A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450-1880) (Volume 1)

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A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 1450–1880) By Eminent Writers, English and Foreign Volume 1 Edited by Ge orge Grov e

C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R SI T Y P R E S S Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paolo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108004206 © in this compilation Cambridge University Press 2009 This edition first published 1879 This digitally printed version 2009 ISBN 978-1-108-00420-6 Paperback This book reproduces the text of the original edition. The content and language reflect the beliefs, practices and terminology of their time, and have not been updated. Cambridge University Press wishes to make clear that the book, unless originally published by Cambridge, is not being republished by, in association or collaboration with, or with the endorsement or approval of, the original publisher or its successors in title.

A DICTIONARY OF

MUSIC AND MUSICIANS.

DICTIONARY OF

MUSIC AND MUSICIANS (A.D. 1450—1880)

BY EMINENT WRITERS, ENGLISH AND FOREIGN. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND WOODCUTS.

EDITED BT

GEORGE GROVE, D.C.L.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. I.

MACMILLAN

AND CO.

1879. {The Right of Translation and Jtejn-oduction is reserved.]

OXFORD: E. PIOKARD

HALL, M.A., AND J. H. STAOT,

PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.

PREFACE. THIS work is intended to supply a great and long acknowledged want. A growing demand has arisen in this country and the United States for information on all matters directly and indirectly connected with Music, owing to the great spread of concerts, musical publications, private practice, and interest in the subject, and to the immense improvement in the general position of music which has taken place since the commencement of the present century. Music is now performed, studied, and listened to by a much larger number of persons, and in a more serious spirit, than was the case at any previous period of our history. It is rapidly becoming an essential branch of education; the newest works of continental musicians are eagerly welcomed here very soon after their appearance abroad, and a strong desire is felt by a large, important, and increasing section of the public to know something of the structure and peculiarities of the music which they hear and play, of the nature and history of the instruments on which it is performed, of the biographies and characteristics of its composers—in a word of all such particulars as may throw light on the rise, progress, and present condition of an Art which is at once so prominent and so eminently progressive. This desire it is the object of the Dictionary of Music and Musicians to meet. It is designed for the use of Professional musicians and Amateurs alike. It contains definitions of Musical Terms; explanations of the forms in which Musical Works are constructed, and of the methods by which they are elaborated, as well as of the origin, structure, and successive modifications of Instruments; histories and descriptions of Societies and Institutions ; notices of the composition, production, and contents of important works; lists of the principal published collections; biographies of representative composers, singers, players, and patrons of music—all the points, in short, immediate and remote, on which those interested in the Art, and alive to its many and far-reaching associations, can desire to be informed. The limit of the history has been fixed at A. D. 1450, as the most remote date to which the rise of modern music can be carried back. Thus mere archaeology has been avoided, while the connection between the mediaeval systems and the wonderful modern art to which they gave rise has been insisted on and brought out wherever possible. While the subjects have been treated thoroughly and in a manner not unworthy the attention of the professional musician, the style has been anxiously divested of technicality, and the musical illustrations have been taken,'in most cases, from classical works likely to be familiar to the amateur, or within his reach. The articles are based as far as possible on independent sources, and on the actual research of the writers, and it is hoped that in many cases

vi

PREFACE.

fresh subjects have been treated, new and interesting information given, and some ancient mistakes corrected. As instances of the kind of subjects embraced and the general mode of treatment adopted, reference may be made to the larger biographies—especially that of Haydn, which is crowded with new facts; to the articles on Auber, Berlioz, Bodenschatz, Bull, Cristofori, David, Farinelli, Finck, Froberger, Galitzin, Gibbons, Hasse; on Additional Accompaniments, Agre"mens, Arpeggio, Arrangement, Fingering, Form, and Harmony; .on Acade"mie de Musique, Bachgesellschafb, Breitkopf and Hartel, Bassoon, Carmagnole, Choral Symphony, Conservatoire, Concerts, Concert Spirituel, Copyright, Drum, English Opera, Fidelio, Grand Prix de Rome, Handel and Haydn Society, Handel Festivals and Commemorations, Harpsichord, Harmonica, Hexachord, and many others. The engraved illustrations have been specially prepared for the work, and will speak for themselves. In an English dictionary it has been thought right to treat English music and musicians with special care, and to give their biographies and achievements with some minuteness of detail. On this point thanks are due to Colonel Joseph Lemuel Chester for much accurate information which it would have been almost impossible to obtain elsewhere, and which he has afforded in every case with the greatest kindness and promptitude. Every means has been taken to procure an adequate treatment of the various topics, and to bring the information down as near as possible to the day of publication. Notwithstanding the Editor's desire, however, omissions and errors have occurred. These will be rectified in an Appendix on the publication of the final volume. The limits of the work have necessarily excluded disquisitions on Acoustics, Anatomy, Mechanics, and other branches of science connected with the main subject, which though highly important are not absolutely requisite in a book concerned with practical music. In the case of Acoustics, sufficient references are given to the best works to enable the student to pursue the enquiry for himself, outside the Dictionary. Similarly all investigations into the music of barbarous nations have been avoided, unless they have some direct bearing on European music. The Editor gladly takes this early opportunity to express his deep obligations to the writers of the various articles. Their names are in themselves a guarantee for the value of their contributions; but the lively interest which they have shown in the work and the care they have taken in the preparation of their articles, often involving much time, and laborious, disinterested research, demand his warm acknowledgment. 29 BEDFORD STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON,

April 1, 1879.

LIST OF CONTEIBUTORS. Sm JULIUS BENEDICT

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JOSEPH BENNETT, ESQ.

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J. R. STEBNDALE-BENNETT, ESQ. DAVID BAPTIE, ESQ., Glasgow

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WALTEE CAER

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WILLIAM CHAPPELL, ESQ., F.S.A

M. GTUSTAVE CHOUQUET,

W. C.

Keeper of the Museum of the Con-

servatoire de Musique, Paris

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AETHUE DUKE COLEEIDGE, ESQ., Barrister-at-Law

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WILLIAM H. CUMMINGS, ESQ.

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EDWAED DANNEEUTHEE, ESQ.

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H E E E PAUL DAVID

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EDWAED H. DONKIN, ESQ.

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CHAELES ALLAN FYFFE, ESQ., Barrister-at-Law

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FEANZ GEHEING, Vienna

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REV. THOMAS HELMOEE, Master of the Children of the Chapels Royal

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GEOEGE HEEBEET, ESQ.

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DR. FEEDINAND HILLEE, Cologne

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A. J. HIPKINS, ESQ

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EDWAED JOHN HOPKINS, Esq., Organist to the Temple

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REV. T. PERCY HUDSON

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FRANCIS HUEEFEB, ESQ.

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JOHN HULLAH, ESQ., LL.D.

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WILLIAM H. HUSK, ESQ., Librarian to the Sacred Harmonic Society

W. H. H.

F. H. JENKS, ESQ., Boston, Mass., U. S. A.

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HENRY J. LINCOLN, ESQ.

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

HERR A. MACZEWSKI, Concert-director, Kaiserslautern JULIAN HABSHALL, ESQ. MES.

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JULIAN MARSHALL

EDWIN

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Organist of York Cathedral S. OAKELEY, MUS. DOC, Professor of Music at the University of Edinburgh .. .. .. •• MONK, ESQ., MUS. DOC,

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SIB HERBEET

H. S. O.

REV. SIR FBEDERICK A. GORE OUSELEY, BART., MUS. DOC, Professor

of Music in the University of Oxford ..

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C. HUBEET H. PAEET, ESQ HEER EENST PATJEE

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EDWAED JOHN PAYNE, ESQ.,

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EDWAED H. PEMBEE, ESQ., Q.C.

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PHILLIMOEE

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F,A. G.O. C.H. H.P. P. E. J. P. E. H. P. C. M. P.

HERE C. F. POHL, Librarian to the Gesellschaft der Musik-

EDWAED F. RIMBAULT, ESQ., LL.D.

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freunde, Vienna ..

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WILLIAM POLE, ESQ., F.R.S., Mus. Doc VICTOR DE PONTIGNY, ESQ.

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CHARLES H. PUEDAY, ESQ.

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P. STEWAET, MUS. DOC, Professor of Music in Dublin University .. .. .. ._ #>

SIE ROBERT

WILLIAM H. STONE, ESQ., M.D.

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AETHUE SEYMOUR SULLIVAN, ESQ., MUS. DOC. FBANKLIN TAYLOE, ESQ.

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W. THAYEB, ESQ., United States Consul, Trieste, Author of the Life of Beethoven C. A. W. TEOYTE, ESQ. .. .. ,

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ALEXANDER

COLONEL

H.

THE EDITOR

WAEB, ..

Public Library, Boston, Mass., U. S. A. ..

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Bedford Street, Covent Garden, Ajrril 1, 1879.

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A W T CAWT H W „

DICTIONARY OF

MUSIC AND MUSICIANS.

The name of the sixth degree of the natural scale of C. The reason of its being * applied to the sixth instead of the first degree will be found explained in the article ALPHABET. It represents the same note in English or German, and in French and Italian is called La. A is the note given (usually by the oboe, or by the organ if there be one) for the orchestra to tune to, and it is also the note to which French and German tuning-forks are set, the English being usually tuned to C. In all stringed instruments one of the strings is tuned to A ; in the violin it is the second string, in the viola and violoncello thefirst,and in the contrabasso generally the third. A is also the key in which one of the clarinets in the orchestra is set. In German the keys of A major and A minor are occasionally expressed by A* and Ab. [F.T.] AAEON (correctly ARON), PIETRO, born at Florence in the latter part of the 15th century. A monk of the order of Jerusalem, and devoted to the study of counterpoint. His various works on the history and science of music (for a list of which see Becker, ' Musik Literatur,' Leipsic, 1836) were printed at Venice and Milan. By Pope Leo X he was admitted into the Boman Chapel, and distinguished in various ways. In or about 1516 Aaron founded a school of music at Rome, which obtained much reputation. He became a canon of Rimini, and died in 1533. [C F- P-]

A

ABACO, EVABISTO FELICE DALL', born at

Verona, and renowned as performer and composer on the violin ; in 17 26 concert-meister in the band of the Kurfurst Max Emanuel of Bavaria. Died in 1740. Compositions of his for church and chamber were printed at Amsterdam. [C. F. P.]

A BATTUTA (Ital., 'with the beat'). An indication, mostly used in recitatives, where after the free declamation of the singer the strict time is resumed. It is thus equivalent to A TEMPO. ABBATINI, ANTONIO MARIA, was born at

Tiferno, or at Castello (Baini), in 1595 or 1605, and died in 1677. Was successively Maestro di Cappella at the Lateran, the Church of the Gesu, and San Lorenzo in Damaso, and three times held the like office at Maria Maggiore; was also, for a time, maestro at the church of Loreto. Was offered by Pope Urban VIII the task of rewriting the Hymnal; but refused to supersede the music of Palestrina by any of his own. His published works consist of four books of Psalms and three books of Masses, some Antifone for twenty-four voices (Mascardi, Eome, 1630-1638, and 1677), and five books of Mottetti (Grignani, Rome, 1635). He is named by ALLACCI as the composer of an opera ' Del male in bene.' The greater part of his productions remain unprinted. Some academical lectures by him, of much note in their time, mentioned by Padre Martini, do not seem to have been preserved. He assisted KIRCHER in his ' Musurgia.' [E. H. P.] ABBE, PHILIPPE PIERRE DE ST. SEVIN and

PIEBRE DE ST. SEVIN, two brothers, violoncellists,

were music-masters of the parish church of Agea early in the last century. It seems doubtful whether they were actually ordained priests, or merely in consequence of their office had to wear the ecclesiastical dress. From this circumstance however they received the name of Abbe l'aine"— or simply l'Abb6—and 1'Abbe cadet, respectively. They gave up their connection with the church and went to Paris, where they obtained engagements at the Grand Opera. They were both excellent players, but the younger brother seems £

ABBREVIATIONS.

ABBREVIATIONS.

to have been the more celebrated of the two, and to have been specially remarkable for his beautiful tone. It is said to have been owing in great measure to the impression produced by his playing that the viola di gamba more and more fell into disuse and the violoncello was more extensively introduced. (Batistin.) [T. P. H.] ABBEY, JOHN, a distinguished organ-builder; was born at Whilton, a Northamptonshire village, Dec. 22, 1785. In his youth he was employed in the factory of Davis, and subsequently in that of Russell, both organ-builders of repute in their day. In 1826 Abbey went to Paris, on the invitation of Sebastian Erard, the celebrated harp and pianoforte maker, to work upon an organ which Erard had designed, and which he sent to the Exhibition of the Productions of National Industry in 1827, and also to build an organ for the Convent of the Legion of Honour, at St. Denis. He also built an organ from Erard's design for the chapel of the Tuileries, which, however, had only a short existence, being destroyed in the Revolution of 1830. Having established himself as an organ-builder in Paris, Abbey became extensively employed in the construction, renovation, and enlargement of organs in France and elsewhere. Amongst others he built choir organs for accompanying voices for the cathedrals of Rheims, Nantes, Versailles, and Evreux, and for the churches of St. Eustache, St. Nicholas des Champs, St. Elizabeth, St. Medard, St. Etienne du Mont, and St. Thomas Aquinas, in Paris; and large organs for the cathedrals of Rochelle, Rennes, Viviers, Tulle, Chalons-surMarne, Bayeux, and Amiens, and for churches, convents, and chapels at St. Denis, Orleans, Caen, Chalons, Picpus, and Versailles. He repaired and enlarged organs in the cathedrals of Mende, Moulins, Rheims, Evreux, and Nevers, and in the churches of St. Etienne du Mont, St. Philippe du Roule, The Assumption, and St. Louis de Antin in Paris. He also built many organs for Chili and South America. In 1831 Abbey was employed, at the instance of Meyerbeer (who had introduced the instrument into the score of his opera 'Robert le Diable,' then about to be produced), to build an organ for the Grand Opera at Paris, which instrument continued to be used there until it was destroyed, with the theatre, by fire in 1873. Abbey was the first who introduced into French organs the English mechanism and the bellows invented by Cummins. His example was speedily followed by the French builders, and from that period may be dated the improvements in organ building which have raised the French builders to their present eminence. His work was wellfinished,and generally satisfactory. He died at Versailles, Feb. 19, 1859. He left two sons, E. and J. Abbey, who now carry on the business of organ-builders in Versailles. [W. H. H.]

the help of which certain passages, chords, etc, may be written in a curtailed form, to the greater convenience of both composer and performer. Abbreviations of the first kind need receive no special consideration here; they consist for the most part of the initial letter or first syllable of the word employed—as for instance, p. for piano, cresc. for crescendo, ob. for oboe, cello for violoncello, fag. for bassoon (fagotto), timp. for drums (timpani); and their meaning is everywhere sufficiently obvious. Those of musical passages are indicated by signs, as follows. The continued repetition of a note or chord is expressed by a stroke or strokes across the stem, or above or below the note if it be a semibreve (Ex. 1), the number of strokes denoting the subdivision of the written note into quavers, semiquavers, etc., unless the word tremolo or tremolando is added, in which case the repetition is as rapid as possible, without regard to the exact number of notes played. On bowed instruments the rapid reiteration of a single note is easy, but in pianoforte music an octave or chord becomes necessary to produce a tremolo, the manner of writing and performing which is shown in Ex. 2.

2

ABBREVIATIONS. The abbreviations employed in music are of two kinds, namely, the abridgment of terms relating to musical expression, and the true musical abbreviations by

ABBREVIATIONS.

ABBREVIATIONS.

3

In the abbreviation expressed by strokes, as above, the passage to be abbreviated can of course contain no note of greater length than a quaver, but it is possible also to divide a long note into crotchets, by means of dots placed over it, as in Ex. 3. This is however seldom done, as the saving of space is inconsiderable. When a long note has to be repeated in the form of triplets or groups of six, the figure 3 or 6 is usually placed over it in addition to the stroke across the stem, and the note is sometimes, though not necessarily, written dotted (Ex. 4).

viated by the repetition, of the cross strokes without the notes as many times as the group has to be repeated (Ex. 7) ; or the notes forming the groupare written as a chord, with the necessary number of strokes across the stem (Ex. 8). In this case the word simili or segue is added, to show that the order of notes in the first group (which must be written out in full) is to be repeated, and to prevent the possibility of mistaking the effect intended for that indicated in Ex. 1 and 2.

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S3 The repetition of a group of two notes is abbreviated by two white notes (minims or semibreves) connected by the number of strokes ordinarily used to express quavers, semiquavers, etc., according to the rate of movement intended (Ex. 5). The duration of the whole passage should be at least a minim, since if a crotchet were treated in this manner it would present the appearance of two quavers or semiquavers, and would be unintelligible. Nevertheless, a group of demisemiquavers amounting altogether to the value of a crotchet is sometimes found abbreviated as in Ex. 6, the figure 8 being placed above the notes to show that the value of the whole group is that of a crotchet, and not a quaver. Such abbreviations, though perhaps useful in certain cases, are generally to be avoided as ambiguous. It will be observed that a passage lasting for the valueof one minim requires two minims to express it, on account of the group consisting of two notes.

Another sign of abbreviation of a group consists of an oblique line with two dote, one on each side (Ex. 9); this serves to indicate the repetition of a group of any number of notes of any length, and even, of a passage composed of several groups, provided such passage is not more than two bars in length (Ex. 10).

A more usual method of abbreviating the repetition of a passage of the length of the above is to write over it the word bis (twice), or in some cases ter (three times), or to enclose it between the dots of an ordinary repeat If: : j | . Passages intended to be played in octaves are often written as single notes with the words con A group of three, four, or more notes is abbre- ottavi or con Bvi placed above or below them, B2

4

ABEL.

ABBREVIATIONS.

according as the upper or lower octave is to be added (Ex. 11). The word $va (or sometimes 8m alta or $va bassa) written above a passage does not add octaves, but merely transposes the passage an octave higher or lower: so also in clarinet music the word ckalumeau is used to signify that the passage iB to be played an octave lower than written (Ex. 12). All these alterations, which can scarcely be considered abbreviations except that they spare the use of ledger-lines, are counteracted, and the passage restored to its usual position, by the use of the word loco, or in clarinet music by clarinette. I I . ConSvi.

12. 8va

loco

8va bassa.

loco

In orchestral music it often happens that certain of the instruments play in unison ; when this is the case the parts are sometimes not all written in the score, but the lines belonging to one or more of the instruments are left blank, and the words coi violini or col basso, etc., are added, to indicate that the instruments in question have to play in unison with the violins or basses, as the case may be, or when two instruments of the same kind, such as first and second violins, have to play in unison, the word unisono or col primo is placed instead of the notes in the line belonging to the second.—Where two parts are written on one staff in a score the sign ' 0 2 ' denotes that both play the same notes ; and ' a I ' that the second of the two is resting.—The indication 'a $' ' 0 4 ' at the head of fugues indicates the number of parts or voices in which the fugue is written. An abbreviation which is often very troublesome to the conductor occurs in manuscript scores, when a considerable part of the composition is repeated without alteration, and the corresponding number of bars are left vacant, with the remark come sopra (as above). This is not met with in printed scores.

There are also abbreviations relating to the theory of music, some of which are of great value. In figured bass, for instance, the various chords are expressed byfigures,and the authors of several modern theoretical works have invented or availed themselves of various methods of shortly expressing the different chords and intervals. Thus we find major chords expressed by large Roman numerals, and minor chords by small ones, the particular number employed denoting the degree of the scale upon which the chord is based. Gottfried Weber represents an interval by a number with one or two dots before it to express minor or diminished, and one or two after it for major or augmented, and Andre makes use of a triangle, | \ , to express a common chord, and a square, • , for a chord of the seventh, the inversions being indicated by one, two, or three small vertical lines across their base, and the classification into major, minor, diminished, or augmented by the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4, placed in the centre. [F. T.] ABBILLE, JOH. CHB. LUDWIG, born

at

Bayreuth Feb. 20, 1761, composer, pianist, and organist. Studied at Stuttgart, and in 1782 became a member of the private band of the Duke of Wurtemberg. On Zumsteeg's death in 1802 he succeeded him as concert-meister, and was shortly afterwards made organist in the court chapel and director of the official music. In 1832, having completed a period of fifty years' faithful service, he received the royal gold medal and a pension, shortly after which he died, in his seventy-first year. Abeille's concertos and trios for the harpsichord were much esteemed, but his vocal compositions were his best works. Amongst them are several collections of songs (e. g. ' Eight Lieder,' Breitkopf and Hartel) which are remarkable for simple natural grace, and a touching vein of melody. Some of these still survive in music-schools. His Ash-Wednesday hymn for four voices, and his operettas of ' Amor und Psyche,' 'Peter und Annchen,' were well known in their day, and were published, in pianoforte score, by Breitkopf and Hartel. [C. F. P.] ABEL, CLASIOE HENRICH, born in West-

phalia about the middle of the 17th century, chamber-musician to the court of Hanover. His work ' ErBtlinge Musikalischer Blumen' appeared first in three vols. (Frankfort, 1674, 1676, and 1677), afterwards united under the title 'Drei opera musica' (Brunswick, 1687). [M. C. C ] ABEL, KAKL FRIEDRTCH, one of the most

famous viol-da-gamba players, born at Cothen in, 1725. He was brought up at the Thomas-school at Leipsic under Sebastian B;ich. In 1748 he obtained a post under Hasse in the court band at Dresden, where he remained ten years. In 1759 he visited London, and gave his first concert on April 5 at the ' great room in Dean-street, Soho,' when, in addition to the viol-da-gamba, he performed ' a concerto upon the barpsicliord, and a piece composed on purpose for an instrument newly-invented in London, and called the pentachord,' the wnole of the pieces in the programme

ABEL. being of his own composition. His facility was remarkable: he is reported to have performed more than once on the horn, as well as on ' new instruments never heard in public before.' From the year 1765 however he confined himself to the viol-da-gamba. He was appointed chambermusician to Queen Charlotte, with a salary of £200 a-year. On the arrival of John Christian Bach, in the autumn of 1762, Abel joined him ; they lived together, and jointly conducted Mrs. Cornelys' subscription; concerts. The first of their series took place in Carlisle-house, Sohosquare, on January 23, 1765, and they were maintained for many years. The Hanover-square Rooms were opened on Feb. I, 1775, by one of these concerts. Haydn's Symphonies were first performed in England at them,, and Wilhelm Cramer the violinist, father of J. B. Cramer, made his first appearance there. After Bach's death on Jan. 1, 1782, the concerts were continued by Abel, but with indifferent success. In 1783 he returned to Germany, taking Paris on the way back, where he appears to have begun that indulgence in drink which eventually caused his death. In 1785 we find him again in London,, engaged in the newly established 'Professional Concerts,' and in•. the 'Subscription Concerts' of Mr. Salomon and. Mme. Mara at the Pantheon. At this time his compositions were much performed, and he himself still played often in public. His last appearance was at Mrs. Billington's concert on May 21, 1787, shortly after which, on June 20, he died, after a lethargy or sleep of three days' duration. His death was much spoken of in the papers. Abel's symphonies, overtures, quartetts, concertos, and sonatas were greatly esteemed, and many of them were published by Bremner of London and Hummel of Berlin. The most favourite were ' A fifth set of six overtures, op. 14' (Bremner), and 'Six sonatas, op..18.' Abel's playing was most remarkable in slow movements. ' On the viol-da-gamba,' says the ' European Magazine,' 1784, p. 366, ' he is truly excellent, and no modern has been heard to play an Adagio with greater taste and feeling.' Burney's testimony is to the same effect, and he adds that ' his musical science and taste were so complete that he became the umpire in all musical. controversy, and was consulted like an oracle.' He was accustomed to call his instrument ' the king of instruments,' and to say of himself that there was ' one God and one Abel.' Among his pupils both in singing and composition were J. B. Cramer, Graeff, and Brigida Giorgi (Signora Banti). His friend Gainsborough painted a three-quarter-length portrait of Abel playing on the viol-da-gamba, distinguished by its careful execution, beauty of colouring, and deep expression. It was bequeathed by Miss Gainsborough to Mr. Briggs, and was sold in London in 1866. Gainsborough also exhibited a whole-length of Abel at the Koyal Academy in 1777, and a very, powerful portrait of him by Robineau is to be found at Hampton Court. [C. F. P.] ABEL, LEOPOLD AUGUST, born at Cothen 1720, death unknown; elder brother of the pre-

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5

ceding, violinist, and pupil of Benda. He played in the orchestra of the theatre at Brunswick, and was successively conductor of the court band to the Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (1758), the Margrave of Schwedt (1766), and the Duke of Schwerin. He composed six violin concertos mentioned in Bohme's catalogue, but never rose to the reputation of his brother. [M. C. C ] ABELL, JOHN, a celebrated alto singer and performer on the lute, was born about 1660, and probably educated in the choir of the Chapel Eoyal, of which establishment he was sworn a 'gentleman extraordinary' in 1679. He was greatly patronised by royalty, and between the years 1679 and 1688 received 'bounty money' amounting to no less than £740. (See ' Moneys received and paid for secret services of Charles I I and James II'—Gamd. Soc). Charles I I sent him to Italy to study, and after his return Evelyn thus describes meeting him: • Jan. 24, 1682-3. After supper came in the famous treble, Mr. Abel, newly returned from Italy. I never heard a more excellent voice, and would have sworn it had been a woman's, it was so high and so well and skilfully managed, being accompanied by Signor Francisco on the harpsichord.' He remained in the service of the chapel until the Revolution of 1688, when he was dismissed for his supposed leaning to the Romish religion. After this he travelled abroad, visiting France, Germany, Holland, and Poland, leading a vagrant sort of life, and depending for his support upon his voice and lute. About the latter end of the reign of Queen Anne, Abell returned to England, and occupied a prominent position on the stage. Congreve, in a letter dated 'Lond. Decem. IOJ 1700,' says 'Abell is here: has a cold at present, and is always whimsical, so that when he will sing or not upon the stage are things very disputable, but he certainly sings beyond all creatures upon earth, and I have heard him very often both abroad and since he came over.' (Literary Relics, 1792, P- 322). In 1701 Abell published two works, ' A Collection of Songs in Several Languages,' which he dedicated to William III, and ' A collection of Songs in' English.' The latter contains a very curious poem of some length, addressed to 'All lovers of Musick,' in which he describes some of his doings on the continent. His death is not recorded, but it was after 1716, when he gave a concert at Stationers' Hall. (Hawkins, Hist. ;

Cheque-Book Chap. Roy., etc.).

[E. F. R.]

ABOS, GEKONIMO,. born at Malta in the beginning of the 18th century, died at Naples about 1786, a composer of the Neapolitan school, and pupil of Leo and Durante. He was a teacher in the Conservatrio of ' L a Pieta' at Naples, and trained many eminent singers, of whom Aprile was the most famous. He visited Rome, Venice, Turin, and, in 1.756,. London, where he held the post of maestro al cembalo at the opera. His operas are 'LaPupilla e '1. Tutore,' 'La Serva Padrona,' and 'L'lfigenia in Aulide' (Naples),

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'L'Artaserse' (Venice, 1746), 'li'Adriano' (Rome, 1750), 'Tito Manlio,' and 'Creso' (London, 1756 and 1758). His church music includes seven Masses, two Kyries, and several Litanies to the Virgin, preserved in manuscript in Naples, Rome, Vienna, and the Conservatoire in Paris. The style of his composition somewhat resembles that of Jomelli. [M. C. C]

cannot be denied that in many dilettante circles Abt is a prime favourite for his elegance and easy intelligibility. His greatest successes in Germany and Switzerland have been obtained in part-songs for men's voices, an overgrown branch of composition unfortunately devoted to the pursuit of the mere superficial enjoyment of sweet sounds, and to a great extent identified with his name. The list of Abt's compositions is enormous, and contains more than 400 works, consisting chiefly of 'Lieder' of the most various kinds for one, two, or three solo voices, as well as for chorus, both female and mixed, and, as already mentioned, especially for men's voices. Of the solo ' Lieder,' a collection of the less-known ones has been published by Peters under the title of ' Abt-Album.' The part-songs are to be found in many collections. In the early part of his life Abt composed much for the pianoforte, chiefly pieces of light salon character. These have never had the same popularity with his vocal works, and are now virtually forgotten. [A. M.] ABYNGDON, HENRY. An English ecclesiastic and musician. He succeeded John Bernard as subcentor of Wells on Nov. 24, 1447? and held that post till his death on Sept. I, 1497, when he was succeeded by Robert Wydewe. (Beckynton's and Oliver King's registers at Wells.) In addition to the succentorship at Wells Abyngdon held the office of 'Master of the Song' of the Chapel Royal in London, to which he was appointed in May 1465 at an annual salary of forty marks, confirmed to him by a subsequent Act of Parliament in 1473-4. (Rimbault, 'Chequebook of Chapel Royal,' p. 4.) He was also made Master of St. Catherine's Hospital, Bristol, in 1478. (Collinson, ii. 283.) Two Latin epitaphs on Abyngdon by Sir Thomas More have been preserved (Cayley's 'Life of More,' i. 317), of which the English epitaph quoted by Rimbault from Stonyhurst is an adaptation. In these he himself is styled ' nobilis,' and his office in London ' cantor,' and he is said to have been pre-eminent both as a singer and an organist:— ' Millibus in mille cantor fuit optimus ille, Praeter et haec ista fuit optimus orgaquenista." More's friendship is evidence of Abyngdon's ability and goodness, but the acquaintance can only have been slight, as More was but seventeen when Abyngdon died. None of his works are known. [G.] ACADEMIE DE MUSIQUE. This institution, which, following the frequently changed political conditions of France since 1791, has been called in turn Royale, National*, and Imperiale, has already entered its third century. In 1669 royal letters patent were granted by Louis XIV to the Abbe Perrin, Robert Cambert, and the Marquis de Sourdeac, for the establishment of an Academie wherein to present in public ' operas and dramas with music, and in French verse,' after the manner of those of Italy, for the space of twelve years. Nearly a century prior

«

ABRAMS, The Misses HENRIETTA, THEODO-

SIA, and ELIZA, were three sisters, vocalists. Henrietta, the eldest, was a pupil of Dr. Arne, andfirstappeared in public at Drury Lane theatre, in her master's musical piece, ' May Day,' on Oct. 28, 1775. She and her sister Theodosia sang at the opening of the Concert of Ancient Music in 1776. Henrietta possessed a soprano, and Theodosia a contralto voice of excellent quality. The youngest sister, Eliza, was accustomed to join with her sisters in the pieces which were sung at the Ladies' Catch and Glee Concerts. The elder two sang at the Commemoration of Handel, in Westminster Abbey, in 1784, and at the principal London concerts for several years afterwards, when they retired into private life. They both attained to an advanced age; Theodosia (then Mrs. Garrow) was living in 1834. Henrietta Abrams composed several pleasing songs, two of which, ' The Orphan's Prayer' and ' Crazy Jane,' aided by the expressive singing of her sister, Theodosia, became very popular. She published, in 1787, ' A Collection of Songs,' and 'A Collection of Scotch Songs harmonized for three voices,' besides other pieces at later dates. [W. H. H.] ABT, FRANZ, born at Eilenburg in Prussian Saxony, Dec. 22,1819. His father was a clergyman, and Franz, though destined to the same profession, received a sound musical education, and was allowed to pursue both objects at the Thomas-School and University of Leipsie. On his father's death he relinquished the church as a profession and adopted music entirely. His first residence was at Zurich (1841), where he acted as capellmeister, occupying himself more especially with men's voices, both as composer and conductor of several societies. In 1852 he entered the staff of the Hof-theater at Brunswick, where since 1855 he has filled the post of leading capellmeister. Abt is well known by his numerous songs for one or more voices, which betray an easy fluency of invention, couched in pleasing popular forms, but without pretence to depth or individuality. Many of his songs, as for instance 'When the swallows,' were at one time universally sung, and have obtained a more or less permanent place in the popular repertory. Abt is a member of a group of composers, embracing his contemporaries Truhn, Kiicken, Gumbert, and others, who stand aloof from the main course taken by the German Lied as it left the hands of .Schubert, Schumann, and Franz, — which aims at the true and living expression of inward emotion. In reference to this the composers in question are somewhat in the background 4 but it

ACADEMIE DE MUSIQUE, to this, in 1570, similar privileges had been accorded by Charles IX to a Venetian, C. A. de Baif, in respect to an academy ' de poesie et de musique,' but its scheme does not appear to have included dramatic representation. In any case it failed utterly. The establishment of the existing institution was however also preceded, and therefore facilitated, by a series of performances in Italian by Italian artists, beginning in 1584 and continued with little interruption till 1652, and by rarer though not less important ones by French artists, beginning from 1625, when ' Akebar, roi du Mogol,' was produced in the palace of the bishop of Carpentras. This has frequently been spoken of as the earliest veritable French opera; but that title is more justly due to the ' Pastorale en musique' of CAMBBET—the subject of which was given to the Abbe Perrin by the Cardinal Legate of Innocent X—first performed at Issy in 1659. Two years after, Cambert followed this opera by ' Ariane,' and in the following year by 'Adonis.' The Academie was opened in 1671 with an opera by the same master, ' Pomone,' which attained an enormous success ; having been repeated, apparently to the exclusion of every other work, for eight months successively. The 'strength' of the company engaged in its performance presents an interesting contrast with that of the existing grand opera, and even of similar establishments of far less pretension. The troupe consisted of five male and four female principal performers, fifteen chorus - singers, and an orchestra numbering thirteen! The career of the Academie under these its first entrepreneurs was brought to an end by the jealousy of an Italian musician then

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7

as the troupe of his predecessor Cambert included four, his claim to their first introduction there needs qualification. Probably he got prohibition which had eeased to be operative exchanged for avowed sanction. The status of the theatrical performer at this epoch would seem to have been higher than it has ever been since; seeing that, by a special court order, even nobles were allowed, without prejudice to their rank, to appear as singers and dancers before audiences who paid for admission to their performances. What it was somewhat later may be gathered from the fact that, not to mention innumerable less distinguished instances, Christian burial was refused (1673) to Moliere and (1730) to Adrienne Le Couvreur. Lully's scale of payment to authors, having regard to the value of money in his time, was liberal. The composer of a new opera received for each of the first ten representations 100 livres (about £4 sterling), and for each of the following twenty representations, 50 livres. After this the work became the property of the Academie. The theatre was opened for operatic performance three times a week throughout the year. On great festivals concerts of sacred music were given. The composers contemporary with Lully (many of them his pupils) could only obtain access to the Academie by conforming to his style and working on his principles. Some few of these however, whose impatience of the Lullian despotism deprived them of all chance of a hearing within its walls, turned their talents to account in the service of the vagrant troupes of the Foire Saint-Germain; and with such success as to alarm Lully both for his authority and his rising in court favour, J. BAPTISTE LULLT, who, receipts. He obtained an order (more suo) for through his influence with Mme. de Montespan, the suppression of this already dangerous rivalry, succeeded in obtaining for himself the privileges which however proved itself far too supple for which had been accorded to Perrin and Cambert. legislative manipulation. The ' vagrants' met The latter, the master-spirit of the enterprise each new ordonnance with a new evasion, and thus wrecked, notwithstanding his hospitable that of which they were the first practitioners, reception by our Charles II, died in London and the frequenters of the Foire the first patrons, shortly afterwards, at the age of forty-nine, of subsequently grew into the most delightful, disappointment and home - sickness. By this because the most truly natural, of all French disreputable proceeding Lully made himself art products, the Opera Comique. The school master of the situation, remaining to the time of composition established by Lully did not die of his death, in 1687, the autocrat of the French with its founder; nor for many years was any lyric drama. In the course of these fourteen serious violation of his canons permitted by years he produced, in concert with the poet his adopted countrymen. Charpentier (1634QOINAULT, no fewer than twenty grand operas, 1702), a composer formed in the school of besides other works. The number, success, and, Carissimi, was unsuccessful in finding favour more than all, the merit, of these entitle Lully to for the style of his master: Campra (1660-1744) be regarded as the founder of the school of which was somewhat less so ; while Marais, Desmarets, Meyerbeer may claim to have proved the most Lacoste, and Monteclair were gradually enabled distinguished alumnus ; though, as we have seen, to give more force, variety and character to its foundation had been facilitated for him by orchestration. The last of these (1666-173 7) the labours of others. In the course of his first introduced the three-stringed double-bass, autocracy, Lully developed considerably musical on which he himself was a performer, into the form in its application to dramatic effect, and orchestra. But a condition of an art on the added considerably to the resources of the whole so stagnant as this was sure eventually orchestra; though, in comparison with those to become insupportable, if not to the public, of more recent times, he left them still very to the few who at all times, consciously or meagre. He is said to have first obtained unconsciously, direct or confirm its inclinations. permission, though in spite of great opposition, Their impatience found expression in the Abbe for the appearance of women on the stage; but Raguenet's ' Parallele des Italians et des Franc&is,

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en ce qui regarde la musique et les opera' (i 7 4 one of a considerable number of essays which assisted in preparing the way for a new style, should a composer present himself of sufficient genius, culture and courage, to introduce it. Such an one at length did present himself in

months. The result of this extravagant speed was that, after the first performance, said to have been attended (gratis) by 10,000 persons, the walls were found to have ' settled' two inches to the right and fifteen lignes to the left. In 1784 an Ecole Royale de Chant et de Declamation, afterwards developed into the Conservatoire, was grafted on to the Academie. In 1787 the Academie troupe is said to have consisted of 250 persons—an increase of 100 on that of Rameau. The unfortunate Louis XVI took great interest in the Academie, and even gave much personal attention to its regulation. He reduced the working expenses by nearly one-half; not at the cost of the working members, but by the abolition of sinecures and other incumbrances on its income. In 1784 he established prizes for libretti, and in 1787 issued several wellconsidered ordonnances for the regulation of the establishment. But from 1789 the thoughts of the ill-starred king were exclusively occupied by more weighty and more difficult subjects. On April 20, 1791, the royal family attended the Academie for the last time. The opera waB the ' Castor et Pollux' of Rameau. Shortly after this the 'protection,' or exclusive right of performance of grand opera, was withdrawn from the Academie and the liberte des theatres proclaimed. Hitherto the names of the artists concerned in the Academie performances had never been published. This rule was violated for the first time in the afficke announcing ' L' Offrande a la Liberte,' an opera-ballet by Gardel and Gossec. The history of the Acadenrie during the next few years is a part of the history of the French Revolution, and could only be made intelligible by details out of all proportion with our space. The societaires, as public officers, were largely occupied in lending the charms of their voices and instruments—the only charms of which they were receptive—to 'Fetes de la Raison,' 'Sans- Culottides,' and more lately 'Hymnes a l'Etre Supreme,' alike unmeaning, indecent, or blasphemous. In many of these the talents of the illustrious Cherubini, who had taken up his residence in Paris in 1 788, were employed. The chronological 'Notice' of his compositions, which he himself drew up (Paris, I ^45)> contains the titles of a large number of productions of this class—'Hymne a la Fraternite,' ' Chant pour le Dix Aout,' ' Le Salp^tre Republicans' and the like. In 1794 the Academie was transferred to the Rue de Richelieu, a locality (the site of the Hotel Louvois) chosen it was said by Henriot, convinced of 'the inutility of books,' in the hope that an establishment so liable to conflagration as a theatre might lead to the destruction of the Bibliotheque Nationale contiguous to it ! In its new abode the Academie took a new name—Theatre des Arts. Here for the first time the pit was provided with seats. In the four or five years following this removal, the habitues of the Academie became weary of a repertoire having constant ultimate reference to liberte, fraternite, or egulite. The old operas, subjected always to

8

JEAN PHILIPPE RAMEAU, whose arrival in Paris

in 1721, at the somewhat mature age of forty two, forms an epoch in the history not merely of French opera but of European music. In the face of much opposition this sturdy Burgundian succeeded first in obtaining a hearing from and eventually in winning the favour—though never to the same extent as Lully the affections—of the French people. Between 1737 and 1760, irrespective of other work, he set to music no less than twenty-four dramas, the majority of them grand operas. The production of these at the Academie he personally superintended ; and Borne idea of his activity and influence as a director may be gathered from the fact that in 1750, fourteen years before the cloae of his career, the number of performers engaged at the Academie had risen to 149 ; a number doubtless to some extent rendered necessary by the increased craving of the public ear for intensity, but more by the varieties of musical effect of which he himself had been the inventor. In 1763 the theatre of the Palais Royal, built by Lemercier, so long resonant with the strains of Lully and Raineau, was destroyed by fire. The ten years which connected the death of Rameau with the arrival in Paris of GLUCK were marked by the production of no work of more than secondary rank. On April 19, 1774, the 'Iphigenie en Aulide' of this master was heard for the first time. The production of this work was followed by that of a series of others from the same hand, one and all characterised by a direct application of musical form and colour to dramatic expression before unknown to the French or any other theatre. The arrival in Paris shortly after of the admirable PICOINNI brought Gluck into relation with a master who, while not unworthy to cope with him as a musician, was undoubtedly his inferior as a diplomatist. Between these two great composers the parts of the typical 'ruse Italian' and the ' simple-minded German' were interchanged. The latter left no means untried to mar the success of the former, for whose genius he openly professed, and probably felt, high admiration ; and in the famous war of the Gluckists and Piccinnists—whose musical knowledge for the most part was in inverse ratio to their literary Bkill—the victory which fell eventually to the former was the result no less of every species of chicanery on the part of Gluck than of genius especially adapted to captivate a people always more competent to appreciate dramatic than musical genius. In 1781 the second Palais Royal theatre, like its predecessor, was burnt to the ground. The Academie, for many weeks without a home, at length took temporary refuge in the Salles des Menus-PIaisirs. Meanwhile the architect Lenoir completed the Salle de la Porte Saint-Martin in the short space of three

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democratic purification, were again heard. In 1799 Gluck's 'Armide' was revived. During the consulate no new works of importance were brought forward at the Theatre des Arts, eventually the scene of two conspiracies against the First Consul, which, had they been successful, would have altered seriously the subsequent history of Europe. On the occasion of the first of these the 'Horaces' of Porta, and on that of the second the ' Creation ' of Haydn were performed, the latter for the first time in Paris. During the ten years which follow 1804 French opera was much developed through the labours both of foreign and of native composers ; among the former, Spontini, Bodolphe Kreutzer, and Cherubim; among the latter Lesueur and Catel. Among the most important of their works were 'Les Bardes' of Lesueur and 'La Vestale' of Spontini—the latter an enormous success won despite bitter and long-continued opposition. To Spontini, on account of it, was awarded the prize of 10,000 francs, decreed at Aix-la-Chapelle by Napoleon for the best opera produced at the Academie (now) Imperiale. In 1814 the allies occupied Paris, and the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia assisted at a performance of 'La Vestale' on April 1. On May 17 following ' ffidipe a Colone' and a Ballet de Circonstance were played before Louis XVIII. On April 18, 1815, Napoleon witnessed another performance of ' La Vestale,' and on July 9 of the same year the same opera was again performed before Louis XVIII, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia. The assassination of the Due de Bern on the evening of Feb. 13, 1820, interrupted for several months the performances of the Academie. The act and its consequences were attended by every conceivable circumstance that could add to their ghastliness. The dying victim, who could not be removed from the theatre, lay, surrounded by his weeping family, separated only by a thin partition from an audience, unconscious of course of the tragedy in progress behind the scenes, convulsed with laughter at the antics of Polichinelle ! The last sacraments of the church were administered to the duke on condition—exacted, it may be presumed, by the clergy in attendance—that the building in which these horrors were being enacted should be forthwith demolished. On May 3, 1821, the Academie troupe resumed its performances in the Salle Favart, with an Opera de Circonstance, the combined work of Berton, Boieldieu, Kreutzer, Cherubini, and Paer, in honour of the infant Due de Bourdeaux. In the next year the Academie was again transferred—this time to the Rue Le Peletier, the salle of which was destined to be for many succeeding years its home, and the scene of even greater glories than any it had yet known. About this time a change of taste in music, mainly attributable to a well-known critic, Castil-Blaze, showed itself among the opera habitues of Paris. French adaptations of the German and Italian operas of Mozart, Eossini, Meyerbeer, and even Weber, were produced

in rapid succession and received with great favour. The 'Freischiitz' of the last great master was performed at the Odeon 387 times in succession. The inevitable result soon followed. The foreign composers who had so effectually served the Academie indirectly, were called upon to serve it directly. The career of Mozart, alas ! had many years before come to an untimely end, and that of Weber was about to prove scarcely more extended. But Rossini and Meyerbeer, though already renowned and experienced, had not yet reached the age when it is impossible or even very difficult to enter on a new career. They became and remained French composers. Meanwhile HEROLD, AUBEE, and other native musicians, had made themselves known by works of more than promise; and the services of a body of operatic composers, foreign and French, unprecedented in number and ability, were made to contribute at the same time to the pleasure of a single city and the prosperity of a single institution. By a fortunate coincidence too, there flourished during this period a playwright, Augustin Eugene Scribe, who, despite his style impossible, must be regarded as the greatest master the theatre has known of that most difficult and thankless of literary products, the libretto. The two years immediately preceding and the eighteen following the revolution of July form the period during which the Academie attained its highest excellence and success. Not to speak of a large number of works which in other times might have deserved special mention, this period includes the composition and production of the ' Comte Ory' and the ' Guillaume Tell' of Eossini, the 'Muette' of Auber, the 'Robert le Diable' and 'Huguenots' of Meyerbeer, the ' Juive" and 'Charles V I ' of Halevy, the 'Favorite' of Donizetti, and the 'Benvenuto Cellini' of Berlioz. These works were performed almost exclusively by native artists, whose excellence has especial claims on our admiration from the fact that, fifty years before, singing as an art can scarcely be said to have existed in France. Writing from Paris in 1778, Mozart says—'And then the singers !—but they do not deserve the name; for they do not sing, but scream and bawl with all their might through their noses and their throats.' With the times, like many other things, French singing had certainly changed in 1830. Transitory as is the reputation of the average vocalist, the names of Cinti-Damoureau, Falcon, Nourrit, Levasseur, and the later Duprez, are as little likely to be forgotten as those of the admirable masters of whose works they were the first interpreters. Since 1848 the lyric dramas produced at the Academie hold no place besides those of earlier date. Few of them—this is the best of tests—have been performed with any success, or even at all, out of France. The ' Prophete' of Meyerbeer and the 'Vepres Siciliennes' of Verdi present all but the only exceptions; and the composition of the former of these belongs to an earlier epoch. In 1861, when the second empire was, or seemed to be,

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10

ACADEMIE DE MUSIQVE.

at its zenith, the foundations were laid in Paris of a new Acade'inie, designed on a scale, as respects magnitude and luxury, unprecedented in any age or country. Its progress, from the first slow, was altogether stopped by the Franco-German war and the political changes accompanying it. The theatre in the Rue Le Peletier having meanwhile, after the manner of theatres, been burnt to the ground, and the works of the new one resumed, the Academie, installed in its latest home, once more opened its doors to the public on Jan. 5, 1875. In some respects the new theatre is probably the most commodious yet erected, but the salle is said to be deficient in sonority. Since the foundation of the Academie in 1669, its relations with the Government, though frequently changed, have never been altogether interrupted. The interference of the state with the entrepreneur has been less frequent or authoritative at one time than at another; but he has always been responsible to a ' department.' Before and up to the Revolution the ultimate operatic authority was the King's Chamberlain; under the Empire the Steward of the Imperial Household ; under the Restoration the King's Chamberlain again; under Louis Phillippe the Minister of Fine Art; and under Napoleon III (after the manner of his uncle) the Steward of the Imperial Household again. The arbitrary rule of one of these officers, Marshal Vaillant, brought the working of the Academie to a complete standstill, and the Emperor was compelled to restore its supervision to the Minister of Fine Art. From the foundation of the Acadi'mie to the present time its actual management has changed hands, in the course of two centuries, nearly fifty times, though many managers have held office more than once ; giving an average of only four years to each term of management. In the present year (1875) the entrepreneur, subject to the Minister of Fine Art, is M. Halanzier, who receives from the state a yearly allowance (subvention) of £32,000, the principal conditions of the enjoyment of which are that he shall maintain an efficient staff, open his theatre four times a week, and give favourable consideration to new works by native composers. The facts in this article are drawn from the following works, amongst others :—' Histoire de la Musique dramatique en France,' Gustave Chouquet, 1873; 'Histoire de la Musique en France,' Ch. Poisot, i860; 'Notice des Manuscrits autographes de la Musique composite par Cherubini,' 1S45; Kochs ' Musikalisches Lexicon,' edited by von Dommer; 'Critique et litterature musicales,' Scudo, 1859; 'Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la Revolution operee dans la Musique par M. le Chevalier Gluck,' 1781. [J. H.] ACADEMY OF ANCIENT MUSIC. This association was formed about the year 171 o at the Croivn and Anchor Tavern in the Strand, by a body of distinguished instrumentalists, professional and amateur, including the Earl of

ACCADEMIA. Abercorn, Mr. Henry Needier, Mr. Mulso, and other gentlemen, for the study and practice of vocal and instrumental works, and an important feature in the scheme was the formation of a library of printed and MS. music. The Academy met with the utmost success under the direction of Dr. Pepusch, the gentlemen and boys of St. Paul's Cathedral and the Chapel Royal taking part in the performances. In 1828 Dr. Maurice Greene left the Academy and established a rival institution at the Devil Tavern, Temple Bar, but this only existed for a few years, and the old Academy continued its work, with Mr. Needier as leader of the orchestra, among the members of which was the Earl of Abercorn. In the season of 1731-2 the Academy performed Handel's 'Esther,' the members appearing dressed in character, and its success is said to have led Handel to consider the desirability of establishing oratorio performances at Covent Garden. In 1734 there was a second secession from the Academy, Mr. Gates retiring and taking with him the children of the Chapel Royal. After passing through one season without any treble voices the Academy issued invitations to parents to place their children under the instruction of Dr. Pepusch, one of the conditions being that they should sing at the concerts. A subscription list was also opened to provide the necessary funds, and among those who supported the Academy were Handel and Geminiani, the latter of whom frequently played at its concerts. The death of Dr. Pepusch in 1752 was a serious loss to the institution, but the doctor bequeathed to it the most valuable portion of his library. The Academy closed its career in 1792 under the conduct of Dr. Arnold, who had been appointed its director in the year 1789. [C. M.] ACADEMY OF MUSIC, NEW YORK. This is not an academy in the European sense of the word, but is the name of a large building employed for the performance of operas and concerts, opened in 1854, burnt down in 1866, re-opened in Feb. 1867. The chief public institution in New York for teaching music is the NEW YORK CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC.

A CAPELLA, or ALLA CAPELLA (Ital., 'in the church style'), is used in three senses, (1) as showing that the piece is for voices without accompaniment; or (2) where instruments are employed, that these accompany the voices only in unisons or octaves and have no independent parts; or (3) as a time indication, in which case it is equivalent to ALLA BREVE. A CAPRICCIO (Ital.). 'At the caprice' or pleasure of the performer, both as regards time and expression. ACCADEMIA, an institution which flourished all over Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, speaking generally, was founded for promoting the progress of science, literature, and art. II Quadrio ('Storia e Ragione,' i. 48-112) gives an account of all the Italian academies from the earliest times, and the mere alphabetical list would fill several pages. Even from his volumi-

11

ACCADEMIA.

ACCADEMIA.

nous work but little beyond the names and mottoes of these institutions, the dates of their foundation, and their general objects can be ascertained. A detailed history of their endowments and separate objects would require an examination into the archives of each particular city, and it is doubtful whether such an examination would supply full information or repay it when supplied. Nor is it an easy task to separate those institutions which had music for their especial object. The ' Accademie,' even those especially devoted to music, do not come under the same category as the CONSERVATORIOS. The latter were schools founded and endowed for the sole purpose of giving instruction in music. The Academies were either public institutions maintained by the state, or private societies founded by individuals to further the general movement in favour of science, literature, and the fine arts. This they did in various ways, either by public instructions and criticisms, facilitating the printing of standard works on music, illustrating them with fresh notes, or by composing new ones; and every week the Academicians would assemble to compare their studies and show proofs of their industry. The study of one science or art would often help to illustrate the other. By the end of the 16th century poetry had become so closely allied to music in the drama that an academy could hardly have one of these arts for its object without including the others also, while many, like the 'Alterati' at Florence, the 'Intrepidi' at Ferrara, the 'Intronati' and the 'Rozzi' at Siena, devoted their energies to promoting the successful combination of the two arts in theatrical representation. As far as regards science, the study of mathematical proportions was found to throw light upon the theory and the practice of music, when the Greek writers upon music came to be translated and studied in Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Take for example the mathematical demonstrations of Galileo in his 'Trattato del Suon,' the writings of the great Florentine theorist, Giambattista Doni (a member of the literary academy ' Delia Crusca'), and Tartini's ' Trattato di Musica.' From the 15th to the 18th century the passion for academical institutions was so vehement in Italy that there was scarcely a town which could not boast at least one, while the larger cities contained several. At first they went by the name of their founder, as that of 'Pomponio Leto' at Rome, or 'Del Pontano' at Naples. But as they increased and multiplied this did not suffice, and each chose a special name either with reference to its particular object or from mere caprice. Hence arose a number of elaborate designations indicative either of praise or blame, 'Degli Infiammati,' 'Dei Solleciti,' 'Degl' Intrepidi,' etc. Each of these societies had moreover a device bearing a metaphorical relation to its name and object. These were looked upon as important, and were an highly esteemed as the crests and coats of arms of the old nobility.

Selecting, as far as possible, the academies which had the cultivation of music for their special object, we find that the earliest in Italy were those of Bologna and Milan, founded, the former in 1482, the latter in 1484. In the 16th and 17th centuries Bologna had no less than sis societies for public instruction in music, Cesena and Ferrara one each, Florence five, Padua and Salerno one each, Siena four, entirely for musical dramatic representations, Verona one, founded by Alberto Lavezzola—a combination of two rival institutions which in 1543 became united— Vicenza two, also founded entirely for musical, representation. At this period there appear to have been no particular academy for music either at Milan, Rome, Naples, or Venice, though the science was probably included in the general studies of the various academies which flourished in those cities, while it could be specially and closely studied in the famous Neapolitan and Venetian Conservatorios (see CONSERVATORY) or under the great masters of the Pontifical and other Chapels at Rome. The ' Accademie' were all more or less shortlived, and that of the ' Filarmonici' (at Bologna) is the only one which Burney ('Musical Tour,' I773)> mentions as still extant. According to the ' Report on Musical Education' of 1866, the only institutions for public and gratuitous instruction now existing in Italy are:— (1) The Royal Musical Institute of Florence, founded i860, (2) The ' Reale Conservatory di Musica' at Milan, founded by Napoleon, 1808, and stillflourishing,according to the latest report of 1873. (3) The Royal Neapolitan College, which has taken the place of her four Conservatorios. It is difficult to determine how far the musical life of Italy was affected by these Accademie and Conservatorios; certainly the genius of Palestrina, Stradella, or Cherubini, can no more be attributed to them than that of Dante to the Schools; while the Accademia della Crusca might lacerate the heart of Tasso by picking to pieces a poem which not one of her Academicians could have produced. Yet, on the other hand, it may be urged that lovers of music owe much to such institutions when their members are capable of discerning the bright light of genius and cheering it during its existence, besides being ready to impart the information which is required for the general purposes of musical science.

(See BOLOGNA, CONSERVATO-

EIO, FEBRARA, FLORENCE, LOMBARDY, MILAN, NAPLES, PADUA, ROME, SALERNO, SIENA,VENICE, VERONA, VICENZA).

The name ' Accademia' is, or was, also given in Italy to a private concert. Burney says in his ' Musical Tour': ' The first I went to was composed entirely of dilettanti. II Padrone, or the master of the house, played the first violin, and had a very powerful band; there were

12

ACCENT.

ACCADEMIA. I.

twelve or fourteen performers, among whom were several good violins; there were likewise two German flutes, a violoncello, and small double bass; they executed, reasonably well, several of our [ J. C ] Bach's symphonies, differen from those printed in England: all the musii here is in MS Upon the whole, this concert was much upon a level with our own private concerts among gentlemen in England. ('Tour,' ii. 94-95I. From Italy the use of the word spread to Germany. 'Besuche er mich nicht mehr,' said Beethoven on a memorable occasion, ' keine Akademie !' [C. M. P.] ACCELERANDO (Ital.). Gradually quicken ing the time. In the finale to his quartett in A minor (op. 132) Beethoven is not satisfied with the Italian, but has added above it ' immer geschwinder.' [E. P.]

All

2.

1 ooth Psalm.

peo - pie that

on

earth do dwell.

BEETHOVEN, Eroica Symphony (Scherzo).

Allegro vivace,

hit

3.

BEETHOVEN, Symphony in C minor (Finale). Presto.

ACCENT. As in spoken language certain words and syllables receive more emphasis than others, so in music there are always some notes which are to be rendered comparatively prominent; etc. and this prominence is termed ' accent.' In order that music may produce a satisfactory effect upon 4. HAYDN, Quartett, Op. 76, No. 1 (1st movethe mind, it is necessary that this accent (as in ment Allegro. )" poetry) should for the most part recur at regular intervals. Again, as in poetry we find different varieties of metre, so in music we meet with various kinds of time; i. e. the accent may occur either on every second beat, or isochronous 5. MOZART, Symphony in Eb. period, or on every third beat. The former is Andante. called common time, and corresponds to the iambic or trochaic metres; e. g. ' Away ! nor let me loiter in my song,' or 'Fare thee well! and if for ever.' When the accent recurs on every third beat, the time is called triple, and is analogous to the anapaestic metre; e. g. ' The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold.' As a general rule the position of the accent is indicated by bars drawn across the stave. Since the accents recur at regular intervals it follows of course that each bar contains either the same number of notes or the same total value, and occupies exactly the same time in performance, unless some express direction is given to the contrary. In every bar the first note is that on which (unless otherwise indicated) the strongest accent is to be placed. By the older theorists the accented part of the bar was called by the Greek word thesis, i. e. the putting down, or 'down beat,' and the unaccented part was similarly named arsit, i. e. the lifting, or ' up beat.' In quick common and triple time there is but one accent in a bar; but in slower time, whether common or triple, there are two—a stronger accent on the first beat of the bar, and a weaker one on the third. This will be seen from the following examples, in which the strong accents are marked by a thick stroke (-) over the notes," and the weak ones by a thinner (—).

6. BEETHOVEN, Trio, Op. 70, No. 2 (3rd movement). A llegretto.

7.

MENDELSSOHN, 'Pagenlied.'

Con moto.

The above seven examples show the position of the accents in the varieties of time most commonly in use. The first, having only two notes in each bar, can contain but one accent. In the second and third the time is too rapid ;o allow of the subsidiary accent; but in the remaining four both strong and weak accents will be plainly distinguishable when the music is performed. It will be observed that in all these examples ;he strong accent is on the first note of the bar. K has been already said that this is its regular position; still it is by no means invariable. T uat as in poetry the accent is sometimes thrown

ACCENT. backward or forward a syllable, as for instance in the line ' Stop! for thy tread is on an Empire's dust,' where the first syllable instead of the second receives the accent, so in music, though with much more frequency, we find the accent transferred from the first to some other beat in the bar. Whenever this is done it is always clearly indicated. This may be done in various ways. Sometimes two notes are united by a slur, showing that the former of the two bears the accent, in addition to which a sf is not infrequently added; e.g. 8.

HAYDN, Quartett, Op. 54, No. 2 (1st move-

ment).

9.

BEETHOVEN, Sonata, Op. 27, No. 1 (Finale).

13

ACCENT. In the following example, 12.

SCHUMANN, Phantasiestiicke, Op. 12, No. 4,

will be noticed not merely a reversal of the accent, as in the extracts from Beethoven previously given, but also in the last three bars an effect requiring further explanation. This is the displacing of the accents in such a way as to convey to the mind an impression of an alteration of the time. In the above passage the last three bars sound as if they were written in 2-4 instead of in 3-4 time. This effect, frequently used in modern music, is nevertheless at least as old as the time of Handel. A remarkable example of it is to be found in the second movement of his Chandos anthem ' Let God arise.'

sf 13-

Let them al - so that hate him flee

fore

him,

flee,

flee,

flee

be - fore

him.

As instances of this device in the works of In the former of these examples the phrasing marked for the second and third bars shows that later composers may be quoted the following : the accent in these is to fall on the second and fourth crotchets instead of on the first and third. 14. BEETHOVEN, Eroica Symphony (1st movement). In Ex. 9 the alteration is even more strongly marked by the sf on what would naturally be the unaccented quavers. Another very fre~'! r 1 iji»'^-i-ffi~'i r 133 etc. quent method of changing the position of the sf sf sf sf sf sf sf accent is by means of SYNCOPATION. This was a favourite device with Beethoven, and has since 15. WEBER, Sonata in C (Menuetto). been adopted with success by Schumann, and other modern composers. The two following examples from Beethoven will illustrate this: 10.

Symphony in Bb (ist movement).

—T—Y -

II.

mTm-fi

^fe

Sonata, Op. 28 (1st movement). In both these passages the accent occurring on every second instead of on every third beat, produces in the mind the full effect of common time. It is in quick movements that this modification of the accent is most often found; that it may nevertheless be very effectively employed in slower music will be seen from the following example, from the Andante of Mozart's 'Jupiter' Symphony, in which, to save space, only the upper part and the bass are given. It will be noticed that the extract also illustrates the syncopation above referred to.

ACCENT.

ACCENT.

change is not in the frequency with which the accents recur, but in the subdivision of the bar. Another displacement of accent is sometimes found in modern compositions, bearing some resemblance to those already noticed. It consists in so arranging the accents in triple time as to make two bars sound like one bar of double the length ; e. g. two bars of 3-8 like one of 3-4, or two of 3-4 like one of 3-2. Here again the A nearly analogous effect—the displacing of credit of the first invention is due to Handel, as the accents of 6-8 time to make it sound like a bar will be seen from the following extract from his of 3-4 time is also sometimes to be met with; e. g. opera of' Kodrigo.' in the Andante of Mozart's Symphony in Q 21.

Si

r

The reverse process—making a passage in common time sound as if it were in triple—is much less frequently employed. An example which is too long for quotation may be seen in the first movement of dementi's Sonata in 0, op. 36, No. 3. Beethoven also does the same thing in the first movement of his symphony in E flat.

e

go - de

che lie - ta

tro - ve -

la

When forty years later Handel used this theme for his duet in 'Susanna,' 'To my chaste Susanna's praise,' he altered the notation and wrote the movement in 3-4 time. Of the modern employment of this artifice the following examples will suffice :— 22. SCHUMANN, P. F. Concerto (Finale).

18.

El Though no marks of phrasing are given here, as in some of the examples previously quoted, it is obvious from the form of the passage, which consists of a sequence of phrases of three minims each, that the feeling of triple time is conveyed to the hearer. In this contradiction of the natural accent lies the main charm of the passage. In the well-known passage in the scherzo of the ' Eroica' symphony, where the unison for the strings appears first in triple time 19.

*/

sf

T

and immediately afterwards in common time

there is not exactly (as might be imagined at first sight) a change of accent; because the bars are of the same length in both quotations, and each contain but one accent, which in the first extract comes on the second instead of the first beat. The difference between the two passages, apart from the sf in the first, consists in the fact that in the former each accent is divided into three and in the latter into two parts. The

23. BBAHMS, ' Schicksalslied.'

r •• J p- r Wie Was

Klip - pe

ge

^ Klip

ser

wor

- pe

fen.

At first sight the second of these examples seems very like the extract from Handel's ' Let God arise.' The resemblance however is merely external, as Brahms's passage is constructed on a sequence of three notes, giving the effect of 3-2 time, while Handel's produces the feeling of common time. It will be seen from the above extracts what almost boundless resources are placed at the disposal of the composer by this power of varying the position of the accent. It would be easy to quote at least twice as many passages illustrating this point; but it must suffice to have given a few representative extracts showing some of the effects most commonly employed. Before leaving this part of the subject a few examples should be given of what may be termed the curiosities of accent. These consist chiefly of unusual alternations of triple and common-time accents. In all probability this peculiar alternation was first used by Handel in the following passage from his opera of ' Agrippina.'

ACCENT.

