A Guide to Moist-Soil Wetland Plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley

A Guide to Moist-Soil Wetland Plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley

A Guide to Moist-Soil Wetland Plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley

Michael L. Schummer, Heath M. Hagy, K. Sarah Fleming, Josh C. Cheshier, and James T. Callicutt

university press of mississippi jackson

www.upress.state.ms.us Designed by Peter D. Halverson The University Press of Mississippi is a member of the Association of American University Presses. Photo credits: Michael L. Schummer, Heath M. Hagy, K. Sarah Fleming, Josh C. Cheshier, and James T. Callicutt This book has been approved for publication as Mississippi State University Forest and Wildlife Research Center publication WFA308. Proceeds from sales of this book support wetlands research conducted through the James C. Kennedy Endowed Chair in Waterfowl and Wetlands Conservation at Mississippi State University. Publication of this work was supported by: Gulf Coastal Plains & Ozarks Landscape Conservation Cooperative / Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks Mississippi State University College of Forest Resources and Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Natural Resources Conservation Service Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation Texas Parks and Wildlife Department College of Forest Resources

Forest and Wildlife Research Center

Copyright © 2012 by University Press of Mississippi All rights reserved Printed in China by Everbest through Four Colour Imports, Ltd., Louisville, Kentucky First printing 2012

∞ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A guide to moist-soil wetland plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley / Michael L. Schummer . . . [et al.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-61703-146-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-61703-147-2 (ebook) 1. Wetland plants—Mississippi River Valley—Identification. I. Schummer, Michael L. QK128.G85 2012 581.977—dc22 2011005635

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix A Brief History of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and Moist-Soil Wetlands . . . . . . 3 How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 aquatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . broadleaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sedges and rushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cultivated plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12 46 100 144 182 196 232

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Appendix 1: Moist-Soil Wetland Management Literature . . . 246 Appendix 2: List of Taxonomic Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

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Preface In the late 1930s, Frank Bellrose coined the term moist-soil to describe vegetation that grows along exposed mudflats within the Illinois River Valley. Other wildlife researchers such as Leigh Fredrickson, Mickey Heitmeyer, and Scott Taylor of the University of Missouri; Loren Smith of Texas Tech University; and Rick Kaminski of Mississippi State University pioneered moist-soil research. Their research expanded Bellrose’s observations into a staple of habitat management for waterfowl and other wildlife in North America. Moist-soil wetlands are defined as seasonally flooded areas that produce early-succession plant communities dominated by grasses, sedges, and other herbaceous plants. Without periodic disturbance from river flooding and scouring, moist-soil habitats often need to be managed to maintain annual vegetation that provides cover and abundant food resources for wildlife. Periodic soil disturbance and water management (e.g., an annual drawdown of water to create mudflats in spring and summer) is critical for producing early-succession plant communities. The drawdown date, rate, and duration influence vegetation composition, diversity, propagule (e.g., seed and tuber) production, and subsequent wildlife responses. Management of moist-soil plants for wildlife, especially waterfowl and other waterbirds, has become a major component of conservation efforts in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and elsewhere in North America. The plant community in moist-soil wetlands influences the quality of habitat for waterfowl and other wetland wildlife. Thus, state, federal, and private landowners must be able to identify moist-soil plants and propagules to meet their conservation goals. As wildlife researchers, we recognized the need for a simple field guide to the common moist-soil wetland plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. vii

VIII

Preface

Three main considerations guided our efforts while compiling this text. First, we wanted this field guide to common moist-soil plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley to be useful to wildlife professionals, land managers, and wildlife students. We divided the book into easily recognizable plant life forms, including aquatics, broadleaves, grasses, sedges and rushes, and vines. We also included a section on trees and shrubs because they are sometimes planted by land managers or occur naturally in moist-soil wetlands and on Wetlands Reserve Program lands. Because land managers often plant crops, such as corn, within moist-soil wetlands as supplemental food for wildlife, we also included a section on common cultivated plants that may be found in moist-soil habitats of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Second, we sought to produce a field guide that did not depend on detailed botanical terminology but featured pictures and habitat descriptions useful to a broad audience. Third, we wanted to provide easily discernable morphological characteristics within the species descriptions to aid in the identification of plants by a wide range of users. The main focus of the management of moist-soil wetlands has been the production of foraging habitat for waterfowl. However, conservation goals of stakeholders can differ. Therefore, we felt uncomfortable making judgments on “desirable” and “undesirable” plants, as well as prescribing specific management recommendations. Instead, in Appendix 1 we include a list of suggested readings that describe specific conservation practices and management of moist-soil wetlands for a variety of wildlife species. We hope this field guide to the common moist-soil wetland plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley will become a tool enabling wildlife managers to better meet their conservation goals. Although we consulted with moist-soil experts and plant taxonomists, this book should not be used to direct management activities or serve as an absolute guide for plant identification. We list other texts and taxonomic keys in the References and Appendix 1 that should help guide management decisions.

Acknowledgments Many people contributed to the completion of this book by allowing land access and offering technical advice, including Philip Barbour, Charles Bryson, Mike Chouinard, John Englert, Gary Ervin, Wayne Gordon, Ralph Griffin, Ed Hackett, Jerry Hazelwood, Henry Heafner, Pete Heard, George Hopper, Jeanne Jones, Rick Kaminski, James Kennedy, Bruce Leopold, Lake Lewis, David Linden, Landon Loveall, Victor Maddox, Nancy McGee, Joseph McGowan, Rance Moring, Kevin Nelms, David Richardson, Rebecca Rosamond, Bo Sloan, Jacob Tuttle, Brett Werhle, Carl Wirwa, and several Wetlands Reserve Program landowners in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Victor Maddox provided expertise on plant identification. We thank Jeanne Jones for sharing her passion of the flora of the southeastern United States. We are extremely grateful for early reviews of the book provided by Mac H. Alford, Charles Bryson, and Norman Melvin. We also wish to extend our deepest gratitude to Rick Kaminski for all his support and guidance during our tenures at Mississippi State University. Such an ambitious project would not have been possible without his support. Bruce Leopold provided substantial support and stalwart guidance throughout the development of this book. Some plant photos in this book were collected at Wetland Reserve Program sites that were being used to develop technology for the Natural Resources Conservation Service Agricultural Wildlife Conservation Center. The project, entitled: “Evaluating actively and passively managed moist-soil wetlands enrolled in the Wetland Reserve Program in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley,” was Cooperative Ecosystem Study Unit Agreement Number 68-7482-9-500.

ix

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A Guide to Moist-Soil Wetland Plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley

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A Brief History of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and Moist-Soil Wetlands The Mississippi River is the fifth largest river in the world, with its river basin encompassing 30 states in the United States and the province of Saskatchewan in Canada. In the northeast, the river drainage begins at the foothills of the Alleghany Mountains of western New York and Pennsylvania. Far to the west, glaciers of the Rocky Mountains of Montana melt into streams that slowly become the Missouri River, a major tributary of the Mississippi. Water from over 1.2 million square miles eventually drains through the 120-mile-wide flat land of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. The Mississippi Alluvial Valley starts just south of Cape Girardeau, Missouri, where the steep bluffs that follow the river for hundreds of miles along its western edge quickly disappear into the flat lands of the alluvial valley. From southeastern Missouri to the Gulf of Mexico the ancient Mississippi River flooded regularly, spreading nutrient-rich sand, silt, and clay across the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. These periodic floods created and regularly rejuvenated a lush landscape of bottomland hardwoods, oxbows, and intermittent forest openings. Early records are scarce, but regular scouring of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley by rivers, periodic shifts in river channels, and floods that left permanent water for extended periods likely created openings in the bottomland hardwood forest, allowing the growth of shade-intolerant native shrubs, grasses, sedges, and aquatic plants. These forest openings provided a unique habitat in an otherwise vast expanse of towering hardwoods, tupelo breaks, and massive bald cypress trees. Beginning in the mid-nineteenth century, construction of levees along the Mississippi River and its major tributaries allowed for the expansion of agriculture throughout the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. The clearing of forests, 3

4

A Brief History

draining of swamps, and building of levees were standard practices for the economic development of agricultural areas. The Army Corps of Engineers adopted a “levees-only” policy to reduce flooding, stabilize the Mississippi River channel, and increase downstream velocity. It was thought that earthen levees could deepen the river channel and allow self-dredging and maintenance, thereby providing perpetual flood control. Rich bottomland soils were farmed without fear of loss of crops to floods, and plantation life flourished. On March 12, 1927, however, a crevasse that would eventually produce a 100-foot-deep scour hole adjacent to the levee opened at Mounds Landing, Mississippi. The crevasse poured waters throughout the Mississippi side of the alluvial valley, eventually submerging houses 75 miles away from the river. Levees broke at 145 locations. The flood covered 27,000 square miles, nearly the entire Mississippi Alluvial Valley, including large portions of the Arkansas, Red, and White River Basins. The Mississippi River reached a maximum width of 60 miles, and an estimated 700,000 people were displaced from their homes. Waters did not recede until August 1927, and damage estimates topped $400 million. The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 resulted in a new engineering approach to the Mississippi River, and for the first time the federal government assumed control of regional flood control efforts. The Flood Control Act of 1928 authorized the Army Corps of Engineers to implement a full-scale evaluation of flood control programs throughout the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Ultimately, this legislation resulted in the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project and the end of the “levees-only” era. River engineering now included the creation of upstream reservoirs, floodways, outlet channels, channel stabilization, and other basin-wide engineering that facilitated river transportation, greatly reduced the potential effects of flooding, and secured the economic development of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Reservoirs were built throughout the Mississippi River Basin to help regulate the seasonal flow of the river. Levees were built larger and stronger, and floodways and outlet channels were developed using the latest engineering methodology. The ancient Mississippi River was gone. To date, 3700 miles of levees have been built in the Mississippi Basin, breaking the critical link between the river’s nutrient-filled floods and the surrounding hardwood forests. The Mississippi Alluvial Valley is one of the most productive agricultural areas of the world, and aggressive engineering of the Mississippi River is the single largest factor facilitating the current agronomic infrastructure. Flood control changed the hydrology of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, allowing

A Brief History

5

for timber harvesting, land clearing, and development of agriculture on land previously too wet for farming. The current infrastructure also resulted in the loss of 2.8 million acres of dynamic floodplain that provided habitat for a multitude of plants and animals. Today, few contiguous stands of bottomland hardwoods exist in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, resulting in conservation concerns for fish and wildlife dependent on forested wetlands and large tracts of bottomlands to meet their resource requirements. A few examples include the Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus), forest interior songbirds, waterfowl, and other waterbirds. Not only do these animals exploit closed canopy forested wetlands, but many also use forest openings for food, cover, and nesting. The Louisiana black bear has a diverse diet composed of both hard mast from towering oak trees, as well as soft mast, such as blackberries and dewberries that grow in forest openings. Grasses and vines also grow in forest openings and moist-soil wetlands, providing nesting cover for forest interior passerines during summer and forage for waterfowl during winter. Specifically, Swainson’s warbler (Limnothlypis swainsonii), which traditionally used canebrakes as nesting cover, readily exploits small disturbance gaps in the forest canopy where thick tangles of saplings, vines, shrubs, and grasses provide ample cover for nesting. Waterfowl such as the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), gadwall (Anas strepera), green-winged teal (Anas crecca), and wood duck (Aix sponsa) forage on moist-soil plant seeds during winter in forest openings. The available energy (per gram) to waterfowl from seeds and tubers of moist-soil plants is often as great or greater than that from agricultural seeds such as corn and grain sorghum (milo). Thus, large complexes of bottomland hardwoods including small canopy openings and moist-soil wetland areas are important in habitat restoration efforts. Although many animal populations were negatively affected by the conversion of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley from bottomland forest to agricultural land, waterfowl and other granivorous wildlife were well adapted to consume waste seeds and grain left in fields following crop harvest. However, the advent of industrialized farming practices in the 1960s and continued technological advances have greatly reduced the availability of waste agricultural seeds for wildlife. New technologies and seed varieties have resulted in earlier harvest and an increased length of time for decomposition of waste grain prior to the autumn migration of granivorous birds. Moist-soil wetland management has been used in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley to increase forage for waterfowl and other wildlife resulting from the loss of hardwood mast and waste agri-

6

A Brief History

cultural seeds. While the main focus of moist-soil management is the production of food and habitat for waterfowl, a diversity of animals rely on seasonally flooded moist-soil habitats within the Mississippi Alluvial Valley to complete their life cycle. Thus, managers of federal, state, and private lands now often use moist-soil management as a conservation tool for a variety of wildlife species. The Wetland Reserve Program (WRP) was authorized under the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (i.e., the Farm Bill) and was being implemented throughout the United States by 1996. The WRP is a voluntary program administered through the Natural Resources Conservation Service in which landowners receive technical and financial assistance to protect, enhance, and restore previously or currently farmed wetlands. Moistsoil wetland habitat created under the WRP provides habitat for wildlife and fish, improves water quality, reduces flooding, and enhances groundwater recharge. By 2009, there were more than 11,000 WRP projects on more than 2 million acres in the United States. The majority of WRP lands are in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, where nearly 600,000 acres of previously farmed wetlands have been restored in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. In addition, many federal National Wildlife Refuges, state Wildlife Management Areas, and private landowners maintain moist-soil wetlands as part of their habitat goals. In 1986, the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP), arguably the most extensive endeavor for the protection of key wetland habitats, set forth the goals of protecting 5.9 million acres of vital wetlands and maintaining a continental population of 62 million breeding waterfowl. Biologists identified specific areas of importance to breeding, migrating, and wintering waterfowl. Each area became known as a “joint venture.” The Upper and Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ventures administer, plan, raise funds for, and coordinate conservation efforts for staging and wintering waterfowl in the Mississippi River Basin. Specifically, the wetland goals of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture are based on meeting the energetic demands for foraging waterfowl during an approximately 100-day wintering period. WRP lands and moist-soil wetlands, which are often managed for high-energy and nutritionally complete grass seeds, are tools used to meet NAWMP conservation goals within the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Following NAWMP, groups such as Partners in Flight (formed in 1990) and the North American Bird Conservation Initiative (NABCI; 1999), which are composed of government and nongovernment organizations from the Unit-

A Brief History

7

ed States, Canada, and Mexico, were formed to address conservation issues confronting all species of birds in North America. The NABCI is composed of several subcommittees, including the Population Monitoring and Private Lands Subcommittees. The Private Lands Subcommittee works through the Natural Resources Conservation Service to target delivery of Farm Bill programs, such as the WRP, and moist-soil habitat management toward the conservation of wetland-dependent bird species. Specifically, NABCI has set a goal of conserving more than 3.7 million acres of forested wetlands, including small natural canopy openings that undoubtedly will include moist-soil plants used by wildlife for cover and forage. Through the efforts of the NAWMP, Partners in Flight, NABCI, and conservation-minded landowners, wetlands and bottomland hardwood forests continue to be protected and restored in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. However, the demands of an ever increasing human population will certainly continue to place pressure on wetland habitats throughout the alluvial valley. Only through public education and continued commitment from welltrained professionals will quality wetlands for wildlife be maintained. It is the hope of the authors that wetlands and wetland-dependent wildlife continue to be valued in future landscape planning efforts and that this guide to moistsoil wetland plants of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley will be an integral part of these efforts.

Mississippi Alluvial Valley 1950s

Mississippi Alluvial Valley 2001

How to Use This Book Within each chapter, plants are arranged alphabetically by family and then genus and species within each family. The first common name listed is the most commonly used in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and then alternative common names are shown. In the case of multiple species within a single entry, only commonly used names are provided. In some cases, a single or few common name(s) are used to describe more than one species (e.g., morningglories); in such cases we do not include all common names but only those regularly used in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. The next heading includes native and invasive status, USDA PLANTS symbol, and wetland indicator status. Native and invasive status includes the following four categories: (1) native: native to the Mississippi Alluvial Valley; (2) exotic: not native to the Mississippi Alluvial Valley; (3) naturalized: established in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley, but not native; and (4) invasive: noxious, outcompetes other vegetation and can create monotypic stands. The USDA PLANTS symbols (such as ECCO3 for Echinodorus cordifolius) can be typed into the search function at http://plants.usda.gov/ to obtain more detailed information and web links for each plant. Wetland indicator status denotes the frequency of occurrence within wetlands: OBL (obligate wetland): occurs almost always under natural conditions in wetlands (estimated probability greater than 99); FACW (facultative wetland): usually occurs in wetlands (estimated probability 67–99), but occasionally found in areas that are not wetlands; FAC (facultative): equally likely to occur in wetlands (estimated probability 34–66) or areas that are not wetlands; FACU (facultative upland): usually occurs in areas that are not wetlands, but occasionally found in wetlands (estimated probability 1–33); and UPL (upland): less than 1 occurrence in wetlands. The wetland indicator status codes used in this book are for Mississippi, Arkansas, and Louisiana (Region 2; Reed 1988). 10

How to Use This Book

11

habits and habitat: Describes general growth characteristics (annual or perennial) and form (e.g., clumping, from rhizomes), locations of plants within moist-soil habitats, ecology (e.g., monotypic stands), and other distinguishing characteristics.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedlings: If available, descriptions of seedlings were included to help distinguish plants early in development. In some cases, we were unable to find references describing seedlings and did not include a description. Proper identification of plants early in development is helpful for many management actions and can help control invasive species prior to establishment. buds: Included in chapter on trees and shrubs in place of seedling descriptions. stems and leaves: Descriptions of shape, length, width, color, and other features of stems (e.g., hairy) and leaves (e.g., opposite or alternate orientation). flowers or seed clusters: Descriptions of shape, length, width, and color of flowers or seed clusters. Flower timing (e.g., May to September). Because flowers are small on grasses, seed clusters (often referred to as “seed heads”) are described instead. fruit and seed: Descriptions of shape, length, width, color, and features of fruits (e.g., nuts, samaras, berries, achenes) and seeds. Fruiting or seed maturity timing (e.g., June to October). All seed pictures include a scale in which each tick is equal to ₁⁄₁₆ in. similar plants: We provide common and scientific names of similar plants, along with a page number where the plant can be found in this book or the USDA PLANTS symbol, which can be entered into the search function at http://plants.usda.gov. This section also often includes key features needed to differentiate between similar plants.

Creeping Burhead Echinodorus cordifolius

AQUATI CS

Native; rarely invasive; ECCO3; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, emergent to submersed, moist uplands. Tends to form dense mats on undisturbed, open mudflats in summer from aboveground runners.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Usually submersed, leaves are ribbon-like with wavy margins. stems and leaves: Stems are spongy and range in length up to 2 ft. Leaves are ovate to heart-shaped, 2 to 5 in. long, with the veins running from the base to the tip. flowers: Flowering stems are typically taller than the leaves, with 3 to 10 flowers per node. Flowers are white and boat-shaped, with three petals, ¼ to ½ in. long. June to November. fruit and seed: Fruit clusters are ball-shaped and spiked, ranging from ₁⁄₁₀ to ½ in. wide. Each fruit contains one seed. Seeds are oblong, small (less than ₁⁄₁₆ in.), shiny, light brown to reddish brown, and highly ribbed, with the upper portion of the seed coming to a point. June to November. similar plants: Arrowhead (Sagittaria spp.; p. 14); water plantain (Alisma subcordatum; ALSU), which is uncommon.

Sagittaria spp. (left) and Echinodorus cordifolius (right)

Alsimataceae

Monotypic growth on seasonally flooded mudflat

Flowers

Flower and veined leaves

13

Arrowhead Sagittaria spp.

AQUATI CS

Native; SAGIT; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent to submersed, upright annual. Usually occurs where soils have been flooded with several inches of water throughout summer or on shallow flats of permanent basins.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Lacking obvious stem. Leaves are variable in size and shape, oblong or oval shaped. If flooded, leaves will float on the water surface. stems and leaves: Stems up to 24 in. long, spongy, and upright. Leaves are lanceolate or arrow-shaped, 2 to 8 in. long, up to 8 in. wide, light to dark green. flowers: Flowers are white, three petals with green or yellow center. June to September. fruit and seed: Seed contained in small (₁⁄₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in.), wedge-shaped, and tan fruit. June to September. similar plants: Sometimes confused with creeping burhead (Echinodorus cordifolius; p. 12), because both plants are referred to as duck potato.

Echinodorus cordifolius (left) and Sagittaria spp. (right)

Alsimataceae

Typical midsummer growth

Flower

Leaf variation

Sword-shaped leaf type

tubers

15

Alligatorweed Alternanthera philoxeroides

AQUATI CS

Exotic; invasive; ALPH; OBL

habits and habitat: Aquatic and terrestrial perennial growing in shallow, slow-moving water and summer-inundated moist-soil wetlands.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Rare because viable seeds are rare, reproduction primarily through vegetative propagation. stems and leaves: Stems are hollow and can exceed 3 ft. in length. Leaves are oppositely arranged around the stem, 1½ to 4 in. long, ½ to 1 in. wide, and sword-like to oval in shape. flowers: White, hairless, spike-shaped flowers are ½ to ¾ in. in diameter and attached to stalks ranging from 1½ to 3½ in. long. May to October. fruit and seed: Rare; spreads by vegetative growth and fragmentation. similar plants: Water primrose (Ludwigia spp.; p. 34), swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides; p. 84), hydrolea (Hydrolea quadrivalvis; p. 24), and Hygrophila spp. (HYGRO).

Alsimataceae

Typical invasive growth

Flower

Opposite leaf arrangement

17

Pennywort, manyflower marshpennywort Hydrocotyle umbellata

AQUATI CS

Native; HYUM; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent to terrestrial perennial growing on mudflats, shorelines, and in shallow water.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are rhizomes, 2 to 12 in. long, thick, and sometimes have a red tint. Leaves are hairless, alternately arranged, round to kidney-shaped with scalloped margins, bright green, ½ to 3 in. wide. flowers: Umbrella-shaped, 5 to 10 flowers per stalk, very small (less than ₁⁄₃₂ to ₁⁄₁₆ in. long). Petals range from yellowish green to purple. March to August. fruit and seed: Rare, consists of paired nutlets, flattened laterally, about ₁⁄₁₆ in. long. March to August. similar plants: Floating marshpennywort (Hydrocotyle ranunculoides; HYRA) and whorled marshpennywort (H. verticullata; HYVE2) also occur throughout much of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Apiaceae

Typical growth on shoreline and shallow water (left to right)

Leaf and stem

Leaf

19

Coon’s tail Ceratophyllum demersum

AQUATI CS

Native; CEDE4; OBL

habits and habitat: Submersed free-floating perennial occurring in semipermanent water basins, low-lying areas, or in moist-soil areas where standing water persists during spring and summer.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: The easily broken, freely branching stem can exceed 10 ft. long. Leaves are stiff, ½ to 1½ in. long, split into two to four horizontal segments with small teeth along the margin and whorled around the stem at each node, with 4 to 12 leaves per whorl. flowers: Flowers are white, ₁⁄₃₂ in. long, and located where the leaf and stem meet. May to September. fruit and seed: Produces a small, egg-shaped fruit that is ₁⁄₁₀ to ¼ in. long, with three spines (two opposite one another and one long spine at the fruit tip). Seed is not released by the fruit. May to September. similar plants: Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum; MYSP2), parrot feather watermilfoil (Myriophyllum aquaticum; p. 22), and hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata; HYVE3).

