1')s. 11 3-2 14 susl;~in;~hility I 'IS I ')', \usl;lllllrlg 1I I 'I';I~I~;III~;I lcJ4, lc)f>,197. lc)S, 1 l ~ l - - 2 I l S 1r;ii11ing 2 1 I 2 $ 2 l I g ; i r ~ t l ; ~lc)4--Ic)5, lLJf3, leJL) rvc;~h Ill') Z;~niI>i;i 1 9 5 ~lcJf>,107. IL),S, lcJcJ,208-2 I 4 Z~r~~habw ILJh, e 1');. I')S. 1 OCJ i t i s t i t ~ l i i ~ i4s I I I I .I II h3 11~1l'li-rI f > collcc[)t If1 glol>;ll Icvcl 4 l 5 l>klt>llc 41 I i t ~ I e g r ; ~ l pcsi t ~ d III;III;I~~IIIC~II~ ( l l ' k f ) I I)or;tiionrvith 1);Irtticr inslit~11csL 3 5, L 30. 137 c \ p c ~ r i c ~ ~ I~cl*i ; ~ lr l ~ i lL~ 3C) g lit,ltl s111cIy~I;III lor I%r;lzil 2 j ( ~ licld study reporls 1-10 I'ulldilrg 2 4 1 g0;11\ 2 14 i ~ t i p ; ~ colt p r t r g r ; ~ n ~ ~ n1c39-140 ~ ill-servicc~training 2 3 i intcreliscipli11i11-y tc;~ms 1 4 0 opcr;~ttor~;~l vtr;~lc.gy 2 14-2 37 origins 2 34 r c s e t ~ r cpl ~l i i ~ ~ l ~ i r ~ gcycle do~~ 2b 3h-2 l ~ 37 l r r m s of rcl'crcrice 2 3 5.L 3h I r a i ~ ~ i programrnc ng 1 1 4 241 1nlrrnatiori;il C'or~sortiutill'or / \ g r i c ~ ~ l t u l -Syaletnh ;~l i \ p p l i c a t i o n lICSt\) 2 50 Inlern;~tion;rl I)cveloprncr~lKesearcli C'crrlcr of c. f ~ - - 1 0 7 soo I3r~ir1dlliir1ei I < c ~ ~( oI OX;.) r~ 'Our ('onitno11 I:LI~LII-~" oli1rr;lcIl progranlnies. (IS 1 $ 9 I 4 0

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1', d\l\l;in, Aga Is 3 5X - $(,l) benclit assessment 36 I- 361 hreetlcr-l'i~rmcrp a r l ~ ~ c , r s l ~3i p5h- 3 S 7 breedir~gexperiments 3 54 clienl input 35 5 - 3Sh c o ~ ~ \ ~ c n t i o;rpproach nal comp;irison 3 5 i3 57 costs 361-36.2 crop improveri~eritstratcay 3 5 5 decentralization 3 5 5. 156. 3f10-3 h l early ni;~turingvarieties 359 efficiency measurement 3(7L 360. 361 ~ \ ~ a l u a t i criteria or~

fiirnicr expertise 3 59-3h0 fiirrner ir~volvcrnents1;rgcs 3 59 fi~rmcr-driven 1 54 gcrniplasni 3 5X goals 361 institulion;rlix;~ti~~~~ 357 I;~bourdivision 3 5 7-3 6.2 organixatio~laloptions 3hO-16 l scrvicc' support sector 36 l \,:~ricl;~l trail selection 35')

~ii~~lli-iige~ i ~~l )cp! r, o i ~ ~ h ch' si role 0 4 Ieclrr~iques 6.2. 0 3-64 p ; ~ r l i c i p ; i I o r l~e~c t l ~ ~ i t ~0I:l: ~ ~ c ~I 0s ,1 1 r 1 1 c i i r y\,;iriclal sclrclion (I'VS) h 3 [?;iri~rc.r\ltip 4 0 0 4 0 7 c'lliic 391 pilslurc. n1ari;lgcnlcnl 11 3 I'cru. li\,cslocl< system ~nodcllirlg 344 $ 4 0 l~l~~li~~pit~cs hioresource IIo\v r ~ l o t l c l l l r ~ g$ 7 0 371 c'upcri~ncnl;~l i n l c r v c ~ l l i o r~~l e g o l i ; ~ t i o ~378 r i r ~ l e ~ ~ s il \' ;, ~ c r n ~ i i ~364--3135 g lil~l\;~gci perforr~~iir~ ali;~lysis cc 3 74- 375 s I ; ~ h e l ~ o l di ~~lr~ ; ~ l y s37h. i s :77 s l ~ i l ~ c l ~ o linl\;~gc l c i ~ r I I I ~ I3~ 7 1 , 37 3 ~ ~ ~ s l ; i i ~ ~ i i inc!ic;ilors I>ilit)~ 375- 376. ;79 \v;~tcrrcxso~~rccs rcI~iihilil;~tio~ i 305 l ~ l S ~ \ - l ' l < l l l ~projccls O S ~ ~ L(35 I 5, 1 6 l-1(>1 l ' l i ~ rI~' ~ i t ~ h l hlc*sic~o ;~, I'I;III Sicrr:i I'rojc*cl, l ) o n ~ i ~ i iI<e~~irhlic c i ~ ~ ~ 47-48 platining ol' I'SI< 70, 77. 80. X I p!:irll hrc~ctling 4 3 , 5 I , I I17 rc'lc;isc 01' ncSw.m ; i l c r i i ~ l 8 8 cycle 1X i plougl~il~ g [)ollcy XS CIO di;~log~re c v i l l ~loc;~lpc.oplc, 379 i n ~ p ; ~ c {')(I l viiible o p l i o l ~ s 1 58 policy arii~lysis 151-1 5') I';~rlir systcms u n d c r s l a n d i n I 58-1 iC) n~otlc~lling 1 11 policy f o r m ~ i l i ~ t i o 394 r~ t\I'~ricii 2 8 3-184 J ' t i r r ~ rr ~ ~ c ~ r ~ ; i g c r2t ~ 96 cr~I i n f o r n ~ ; l t i o ~Soli 1 57 niicro-lc\'cl 9 0 11l~111icil)iil level XL) process ')O r c g i o ~ l i i l I (> 5 syslcn~s-hasetl,h o t t o ~ r ~ - u1p7 0 political cc1r1lex.1 of I:SK 14 politic;tl culturc 4 10-41 1 poor performance 397-398 population dcrlsity 39 3 posilivist paratligm 3.20--317. 3 30 t l o l i s n ~ 328 reciuctioriism 1.26, 3.27-328 poverty 51 cycle breaking 304 1:SIT process 4 1 3 po\ver source 2 5. L h Tanzania 3 5

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