Bel pia

ce - re

ACCENT:

de-re

fi-doa

15

mor I

In the continuation of the song, of which the opening bars are given here, the alternations of common and triple time become more frequent. In the rare cases in which bars of 3-4 and 2-4 time alternate, they are sometimes written in 5-4 time, the accent coming on the first and In the above quotation the first line gives a fourth beats. An example of this time is found quick waltz in 3-8 time with only one accent in in the third act of Wagner's ' Tristan und Isolde,' the bar, this accent falling with each beat of the in which the composer has marked the secondary second and third lines. The contredanse in accent by a dotted bar. 2-4 time and the minuet in 3-4 have each two accents in the bar, a strong and a weak one, as explained above. The crotchet being of the same length in both, it will be seen that the strong accents only occur at the same time in both parts on every sixth beat, at every second bar of the minuet, and at each third bar of the contredanse. A somewhat similar combination of different accents will be found in the slow of Spohr's symphony ' Die Weihe der A similar example, developed at greater movement length, may be seen in the tenor air in the Tone.' All the accents hitherto noticed belong to the second act of Boieldieu's 'La Dame Blanche.' One of the most interesting experiments in class called by some writers on music grammatical mixed accents that has yet been tried is to be or metrical; and are more or less inherent in found in Liszt's oratorio 'Christus.' In the the very nature of music. There is however pastorale for orchestra entitled ' Hirtengesang another point of view from which accent may be an der Krippe' the following subject plays an regarded—that which is sometimes called the oratorical accent. By this is meant the adaptaimportant part. tion in vocal music of the notes to the words, 26. r ^ of the sound to the sense. We are not speaking here of the giving a suitable expression to the text; because though this must in some measure depend upon the accent, it is only in a secondary degree connected with it. What is intended is rather the making the accents of the music correspond with those of the words. A single It is impossible to reduce this passage to any example will make this clear. The following known rhythm; but when the first feeling of phrase strangeness is past there is a peculiar and quaint charm about the music which no other combination would have produced. Such examples as those last quoted are however given merely as curiosities, Oh love - ly fish - er - maid en I and are in no way to be recommended as models for imitation. is the commencement of a well-known song Besides the alternation of various accents, it from the ' Schwanengesang' by Schubert. The is also possible to combine them simultaneously. line contains seven syllables, but it is evident The following extract from the first finale of that it is not every line of the same length to ' Don Giovanni' is not only one of the best- which the music could be adapted. For inknown but one of the most successful experiments stance, if we try to sing to the same phrase in this direction. the words 'Swiftly from the mountain's brow,' which contain exactly the same number of syllables, it will be found impossible, because the accented syllables of the text will come on the unaccented notes of the music, and vice versa. Such mistakes as these are of course never to be found in good music, yet even the greatest composers are sometimes not sufficiently attentive to the accentuation of the words which they set to music. For instance, in the following passage from ' Freischiitz,' Weber has, by means of syncopation and a sforzando, thrown a strong

16

ACCENT.

ACCENT.

accent on the second syllable of the words quotation will furnish an example of what may 'Augen,' 'taugen,' and 'holden,' all of which be called the interrogatory accent. (as those who know German will be aware) are 32. SCHUBERT, ' Schone Miillerin,' No. 8. accented on the first syllable.

Ver - driesst dich denn mein Gniss Triibe

Au-gen,

g|

Liebchen,

so schwer ? Ver-

tan - Ren

. st'ort

dich denn mein Blick

so sehr f

The passage next to be quoted illustrates what The charm of the music makes the hearer may rather be termed the declamatory accent. ';rlook the absurdity of the mispronunciation ; 33- 'Winterreise,' No. 21. i it none the less exists, and is referred to not depreciation of Weber, but as by no means a I solitary instance of the want of attention which W Bin matt zum Nieder-sinken,Bin todtlich schwer verletzt even the greatest masters have sometimes given to this point. Two short examples of a someThe word ' matt' is here the emphatic word what similar character are here given from of the line; but the truthful expression of the Handel's ' Messiah' and ' Deborah.' music is the result less of its being set on the accented part of the bar than of the rising inflexion upon the word, which gives it the character of a cry of anguish. That this is the case will be seen at once if C is substituted for tUe cnas-tisement, the chas - tisement F. The accent is unchanged, but all the force of the passage is gone. What has just been said leads naturally to the last point on which it is needful to touch—the And thy riflht hand vie - to - - • . rious. great importance of attention to the accents and inflexions in translating the words of vocal music In the former of these extracts the accent on from one language to another. It is generally the second syllable of the word ' chastisement' difficult, quite impossible, to preserve them may not improbably have been caused by Handel's entirely; often and this is the reason why no good imperfect acquaintance with our language ; but music can ever produce its full effect when sung in the chorus from ' Deborah,' in which the a language other than that to which it wa3 pronunciation of the last word according to the in Perhaps few better translations musical accents will be victorious, it is simply composed. than that of the German text to which the result of indifference or inattention, as is exist Mendelssohn composed his ' Elijah'; yet even shown by the fact that in other parts of the here passages may be quoted in which the same piece the word is set correctly. meaning is unavoidably sacrificed, as Closely connected with the present subject, composer's and therefore appropriately to be treated here, for example the following— is that of Inflexion. Just as in speaking we not only accent certain words, but raise the voice in uttering them, so in vocal music, especially in that depicting emotion, the rising and falling of the melody should correspond as far as possible 80 ihr mich von ganz - em Herzen auchet. If with all your hearts ye tru ly seek mo to the rising and falling of the voice in the correct and intelligent reading of the text. It Here the different construction of the English is particularly in the setting of recitative that and German languages made it impossible to opportunity is afforded for this, and such well- preserve in the translation the emphasis on the known examples as Handel's ' Thy rebuke hath word ' mich' at the beginning of the second bar. broken his heart' in the 'Messiah,' or 'Deeper The adapter was forced to substitute another and deeper still' in 'Jephtha,' or the great accented word, and he has done so with much recitative of Donna Anna in the first act of tact; but the exact force of Mendelssohn's idea ' Don Giovanni' may be studied with advantage is lost. In this and many similar cases all that by those who would learn how inflexion may be is possible is an approximation to the composer's combined with accent as a means of musical idea; the more nearly this can be attained, the expression. But, though peculiarly adapted to less the music will suffer. recitative, it is alsofrequentlymet with in songs. The word ' rhythm' is sometimes inaccurately Two extracts from Schubert are here given. In used as synonymous with accent. The former asking a question we naturally raise the voice at properly refers not to the beats within a bar but the end of the sentence; and the following to the recurrence of regular periods containing hoi

-

den

Briuit • cben nicht.

ACCENTS.

ACCENTS.

17

per Dom-I-num nos-trum Je-sumChris-tum fl-li-um t u - u m the same number of bars and therefore of accents. [E. P.] ACCENTS. Certain intonations of the voice through Je - bus Christ thine on-iy be - gut - tea used in reciting various portions of the liturgical services of the Church. The Ecclesiastical qui tecum vivit in imitate Spi - ri - tus Sane - ti De us -I*)Accent is the simplest portion of the ancient PLAINSONG. Accents or marks, sometimes called pneumg, for the regulation of recitation Son, who with Thee and the Ho - ly Spi - rit and singing were in use among the ancient per om - ni - a : - cu - la sae - cu - lo - rum. A - men. Greeks and Hebrews, and are still used in the synagogues of the Jews. They are the earliest forms of notes used in the Christian Church, and liv - eth ami reign-eth e - ver one God, etc. A - men. it was not till the n t h and 12th centuries that they began to be superseded by the more definite 4. In the ancient Sarum use there was the" notation first invented by Guido Aretino, a fall of a perfect fifth, called the grave accent} Benedictine monk of Pomposa in Tuscany, at the close of a prayer, with a modification oi about 1028. Accents may be regarded as the the Amen, thus— reduction, under musical laws, of the ordinary accents of spoken language, for the avoidance —& G—£ of confusion and cacophony in the union of many voices; as also for the better hearing of per, etc. fi - li - um tu - urn. A . men. any single voice, either in the open air, or in 5. There are also the accents for reciting the buildings too large to be easily filled by any one Holy Scriptures, viz. the Cantus or Tonus person reciting in the perpetually changing tones lectionis, or ordinary reading chant; the Tonus of ordinary speech. They may also be con- Capituli for office lessons; the Cantus sidered as the impersonal utterance of the lan- Prophetarum the or Prophetiae, for reading the guage of corporate authority, as distinguished Prophets or other books not Gospels or Epistles ; from the oratorical emphasis of individual elo the Cantus Epistolae and Evangelii for the cution. Epistles and Gospels ; as well as other accents for Precise directions are given, in the ritual special verses and responses, of great variety and books of the Church, as to the accents to be used beauty, which may be best learnt from the noted in the various portions of the sacred offices and service-books themselves. The following examples liturgy. Thus the Prayer Accent or Cantus will show their general character. The responses Collectarwm is either Ferial—an uninterrupted are for the most part sung in unison—but some of monotone, or Festal—a monotone with an occa- them have been harmonised for several centuries, sional change of note as at (a), styled ihepunc- and such as are most known in the English Church tum principale, and at (6) called the semi- are generally sung with vocal, and sometimes punctum. The following examples are taken with organ harmonies. These harmonies have, from Guidetti's ' Directorium Chori,' compiled however, in too many cases, obscured the accents in the 16th century under the direction of themselves, and destroyed their essential chaPalestrina (ed. 1624); the English version is racteristics. In Tallis's well-known ' Responses' from Marbeck. the accents being given to the tenor are, in actual use, entirely lost in the accompanying 1. The Ordinary Weekday1 Accent for Prayers treble.2 (' Tonus orationum ferialis '). (a) The Tonus Lectionis. per . . . Dom - i * num nos - trum, etc. A - men.

, through our

Lord

Pe - trus cum Jo - an - nes dix - it

Je • sus

2. The following Ferial Accent (Tonus ferialis) is used at the end of certain prayers.

. . a nos - tris in - 1 - q u i - t a - t i - bus

re - sur - ga - mus.

Dom - i

num

(fi) Tonus Capituli. Monotonic except at the close. sit

He • ro

dea

Rex

1 The breves and semibrevea in the above examples represent the old black notes of the same name ( • and • ) which answered to the IOIIK and short times of syllables in prosody t- and «): a more prolonged sound was indicated by the long tfhus ^ ur f )

ut

ap

- prae - hen - de - ret

ma

m

nos . trum

3. The Festival Accents for Prayers ('Tonus orationum festivus').

nos,

At il - le . . . spe-rans se a - li-quid ac - cep - tu-nun ah e - is.

Mi [per . . , Chris • turn

res - pi - ce in

et

Pe - trum.

For a rearranpement of these, with a view to restore the proper supremacy of the accents themselves, see Appendix I. to 'Accompanying Harmonies to the Rev. T. Helmore's Brief Directory of Plainsong'. nd for the rule of their proper formation, see the ' S. Mark's Chant Book,' p. 61.

c

ACCIDENTALS.

ACCENTS.

18

m

Ds

(c) The Accent of Interrogation.

ending with the fall of a major sixth. It does not appear to be prescribed in any Gregorian Treatise or Directorium, but is well known to musical travellers, and is mentioned by Mendelssohn in his letter from Rome, 1831, to Zelter, on the music of the Holy Week; (6) The interrogative, before explained; (7) The acute J j | ~~5> ^—§,

so . Jus

es2

*iiuid

cla - ma - bo?

used specially for monosyllabic and Hebrew words, when otherwise the medial accent would be employed. These, including the semipunctum, and with the addition of the punctum principale, and perhaps a few other varieties, conLec-tio li - bri Le - vi - ti • ci. In di - e - bus il - lis. stitute the first and simplest portion of that voluminous PLAINTUNE from which Marbeck selected the notes set to the English Prayer-book, and which was ordered by Queen Elizabeth's dix • it Do - mi nus ad lioy • sen, etc. famous Injunctions to be used in every part of ending on the reciting note; and differing, in the Divine Service of the Reformed Church of this respect only, from the Tonus Lectionis. England. [T. H.] ( and is especially important because it contains a catalogue of Bach's works which may be considered authentic; it includes both the then published works and all the MS. works which could be discovered, and is the chief source of all investigations after lost MSS. The first detailed biography of Bach was written by Professor Forkel of Gottingen, * Ueber Bach's Leben, Kunst und Kuntswerke,' 2 vols., Leipsic, 1802 ; afterwards, in 1850, there appeared, amongst others, Hilgenfeldt's ' J. S. Bach's Leben, Wirken, und Werke,' 4to. ; in 1865 ' J . S. Bach/ by C. H. Bitter (2 vols. 8vo., Berlin), and in 1873 the 1st vol. of Spitta's exhaustive and valuable ' J . S. Bach.' The English reader will find a useful manual in Miss Kay Shuttleworth's unpretending 'Life.'

nual instalments, as a memorial of the centenary of his death—July 28, 1850. The idea originated with Schumann, Hauptmann, Otto Jahn, C. F. Becker, and thefirmof Breitkopf & Hartel; was cordially endorsed by Spohr, Liszt, and all the other great musicians of the day (how enthusiastically would Mendelssohn have taken a lead, had he been spared but three years longer!), and the prospectus was issued to the public on the anniversary itself. The response was so hearty and immediate, both from musicians and amateurs, at home and abroad, as to leave no doubt of the feasibility of the proposal; the society was therefore definitely established. Its affairs were administered by a committee (Hauptmann, Becker, Jahn, Moscheles, Breitkopf & Hartel), whose headquarters were at Leipsic; the annual subscription was fixed at 5 thalers, or 15s., and the publications are issued to subscribers only, so as to prevent anything like speculation. The first volume appeared in December 1851, and contained a preface and list of subscribers, embracing crowned heads, nobility, public libraries, conservatoires and other institutions, and private individuals. The total number of copies subscribed for was 403, which had increased at the last issue (XXII—for 1872) to 519, the English contingent having risen at the same date from 2 3 to 56—or from 5-7 per cent to io"8 per cent of the whole.

' See hia Letters, Nov. 3", 39; Aug. 10. 40; Dec. 11, 42; and s paper by Schumann entitled ' Mendelssohn's Orgel-Concert,' in hU ' Gesammelte Schitfteu'liii. 250),

2 See his letter printed in the Appendix to Polko's ' Reminiscences' (Longmans, Igti9j. Some of the pieces are headed ' arranged by Mendelssohn.'

the results of which are given under that head. On April 6,1871, took place the first performance of the Passion in Westminster Abbey, which has now become an annual institution, and has spread to St. Paul's and other churches. [A. M.] BACH-GESELLSCHAFT. A German society formed for publishing a complete critical edition of the works of JOHN SEBASTIAN BACH, in an-

BACH-GESELLSCHAFT.

BACH-GESELLSCHAFT.

119

The principles laid down for editing the yearly issues to the date of this article (1876) volumes are stated in the preface to vol. i. may not be unwelcome to our readers :— as follows:—The original MS. to be consulted 1861. Eleventh Year. 1851. First Year. Magnificat in D. Church Cantatas. Vol.1. wherever possible; and also, as of extreme imFour Sanctus't in C, D t D minor, 1. Wie schiin leuchtet. portance, the separate parts, which are often 2. Ach Gott, vom Himmel and G. _ either in Bach's own writing or revised and S. Ach Gott, wie manches. Chamber Music. Vocal. Christ lag in Todesbanden. Phoebus and Pan. corrected by him, exhibiting notes and marks 4.5. Wo soli ich fliehen hin. Weichet nur, betriibte Schatten. of great consequence, both as corrections and 6. Bleib' bei uns. Amore traditore. Christ unser Herr. as evidence of his practical care for the 7.8. Liebster Gott. wann werd" Contentment. Aeolus. performance of his music, often making the Ichsterben? Es ist das Heil. 1862. Twelfth Year. separate parts more valuable than the score 10.9. Meine Seel' erhebt. Passion Music from St. John. itself. Where such originals are not obtainable, 1852. Second Year. Church Cantatas. Vol. 6. recourse to be had to the oldest copies, especially Church Cantatas. Vol. 2. 51. Jauchzet Gott. Lobet Gott. those by Bach's own scholars; or, in default of 11. 52. Falsche Welt. 12. Weinen, Klagen. 53. Schlage doch. these, the earliest printed editions, particularly 13. Meine Seufzer. 54. Widerstehe doch. 14. War' Gott nicht mit uns. when issued during his lifetime. No conjectural 15. Denn du wirst meine Seele. 55. Ich armer Menscb. 66. Ich will den Kreuzstab. readings to be admitted. 16. Herr Gott dich loben wir. 57. Selig ist der Mann. 17. Wer Dank opfert. 58. Ach Gott, wie m&Dcbes. (2nd The discovery of the original MSS. is beset 18. Gleich wie der Regen. version.) with difficulties. Bach's MSS., except a few 19. Es erhub sich ein Streit. 59. Wer mien liebet. du Donnerwort. 90. O Ewigkeit. (2nd version.) which were in the hands of Kirnberger and 20. 0 Ewigkeit, 1853. Third Year. Kittel, came first into the possession of his sons, 1863. Thirteenth Year. Clavier Works. Vol. 1. Betrothal Cantatas. Friedemann and Emanuel. Those entrusted to 15 Inventions and 15 Symphonies. Dem Gerechten muss das Licht. Klavierubung: Friedemann were lost, mislaid, or sold. Eman- r t . 1. 6 Partitas. Der Herr denket an uns. 2. A Concerto and a Partita. Gott ist unsere Zuversicht. uel, on the contrary, took the greatest care of Pt. 3. Choral-Preludes and 4duets. Three Chorales. his, and left a catalogue which has proved of Pt. Pt. 4. Air, with 30 Variations. in Fjf minor. Clavier Works. Vol.2. material value to investigators. A portion of Toccata Toccata in C minor. The French Suites. • his collection was acquired by Nageli the pub- Fugue in A minor. The English Suites. lisher, of Zurich, but the principal part is now 185*. Fourth Year. Ode on the Duchess of in the Berlin Imperial Library, and in that of Fassiou Music from St. Matthew. Funeral Saxony. 1855. Fifth Year. the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium in the same city, 1864. Fourteenth Year. Church Cantatas. Vol. 3. which latter contains also the MSS. formerly 21. Ich Clavier Works. Vol. 3. hatte viel Eekiimmerniss. The well-tempered Clavier, combelonging to Kirnberger and his pupil the 22. Jesus nahm zu sich. plete with Appendix. 23. Du wahrer Gott. Princess Anna Amalia. The library of the 24. Ein ungefarbt Gemiithe. 1865. Fifteenth Year. Thomas-School at Leipsic once contained a large 25. Es ist nichts Gesundes. Organ Works: 26. Ach wie fliichtig. number of cantatas, both in score and parts; 27. 6 Sonatas. Wer weiss, wie nahe mir. 18 Preludes and Fugues. but they were neglected by Cantor Muller 28. Gottlob! nun gent. 3 Toccatas. Wir danken dir, Gott. (ISo 1-9), and on his death all but a very small 29. Passacaglia. 30. Freue dich, erloste Schaar. portion had vanished. Thus, although the bulk Christmas Oratorio. In 4 sections. 1866. Sixteenth Year. Church Cantatas. Vol. 7. of the existing autographs is now to be found in Sixth Year. 61. Nun komm, der Heideu. Berlin, a considerable number remain widely Mass in B1856. minor. 62. Ibid. (2nd version.) 63. Christen, atzet diesen Tag. scattered in private collections, access to which 1857. Seventh Year. [. Sehet, welch' eine Liebe. for such purposes as those of the JBach-GesellChurch Cantatas. Vol. 4. 65. Sie werden aus Saba. Der Himmel lacht. i. Erfreut euch, ihr Herzen. schaft is naturally attended with much trouble. 31. 32. Liebster Jesu. 67. Half im Gedachtniss. 33. Allein zu dir, Herr. It has been the aim of the editors, by the 34. I. Also hat Gott die Welt. 0 ewiges Feuer. i. Lobe den Herrn. means just indicated, to obtain a text which 35. Geist und Seele. 70. Wachet, betet, seid bereit. 36. Schwingt freudig euch. should express the composer's intentions as 37. 1867. Seventeenth Year. Wer da slaubet. nearly as possible. Each volume contains a pre- 38. Aus tiefer Noth. Chamber Music. Vol.2. Brich dem Hungrigen. Concertos for Clavier and ureliesface, setting forth the sources drawn upon for the 39. ist erschienen. tra: D minor; E ; D; A; *' contents of the volume, and the critical method 40. Dazu1858. minor ; F ; G minor. Eighth Year. employed in dealing with them, with a host of Four Masses: in F, A, G minor, Concerto for Clavier, Flute, and Violin, with Orchestra. and G. interesting particulars on the nature and con1868. Eighteenth Year. 1859. Ninth Year. dition of the MSS., on Bach's method of writing, Church Cantatas. Vol. tf. Chamber Music. Vol. 1. on his efforts to find the most perfect expression 3 Sonatas for Clavier and Flute. 71. Gott ist mein Ko'nig. 72. AUes nur nach Gottes Willen. for his ideas (as shown by the incessant varia- Suite for Clavier and Violin, 73. Herr, wie du willst. for ditto, ditto. tions in his numerous copies of the same work), 63 Sonatas ditto for Clavier and Viola dl 74. Wer mien liebet, 2nd version.. 75. Die Elenden sollen essen. gamba. on the practical execution of Bach's music, etc., for Flute.Violin, and figured 76. Die Himmel erzahlen. so that these prefaces may really be said to Sonata 77. Du sollst Gott. bas*. 78. Jesu, der du meine Seele. contain the sum of the present knowledge on Ditto for 2 Violins and ditto. 79. Gott der Herr ist Soun'. the subject of Bach and his music in general. 1860. Tenth Year. 80. Bin' feste Burg. Church Cantatas. Vol. 5. The 1st and 2nd years' volumes were edited by 1869. Nineteenth Year. Jesu, nun sei gepreiset. Hauptmann, the 3rd by Becker, the 4th and 6th 41. Chamber Music. Vol.3. 42. Am Abend aber deoselbigen. 6 Concertos for various instruby Kietz, the 14th by Kroll, and the rest by 43. Gott fiihret auf. 44. Sie werden euch. ments, with Orchestra. W. Rust, who has shown himself to the world 45. Es ist dir gesagt. 1670. Twentieth Year. in these prefaces the accurate indefatigable in- 46. Schauet doch und sehet. Church Cantatas. Vol.9. Wer sich selbst erhohet. vestigator which his friends have long known 47. 81. Jesus schlaft. 48. Ich elender Mensch. 82. Ich habe genug. him to be. The following complete list of the 49. Ich geh' und suche. 50. Nun ist das BeiL

83. Erfreute Zeib

BACH-GESELLSCHAFT.

BACHELOR OF MUSIC.

3 Concertos for 2 Claviers and Orchestra. Easter Oratorio. 1872. Twenty-second Year. (Issued ill 1176.) Church Cantatas. Vol. 10. 91. Gelobet seist du. r \ 2. Ich nab' in Gottes. 8 Dramas for various festivities. 93. Wer nur den lieben Gott. 94. Was frag' ich. 1871. Twenty first Tear. 95. Christus der ist mein I.eben. Chamber Music. Vols. 4 and 5. 96. Herr Christ, der ein'ge. 2 Concertos for Violin and Or- 97. In alien meineu Thaten. 9?. Was Gott thut, das. chestra. 92. Ditto. (2nd version.) ] ditto for 2 ditto and ditto. 1 Symphony movement for Violin. 93. Ditto. (3rd version.)

to play in the festival orchestra when Mendelssohn conducted' Elijah.' In the autumn of 1849 he left school at Birmingham to study under Sterndale Bennett in London. His first overture was performed at the Adelphi Theatre in Nov. 1850, and about a year later his' Three Impromptus' (his first piano piece) came out. He remained studying with Bennett, and during the latter part of the time writing for Addison, Hollier, and Lucas, from 1849 to 53. In Oct. 53 he went to Leipsic, studied with Hauptmann and Plaidy, and took occasional organ lessons from Schneider at Dresden. He returned to London (after a short visit to the opera, 'William Tell,' etc., at Paris) early in 1855. At the end of 55 he was driven by severe illness to Algiers, but returned to Leipsic for the summer and autumn of 56 ; then went to Eome for the winter, calling on old Czerny in Vienna, who was much pleased with him, and wrote to that effect to Kistner. He reached England very ill in June 57, passed that winter in Torquay, and returned to Birmingham, which he never again left, in April 58. Bache's published compositions are numerous, and include four mazurkas, op. 13; five characteristic pieces, op. 15 ; Souvenirs d' Italie, op. 19, for piano solo ; andante and rondo polonaise, for piano and orchestra; trio for piano and strings, op. 25 ; romance for piano and violin; six songs, op. 16 ; barcarola Veneziana. Also a concerto in E for piano and orchestra, and two operas, ' Kiibezahl' and ' Which is Which,' all unpublished. With all their merit, however, none of these can be accepted by those who knew him as adequate specimens of his ability, which was unquestionably very great. His youth, his impressionable enthusiastic character, and continual ill-health must all be considered in forming a judgment of one who, had he lived, would in all probability have proved a lasting ornament to the English school. [6.] BACHELOR OF MUSIC. 'Bachelor,' a word whose derivation has been much disputed, is the title of the inferior degree conferred in various faculties by the Universities of this country. In Music, as in Divinity and Medicine, the degrees given are those of Bachelor and Doctor. There is no degree of Master, as in ' Arts.' The letters M.D. and M.B. being appropriated to degrees in Medicine, the abbreviations Mus. D. and Mus. B. are employed to distinguish those in Music. The degree of Bachelor must, in the ordinary course, precede that of Doctor; it is permitted, however, in cases of great merit, and especially where the candidate has obtained a high reputation in the art before offering himself for the degree, to pass at once to the degree of Doctor of Music without having previously taken that of Bachelor. 'Music' was one of the so-called seven arts taught in the monastic schools which arose in Western Europe under Charlemagne and his successors. The Universities, an expansion of these schools, inherited their curriculum; and during the Middle Ages the 'Ars Musica' was studied,

120

F4. Ich bin Yergnugt. 85. Icb bin eia guter ITirt. 86. Wahrlich, ich sa?e eucb. i>7. Bisher habt ihr nichts. 88. Siehe, ich will viel Fischer. 89. Was soil ich aus dir xuacheD. 90. Es reifet euch.

[A. M.] BACH SOCIETY, THE. This society was instituted in London in 1849, and its primaryobjects are stated in the prospectus to be — (1) the collection of the musical compositions of J. S. Bach, either printed or in MS., and of all works relating to him, his family, or his music; and (2) the furtherance and promotion of a general acquaintance with his music by ita public performance. The original committee of management consisted of the late Sir W. S. Bennett (chairman), Messrs. R. Barnett, G. Cooper, F. R. Cox, J. H. B. Dando, W. Dorrell, W. H. Holmes, E. J. Hopkins, C. E. Horsley, John Hullah, H. J. Lincoln, O. May, and H. Smart, with Sir G. Smart and Mr. Cipriani Potter as auditors, and Dr. Charles Steggall as hon. secretary. Under the auspices of the society the first performance in England of the ' Passion according to St. Matthew' (Grosse Passions-Musik) took place at the Hanover Square Rooms on April 6, 1854, Dr. Bennett conducting. The principal vocalists were Mme. Ferrari, Misses B. Street, Dolby, Dianelli, and Freeman, and Messrs. Allen, Wai worth, W. Bolton, and Signor Ferrari. Mr. W. Thomas was principal violin, Mr. Grattan Cooke first oboe, and Mr. E. J. Hopkins was at the organ, the new instrument by Gray and Davison being used on this occasion for the first time. The English version of the words was by Miss Helen F. H. Johnston. A second performance was given at St. Martin's Hall on March 23, 185S, Dr. Bennett again conducting. The audience on this occasion included the late Prince Consort. On June 21, 1859, the Society gave a performance of miscellaneous works by Bach, including the Concerto in C minor for two pianofortes, the Chaconne for violin (by Herr Joachim), and the Solo Fugue for pianoforte in D. The concert of i860, on July 24, included the first eleven movements from the Mass in B minor. Three years later, on June 13, 1861, the Society gave the first performance in England of 'The Christmas Oratorio' (WeihnachtsOratorium) also under Sir W. S. Bennett's direction. The Society was dissolved on March 21, 1870, when the library was handed over to [C. M.] the Eoyal Academy of Music. BACHE, FRANCIS EDWARD, born at Birmingham Sept. 14, 1833 ; died there Aug. 24, 1858, in his twenty-fifth year. As a child he showed very great fondness and aptitude for music, studied the violin with Alfred Mellon (then conductor of the Birmingham theatre), and in 1846 was allowed

BACHELOR OP MUSIC.

BACK.

like certain other branches of knowledge, in the books of Boethius, a Eoman author of the 6th century, whose writings furnished the Dark Ages with some poor shreds of the science of the ancient world. The study of Boethius was a pedantic repetition of mathematical forms and proportions, in keeping with the spirit of seholasticism, and calculated to retard rather than advance the progress of the art. Although it was a common thing for the scholar in the Middle Ages to play upon an instrument or two (see e.g. Chaucer's Clerk of Oxenford in the 'Prologue'), it is probable that no practical acquaintance with music was originally required for a degree, but that the scholar had only to read in public a certain number of ' exercises' or discourses upon Boethius, a ceremony which held the place of examination in the Middle Ages. We cannot, however, speak with certainty; for the earliest mention of graduates in music, viz. Thomas Seynt Just and Henry Habyngton at Cambridge, dates no further back than 1463. Forty years later a more or less elaborate composition appears to be regularly demanded of candidates for a degree. In 1506 Richard JEde was desired to compose ' a Mass with an Antiphona,' to be solemnly sung before the University of Oxford on the day of his admission to the degree of Bachelor; and in 1518 John Chard e was desired ' to put into the hands of the Proctors' a mass and antiphona which he had already composed, and to compose another mass of five parts on 'Kyrie rex splendens.' The statutes given to the University of Oxford by Laud in 1636 enact that every candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Music shall compose a piece for five voices with instrumental accompaniments, and have it publicly performed in the ' Music School'; and though the words in which the degree was conferred still contained a permission ' to lecture in every book of Boethius,' it would seem that music was more seriously and successfully cultivated at Oxford during the 17th century than it has been before or since. The torpor into which the English Universities fell during the 18th century affected the value of their musical diplomas. Compositions were indeed still required of candidates for degrees; but the absence of a bona fide examination rendered the degree of little value as a test of personal merit. The reforming spirit of our own day has however extended itself in this direction, and the following rules, depending in part upon the statutes of the Universities, in part upon regulations drawn up by the present professors in pursuance of the statutes, are now in force as to the degree of Bachelor of Music.

performed, no public performance however being required. (3) A second examination follows after the interval of half a year, embracing Harmony, Counterpoint in five parts, Canon, Imitation, Fugue, Form in Composition. Musical History, and a critical knowledge of the full scores of certain standard compositions. If the candidate is not already a member of the University, he must become so before entering the first examination; but he is not required to have resided or kept terms. The fees amount in all to about £18. The Cambridge regulations are nearly to the same effect. There is, however, only one examination; and, in addition to the subjects given above, a knowledge of the quality, pitch, and compass of various instruments is required. The rules of Trinity College, Dublin, state that the degree of Bachelor of Music in that college is intended to show 'that a sound practical knowledge of music has been attained, sufficient to manage and conduct a choir, or to officiate in cathedral or church service.' The number of persons annually taking the degree of Mus. Bac. at Oxford has increased considerably during the last ten years; in 1866 the number was three, in 1874 eleven. There does not seem to have been a similar increase at Cambridge. The degree of Mus. Bac. does not exist in foreign Universities. [C. A. F.]

At Oxford the candidate must (1) pass a preliminary examination (partly in writing, partly viva voce) in Harmony and Counterpoint in not more than four parts. He has then (2) to present to the Professor of Music a vocal composition containing pure five-part harmony and good fugal counterpoint, with accompaniment for at least a quintett stringed band, of such length as to occupy from twenty to forty minutes if it were

BACHOFEN,

JOHANN CASPAR, born

121

at

Zurich, 1692, in 1718 singing-master in the Latin school, and cantor of one of the Zurich churches. Succeeded Albertin as director of the 'Chorherrn-gesellschaft' Association; died at Zurich, 1755. His hymns were very popular all over Switzerland, and his works give abundant evidence of his diligence and the wide range of his talent. (1) ' Musicalisches Halleluja oder schiine und geistreiche Gesange,' etc. (no date), containing 600 melodies for two and three voices, with organ and figured bass. Eight editions down to 1767. (2) 'Psalmen Davids . . . sammt Fiist und Kirchengesangen,' etc., 8vo., 1759 (second edition). (3) 'Vermehrte Zusatz von Morgen, Abend . . . . Gesangen,' 1738. (4) Twelve monthly numbers containing sacred airs for two arranged in concert-style (concert-weise) and three voices; 1755 (4 t n e( i.). (5) Brookes' ' Irdisches Vergniigen in Gott,' set to music; 1740 (1000 pages). (6) ' Musicalische Ergetzungen'; 1755. (7) 'Der fur die Sunden der Welt,' etc. (Brockes' ' Passion'), 1759. (8) ' Music. Notenbiichlein,' an instruction-book in music [F. G.] and singing. BACK. The back of the instruments belonging to the violin-tribe appears to have two distinct functions. It has on the one hand to participate in the vibrations of the whole body of the instrument, and on the other to act as a sounding-board to throw back the waves of sound. This is the reason why the back, as a rule, is made of hard wood (maple), which, although not as easily set into vibration as deal, the usual material for the belly, is better adapted

BACK.

BAGATELLE.

to the fulfilment of the above functions. Now and then we meet with a violoncello by one of the old makers with a back of pine or lime-wood. But the tone of such an instrument, however good in quality, is invariably wanting in power and intensity. The backs of violins, tenors, and violoncellos are shaped after one and the same model: most elevated and thickest in the centre ; somewhat thinner and slanting towards the edges. They are made either of one piece, or of two, joined lengthwise in the middle. The back of the double-bass has retained that of the older violdi-gamba tribe: it is flat, and at the top slants towards the neck. Close to the edges the back is inlaid with a single or double line of purfling, which is merely intended to improve the outward appearance of the instrument. [P. D.]

released him from a French prison, and he then obtained a place in the court band at Munich, He next undertook a tour through Germany, France, Italy, England, and Russia, which established his name and fame far and wide. His special claim on our interest arises from his intimate connection with C. M. von Weber, who arrived in Munich in 1811, and wrote various concert-pieces for Barmann, which remain acknowledged masterpieces for the clarinet. Meyerbeer also became closely acquainted with him during the congress at Vienna in 1813, Not less interesting and creditable was his intimacy with Mendelssohn, who was evidently on the most brotherly footing with him and his family, and wrote for him the two duets for clarinet and basset-horn published as Op. 113. He died at Munich June 11, 1847, leaving compositions behind him which are highly esteemed for their technical value. (2) His brother KAEL, born at Potsdam 1782 and died 1842 ; a renowned bassoon player, and belonged to the royal band at Berlin. More important

122

BADIALI, CESAEE, a very distinguished basso cantante; made his first appearance at Trieste, 1827. After achieving a brilliant success at every one of the chief theatres of Italy, and especially at Milan, where he sang in 1S30, 1831, and 1832, he was engaged for the opera of Madrid, then at Lisbon, and did not return to Italy till 1838. On his reappearance at Milan, he was welcomed with enthusiasm; and continued to sing there, and at Vienna and Turin, until 1842, when he was appointed principal chambersinger to the Emperor. He sang afterwards at Kome, Venice, Trieste, Turin, and other towns of less importance. In 1845 he was at Leghorn. The Accademia di S. Cecilia of Kome received him as a member of its body. In 1859 he made his first appearance in London, when he made the quaint remark, 'What a pity I did not think of this city fifty years ago!' He retained at that time, and for some years longer, a voice of remarkable beauty, an excellent method, and great power of executing rapid passages. He was one of the few who have ever sung the music of Assur in Kossini's ' Semiramide' as it was written : in that part he was extremely good, and not less so in that of the Conte Robinson in the ' Matrimonio Segreto.' A singular feat is ascribed to him. It is said that, when supping with friends, he would drink a glass of claret, and, while in the act of swallowing it, sing a scale; and if the first time his execution was not quite perfect, he would repeat the performance with a full glass, a loud voice, and without missing a note or a drop. He was a good musician, and left a few songs of his own composition. For the last ten years of his life he resided and sang in Paris, where he died about the year 1870. [J. M.] BARMANN. The name of a remarkable family of musicians.

(1) HEINRICH JOSEPH,

one of the finest of clarinet players—'a truly great artist and glorious man' as Weber calls him—born at Potsdam Feb. 17,1784, and educated at the oboe school there, where his ability procured him the patronage of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia. The peace of Tilsit (1807)

was (3} KAKL, the son of Heinrich, and the

true scholar and successor of his father. He was born at Munich 1820, and during a lengthened tour in 1838 was introduced by his father to the musical world as a virtuoso of the first order. After this he at once took the place of first clarinet in the Munich court band, with which he had indeed been accustomed to play since the age of fourteen. His compositions for the clarinet are greatly esteemed, especially his 'Clarinet School' (Andre, Offenbach) in two parts, the second of which contains twenty grand studies ; also a supplement thereto, ' Materialien zur weiteren technischen Ausbildung,'—a collection of difficult passages from his own works. (4) His son, KARL j un., a fine pianoforte player, is teacher at this time (1875) in the music school at Munich. Weber's friendship for the Barmanns has been already mentioned. Two of his letters to them will be found in ' Letters of Distinguished Musicians' (pp. 351, 381). The same collection contains no less than thirteen letters from Mendelssohn to Heinrich, and one to Carlletters delightful not only for their fun and cleverness, but for the close intimacy which they show to have existed between the two, and the very great esteem which Mendelssohn— a man who did not easily make friends—evidently felt for the great artist he addresses. Other references to Barmann will be found in Mendelssohn's ' Reisebriefe.' [A. M.] BAGATELLE (Fr. ' a trifle'). A short piece of pianoforte music in a light style. The name was probably first used by Beethoven in his 'Seven Bagatelles,' op. 33, who subsequently also wrote three other sets, two of which are published as ops. 119 and 126; the third is still in manuscript (Thayer, ' Chron. Verz.' No. 287). As bearing upon the title, it is worth while to mention that Beethoven's manuscript of his op. 119 has the German inscription ' Kleinigkeiten,' instead of the French equivalent. The form of the

BAGATELLE. bagatelle is entirely at the discretion of the composer, the only restriction being that it must be short and not too serious in its character. [E. P.] BAGGE, SELMAB, musician and critic, born at Coburg June 30, 1823, son of the Rector of the Gymnasium there. His musical studies began early, and in 1837 n e entered the Conservatorium at Prague under D. Weber. Later still he was a pupil of Sechter at Vienna, where in 1851 he became professor of composition at the Conservatorium, and in 1853 organist of one of the churches. In 1855 he resigned his professorship and took to writing in the 'Monatsschrift fiir Theater und Musik,' but he soon turned it into the 'Deutsche Musikzeitung,' of which periodical he was founder and editor. In 1863 he transferred himself to Leipsic as editor of the 'Deutschen Allgemeine Musikzeitung,' but this he relinquished in 1868 for the directorship of the music school at Basle. Bagge is a strong conservative and an able writer. Beethoven and Schumann are his models in art, and he has no mercy on those who differ from him, especially on the New German school. His music is correct and fluent, but poor in invention and melody. [G.]

BAGPIPE.

123

but was taught by a language of its own, the notes having each names, such as hodroho, hananin, hiechin, hachin, etc. A collection of piobaireachd (pibrochs) in this form was published by Capt. Niel Macleod at Edinburgh in 1828. In Louis XIV's time the bagpipe formed one of the instruments included in the band of the 'Grande Ecurie,' and was played at court concerts. Its essential characteristics have always been, first, a combination offixednotes or ' drones,' with a melody or 'chaunter'; secondly, the presence of a wind-chest or bag. From these peculiarities, the Greek, and from the second of them the Latin names clearly come. Although it has no doubt been reinvented in various times and places, it seems to be connected with the Keltic race, whether in Ireland, Scotland, or Brittany. The wind has been variously supplied, either from the breath of the player, or from a small pair of bellows placed under one arm, the sac or bag being under the other. In the latter form it contains all the essentials of the organ. It is somewhat remarkable that the use of the lungs themselves as the wind-chest to reed instruments should have been adopted later and less uniBAGNOLESI, ANNA. An Italian contralto, versally. who sang in London, 1732, in Handel's operas. At the present time there are four principal She made her first appearance, Jan. 15, in ' Ezio,' forms the instrument used in this country—two and sang subsequently in ' Sosarme,' in a revival Scotchof(Highland Lowland), the Irish, and of ' Kavio,' and in ' Acis and Galatea' at its first the Northumbrian.andThe Scotch Highland pipe public performance, June 10, and the succeeding is blown from the chest, the others from bellows. occasions in that year. She also appeared in a The Irish bagpipe is perhaps the most powerful reprise of Ariosti's ' Cajo Marzio Coriolano.' No- and elaborate instrument, keys producing the thing is now known of her after-career. [J. M.] third and fifth to the note of the chaunter having BAGPIPE (Fr. Cornemuse; Ital. Cornamusa ;been added to the drones. The Northumbrian Germ. Sackpfeife). An instrument, in one or is small and sweeter in tone; but the Scotch pipe other of its forms, of" very great antiquity. By is probably the oldest and certainly the most the Greeks it was named aoKavXos or avjjupuvaacharacteristic ; form : it will therefore be considered by the Romans Tibia utricularis. Mersennus first, and at the greatest length. calls it Surdeline, and Bonani Piva or Ciaramella. In this instrument a valved tube leads from In Lower Brittany it is termed Bignou, from a the mouth to a leather air-tight bag, which has Breton word bigno—'se renfler beaucoup.' It four other orifices ; three large enough to contain has been named Musette (possibly after Colin the base of three fixed long tubes termed drones, Muset, an officer of Thibaut de Champagne, and another smaller, to which is fitted the king of Navarre). Corruptions of these names, chaunter. The former are thrown on the shoulder ; such as Samponia or Samphoneja, and Zampugna, the latter is held in the hands. All four pipes are also common. are fitted with reeds, but of different kinds. The It appears on a coin of Nero, who, according drone reeds are made by splitting a round length to Suetonius, was himself a performer upon it. of 'cane' or reed backwards towards a joint or It is mentioned by Procopius as the instrument knot from a cross cut near the open end ; they thus of war of the Roman infantry. In the crozier somewhat resemble the reed in organ pipes, the given by William of Wykeham to New College, loose flap of cane replacing the tongue, the uncut Oxford, in 1403, there is the figure of an angel part the tube or reed proper. These are then set downwards in a chamber at the base of the playing it. Chaucer's miller performed on it— ' A bagpipe well couth he blowe and sowne.' drone, so that the current of air issuing from the Shakespeare often alludes to it. He speaks bag tends to close the fissure in the cane caused of 'the drone of a Lincolnshire bagpipe,' of by the springing outwards of the cut flap, thus the antipathy some people have to its sound, setting it in vibration. The drone reeds are and of some who laugh like parrots at a bagpiper. only intended to produce a single note, which At the close of the 15th century the bagpipe can be tuned by a slider on the pipe itself, seems to have come into general favour in varying the length of the consonating air-column. Scotland. The chaunter reed is different in form, being Until recently music for the bagpipe was not made of two approximated edges of cane tied written according to the usual system of notation, together, and is thus essentially a double reed,

124

BAGPIPE.

like that of the oboe or bassoon, while the drone reed roughly represents the single beating reed of the organ or clarinet. The drone reed is an exact reproduction of the ' squeaker' which children in the fields fashion out of joints of tall grass, probably the oldest form of the reed in existence. The drone tubes are in length proportional to their note, the longest being about three feet high. The chaunter is a conical wooden tube, about fourteen inches long, pierced with eight sounding holes, seven in front for the fingers, and one at the top behind for the thumb of the right hand. Two additional holes bored across the tube below the lowest of these merely regulate the pitch, and are never stopped. The compass is only of nine notes, from G- to A inclusive ^ — j

. They do not form any

diatonic scale whatever, nor indeed are they accurately tuned to one another. The nearest approximation to their position can be obtained by taking the two common chords of G and A superposed, and adding one extra note in the neighbourhood of F, or FJf. In the former common chord, which is tolerably true, we have G, B, D, G, upwards, and in the latter A, C ff, E, A, which is far less accurate. G to A is not however a whole tone, only about -J of one. Cjf, unlike that of the tempered scale, which is nearly a comma sharp, is here as much flat. The B and D accord with the low G, and not with the low A. It appears to the writer better thus to describe the real sounds produced than to indulge in speculation as to Lydian and Phrygian modes. In the tuning of the drones there seems to be difference of practice. Glen's ' Tutor for the Great Highland Bagpipe' states that the drones are all tuned to A ; the two smaller in unison with the lower A of the chaunter, the largest to the octave below; whereas from other works it appears that the sequence G, D, G, as well as D, A, D, are both admissible. But the Northumbrian or border pipe, a far more accurate instrument according to modern musical notions than the Scotch, provides for a possible change of key by the addition of a fourth supplementary drone; probably the three notes G, D, and A, might be tolerated, in alternate pairs, according to the predominant key of G or A in the melody. There is good ground, however, for believing that any attempt to accommodate the bagpipe to modern scale-notation would only result in a total loss of its archaic, semi-barbarous, and stimulating character. Some confirmation of the view here taken as to the scale of the bagpipe may be derived from an examination of the music written for it. It is known to all musicians that a fairly passable imitation of Scotch and Irish tunes may be obtained by playing exclusively on the 'black keys.' This amounts simply to omission of semitones ; and in semitones lies the special character

BAGPIPE. effect may indeed be obtained; and is usually remarkable in all tunes of the Keltic family, but it is done by chord rather than by scale. None of the oldest and most characteristic Scotch melodies contain scales ; all proceed more or less by leaps, especially that of a sixth, with abundant use of heterogeneous passing notes. If the airi of the pibrochs be read with a view to map out the resting or sustained notes in the melody, it will be found, in the most characteristic and original tunes, that the scale is A, B, D, E, F| and high A. This is equivalent to the blackkey scale, beginning on Db. ' Mackinnon's lament' is a good example. The minor effect named above is gained through the major sixth, with the help of the drone notes; a fact which, though rather startling, is easily demonstrable. This use of ornamental notes has in course of time developed into a new and prominent character in bagpipe music. Such a development is only natural in an instrument possessing no real diatonic scale, and therefore relying fop tolerance of jarring intervals on perpetual suspension, or on constant discord and resolution; with a ' drone bass' in the strictest sense of the term. The ornamental notes thus introduced are termed ' warblers,' very appropriately, after the birds, who, until trained and civilised, sometimes by the splitting of their tongues, entirely disregard the diatonic scale, whether natural or tempered,1 First-rate pipers succeed in introducing a 'warbler of eleven notes between the last up-beat and the first down-beat of a bar. Warblers of seven notes are common, and of five usual. The Irish bagpipe differs from the Scotch in being played by means of bellows, in having a softer reed and longer tubes, with a chaunter giving ten or even twelve notes. The scale is said to be more accurate than the Scotch. The Northumbrian, of which a beautiful specimen has been lent to the writer by Mr. Charles S, Keene, is a much smaller and feebler instrument, The ivory chaunter has, besides the seven holes in front, and one behind, five silver keys producing additional notes. It is moreover stopped at the bottom, so that when all holes are closed no sound issues. The long wail with which a Scotch pipe begins and ends is thus obviated. Each hole is opened singly by the finger, the others remaining closed, contrary to the practice of other reeds. The gamut of the Northumbrian or Border pipes is given as fifteen notes, including two chromatic intervals, C and C Jt, D and DJ. The drones can be tuned to G, D, Gr, or to D, A, D, as above stated. Considering the small compass of the bagpipe the music written for it appears singularly abundant. ' Tutors' for the instrument have been published by Donald MacDonald and Angus Mackay. Glen's collection of music for the great Highland bagpipe contains instructions for the management of the reeds, etc., with 213 tunea. Ulleam Eoss, the present Queen's Piper, published a collection of pipe music in 1869 consist' ing of 243 marches, piobaireachds. or pibrochs.

BAGPIPE.

BAILLOT.

airs, amassed during thirty years from old pipers and other local sources. The chief collection of Northumbrian music is known as Peacock's; a book which is now so scarce as to be almost unprocurable. Many composers have imitated the tone of the bagpipe by the orchestra; the most familiar cases occur in the 'Dame Blanche' of Boieldieu and the ' Dinorah' of Meyerbeer. [W. H. S.] BAI, TOMMASO, was born at Crevalcuore, near Bologna, towards the end of the 17th century, and was for many years one of the tenor singers in the chapel of the Vatican. In 1713 he was made maestro of that basilica, according to an extract from the chapel books cited by Baini, because he was the oldest and most accomplished member of the choir.1 He died in the year following this recognition of his excellence. His fame rests on a. single achievement. His ' Miserere,' written at the request of his choir, is the only one (if we except that by Baini) out of a long series by composers known and unknown, including Naldini, Felice Anerio, Tartini, and Alessandro Scarlatti, which has been thought worthy to take permanent rank with those of Allegri and Palestrina. Other works by Bai exist, but they are in manuscript. They consist of a mass, twelve motetti for four, five, and eight voices, and a 'De Profundis' for eight voices. They are all enumerated in the catalogue of the collection made by the Abbe Santini. [E. H. P.] BAILDON, JOSEPH, a gentleman of the Chapel Eoyal, and lay-vicar of Westminster Abbey in the middle of the 18th century. In 1763 he obtained one of the first prizes given by the Catch Club for a catch, and in 1766 was awarded a prize for his fine glee, 'When gay Bacchus fills my breast.' In 1768 he was appointed organist of the churches of St. Luke, Old Street, and All Saints, Fulham. Ten catches and four glees by him are contained in Warren's collections, and others are in print. Baildon published a collection of songs in two books entitled 'The Laurel,' and 'Four Favourite Songs sung by Mr. Beard at Eanelagh Gardens.' [W. H. H.]

day Viotti remained for him the model of a violinplayer, and his style the ideal to be realised in his own studies. After the loss of his father in 1783 a Mons. de Boucheporn, a high government official, sent him, with his own children, to Rome, where he was placed under the tuition of the violin-player Pollani, a pupil or Nardini. Although his progress was rapid and soon enabled him to play successfully in public, we find him during the next five years living with his benefactor alternately at Pau, Bayonne, and other places in the south of France, acting as his private secretary, and devoting but little time to his violin. In 1791 he came to Paris, determined to rely for the future on his musical talent. Viotti procured him a place in the opera-band, but BaiUot very soon resigned it, in order to accept an appointment in the Ministere des Finances, which he kept for some years, devoting merely his leisure hours to music and violin-playing. After having been obliged to join the army for twenty months he returned, in 1795, to Paris, and, as Fetis relates, became accidentally acquainted with the violin-compositions of Corelli, Tartini, Geminiani, Loeatelli, Bach (?) and Handel. The study of the works of these great masters filled him with fresh enthusiasm, and he once more determined to take up music as his profession. He soon made his appearance in public with a concerto of Viotti, and with such success, that his reputation was at once established, and a professorship of violin-playing was given him at the newly-opened Conservatoire. In 1802 he entered Napoleon's private band, and afterwards travelled for three years in Russia (1S05-1808) together with the violoncello-player Lamare, earning both fame and money. In 1814 he started concerts for chambermusic in Paris, which met with great success, and acquired him the reputation of an unrivalled quartett-player. In 1815 and 1816 he travelled in Holland, Belgium, and England, where he performed at the Philharmonic concert of Feb. 26, 1S16, and afterwards became an ordinary member of the Society. From 1821 to 1831 he was leader of the band at the Grand Opera; from 1825 he filled the same place in the Eoyal Band; in 1833 he made a final tour through Switzerland and part of Italy. He died Sept. 15, 1842, working to the end with unremitting freshness. He was the last representative of the great classical Paris school of violin-playing. After him the influence of Paganini's style became paramount in France, and Baillot's true disciples and followers in spirit were, and are, only to be found among the violinists of the modern German school. His playing was distinguished by a noble powerful tone, great neatness of execution, and a pure, elevated, truly musical style. An excellent solo-player, he was unrivalled at Paris as interpreter of the best classical chamber-music. Mendelssohn and Hiller both speak in the highest terms of praise of Baillot as a quartettplayer. An interesting account of some of his personal traits will be found in a letter of the former, published in 'Goethe and Mendelssohn'

BAILLOT,

PIEEEK MARIE FRANCIOIS

DE

SALES, takes a prominent place among the great French violin-players. He was born Oct. 1, 1771, at Passy, near Paris, where his father kept a school. He shewed very early remarkable musical talent, and got his first instruction on the violin from an Italian named Polidori. In 1780 Sainte-Marie, a French violinist, became his teacher, and by his severe taste and methodical instruction gave him the first training in those artistic qualities by which Baillot's playing was afterwards so much distinguished. When ten years of age, he heard Viotti play one of his concertos. His performance filled the boy with intense admiration, and, although for twenty years he had no second opportunity of hearing him, he often related later in life, how from that 1 ' Come U pia antico e virtuoso della Cappe'Ja."

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BAILLOT.

BALFE.

(1872). Although his compositions are almost entirely forgotten,his 'Art du Violon' still maintains its place as a standard work. He also took a prominent part with Rode and Kreutzer in compiling and editing the ' Me"thode de Violon adoptee par le Conservatoire,' and a similar work for the violoncello. His obituary notices of Gre"try (Paris, 1814) and Niotti (1825), and other occasional writings, shew remarkable critical power and great elegance of style. His published musical compositions are:—15 trios for 2 violins and bass; 6 duos for 2 violins; 12 e'tudes for violin ; 9 concertos; symphonie concertante for 2 violins, with orchestra ; 30 airs varies; 3 string quartetts; I sonata for piano and violin ; 24 preludes in all keys, and a number of smaller pieces for the violin. [P. D.] BAKER, , Mus. Doc, was born at Exeter in 1768. Taught by his aunt, he was able at seven years of age to play upon the harpsichord, and about the same time was placed under the tuition of Hugh Bond and William Jackson, then organist of Exeter cathedral. He also received lessons on the violin from Ward. In 1775 he quitted Exeter for London, where he was received into the family of the Earl of XJxbridge, who placed him under William Cramer and Dussek for instruction on the violin and pianoforte. He afterwards obtained an appointment as organist at Stafford. He took the degree of Doctor of Music at Oxford about 1801. He died about 1835. Dr. Baker's compositions comprise anthems, glees, organ voluntaries, pianoforte sonatas, and other pieces, the music to an unfortunate musical entertainment called 'The Caffres,' produced for a benefit at Covent Garden Theatre, June 2, 1802, and at once condemned, and numerous songs, many of them composed for Incledon, his former fellow-pupil under Jackson. [W. H. H.] BALBI, LUIGI, born at "Venice towards the middle of the 16th century, a Cordelier monk, pupil of Costanzo Porta, director of the music in the church of S. Antonio at Padua, and afterwards in the convent of his order at Venice (1606). He composed masses, motetts, and madrigals (Venice, 157'i-i606), and died in 1608. One seven-part and five eight-part motets by him are printed in BODENSCHATZ'S 'Florilegium Portense,' Pt. 2. [M. C. C] BALDASSARRI, BENEDETTO, an eminent Italian singer, who sang the tenor part of Timante in Handel's opera ' Floridante,' at itsfirstand succeeding performances in 1721. He appeared also in Buononcini's 'Crispo,' and other pieces, in the next year. He had already sung in ' Numitor' by Porta, and other operas, with Durastanti and her companions of the old troupe. [J. M.] BALDENECKER, NICOL'AUS, member of an extensive family of musicians, born at Mayence 1782, first violin at the Frankfort theatre from 1803 to 51, and joint-founder with Schelble of the amateur concerts which resulted in the famous 'Cacilien-Verein' of that city.

BALDI, a counter-tenor singer, who sang in London in operas of Handel, Buononcini, and others, from 1725 to 28. In the first year he sang in 'Elisa'andLeonardo Vinci's 'Elpidia/replacing Pacini in the latter, who previously sang in it. In 1726 he appeared in Handel's ' Alessandro,' 'Ottone,' and 'Soipione'; in 1727m 'Admeto' and 'Kiccardo,' as well as in Buononcini's ' Astianatte'; and in 1728 he sang in 'Tolomeo,' 'Siroe,' and ' Radamisto,'—all by Handel. He seems to have been an excellent and useful artist, only eclipsed by the great Senesino, who monopolised the leading parts. [J. M.]

126

BALELLI, an Italian basso engaged at the opera in London towards the end of the 18th century. In 1787 he sang in 'Giulio Cesare in Egitto,' a pasticcio, the music selected by Arnold from various works of Handel's; and in the ' Re Teodoro,' a comic opera of Paisiello. In 17S8 he appeared in Sarti's 'Giulio Sabino'; and the next year in Cherubim's 'Ifigenia,' and in operas both comic and serious by Tarchi. [J. M.] BALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM, was born at

Dublin, May 15, 1808. When he was four years old his family resided at Wexford, and it was here, in the eager pleasure he took in listening to a military band, that Balfe gave the first sign of his musical aptitude. At five years of age he took his first lesson on the violin, and at seven was able to score a polacca composed by himself for a band. His father now sought better instruction for him, and placed him under O'Rourke (afterwards known in London as ROOKE\ who brought him out as a violinist in May 1816. At ten years old he composed a ballad, afterwards sung by Madame Vestris in the comedy of 'Paul Pry,' under the title of ' The Lover's Mistake,' and which even now is remarkable for the freshness of its melody, the gift in which he afterwards proved so eminent. When he was sixteen his father died, and left him to his own resources; he accordingly came to London, and gained considerable credit by his performance of violin solos at the so-called oratorios. He was then engaged in the orchestra at Drury Lane, and when T. Cooke, the director, had to appear on the stage (which was sometimes the case in the important musical pieces), he led the band. At this period he took lessons in composition from C. F. Horn, organist of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and father of the popular song-writer. In 1825 he met with a patron, the Count Mazzara, whom he accompanied to Italy. At Rome he was located in the house of his patron, and studied counterpoint under Frederici, afterwards head of the Conservatorio at Milan. He next went to Milan, and studied singing under Filippo Galli. Here he made his first public essay as a dramatic composer by writing the music to a ballad entitled 'La Perouse,' the melody and instrumentation in which created a favourable sensation. He was now in his 20th year. Visiting Paris, he was introduced to Rossini, then director

BALFE.

BALFE.

of the Italian Opera; the maestro was not slow to perceive his talent, and offered him an engagement as principal barytone, on condition that he should take a course of preparatory lessons from Bordogni. He made his first appearance at the close of 1828 in 'Figaro,' with decided success. At the close of his Paris engagement he returned to Italy, and was welcomed by a new patron, the Count Sampieri of Bologna. In the carnival season of 1829-30 he was principal barytone at Palermo, and here produced his first complete opera ' I Bivali di se stessi,' written in the short space of twenty days. This was followed in rapid succession by ' Un Avvertimento ai gelosi,' produced at Pavia, and ' Enrico Quarto' at Milan, where he was engaged to sing with Malibran at the Scala. At Bergamo he met Mile. Rosen, a German singer, whom he married. He continued to'sing on the stage in Italy until the spring of 1835, when he came to London, and appeared at several public and private concerts. Balfe's career as a writer of English operas commenced from this year, when he produced the ' Siege of Rochelle' at Drury Lane (Oct. 29), with distinguished success. It was played for more than three months without intermission, and completely established the composer's fame. ' The Maid of Artois' came out in the following spring, its success heightened by the exquisite singing of Malibran. 'The Light of other days' in this opera, says one of his biographers, 'is perhaps the most popular song in England that our days have known.' In the autumn of this year Balfe appeared as a singer at Drury Lane. In 1837 he brought out his ' Catherine Grey' and ' Joan of Arc'—himself singing the part of Theodore ; and in the following year (July 19, 38),' Falstaff' was produced at Her Majesty's Theatre, the first Italian opera written for that establishment by an English composer since Arne's ' Olympiade.' Two months previously 'Diadeste' was given at Drury Lane. In 1839 he was much on the boards, playing Farinelli in Barnett's opera of that name at Drury Lane, and in an English version of Kicci's ' Scaramuccia' at the Lyceum. In 1840 he entered the field as manager of the Lyceum (the English opera-house), and produced his 'Keolanthe' for the opening night, •with Madame Balfe in the principal character; but with all its merited success the opera did not save the enterprise from an untoward close. Balfe now migrated to Paris, where his genius was recognised, and MM. Scribe and St. George furnished him with the dramatic poems which inspired him with the charming music of 'Le Puits d'Amour" (performed in London under the title of 'Geraldine'), and 'Les Quatre fils d'Aymon' (known here as 'The Castle of Aymon'), both given at the Opera Comique. While thus maintaining his position before the most fastidious audience of Europe, Balfe returned en passant to England, and produced the most successful of all his works, 'The Bohemian Girl' (Nov. 27,1843). This opera has been translated into almost every European language, and is as great a favourite on the other side of the

Atlantic as on this. In 1844 he brought out ' The Daughter of St. Mark,' and in the following year gives us the following notices concerning 1840, and 'Enrico Odoardo' at the Pergola in 1847; the author of theoretical works on music, the baryton. 1. Makers:—M. Feldlen (1656), H. Kramer of a treatise ' Sulla divinazione,' and a ' Studio [F. G.] (1714), D. A. Stadlmann (1732), J. Stadlmann delle opere di G. Verdi, 1859.' (1750), all of Vienna ; Joachim Tielke at HamBASILI, or BASILY, DOMENICO ANDBBA, burg (1686), maker of the fine specimen in the S. Kensington Museum, from which our cut is chapel-master at Loreto in the middle of last taken; and Andreas Stainer, of Absom in the century. He died in 1775. Santini's collection contained works by him; and a set of twentyTyrol (1660). studies of his for the clavier, entitled 2. Performers:—M. A. Berti, Vienna (1721- four ' Musica universale,' etc. was printed by Aless1740); Signor Farrant, London (1744); Abell, andri of Venice, and is not without merit. His London (1759-87). Anton Kraft, Karl Franz son FRANCESCO was born in 1766, and on the and Andreas Lidl, members of Prince Esterhazy's death of his father the boy was Bent to Rome private band under Haydn (Lidl played in con- and became a scholar of JANNACONI. While certs in England in 1776); Friedel, member of still young he was made chapel - master at the royal band at Berlin at the end of the last Foligno. His first appearance in opera was and beginning of the present century. Fauner at Milan, in 'La bella incognita,' when he (1794) and V. Hauschka (1795-18 23) are named was twenty-two. For Rome he wrote ' La as accomplished amateur-performers. Locandiera' (1789); for Florence 'Achille nell' 3. Composers :—Niemecz, L. Tomasini and A. assedio di Troja' (1798) and the 'Ritorno Kraft of Esterhaz, Wenzl Pichl, Ferd. Paer, d'Ulysse' (1799), and for Venice 'Antigono.' Weigl and Eybler, all of Vienna ; and last, but Later he became chapel-master at Macerata, not least, Haydn. Pohl enumerates no less than and wrote a large number of comic operas for 175 compositions of Haydn's for the instrument; Venice, not all equally successful. He then viz. 6 Duets for two barytons, 12 Sonatas for made a rich marriage, which enabled him to baryton and violoncello, 12 Divertimenti for two give up work, but the marriage turned out barytons and bass, 125 Divertimenti for baryton, unhappy, and after a separation, in 1816, he viola and violoncello ; 17 so-called Cassations; 3 returned to his former post at Loreto. For Concertos for baryton with accompaniment of the San Carlo at Naples Basili composed an two violins and bass. [P. D.] oratorio, ' Sansone,' in which Lablache sang the BARYTON (Ital. Baryton; Fr. Basse-Taille, chief part. A requiem which he had written Concordant). The male voice intermediate to for Jannaconi was performed on March 23, 1816, the bass and the tenor. The compound Qapva- at the Apostles' Church in Rome. In 1827 he rovos signifies ' of heavy timbre,'— in this in- was appointed director of the Conservatorio at stance, in relation to the tenor. It is therefore a Milan, where it was his fortune to refuse misnomer; for, however close their approximation admission to Verdi. Lr August 1837 he was in compass, the quality of what is now understood called to Rome to take the place of chapelby the baryton voice unmistakeably marks it as master at St. Peter's, vacant by the death of a high bass, not a low tenor. The recognition Fioravanti, and remained there till his own death of this important fact is manifest in the works on March 25, 1850. While at Rome he was of the majority of modern composers. One in- made very unhappy by his inability with the stance out of many will suffice. The principal means at his disposal to perform the great part in Mendelssohn's oratorio 'Elijah' ranges masterpieces of old Italian church music. If from the C in the bass stave to the F above it, supported in his wish a great revival might very rarely descending below the former note. have been accomplished, but with Basili the Sung, as it might be with perfect—or too much-— last hope of a resurrection of Italian church ease, by a low tenor, it would obviously lose all music has perished, a doom which neither Rosits dignity and breadth. Since the production of sini nor Verdi—whose style the rigid Basili Mozart's 'Nozze di Figaro' and 'Don Giovanni' would hardly have approved—have done much to the baryton voice has found much favour with avert. In addition to many operas, besides those composers, and been cultivated with unpre- already named, and much church music, Basili cedented success. Innumerable principal parts composed symphonies in the style of Haydn, one have been written for it; and not to speak of of which used often to be played at Brussels artists of this class still before the public, the under Fe'tis' conducting, and always with great [B". G.] names of Bartleman in England, of Ambrogetti applause. in Italv. and of Martin in France, are historical. BASS. (Ger. Bass; Fr. Basse; Ital. Basso.) [BASS] [J. H.] The lower or grave part of the musical system, BASEVI, ABEAMO, a learned Florentine mu- as contradistinguished from the treble, which is sician, founder and proprietor of the musical the high or acute part. The limits of the two L 2

BASS. 148 are generally rather vague, but middle C is the practical division between them. Attempts have been made to spell the word 'base'; but this proceeds from a mistake. 'Bass' derives its form from the French or Italian, though ultimately from the Greek '* seems probable that the tune and the name have been put into the English editions for the English market, and that if the German edition could be seen (which the writer has not been able to do) it would be found that some Prussian air and call were there instead of those named. [6.] BATTLE SYMPHONY. The ordinary English name for Beethoven's ' Wellingtons Sieg, oder die Schlachi bei Vittoria.' It wasfirstperformed in London, under the direction of Sir George Smart, at Drury Lane Theatre on Feb. 10, 1815. BATTON, DESIEB ALEXANDRE, born in Paris 1797, died there 1855 ; the son of an artificial flower maker. Was a pupil at the Conservatoire (including counterpoint under Cherubini) from 1806 to 1817, in which year he won the 'Grand Prix' for his cantata ' Le mort d'Adonis,' entitling him to travel for five years in Italy and Germany at government expense, and he accordingly started in 1818, after the performance of his comic opera 'La Fenetre secrete' at the Theatre Feydeau. During his tour he composed

BATTON.