Ceratophyllaceae

Submerged stems and leaves

Whorled leaves

Typical stem and leaves

21

Parrot feather watermilfoil Myriophyllum aquaticum

AQUATI CS

Exotic; invasive; MYAQ2; OBL

habits and habitat: Invasive emergent and submersed perennial occurring in aquatic and summer-inundated moist-soil wetlands.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems grow up to 3½ ft. long and ¼ in. wide. The emergent portion of the plant is bright green with feather-like leaves that are whorled around the stem, with more than 20 linear divisions on the leaves. The emergent leaves are thicker and more robust than the submersed leaves. The submersed portion is light green to auburn, with leaves whorled around the stem, five or six leaves per node, ½ to 1 in. long, and thinner and more fragile than the emergent leaves. flowers: Flowers are white, very tiny; develop where the leaf connects to the stem. fruit and seed: Seeds are not produced in any North American plants. Spreads exclusively vegetatively. similar plants: Coon’s tail (Ceratophyllum demersum; p. 20), Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum; MYSP2), and hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata; HYVE3).

Haloragaceae

Typical growth

Submerged stems and surface leaves

Emergent stem

23

Hydrolea, waterpod Hydrolea quadrivalvis

AQUATI CS

Native; invasive; HYQU; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, mat-forming, grows in ditches and along water surface in shallow, permanent water during summer.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are hairy. Leaves elliptical to sword-shaped, normally 2 to 5 in. long, ½ to 1 in. wide, alternately arranged around the stem. Distinctive, thorn-like projections are typically present at or around each node. flowers: Five petals, blue to purple. June to September. fruit and seed: Tiny (less than ₁⁄₃₂ in.), numerous, tan, cylindrical seed released from a blue or brown capsule. June to September. similar plants: Growth similar to water primrose (Ludwigia spp.; p. 34), but flower structure and color differ; swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides; p. 84) and alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides; p. 16).

Hydrophyllaceae

Typical growth

Flower

Thorns present on stem

25

Common duckweed, common duckmeat, watermeal Lemna minor, Spirodela polyrrhiza, Wolffia spp.

AQUATI CS

Native; invasive; LEMI3, SPPO, WOLFF; OBL

habits and habitat: Small floating perennials, common in semi-permanently flooded basins and in moist-soil wetlands that are flooded by river oxbows during summer.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Lemna minor has no true leaves; fronds (leaf-like body) ₁⁄₃₂ to ¼ in. long, flat, smooth, oval- shaped, light green, with one root per frond (1 in. long). The underside of the frond is purplish red. Spirodela polyrrhiza has light green fronds, up to ½ in. long, with 2 to 16 roots per frond. In Wolffia spp., fronds are very small (up to ∕₁₆ in. long), light green, and lack veins and roots. flowers: Rare and very tiny, located on the underside of the frond in a pocket (thallus). fruit and seed: Seeds are white or off white, oval shaped, ₁⁄₃₂ in. long and wide, with ribs running down the length of the seed. Seeds rare in Wolffia spp. similar plants: Several duckweeds appear similar; see descriptions and photos for differentiation.

Lemnaceae

Typical invasive growth

Common duckweed (Lemna minor)

watermeal (Wolffia sp.)

common duckmeat (Spirodela polyrhiza)

Common duckweed (Lemna minor), common duckmeat (Spirodela polyrhiza), and watermeal (Wolffia sp.) growing together

27

American lotus Nelumbo lutea

AQUATI CS

Native; invasive; NELU; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, emergent plant that occurs in summerinundated moist-soil and slow-moving aquatic systems (ditches, lakes, rivers, and streams).

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Tubular stem with leaf wrapped around the stem. stems and leaves: Stem 12 to 28 in. long, round. Green to bluish green leaves up to 2 ft. across emerge from center of stem. flowers: Flowers are 6 in. wide, white to yellow, with numerous large petals. July to September. fruit and seed: Hard, brown to black, round, approximately ½ in. in diameter, appears similar to an acorn without cap. Seed persistent in soil. July to September. similar plants: American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata; p. 32) similar leaf shape but much smaller (2 to 6 in. in diameter). However, there is a V-shaped opening where the stem attaches to the leaf, and the leaf floats on the water surface rather than being elevated. In addition, the underside of waterlily leaves are purple to red, whereas American lotus (Nelumbo lutea) leaves are green on both sides.

Nelumbonaceae

Typical leaf and flower

Typical growth in late summer

Flower

Young and mature seed clusters

29

Yellow pond-lily, spatterdock, yellow cow lily Nuphar lutea

AQUATI CS

Native; NULU; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent aquatic perennial growing in semi-permanent wetland basins or those commonly inundated throughout summer. Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems 4 to 23 in. tall. Submersed leaves present, very thin, emerging from rhizome. Floating leaves are large, heart-shaped with wavy margins, and split where the leaf attaches to the stems; present May to October. flowers: Flowers are located on separate stems, cupped, and yellow to light yellowish green. April to October. fruit and seed: Numerous, yellow to brown, oval, about ₁⁄₁₀ in. wide. April to October. similar plants: American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata; p. 32).

Nymphaeaceae

Typical growth

Heart-shaped leaves

Flower and young fruit

31

American white waterlily Nymphaea odorata

AQUATI CS

Native; invasive; NYOD; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent, floating perennial that grows in semipermanent wetlands.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New plants often emerge from creeping stolons (horizontal aboveground shoot) and suppress the growth of seedlings. stems and leaves: Leaves and flowers attach to flexible, spongy stalks that arise from creeping stolons and rhizomes. Leaves are light to dark green, 4 to 8 in. in diameter, with a V-shaped notch that extends from the outer edge all the way to the stalk where the leaf is attached. flowers: Occurs from spring to autumn. Large, fragrant flowers, 2 to 5 in. in diameter, with 20 to 30 petals, ranging in color from white to pink and purple. June to September. fruit and seed: A many-seeded fruit, although seeds are rare. June to September. similar plants: Yellow pond-lily (Nuphar lutea; p. 30).

Nymphaeaceae

Typical growth

Leaf and flower

33

Floating or aquatic water primrose Ludwigia spp. (L. palustris, L. peploides, and L. repens common)

AQUATI CS

Native; some species invasive; LUDWI, LUPA, LUPE5, LURE2; OBL

habits and habitat: Low-growing, mat-forming perennial. Common in moist soil to shallow water. Ludwigia peploides usually grows horizontally along water surfaces, mudflats, and shorelines.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are spongy, simple. Roots from nodes. The stems are red and form dense mats. Floating leaves are creeping, oval to oblong, and alternately or oppositely arranged along stem. Upright leaves are oblong to ovate, ½ to 1½ in. long. flowers: Flowers typically have four or five yellow petals, ½ to 1 in. long. May to October. fruit and seed: Contained in narrow, cylindrical capsules from ¾ to 1½ in. long and ₁⁄₁₀ in. in diameter. May to October. similar plants: Alligatorweed (Alternanthera philoxeroides; p. 16) and hydrolea (Hydrolea quadrivalvis; p. 24).

Nymphaeaceae

Typical midsummer growth

Emergent floating runner

Flower

capsules

seeds

35

Mudplantain, duck salad Heteranthera limosa, H. reniformis

AQUATI CS

Native; HELI2, HERE; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent annual, sometimes forms dense emergent mats. Often occurs in shallow wetlands with infrequent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Leaves are hairless and oval, long stalks alternate, all emerging from the base of the plant. stems and leaves: Mature plants range from 6 to 12 in. tall. Leaves are very waxy, oval shaped, and light green, up to 1½ in. long; occurs as emergent, floating, or submerged in or around water. flowers: Flowers have six petals that are sparsely distributed, narrow, oval shaped, and white. April to October. fruit and seed: Fruit an oval, many-seeded capsule. Seeds very small, oval shaped, ribbed along the length of the seed, light to dark brown. June to October. similar plants: Disk waterhyssop (Bacopa rotundifolia; p. 42)

Pontederiacea

Typical growth

Individual plant

Flower

37

Longleaf pondweed Potamogeton nodosus

AQUATI CS

Native; PONO2; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, submersed and emergent occurring in permanent basins or in moist-soil wetlands flooded in spring and summer. Requires standing water and infrequent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Leaves opposite. Floating leaves and those near the water surface are broad to elliptical with a distinct midrib. Submerged leaves are small and sword-shaped. flowers: Many reddish brown flowers emerge on spikes. The spikes are noticeable but flowers are much reduced. May to September. fruit and seed: Achenes olive to slightly reddish, generally rounded, with single toothed crest. However, this plant often proliferates vegetatively using tubers and rhizomes. May to September. similar plants: Yellow pond-lily (Nuphar lutea; p. 30) and American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata; p. 32). Potamogeton nodosus most common in Mississippi Alluvial Valley, many other Potamogeton spp. are similar and may be locally common.

Potamogetonaceae

Midsummer growth in shallow wetland

Surface leaves

Opposite leaves and stem

39

Giant salvinia Salvinia molesta

AQUATI CS

Exotic; invasive; SAMO5; OBL

habits and habitat: Free-floating annual or perennial aquatic fern, occasionally located in summer-inundated moist-soil wetlands and common in slow-moving water and river oxbows.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems grow horizontally under the water surface. Leaves are light green to light brown or golden. Leaves are whorled, two floating and one submerged; the two floating leaves are densely covered in eggbeater-shaped hairs (trichomes). Leaves are oval shaped, often folded when emerging. Mature leaves flat to slightly cupped, ¼ to ⅝ in. wide, ½ to 1 in. long. flowers: None, reproduces and spreads by spores. spores: Microscopic spores; seeds are not produced by this plant. similar plants: Common salvinia (Salvinia minima; SAMI7), also exotic, is similar in appearance but it has smaller leaves (usually less than ½ in. long) and the hairs on the upper surface of the floating leaves are not closed like the eggbeater-shaped hairs are on S. molesta.

Salviniaceae

Typical invasive growth

Typical growth

Eggbeater-shaped hairs

41

Disk waterhyssop Bacopa rotundifolia

AQUATI CS

Native; BARO; OBL

habits and habitat: Succulent, creeping or floating herb. May be submerged in shallow water, floating at wetland edges, or growing on mudflats.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Hairy stems. Leaves opposite and round, often with noticeable ribs. Floating leaves and those near the water surface are broad with a distinct midrib. Submerged leaves are small and sword-shaped. flowers: Singular whitish blue flowers. May to September. fruit and seed: Contained in elliptical capsule that is less than ¼ in. long. Seeds tan. May to September. similar plants: Mudplantain (Heteranthera limosa; p. 36).

Scrophulariaceae

Growth in shallow wetland (June)

Flower, opposite leaves, and hairy stem

Flowers (June)

43

Broadleaf cattail Typha latifolia

AQUATI CS

Native; often invasive; TYLA; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, emergent, common in moist-soil wetlands that are flooded during summer or year-round. Also occurs along edges of permanent and semi-permanent wetlands or wet, low-lying areas with infrequent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Long, thread-like, flattened stem. stems and leaves: Unbranched, upright stems, no hairs. Leaves alternate around the stem, near the base. Leaves are light green and spongy, ½ to 1 in. wide, reaching 7 ft. long. flowers: Minute flowers are clustered into sausage-shaped structures, light to dark brown. May to August. fruit and seed: Small dark brown seed with long white hairs, appearing cotton-like. Released in late summer and autumn. similar plants: Narrowleaf cattail (Typha angustifolia; TYAN) and southern cattail (T. domingensis; TYDO) are found occasionally in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Typhaceae

Typical early-summer growth

Flower clusters and seeding cluster (inset)

Young plant

45

Pigweed Amaranthus spp. (Amaranthus hybridus, A. spinosus, A. tuberculatus, A. viridus)

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; some species invasive; AMARA, AMHY, AMSP, AMTU, AMVI; varies from FAC to FACU

habits and habitat: Robust annuals occurring from uplands into drier wetland margins. Common in moist-soil wetlands during drought years or after summer disking. Prolific seed producers in summer and autumn. Mature plants can reach heights exceeding 8 ft. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Stem is round and green to purple, often without hairs. New leaves are narrow, green to reddish purple on the upper surface. First true leaves are alternate and oval, with small notches at the tip. stems and leaves: Stem is robust (sometimes reaching several inches in diameter), branching, often near base. Stems usually have hairs and appear reddish green. Leaves are alternate, oval, long blades that are wider in the middle compared to the base and tip, with wavy margins and hairs along the veins. flowers: Flowers appear in clusters along leafy spikes; each flower contains three to eight floral bracts. Flower clusters up to ¾ in. wide and 2 to 8 in. long. Smaller flowers may occur between the petiole (leaf stem) and stem. June to first autumn frost. fruit and seed: Fruit is small, yellow to brown, and splits down the middle to reveal a brown or black, shiny, flat, oval seed (∕₁₆ in. long). similar plants: Many of the Amaranthus spp. appear similar. Those listed here are the most common in moist-soil habitats in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Amaranthaceae

Plant with flowers

Typical leaves

Plant with flower clusters

Mature seed clusters

47

Beggarsticks, bidens, bearded beggarticks Bidens aristosa

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; rarely invasive; BIAR; FACW

habits and habitat: Annual or short-lived perennial, occurring in floodplains, swamps, and lakes and ponds when dry or along margins. Common in early summer following rapid drawdown of water and soil disturbance. Sometimes invasive in early succession habitat but generally restricted to wetland margins.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: First true leaves are oblong and oppositely arranged along the stem. stems and leaves: Stem is upright or trailing with the ends erect, slender, and square. Leaves are opposite, mostly with two or three fern-like leaflets (1 to 4 in. long); dark green veins are evident on the lower surface. flowers: Flowers are 1 to 2 in. long, flat-topped, and yellow, located at the tip of nearly leafless stem. Disk center of the flower is also yellow. Flower is surrounded by green outer bracts. August to October. fruit and seed: Thin, angled nutlets (½ to 1 in. long and less than ∕₁₆ in. wide), smooth and sparsely haired, start green and become brown with maturity, with barbed spikes at the tip that attach to clothing or fur (hence the common name beggarticks). similar plants: Several similar Bidens spp. (BIDEN) inhabit moist-soil areas.

Asteraceae

Typical growth with flowers (September) and serrate leaves (inset)

Young plants (August)

Flower

49

Fleabane Erigeron annuus, E. philadelphicus, E. strigosus, E. vernus

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; ERAN, ERPH, ERST3, ERVE; varies from OBL to FACU

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial herbs reaching 1 to 2 ft. tall. Commonly occur in uplands, forest edges, ditches, clearings, right-ofways, marshes, and floodplains. Many Erigeron spp. are common in uplands.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Low-growing leaves egg- to spoon-shaped and usually toothed. stems and leaves: Branched stems with or without hairs. Leaves alternate, simple, narrow, and long; often slightly toothed. flowers: Numerous flowers are yellow to yellowish in the center, surrounded by ray-shaped whorled petals that are white, blue, pink, or purple. Number of flower varies by species. June to August. fruit and seed: Seed is a narrow nutlet often topped with bristly hairs. August to February. similar plants: Similar in appearance and habits with many species of aster (Symphyotrichum spp.; SYMPH4).

Asteraceae

Typical growth (Erigeron philadelphicus)

Flowers (Erigeron philadelphicus)

Leaf

51

Boneset, lateflowering thoroughwort Eupatorium serotinum

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; EUSE2; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial herb that often grows in clumps. Occurs in dry to wet sites and open areas. Present often as a single plant or in small colonies. Spreads by wind-dispersed seeds.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves attached to a hairless stem. The first true leaves are opposite and are narrowly separated like the mature leaves. stems and leaves: Stem can be single or several, stiff erect to drooping with a stout base, 4 to 8 ft. tall, usually has small fine hairs. Leaves can be opposite close to the base, but upper leaves are always alternate, growing directly from the stem. The leaf blade is variable in shape and size (¾ to 4 in. long), ranging from simple lobed to multiply divided, and the margins are usually toothed. flowers: Clustered disk flowers with three to six per head are located at the top of each branch. Individual flowers are small (less than ∕₁₆ in. long) and often white to purple. August to November. fruit and seed: Seed is a single hard nutlet, dark brown to black, and topped with white hairs. November to March. similar plants: Pluchea (Pluchea camphorata; p. 56).

Asteraceae

Flowers

Typical growth

Stem and leaves

53

Sumpweed, annual marsh elder Iva annua

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; rarely invasive; IVAN2; FAC

habits and habitat: Annual herb native to most of North America. Common in open areas and recently disturbed wetland margins and uplands, including dry ditches and levees.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem is freely branched, 3 to 7 ft. tall, and covered with fine hairs. Leaves are opposite, oval, 2 to 5 in. long, irregularly toothed, and covered with fine soft white hair on both surfaces. The leaf base is square, and the petiole (leaf stem) is ½ to 2 in. long. flowers: Green flowers are round in a spike-shaped cluster with branched flower heads from the petiole. July to November. fruit and seed: Seeds are smooth, triangular, flat-sided nutlets, black to brown, finely marked with small hairs, and about ∕₁₆ in. long. September to November. similar plants: Young plants closely resemble cocklebur seedlings (Xanthium strumarium; p. 60).

Asteraceae

Typical growth

Typical leaves

Flowers

Leaf

55

Pluchea, camphor pluchea, camphorweed Pluchea camphorata

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; PLCA7; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial or annual herb or woody shrub. Common in floodplains, bogs, ditches, marshes, and wet pastures. Tends to colonize recently disturbed areas, especially in early to late summer.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem is red to light green, erect, leafy, stout, hairy, and cylindrical. Leaves are alternate, serrate, and attached directly at the base. Plants can reach 3 ft. tall. Plants have a very aromatic smell when crushed, similar to human body odor. flowers: Flowers are present in dense clusters, purple to pink, generally disk-shaped and small (less than ¼ in.). Flowers are grouped in rounded or flat-topped clusters. August to October. fruit and seed: Nutlets are round, small (∕₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in. long), white, fiveribbed, with feathered bristles. Seeds dispersed by wind. similar plants: Rosy camphorweed (Pluchea rosea; PLRO) common in coastal wetlands.

Asteraceae

Typical spring growth

Typical late-summer growth

Flowers

Typical growth (October)

57

Goldenrod Solidago spp.

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; SOLID; varies from OBL to UPL

habits and habitat: Generally a perennial herb with unbranched stems. Common in open forests and right-of-ways, also occurs in swamps, floodplains, and ditches when dry or on wetland hummocks. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves are bluish green, elliptical, and hairless. Veins are noticeable along the margins. Leaves develop hairs along the edge with age and are rough to the touch. The first stem is purplish. stems and leaves: Stem is round, slender, leafy, usually branched from the base but unbranched below the flower, often with little to no hair. Leaves alternate, elliptical, 1 to 4 in. long. Leaves are larger at base and reduced in size nearer to flower cluster. flowers: Yellow flowers present at the tip. Flower stems are horizontal with numerous small, erect, tubular, flat-topped flower heads. Flowers can be ray- or disk-shaped. July to August. fruit and seed: A small (₁⁄₁₀ in. long), hard, one-seeded fruit that is narrow at both ends and topped with numerous soft bristles. October to March. similar plants: Several similar species. OBL species include Elliott’s goldenrod (Solidago latissimifolia; SOLA4) and roundleaf goldenrod (S. patula; SOPA2); FACW are pine barren goldenrod (S. fistulosa; SOFI), Leavenworth’s goldenrod (S. leavenworthii; SOLE5), and wand goldenrod (S. stricta; SOST); and FAC are Canada goldenrod (S. canadensis; SOCA6) and anisescented goldenrod (S. odora; SOOD).

Asteraceae

Flowering Solidago canadensis (September)

Plant prior to flowering (Solidago canadensis)

Flowering plant (Solidago patula)

59

Cocklebur Xanthium strumarium

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; invasive; XAST; FAC

habits and habitat: Summer annual that produces distinct burs containing seeds. Common in disturbed areas and wet sites when water drawdown occurs in midsummer, when soil temperatures are very warm.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Stem below the new leaves is small and often purplish. New leaves are sword-shaped to oval, with a waxy smooth texture. First true leaves are alternate. The bur is often attached to the root or first leaves, which can help in identification. stems and leaves: Stem is robust, branching, covered with dense stiff hairs, spotted with purple coloration, and up to 4½ ft. tall. Leaves are triangular to oval, with stiff hairs, toothed margins, and about 2 to 6 in. long. Leaves are attached to long petioles (leaf stems) and have three noticeable veins on the upper surface that originate from the base. flowers: Flowers are green and inconspicuous, arising between the petiole and the stem. fruit and seed: Fruit is a round to oval, spiked bur that has two chambers and two spiked hooks at the end. Each bur has two black round seeds that are beaked at the base; only one seed germinates the first year, leaving the other to germinate in a subsequent year. similar plants: Young plants closely resemble seedlings of sumpweed (Iva annua; p. 54).

Asteraceae

Typical growth and seedling with bur (inset)

Typical leaves

Plant with maturing green burs

Mature monotypic cocklebur stand (October)

61

Heliotrope, Indian heliotrope Heliotropium indicum

B R OA DLEAVES

Exotic; naturalized; HEIN; FAC

habits and habitat: An erect or creeping herbaceous perennial occurring near recently disturbed areas and low wet areas.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem contains dense hairs and is very leafy. Leaves are dark green, alternate, oval, ½ to 3 in. long, and often appear wrinkled, with dense hairs. Leaves also appear wavy to wrinkled along the margins. flowers: Flowers are purple to blue, small, and located along a curved spike. Younger flowers appear close to the tip of the flower cluster, whereas mature flowers are closer to the base. The long flower clusters that normally face the sun are an easily recognizable feature. The plant’s name comes from the Greek words helios, meaning sun, and tropos, meaning turn. June to October. fruit and seed: Fruit is a dry four-lobed nutlet that splits when mature to release two seeds (one seed-bearing and one empty cavity per half). similar plants: Lizard-tail (Saururus cernuus; SACE).

Boraginaceae

Typical growth

Typical leaves

Flowers

Flowers (purple and white)

63

Spotted sandmat Chamaesyce maculata

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; CHMA15; FACU

habits and habitat: Annual, low-growing herb occurring in dry areas, ditches, levees, and recently disked habitats. Often associated with sandy soils.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Stem is red to green, with oval leaves that lay flat on the ground, green on the upper surface and red on the underside. stems and leaves: Stem slender, reddish purple, with one or more present from the same rootstalk (sometimes branched). Leaves are toothed, opposite, elliptical to oval, 4 in. long. Often reddish purple tinged leaves (dots in center of leaves). When crushed, plant releases a milky sap. flowers: Flowers in small clusters on terminal branches, white or rarely pink. Very small clusters, including several male (one stamen) and one female (three-lobed ovary) flowers. Spring to summer. fruit and seed: Fruit is three-lobed capsule with three oblong or oval, blackish, and smooth seeds (∕₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in.) with horizontal grooves. similar plants: Spreading sandmat (Chamaesyce humistrata; CHHU3).

Euphorbiaceae

Typical growth

Single leaf

Leaves, hairy stem, and flowers

three-lobed capsule

Seed capsule

65

Croton, woolly croton, doveweed, hogwort Croton capitatus

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; CRCA6; FAC

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial herb that is densely covered in fine white hairs, giving a velvety appearance. It is an early-succession species common in disturbed soils and grazed pastures.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Early stem is covered with hair. Early leaves are about ¼ in. long, heart-shaped but elongated, with distinct veins. First true leaves are round to oval, with margins that appear slightly toothed. stems and leaves: The stem is robust and covered with fine, brown to orange hairs. Alternate branching leaves that often grow in clusters of three. Leaves are up to 6 in. long, alternate, and heart-shaped at the base, with small teeth at the margins. The leaves are also covered with small hairs that give the appearance of white velvet. Leaves below the flower appear curled. When crushed the leaves have a distinct odor. flowers: Terminal white flower (about ½ in. long) on the upper part of the stems. Petals are absent, and leaves immediately below the flower appear woolly due to dense hairs. July to November. fruit and seed: Fruits are hard, coated, round capsules (₁⁄₁₀ to ¼ in. long) that split at maturity, releasing three brown oval seeds that are flat on one side and speckled with dark brown spots. similar plants: Tropic croton or vente conmigo (Croton glandulosus; CRGL2).

Euphorbiaceae

Typical growth

Typical leaves

Hairy stem

Flowers

67

Sicklepod, senna Senna obtusifolia

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; invasive; SEOB4; FAC

habits and habitat: Annual nitrogen-fixing herb that persists in abandoned croplands, weedy fields, new forests, and along right-of-ways. Can grow upward of 4 ft. tall.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves are rounded more than the leaflets, with three to five distinct veins. stems and leaves: The ascending, thick, smooth, yellowish green stem stands in an erect position. Leaves alternate, feather-like, compound with few leaflets, 1½ to 7 in. long. Five to seven round leaflets with rounded tips are arranged opposite from each other, ₁⁄₁₀ to 3 in. long. Petioles (leaf stems) are deciduous. flowers: One or two drooping, unbranched flowers with short floral stalks. Petals are yellow, ½ to ¾ in. long. Flowers resemble those of peas but are somewhat more irregular. Small leaves (bracts) are arched around the flower. July to September. fruit and seed: Fruit is a legume (pod), slender (4 to 6 in. long, but only ⅓ in. wide); when broken it splits irregularly and releases numerous shiny brown seeds (about ¼ in. long). Commonly spreads by water movement. July to November. similar plants: Hemp sesbania (Sesbania herbacea; p. 70).

Fabaceae

Young growth

Plant with flowers

Typical growth

Flower (top) and sickle-shaped fruit (bottom)

69

Hemp sesbania, coffeeweed, bigpod sesbania Sesbania herbacea

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; invasive; SEHE8; FACW habits and habitat: Annual or perennial shrub or herb. Common in both wetland and upland sites, marshes, swamps, ditches, lakes, and ponds, being most abundant in disturbed areas. Early-succession plant that persists by long seed viability and can form monotypic stands when soil is disturbed or wetlands are dewatered rapidly in midsummer.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Has three seedling leaves before true leaves appear. The embryonic leaves are on a short stem and are oblong, ½ to ¾ in. long, and ¼ in. wide. stems and leaves: Tall, robust, single yellow to green stem, 2 to 13 ft. tall. Mature stems appear woody and may exceed 2 in. in diameter. Smooth texture with only short hairs. Leaves are alternate, even compound; leaflets are elliptical to oval with round tips, ½ to 1 in. long and ½ to ¾ in. wide. flowers: Bisexual pea-type flower, most often yellow with reddish tinges, with five partially fused petals, five petals, and 10 partially fused stamens; in loose stalk clusters, ¼ to ¾ in. long and ½ to 1 in. wide. June to September. fruit and seed: Long (4 to 8 in.) curved pod, one to two per node, angular in cross section. When pod splits it releases many brown seeds, about ⅛ in. long. July to midwinter. similar plants: True coffeeweed is Senna occidentalis (SEOC2). Sesbania herbacea might also be confused with sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia; p. 68). Poisonbean (Sesbania drummondi; SEDR) is common along Mississippi River and oxbows. Partridge pea (Chamaecrista fasciculata; CHRAM2) and bagpod (Sesbania vesicaria; SEVE) are upland plants.

Fabaceae

Typical early-season growth

Typical late-season growth

Mature flower

Developing flower

Old woody stems

71

Toothcup, eared redstem Ammannia auriculata

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; AMAU2; OBL

habits and habitat: Annual wetland herb. Common in open wet areas, tidal marshes, shorelines, and ditches. Often occurs in sand to silt soils, especially common in areas with a midsummer drawdown, where soil conditions are very warm or shallow water persists.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem is simple to branching. Erect plant is generally less than 1 ft. tall. Leaves are smooth, opposite, sword-shaped, and up to 4 in. long, with distinct vein bisection down the middle. Leaves are parallel to the ground and clasp around the stem. flowers: One to seven pink to purple flowers are produced in tight clusters at junctions of the leaves and stem. They are arranged in a floral tube, appearing whorled around the stem. Each flower has four round petals. Summer to early autumn. fruit and seed: A dark red capsule is enclosed within the floral tube and contains numerous tiny triangular seeds that are shiny and range from yellow to brown to red. similar plants: Similar to other toothcups that occur in Mississippi, including valley redstem (Ammannia coccinea; AMCO) and pink redstem (A. latifolia; AMLA3). Also seedbox (Ludwigia alternifolia; p. 76).

Lythraceae

Typical growth

Typical growth on mudflat

Flowers

Seed capsules (October)

73

Prickly sida, prickly fanpetals Sida spinosa

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; SISP; FACU

habits and habitat: A summer annual common in cropland, fields, grassy areas, and roadsides, often occurs where soil has been recently disturbed. Primarily occurs in fields and road margins, especially areas where soil has begun to warm after an early-summer drawdown.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Sprouts two new heart-shaped leaves with a small dent where the leaves connect. Both the leaves and the stem are covered with short hairs. stems and leaves: Stem is erect, branched, and ½ to 1½ in. long. Alternate leaves are oval, 1 to 2 in. long, with toothed margins, long petioles (leaf stems), and a small spine at the base. Stem and leaves are sparsely covered with white hairs. flowers: Solitary flowers located between the leaves and stem, with five yellow petals that are well rounded and floppy. June to first frost. fruit and seed: Seedpods very distinctive, with five brown segments that separate to release a single brown seed with two spreading spikes at the tip. Fruit wall is often retained after the seed falls. similar plants: Cuban jute (Sida rhombifolia; SIRH).

Malvaceae

Typical growth

Typical leaves and developing flowers

Flowers

Mature seed pods

75

Seedbox, upright ludwigia Ludwigia alternifolia

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; LUAL2; OBL

habits and habitat: Short-lived perennial (rarely annual) herb, shrubby in appearance. Usually occurs in wet areas, such as rivers and floodplains. More common in areas that have not been disturbed recently.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem erect, usually stout, branched, and green to brown; sometimes creeping and roots at the nodes to form a mat. Alternate or opposite oval leaves that are usually long (3 to 12 in.), with tapering tip, some small hairs, and veins parallel to the margin. flowers: Petals usually yellow but easily fall off, leaving the appearance of flowers lacking petals. Flowers have four green sepals (modified leaves) below the petals, about ₁⁄₁₀ in. long. A cup of tissue at the upper leaf axis supports the solitary flowers. May to October. fruit and seed: Fruit is a four-chambered capsule, up to ¼ in. long, that opens terminally (hence the name seedbox), but with age it splits along the sides to release many very small (less than ₁⁄₃₂ in. long), oval, yellow to brown seeds. November to May. similar plants: Toothcup (Ammannia auriculata; p. 72).

Onagraceae

Typical growth

Typical stem and leaves

Flower (September)

Mature seed capsules or pods (October)

77

Narrowleaf plantain, common plantain Plantago lanceolata, P. major

B R OA DLEAVES

Exotic; PLLA, PLMA2; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial or annual apparently stemless herbs. Most occur in new forests, right-of-ways, dry margins, or other uplands in areas with soil or vegetation disturbance, especially in sandy areas. Plants may appear, produce seeds, and die in a short period.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves are spatula-shaped and connected at the base. Young leaves encircle the stem and are oval to elliptical. stems and leaves: Leaves grow from the base of the plant and often appear grass-like, narrow to oval, with a tapering base and rounded tip. Leaves are dark green, hairless, and waxy, with veins that are parallel to the margins. Petiole (leaf stem) is very short and almost lacking. flowers: Flowers are spikes (4 to 11 in. long) of clustered straight bracts with white petals, present on a rounded, leafless stem. May to November. fruit and seed: Contained within a capsule along the clustered spikes on the stem. The capsule splits at the middle and releases two angled and grooved brown seeds, ₁⁄₁₀ in. long. similar plants: None in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Plantaginaceae

Typical growth (Plantago major)

Typical growth (Plantago lanceolata)

Leaf and seed cluster of broad-leaf species (Plantago major)

Leaf and seed cluster of narrow-leaf species (Plantago lanceolata)

79

Water knotweed Polygonum amphibium

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; POAM8; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial herb occurring in swamps, marshes, mudflats, and ditches, where standing water is common and soil disturbance infrequent.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Rarely seen. stems and leaves: Stem robust, not vine-like, hairy in terrestrial environments but smooth where emerging from water. Leaves alternate at swollen nodes with membranous ocrea (sheath at node), 1½ to 10 in. long, ½ to 2 in. wide, sword-shaped, and normally hairless. flowers: Small flowers are located at the tip of the stem, clustered in jointed stalks. Outer lobes are larger than inner ones and are petal-like and usually white or pale green. Flower cluster usually forms a long (1 to 4 in.), dense head that is often red to dark pink. May to September. fruit and seed: Hidden within the flower are two convex-sided seeds, usually dark brown or black when mature and very rounded. similar plants: Pink- and white-flowered smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) are often confused when only flower color is used for identification. Note that pink and white flowers often occur in the same species.

Polygonaceae

Typical upright growth

Hairless tube sheath

Deep pink or red dense flower

Hairless tube sheath (ocrea)

81

Denseflower smartweed, pale smartweed Polygonum glabrum, P. lapathifolium

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; POGL10, POLA4; OBL (P. glabrum); FACW (P. lapathifolium)

habits and habitat: Perennial or annual herbs occurring in swamps, marshes, mudflats, and along shorelines of permanent water bodies. Common following early-spring or late-summer soil disturbance and wet climatic conditions. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: First leaves are elliptical to sword-shaped with hairs along the margin. The first true leaves are alternate with hair on the upper surface. stems and leaves: Stems range from several inches to 6 ft. long and are variable in pubescence (hairs), color, and stature. Leaves alternate at nodes, which are swollen and have ocrea (sheath at node). Leaves are 1½ to 7 in. long, 1 to 2 in. wide, hairy on lower surface, and sword-shaped. flowers: Small flowers located at the tip of the stem are clustered in jointed stalks. Outer lobes are larger than the inner ones and are petal-like and usually white or pale green. Flower cluster usually forms a long (1 to 4 in.), noticeably dense spike that is most often bright to pale white. Spring to autumn. fruit and seed: Hidden within the flower are two flattened, concave-sided seeds, usually dark brown or black when mature. similar plants: Polygonum lapathifolium seeds are typically smaller and flower clusters denser than those of Pennsylvania smartweed (P. pensylvanicum; p. 86) and typically have hair-like bracts on one side. Pink- and white-flowered smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) are often confused when only flower color is used for identification. Note that pink and white flowers may occur in the same species.

Polygonaceae

Typical growth and flowers (Polygonum glabrum)

Hairless tube sheath

Hairless tube sheath (ocrea) of Polygonum glabrum

Flowers (Polygonum glabrum)

83

Marshpepper smartweed, swamp smartweed, dotted smartweed Polygonum hydropiper, P. hydropiperoides, P. punctatum

B R OA DLEAVES

Exotic; POHY; native; POHY2, POPU5; OBL (P. hydropiper, P. hydropiperoides); FACW (P. punctatum)

habits and habitat: Perennial herbs with underground stems and shoots (rhizomes) from nodes and forming mats. Often occurs in areas that remain wet throughout most of the growing season. Leaves and stems may remain green all year, even when completely inundated by water. Common on infrequently disturbed sites inundated with shallow water and often forming monotypic stands. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: First leaves are narrow and elliptical to oblong, with a short stalk at the base fused to rhizomes. The leaves also have hairs along the margins and veins on the lower surface. stems and leaves: Stem is round with swollen nodes, where the ends become erect and bear flowers. Stem less robust than other smartweeds and seldom exceeds 4 ft. tall. The smooth ocrea (sheath at node) has stiff straight hairs, ₁⁄₁₀ to ½ in. long. Leaves are 2 to 4 in. long, alternate, narrow to sword-shaped with pointed tips and also have stiff straight hairs. Leaves occasionally have black or purple dots, especially on P. punctatum. flowers: Small jointed stalks in spike-shaped clusters at or near the tip of the stem. Flower clusters are less dense than those of other smartweeds. Flower usually white to light pink. June to September. fruit and seed: Shiny, brown to black three-sided achenes containing a single seed. similar plants: Pink- and white-flowered smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) are often confused when only flower color is used for identification. Note that pink and white flowers may occur in the same species.

Polygonaceae

Typical growth (Polygonum hydropiperoides)

Typical leaves (Polygonum hydropiperoides)

Hairs on tube sheath Hairs on tube sheath (ocrea) of Polygonum hydropiperoides

Flowers (Polygonum hydropiperoides)

85

Pennsylvania smartweed Polygonum pensylvanicum

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; POPE2; FACW

habits and habitat: An herb occurring in swamps, marshes, mudflats, and along shorelines of moist-soil wetlands. Often grows in dry margins or after drawdown in early spring or midautumn. Common within the first few years following soil disturbance and often interspersed with other annual smartweeds.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: First leaves are elliptical to sword-shaped with hairs along the margin. First true leaves are alternate with hair on the upper surface. stems and leaves: Erect and sprawling stem, may exceed 6 ft. tall, mostly hairless but does produce hairs (glandular pubescence) near flowers. Alternate leaves at swollen nodes with ocrea (sheath at nodes). Hairless leaf blades are unlobed, usually narrow and elliptical. flowers: Flowers located at the tip of the stem are small and clustered in jointed stalks. Outer lobes are larger than the inner ones, and are petallike (often light pink, but can be white). Spring to autumn. fruit and seed: Hidden within the flower, fruits are rounded, two-sided achenes, about ⅛ in. wide that may remain enclosed inside a brown sheath after falling from the plant. similar plants: Pink- and white-flowered smartweeds (Polygonum spp.) are often confused when only flower color is used for identification. Note that pink and white flowers may occur in the same species.

Polygonaceae

Typical growth

Leaves

Tube sheath at hairless nodes

Tube sheath at hairless nodes

Flowers

87

Curly dock, sorrel, rumex Rumex crispus

B R OA DLEAVES

Exotic; RUCR; FAC

habits and habitat: Annual, perennial, biennial, or winter annual herb, usually erect. Occurs along beaches, ditches, stream banks, swamps, levees, and wet meadows. Common after soil or vegetation disturbance, such as disking or mowing. Occasionally, this species will grow throughout winter, even when entirely or partially inundated.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Stem below the new leaves may be reddish. New leaves are rounded at the terminal bud and narrow toward the tip. stems and leaves: Stem is swollen at the nodes, with little branching, and often green (red when mature in late summer and brown in winter). Leaves are alternate and circular in arrangement. Leaves often become purplish with age. flowers: Numerous small flowers appear jointed at the stalk in branches or clusters at the stem tips. No true petals, but there are six three-winged sepals (modified leaves) that are green to brown and become purple to red with age. April to July. fruit and seed: A three-sided simple dry fruit (achene) hidden within three-winged sepals, about ₁⁄₁₀ in. long. The seed is brownish and shiny. similar plants: Clustered dock (Rumex conglomeratus; RUCO2), bitter dock (R. obtusifolius; RUOB), fiddle dock (R. pulcher; RUPU3), and swamp dock (R. verticillatus; RUVE3).

Polygonaceae

Typical spring to early-summer growth

Late summer (after seed dispersal)

Flowers

Developing seed

Mature plant, late summer

fruit

seed

89

Sawtooth blackberry, southern dewberry, blackberry Rubus argutus, R. trivialis, Rubus spp.

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; RUAR2, RUTR, RUBUS; varies from FAC to UPL

habits and habitat: Perennial subshrubs or woody vines. Very common invaders of cleared land (such as harvested forests), but not tolerant of regular soil disturbance. Occurs in wet to dry sites with open to shaded conditions, common along edges, and persist and colonize by rhizomes.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: First-year shoots arise from perennial root-crowns. The first shoots do not have flowers or fruit; they are unbranched with large leaves. stems and leaves: Erect, arching, or trailing thorny stems. Leaves are toothed, veined, and often palmately compound (multiple leaflets arising from a common point of the petiole). Rubus trivialis stem bristled with purple to red hairs; R. argutus stem is hairless. flowers: Flowers appear in clusters along lateral branches, in groups or occurring singly, with five white to pink petals. April to July. fruit and seed: Fruit produced in the second year on floricanes (flowering and fruiting stem of a biennial plant). Fruit is cluster of drupelets, usually very juicy (i.e., a berry). Seeds of varying size, flat, and generally oval. April to August. similar plants: Several similar Rubus spp., but R. argutus and R. trivialis are the most common two species in moist-soil habitats.

Rosaceae

Typical growth (Rubus trivialis)

Typical leaves (Rubus trivialis)

Invasive growth (Rubus argutus)

Rubus trivialis flower (April)

seeds

fruit

91

Virginia buttonweed Diodia virginiana

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; invasive; DIVI3; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial herb that grows along the ground and generally branches at the base. Common along ditches, wet depressions, marshes, and other wet areas. Often forms dense mats close to the ground.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves are oval and thick, with dark color on top and lighter on bottom. First leaves are elliptical and joined at the stem, with hairs on the leaf stalk. stems and leaves: Stem is reddish with a few hairs, and the main branch is 8 to 30 in. long. Stem is round in cross section and usually trails along the ground. Leaves are 1 to 2 in., opposite, oval to elliptical, and joined across the stem with a membrane. flowers: Usually solitary white flower located between the leaves and stem. Flowers are small (less than ¼ in. long) and star-shaped, with four petals. June to November. fruit and seed: Fruit is within an oval capsule that splits in half, and each half contains one seed. Capsule is prominently ridged, hairy, and soft, with four short spikes at the tip. July to January. similar plants: Poorjoe (Diodia teres; DITE2) is similar but occurs in drier areas.

Rubiaceae

Typical growth

Typical plant

Flower (white or purple)

93

Nightshade, Carolina horsenettle Solanum carolinense

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; SOCA3; FACU

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial herb occurring along coastal dunes, rock-lands, seasonally flooded marshes, disturbed areas, and often on mowed levees.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Stem hairy, green or maroon. Embryonic first leaves are round, smooth, and green on the upper surface and maroon on the underside. stems and leaves: Stem is hairy, often prickly, with few branches. Alternate and opposite leaves, with deep clefts that can be 5 in. long. flowers: Flowers located on terminal branching stems, distinctly starshaped, white to lavender, ¾ to 1 in. wide, with five pointed lobes. Plant produces few to several flower clusters along the stem. Pollen-bearing parts are noticeably yellow and erect. May to September. fruit and seed: Spherical berries (½ to ¾ in. wide) are green but turn orange upon maturation. Smooth when maturing then turning wrinkly, brown, and pulpy as they dry. Berries are toxic to humans and other mammals. similar plants: Very similar in appearance to western horsenettle (Solanum dimidiatum; SODI) and tropical soda apple (S. viarum; SOVI2), a recently introduced invasive species.

Solanaceae

Typical growth, spines (top inset), and flower (bottom inset)

Flowering plant (July)

Leaf and fruit (inset)

seeds

seeds

mature fruit

95

Frog-fruit, lanceleaf frog-fruit Phyla lanceolata

B R OA DLEAVES

Native; PHLA3; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial, requires moist soil usually occurring along grass edges, such as ditches, wet lawns, peaty soils, mudflats, and depressions. Sometimes forms dense colonies.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem is prostrate with four angles, rooting at the nodes, and often purple. Leaves are opposite, serrated (three or four teeth per side), rounded apex, and petioles ∕₁₆ in. long. flowers: Flowers four-lobed, very small, and white, pink, or purple. Head is bracketed with a fruit spike 3 to 6 in. long. Flower is at the end of a stalk (1 to 4 in. long) rising from the leaf axis. June to first frost. fruit and seed: Seed is dry and composed of two nuggets (mericarps), spherical to ovate, one side is rounded and the other is flat, about ∕₁₆ in. long. similar plants: Turkey tangle frog-fruit (Phyla nodiflora; PHNO2).

Verbenaceae

Typical growth

Undeveloped flowers

Flowers

Seed capsules

97

Verbena, vervain, Brazilian vervain Verbena brasiliensis

B R OA DLEAVES

Exotic; VEBR2; FAC

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial leafy-stemmed herb occurring in small patches, often in disturbed areas and right-of-ways.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Young leaves are small, oval with rounded tips, and heavily veined and have a purple tinge. stems and leaves: Stem is square and green, with rough hairs along the edge. Leaves opposite in widely spaced pairs, oval to elliptical, with serrated edges and a tapering base. Veins are predominant and often a lighter color green than the leaf. flowers: Flowers have blue to purple petals and are located at the terminal end of a slender spike of modified leaves (sepals), ½ to 1½ in. long. March to July. fruit and seed: Fruit is dry and develops from several carpels (i.e., pistils). Produces tiny oblong nutlets along flower spikes. similar plants: Purpletop vervain (Verbena bonariensis; VEBO) and tuberous vervain (V. rigida; VERI2), but both occur on drier, upland sites.

Verbenaceae

Typical growth

Typical leaves

Flowers

Characteristic square stem

99

Bushy bluestem, broomsedge bluestem Andropogon glomeratus, A. virginicus

GRASSES

Native; ANGL2, ANVI2; FACW (A. glomeratus); FAC (A. virginicus)

habits and habitat: Perennial bunch grass, disperses into moist-soil areas from adjacent upland areas, where it is common. Often grows in seasonally wet areas and a variety of upland sites 2+ years after soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Seedlings (first year) generally reach about 3 to 5 in. tall and quickly form a bunch. Individuals (or clumps) do not begin to flower until the second or third year. stems and leaves: Green to bluish green stem can grow 2 to 4 ft. tall. Leaves smooth, narrow, around 12 in. long, and grow parallel to the stem, giving plants an erect appearance. seed clusters: Narrow, elongated, surrounded by hairs. Clusters in A. glomeratus noticeably tufted, giving tops of plants a fuzzy appearance. September to October. seed: Slender and showy, tapered, ⅛ in. long with ¼ in. whitish brown hairs (awns). similar plants: Andropogon glomeratus and A. virginicus are most common in moist-soil habitats, but several Andropogon spp. (ANDRO2) and Schizachyrium spp. (SCHIZ4) look very similar.