BEALE.

several works, chiefly sacred music, in Rome, and a symphony performed in Munich. After his return to Paris in 1823 he brought out three operas, the failure of which drove him to adopt his father's trade. ' La Marquise de Brinvilliers,' composed in 1832 in conjunction with Auber, Herold, and Carafa, was however better received. Batton's failure as a dramatic composer may in great part be attributed to the poverty of his libretti. [M. C. C] BATTUTA (Ital. beat, or measure). 'A battuta,' like ' a tempo,' means a return to the strict beat. Beethoven uses the word in the Scherzo of the Choral Symphony—'Ritmo di tre battute,' ' Ritmo di quattro battute,' to signify that the rhythm in those places goes in groups of three bars or four bars respectively. In the Presto of his E flat Quartett (Op. 74), where the time changes to ' Piu presto, quasi prestissimo,' he adds the direction 'Si ha s'imtnaginar la battuta di 6-8'— the movement being written in 3-4. BAULDUIN, or BATJDOUIN, NOEL, a native of the Netherlands, contemporary with Josquin des Pre's, and from I5i3toi5i8 chapelmaster of the church of Notre Dame at Antwerp, where he died in 1529. Two of his motets were printed by Petrucci of Fossombrone in 1519, which suggests that he visited Italy, and proves in any case that his fame had reached that country during his lifetime. The rest of his works, many of which are preserved in the Papal Chapel, are included in collections published some time after his death. [J. E. S. B.] BAUMGARTEN, C. F., a native of Germany, and pupil of the famous organist J. P. Kunzen; came early to London and never left it; was organist at the Lutheran Chapel in the Savoy, and leader of the band of the English opera, Covent Garden. He was also composer and leader of the Duke of Cumberland's private band, which contained Blake, Waterhouse, Shield, Parke, and the elder Cramer. Baumgarten wrote much for the 'Professional Concerts' of 1783 and later, various operas and pantomimes—amongst others, Blue Beard, 1792. As an organist he had great skill in modulation and a thorough knowledge of his instrument, but as a violinplayer, both in concerted music and as a leader, he was languid and wanting in energy—' a sleepy orchestra,' says Haydn in his diary. His theoretical knowledge was acknowledged by Haydn and Gyrowetz. 'He was the man to mix learning with effect, and therefore to write captivations that are felt by all' ('The World,' 1787). When he made Haydn's acquaintance in 1792 he had almost forgotten his mother tongue. In 1794 he lost his position at Covent Garden, and was succeeded by Mountain (' The Oracle,' Sept. 19). After this nothing is known of him. Baumgarten was a man of much ability and culture; his pupils were numerous and distinguished. He wrote an admirable treatise on music, and was a keen student of astronomy, mathematics, and history; but he does not seem to have possessed the art of making use of his advantages,

and was quickly forgotten. A song of his, 'Her image ever rose to view,' from 'Netley Abbey,' is preserved in Ayrton's 'Musical Library.' [C. F. P.] BAYADERES, dancing girls attached to the Hindoo temples. The nature of their profession may be inferred from Goethe's Ballad 'Der Gott und die Bajadere,' which forms the groundwork of Catel's opera 'Les Bayaderes,'1 and of Auber's opera-ballet ' Le Dieu et la Bayadere.' They are a prominent feature in Spohr's ' Jessonda.' BAYLY, REV. ANSELM, D.C.L, son of Anselm Bayly of Haresfield, Gloucestershire* was born in the year 1719- He matriculated at Exeter College, Oxford, Nov. 4, 1740. On Jan. 22, 1741, he was appointed lay vicar of Westminster Abbey, and on the 29th of the same month was admitted a gentleman of the Cliapel Royal, both places being vacant by the death of John Church. On March 13, 1744, having resigned his place as gentleman, he was admitted priest of the Chapel Royal. He graduated as B.C.L. June 12, 1749, and D.C.L. July 10, 1764. In the latter year, on the death of the Rev. Dr. Fifield Allen, Bayly was appointed his successor as sub-dean of the Chapel Royal. He died in 1792. He was author of ' A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing,' 1771, and 'The Alliance of Musick, Poetry, and Oratory,' 1789, and of several theological and grammatical works. In 1769 he edited a collection of the words of Anthems, to which he contributed an interesting preface on cathedral music. [W. H. H.] BAZZINI, ANTONIO, eminent violinist, was born in 1818 at Brescia. From 1840 he has played with great success in most of the principal towns of Italy, Germany, France, and Belgium. As a performer he belongs to the school of Paganini, his playing, although not free from mannerism and a certain sentimentality, being distinguished by a most brilliant technique of the left hand and the bow, and by great vivacity of style. As a composer for his instrument Bazzini shews more earnest artistic feeling than most modern Italians. Having published in earlier years a number of operatic fantasias, many pieces de salon, a concertino and and an allegro de concert, he has of late come forward with works for the chamber and church, which have met with great success at Milan and other Italian places. Bazzini is now (1876) Professor of Composition at the Milan Conservatorio. [P. D.]

157

BEALE, JOHN, a pianist, born in London about 1796, was a pupil of John Baptist Cramer. In 1820 he was elected a member of the Philharmonic Society, and in 18 21 was an active promoter of a concert given to celebrate the birthday of Mozart. On the establishment of the Royal Academy of Music he was 1 For an amusing anecdote connected with this opera and with the dislike of Napoleon 1 to luud music see Clement,' Dictiouaaire Lyrique,' p. 926.

BEALE.

BEAT.

named one of the professors of the pianoforte there. [W.H.H.] BEALE, WILLIAM, was born at Landrake Jan. I, 1784, and brought up as a chorister of Westminster Abbey under Dr. Arnold and Robert Cooke. In 1813 he gained by his madrigal, 'Awake, sweet muse,' the prize cup given by the Madrigal Society. He published in 1S20 a collection of his glees and madrigals. On the title-page of his madrigal ' What ho! what h o ! ' published in 1816, he is styled 'GentD. of His Majesty's Chapels Eoyal.' It is certain, however, that he never held such an appointment. He died in London on the 3rd of May, 1854. [W.H.H.]

not impossible that its English name may have been originally 'bite.' Dr. Callcott however, in his Grammar of Music, speaks of the beat as a reversed shake, and derives its name from Battement, giving an example as in Ex. 2. Battement again, according to Rousseau (Dictionnaire de Musique), is a shake beginning on the upper instead of the principal note (Ex. 3) I. Written. 2. 3.

158

BEARD, JOHN, one of the most eminent of English tenor singers, born about 1717, was in his boyhood a chorister of the Chapel Royal under Bernard Gates. He first appeared as a tenor singer in Handel's performances at Covent Garden Theatre in 1736, singing in 'Alexander's Feast,'' Acis and Galatea,' and ' Atalanta.' On Aug. 30, 1737, he appeared at Drury Lane Theatre as Sir John Loverule in Coffey's ballad opera ' The Devil to Pay,' and in the following season was regularly engaged there. In 1739 he married Lady Henrietta, the young widow of Lord Edward Herbert, and daughter of the Earl of Waldegrave, on which he retired for a short time from professional life. After fourteen years uninterrupted happiness, Lady Henrietta died in 1753, aged thirty-six. Beard performed at Drury Lane until 1743, after which he was engaged at Covent Garden until 1748 ; he then returned to Drury Lane, where he continued until 1759, in which year he married Charlotte, daughter of John Rich, proprietor of Covent Garden Theatre, and was again engaged at that house. Rich dying in 1761, Beard became, in right of his wife, proprietor and manager of the theatre, and so continued until an increasing deafness determined him to dispose of his interest in. it and quit the stage. He took his leave of the public as Hawthorn in ' Love in a Village' May 23, 1767. After his retirement he resided at Hampton, where he died, Feb. 4, 1791; i n his seventy-fourth year. His wife survived him until August 26, 1818, when she died at Hampton at the great age of ninety-two. Beard throughout life bore the reputation of being a highly honourable and upright man. To form an estimate of his abilities as a singer it is only necessary to remember that Handel composed for him the great tenor parts in 'Israel in Egypt,' 'Messiah,' 'Samson,' 'Judas Maccabeus,' and ' Jephthah.' [W. H. H.] BEAT. The name given in English to a melodic grace or ornament, but with considerable uncertainty as to which particular ornament it denotes, the word having been very variously applied by different writers. With some authors it signifies the ACCIACATURA, but it appears to be most generally understood to mean the MORDENT (Ger. Beisser) (Ex. 1), in which connection it seems

n Played.

I t is doubtless owing to this uncertainty that the word has now almost fallen into disuse. [F.T.] BEAT. The movement of the hand or baton by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated, and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on the part of the orchestra or chorus ; also, by analogy, the different divisions of a bar or measure with respect to their relative accent. Among the ancients the ordinary method of beating time was by striking the foot upon the ground. The person who exercised this function, corresponding to our modern conductor, was called by the Greeks Coryphaeus (principal), and by the Romans Pedarim or Pedicularius, from the custom of employing the foot to beat with, and it was usual for him to wear sandals of wood or metal, called pedicula or scabella, in order by their percussion to render the rhythm more evident. Sometimes the measure was marked by clapping the hands—in which case the timebeater was called Manuductor; and sometimes by the striking together of oyster-shells, bones, etc. To our ears this incessant and noisy percussion would be unendurable, and a modern conductor would be severely criticised who could not keep his performers in time by the noiseless movements of his baton; nevertheless, the improvement is of comparatively recent date, for we find Rousseau in 1768 complaining that the listener at the Paris opera should be 'shocked by the continual and disagreeable noise made by him who beats the measure.' The method of beating now commonly in use in England, France, and Germany is as follows:— the first note of each bar (which has always the strongest accent) is indicated by a downward movement of the hand or baton, and this part of the bar is therefore usually known as the 'downbeat'; in triple time this is followed by two unaccented beats, which are shown by a movement first to the right and then upwards, unless in scherzos or other movements in rapid time, where it is usual to give merely a down beat at the beginning of the bar. In common time there may be either one or three non-accents, in the first case the simple up-beat sufBces, in the latter the beats following the down-beat are to the left, to the right, and then upwards. In all cases

BEAT. the movement immediately preceding the downbeat is an upbeat. In beating compound time (that ia, time in which each beat is made up of three parts) it is customary to give each beat three times in succession, thus in 12-8 time there would be three down, three left, three right, and three up-beats, except in rapid tempo, when the ordinary number of beats will suffice, one beat being equivalent to three notes. In the greater part of Italy a somewhat different method of beating is adopted, there being no beats to the right or left; when therefore there are more than two beats in a bar, two down-beats are given in succession, followed in triple time by one and in common time by two up-beats. In theoretical works, the down-beat or accent, and the up-beat or non-accent, are usually spoken of by their Greek names of thesis and arsis. [F. T.] BEATRICE DI TENDA. Italian opera, the libretto by F. Romani, the music by Bellini; produced at Venice in 1833, and at the Theatre des Italiens, Paris, Feb. 8, 1841, and in London, at the King's Theatre, March 22, 1836. BEATS are a wavy throbbing effect produced by the sounding together of certain notes, and most noticeable in unisons and consonances, when not perfectly tuned to one another. To explain their origin reference must be made to elementary facts in the science of sound. Sound is conveyed to our ears by the waves into which the air, or other medium, is thrown by the vibration of what is called the sounding body. These waves are proportionally relative to the rapidity of the vibrations of the note Bounding, and therefore also to its pitch; they consist of alternate condensation and rarefaction, each vibration being considered (in England and Germany) to comprise both the compression and distension of the particles of the air analogous to the crest and trough of a wave of water. These are, as it were, opposite forces, and can be made to counteract each other if two waves be simultaneously produced which start at such a distance from each other that the condensation of one exactly corresponds to the rarefaction of the other. A very simple proof of this may be obtained by striking a large tuning-fork and holding it close to the ear, and turning it slowly round; when a particular point will be found on either side of the fork at which the sound ceases, although the fork continues to vibrate, because the two prongs are in such a position relative to the ear that their soundwaves in that direction mutually counterbalance one another. Beats are produced by sound-waves which have such relations in size and rapidity, that at certain intervals they cross one another and, condensation and rarefaction being simultaneous for the moment, produce silence. For instance, if two notes which vibrate respectively 100 and 101 times in a second be sounded together, it is clear that the sound-waves of the latter will gain ^

BEATS.

159

on the former at each vibration, and half-way through the second will have gained so much that its condensation will exactly correspond with the rarefaction of the other note (or vice versa), and for the moment silence will result; and so for each second of time. If the notes be further apart, as 100 to 102, the latter will gain twice as much in every vibration, and there will be two places where the waves counteract each other, and therefore two beats in each second. Hence the rule that the number of heats per second is equal to the difference between the rates of vibration of the notes.

It is found practically that it is not necessary for the waves to be exactly in opposition ; for in the case of one note with 100 vibrations in a second and another with 103, though the three beats will be heard according to the rule above given, it is proved mathematically that there will be only one point at which the condensation' and rarefaction are exactly simultaneous, and the other two extremes of opposition are not exact, though within 1 Q | 0 0 of a second of coincidence. In point of fact the sound will be lessened to a minimum up to the extreme of opposition in the position of the waves, and increased to the full power of the two sounds up to the perfect coincidence of the vibrations. It will have been observed that the beats increase in number as the notes become more wide apart. According to Helmholtz they are most disagreeable when they number about 33 in a second, which is nearly the number produced by the sounding together of treble C and Dt>. From that point they become less and less harsh till with such an interval as treble C and E, which produces 128 beats in a second, there is no unpleasant sensation remaining. Beats are of three kinds. The first and most commonly known is produced by the sounding together of two notes nearly in unison—to which the above description applies simply. They are associated with the name of the great violinist Tartini, for reasons concerning which a controversy has arisen, and which are too long to be here set down. The second kind arises from the imperfect tuning of consonances—such as the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, or octave. Here the notes are too wide apart for the primary beats as described above to be noticeable. But the primary beats are in this case thrown into groups or cycles, which produce the effect of beats. These were first investigated by Dr. Eobert Smith, Master of Trinity Coll. Cambridge (died 1768), and are called after him. The third kind, also due to the imperfect tuning of consonances, is that which has been most carefully investigated by Helmholtz, and is called by him the over-tone beat. It is produced exactly in the manner first described between the harmonics of one note and another fundamental note which is not in tune with the first, or between the harmonics of two fundamentals which are out of tune.

BEATS.

BECHSTEIN.

For instance, if bass C be sounded with middle C, and the latter be slightly out of tune, middle C and the first harmonic of the lower (J will be in the position of imperfectly tuned unisons, and beats will be produced. If C and G be sounded together, and the latter be out of tune, the second harmonic of the former and the first of the latter will clash in a similar manner, and beats will be produced between them. And so with other consonances. The value of beats to organ-tuners is well known, as their disappearance when the notes are in tune is a much safer criterion of exactness than the musical sense unaided. Moreover it is possible to discover, by simple calculation of the number of beats in a second relative to the number of vibrations, the exact amount any note is out of tune with another. For more complete discussion of this subject, see an article by W. Pole, Mus. Doc, F.R.S., in ' Nature' for 1876, Nos. 324, 325. [C. H. H. P.] BEAULIEU, MARIE DESIRE, whose family name was MARTIN, son of an artillery officer of Niort, born in Paris 1791. He studied under Rodolph Kreutzer, Benincori, and Mehul, and obtained the 'Grand Prix' at the Conservatoire in 1810. He did not accept the five years' tour to which the prize entitled him, and settled at Niort. Here he founded quartet meetings, and in 1829 a Philharmonic Society, which was afterwards expanded into the 'Association musicale de l'Ouest' (1835). This society was the first of its kind in provincial France, and through the untiring zeal of its founder has attained a high pitch of excellence. Yearly festivals are held in turn at Niort, Poitiers, La Eochelle, Angouleme, Limoges, and Rochefort; and Mendelssohn's 'St. Paul' and ' Elijah'were performed at Rochelle by this society long before they were heard in Paris. Beaulieu wrote in all styles, but excelled in church music. His principal work was a requiem on the death of Mehul, composed 1819, performed 1840. He also wrote much on music. A complete list of his compositions is given by Fu addressed Orchestra, composed Nov. 95. to the volunteers on their leaving Vienna to On March 29, 95, Beethoven made his first take part in the universal military movement appearance before the outside public at the an- provoked by Napoleon's campaigns in Italy. nual concert in the Burg Theatre, for the widows' The war was driving all Germans home, and fund of the Artists' Society. He played his Con- amongst others Beethoven's old colleagues the certo in C major.5 The piece had probably been two Rombergs passed through Vienna from Italy, suggested by Salieri, and with it Beethoven began and he played for them at a concert. a practice which he more than once followed The publications of 1796 consist of the 3 when the work was bespoken — of only just Piano Sonatas, op. 2 (March 9) ; 12 Variations on finishing the composition in time; the Kondo a minuet a la Viyano11 (Feb.), and 6 on ' Nel cor was written on the afternoon of the last day but piu sento'13 (Mar. 23): 6 Minuets (also in March) one, during a fit of colic. At the rehearsal, the for Piano, originally written for orchestra—perpiano being half a note too flat, Beethoven played haps the result of his success with the ' bildender in C % .6 Two days after he appeared again at Kiinstler.'u Of the compositions of the year, bethe same theatre at a performance for the benefit sides those already named, may be mentioned as of Mozart's widow, playing a Concerto of Mo- probable the Piano Sonata in G,15 the second of zart's 7 between the acts of the 'Clemenza di the 2 small ones (op. 49); and another of the Tito.' Later in the year he assisted another same rank in C16 for Eleanore von Breuning; benevolent object by writing 12 minuets and 12 we may also ascribe to the latter part of this waltzes for orchestra for the ball of the ' Gesell- year the Duet Sonata (op. 6); 12 Variations on schaft der bildenden Kiinstler' on the 2 2nd Nov. a Russian dance ;17 the String Quintet (op. 4), He was evidently a favourite with the Artists, arranged from an Octet for wind instruments, who advertise ' the master-hand of Herr Ludwig very probably of his prse-Vienna time. The van Beethoven,' while they mention Siissmayer Russian Variations were written for the Countess —who also contributed music—without an extra Browne, wife of an officer in the Russian service, word. These dances, after publication, remained and were acknowledged by the gift of the horse in favour for two more seasons, which is men- which we have already mentioned as affording an tioned as a great exception to rule. On Dec. 18 he instance of Beethoven's absence of mind. But again appeared in public at a concert of Haydn's the winter months must have been occupied in the 'little Eedoutensaal,' playing a Concerto by a more serious work than variations—the of his own—but whether the same as before is Quintet for piano and wind (op. 16),18 which not stated. The dedication of the Sonatas and Beethoven produced at a concert of Schuphis co-operation at Haydn's concert allow us to panzigh's on April 6, 1797, and which is almost hope that the ill-feeling already alluded to had like a challenge to Mozart on his own ground, vanished. So closed the year 1795. Bonn was and the not less important and far more original at this time in the hands of the Republican Pianoforte Sonata in Eb (op. 7). This great army, and Beethoven's brother the Apotheker work, 'quite novel, and wholly peculiar to its was serving as a ' pharmacien de 3^™ classe.' author, the origin of which can be traced to 1796 was a year of wandering. Haydn and no previous creation, and which proclaimed his he appeared together at a second concert on originality so that it could never afterwards be January io.8 In the interval Beethoven went disputed,' was published on Oct. 7, '97, but must perhaps to Prague, certainly to Nuremberg. On have been often played before that date. The Feb. 19 he was in Prague again, where he sketches for the 3 Sonatas, op. 10, are placed by composed the Scena9 'Ah ! perfido' for Madame Nottebohm in this period, with the Variations Duschek, the friend of Mozart. From thence he on the 'Une fievre brulante.' The three String travelled to Berlin, played at court, amongst Trios, op. 9, also probably occupied him during other things the two cello sonatas op. 5, probably some part of the year. The Serenade Trio, op. 8, composed for the occasion, and received from the though published in 1797, more probably belongs King a box of louis d'or, which he was proud with op. 3 to the Bonn date. The Variations on of showing as ' no ordinary box, but one of the 'See the conquering hero' for Pianoforte and 19 kind usually presented to ambassadors.' At Cello, dedicated to the Princess Lichnowsky, were published during this year, and were Berlin his time was passed pleasantly enough with Himmel the composer aad Prince Louis probably written at the time. Ferdinand. He went two or three times to the Vienna was full of patriotism in the spring of Singakademie,10 heard the choir sing Fasch's 1797. Haydn's 'Emperor's Hymn' had been sung in the theatre for the first time on Feb. 12,2 'B.AH.233. 2Ibid.253. 3Ibid.256. ' Ibid. 16,17. 5 Thayer,i.2M. 7 and Beethoven wrote a second military Lied,' Ein 6 Wegeler, p. 36. Wlassack, Chronik des Eqfbnrgfheattr, p. 98. 8 Hanslick, Concerlwesen in Wiev, p. 105. "B.4H.2S0. KIbid.169. " Ibid. 168. M IbM.194. 8 ' Une grande Scene mise en musique, par L. v. Beethoven, a Prague, » Nottebohm, Catalogue, V. 205. K B . 4 H . 159. " I b i d . 170. 1796,' is Beethoven's own title (Nottebohm, SeeChoveniana, p. 1, note). 18 An unusual combination, which may explain why so fine a work •o Fasch's Journal, Thayer ii. 13. Strange that Zelter (Corr. irilft " B . 1 H . 110. CorfM should not refer to this visit. Mme. von Voss'n Journal, too, is remained in MS. till 1801. ao Scllmid, Joseph Haydn mid N. Zingarttti, e t c (Vienna, 1847), p. 8. blank during these very months.

N

178

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN. 1

grosses deutsches Volk sind wir,' to Friedelberg's words, which is dated April 14, but did not prove more successful than his former one. In May he writes to Wegeler in terms which show that with publications or lessons his pecuniary position is improving; but from that time till Oct. 1—the date of an affectionate entry in Lenz von Breuning's album—we hear nothing whatever of2 him. A severe illness has to be accounted for, and this is probably the time at which it happened. In November occurred the annual ball of the 'Bildenden Kiinstler,' and his dances were again played for the third time; the seven Landler,3 ascribed to this year, were not improbably written for the same ball. His only other publications of 1797 not yet mentioned are the Pianoforte Hondo in C major, which many years afterwards received the opus number 51, and last, but not least, 'Adelaide.' Some variations1 for 2 Oboes and Corno Inglese on 'La ci darem' were played on Dec. 23 at a concert for the Widows and Orphans Fund, but are still in MS. The chief event of 1798 is one which was to bear fruit later—Beethoven's introduction to Bernadotte the French ambassador, by whom the idea of the Eroica Symphony is said5 to have been first suggested to him. Bernadotte was a person of culture, and having R. Kreutzer, the violin-player, as a member of his establishment may be presumed to have cared for music. Beethoven, who professed himself an admirer of Bonaparte, frequented the ambassador's levees ; and there is ground for believing that they were to a certain extent intimate. On April 2 Beethoven played his Piano Quintet (op. 16) at the concert for the Widows and Orphans Fund. The publications of this year show that the connexion with the von Brownes indicated by the dedication of the Russian Variations was kept up and even strengthened; the 3 String Trios, op. 9 (published July 21), are dedicated to the Count, and the 3 Sonatas, op. 10 (subscribed July 7, published Sept. 26), to the Countess. The 3rd of these sonatas forms a landmark in Beethoven's progress of6 equal significance with op. 7. The letter which he appended to the Trios speaks of 'munificence at once delicate and liberal'; and it is obvious that some extraordinary liberality must have occurred to draw forth such an expression as 'the first Maecenas of his muse' in reference to any one but Prince Lichnowsky. In other respects the letter is interesting. It makes music depend less on ' the inspiration of genius' than on 'the desire to do one's utmost,' and implies that the Trios were the best music he had yet composed. The Trio for Piano, Clarinet, and Cello (op. 11), dedicated to the mother of Princess Lichnowsky, was published on Oct. 3. This is the composition which brought Steibelt •B.4H.231. = Thayer, li. 18. 'B.4H.198. * N\»t the Trio, op. 87 (N'ottebohm, Neue Seelhoveniana). *6 By Schindler, on the statement of Beethoven himself and others. See Thayer, ii. 33, and Nottebohm's Catalogue, op. 9. Why are not •uch interesting matters as this Letter or the Dedications reprinted In all cases with Beethoven's works?

and Beethoven into collision, to the sad discomfiture of the former.7 Steibelt had shown him studied neglect till they met at Count Fries's, at the first performance of this Trio, and he then treated him quite de haut en las. A. week later they met again, when Steibelt produced a new Quintet and extemporised on the theme of Beethoven's Finale—an air from Weigl's ' Amor marinaro.' Beethoven's blood was now fairly up; taking the cello part of Steibelt's quintet he placed it upside down before him, and making a theme out of it played with such effect as to drive Steibelt from the room. Possibly this fracas may account for Beethoven's known dissatisfaction with the Finale.8 The other publications of 1798 are Variations: 12 for Piano and Cello on an air in the ' Zauberflote,' afterwards numbered as op. 66; 6, easy,9 for Piano or Harp, possibly written for some lady friend, and published by his old ally Simrock at Bonn ; and 8 on 'Une fievre brulante.'10 This year he again visited Prague, and performed at two public concerts, making an immense impression.11 After his return, on Oct. 27, he played one of his two Concertos at the Theatre auf den Wieden. Wb'lfl was in Vienna during this year, and in him Beethoven encountered for the first time a rival worthy of his steel. They seem to have met often at Count Wetzlar's (Wb'lfl'a friend), and to have made a great deal12of music together, and always in a pleasant way. It must have been wonderful to hear them, each excited by the other, playing theirfinest,extemporising alternately and together (like Mendelssohn and Moscheles), and making all the fun that two such men at such an age and in capital company would be sure to make. Wolfl commemorated their meeting by dedicating three sonatas to Beethoven, but met with no response. But Beethoven did not allow pleasure to interfere with business, as the publications of the following year fully show. The 3 Sonatas for Piano and Violin, dedicated to Salieri (op. 12), published on Jan. 12, 1799, though possibly composed earlier must at any rate have occupied him in correction during the winter. The little Sonata in G minor (op. 49, No. 1) is a child of this time, and 13 immediately followed in the sketch books by the ' Grande Sonate pathetique' —Beethoven's own title—(op. 13), dedicated to Prince Lichnowsky, as if to make up for the little slight contained in the reference to Count Browne as his 'first Maecenas.' The wellknown Rondo to the Sonata appears to have been originally intended for the third of the String Trios.13 Of the origin of the 2 Sonatas, op. 14 (published Dec. 21), little is known. The sketches for the first of the two are coincident in time with those for the Concerto in Bb, which was completed in 1794,11 and there is ground for believing that it was originally conceived as a string quartet, into which indeed Beethoven ? RieB, p. SI. * Thayer, li. 32, note. " R 4 I I . 176. « See Tomaschek'a interesting account in Thayer, ii. 29. K See Seyfried, Nolizen, 6. u Nottebohm, N. B. No. IX. » Nottebohm, if. B. No. n .

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converted it a few years after. The second is probably much later, and is specially interesting from the fact that Beethoven explained it • to be a dialogue between two lovers, he entreating and she resisting. The Sonatas are dedicated to the Baroness Braun. The other publications of 1799 are variations : 10 on Salieri's 'LaStessa'; 7 on Winter's 'Kind,2 willst du'; and 8 on Siissmayer's 'Tandeln.' A comparison of the dates of publication with those of the appearance of the operas from which the themes are taken, shows that two of these •were written shortly before publication. Beethoven was now about to attack music of larger dimensions than before. His six string Quartets, the Septet, the 1st Symphony, and the ' Mount of Olives,' are fast approaching, and must all have occupied him more or less during the last year of the century. In fact the sketches for the three first of the quartets (first in date of composition), Nos. 5, 1, 6, are positively assigned to this year, though there is evidence that the earliest of the three had been begun as far back as 94 or 95.3 And though sketches of the Septet have not yet been made public, yet it is contrary to all Beethoven's habits in the case of so important a piece, and apparently quite spontaneously undertaken, that he should not have been at work at it for a long while before its production. The same with regard to the 1st Symphony. Both were produced on April 2, 1800. Traces of the Symphony, or of a previous one in the same key,* are found as early as the beginning of 95, and there is no doubt that two such experiments in a new field must have occupied much time and labour. Besides these he was working on a very important new Sonata in Bb (op. 22). The few recorded events of 1800 are all closely connected with music. On Wednesday, April 2, Beethoven gave the first concert which he had attempted in Vienna for his own benefit. It took place at the Burg Theatre, which was given him for the occasion, at 7 p.m., and the progamme was as follows :—1. Symphony, Mozart. 2. Air from the Creation. 3. A grand Pianoforte Concerto, 'played and composed' by Beethoven. 4. The Septet. 5. Duet from the Creation. 6. Improvisation by Beethoven on Haydn's Emperor'aHymn. 7. Symphony, No. 1. The Concerto was doubtless one of the two already known—the Septet had been 6previously performed at Prince Schwarzenberg's, had pleased immensely, and Beethoven was evidently proud of it. ' It is my Creation,' said he—let us hope not in Haydn's presence. He had not forgotten Bonn, and the theme of the variations is said by Czerny5 to be a Khine VolJcslied. The work was dedicated in advance to the Empress, and though not published for some time, became rapidly popular. So much for the compositions, but the performance appears from the report in the Leipsic paper6 to have

been shameful; the band disliked Wranitzky the conductor, and vented their dislike on the music. In addition to this it appears that the rehearsal, if it took place at all, was a very imperfect one. A reference in one of Beethoven's letters (April 22, 1801) shows that it was his custom not to write in the piano part into his Concertos, and therefore to play them from memory. On the 18th of the same month Beethoven appeared again at the concert of Punto the hornplayer, with a Sonata for Horn and Piano, composed for the occasion. This he had naturally not been able to touch while preparing for his own concert, and in fact it was written down »n the day before the performance.' Here again there cannot have been much chance of rehearsal. But with two such players it was hardly needed; and so much did the Sonata delight the hearers, that in defiance of a rule forbidding applause in the Court Theatre the whole work was unanimously encored. On the 2 7th, the anniversary of the day on which he first entered Bonn, Beethoven's old master, the Elector, returned to the capital. In May Steibelt made his appearance in Vienna from Prague, where his charlatanerie and his real ability had gained him prodigious financial success. We have already alluded to his conflict with Beethoven. In Vienna he does not appear to have succeeded, and in August he was again in Paris. The announcement of Beethoven's benefit concert names No. 241 'im tiefen Graben,' 3rd storey, as his residence. He had now left Prince Lichnowsky's, and he maintained this lodging for two years. In this year we hear for the first time of his going to the country for the autumn. He selected Unter-Dobling, a village two miles north of Vienna, and his lodging was part of the house occupied by the Grillparzer family. Madame Grillparzer long recollected his fury on discovering her listening to his playing outside the door, and the stern revenge he took.8 As regards publications 1800 is a blank, but composition went on with immense energy. If we throw back the Symphony and the Septet into 1797, we have still the Horn Sonata and the Piano Sonata in Bb (op. 22)—a work of great moment—the Six Quartets, the String Quintet in C, the Piano Concerto in C minor. Of all these very important works we have Beethoven's own mention in a letter of Dec. 15, 1800, in addition to the evidence as to date afforded by the sketch-books.9 And besides these we are bound to believe that the Ballet of Prometheus, performed March 28, 1801, occupied him at least during the latter portion of the year. An incident of this summer was Beethoven's letter to Matthison (Aug. 4) sending him his 'Adelaide,' a letter interesting for its courteous and genial tone, for its request for another poem, and for its confession that his early works had already begun to dissatisfy him. After his return to town occurred Czerny's introduction to him. Czerny, then a lad of just upon 10, became Beethoven's pupil

> Schlndler, on Beethoven's authority, BiourapKe (1840), p. 224, Moscheles'ed. ii.124. 2 B.*H. 172,173,174. ' Uottebohm, N. B. No. XVI. * Ibid. No. XIX. » Thayer, il. 99. ' Ibid. ii. 98.

7 Eies, p. 82.

179

» Thayer, ii. 104.

9Ibid.il.U5.

N2

180

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in pianoforte playing, and has left a delightful account of his first1 interview, and of much which occurred after it. Among the letters of this winter and the spring of 1801 are some to Hoffmeister, formerly a composer, and then a musicpublisher in Leipsic, which ended in his publishing the Septet, the Symphony in C, the Piano Concerto in Bt>, and the Sonata (op. 22) in the same key. The price given for these works was 20 ducats each, except the Concerto, which was 10. The ducat was equal to 10s. English. The Concerto is priced so low because 'it is by no means one of my best, any more than that I am about to publish in C major, because I reserve the best for myself, for my journey '2— a confession which proves that the Concerto in C minor was already in existence. The letters show keen sympathy with projects for the publication of Bach's works, and of Mozart's sonatas arranged as quartets.3 They speak of his having been ill during the winter, but the vigorous tone of the expression shows that the illness had not affected his spirits. On Jan. 30, 1801, he played his Horn Sonata a second time, with Punto, at a concert for the benefit of the soldiers wounded at Hohenlinden. He was now immersed in all the worry of preparing for the production of his Ballet of Prometheus, which came out on March 28 at the Court (Burg) Theatre. Its great success is evident from the fact that it was immediately published in a popular form—Pianoforte Solo,4 dedicated to Princess Lichnowsky—and that it had a run of 16 nights during 1801, and 13 during the following year. Apart from its individual merits the Prometheus music is historically interesting as containing a partial anticipation of the Storm in the Pastoral Symphony, and (in the Finale) an air which afterwards served for a Contretanz, for the theme of elaborate variations, and for the subject of the last movement of the Eroica Symphony. The Ballet gave occasion for an unfortunate little encounter between Beethoven and Haydn, evidently unintentional on Beethoven's part, but showing how naturally antagonistic the two men were. They met in the street the day after the first performance, ' I heard your new Ballet last night,' said Haydn, 'and it pleased me much.' ' 0 lieber Papa,' was the reply, ' you are too good: but it is no Creation by a long way.' This unnecessary allusion seems to have startled the old man, and after an instant's pause he said ' You are right: it is no Creation, and I hardly think it ever will be ?' The success of' Prometheus' gave him time to breathe, and possibly also cash to spare : he changed his lodgings from the low-lying ' tiefenGraben' to the Sailer-statte, a higher situation,

BEETHOVEN. with an extensive prospect over the ramparts,' For the summer of 1801 he took a lodging at Hetzendorf, on the south-west side of the city, attracted by the glades and shrubberies of Schonbrunn, outside which the village lies, and perhaps by the fact that his old master the Elector was living in retirement there. I t was his practice during these country visits to live as nearly as possible in entire seclusion, and to elaborate and reduce into ultimate form and completeness the ideas which had occurred to him during the early part of the year, and with which his sketchbooks were crowded. His main occupation during this summer was ' The Mount of Olives,' which Eies found far advanced when he arrived in Vienna in 1801. 6 The words were by Huber,7 and we have Beethoven's own testimony 8 that they were written, with his assistance, in 14 days. He was doubtless engaged at the same time, after his manner, with other works, not inferior to that oratorio in their several classes, which are known on various grounds to have been composed during this year. These are 2 Violin Sonatas in A minor and F, dedicated to Count von Fries— originally published together (Oct. 28) as op. 23, but now separated under independent Nos.; the String Quintet in C (op. 29) ; and not less than 4 masterpieces for the Piano—the Grand Sonatas in Ab (op. 26) and D (op. 28) ; the two Sonatas entitled 'Quasi Fantasia' in Eb and in Cjf minor (op. 27); which, though not published till 1802, were all four completed during this year. To each of them a word or two is due. The Sonata in Ab— dedicated, like those of op. 1 and 13, to his prime friend Prince Carl Lichnowsky—is said 9 to owe its noble Funeral March to pique at the praises on a march by no means worthy of them in Paer's ' Achille.' That opera—produced at Vienna on the 6th June of this year—i8 the same about which Paer used to tell a good story of Beethoven, illustrating at once his sincerity and his terrible want of manners. He was listening to the opera with its composer, and after saying over and over again, ' 0 ! que c'eet beau,' ' O ! que c'est int^ressant,' at last could contain himself no longer, but burst out 'il faut que je compose cela.' 10 The Grand Sonata in D received its title of 'Pastorale' (more appropriate than such titles often are) from Cranz the publisher, of Hamburg. The Andante, by some thought inferior to the rest of the Sonata, was Beethoven'speculiarfavourite, and very frequently played by him.11 The flyleaf of the autograph of the work contains a humorous duet and chorus— ' the praise of the fat,' making fun of Schuppanzigh i a —' Schuppanzigh ist ein Lump, ein Lump, etc. The remaining two, qualified as ' Fantasia by their author, have had very different fates. One, that in Eb, has always lived in the shadow of its sister, and is comparatively little known.

1 Published by C. F. Pohl. Jahra-Bericht da Coutcrvahr nras der O/'-Htdh4, but when the Overture was issued in Mu-ikfminde (Vienna, 1871 , p. 57. Pa*-*, it was numbered op. 43, and op. 24 was given to the Violin Sonata » Kies, p. 80. w F. Hiller. in Thayer, ii. 134. in P. " Czerny, in Thayer, ii. 134. i* Thayer, Veneictmin, No. H.

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The other, the so-called 'Moonlight Sonata,' is as widely played and as passionately loved as any of Beethoven's pianoforte works. It is one of his most original productions. The dedication to the Countess Guicciardi, upon which so much romance has been built, has had a colder light thrown on it by the lady herself. ' Beethoven,' said she, ' gave me the Rondo in G, but wanting to dedicate something to the Princess Lichnowsky he took the Rondo away, and gave me the Sonata in C $ minor instead.'2 Meantime his deafness, which began with violent noise in his ears, had gradually merged into something more serious. He consulted doctor after doctor, Frank, his friend Wegeler, and Wering, but the malady constantly increased. It gave him the keenest distress; but so great were his resolution and confidence that not even the prospect of this tremendous affliction could subdue him. ' I will as far as possible defy my fate, though there must be moments when I shall be the most miserable of God's creatures.' . . . . ' Not unhappy : no, that I never could endure! I will grapple with fate ; it shall never drag me down.' The letters to Wegeler of June 293 and Nov. 16, 1801, from which these words are taken, give an extraordinary picture of the mingled independence and sensibility which characterised this remarkable man, and of the entire mastery which music had in him over friendship, love, pain, deafness, or any other external circumstance. ' Every day I come nearer to the object which T can feel, though I cannot describe it, and on which alone your Beethoven can exist. No more rest for him!' ' I live only in my music, and no sooner is one thing done than the next is begun. As I am now writing, I often work at three and four things at once.' How truly this describes the incessant manner in which his ideas flowed may be seen4 from the sketch-book published by Nottebohm, and which is the offspring of this very period—Oct. 1801 to May 1802. It contains sketches for the Finale of the Second Symphony, for the 3 Violin Sonatas (op. 30); for Piano Sonatas in G and D minor (op. 31); for the Variations in F (op. 34), and in Eb (op. 35) ; and a large number of less important works, the themes of which are so mixed up and repeated as to show that they were all in his mind and his intention at once. The spring of 1802 saw the publication of several very important pieces, the correction of which must have added to his occupations—the Serenade (op. 25); the Sonatas in Bb 5 (op. 22), Ab (op. 26), Eb and C# minor (op. 27); the Variations for Piano and Cello on Mozart's air 'Bei Mannern,' and 6 Contretanze. It is curious to notice that up to op. 22 all the Solo Sonatas, as well as the Duet (op. 6) and the 3 with Violin (op. 12) are published 'for Clavecin 1 This foolish sobriquet is derived from a criticism on the work by JMlstab mentioning moonlight on the Lake of Lucerne. *3 Thayer, ii. 172. No year is given in the date of the letter. Weeeler places it in ifOO, but Thayer (ii. 165, 6) has proved it to belong to 1801. 1 £in Skitzenbuch von Beethnvm, etc., Leipzig, B. * H. s 'Well engraved,'says Beethoven to Hoffmeister,' but you have been a fine time about i n '

181

or Pianoforte.' The Sonata in Bb is the first to break the rule, whidh comes to an end with the two quasi-fantasias, op. 27. One would like to know if this is a mere publisher's freak—which, knowing Beethoven's care" of details, it is hard to believe—or whether great works like op. 7 ; op. 10, No. 3; and op. 26 were intended for instruments so unlike the Piano as the whispering Clavichord or the prancing Harpsichord—for ' Clavecin' may mean either. All the works just enumerated were out by April, and were followed in the later months by the Septet, issued in two6 portions; the Sonata in D (op. 28) ; 6 Landler; the Rondo inG (Op. 51, No. 2) ; and in December by the Quintet in C (op. 29). Beethoven had recently again changed his doctor. Vering did not satisfy him, and he consulted Schmidt, a person apparently of some eminence, and it was possibly on his recommendation that he selected the village of Heiligenstadt, at that time a most retired spot, lying beyond UnterDbbling, among the lovely wooded valleys in the direction of the Kahlenberg and Leopold3berg. Here he remained till October, labouring at the completion of the works mentioned above, which he had sketched early in the year, and which he probably completed before returning to Vienna. Here too he wrote the very affecting letter usually known as 'Beethoven's will,' dated Oct. 6, and addressed to his brothers, to be opened after his death,7 a letter full of depression and distress, but perhaps not more so than that written by many a man of sensibility under adverse temporary circumstances, and which does not give us a high idea of Dr. Schmidt's wisdom in condemning a dyspeptic patient to so long a course of solitude. At any rate, if we compare it with the genial, cheerful strains of the music which he was writing at the time—take the Symphony in D as one example only—and remember his own words: ' I live only in my music, letter-writing was never my forte'—it loses a good deal of its 8 significance. Once back in town his spirits returned; and some of his most facetious letters to Zmeskall are dated from this time. On returning he changed his residence from the SailerStatte, where we last left him, to the PetersPlatz, in the very heart of the city, and at the top of the house. In the storey above Beethoven lived his old friend Fbrster, who had won his affection by giving .him hints on quartet writing on his first arrival in Vienna. Fbrster had a little son whom Beethoven undertook to instruct, and the boy, then just 6, long9 remembered having to get up in the dark in the winter mornings and descend the stairs for his lessons. This winter again there were many proofs to correct—the 2 Piano Sonatas (op. 31, 1 & 2), the 3 Violin ditto, 2 sets of Variations (op. 34, 35), all which appeared early in 1803. The Piano Sonatas he regarded as a change in his styleI0—which they certainly are, the D minor especially. The Variations he 5B.4H.197. 7 The autograph is in possession of Madame Lind-Goldschmidt, to whom it WAS given by Ernst. 6 See the sensible remarks of Thayer, ii. 106. » Thayer, ii. 199,200. w Ibid. 186.

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mentions as distinct in kind from his earlier ones, and therefore to be included in the series of his large works, and numbered accordingly. In addition there were published 2 Preludes (°P- 39), dating from 1789; 7 Bagatelles, some of them as old as 1782, but one at least (No. 6) written within the last twelve months. Also the Eomance in G for Violin and Orchestra (op. 40), which was published this year, and 6 Sacred Songs (op. 48), dedicated to his Russian friend Count von Browne. And proofs at that date appear to have been formidable things, and to have required an extraordinary amount of vigilance and labour. Not only had the engravers' mistakes to be guarded against, and the obscurities of Beethoven's writing, but the publishers were occasionally composers and took on themselves to correct his heresies and soften his abruptnesses as they passed through their hands. Thus in the Sonata in G- (op. 31, No. 1), Nageli of Zurich interpolated four bars.2 Of course Beethoven discovered the addition on hearing Ries play from the proof, and his rage was naturally unbounded. The mistakes were corrected, and an amended proof was transmitted at once to Simrock of Bonn, who soon got out an ' Edition tres correcte';—but Nageli adhered to his own version of 3Beethoven's music, and editions are still issued containing the four redundant bars. It is needless to say that after Opus 31 he published no more for Beethoven. But even without such intentional errors, correcting in those days was hard work. 'My Quartets,' he* complains, 'are again published full of mistakes and errata great and small; they swarm like fish in the sea—innumerable.' The Quintet in C (op. 29), published by Breitkopf, was pirated by Artaria of Vienna, and being engraved from a very hasty copy was extraordinarily full of blunders.5 Beethoven adopted a very characteristic mode of revenge ; fifty copies had been struck off, which he offered Artaria to correct, but in doing so caused Ries to make the alterations with so strong a hand that the copies were quite unsaleable.6 It was an evil that never abated. In sending off the copies of the A minor Quartet twenty years later, he says, ' I have passed the whole forenoon to-day and yesterday afternoon in correcting these two pieces, and am quite hoarse with stamping and swearing'—and no wonder when the provocation was so great. The noble Sonatas, op. 31, to the first of which one of the above anecdotes refers, were unfortunate in more ways than one. They7 were promised to Nageli, but Caspar Beethoven by some blunder—whether for his own profit or his brother's does8 not appear—had sold them to a Leipsic house. The discovery enraged Beethoven, who hated any appearance of deceit in

his dealings ; he challenged his brother with the fact, and the quarrel actually proceeded to blows. Knowing how much Beethoven disliked his early works, it is difficult not to imagine that the appearanoe of the two boyish Preludes, op. 39, and of the Variations, op. 44 (1792 or 3), both published at Leipsic—was due to the interference of Caspar. A great event in 1803 was the production of ' The Mount of Olives,' his first vocal composition on a larger scale than a scena. The concert took place in the Theatre 'an der Wien' on April 5, and the programme included three new works—the Oratorio, the Symphony in D, and the Pianoforte Concerto in C minor, played by himself. Interesting accounts of the rehearsal (in which Prince Lichnowsky showed himself as friendly as ever) and of the 9performance will be found in Ries and Seyfried. Difficult as it is to conceive of such a thing, the Symphony appears to have been found too laboured by the critics, and not equal to the former one.10 The success of the Oratorio is shown by the fact that it was repeated three times (making four performances) by independent parties in the course of the next twelve months. The Sonata for Piano and Violin, now so well known aa the 'Kreutzer Sonata,' was first played on May 17, at the Augarten, at 8 a.m. There was a curious bombastic half-caste English violinplayer in Vienna at that time named Bridgetower. He had engaged Beethoven to write a sonata for their joint performance at his concert. Knowing Beethoven's reluctance to complete bespoken works, it is not surprising to find him behind time and Bridgetower clamouring loudly for his music. The Finale was easily attainable, having been written the year before for the Sonata in A (op. y>, No. 1), and the violin part of the first movement seems to have been ready a few days before the concert, though at the performance the pianoforte copy still remained almost a blank, with only an indication here and there. But the Variations were literally finished only at the last moment, and Bridgetower had to play them at sight from the blurred and blotted autograph of the composer. Beethoven's rendering of the Andante was so noble, pure, and chaste, as to cause a universal demand for an encore. A quarrel with Bridgetower caused the alteration of the dedication. Before Beethoven left town this year he made an arrangement to write an opera for Schikaneder, Mozart's old comrade, the manager of the Theatre ' an der Wien.' u Beyond the bare fact nothing is known12on the subject. It is possible that a M8. Trio preserved in the library of the ' Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde' at Vienna, and afterwards worked up into the duet in ' Fidelio,' is a portion of the proposed work, but this is mere conjecture. The arrangement was announced on June 29, and Beethoven had before

182 1

' See his letter (Dec. 20,1802) in Thayer, ii. 213. Between the 28th and 27tli bars from the end of the first movement. E.^'. that of HolleofWolfenbiittel. An equally gratuitous alteratiun Ills been made in the fonata E.*H. 179,180. < Ibid. 234. • In his journal I812-M8. Noli], Bit BeetUvcn-Feier (1871), p.55. * 'lhajer, ii. Wl; and Kies, p. 7U.

7

' Leonore ou l'araour conjugate, opera comique,' Feb. 19,1798. 8 ' Leonora ossia l'amore conjugate,' Dresden, Oct. 8,1804. » Letter to Artaria, June 1,180S. '» Thayer, ii. 281. u Ibid. 282. 123 Seyfrierl, p.22; also Czernj in Cacilia. See Thayer, 11. S5S. 1 See Hiller, in Macmilhtn't Magazine, July 1875; also the report of a conversation with Mendelssohn in Marx's Music of (he \9th century. A fragmeat of a sketch-book of Beethoren's in Mr. Joachim's possession

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together, and agreed aa well as two men of such strong character and open speech were likely to agree. Cherubini presented the composer of ' Fidelio' with a copy of the Mithode of the Conservatoire, and the scores of 'Meclee' and 'Faniska' are conspicuous in the sale catalogue of Beethoven's scanty library. * One proof that ' Fidelio' was complete before his return to town is afforded by the fact that he allowed others to hear it. On one occasion he played it to a select set of friends,2 when Hies (as already mentioned) was excluded; and thus — as he was shortly afterwards called to Bonn by the conscription—lost his chance of hearing the opera at all in its first shape. That Beethoven's voice in singing was ' detestable' 3 will not have diminished the interest of the trial. The work of rehearsing the music now began, and was evidently attended with enormous difficulties, especially in regard to the singers. They complained that their passages were unsingable, while Beethoven on his part was determined to make no alterations—and apparently none were made.4 With the band he fared little better. He even invokes his deafness as an assistance. Writing only two days before the first performance, he says,5 'Pray try to persuade Seyfried to conduct my opera to day, as I wish to see and hear it from a distance; in this way my patience will at least not be so severely tried by the rehearsal as when I am close enough to hear my music so bungled. I really do believe it is done on purpose. Of the wind I will say nothing, but •. All pp. cresc, all dearesc, and

gone through at the piano, and after a battle lasting from 7 till 1 in the morning, Beethoven was induced to sacrifice three entire numbers. It is characteristic of Beethoven that though furious and unpleasant to the very greatest degree while the struggle was going on, yet when once the decision was made he was in his most genial temper.8 The libretto was at once put into the hands of Stephen Breuning, by whom it was reduced to two acts and generally improved, and in this shortened form, and with the revised Overture known as 'Leonora No. 3,' it was again performed on March 29, 1806, but, owing to Beethoven's delays over the alterations, with only one band rehearsal. It was repeated on April 10, each time to fuller and more appreciative houses than before, and then, owing to a quarrel between Beethoven and Baron Braun, the intendant of the theatre, suddenly and finally withdrawn. Attempts were made to bring it out at Berlin, but they came to nothing, and this great work was then practically shelved for seven or eight years. It is an astonishing proof of the vigour and fertility of the mind of this extraordinary man that in the midst of all this work and worry he should have planned and partly carried out three of his greatest instrumental compositions. We have the assurance of Mr. Nottebohm9 that the Piano Concerto in G and the Symphony in C minor were both begun, and the two first movements of the latter composed, in 1805. The two last of the String Quartets, op. 59, appear to have been written during this winter—before that in F,10 which now stands first. There are many indications in his letters that his health was at this time anything but good, and the demands of society on him must have been great. Against them he could arm himself by such reflections as the following pencil" note in the margin of a sketch-book of this very date. ' Struggling as you are in the vortex of society, it is yet possible, notwithstanding all social hindrances, to write operas. Let your deafness be no longer a secreteven in your A r t ! ' On April 10, 1806, 'Fidelio' was performed for the last time; on May 25 u the marriage contract of Caspar Carl Beethoven with Johanna Reis was signed—harbinger of unexpected suffering for Ludwig—and on May 26 he began the scoring of the first of the three Quartets, which were afterwards dedicated to the Russian Ambassador, Count Rasoumoffsky, as op. 59. So says his own writing at the head of the autograph.13 These Quartets, the Russian airs in which it is natural to suppose were suggested by the Ambassador (a brother-in-law of Prince Lichnowsky), are another link in the chain of connection between the republican composer and the great Imperial court of Petersburg, which originated some of his noblest works. His favourite summer villages had been defiled by the French, and perhaps for this reason

all / . ff. may as well be struck out of my music, since not one of them is attended to. I lose all desire to write anything more if my music is to be so played.' And again,6 ' the whole business of the opera is the most distressing thing in the world.' The performance was fixed for Wednesday, Nov. 20. External events could hardly have been more unpropitious. The occupation of Ulm and Salzburg had been followed on Nov. 13 by the entry of the French army into Vienna. Bonaparte took up his quarters at Schbnbrunn; the Emperor of Austria, the chief nobility and other wealthy persons and patrons of music had deserted the town, and it was a conquered city tenanted by Frenchmen. It was in such circumstances that 'Fidelio, oder die eheliche Liebe' was produced. The opera was originally in 3 acts. It was performed on the 20th, 21st, and 22nd, and was then withdrawn by the composer.7 The overture on these occasions appears to have been that known as 'Leonora No. 2.' It was felt by Beethoven's friends that, in addition to the drawbacks of the French occupation and of the advanced character of the music, the opera was too long ; and a meeting was held at Prince Lichnowsky's house, when the whole work was contains the Trio in the ' Deux Journees' and a piece from the 1 Zaiibernote,' mixed up with bits of' Fidelio' and of the Finale of the j B flat Symphony. Thayer, Chron. Verzeichniss, pp. 180,181. 3 2 Kies, 102. Absriietilich J Czerny, in Thayer, ii. 202. • Schindler 0860), 1.135,138. » Letter to Meyer. « To Treitschke, in Schindler, i. 136. I Ereiming's letter of June 2,1S96.

8

185

See Roeckel's account of the whole transaction in Thayer, ii. £95. 9 Nottebohm, Catalogue, op. 67 and 68. u " Letter to Brunswick, Mayu11. Thayer, ii. 311. " Thayer, ii. 311. CololojlK, op. 59.

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

Beethoven did not pass the summer of 1806 at the usual spots, but went to the country-house of his friend Count Brunswick—whose sisters1 were also his great allies—in Hungary. Here he wrote the magnificent Sonata in F minor, than which nothing more impetuous, more poetical, or more enduring ever came from his pen. His letters may have been full of depression2 — but it vanished when he spoke in music, and all is force, elevation, and romance. In October he left Count Brunswick for the seat of Prince Lichnowsky, near Troppau, in Silesia, 40 miles N.E. of Olmtitz. The war was in full progress (Jena was fought on Oct. 16), and the Prince had several French officers quartered upon him. They were naturally anxious to hear Beethoven, but he refused to play to them ; and on being pressed by his host and playfully threatened with confinement to the house, a terrible scene took place—he made his escape, went off by night post to Vienna, and on his arrival at home was still so angry as to demolish a bust of the Prince in his possession. He brought back with him not only the Sonata just named, but the Pianoforte Concerto in G, the Symphony in B flat (No. 4), the Rasoumoffsky Quartets, and the 32 Variations in C minor. The Quartets were played frequently in MS. during the winter at private concerts, but the larger orchestral works were not heard till later. The Violin Concerto (op. 61) was first played by Clement—a well-known virtuoso, and at that time principal violin of the Theatre an der Wien—at his concert on Dec. 23, and there is evidence to show, what might have been assumed from Beethoven's habit of postponing bespoken works to the last, that it was written in a hurry, and Clement played his part without rehearsal, at sight. What chance can such great and difficult works, new in spirit and teeming with difficulties, have had of influencing the public when thus brought forward ? No wonder that the Concerto was seldom heard till revived by Joachim in our own time. The MS. shows that the solo part was the object of much thought and alteration by the composer— evidently after the performance.

organised for Beethoven's benefit, no donht to compensate him for his disappointment with the Opera, and was largely subscribed to. No programme of equal length was probably ever put together; it contained the 1st and 2nd Symphonies, the Eroica—hardly known as yet, and in itself a programme—and the new work—2^ hours of solid orchestral music without relief! A second performance of the Symphony was given at a public concert on Nov. 15. The overture to 'Coriolan' — a tragedy by Collin—must have occupied him during the opening of the year, since it is included with the new Symphony, the new Concertos for Violin and Piano, and the 3 String-quartets in a sale of copyrights for England,6 which Beethoven effected on April 20 to Clementi, who had for some years been at the head of a musical business in London. For these and an arrangement of the Violin Concerto for Piano (dedicated to the wife of Stephen von Breuning), Clementi paid £200 down, Beethoven binding himself to compose three new Sonatas for the sum of £bo more—a part of the bargain which was not carried out. Beethoven's finances were thus for the time flourishing, and he writes in high spirits on his prospects.7 Another overture belonging to this period is that in C, known as op. 138, and erroneously styled ' Leonora No. 1,' the fact being that it was written as ' a new Overture' for the production of 'Fidelio' in Prague in the spring of this year.' Another great work approaching completion during the summer was the Mass in C, which was written for Prince Esterhazy, Haydn's patron, and after considerable delay was first sung in the Chapel atEisenstadt on Sept. 13, the name-day of the Princess Marie of Esterhazy. Beethoven and his old rival Hummel—then the Prince's Chapelmaster— were both present. After the mass the Prince, perhaps puzzled at the style of the music, so different from that to which he was accustomed in his Chapel—hinted as much to Beethoven, in the strange question ' What have you been doing now?' Hummel overheard the remark, and probably amused at the naivete of the question (for Hummel can have found nothing to question in the music) unfortunately smiled. Beethoven saw the smile, misinterpreted it, and left the Palace in a fury. This occurrence possibly explains why the name of Esterhazy, to whom the mass is dedicated in Beethoven's autograph, is replaced by that of Prince Kinsky in the published copy (1812). The date of the C minor Symphony has not yet been conclusively ascertained, but there is good ground for believing that it and the Pastoral Symphony were completed, or at any rate much advanced, during this year, at Heiligenstadt and in the country between that and the Kahlenberg,s1 as Beethoven pointed out to Schindler in 1823 —the visit to Eisenstadt being probably undertaken for the sake of the Mass only.

186

The publications of 1806 consist of the Sonata in F, op 54 (April 9) ; a trio for two Violins and Viola (April 12), adapted from a trio3 for two Oboes and Cor Anglais, and afterwards numbered op. 87; the Andante in F (May) already mentioned as having been originally intended for the Waldstein Sonata; and lastly, on October 29, in time for the winter season, the Eroica Symphony, dedicated to Prince Lobkowitz. In addition to these an arrangement of the 2nd Symphony as a Pianoforte trio,4 by Beethoven's own hand, was published at Vienna. The first external musical event of 1807 was the performance of the new Symphony, No. 4, which took place before a very5 select audience in the middle or end of March. The concert was 1 ' Lieber, lieber Brunswick kiisse deine Schwester Therese.' letter. May 11. His favourite Sonata, op. 78, was dedicated to this lady. 2 Brcuninj^s letter of October, in Thayer, ii. 312, 3 Composed in or about 17!M. N"ttrbohm, tlaldlo'jue, op. 87. • £ . £ 1 1 . 90. 5 A. M. Z. ix. 400.

« Schindler, i.142. 7 To Brunswick, ' an elnem Ilaytlge.' Nohl, NtvrB Itrieft, No. '• 8 Nottebohm, Beelhovtiiiana, p. 70, etc. Schiildler, 1.153.

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

Of his activity in town during the winter there are more certain traces. A musical society of amateurs was formed, who held their concerts in the Hall of the Mehlgrube. At one of these, in December, the Eroica Symphony was performed, and the overture to Coriolan played for the first time. At another the B flat Symphony was performed for the second time, with immense appreciation. Beethoven himself conducted both of these concerts. December is also the date of a memorial to the directors of the Court Theatre, praying that he might be engaged at an annual salary of 2400florins,with benefit performances, to compose one grand opera and an operetta yearly— a memorial evidently not favourably received. The publications of 1807 are not numerous, they consist of the Sonata in F minor (op. 57), dedicated to Count Brunswick (Feb. 18), and since designated ' Appassionata' by 1Cranz of Hamburg ; the 32 Variations for Piano (April); and the Triple Concerto (op. 56), dedicated to Count Lobkowitz (July 1). 1808 opened with the publication of the overture to 'Coriolan' (op. 62), dedicated to the author of the tragedy, and the 3 new String-3 quartets (op. 59). There is reason to believe that Beethoven again passed the summer at Heiligenstadt, whence he returned to Vienna, bringing with him ready for performance the two Symphonies, C minor and Pastoral, the two Pianoforte Trios in D and E flat, and the Choral Fantasia, a work new not only in ideas and effects but also in form, and doubly important as the precursor of the Choral Symphony. It and the Symphonies were produced at a Concert given by Beethoven in the theatre an der Wien on Dec. 22. It was announced to consist of pieces of his own composition only, all performed in public for the first time. In addition to the three already mentioned the programme contained the Piano Concerto in G, played by himself ; two extracts from the Eisenstadt Mass; 3 'Ah! perfido'; and an extempore fantasia on the pianoforte. The result was unfortunate. In addition to the enormous length of the programme and the difficult character of the music the cold was intense and the theatre unwarmed. The performance appears to have been infamous, and in the Choral Fantasia there was actually a break down.4 The Concerto had been published in August, and was dedicated to Beethoven's new pupil and friend the Archduke Eodolph. It commemorates the acquisition of the most powerful and one of the best friends Beethoven ever possessed, for whom he showed to the end an unusual degree of regard and consideration, and is the first of a long series of great works which bear the Archduke's name. The Sonatina in G, the fine Sonata for Piano and Cello in A, and the Piano Fantasia inG minor—the last of less interest than usual—

complete the compositions of 1808, and the5 Pianoforte adaptation of the Violin Concerto, dedicated to Madame Breuning, closes the publications. Hitherto Beethoven had no settled income beyond that produced by actual labour, except the small annuity granted him since 1800 by Prince Lichnowsky. His works were all the property of the publishers, and it is natural that as his life advanced (he was now 39) and his aims in art grew vaster, the necessity of writing music for sale should have become more and more irksome. Just at this time, however, he received an invitation from Jerome Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, to fill the post of Maitre de Chapelle at Cassel, with a salary of 600 gold ducats (£300) per annum, and 150 ducats for travelling expenses, and with very easy duties. The first trace of this offer is found in a letter of his own, dated Nov. 1, 1808 ; but he never seems seriously to have entertained it except as a lever for obtaining an appointment under the Court of Austria. In fact the tune was hardly one in which a German could accept service under a French prince. Napoleon was at the height of his career of ambition and conquest, and Austria was at this very time making immense exertions for the increase of her army with a view to the war which broke out when the Austrians crossed the Inn on April 9. With this state of things imminent it is difficult to imagine that King Jerome's offer can have been seriously made or entertained. But it is easy to understand the consternation into which the possibility of Beethoven's removal from Vienna must have thrown his friends and the lovers of music in general, and the immediate result appears to have been an undertaking on the part of the Archduke Kodolph, Prince Lobkowitz, and Prince Kinsky, dated March I,1809, guaranteeing him an annual income of 4000 (paper)florins,payable half-yearly, until he should obtain a post of equal value in the Austrian dominions.6 He himself, however, naturally preferred the post of Imperial Kapellmeister under the Austrian Government, and with that view drew up a memorial,7 which however appears to have met with no success, even if it were ever presented. At this time, owing to the excessive issue of bank notes, the cash value of the paper florin had sunk from 2s. to a little over is., so that the income secured to Beethoven, though nominally £400, did not really amount to more than £210, with the probability of still further rapid depreciation. Meantime the work of publication went on apace, and in that respect 1809 is the most brilliant and astonishing year of Beethoven's life. He now for the first time entered into relations with the great firm of Breitkopf & Hartel, and the whole of this year's publications were issued by them. It is a splendid list. It begins with the 4th Symphony, dedicated to Count Oppersdorf, as op. 60, and the Violin Concerto, dedicated to Breuning, as op. 61. These were in

2 1 B.4H. 181. Schindler. s Keichardt in Schindler, i. 150 note; and see Beethoven's note to Zmeskall of ' Dec. 1808.' < On this occasion the Introduction to the Choral Fantasia was extemporised; it was not written down for 8 or 9 months later. Nottebolun, JV. B. No. V.

6 ' B. * H. No. 73. Schindler, i. 1R7. ' See ^ohl, Briefc, Xo. 48, 49, and Neue Itriefe, 41.