Poaceae

Dry field and moist-soil margin dominated by broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus)

Mature plant (Andropogon virginicus)

Mature tufted seed cluster (Andropogon glomeratus)

101

Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon

GRASSES

Exotic; invasive; CYDA; FACU

habits and habitat: Warm-season perennial, develops dense mats that outcompete other moist-soil plants. Often invades moist-soil wetlands from nearby levees or pastures. Thick, strong rhizomes difficult to eliminate.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Smooth leaf sheath and collar. Membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule) is smooth. stems and leaves: Stems develop from elongated, aboveground runners and belowground rhizomes. Leaf blades often hairy on the upper side, 2 to 6 in. long, and ⅛ to ¼ in. wide. seed clusters: Erect on stem, composed of three to five spikes, 1½ to 4 in. long. Spikes appear umbrella-like in orientation. May to October. seed: Tan to brown, marked with fine parallel grooves and ridges that are visible with a hand lens. similar plants: Crabgrass (Digitaria spp.; p. 106).

Poaceae

Bermudagrass (outlined in white) outcompeting typical moist-soil vegetation

Flowers and developing seed cluster

Typical dense mat growth

103

Dichanthelium, low panicgrass, variable panicgrass Dichanthelium spp. (D. acuminatum and D. commutatum common)

GRASSES

Native; DICHA2, DIAC2, DICO2; FACW to FAC

habits and habitat: Short, mat-forming or sometimes erect, annual or perennial grasses, from short rhizomes. Panicles develop from spring to early summer, then change to having many densely branching leaves in late summer. Grows in open habitats and thin forests in moist to dry sites. Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems erect, ascending and sometimes sprawling. Leaves mostly hairless but some with hairs, sword-shaped to rounded leaves, sheath sometimes purplish, with hairy margins. seed clusters: Branching seed clusters, spikelets without awns or plumes. Similar to Panicum spp. (p. 122), but normally panicle is denser and smaller. May to September. seed: Varies from white to brown, oval shaped and pointed on one end but still appearing rounded. Similar to Panicum spp., but usually larger and more egg-shaped. similar plants: Dichanthelium contains many species, but most have not been recorded in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Photos are of variable panicgrass (D. commutatum). Panicgrasses (Panicum spp.; p. 122) are similar. In winter, however, low Dichanthelium spp. develop a group of leaves at ground level (i.e., rosette), which Panicum spp. do not.

Poaceae

Typical low-growing form

Mature seed cluster

Stem and leaves

Developing seed cluster

105

Crabgrass Digitaria spp.

GRASSES

Native; DIGIT2; varies by species from FAC to UPL

habits and habitat: Annual, spreading by seed and by rooting from nodes, with variable growth vertically or horizontally along the ground. Common on xeric or especially mesic moist-soil sites or in areas with drawdown in July and August, when soil temperatures are warm.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Sheaths, blades, and ligule densely hairy. stems and leaves: Stem nearly round. Leaves hairy on both sides, 1 to 8 in. long and ¼ to ½ in. wide. Membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule) is smooth. seed clusters: Composed of four to six branches (pedicels), each 1½ to 7 in. long. July to October. seed: Whitish to brownish, long, flattened, pointed on one end, and sometimes slightly hairy. similar plants: Common Digitaria spp. in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley are not easily distinguished and include tropical crabgrass (D. bicornis; DIBI), southern crabgrass (D. ciliaris; DICI), smooth crabgrass (D. ischaemum; DIIS), and hairy crabgrass (D. sanguinalis; DISA; depicted in photos). Similar to Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon; p. 102).

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth

Hairy stem and ligule

Young seed cluster

Mature seed cluster

107

Wild millets Echinochloa colona, E. crus-galli, E. muricata, E. walteri

GRASSES

Exotic; ECCO2, ECCR; native; ECMU2, ECWA; FACW (E. colona, E. crus-galli); FAC (E. muricata); OBL (E. walteri)

habits and habitat: Annuals that germinate well on moist open soils, crop fields (especially rice fields in midsummer), and along shorelines of lakes, streams, and brackish coastal marshes. Species may generally occur on a high to low disturbance and drought-tolerance gradient. All three common species (E. colona, E. crus-galli, and E. muricata) are genetically similar. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Smooth hairless leaves and leaf sheath, with no membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule) in any of the four species. stems and leaves: Stem erect (6 in. to 5 ft.), smooth, hairless to few hairs, often reddish and flat at base of plant. Leaves 4 to 20 in. long and ⅛ to 1 in. wide. seed clusters: Highly variable (see photos on pages 111, 113, and 233). seed: Tan to yellowish brown, variable awn (stiff bristle) lengths. similar plants: There is no absolute method for species differentiation based on gross physical characteristics, especially without a seed cluster or microscope. Awn length, pedicel spacing and length, seed density and habitat conditions are the best methods to differentiate. Walter’s millet (Echinochloa walteri) uncommon in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley and often confused with rough barnyardgrass (E. muricata; p. 112) and Japanese millet (E. frumentacea; p. 232).

Poaceae

Echinochloa colona (two stems), E. crus-galli (two stems), and E. muricata (one stem) from left to right

E. colona

E. crus-galli

E. muricata

Seed clusters of E. walteri, which is often confused with E. muricata. Note especially long awns. Seed cluster red to purple in mid to late summer.

109

Jungle rice, millet Echinochloa colona

GRASSES

Exotic; naturalized; ECCO2; FACW

habits and habitat: Annual, germinates well on moist, open soils, especially crop fields and ditches. May grow erect, but often growth is more horizontal along the ground and may root at lower nodes. Common in ditches, frequently mowed low-lying areas, and in urban areas.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Smooth hairless leaves and leaf sheath, with no membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule). stems and leaves: Stem smooth and hairless, often reddish, flattened at base, and erect or horizontal to the ground. Leaf characteristics vary under different growing conditions, 4 to 20 in. long and ⅛ to 1 in. wide, hairless to few hairs. Ligule absent, sheath is smooth and hairless. seed clusters: Terminal seed cluster with numerous, widely spaced branches (often more than ¾ in. apart), often the branches (less than ¾ in. long) emerge from only one side of the stem and support more sparse clumps of seeds compared to other Echinochloa species. July to October. seed: Tan to yellowish brown, ∕₁₆ to ⅛ in. long, awns on the ends of seeds absent or reduced to a slight point. similar plants: Japanese millet (Echinochloa frumentacea; p. 232), barnyardgrass (E. crus-galli, E. muricata; p. 112).

Poaceae

Young millet emerging on mudflat with reddish, flattened stems and horizontal growth

Developing seed cluster (midsummer)

Short, widely spaced pedicels

111

Barnyardgrass, rough barnyardgrass Echinochloa crus-galli, E. muricata

GRASSES

Exotic; naturalized; ECCR; native; ECMU2; FACW (E. crusgalli); FAC (E. muricata)

habits and habitat: Annuals, germinate well on moist, open soils, especially in disturbed areas such as crop fields. Form aggregation of stems from one underground, clumped rootstock. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Smooth, hairless leaves, flattened stem, and leaf sheath with no membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule). stems and leaves: Stem erect, smooth, hairless, often reddish, and flattened at base stems. Leaf characteristics vary under different growing conditions, 4 to 20 in. long and ⅛ to 1 in. wide, hairless to few hairs. Ligule absent, sheath is smooth and hairless. seed clusters: Terminal seed cluster with numerous branches (more than ¾ in. long) containing seeds, with branch spacing declining toward the stem terminus. May to October. seed: Tan to yellowish brown, ∕₁₆ to ⅛ in. long. similar plants: Japanese millet (Echinochloa frumentacea; p. 232). Walter’s millet (E. walteri; ECWA) is similar but occurs in less disturbed areas, especially around lakes and brackish marsh margins (obligate species) and has longer awns on seeds. Echinochloa walteri also has pubescent sheaths, which are absent in E. crus-galli and E. muricata.

Poaceae

Young plant emerging on mudflat

Typical midsummer growth

Developing seed clusters (E. muricata)

Developing seed clusters (E. crus-galli)

E. muricata

E. crus-galli

E. crus-galli

113

Goosegrass, Indian goosegrass Eleusine indica

GRASSES

Exotic; naturalized; ELIN3; FACU

habits and habitat: Clump-forming annual, commonly occurring on levees and sometimes drier areas of wet basins. Tolerant of disturbance and frequent mowing.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems ½ to 2 ft. tall, round, and usually smooth with deep midrib, branching at base. Leaves 1 to 12 in. long, emerging from base or stem, often sparsely hairy. seed clusters: Distinctive seed clusters of four or five clumps radiating at or near stem terminus, resembling a crow’s foot. Seeds form rows on the underside of each branch. June to October. seed: Red to brown, rounded with distinctive midrib, very small (up to ∕₁₆ in.). similar plants: Crowfoot grass (Dactyloctenium aegyptium; DAAE), but usually occurs in drier sites than Indian goosegrass.

Poaceae

Typical clump form and developing seed clusters

Seed clusters on underside of branches

Stems and leaves

115

Tealgrass, teal lovegrass Eragrostis hypnoides

GRASSES

Native; ERHY; OBL

habits and habitat: Annual, low-growing grass that can form dense monoculture mats. Often occurs in borrow ditches of moist-soil impoundments or other areas that dry slowly in late summer or early autumn. Also common in forested depressional wetlands.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Leaf blades are rough and pubescent, small, usually less than 6 in. long and ½ in. wide. seed clusters: Seed cluster is relatively small and arrowhead-shaped, with small (about ∕₁₆ in. long) yellowish green spikelets. August to October. seed: Tiny (less than ∕₁₆ in.), white to brown, elongated but flattened, and sharply pointed at one end. similar plants: Similar to other lovegrasses (Eragrostis spp.; ERAGR), some of which also occur in moist-soil habitats.

Poaceae

Tealgrass with Echinochloa spp. interspersed

Typical midsummer growth

Plant with developing seed clusters

Seed clusters

117

Cutgrasses, southern cutgrass, catchfly cutgrass, rice cutgrass, white cutgrass Leersia hexandra, L. lenticularis, L. oryzoides, L. virginica

GRASSES

Native; LEHE, LELE2, LEOR, LEVI2; FACW (L. virginica); OBL (other Leersia spp.)

habits and habitat: Perennial grasses spreading by rhizomes, forming dense clumps and mats. All are wetland obligate except white cutgrass (L. virginica, FACW). Often grow at the edges of wetlands, but southern cutgrass (L. hexandra) can grow in water up to 3½ ft. deep. Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems up to 3 ft. tall, round, and extremely rough (toothed). Leaves 5 to 7 in. long and ½ to 2¾ in. wide, extremely rough (toothed). Cutgrasses get their name from stems and leaves that are rougher than most grasses, which can scratch and cut skin. seed clusters: Variable but generally a slender, flattened panicle, with oval-shaped spikelets. June to August (L. hexandra) or August to October (other species). seed: Flattened, often with papery husk with bristles for dispersal, variable in color from white (L. virginica) to purple (L. hexandra). similar plants: Because of similarity in common names, cutgrasses (or rice cutgrasses) are often confused with annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica; ZIAQ) and southern wildrice (Zizaniopsis miliacea; p. 142).

Poaceae

Leersia hexandra clump at edge of wetland

Leaves and seed clusters (Leersia hexandra)

L. lenticularis with light-colored seed clusters

Sharply toothed stem (L. hexandra)

119

Bearded sprangletop Leptochloa fusca ssp. fascicularis

GRASSES

Native; LEFUF; FACW

habits and habitat: Annual, often occurs in wetland margins and as a weed in rice fields. Normally grows in narrow bands at edges of permanent water or when water drawdown occurs in August or early September.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Leaf sheath hairless and rough to the touch. stems and leaves: Stem stiffly erect, sometimes branching, always rather coarse. Leaves flat, broad, usually smooth, hairless, with rough edges, and often reddish at the base. seed clusters: Many branched, noticeably whorled when viewed from top, often appearing purplish at a distance. August to October. seed: Variable, white or tan to purple or red, very small, elongated and flattened. similar plants: Amazon sprangletop (Leptochloa panicoides; LEPA3) and mucronate sprangletop (L. panicea; LEPA6) look very similar and are locally common in parts of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Poaceae

Plant before seed clusters develop

Typical midsummer growth

Top view of seed clusters

Developed seed clusters in early autumn

121

Panicgrass, fall panicum, witchgrass Panicum spp.

GRASSES

Native; PANIC; varies by species from FACW to FACU

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial. With more than 75 species, this is perhaps the most difficult genus of grasses to identify in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Common on drier moist-soil sites or those where soil temperatures are hot when water is drawn down, often in July and August.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Leaves highly variable, generally more than 2 in. wide and often as much as 8 in. long. Both hairy and hairless leaves and stems. Stem of witchgrass (P. capillare) is hollow. seed clusters: Spikelets usually in panicles or broadly spreading flower clumps, with long supporting branches. Usually late summer to autumn, but some (e.g., P. rigidulum) may be earlier (i.e., June). seed: Variety of colors, generally small (less than ∕₁₆ in. long), elongated but very rounded laterally (i.e., football shaped). similar plants: Common Panicum species in moist-soil wetlands include witchgrass (P. capillare; PACA6), fall panicum (P. dichotomiflorum; PADI), redtop panicgrass (P. rigidulum; PARI4), and switchgrass (P. virgatum; PAVI2). Dichanthelium spp. (p 104) are similar, but Panicum spp. do not develop a group of winter leaves at ground level (i.e., rosette).

Poaceae

Robust, mixed stand of Panicum spp. (mid-September)

Developing seed clusters of Panicum rigidulum

Seed cluster of Panicum dichotomiflorum

123

124

Poaceae

Developing seed clusters of Panicum rigidulum (early July)

Flattened stem (Panicum rigidulum)

Leaf and stem (Panicum rigidulum)

Poaceae

Mature seed clusters of Panicum dichotomiflorum (mid-September)

Developing seed cluster of Panicum dichotomiflorum (July)

Smooth, reddened stem of Panicum dichotomiflorum (autumn)

125

Dallisgrass Paspalum dilatatum

GRASSES

Exotic; naturalized; PADI3; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial from rhizomes, leaves often remain near ground. Common on levees and sometimes drier areas of wet basins.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems 1½ to 3 ft. tall. Leaves 3 to 11 in. long, 2 to 6 in. wide, usually growing along or near base. Lower sheaths often hairy but becoming hairless above. seed clusters: Distinctive seed clusters alternate, normally at right angles to stem, and seeds form two rows on each branch. May to October. seed: White to brown, smooth, rounded, flattened, and up to ∕₁₆ in. wide. similar plants: Vasey’s grass (Paspalum urvillei; p. 128) seeds are highly similar, but dallisgrass grows lower to the ground. Many other Paspalum spp., some of which are moist-soil plants.

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth

Flowers and seed cluster

Stem and sheath

Stem with alternate, right-angled seed clusters

127

Vasey’s grass Paspalum urvillei

GRASSES

Exotic; naturalized; PAUR2; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial from rhizomes, tolerant of seasonal flooding and occurs in moist-soil wetlands, on levees, and in moderately disturbed areas. This plant typically grows after a late-spring drawdown or when soils are warm.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems tall (3 to 6 ft.), round, and hairless. Leaves 6 to 22 in. long, emerging from base or stem. Lower sheaths often hairy but becoming hairless above. seed clusters: Seed clusters somewhat erect, crowded or dense, and very hairy in appearance. May to July. seed: White, rounded, flattened, small (∕₁₆ in.), and hairy. similar plants: Seed shape and size are similar to those of dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum; p. 126). Many other Paspalum spp., some of which are moist-soil plants.

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth

Seed cluster

Developing seed clusters in midsummer

Mature seed clusters in early autumn

129

Plumegrass, sugarcane plumegrass Saccharum giganteum

GRASSES

Native; rarely invasive; SAGI; FACW

habits and habitat: Large, showy perennial, usually in dispersed clumps, but sometimes becoming invasive, especially in moist-soil wetlands lacking annual or regular soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are robust (reaching heights of more than 8 ft.), round, green to reddish purple, and hairy at the nodes. Typical leaves are 20 to 60 in. long and 1 in. wide, flat, and hairy at the base, with a distinct white midrib. seed clusters: Large woolly or tufted seed clusters with ascending branches of white or red flowers. September to October. seed: Reddish, in husks with long white hairs (awns), ¾ to 1¼ in. long. similar plants: Leaves have a white midrib similar to Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense; p. 134), but less pronounced.

Poaceae

Typical early-summer growth

Developing seed cluster (September)

Developing seed cluster (September)

Developed seed cluster

131

Foxtail, bristlegrass Setaria parviflora, S. pumila, S. viridis

GRASSES

Native; SEPA10; exotic; SEPU8, SEVI4; FAC

habits and habitat: Annuals or perennials, developing from seeds or short rhizomes. Generally not occurring or noticeable until late summer (July to September), and tend to be more common during dry years.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Variable. Stems hairy to hairless. Leaves rough to the touch like sandpaper, may be covered with short hairs on the top surface, normally around 12 in. long and ⅛ to ¼ in. wide. seed cluster: Cylindrical with bristles, 1 to 6 in. long, greenish yellow. Usually July to September. seed: Yellow to light brown, rounded on one side and flat on the other, some species have parallel ridges viewable with magnification. similar plants: None in the autumn, because all Setaria spp. have a distinctive foxtail seed cluster.

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth (S. pumila)

Young seed cluster (S. pumila)

Hairy leaf (S. pumila)

133

Johnsongrass Sorghum halepense

GRASSES

Exotic; invasive; SOHA; FACU

habits and habitat: Perennial by rhizomes, forms dense stands, generally occurring on higher, drier ground and levees within moist-soil habitats. This plant often grows after summer disking and dry conditions.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Leaf sheaths and leaves are smooth and hairless with a fringed membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule). stems and leaves: Stem erect, to 11 ft. tall. Leaves hairless, with distinctive white midrib, 8 to 24 in. long and ¾ to 2½ in. wide. seed clusters: Large, open cluster, 6 to 20 in. long, with long supporting branches (pedicels). May to October. seed: Grain ⅛ to ∕₁₆ in. long, ovate, brownish, with a shiny seed hull. similar plants: Similar to Panicum spp. (p. 122), but Johnsongrass has a distinctive white midrib on the leaves (see leaf photo).

Poaceae

Typical invasive growth

Typical midsummer growth

White midrib of leaf

Mature seed clusters

135

Gaping grass Steinchisma hians

GRASSES

Native; STHI3; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, clump-forming grass, with short rhizomes. Normally occurs in areas regularly but not permanently inundated during summer.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems smooth and hairless, generally low-growing (less than 1 ft. but up to 2½ ft. tall). Leaves sparsely hairy above, smooth below, sword-shaped, 2 to 7 in. long, ¾ to 2 in. wide. Leaf sheaths smooth, but ligules slightly hairy. seed clusters: Seed clusters (spikelets) on 2 to 10 loose branches, edges brownish to purple when maturing, spikelet branches bent and thin. May to October. seed: Elongated, brownish yellow, small (up to ∕₁₆ in.). similar plants: Similar to Panicum spp. (p. 122), but usually lower growing. Synonym Panicum hians (Radford et al. 1968). Often confused with the bentgrasses (Agrostis spp.; AGROS2) and Dichanthelium spp. (p. 104).

Poaceae

Clump of gaping grass growing in typical shallow flooded moist-soil habitat (May)

Young seed clusters

Branches and seed clusters

137

Greasy grass, longspike tridens, tridens Tridens strictus

GRASSES

Native; TRST2; FACW

habits and habitat: Clump-forming, erect perennial from thick, short rhizomes; late to appear (August to October). More common during drier summers and at edges or high spots within moist-soil areas. Generally sparse, rarely forms dense stands.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems to 3 ft. tall, smooth, and hairless. Leaves flat to folded, ⅓ in. wide and up to 21 in. long, rough to touch above and hairless below. seed clusters: Distinctive dark brown seed clusters, ⅓ to 1 in. wide and 4 to 8 in. long, and persistent into late winter. Greasy to the touch (hence the name greasy grass). August to October. seed: Yellow to brown, elongated, flat on one side and rounded on the other, approximately ∕₁₆ in. long. similar plants: Dropseed (Sporobolus spp.; SPORO), but usually growing in dry, upland habitats.

Poaceae

Mature plants (October)

Stem and leaf

Mature seed cluster

139

Signalgrass, broadleaf signalgrass Urochloa platyphylla

GRASSES

Native; URPL2; FAC

habits and habitat: Summer annual, rarely produces monotypic stands. Normally sparsely scattered within moist-soil habitats and ditches, often on drier sites.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Leaf sheaths are hairy, leaf blades are smooth and hairless. Fringed membrane at the junction of the leaf sheath and leaf base (ligule), distinct hairs on leaf margins. stems and leaves: Stems lie flat or prostrate, with tips growing upward. Leaves smooth and hairless, even appearing waxy, 1½ to 6 in. long and ¼ to ½ in. wide. seed clusters: Distinctive long spikelets, flattened. Seed cluster 6 to 12 in. long with two to six branches. July to October. seed: Yellowish, elongated and slightly flattened, ∕₁₆ to ⅛ in. long. similar plants: Browntop millet (Urochloa ramosa; p. 240). Synonym Brachiaria platyphylla (Radford et al. 1968).

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth

Typical midsummer growth

Young seed clusters

Flowers and developing seed cluster

141

Southern wildrice, giant cutgrass Zizaniopsis miliacea

GRASSES

Native; invasive; ZIMI; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial grass spreading by rhizomes, forming dense clumping colonies. Can be very tall (9 ft.), but normally 6 ft. or less. Common on shorelines or growing in shallow water; more common along river shorelines and lakes than in managed moist-soil habitats. Often associated with infrequently disturbed soils.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems smooth, thick, and highly jointed. Leaves flat, broad (up to 30 in. long and 1½ in. wide), with smooth surfaces but margins very sharp (hence the name cutgrass). seed clusters: Seed clusters many branched and widely spreading. Numerous spikelets often white and always drooping, then turning brown to purplish brown as seeds mature. May to July. seed: Small (about ₁⁄₁₀ in. long), egg-shaped, and yellowish. similar plants: Because of similarity in common names, giant cutgrass or southern wildrice is often confused with annual wildrice (Zizania aquatica; ZIAQ) and rice cutgrasses (Leersia spp.; p. 118). Seed clusters of annual wildrice are erect, whereas those of giant cutgrass are drooping.