187

188

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March, and were followed in April by the C minor complete the compositions of 1809. Haydn had and Pastoral Symphonies (op. 67 and 68), dedi- gone to his rest on May 31, in the middle of the cated jointly to Prince Lobkovvitz and Count Austrian occupation, but we find no allusion to Basournoffsky, and by the Cello Sonata in A him in any of Beethoven's journals or letters. (op. 69), dedicated to the Baron von GleichenThe correspondence with Thomson of Edinstein, who with Zmeskall shared Beethoven's burgh, opened in 1806, was renewed this autumn. intimate friendship at this date; and these again It began with a letter from Thomson, sending 43 in October,1 by the two Pianoforte Trios (op. 70), airs, which was promptly answered by Beethoven, dedicated to the Countess Erdody, in whose and it lasted until Feb. 21, 1818, during which house Beethoven had been living since his rup- time Beethoven harmonised no less than 164 ture with 2Lichnowsky; and lastly on Nov. 22 3by national melodies. For these he received in all a Song, ' Als die Geliebte sich trennen wollte.' a sum of some £200.'° 1810 began with the return of the Archduke On May 12 the French again entered Vienna; on the 21st Aspern was fought, and Napoleon on Jan. 30, and11the completion of the Sonata. took possession of the island of Lobau, close to The sketch books show that the next few months the city. Wagram took place on July 6, and were occupied with the composition of the music the whole summer, till the peace of Schonbrunn to 'Egmont,' the String Quartet in F12minor, on Oct. 14, must have been a very disturbed Songs of Goethe's (including the Erl King, which, season for the inhabitants of Vienna. Beethoven's though well advanced, was never completed), and lodging being on the wall was much exposed to with the preliminary ideas of the BflatTrio. the firing. The noise disturbed him4 greatly, and The music to 'Egmont' was first performed on at least on one occasion he took refuge in the May 24, probably at some private house, as no in the theatrical chronicles. cellar of his brother's house in order to escape it. record of it survives He had his eyes open however to the proceedings It was in May13 that Beethoven had his first of the Trench, and astonished a visitor many interview with Bettina Brentano, then twentyyears5 afterwards with his recollections of the five years old, which gave rise to the three welltime. It is remarkable how little external known letters, the authenticity of which has events interfered with his powers of production. been so hotly disputed. Knowing Beethoven's As far as quality goes the Piano Concerto in extreme susceptibility it is not difficult to believe E flat and the String Quartet in the same key— that the letters are in the main genuine, though both of which bear the date 1809—are equal to some of the expressions have probably been any in the whole range of his works. The 6 tampered with. Beethoven's relation to the Variations in D (op. 76)—the theme afterwards Archduke, and his increasing reputation, were used for the March in the 'Kuins of Athens'— beginning l4to produce their natural result. He are not remarkable, but the Piano Sonata in Fjf complains that his retirement is at an end, and written in October is very so. Though not so that he is forced to go too much into society. serious as some, it is not surpassed for beauty He has taken up his summer quarter at Hetzenand charm by any of the immortal 33. It seems dorf as before, but the old seclusion is no longer to have been a special favourite of the author's. possible, he has to be in and out of Vienna at 'People are always talking of the C)J minor the season which he detested, and which hitherto Sonata,' said he once, 'but I have written better he had always devoted entirely to composition. things than that. The F ( Sonata is something That he was also at Baden in August is evident very different.'6 A more important (though not from some MS. pieces of military music, all15dated more delightful) Sonata had been begun on Baden, 1810, and one of them August. He May 14 to commemorate the departure of the seems to have had some prospect of marriage at allusion to it is that Archduke from Vienna on that day. It is dated this time, though the only and inscribed by Beethoven himself, and forms it has been broken off.16 Meantime this winter the first movement of that known as ' Les Adieux, was a busy one for the publishers of his music. l'Absence et le Retour.' Among the sketches The pianoforte arrangement of 'Fidelio,' as refor the Adieux is found a note7 ' Der Abschied vised for 1806 (without Overture or Finales), am 4ten Mai—gewidmet und aus dem Herzen was published by Breitkopf in October, and ifl geschrieben S. K. H.'—words which show that dedicated to the Archduke Bodolph. In Dethe parting really inspired Beethoven, and was cember the same firm issued the Quartet in El> not a mere accident for his genius to transmute, (op. 74), inscribed to Prince Lobkowitz, the Valike the four knocks in the Violin Concerto, or the riations in D (op. 76), the Fantasia in G minor, cook's question in the last Quartet. A March the Sonata in FJf — dedicated respectively to for a military band in F, composed for the Bohe- Count Brunswick, and his sister Therese—and mian Landwehr under Archduke Anton, and 3 the Sonatina " in G ; also earlier in the year the Songs—'L'amante impaziente' (op. 82, No. 4), Sestet for wind instruments (op. 71), and the ' Lied aus der Feme,'8 and ' Die laute Klage'9— Song 'Andenken' (No. 248). Another Sestet 1 2 3

See the A. 3f. Z. for Oct. 18. Sue the letter to Oppersdorf just cited, and Reichardt in Nohl, Leben, B.4H.Z15. * ^iiice the above was written Mr. Nottebohm has published an account of a sketch-book of IM/J. which shows a good deal of agitation. K. B. So. XXV. 5 Kochlitz. Fir Fretinde drr Timkuntt, iv. 353. 6 Thajer.il. 172. ? Nottebolun,S.B.So.\. 'B.4H.236. »Ibid.25t

» See the ample details in Thayer. Chrim. Ventiehnin. No. I'*-"!» Xottebohm, N. B. XXI. 1Z Ibid. Beilhovtniaua, XXIII.

» See Letter of Aug. 15.1812. Letter to Wegeler, May 2, and to ZmeskalL July 10. '5 Thayer. VerzeicJmies. No. 153,157. Letter of Breuning, in WeReler, Nachtrag, 14. " First sketched to C, as ' Souate facile.' N. B. XXV.

u

18

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189

(op. 81 5)—probably, like that just mentioned, an thus reduced to 800 florins, or £80, had not the early work — was issued by Simrock, and four Archduke and Prince Lobkowitz agreed to pay settings of Goethe's ' Sehnsucht,' with a few their share of the pension (1500 + 700 = 2 200 more songs by other publishers. The frequent florins) in Einlosungsscheine instead of bank notes. appearance of Goethe's name in the music of this Prince Kinsky would have done the same as to year is remarkable, and coupled with the allusion his 1800 florins, if his residence at Prague and in his letter to Bettina of Aug. n , implies that his sudden death (Nov. 13, 1812) had not prethe great poet was beginning to exercise that vented his giving the proper instructions. Beeinfluence on him which Beethoven described in thoven sued the Kinsky estate for his claim, and his interview with Rochlitz in 1823. succeeded after several years, many letters and The Trio in B flat was completed during the much heart-burning, in obtaining (Jan. 18, 1815) winter, and was written down in its finished a decree for 1200 florins Einlosimgsscheine per form between March 3 and 26, as the autograph annum ; and thefinalresult of the whole, according informs us with a particularity wanting in Bee- to Beethoven's own statement (in his letter to Ries thoven's earlier works, but becoming more fre- of March 8, 1816), is that his pension up to his quent in future. The Archduke (to whom it death was 3400florinsin Einlosungsscheine, which was ultimately inscribed) lost no time in making at that time were worth 1360 in silver, = £136, its acquaintance, and as no copyist was obtain- the Einlosungsscheine themselves having fallen to able, seems to have played it first from the auto- between £ and J-rd of their nominal value. graph.1 The principal compositions of 1811 were 1812 opens with a correspondence with Vathe muBic to two dramatic pieces written by renna, an official in Gratz, as to a concert for the Kotzebue, for the opening of a new theatre at poor, which puts Beethoven's benevolence in a Pesth, and entitled ' Hungary's first hero,' or strong light. He sends the 'Mount of Olives,' ' King Stephen,' and the ' Ruins of Athens.' the 'Choral Fantasia,' and an Overture as a The Introduction to the Choral Fantasia, which gift to the Institution for future use—promises may be taken as a representation of Beethoven's other (MS.) compositions, and absolutely declines improvisation, inasmuch as it was actually ex- all offer of remuneration. The theatre at Pesth temporised at the performance—was written down was opened on Feb. 9 with the music to the d propos to the publication of the work in July, ' Ruins of Athens' and ' King Stephen,' but and a Song 'An die Geliebte'2 is dated December there is no record of Beethoven himself having in the composer's own hand. been present. This again was to be a great year The publications of the year are all by Breit- in composition, and he was destined to repeat kopf, and include the Overture to ' Egmont' in the feat of 1808 by the production of a second February; the Piano Concerto in Et>, and the pair of Symphonies. In fact from memoranda the new pair, it appears Sonata in the same key (op. 81 a), in May and among the sketches for 5 July respectively, both dedicated to the Arch- that he contemplated writing three at the same duke ;—the Choral Fantasia (op. 80), dedicated time, and that the key of the third was already to the King of Bavaria (July), and the ' Mount settled in his mind—'Sinfonia in D moll—3te of Olives' (Nov.). The preparation of the last- Sinf.' However, this was postponed, and the named work for the press so long after its com- other two occupied him the greater part of the position must have involved much time and con- year. The autograph score of the first of the sideration. There is evidence that an additional two, that in A (No. 7), is dated May 13; so chorus was proposed ;3 and it is known that he that it may be assumed that it was finished bewas dissatisfied with the treatment of the prin- fore he left Vienna. The second—in F, No. 8— cipal character. A note to Treitschke (June 6) was not completed till October. His journey seems to show that Beethoven was contemplating4 this year was of unusual extent. 6 His health was an opera. The first mention of a metronome bad, and Malfatti, his physician, ordered him to try the baths of Bohemia—possibly after Baden occurs in a letter of this autumn. The depreciation in the value of paper money or some other of his usual resorts had failed to had gone on with fearful rapidity, and by the recruit him, as we find him in Vienna on July 4, end of 1810 the bank notes had fallen to less an unusually late date. Before his departure than i-ioth of their nominal value—i. e. a 5-florin there was a farewell meal, at which Count note was only worth half a florin in silver. The Brunswick, Stephen7 Breuning, Maelzel, and Finanz Patent of Feb. 20, 1811, attempted to others were present. Maelzel's metronome was remedy this by a truly disastrous measure—the approaching perfection, and Beethoven said goodabolition of the bank notes (Banco-zettel) as a bye to the inventor in a droll canon, which was8 legal tender, and the creation of a new paper sung at the table—he himself singing soprano currency called Einlosungsscheine, into which the —and afterwards worked up into the lovely bank notes were to be forcibly converted at 1 -5th Allegretto of the 8th Symphony. He went of their ostensible value, i.e. a 100-florin note by Prague to Toplitz, and9 Carlsbad—where he was exchangeable for a 2o-florin Einlosungsschein. notes the postilion's horn among the sketches Beethoven's income might possibly have been 'JW
accompanied it has not been preserved, but it was never acknowledged by the Prince, and " Schindler, 1.187. » Letters to Zmeakall. April 19, M. « See the note to Thayer, Ii. 313. The idea noted in his diary is«' Beethoven's droll note to Hummel (Nohl, Neve Bnefi, No. W shows that there was no quarrel between them.

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

Beethoven felt the neglect keenly. The work was produced at Drury Lane a year afterwards—Feb. 10, 1815, and had a great run, but this was through the exertions of Sir George Smart, who himself procured the copy from Vienna. Early in January 1814 a third concert was given in the great Eedoutensaal with the same programme and nearly the same performers as before, except that some numbers from the ' Ruins of Athens' were substituted for Maelzel's march ; and on the 27th Feb. a fourth, with similar programme and with the important addition of the Symphony in F—placed last but one in the list. The huge programme speaks of Beethoven himself as clearly as the two first did of the more practical Maelzel. The 7th Symphony was throughout a success, its Allegretto being repeated three times out of the four. But the 8th Symphony did not please, a fact which greatly discomposed Beethoven. On April 11 Beethoven played the Bb Trio at Schuppanzigh's benefit concert, and in the evening a Chorus of his to the words ' Germania, Gennania,' was sung as the finale to an operetta of Treitschke's, a propos to the fall of Paris (March 31). Moseheles was present at the conthe style cert, and gives1 an interesting account of of Beethoven's playing. Spohr heard2 the same trio, but under less favourable circumstances. A month later Beethoven again played the Bb trio—his last public appearance in chamber music. The spring of 1814 was remarkable for the revival of 'Fidelio.' Treitschke had been employed to revise the libretto, and in March we find Beethoven writing to him—' I have read your revision of the opera with great satisfaction. It hag decided me once more to rebuild the desolate ruins of an ancient fortress.' This decision involved the entire re-writing and re-arrangement of considerable portions ; others were slightly altered, and some pieces were reintroduced from the first score of all. The first performance took place at the Karnthnerthor Theatre on May 23. On the 26th the new Overture in E was first played, and other alterations were subsequently introduced. On July 18 the opera was played for Beethoven's benefit. A Pianoforte score, made by Moscheles under Beethoven's own direction,3 carefully revised by him, and dedicated to the Archduke, was published by Artaria in August. One friendly face must have been missed on all these occasions—that of the Prince Lichnowsky, who died on April 15.

a mere loan, while the other alleged it was for the purchase of the work. Maelzel had also engaged to make ear-trumpets for Beethoven, which were delayed, and in the end proved failures. The misunderstanding was aggravated by various statements of Maelzel, and by the interference of outsiders, and finally by Maelzel's departure through Germany to England, with an imperfect copy of the Battle Symphony clandestinely obtained. Such a complication was quite sufficient to worry and harass a sensitive, obstinate, and unbusinesslike man like Beethoven. He entered an action against Maelzel, and his deposition on the subject, and the letter 5 which he afterwards addressed to the artists of England, show how serious was his view of the harm done him, and the motives of the doer. Maelzel's case, on the other hand, is stated with evident animus by Beethoven's adherents,6 and it should not be overlooked that he and Beethoven appear to have continued friends after the immediate quarrel blew over. If to the opera and the Maelzel scandal we add the Kinsky lawsuit now in progress, and which Beethoven watched intently and wrote much about, we shall hardly wonder that he was not able to get out of town till long past his usual time. When at length he writes from Baden it is to announce the completion of the Sonata in E minor, which he dedicates to Count Moritz Lichnowsky. The letter7 gives a charming statement of his ideas of the relation of a musician to his patron. The triumphant success of the Symphony in A, and of the Battle-piece, and the equally successful revival of Fidelio, render 1814 the culminating period of Beethoven's life. His activity during the autumn and winter was very great; no bad health or worries or anything else external could hinder the astonishing flow of his inward energy. The Sonata is dated 'Vienna, 16th August,' and was therefore probably completed—as far as any music of his was ever completed till it was actually printed—before he left town. On Aug. 23 he commemorated the death of the wife of his kind friend Pasqualati in an 'Elegischer Gesang' (op. 118). On Oct. 4 he completed the Overture in C ('Namensfeier,' op. 115), a work on which he had been employed more or less for two years, and which has a double interest from the fact that8its themes seem to have been originally intended to form part of that composition of Schiller's ' Hymn to Joy' which he first contemplated when a boy at Bonn, and which keeps coming to the surface in different forms, until finally embodied in the 9th Symphony in 1823. Earlier in the year he had made some progress with a sixth Piano Concerto—in D—of which not only are extensive sketches in existence, but sixty pages in complete score. It was composed at the same time with the Cello 3Sonatas (op. 102); andfinallygave way to them. But there was a less congenial work to do—Vienna had

During the winter of 1814-15 an unfortunate misunderstanding arose between Beethoven and Maelzel. The Battle Symphony was originally written at the latter's suggestion for a mechanical instrument of his called the Panharmonicon, and was afterwards orchestrated by its author for the concert, with the view to a projected tour of Maelzel in England.1 Beethoven was at the time greatly in want of funds, and Maelzel advanced him £25, which he professed to regard as

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' Brie/e, Nos. 113,114. • The whole evidence will be given by Mr. Thayer in his forthcoming volume. He assures me that Maelzel has been much sinned against. Moscheles, Leben, i. 15. 8 7 Sept. 21, 1814. Nottebohm, Beeihoveniana, XIV. ' Spohr, SeWslbiog. i.203. He says it was a new Trio in D, but the 9 See Nottebohm, N.B. X; and Crystal Palnee Programme, Nov. 6 Trio in D had been out for five yeara. 1875. » See Moscheles, Lcbm, i. 17,18. « A. Jtt Z. 1814, p. 7L 1

192

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

been selected as the scene of the Congress, and 'July' and 'August'; the Chorus 'Es ist vollBeethoven was bound to seize the opportunity bracht,' as finale to a piece of Treitschke's, pronot only of performing his latest Symphonies, but duced to celebrate the entry into Paris (July i j); of composing some new music appropriate to so the ' Meeresstille und gliickliche Fahrt,' and a of Songs, 'Sehnsucht' and 'Das Geheimgreat an occasion.1 He selected in September2 a couple 8 Cantata by Weissenbach, entitled ' Die glorreiche niss' —are all the original works that can with Augenblick'—an unhappy choice, as 3it turned certainty be traced to this year. But the beautiout—composed it more quickly than was his ful and passionate Sonata in A (op. IOI), which wont, and included it with the Symphony in A, and was inspired by and dedicated to his dear friend the Battle of Vittoria, in a concert for his benefit Madame Ertmann—' Liebe werthe Dorothea Ceon Nov. 29. The manner in which this concert was cilia'—was probably composed at the end of this carried out gives a striking idea of the extraor- year, since it was played in public on Feb. 18, dinary position that Beethoven held in Vienna. 1816, though not published for a year after. The The two Halls of the Eedouten-Saal were placed national airs which he had in hand since 1810 for at his disposal for two evenings by the govern- Thomson of Edinburgh were valuable at such a ment, and he himself sent personal invitations time, since he could turn to these when his in his own name to the various sovereigns and thoughts were too much disturbed for original other notabilities collected in Vienna. The room composition—a parcel of Scotch Songs is dated was crowded with an audience of 6000 persons, May 1815. and Beethoven describes1 himself as 'quite exThe publications of 1815 are still fewer than hausted with fatigue, worry, pleasure, and de- the compositions. The Polonaise in C (op. 89)— light.' At a second performance on Dec. 2 the dedicated to the Empress of Russia,9 who had hall was less crowded. One of the fetes provided greatly distinguished Beethoven at one of Prince during the Congress was a tournament in the Rasoumoffsky's receptions—appeared in March; Riding School5 on Nov. 2 3, and for this Beethoven the Sonata op. 90, and a Song, 'Kriegers Abwould appear to have composed music, though schied,' in June. These are all. On June 1 he no trace of it has yet been found. During the wrote to Salomon, then resident in London, offercontinuance of the Congress he seems to have ing his works from op. 92 to 97 inclusive for sale, been much visited and noticed, and many droll with 'Fidelio,' the Vienna Cantata, and the scenes doubtless occurred between him and his Battle Symphony. And this is followed in Noexalted worshippers. The Archduke and Prince vember by letters to Birchall, sending various Rasoumoffsky, as Russian Ambassador, were pieces. Salomon died on Nov. 25. conspicuous among the givers of fetes, and it The second quarrel with Stephen Breuning was at the house of the latter that Beethoven must have occurred in 181510- Some one had was presented to the Empress of Russia. urged him to warn Beethoven against pecuniary In addition to the profit of the concerts Schind- relations with his brother Caspar, whose character ler implies that Beethoven received presents in money matters was not satisfactory. Breuning from the various foreign sovereigns in Vienna. conveyed the hint to Beethoven, and he, with The pecuniary result of the winter was therefore characteristic earnestness and simplicity, and good. He was able for the first time to lay by with that strange fondness for his unworthy money, which he invested in shares in the Bank brothers which amounted almost to a passion, of Austria.6 at once divulged to his brother not only the The news of Bonaparte's escape from Elba warning but the name of his informant. A broke up the Congress, and threw Europe again serious quarrel naturally ensued between Breuning into a state of perturbation. In Vienna the re- and Caspar, which soon spread to Beethoven action after the recent extra gaiety must have himself, and the result was that he and Breuning been great. Beethoven was himself occupied were again separated—this time for several years. during the year by the Kinsky lawsuit; his The letter in which Beethoven at last asks letters upon the subject to his advocate Kauka pardon of his old friend can hardly be omitted are many and long, and it is plain from such ex- from this11 sketch. Though undated it was written pressions as the following that it seriously in- in 1826. It contained his miniature painted by terrupted his music. ' I am again very tired, Hornemann in 1802, and ran as follows (the orighaving been forced to discuss many things with inal has Du and dein throughout) :— P—. Such things exhaust me more than the ' Beneath this portrait, dear Stephen, may all greatest efforts in composition. It is a new field, that has for so long gone on between us be for the soil of which I ought not to be required to till, ever hidden. I know how I have torn your heart. and which has cost me many tears and much sor- For this the emotion that you must certainly have row.' . . . . * Do 7not forget me, poor tormented noticed in me has been sufficient punishment. My creature that I am.' feeling towards you was not malice. No—I Under the circumstances it is not surprising should no longer be worthy of your friendship; that he composed little during 1815. The two J it was passionate love for you and myself; but I Sonatas for Piano and Cello (op. 102), dated doubted you dreadfully, for people came between Schindler, i. 19S. The glorious Moment. See Nottebohm, Catalogue, op. 136. Nottebohm, N. B. No. XII. « Letter to Archduke, Kbchel. p. SI. His note to the Archduke, Kbchel, p.29. « Schindler, 1. 202. To Kauka, Feb. 21, M i

8fe.* H . 239 and 245. » The Pianoforte arrangement of the Symphony in A is also dedicated to her. "' Schindler (i. 228) says 1817; but It is obvious that it happeflol before Caspar'3 death (Breuning, 46). H Schindler, i. 228; iL 128.

BEETHOVEN".

BEETHOVEST.

us who were unworthy of us both. My portrait has long been intended for you. I need not tell you that I never meant it for any one else. Who could I give it to with my warmest love so well as to you, true, good, noble Stephen? Forgive me for distressing you; I have suffered myself as much as you have. It was only when I had you no longer with me that I first really felt how dear you are and always will be to my heart. Come to my arms once more aa you used to do.' October was passed in Baden, chiefly in bed. On Nov. 15 of this year Caspar Carl Beethoven died—a truly unfortunate event for Ludwig. Caspar had for long received pecuniary assistance from his brother, and at his death he charged him with the maintenance of his son Carl, a lad between 8 and 9. This boy, whose charge Beethoven undertook with all the simplicity and fervour of his nature, though no doubt often with much want of judgment, was quite unworthy of his great uncle. The charge altered Beethoven's nature, weaned him from his music, embroiled him with his friends, embittered his existence with the worry of continued contentions and reiterated disappointments, and at last, directly or indirectly, brought the life of the great composer to an end long before its natural term. On Christmas Day, at a concert in the Redouten Saal for the benefit of the Burger Hospital, Beethoven produced his new Overture and Meeresstille, and performed the ' Mount of Olives.' As an acknowledgment for many similar services the municipal council had recently conferred upon him the freedom of the city—Ehrenburgerthum. It was the first public title that the great roturier had received. He was not even a Capellmeister, as both xMozart and Haydn had been, and his advocate was actually forced to invent that title for him, to procure the necessary respect for his memorials in the lawsuit which2 occupied so many of his years after this date. It is a curious evidence of the singular position he held among musicians. He was afterwards made a member of the Philharmonic Societies of Stockholm and Amsterdam, and received Orders from some of the Courts in exchange for his Mass, but the one title he valued was that of Ton-dichter—'Poet in music' 3 The resuscitation of his Oratorio is perhaps connected with a desire in Beethoven's mind to compose a fresh one. At any rate he was at this time in communication both with the Tonkiinstler Societat and the Gesellschaft der MusikFreunde of Vienna on the subject. By the latter body the matter was taken up in earnest. Subject and poet were left to himself, and a payment of 300 gold ducats was voted to him for the use of the oratorio for one year. The negotiation dragged on till 1824 and came to nothing, for the same ostensible reason that his second

Opera did, that no good libretto was forthcoming.4 1816 was a great year for publication. The Battle Symphony in March; the Violin Sonata and the Bb Trio (op. 96, 97)—both dedicated to the Archduke—in July; the 7th Symphony— dedicated to Count Fries, with a pianoforte arrangement, to the Empress of Russia; the String Quartet in F minor (op. 95)—to Zmeskall; and the beautiful Liederkreis (op. 98") to Prince Lobkowitz ; all three in December. These, with the 8th Symphony and three detached Songs, form a list rivalling, if not surpassing, that of 1809. The only compositions of this year are the Liederkreis (April), a Military March in D, 'for the Grand Parade' (Wachtparade), June 4, 1816;5 a couple of songs; and a trifle in the6 style of a birthday cantata for Prince Lobkowitz. This is the date of a strange temporary fancy for German in preference to Italian which took possession of him. Some of his earlier pieces contain German terms, as the Six Songs, op. 75, and the Sonata 81 a. They reappear in the Liederkre's (op. 98) and Merkenstein (op. 100) and come to a head in the Sonata op. 101, in which all the indications are given in German, and the word ' Hanrmerklavier' appears for 'Pianoforte' in the title. The7 change is the subject of two letters to Steiner. He continued to use the name 'Hammerklavier' in the sonatas op. 106, 109, and n o ; 8and there apparently this vernacular fit ceased. Beethoven had a violent dislike to his brother's widow, whom he called the 'Queen of Night,' and believed, rightly or wrongly, to be a person of bad conduct. He therefore lost no time in obtaining legal authority for taking his ward out of her hands and placing him with Giannatasio del Rio, the head of an educational institution in Vienna; allowing his mother to see him only once a month. This was done in February 1816, and the arrangement existed till towards the end of the year, when the widow appears to have appealed with success against the first decree. The cause had been before the Landreckts court, on the assumption that the ra» in Beethoven's name indicated nobility. This the widow disputed, and on Beethoven's being examined on the point he confirmed her argument by pointing successively to his head and his heart saying—'My nobility is here and here.' The case was then sent down to a lower court, where the magistrate was notoriously inefficient, and the result was to take the child from his uncle on the ground that his deafness unfitted him for the duties of a guardian. Carl's affairs were then put into the hands of an official, and all that Beethoven had to do was to pay for his education. Against this decree he entered an appeal which was finally decided in his favour,

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* See the very curious letter from Beethoven of Jan. 23,1824, in PoM"s pamphlet, GeseJtschaft, etc., 1871. 6 • B . J B . 15. See Thayer's Catalogue, No. 208. " Was haben Sie da ? • was the enquiry of the' privllegirte Bettlerin' '8 Briefe, Nos. 167,168. when the hearse drew up with Mozart's body at the gate of the Ceme2 The German comes out however when he is deeply moved, as in tery,' Ein Capellmeister' was the aaswer. Schindler, i. 262. 3 See Breuning, 101; and compare letter to Mile. Streicher, Brieje, t h e ' Bitte fur innern und aiissem Frieden,' and the ' Aengstlich' in the No. 200; and the use of the word ' gedichtet' in the title of the Over- ' Dona' of the Mass, the ' hekleinmt' in the Cavatina of the B flat Quartet, etc. ture Op. 115. 1

0

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

but not till Jan. 7,18 20. Meantime his energies were taken up with the contest and the various •worries and quarrels which arose out of it, involving the writing of a large number of long and serious letters. How he struggled and suffered the following entry in his diary of the early part of 1818 will show:—'Gott, Gott, mein Hort, mein Fels, o mein Alles, du siehst mein Inneres und weiist wie wehe mir es thut Jemanden leiden maehen miissen bei meinem guten Werke fur meinen theuren Karl. O hore stets UnausBprechlicher, hore mich—deinen ungliicklichen unglticklichsten aller Sterblichen.' Between the dates just mentioned, of the beginning and ending of the law-suits, he completed no orchestral music at all. Apart from sympathy for a great composer in distress, and annoyance at the painful and undignified figure which he so often presented, we have indeed no reason to complain of a period which produced 1 the three2 gigantic Pianoforte Sonatas, op. 106, op. 109, and op. no3—which were the net product of the period; but such works produce no adequate remuneration, and it is not difficult to understand that during the law-suit he must have been in very straitened circumstances, cheap as education and living were in Vienna at that date. His frequent letters to Eies and Birchall in London at this time urging his works on them for the English market are enough to prove the truth of this. One result of these negotiations was the purchase by the Philharmonic Society, through Mr. Neate, under minute of July 11, 1815, of the MS. overtures to the 'Ruins of Athens,' ' King Stephen' and op. 115, for 75 guineas. To make matters worse Prince Lobkowitz died on Dec. 16, 1816, and with him—notwithstanding that here too Beethoven appealed to the law — all benefit from that quarter ceased. His pension was therefore from that date diminished to about £110. The few compositions attributable to this period are an arrangement of his early C minor Trio (op. 1) as a String Quintet (op. 104) ; two sets of national airs with variations for Piano and Flute (op. 105 and 107), a few songs—'So oder so,' 'Abendlied,' 4and the Hymn of the Monks in 'William Tell' in memory of his old friend Krumpholz, who died May 2—and others. None of these can have been remunerative ; in fact some of them were certainly presented to the publishers.

forwarded to Beethoven's address. A letter ap. pears to have been written to him at the same time by Mr. Broadwood, which was answered by Beethoven immediately on its receipt. His letter has never been printed, and is here given exactly in his own strange French.6 ' A Monsieur Monsieur Thomas Broadvood a Londres (en Angleterre). Mon tres cher Ami Broadvood ! jamais je n'eprouvais pas un plus grand Plaisir de ce que me causa votre Annonce de I'arrive'e de cette Piano, avec qui vous m'honorez de m'en faire present; je regarderai come un Autel, ou je deposerai les plus belles offrandes de mon esprit au divine Apollon. Aussitot come je recevrai votre Excellent instrument, je vous enverrai d'en abord les Fruits de l'inspiration des premiers moments, que j'y passerai, pour vous servir d'un souvenir de moi a vous mon tres Cher B., et je ne souhaits ce que, qu'ils soient dignes de votre instrument. Mon cher Monsieur et ami recevfe ma plus grande consideration de votre ami et tres humble serviteur Louis van Beethoven. Vienne le y» du mois Fevrier 1818.' The instrument in course of time reached7 its destination, was unpacked by Streicher, and first tried by Mr. Cipriani Potter, at that time studying in Vienna. What the result of Beethoven's own trial of it was is not known. At any rate no further communication from him reached the Broadwoods. A correspondence however took place through Ries with the Philharmonic Society on the subject of his visiting England. The proposal of the Society was that he should come to London for the spring of 1818, bringing two new MS. Symphonies to be their property, and for which they were to give the sum of 300 guineas. He demanded 400,—150 to be in advance.8 However, other causes put an end to the plan, and on the 5th of the following March he writes to say that health has prevented his coming. He was soon to be effectually nailed to 9Vienna. In the summer of 1818 the Archduke had been appointed Archbishop of Olmtitz. Beethoven was then in the middle of his great Sonata in Bb (op. 106), and of another work more gigantic still; but he at once set to work with all his old energy on a grand Mass for the installation, which was fixed for March 20, 1820. The score was begun in the autumn of 1818, and the composition went on during the following year, uninterrupted by any other musical work, for the Bb Sonata was completed for press by March 1819, and the only other pieces attributable to that year are a short Canon for 3 Voices (' Gliick zum neuen Jahr'),

194

An incident of this date which gratified him much was the arrival of a piano from Broadwoods. Mr. Thomas Broadwood, the then head of the house, had recently made his acquaintance in Vienna, and the piano seems to have been the result of the impression produced on him by Beethoven. The Philharmonic Society are sometimes credited with the gift, but no resolution or minute to that effect exists in their records. The l.» "'cs of the firm, however, show that on Doc. 27, 1S17, the grand piano No. 7362 s was 1 Compo>«d 1'1*-1'>, and published >*-pt. 1819. t'Limjiused 1 l'.!-2n, published Nov. ]X21. ~ D&ud l>ec. 2.", 1.-21, aud published Aug. 1>22. ' B . i H . 224. 247. 2 .-.

2

6

The compass of this instrument was 6 octaves, from Cfivelines be-

low the Bass stave. A sister piano, No. 72f.2, of the same compass and quality, was made about the same time for the Princess Charlotte, and is now at Olaremont. The number of grand pianos {full and concert only) now (Feb. 187?) reached by the firm is 21,150. 6 This interesting autograph is in the possession of Mr, M. M. Uolloway, to whom I am indebted for its presence here. 7 The note from Broadwood's agent in Vienna which accompanied this letter shows that all freight and charges were paid by the giver of the piano. 8 LettertoRies.Tuly9,1817; and Hogarth's PJiiftannonic Society, P.M. » Schindler, i. 2CD.

BEETHOVEN.

BEETHOVEN.

and 10 Variations of National Airs (op. 107V The Sonata just referred to, the greatest work yet written for the piano, and not unjustly compared with the Ninth Symphony, belonged in a special sense to the Archduke. The first two movements were presented to him forl his Namsday; the whole work when published was dedicated to him, and the sketch of a piece for solo and chorus - exists in which the subject of the first Allegro is set to the words ' Vivat Rodolphus.' In addition the Archduke is said to have been able to play the Sonata. Beethoven may have hated his ' Dienstschaft,' but there is reason to believe that he was sincerely attached to his clever, sympathetic, imperial pupil. The summer and autumn of both 1818 and 19 were spent at Modling. His health at this time was excellent, and his devotion to the Mass extraordinary. Never had he been known to be so entirely abstracted from external things, so immersed in the struggle of composition. Schindler3 has well described a strange scene which occurred during the elaboration of the Credo—the house deserted by the servants, and denuded of every comfort; the master shut into his room, singing, shouting, stamping, as if in actual conflict of life and death over the fugue ' Et vitam venturi'; his sudden appearance wild, dishevelled, faint with toil and 24 hours fast! These were indeed 'drangvollen* TJmstanden'— wretched conditions—but they are the conditions which accompany the production of great 5works. During the whole of this time the letters show that his nephew occupied much of his thoughts. While6 at work on this sublime portion of the Mass just mentioned, he was inspired to write the beautiful Sonata in E major (op. ioo.\ the first of that unequalled trio which terminate that class of his compositions. It is hardly necessary to say that the Installation went by without Beethoven's Mass, which indeed was not completed till the beginning of 1822. He announces its termination on Feb. 27,' and the perfect copy of the score was delivered into his patron's hands on March 19, exactly two years after the day for which it was projected. As the vast work came to an end, his thoughts reverted to his darling pianoforte, and the dates of Dec. 25, 1821, and Jan. 13, 1822, are affixed to the two immortal and most affecting Sonatas, which vie with each other in grandeur, beauty, and pathos, as they close the roll of his large compositions for the instrument which he so dearly loved and so greatly ennobled. But neither Mass nor Sonatas were sufficient to absorb the energy of this most energetic and painstaking of musicians. The climax of his orchestral compositions had yet to be reached. We have seen that when engaged on his last pair of Symphonies in 1812, Beethoven contemplated a third, for which he had then fixed the

key of D minor. To this he returned before many years were over, and it was destined in the end to be the ' Ninth Symphony.' The very characteristic theme of the Scherzo actually occurs in the sketch-books as early as 1815,8 as the subject of a ' fugued piece,' though without the rhythm which now characterises it. But the practical beginning of the Symphony was made in 1817, when large portions of the first movement •—headed ' Zur Sinfonie in D,' and showing a considerable approach to the work as carried out— together with a further development of the subject of the Scherzo, are found in the sketch-books. There is also evidence9 that the Finale was at that time intended to be orchestral, and that the idea of connecting the ' Hymn of Joy' with his 9th Symto Beethoven. phony had not at that time occurred The sketches continue in 1818,10 more or less mixed up with those for the Sonata in Bb ; and, as if not satisfied with carrying on two such prodigious works together, Beethoven has left a note giving the scheme of a companion symphony which was to be choral in both the Adagio and Finale.11 Still, however, there is no mention of the 'Ode to Joy,' and the text proposed in the last case is ecclesiastical. We have seen how 1819, 1820, and 1821 were filled up. The summer and autumn of 1822 were spent at Baden, and were occupied with the Grand Overture in C (op. 122), for the opening of the Josephstadt Theatre at Vienna, whence it derives its title of ' Weihe des Hauses' —and the arrangement of a March and Chorus from the 'Ruins of Athens' for the same occasion, and was followed 12 by the revival of ' Fidelio' at the Karnthnerthor theatre in November. That the two symphonies were then occupying his mind—'each different from the other and from any of his former ones'—is evident from his conversation with Rochlitz in July 1822, when that earnest critic submitted to him Breitkopf's proposition for music to Faust.13 After the revival of ' Fidelio' he resumed the Symphony, and here for the first time Schiller's hymn appears in this connexion. Through the slimmer of 1823 it occupied him incessantly, with the exception of a few extras—the 33 Variations (op. 120), which were taken up almost as a jeu in D. D, C minor; in D (Serenade). 1 ditto Strings and Flute—in D 38 ditto for Piano Solo—in F minor, A, C; in Eb ; in C minor, F, (Serenade). 1>; in Cminor (Pathetique); in E, 1 ditto for Wind. 3 Duos for Wind-in C, F, Bb. G ; in B b ; in A b ; in E b, Cflmi1 Quintet for Piano aud Wind— nor ; in D ; in G, D minor, E b ; in G minor and G (both small); in U ID Eb. 1 Quartet forFiano and Strings- (Waldstein); in F ; in F minor after foregoing. S ditto (juvenile)— (Appassionata); if Fft; in G (Sonatina); in Eb (Adieux, etc.); in E i n E b . D , andC. « Trios for Piano and Strings—in minor; in A; in Bb (op. IOC); in Eb, G, C minor; in D, Eb ; in Eb ; E ; in Ab ; in *' minor. In Eb, F and D (early); in C (easy); in Bb tone movement); in Eb (ju- minor, 7 venile) : after Symphony in D; I | t and F (easy.). Variations in G; 14 ditto in E b . Variations for ditto, 21 sets—viz. 1 Trio for Piano, Clar., and Cello in fi in F ; 15 in Eb (Eroica); 6 in D Eb ; 1 ditto (after Septet) in Eb. (Turkish March); 32 in C minor; 10 Sonatas for Piano and Violin— 33 in C ; 15 in G (easy); and 15 more in D, A, E b ; in A minor; in F ; iu sets, containing 144 variations. A, C minor, G ; in A (Kreutzer); in 3 Sets of Bagatelles for ditto—7, . Paris. ]S70. Paris, Is44. Uistoriettes et Scenes mnsicales; Les soirees de 1'orchestre, l.cr>3. Les nmsiciens et la musique. Les grotesques de la musique; Advertised by M. Levy frAres in 18.T9. 1872, but not yet published. A travers chants; lbC2.

[ ,1 BERJIUDO, JUAN, born near Astorga in Spain about 1510, a Franciscan monk, author of 'Libro de la declaracion de instrumeritos.' Volume I. only has been printed (Ossuna, 1549). Soriano-Fuertes ('Historia de la Musica espanola') states that the original in four volumes is amony the MSS. in the National Library at Madrid. BERNACC'HI, ANTONIO, born at Bologna about 1690, is equally celebrated as a singer and as a master. During several years he received the instruction of Pistocchi, then the first singing-master in Italy, where there were at that time not a few; and to his care and skill, as well as to his own application, genius, and splendid soprano voice, the young Bernacchi owed his early superiority over all the other sin:.era of his day, and the title whicli he gained of ' II Ke dei cantatori.' Fetis says that he made his first appearance in 1722; but it is much more likely that he did this ten years earlier, for he was singing in London in 1716 in the opera 'Clearte,' and in Handel's 'Bi-

March 1756. (See FAKINELLI.)

[J. M.]

BERNARD, surnamed IL TEDESCO, 'the German,' is said to have been organist at the church of St. Mark at Venice in the last half of the 15th century, and to have invented organ pedals. The catalogue of the organists of St. Mark—given in von Winteifeld's 'Gabrieli'— contains the name of 'Bernardo di Stefanino Murer,' as liaving held the post from April 15, 1445, to Sept. 22, 1459. BERNARDI.

(See SENESINO.)

BERNASCONI, ANTONIA, was the daughter of a valet-de-chambre of the Prince of Wurtemburg, whose widow married Andrea Bernasconi,

235

BERNASCONI.

BEENSDOEF.

a music-master and composer. From him Antonia received such instruction as sufficed to develope her remarkable talents. She made her first appearance at Vienna, 1764, in 'Alceste,' which Gluck had written expressly for her. She afterwards sang at various Italian theatres, and in 1778 she appeared with Pacchierotti in 'Demofoonte,' a pasticcio, at the Opera in London. She was then a good musician, and a correct and skilful singer; but her voice was not powerful, and she was past her prime. She was a good actress, with but an indifferent figure In the next season she remained, condescending, as it v/as then esteemed, to take the part of 'first woman' in the comic opera, which she performed admirably. In 1770-71 she had sung at Milan the part of Aspasia in Mozart's early opera ' Mitridate.' She distrusted the powers of the boy to compose the airs for her, and requested to see what she was to sing, to which he instantly acceded. She made trial of a piece, and was charmed with it. Mozart then, piqued at her want of confidence, gave her another, and a third, leaving Bernasconi quite confounded with so rare a talent and so rich an imagination at years so tender. Shortly afterwards an enemy (Gasparini of Turin) called on her with the words of the libretto set to different music, and endeavoured to persuade her not to sing the music of the young Mozart. 'She absolutely refused this wicked person, being quite overjoyed at the airs the young maestro had written tor her, in which he consulted her inclination.'* The opera had a prodigious success. In 1783 Bernasconi was at Vienna, where she had settled, though not engaged at the Opera; but she gave a few performances of the ' Alceste' and 'Ifigenia in Tauride' of Gluck, and of a comic opera 'La Contadina in Corte,' which she had sung with success in London. [J. M.]

9, 1827. More details of his life will be found in the 'Hausfreund' for 1S27, No. 15. Among his numerous pupils, Adolph Hesse the celebrated organist, himself also departed, is one of the most remarkable. He left many compositions both for voices and instruments, but his didactic writings are more valuable—' Grundregeln des Gesanges' (1815), ' Theorie der Choral-zwischenspiel' (1819), ' Lehie von den musikalischen Interpunktion' (1821). Some of his songs are even now very popular, e.g. 'Deutschts Herz verzage nicht.' [F. G.] BERNHAED, CHRISTOPH, capellmeister at Dresden ; son of a poor sailor; born at Dantzic, 1612. He was so poor as to sing from door-to door to keep himself from starving. By a Dr. Strauch he was placed in the Gymnasium, where he studied music under BALTHAZAR ERBEN, and the organ under Paul Syfert. By the aid of the same benevolent individual he was enabled to visit Dresden with letters of recommendation to H. SOHUTZ the capellmeister. There his fine tenor voice so far attracted the notice of the Kurfiirst as to induce him to send Bernhard to Italy with the view of perfecting his singing. In Rome he became intimate with Carissimi, and excited the enthusiasm of the Italians by his compositions, amongst others a mass for ten voices. Afier returning with a party of young Italians to Dresden, he was enabled by the Kurfiirst to make a second journey to Italy. The Italians who had returned with him however intrigued against their benefactor, and at length compelled Bernhard to resign his post and take a canton-ihip at Hamburg: ten years later lie was recalled by the Kurtnrst Johann George III, and remained in Dresden as capellmeister till his death, Nov. 14, 1692. His facility in counterpoint was very remarkable, and some extraordinary instances of his ability in this direction may be found in his setting of the Latin hymn 'Prudentia Prudentiana' (,H,imburg, 1669) in triple counterpoint, as well as in other of hi3 works. [F. G.]

BEENEE,

FRIEDRICH WILHELM, born at

Breslau, March 16, 1780; pupil of his father the organist of the Elisabeth Church there, under whose tuition he made such rapid progress as to be appointed his assistant at thirteen years BEENHARD, WILHELM CHRISTOPH, remarkof age. Counterpoint and composition he learnt able as a first-rate player of the works of J. S. from Gehirnie, director of the choir at the BACH, both for organ and piano. Born at SaalMatthaus Church, and at the same time from feld about 1760 ; died at Moscow at the e:irly Eeichardt the cello, horn, bassoon, and clarinet, age of twenty-seven in the year 1787. [F. G.J which last instrument he played in the orchestra BEENSDOEF, EDUARD, born at Dessau of the theatre. The arrival of C. iVl. von Weber in Breslau to take the post of cnpellmeister roused March 25, 1825, a pupil of F. Schneider at Beiner to fresh exertions. Weber valued him Dessau and of A. B. Marx at Berlin; has lived as an excellent pianoforte and clarinet player. I for many years at Leipsic. • He has published In 1811 he and Schnabel were summoned to various songs and pieces for the piano, but is Berlin by Zelter to master the system of the chiefly known as editor of the ' Universal LexiSingakademie, with the view of esiablishing kon der Tonkunst' (3 vols., with supplement, similar institutions in Breslau and the rest of 1856), begun by von Schladebach—and also as Silesia, such being the wish of the Prussian a critic in the well-known musical periodical, government. Berner was also entrusted with the 'Signale.' Bernsdorf is a thorough conthe task of cataloguing the musical treasures servative, with a strong antipathy to all modern of the suppressed monasteries. In the middle efforts in music. Within his own predilections of all this activity he was seized with a long however he is a keen and intelligent critic, and serious illness which removed him on May though a certain severity of expression in his reports of the Leipsic concerts has brought on him the dislike of many musicians. [A. M.] 1 Leopold Slozarfs Letter.

EERSELLI.

BERTOLLI.

BERSELLI, MATTEO, a celebrated Italian tenor, who came to England with Senesino ; and with him made his first appearance in London in Buononcini's 'Astartus,' Nov. 19, 1720. He sang next in December of the same year, with Senesino again, in the 'Radamisto' (revival) of Handel; and in 17 21 he appeared in 'Muzio Scsevola,' joint work of Attilio, Buononcini, and Handel; in the 'Arsace' of Orlandini and Amadei; and in the anonymous ' L'Odio e L'Amore.' After that we lose sight of him. [J. M.]

but she then left that city, on account of political events. In 1807 she went to Munich, and sang before the court; and then visited Vienna a second time, where she found the same welcome as before. An engagement from Louis Buonaparte, king of Holland, now reached her: she accepted it, and went to the Hague. Receiving proposals from London and Paris, she preferred the former, whither she came about 1810-11. Here she was thought to have a pleasing voice and a good manner; but after giving satisfaction in one serious opera, ' Zaira,' in which her songs were written for her by her husband, she was less successful in a second; upon which she took to comic opera, and performed extremely well in Mozart's ' Cosi fan tutte,' which was admirably acted in every part, the other characters being filled by Collini, Cauvini, Tramezzani, and Naldi. She also sang in the 'Flauto Magico' and a revival of Guglielmi's beautiful' Sidagero.' Catalani, however, could not endure to be surrounded by so many good performers; and the situation consequently became so unpleasant that half the company, including Bertinotti, seceded to the Pantheon, taking with them, as ' best woman,' the celebrated Miss Stephens, who there made her debut. The licence being only for intermezzos, operas of one act, and dancing without ballets d'action, the performances were not very attractive, and soon ceased. The house then closed, and most of the troupe, among whom was Bertinotti, left this country. She now returned to Italy, visited Genoa, and was next engaged at the end of 1812 for the opera at Lisbon. In 1814 she returned to Bologna, being called thither on family matters, and while there received an offer from the Italian opera at Paris, which she accepted but was prevented from fulfilling by the return of Napoleon from Elba. She therefore settled at Bologna, where her husband, who had obtained a place as first violin and professor, was killed in 1823 by an accident, being thrown from a carriage. She now retired from the stage, but continued to teach singing, and formed several admirable pupils. She died at Bologna, Feb. 12, 1854. [J.M.]

236

BERTA, 6K THE GNOME OP THE HAKTZBEEG,

a romantic opera in 2 acts ; words by Edward Fitzball; music by Henry Smart. Produced at the Haymarket Theatre, May 26, 1855. BERTIN, LOUISE ANGELKJUE, born near Paris 1805, contralto singer, pianist, and composer. 'Le Loup Garou' (Paris, 1827) and 'Faust' (1831) were her most successful operas, though Victor Hugo himself adapted the libretto for her 'La Esmeralda' (1836). Mile. Bertin's imperfect studies account for the crudities and irregularities to be found in her writings among many evidences of genius. She died Ap. 26, 1877. BERTINI, GIUSEPPE, son of Salvatore Bertini, a musician at Palermo, born there about 1756; a composer of church music, and author of 'Dizionario . . . degli scrittori di musica' (Palermo, 1814), which, although largely borrowed from Choron and Fayolles, contains interesting original articles on Italian musicians. BERTINI, HENRI, born in London 1798, a pianist, the iast member of a musical family, which included the father, born at Tours 1750, and an elder brother BENOIT AUGUSTE, who was

a pupil of Clementi, and trained Henri after that master's method. At the age of tw elve his father took him for a successful concert-tour in Holland, the Netherlands, and Germany. He was for some time in England and Scotland, but in 18 21 settled finally in Paris. As a performer he excelled alike in phrasing and execution. His compositions (of which Fetis gives a complete list) were excellent for their time, but his chief work is an admirable course of studies. He died at Meylan, Oct. 1, 1876. BERTINOTTI, TERESA, born at Savigliano, Piedmont, in 1776. When she was only two years old her parents went to live at Naples. Here, at the age of four, she began the study of music, under the instruction of La Barbiera, a very original artist, of a type that is now nearly lost, even at Naples. At twelve the little Teresa made her first appearance, with other children, at the San Carlino theatre, with great eclat. As she grew older, she showed the promise of great beauty, and developed a fine style of singing. Obtaining engagements only too easily she sang at Florence, Venice, Milan, and Turin with prodigious success. In the latter town she married Felice Radicati, a violinist and composer of instrumental music; but she still kept to her maiden name on the stage. In 1805 she sang with brilliant success at Vienna for six months;

BERTOLDI, SIGNORA, announced July 2, 1729, among Handel's new company, as having ' a very fine treble voice,' was in reality the contralto BERTOLLI.

[J. M.]

BERTOLLI, FRANCESCA, who arrived in England about the end of September 1729, was a splendid contralto, and ' also a very genteel actress, both in men and women's parts.' She was one of the new company with which Handel opened the season of 1729-30, and appeared in 'Lotario' and the revival of 'Tolomeo,' and in 'Partenope,' Feb. 24, 1730. She sang again in 'Poro,' Feb. 2, 1731, with Senesino: this opera had a run of fifteen nights, at that time a great success. Bertolli took in it the part formerly sung by Merighi. She took part in the revivals of 'Rodelinda' and 'Rinaldo' in the same season, and in the new operas, ' Ezio' and ' Sosarme,' at the beginning of 1732. In this season she sang,

BERTOLLI.

BERTON.

237

mariage' and the above • named ' Dame invisible'—saw the light of the stage, and were favourably received. The excitement of the revolutionary period did not fail to leave its traces on Berton's works. His opera 'Les rigueurs du cloltre' owes its existence to this period. In it the individual merits and demerits of his style become noticeable for the first time—easy and natural melody, great simplicity and clearness of harmonic combinations, and skilful handling of stage effects; but a want of grandeur and true dramatic depth, and frequent slipshod structure of the ensembles. Amongst the masters of French comic opera Berton holds a respectable but not pre-eminent position. His power was not sufficient to inspire a whole organism with the breath of dramatic life. Hence his works have disappeared from the stage, although separate BERTON, HENRI MONTAN, one of those not pieces retain their popularity. unfrequent instances in the history of art where During the Eeign of Terror Berton had a hard a distinguished father is succeeded by a more struggle for existence. He even found diffidistinguished son. Pierre Montan Berton, the culty in procuring a libretto from one of the father, composed and adapted several operas, ordinary manufacturers of that article, and to and was known as an excellent conductor. He supply the want had to turn poet himself, held the position of chef d'orchestre at the opera although his literary culture was of the slightest in Paris when the feud of the Gluckists and order. The result was the opera ' Ponce de Piccinists began to rage, and is said to have Leon,' first performed with great success in acted as peacemaker between the hostile parties. 1794. Five years later (April 15, 1799) he proHis son HENRI was born at Paris in 1767. His duced his chef d'ceuvre, ' Montano et Stephanie,' talent seems to have been precocious; at six he a romantic opera, with words by Dejaure, the could read music at sight, and became a vio- librettist of Kreutzer's 'Lodoiska' and many linist in the orchestra of the opera when only other pieces. It is by far the most ambitious fifteen. His teachers of composition were Eey, piece of its composer, and the numerous ensembles a firm believer in Eameau's theoretical principles, were at first considered so formidable as to make and Sacchini, a prolific composer of Italian the possibility of execution doubtful. Some operas. But this instruction was never sys- of the songs—for instance, the beautiful air of tematic, a defect but too distinctly visible even Stephanie,' Oui, c'est domain que l'hymeneo'—are in the maturest scores of our composer. His still heard with delight. Edouard Monnais, in musical knowledge, and particularly his expe- his sketch entitled ' Histoire d'un chef d'ceuvre,' rience of dramatic effect, he mainly derived from has given a full account of the history of the the performances he witnessed. Hence the want work, founded partly on autobiographical fragof independent features in his style, which makes ments by the composer. Its success greatly it sometimes difficult to distinguish his work- advanced Berton's reputation, and freed him manship from that of other masters of the French from the difficulties of the moment. It must school. In 1782 he became deeply enamoured suffice to add the titles of a few of the most of Mdlle. Maillard, a celebrated singer, by whom celebrated of his numerous compositions:—' Le he had an illegitimate son FHANJOIS BERTON, Delire' (1799), 'Aline, ou la Eeine deGolconde' also a composer of some note, who died in (1803), ' Ninonchez Madame de Sevign^' (1807), 1832. This passionate attachment seems to and 'Francoise de Foix' (1809). He also wrote have awakened his latent creativeness. His first numerous operas in co-operation with Mehul, work was a comic opera, 'La dame invisible,' Spontini, Kreutzer, Boieldieu, and other conwritten about the tune referred to, but not temporary composers, besides several ballets. performed till four years later (Dec. 1787). It is said that the young composer being too shy Berton was for a long time Professor of Harto produce his work it was shown by Mdlle. mony at the Conservatoire; in 1807 he became Maillard to Sacchini, who at once recognised conductor at the Italian opera in Paris, and in Berton's talent. This led to the connection 1815 was made a member of the Institut. between the two musicians already alluded to. French and foreign decorations were not wantBerton made his public debut as a composer ing ; but he survived his fame, and the evening at the Concerts Spirituels, for which he wrote of his life was darkened. In 1828 he suffered several oratorios. One of these, ' Absalon,' was by the bankruptcy of the Opera Comique, to first performed with considerable success in which he had sold the right of performing his 17S6. Bu, he soon abandoned sacred music for works for an annuity of 3000 francs. Moreover the more congenial sphere of comic opera. In he could not reconcile himself to the new 1787 two dramatic works—'Les promesses de currents of public taste. Rossini's success filled him with anger—a feeling which he vented ia in English, the contralto music of ' Esther,' then performed first in public (April 20), and repeated six times during May; and she appeared in' Acia and Galatea,' sung partly in English and partly in Italian. In this same year she also performed in 'Flavio' and ' Alessandro' by Handel, and in Attilio's 'Coriolano.' In 1733 she played in 'Ottone,' 'Tolomeo,' and 'Orlando,' and in 'Deborah,' Handel's second English oratorio. She followed Senesino, however, when that singer left Handel, and joined the opposition at the Lincoln's Inn Theatre : she sang in ' Onorio' in 1734, and in Veracini's 'Adriano in Siria' in 1735, as well as in other pieces. In 1737 she returned to Handel, and sang in his ' Arminio,' Jan. 12, at Covent Garden; 'Giustino,'Feb. 16; 'Berenice,' May 12 ; and a revival of ' Partenope.' Her name never occurs again in the libretti of the time, and her after-history is unknown. [J. M.]

BERTON.

BESSEMS.

two pamphlets, 'De la Musique mecanique et dela Musique philosophique' (l 822), and ' Epttre a un celi'bre compositeur Francais, pr^cedee de quelques observations sur la Musique mecanique et la Musique philosophique' (1829). The celebrated composer is Boieldieu, who was by no means pleased with the dedication of a book so little in accordance with his own views. Berton survived all his children, and died as late as 1S42. [F. H.]

second symphony was finished in Leipsic in 1799. In 1817 he again travelled, but in 1819 returntd to Stockholm, and remained there as capellmeister till his death, April 3, 1868. His three daughters were singers of some repute. [F. G.]

238

BERTONI, FERDINANDO GIUSEPPE, bom at

Palo near Venice 1727, died at Desenzano near Brescia 1810, pupil of Padre Martini, and a celebrated composer in his time. In 1750 was appointed organist of St. Mark's, Venice, and seven years later choir-master at the Conservatorio ' dei Mendicanti,' which post he held till the suppression of the Conservatoires on the fall of the Republic in 1797- His first opera, 'Orazio e Curazio,' appeared in Venice (1746), but it was not till the production of 'Orfeo' (1776) that he attracted attention. He composed it to the libretto which Gluck had set, and the same singer, Guadagni, took the part of Orfeo in both opt ras. In 1778 Bertoni was summoned to London with his friend Pacchierotti, and brought out his ' Quinto Fabio,' which had been successfully produced at Padua in the same year, and was equally well received here, owing in great part to Pacchierotti's performance of the part of Fabio. Bertoni visited London again with Pacchierotti, but the rage for Sacchini made it difficult for any one else to gain a hearing, and he returned finally to Venice in 1784. In the following year, on the death of Galuppi, he succeeded him as conductor at St. Mark's, the most honourable and lucrative post then open to a musician in Italy. Burney (Hist, iv. 514, 541) describes him as a man of ability and taste, but no genius. His works (of which Fi'tis gives a list) comprise 33 operas and oratorios, besides instrumental compositions. Little of his music has been published. [M. C. C ]

BERWILLIBALD, GIORGTO GIACOMO, a Ger-

man singer in the service of His Serene Highness the Margrave of Brandenburgh-Anspach, was in London in 1716, singing in Nicolini's opera 'Clearte,' with Bernacehi, Nicolini, Schiavonetti, and other great artists. [J. M.j BESLER, SAMUEL, born at Brieg-on-theOder, Dec. 15, 1574 ; was in 1605 rector of the Gymnasium ' zum heiligen Geist' at Breslau, and died there, during an epidemic, July 19, 1625. The library of St. Bernhardinus at Breslau contains a vast collection of his compositions for the church, in which he was very prolific. Amongst them is a Passion after St. John, printed by Baumann at Breslau, 1621. [F. G.] BESOZZI, an Italian family of distinguished wind-instrument players. (1) ALESSANDRO, a very remarkable oboist; born at Parma in 1700, and died in the service of the King of Sardinia, at Turin, 1775. (2) His brother, ANTONIO, also a celebrated oboist; born at Parma 1707, and afterwards resided at Dresden. On the death of Alessandro he took his post at Turin, and died there in 1781. (3) Antonio's son CARLO, born at Dresden 1745, was also a renowned oboist. It is he, according to Fetis, whom Burney heard at Dresden, and of whom (ii. 27, 45) he gives so detailed and favourable an account, comparing him with Fischer. (4) A third brother, HlERONIMO, a famous bassoon player, born at Parma 1713, was the special associate of Alessandro. Burney's account of the two brothers, and his criticism on their remarkable duet performances, will always be read with interest (Present State, iii. 69). He died at Turin shortly after the death of Antonio. (5) GAETANO, the youngest of the four brothers, bom at Parma 1727, also an oboist, first at the Neapolitan and then at the French court, and lastly in London in 1793, where, notwithstanding his age, he was much admired for the certainty of his playing and its exquisite finish. (6) His son, HIERONIMO, played the same instrument as his father; Burney (iii. 24) heard him at the Concert Spirituel at Paris in 1770. He died in Paris as early as 1785, leaving however (7) a son who was flautist at the Opera Comique. (8) His son, Louis DESIRE, born at Versailles April 3, 1814, carried off many prizes of the Conservatoire, and in 1837 the Grand Prix de Rome. [F. G.]

BERTRAND, GUSTAVE, born at Paris Dec. 24, 1834, educated at the Ecole des Chartes, where he devoted himself to the study of ancient music and history of the organ. This learned and clever writer has contributed to Didot's ' Complement de l'Encyclopedie,' and has published many articles on music in 'Les Debats,' ' La Revue moderne,'' Le Nord,' ' Le Me'nestrel,' etc. His chief works are a pamphlet on Ancient Music (Didot, 1862); 'Les Nationality musicales, etudiees dans le drame lyrique' (1872); and ' De la reforme des Etudes du Chant au Conservatoire' (1871). M. Bertrand has original views as a critic, and fills the departBESSEMS, ANTOINE, violinist, born April 4, ment of musical archaeology in the ' Commissions des Travaux historiques.' [G. C] 1806; in his sixteenth year composed motets and church music, and in 1826 was a scholar of BERWALD, JOHANN FBIEDRICH, a violinist, Baillot's at the Conservatoire, Paris; in 1829 son of one of the chamber musicians of the King one of the first violins at the Theatre Italien. of Sweden, born at Stockholm July 23, 1796, After this he travelled, returned to Antwerp travelled as an infant prodigy, composed a sym- for a time, and finally settled in Paris aa a phony, and was famous in Russia, Poland, Austria, teacher. He composed much for the voice (both and Germany before he was ten years old. His solo and chorus) and for the violin. [F. G.]

BEST. BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS, was born at Car-

lisle (where his father was a solicitor), August 13, 1826. He received his first instruction in music from Young, organist of Carlisle Cathedral. He intended to follow the profession of a civil engineer and architect, but that pursuit proving distasteful he (when in Liverpool in 1840) determined to renew his musical studies, and devoted his attention to organ and pianoforte playing. The study of the organ was at that time greatly hindered by its defective construction, the unsuitable pedal compass, and the mode of tuning then in vogue, which rendered the performance of the works of the great organ composers almost an impossibility, whilst the number of professors practically acquainted with the works of Bach was then extremely small. Having determined on a rigid course of selfetudy, and fortunately obtaining the use of an organ of ameliorated construction, Best spent many years in perfecting himself in the art of organ-playing in all its branches. His first organ appointment was at Pembroke Chapel, Liverpool, in 1840; in 1847 he became organist of the church for the blind in that town, and in the following year organist to the Liverpool Philharmonic Society. In 1852 he came to London as organist of the Panopticon of Science and Art in Leicester Square, and of the church of St. Martin-iu-the-Fields, and in 1854 was appointed organist of Lincoln's Inn Chapel. He returned to Liverpool in 1855 on receiving the appointment of organist to St. George's Hall. In i860 he became organist of the parish church of Wallasey, Birkenhead, and in 1863 organist of Holy Trinity Church near Liverpool. In 1868 he was appointed organist of the Musical Society of Liverpool, and in 1872 was reappointed organist to the Liverpool Philharmonic Society. These last two appointments and that at St. George's Hall he still holds. Best has composed several church services, anthems, and hymns, many fugues, sonatas, and other pieces for the organ; ten pianoforte pieces, two overtures, and a march for orchestra. He is also the author of ' The Modern School for the Organ,' 1853, all the examples and studies in which are original, and 'The Art of Organ Playing,' the first and second parts published in 1870, but the third and fourth yet in MS. Best's arrangements for the organ are exceedingly numerous. [W. H. H.] BEUTLER, BENJAMIN, born at Miihlhausen near Erfurt 1792 ; died there 1837; a friend of Forkel, organist of the Marienkirche, and founder of a choral society for men's voices at Mtihlhausen (1830). He organised musical festivals in his native town, and established choral practice in the schools, publishing for their use a collection of ' Choral-melodieen fur das Miihlhausen Gesangbuch' (Miihlhausen, 1834). BEVIN, ELWAT, an eminent theoretical and practical musician, the date of whose birth is unknown. He was of Welsh extraction, and received his musical education under Tallis. Ac-

BEYEE.

239

cording to Wood (Ashmole MS. 8568, 106) he was organist of Bristol Cathedral in 1589. Hawkins says it was upon Tallis's recommendation that he was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel Royal, June 3, 1589. But this is an error—he was not admitted until June 3, 1605, at which period Tallis had been dead just upon twenty years. In 1637, on the Discovery that Bevin was of the Romish persuasion, he was expelled the chapel. At the same time he forfeited his situation at Bristol. AVood, who states this, refers to the chapter books of Bristol as his authority. His Service in D minor is printed in Barnard's ' Selected Church Mu>.ick,' and in Boyce's 'Cathedral Music,' and several anthems of his are extant in MS. But the work by which he is best known is his ' Brief and bhort Introduction to the Art of Musicke, to teach how to make Discant of all proportions that are in use : very necessary for all such as are desirous to attaine knowledge in the art, and may by practice, if they can sing, soone be able to compose three, four, and five parts, and also to compose all sorts of canons that are usuall, by these directions, of two or three parts in one upon the plain Song.' London, 1631, 4to. This treatise is dedicated to Dr. Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, to whom the author says he is 'bound for many favours.' What became of Bevin after his expulsion from his situations we have not ascertained. {Cheque Book of Chapel Royal, Camd. Soc.) [E. F. R.] BEXFIELD, WILLTAM RICHARD, MUS. DOC,

born at Norwich April 27, 1824, and became a chorister of the cathedral under Dr. Buck. After leaving the choir he applied himself to the study of music, in which, although almost self-taught, he attained to considerable skill. He obtained the situation of organist at Boston, Lincolnshire, and in 1846 graduated as Bachelor of Music at Oxford. He lectured on music, and on the death of Dr. Crotch in 1847 became a candidate for the professorship of music at Oxford. In February 1848 he left Boston for London en being appointed organist of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate Street. He proceeded Doctor of Music at Cambridge in 18.19. On Sept. 22, 1852, his oratorio 'Israel restored' was performed at Norwich Musical Festival. Dr. Bexfield died Oct. 29, 1853, at the early age of twenty-nine. A set of organ fugues and a collection of anthems by him were published—the latter posthumously. [W.H.H.] BEYER, FERDINAND, born 1803. A fair pianist and tolerable musician, whose reputation rests upon an enormous number of easy arrangements, transcriptions, potpourris, fantasias, divertissements, and the like, such as second-rate dillettanti and music-masters at ladies' schools are pleased to call amusing and instructive. Like publishers of books, music publishers too keep their ' hacks,' and in such capacity Beyer was for many years attached to the firm of Schott and Co. at Mayence, where he died on May 14,1863. [E. D.]