Poaceae

Seed cluster

Grass clump at edge of wetland

Smooth, jointed stem

143

Yellowfruit sedge Carex annectens

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CAAN6; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial herb usually growing from underground rhizomes, clump-forming. Located on moist to wet edges of wetlands, especially areas that are not disturbed (i.e., not disked or plowed often) but are not covered by a tree or shrub canopy.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem three-sided, 1 to 3½ ft. tall. Leaves ₁⁄₁₀ in. wide, originating near base of stem, and may exceed height of stem, although none may occur. flowers: Single vertical flowering structure with many small spikes, which may appear continuous or slightly clumped. March to June. fruit and seed: Fruit a two-sided, lens-shaped, rounded nutlet. Nutlets appear stacked atop each other, each within a reddish brown perigynium (sac-like structure). similar plants: Leaf arrangement is similar to those of Rhynchospora spp. (RHYNC3). Carex is the largest genus of plants in the southeastern United States, with more than 150 species that are mostly native and noninvasive. Eastern fox sedge (Carex triangularis; CATR6) and fox sedge (C. vulpinoidea; CAVU2) are fairly common in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Cyperaceae

Vertical flower structures

Vertical flower structures

Plant with flowers in typical habitat

perigyni

achenes

145

Foxtail sedges Carex crus-corvi, C. stipata

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CACR8, CAST5; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial herbs usually growing from underground rhizomes, clump-forming. Common along moist to wet edges, especially areas that are not disturbed (i.e., not disked or plowed often) but are not covered by a tree or shrub canopy. These are relatively tall Carex species.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem three-sided, may reach 3 ft. tall. Leaves ¼ in. wide, originating near base of stem, although none may occur. flowers: Single vertical flowering structure with many small spikes, which may appear continuous or slightly clumped. Spikes are particularly long and narrow, and seed cluster may be 3 to 5 in. long. March to June. fruit and seed: Two-sided, lens-shaped nutlet contained within brown (Carex crus-corvi) or greenish (C. stipata) elongated, noticeably veined perigynium (sac-like structure). similar plants: Carex is the largest genus of plants in the southeastern United States, with more than 150 species that are usually native and noninvasive. Members of both Carex and Cyperus are similar and can be most easily distinguished by the seed cluster. Specifically, Carex nutlets are contained in a sac-like structure (perigynium) subtended by a scale, whereas Cyperus only have achenes (small seed-looking fruits containing one seed each) and each flowering spike is flattened (hence the common name flatsedge).

Cyperaceae

Flowers (Carex crus-corvi)

Carex stipata

Example of triangular stem

Flowers (Carex crus-corvi)

Typical growth (Carex crus-corvi)

perigynia

nutlet

147

Frank’s sedge Carex frankii

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CAFR3; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial herb usually growing from underground rhizomes, clump-forming. Common along moist to wet edges of wetlands, especially areas that are not disturbed (i.e., not disked or plowed often) and usually not covered by a dense tree or shrub canopy, such as ditches, stream sides, or marsh edges.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem three-sided, 1 to 2½ ft. tall. Leaves, ₁⁄₁₀ to ¼ in. wide, originating near base of stem and upward on stem, although none may occur. flowers: Dense flowering structure that resembles a tube with short spikes, which is composed of densely packed individual flowers. March to June. fruit and seed: Three-sided nutlet contained within perigynium (sac-like structure), egg-shaped, with the narrower end at the connecting base and a beak on the other end, subtended by an awned scale. similar plants: Also referred to using the synonym Carex aureolensis (goldenfruit sedge). Leaf arrangement is similar to Rhynchospora spp. (RHYNC3). Carex is the largest genus of plants in the southeastern United States, with more than 150 species that are mostly native and noninvasive.

Cyperaceae

Typical plant and flowers

Typical plant, close-up

Flower arrangement

perigynia

nutlets

Maturing perigynia and nutlets

149

Long’s sedge Carex longii

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CALO5; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial herb usually growing from underground rhizomes, clump-forming. Common along moist to wet edges of wetlands, especially areas that are not disturbed (i.e., not disked or plowed often) but are not covered by a tree or shrub canopy.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem three-sided, 1 to 2½ ft. tall. Leaves thin (∕₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in. wide), originate near base of stem, although none may occur. flowers: Single, round to oval, vertical flowering structure with many small spikes, which may appear continuous or slightly clumped. The plant fruits from spring until the first frost, unlike other Carex spp. that generally have finished flowering by midsummer. March to first frost. fruit and seed: Two-sided, lens-shaped, oblong nutlet contained within a perigynium (sac-like structure) that is green to drab brown. similar plants: Leaf arrangement is similar to Rhynchospora spp. (RHYNC3). Greenwhite sedge (Carex albolutescens; CAAL5), shortbeak sedge (C. brevior; CABR10), tissue sedge (C. hyalina; CAHY2), troublesome sedge (C. molesta; CAMO11), kidneyshape sedge (C. reniformis; CARE17), and blunt broom sedge (C. tribuloides; CATR7).

Cyperaceae

Typical growth

Young plant

Typical midsummer growth

Flowers

perigynia

nutlets

151

Shallow sedge Carex lurida

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CALU5; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial that occupies seasonally inundated ditches, shallow wetlands, stream banks, and moist areas under tree canopy or open areas. Does not usually occur in deep-water areas, except on open, stable shorelines.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Appears like a typical grass with long, arrow-shaped leaves. As seedling matures, a three-sided stem appears, differentiating it from a grass. stems and leaves: Stems are noticeably three-angled and rigid, up to 3 ft. tall. Leaves to nearly ½ in. wide and up to 3 ft. long, slightly serrated, with a distinct midrib. flowers: Female flowers form a cluster of spikes, resembling a cluster of bladder-shaped structures. Spring to early summer. fruit and seed: Three-sided hard fruit (achene) with a long hair-like projection from one end, contained within a perigynium (sac-like structure). similar plants: Members of both Carex and Cyperus are similar and may be most easily distinguished from one another by the fruiting structures (perigynium and nutlets). Specifically, Carex achenes are contained in a sac-like structure (perigynium) subtended by a scale, whereas Cyperus only have achenes (small seed-looking fruits containing one seed each) and each flowering spike is flattened (hence the common name flatsedge).

Cyperaceae

Flowering plant

Developing flowers

Plant with sac-like structures (perigynia)

Mature plant with two stalks of perigynia

achenes

perigynia

153

Globe flatsedge, round sedge Cyperus echinatus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CYEC2; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial growing from underground swollen base or rhizomes. May grow in moist or upland sites. Common in moderately disturbed areas, such as roadside ditches or field margins.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems triangular, three-edged, up to 3 ft. tall. Flat grasslike leaves (about ₁⁄₁₀ in. wide), with a deep channel in each leaf, radiate from the top of the stem. flowers: Small round clumps of flowering structures or spikes emerge from a single erect stem. Flowers often mature and drop to the ground by early autumn. April to July. fruit and seed: Clusters of flowers produce a spikey ball composed of smaller achenes. Achenes are three-angled and reddish brown at maturity. similar plants: There are 122 Cyperus species found within the southeastern United States. Yellow nutsedge seeds (Cyperus esculentus; p. 158) and globe flatsedge (C. croceus; CYCR6).

Cyperaceae

Mature flowers

Typical plant

Flowers

perigynia achenes

155

Redroot flatsedge, fragrant flatsedge Cyperus erythrorhizos, C. odoratus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CYER2, CYOD; FACW (C. odoratus); OBL (C. erythrorhizos)

habits and habitat: Annuals or occasionally perennials growing from seeds or underground rhizomes. Common on open and wet moist-soil sites, shorelines, and poorly drained soils.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems triangular, three-edged, up to 4 ft. but normally less than 2 ft. tall. Flat grass-like leaves (about ¼ in. wide), green or olive green, radiate from the ends of stems and bases of flower clusters. flowers: Flowers form in groups of long, flat spikes terminating on the end of each stem. Plants often reach maturity in late summer and are obscured by other vegetation. May to July. fruit and seed: Very small, red or brown, two- or three-sided achene (small seed-like fruit containing one seed each). similar plants: There are 122 Cyperus species within southeastern United States.

Cyperaceae

Typical growth (Cyperus erythrorhizos)

Typical mature plant (Cyperus odoratus)

Mature flowers (Cyperus erythrorhizos)

achenes

157

Yellow nutsedge, chufa Cyperus esculentus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Exotic; often invasive; CYES; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial growing from underground rhizomes or tubers. Plant begins growing as early as March. Common on open and wet moist-soil sites and moist upland areas, including ditches, agricultural fields, and urban areas. Very persistent and difficult to eradicate.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems triangular, three-edged, up to 2 ft. tall. Flat grass-like leaves (∕₁₆ to nearly ¼ in. wide) emerge from end of the stem, but leaves are sometimes whorled. Underground tubers (see photo) are common. flowers: Flowers yellow and whorled, given a spikey appearance. June to October. fruit and seed: A hard three-sided fruit (achene) from each flower; at maturity yellow to reddish brown achenes fall separately or with the spikelet as a unit. similar plants: Redroot flatsedge and fragrant flatsedge (Cyperus erythrorhizos and C. odoratus; p. 156). In C. esculentus rhizomes always terminate in a tuber, whereas in nutgrass (C. rotundus; p. 162) the tubers are produced in chains.

Cyperaceae

Typical summer growth on mudflat

Developing plant

Flowers

seeds

tubers

achenes

159

Marsh flatsedge Cyperus pseudovegetus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; CYPS; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial, grows from underground swollen stem base or rhizomes. Common in seasonally inundated ditches, shallow wetlands, stream banks, and moist areas. Usually not in deep-water areas, except on open, stable shorelines.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem triangular, three-edged, usually coarsely ribbed, up to 3 ft. tall, but generally much shorter. Arrow-shaped leaves (up to ½ in. wide) form a cluster emerging from the terminal end of the stem like a wheel spoke. Few leaves occur at the base of the stem. flowers: Small clumps of flattened flowers form dense round-looking structures (branches), which turn brown when mature. May to June. fruit and seed: Prolific achene producer. Very small black seeds are within achenes, each with a long, brown, stiff bristle extending from one end. similar plants: Woodrush flatsedge (Cyperus entrerianus; CYEN2; a nonnative invasive weed increasing in frequency, especially in southern Mississippi), tropical flatsedge (C. surinamensis; CYSU), and green flatsedge (C. virens; CYVI2). Flowering heads similar in appearance to those of some Scirpus spp. (SCIRP).

Cyperaceae

Typical plant growth

Flowers

Typical midsummer growth

Flowers

achenes

161

Nutgrass, purple nutsedge Cyperus rotundus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Exotic; CYRO; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial, occupies seasonally inundated ditches, shallow wetlands, stream banks, and moist disturbed areas. Usually not occurring in deep-water areas, unless on open shorelines or stable hummocks. Tolerates disturbance, such as mowing, better than other Cyperus spp.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Grass-like with long, arrow-shaped leaves. As seedling matures, a slightly three-sided stem appears, differentiating it from a grass. stems and leaves: Stems are three-angled, shorter than most other Cyperus spp. (½ to 1 ft. tall). Leaves (up to ¼ in. wide) are slightly serrated, originate from any point along the stem, and have a deep midrib. Stem and leaves are often very dark green. flowers: Female flowers form a cluster at the terminal end of the stem. Distinctive and long but not densely clustered seeds heads, which can be light brown to dark brown or purple. July to September. fruit and seed: Very small, three-sided, hard, black one-seeded fruit (achene), sharply angled and distinctive. Rarely produces viable seed. similar plants: Members of both Carex and Cyperus are similar and may be most easily distinguished from one another by the seed cluster. Specifically, Carex seeds are contained in a sac-like structure (a perigynium) and subtended by a scale, whereas Cyperus only have achenes (small seedlooking fruits containing one seed each) and each flowering spike is flattened (hence the common name flatsedge). Cyperus rotundus produces tubers in chains, and rhizomes do not always terminate in a tuber, as seen in yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus; p. 158).

Cyperaceae

Individual plants in cluster (midsummer)

Flower (midsummer)

Typical plant with flowers

Close-up of growth cluster near ground

achenes

163

Spikerush, blunt spikerush Eleocharis spp. (E. obtusa common in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley)

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; ELEOC, ELOB2; OBL

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial. Often grows in shallow-water areas and wet mudflats, forming small clumps or spreading colonies. Some species produce rhizomes.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are unbranched and round, 3 in. to 1 ft. tall. No typical leaves, but rather bladeless sheaths over the stem. flowers: Flowers are variable, but generally a terminal spike of closely overlapping scale-like structures that conceal nutlets. Can flower year-round depending on water conditions and temperature. Flowering common in early spring and summer on shallowly flooded (1 to 3 in. deep), open marshes. fruit and seed: Shiny, two- or three-sided hard nutlet (about ∕₁₆ in. long), depending on species, with hardened base and often reddish brown. This genus is characterized by a cap (tubercle) on top of the seed. similar plants: Differentiation of Eleocharis spp. can be difficult, but may be done using the seeds or terminal spike characteristics. Eleocharis obtusa (pictured) is a common species. Although the common name of this plant is spikerush, it is a sedge. Confusion exists because many Eleocharis spp. have stems that appear round and not angular like most sedges.

Cyperaceae

Typical growth (E. obtusa)

Typical midsummer growth (E. obtusa)

Flowers (E. obtusa)

Typical midsummer growth (E. obtusa)

nutlets

165

Squarestem spikerush Eleocharis quadrangulata

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; ELQU; OBL

habits and habitat: Emergent perennial, often growing in wet, but shallow areas and forming clumps and mats connected by rhizomes. Common on lake shores or marsh edges, but not tolerant of disturbance or long dry periods.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems are robust, unbranched, and square, 6 in. to 3 ft. tall. No typical leaves, but rather bladeless sheaths over the stem at the base. flowers: Terminal spike of closely overlapping scale-like structures that conceal nutlets. Can flower year-round depending on water conditions and temperature. Usually June to September. fruit and seed: Shiny, two-sided (biconvex), hard, brown nutlet, up to ¼ in. long, with hardened base that is often reddish brown. Nutlet egg-shaped in outline, with the narrower end connecting to the terminal spike. This genus is characterized by a cap (tubercle) on top of the seed. similar plants: Larger than most other Eleocharis spp. and with distinctive robust square stem. Gulf Coast spikerush (E. cellulosa; ELCE) and jointed spikesedge (E. equisetoides; ELEQ).

Cyperaceae

Characteristic monotypic patch of squarestem spikerush

Typical stem and flower

Typical stem and flower

Flowers at different levels of maturity

nutlets

167

Beakrush, beaksedge, shortbristle horned beaksedge Rhynchospora corniculata

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; rarely invasive; RHCO2; OBL

habits and habitat: Tufted annual or perennial herb. Clump-forming and spread by underground rhizomes. Tolerant of flooding during the growing season and common in moist areas and woodlands. May occur interspersed within stands of other invasive wetland plants such as swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides; p. 84). Can spread by fragmentation of rhizomes.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Triangular-shaped stems that may be smooth or hairy and branched or unbranched, may reach 4 to 5 ft. tall. Three leaves (¼ to ½ in. wide) may grow from each node; leaf blade smooth with hairy edges, emerging from closed leaf sheath. flowers: Large, yellowish brown, tufted flowers with 5 to 13 bristles. April to July. fruit and seed: Tear-drop shaped achene (small seed-like fruit containing one seed each), reddish brown and turning to black by autumn or winter, with long narrow stiff hairs. Long beak on seed gives this plant its name of beakrush. similar plants: Several similar species may occur throughout the southeastern United States. Narrowfruit horned beaksedge (Rhynchospora inundata; RHIN7) is very similar and occurs in similar habitats, but is less common. Broadfruit horned beaksedge (R. careyana; RHCA13) is also similar but is restricted to the lower coastal plain areas of Mississippi.

Cyperaceae

Typical monotypic growth

Typical late-summer growth

Mature flowers and leaves

achene

169

Woolgrass Scirpus cyperinus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; SCCY; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, often grows in colonies or clumps in open, wet moist-soil sites or along shorelines of permanent water. Intolerant of growing-season flooding and frequent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Triangular or softly angled rounded stem, may be hollow, and reaches 4 to 5 ft. tall. Leaves are ∕₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in. wide and shiny and leathery, especially in older leaves. flowers: Twice-branching tufts of drooping brown flowers. Large tufts (greater than 3 by 3 in.) appear very soft and airy. June to August. fruit and seed: Small, two-sided, oval achene (seed-like fruit containing one seed each), with woolly tufts of stiff hairs emerging from the larger end. similar plants: Few, as this is a very distinct, large, tufted, perennial Scirpus species.

Cyperaceae

Typical growth

Typical plant

achenes

Tufted flowers

seeds

171

Tapertip rush Juncus acuminatus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; JUAC; OBL

habits and habitat: Perennial, grows from underground rhizomes, clusters of flowers emerge at the end of the stem and may appear grass-like. Common on open, wet moist-soil sites that have not received recent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems round and usually unbranched, emerging from the base, generally less than 3 ft. tall. Leaves are slender and cylindrical, but usually slightly tapering at both ends, circular in cross section, and smooth. flowers: Clusters of 3 to 10 flowers emerge laterally from tip of the stem in dense groups. Tufted and yellowish brown in appearance. June to August. seed: A capsular fruit with many small (less than ₁⁄₃₂ in.), round, reddish or brown seeds distinguishes Juncus from sedges, which have one-seeded fruits. similar plants: Seed cluster slightly similar to that of marsh flatsedge (Cyperus pseudovegetus; p. 160), but can be differentiated by round versus edged stem. The differentiation of many Juncus spp. can be difficult.

Juncaceae

Typical growth

Flowers

Tufts caused by mites, common in all Juncus spp.

Mature flower clusters at tip of stem

capsules

seeds

173

Whiteroot rush, needlepod rush Juncus brachycarpus, J. scirpoides

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; JUBR, JUSC; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennials, grow from underground rhizomes or seeds. Occurs on open, wet moist-soil sites that have not received recent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems round and usually unbranched, emerging from the base, may reach 3 ft. tall. Leaves are elongated and flat, but often inconspicuous or absent. flowers: Flower clusters may emerge from stem tips or midstem and can be singular or in groups of three or more, each with its own stalk. Clusters are round and spikey with many small flowers. June to October. seed: Many small (less than ₁⁄₃₂ in.), tear-drop shaped seeds per flower or capsular fruit. similar plants: Seed cluster similar to globe flatsedge (Cyperus echinatus; p. 154), but can be differentiated by round (Juncus) versus edged (Cyperus) stem. Also similar to roundhead rush (J. validus; p. 180) and manyhead rush (J. polycephalus; JUPO). The differentiation of many Juncus spp. can be difficult.

Juncaceae

Typical growth

Flowers

Flowers at stem tip and midstem

capsules

seeds

175

Leathery rush Juncus coriaceus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; JUCO4; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial, grows from underground rhizomes, clusters of flowers emerge from stem tips, usually one flower per branch. Occurs on open, wet moist-soil sites that have not had recent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems round and branched after emerging from the base, 1 to 2 ft. tall. Leaves are slender and cylindrical, but usually slightly tapering at both ends, circular in cross section, and smooth. flowers: Distinct round clusters of flowers emerge from stem tips and midstem. Flower clusters usually do not occur in groups, although there is usually more than one cluster per stem branch. June to September. seed: A capsular fruit with many tiny (less than ₁⁄₃₂ in.), reddish or brown, round seeds. Large number of seeds distinguishes Juncus from sedges (Cyperus), which have one-seeded fruits. similar plants: Can be distinguished from sedges by round stem. The differentiation of many Juncus spp. can be difficult.

Juncaceae

Typical midsummer growth

Flowers (midsummer)

Flowers at stem tip and midstem

capsules

seeds

177

Common rush, juncus Juncus effusus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; JUEF; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial, grows from underground rhizomes, grasslike, with tufts of flowers emerging laterally from midstem. Occurs on open, wet moist-soil sites, intolerant of regular soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems round and usually unbranched, may reach 3 ft. tall. Appears to lack leaves as they are represented as only a leaf sheath. flowers: Tufts of flowers emerge laterally from midstem and appear as a loose clump of soft brown material. June to September. fruit and seed: Capsular fruit with many small, reddish or brown, round seeds. Large number of seeds distinguishes Juncus from sedges (Cyperus), which have one-seeded fruits. similar plants: Greater poverty rush (J. anthelatus; JUAN3). Needlegrass rush (J. roemerianus; JURO) is an abundant, dominant species in coastal, Gulf marshes. The differentiation of many Juncus spp. can be difficult.

Juncaceae

Typical early-summer stand

Midstem flowers

Maturing fruits

capsules

seeds

179

Roundhead rush Juncus validus

SEDGES A ND R U SH E S

Native; JUVA2; FACW

habits and habitat: Perennial, grows from underground rhizomes, clusters of flowers emerge laterally from midstem, usually one flower per branch. Occurs on open, wet moist-soil sites that have not had recent soil disturbance.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stems round, emerging and branching from the base, may exceed 3 ft. tall. Leaves are cylindrical, but usually slightly tapering at both ends, and smooth. flowers: Round clusters of flowers emerge from tip and midstem. Flower clusters usually do not occur in dense groups, although there is usually more than one cluster per stem branch. July to September. fruit and seed: Each capsular fruit contains many small (about ₁⁄₃₂ in.), reddish or brown, round seeds. similar plants: Seed cluster similar to that of globe flatsedge (Cyperus echinatus; p. 154), but can be differentiated by round versus edged stem. Also similar to whiteroot rush and needlepod rush (Juncus brachycarpus, J. scirpoides; p. 174), but flowers less clumped. The differentiation of many Juncus spp. can be difficult.

Juncaceae

Flower clusters at tips and midstem

Round flower clusters at midstem

Stem terminus, midsummer

Round stem and previous year’s growth

capsules

seeds

181

Trumpet creeper Campsis radicans

VI NES

Native; invasive; CARA2; FAC

habits and habitat: Perennial, woody trailing or climbing vine. At times invasive in the understory when creeping across moist-soil habitats and forming dense clumps.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Woody vine trailing or climbing using aerial roots. Opposite, divided (pinnately compound) into 7 to 15 small leaflets with toothed margins, smooth and shiny above, lighter green below, with or without hairy veins. flowers: Five to 20 red to reddish orange tubular or trumpet-shaped flowers, 2½ to 3 in. long. June to September. fruit and seed: Fruit is a capsule, 4 to 7 in. long, ¾ to 1 in. wide, green in August and turning grayish brown into autumn and winter. Capsules split to release papery, winged seeds, but can persist on vines through spring. September to first frost. similar plants: Peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea; p. 196), balloon vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum; p. 192), and groundcherry (Physalis spp.; p. 194).

Bignoniaceae

Typical invasive growth

Variation in leaf shapes

Flowers

Maturing seed capsules

183

Morningglory Ipomoea coccinea, I. cordatotriloba, I. hederacea, I. pandurata, I. purpurea

VI NES

Native; invasive; IPCO3, IPCO8, IPPA; exotic; invasive; IPHE, IPPU2; FAC to FACU

habits and habitat: Annuals or perennials, highly invasive creeping and climbing vines, exotic species much more noxious than native species. May invade wetlands from levees during dry periods, emerges and propagates quickly following soil disturbance. Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Typically two small butterfly-shaped cotyledon leaves; first true leaves are heart-shaped. stems and leaves: Stems slender or stout, twining climbing by spiraling around structures, hairless or with hairs. Leaves are simple, heart-shaped to arrowhead-shaped, sometimes lobed, 1½ to 5 in. long and wide. flowers: Funnel-shaped, ½ in. long, white, blue, or purple. Flowers open mainly in the morning. May to September. fruit and seed: Spherical to ovoid capsules becoming brown as plant matures. Releases three or four wedge-shaped seeds, dark, ⅛ to / in. long. Seeds are relatively similar among Ipomoea spp. July to October. similar plants: Smallflower morningglory (Jacquemontia tamnifolia; p. 188).