240

BIANCA.

BIBER.

BIANCA, OR THE BRAVO'S BRIDE, a ' grand His chief value to us resides in the fact that he legendary opera' in 4 acts; words by Palgrave was the master of Sir Henry Bishop. Bianchi Simpson; music by Balfe. Produced at Covent has been sometimes confounded with Bertoni, perhaps because of the connection of both with Garden, Thursday, Dec. 6, i860. [M. C. C] BIANCA E FALIERO, an opera by Rossini, Pacchierotti. produced at the Scala at Milan Dec. 26, 1819; BIANCHI, SlGNOKA, a good Italian singer one of Rossini's few failures. The subject is who came over with Tramezzani, and appeared the same with that of Manzoni's 'Conte di at the same time in Guglielmi's ' Sidagero.' She remained for some time as 'a respectable seCarmagnola.' [J. M.] BIANCHI, FRANCESCO, an Italian singer en- cond.' BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON, a gaged at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket in 1748, who sang in the ' Comedia in Comedia' celebrated German violin-player and composer, of Rinaldo da Capua, and other operas. [J. M.] born at Warthenberg in Bohemia about 1638, and died in 1698 at Salzburg, where he occupied BIANCHI, FRANCESCO, born at Cremona the double post of high steward and conductor 1752. In 1775 he was appointed 'Maestro al of music at the court of the Prince-Archbishop. Cembalo' to the Italian Opera in Paris under His reputation as a performer and composer was Piccinni, and there composed his first opera, very great, and the Emperor Leopold was so 'La Reduction de Paris.' In 1780 he produced delighted with him that he not only presented ' Castore e Polluce' at Florence, with the him with a gold chain and a considerable sum English Storace as the prima donna. This of money, but also raised him to the rank of a successful opera was rapidly followed by many nobleman. We, who have to form our estimate others. In 1784 he was made vice-conductor of Biber's merits and of his place in the history at S. Ambrogio in Milan, and held an im- of violin-playing from those of his compositions portant post at the Scala. A curious story which have come down to us, may well contend is told of his 'Desertore Francese.' The hero that his is the first German violin music of any (Pacchierotti) appeared in the uniform of a artistic worth at all. At that period the art of French soldier, which so scandalised the classic violin playing and the style of composing for Venetians that they hissed the opera off the the instrument in Germany were entirely under stage. Fortunately however the Duchess of the influence of Italy. Unfortunately the earliest Courland passing through Venice expressed a German violinists appear to be more connected desire to hear it, and courtesy having compelled with Farina and his school than with Vitali, the audience to keep silence, the niusic so en- Torelli, and Veracini. Thus we find the works of chanted them that the objectionable costume J. J. WALTHER (see that name), a contemporary was forgotten, and the opera obtained an ex- of Biber, who enjoyed a great reputation in Gerceptional success. Some years later, Joseph I I many, chiefly consisting, like those of Farina, of offered to take Bianchi into his service, but died unconnected phrases, equally void of musical ideas (1790) before the latter could reach Vienna. In and form, apparently invented to show off the per1793 Bianchi came to London, having been offered former's skill in execution, and often only devoted an engagement at the King's Theatre on account to crude and childish imitation of natural sounds. of the success of his ' Semiramide,' in which the Although Biber can not be pronounced free from famous Banti was prima donna. This engage- the faults of his German contemporaries—since ment lasted for seven years. In the intervals his forms are often vague and his ideas someof the London season he made short tours abroad, what aphoristic—still his sonatas contain some and in one of these composed his ' Inez de Castro' pieces which not only exhibit a well-defined at Naples (1794) for Mrs. Billington's first ap- form, but also contain fine and deeply-felt ideas, pearance on the Italian stage. Haydn's diary and a style which, though nearly related to that contains a favourable account of Bianchi's ' Acige of the best Italians of his time, has something e Galatea,' which he heard in London in 1794, characteristically German in its grave and pabut he considered the accompaniments too power- thetic severity. Altogether Biber represents an ful for the voices. Haydn is also said to have immense progress in the art of violin-playing in kept one page in Bianchi's compositions turned Germany. That his powers of execution were down for reference when anything had ruffled very considerable we must conclude from his his temper. In 1800 he married Miss Jackson, mode of writing for the violin, which presupposes a singer, best known as Mrs. Bianchi Lacy— great proficiency in the playing of double stops her name by her second marriage. From this as well as dexterity in bowing. It is also worth time he was chiefly occupied in teaching till notice that he appears to have been the first his death, by his own hand, at his house in occasionally to modify the usual way of tuning Hammersmith (1810). His tombstone is in the instrument. In two of his sonatas the violin Kensington churchyard. Bianchi composed above must be tuned thus :— fifty operas and oratorios, besides instrumental music. He was also the author of a work on the theory of music, portions of which are and thus:— printed in Bacon's ' Musical Quarterly Review' (ii. 22). Enough has been said to show the The following compositions of his have been estimation of Bianchi by his contemporaries. published:—(1) Six sonatas for violin with figured

BIBER.

241

BILHON.

bass; Salzburg, 1681. (The sixth of these was | performances of Handel's 'Giulio Cesare.' He recently edited by F. David in his ' Hohe Schule only remained here one year. [J- M.] desViolinspiels.') (2) Fidiciniuin sacro-profanum, 1 BIGOT, MARIE (nee Kiene), born at Colmar, a set of twelve sonatas in four and five parts; Niirnberg no date. (3) Harmonia artificiosa, a Alsace, March 3, 1786; in 1804 married Mr. collection of seven partitas or suites for three Bigot, librarian to Count Rasumoffsky, and him to Vienna. Here she made instruments; Niirnberg, no date. (4) A set of accompanied acquaintance of Haydn, Salieri, and Beesonatas ; Salzburg, 1676. (5) Vesperae longiores the and found much enjoyment in their ac breviores for 4 voices, 2 violins, 2 violas, and thoven, society. The first time she played to Haydn 3 trombones ad libitum ; Salzburg, 1693. There (then 72 or 73) the old man was so delighted is also a 'Dramma Musicals' of his in MS. in as to embrace her, and to say ' My dear child, the museum at Salzburg. that music is not mine; it is yours!' and on An engraved portrait of him at the age of the book from which she had been playing he thirty-six is extant. [P. D.] wrote '20th Feb. 1805: this day has Joseph BIBL, ANDREAS, born at Vienna April 8, Haydn been happy.' Beethoven also, after she 1797; and from 1818 organist at S.Stephen's. had played to him a sonata of his own, is reported He came to the cathedral in Albrechtsberger's to have said ' that is not exactly the read, ng I time as a singing boy, and learned organ-playing should have given ; but go on, if it is not quite and composition from Josef Preindl. His style myself, it is something better.' These anecdotes of playing was noble, and his compositions are are given by Fetis, who may be presumed to clear and thoroughly church-like in character. have heard them from Madame Bigot herself. On He published preludes and fugues for the organ May I, 1805, she played at the opening concert (Diabelli and Haslinger). His son RUDOLPH, of the Augarten, and the report of the ' Allg. born Jan. 6, 1832, studied under Seuhter, and musik. Zeitung' characterises her playing as became organist at the cathedral 1859 and at pleasing and often delicate and refined—a verthe imperial chapel 1863. His playing was that dict which hardly bears out the expressions of a sound musician, and his compositions for attributed to Haydn and Beethoven. A letter church and chamber, many of them still in of Beethoven's, however, first published by Otto MS., show that he knew how to keep pace Jahn andu reprinted by Thayer ('Beethoven.' with the times. [C. F. P.] ii. 337), P ts his relations to her family beyond doubt; and there is no reason to disbelieve the BIEREY, GOTTLOB BENEDICT, born at Dres- picturesque anecdote related by Nohl (Beethoven, den July 25, 1772, and instructed in music by ii. 246) of her having played the ' Sonata apWBINLIG. His opera 'Wladimir' was produced passionata' at sight from the autograph. at Vienna in 1807 with much applause. This In 1809 the Bigots went to Paris. Here she success procured him the post of capellmeister in Breslau, vacated by C. M. von WEBEB, and in became intimate with Baillot, Lamarre, Cheru1824 the direction of the theatre itself. On May bini, and all the great musical characters. She 5, 1840, he died of a chest complaint at his played the music of Beethoven and Mozart with country house near Breslau. Comic opera, or the two former both in public and private, cud rather the 'Singspiel,'was the sphere in which was highly valued by Cramer, Dussek, and Clehe mostly distinguished himself. Forty of his menti. The war of 1812, however, put a rude operas, great and small, are extant, and of these stop to this happiness ; Bigot was taken prisoner the following are printed with pianoforte arrange- at Milan, lost his post at Count Rasumorfsky's, ment :—' Blumenmadchen' (1802) ; ' Wladimir' and his wife was thrown on her own resources. (1807); 'Der Betrogene Betru'ger'; 'DieSchwei- She accordingly began to give lessons, but the zer Schaferin'; 'Der Zufall,' 'Elias Ripsraps' exertion interfered with her health. She died (Breslau, 1810, much success); 'Die PantofTeln' at Paris fc'ept 16, 1820. Before her death (Vienna, 1810); 'DerZank.' [F. G.] however she had the honour of giving pianoforte lessons to Felix Mendelssohn during a short BIFARIA. A name affixed to a quick move- visit to Paris in 1816 (his 7th year). He refers ment in 3-bar rhythm in an 'Invention' or suite to her in a letter of Dec. 20, 1831, and the ascribed to J. S. Bach. (See Peters' ' Thematic warmth of his attachment to her family may be Catalogue,' Anhang i. series 3). The name seen from another letter of Feb. 24, 1838, to suggests the Pifara, but there is nothing in the Madame Kiene ('Goethe and Mendelssohn,' 2nd ed. p. 136), which shews • that Mr. Bigot was piece itself like pipe-music. still alive, and that the relations between Madame _Presto 1 J. s~lp Bigot's family and the great French musicians were still maintained. [F. G.] BILHON, JEAN DE, a French composer, contemporary with Josquin des Pres. Some of his masses, founded, as usual at the time, upon the themes of old French chansons, are BIGONSI, or BIGONZI, an Italian contralto, preserved in the Pontifical Chapel, where he was •who sang in London in 1724 in Attilio's ' Vespa1 According to the AllB. musik. Zeitung, Bigot de Morognra. siano,' Buononcini's 'Calfurnia,' and the first

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BILHON.

BIND.

for some time a singer. Other compositions of his are to be found in various collections of church music published between the years 1534 and 1544 at Paris and Leyden. [J. E. S. B.]

managers of Drury Lane and Covent Garden competing for her services it was arranged that she should perform at each house alternately, and she accordingly appeared at Covent Garden Theatre on Oct. 3, 1801. as Mandane in Arne's 'Artaxerxes,' still retaining the name of Billing, ton. From this time her services were in constant request at the Italian Opera, the theatres, the Concert of Ancient Music, the Vocal Concerts,, the provincial festivals, etc., until 1809, when she retired from public life. During this part of her career two memorable events took place, viz. her singing with Banti in Nasolini's opera ' Merope,' and her performance in a duet with Mara on the latter's last appearance. Once afterwards Mrs. Billington quitted her retirement to perform at a concert given in Whitehall Chapel on June 28, 1814, in aid of the sufferers by the war in Germany. In 1817 she was reconciled to her husband, and quitted England with him for her estate of St. Artien near Venice, where she died after a week's illness August 28,1818. Mrs. Billington's compass was extensive (three octaves from A to A in altissimo), the upper notes being exquisitely beautiful. She excelled in passages of execution, but her powers of expression were limited. Sir Joshua Eeynolds painted a fine portrait of her as St. Cecilia. [W. H. H.]

BILLINGTON, MRS. ELIZABETH, was the

daughter of Carl Weichsel, a native of Freiberg in Saxony, and principal clarinet at the King's Theatre. Her mother was for several years a favourite singer at Vauxhall Gardens and elsewhere. The date of Mrs. Billington's birth is variously stated, but it was most probably 1768. She and her brother Carl were from the earliest possible moment trained to music, and on March 10, 1774, performed on the pianoforte and violin at their mother's benefit concert at the Haymarket Theatre. Such was Miss Weichsel's progress that before she had completed her eleventh year two sets of pianoforte sonatas from her pen had been given to the world. At fourteen years old she appeared as a singer at Oxford, and at sixteen became the wife of James Billington, a double bass player. Immediately after their marriage they went to Dublin, where Mrs. Billington commenced her career as a stage singer in the opera of 'Orpheus and Eurydice.' On her return to London she obtained a trial engagement of twelve nights at Covent Garden, where she appeared Feb. 13, 1786, as Eosetta in 'Love in a Village.' Her success was such that the managers immediately engaged her for the remainder of the season at a large salary. She speedily attained a position at the Concert of Ancient Music, where she disputed with Mara for supremacy. Mrs. Billington remained in England until 1794, when she went with her husband and brother to Italy. Their intention was to travel solely for amusement, but at Naples Sir William Hamilton, the English ambassador, induced Mrs. Billington and her brother to perform in private before the king, who immediately prevailed on Mrd. Billington to sing in public at the San Carlo Theatre. Accordingly in May, 1794, she made her appearance there in Francesco Bianchi's opera 'Inez di Castro,' written expressly for her. Her success was complete, but her triumph was suddenly interrupted by the melancholy death of her husband, who, as they were about to set out for the theatre for her second performance, was stricken by apoplexy, and almost immediately expired. An eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurring about the same time was by the superstitious Neapolitans attributed to permission having been given to a heretic to perform at the San Carlo, and fears were entertained for Mrs. Billington's safety. However, on renewing her performances she experienced the most favourable reception, and Bung successively in operas composed for her by Paisiello, Paer, and Himmel. In 1796 she went to Venice, where, being attacked by illness, she performed only once. She and her brother next visited Eome, and all the principal places in Italy. In 1798 she married a M. Felissent,fromwhom however she soon separated. In 1801 she returned to England, and the

BILLINGTON, THOMAS (who is sometimes erroneously called the husband, but was probably the brother-in-law, of Elizabeth Billington), was a harpist, pianist, and composer in the latter part of the 18th century. He published a church service for three voices; Pope's ' Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady'; Pope's ' Eloisa to Abelard' (partly compiled); twentyfour ballads to Shenstone's Pastorals; Prior's •Garland'; Petrarch's 'Laura'; and 'Laura's Wedding-day,' besides other pieces. [W. H. H.] BINCHOIS, EGIDIUS, contemporary with Dufay and our own Dunstable in the first half of the 15th century. His reputation rests chiefly upon the honour in which his name was held by his successors, but of late years two manuscripts have been brought to light containing chansons and motets of his composition. [J. B. S. B.] BIND (Ger. Bindebogen ; Fr. Liaison; Ital. Legatura). A curved line (also called tie) placed between two notes of the same degree, to denote the continuance of the sound during the value of both, instead of the repercussion of the second note. The employment of the bind is a necessity whenever a sound is required to be of a duration which cannot be expressed by any single note, as for example five or seven quavers (Ex. 1), and it is also convenient, and in modern music invariably adopted, when the duration of a note extends beyond the limits of the bar (Ex. 2). This is, however, an improvement of comparatively recent date, such passages having been formerly written in the inconvenient form shown in Ex. 3. -1 r-

BIRMINGHAM FESTIVAL.

BIND.

It is difficult to ascertain with anything like certainty the precise date of the invention of the bind, but it appears probable that it had its origin in the endeavours which were continually made by the earlier composers (before the 15th century) to give rhythmic variety to their counterpoint. Morley (Practical Music, 1597) describes two kinds of counterpoint, which he calls 'long and short' and 'short and long,' in each of which a single note alternates with two notes bound together, the sign of the bind being formed thus ——, as in Ex. 4 ; and the fourth of the five orders of counterpoint established by Fux (1725), and adopted by all his successors, consists of syncopation—that is, of a non-accented note bound to the accented note of the next bar

(Ex. s).

4. Short and long.

243

the protection of Cardinal Olivieri, he astonished the violinists by his performance,, especially Montanari, the chief violin-player of the time at Rome, who was generally believed to have died of mortification at the superiority of Bini's talents. Hearing that Tartini had changed his style of playing, he returned to Padua and placed himself for another year under his old master; at the end of which time he is said to have played with wonderful certainty and expression. After his return to Rome Tartini recommended Mr. Wiseman, his English friend, to Bini in the following words, which speak as highly for master as for scholar :—' Io lo mando a un mio scolare che suona piii di me, e me ne glorio per essere un angelo di costume e religioso'—'I recommend him to a scholar who plays better than myself, and I am proud of it, as he is an angel in religion and morals'. [E. H. D.] BIONI, ANTONIO, born in Venice 1700, a dramatic composer, pupil of Giovanni Porta, produced his first opera 'Climene' in 1721, his next, 'Udine,' 1722, and during the next nine years 24 more, of which 'Endimione' (1727) had the highest reputation. In 1730 he became director of the Italian theatre at Breslau, in 1731 the Elector of Mayence appointed him his chamber - composer, and in 1733 he probably returned to Italy. He conducted the performance of his 'Girita' at Vienna in 1738, which is the last fact known of him. Fe'tis gives a list of his works. [M. C. C ] BIRCHALL, ROBEET, music-publisher, etc.,

Long and short.

inn • * = • « - ,

mA curved line similar to the bind, but placed between two notes of different names, denotes the slur or legato, and the possibility of confusion resulting from this resemblance induced Sir Sterndale Bennett to introduce a new sign for the bind, consisting of a rectilinear bracket, thus 1 1 ; he appears, however, to have thought, the innovation not worth preserving, as he only employed it for a time in his op. 33 to 37, recurring afterwards to the usual curved line. [F. T.] BINI, PASQUALINO, violinist. Born at Pesaro (Rossini's native place) about 1720. He was a favourite pupil of Tartini, to whom he was recommended at the age of fifteen by Cardinal Olivieri. Under Tartini he practised with such diligence that in three or four years time he overcame the chief difficulties of his master's music, and played it with greater force than the composer himself. On returning to Koine, under

said to have been apprenticed to Randall, the successor of Walsh, established a musical circulating library about 1784, prior to which he had been associated in business with Beardmore and also with Andrewes, successively at 129, 133 & 140 New Bond Street. He managed the celebrated series of Antient Concerts and most of the Benefit Concerts of those golden days. Birchall published many of Beethoven's works, including the original English editions of ' The Battle Symphony,' dedicated to the Prince Regent, in 1816, the Sonata op. 96, the Trio op. 97, an adaptation for the Pianoforte of Symphony No. 7—the copyrights of which he purchased from the composer. Beethoven's letters arranging for these, in queer English, and still queerer French, will be found in Nohl's two collections, Briefe, and Neue Briefe. After amassing a large fortune Birchall died in 1819, and was succeeded by Lonsdale & Mills. Mr. Samuel Chappell, the founder of the well-known firm at 50 New Bond Street, was originally at Birchall's. The catalogue of the house contains the celebrated collections formed by Latrobe, Mozart's operas, and an immense collection of standard works by the greatest composers and performers of the day. [E. B. L.] BIRMINGHAM FESTIVAL. This Triennial Festival, which is now acknowledged to be the most important 'music meeting' in the provinces, was commenced in 1768 with a series of performances in St. Philip's Church and in the

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BIRMINGHAM FESTIVAL.

BISCHOFF.

theatre in King Street, in aid of the funds of the General Hospital. The first programme was exclusively Handelian, with a band of twenty-five and a chorus of forty, conducted by Mr. Capel Bond of Coventry, but since 1802 the programmes have been drawn from all sources. In 1778 a second festival was held, and in 1784 Lord Dudley and "Ward was the president of the third festival, at which, for the first time, a body of noblemen and gentlemen assisted as stewards. In 1787 and 1790 the band was drawn from the King's Theatre in London, and with the chorus numbered 100 performers. In 1793 no festival was held, owing to the burning of the theatre, but from 1796 to 1829 there was a triennial festival. The next festival was in 1834, the first held in the New Town Hall, where the concerts have since taken place every third year. At the earlier festivals the male singers were members of the Worcester and Lichfield Cathedral choirs, the sopranos being selected from several Lancashire choral societies, famed then as now for the excellence of their voices. The members of a local Gentlemen's Musical Association also assisted in the chorus, which now consists of a local choral society, reinforced by members of the London Sacred Harmonic Society. In 1805 the number of performers was increased to 120, in 1808 to 188, in 1811 to 204, in 1820 to 231, in 1834 (in the Town Hall) to 386, and at the last Festival in 1876 the band numbered 130 and the chorus 390. At first the duties of organist and conductor were combined, but in 1832 they were divided. The conductors included Capel Bond (1708), Dr. Crotch (1808), S. Wesley (1811), T. Greatorex (1820), W. Knyvett (1834-43), Mendelssohn and Moscheles (1846), Costa (1849 to the present time). The band included the most eminent orchestral players of the time. Tlie solo instrumentalists and principal singers include almost every artist of note of the past and present century, many of whom have here made their first appearances.

'Messiah,' by Greatorex, in 1820; the introduction of nine trombones in addition to the organ at the church service in 1823; the last performance in church in 1829, the year in which operatic performances in character were introduced, and in which Signor Costa was compelled to appear as a vocalist as a condition of the payment of his expenses by the committee, who refused to allow him to conduct Zingarelli's cantata; the appearance of Mendelssohn as the conductor of ' St. Paul,' and as solo organist iu 1837; the production of 'Elijah' in 1846; the appointment of Signor Costa as conductor, and the rearrangement of the plan of the orchestra, in 1849 ; and the formation of the Birmingham Amateur Harmonic Association, to form the local contingent of the chorus, in 1855. Sir Michael Costa wrote his 'Eli' and 'Naaman' for performance at the festivals of 1855 and 1S64. The receipts at the festivals have graduallyrisen,and the actual profit, which is handed over to the treasurer of the General Hospital, stood at upwards of X'7500 in 1873, as compared with £299 in 1768. The number of persons present on the four days of the festival in 1876 reached a total of 14,916, and the gross receipts were £15,180. Since their foundation, the festivals have yielded a grand total of upwaids of £100,000 to the hospital funds. [C. M.]

244

The scheme of the first festival (1768) included the Dettingen 'Te Deum,' the Utrecht 'Jubilate,' the ' Coronation Anthem' and the ' Messiah' (sung in the church), and 'L'Allegro' and 'Alexander's Feast' in the theatre. In 1778 an organ concerto was introduced at the church performance. In 1784 Purcell's 'Te Deum' was sung, and a new oratorio, 'Goliath,' by Atterbury, produced. Year by year Handel's music, although still forming the major part of the programmes, was more and more varied by the music of other masters. Among the most noteworthy events in the history of the festival may be mentioned :—the introduction of Haydn's ' Creation' in the place of one of Handel's oratorios in 1802 ; the engagement of Mr. Greatorex, organist of Westminster Abbey, in 1805, previous to which year the organists had been local performers ; the use of Mozart's accompaniments to the 'Messiah' for the first time in 1808 ; the withdrawal of the orchestral accompaniment at the church service, and the use of additional wind parts for the

BIS (Fr.), that is, 'twice,' a cry more in use abroad than here, and equivalent to ENCOKE. The French even have a verb, bisser, to repeat. When written, as it sometimes is in MS. music, over a phrase or passage, it signifies that the notes are to be repeated; the same thing would be effected by dots of repetition at the beginning and end of the phrase. BISCHOFF, DK. LUDWIG FBIEDRICH CHRIS-

TOPH, born at Dessau Nov. 27, 1794. His father was a cello-player in the Duke's band, and the boy was early initiated into music, though (like so many musicians) intended for science. In 1812 he entered the university of Berlin, and attended the philological lectures of Boeckh. But the war of freedom put a stop to study; Bischoff volunteered, and was taken prisoner by the French. After the treaty of Paris he resumed his studies and took his degree. Hefilledvarious posts in Switzerland, was professor at Berlin, and director of the gymnasium at Wesel from 1823 to 1849. Here he was remarkably active iu musical matters, founding societies, assisting performances, and making his house in every sense a home for music. After twenty-five years he took his leave, and settled first in Bonn and then in Cologne. There he founded the 'Rheinische Musikzeitung'(i85O) and the 'Nieder-Rheinische Musikzeitung' (1853), and edited them to the day of his death (Feb. 24, 1867), acting also as reporter to the 'Cdlnische Zeitung,' and acquiring great influence throughout the Lower Rhine districts. The tendency of his papers was dead against that of the 'Neue Zeitschrift' of Schumann and Brendel, in regard to Wagner and Liszt. Bischoff's worship for Haydn, Mozart,

EISCHOFF. and Beethoven, with whom he afterwards associated Mendelssohn, was so exclusive as to preclude his appreciating even Schumann, essential as he is in the development of modern music. On the other hand his influence on music in the Lower Rhine was both good and great. He was the musical centre of the energy and devotion which kept up the festivals of Cologne, Aix-laChapelle, find Diisseldorf, and through them acted so beneficially on the whole of Germany. With Bischoff's death his papers came to an end, nor have they been yet replaced. [A. M.]

BISHOP.

245

beauty of some of his introduced pieces has happily not preserved upon the stage.' It is impossible in our space to go through in detail all Bishop s productions for Covent Garden; suffice it to say, that among them were 'The Law of Java,' with its universally popular 'Mynheer Vandunck'; 'Clari,' with its household melody of ' Home, sweet home' ; and 'Maid Marian,' full of charming English music. In 1825 Bishop accepted an engagement under Elliston, at Drury Lane, and the opera of ' The Fall of Algiers' was the first fruit of his new appointment. 'The engagement of BISHOP, SIR HENRY BOWLET, was born in Weber to write 'Oberon' for Covent Garden, London, Nov. 18, 1786, and learned music under induced the rival management to set Bishop to Francesco Bianchi. His bias for dramatic com- work upon an opera that should oppose it; and position soon developed itself in a remarkable impressed with the magnitude of the competition, degree. In 1804 he wrote the music to a little he occupied more than a year in the extremely piece entitled 'Angelina,' performed at Margate, careful composition of ' Aladdin,' which was proand followed it by the music to a ballet,' Tamerlan duced in 1826, some weeks after Weber's opera. et Bajazet,' produced at the King's Theatre in It had the misfortune of being allied to an even 1806. This led to his writing, in the same year, worse constructed drama than ' Oberon,' without two other ballets, performed at the Opera, and the elegant writing which characterises that also the music for two operatic pieces produced at libretto ; and lacking the individuality of Bishop Drury Lane Theatre. In 1809 his music to the without having the merit of Weber, it met with ' Circassian Bride' was received with, enthusiasm. no success. In 1830 Bishop was appointed musiIt was performed at Drury Lane on Feb. 23, and cal director at Vauxhall. In this capacity he on the following night the theatre was burnt to wrote several operettas, and many songs, some the ground, and the composer's score consumed of which acquired great popularity, ' My pretty in the flames. The merits of the young musician Jane' being perhaps the best known at the were so apparent that the proprietors of Covent present day. In the season of 1840-1 he was Garden Theatre engaged him for three years to engaged by Madame Vestris as musical director compose and direct the music. He entered on of Covent Garden, where he produced ' The Forthis important office in the season 1810-11. tunate Isles,' to celebrate the Queen's wedding. The first piece upon which Bishop's talents were This was his last dramatic composition. employed, in consequence of this arrangement, We must now notice a few other events of was a musical drama founded upon Sir W. Scott's Bishop's life. In 1819, in partnership with the poem 'The Lady of the Lake,' and produced as proprietor of Covent Garden, he commenced the • The Knight of Snowdon.' In the music Bishop direction of the extraordinary performances, then displayed an amount of talent seldom surpassed miscalled Oratorios; and in the following season by British composers. Before the expiration of undertook the speculation on his own account, the engagement, the 'Virgin of the Sun,' the which he relinquished however before the com' JEthiop,' and the ' Renegade' were produced. mencement of another year. In the autumn A fresh engagement for five years was now con- of 1820, he visited Dublin, and received the cluded and when we say that Bishop signalised freedom of that city by cordial and unanimous it immediately by 'The Miller and his Men,' suffrage. In 1833 the Philharmonic Society no ampler proof can be given of the indications commissioned him to write a work for their conwith which it commenced. certs, and the sacred cantata of ' The Seventh The Philharmonic Society was established in Day' was the result. It is a clever and masterly 1813, and Bishop was one of its original members, work, but made no lasting impression, belonging and took his turn as conductor. In the following as it did to a class of music entirely different year he produced portions of the opera of 'The from that in which he had achieved his fame. Farmer's Wife,' the melodrama of ' The Forest of In 1839 he received his degree as Bachelor in Bondy,' and other musical pieces. In this year he Music at Oxford, and his exercise was performed adapted the first of a series of foreign operas— at the triennial festival, of which he was conductor. Boieldieu's 'Jean de Paris'—which was followed In November 1841 he was elected to the musical in successive years by 'Don Giovanni,' 'Figaro,' professorship at Edinburgh, which he resigned in 'II Barbiere,' and 'Guillaume Tell.' A number December, 1843. The distinction of knighthood of operatic pieces were produced in i8i5,ineluding was conferred upon him in 1842 ; and on the additional music for Dr. Arne's ' Comus,' and for death of Dr. Crotch in 1848 he was appointed Michael Arne's 'Cymon.' Two of his well-known to the musical chair at Oxford. On the retireworks, 'Guy Mannering' (of which Whittaker ment of Mr. W. Knyvett in 1840, he was for three wrote a portion) and ' The Slave,' gave interest to years occasionally, and in 1843 permanently, apthe following year, in which also he wrote the pointed conductor of the Antient Concerts, which musical interpolations in 'A Midsummer Night's office he held until the discontinuance of the Dream,' the first of a series of Shakesperian spolia- performances in 1848. His last composition of tions which, as Mr. Macfarren remarks, ' even the importance was the ode for the installation of the

BISHOP.

BLAGROVE.

Earl of Derby as Chancellor of Oxford, in 1853. On this occasion he received the degree of Doctor in Music, the Ode being considered as his probational exercise. Besides his dramatic productions, and the ' Seventh Day,' Bishop composed an oratorio, 'The Fallen Angel,' which has never been performed ; music for three tragedies, 'The Apostate,' 'Retribution,' and 'Mirandola'; and a 'Triumphal Ode/ performed at the Oratorios. He also arranged the first volume of 'Melodies of Various Nations'; three volumes of 'National Melodies,' to which Moore wrote the poetry; and a number of English melodies with Dr. Mackay's verses. He edited the ' Messiah,' a large collection of Handel's songs, and many other works of importance. He died April 30, 1855, and was buried in the cemetery at Einehley, where a monument to his memory has been erected by subscription. The following chronological list of his productions for the stage includes the works which he altered or adapted :—

He subsequently completed hi3 musical education under Migliorucci, a favourite pupil of Zingarelli. In 1838 he became organist at Blackburn, Lancashire, but in the following year returned to Cheltenham, where he has since resided, and where he has filled successively the post of organist at St. James's Church, the Roman Catholic Chapel, and St. John's Church, from the latter of which he withdrew at the end of 1852. Bishop has directed his attention much to the study of the theory and history of music, and has translated and edited many valuable theoretical and other works, besides arranging and editing a large number of the masterpieces of the great classical composers. [W, H. H.] BIZET, GEORGES, born at Paris Oct. 25,1838, was a brilliant pupil and laureate at the Conservatoire from 1848 to 1857. &e studied coinposition under Halevy, whose daughter he afterwards married. Before winning his 'prix de Rome,' he gave an insignificant operetta ' Docteur Miracle' (Boufi'es Parisiens, April, 1857); and, after his return from Italy, composed ' Vasco de Gama' (1863), which did not gain him much credit. At the Theatre Lyrique were performed ' Les P^cheurs de perles,' in 3 acts (Sept. 30, 63), and 'La jolie Fille de Perth,' in 4 acts (Dec. 26, 67). 'Djamileh' (May 22, 72) was not successful, but the interludes to TArl^sienne' (Sept. 30, 72), and his Overture 'Patrie' were received with applause. Bizet's last effort was ' Carmen,' in 4 acts, a sombre libretto, but a fine score, •which was heard at the Opera Comique on March 3, 75. This highly gifted composer and very talented pianist died almost suddenly on June 3, 75. Much was expected from him. He was a musician of superior abilities, though his vocal style is deficient in ease. [G. C]

246

Angelina, 1804; Tamerlan et trious Traveller, 1818; December Bajazet, 1806 ; Narcisse et les and May, 1818; Barber of Seville Graces,1806; Caractacus,lP06; Love (adapted from Ross ni), 1818; The in a Tub, 1806; The Mysterious Marriage of Figaro (adapted from Bride, 1S08: The Circassian Bride, Mozart), 1819; Fortunatus, 1819 ; 1809; Mora's Love, If09; The Vinl- The Heart of Mid-Lothian, 1819 ; agers, 1809; The Maniac, 1810: A Rowland for an Oliver, 1819; Knight of Snowdon, 1811; Virgin Swedish Patriotism, 1819; The of the Sun, 1812; The ^Ethiop, Gnome King, 1819 ; The Comedy of 1812; The Renegade, 1812; Haroun Errors, 1819; The Antiquary, 1820; Alraschid, 1813; The Brazen Bust, Battle of Bothwell Brig, 1820; 1813 ; Harry le Boy, ]813 ; The Mil- Henri Quatre, 1820 ; Twelfth Night, ler and his Men, 1813; For England, 1820; Don John, 1821; Two Gentleho! 1813; The Farmer's "Wife (with men of Verona, 1821; Montrose, Davy, Reeve, etc.), 1814; The Wan- 1822; The Lavf-of Java, 1822 ; Maid dering Boys, 1814 ; Sadak and Kalas- Marian, 1822; Clari, 1823; The rade, 1814; The Grand Alliance. Beacon of Liberty, 1823; Cortez, 1814; Doctor Sangrado, 1814; The 1823; Native Land, 1)24; Charles Forest of Bondy, 1814; The Maid of the Second, 1824; The Fall of Althe Mill (additions), 1814 ; John or giers, 182~>; Hofer (compiled from Paris (compiled from Boieldieu), Rossini), 1S30; Angelina (partly re1814; Brother and Sister (with •rittenl, 1825; Edward the Black Reeve}, 1815; The Noble Outlaw, rince. 1825; Coronation of Charles 1815; Telemachus, 1815; Magpie or X,1825;Aladdin,1826; The Knights the Maid, 1815; John du Bart, 1&15; if the Cross, 1826; Englishman in Oymon (additions), 1815; Comus India, 1826 ; Under .the Oak, 1830, additions), 1815; Midsummer Adelaide, 1830; The Tyrotese PeaNight's Dream, 1816; Guy Man- sant, 1832; Home sweet Home, nering (with Whittaker, etc.), 1816; 1832; The Magic Fan, 1832; The Who wants a Wife, 1816; Heir of Sedan Ohair, 1832; The Battle of Verona (with Whittaker), 1817; Champagne, 1832; The Romance Humorous Lieutenant, 1817; The of a Day, 1832; Yelva, 1833 ; The Libertine (adapted from Don Gio- Rencontre, 1833; Rural Felicity, vanni), 1817; Duke of Savoy, 1817; 1834; The Doom Kiss, 1836 ; ManFather and his Children, 1817- fred, 1836; Tha Fortunate Isles, Zums (with Brah; m), 1818 ; Illus- 1841.

BLACK DOMINO, THE, the English version of Auber's DOMINO NOIB ; translated by H. E. Chorley. Produced at Covent Garden (Pyne & Harrison) Eeb. 20, 1861. BLAES, ARNOLD JOSEPH, a great clarinetplnyer, born at Brussels 1814; pupil of Baehmann in the Conservatoire there, where he obtained the second prize in 1829 and thefirstin 1834. He visited Holland, Germany, and Russia, and in 39 was awarded a medal for his performance before the Societe" des Concerts in Paris: was solo clarinet to the King of the Belgians; and in 42 succeeded Bachmann as Professor in the Brussels Conservatoire. [M. C. C] BLAES, MME. ELISA, whose maiden name was MEERTI, born in Antwerp about 1820, a distinguished singer, and wife of the foregoing. She was engaged by Mendelssohn to sing at the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipsic (Oct. 6, 1839, and onwards), where her cultivated style, sympathetic voice, and great personal gifts, were long and, highly appreciated. She has been heard in most of the European capitals, is now (1875) a teacher in Brussels. [M. C. C]

(Tmp.Bict.ofJBiog.; Gentleman's Mag.; Pri[E. P. K.] vate Sources.) BISHOP, JOHN, was bom at Cheltenham July 31, 1817. When about six years of age he was placed at a boarding-school at Oxford, where he remained two years and a half, and learned music from Daniel Feldon, organist of St. Peter'sin-the-East in that city. His next master was Arnold Merrick, organist of the parish church of Cirencester, and translator of the theoretical works of Albrechtsberger, and several other valuable treatises. Returning to Cheltenham Bishop became a pupil of Thomas Woodward, organist of the parish church there, under whom he studied for about five or six years. On the opening of the new church of St. Paul, Cheltenham, in 1831 Bishop, then BLAGROVE, HENRY GAMBLE, was the son fourteen years of age, was appointed its organist. of a professor of music at Nottingham, where

BLAGROVE.

BLANGINI.

he was born in October 1811. At four years old he was taught by his father to play on a small violin which he had made for him, and at five years old he performed in public. His father bringing him to London he played in 1817 at Drury Lane Theatre in a performance called' The Lilliputians,' and subsequently played in public daily at the Exhibition Rooms in Spring Gardens. In 1821 he was placed under the tuition of Spagnoletti, and on the opening of the Royal Academy of Music in 1823 he became one of its first pupils, Francois Cramer being his instructor. In 1824 he was awarded a silver prize medal for his proficiency. On the formation of Queen Adelaide's private band in 1830 Blagrove was appointed a member, and continued so until 1837. In 1833 he went to Germany for the purpose of studying his instrument under Spohr, and remained there until November 1834. Blagrove was one of the most distinguished of English violinists, and for upwards of thirty years occupied the position of concerto player and leader in all the best orchestras. He died, after a lingering illness, December 15, 1872. [W. H. H.j

Theatre Francais in 1831. His opera of Diane de Vernon was produced at the Nouveautes on April 4 in the same year. As a musical critic Blanchard was able and impartial. He contributed articles to 'L'Europe litteraire et musicale' (1833), 'Le Foyer,'' Le Monde Dramatique,' and ' La Revue et Gazette.' His biographies of Beck, Berton, Cherubini, Garat, and others, which originally appeared in these journals, have been published separately. [M. C. C ] BLANCHE, i.e. 'white,' is the ordinary French word for the note p which we call a minim. In the same manner the French call a crotchet, P, noire. BLANCHE DE NEVERS, an opera in five acts, founded on the 'Duke's Motto.' Libretto by John Brougham ; music by Balfe. Produced at Covent Garden by Pyne and Harrison Nov. 21, 1863.

247

BLANCKENBURGH, GERBRANDT VAN, or-

ganist at Gouda, probably father of Q. v. Blankenburg, author of a work of historical importance, ' Onderwyzinge hoemen alle de Toonen en halve Toonen, die meest gebryckelyck zyn, op de HandtFluyt zel konnen t' eenemal zuyverblaezen' (Amsterdam, P. Matthysz, 1654). A reprint of this interesting work has been published at the Hague. [F. G.] BLANCKS, EDWARD, whom Francis Meres, in his 'Palladia Tamia, Wits Treasury,' 1598, classes among the 'famous English musicians' of the time, was one of the ten composers who harmonised the tunes for 'The Whole Booke of Psalmes, with their wonted Tunes as they are song in Churches, composed into foure parts,' published by Thomas Este in 1592, and reprinted by the Musical Antiquarian Society. Nothing more is known of him. [W. H. H ]

BLAHETKA, LEOPOLDINE, born Nov. 15, 1811 (not 1809), at Guntramsdorf, Baden, Austria; an able performer on the piano and physharmonika; daughter of J. L. Blahetka and Babette Traeg. At five years of age she was so good a player that by Beethoven's advice she was placed under Jos. Czemy for education as a musician. She afterwards had instruction from Kalkbrenner and Moscheles. Her progress was so rapid that she was able to undertake concert tours in company with her mother, from which she obtained much reputation, though they exposed her to many calumnious attacks. In 1832 she published as op. 25 a concert-piece for piano and orchestra which deserves notice. In 1830 a romantic piece of hers, 'Die Rauber und BLANGINI, GIUSEPPE MARCO MARIA FELICE, die Sanger,' was produced at the Karnthnerthor celebrated tenor-singer, teacher of singing, and theatre, Vienna, With applause. A few years composer, was born Nov. 18, 1781. At the age later she made another tour in France, and in of 9 he was admitted into the choristers' school 1840 settled in Boulogne, where she still resides of Turin Cathedral. He made rapid progress in (1876). A few words in Schumann's Gesammelte music under the Abbate Ottani, a pupil of Padre Schriften, ii. 45, testify to her excellence as a Martini. By the time he was 12 he composed a player. [F. G.] motet and a Kyrie. His favourite instrument was the violoncello. His singing was so exquisite BLAKE, REV. WILLIAM, D.D., prebendary of that he is said by it to have revived Baron StackSalisbury Cathedral, and rector of St. Thomas's elberg the Russian ambassador at Turin after he Church in that city, was composer of the admired had been given up by the physicians. When the anthem ' I have set God always before me,' and war broke out in 1797 his family took refuge in of some duets for violin and viola. He died France, but it was not till 1799 that Blangini about 1780. [W. H.H.] went to Paris, where he soon became the fashionBLANCHARD, HENRI LOUIS, born at Bour- able composer of songs (Romances et nocturnes), teacher of singing. In 1802 he was comdeaux 1778, died in Paris 1858, studied the vio- and to complete Delia Maria's unfinished lin under Rodolphe Kreutzer, and composition missioned ' La fausse Duegne,' which was followed in under Beck, Me'hul, and Reicha. From 1818 to opera 1803 by 'Chimere et Re^aliteV both for the 1829 he was musical director at the Varietes, and Theatre Feydeau, and in 1806 by 'Nephtali ou composed a number of vaudeville airs which at- les Ammonites,' for the Grand Opera. In 1805 tained popularity, and also trios and quartets he was called to Munich, where he produced for strings. These more solid works exhibit con- ' Encore un tour de Caliphe,' and composed ' Inez siderable talent. In 1830 he became director of de Castro,' and 'Les Fetes LaceMemoniennes,' the Theatre Moliere, where two of his play^ which were not performed. In 1806 Napoleon's were produced. A third had a great run at the

BLANGINI.

BLAZE.

s^ter, Princess Borghese, appointed him her chapel-master, and in 1809 King Jerome made him his ' General Musik-director' at Cassel. In 1 Si 1 Blangini produced at Cassel 'Le Sacrifice d'Abraham,' and ' L Amour philosophe,' and at the Feydeau in Paris 'Les Femmes venge'es.' In 1814 he returned to Paris, and was appointed ' Surintendant de la musique du Roi.' The whole fashionable world, particularly the Faubourg St. Germain, thronged to him for lessons. He drew up a list of his pupils which reads like Leporello's catalogue in Don Giovanni, as it includes 3 Queens, 12 Princesses, 25 Countesses, etc. Blangini was an indefatigable composer of operas, though none of much interest were performed in Paris before 'La Marquise de Brinvilliers' (1831"), in which Cherubini and Caraffa worked with him. One of the songs from Nephtali is still occasionally heard at a concert. His ' Romances,' in 34 numbers, continued in favour long after his death, which took place Dec. 18, 1841. His friend Maxime de Villemarest published his autobiography under the title ' Souvenirs de Blangini, maltre de chapelle du Roi de Baviere, etc' (Paris, 1834). The book is interesting, and gives an excellent picture of an artist's footing in society at that period. [F. G.]

with the title ' De l'op^ra en France,' and is the work on which his claims to remembrance are chiefly founded. The subjects treated comprise a much wider circle of observation than the title would imply. The first volume contains an elaborate though popular treatment of the various elements of music, including hints as to the choice of libretti, and the peculiarities of verse and diction best adapted for musical treatment. The second volume is devoted to the opera proper, describing at considerable length its various components, tlie overture, recitative, aria, ensemble, etc. The style is lucid and terse, and the book may be recommended to the amateur, although the student will look in vain for new material or originality of treatment. But even to the latter the frequent references to contemporary operas, a subject in which Castil-Blaze was thoroughly at home, will not be without interest. The chapter on the opera in the provinces is particularly valuable from an historic point of view. His remarks on tlie overture, in which he defends a broader and simpler conception of tliat form of art against those who expect from it an anticipatory reproduction of the drama itself, with all its complicated characters and situations, are excellent, and would be worth quotation if our space permitted it.

218

BLANKENBURG, QUIRIN VAN, born 1654 considerable part of his book is polemical. at Gouda, Licentiate in philosophy and medicine, HeA attacks the various uses and abuses of and organist of the Reformed Church at the theatrical managers, the arrogance of ignorant Hague, well known for his ' Clavicymbel en Or- critics, and the miserable translations supplied gelboek der Psalmen en Kirkgezangen' (1732; by literary hacks for the masterpieces of foreign 3rd ed. 1772). The inscription on his portrait composers. On the latter point he was compares him to Orpheus. In honour of the to speak, having himself reproduced moreentitled or less betrothal of the Prince of Orange he composed felicitously the libretti of numerous Italian and a collection of pieces in two parts, which might German Amongst these we mention be performed either upright or upside down, 'Figaro,' operas. Juan/ and 'Zauberflbte'; 'II forwards or backwards. His 'Elementa Musica' Barbiere,' 'Don Ladra,' ' Otello,' ' Anna Bohas some value as a theoretical work. Blanken- lena'; 'Der' Gazza Freischiitz,' 'Oberon,' 'Euryanthe;' burg died after 1739, but the precise date is not and many others. reproductions were known. [F. G.] chiefly for the use ofThese provincial theatres where BLAZE, FRANCOIS HENEI JOSEPH, calling Italian opera was unattainable, and may have himself CASTIL-BLAZE, one of the most prolific contributed much to popularise good music in writers on music and the drama France has France. Unfortunately Blaze frequently made produced, was born at Cavaillon in 1784. His bold to meddle with the scores, and even to infather, a lawyer by profession, was a good musi- troduce surreptitiously pieces of his own compocian, friend of Gretry and Miihul, and com- sition into the works of great masters. He used poser of masses, operas, and chamber music. to tell with delight how one of his choral pieces Blaze was sent to Paris in 1799 t o study fathered upon Weber was frequently played and the law, but the love of music soon began to applauded by unsuspecting audiences at the conshow itself. He became a pupil at the Con- certs of the Paris Conservatoire. Our author's servatoire, and took private lessons in harmony. own compositions do not call for notice. They In the meantime his professional career pro- are of an ephemeral nature, and are justly for1 mised to be a prosperous one. He obtained gotten. Amongst his romances ' King Rene ' is pretty, and was deservedly popular. He wrote the position of sous-prefet in the Department of Vaucluse, and other appointments. But to several pieces of sacred and chamber music, one one used to the excitement of Parisian society, serious and two comic operas, none of which waa and longing for literary and artistic distinction, successful to any considerable extent. More valuofficial life in southern France could not but be able is a collection of songs of southern France tedious and uninteresting. At tlie age of thirty- called ' Chants de Provence.' six he threw up his post and set out with his The merits of Blaze's literary work having family for the metropolis, chiefly with a vi^w been discussed above, it will suffice to mento publishing a book compiled during his leisure tion the titles of some of his works, mostly comhours. It appeared in 1820, in two volumes, pilations, similar in character, although hardly

249

BLAZE.

BLOW.

equal to 'De l'opera en France.' We name 'Chapelle musique des Rois de France' (1832); ' La Danse et les Ballets depuis Bacchus jusqu'a mademoiselle Taglioni' (1832) ; and the works en the Theatres lyriques de Paris, viz. 'L'Academie imperiale' (formerly 'royale'; a history of that theatre published in 1855), and 'L'opera Italien de 1548 a 1856' (1856). For ten years previously to 1832 Blaze was musical critic of the 'Journal des Debats,' an important literary position afterwards held by Berlioz. He also wrote numerous articles for the ' Constitutionel,' the ' Revue et Gazette Musicale,' 'Le Menestrel,' etc., partly republished in book form. Castil-Blaze died in 1857, after a few days' illness. A life like his, spent laboriously in the byeways of art, can hardly be called a thing sublime, but it is not without its uses and merits. The ideal truths emanating from creative genius stand in need of an intermediate stage of receptivity between their own elevation and the level of ordinary intellects. Blaze has occupied the position of an interpreter, thus indicated, not without credit- His knowledge of music and musical history was good, and his taste sound and comprehensive up to a certain point. But the wear and tear of journalistic routine could not but blunt his feeling for the subtler touches of beauty, and it would be unsafe to give implicit confidence to his opinion on questions of high art. [F. H.]

' A Treatise on the Organ, with explanatory Voluntaries'; 'Ten Voluntaries, or pieces for the Organ,' etc. ; ' Twelve easy and familiar movements for the Organ/etc. He died in 1805.

BLAZE DE BURY, BARON HENET, born in 1813, the son of the foregoing, is too much like him in all essential points to require detailed notice. In literary skill he surpasses his father; in musical knowledge he is decidedly his inferior. Blaze de Bury is indeed the prototype of the accomplished litterateur of the second empire. He is able to write well on most topics, and excellently on many. His style is refined and pleasing, but his attempts at depth are strangely mingled with the flippancy of the feuilletoniste. Amongst his works on music, which alone concern us here, the most remarkable are 'La Vie de Rossini' (1854); 'Musiciens contemporains'—short essays on leading musicians, such as Weber, Mendelssohn, Verdi, and many others (1856) ; and ' Meyerbeer et son temps' (1865). All these are reprints of articles contributed to the 'Revue des deux Mondes' and other periodicals. Another connection of Blaze de Bury with the history of music may be seen in the following circumstance. He wrote a comedy called ' La jeunesse de Goethe,' for which Meyerbeer supplied the incidental music. The score was unpublished when the master died, and will remain so, along with other MSS., till thirty years after his decease, in accordance with his own arrangement. In 1868 Blaze de Bury attempted to set aside the portion of the will referring to the MS. in question, but the action brought against the family was unsuccessful. [F. H.] BLEWITT, JONAS, a celebrated organist in the latter half of the iSth century, author of

His son, JONATHAN BLBWITT, was born in London

in 1782, received the rudiments of his musical education from his father, and was afterwards placed under his godfather, Jonathan Battishill. At eleven years old he was appointed deputy organist to his father. After holding several appointments as organist, he left London for Haverhill, Suffolk; and subsequently became organist of Brecon, where he remained three years. On the death of his father he returned to London, with the intention of bringing out an opera he had composed for Drury Lane, but the burning of that theatre destroyed his hopes. He next went to Sheffield as organist. In 1811 he took up his abode in Ireland, in the family of Lord Cahir. He was appointed organist of St. Andrew's Church, Dublin, and composer and director of the music to the Theatre Royal in that city. The Duke of Leinster appointed him grand organist to the masonic body of Ireland, and he became the conductor of the principal concerts in Dublin. When Logier commenced his system of musical instruction in Ireland, Blewitt was the first who joined him; and being an able lecturer, and possessing sound musical knowledge, he soon procured the great majority of teaching in Dublin. Before 1826 Blewitt was again in London, and wrote the music for a pantomime, ' Harlequin, or the Man in the Moon,' which was produced at Drury Lane with great success. In 182S and 29 he was director of the music at Sadler's Wells, and wrote several clever works—' The Talisman of the Elements,' ' Auld Robin Gray,' ' My old woman' (adapted from Fe"tis), etc. He was also the composer of the operas of ' The Corsair,' ' The Magician,'' The Island of Saints,'' Rory O'More,' 'Mischief Making,' etc., and of a number of ballads, particularly in the Irish style, which enjoyed considerable popularity. Blewitt was a good singer, and possessed a fund of humour, qualifications which sometimes led him into questionable company. In his latter years he was connected with the Tivoli Gardens. Margate. He died September 4, 1853. [E. F. R.] BLOW, JOHN, MUS. DOC, born at North Collingham, Nottinghamshire, in 1648, was one of the first set of Children of the Chapel Royal on its re-establishment in 1660, his master being Captain Henry Cooke. Whilst yet a chorister he commenced composition ; the words of three anthems produced by 'John Blow, one of the Children of His Majesty's Chapel,' are contained in Clifford's 'Divine Hymns and Anthems,' 1663, and an anthem with orchestral accompaniments composed by him in conjunction with Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, two of his fellow choristers, is still extant. On leaving the choir Blow became a pupil of John Hingeston, and subsequently of Dr. Christopher Gibbons. That he soon rose to great eminence is evidenced by the fact of his being chosen in

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1669, at twenty-one years of age, organist of Westminster Abbey (a post not then a life appointment), but in 1680 he was displaced to make room for Henry Purcell. On the death of Purcell, in 1695, Blow was reappointed, and held the place until his death. On March 16, 1674, he was sworn in one of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal in the room of the Rev. Roger Hill, deceased, and on July 21, 1674, was appointed master of the children of the chapel in succession to Pelham Humphrey, who died a week previously. Some years later he became one of the organists of the chapel. In 1685 he was appointed as one of the king's private music, and to the honorary office of Composer to the King. In 1687 he succeeded Michael Wise as almoner and master of the choristers of St. Paul's Cathedral, which offices he resigned in 1693 in favour of his pupil, Jeremiah Clarke. In 1699, on the establishment of the office of Composer to the Chapel Royal, Blow was installed in it. Dr. Blow was not a graduate of either university, his degree of Doctor of Music having been conferred on him by Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury. He married Elizabeth, only daughter of Edward Braddock, Gentleman and Clerk of the Cheque of the Chapel Royal and master of the choristers of Westminster Abbey. She died in childbirth Oct. 29,1683, aged thirty, leaving one son and three daughters; the son. a boy of great promise, died June 2, 1693, aged fifteen; the daughters survived many years. Dr. Blow died Oct. 1, 1708, in the sixtieth year of his age, and was buried under the organ in the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument is erected to his memory. Dr. Blow was a very voluminous composer; his works comprise fourteen church-services, and upwards of one hundred anthems, nearly the whole of which are still extant, although but few are in print; sacred songs, duets, etc. (many of which are printed in Play ford's ' Harmonia Sacra,' 16S8 and 1714); odes for New Year's day, 1682, 1683, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694, and 1700; odes for St. Cecilia's day, 1684 (printed), 1691, and 1700, besides two which cannot be assigned to any particular year; ode by Dryden on the death of Purcell, 1695 ; songs, with which the various collections of the period abound; catches, many of them printed in 'The Catch Club,' 'The Pleasant Musical Companion,' 1724, and other collections; organ pieces; 'Lessons for the Harpsichord,' 1698 (printed), and 1705 (printed with some by Purcell). In 1700 Blow published by subscription a collection of his songs, etc., under the title of ' Amphion Anglicus,' with his portrait prefixed. In the preface to this work he expressed his intention of publishing his church music, but unfortunately never accomplished his purpose, a circumstance much to be regretted, since it is upon those productions that his fame chiefly rests. Three services and eleven anthems [W. H. H.] of his are printed by Boyce.

much used in Germany; a native of Falkenberg near Zeitz. Herr Bliithner began business in Leipsic in 1853. Three years later he took out a patent for an action that has been much praised, and by the adoption of foreign improvements in iron framing and a systematised division of labour hitherto less practised in Germany than England, Herr Bliithner has succeeded in establishing his reputation on a sure basis, and competes on even ground with the best makers of his country. [A. J. H.] BLUMENTHAL, JACOB, born at Hamburg Oct. 4, 1829, pupil of F. W. Grund there, and of C. M. von Booklet and Sechter in Vienna. His proficiency in pianoforte playing was attained under Herz at the Conservatoire in Paris, which he entered in 1846. In 1848 he took up his residence in London, where be became pianist to the Queen, and a very fashionable teacher. As a composer he is known for a large number of brilliant, effective, and pretty pianoforte pieces, and for many songs, some of which, such as ' The Message,' have become widely and justly popular. Besides his residence in London, Blumenthal has [A. M.] now a house at Eisenach. BOB is a term used by change-ringers to denote certain changes in the working of the methods by which long peals of changes are produced.

250

[See CHANGE-RINGING.]

[C. A. W. T.]

BOCCABADATI, LUIGIA, was born at Parma, where she received her musical education in a convent, and made a brilliant debut in 1817. After singing at several theatres in Italy, she visited Munich, where her fine voice and good method were fully appreciated. She appeared at Venice in 1823, at Rome in 1824, at Milan in 1826, and again at Rome in 18271 and she met everywhere with the same success, especially in opera buffa, for which style of piece she was much in request. On this account she was persuaded to sing at Naples during the years 1829, 1830, and 1831. Despreaux, the composer, writing from Naples, Feb. 17, 1830 ('Revue Musicale,' vol. vii. p. 172), describes her as ' a little dry. dark woman, who is neither young nor old. She executes difficult passages well; but she has no elegance, grace, or charm about her. Her voice, although extensive, is harsh at the top, but otherwise she sings in tune.' Berlioz says in the same Revue (xii. 75) in 1832, 'she is a fort beau talent, who deserves, perhaps, more than her reputation.' She appeared in London on Feb. 18, 1833, at the King's Theatre, in 'Cenerentola.' She was not successful here, and did not return another year. She sang at Turin for three seasons, and at Lisbon in 1840, 1841, and 1842. She returned to Turin in 1843, and sang at Genoa in 1844, and in the next year at Palermo. She was married to a M. Gazzuoli, by whom she had a son, and a daughter, Augustine, who was also a singer. Luigia Boccabadati died at Turin Oct. 12, 1850. [J. M.]

BLUETHNER, JLLIOS FERDINAND, a pianoBOCCHERINI, LUIGI, a highly gifted comforte maker in Leipsic, whose instruments are poser, born at Lucca, Jan. 14, 1740. The first

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rudiments of music and the cello were taught he was glad to make arrangements of his works him by his father, an able bass player, and the for the guitar for the use of the Marquis BenaAbbe Vannecci, Chapel-master to the Archbishop. vente and other wealthy amateurs, till at length The boy's ability was so great as to induce them death released him from his troubles on May 28, to send him to Borne, where he rapidly made 1805. The last of his sons, Don Jose, died in himself famous both as composer and player. Dec. 1847, as librarian to the Marquis Seralbo, Eeturning to Lucca he joined Manfredi, a leaving a son Fernando, professor at the Academy scholar of Tartini's, in a tour through Lom- of Fine Arts in Madrid (1851), the last rebardy, Piedmont, and the south of France, and presentative of the name of Boccherini. even aB far as Paris, which they reached in 1768. The ability in Boccherini's chamber-music, Here they found a brilliant reception from which is generally contemporary with Haydn's, Gossec, Capon, and Dupont sen., and their ap- is obvious and unquestionable. He is certainly pearance at the Concerts Spirituels confirmed wanting to some extent in force and contrast, the favourable judgment of their friends. Boc- but pleasant method, expressive melody, good cherini became the rage; Venier and La Che- treatment of ideas, and dignified style are never vardiere, the publishers, contended for his first absent in his music. His originality was great, trios and quartets, the eminent Mme. Brillon and had its influence on the progress ?f the art. de Jouy (to whom Boccherini dedicated six To our practised ears his pieces may seem flat, sonatas) attached herself to the two artists, tedious, wanting in variety of key, and too and the Spanish ambassador, a keen amateur, simple in execution, and doubtless these qualities pressed them to visit Madrid, promising them the have contributed to make them forgotten in Gerwarmest reception from the Prince of Asturias, many, though in England, Italy, and France his afterwards Charles IV. Accordingly, in the end best works are still played and enjoyed. His of 1768 or beginning of 69 they started for quintets and cello sonatas (especially one of the Madrid, but their reception was disappointing. latter in A) are often given at the Monday Brunetti the violinist was then in favour, and Popular Concerts. neither King nor Prince offered the strangers Boccherini and Haydn are often named together any civility. They were however patronised by the Infanta Don Luis, brother of the King, in respect of chamber-music. It would be difficult whom Boccherini has commemorated on the to characterise the relation between them better title-page of his six quartets (op. 6), calling than in the saying of Puppo the violinist, that himself ' Compositore e virtuoso di camera di ' Boccherini is the wife of Haydn.' It is usually S. A. B. Don Luigi infante d'Ispagnia,' a title assumed that these two great composers knew and which he retained until the death of the Infanta esteemed each other's works, and that they even in 1785. After that event he dedicated a corresponded. No evidence of this is brought composition to Friedrich Wilhelm II, King of forward by Picquot, the earnest and accurate Prussia, which procured him a valuable present, biographer of Boccherini, but it is nevertheless and the post of Chamber-composer to the King, a fact. In a letter to Artaria ('Arenas, Feb. with an annual salary, but burdened with the 1781') Boccherini sends his respects to Haydn, condition that he should compose for the King and begs him to understand that he is an alone. With the death of Friedrich in 1797 the enthusiastic admirer of his genius. Haydn, on salary ceased, and Boccherini found himself his side, in two letters to Artaria, mentions unknown except to a small circle of friends. his intention of writing to Boccherini, and in He obtained a patron, however, in the Marquis the meantime returns a complimentary message. Benavente, in whose palace he was able to hear Artaria at that time had published several string his music performed by his former comrades of trios and quartets of Boccherini's, and had for the Villa Arenas—whither his old protector Don long been in business relations with him. Luis had retired after his mesalliance—and to Boccherini's facility was so great that he has become once again known. Meantime ill health been described as a fountain, of which it was obliged him to drop the cello; he was often in only necessary to turn the cock to produce or want, and suffered severe domestic calamities. suspend the stream of music. That he was With the advent of Lucien Buonaparte, however, remarkably industrious is evident from the deas ambassador of the French Eepublic at Madrid, tailed catalogue of his woiks made by Baillot, better times arrived. Lucien appreciated Boc- and given by Picquot. His first 6 trios date cherini, and his productive talent revived. In in 1760, and were followed in the next year 1799 he wrote six pianoforte quintets, and dedi- by 6 quartets, published in Paris in 1768. cated them to the French nation and Eepublic, The total number of his instrumental works but they were not published till after his death, amounts to 366, of which 74 are unpublished. and then appeared with the name of the Duchesse The printed ones are as follows :—6 Sonatas for de Berri on the title-page. In 1801 and 1802 Piano and Violin; 6 ditto for Violin and Bass; he dedicated twelve string quintets (op. 60 and 6 Duets for two Violins ; 42 Trios for two Violins 62) 'per il Cittadino Luciano Bonaparte,' and and Cello ; 12 ditto for Violin, Viola and Cello ; jn 1801 a ' Stabat Mater' for three voices (op. 91 String Quartets; 18 Quintets for Flute or 60), presented to the same, and published by Oboe, two Violins, Viola, and Cello; 1 2 ditto for Sieber of Paris. After this Boccherini's star Piano, two Violins, Viola, and Cello; 113 ditto sank rapidly, and his poverty was so great that for two Violins, Viola, and two Cellos ; 12 ditto for two Violins, two Violas, and Cello; 16 Sextets

BOCCHERINI.