Convolvulaceae

Typical invasive growth

Variation in leaf shapes

Flower variation and seedling (lower right)

Ipomoea hederacea leaves and flower

185

Wright’s morningglory, five-leaf morningglory Ipomoea wrightii

VI NES

Exotic; rarely invasive; IPWR; FACW

habits and habitat: Annual trailing or climbing vine. Less common than other Ipomoea species, but often locally common. A weed of crops throughout the southeastern United States.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Typically two small butterfly-shaped cotyledon leaves. First true leaves are distinctly lobed with three to seven sections, with pointed ends. stems and leaves: Stem thin and trailing or climbing without hairs, can reach 7 ft. tall. Leaves ¾ to 2½ in. long, palmately divided (all leaflets arise from the same point), most commonly with five leaflets. flowers: Typical morningglory flowers with darker center, pink to light purple, ¾ to 1 in. long. Summer to late autumn. fruit and seed: Distinctly coiled or spiraled, springy stalk holds a brown hairless fruit capsule, which contains several dark brown seeds, usually with long white hairs attached. September to first frost. similar plants: Flowers similar to other Ipomoea spp. (p.184) but generally smaller, leaves distinctly different.

Convolvulaceae

Typical growth

Typical leaf

Flower and springy stem

Fruit capsule

SEEDS SIMILAR TO OTHER MORNINGGLORIES (Ipomoea spp.), p. 184

187

Smallflower morningglory, hairy clustervine Jacquemontia tamnifolia

VI NES

Native; rarely invasive; JATA; FACU

habits and habitat: Annual or perennial vine. Colonizer of disturbed soils, spreading quickly by seeds that persist in soils. Often occurs on levees or recently disked higher ground of moist-soil habitats.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Upright when young, light greenish stem. stems and leaves: Stem greenish gray, stout, hairy, and trailing and twining. Leaves simple, soft, hairy, alternate, and heart-shaped, 1 to 5 in. long and ¾ to 4 in. wide, with a noticeable indented center and lateral veins. flowers: Dense clusters of small blue flowers on rounded hairy heads, opening mostly during morning and evening. Flowers in the same head do not bloom at the same time. July to November. fruit and seed: Fruit a spherical capsule, 1½ to 2½ in. wide, light brown, releasing four light brown seeds, ₁⁄₁₀ in. long and ∕₁₆ in. wide. July to December. similar plants: Morningglory (Ipomoea spp.; p. 184, 186).

Convolvulaceae

Typical growth

Typical heart-shaped leaf

Developing flower, vine, and leaf

Flowers afternoon (top) and morning (bottom)

189

Red vine, American buckwheat vine, ladies eardrops Brunnichia ovata

VI NES

Native; invasive; BROV4; FACW

habits and habitat: Herbaceous to woody vine climbing by tendrils. Growth normally occurs from rootstock. Often forms monotypic stands and outcompetes other herbaceous vegetation. May spread vegetatively following soil disturbance, and seeds spread during floods.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Herbaceous to woody vine. Leaves alternate, simple, ovate to heart-shaped at base, normally 2 to 6 in. long. Leaves can turn reddish brown when drought or flood stressed. flowers: Clusters of greenish yellow, tubular flowers in hanging clusters. June to July. fruit and seed: Fruit ¾ to 1 in. long, pink, with long, flattened wing-like base, turning brown at maturity. Nutlets ¼ in. long, brown, three-angled, with noticeable ridges. August to September. similar plants: Occurs in similar habitats as climbing hempvine (Mikania scandens; MISC), but leaves are deeply heart-shaped in climbing hempvine and flowers also differ substantially. Mikania scandens less common than Brunnichia ovata in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Polygonaceae

Typical invasive growth

Typical red color of young leaves

Cluster of flowers

Leaf

191

Balloon vine Cardiospermum halicacabum

VI NES

Exotic; invasive; CAHA13; FAC

habits and habitat: Diminutive shrubby annual vine, climbing by tendrils, rarely up to 12 ft. Normally carpets wet, low areas, often outcompeting other herbaceous vegetation. Typified by greenish membranous balloon-shaped seed capsule that floats on water and is blown by wind for dispersal.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Light green and succulent at young stages, with thin weak tendrils. stems and leaves: Thin, weak stem with axillary tendrils. Leaves are alternate, biternately divided, and with dissected lobes, highly serrated, ¾ to 1½ in. long, ½ to 1 in. wide, slightly hairy. flowers: Tiny (∕₁₆ to ₁⁄₁₀ in. long), delicate flower, with four white petals. (See circled flower in photo for size comparison with balloon-shaped seed capsule.) June to July. fruit and seed: Fruit a green capsule (brown at maturity), hairy, membranous, inflated, balloon-shaped, up to ½ in. wide. Capsules float on water and are blown by wind for dispersal. Seeds white and black, ¼ to ⅜ in. wide. August to September. similar plants: Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans; p. 182), groundcherry (Physalis spp.; p. 194), and peppervine (Ampelopsis arborea; p. 196).

Sapindaceae

Invasive growth

Young plant

Flower

seedling

mature seed capsule and seed

Seed capsule (arrow) and flower (circle)

193

Groundcherry, cutleaf groundcherry, longleaf groundcherry Physalis spp., P. angulata, P. longifolia

VI NES

Native; invasive; PHYSA, PHAN5, PHLO4; FAC (P. angulata, P. longifolia); UPL (some Physalis spp.)

habits and habitat: Perennials from rhizomes, 8 in. to 3 ft. high. Moderately invasive and locally abundant. Many Physalis spp. are escaped garden varieties and occur irregularly throughout the Mississippi Alluvial Valley in moist-soil habitats. Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem erect, ribbed, highly branched, with hairs. Leaf arrangements, shapes, and margins highly variable among species flowers: Flowers occur singularly and on stalks; color, size, and shape vary dependent upon species. May to September. fruit and seed: Berry encased in a papery capsule that is green and turns brown with maturity, from late summer into autumn. Berry generally ¼ to ½ in. in diameter, of varying color from yellow to black at maturity dependent upon species. Berry contains many flat, round seeds varying in color from yellow to brown. August to October. similar plants: Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans; p. 182) and balloon vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum; p. 192).

Solanaceae

Typical growth

Vines, leaves, and husked fruits (top) and flower (bottom)

Typical leaves (top) and husked seed capsule (bottom)

195

Peppervine Ampelopsis arborea

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; rarely invasive; AMAR5; FAC

habits and habitat: High-climbing, deciduous woody vine, occasionally low and bushy, climbing by tendrils from woody rootstocks. Frequent in wet to moist openings, 1 to 2 years following soil disturbance, often climbing bottomland hardwood trees and shrubs, becoming invasive at times when occurring in low-growing bush form.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Rarely observed. First true leaves compound, tendrils absent. Often grows from root crown, young stems light green. stems and leaves: Round stem, young stems light green, turning reddish to purple and then light tan, with light-colored lenticels; pith white. Alternate leaves 4 to 10 in. long and wide, divided into wide oval or diamondshaped leaflets (bipinnately compound), with large serrate teeth, green above and pale with hairy veins below. flowers: Inconspicuous flowers, in clusters ¾ to 1½ in. wide, and occurring opposite leaves. June to October. fruit and seed: Fruit spherical, ¼ to ½ in. wide, green becoming shiny red to black or deep purple, containing two to five black seeds, resembling peppercorns. September to December. similar plants: Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans; p. 182), balloon vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum; p. 192), and groundcherry (Physalis spp.; p. 194).

Vitaceae

Young undeveloped green fruit

Typical diamond-shaped leaflet

Typical growth at eye level on trees

Mature fruits

197

Red maple Acer rubrum

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; ACRU; FAC

habits and habitat: A large deciduous tree that can reach 115 ft. tall. Matures at 90 ft. and has a rapid growth rate of 35 ft. over 20 years, but a relatively short life span (about 50 years). As an early-succession tree, it is common in disturbed moist bottomlands, floodplains, stream banks, and pond margins.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are terminal, small (⅛ in. long), elongated oval, with overlapping scales. stems and leaves: Bark is smooth and reddish green, gray when the tree is young. Narrow scaly plates are present on the bark and become deep grooves with age. Stem has opposite branching. Leaves are simple, opposite, deciduous, 2 to 6 in. long, round, with at least three lobes and toothed margins; upper surface is smooth and dark green, lower surface is silver. flowers: Flowers occur in clusters opposite each other on the stem, bright red (sometimes yellow), with two whorled clusters of five petals. Appear as a drooping bell shape, and give the tree a red appearance at a distance. Flowers are present in the spring before the leaves appear. fruit and seed: Fruit (samara) is a double-winged cluster that grows on a long, skinny stalk. Papery wing is widest at the center margin, V-shaped, and ½ to ¾ in. long. Samaras develop at the same time as leaves. similar plants: Boxelder (Acer negundo; ACNE2), silver maple (A. saccharinum; ACSA2).

Aceraceae

Developing seeds (samara) and three-lobed leaves in spring

Bark and leaf

Developing seeds (samara) in spring

199

Baccharis, eastern baccharis Baccharis halimifolia

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; often invasive; BAHA; FAC

habits and habitat: Deciduous or semi-evergreen, densely branching, leafy shrub, occasionally appearing tree-like. Reaches 10 ft. tall and has a rapid growth rate of 3 ft. in only 2 to 3 years. Life span more than 50 years. Grows near water and moist-soil sites, often on edges of permanent pools. Common in bottomlands and moist uplands several years after clearcutting and in old fields.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are small, green, solitary, with four scales that are encased in resin. stems and leaves: Densely branching stem is slender, dark green with tan stripes, and round, with sticky resin on the surface. Leaves are simple, alternate, leathery, deciduous or semi-evergreen, 1½ to 2½ in. long, diamond-shaped becoming oval to elliptical toward the tip, with distinct teeth above the white-veined midline. flowers: Flowers (up to ½ in. long) are in bell-shaped heads on short stalks, have feathery white tufts that are enclosed in a group of leaf-like structures at the base of the flower. September to November. fruit and seed: Small (less than ½ in. long), terminally branching, oval clusters with a hard, dry, one-seeded fruit fused to the seed coat that is topped with white feathery hairs. Wind-dispersed seeds. October to November. similar plants: Saltwater false willow (Baccharis angustifolia; BAAN).

Asteraceae

Young single-stemmed plant

Typical summer growth

Developing flowers (early September)

Flowering (late September)

201

Bald cypress Taxodium distichum

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; TADI2; OBL

habits and habitat: Deciduous, densely branching tree. Reaches maturity at 130 ft. tall and has a rapid growth rate of 45 ft. over 20 years. Long life span of more than 100 years. Grows near water and wet moist-soil sites, often on the edges of or in more permanent bodies of water, and can withstand prolonged flooding. Occurrence usually indicates infrequent soil disturbance and year-round standing water.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are small, smooth, reddish brown, with numerous overlapping scales. stems and leaves: Trunk widens at the base and often has “knees” protruding from the water encircling the trunk. Bark is a gray ash color, with deep fissures and scaly overlapping plates. Bark appears fibrous and can be peeled into strips. Leaves are deciduous, two-ranked needles, ½ to ¾ in. long, appearing as flat green feathers. flowers: Male flower is a drooping, long panicle. Female flowers in drooping clusters, 3 to 5 in. long. Pollen shed March to April. fruit and seed: Female flower becomes a round cone with a leathery texture, with overlapping scales that are fused at the base. Cones disintegrate into three-winged seeds with irregular angles. September to November. similar plants: Pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens; TAAS).

Cupressaceae

Typical smaller tree growth

Branches and needles

Typical larger tree growth

Developing cones

203

Overcup oak Quercus lyrata

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QULY; OBL

habits and habitat: A medium to large canopy tree that can grow to 90 ft. tall. Moderate growth rate of 30 ft. over 20 years. Common in bottomland floodplains and on river banks, and most common in the coastal plains. Often located in bottomlands commonly flooded for long durations during winter.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are ⅛ in. long, oval, light brown, with fine hairs present. stems and leaves: Branches are spreading and often descend. Bark is grayish brown with deep furrows and scaly ridge plates. Leaves are alternate, deciduous, with deep-lobed margins with one to three teeth per lobe. Leaf blade is narrowly oval to oblong, 4 to 6½ in. long, 2 to 4 in. wide, and shiny above with fine white hairs below. flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on same tree as slender, yellowish green, staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, reddish, single spikes, located on twigs. Flowers appear with leaves in spring. fruit and seed: An oval to oblong, light brown nut (acorn) is produced annually. Cap is gray, covers most of the nut, and is covered with fine hairy scales. Acorns normally float, forming mats along shorelines and when caught on floating debris. similar plants: Swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii; QUMI).

Fagaceae

Mature tree in bottomland forest

Bark

Leaf

Bark and leaves

205

Water oak Quercus nigra

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QUNI; FAC

habits and habitat: A medium to large, shade-intolerant canopy tree that reaches 90 ft. at maturity and grows rapidly at 30 ft. in 20 years. It is a common tree occurring in both wet and dry sites, but most often associated with wet soils in floodplains.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are brown, ⅛ to ¼ in. long, oval with a pointed tip, with fine hairs. stems and leaves: Branches are upright and arching. Bark is thin, grayish brown, and smooth when young, with age turning dark and developing shallow ridges and grooves. Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, 2 to 4 in. long, and oval to oblong; may have one to three lobes at the leaf tip, with a wedge-shape base; tips can be bristle-tipped or rounded. flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on same tree as slender, light green, staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, green, and located on twigs. Flowers appear with leaves in spring. fruit and seed: A brown, spherical nut (acorn), ⅓ to ⅔ in. wide, with faint white striping. Saucer-shaped cap covers a quarter of the base. Acorns are produced every year but take 2 years to mature. similar plants: Some leaves may look like those of willow oak (Quercus phellos; p. 210).

Fagaceae

Typical leaves

Typical leaves

Leaves and bark

Developing acorns

207

Cherrybark oak Quercus pagoda

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QUPA5; FAC

habits and habitat: Large canopy tree that often grows more than 100 ft. tall. Common in floodplains along major rivers. Often occurs in regions of well-drained soils and rich upland sites.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are ¼ in. long, oval, usually light brown, and often covered in fine hairs. stems and leaves: Branches are ascending, can be very large, upright, and broad round form. Bark starts off smooth in young trees and then breaks into scaly ridges, somewhat resembling that of black cherry (Prunus serotina, PRSE2). Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, and 3½ to 12 in. long, with 5 to 11 lobed margins and round sinuses between lobes that extend nearly to the midrib; leaf surface green, underside with small hairs. flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on the same tree as staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, green, and located on twigs. Flowers appear with leaves in spring. fruit and seed: The nut (acorn) is round and brown and requires 2 years to mature. Cap is bowl-shaped but shallow and covers about a third of the mature nut. Acorns drop in autumn and winter. similar plants: Nuttall oak (Quercus texana; p. 214) and Shumard’s oak (Q. shumardii; p. 212).

Fagaceae

Typical bark and shiny green leaf surface

Green leaf surface and characteristic pagoda shape

Canopy leaves (underside is dull and hairy)

209

Willow oak Quercus phellos

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QUPH; FACW

habits and habitat: A medium to large canopy tree that can reach more than 90 ft. tall. Mature trees are 80 to 130 ft. tall and have a rapid growth rate of 60 ft. over 20 years. Often occurs in alluvial soils and along rivers and streams, common in transition areas between wetlands and uplands.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Terminal buds are ⅛ in. long, oval, smooth, and chestnut brown. stems and leaves: Branches are dense on trunk, especially in open habitats. Bark is dark gray, darkening with age; it has deep furrows, rough edges, and pink inner bark. Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, 2 to 5 in. long, and ½ to 1 in. wide. Leaf blade is narrow and linear, resembling that of black willow (Salix nigra; p. 228). flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on the same tree as slender, yellowish green, staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, green, and located on twigs. Catkins and flowers are produced in early spring, about a week before leaf buds open. fruit and seed: Nut (acorn) about ⅓ to ½ in. long, oval to slightly convex, with fine gray hairs. Cap is a shallow saucer-shape with scales on the surface and covers about a quarter of the nut. Acorns are noticeably smaller than those of other Quercus spp. Acorns are produced every year, but take 2 years to mature. similar plants: Laurel oak (Quercus laurifolia; QULA3) and water oak (Q. nigra; p. 206).

Fagaceae

Leaves Single leaf

Leaves and bark

Developing acorns

211

Shumard’s oak Quercus shumardii

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QUSH; FACW

habits and habitat: A large deciduous tree that matures at 110 ft. tall and has a moderate growth rate of 35 ft. over 20 years. The life span is more than 100 years. Common in well-drained soils along streams and rivers.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are grayish brown, ⁄ to ⅓ in. long, oval to elliptical, with a smooth surface. stems and leaves: Bark is gray, with dark grooves and lighter ridges; inner bark is light pink. Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, 4 to 8 in. long, with lobed margins that have two to five teeth per lobe and deep sinuses extending more than halfway to the midline. Leaves have bristle tips, shiny upper surfaces, and are pale green below. flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on same tree as slender, light green, staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, green, and located on twigs. Flowers appear with leaves in spring. fruit and seed: Nut (acorn) is oblong and brown. Cap is saucer-shaped, with thick blunt scales, and covers a third of the acorn. Acorns are produced every year but take 2 years to mature. similar plants: Cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda; p. 208) and Nuttall oak (Q. texana; p. 214).

Fagaceae

Leaves and bark

Bark of mature tree

Shiny upper surface of leaf

Typical deep-sinus leaves

213

Nuttall oak, Texas red oak Quercus texana

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; QUTE; OBL

habits and habitat: Large canopy tree, often with a single trunk, that matures around 120 ft. tall. Grows rapidly and can reach 40 ft. tall in only 20 years. Life span is more than 100 years. Common in wet clay soils along streams and marshes.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are round, grayish black, smooth, with some hairs at the bud tip. stems and leaves: Bark is brownish gray with flat ridges and shallow fissures. Leaves are oval, simple, alternate, and deciduous, with lobed margins that have one to three teeth per lobe and deep sinuses along the midline. flowers: Two sexes in separate clusters on same tree as slender, yellowish green, staminate catkins (male) and pistillate flowers (female). Female flowers (later become acorns) are very small, green, and located on twigs. Flowers appear with leaves in spring. fruit and seed: Nut (acorn) striped, oblong to oval, reddish brown, and ⅔ to 1 in. long. The cap is cup-shaped with fine hairs on the inner and outer surface, covers about a third of the nut. Acorns produced every year but take 2 years to mature. similar plants: Very similar to pin oak (Quercus palustris; QUPA2), which becomes increasingly common toward the northern edge of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Also, Shumard’s oak (Q. shumardii; p. 212). A synonym is Quercus nuttallii.

Fagaceae

Leaves and bark

Leaves

Bark of mature tree

215

Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; LIST2; FAC

habits and habitat: A medium to large deciduous canopy tree that can reach 120 ft. tall. Reaches maturity at 100 ft. and has a rapid growth rate of 45 ft. over 20 years. Occurs in both wetland and upland sites, but develops best in moist-soil conditions. Often forms dense, even-aged thickets.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Terminal winter buds ¼ in. long, acute, with orangey brown scales. stems and leaves: Branches are thick with corky warts. Bark is gray, with vertically furrowed, round, thin ridges. Leaves are simple, deciduous, alternate, star-shaped with five pointed lobes, and toothed margins, 6 to 7 in. long. Three or more deep veins arise from one central point (palmate), with a bright green surface and dull underside. flowers: Male and female flowers occur on the same tree. Female flowers have no petals, are yellowish green (red tinged), and occur in numerous balled clusters (2 to 3 in. long) on hairless unbranched stalks at the end of an erect stem. Spring. fruit and seed: Fruit is a spiny ball (1 to 1½ in. in diameter) composed of many tiny capsules in a dense cluster held by a long stem. Each capsule contains one or two seeds. similar plants: Fruit similar to that of American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis; p. 222), but with distinct spines.

Hamamelidaceae

Leaves and bark

Star-shaped leaves

Ball with pores for seed capsules

Leaves

217

Rosemallow, hibiscus, marsh mallow Hibiscus spp.

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; HIBIS2; most occurring in moist-soil are OBL

habits and habitat: Large herbaceous annual or perennial herbs or shrubs that occur in brackish and freshwater marshes, marshy shorelines, lakes, streams, and ponds. Commonly grows in shallow water.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: New leaves are round with hairy petioles (leaf stems). First true leaves are alternate and irregularly shaped. Subsequent leaves vary by species. stems and leaves: Few to several stems from the base, all stems have velvety hair that wears with age. Leaves are alternate, some species with lobed leaves, deep sinuses, toothed margins, and dense hairs; others with heart-shaped to sword-shaped leaves. All leaves occur on long petioles absent of hair. flowers: Large, showy, single flowers on the upper part of the plant, each with five petals and 2 to 3 in. long. Flowers are often light yellow or white, fading to pink and concluding at the base as dark rose. June to October. fruit and seed: Beaked round capsule with stiff white hairs that splits to release several round, brown seeds with white spots. similar plants: None in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley.

Malvaceae

Typical plant growth

Typical plant and flower

Flower

Developed seed capsule (brown)

219

Green ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; FRPE; FACW

habits and habitat: A small to medium-sized, shade-tolerant tree that is typically multi-trunked and often crooked. Matures at 70 ft. tall and has a rapid growth rate of 35 ft. over 20 years. Occurs in moist sites, periodically flooded bottomlands, and along stream edges. Common in lowlands and can form monotypic dense stands after land clearing.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are brown, ⅛ in. long, usually smooth, with four scales. stems and leaves: Branches are slender twigs that are flattened at the leaf node. Bark is gray, with shallow scaly fissures that form a diamond shape. Leaves deciduous, opposite, and divided (pinnately compound), 16 to 30 in. long. Leaflets are oval with slender pointed tips, dark green on upper surface, and light green on the underside. flowers: Male and female flowers are very small, yellowish green, tentacleshaped clusters that occur on separate trees. Flowers usually produced as first leaves appear in spring (April). fruit and seed: Seed is enclosed in a one-seeded, brownish green, winged fruit (samara) that is 1 to 2 in. long. Paddle-shaped wings enclose half of the seed. Seed shape varies, but mostly diamond-shaped. August to October. similar plants: White ash (Fraxinus americana; FRAM2) and pumpkin ash (F. profunda; FRPR).