BODENSCHATZ.

for various instruments; 2 Octets for ditto; I Suite for Full orchestra; 20 Symphonies, including 8 Concertante ; 1 Cello Concerto. In addition to the above his vocal works are:—A Stabat Mater for three voices, with quintet string accompaniment; a Mass for four voices and instruments; a Christmas Cantata for four Solo voices, Chorus, and Orchestra; Villancicos or Motets for Christmas-time for four Voices and Orchestra; an Opera or Melodrama, La Clementina; 14 Concert airs and Duets, with Orchestra. Of the vocal works the Stabat Mater alone is published (Paris, Sieber, op. 61). There are also many other pieces which are either spurious or mere arrangements by Boccherini of his own works. See ' Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Luigi Boccherini, suivie du catalogue raisonne de toutes ses oeuvres, tant publiees qu'inedites, par L. Picquot,' 8vo. Paris, Philipp, l 8 u , with two portraits. (Printed at Bar le due.) [C. F. P.]

ductor at the King's Theatre, and six years later was himself succeeded by Costa. Rossini's "' Conte Ory' was produced under his management. Bochsa gave annual concerts, the programme of which always contained some striking novelty, though not always in the best taste. For instance, at one of them Beethoven's 'Pastoral Symphony' was accompanied by acted illustrations. In 1839 he ran away with the wife of Sir Henry Bishop and undertook a concert tour, visiting every country of Europe (except France), America, and Australia, where he died of dropsy at Sydney in 1855. Immediately before his death he composed a requiem, which was performed at his funeral. As a composer Bochsa was too prolific for his own fame. Some of his many compositions for the harp, including a 'Method' for that instrument, are still known to harp-players. As a man he was irregular and dissipated to the last degree. [M. C. C]

252

BOCHSA, ROBERT NICOLAS CHARLES, com-

poser and eminent harpist, born at Montmedi 1789, was the son of Karl Bochsa, a flute and clarinet-player. He played the piano and flute in public at an early age, and composed airs de ballet for the theatre while yet a child. Before he was sixteen his opera 'Trajan' was produced at'Lyons in honour of the Emperor's visit. His family having removed to Bourdeaux he became a pupil of Franz Beck, under whom he wrote a ballet, and an oratorio, 'Le Deluge Universel.' In 1806 he entered the Conservatoire at Paris as a pupil first of Catel and then of Mehul. He studied the harp under Nadermann and Marin, but soon formed a style of his own. He was continually discovering new effects, even to the close of his life, and may fairly be said to have revolutionised harp-playing. In 1813 he was appointed harpist to the Emperor Napoleon, and three years later to Louis XVIII and the Due de Berri. Eight operas from his pen were performed at the Opera Comique between 1813 and 1816. He composed a requiem to the memory of Louis XVI, which was performed with great solemnity in Jan. 1816, but a year later he was detected in extensive forgeries, and fled from France never to return. He was tried in his absence, and condemned to 12 years imprisonment, with a fine of 4,000 francs. He took refuge in London, where his fine playing was universally admired, and so popular did the harp become that he was unable to satisfy all the applicants for lessons. Parish • Alvars and J. B. Chatterton were both pupils of Bochsa. In 1822 he undertook the joint management, with Sir George Smart, of the Lent oratorios, and in 1S23 the entire direction of them. Here he produced Stadler's ' Jerusalem,' oratorios by Wade and Sir John Stevenson, and his own 'Deluge Universel.' On the institution of the Royal Academy of Music Bochsa was appointed professor of the harp and general secretary, but in 1S27 was dismissed on account of public attacks upon his character which he was unable to deny. In 1826 he succeeded Coccia as con-

BOOKLET, CARL MARIA VON, pianoforte-

player, born at Prague, 1801 ; learned the pianoforte from Zawora, the violin from Pixis, and composition from D. Weber. In 18 20 he settled in Vienna as first violin in the Theatre ' an der Wien.' but shortly after resigned the violin and gave his whole attention to the piano. Beethoven took much interest in him, and at different timeB wrote him three letters of recommendation (Nohl, ' Beethovens Briefe,' Nos. 175,176, 324). He was very intimate with Franz Schubert, whose piano compositions he was the first to bring into public notice, and for whom he had a romantic attachment. His great object in performance was to catch the spirit of the composition. Meeting with great success as a teacher he gradually withdrew himself from all public appearance ; but in 1866, after a long interval, appeared once more to introduce his son HEINRICH to notice. [F. G.] BOCKSHORN, SAMUEL, born 1629, was originally director of the music at the Dreifaltigkeits Church in Pressburg. and in 1657 Capellmeister to the Duke of Wurtemberg in Stuttgart. Died not later tlian 1669. Amongst other compositions may be named a dramatic cantata 'Raptus Proserpinse,' 1662. His works were largely published, and even as late as 1708 a new edition of his Sonatas, Cappricci, Allemandes, etc., was published in Vienna. [F. G.] BODE, JOHANN JOACHIM CHRISTOPH, born at

Barum in Brunswick 1730. He had a strange and varied life as bassoon and oboe-player, composer, newspaper editor (' Hamburger Correspondent '), printer (Lessing's ' Hamburgische Dramaturgie'), and translator (Burney's' Present State of Music in Germany.') He died at Weimar Dec. 13, 1793. [M.C.C.] BODENSCHATZ, ERHARD, born at Lichtenberg in the Erzgebirge about 1570, studied theology and music at Leipsic, in 1600 became Cantor at Schulpforta, in 1603 Pastor at Rehausen, and in 1608 Pastor at Gross-Osterhausen, near Querfurt, where he died in 1638. Bodenschatz's Magnificat (1599) anc* n ' s 'General-

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HartH. Praetorius. 8 Y. 107. 1st nicht Ephraim. show him to have been an able con- 96. Cantate.exultemus. man n. 8 v. ,H. Praetrapuntist; but his real value arises from the 97. Venite torius. 8. v. !. Lobet deu Herrn. J . Gross. 98. Jubilate. A. Berger. 8 v. collections of music which he brought out 87. 99. Cantate. A. Berger. 8 v. j 109. Ich habe den Gottlosen. 'Psalterium Davidis,' 4 voc. (Leipsic, 1605); 100. Laudate Dominum. A. Ber-; Anon. 8 v. ger. 8 v. ' Florilegium hymnorum,' 4 voc. (Leipsic, 1606) ; 110. Benedicta sit sancta. GumSuper flumlna. Vulpius. 8 v. pelzheim. 8 v. 'Harmonia angelica,' a collection of Luther's 101. 102. Domine Jesus. Walliser. 8 v. 111. Hodie nobis. L. Viadana. 8 7 hymns (1608); • Bicinia X C (1615); and 103. Gau.ieiit in coelis. Walliser. 112. Hodie Christus. G. Gabriel. *v. 8v. 113. Magnum haeredidatis. Meespecially 'Florilegium Portense,' in 2 parts. 104. Omnes pentes, Steuccius. 8 v. rulus. 8 v. Of Part 1 the first edition was printed by Lam- 105. Benedicam. M.Fraetorius. Cv. 114. Corde natus. Vulpius. 8 7 . berg of Leipsic in 1603, and contains 89 motets— 106. Benedicam. Francua. 8 v. '115. Deusspesnostra. Vulpius. 87* increased in the 2nd edition (1618) to 120. PART LT (1621). Part 2 appeared in 1621, and contained 150 1. Alleln zu dir Herr. M. Roth. 54. Sanctificavit Dominus. C. E r 8 voices. I bach. 8 v. motets. There is no score of the work. It was mea exspectat. F . Weis- 55. Tribularer, si. L. Leon ins. 8 v . published, like our own 'Barnard,' in separate 2. Anima sensee. 8 v. 56. Super numina Babylonia. A, Savetta. 8 v. parts, small 4to—8 of the first part, and 9 of the 3. An Wasserfliissen Babylon 3. 0. F. Walliser. 8 v. 57. Si acuero, ut fulgur. Viaflana, second—including in the latter case a Basso con- 4. Benedicat te Deus. M. Roth. 8v. 8v. 58. Tota pulcra es. L. Balbus. 8 v. tinuo part. A copy of the work is in the British E, Beat! omnes. Anon. 8 v. 59. Veni in hortum. C.Viuceutius. Museum. Ita contents are as follows :— 6. Benedictus es Dom. F. C. Ga6v. P A E T I (1018). Paternoster. L.Hasler. 8voices, 56. Nuncdimittis. Anon. 5 7. Exultat cor raeum. Anon. 8 v. 57 A Domino factum. Basler. 8 Y . Benedicam. A. Gabriel. 8 v. 58. Surge propera. H. Praetorius. Deus meus. Erbach. 8 v. 8 v. Man vrird zu Zion. Hausman. fi9. Quam pulchra es. Bodenschatz. 5 v. 87. 6a Tristis est anima. Orlandus. 6. Quaerite. Calvisius. 8 v. 5v. 7. Audi hymnum, Bodenschatz, 61. Adoramuste. Gallus. 6 v. 8v. 8. Laudate puen. Orlandus. 7 v. 62. Filiae Jerusalem. Gallus. 8 v. 9. Laudate Dominum. Easier. 8v. 63. Dominus Jesus. Gallus. 8 v. 10. Repleaturosmeum. Gallus. 5v 64. Ecce quomodo. Gallus. 4 v. 11. Confitebor. Orlandus. 8v. 65. Alleluia. Gallus. 8 v. 12. Nisi Dominus. Anon. 8 v. 66. Tulerunt Dominum. Mas13. Beatus vir. Gallus. 8 v. sainus. 8 v. 14. Deus adiutor. Eremita. 8 7. 67. Tulerunt Dominum. H. Prae15. Exultate. Gabriel. 8 v. torius. 8 v. 16. Laudate Dominum. Annn, 8 v. 68. Angelus Domini. C. Erbach. 17. Deus oaaticum. Fabricius. 6 v. Bv. 18. Cantate'Domino. Ammonis. 8v. 69. O viri, O GalilaeL Boschettus. 19. Exultate. Dulichius. 8 v. 8v. 20. Sacerdotes stabant. Anon. 8v. 70. Veni Bancte. Gallus. 8 v. 21. Cantate Domino. Anon. 8 v. 71. Hodie completi. A.Gabriel. 7 v . 22. Exaudiat te Domimis. Fabri- 72. Hodie completi. Gallus. 8 v. cius. 6 v. 73. Adesto unus Deus. Neander. 23. Sispraeaens Deus, Fabritius. 6v. 8 7. 24. Ego sum panis. Gallus. 5 v. 74. Duo seraphim. Ingignerus. 8 v . 25. Domine quid. Orlandus. 6 v. 75. Te Deum patrem. H. Fraeto26. Cor mundum. Anon. 6 v. rius. 8 v. 7fi. Te Deum patrem. Erbach. 8 v. 27. Media vita. Gallus. 8 v. 77. Factum est. H. Praetorius. 2$. Cibavit nos. Bassauus. 8 v. 29. Oquammetuendus. Gallus. 8v. 87. 30. Jubilate. Giovanelli. 8 v. 78. Jam non dicam. Gallus. 6 v. 31. Domine Dominus noster. Er- 79. Gaudent in coelis. Fabricius. bach. 8 v. 6 v. 80. Jam non dicam. Fhinot. 8 v. 32. Jubilate. Marentius. 8 7. 81. Ingrediente Domino. Zala33. Cantate. Horologius. 8 v. 34. Laudate Dominum. Cautoni mella. 5 v. 82. Hierusalem gaude. Gallus. 6v. 8 7. 85. Laudate Dominum. Venturus. 83. Non auferetur scept. Meiland. 8v. 8Y. 84. Veni Domini. Gallus. 8 v. 86. Veniet tempus. Gallus. 87. 85. Fraeter rerum. Calvisius. 6 v . 37. Audi tellus. Gallus. 8 v. 38. Non vos relinquam. Fabricius. 86. Von Himel hoch. Calvisius. 6v. 6 v. 39. Hymnum cantate. Massainus. 87. Freut euch. Calvisius. 6 v. 83. Gloria in excelsis. Calvisius. 8v. 40. In convertendo. Orlandus. 8v. 89. Joseph, lieber Joseph, Calvisius. 6 v. 41. O Domine Jesu Christe. A. Finis tof the edition of 1603]. Gabriel. 8 v. 42. Levavi oculos. Orlandus. 8 v. 85. Gloria tibi Domine. H. Praetorius. 7 v. 43. Deus misereatur. Bischoff. 8Y. 8R. Non auferetur. Rothius. 7 Y . 44. Confitemini. Orlandus. 5 v. 45. Domine quis habitabit Er- 87. Hosianna. Mauritius Landgr. Hassiae. 8 v. bach. 6 v. 46. Deus in adiutor. Orlandus 6 7. 88. Hierusalem gaude. Zangius. 8T. 47. Domine, quando veneris. Gal89. Cum natus esset Jesus. Wallus. 6 Y. liser. 8v. 48. Jubilate. F. "Weissensee. 8 v. 49. Cantate Domino. Gallus. 8 v. 90. Hodie Christus. Anon. 8 v. 50. Angelus ad pastores. Orlandus. 91 Das alte Jahr. M. Praetorius. 8 7. 5v. 51. Nesciens mater. Erbach. 5v. 92. Herre nun lestu. Demantius. 6v. 52. Angelus ad pastores. H. Prae93. Ave gratia plena. Bianciardi. torius. 8 v. 6v. 53. Quem vidistis pastores. A. Ga94. Surrexit Christus. Zangius. briel. 8 7 . 8v. 54. Das alte Jahr. Calvisius. 8 v. 55. Sur-e illumiuaro. U. Praeto- 95. Apparnerunt Apostolis. Vinceutius. 8 Vm rius, 8 Y. L 2. S. 4. 5.

butius. 8 v. 7. Congregati sunt. M. Roth. 8 v. 8. Confitemini. C. Vinceutius (vel Capilupus). 8 v. 9. Confitebor tibi in Organis. M. Vulpius. 8 v. 10. Cantate Domino. A. Pacellus. 87. 11. Dominus regnavit. M. Roth8v. 12. DerHerrwirddieh. Do. 8v. 13. Domine quis habitabit. Gabutius. 7v. 14. Domine Jesu. Luyton. 6 v. 15. Deus misereatur nostri. Pallavicinus. 8 v. 16. Domine quis habitabit. Anon. 8v. 17. De profundis clamavi. T. Eiccius. 8 v. 18. Deus meus ad te. Hasler. 6 v. 19. Domini est terra. Capilupus.

87. 20. Deus in adiutorium. Anon. 8 v. 21. Domine quid multiplicati. Anon. 8 v. 22. Ecce nunc benedicite. Anon. 87. 23. Ecce quam bonum. Anon. 8 v. 24. Exultate Deo. G. Zuchinius. 8v. 25. Factum est, dum irot. M. Vulpius. 10 v. 26. Felix o ter. Anon. 8 v. 27. Foedera coniugii. Anon. 8 v. 28. Gemmula carbunculi. Anon. 29. Homo quidam. M. Vulpius. 8 v. 30. Herr, vf enn ich nur. M. Franck. 87. 31. Ich hab's gewagt. M.Roth. 8v. 32. I n Domino gaudebimus. H . Roth. 8 7. 33. Ich beschvcere euch. F . Weissensee. 8 7. 34. Jubilate Deo. Anon. 8 v. 35. Iniquos odio habui, L. Maren-

tius. 8 Y.

60. Veni in hortum. M.Roth. Sv. 61. Venite ad me omnes. V. Ilertholusius. 8 v. 62. fnser Leben. S. Calvislns. s v. 63. IchdankeDir. E.Bodenscliatz. 87. 64. Zion'spricht. S. Calvisius. flv. 65. Oremus praeceptis. C. J. Walliser. 8 v . 66. Jubilate Deo. J.Gabriel. 8 Y. 67. Jubilate. L. Marentius. 8 v . 68. Cibavit nos. J. Bellus. 8 v. 69. In te Domine speravi. Pallavicinus. 8v. 70. Canite tuba in Sion. B. Fallavicinus. 8 v. 71. Hosanna in excelsis. F . Weissensee. 8 v. 72. Jerusalem gaude. ,C. Demantius. 8 v. 78. Alleluia Cantate. J . L . Easier. 8v. 74. Angelus ad pastores. N. Zang. 6v. 75. Hodie Christus. L.Ealbns. 7 Y. 76. HodieChristus, C.Erbarli. Sv. 77. Quem vidistis. F.osculatu-. - v . 78. Surgitepastores. Biaucianlus. 8 7. 79. ClaritasDomini, C.Vincentius, 87. SO. Jam plausus. C. Demantius. 8v. 8L Quid concinunt. F. Eianciardus. 5 Y. 82. Osculetur me. V. Bertholusius. 7 v. 83. Gloria tibi Domine. C. Vincentius. 8 v. 84 Sit nomea Domini. Borsarus. 8v. 85. Stellam quam viderant. P . de Monte. 7 v. 86. Nuncdimittis. H.Stabilis. 8 7 . Valcampus. 87. Senex puerum, 6v. 88. Plaudat nunc organis. L. Balbus. £. v. 89. Beataes. Steffaninus. 7 v . 90. Ecce tu pulchra es. A.Boraarus

36. Lieblich und schSn. M. Roth. 7 7. 37. Lobe den Herrn. Anon. 8 7. 91. 38. Levavi oculos. Anon. 8v. 39. Lobe den Herrn. Hartman. 92. 8v. 40. Moribus insanctis. Anon. 8 v. 93. 41. Nun lob mein. C. T. Walliser 94. 5v. 42. Non est bonum. M. Roth. 8 v. 43. Obsecro vos fratres. 8. Gallus. 95. 8v. 44. Populi omnes. M. Roth. 8 v. 96. 45. Pater peccavi. J. B. Pinnellus. 97. 8v. 46. Quemadmodum desiderat. L. 98. Balbus. 8 7 . 47. Querite primum. Zanpius. 6v. 48. Quam dilecta. A. Patartus. 6 7 . 99. 49. Quam in coelo. W. Franck. 6v. 100. 50. Qui habitat in. Viarlana. 8v. 51. Pi quis dilicit me. M. Roth. 8v. 101. 52. Surge propera. M. Roth, s v. 53. Si bona suscepimus. L.Hasler. 102.

8v.

8v. Angelus Domini nuntiavit. N. Farma. 8 v. Ave rex. F. Bianciardus. 8 v . O Domine Jesu. L. Leonius. 8 v. Tristis est anima. Agazzarius. 8v. Ponam inimicitias. M. Roth. 8v. . SteffaniChristus resurgi Alleluia surrexit. H. Ballionus. 6 v. Quemquaeris. Orph.Vecchus. 6v. Expurgate vetus. P.Euel. 6 7 Cognoverunt discipuli. L. Cu« sali us. 8 v. Burgite populi. H. Vecchus. 8v. Tulerunt Dominum, A. Sayetla. 8 v .

EODENSCHATZ.

BOESENDOKFER.

103. Angelus Domini descendit. L..128. Fuithomo. H. Fraetorius. 5 T . Leonius. 8 v. 129. Tu es Petrus. M. Franck. 8 v. 104. Alleluia. H. Steuccius. 8 v. 130. Petre, amas me? L. Leouius. 8T. 105. Siuget dem Herro. M. Roth. 131. Audivi vocem de coelo. J. 8v. 106. Maria Magdalena. Anon. 8v. 107. Dura rex gloriae. Anon, 8 v. 132. Factum est praelium. J. T. 108. Exurgat Deus. A. Pacellus. I Tribiolus. 6 v. 133. Factum est praelium. L. Bal8v. bus. 8 v. 109. Exiviapatre. F . B. Dulcinus. 134. Factum est silentium. C. 8v. Porta. 8 v. 110. Jam non dlcam. F . Gabriel. 135. Venit Michael. Anon. 8 v. 8v. 111. O viri,o Galllaei. J. Croce. S T . 136. Cantabant sancti. B. Regius. 8T. 112. Iu nomine Jesu. Steffauinus. 137. Hi sunt, qui venerunt, H. Sta8T. bilis. 8 v. 113. Hodie completi sunt. L. Val138. Hie est vere. A. Agazzarius. campus. 6 v. 8v. 114. Hodie completi sunt O. Cata139. SanctisApostolis. G. Zuchini. lanus. 8 v. 315. Dum complerentur. Fallavi7 v. cinus. 8 v. 140. Audivi vocem Angelorum. L. 116. Veni Sancte Spiritua. N. 2aoLeonius. 8 v. 141. Gaudent in coelis. Demangius. 8 v. 117. Intermit de coelo. Aichinger. tius. Rv. 142. Isti sunt Triumphatores. C. 6 v. 118. Invocamus te. Anon. 8 v. Bertus vel Demantius. v. *. 110. Duo Seraphim. F. Croatius. Sv. 143. Exultemus Domino. B Eag120. O altitudo. F. Osculatus. 8v. nius. 8 v. 121. Te Deum patrem. C. Val- 144. Laudate Dominum, H. Pericampus. 6 v. nus. 7 v. 122. Tres sunt, qui. A. Pacellus. 145 Jubilate Deo. B. Fallavicinus.

struction of his numerous pupils, among whom it will suffice to name Ernst, Joachim, L. Straus, Helmesberger, and Singer. In fact all the excellent violinists who during the last thirty years have come from Vienna were pupils either of Boehm or Mayseder, or both. These two masters appear to have supplemented each other by the different bent of their talents : Mayseder excelling chiefly by brilliant technique, while breadth of tone and thorough musical style were the prominent features of Boehm's playing. He has published a number of compositions for the violin, polonaises, variations, a concertino, also a string-quartet, which however are of no importance. [P. D.] BOEHM, THEOBALD, a flute-player of distinction, and Kammer-musicus at Munich, born about the commencement of the present century. Besides composing many brilliant works for his instrument, he introduced several notable improvements in its mechanism; especially a new fingering which bears his name, and was introduced in London about the year 1834. It has been found applicable also to the oboe and bassoon, and has been adapted by Klose to the clarinet, though with less success than in the other cases, owing to the foundation of the latter scale on the interval of a twelfth. Its principal peculiarity is the avoidance of what are termed ' cross-fingered' notes; viz. those which are produced by closing a hole below that through which the instrument is speaking. For this purpose the semitone is obtained by pressing down the middle finger of either hand, and the corresponding whole tone, by doing the same with the forefinger. A large number of duplicate fingerings is also introduced, which facilitate passages previously impracticable. On theflutethe system has the advantage of keeping different keys more on a level as regards difficulty: E major, for instance, which on the old eight-keyed instrument was false, uneven in tone, and mechanically difficult, is materially simplified. On the other hand it to a certain extent alters the quality of the tone, making it coarser and less characteristic. It also complicates the mechanism, rendering the instrument heavier, and more liable to leakage. Boehm's method has been generally adopted by flute-players both in this country and abroad. KJose's modification applied to the clarinet is used in France for military bands; many of Bohm's contrivances are incorporated in the oboes of M. Barret as made by Triebert of Paris, and arefiguredunder the heading COK ANGLAIS. Bassoons on this system are rarely to be met with. [W. H. S.] BOESENDORFER, LUDWIG, a pianofortemaker in Vienna. Ignaz Bb'sendorfer founded the firm in 1828. His son Ludwig succeeded him in 1859, and soon abandoning the cheaper build and mechanism identified with Vienna, that had influenced the technique of the Viennese school of pianists from the days of Mozart, adopted modern notions of tension and framing and an action of his own, grafting English principles

254

8 v.

j

8 v.

123. Tibi laus, tibi gloria. Anerius. 1146. Exultavit cor meum. N. P a r 8 v. | ma. 8 v. 124. Te Deum patrem. V. Eertho- 147. EzultateDeo. A Savetta. 8v. lusius. 8 v. 148. VespereautemSabbathi.Anon. 12o. Puer, qui natus est. 0 . Val8 v. campus. 6 v. 149. Laudate nomen Domini. J. 126. Puer, qui natus est. H.Prae- 1 Gabriel. 8 v. torius. 8 v . j 150. t a u d a t e Domiaum. J . Croce. 127. Et t u puer. C. Vincentius. 8 v.' 8 v.

[G.] BOEHM, organist at Wehlan in East Prussia about 1770, one of the latest composers whose chorales are included in the choral-books. [F. G.] BOEHM, ELIZABETH, singer, born at Riga 1756, made her first appearance 1783; afterwards married the tenor Cartellieri at Strelitz, from whom she separated, and married again Boehm the actor, under whose name she became one of the most favourite actresses of the Berlin national theatre. She was the first to play Donna Elvira in Berlin (1790). She died 1797. [F. G.] BOEHM, HEINRICH, born 1836 at Blasria in Bohemia, where his father was leader of the choir and composer of the opera of 'Krathonos' (Riibezahl). Heinrich himself has composed 35 operas and operettas in Bohemian, and his name is well known on the stage of that country. [F. G.] BOEHM, JOSEPH, a violinist of repute, born at Pesth in 1798. He was a pupil first of his father, and then of Rode, who took a lively interest in his talent. After having played with much success at Vienna in 1815 he travelled for several years in Italy, giving concerts in most of the principal towns. On his return to Vienna in 1819 he was appointed professor of the violin at the Conservatorium, which post he occupied till 1848. In 1821 he became a member of the imperial band, and retired in 1868. From 1823 to 1825 he travelled in Germany and France, earning applause everywhere for the soundness of his tone, his irreproachable technique, and his healthy musical style. But it is as a teacher that Boehm's name has won a permanent place in the history of modern violin-playing. For 50 years he resided at Vienna—(where he died, March 23, 1876)—devoting his powers to the in-

BOESENDORFER.

BOIELDIEU.

upon Viennese. By these changes he has raised his instruments to a place beside those of other acknowledged leading pianoforte-makers in Austria and Germany. [A. J. H.l BOESSET, ANTOINE, born about 1585, died 1643, ' conseiller du roi' and • surintendant de la musique des chambres du roi et de la reine' under Louis X I I I ; composer of court ballets, 24 in number, and ten books of airs in four and five parts, which attained immense popularity in their day. An English translation of the first book of his airs appeared with the title ' Court Ayres with their Ditties Englished' (London, 1629). He was succeeded in his posts and titles at the court of Louis XIV by his son JEAN BAPTISTE, born 1612, died 1685, and he, in 1667,

Domestic dissensions were perhaps the reason why our composer, when his talent for music began to show itself, exchanged the house of his parents for that of his maBter, the organist of the cathedral, Broche, who, although an excellent musician and pupil of the celebrated Padre Martini, was known as a drunkard, and occasionally treated Boieldieu with brutality. On one occasion, it is said, the boy had stained one of hia master's books with ink, and in order to evade the cruel punishment in store for him escaped from Broche's house and went on foot to Paris, where he was found after much trouble by his family. Whether he returned to Broche seems uncertain. Neither are we informed of any other master to whom the composer owed the rudimentary knowledge of his art. This knowledge, however acquired, was put to the test for the first time in 1793, when an opera by Boieldieu, called 'La fille coupable' (words by his father) was performed at Rouen with considerable success. It has hitherto been believed that Boieldieu left Rouen for Paris immediately, or at least very soon after, this first attempt. This however must be a mistake, unless we accept the improbable conjecture of a second temporary sojourn in the capital. Certain it is that Boieldieu was again in Rouen October 28, 1795, when another opera by him, 'Rosalie et Myrza,' was performed at the theatre of that city. The success of this second venture does not seem to have been brilliant, to judge at least by the -Journal de Rouen,' which after briefly noticing the book observes silence with regard to the music. Many of Boieldieu's charming ballads and chansons owe their origin to this period, and added considerably to the local reputation of the young composer. Much pecuniary advantage he does not seem to have derived from them, for Cochet, the Paris publisher of these minor compositions, told Fetis that Boieldieu was glad to part with the copyright for the moderate remuneration of twelve francs apiece. Soon after the appearance of his second opera Boieldieu left Rouen for good. Ambition and the consciousness of power caused him to be dissatisfied with the narrow sphere of his native city, particularly after the plan (advocated by him in an article in the ' Journal de Rouen,' entitled ' Reflexions patriotiques sur l'utilite1 de l'^tude de la musique') of starting a music school on the model of the newly-founded Conservatoire had failed.

by his son CLAUDE JEAN BAPTISTE, born about

1636, who composed, in addition to ballets for the court, a series of duets called 'Fruits d'Automne' (Paris, 1684). [M. C. C] BOHEMIAN GIRL, THE, a grand opera in three acts; the libretto adapted by Bunn from Fanny Ellsler's ballet of 'The Gipsy' (not the ' Gitana') ; the music by Balfe. Produced at Drury Lane Nov. 27,1843, also at Her Majesty's Feb. 6, 58, as 'La Zingara' (Piccolomini as Arline); and in December, 69, at the Theatre Lyrique, Paris, as 'La Bohe'mienne,' with additions by the composer. BOHRER, the name of a family of musicians. (1) CASPAR, born 1744 at Mannheim, trumpeter in the court band, and remarkable performer on the double-bass; called to Munich in 1778, and died there Nov. 4, 1809. (2) His son and pupil ANTON, born at Munich, 1783, learned the violin from Kreutzer, and composition from Winter and Danzi, and became violin-player in the court orchestra at Munich. With his brother MAX (born 1785) he undertook in 1810 an extensive tour, ending in Russia, where they narrowly escaped transportation to Siberia as employe's of the King of Bavaria, Napoleon's ally. In 1823 the brothers were appointed to the royal orchestra in Berlin, but quarrelling with Spontini lost their posts. Anton then resided in Paris till 1834, when he was made Concertmeister at Hanover. Max obtained a similar position at Stuttgart. The brothers married two sisters of Ferdinand David and of Madame Dulcken. Anton's daughter, SOPHIE, a girl of much promise as a piano-player, died in 1849 at Petersburg, aged 21. [F. G.] BOIELDIEIT, FBAN5018 ADKIEN,1 was bom December 16 (not 15), 1775, at Rouen, where his father held the position of secretary to Archbishop Larochefoucauld. His mother kept a milliner's shop in the same city. The union does not seem to have been a happy one. We know at least that during the Revolution the elder Boieldieu availed himself of the law of divorce passed at that time to separate from his first wife and contract a second marriage. 1 An important work by A. Pougin, ' Boieldieu: aa vie, ses ceuvres, son caractere, sa correspondance,' published in 1875, has thrown new light on the composer's career, and corrected many erroneous statements made by fetis and other biographers.

255

To Paris therefore Boieldieu went for a second time, with an introduction from Garat the singer to Jadin (a descendant of the well-known Belgian family of musicians), at whose house he found a hospitable reception, and became acquainted with the leading composers of the day, Cherubini amongst the number. Boieldieu made his d^but as an operatic composer in the capital with the 'Famille Suisse,' which was performed at the Theatre Feydeau in 1797, and had a run of thirty nights alternately with Cherubini's ' Medee.' Other operas followed in rapid succession, amongst which we mention ' Zoraime et Zulnare' (written

BOIELDIEU.

BOIELDIEU.

before 1796, but not performed till 1798), 'La Dot de Suzette' (same year"), 'Beniowski' (after a drama by Kotzebue; performed in 1800 at the Theatre Favart\ and 'Le Calife de Bagdad' (performed in September of the same year with enormous success). To these operatic works ought to be added some pieces of chamber music, which we mention less for their inlrinsic value than for the sake of completeness. They are, according to Fetis, a concerto and six sonatas for pianoforte, a concerto for harp, a duo for harp and pianoforte, and three trios for pianoforte, harp, and violoncello. To the success of these minor compositions Boieldieu owed his appointment as professor of the pianoforte at the Conservatoire in 1800. With the same year we may close the first period of Boieldieu's artistic career. The 'Calife de Bagdad' is the last and highest effort of this period. If Boieldieu had died after finishing it he would be remembered as a charming composer of pretty tunes cleverly harmonised and tolerably instrumented, in short as an average member of that French school of dramatic music of which he is now the acknowledged leader. Eoieldieu's first manner is chiefly characterised by an absence of style—of individual style at least. Like most men of great creative power and of autodidactic training, like Wagner for instance, Boieldieu began by unconsciously adopting, and reproducing with great vigour, the peculiarities of other composers. But every new advance of technical ability implied with him a commensurate step towards original conception, and his perfect mastery of the technical resources of his art coincided with the fullest growth of his genius. During this earlier period matter and manner were as yet equally far from maturity. This want of formal certainty was felt by the composer himself, if we may believe a story told by Fetis, which, although somewhat doubtful on chronological grounds, is at any rate plausibly invented. He relates that, during the composition of the ' Calif of Bagdad,' Boieldieu used to submit every new piece as he wrote it to the criticism of his pupils at the Conservatoire. When, as happened frequently, these young purists took exception at their master's harmonic peccadilloes, the case was referred to Mehul, to whose decision, favourable or unfavourable, Boieldieu meekly submitted. Considering that at the time Boieldieu was already a successful composer of established reputation, his modesty cannot be praised too highly. But such diffidence in his own judgment is incompatible with the consciousness of perfect formal mastership.

the two men. Fetis strongly denies the fact of Boieldieu having received any kind of instruction or even advice from Cherubini—on what grounds it is not easy to perceive. Intrinsic evidence goes far to confirm the story. For after the ' Calif of Bagdad' Boieldieu did not produce another opera for three years, and the first work brought out by him after this interval shows an enormous progress upon the compositions of his earlier period. This work, called 'Ma tante Aurore,' was first performed at the Theatre Feydeau January 1803, and met with great success. In June of the same year the composer left France for St. Petersburg. His reasons for this somewhat sudden step have been stated in various ways. Russia at that time was the El Dorado of French artist3, and several of Boieldieu's friends had already found lucrative employment in the Emperor's service. But Boieldieu left Paris without any engagement or even invitation from the Russian court, and only on his reaching the Russian frontier was agreeably surprised by his appointment as conductor of the Imperial Ope^a, with a libural salary. It is very improbable that he should have abandoned his chances of further success in France, together with his professorship at the Conservatoire, without some cause sufficient to make change at any price desirable. Domestic troubles are named by most biographers as this additional reason. Boieldieu had in 1802 contracted an ill-advised marriage with Clotilde Mafleuray, a dancer; the union proved anything but happy, and it has been asserted that Boieldieu in his despair took to sudden flight. This anecdote however is sufficiently disproved by the fact recently discovered of his impending departure being duly announced in a theatrical journal of the time. Most likely domestic misery and the hope of fame and gain conjointly drove the composer to a step which, all things considered, one cannot but deplore. Artistically speaking the eight years spent by Boieldieu in Russia must be called all but total eclipse. By his agreement he was bound to compose three operas a year, besides marches for military bands, the libretti for the former to be found by the Emperor. But these were not forthcoming, and Boieldieu was obliged to take recourse to books already set to music by other composers. The titles of numerous vaudevilles and operas belonging to the Russian period might be cited, such as ' Rien de trop,' ' La jeune femme colere,' 'Les voitures versees,' 'Aline, reine de Golconde' (to words previously set by Berton), and 'Telemaque'; also the choral portions of Racine's 'Athalie.' Only the threefirst-mentionedworks were reproduced by Boieldieu in Paris; the others he assigned to oblivion. ' Telemaque' ought to be mentioned as containing the charming air to the words ' Quel plaisir d'etre en voyage,' afterwards transferred to ' Jean de Paris.'

256

After one of the successful performances of the 'Calife' Cherubini accosted the elated composer in the lobby of the theatre with the words ' Malheureux ! are you not ashamed of such undeserved success?' Boieldieu's answer to-this brusque admonition was a. request for further musical instruction, a request immediately granted by Cherubini, and leading to a severe course of ci mtrapuntal training under the great Italian master. The anecdote rests on good evidence, and is in perfect keeping with the characters of

In 1811 Boieldieu returned to PariB, where great changes had taken place in the meantime. Dalayrac was dead ; Mehul and Cherubini, disgusted with the fickleness of public taste, kept silence; Nicolo Isouard was the only rival to be

BOIELDIEU.

BOIELDIEU.

feared. But Boieldieu had not been forgotten by his old admirers. The revival of ' Ma tante Aurore' and the first performance in Paris of an improved version of ' Rien de trop' were received with applause, which increased to a storm of enthusiasm when in 1812 one of the composer's most charming operas, ' Jean de Paris,' saw the light. This is one of the two masterpieces on which Boieldieu's claim to immortality must mainly rest. As regards refined humour and the gift of musically delineating a character in a few masterly touches, this work remains unsurpassed even by Boieldieu himself; in abundance of charming melodies it is perhaps inferior, and inferior only, to the ' Dame Blanche.' No other production of the French school can rival either of the two in the sustained development of the excellences most characteristic of that school. The Princess of Navarre, the Page, the Seneschal, are indestructible types of loveliness, grace, and humour. After the effort in 'Jean de Paris' Boieldieu's genius seemed to be exhausted: nearly fourteen years elapsed before he showed in the 'Dame Blanche' that his dormant power was capable of still higher flights. We will not encumber the reader's memory with a list of names belonging to the intervening period, which would have to remain names only. Many of these operas were composed in collaboration •with Cherubim, Catel, Isouard, and others ; only 'Le nouveau seigneur de village' (1S13) and 'Le petit Chaperon rouge' (1818), both by Boieldieu alone, may be mentioned here. After the successful production of the last-named opera, Boieldieu did not bring out a new entire work for seven years. In December 1825 the long expected 'Dame Blanche' saw the light, and was received with unprecedented applause. Boieldieu modestly ascribes part of this success to the national reaction against the Rossiniworship of the preceding years. Other temporary causes have been cited, but the first verdict has been confirmed by many subsequent audiences. Up till June 1875 the opera has been performed at one and the same theatre 1340 times, and yet its melodies sound as fresh and are received with as much enthusiasm as on that eventful night of December 10, 1825, so graphically described by Boieldieu's pupil Adam. Such pieces as the cavatina 'Viens gentille dame,' the song ' D'ici voyez ce beau domaine,' or the trio at the end of the first act. will never fail of their effect as long as the feeling for true grace remains.

which in the two other composers marks the beginning of the decline and fall of the school. Peculiar to Boieldieu is a certain homely sweetness of melody, which proves its kinship to that source of all truly national music, the popular song. The ' Dame Blanche' might indeed be considered as the artistic continuation of the chanson, in the same sense as Weber's ' Der Freischutz' has been called a dramatised Volkslied. With regard to Boieldieu's work this remark indicates at the same time a strong development of what in a previous article has been described as the 'amalgamating force of French art and culture'; for it must be borne in mind that the subject treated is Scotch. The plot is a compound of two of Scott's novels, the ' Monastery' and ' Guy Mannering.' Julian, (alias George Brown), comes to his paternal castle unknown to himself. He hears the songs of his childhood, which awaken old memories in him; but he seems doomed to misery and disappointment, for on the day of his return his hall and his broad acres are to become the property of a villain, the unfaithful steward of his own family. Here is a situation full of gloom and sad foreboding. But Scribe and Boieldieu knew better. Their hero is a dashing cavalry officer, who makes love to every pretty woman he comes across, the 'White Lady of Avenel' amongst the number. Yet nobody who has witnessed the impersonation of George Brown by the great Roger can have failed to be impressed with the grace and noble gallantry of the character. The Scotch airs, also, introduced by Boieldieu, although correctly transcribed, appear, in their harmonic and rhythmical treatment, thoroughly French. The tune of ' Robin Adair,' described as 'le chant ordinaire de la tribu d'Avenel,' would perhaps hardly be recognised by a genuine North Briton; but what it has lost in raciness it has gained in sweetness. So much about the qualities which Boieldieu has in common with all the good composers of his school; in one point however he remains unrivalled by any of them, viz. in the masterly and thoroughly organic structure of his ensembles. Rousseau, in giving vent to his whimsical aversion to polyphony, says that it is as impossible to listen to two different tunes played at the same time as to two persons speaking simultaneously. True in a certain sense; unless these tunes represent at once unity and divergence—oneness, that is, of situation, and diversity of feelings excited by this one situation in various minds. We here touch upon one of the deepest problems of dramatic music, a problem triumphantly solved in the second act of the 'Dame Blanche.' In the finale of that act we have a large ensemble of seven solo voices and chorus. All these comment upon one and the same event with sentiments as widely different as can well be imagined. We hear the disappointed growl of baffled vice, the triumph of loyal attachment, and the subdued note of tender love—all mingling with each

The 'Dame Blanche' is the finest work of Boieldieu, and Boieldieu the greatest master of the French school of comic opera. It is therefore difficult to speak of the composer, and of the work most characteristic of his style, without repeating to some extent, in a higher key of eulogy, what has already been said in these pages of other masters of the same school. With Auber, Boieldieu shares verve of dramatic utterance, with Adam piquancy of rhythmical structure, while he avoids almost entirely that bane of modern music, the dance-rhythm,

257

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258

BOIELDIETT.

BOLLA.

other and yet arranged in separate groups of graphic distinctness. This ensemble, and indeed the whole auction scene, deserve the appellation classical' in the highest sense of the word. The remainder of Boieldieu's life is sad to relate. He produced another opera, called ' Les Deux Nuits,' in 1829, but it proved a failure, owing chiefly to the dull libretto by Bouilly, which the composer had accepted from good nature. This disappointment may have fostered the pulmonary disease, the germs of which Boieldieu had brought back from Russia. In vain he sought recovery in the mild climate of Southern France. Pecuniary difficulties increased the discomforts of his failing health. The bankruptcy of the OpeVa Comique and the expulsion of Charles X, from whom he had received a pension, deprived Boieldieu of his chief sources of income. At last M. Thiers, the minister of Louis Philippe, relieved the master's anxieties by a government pension of 6000 francs. Boieldieu died October 8, 1834, at Jarcy, his country house, near Paris. The troubles of his last years were shared and softened by his second wife, to whom the composer was united in 1827 after a long and tender attachment. By her he had a son, ADRIEN, born in 1816, and edu-

cated at the Conservatoire under his father. He is the author of several comic operas, some of which have been successfully performed at the Opera Comique and other theatres. It is perhaps chiefly the burden of his name which prevents him from taking a more distinguished position amongst contemporary French composers. At the centenary celebration of his father's birthday at Kouen a comic opera by the younger Boieldieu, called ' La Halte du Koi' was per[F. H.] formed with great success. BOLERO. A brisk Spanish dance in 3-4 time. The earliest form of its rhythm was 3 4

rrrir'LCJI

which later became

M CJLLLTI r' LIJ I while to the longer notes of the accompaniment shorter melody notes were given, and rtrc rnsii. Gradually the rhythm of the castanets, which were used as an accompaniment to the dance by the dancers themselves, was introduced into the music, which now assumed this form

The bolero usually consists of two chief parts, each repeated, and a trio. The Castanet rhythm above referred to mostly commences at least one bar before the melody. Good examples of the bolero may be found in Mehul's 'Les deux Aveujles,' Weber's ' Preciosa' (gipsy-ballet), and A liber's ' Masaniello.' We give the opening of the last as an illustration

[E. P.] BOLLA, SIGNORA, an Italian prima buffa, who sang in London at the opera in 1794. She was a very pretty woman, and a' pleasing, genteel actress,' who with a better voice would have been an excellent singer. She was very successful in Paisiello's 'Zingari,' and in 'Nina,' which latter she chose for her benefit, with spoken dialogue instead of recitative ; but this waa considered an infringement of the rights of the English theatres, and after a few nights it was stopped • by authority.' In 1802 she was singing at Paris in opera buffa with Lazzarini and Strinasacchi. [J. M.]

BOLOGNA.

BOMTEMPO.

BOLOGNA. The first school for instruction in music in Italy was founded at Bologna in 1482 by Pope Nicholas V., when Bartolommeo Ramis Pereja, a Spaniard, was summoned from Salamanca to preside over it. Spataro (so called because he was by trade a maker of scabbards), one of the early Italian writers on music in the 15th century, was a disciple of Pereja. In the 16th and 17th centuries Bologna had as many as thirty academies for the promotion of various sciences and arts. Four out of this number were musical, not including that of the 'Gelati' (founded 1588) which comprehended every science and art, andflourishedthroughout the 16th century. One of its members, Girolamo Desideri, wrote a valuable treatise on music. The four are as follows :— 1. ' Dei Concordi,' founded in 1615. The arms chosen by this institution were—three timepieces, a clock, an hour glass, and a dial. The motto—'Tendimus una.' 2. 'Dei Filomusi,' founded in 1622 by Girolamo Giacobbi, a learned classical composer of the Bolognese school and 'Maestro di Capella' of San Petronio. This academy was entirely devoted to the study of musical science. Device—a bush of reeds, with the motto ' Vocis dulcedine captant.' 3. ' Dei Filaschici,' opened in 1633. Device— David's harp; motto—' Orbem demulcet attactu.' The object of this institution was to inquire into the science of sound. 4. 'Dei Filarmonici,' instituted in 1675 by Vincenzo Carrati entirely for music. Burney, in his 'Tour' of 1773 (p. 230), speaks of this academy as still in existence. He was present at a kind of trial of skill amongst the academicians which took place annually in the church of San Giovanni in Monte. The members of this society each composed portions of the service, and Burney, whose opinion of the performance was asked, praises highly the variety of style and masterly compositions of the members. •At this performance,' he says, 'were present Mr. Mozart and his son, the little German whose premature and almost supernatural talents so much astonished us in London a few years ago when he had scarce quitted his infant state. He has been much admired at Rome and Naples, and has been honoured with the order of the Speron d'Oro by His Holiness, and was engaged to compose an opera at Milan for the next carnival.' Orlov ('Traite de Musique,' 1822), speaks of the performance of the sixteen hundred members of the philharmonic society at Bologna, in the cathedral of San Petronio, to celebrate the festival of the patron saint. But there is no mention of this society in the report of 1866 as to the state of musical education in Italy. In the 16th century there were but fewpractical musicians of the Bolognese school, though in the next, owing to these musical academies, the masters of the cathedral of San Petronio and other professors of the city were

equal to those of the first class in any other part of Europe. The result of these societies also appears in the series of musical dramas performed in Bologna since the year 1600. There seems to have been no public theatre in this city till 1680, when four operas were performed there 'nel Teatro Publico.' After this the music, which had previously been written by Venetian masters was supplied by members of the Bolognese academies. Among these were Petronio Franceschelli, who set the prologue to the opera of 'Caligula'; Giuseppe Felice Tosi, who composed ten operas between the years 1679 and 1691; Giacomo Antonio Perti, a composer of church music, but also employed in operas for Bologna and Venice; Giovanni Paolo Colonna, Maestro di Cappella di San Petronio; Aldobrandini Albergati; Pistocchi, who founded a famous Bolognese school of singing; and the renowned Padre Martini. The above list of names contains only a few of the famous composers and practical musicians which were formed in the great Bolognese school. [C. M. P.] BOLSETTI, an Italian primo buffo caricato, who with his wife, also a singer, played principal parts in the comic operas in London in 1789 j such as Cimarosa's ' Villana Riconosciuta,' etc. [J. M.] BOMBARDON, BOMBARD, BASS-POMMER OR BRUMMER, were originally names of the deeper varieties of the oboe or bassoon family; the bombardon, or largest instrument, reaching to contra F. From these the name was transferred to a bass reed-stop on the organ, with 16-foot tone. In the 'Traite de l'Orgue' by D. Bedos, it appears that the stop was sometimes carried down to 3 2-foot F. It was mainly employed in accompanying plain-chant. The name has more recently been given to the lowest of the saxhorns. It is usually tuned in E flat, for the convenience of military players, but a larger instrument in B flat is occasionally employed. There are two forms of the instrument ; the one like the euphonium in shape, but larger; the other circular, passing over the performer's shoulder, and with the bell directed forwards. The fundamental note of the first is the E flat of the 16-foot octave; that of the second [W. H. S.] the B flat in the 32-foot scale.

259

BOMTEMPO, JOAO DOMIITGOS, important

Portuguese musician and composer, born 1775 (not 1781) at Lisbon, settled in Paris 1795, visited London, returned to Paris, and finally went back to Lisbon in 1820 and became head of the Conservatoire. As instructor of the royal family he was made Knight of the Order of Christ, and chief director of the court band. He died Aug. 13,1842. Amongst his works the following deserve mention—Varicoes sobre o fandango; ' Messe de Requiem a la me'moire de Camoens'; Responsorii for Queen Carlotta Joaquina (1822); Missa solenne for the promulgation of the Constitution (1821); Requiems for Maria I. and Pedro IV.; Methodo de Piano S2

260

BOMTEMPO.

BOEGHI.

From three of these quotations it is evident (London, 1816) ; Alessandro nell Indie, opera seria. His style is clear and dignified, obviously that Bonny Boots was dead at the time. [F. G.] Various conjectures have been made as to his formed on Handel and Haydn. He has been supposed by Hawkins BOND, HUGH, appointed lay-vicar of Exeter identity. (Hist. chap. 106) to have been a Mr. Hale or Cathedral in 1762, was also organist of the Hales, whose singing had pleased the Queen. church of St. Mary Arches in that city. He Also the Earl of Essex, who was beheaded Feb. published 'Twelve Hymns and Four Anthems 25, 1601. But neither identification is anything for four voices' of his composition. Many of more than conjecture. his pupils rose to eminence in the profession. BONPORTI, FRANCESCO ANTONIO, bom about He-died in 1792. [W. H. H.] 1660 at Trient, was an Imperial Counsellor of BONNO or BONO, GIUSEPPE, son of one of the Austria, and occupied himself with music, in imperial running footmen, born at Vienna 171°. which he was one of the earliest instrumental Studied composition at Naples at the Emperor's composers of importance. His first work—Socost, and in 1738 was taken into the Imperial natas for 2 Violins and Bass—appeared in 1696 Hof-kapelle as Hof-scholar, from which he rose at Venice. These were followed by many others, to be Hof-compositeur (1739), and, on Gass- among which the most remarkable are 'Le trimann's death, Hof-kapellmeister (1774)- He omphe de la grande Alliance,' op. 8, and 100 was essentially a court-musician. His oratorios minuets for Violins and Bass. His ' Dodici Conwere executed after Lent at the court chapel, certini e Serenate,' etc., were printed at Augsand his 'festi teatrali,' or occasional cantatas, burg in 1741. [F. G.] were mostly performed by archduchesses before JAN VAN, flute-player, born at RotBOOM, their imperial parents. Bonno was for many years vice-president of the Ton-kiinstler Societiit, terdam 1773, belonged to the band of King and the society executed his oratorio of ' II Louis Bonaparte, settled at Utrecht and made Giuseppe ricognosciuto.' His Scores are pre- many successful tours in Germany. His works served in the Imperial Library and the Musik- chiefly consist of bravura pieces for the flute. Verein at Vienna, and they show a very moderate His son JAN, born at Utrecht Oct. 15, 1809, was amount of invention, sufficient to meet the wants brought up as a pianist, and after a tour in of the time and the society in which he lived, Sweden and Denmark in 1825 settled at Stockbut no more. He must however have had some holm, where in 1856 he became Professor in the qualities to make up for these defects, for Mozart Academy and Music School. In 1862 he visited (writing April 11, 1781, of the performances the chief capitals of Europe to examine the sysof one of his symphonies under Bonno's direction) tems of musical education. He has composed calls him 'der alte ehrliche brave Mann.' He Symphonies, Quartets, Trios, and Pianoforte [F. G.] died April 15, 1788. A fine Amen by him, in pieces of every description. the grand Italian style, is engraved in the FitzBOOSEY & CO., music publishers. This william music. [C. F. P.] house was established about 60 years ago by Thomas Boosey. He commenced business as an BONNY BOOTS. The nickname of a man importer of foreign music, and was one of the who appears to have been both a singer and very few persons then engaged in that trade. dancer of unequalled ability at the court of Eliza- Subsequently he became the English publisher beth, a devoted adherent of the Queen, and—as for Hummel, Romberg, De Beriot, Rossini, may be inferred from the style in which he is Vaccaj, Mercadante, and other well-known mentioned in verses published during her life- composers. The house was afterwards identified time—a personal favourite of hers. He is men- with the Italian operas of Bellini, Donizetti and tioned in the 9th and 25th Madrigals of the Verdi, until 1854, when a decision of the House 'Triumphs of Oriana,' a collection of pieces in of Lords deprived it of all its foreign copyrights. honour of Elizabeth, published in i6or :— This judgment caused the firm to lose 'La Sonnambula,' 'La Traviata,' 'II Trovatore,' and 9. 'Thus Bonny Boots the birthday celebrated ' Rigoletto," four of the most valuable properties Of her his lady deerest, Fair Oriana which to his hart was nearest.' that have existed in the music trade. This serious loss of copyrights caused the firm 25.' For Bonny Boots that so aloft could fetch it, to change its character, and it has since devoted Oh he is dead, and none of us can reach it.' its attention to the publication of popular EngAlso in the 1st and 9th of Morley's Canzonets lish music, and to the production of cheap and published in 1607 :— standard musical works. [G.] I. ' Fly Love that are so sprightly BORDONI, FAUSTINA. [See HASSE.J To Bonny Boots uprightly ; BORGHI, LUIGI, a violinist and composer; And when in Heaven thou meet him pupil of Pugnani; lived from about 1780 in Say that I kindly greet him, London, where we find him leader of the second And that his Oriana violins at the Handel Commemoration in 1784True widow-maid still followeth Diana.' He published violin solos ; duos for violins, vio9. ' Our Bonny Boots could toot it, lin and alto, violin and cello ; violin-concertos; symphonies for orchestra, and a set of Italian Yea and foot it ; [P. D.] Say lustie lads who now shall Bonny-Boot it.' canzonets.

BORJON". BORJON, CHARLES EMMANUEL (incorrectly

Bourgeon), advocate in the Parlement of Paris, author of many law-books, and an eminent amateur, born 1633, died in Paris 1691. He was a remarkable performer on the musette, and author of a 'Traite de la Musette' (Lyons, 1672), which contains a method of instruction, plates, and airs collected by him in various parts of France. Borjon was evidently a man of culture. He excelled in cutting out figures in parchment, some of which were noticed and valued by Louis XIV. [M. C. C ] BOROSINI, FRANCESCO. This admirable tenor singer was born at Bologna, according to Fetis, about 1695 ; and in 1723 was one of the principal singers at the Grand Opera at Prague. Very little more of his history is known ; but we have evidence that he came, with his wife, to London in 1724, and sang in operas ; as in 'Artaserse' by Ariosti, and Handel's 'Tamerlane.' In 1725 he appeared in 'Rodelinda' and 'Giulio Cesare' by Handel, in Ariosti's 'Dario,' and the pasticcio ' Elpidia' given by the former master, with recitatives of his own. The names of Borosini and his wife are not found again in England after 1725. His wife, LEONORA, nee D'AMBREVILLE, was originally French, and was a very remarkable contralto singer. In 1714, according to Fetis, she sang at the Palatine Court, and was engaged in 1723 for the Grand Opera at Prague, with her husband. When they were married is not known, but that they came to England together in 1724 is certain, for her name is found in the casts of the same operas in which he also performed. In ' Dario' and 'Elpidia' she is called Signora Sorosini, but this is a mere misprint. It is only curious that it should occur in two different works. [J. M.] BORSELLI, an Italian singer who, with his wife Elisabetta, performed in comic operas in London in 1789 and 90; such as Martini's 'Cosa Rara,' Gazzaniga's 'Vendemmia,' Paisiello's 'Barbiere," Cimarosa's' Ninetta,' and operas of Tarchi, Fabrizi, Bianchi, Nasolini, and Federici. [J. M.j BORTNIANSKY (ace. BARTNANSKY), DIMITBI, called the Russian Palestrina, was born at Gloukoff, a village of the Ukraine, in 1752, and early showed remarkable ability. He studied in Moscow and in Petersburg under Galuppi, at that time Capellmeister there. Galuppi soon left Russia, but the Empress Catherine supplied Bortniansky with funds to follow him to Venice (1768). He afterwards studied in Bologna, Rome, and Naples. The motets he composed at this period are not remarkable except for richness of harmony. Palschlich counts him among e the opera-composers then in Italy. In 1779 ^ re " turned to Russia, and became director of the Empress's church-choir (later—1796—called the 'Imperial Kapelle'), which he thoroughly reformed, and for which he composed 35 sicred concertos in 4 parts, 1 o concertos for double choir, and a mass for 3 voices. It was this choir which was placed at the disposal of Boieldieu when, as chapel-master at Petersburg, he was commissioned

BOSCHI.

261

to compose the music for Racine's 'Athalie.' Bortniansky has the merit of reducing Russian church music to a system. He died Sept. 28 (Oct. 9),. 1825. [F. G.] BOSCHETTI, SIGNORA, a talented soprano who sang in London in comic operas about the year 17 7 2. She acted Rosalba in Piccinni's ' Schiava' in that year at the King's Theatre. [J. M.] BOSCHI, GIUSEPPE, said to have been a native of Viterbo, was the most celebrated basso of the 18th century. Of his early life, his teacher, or of his first appearance, absolutely nothing is known. To Fe"tis his very name is unknown. Chrysander (Handel, i. 244) believes him to be the singer of the extraordinary part of Polifeme in Handel's early cantata at Naples in 1709, a portion of which was transferred to ' Rinaldo.' It is at any rate certain that on Feb. 24, 1711, he sang for the first time in London the part of Argante in that opera (Handel's first in London) at the Haymarket Theatre. It is strange enough that Argante was afterwards sung in 1717 by Berenstadt, a German alto, and in 1731 by Francesca Bertolli, a contralto. After this there is a blank in Boschi's history until Handel's return to London. In 1720 we find him again supporting with his magnificent voice the 'Radamisto' of Handel, and Buononcini's 'Astartus.' It is very probable, but not certain, that he was the original Polyphemus of 'Acis and Galatea,' performed privately at Cannons, the seat of the Duke of Chandos; there was then no other basso here capable of singing that part, and Boschi was already singing for Handel. In the same year he was in the cast of 'Muzio Scasvola,' the third act of which was Handel's, as also in those of 'Arsace' by Orlandini and Amadei, ' L'Odio e l'Amore' (anonymous), and Buononcini's 'Crispo.' On Dec. 9, 1721, he took part in the first representation of Handel's 'Floridante,' and on Jan. 12, 1723, in that of 'Ottone,' and of 'Flavio' on May 14; besides which he sang in the ' Coriolano' of Ariosti, and ' Farnace' of Buononcini, and in 1724 in Handel's 'Giulio Cesare' and ' Tamerlane,' Ariosti's 'Artaserse ' and ' Vespasiano,' and Buononcini's ' Calfurnia.' From this date he sang for Handel in all the operas during 1725, 6, 7, and 8. In 1728 he sang in ' Siroe,' ' Tolomeo,' and a revival of 'Radamisto.' Then came the break-up of the company, and Boschi's name appears no more. Whether he died, or retired to his native country, he was succeeded in 1729 by J. G. Riemschneider. It was unfortunate for Boschi, with his fine voice and execution, that he appeared in Handel's early time, when the operas were written chiefly for women and evirati; when tenors were rarely employed, and the basso only recognised as a disagreeable necessity. Towards the end of this period Handel began to write more freely for basses, and some fine airs fell to the share of Boschi, such, for example, as ' I'inche lo strale' in ' Floridante,' ' No, non temere' and ' Del minacciar' in 'Ottone,' 'Tu di pieta' in 'Siroe,'

262

BOSCHI.

BOTTEE DE TOULMON.

and 'Eespira almen' in 'Tolomeo.' His voice I many she was thought to surpass, though in no was very powerful, and he could hold his own respect her equal as a singer.' At the end of this against Handel's accompaniments, which ap- season she made her first hit in ' I Puritani,' peared very noisy to critics of those days. In taking the place of Grisi, who had declined to sing. a satire called 'Harlequin Horace, or the Art This was the turning point of Bosio's fortune. During the winter she was the prima donna at of Modern Poetry,' 1735, this line occurs,— Paris, and reappeared in the next spring in London ' And Boschi-like be always in a rage,' in ' Matilda di Shabran,' ' Jessonda,' and 'Rigoto which the following note is appended: ' A letto.' The latter was produced May 14. 'Her useful performer for several years in the Italian gay handsome face, her winning mezzosoprano operas, for if any of the audience chanced un- voice, not without a Cremona tone in it, redeeming happily to be lulled to sleep by these soothing the voice from lusciousness, and her neat, lively entertainments, he never failed of rousing them execution, were all displayed in this part, short up again, and by the extraordinary fury both as it is.' From this date Bosio met with nothing of his voice and action, made it manifest that, but most brilliant success. In 1854 she rethough only a tailor by profession, he was nine appeared in 'II Barbiere,' and the critics had times more a man than any of his fellow- no words too glowing to express their admiration. warblers." His wife, FRANCESCA VANINI, a con- In ' I Puritani' she was, with the exception of tralto, had been a great singer, but came to course of Grisi, the best Elvira that had been London when much past her prime and her seen. The winter season found her again in voice failing. She sang in 1711 as Goffredo in Paris, and the spring of 1855 in London at the Handel's ' Einaldo' ; but in 1712 this was given Royal Italian Opera,—in ' Ernani' and ' Le to Margarita de l'Epine, and Boschi's wife ap- Comte Ory.' She sang at the Norwich Festipeared no more. [ J. M.] j val, receiving £300 for four days. That same year BOSIO, ANGIOLINA, born at Turin August she accepted an engagement at St. Petersburg, 22, 1S30, belonged to a family of artists, both the terms being 100,000 francs for four month?, musical and dramatic. She was educated at with a guaranteed benefit of 15,000 francs and Milan, and learned singing under Cataneo. She a permission to sing at private concerts. Her made her first appearance at the age of sixteen, success was extraordinary. Thence she went July 1846, in ' I Due Foscari' at Milan. After to Moscow. In 1856 she returned to Covent a short time she went to Verona, and thence to Garden. Her most remarkable performance was Copenhagen, confirming at each place the promise in ' La Traviata,' in which she presented a very of excellence which she had already given. At different reading of the character to that of Mile. Copenhagen no effort was spared to retain her Piccoloniini at the other house. In 1857 she refor a prolonged engagement, but the climate was appeared in 'La Traviata,' and in 'Fra Diavolo' intolerable to her. She next appeared at Madrid, 1 with Gardoni and Eonconi. In 1858, after again where she was enthusiastically applauded, and singing at St. Petersburg with the greatest her re-engagement demanded unanimously. In success, she returned to London in May and 1848 she appeared in Paris in ' I Due Foscari,' reappeared at the new theatre, Covent Garden. but this time without effect. She went immedi- Eeturning again to St. Petersburg she was ately to the Havana, and thence to New York, nominated premiere cantatrice, an honour never Philadelphia, and Boston. At all these places bestowed before. On April 12, 1859, she sudshe was much admired. In 1851 she returned denly died. Her delicate constitution could not to Europe, and married a Greek gentleman named endure the rigorous climate of Russia. Never She was engaged for the next was the loss of an admired singer and charming Xindavelonis. season by Mr. Gye at Covent Garden, and made artist more acutely felt by the whole musical her di-but in 'L'Elisir d'Amore,' July 15, 18:2. public. She was buried with public ceremonial, Of her person all could judge; but her voice April 15, in the cathedral vaults at St. Peters[J. M.] seemed wiry, strange, perpetually out of tune, burg. BOTTEE DE TOULMON, an amateur, who and her execution wild and ambitious. Never was a first appearance more scant in musical was Librarian to the Conservatoire of Paris from promise of one who was destined during her Aug. 1831 till his death ; bom at Paris May I5> short career to become so deservedly great a 1797, died there, from an attack brought on by favourite. But Madame Bosio was curiously the Revolution of 1848, March 22, 1850. His made up of contradictions. Her features were merits appear to have been chiefly those of deirregular and ill-formed; yet on the stage she votion and perseverance. According to Fetis' was so pleasing as to be known by the sobriquet of account (Biogr. Univ.) he was incompetent and ' Beaux yeux.' ' Next to Madame Sontag, she {inaccurate, and his works—treatises on musical was the most ladylike person whom I,' says Mr. !history and archaeology, of which Fe'tis gives a Chnrley, 'have seen on the stage of the Italian J list—appear not to be trustworthy. But he deOpera. She had a certain condescending grace- serves the gratitude of all students of music for fulness, which made up for coldness. This having published the catalogue of the compodemeanour, and her happy taste in dress, had sitions of Cherubini, which was kept up year by no small influence on the rapid growth of her j year by that master, and published after his death popularity, which grew to exceed that of Madame I under the title of ' Notice des Manuscrits AutoPcrsiani, whom she replaced, and whom by graphes de Musique compose'e par feu M. L. C. Z.

BOTTEE DE TOULMON.

BOURGEOIS.

S. Cherubini, exgurintendant de la musique du roi, Directeur du Conservatoire de musique, Commandeur de l'ordre royale de la legion d'honneur, Membre de l'lnstitut de France, etc., etc., etc. Paris, chez les principaux editeurs de musique, 1843.' It is an 8vo. pamphlet of 36 pages, with a short preface by M. Bottle de Toulmon, and a notice to intending purchasers, for whom it was made public. It is now very rare. [G.] BOTTOMLEY, JOSEPH, born at Halifax, Yorkshire, in 1786, at a very early age evinced a strong predilection for music, and so quickly profited by the instruction he received as to be able at seven years of age to perform a violin concerto in public. At twelve years of age he was removed to Manchester, where he studied under Grimshaw, organist of St. John's Church, and Watts, leader of the concerts. By the advice of the latter he took lessons on the violin from Yaniewicz, then in Manchester. At fifteen he was articled to Lawton, organist of St. Peter's, Leeds. On the expiration of his term he went to London, and studied pianoforte playing under Woelfl. In 1807 he was appointed organist of the parish church of Bradford, Yorkshire, but resided and taught chiefly in Halifax. In 1820 he was chosen organist of the parish church, Sheffield. Bottomley published several of his compositions for the pianoforte, and, in 1816, a email dictionary of music. [W. H. H.]

way of bearing himself, lifting his hat, taking snuff,' etc. (Selbstbiog. ii. 73). As soon as he came to a town where he intended giving a concert, he practised these tricks on the public walks and in the theatre, in onler to attract the curiosity of the public; he even managed to spread a rumour that he was persecuted by existing governments on account of his likeness to Napoleon, because his appearance was likely to revive the sympathies of the masses for that great man. He certainly advertised a concert at Lille in these terms : ' Une malheureuse ressemblance me force de m'expatrier; je donnerai done avant de quitter ma belle patrie, un concert d'adieux,' etc. He also styled himself ' L'Alexandra des Violons.' In his proficiency in the execution of double stops, the staccato, and other technical difficulties, he appears to have been only surpassed by Paganini, and we are assured by competent contemporary critics that he now and then played a slow movement with ra'vishing, if somewhat extravagant, expression. But whatever powers of execution his performances may have shown, if, as Spohr states, he altogether spoiled a quartet of Haydn by tasteless additions, we must conclude that he was but an indifferent musician. After what we know of his general character as an artist, it is not surprising to learn that he not unfrequently wound up a furious passage by intentionally upsetting the bridge of his violin as a climax, and that he used to perform quite as much by the action of the face and legs as of the bow. Boucher's wife was a clever player on the harp, but seems to have adopted her husband's doubtful means of winning the applause of the public. She used to play duets for piano and harp, with one hand on each instrument. [P. D.]

BOUCHE FERMEE, X —i.e. with shut mouth—vocalisation without words, with the teeth closed and the lips nearly so; a trick occasionally adopted by composers. Examples may be found amongst the German part-songs, and also in Gounod's works. There have been singing masters who recommended the practice to their pupils, under an idea that it strengthened the breathing power without distressing the vocal organs. Beethoven never wrote anything a bouche fermee, but he alludes to the practice in a droll letter (Sept. 23, 1824) to Hauschka, conferring on him the ' Iutendanz ' of all ' Singuhd-Brumm-Vereine.' [W. H. C] BOUCHER, A LEX ANDRB JEAN, a well-known

violinist, was born at Paris in 1770. It is related that he played at the court when only six, and at the Concert Spirituel when eight years of age. In 1787 he went to Madrid, where he was appointtd solo-violinist to the king, and associated as a quartet-player with Boccherini. In 1806 he returned to Paris, and in 1820 began to travel over Europe, exciting everywhere, if not the unconditional approbation of artists and critics, at any rate the admiration and curiosity of the general public by his extraordinary performances. In 1844 he returned to France, settled at Orleans, and died at Paris in 1861. Possessed undoubtedly of an exceptional talent for execution, Boucher was not a little of a musical charlatan. Spohr made his personal acquaintance at Brussels in 1819, and speaks of him as follows: ' His face bore a remarkable likeness to Napoleon Bonaparte's, and he had evidently carefully studied the banished emperor's

BOULANGER, MME. MARIE JULIE

263

(nee

Halligner), born 1786, died 1850; a dramatic singer. She studied in the Conservatoire under Plantade and Garat, and made her debut with immense success at the Opera Comique in IS11. Her voice was fine, her execution brilliant, and her acting full of character and intelligence. Her most successful roles were those of soubrettes and maid-servants. She remained on the stage till 1845, but her voice had failed some time previously [M- c - c 0 BOURGEOIS, Louis, writer on the theory of music, born in Paris in the beginning of the 16th century. He followed Calvin in 1541 to Geneva, where he was cantor of one of the churches, but quarrelled with the presbytery, who would not allow him to introduce a harmonised version of the Psalms in public worship. He threw up his post, and returned in 1557 to Paris, where he was still living in 1561, but after that date all trace of him is lost. His great work is 'Le droict chemin de musique,' etc. (Geneva, 1550). In this he proposed a new system of notation, which was accepted not only by the Protestants, but by all French musicians' and not finally abandoned till the beginning of

BOURGEOIS.

BOW.

the 19th century. Bourgeois published several Bets of Psalms in four parts. [F. G.] BOURGEOIS, Louis THOMAS, dramatic composer, born at Fontaine l'Eveque in 1676. He was counter-tenor at the Grand Opera in Paris in 1708, but in 1711 devoted himself entirely to composing. In 1713 he produced 'Les Amours de"guistJs,' and in 1715 'Les plaisirs de la paix.' He was chapel-master at Toul in 1716, and afterwards at Strasbourg. He died in Paris in great poverty, Jan. 1 750. He composed sixteen operas (for list see Fetis) and many cantatas. [F. G.] BOURGES, CLEMENTINE DB, eminent composer of the 16th century. Her husband was killed fighting against the Huguenots in 1560, and she died of grief Sept. 30 in the following year. Her compositions deserve to be ranked with those of the great composers of her time. A four-part chorus, ' Da bei rami,' by her is included in Paix's ' Orgel-tabulatur-Buch.' [F. G.]

the orchestra at the Theatre Italien. He contributed articles to the 'Revue et Gazette musicale.' [M. C. C] BOW. The strings of the various instruments of the violin tribe are made to vibrate by friction with the hair of the bow. Like the violin, the bow went through many progressive phases, till, at the end of last century, it acquired its present shape, which seems to leave no room for improvement. The bow with which the REBEC (the oldest stringed instrument played with the bow with which we are acquainted) was played, had the form of the weapon from which it derived its name. The stick was much bent, and a cord or string was tied from one end to the other. (Fig. 1.)

264

V

BOURGES, JEAN MAURICE, distinguished

musical critic, born at Bordeaux Dec. 2, 1812; came early to Paris, and studied composition under Barbereau. In 1S39 he became joint-editor of the 'Revue et Gazette musicale,' the high reputation of which paper is in great measure owing to him. In 1846 'Sultana,' an opera of his, was successfully produced at the Opera Comique. He made an excellent translation of the words of Mendelssohn's ' Elijah.' He died in 1868, after an illness of many years. [F. G.] BOURREE. A dance of French origin, which is said to have come from the province of Auvergne. According to other authorities, however, it is a Spanish dance, from Biscay, where it is said to be still practised. The bourrue is often to be found in the older suites, especially in those of Bach, and is of a rapid tempo, in common (allabreve) time. In its general character it presents some features of analogy with the GAVOTTE, from which, however, it may readily be distinguished ; first, because it is in allabreve time, that is, with only two beats in the bar, whereas the gavotte has four; and secondly, that the latter begins on the third crotchet in the bar, while the boum'e always commences on the fourth. Like most of the older dance-movements, it consists of two parts, each of which is repeated. In Bach's suites, a second bourree frequently follows the first, in the same way as in a symphony or sonata, a trio follows a minuet, after which the first bourree is repeated. There is a good modern example in Sullivan's music to the ' Merchant of Venice.' [E. P.] BOUSQUET, GEORGES, composer and critic, born at Perpignan 1S18, died at St. Cloud 1854 ; entered the Conservatoire as violin pupil; won the Grand Prix in 1838 ; and his compositions while he held the prize, particularly two masses (Rome, 1839-40), excited hopes of a brilliant career. But his first opera, ' Le Mouaquetaire,' produced at the Opera Comique in 1844, was a failure. 'Taburin' (1852) met with better success. For three seasons Bouaquet conducted

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

(16SO.)

(1640.)

(1660.)

In pictures of the 13th century we notice something like a nut and head, and hair was possibly used in place of the cord. The bow now gradually loses more and more the actual bow-shape (Figs. 2, 3, 4) ; the head is distinct from the stick, and the nut is no longer a portion of the stick, but is attached to it by a wire. On the top of the stick a narrow piece of indented iron isfixed,on which the wire is hooked, and thus the hair made tighter or looser at pleasure. (Fig. 5.) The next step consisted in the substitution of a screw for the wire and indented iron, by which the tension of the hair could be perfectly regulated. This was Corelli's bow. (Fig. 6.) It was made of light wood, the stick perfectly straight, hardly if at all elastic, arid very short. Tartini's bow (Fig. 7) was considerably longer, the wood thinner, and more elastic. Towards the end of the 18 th century Francois TOURTE brought the art of bow-making to perfection, and created a model on which no improvement has been yet made. In fact his bow

265

BOW.

BOWING.

combines all the qualities required to enable the player to follow out every conceivable nuance of tone and movement — lightness, firmness, and elasticity. The stick of the modern violin bow (Fig. 8) is made of Brazilian lance-wood (Duguetia quitarensis) or of Snake-wood (Brosimum auhietii); it is cut straight, following the grain of the wood, and afterwards slightly bent by exposure to heat. Although many trials have been

of a tenor bow to 29, and of a violoncello bow to 28J-28J. The bows of Tourte's own make are still considered the best, and command a high price; though not a few modern bow-makers have turned out very good bows, which frequently go under his name. UP• D.] BOWING. This term is used in a twofold sense, corresponding to the German terms 'Bogenfiihrung' and 'Striehart' respectively. In the first it designates in a general way the action of the bow on stringed instruments, and in that sense we speak of a style and method of bowing, or of the bowing of a player. In the second it means the particular manner in which a phrase or passage is to be executed, and the signs by which such a manner is usually marked ; and in that sense we speak of the bowing of a phrase or passage. 1. Bowing (Bogenfiilirtmg). While the left hand of the violin-player fixes the tone, and thereby does that which for the piano-player is already done by the mechanism of the instrument,—and while his correctness of intonation (supposing his ear to be accurate) depends on the proficiency of his left hand, as with the pianoplayer it depends on the tuner's proficiency,—it is the action of the violinist's right hand, his bowing, which, analogous to the pianist's touch, makes the sound spring into life; it is through the medium of the bow that the player realises his ideas and feelings. It is therefore evident that 'bowing' is one of the most important and difficult parts of the art of violin-playing, and that the excellence of a player, and even of a whole school of violin-playing, to a great extent depends on its method of bowing. The progress of the art of bowing closely followed the gradual perfection of the bow itself. As long as the stick of the bow was stiff and unpliable and the hair could not be made tighter or looser at pleasure, we can hardly speak of an art of bowing; for that art can only be practised with an elastic bow, which yields to the slightest pressure of the fingers. As long as the violin-player had merely to double the singers' part, no other nuances but piano and forte were required from him. These the stiff bow could produce, but nothing more. When at the beginning of the 18th century the violin began to emancipate itself from the position of a mere accompanyist, and entered on its glorious career of a soloinstrument, under such masters as Corelli and Vivaldi, it was only by the use of an elastic bow that it could acquire the faculty of producing various nuances and shades of tone. Tartini was the first to make the stick at all elastic, and must therefore be considered the next great advancer of the art of bowing. His work, 'L'Arte dell' Arco,' probably gives us a correct idea of the bowing of his time. A full broad tone, a variety of combinations of tied and detached notes, arpeggios with firm bow (no 'springing bow" as yet),—are the main features of his bowing. The full development, however, of all the powers of the violin was only possible with the modern bow, as first made by Tourte of Paria. The

Iig-5-

Fig. 6.

Fig. 1.

(1700.)

(174°-)

Fig. 8.

made no wood has been found to possess the necessary qualities in the same degree as those mentioned. The nut (c, Fig. 9) is made either of ebony or tortoise-shell. For violin, tenor, and violoncello bows white horse-hair is used; for doublebass bows (which are made of beech wood) black.

Fig. 9. The hair (b) is inserted in the head (e) and the nut of the bow, and can be made tighter or looser by turning the screw (d). The hair from the tail of stallions is preferred, as being stronger, more even, and free from greasiness. The friction on the string is increased by the application of rosin. From 175 to 250 hairs are put into a violin bow. Tourte fixed the length of a violin-bow' to 29-29^ inches,

266

BOWING.

BOWLEY.

and absolutely since Beethoven—have given up this imperfect way of notation, just as they gave up writing figured basses instead of explicit accompaniments, and at the present time a composer very rarely omits to indicate the bowing with which he intends each passage to be executed. With the tendency of all modern composers since Beethoven and Schubert to bring the characteristic and descriptive power of music more and more into the foreground, it was but natural that the advanced technique of modern violin-playing should have developed a great number of new varieties of bowing, in order to do justice to all the subtle nuances which were to be rendered. In orchestral performances and in the playing of chamber-music it is chiefly uniformity of bowing which is to be aimed at, and which alone ensures a well-balanced unanimous effect. The undeniable excellency of the orchestral performances at the concerts of the Paris Conservatoire, at the Gewandhaus- concerts in Leipzig, at the Crystal Palace Saturday Concerts, and similar institutions elsewhere, is owing at It is the merit of the modern German school, least as much to the enforcement of uniform represented chiefly at the Vienna and Leipzig bowing on the part of the conductors and leaders Conservatoires, and by the greatest of modern of the bands as to the careful observance of violinists, Joachim, to have combined the funda- the pianos, fortes, and other dynamic signs. mental qualities of all good bowing with the A number of signs are used in musical notation advantages to be derived from Paganini's style, to indicate various ways of bowing: (l) a slur without following onesidedly, as the modern '—- indicates that all the notes under the slur French school has done, his brilliant but ex- are to be played in one stroke of the bow; travagant example, and thereby losing the true legato. (2) A slur with dots, rTTT", means either dignity of style handed down from Corelli and staccato or saltato in one stroke; while the abTartini to Viotti, Kode, Sp< >hr, and our day. sence of a slur indicates that every note is to be 2. Bowing (Strichart). To the correct and done by a separate stroke. (3) Dots or dashes truthful rendering of a musical phrase or passage over the notes (• • • or ' ' ' ) mean sharp short on a striuged instrument, it is essential that an strokes, either with firm bow (martelle) or with appropriate bowing should be chosen, or, if springing bows (spicato or saltato). (4) U or |"| already given by the composer, be strictly ad- means a downstroke, froma nthe nut of the bow toupstroke. [P. D.] hered to. This appears self-evident, if we con- wards the head; y or A sider how one and the same passage, bowed in BOWLEY, ROBERT KANZOW, the son of a two different ways, may produce two entirely bootmaker at Charing Cross, was born May 13, different effects. A succession of notes, intended 1813. He was bred to his father's business, by the composer to be played as a \< gato passage, and succeeded him in it. His first knowledge and therefore with as little changing of bow as of music was acquired by association with the possible, would, if played with detached strokes choristers of Westminster Abbey. Ardent and of the bow, entirely lose its character. And enthusiastic, he pursued his studies vigorously. again, to give a well-known example, what would Whilst still a youth he joined a small society become of the light and sparkling passages of one called ' The Benevolent Society of Musical Amaof Mendelssohn's Scherzi, if the staccato notes teurs,' of which he afterwards became conductor. were played legato ? Its character would be In 1834 he was one of the committee who destroyed so as to become almost irrecognisable. promoted and carried out the ' Amateur Musical True, the old masters left it more or less to the Festival' at Exeter Hall. About the same time discretion of the performer to choose an appro- he became organist of the Independent Chapel in priate bowing for the different parts of their Orange Street, Leicester Square, and continued compositions, and trusted to their artistic feeling so for several years. In October, 1834, he was and tact in this respect. Nay, if we go back to admitted a member of the Sacred Harmonic Handel and Bach, we often find what can only be Society, then in its infancy, and was soon called a mere sketch of a passage. Bach, in his afterwards elected a member of its committee. celebrated Violin Solos repeatedly gives long suc- On the foundation of the society's now magcessions of chords in three and four parts, merely nificent musical library in 1837 Mr. Bowley was addim the word ' arpeggio,' and leaving it to the appointed its librarian, an office which he held player to execute them with a variety of bowings until 1854, when he was chosen treasurer, which of his own choice anil invention. However, the post he occupied until his death. During the modern masters—partly since Mozart and Haydn, entire period of his connection with the society

thin, bent, elastic stick of his bow enables the player to follow out the slightest gradations of tone from the fullest forte to the softest piano, to mark all kinds of strong and gentle accents, to execute staccato, legato, saltato, and arpeggio passages. It cannot be said that the classical Paris school of violin-playing availed itself of all these advantages of Tourte's invention; their bowing does not show very great progress beyond Tartini and his school, and even Spohr does not advance materially upon them. But with Paganini a new era opened in the art. He uses freely almost every imaginable movement of the bow— he adds to the firm slow staccato the quick staccato of many notes—he develops the movement of the wrist to the highest perfection, enabling him to execute all kinds of bowing with the utmost celerity. But it cannot be said that this method of bowing was altogether favourable to a good musical style of playing, which requires as its first essential breadth of tone. Now this can only be produced by a perfectly quiet management of the bow, hardly compatible with Paganini's style of bowing.

BOWLEY.

BOYCE.

he laboured incessantly to promote its welfare and advance its reputation, and instigated most of the steps which have tended to place it in its present high position. The scheme of celebrating the centenary of the death of Handel by performances of his music on a scale of unprecedented magnitude, and which eventually led to the establishment of the Handel Festivals at the Crystal Palace, was originated by him. In 1858 he was appointed General manager at the Crystal Palace, in which post he proved himself to be undoubtedly ' the right man in the right place,' and where he remained till his death, August 25, 1870. The energetic and self-devoted manner in which he discharged his duties will be long remembered by all who were associated with him. [W. H. H.]

song in which ('Softly rise, 0 southern breeze,' for tenor voice with bassoon obligato) retained its popularity for upwards of a century, and ia still occasionally heard. In 1749, on the erection of an organ in the church of Allhallows the Great and Less, Thames Street, Boyce was chosen organist. In the same year he was selected to compose the music for the ode written by William Mason for the installation of Henry Pelham, Duke of Newcastle, as Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. The ode, with Boyce's music, was performed in the Senate House, July 1, 1749, a n c ' o n t n e f°l" lowing day, being Commencement Sunday, an anthem with orchestral accompaniments, by Boyce, was performed in Great St. Mary's Church, as an exercise for the degree of Doctor of Music, which the University then conferred on him. Both these compositions were soon afterwards published together. In the same year Boyce appeared as a composer for the theatre by setting Lord Lansdowne's masque of 'Peleus and Thetis' (introduced into his lordship's alteration of 'The Merchant of Venice,' entitled 'The Jew of Venice') and Moses Mendez's musical entertainment, 'The Chaplet'; the latter of which met with great success. In 1750 he set another piece of the same kind, also written by Mendez, called 'The Shepherd's Lottery.' On the death of Dr. Greene, in 1675, Dr. Boyce was appointed hia successor as master of the king's band of music, and conductor of the annual festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St. Paul's Cathedral. In the former capacity he was required to compose music for the new-year and birth-day odes of the poet-laureate ; in the latter he voluntarily composed two fine anthems with orchestral accompaniments, besides additional accompaniments and choruses for Purcell's Te Deum and Jubilate, written for St. Cecilia's day, 1694. In 1758, on the death of John Travers, Boyce was appointed one of the organists of the Chapel Royal, upon which he resigned his plnces at St. Michael's, Cornhill, and Allhallows, Thames Street, and, his deafness still increasing, he gave up teaching, and removed to Kensington, where he employed himself principally in the collection and editing of the materials for the work by which he is best known—'Cathedral Music, being a collection in score of the most valuable and useful composisitions for that service by the several Engli-h masters of the last two hundred years.' This work was projected by Dr. Greene, who had commenced collections for it, but, finding his health failing, bequeathed all his materials to Dr. Boyce, with a request that he would complete the work. The 'Cathedral Music' was published in three volumes, the first of which appeared in 1760 and the last in 1778. This valuable publication, which redounds so much to the credit of its editor for diligence, judgment and scholarship, produced him little else than fame, its sale yielding but little beyond the expenses of production. On Feb. 7, 1779, the

BOWMAN, HENRY, published at Oxford in 1677 * thin folio volume bearing the title of 'Songs for one, two, and three voyces to the Thorow-Bass. With some Short Simphonies. Collected out of some of the Select Poems of the incomparable Mr. Cowley, and others, and composed by Henry Bowman, Philo - Musicus.' A second edition appeared at Oxford in 1679. [W. H. H.] BOYCE, WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, was born at Joiners' Hall, Upper Thames Street (of which company his father, a cabinet maker, was beadle), in 1710. He became a chorister of St. Paul's Cathedral under Charles King, and, on quitting the choir, an articled pupil of Maurice Greene, then organist of the cathedral. On the expiration of his articles he obtained the situation of organist of Oxford Chapel, Vere Street, Cavendish Square, and pursued his studies under Dr. Pepusch. While yet a young man Boyce's hearing became much impaired, a calamity the greatest that can befal a musician, but which, in his case, did not lessen the ardour with which he pursued his studies. In 1736 he gave up his appointment at Oxford Chapel upon obtaining the post of organist at St. Michael's, Cornhill, which had become vacant by the removal of Joseph Kelway to St. Martin's-in-the-Fields. On June 21 in the same year he was sworn into the place of Composer to the Chapel Royal in the room of John Weldon, then lately deceased. He most ably discharged the duties of this office by the composition of many fine anthems and services, several of which are still, and will long continue to be, in use 'in quires and places where they sing.' In 1737 he was appointed conductor of the meetings of the Three Choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford, which office he held for several years. In 1740 he composed the music for John Lockman's oratorio ' David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan,' and had it performed at Covent Garden Theatre. About the same time he set two odes for St. Cecilia's day, one written by Lockman, the other by the .Rev. Mr. Vid.il, undermaster of Westminster School. In 1743 be produced the serenata of 'Solomon,' written by Edward Moore, which was eminently successful, and one

267

BOYCE.

BKACE.

gout, from which Boyce had long suffered, terminated the blameless life of this most amiable man and excellent musician. He was buried on February 16 with uncommon marks of respect, in the vault under the centre of the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. In the year following his death his widow published a volume containing 'Fifteen Anthems and a Te Deum and Jubilate' of her husband's composition ; and in 1790 another volume containing twelve anthems and a service was published, under the editorship of Dr. Philip Hayes. These anthems and services (with others, to the extent in all of forty-six anthems and five services) were afterwards published in four volumea under the editorship of Vincent Novello, In 17 88 John Ashley, who had purchased the plates of the 'Cathedral Music,' issued a reprint of it, with a memoir (by Sir John Hawkins) and a portrait (finely engraved by Sherwin) of Boyce prefixed. In 1849 a new edition, with additional services and anthems and new lives of the composers was issued under the care of Joseph Warren. Besides the compositions above mentioned, Boyce produced the following:—Dryden's 'Secular Masque,' 1745; twelve sonatas for two violins and bass, 1747 ; a concerto; eight symphonies ; ' Ode to Charity,' composed for the Leicester Infirmary, containing the duet for tenor and bass, ' Here shall soft Charity repair,' which long remained an indispensable part of the programme of every concert given in aid of a charity; Rev. Walter Harte's paraphrase of part of Pindar's first Pythian ode, 1 749 ; Masque in ' The Tempest'; dirge in ' Cymbeline' ; dirge in ' Romeo and Juliet'; trio in 'The Winter's Tale'; two odes in Home's tragedy, 'Agis,' 175S ; besides many songs which appeared in 'The British Orpheus,' 'The Vocal Musical Mask,' etc. A collection of Dr. Boyce's songs, duets, and cantatas, entitled 'Lyra Britannica,' appeared from time to time in several books. Boyce's only son long filled a respectable position in the best orchestras aB a double-b;iss player.

Croft, V. A. Rod is Bone up. 4. v. Bull, V. A. O Lord mv God. 5 y. Do. V. A. Put me not to rebuke. 4 v. Humphrey, V. A. Thou art my King. 4 v. Weldon, V. A. In Thee, 0 Lord. 4 V. Do. V. A. Like as the hart. 4 v. Do. V. A. Hear my crying. 6 v. Lawes (Wm.), V. A. The Lord is Do. V. A. Hear, 0 Heavens. 3 v. Do. V. A. Rejoice in the Lord. 4 v. my light. 4 v. Lock, V. A. Lord let me know Do. V. A. Haste Thee, 0 God. 4v. Wise, V. A. The ways of Zion. 2 v. mine end. 5 v. Humphreys, V. A. Have mercy up- Do. V. A. Thy beauty, 0 Israel. 4 v. Do, V. A. Awake up, my glory, 3v. on me. 3 v. Do. V. A. Blessed is he. 3 v. Do. V. A. 0 Lord my God. 3 v. Blow, V. A. I was in the Spirit. Blow, V. A. 0 Lord, I have sinned. 4v. 4 v. Wise, V. A. Prepare ye the way of Do. V. A. 0 sing unto God. 3 v. Do. V. A. 0 Lord, Thou hast the Lord. 4 v. searched me out. 2 v. Do. V. A. Awake, put on thy Do. V.A.I beheld and lo! 4 v. strength. 3 v. Purcell, V. A. Thy way, 0 God. 4v. Turner, V. A. Lord, Thou hast been our refuge. 3 v. Do. V. A. Ee merciful. 3 V. Clarke, V. A. How long wilt Thou. Purcell, V. A. Behold, I bring you. 3v. lv. Croft, V. A. 0 praise the Lord. 3 v. Do. V, A. They that go down. 2 v. Do. V. A. Thy word is a lantern. 3 v. Do. V. A. Give the King. 5 v. Do. V. A. 0 give thanks. 4 V. 5 Chants. Clarke, V.A.I will love Thee. 2 v. VOL III. Gibbons, Sanctus. 4 v. in F. Bird, M. and E. Serv. D min. Child. Sanctus. 4 V. in E minor, Child, Do. D. liogers, Sanctus. 4 v. in D. Blow, Do. E min. Purcell. M. and B. Serv. (double), Creyghton, Sanctus. 4 v. in E flat. Boat.

The following are the contents of the Cathedral Music :—

fait! oui Beiges tout chan - ge. A - vec Nas-sau plus d'jndig - ne trai-

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VOL. 1. Tallis. Treces, M. andE. Perv. Morley, Burial Serv. G minor. Farrant, M. and E. Serv. G minor. Bevin, Do. D minor. Gibbons, Do. F. Child. Do. E minor, Kogers, Do. D. Wow, Do. A. Aldrich. Do. G. P.low, Do. G. Do. Kyrie and Creed (triple measure) G. 14 Chants. VOL. IL Henry VIII, Full Anth., 0 Lord the maker. 4 voices. Tallis, I". A. I call and cry. 5 v. Tj-e, F. A. I will exalt Thee. 4 v. Do. (2nd pt.) Sing unto the Lord. 4 v. Farrant. F. A. Call to remembrance. 4 v. Do. F. A. Hide not Thou. 4 v. Bird, F. A. 0 Lord, turn. 5 v. Do. F. A. (2nd pt.) Bow Thine ear, o Lonl. •> v. Do. F. A. Sins joyfully. 6 v.

fiibbons, F. A. Hosanna.fiV. Do. F. A. Lift up your heads. 6 v. I'o. F. A. Almighty and everlasting. 4v. Do. F. A. 0 clap your hands. 8 v. Do. (2nd pt.) God is gone up. 8 v. Batten, F. A. Hear my prayer. 5 v. Do. F. A. 0 praise the Lord. 4 v. Do. F. A. Deliver us, 0 Lord. 4 v. Child, F. A. Praise the Lord. 4 v. Do. F. A. 0 Lord, grant the King. 4 v. Do. F. A. Sing we merrily. 7 v. Rogers, F. A. Behold now. 4 v. D . F. A. Teach me. 0 Lord 4 v. Blow. V. A. God is our hope 8 v. Do. V. A. 0 God, wherefore art Thou absent. 5v. Do. V. A. Save me, O God. 4 v. Do. F. A. The Lord hear thee. 4 v. Do. F. A. My (;. Neue Liebeslieder-Waltzes. 66. Five Duets. 67. String Quartet; B b . 68. Symphony, No. 1, C minor. 69. Nine Songs. 7li. Four Songs. 71. Five Songs. 72. Five Songs. 73. Symphony, No. 2, in G. Without Opus-Dumber. Hungarian dances for P . F., 4 hands. The same for Orchestra. Gluck's Gavotte tor P. F. solo. Studies for P. F. solo : [D Etude after Chopin; (2) Rondo after Welier. 15 Volkskinderlierichen. Mondnacht. Song for 1 voice

andP.F. [ A . -«-L*J

BRAMBILLA, MARIETTA, eldest of five sisters, all distinguished singers, was born near Milan about 1807, and made her debut in London as Arsace in 'Semiramide' in 1827. She was a pupil of the Conservatorio at Milan, and had never appeared on any stage; but, though her acting was indifferent, her lovely contralto voice, her excellent style, youth, and great beauty, ensured her success. ' She has the finest eyes, the sweetest voice, and the best disposition in the world,' said a certain cardinal; ' if she is discovered to possess any other merits, the safety of the Catholic Church will require her excommunication.' She sang in London for several years, as well as in Italy; at Vienna during four consecutive seasons, 1837-1841; and at Paris, where she chose again Arsace for her debut, and achieved a great success. Brambilla was distinguished as a teacher, and published (Ricordi) exercises and vocalizzi beside other pieces. [J- M.] BRANDL, JOHANN, born Nov. 14, 1760, at Rohr, near Rafebon, died at Carlsruhe May 26, 1837. He studied violin and piano as a child

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in the monastery at Rohr, and at 10 was sent by Canon Gelasius to the seminary at Munich. He learnt singing from Valesi; and at the Jesuit school at Neuburg, received a thorough musical education from a certain Feldmaier. He began his career in the convent of Trutpert, Freiburgim-Breisgau, as teacher of the violin and piano. In 1784 he was appointed chapel-master to Prince Hohenlohe Bartenstein; in 1789 'musik-director' to the Bishop of Bruchsal; and in 1806 the same to the archduke of Baden at Carlsruhe, where he stayed till his^eath. He composed an opera, 'Hermann'; a monodrama, 'Hero'; and many symphonies, serenades, quartets, etc. His melodies are beautiful, and were highly esteemed, as may be seen by some articles in the Leipsic A.M.Z. for 1828. [F. G.] BRANLE (Fr. hranle, a movement of the body from side to side). An old French dance, the generic name of all dances in which, like the Cotillon or Grossvater, the whole party of dancers were led by one or two. (Littre.) The branle of the time of Louis XIV was a branle serieux. It combined in itself the movements of the minuet and the polonaise. For an example of the music see p. 287. [E. P.] BRASS BAND. (Fr. Fanfare^ The smaller variety of the military band, chiefly employed in cavalry regiments, on account of the greater ease with which brass instruments can be played on horseback. It ordinarily consists of an E flat piccolo cornet, two or more cornets in B fiat, two tenor saxhorns in E flat, one or more baritones and euphoniums, with one or more bombardons. Besides these, trumpets, and side-, bass-, or kettledrums are usually present. It is materially improved by the substitution of flutes and E flat clarinets for the piccolo-cornet, and by the addition of trombones. It has not the variety of quality and richness of tone possessed by the full reed band, but is competent to produce very smooth and agreeable harmony. On account of the greater facility with which brass instruments of the saxhorn species are learned, as compared with clarinets and other reeds, a brass band is much more easy to establish and maintain in efficiency than a full military band. [W. H. S.] BRAVO, i.e. "well done.' An Italian term of applause which has gone from Italy to other countries, though never taking very firm root in England. It was the custom in Italy to applaud, not only at the end of a piece or passage, but during the performance, and the braros were addressed to composer, singer, or instrument—' Bravo Mozart!' 'Bravo Lablache!' 'Bravo il fagotto !' The word was there naturally inflected, and the applause to a female singer would be ' Brava Grisi!' Beethoven when satisfied with the orchestra used to give a ' thundering Bravi tutti.' [G.] BRAVURA (Ital., courage, bravery). A style of both music and execution involving the display of unusual brilliancy and technical power; music written to task the ability and test the

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BRAVURA.

BREITKOPF & HARTEL.

courage of the artist. Thus ' Let the bright Ser- 1777 the old man died, aged 83. He had raised aphim' (Samson), 'Gli angui d'inferno' (Flauto himself from a common printer to be the head of magico), and ' Non piu mesta' (Cenerentola) are the first printing establishment in Germany, and bravura songs, requiring a compass and a power he also had the happiness, whxh Gottsched had predicted, of seeing himself eclipsed by his son. of execution out of the common. The notion of effect for effect's sake is perhaps The son, JOHANN GOTTLOB IMMANUEL, born Nov. involved in the term. Beethoven therefore can 23, 1719, devoted himself with ardour, while a never be said to have written bravura pieces, lad, to the acquirement of learning, leaving prothough many of his pieces require the greatest fessional knowledge till later. His acquirements in literature were developed by intercourse with skill and are extremely brilliant. 'Con bravura' and 'Allegro di bravura' are such scholars as Lessing and Winkehnann. He similarly used to denote fire and brilliancy. [G.] laboured to improve the practice of printing, and with that view wrote several papers. By the inBREATH. Various signs are used in vocal troduction of separate movable music type he music to indicate the places for taking breath, produced, as early as 1750, a revolution in the they are usually ' % C/ " • The management music trade. In 1756 the first fruits of his innoof the breath is of the greatest importance in vations appeared in the shape of a splendid singing, as by it a good tone is formed. The edition of an opera in full score, and in 3 vols., two essentials are (I) the power of controlling entitled ' I I trionfo della fedelta, dramma per the quantity and force of air as it is expired ; musica di E. T. P. A ' (the initials of Ermelinda (2) the power of directing the vibrating column Talia Pastorella Arcada, a name assumed for of air. By too great pressure of breath the form the occasion by Antonia Amalia Walburga, Prinof the waves of sound most favourable to a good cess of Saxony). After this, Breitkopf published tone is disturbed, while too little pressure deprives a long series of important compositions by C. P. the tone of strength. A certain quantity of E. Bach, Graun, Hiller, Leopold Mozart, etc. breath will produce a tone in perfection, and He had hardly begun to realise the results of any increase or diminution of that quantity will his invention in the music trade when his energy result in loss of quality or power. The old found a new channel. During the Seven Years Italian masters of singing made the management War (1756-63) he had organised on a large of the breath a matter of primary consideration ; scale a warehouse of German, English, French, they required their scholars in practising their and Italian music, both MS. and printed, and exercises to do so piano, and to breathe at first had started a special trade in music, through as in speaking; the places for doing this were the publication of systematic descriptive catacarefully and distinctly marked ; if it were found logues referring to his stock, and embracing the that the pupil emitted his breath with too great whole field of musical literature. Between 1760 a pressure or too rapidly, so as to crowd or and 80 he issued catalogues of printed music, impair the sound, he was taught to hold it back, both theoretical and practical, in six parts; of and only when he had acquired a knowledge of MS. music in four parts; and a third (especially and a feeling for pure tone was he permitted to important for the history of music)—a thematic attempt to take larger breaths, and shown how catalogue of MS. music only, in 5 parts, with to gradually increase the breathing capacity of 16 supplements (1762-87). His activity was abhis lungs. The breath is the basis of a full rich solutely unceasing. In 1770 he founded a manutone in singing, and on the management of ita factory of playing cards (which he sold in 1782), vibrating column of air depends the great charm a coloured paper manufactory, a bookselling busiand beauty of vocalisation, no less than the ness in Dresden and another in Bautzen. He power of successfully executing phrasing, accord- died Jan. 29, 1794, honoured as the reformer of ins; to the dictates of a poetical and intelligent the music trade, and secure of a place in the mind. [W. H. C] history of the art of printing. His portrait is extremely interesting. The well-formed head, BREITKOPF & HARTEL. On Jan. 27, the speaking eye, the intelligent features, show 1869, this renowned firm of music-publishers intellectual power and strong will. Immanuel in Leipsic celebrated the 150th anniversary of had two sons, who learned the printer's craft from its existence. Its foundation was laid in 1719, their father. BERNHAED THEODOB (born 1749)1 when BERNHARDT CHRISTOPH BREITKOPF, mem- was musician enough to compose some pretty ber of a mining family of the Hartz, born at music to Goethe's ' Jugendlieder' in 1769. He Clausthal March 2, 1695, set up a printing press went in 1777 to Russia, and founded a printing at Leipsic. His first publication was a Hebrew office and bookselling business m PetersburgBible, quickly followed by a number of theolo- was teacher in an institution for the education gical and historical works, in which Breitkopf's of girls, and died at a great age as Russian friendly relations to the poet Gottsched were of • Staats-Rath.' His second son, CHRISTOPH GOTTmuch use to him. In 1732 a printing office was LOB (born 1750), remained with his father. He built with the sign of • znm goldnen Bar,' which was an amiable dilettante, to whom the burden in 1765 was increased by the addition of the of his vast business was intolerable ; after carrying it on therefore for a year he gave it up to 'silberne Bar.' In 1745 Breitkopf gave up the printing busi- his friend G. C. Hartel, at the same time making ness to his only son, and in 1765 the firm him his heir. He died much lamented in 1800, became B. C. Breitkopf & Son. On March 26,

BREITKOPF & HARTEL. the last scion of a gifted race. Since then the business, though entirely in Hartel's hands, has been conducted under the well-known title of Breitkopf & Hartel.

BEENDEL.

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music, important works by Tucher and Winterfeld on the church music of Germany ; biographies, such as Bach by Spitta, Handel by Ghrysander, Mozart by Jahn ; thematic catalogues of GOTTFRIED CHKISTOPH HARTEL, son of Dr. Beethoven by Nottebohm, and Mozart by Kbchel; Christoph Hartel, Burgomaster of Schneeberg, works on the theory of music by Chladni, Hauptwas born there Jan. 27, 1763. Having given up mann, Lobe, Kohler, Marx, Sechter, etc., as well his former occupation, he applied himself with as a long list of publications on literature, law, vigour to improve the business by undertaking theology, medicine, natural philosophy, philology, the publication of musical works of the highest archaeology, etc., etc. The practical part of the order.' Thus he brought out the works of Mozart business has increased so much that the Goldene in 17 vols. (1798-1816); of Haydn in 12 vols. Bar was in 1867 exchanged for a much larger (1800-1806); of Clementi in 13 vols. (1800- building. By 1871 the printing had developed 1818); and of Dussek in 12 (1*814-1818)—an to such an extent that it became necessary to use undertaking which was the forerunner of many \ the space formerly occupied by the pianoforte popular and critical collected editions. Hartel manufactory. Since the death of Hermann, Rayalso started the 'Allgemeine musikalische Zei- mund, youngest son of Gottfried (born June 9, tung,' which long maintained its position as 1810), has been at the head of the house, assisted the best musical periodical, and advocated the by two grandsons of Gottfried's—Wilhelm Volkinterests of music from 1798 to 1848 ; he further mann and Dr. Georg Oscar Imnmnuel Hase. It published a literary paper, the ' Leipziger Lite- is for these gentlemen to complete the edition ratur-Zeitung' (1812-1834), enlarged his stock of Mendelssohn, and to crown the great underof music and books, and made various practical takings already enumerated, by the edition of improvements in printing. Amongst other things Mozart's great works in score which they have he introduced the system of engraving music on already announced (1876). pewter plates, to which in 1805 he added a litho(The above is taken by kind permission from graphic establishment, with the personal co- papers in the archives of the firm.) [C. F. P.] operation of Sennefelder, the inventor. Procuring BREMNER, ROBEET, born in Scotland about workmen from Vienna, he next started the first factory of pianos in central Germany. Being a 1720. He-practised for some years as a teacher man of great cultivation and refinement, such of singing, and afterwards, about 1748, became constant absorption in business was not to his a music-seller at Edinburgh, under the sign of the taste, but he accepted the task which fate had ' Harp and Hoboy.' He subsequently settled in laid upon him, and executed it faithfully till his London, and commenced business, with the same sign, 'opposite Somerset House in the Strand.' death on July 25, 1827. arranged many collections of ' Scots Songs for Up to 1835 the business was carried on by his He and Harpsichord.' He was also the author nephew FLORENZ HARTEL. But at that date Voice of ' Rudiments of Music, with Psalmody,' a work HERMANN HARTEL, the eldest son of G-ottfried went through many editions ; ' Thoughts (born April 27, 1803), entered the house as head, which the Performance of Concert Music'; 'Inin partnership with his younger brother RAY- on structions for the Guitar,' etc. He died at KenMUND, who liad joined in 1832. Hermann's fine sington, May 12, 1789. [E. F. R.] character had been improved by an excellent education; he read law, and took his doctors' BRENDEL, DR. KARL FRANZ, musical critic, degree in 1828, and his love of art had been born Nov. 25, 1811, at Stollberg in the Harz; cultivated by a two years' residence in Italy. educated at the Gymnasium of Freiberg in Both in public and private life he was a man of Saxony, where his father was Berg-Rath, and at noble disposition and true culture. The brothers the universities of Leipsic and Berlin. Music lived to see a remarkable spread of taste, and to always formed his special pursuit, in which he publish many works of Mendelssohn, Schumann, was mainly assisted by Anacker and Wieck. Chopin, and other eminent modern composers; He began his public career with lectures on the they brought out new editions of Schubert, history of music, delivered in Freiberg and in Weber, and Hummel. Their catalogue up to Dresden. In 1844 he settled in Leipsic as pro1874 included over 14.000 works, extending over prietor of Schumann's ' Neue Zeitschrift,' which the whole range of music. In 1866 they began he edited from Jan. 1, 1845, at the same time the issue of a series of cheap editions of classical teaching musical history and aesthetics in Menworks in red covers, which are now widely delssohn's newly established Conservatorium. known. They assisted in the formation of the Here he delivered the public lectures on which BACH-GESELLSCHAFT, which, like the companion he founded his most comprehensive work, 'GeHandel Society, owes much to their energy, taste, schichte der Musik in Italien, Frankreich, und and accuracy. In 1862 they projected a com- Deutschland' (18^2; 4th edition 1867), an atplete critical edition in score and parts of the tempt to treat the various historical developments works of Beethoven, which was completed in of the art from one practical point of view. More 1866, and is now (1876) being followed by a important however were his articles in the ' Neue similar edition of Mendelssohn. Zeitschrift,' written as a strenuous advocate of The list of their publications contains treatises modern ideas in music. His first efforts were by Kiesewetter and others on the history of 1devoted to the recognition of Schumann; but in T

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BRENDEL.

BREVE.

17th century, and which could not but have added immensely to the difficulty of the study of music, were dependent on the order in which the longer and shorter notes followed each other, and also upon the appearance of certain timesignatures which were placed at the beginning of the composition. For a full account of these the reader is referred to Bellermann's treatise 'Die Mensuralnoten und Taktzeichen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts,' Berlin, 1858. The breve, together with other notes belonging to the same epoch, was originally written black, the more modern white notes (Fr. blanches) written in outline being introduced by Dufay about the end of the 14th century. After this period black notes (Fr. noires) were exclusively used to express diminution, the note made black losing a portion of its value, either one-third or onefourth, according to circumstances. A relic of this custom survives in modern music in the method of writing minim and crotchet. In modern music the breve, in the rare cases in which it is used, is always written white, and either of an oblong form, thus ^ , or oval with two small vertical strokes at each end, thus | ^ | . The expression alia breve, placed at the commencement of a composition, has been variously interpreted. Some have understood it to mean a rhythm of one breve to a bar, while others, translating the words 'alia breve' literally into 'in short fashion,' understand by it a rhythm of either two or four beats in a bar, but at a double rate of movement, semibreves being taken at about the speed of ordinary minims, and so on. In favour of this latter view is the fact that the signature of alia breve time is always the semicircle crossed by a vertical stroke, (£, which is the 'diminutio simplex in tempus imperfectum' of the ancient measured music, where it served precisely the same purpose, i.e. by reducing each note to half its proper value it doubled the rate of movement. Both views agree in the BREVE (Fr. Carrie; Ital. Breve). A note most important particular, namely, that compoof the value of two semibreves, rarely met with sitions marked ' alia breve,' or, even when not so in modern music, in which there is no place for marked, if provided with the distinctive timeit, as the longest bar commonly used (viz. a bar signature, must be performed twice as fast as if of 12-8 time) has but the value of a semibreve simply marked with the sign of common time, and a half. Although now nearly obsolete from C or 4-4. And with regard to the opinion which its great length, the breve was originally (as in- holds that compositions alia breve ought to be dicated by its name, derived from brevis, short) written in bars of the value of a breve, it may the shorter of the two notes of which the earliest be urged that in spite of the undoubted fact measured music, invented about A.D. 1200, was that most of such compositions have but one composed. These two notes, which corresponded semibreve in the bar, it is possible that this to the long and short syllables of the text to method of writing mny have been intended to which they were sung, were termed lonc/a and represent merely ths division of the original alia brevis, and were written thus, p and • . The breve bar into two halves, for convenience of proportion which they bore to each other was not reading, a division which has actually been made always constant, the lo)i=c. 15, 1606, Bull was admitted into the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company by service, having been bound apprentice to Thomas, Earl of Sussex, who was free of the Company. On July 16, 1607, when James I and Prince Henry dined at Merchant Taylors' Hall, the royal guests were entertained with music, both vocal and instrumental. And while His Majesty was at table, according to Stowe, ' J o h n Bull, Doctor of Musique, one of the organists of His Majesties Chappell-royall, and free of the Merchant-taylors, being in a citizen's gowne, cappe, and hood, played most excellent melodie upon a small payre of Organes, placed there for that purpose onley.' (Chronicles, edit. 1631, p. 891.) On Dec. 22, 1607, Bull obtained 1 from the Bishop of London a marriage licence for himself and 'Elizabeth Walter of the Strand, maiden, aged about 24, daughter of Walter,

on the side of the Place Verte, in which the concierge of the cathedral had lived; that he died on xVIarch 12 or 13, 1628, and was buried on the 15th of the same month in the cathedral where he had been organist.' Specimens of Bull's compositions for voices may be found in Barnard's and Boyce's collections and in Sir William Leighton's ' Teares or Lamentations of a Sorrowfull Soule,' 1614, fol. He joined Byrd and Gibbons in contributing to the Parthenia, a collection of pieces for the virginals, printed early in the 17th century, and a large number of his instrumental movements are extant in the volume in the Fitzwilliam Museum known as Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book, and in other MSS. See a curious list in Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors, pp. 203-8. To Bull has been attributed the composition of the popular tune, 'God save the King.' but the claim made on his behalf has met with but partial acceptance. [See GOD SAVE THE K I N G . ] A portrait of Bull is preserved in the Music School at Oxford. I t is painted on a board and represents him in the habit of a bachelor of music. On the left side of the head are the words, ' An. ^Etatis svse 26, 1589,' and on the right side an hour-glass, upon which is placed a human skull, with a bone across the mouth. Round the four sides of the frame is written the following homely distich:—

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citizen of London, deceased, she attending upon t h e R t . Hon the Lady Marchioness of Winchester.' They were to marry at ' Christ Church, London.' In the same month he resigned his professorship at Gresham College, which was tenable only so long as he remained unmarried. In 1611 he was in the service of Prince Henry, and his name stands first on the roll of the Prince's musicians, with a salary of £40 per annum. The old Cheque Book of the Chapel Royal records under date of 1613 that 1 John Bull, Doctor of Musicke, went beyond the seas without license, and was admitted into the Archduke's service.' No valid reason can be assigned for his leaving the country, but it teems he had been preparing for the step some months previously. I n the British Museum (Add. 1I.SS. No. 6194), is preserved a letter from Dr. Bull to Sir M. Hicks, wishing his son's name to be inserted instead of his own in some patent dated April 26, 1612 ; and the same MS. contains an extract from Mr. Trumbull's letter to James I concerning the Archduke's receiving Dr. Bull, the king's organist, into his chapel without permission, dated May 30, 1614. The subsequent life of Dr. Bull has been hitherto simply conjecture, but the writer is fortunately enabled to clear up the latter part of it from a letter written by the Chevalier Leon de Burbure some few years back, in answer to certain inquiries. The Chevalier says, ' I do not know that the Cathedral of Antwerp ever possessed any MS.S. of Dr. John Bull, but at all events there have remained no traces for a long time. The only facts relative to John Bull that I have discovered are, that he became organist of Notre Dame at Antwerp in 1617, in the place of Rmnold Waelrent deceased ; that in 1620 he lived in the house adjoining the church, as

J'"V'rr V'ifure been "ot

I am Iudebted for it to

' The bull by force in field doth raigne: But Bull by skill good will doth gayne.' [E. F. E.] B U N N , ALFRED, manager and dramatic author, was for a quarter of a century director, and during the greater part of that time lessee, of Drury Lane Theatre. Elliston gave him his first appointment as stage-manager of Drury Lane in 1823, when he was quite a young man ; and he first obtained a certain celebrity as a manager by endeavouring some dozen years afterwards to establish an English Opera. ' T h e Maid of Artois,' and a few years later ' The Bohemian Girl,' ' The Daughter of St. Mark,' and other operas by Balfe, were produced at Drury Lane under Mr. Bunn's management; and for the first of these works Mine. Malibran was engaged at the then unprecedented rate of £125 a night. Mr. Bunn also brought out Mr. (now Sir Julius) Benedict's ' Brides of Venice' and Vincent Wallace's ' Maritana.' For most of these operas Mr. Bunn himself furnished the libretto, which however was in every case of French origin. He was the author or adapter of a good many dramas and farces, including ' The Minister and the Mercer,' a translation of Scribe's 'Bertrand et Eaton,' which, on its first production, obtained remarkable succesa. Long before his career as manager had come to an end he published a volume of memoirs, under the title of ' The Stage.' [H. S. E.] B U N T I N G , EDWARD, son of an English engineer and an Irish lady, born at Armagh in February 1773. He was educated as an organ and pianoforte player, and distinguished himself for his love of Irish music, of which he published three collections. The first, containing Irish airs 'never before published,' came out in 1796. A

BUNTING. second, containing 75 additional airs (words by Campbell and others), and a dissertation on the Irish Harp, appeared in 1809. A third collection, containing upwards of 150 airs, of which more than 120 were then for the first time given to the public, was published in 1840. This last collection is remarkable for a dissertation of 100 pages upon the history and practice of music in Ireland. According to this dissertation 'the occasion whichfirstconfirmed him in his partiality for the airs of his native country, was the great meeting of the Harpers at Belfast in 1792. Before this time there had been several similar meetings at Granard, in the county of Longford, which had excited a surprising degree of interest in Irish music throughout that part of the country. The meeting at Belfast was however better attended than any that had yet taken place, and its effects were more permanent, for it kindled an enthusiasm throughout the north which burns bright in some warm and honest hearts to this day. All the best of the old class of Harpers— a race of men then nearly extinct, and now gone for ever — Dennis Hempson, Arthur O'Neill, Charles Fanning, and seven others, the least able of whom has not left his like behind, were present.' Aided by O'Neill and the other harpers, Bunting immediately began to form his first collection. He travelled into Derry, Tyrone, and Connaught, where, especially in the last, he obtained a great number of excellent airs. His first and second collections contain the best Irish airs, although in his third there are several very good ones, and some very curious. Among these last are the ' carinans or dirges, and airs to which Ossianic and other old poems are sung/ and which the editor gives as ' very ancient'— many hundred years old. He afterwards endeavours to analyse the structure of Irish airs, and to point out their characteristics. Bunting died at Belfast Dec. 21, 1843, and was interred at Mount Jerome. His death was absolutely unnoticed. ' He was of no party, and therefore honoured of none, and yet this unhonoured man was the preserver of his country's music' (Dub. Univ. Mag., Jan. 1847; Private Sources.) [E. F. R.] BURDEN OB BURTHEN. Old songs and ballads frequently had a chorus or motto to each verse, which in the language of the time was called a Burden or Bob. One of the most ancient and most popular was 'Hey troly loly lo,' quoted in 'Piers Plowman,' 1362, and other early songs. It occurs after every line of a song of the time of Edward IV (Sloane MS. No. 1584) ; and in Isaac Walton's 'Compleat Angler' is the burden of ' 0 the sweet contentment the countryman doth find,' ' Heigh trollollie loe, Heigh trollollie lee.' The ancient 'Frogge Song' has the ridiculous burden— ' Farthing linkum laddium, Fann—ho—fannyho, Farthing glen.' In the ballad of ' Sir Eglamore,' which was very

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popular in the 17th century, the burden is ' Fa la, lanky down dilly.' In Shakespeare's 'Tempest ' we find— ' Foote it featly heere and there, And sweet Sprites the burthen beare.' The stage direction to which is 'Burthen dispersedly'; and the burthen follows— ' Harke, harke, bowgh-wough; The watch-dogges barke Bowgh-wough.' The second song in the same play has 'Dingdong' for the burden. In 'As You Like I t ' Celia says ' I would sing my song without a burthen, thou bring'st me out of tune.' The ballad 'The Jolly Miller' has been a favourite from the 16th or 17th century, and was sent to Beethoven to harmonise on account of 'its merited popularity' by Thomson, who inserted it in his 'Scotch Songs,' 1824. In it we find the lines— ' This the burden of his song For ever us'd to be, I care for nobody, no, not I, If nobody cares for me.' It is probable that the burdens were accompanied by motion or dancing. [BALLAD.] In 'Much Ado about Nothing' Margaret says 'Claps into Light-a-love (that goes without a burden). Do you sing it and I'll dance it.' Burden also means the drone or bass of a bagpipe. [FAUX-BOUEDON.] [W.H.C.] BUEGMULLER, NOEBERT, composer; born at Diisseldorf, Feb. 8, 1810; son of the then music-Director there, who died in 1824 well known and honoured as one of the founders and conductors of the Lower Rhine festivals. Norbert very early showed extraordinary musical talent. After leaving his father he studied at Cassel under Spohr and Haupimann. But a sickly constitution prevented his full development, and he died at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1836. He left much music behind him, of which two symphonies, an overture, and some other pieces were published by Kistner, all, notwithstanding their natural immaturity, manifesting great ability, lively imagination full of ideas, freshness of invention, and a strong feeling for classical ' form.' There is every reason to believe that, if his life had been spared, concentration and strength would have come with years, and that Burgmiiller would have reached a high place in his art. Schumann valued him greatly: he begins a memorial notice of him by saying that since the early death of Schubert nothing more deplorable had happened than that of Burgmuller (e*. Schriften, iii. 145). [A. M.] BURLA, OR BURLESCA, a musical joke or playful composition; J. S. Bach's Partita 3, engraved wit 11 his own hand on copper, and published in 1727, contains a Burlesca as the fifth piece. Schumann has a Burla in op. 124. No. 12. [W. H. C.J BURLETTA, a droll or facetious musical drama or farce, which derives its name from the

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Italian vert bin-hire, 'to jest,' or 'to ridicule.' the Earl of Sandwich (a nobleman devoted to The burletta found its way from Italy through music) quitted London in June 177°- He spent France to England. The most celebrated ex- several days in Paris, and then went by Lyons ample produced in England was the BEGGAR'S and Geneva (where he had an accidental interOPERA in 1727, written by Gay, and adapted view with Voltaire), to Turin, Milan, Padua, to the popular melodies of the day. In 1737 Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome, and Naples, appeared 'The Dragon of Wantley,' by Henry consulting everywhere the libraries and the Carey and Lampe, which succeeded so well that learned; hearing the best music, sacred and it was followed in 1738 by a second part or secular, and receiving the most cheerful and sequel, entitled ' Margery.' [W. H. C] liberal assistance towards the accomplishment of his object. On his return to England, Dr. BURNEY, CHARLES, MUS. DOC, was born at Burney an account of his tour, in one Shrewsbury April 7, 1726, and educated at volume, published which was exceedingly well received, the free school there. He was subsequently and deemed so good a model that Dr. Johnson removed to the public school at Chester, where professedly imitated it in his own Tour to the he commenced his musical studies under Mr. Hebrides, saying, ' I had that clever dog Burney's Baker, the organist of the Cathedral. When Musical Tour in my eye.' 1772, Dr. about fifteen years of age he returned to his Burney again embarked forIntheJuly continent to native town, and for three years pursued the make the tour of Germany and the Netherlands; study of music, as a future profession, under his of which he published an account in two volumes. elder brother James Burney, organist of St. At Vienna he had the good fortune to make the Mary's, Shrewsbury. He was next sent to Lon- intimate acquaintance of the celebrated poet don, and for three years studied under Dr. Arne. Metastasio. Here he also found two of the In 1749 he was elected organist of St. Dionis- greatest musicians that age, Hasse and Gluck. Backchurch, Fenchurch-street, and in the winter From Vienna he ofproceeded through Prague, of the same year engaged to take the harpsi- Dresden and Berlin, to Hamburg, and thence by chord in the subscription concerts then recently Holland, to England, where he immediately deestablished at the King's Arms in (.'ornhill. In voted himself to arranging the mass of materials the following year he composed the music of three thus collected. dramas—Mallet's Alfred, Mendez's Robin Hood, and Queen Mab—for Drury-lane. Being threatIn 1773 Dr. Burney was elected an F. R. S.; ened with consumption, however, he could not and in 1776 the first volume of hi* General continue these exertions, and, in 1751, accepted History of Music appeared in 4to. In the same the situation of organist of Lynn-Regis. Norfolk, year the complete work of Sir John Hawkins where he remained for the succeeding nine was published. Burney's subsequent volumes years. In this retreat he formed tlie design, were published at unequal intervals, the fourth and laid the foundation of his future History of and last appearing in 1789. Between the two Music. In 1760, his health being completely rival histories, the public decision was loud and restored, he returned to London, and again immediate in favour of Dr. Burney. Time has entered upon the duties of his profession. modified this opinion, and brought the merits of Soon after his arrival in London, Burney pub- each work to their fair and proper level—adlished several concertos for the harpsichord which judging to Burney the palm of style, arrangewere much admired ; and in 1766 he brought out ment, and amusing narrative, and to Hawkins at Drury-lane, with considerable success, both the credit of minuter accuracy and deeper rewords and music of a piece entitled 'The Cunning search, more particularly in parts interesting to Man,' founded upon, and adapted to the music of the antiquary and the literary world in general. J. J. Rousseau's 'Devin du Village.' On June Burney's first volume treats of the music and 2 3> J 7^9J t' le University of Oxford conferred poetry of. the ancient Greeks, the music of the upon him the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor Hebrews, Egyptians, etc. The second and third of Music, on which occasion his exercise consisted volumes comprise all that was then known of the of an anthem of considerable length, with over- biographies of the great musicians of the 15th, ture, solos, recitatives and choruses, which con- 16th, and 17th centuries. The fourth volume tinued long to be a favourite at the Oxford Music is perhaps less entitled to praise. Whole pages Meetings, and was several times performed in are given to long-forgotten and worthless Italian German}' under the direction of Emanuel Bach. operas, whilst the great works of Handel and In the meantime, neither the assiduous pursuit J. S. Bach remain unchronicled ; the latter indeed of his profession, nor his many other engage- is almost ignored. ments had interrupted his collections for his When the extraordinary musical precocity of History of Music. He had exhausted all the the infant Crotch first excited the attention of the information that books could afford him, and musical profession and the scientific world, Burwas far from what he desired. The present ney drew up an account of the infant phenomestate of music could only be ascertained by non, which was read at a meeting of the Royal personal investigation and converse with the Society in 1779, and published in the Philosophimost celebrated musicians of foreign countries, cal Transactions. The commemoration of Handel as well as his own. He resolved to make the in 1 784 again called forth his literary talents; tmir of Italy, France and Germany, and fur- his account of these performances, published in nished with powerful letters of introduction from 4to for the benefit of the musical fund, is well

BURNEY. known to every musical reader. Dr. Burney also wrote 'An Essay towards the History of Comets,' 1769 ; ' A Plan for a Music School,' 1774; and the 'Life and Letters of Metastasio,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1796. His last labour was on Eees' Cyclopedia, for which work he furnished all the musical articles, except those of a philosophical and mathematical kind. His remuneration for this was £1000, and as most of the matter was extracted without alteration from his History, the price was large. During a long life Dr. Burney enjoyed the intimate acquaintance of almost every contemporary who was distinguished either in literature or the arts; with Johnson he was in habits of friendship ; and it is known that soon after Johnson's death, he had serious thoughts of becoming his biographer. For many years Dr. Burney lived in St. Martin's Street, Leicester Square, in a house once the residence of Newton, and still standing; but about I789, on being appointed organist of Chelsea College, he removed to a suite of apartments in that building, where he spent the last twenty-five years of his life in the enjoyment of independence, and of a family, each individual of which (thanks to their parents' early care and example) had attained high distinction in some walk of literature or science. ' In all the relations of private life,' says one of his biographers, 'his character was exemplary, and his happiness such as that character deserved and honoured. His manners were peculiarly easy, spirited and gentlemanlike ; he possessed all the suavity of the Chesterfield school without its stiffness—all its graces, unalloyed by its laxity of moral principle.' At length, full of years, and rich in all that should accompany old age, he breathed his last on April 12, 1814, at Chelsea College. His remains were deposited, on the aoth of the same month, in the burial-ground of that institution, attended by his own family (of which he lived to see the fourth generation), the chief officers of the college, and many others of rank and talent. His intelligent and expressive face has been preserved by Reynolds, in a fine portrait, engraved by Bartolozzi, and Barry has introduced him in his large picture at the Society of Arts. As a composer Dr. Burney's principal works, in addition to those already mentioned, are ' Sonatas for two Violins and a Base,' two sets; 'Six Cornet Pieces with Introduction and Fugue for the Organ'; 'Twelve Canzonetti a due voci in canone, poesie dell' abate Metastasio'; ' Six Duets for German Flutes'; 'Six Concertos for Violin, etc. in eight parts'; 'Two Sonatas for Pianoforte, Violin and Violoncello'; and 'Six Harpsichord Lessons.' [E. F. R.] BURROWES, JOHN FRECKLETON, born in

London, April 23, 1787, was a pupil of William Horsley. He first made himself known as a composer by an overture and several vocal pieces with orchestral accompaniments, and afterwards by an overture produced at the concerts of the Philharmonic Society, of which he was one of the original members. He soon '

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however abandoned these pursuits for the less distinguished but more profitable one of composing and arranging for the pianoforte. Burrowes was the author of 'The Thorough Bass Primer' and ' The Pianoforte Primer,' both which have passed through many editions, and are still in request. He was also the composer of some ballads and many pianoforte pieces. For nearly forty years he held the situation of organist of St. James's Church, Piccadilly. He died March 31, 1852. [W. H. H.] BURTON, AVERT, a cathedral musician in the time of Henry VIII, some of whose compositions are still preserved in the Music School at Oxford. [W. H. H.] BURTON, JOHN, a native of Yorkshire, born 1730, was a pupil of John Keeble, the theorist. He became one of the first harpsichord players of his time, particularly as respects expression. He diedini7S5. [W. H. H.] BUSBY, THOMAS, MUS. DOC, born in Westminster, I755. At the age of fourteen he was articled to Battishill; he also studied languages, became a good classical scholar, and for several years was connected with the press as reporter. He was successively organist at St. Mary's, Newington, and St. Mary Woolnoth, Lombard Street. In 1799 he produced an oratorio called 'The Prophecy,' which met with considerable success. Encouraged by this he wrote an ' Ode to British Genius'; an 'Ode to St.Cecilia's Day' (by Pope); 'Comala' (from Ossian): and the oratorio of 'Britannia.' In 1801 he took his degree as Mus. Doc. at Cambridge, having previously enjoyed that of LL.D. He next composed the music to 'Joanna,' a five-act romance by Cumberland, and subsequently gained fame by his music to 'A Tale of Mystery,' and ' Rugantino, or the Bravo of Venice'—the first melodramatic music heard in this country. He died in April, 1838. Busby was a man of great industry, and, besides the works enumerated, •wrote and published the following :—' The Day of Genius,' a satire, 1786 ; 'A Dictionary of Music,' 1786—a work which went through many editions, and is still in print; 'The Divine Harmonist,' 1788; 'Melodia Britannica,' 1790; 'The Monthly Musical Journal' (4 numbers), 1S01; 'Lucretius,' translated from the Latin, 2 vols. 4to., 1813 ; ' A Grammar of Music,' 1818; ' A History of Music' (compiled from Burney and Hawkins), 2 vols. 8vo., 1819; 'Concert-Room and Orchestra Anecdotes,' 3 vols. I2mo., 1825 ; 'A Musical Manual, or Technical Directory,' 1S28. (Diet, of living Authors, 1816; Busby, Hist, of Music; Private Sources.) [E. F. R.] BUSNOIS, a Belgian musician in the latter part of the 15th century, who with Ockenheim and a few others represent the Netherhind school immediately preceding Josquin des Pres. The date and place of his birth are unknown, but he was without doubt educated and passed the greater part of his life in Belgium. In 1476 he was appointed one of the chapel singers of

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Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, and continued in that position till the death of that prince (Jan. 5, 1477), when he retired to a country life till his death about 1480. Kiesewetter, in his 'Essay on the Music of the Netherlands,' has printed three four-part chansons from the ' Canti Cento Cinquanta' (Petrucci, Venice, 1503), which show a decided progress on the music of Dufay's period (13801450). Some masses of Busnois' are preserved in the library of the pontifical chapel, and other compositions, chiefly for the church, in a MS. in the royal library at Brussels. Many of his chansons are in a MS. brought to light of late years in the library at Dijon. [J. K. S. B.] BUTLER, THOMAS HAHLT, son of John

Butler, professor of music, was born in London in 1762. He received his early musical education as a chorister of the Chapel Royal under Dr. Nares. On the breaking of his voice he was sent to Italy to study composition under Piccini, where he remained three years. On his return to England he was engaged by Sheridan to compose for Drury Lane Theatre. Differences however arising, he quitted England at the expiration of his engagement and settled in Edinburgh, where he established himself as a teacher, and where he died in 1823. Butler composed the music for ' The Widow of Delphi,' a musical comedy by Richard Cumberland, 1780, besides many pieees for the pianoforte, [W. H. H.] BUXTEHUDE, DIETRICH, a celebrated organist and composer, born 1637 at Helsingor, Denmark, where his fa'her Johann was organist of the Olai-church. The father died Jan. 22, 1674, in his 72nd year. It is not known whether the son received his thorough musical education from his father or not. In April 1668 lie obtained the post of organist at the Marien-Kirche of Liibeck—one of the best and most lucrative in Germany—where his admirable playing and promising abilities excited much attention. Here his energy and skill at once found their proper field. Not c< intent with discharging his duties at the organ, he conceived the idea of instituting great musical performances in connection with the church services, and in 1673 started the • Abendmusiken,' or evening performances, on which Liibeck peculiarly prided itself. They took place annually, on thefiveSundays before Christmas, beginning between four andfiveo'clock, after the afternoon service, and consisted of concerted pieces of sacred music for orchestra and chorus— the former improved and the latter formed by Buxtehude—and organ performances. In such efforts Buxtehude was well seconded by his fellow citizens. The musical evenings continued throughout the 18th century, and even into the 19th. Further particulars by them are given by S|>itta in his ' Life of J. S. Bach' (i. 2 ; 3, from Holler's ' Cimbria Litterata,' and Conrad von Hoveln's 'Be^liicktem und geschmiicktem Liibeck ') : Mathesi m also mentions them in his 'Volkommene Kapellmeister.' The best testimony to Buxtehude's greatness is contained in

BYRD. the fact of Sebastian Bach having made a journey of fifty miles on foot that he might become personally acquainted with the Liibeck concerts. In fact Buxtehude became the great musical centre for the North of Europe, and the young musicians flocked around him. Amongst these was Nicolas Bruhns, who excelled Buxtehude himself both in composition and in organ-playing. Buxtehude ended his active and deservedly famous life May 9, 1707. His strength lay in his free organ compositions (i.e. pieces not founded on chorals), and generally in instrumental music, pure and simple, and not based on a poetical idea. These, though now antiquated, are remarkable as the earliest assertion of the principle of pure instrumental music, which was afterwards so fully developed by Bach. In treatment of chorales on the organ Buxtehude was not equal to the school of Pachelbel; but to judge him from one side only would he unfair. A list of his published works, corrected from Gerber, is given by Spitta (' J. S. Bach,' i. 258, note). These include the 'Abendmusiken' from 1678-S7, and occasional pieces, many of them published at Liibeck during his lifetime. Earlier instrumental compositions Spitta was not able to discover; Matheson also complained that of Buxtehude's clavier pieces, in which his principal strength lay, few if any existed. A collection of seven ' Claviersuiten' mentioned by Matheson (Volk. Kapellmeister, 130), 'in which the nature and character of the planets are agreeably expressed,' exists probably only ia MS. In later times fourteen ' Choral-Bearbeitungen' were edited by Dehn (Peters). Commer ('Musica Sacra,' i. No. 8), G. W. Korner, Busby (Hist, of Music), and A. G, Bitter (' Kunst des Orgelspiels'), have also published separate pieces of his. [C. F. P.] BYRD, WILLIAM (or as his name is sometimes spelt, Byrde or Bird), is supposed to have been a son of Thomas Byrd, a gentleman of Edward the Sixth's Chapel. The precise date of his birth is unknown, but the fact of his having been senior chorister of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1554, would fix it at about 1538 (see a petition for the restoration of certain obits and benefactions which had been seized under the Act for the Suppression of Colleges and Hospitals, in Dugdale's at. Paul's, ed. Ellis). Wood tells us that he studied music under Thomas Tallis. In 1563 (according to the same authority) he was appointed Organist of Lincoln, which post he held till 1569. Upon the death of Robert Parsons, in that year, he succeeded him as Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. In 1575 he is styled 'Organist' (Cantiones Sacrae), but as no provision for that office then existed in the chapel, the title was only complimentary. Byrd is thought to have derived considerable pecuniary advantages from a patent granted to him and his master, Tallis, for the exclusive privilege of printing music and vending music paper (Ames, Typ. Antiq. 536). Byrd's printed works (under this patent) are as follows :—(1) Cantiones quae ab arguruento

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sacrae vocantur, quinque et sex partium (jointly with Tallis), 1575; (2) Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of Sadnes and Pietie, made into musicke of five parts [1587] ; (3) Songs of Sundrie Natures, some of Gravitie and others of Myrth (for 3, 4, 5 and 6 voices), 1589 ; (4) Liber Primus Sacrarum Cantionum quinque vocum, 1589 ; (5) Liber Secundus Sacrarum Cantionum, etc. 1591 ; (6) Gradualia, ac Cantiones Sacrae Lib. Primus (for 3, 4 and 5 voices'), 1607; (7) Gradualia, etc. Lib. Secundus, 1610; (8) Psalmes, Songs and Sonnets (for 3, 4, 5 and 6 voices or instruments) 1611. In addition to these works, Byrd printed three masses (probably composed between the years 1553 and 1558), without date or the name of printer. He also contributed to the following works:— (1) Musica Transalpina, Madrigales translated, of foure, five and six parts,' 1588 ; (2) Watson's First Sett of Italian Madrigalls Englished, 1590 ; (3) Parthenia, or the Maidenhead of the first Musick that ever was printed for the Virginalls [1600] ; (4) Leighton's Teares or Lamenfeicions of a Sorrowful Soule (a collection of part-songs, by the principal composers of the day), 1614. A large number of his virginal compositions are contained in the so-called 'Virginal Book of Queen Elizabeth,' in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, and in Lady Nevill's 'Virginal Book,' in the possession of the Earl of Abergavenny. Besides the services and anthems printed in Barnard's 'Selected Church Musick,' 1641, and Boyce's 'Cathedral Music,' many others are to be found in MS. in the Aldrich, the Hawkins, and the Tudway Collections. A mass in D minor, edited- by the writer, and Book I. of Cantiones Sacrae, edited by the late W. Horsley, were published by the Musical Antiquarian Society. The well-known canon, 'Non nobis Domine,' is traditionally said to be the composition of Byrd, but it is not found in any of his works. A poem in Blow's ' Amphion Anglicus,' 1700, speaks of ' Bird's Anthem in golden notes,' preserved in the Vatican, which may have some reference to the canon in question. Byrd lived on terms of intimacy with the elder Ferrabosco, and more than once was his rival in trials of skill and ingenuity in Counterpoint. Morley (Introd. 1597), speaks of one of these ' virtuous contentions'; and Peacham, in his 'Compleat Gentleman' (ed. 1622, p. 100), says, 'for motets and musicke of pietie and devotion, as well for the honour of our nation as the merit of the man, I preferre above all other our Phoenix, Mr. William Byrd, whom in that kind, I know not whether any may equal.'