Oleaceae

Typical young growth

Stem, leaves, and samaras

Leaf and bark

Developing samaras

221

American sycamore Platanus occidentalis

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; PLOC; FACW

habits and habitat: A relatively large tree growing to 115 ft. tall, with a rapid growth rate of up to 65 ft. over 20 years. Matures at 100 ft. and has a long life span of more than100 years. Common along river banks with nutrient-rich soil and throughout bottomlands.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are terminal, ¼ to ⅓ in. long, usually solitary, with brown resinous scales. stems and leaves: Bark is reddish brown and can appear white with age. Typically the bark has a mottled appearance, with light and dark coloration a result of peeling bark. Bark tends to flake off, revealing a smooth, white trunk identifiable from a distance. Branches can be massive. Leaves are 4 to 7 in. long, three-veined, simple, deciduous, alternate, with fine hairs. Base is flat with a heart-shaped upper leaf with three to five lobes with short to long teeth along the margins. flowers: Male and female flowers occur on the same tree. Female flowers are very small, with three to six petals, and clustered into dark red spherical heads. April to May. fruit and seed: Fruit is a brown, spherical cluster (about 1 in. wide) on a 3to 6-in. stalk. Contains many small (½ in. long), hard, dry, winged, single seeds fused by a seed coat. September to November. similar plants: Fruit similar to that of sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua; p. 216), but without distinct spines.

Platanaceae

Young single-stemmed tree

Typical leaves

Typical bark

Typical mature form

223

Buttonbush Cephalanthus occidentalis

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; CEOC2; OBL

habits and habitat: Deciduous, densely branching, leafy shrub, occasionally appearing tree-like. Grows in or near water and wet moist-soil sites, often on edges of permanent pools. Intolerant of frequent soil disturbance and extended dry periods.

Distinguishing Characteristics stems and leaves: Stem is arching, stout, and often twisted. Bark is reddish brown and smooth, becoming grooved with age. Leaves green, deciduous, simple, opposite to whorled, oval to wedge-shaped, 4 to 7 in. long and 2 to 3½ in. wide, and frequently hairy with predominant veins. flowers: Numerous white flowers clustered into dense spherical heads, which are covered with long, soft, spike-shaped hairs. June to August. fruit and seed: Round dense mass of reddish brown nutlets (¾ in. wide) that persist into winter. One of the few woody plants with seeds that can germinate underwater. August to September. similar plants: Sometimes confused with several species of dogwoods (Cornus spp.; CORNU).

Rubiaceae

Young single-stemmed plant

Mature shrub in typical flooded habitat

Typical flowers (undeveloped flowers are green)

Developed seed cluster

225

Eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; PODE3; FAC

habits and habitat: A large shade-intolerant canopy tree that can reach 190 ft. tall at maturity. It has a rapid growth rate of 80 ft. over 20 years and a short life span of less than 50 years. Commonly found in floodplains and wet areas that are disturbed or recently cleared, but also grow well on upland sites.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Buds are oval, ¾ in. long, with six or seven scales, and secrete resin. stems and leaves: Branches are ascending and break easily. Bark is yellowish green and smooth, developing flat ridges and deep grooves with age. Leaves are heart-shaped, simple, alternate, deciduous, 3 to 5 in. long and 3 to 5 in. wide, with long leaf stalks that are leathery and stiff. flowers: Male and female flowers (both catkins) occur on separate trees. Male flowers are reddish, and female flowers are mostly green to yellowish green. Both male and female flowers hang in clusters (2 to 4 in. long). March to April. fruit and seed: Fruit is a small, green, cone-shaped capsule that is filled with numerous small seeds, each of which has an 8- to 12-in. long tuft of cotton hairs at the tip. similar plants: Swamp cottonwood (Populus heterophylla; POHE4).

Salicaceae

Young pioneering trees

Young tree

Deltoid leaf and young bark

Bark of mature tree

Maturing seed capsules

227

Black willow Salix nigra

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; SANI; OBL

habits and habitat: Shade-intolerant tree or shrub that often forms thickets. Can reach 50 ft. in 20 years. Occurs in swamps, stream banks, and sand and gravel bars. Frequently colonizes disturbed areas and poorquality soils.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Terminal buds are absent; lateral buds are reddish brown and ⅛ in. long. stems and leaves: Bark on large trees is light to dark gray, ridged and grooved, appearing to have long scaly plates. Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous. Leaf blade is a long, elliptical shape, 3 to 6 in. long, ¼ to ¾ in. wide; margins are very finely toothed. flowers: Male and female flowers occur on separate trees in yellowish green, cylindrical clusters (catkins). Flowers are produced before the leaves appear. March to May. fruit and seed: A small two-part capsule, with numerous seeds with cottony white hairs. Usually matures before all the leaves develop. similar plants: Sandbar willow (Salix interior; SAIN3).

Salicaceae

Young tree

Typical growth of mature trees

Stem and leaves

Flowers (April and May) and bark of mature tree

229

Sugarberry Celtis laevigata

TR EES A ND SH R UB S

Native; CELA; FACW

habits and habitat: Medium to large, deciduous, shade-tolerant tree that reaches maturity at 80 ft. tall and has a rapid growth rate of 35 ft. over 20 years. Grows in low areas that are periodically flooded, and common in floodplains and along streams.

Distinguishing Characteristics buds: Terminal buds are lacking. Lateral buds are chestnut brown, oval, 1⅛ in. long, with a sharp point and overlapping scales. stems and leaves: Branches are smooth and thin, but zigzag. Bark is gray and smooth when young, developing corky, warty bumps with age. Leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, oblong, typically 2½ to 5 in. long, with a few teeth along the margin and a set of asymmetrical veins arising from the base. flowers: Flowers are long-stalked clusters located in the lower leaves. Male flowers form clusters, and female flowers are usually solitary or paired. Male and female flowers can occur on the same tree or on separate trees. April to May. fruit and seed: Fruit is a thick, fleshy, orange to red, wrinkly ball (¼ to ½ in. wide) that contains a single seed and turns brown with maturity. August to October.

Ulmaceae

Typical growth in bottomland hardwood edge

Distinctive warty bumps on smooth bark

Fruit

Leaves

231

Japanese millet, billion-dollar grass Echinochloa frumentacea

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; ECFR; FACW

habits and habitat: Warm-season annual grass native to Asia. Planted in moist-soil wetlands as supplemental food for waterfowl and other seed-eating wildlife. Seed often broadcast on exposed mudflats in spring. Relatively quick to mature at 45 to 60 days.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Very similar to other native millets, with flattened red stem at base. stems and leaves: Stems to more than 4 ft. tall and up to ½ in. thick, hairless, flattened and red at base, often spreading along ground from clump before turning upward. Leaves are large, more than ½ in. wide. seed clusters: Seed clusters are dense, drooping, and dark purplish to blackish brown at maturity. June to first frost. seed: Seeds ∕₁₆ to ⅛ in. long, about ∕₁₆ in. wide, obtuse to shortly acute, yellow to brownish at maturity. similar plants: Resembles other wild millets (Echinochloa spp.; p. 108, 110, and 112). The designation of E. frumentacea as Japanese millet follows Bryson and DeFelice (2009), whereas Echinochloa esculenta is referred to as Japanese millet in the USDA PLANTS database.

Poaceae

Typical midsummer growth

Typical young plants on mudflat

Developed seed cluster

233

Rice Oryza glaberrima, O. sativa

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; ORGL2, ORSA; OBL

habits and habitat: Annual grasses. Flood adapted, growing best in very moist or partially inundated soil. Often planted April to May by broadcasting from a plane or drilling. Harvested in mid to late summer, and second crop (ratoon) may resprout and be harvested again or available to wildlife.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Deep green, erect grass. stems and leaves: Stem smooth, hairless, to 4 ft. tall. Leaf blades long and flat, ½ in. wide, somewhat rough or scaly. seed clusters: Seed cluster 6 to 12 in. long, heavily drooping at maturity, noticeably flattened sideways, often awned. June to September. seed: Oblong, flattened on one side, straw colored or yellow, ¼ to ⅝ in. long. similar plants: Some cutgrasses (Leersia spp.; p.118) look similar.

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth

Rice with weeds in moist-soil habitat

Developing seeds

Mature rice

235

Sorghum, milo Sorghum bicolor

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; SOBI2; FACU

habits and habitat: Annual grass, without rhizomes, grown as agricultural grain. Much better adapted to dry conditions compared to other commercial crops (e.g., corn). Most hybrids require 90 to 120 days for maturation of seed. Some sorghum varieties and hybrids were developed to deter birds and are less palatable. Often planted as supplemental food for waterfowl in managed moist-soil habitats. Often planted in rows, but can be broadcast from the ground or by plane.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Similar in appearance to corn but smaller due to seed size. Resembles a typical grass until leaves begin to elongate and broaden. stems and leaves: Stem up to 7 ft. tall, more commonly 4 to 5 ft. tall when fully developed, sometimes branching above the base. Leaves 2 to 40 in. long, ¼ to 4 in. wide, sometimes without hairs, bright green in spring, turning brown in autumn, normally with thick yellow midrib. seed clusters: Seed clusters dense, 3 to 20 in. long, 3 in. wide, branching and then branching again two to seven times in pairs, with approximately 750 to 1250 seeds per cluster. July to September. seed: Often exposed at maturity, seed color variable (yellow, white, or brown), ⅛ to ⅜ in. long. Brown seed types are higher in tannins and are less palatable to birds. similar plants: Other Sorghum spp. (SORGH2) look similar when young, including Johnsongrass (S. halepense; p. 134) and Sudangrass (S. vulgare ssp. drummondii; p. 238), as well as corn (Zea mays; p. 242).

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth (sorghum is the red-topped vegetation planted in rows)

Typical young plants

Undeveloped seed cluster

237

Sudangrass Sorghum vulgare ssp. drummondii

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; SOBID; FACU

habits and habitat: A tall, tufted annual grass planted to enhance cover in managed moist-soil wetlands, but it can also be an abundant seed producer. Seeds are sown when soil is warm in late spring or early summer. Drought resistant.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Grass-like, similar to corn and grain sorghum. stems and leaves: Stem tall, up to 10 ft., ₁⁄₁₀ to ½ in. wide. Leaves numerous, varying in size. seed clusters: Seed cluster large, 6 to 36 in. long, often purplish when in flower. July to September. seed: Seeds pale yellow when ripe, about 121,275 seeds/kg. similar plants: Often appears similar to corn (Zea mays; p. 238) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor; p. 236) at the seedling stage. Sorghum spp. may hybridize and progeny can cause identification problems.

Poaceae

Typical midsummer growth

Plants with developing seed clusters

Developed seed clusters

239

Browntop millet Urochloa ramosa

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; URRA; FACU

habits and habitat: Annual grass, moderately drought tolerant, especially compared to Japanese millet (Echinochloa frumentacea; p. 232). Planted as supplemental food for waterfowl in managed moist-soil wetlands. Tends to topple over later in summer or early autumn as seed clusters become too heavy for the stems to support. Approximately 60 to 80 days until maturity of seed, so it can be planted later than some wildlife supplement crops such as corn and sorghum.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Grass-like, similar to corn and sorghum. stems and leaves: Stems hairy, erect and often spreading at the base, up to 4 ft., often falls over in high winds or rain. Leaves are hairy. seed clusters: Seed cluster is open and often drooping. July to September. seed: Seed is small (about ∕₁₆ to ⅛ in. long), ovate, and rounded on one side, ranging in color from white or cream to yellow, brown, or nearly black. similar plants: Signalgrass (Urochloa platyphylla; p. 140). Synonym is Panicum ramosum.

Poaceae

Typical midsummer growth

Seed cluster

Close-up of seed cluster

241

Corn Zea mays

CU LTI VATED PL A NTS

Domestic crop; ZEMA; UPL

habits and habitat: Deep-rooted, annual grass commonly grown for agricultural production. Often planted from March to May as supplemental high-energy food for waterfowl in managed moist-soil habitats. Not drought or flooding tolerant. Most varieties require at least 100 days for maturity of seeds, but some hybrids mature in as little as 80 days. If not harvested or knocked down, corn often remains intact in the ear until spring.

Distinguishing Characteristics seedling: Grass-like, wide leaves, often with white midrib. stems and leaves: Stem stout, cylindrical, up to 7 ft. tall, terminated with male tassel. Leaves thick and stout, drooping, usually green, often variegated white, yellow, or purplish red. seed clusters: Ears below the tassel with husks, at least 1 ft. long. Late summer. seed: Highly variable in shape, size, and color. Seeds of most varieties planted for wildlife are yellow. similar plants: Young plants often resemble sorghum (Sorghum bicolor; p. 236).

Poaceae

Typical late-summer growth with grass competition

Late-summer growth

Common poorly developed cob

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References Barry, J. M. 1997. Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America. Touchstone, New York. Bryson, C. T., and M. DeFelice. 2009. Weeds of the South. The University of Georgia Press, Athens. Godrey R. K., and J. W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. The University of Georgia Press, Athens. Haukos, D. A., and L. M. Smith. 1997. Common Flora of the Playa Lakes. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock. Hodges, J. D., D. L. Evans, and L. W. Garnett. 2006. Mississippi Trees. Mississippi State University Extension Service, Mississippi State. Knobel, E. 1980. Field Guide to the Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes of the United States. Dover, New York. Miller, J. H., and K. V. Miller. 2005. Forest Plants of the Southeast and Their Wildlife Uses. The University of Georgia Press, Athens. Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, and C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Reed, P. B., Jr. 1988. National List of Plant Species That Occur in Wetlands: National Summary. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 88(24), 244 pp. Samuelson, L. J., and M. E. Hogan. 2003. Forest Trees: A Guide to the Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic Regions of the United States. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Tobe, J. D., K. Craddock Burks, R. W. Cantrell, M. A. Garland, M. E. Sweeley, D. W. Hall, P. Wallace, G. Angin, G. Nelson, J. R. Cooper, D. Bickner, K. Gilbert, N. Aymond, K. Greenwood, and N. Raymond. 1998. Florida Wetland Plants: An Identification Manual. Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Tallahassee. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2010. The PLANTS Database (http://plants.usda.gov, 19 April 2010). National Plant Data Center, Greensboro, North Carolina.

245

Appendix 1: Moist-Soil Wetland Management Literature Anderson, J. T., and L. M. Smith. 2000. Invertebrate response to moist-soil management of playa wetlands. Ecological Applications 10:550–558. Baldassarre, G. A., and E. G. Bolden. 2006. Waterfowl Ecology and Management. 2nd edition. Krieger, Malbar, Florida. Black, S. H., N. Hodges, M. Vaughan, and M. Shepherd. 2007. Pollinators in Natural Areas: A Primer on Habitat Management. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, Portland, Oregon. Bowyer, M. W., J. D. Stafford, A. P. Yetter, C. S. Hine, M. M. Horath, and S. P. Havera. 2005. Moist-soil plant seed production for waterfowl at Chautauqua National Wildlife Refuge, Illinois. American Midland Naturalist 154:331–341. Brasher, M. G., J. S. Steckel, and R. J. Gates. 2007. Energetic carrying capacity of actively and passively managed wetlands for migrating ducks in Ohio. Journal of Wildlife Management 71:2532–2541. Fredrickson, L. H. 1991. Strategies for Water Level Manipulations in Moist-Soil Systems. Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 13.4.6, University of Missouri, Puxica. Fredrickson, L. H. 1996. Moist-soil management: 30 years of field experimentation. Pages 168–177 in J. Ratti, editor. Proceedings of the 7th International Waterfowl Symposium, 4–6 February 1996, Memphis, Tennessee. Fredrickson, L. H., and F. A. Reid. 1986. Wetland and riparian habitats: a nongame management overview. Pages 59–96 in J. B. Hale, L. B. Best, and R. L. Clawson, editors. Management of Nongame Wildlife in the Midwest: A Developing Art. North Central Section of The Wildlife Society, Chelsea, Michigan. Fredrickson, L. H., and T. S. Taylor. 1982. Management of Seasonally Flooded Impoundments for Wildlife. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 148, Washington, D.C. Fredrickson, L. H., S. L. King, and R. M. Kaminski. 2005. Ecology and Management of Bottomland Hardwood Systems: The State of Our Understanding. L. H. Fredrickson, S. L. King, and R. M. Kaminski, editors. Gaylord Memorial Laboratory Special Publication No. 10, University of Missouri, Puxico. Gray, M. J., M. A. Foster, and L. A. Peña Peniche. 2009. New technologies for esti-

246

Moist-Soil Wetland Management Literature

247

mating seed production of moist-soil plants. Journal of Wildlife Management 73:1229–1232. Hamrick, B., and B. Strickland, editors. 2010. Supplemental Wildlife Food Planting Manual for the Southeast. Mississippi State University Extension Service Publication 2111, Mississippi State. Haufler, J. B., editor. 2005. Fish and Wildlife Benefits of Farm Bill Conservation Programs: 2000–2005 Update. Wildlife Society Technical Review 05-2, Bethesda, Maryland. Heitmeyer, M. E. 2006. The importance of winter floods to mallards in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management 70:101–110. Kaminski, M. R., G. A. Baldassarre, and A. T. Pearse. 2006. Waterbird response to hydrological management of Wetlands Reserve Program in New York. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:921–925. King, S. L., D. J. Twedt, and R. R. Wilson. 2006. The role of the Wetlands Reserve Program in conservation efforts in the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:914–919. Kross, J., R. M. Kaminski, K. J. Reinecke, E. J. Penny, and A. T. Pearse. 2008. Moist-soil seed abundance in managed wetlands in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management 72:707–714. Lane, J. J., and K. C. Jensen. 1999. Moist-Soil Impoundments for Wetland Wildlife. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Technical Report EL-99-11. Laubhan, M. K., and L. H. Fredrickson. 1992. Estimating seed production of common plants in seasonally flooded wetlands. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:329–337. Low, J. B., and F. C. Bellrose, Jr. 1944. The seed and vegetative yield of waterfowl food plants in the Illinois River Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management 8:7–22. Matthews, J. W., P. A. Tessene, S. M. Wiesbrook, and B. W. Zercher. 2005. Effects of area and isolation on species richness and indices of floristic quality in Illinois, USA, wetlands. Wetlands 25:607–615. Meeks, R. L. 1969. The effect of draw-down date on wetland plant succession. Journal of Wildlife Management 33:817–821. Merendino, M. T., and L. M. Smith. 1991. Influence of drawdown date and reflooding depth on wetland vegetation establishment. Wildlife Society Bulletin 19:143–150. Mitsch, W. J., and J. G. Gosselink. 2007. Wetlands. 4th edition. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. Nassar, J. R., W. E. Cohen, and C. R. Hopkins. 1993. Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook for the Lower Mississippi Alluvial River Valley. Mississippi State University Extension Publication 1864, Mississippi State. Naylor, L. W., J. M. Eadie, W. D. Smith, M. Eichholz, and M. J. Gray. 2005. A simple method to predict seed yield in moist- soil habitats. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:1335–1341. Nelms, K. D., editor. 2007. Wetland Management for Waterfowl Handbook. 2nd edition. Natural Resource Conservation Service, Greenwood, Mississippi. O’Neal, B. J., E. J. Heske, and J. D. Stafford. 2008. Waterbird response to wetlands

248

Appendix 1

restored through the Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program. Journal of Wildlife Management 72:654–664. Pankau, A. K. 2008. Estimating cost effectiveness of actively and passively managed wetlands for migratory and wintering waterfowl in southern Illinois. Thesis, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Reinecke, K. J., and K. M. Hartke. 2005. Estimating moist-soil seeds available to waterfowl with double sampling for stratification. Journal of Wildlife Management 69:794–799. Reinecke, K. J., R. C. Barkley, and C. K. Baxter. 1988. Potential effects of changing water conditions on mallards wintering in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Pages 325–337 in M. W. Weller, editor. Waterfowl in Winter. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. Reinecke, K. J., R. M. Kaminski, D. J. Moorhead, J. D. Hodges, and J. R. Nassar. 1989. Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Pages 203–247 in L. M. Smith, R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, editors. Habitat Management for Migrating and Wintering Waterfowl in North America. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock. Rewa, C. 2005. Wildlife benefits of the Wetlands Reserve Program. Pages 133–146 in J. B. Haufler, editor. Fisher and Wildlife Benefits of Farm Bill Conservation Programs: 2000–2005 Update. Wildlife Society Technical Review 05-2, Bethesda, Maryland. Smith, L. M, R. L. Pederson, and R. M. Kaminski, editors. 1989. Habitat Management for Migrating and Wintering Waterfowl in North America. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock. Smith, L. M., D. A. Haukos, and R. M. Prather. 2004. Avian response to vegetative patterns in playa wetlands during winter. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32:474–480. Strader, R. W., and P. H. Stinson, editors. 2005. Moist-Soil Guidelines for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Southern Region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Vicksburg, Mississippi. Strickland, B. K., R. M. Kaminski, K. Nelms, and A. Tullos, editors. 2009. Waterfowl Habitat Management Handbook. Mississippi State University Extension Service Publication 1864, Mississippi State. Taylor, J. P., and L. M. Smith. 2005. Migratory bird use of belowground foods in moist-soil managed wetlands in the middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:574–582. Vaughn, M., and M. Skinner. 2008. Using Farm Bill Programs for Pollinator Conservation. Technical Note No. 78, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service, National Plant Data Center, Greensboro, North Carolina.

Appendix 2 List of Taxonomic Information Taxa

Authority

Family

Chapter

Acer negundo

L.

Aceraceae

Trees

Acer rubrum

L.

Aceraceae

Trees

Acer saccharinum

L.

Aceraceae

Trees

Agrostis spp.

L.

Poaceae

Grasses Aquatics

Alisma subcordatum

Raf.

Alismataceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides

(Mart.) Griseb.

Amaranthaceae

Aquatics

Amaranthus hybridus

L.

Amaranthaceae

Broadleaves

Amaranthus spinosus

L.

Amaranthaceae

Broadleaves

Amaranthus tuberculatus

(Moq.) Sauer

Amaranthaceae

Broadleaves

Amaranthus viridus

L.

Amaranthaceae

Broadleaves

Ammannia auriculata

Willd.

Lythraceae

Broadleaves

Ammannia coccinea

Rottb.

Lythraceae

Broadleaves

Ammannia latifolia

L.

Lythraceae

Broadleaves

Ampelopsis arborea

(L.) Koehne

Vitaceae

Vines

Andropogon glomeratus

(Walter) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.

Poaceae

Grasses

Andropogon virginicus

L.

Poaceae

Grasses

Baccharis angustifolia

Michx.

Asteraceae

Trees

Baccharis halimifolia

L.

Asteraceae

Trees

Bacopa rotundifolia

(Michx.) Wettst.

Scrophulariaceae

Aquatics

Bidens aristosa

(Michx.) Britton

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Brachiaria platyphylla

(Munro ex C. Wright) R.D. Poaceae Webster

Brunnichia ovata

(Walter) Shinners

Polygonaceae

Vines

Campsis radicans

L. Seem. ex Bureau

Bignoniaceae

Vines

Cardiospermum halicacabum

L.

Sapindaceae

Vines

Grasses

249

250

Appendix 2

Carex albolutescens

Schwein.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex annectens

(E.P. Bicknell) E.P. Bicknell Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex aureolensis

Nutt.

Sedges

Carex brevior

(Dewey) Mack.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex crus-corvi

Shuttlw. ex Kunze

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex frankii

Kunth

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex hyalina

Boott

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex longii

Mack.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex lurida

Wahlenb.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex molesta

Mack. ex Bright

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex reniformis

(L.H. Bailey) Small

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex stipata

Muhl. ex Willd.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex triangularis

Boeckeler

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex tribuloides

Wahlenb.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Carex vulpinoidea

Michx.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Celtis laevigata

Willd.

Ulmaceae

Trees

Cephalanthus occidentalis

L.

Rubiaceae

Trees

Ceratophyllum demersum

L.

Ceratophyllaceae

Aquatics

Chamaecrista fasciculata

(Michx.) Greene

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Chamaesyce humistrata

(Engelm. ex A. Gray) Small Euphorbiaceae

Broadleaves

Chamaesyce maculata

(L.) Small

Euphorbiaceae

Broadleaves

Cornus spp.

L.

Cornaceae

Trees

Croton capitatus

Michx.

Euphorbiaceae

Broadleaves

Croton glandulosus

L.

Euphorbiaceae

Broadleaves

Cynodon dactylon

(L.) Pers.

Poaceae

Grasses

Cyperus croceus

Vahl

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus echinatus

(L.) Alph. Wood

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus entrerianus

Boeckeler

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus erythrorhizos

Muhl.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus esculentus

L.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus odoratus

L.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus pseudovegetus

Steud.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus rotundus

L.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus surinamensis

Rottb.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Cyperus virens

Michx.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Dactyloctenium aegyptium

(L.) Willd.

Poaceae

Grasses

Dichanthelium acuminatum

(Sw.) Gould & C.A. Clark

Poaceae

Grasses

Dichanthelium commutatum

(Schult.) Gould

Poaceae

Grasses

Cyperaceae

List of Taxonomic Information Poaceae

251

Dichanthelium spp.

(Hitchc. & Chase) Gould

Grasses

Digitaria bicornis

(Lam.) Roem. & Schult.

Poaceae

Grasses

Digitaria ciliaris

(Retz.) Koeler

Poaceae

Grasses

Digitaria ischaemum

(Schreb.) Schreb. ex Muhl.

Poaceae

Grasses

Digitaria sanguinalis

(L.) Scop.

Poaceae

Grasses

Digitaria spp.

Haller

Poaceae

Grasses

Diodia teres

Walter

Rubiaceae

Broadleaves

Diodia virginiana

L.

Rubiaceae

Broadleaves

Echinochloa colona

(L.) Link

Poaceae

Grasses

Echinochloa crus-galli

(L.) P. Beauv.

Poaceae

Grasses

Echinochloa esculenta

(A. Braun) H. Scholz

Poaceae

Cultivated

Echinochloa frumentacea

Link

Poaceae

Grasses

Echinochloa muricata

(P. Beauv.) Fernald

Poaceae

Grasses

Echinochloa walteri

(Pursh) A. Heller

Poaceae

Grasses

Echinodorus cordifolius

(L.) Griseb.

Alismataceae

Aquatics

Eleocharis cellulosa

Torr.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Eleocharis equisetoides

(Elliot) Torr.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Eleocharis obtusa

(Willd.) Schult.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Eleocharis quadrangulata

(Michx.) Roem. & Schult.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Eleocharis spp.

R. Br.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Eleusine indica

(L.) Gaertn.

Poaceae

Grasses

Eragrostis hypnoides

(Lam.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb.

Poaceae

Grasses

Eragrostis spp.

von Wolf

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Erigeron annuus

(L.) Pers.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Erigeron philadelphicus

L.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Erigeron strigosus

Muhl. ex Willd.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Erigeron vernus

(L.) Torr. & A. Gray

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Eupatorium serotinum

Michx.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Fraxinus americana

L.

Oleaceae

Trees

Fraxinus pennsylvanica

Marsh.

Oleaceae

Trees

Fraxinus profunda

(Bush) Bush

Oleaceae

Trees

Heliotropium indicum

L.

Boraginaceae

Broadleaves

Heteranthera limosa

(Sw.) Willd.

Pontederiacea

Aquatics

Heteranthera reniformis

Ruiz & Pav.

Pontederiacea

Aquatics

Hibiscus spp.

L.

Malvaceae

Trees

Hydrilla verticillata

(L. f.) Royle

Hydrocharitaceae

Aquatics

Hydrocotyle ranunculoides

L. f.

Apiaceae

Aquatics

252

Appendix 2

Hydrocotyle umbellata

L.

Apiaceae

Aquatics

Hydrocotyle verticillata

Thunb.

Apiaceae

Aquatics

Hydrolea quadrivalvis

Walter

Hydrophyllaceae

Aquatics

Hygrophila spp.

R. Br.

Acanthaceae

Aquatics

Ipomoea coccinea

L.

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Ipomoea cordatotriloba

Dennst.

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Ipomoea hederacea

Jacq.

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Ipomoea pandurata

(L.) G. Mey.

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Ipomoea purpurea

(L.) Roth

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Ipomoea wrightii

A. Gray

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Iva annua

L.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Jacquemontia tamnifolia

(L.) Griseb.

Convolvulaceae

Vines

Juncus acuminatus

Michx.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus brachycarpus

Engelm.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus coriaceus

Mack.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus effusus

L.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus polycephalus

Michx.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus roemerianus

Scheele

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus scirpoides

Lam.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus tenuis

Willd.

Juncaceae

Sedges

Juncus validus

Coville

Juncaceae

Sedges

Leersia hexandra

Sw.

Poaceae

Grasses

Leersia lenticularis

Michx.

Poaceae

Grasses

Leersia oryzoides

(L.) Sw.

Poaceae

Grasses

Leersia virginica

Willd.

Poaceae

Grasses

Lemna minor

L.

Lemnaceae

Aquatics

Leptochloa fusca

(L.) Kunth

Poaceae

Grasses

Leptochloa panicea

(Retz.) Ohwi

Poaceae

Grasses

Leptochloa panicoides

(J. Presl) Hitchc.

Poaceae

Grasses

Liquidambar styraciflua

L.

Hamamelidaceae

Trees

Ludwigia alternifolia

L.

Onagraceae

Broadleaves

Ludwigia palustris

(L.) Elliot

Onagraceae

Aquatics

Ludwigia peploides

(Kunth) P.H. Raven

Onagraceae

Aquatics

Ludwigia repens

J.R. Forst.

Onagraceae

Aquatics

Mikania scandens

(L.) Willd.

Asteraceae

Vines

Myriophyllum aquaticum

(Vell.) Verdc.

Haloragaceae

Aquatics

Myriophyllum spicatum

L.

Haloragaceae

Aquatics

Nelumbo lutea

Willd.

Nelumbonaceae

Aquatics

List of Taxonomic Information Nuphar lutea

(L.) Sm.

Nymphaeaceae

253

Aquatics

Nymphaea odorata

Aiton

Nymphaeaceae

Aquatics

Oryza glaberrima

Steud.

Poaceae

Cultivated

Oryza sativa

L.

Poaceae

Cultivated

Panicum capillare

L.

Poaceae

Grasses

Panicum dichotomiflorum

Michx.

Poaceae

Grasses

Panicum hians

(Elliot) Nash

Poaceae

Grasses

Panicum rigidulum

Bosc ex Nees

Poaceae

Grasses

Panicum spp.

L.

Poaceae

Grasses

Panicum virgatum

L.

Poaceae

Grasses

Paspalum dilatatum

Poir.

Poaceae

Grasses

Paspalum urvillei

Steud.

Poaceae

Grasses

Phyla lanceolata

(Michx.) Greene

Verbeaceae

Broadleaves

Phyla nodiflora

(L.) Greene

Verbeaceae

Broadleaves

Physalis angulata

L.

Solanaceae

Vines

Physalis longifolia

Nutt.

Solanaceae

Vines

Physalis spp.

L.

Solanaceae

Vines

Plantago lanceolata

L.

Plantaginaceae

Broadleaves

Plantago major

L.

Plantaginaceae

Broadleaves

Platanus occidentalis

L.

Platanaceae

Trees

Pluchea camphorata

(L.) DC.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Pluchea rosea

Godfrey

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum amphibium

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum glabrum

Willd.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum hydropiper

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum hydropiperoides

Michx.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum lapathifolium

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum pensylvanicum

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Polygonum punctatum

Elliot

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Populus deltoides

Bartram ex Marsh.

Salicaceae

Trees

Populus heterophylla

L.

Salicaceae

Trees

Potamogeton nodosus

Poir.

Potamogetonaceae Aquatics

Prunus serotina

Ehrh.

Rosaceae

Quercus laurifolia

Michx.

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus lyrata

Walter

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus nigra

L.

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus pagoda

Raf.

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus palustris

Münchh.

Fagaceae

Trees

Trees

254

Appendix 2

Quercus phellos

L.

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus shumardii

Buckley

Fagaceae

Trees

Quercus texana

Buckley

Fagaceae

Trees

Rhynchospora careyana

Fernald

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Rhynchospora corniculata

(Lam.) A. Gray

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Rhynchospora inundata

(Oakes) Fernald

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Rubus argutus

Link

Rosaceae

Broadleaves

Rubus spp.

L.

Rosaceae

Broadleaves

Rubus trivialis

Michx.

Rosaceae

Broadleaves

Rumex conglomeratus

Murray

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Rumex crispus

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Rumex obtusifolius

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Rumex pulcher

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Rumex verticillatus

L.

Polygonaceae

Broadleaves

Saccharum giganteum

(Walter) Pers.

Poaceae

Grasses

Sagittaria spp.

L.

Alismataceae

Aquatics

Salix interior

Rowlee

Salicaceae

Trees

Salix nigra

Marsh.

Salicaceae

Trees

Salvinia minima

Baker

Salviniaceae

Aquatics

Salvinia molesta

Mitchell

Salviniaceae

Aquatics

Saururus cernuus

L.

Saururaceae

Broadleaves

Schizachyrium spp.

Nees

Poaceae

Grasses

Scirpus cyperinus

(L.) Kunth

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Scirpus spp.

L.

Cyperaceae

Sedges

Senna obtusifolia

(L.) Irwin & Barneby

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Senna occidentalis

(L.) Link

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Sesbania drummondii

(Rydb.) Cory

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Sesbania herbacea

(Mill.) McVaugh

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Sesbania vesicaria

(Jacq.) Elliot

Fabaceae

Broadleaves

Setaria parviflora

(Poir.) Kerguélen

Poaceae

Grasses

Setaria pumila

(Poir.) Roem. & Schult.

Poaceae

Grasses

Setaria viridis

(L.) P. Beauv.

Poaceae

Grasses

Sida rhombifolia

L.

Malvaceae

Broadleaves

Sida spinosa

L.

Malvaceae

Broadleaves

Solanum carolinense

L.

Solanaceae

Broadleaves

Solanum dimidiatum

Raf.

Solanaceae

Broadleaves

Solanum viarum

Dunal

Solanaceae

Broadleaves

Solidago canadensis

L.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

List of Taxonomic Information

255

Solidago fistulosa

Mill.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago latissimifolia

Mill.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago leavenworthii

Torr. & A. Gray

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago odora

Aiton

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago patula

Muhl. ex Willd.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago spp.

L.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Solidago stricta

Aiton

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Sorghum bicolor

(L.) Moench

Poaceae

Cultivated

Sorghum halepense

(L.) Pers.

Poaceae

Grasses

Sorghum vulgare

Pers.

Poaceae

Cultivated

Spirodela polyrrhiza

(L.) Schleid.

Lemnaceae

Aquatics

Sporobolus spp.

R. Br.

Poaceae

Grasses

Steinchisma hians

(Elliot) Nash

Poaceae

Grasses

Symphyotrichum spp.

Nees

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Taxodium ascendens

Brongn.

Cupressaceae

Trees

Taxodium distichum

(L.) Rich.

Cupressaceae

Trees

Tridens strictus

(Nutt.) Nash

Poaceae

Grasses

Typha angustifolia

L.

Typhaceae

Aquatics

Typha domingensis

Pers.

Typhaceae

Aquatics

Typha latifolia

L.

Typhaceae

Urochloa platyphylla

(Munro ex C. Wright) R.D. Poaceae Webster

Grasses

Urochloa ramosa

(L.) Nguyen

Poaceae

Cultivated

Aquatics

Verbena bonariensis

L.

Verbenaceae

Broadleaves

Verbena brasiliensis

Vell.

Verbenaceae

Broadleaves

Verbena rigida

Spreng.

Verbenaceae

Broadleaves

Wolffia spp.

Horkel ex Schleid.

Lemnaceae

Aquatics

Xanthium strumarium

L.

Asteraceae

Broadleaves

Zea mays

L.

Poaceae

Cultivated

Zizania aquatica

L.

Poaceae

Grasses

Zizaniopsis miliacea

(Michx.) Döll & Asch.

Poaceae

Grasses

Index Alligatorweed, 16 American buckwheat vine, 190 American lotus, 28 American sycamore, 222 American white waterlily, 32 Annual marsh elder, 54 Aquatic water primrose, 34 Arrowhead, 14 Ash, 220 Baccharis, 200 Bald cypress, 202 Balloon vine, 192 Barnyardgrass, 112 Beakrush, 168 Beaksedge, 168 Bearded beggarsticks, 48 Bearded sprangletop, 120 Beggarsticks, 48 Bermudagrass, 102 Bidens, 48 Bigpod sesbania, 70 Billion-dollar grass, 232 Black willow, 228 Blackberry, 90 Bluestem, 100 Blunt spikerush, 164 Boneset, 52 Brazilian vervain, 98 Bristlegrass, 132 Broadleaf cattail, 44 256

Broadleaf signalgrass, 140 Broomsedge bluestem, 100 Browntop millet, 240 Bushy bluestem, 100 Buttonbush, 224 Camphor pluchea, 56 Camphorweed, 56 Carolina horsenettle, 94 Catchfly cutgrass, 118 Cattail, 44 Cherrybark oak, 208 Chufa, 158 Cocklebur, 60 Coffeeweed, 70 Common duckmeat, 26 Common duckweed, 26 Common plantain, 78 Common rush, 178 Coon’s tail, 20 Corn, 241 Cottonwood, 226 Crabgrass, 106 Creeping Burhead, 12 Croton, 66 Curly dock, 88 Cutgrasses, 118, 142 Cutleaf, 194 Dallisgrass, 126 Denseflower smartweed, 82

Index Dichanthelium, 104 Diskwaterhyssop, 42 Dotted smartweed, 84 Doveweed, 66 Duck salad, 36 Duckweed, 26 Eared redstem, 72 Eastern baccharis, 200 Eastern cottonwood, 226 Fall panicgrass, 122 Five-leaf morningglory, 186 Fleabane, 50 Floating water primrose, 34 Foxtail, 132 Foxtail sedges, 146 Fragrant flatsedge, 156 Frank’s sedge, 148 Frog-fruit, 96 Gaping grass, 136 Giant cutgrass, 142 Giant salvinia, 40 Globe flatsedge, 154 Goldenrod, 58 Goosegrass, 114 Greasy grass, 138 Green ash, 220 Greencherry, 194 Hairy clustervine, 188 Heliotrope, 62 Hemp sesbania, 70 Hibiscus, 218 Hogwort, 66 Horsenettle, 94 Hydrolea, 24 Indian goosegrass, 114 Indian heliotrope, 62 Japanese millet, 232 Johnsongrass, 134

Juncus, 178 Jungle rice, 110 Ladies eardrops, 190 Lanceleaf frog-fruit, 96 Lateflowering thoroughwort, 52 Leathery rush, 176 Longleaf, 194 Longleaf pondweed, 38 Long’s sedge, 150 Longspike tridens, 138 Low panicgrass, 104 Manyflower marshpennywort, 18 Maple, 198 Marsh flatsedge, 160 Marsh mallow, 218 Marshpepper smartweed, 84 Millets, 108–13, 232 Milo, 236 Morningglory, 184–89 Mudplantain, 36 Narrowleaf plantain, 78 Needlepod rush, 174 Nightshade, 94 Nutgrass, 162 Nuttall oak, 214 Oaks, 204 - 215 Overcup oak, 204 Pale smartweed, 82 Panicgrass, 122 Parrot feather watermilfoil, 22 Pennsylvania smartweed, 86 Pennywort, 18 Peppervine, 196 Pigweed, 46 Plantain, 78 Pluchea, 56 Plumegrass, 130 Pondweed, 38 Prickly fanpetals, 74

257

258

Index

Prickly side, 74 Purple nutgrass, 162 Red maple, 198 Redroot flatsedge, 156 Redvine, 190 Rice, 234 Rice cutgrass, 118 Rosemallow, 218 Rough barnyardgrass, 112 Round sedge, 154 Roundhead rush, 180 Rumex, 88 Salvinia, 40 Sandmat, 64 Sawtooth blackberry, 90 Seedbox, 76 Senna, 68 Shallow sedge, 152 Shortbristle horned beaksedge, 168 Shumard’s oak, 212 Sicklepod, 68 Sida, 74 Signalgrass, 140 Smallflower morningglory, 188 Smartweeds, 80–87 Sorghum, 236 Sorrel, 88 Southern cutgrass, 118 Southern dewberry, 90 Southern wildrice, 142 Spatterdock, 30 Spotted sandmat, 64 Sprangletop, 120 Sprikerush, 164, 166 Squarestem spikerush, 166 Sudangrass, 238 Sugarberry, 230 Sugarcane plumegrass, 130 Sumpweed, 54 Swamp smartweed, 84 Sweetgum, 216 Sycamore, 222

Tapertip rush, 172 Teal lovegrass, 116 Tealgrass, 116 Texas oak, 214 Toothcup, 72 Tridens, 138 Trumpet creeper, 182 Upright ludwigia, 76 Variable panicgrass, 104 Vasey’s grass, 128 Verbena, 98 Vervain, 98 Virginia buttonweed, 92 Walter’s millet, 108–9 Water knotweed, 80 Water oak, 206 Watermeal, 26 Waterpod, 24 White cutgrass, 118 Whiteroot rush, 174 Wild millets, 108–13 Willow, 228 Willow oak, 210 Witchgrass, 122 Woolgrass, 170 Woolly croton, 66 Wright’s morningglory, 186 Yellow cow lily, 30 Yellow pond-lily, 30 Yellowfruit sedge, 144 Yellownut sedge, 158

scientific name index Acer rubrum, 198 Alternanthera philoxeroides, 16 Amaranthus hybridus, 46 Amaranthus spinosus, 46 Amaranthus tuberculatus, 46 Amaranthus viridus, 46

Index Ammannia auriculata, 72 Ampelopsis arborea, 196 Andropogon glomeratus, 100 Andropogon virginicus, 100 Baccharis halimifolia, 200 Bacopa rotundifolia, 42 Bidens aristosa, 48 Brachiaria platyphylla, 140 Brunnichia ovata, 190 Campsis radicans, 182 Cardiospermum halicacabum, 192 Carex annectens, 144 Carex aureolensis, 148 Carex crus-corvi, 146 Carex frankii, 148 Carex longii, 150 Carex lurida, 152 Carex stipata, 146 Celtis laevigata, 230 Cephalanthus occidentalis, 224 Ceratophyllum demersum, 20 Chamaesyce maculata, 64 Croton capitatus, 66 Cynodon dactylon, 102 Cyperus echinatus, 154 Cyperus erythrorhizos, 156 Cyperus esculentus, 158 Cyperus odoratus, 156 Cyperus pseudovegetus, 160 Cyperus rotundus, 162 Dichanthelium acuminatum, 104 Dichanthelium commutatum, 104 Digitaria spp., 106 Diodia virginiana, 92 Echinochloa colona, 108, 110 Echinochloa crus-galli, 108, 112 Echinochloa esculenta, 232 Echinochloa frumentacea, 232 Echinochloa muricata, 108, 112 Echinochloa walteri, 108, 109

Echinodorus cordifolius, 12 Eleocharis obtusa, 164 Eleocharis quadrangulata, 166 Eleusine indica, 114 Eragrostis hypnoides, 116 Erigeron annuus, 50 Erigeron philadelphicus, 50 Erigeron strigosus, 50 Erigeron vernus, 50 Eupatorium serotinum, 52 Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 220 Heliotropium indicum, 62 Heteranthera limosa, 36 Heteranthera reniformis, 36 Hydrocotyle umbellata, 18 Hydrolea quadrivalvis, 24 Ipomoea coccinea, 184 Ipomoea cordatotriloba, 184 Ipomoea hederacea, 184 Ipomoea pandurata, 184 Ipomoea purpurea, 184 Ipomoea wrightii, 186 Iva annua, 54 Jacquemontia tamnifolia, 188 Juncus acuminatus, 172 Juncus brachycarpus, 174 Juncus coriaceus, 176 Juncus effusus, 178 Juncus scirpoides, 174 Juncus validus, 180 Leersia hexandra, 118 Leersia lenticularis, 118 Leersia oryzoides, 118 Leersia virginica, 118 Lemna minor, 26 Leptochloa fusca ssp. fascicularis, 120 Liquidambar styraciflua, 216 Ludwigia alternifolia, 76 Ludwigia palustris, 34

259

260

Index

Ludwigia peploides, 34 Ludwigia repens, 34 Myriophyllum aquaticum, 22 Nelumbo lutea, 28 Nuphar lutea, 30 Nymphaea odorata, 32 Oryza glaberrima, 234 Oryza sativa, 236 Panicum capillare, 122 Panicum dichotomiflorum, 122 Panicum hians, 136 Panicum ramosum, 240 Panicum rigidulum, 122 Panicum virgatum, 122 Paspalum dilatatum, 126 Paspalum urvillei, 128 Phyla lanceolata, 96 Physalis angulata, 194 Physalis longifolia, 194 Plantago lanceolata, 78 Plantago major, 78 Platanus occidentalis, 222 Pluchea camphorata, 56 Polygonum amphibium, 80 Polygonum glabrum, 82 Polygonum hydropiper, 84 Polygonum hydropiperoides, 84 Polygonum lapathifolium, 82 Polygonum pensylvanicum, 86 Polygonum punctatum, 84 Populus deltoides, 226 Potamogeton nodosus, 38 Quercus lyrata, 204 Quercus nigra, 206 Quercus nuttallii, 214 Quercus pagoda, 208 Quercus phellos, 210 Quercus shumardii, 212 Quercus texana, 214

Rhynchospora corniculata, 168 Rubus argutus, 90 Rubus trivialis, 90 Rumex crispus, 88 Saccharum giganteum, 130 Sagittaria spp., 14 Salix nigra, 228 Salvinia molesta, 40 Scirpus cyperinus, 170 Senna obtusifolia, 68 Sesbania herbacea, 70 Setaria parviflora, 132 Setaria pumila, 132 Setaria viridis, 132 Sida spinosa, 74 Solanum carolinense, 94 Solidago spp., 58 Sorghum bicolor, 236 Sorghum halepense, 134 Sorghum vulgare ssp. drummondii, 238 Spirodela polyrrhiza, 26 Steinchisma hians, 136 Taxodium distichum, 202 Tridens strictus, 138 Typha latifolia, 44 Urochloa platyphylla, 140 Urochloa ramosa, 240 Verbena brasiliensis, 98 Wolffia spp., 26 Xanthium strumarium, 60 Zea mays, 242 Zizaniopsis miliacea, 142