In a letter from the Earl of Worcester to the Earl of Shrewsbury, September 19, 1602 (preserved among the Talbot Papers in the Heralds' College), we have an interesting passage respecting one of Byrd's part-songs. The writer says: ' We are frolic here in Court ; much dancing in the Privy Chamber of country dances before the Queen's Majesty, who is exceedingly pleased therewith. Irish tunes are at this time most pleasing, but in winter, Lullaby, an old song of Mr. Bird's, will be more in request as I think.' The ' Lullaby Song' is printed in the author's ' Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of Sadnes and Pietie,' 1588. From the Cheque Book of the Chapel Royal we learn that Byrd died July 4, 1623 ; and in the record of the event he is styled ' A Father of Musicke,' probably in allusion to his age and his length of service. If he was sixteen when his name appears as senior chorister of St. Paul's, he must have been eighty-five years old when he died. Thomas Tomkins (who was his scholar), in his ' Songs of 3, 4, 5 and 6 Parts,' 1622, speaks of his ' ancient and much reverenced master.' Byrd resided, at the end of the 16th century, in the parish of St. Helen, Bishopsgate. He was married, and had a family, as we learn from the registers of that church. One son, Thomas, was educated to the profession, for in 1601 he acted as substitute for Dr. John Bull as Gresham Professor. Notwithstanding his conformity to the established religion, Byrd is supposed to have been at heart a Romanist. Some very curious particulars bearing upon this point have lately come to light. In a list of places frequented by certain recusants in and about London, under date 1581, is the following entry: ' Wyll'm Byred of the Chappele, at his house in p'rshe of Harlington, in com. Midds.' In another entry he is set down as a friend and abettor of those beyond the sea, and is said to be residing ' with Mr. Lister, over against St. Dunstan's, or at the Lord Padgette's house at Draighton.' In the 'Proceedings in the Archdeaconry of Essex,' May 11, 1605, 'William Birde, Gentleman of the King's Majestie's Chapell,' is 'presented' for ' popish practices,' but what was his sentence does not appear, as he was hiding at the time. There is a portrait of William Byrd—an oval, in the same print with Tallis. It was engraved by Vandergucht for N. Haym's ' History of Music,' which never appeared. One impression only is known to exist. (Life of Byrd, Mus. Ant. Soc.; Cheque-Booli of Chapel Royal, Camd. Soc.; Rimbault, Bibl. Madncjaliana.) [E. F. R.]

BABELL, WILLT^M, the son of a bassoonplayer, was born about 1690, and instructed in the elements of music by his father, and in composition by Dr. Pepusch. He was celebrated for his proficiency on the harpsichord, and was also a good performer on the violin. He was a member of the royal band, and for some years or-

ganist of All Hallows, Bread Street. Taking advantage of the rise and popularity of the opera in England, he was the first to arrange the favourite airs as lessons for the harpsichord. In this he was highly successful, and his arrangements of ' Pyrrhus and Demetrius,' ' Hydaspes,' ' Rinaldo,' etc., were standard works of their

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BAINI.

cession to the Mastership was a certainty. As composer and Maestro di Capella he was alike an exponent and a representative of the old Roman school of the 16th century. He was indeed a cinque-cento priest of the higher order born out of due time. For him the sun of music had begun to set at the close of the one period which he loved and understood. None of his musical compositions have been published, but one of them at least is famous. His ' Miserere,' composed for the Holy Week by order of Pope Pius VII, is the only one out of the hundreds that have been produced in Rome which has taken its place permanently BACON, RICHARD MACKENZIE, born at Nor- in the services of the Pontifical Chapel side by wich, May 1, 1776, was a musical critic of great side with the two celebrated compositions of acumen, and wrote at a time when sensible Allegri and Baj. His first contribution to the musical criticism was an uncommon thing. His literature of music was a pamphlet evoked by the father was proprietor of the 'Norwich Mercury,' ignorance of the directors of the Accademia Nawhich he inherited from him, and bequeathed to poleone in Lucca, who in the year 1806 bestowed his son. Richard began to write for this journal their annual prize upon a motet for four choirs at seventeen, and its editorship was the standard written by Marco Santucci, as though it were a occupation of his whole life. He is known to production of a new order. Baini exposed their musical men as the projector, editor, and chief mistake, and cited a long list of similar pieces by writer of the ' Quarterly Musical Magazine and Antonelli, Agostini, Benevoli, Abbatini, Beretta, Review,' which was the first journal devoted to and a host of other composers, dating from the music in England. Thefirstnumber was issued 16th century downwards, and including one by in January, 1818, and it was for some time con- his own master and friend Jannaconi. His second tinued, as its name implies, quarterly, but the literary work was an essay on the identity of late numbers came out irregularly, the last (com- Musical and Poetic rhythm. It was written in pleting the 10th volume) appearing in 1826. He obedience to a request of the Comte de St. Leu, contributed musical notes to ' Colburn's Maga- brother to the Emperor Napoleon, and it takes zine,' and other periodicals. He issued proposals the form of answers to no less than sixteen quesfor an extensive musical dictionary, for which he tions proposed to him by the illustrious amateur. is said to have collected the materials, but it The subject was one well calculated to display the was never printed. In 1828 he published solid learning and delicate analysis of Baini, but 'The Elements of Vocal Science,' a work of it may be doubted whether it is not to be honconsiderable merit, the materials of which had oured among those efforts in which abstruseness previously appeared in the ' Musical Magazine.' and mysticism are unalloyed by any trace of He claims the merit of originating the Norwich practical result. But the masterpiece of Baini, Triennial Musical Festival, the first celebration to which and for which he was alike led by of which was held in 1824. He was the author temperament and fitted by power, is his great of a ' Life of Pitt,' a ' Life of the Earl of Suffolk,' monograph on Palestrina ('Memorie Storicoand of numerous political pamphlets. He died critiche,' etc., Rome 1828, 2 vols. 4to.). A at Norwich, Nov. 2, 1S44. {Imp. Diet. ofBiotj.; more complete and satisfactory piece of work it 1'ricaU Sources.) [E. F. R.] would be difficult to conceive. It is something more and something less than a biography. BATNI, GIUSEPPE, commonly known as the For the details of the life of Palestrina are Abbe Baini, was born at Rome Oct. 21, 1775. somewhat scanty, although the account of his He was the nephew of Lorenzo Baini, a Venetian works is absolutely exhaustive. Still, the porcomposer who had become Maestro di Capella at trait of the man, the loveable husband, father, the Church of the Gesii. Giuseppe received his and friend, the conscientious worker, the defirst musical instruction at the competent hands voted man of genius, the pure liver, and faithful of his uncle, and completed his studies under the Catholic, is full and finished. Moreover any lack well-known Jannaconi, with whom he came to be of view into his family interior is more than comon terms of very close friendship. Shrewd, en- pensated by the glimpses we get of cinque-cento thusiastic, studious and devout, by the time of life.and society in Rome. To snatch these from his entry into Holy Orders he was at once an the materials to which he had access, and to erudite theologian, an expert musician, and an reproduce without intruding them, was a task accomplished literary man. His powers of assi- absolutely congenial to the nature and genius of milation and criticism were equal to his capacity Baini, and he has performed it to perfection. But for learning; and his love for antiquity and the the book is as valuable to the musical historian antique forms of art was as absorbing as his taste as it is to the general reader. A hundred subwas keen and his judgment true. Further, nature sidiary notices of the composers of the Italian had endowed him with a beautiful bass voice school from the days of Goudimel to the middle which he had carefully cultivated. With such of the 17th century are sown like sa'ellites around qualifications his reception into the Pontifical the central figure; and it is hardly too much to choir was easy, and once a member of it, his succlass at the beginning of the last century. Babell's fame reached even to Germany, where some of his works were printed. He was the author of several ' Suits of the most celebrated Lessons, collected and fitted to the Harpsichord or Spinnet' ; 'Twelve Solos for a Violin or Hautboy'; 'Twelve Solos for the German Flute or Hautboy '; 'Six Concertos for small Flutes and Violins,' and other works mentioned in old catalogues. He died at Canonbury Sept. 23, 1723, and was buried in the church of which he had been organist. (Hawkins, Mist.; Printte Sources.) [E. F. R.]

BAINI.

CABEL.

say that in it we have a sketch of the rise and progress of Italian music from the deposition of the Flemings and the establishment of a national school to the close of the ecclesiastical era and the rise of opera. Baini thought to publish a complete edition of the works of the great master, whom, with a constantly recurring enthusiasm, he calls ' II Principe della Musica.' But fate ordained that he should only live to reproduce the man; and he died before he had transcribed and published more than two volumes out of the vast mass of his compositions. He was as devoted to his profession aa he was to his art; and his death, which took place on May 21, 1844, in the 69th year of his age, was attributed to over fatigue arising from persistence in his duties as a confessing priest. [E. H. P.]

BATHE, WILLIAM, a learned Irishman, was born in Dublin in 15s 2. He entered into the order of the Jesuits, and leaving Ireland travelled extensively on the continent of Europe, and finally settled in Salamanca, being appointed professor of languages in the university of that city. He published there a philological work called ' Janua Linguarum.' Leaving Salamanca he came to London, where he published some religious treatises, and also ' A Brief Introduction to the true arte of Musicke,' 1584. On the titlepage he styles himself 'Student at Oxenford.' It is dedicated to his uncle, Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare. A second edition, under the title of ' A Briefe Introduction to the Skill of Song,' was printed by Thomas Este without date. (Hawkins, Hist.; Biog. Brit.; Imp. Diet, of Biog.). [E. F. R.]

289

BRANLE (p. 271). The music of many Branles, and other old dances, is given in Arbeau's 'Orchdsographie' (Langres 1588), a copy of which is in the British Museum. We quote two :— 1. Brank de la torche 9

4>; J ' r l+

2. Brank des Sabots

m

J r Jr

tappement du pied droit

c. The keynote of the 'natural' scale, so called because it requires neither flats nor sharps ' in its signature. In German also it is C, C 8 being called Cis; but in Italian and French it is called Ut and Do, the former from the name given it by Guido d'Arezzo. [SCALE.] It is the Ionic scale of the Church tones or modes, and in it were written ' Ein' feste Burg,' 'Gott der Vater,' ' Jesaia der Propheten,' ' Vom Himmel hoch,' and others of the earliest German chorales. In the 16th century it was much employed for dance tunes, and perhaps on that account was known as ' il modo lascivo' (Zarlino, in Hullah, 'Hist, of Mod. Music,' Lect. 3). In more modern times it has been rendered illustrious among other masterpieces by Gibbons's ' Hosanna,' the Jupiter and C minor Symphonies, and the Overture to Leonora. Schubert's great Symphony and Handel's 'Dead March in Saul' are written in C major. The name of ' C clef is given to all clefs when • thus written, the line on which : the clef mark stands being middle C, and the clef mark itself a corruption of the letter C. Those shown in the example are the Soprano, Alto, and Tenor, but the C clef has been used on every line of the stave.

C

Horns and trumpets are made to play the scale of C, and are written in the score in that key; they transpose into the key of the piece by the addition of crooks. The drums used formerly to be given in the score in the key of C, with an indication, at the beginning of the movement, of the key in which they were to be tuned. But they are now usually printed as played. As a sign of time C stands for common time, 4 crotchets in a bar; and (f for allabreve time, with 2 or 4 minims in a bar. C.f. is occasionally used in church music, or in instruction books, as an abbreviation for canto fermo. [G.] CABALETTA, also written CABBALETTA and CAVALETTA, originally CAVATINETTA, from CAVA-

TINA, usually signifies the short final quick movement of an air. [W. H. C ] CABEL, MARIE JOSEPHB, nee DREULETTE,

born at Liege Jan. 31, 1827. Showed at an early age a great talent for the piano. After the death of her father she became acquainted with Cabel, a teacher of singing, who discovered herfinevoice, instructed, and finally married her. In 47 she went with her husband to Paris, and first appeared at the Chateau des Fleurs. On Meyerbeer's recommendation she studied for two U

290

CADENCE.

CABEL.

years in the Conservatoire, and in 29 came out at the Opera Comique with great success. After this she divided her time between Brussels and Paris, and in 1854 appeared in the important and difficult part of Catherine in the ' Etoile du Nord,' expressly written for her by Meyerbeer. In 59 he wrote for her the part of Dinorah. In 60 she played the Figlia del Reggimeuto at Her Majesty's Theatre July 14, and appeared in the Shadow scene from Dinorah, July 28. In 61 she played at St. Petersburg, and soon after left the boards. Her voice was not large, but sympathetic and of extraordinary flexibility, and she was a very clever actress. [G.] CABINET PIANO. An upright pianoforte about six feet high, much in vogue from soon after the date of its introduction early in this century to about 1840. A few years later the lower upright instruments, oblique, cottage, piccolo, etc., had quite superseded it. The name Cabinet Pianoforte appears for the first time in a patent secured by William Southwell in 1807 (patentNo. 3029), but upright pianofortes with the strings descending nearly to the floor instead of only to the stsnd or legs as in the older Upright Grand, had been previously suggested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800 (patent No. 2446) and Thomas Lond in 1802 (patent No. 2591). The bold step of inverting the wrestplank or tuning-pin block, which in the Upright Grand was at the bottom near the keys, but in the Cabinet was at the top, appears to have been taken by Thomas Lond, as in his specification we find his wrestplank fixed diagonically in the sides of the case, the bass end near the top, 6 feet 3 inches high, to preserve length for the bass strings, the treble end lower 4 feet 3 inches from the bottom, leaving an angular space above which might be utilised for bookshelves. In Southwell's patent, which refers specially to the action and damper movement, the wrestplank is certainly elevated horizontally. James Shudi Broad wood, in some MS. notes dated 1838, since printed for private circulation, claims a part in the invention through having given a sketch for a vertical or cabinet pianoforte to William Southwell about 1804. He adds no particulars, but remarks that the new instrument when introduced was for a time unsuccessful, which is also stated from another source by Mr. A. N. Wornum (Address to Jurors, Paris Exhibition, 1867). The further history of this important invention, which includes the almost contemporaneous oblique and cottage pianofortes is referred to in PIANOFORTE, but it has a special interest from the upright piano of any height, oblique or vertically strung, having been invented and first produced in this country, independent of foreign suggestion or help. See also COTTAGE PIANO, OBLIQUE, and PICCOLO.

[A. J.

H.]

CACCINI, GIULIO, a native of Rome, known also as GIULIO ROMANO, born, according to the preface of his own 'Nuove Musiche,' in 1558 or 1560. He learned to sing and play the lute from Scipione della Palla, and in 1578 removed to Flurence, where he remained till his death in

1640. Great as a singer he was still greater as a reformer in music. Though neither harmonist nor contrapuntist, it was he who, following the lead of V. Galilei, first gave countenance and importance to music for a single voice. The recitatives which he composed and sang to the accompaniment of the theorbo, amid the enthusiastic applause of the musical assemblies meeting at the houses of Bardi and Corsi in Florence, were a novelty of immense significance. They were the first attempt to make music dramatic, to use it as the expression of emotion. From such small beginnings he proceeded to detached scenes written by Bardi, and thence to higher flights. The pastoral drama of Dafne, written by Rinuccini and set to music by Caccini and Peri in 1594, and still more the 'Euridice, Tragedia per Musica,' of the same poet and the same musicians in 1600, were the beginnings of the modern opera. Other compositions of Caccini's were the ' Combattimento d'Apolline col Serpente,' 'II ratto di Cefale' (with Peri), and ' Le nuove Musiche,' a collection of madrigals and canzone for a single voice. 'Euridice' has been published—but with the name of Peri alone attached to it—by Guidi (1863, 8vo.). Caccini's daughter FfiANCESCA was celebrated both as a singer and composer. CACHUCHA (Spanish). An Andalusian dance, introduced to the theatre by the celebrated Fanny Elssler in the ballet of' Le diable boiteux,' the music of which is in 3-4 time, and closely resembles the BOLERO. The dance-tune was originally sung with a guitar accompaniment. Of the origin of the name nothing certain is known. [E. P.] CADEAC, PIERRE, master of the -choristers at Auch about the middle of the 16th century, church-composer of great merit in his day; composed masses and motets for the most part published in the following collections :—' Quintus liber Motettorum' (Lyons, 1543); ' Gardano's XII Missae' (Venice, 1554); and 'Missarum Musicalium' (Paris, 1556). [M. C. C] CADENCE. Cadences or (as they are often called) Closes, are the devices which in music answer the purpose of stops in language. The effect is produced by the particular manner in which certain chords succeed one another, the order being generally such as to produce suspense or expectation first, and then to gratify it by a chord which is more satisfying to the ear. They are commonly divided into three kinds—the Perfect cadence, the Imperfect cadence, and the Interrupted cadence. Some writers specify a greater number, but this only tends to confusion and misconception. All that is requisite is to group the various kinds under names which mark their common effect. Thus every cadence which can be used satisfactorily to end a movement must of necessity be a Perfect cadence. Every cadence which is broken away from at the very moment when it seemed to promise a conclusion is obviously an Interrupted cadence; and every cadence which without producing the effect

CADENCE.

CADENCE.

of interruption leaves the mind unsatisfied and expecting something more should be called an Imperfect cadence. And this classification seems to include all the varieties. Every composer in writing feels that certain cadences are fitted for particular places in his work, and endeavours to give variety in his treatment of them. But it is unwise to give all these possible varieties definite titles, as what may answer the purpose of a full stop in one movement may only produce the effect of a semicolon in another, according to the calibre of the work. The ideas at the root of the perfect cadence are two: first, that the key be emphatically defined; and secondly, that the expectation roused by the doubtful or discordant nature of one chord be absolutely satisfied by another. The simplest and most perfect manner of obtaining these effects is the progression from dominant to tonic harmony, as in the example, 0 I a which is the type of all perfect (\) S> I j ; H cadences. *J ®~ •»Here the key is strongly marked by the number of notes proper to it which are employed, and also, as Helmholtz has pointed out, 'by the distinct passage from the remotest parts of the scale to the centre of the system' of the key, since the dominant chord contains the notes which are most remote in their relation to the tonic. On the other hand, the tonic chord in its first position is the only chord sufficiently decisive to be used as a conclusion; and the dominant harmony must in any case be doubtful and inconclusive, even when concordant, and the effect is enhanced when, as in the example, a discord is made use of. The common use of the major third in the tonic chord in the final cadences of pieces in a minor key is for the purpose above mentioned, of marking the key strongly, as the minor third is more obscure in character than the major third, and without the latter, especially in vocal music, the conclusion would not be so clear and incisive. In old times, especially in church music, another very simple form of cadence was common; viz. that in which the penultimate chord is that of the sub-dominant or 4th of the key, either major or minor, as, in the key of C—

this case the effect will evidently not be conclusively satisfying, because a piece can only come to a complete stop on the harmony of the tonic. So, in the key of C, the cadence—

or

S£

—^—a

These two forms of the perfect cadence were distinguished as the Authentic and the Flagal, from the two main divisions of the ancient church modes. The latter is not so frequently used in modern music, except sometimes for variety, or to follow some particular turn of romance or sentiment which is expressed in the music. The commonest form of Imperfect cadence is just a reversal of the dominant perfect cadence, so that the harmony of the dominant or 5th of the key is preceded by that of the tonic. In

291

m will leave the mind unsatisfied, though to a certain extent it produces the effect of a stop. Another common form of imperfect cadence is that in which the harmony of the dominant is preceded by that of the supertonic, or 2nd note of the scale, direct or in inversion, thus—

m r

as in Mozart's Quartet in G, No. i—

and in Beethoven's Violin Sonata in G—

or the following from his Symphony in C minor—

When a complete strain or subject is divided into two parts the first half frequently ends with an imperfect cadence, by which the continuity of the passage is not affected, thotigh the division is sufficiently marked. The imperfect cadence is also sometimes called a half close, which term has a good deal to recommend it as the fitter name of the two, both from its form and from the position it frequently occupies, as mentioned above. The form of Interrupted cadence generally quoted as typical is that in which the chord of the dominant, instead of proceeding to the harmony of the tonic as the mind is led to U 2

CADENCE. 292 expect, is followed by the chord of the 6th of the key, or sub-mediant, thus— But in point of fact this gives but a very small notion of what an interrupted cadence really is. For it can only be distinguished from an imperfect cadence with certainty by reference to the context. The latter is a definite stop occurring in the natural course of the music, and marking a period, though not in such a way as to enable the passage which it ends to be taken as complete in itself. But the former is an abrupt and irregular interruption of the natural flow of the music towards its anticipated termination in a perfect cadence, postponing that termination for a time or altogether avoiding it. Thus at the end of the first movement of the Sonata in C, op. 53, Beethoven keeps on postponing the perfect cadence in this manner—

—I

I

I

I:

etc.

-42-

T In his later works an entire evasion of the cadence is frequent, as in the first movement of the Sonata in E, op. 109—

It is a common practice with writers of treatises on harmony to give a series of chords preparatory to the two final ones which are given above as the perfect cadence. This makes it look as though the treatises were meant to teach

CADENCE. people to make music at so much a yard ; for a man who really has something to say in music which he feels naturally is only hampered and worried with every extra direction of the kind, which tells him to put in so much that cannot possibly mean anything because it is everybody's property. A real musician only requires directions and general principles, which are capable of considerable expansion according to the power of his genius. The rule seems simply to be that, relative to the degree in which the cadence is final, the passage which immediately precedes it must mark the key in which it is made. The sense of the key in which any movement is written is of extreme importance for the comprehension of the music, especially in instrumental music, and such as depends much upon its form of construction. Hence a cadence of any finality must mark the key strongly. Subordinate cadences, such as occur in the course of the movement, especially apart from the broader divisions of the movement, need not be so marked; but if the final cadence of the whole movement, or that of an important subdivision of a movement, is simply a, couple of chords or so immediately succeeding a passage in a foreign key, the sense of whereabouts is lost, and an entirely unsatisfactory effect produced by the indecisiveness of the conclusion. The tendency of modern music has been to avoid full cadences in the course of a piece of music, and when they become necessary to vary them as much as possible. The former, because frequent cadences make a movement into a fragmentary series of continually recommencing passages, coming each time to a full stop and beginning again; the latter, because the mind has become so habituated to the form of the ordinary perfect cadence that in a movement of highly emotional character it comes rather like a platitude. Besides, though form is a great and often the principal element of beauty in a movement, to make it too obvious by the marked nature of the cadences destroys the interest and freshness of the work. Mozart marked the divisions of his movements very strongly, but in his day the forms of instrumental music were not by any means so familiar as they are now, and their being strongly marked was necessary for their due comprehension. Besides, in Mozart's day people had much more time to sit down and rest between one action and another than they seem to have now, and perfect cadences are exactly like sitting down and resting when one tune is over so as to be fresh for the next when it makes its appearance. And the analogy goes even further, for the movement in which one sits down least often and least completely is that which is most like one great action with a single principle at its basis rather than a series of somewhat disconnected motions, which are chiefly recommended by their mutual contrasts and relative proportions. With regard to the position of the chords in the bar, the commonest position is that in which the final chord is on the first beat of the bar, or

CADENCE.

CADENZA,

268

the strongest beat of all when the bars are thrown Sonata in D, the cadences fell on the second into groups by the rapidity of the time of the beat, as in movement. So that the cadence proceeds from a chord without emphasis to a chord with it, or in other words, from the unaccented to the accented part of the bar; as first—

where the B and D are merely suspensions of the final chord of A—and in Beethoven's Quartet in A minor, op. 132, the last chord of the cadences in the movement • Allegro ma non tanto,' falls on the second beat of a bar of three—

from Mozart's Quartet in A, No. 5 ; or—

from his Quartet in Eb, No. 4. The next commonest position is to find the final chord in the middle of a bar which is equally divisible into two halves, as on the third beat of a bar of four, and the fourth of a bar of six. Of both of these Mozart makes very frequent use—as in the first movement of the first Quartet, the slow movement of the Quartet in Bb, the Rondo for pianoforte in A, and the Variations in the Sonata in A. Very often he seems to use this position with a sense of its being weaker and less conclusive than that in which the last chord falls on the first beat of a bar, and hencs as a kind of pseudoimperfect cadence; as in the slow movement of the Quartet in D minor, No. 2, which begins thus— 1-

T

i*»

j» etc i Cadences are also, but far more rarely, found occupying reversed positions, as in polonaises, where the last chord of a cadence, owing to the peculiar rhythmic character of the movement, frequently falls on the last beat of a bar of three ; as in Chopin's Polonaise in C | minor—

In Mozart's Bondeau en Polonaise, from the

and in the slow movement of his Quartet in Bb, op. 130, at the end, the last chord falls on the last beat of a bar of four—

Jlr^l

so that in point of fact the greatest authorities may be quoted to justify cadences in almost any position in the bar; but the last-mentioned instances are decidedly exceptional, and can only be justifiable when the movement in which they are used has some very marked peculiarities of rhythm or a very strong emotional character. [C.H.H.P.] CADENZA in its simplest acceptation is a flourish of indefinite form, introduced upon a bass note immediately preceding a close of some finality; that is, occupying the position of full stop either to an entire movement, or to an important section of one. The custom was most probably originated by singers, who seized the opportunity afforded by the chord of 6-4 on the dominant immediately preceding the final close of an aria or scena, to show off the flexibility, compass, and expressive powers of their voices to the highest advantage; so that the piece coming to an end immediately afterwards, the audience might have the impression of astonishment fresh in their minds to urge them to applause. The idea thus originated spread widely to all kinds of music, and in course of time its character has changed considerably, though thes flourish of which it is composed is still fy

CADENZA.

CAECILIA.

conspicuous feature. In instrumental music it fulfils a peculiar office, as it is frequently introduced where a pause in the more important matter of the movement is desirable, without breaking off or allowing the minds of the audience to •wander. Thus it occurs at points where the enthusiasm of the movement has been worked to such a heat that it is necessary to pause a little before returning to the level of the natural ideas of the themes, as in Liszt's 'Rhapsodie Hongroise' in A, and Chopin's ' Notturnos' in F minor and CJJ minor. Chopin uses them frequently when the main business of the movement is over, in order to prevent the close, which follows immediately, being too abrupt. At other times it occurs as a connecting link between two movements, or between an introduction and the movement following it, where for certain reasons it is expedient to pause a while on some preparatory chord, and not to commence serious operations before the minds of the audience have settled to the proper level. Specimens of this kind are common in the works of many great masters—e.g. Beethoven's Sonata in Eb (op. 27, No. 1), Adagio; Sonata pathetique ; Variations in F (op. 34) ; Brahms's Sonata in FJf (op. 2, last movement); Mendelssohn's 'Lobgesang,' connecting the first movement with the second. The greater cadenza, which is a development of the vocal nourish at the end of a vocal piece already spoken of, is that which it is customary to insert at the end of a movement of a concerto for a solo instrument. Like its vocal predecessors the cadenza usually starts from a pause on a chord of 6-4 on the dominant, preparatory to the final close of the movement, and its object is to show off the skill of the performer. Such cadenzas may occur either in the first or last movement, and even in both, as in Mozart's Concerto in D minor and in Beethoven's in G. With regard to their form there is absolutely no rule at all. They should contain manifold allusions to the chief themes of the movement, and to be successful should be either brilliant or very ingenious ; containing variety of modulation, but rather avoiding progressions which have been predominant in the movement itself; and the more they have the character of abandonment to impulse the better they are. It was formerly customary to leave the cadenzas for improvisation, and certainly if the frenzy of inspiration could be trusted to come at the right moment, impromptu cadenzas would undoubtedly be most effective in the hands of real masters of the situation. Moreover, it is chiefly in the sense of their being the exposition of the player's special capacities that they are defensible, for as far as the composer is concerned the movement generally offers full opportunities for display of the powers of the executant. Still custom is generally stronger than reason, and it does not seem likely that cadenzas will yet die out. And as the art of improvisation is for various reasons considerably on the wane it will juobably become habitual ibr composers to write

their own cadenzas in full, as Beethoven has done in the Eb Concerto, and Schumann in his A minor Concerto. Beethoven also wrote cadenzas for his other concertos and for Mozart's D minor; and these are published separately. Many famous musicians have supplied the like for classical concertos, Moscheles for Beethoven's, and Hummel for Mozart's. The indication for a cadenza, when not written out in full, is a pause or fermata n\ indicating its com=: fg fd~\ mencement, usually over a rest in the solo part, and over the last note in each of the orchestral parts ; another pause over a shake in the solo part indicating its close. The example is taken from Beethoven's Concerto in C minor, pianoforte part. [C.H.H.P.] CAECILIA, a German musical periodical, conducted by an association of scholars, art critics) and artists, started by Gottfried Weber in 1824, and published by Messrs. Schott. It appeared at irregular intervals, lasted till 1848, and forms a series of 27 volumes of 4 nos. each. Weber conducted it till his death, at the 20th vol., and was succeeded by Dehn, who continued editor till its discontinuance in -consequence of the political troubles of 1848. By its opening prospectus Caecilia was intended to be not so much a regular periodical as a collection of original articles of permanent interest, and a medium for the exchange of views and opinions on art. It contains papers on the theory of music and acoustics, on history and aesthetics, reviews and notices of music and treatises on the art. The earlier numbers also contained tales and poems, and other light pieces. Amongst the theoretical articles of most value are those on the compensation of organ pipes (xi. 181-202) and on the production of aliquot tones in reed pipes and clarinets (xii. 1), both by W. Weber; on the voice (i. 81 ; compare iv. 157 and 229), by Gottfried Weber; an account of the experiments of Joh. Miiller on the formation of the voice (xxi. 16), by Haser; on equal temperament (xxvi. 137), and on measurements of tones and of temperament (xxi. 117), both by Kiesewetter; and on the value of notes and the length of string necessary to produce them (xxiv. 91), by Krieger. Among the historical papers may be named those on the literature and history of music by Anton Schmid (xxi-xxvii)—chiefly notices of ancient MSS. in the Vienna library; also a paper by Aloys Fuchs on the musical collections of Vienna, interesting for its descriptions of MSS., especially those of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde (xxiii. 40) ; several communications by Dehn on the Bach MSS. in the Berlin library (xxii. 166, xxiii. 34, xxiv. 17); critical papers by Gottfried Weber on the authenticity of Mozart's "Eequiem' (iii. 205, iv. 257, v. 237, vi., viii. 128, ix., x., xiv. 147, xx. 279), written with unnecessary violence and personality, and sinse superseded by the publication of tie ori-

294

CAECILIA.

CAFFARELLI.

295

ginal score. In addition to the authors named, was the last conductor. Among the earlier memarticles were furnished by Rochlitz, Chladni, bers were some professional musicians who afterFink, and von Drieberg, and the whole formed a wards became famous, and who when they had valuable record of the progress of the historical left its ranks frequently came to assist in its and theoretical departments of music during a performances. The society was almost entirely quarter of a century. The practical portion of self-supporting, and the tickets of admission to the art was not so well represented. In fact the concerts were given by the members to their the great movement begun by Mendelssohn, and friends. [C. M.] carried on by Schumann, Chopin, and others, not CiESAR, JULIUS, M.D., of an ancient family only received no recognition, but was treated with a certain covert hostility, and with the of Rochester, many of whom are interred in the constant obtrusion of an obsolete and exaggerated cathedral there, was an amateur composer in the worship of Mozart. In the first volume the 17th century. Some catches by him appear in publication of a mass by the Abbe' Vogler (died the collection entitled ' The Pleasant Musical [W. H. H.] 18141) was hailed as an event, and reviewed with Companion.' laborious care. In the list of publications of the CAESAR, alias WILLIAM SMEGERGILL, was year contained in the 27th volume scarcely any the composer of some songs published in ' Select mention is made of the works of either of the Musicall Ayres and Dialogues, 1653, and other composers named above; and the notices are collections of the period. [W. H. H.] confined almost entirely to salon music and inCAFARO, PASQUALE, otherwise CAFFARO, struction books, chiefly those issued by the publishers of the magazine. Mendelssohn's ' St. and also known by his name of endearment Paul' (produced 1834) is only cursorily men- CAFFARELLI, was born at Naples in 1708. tioned, Chopin is rarely named, and Schumann He was destined by his parents for a scientific not at all, though by the year 1848 he had career, but his bent towards music showed itself composed many of his very greatest works. The too strongly for contradiction, and he was enearlier volumes of the Caecilia are of more value tered at the Conservatorio della Pieta, at that than the later ones in reference to practical time under the direction of Leonardo Leo. On music. [A. M.] the termination of his studies he became Maestio at the Chapel Royal of Naples, and in time CAECILIA N SOCIETY. This society was Director of the Conservatorio as well. He died instituted in 1785 by a few friends who met in 1787. Grace, purity of style, and poverty of weekly at each other's houses for the practice of invention were the characteristics of his work. hymns and anthems, but subsequently, having The following are among his best known prosome instrumentalists among them, they united ductions:—Oratorio per l'lnvenzione della Croce; for the performance of sacred works on a more Naples 1747. Ipermnestra; Naples 1751. La extended scale, and especially of Handel's ora- Disfatta di Dario; 1756. Antigono; 1754. torios. In 1791 an organ was erected in the L'Incendia di Troia; Naples 1757. Cantata a society's room in Friday-street, and after meeting tre voci per festeggiare il giorno natalizio di at Plasterers' Hall, Painters' Hall, Coachmen's Sua Maesta; Naples 1764. Arianna e Teseo; Hall, and the Paul's Head, they obtained the 1766. Cantata a tre voci, etc., etc.; Naples use of Albion Hall, London Wall, where they 1766. II Cresco a Turin ; 1768. Giustizia plamet until the dissolution of the society in 1861. cata; 1769. Cantata a piu voci per la TiansAmong the works performed were all Handel's lazione di sangue di S. Januario ; Naples 1769. oratorios and secular compositions, Haydn's ' Cre- L'Olimpiade; Naples 1769. Antigono, reset to ation' and 'Seasons,' Mozart's and Haydn's fresh music; 1770. Betulia liberata. IlFigluolo masses and Mendelssohn's 'Elijah.' W. Rus- prodigo ravveduto. Oratorio on S. Antcnio of sell, sometime organist to the Foundling, com- Padua. II Trionfo di Davidde, Oratorio. In posed for the society, of which he was a member, addition to these there are in existence by Cafaro 'The Redemption of Israel' and the 'Ode to many pieces of church music, consisting of masses, Music,' the words of the latter being supplied by psalms, motets, etc., of acknowledged merit. An Mr. Vincent. John Nightingale, Russell's suc- ' Amen' for 5 voices by him is included in cessor at the Foundling, who became organist to Novello's 'Fitzwilliam Music' [E. H. P.] the society, also composed a work for performance by the members. For many years the CAFFARELLI, GAETANO MAJORANO, DETTO, society gave the only performances of the was born at Bari, Naples, April 16, 1703. His oratorios of Handel and Haydn which could father was a peasant, and for some time opposed be heard (except during Lent at the theatres his son's inclination for music at the expense of his of Co vent Garden and Drury Lane), and its ordinary tasks. Gaetano however, by his assiduwork may be said to have been taken up by the ous attendance at the musical services in a certain Sacred Harmonic Society, which was founded a chapel, soon attracted the notice and favour of few years before the dissolution of the older Cafaro or Caffaro (see above). This artist, recogbody. The first conductor of the Society was nising the genius of the boy, rescued him from Mr. Vincent, an amateur, who tilled the office the toil to which he was destined by his ignorant for upwards of thirty years, when he was suc- parents, sent him to Norcia to bn prepared for ceeded by Mr. Walker, whose place was taken the career of an evirato, according to the barbaby his own son Joseph Walker. Mr. Shoubridge rous custom of those dnys; and, upon his return,

CAFFARELLI.

CA IRA.

gave him in his own house elementary instruction in reading, writing, and music. When sent to study at Naples under Porpora, the grateful youth, as was not unusual, called himself Caffarelli, in remembrance of his first protector. It is of this extraordinary singer that the story is told that he was kept by old Porpora for five or six years to the uninterrupted and unvaried study of one page of exercises; and that, at the end of this time, he was dismissed with these words,' Go, my son : I have nothing more to teach you. You are the greatest singer in Europe.' Whether Porpora's object in this system was to secure the perfect equality of the voice, which in his opinion could not be otherwise gained, or to humble •the boy's pride, which was inordinate—whether the story be true or false, certain it is that, according to all competent authorities, the singers whom he sent forth into the world, Farinelli, Caffarelli, etc., were superior to any that preceded or followed them. His valedictory words, in any case, were ill calculated to check the pride and presumption which made Caffarelli, throughout a career of marvellous success, always ridiculous, always odious, and always a contrast to the modest Farinelli. In 1724 he made his de'but at Rome in a female character, as was usual for sopranists, when his beautiful voice, perfect method, and handsome face, procured him his first triumph. He now easily obtained engagements, and sang with similar success in the principal cities of Italy until 1728, when he returned to Rome. Here his success was more brilliant than before, and than that of any previous singer. He was courted by the highest. society, and in one of his very numerous 'bonnes fortunes' he nearly lost his life. Owing to a sudden alarm, he had to escape by passing the night in an empty cistern in a garden, where he caught a severe cold, which kept him to his bed for a month. After this he went about everywhere protected by four bravos from the vengeance of the husband. He left Rome safe, however, in 1730 ; and, after singing in other places, arrived in London at the end of 1737. Here he made his first appearance at the King's Theatre on Jan. 7> 1738, in the principal character in Handel's 'Faramondo,' and in 'Serse' on April I-;. He also ^ang the part of Jason in Pescetti's ' La C'onquista del vello d'oro' in the same year. His name does not appear again; and it is said that during all his stay in London he was never in good health or voice. He does not appear to have fulfilled the expectation that his coming had created. He now returned to Italy, and passed through Turin, Genoa, Milan, Florence, and Venice, in a triumphal progress. At Turin, when the Prince of Savoy told C'uffarelli, after praising him greatly, that the princess thought it hardly possible that any singer could please after Farinelli, ' To-night,' he replied, • she shall litar two Farinellis !' What would have been thought of this answer by the lady who once exclaimed in delirious excitement 'One God, ami one Farinelli!' At Naples he excited the wildest enthusiasm. While he was singing there

he was told of the arrival of Gizziello, whom, as a possible rival, he was most anxious to hear and estimate for himself. He posted all the way to Rome, arrived in time for the opera, and took a back seat in the pit. After listening attentively to Gizziello's aria di entrata he could not master his emotion; but, rising from his seat, exclaimed 'Bravo, bravissimo, Gizziello! E Caffarelli chi te lo dice !' and fled precipitately from the theatre. Throwing himself into his carriage, he posted rapidly back to Naples, and found he had barely time to dress and appear at the opera, where his absence had already been remarked. In 1740 he returned to Venice, where he received a higher salary than any singer had received before,—800 sequins ( = £385), and a benefit of 700 sequins (= £335), for a season of three months. He reappeared at Turin in 1746, and then at Florence and Milan. On the invitation of the Dauphine he went to Paris in 1750, and sang at several concerts, where he pleased as much as he astonished the critics. Louis XV sent him a present of a snuffbox ; but Caffarelli, observing that it was plain, showed the messenger who brought it, one of the gentlemen of the court, a drawerfull of splendid boxes, and remarked that the worst of them was finer than the gift of the King of France. 'If,' said he, 'he had sent me his portrait in it!' ' That,' replied the gentleman, 'is only given to ambassadors.' 'Well,' was the reply, 'and all the ambassadors of the world would not make one Caffarelli!' This, when repeated, made the King laugh heartily ; but the Dauphine sent for the singer, and, giving him a passport, said—' It is signed by the King himself,—for you a great honour; but lose no time in using it, for it is only good for ten days.' Caffarelli left France in dudgeon, saying he had not gained his expenses there. Stories about him are innumerable : Metastasio, in one of his letters, tells an amusing one, according to which the intervention of Tesi, the celebrated singer, alone saved him from a duel at Vienna, provoked by his arrogance and folly. At the age of sixty-five he was still singing ; but he had made an enormous fortune, had purchased a dukedom, and built at Santo Dorato a palace, over the gate of which he inscribed, with his usual modesty, 'Amphion Thebas, ego domum.' A commentator added ' Ille cum, sine tu !' It will be inferred from the above that he was the rival of Farinelli, to whom by some he was preferred as a singer. He excelled in slow and pathetic airs, as well as in the bravura style; and was unapproached both in beauty, of voice and in the perfection of his shake and chromatic scales. He is said to have been the first to introduce the latter embellishment in quick movements. He died in 1783, leaving his wealth and his dukedom to his nephew. [J. M.]

296

CA IRA. The earliest of French revolutionary songs, probably first heard on Oct. 5, 17^9> when the Parisians marched to Versailles. The words were suggested to a street-singer called LadriS by General La Fayette, who remembered

CA IRA.

CALLCOTT.

Franklin's favourite saying at each progress of the American insurrection. The burden of the song was then as follows : ' Ah ! 9a ira, ca ira, 9a ira ! Le peuple en ce jour sans cesse re"pete: Ah ! 9a ira, 9a ira, 9a ira ! Malgre les mutins, tout reussira.' At a later period the burden, though more ferocious, was hardly more metrical :—* 'Ah ! <ja ira, 9a ira, 9a ira ! Les aristocrat' a la lanterne; Ah ! 9a ira, 9a ira, 9a ira ! Les aristocrat' on les pendra.' The tune—the length and compass of which show that it was not composed for the song—was the production of a certain Becour or Becourt, a side-drum player at the Opera; and as a contredanse was originally very popular under the title of' Carillon national.'

depicted' as early as the fourth dynasty—accord, ing to Herr Lepsius anterior to 3000 B.C. The strings of the calascione are touched with a plectrum, rarely by the fingers. The fingerboard has frets of ivory. About 1767 the brothers Cola were noted performers on it. [See

Allegro

Fine.

BANDOEA.]

297

[A.J.H.]

CALDARA, ANTONIO, was born at Venice in 1678, where he studied music under Legrenzi. He remained for many years a simple singer in the Ducal Chapel of S. Marco, but was in 1714 appointed Maestro di Cappella at Mantua. Thence in 1718 he went to Vienna, where the emperor Charles y i made him one of his vice-chapelmasters. In 1738 he returned to Venice, where he lived in retirement until his death in 1768. These are the dates in his career which are given by Fe'tis, and which he defends against Gerber and Antoine Schmidt, who say that he died at Vienna in 1736. He was a laborious composer both for the church and the stage. But his worth is hardly equal to his fecundity. A certain solemnity of manner in some measure redeems his church music; but his operas are jessentially of that order which when once laid aside are laid aside for ever. He wjote no less than 69 operas and oratorios, and dramatic compositions in the nature of one or the other. The catalogue of his church music is equally lengthy, and includes a number of cantate on sacred subjects for one, two, and three voices, with elabo[E. H. P,] rate orchestral accompaniments. CALIFE DE BAGDAD. Opera in one act, words by Saint-Just, music by Boieldieu; produced at the Opera Comique Sept. 16, 1000, and still a favourite, after many hundred representations. [G.] CALL, LEONARD DE, born in 1779; a guitar player and composer of harmonious and pretty part songs, which were greatly in fashion in Germany at the beginning of the century, and contributed much to the formation of the' Manner Gesangvereine' in that country. Some pleasing specimens will be found in '.Orpheus.' De Call is also known far his instruction book for the [G.] guitar. He died at Vienna 1815.

[G.C.] CALAH, JOHN, born 1758, was organist of Peterborough Cathedral in the latter part of the last century. He composed some cathedral music,still in use, and died Aug. 4,1798. [W.H. H.] CALL CHANGES. Ringers are said to be CALANDO (Ital.), diminishing, i.e. in tone; . ringing call changes when the ponductor calls to equivalent to diminuendo or decrescendo, and each man to tell him p,fter which bell he is to ring, often associated with rilardando. [G,] or when the men ring changes with the order in which they are to ring written out before them. OALASCIONE or COLASCIONE (Ital.; I When such changes are rung, each change is Fr. Colachon). The name of a fingerboard instru- [ generally struck consecutively from ten to a ment of the lute kind belonging to Lower Italy. Hundred times. [C.A.W.T.] The calascione is strung with two catgut strings tuned a fifth apart. The body of it is like that j CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, MUS. DOC, was of an ordinary lute, but it is relatiw ly smaller born November 20, 1766, at Kensington, where towards the neck. Of allfingerboardinstruments his father carried on the business of a bricklayer the calascione is most like the NFR (vocalise! and builder. Whilst a school-boy he had frequent by different interpreters as nofre, nefru, or nefer) opportunities of examining the organ at Kensingof the old Egyptian monuments; but it would ton church, and having formed an acquaintance be a bold hypothesis to derive the modern instru- j with the organist became a constant visitor to ment from one used in such remote antiquity, 1 the organ-loft on Sundays. There he acquired the long-necked Egyptian lute having been , his knowledge of the rudiments of music. His

CALLCOTT.

CALLCOTT.

intention was to follow the profession of surgery, but the sight of a severe operation so seriously affected his nerves that he abandoned it and turned his attention to music. In this pursuit his studies were prosecuted without the aid of a master. Bv frequent attendance at the Chapel Eoyal and Westminster Abbey he became acquainted, in 1782, with Drs. Arnold and Cooke, and the elder Sale, from whom he derived much musical knowledge, although he did not receive any regular instruction. In 1783 he became deputy organist, under Reinhold, of St. George the Martyr, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, which post he held until 1785. In the latter year Dr. Cooke introduced him to the orchestra of the Academy of Ancient Music, and the associations he there formed gave him his first bias towards glee writing. In 1784 he had submitted a glee, ' 0 sovereign of the willing soul,' as a candidate for a prize at the Catch Club, which was not successful; but in 1785 he carried ofF three of the four prize medals given by the club by his catch ' 0 beauteous fair'; his canon 'Blessed is h e ' ; and his glee ' Dull repining sons of care.' On July 4 in the same year he took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford, setting as his exercise Dr. Joseph Warton's ' Ode to Fancy.' In 1786 he composed an ode for the Humane Society, and gained two prizes from the Catch Club for his catch ' On a summer's morning,' and his canon 'Bow down Thine ear.' The next year, determined (as he said) to show that if deficient in genius he was not wanting in industry, he sent in nearly 100 compositions as competitors for the prizes. Of this large number, however, two only succeeded in obtaining the coveted distinction, viz. the canon ' Thou shalt show me/ and the glee ' Whann Battayle smethynge'; whilst the members of the club, to prevent the recurrence of so troublesome and inconvenient an event, resolved that in future the number of pieces to be received from any one candidate should be limited to twelve, i.e. three of each kind—catch, canon, and serious and cheerful glees. In 1787 Callcott took an active part with Dr. Arnold and others in the formation of the Glee Club. In 1788, offended at the new regulation of the Catch Club limiting the number of compositions to be received from each candidate for prizes, he declined writing for it, but in the next year, changing his determination, he sent in the full number of pieces permitted, and succeeded in carrying off all the prizes, a circumstance unparalleled in the history of the club. The four compositions which achieved this feat were the catch ' Have you Sir John Hawkins' History?' the canon 'O that Thou would'st'; and the glees ' 0 thou, where'er, thie bones att rest,' and • Go, idle boy.' In the same year he was chosen joint organist, with Charles S. Evans, of St. Paul's, Covent Garden, and four years later organist to the Asylum for Female Orphans, which he held till 1802. Although he now ranked as one of the ablest and most popular composers of the day he had but little skill in orchestral writing. He there-

fore availed himself of the opportunity afforded by the visit of Haydn to England in 1790 to take lessons in instrumental composition from that illustrious master. Whilst studying under Haydn, Callcott composed his fine song 'These as they change' for Bartleman. From 1790 to 1793 (after which the Catch Club ceased to offer prizes) he was awarded nine medals for his compositions; two in 1790 for the canon 'Call to remembrance,' and the glee ' 0 voi che sospirate'; three in 1791 for the catch 'Torn Metaphysician,' the canon ' I am well pleased,' and the glee ' Triumphant Love'; three in 1792 for the canon 'O Israel,' and the glees 'See, with ivy chaplet bound,' and 'Father of heroes,' and one in 1793 for the canon 'Christ being raised.' It was about this time that he began to study the works of the best theorists, and to feel the desire of appearing as a writer on the theory of music. Having acquired the MSS. of Dr. Boyce and his pupil, Marmaduke Overend, organist of Isleworth, he projected a musical dictionary, and made large collections for the work, of which in 1797 he issued a prospectus. On June 19, 1800, he proceeded Doctor of Music at Oxford, his exercise being a Latin anthem, 'Propter Sion non tacebo.' In 1801, upon the formation of a volunteer corps at Kensington, Callcott accepted a commission in it. Aided by a subscription he formed a band for the corps, for which he not only purchased the instruments and composed and arranged the music, but even instructed the performers. The compilation of his dictionary proceeding but slowly, and thinking the public had a right to expect some theoretical work from him. he employed himself in 1804 and 1805 in writing his Musical Grammar, which was published in i8c6. In the latter year he wrote for Bartleman a scena upon the death of Lord Nelson, and was appointed to succeed Dr. Crotch as lecturer on music at the Royal Institution. His anxiety to distinguish himself in this new position, combined with the heavy labours of which he had so unsparingly imposed upon himself, and the daily drudgery of teaching, seriously impaired his health, and his mind suddenly gave way. For five years his life was a blank. During that period (in 1809) his professional friends gave a concert on his behalf, and so strong was the desire to show sympathy for him that it was found that the opera-house in the Haymarket was the only building large enough to contain the numbers who thronged to be present. After an interval of rather more than five years Dr. Callcott so far recovered as to lead his friends to hope that his health was completely restored, but their hopes were in vain. Two or three yeais pas-ed and he was again afflicted with the most terrible calamity which can befal frail humanity. He lingered until May 15, 1821, when death terminated his sufferings.

298

Dr. Callcott's principal works were his very numerous glees and other pieces of vocal harmony, mostly published singly, but he left in manuscript many anthems, services, odes, etc. Hib fine

CALLCOTT. scena 'Angel of life' was written for Bartleman. His son-in-law, the late William Horsley, Mus. Baa, edited in 1824 a collection of his best glees, catches, and canons, in two folio volumes, with a memoir of the composer, and an analysis of his compositions. The work also contains a portrait of Callcott from a painting by his brother Augustus, afterwards Sir Augustus Callcott, R.A. Besides the above-named works Calleott was associated with Dr. Arnold in the selection, adaptation, and composition of the tunes for ' The Psalms of David for the use of Parish Churches' (1791). Dr. Callcott left a numerous family. His daughter, SOPHIA, became eminent as a teacher of the pianoforte, and his younger son,

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299

and music director at the St. Thomas church of Leipsic. For music he gave up much—for instance, the chair of mathematics at Wittenberg, offered him in 1611. He died in Leipsic on Nov. 24,1615. His treatises are 'Melopeia . . .' (Erfurt, 1582), 'Compendium musics practicse . . .' (Leipsic, 1594), 'Musicse artis prsecepta . . .' (Leipsic, 1612; ed. 3 of the 'Compendium'), ' Exercitationes musics duse . . .' (Leipsic, 1600 and 1611). His music, original and edited, comprises ' Harmonia cantionum, a M. Luthero . . . compositarum' (Leipsic, 1596), ' Biciniorum libri duo . . . " (Do. 1590 and 1612), 'Teutsche Trieinia . . .' (Do. 1603), 'Der 150 Psalm fur 12 Stimmen. . .' (Do. 1615), ' Der Psalter Davids...' WILLIAM HUTCHINS CALLCOTT, has attained dis- (Do. 1617). Many motets and hymns are in MS. tinction as a composer and arranger. One of his in the Library of the Thomas-school. [G.] songs, 'The last man,' met with remarkable success, and his anthem 'Give peace in our CAMACHO. See WEDDING OF CAMACHO. time, O Lord,' has been very generally adCAMARGO, MIGUEL GOMEZ, born at Guadamired. [W. H. H.] lajara about the middle of the 16th century, musical director at the Cathedral of Valladoliii. CALLINET. See DAHBLAINE. Several of his compositions in MS. are in the CALORI, ANGIOLA, was born at Milan 1732, library of the Escurial, and Eslava's ' Lira Saeraand came to London in 1758. Here she appeared Hispana' contains a beautiful hymn to St. Iago in 'Issipile,' by Cocchi. In 1759 she sang in in the purest counterpoint. [M. C. C] 'Ciro riconosciuto,' by the same composer; and CAMBERT, ROBERT—sometimes called LAMin his ' Erginda,' 1760. In the next season she performed the part of Eugenia in Galuppi's BERT—the originator of French opera, born at 'Filosofo di Campagna,' but her name does not Paris 1628 ; was a pupil of Chambonniere's, occur here again after that. She had a soprano organist of the church of S. Honore", and (1666) voice of great extent, a profound knowledge of Intendant of Music to Anne of Austria. The music, and extraordinary rapidity of execution. 'Euridice' of Peri and Caccini, performed at In 1770 she was singing at Dresden with great Florence in 1600, had set the musical world in success. She returned to her native country a blaze, and the Abbe Perrin, after hearing in 1774, and continued to sing at the vari- that work, proposed to Cambert to compose a ous operas of Italy till 1783. She died about similar piece entitled 'La Pastorale.' This was 1790. [J. M.] performed for tlie first time, amid extraordinary applause, at the Chateau oTIssy, and was the CALVARY, the English version of Spohr's first French opera. ' La Pastorale' was followed oratorio of ' Des Heilands letzte Stunden.' The by 'Ariane,' 'Adonis,' and other pieces, and in translation was made by Mr Edward Taylor, 1669 Perrin obtained a patent securing the right and the first performance took place at the Nor- to perform opera. For 32 years Cambert was wich Festival of 1839 under Spohr's own direc- associated with Perrin in the enterprise, and tion. It was again performed, in his presence, the result was the production of the operas of under Costa's baton, by the Sacred Harmonic 'Pomone' (1671) and 'Les peines et les plaisirs Society, at Exeter Hall, July 5, 1852. [G.] de l'amour.' By Lully's intrigues Perrin lost CALVESI, SIGNOE, an Italian singer engaged, the Acade'mie, and Cambert took refuge in with his wife, in London during the seasons of England, where he became first bandmaster to 1787 and 1788. He sang the principal part in a regiment, and then master of the music to II. He died here in 1677. Portions Paisiello's ' Re Teodoro/ and assisted in the same Charles of ' Pomone' printed, and the MS. of composer's ' Schiavi per amore,' and other operas 'Lea peines' iswere the Bibliotheque Nationale. by Cimarosa, Sarti, and Storace, in some of which Lully's jealousy inimplies that Cambert was a his wife appeared with him. [J. M.] formidable rival. [Or.] CALVISIUS, SETHJ musician, astronomer, CAMBINI, GIOVANNI GUISEPPE, born at and chronologer, bom at Gorschleben in Thuringia, Feb. 21, 1556, of very poor parents. The Leghorn, 1746, violinist and composer, studied name is a refinement of Kallwitz. His poverty under Padie Martini, at Bologna, between 1763 interfered greatly with his education, but he and 1766. In the latter year he produced an contrived to attend the Magdeburg Gymnasium, opera at Naples without success. Having formed and the Universities of Helmstedt and Leipsic, an attachment for a girl from his native city, and to avail himself of every opportunity of he was returning thither with her to be married musical instruction. In 1580 he was made when their vessel was captured by corsairs, and music director at the Pauliner Church, Leipsic, they were both sold as slaves in Barbary. Here in 82 Cantor at Schulpforte, and in 94 Can- a rich Venetian merchant bought Cambini and tor and Schulcollege at the St. Thomas-school, gave him his liberty. In 1770 he went to Paris,

CAMBINI.

CAMPENHOUT.

and was introduced to Gossec, who performed some of his symphonies at the Concerts Spirituels. These works, though very slight, were written with the flowing melody characteristic of Italian music, and created a highly favourable impression. During the ensuing twenty years, Carabini produced an enormous mass of music ; 60 symphonies, 144 string-quartets, concertos for every variety of instrument, an oratorio, 'Le sacrifice d'Abraham' (Concerts Spirituels, 1774), and 12 operas, of •which Frtis gives a list. He was conductor at the Theatre des Beaujolais (1788-1791), and of the Theatre Louvois (l791-179411. In 1804 he wrote some articles in the Leipsic 'Allgem. Musik. Zeitung,'and in 1810 and 1 Si 1 was joint-editor of the ' Tablettes de Polyrnnie.' Towards the end of his life Cambini maintained himself by arranging popular airs and other like drudgery, but even this resource failed him, and his last ten years were spent in the hospital of the Bicetre, where he died in 1825. His best works were his quartets. He excelled so much in playing that style of music, that JManfredi, Nardini, and Boccherini, the three most eminent quartet players of that epoch, each chose him to play the viola with them. Cambini wasted in dissipation abilities which might have placed him in the foremost rank of musicians ; and so little was he troubled with a conscience as to undertake to write some quartets and quintets in the style of Boccherini, which were published by Pleyel, indiscriminately with genuine compositions of that master. [M. C. C ]

resigned his appointment, and died Sept. 21 following.—The Camidges afford a singular example of three members of the same family (father, eon, and grandson) holding successively the appointment of organist of the same cathedral for upwards of a century. [W. H. H.1

300

CAMBRIDGE. See DEGREE; DOCTOR; PROFESSOR.

CAMERA (Ital. 'chamber'). A sonata or concerto di camera was of secular character, and written for a room, and was so called to distinguish it from the sonata or concerto di chiesa, which was intended for performance in $1 church. [G,] CAMIDGE, JOHN, born about 1735, was, on the resignation of James Nares in 1756, appointed organist of the cathedral church of York, which he held until his death, April 25, 1803, a period of about forty-seven years. He published ' Six Easy Lessons for the Harpsichord.'

CAMPAGNOLI, BARTOLOMEO, a violinist of great repute, born Sept. 10, 1751, at Cento, near Bologna. He learned the violin from Dall' Ocha, a pupil of Lolli's, from Guastarobba, of the school of Tartini, and afterwards from Nardini. While in the orchestra of the Pergola at Florence he made the friendship of Cherubini. He led the opera bands at Florence and Rome alternately for some years, and in 1776 became Capellmeister to the Bishop of Freysing. After two years he entered the service of the Duke of Courland at Dresden. From 1783 to 86 he was travelling in north Europe; in 88 he revisited Italy. From 1797 to 1818 he was conductor at Leipsic. Jn 1801 he visited Paris, renewed his acquaintance with •Cherubini, and heard E. Kreutzer. On Nov. 6, 1827, he died at Neustrelitz. His works comprise concertos, sonatas, duets, and smaller pieces for the violin and flute, and a violin-school. His daughters, ALBERTINA and GRANETTA, wer,e well known as singers. [P. D.] •CAMPANOLOGY (from campana and A.070S), the art and mystery of Bells and Bell-ringing. See BELL, CHANGE, CARILLON, CHIMES.

The following list of works on Campanology, published during the present century, is given in Rev. Woolmore Wigram's 'Change-ringing disentangled' (1871) as those most useful to ringers . in general. 1. On the Bells themselves:—' Belfries and Ringers,' H. T. Ellacombe; 'Clocks and Bells,' E. B. Denison; ' Account of O u r c h Bells,' W. C. Lukis. 2. On Change-ringing:—' Cimpanologia,' W. Shipway; 'Campanologia/H.Hubbard; 'Changeringing,' C. A. W. Troyte; 'Church Bells and Ringing,' W. T. Maunsell; ' Change-ringing,' W. Sottenshall. [6.]

CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER, an organist in Edinburgh, edited and published, in 1792, a collection ceived his early musical education in the Chapel of twelve Scots songs, with an accompaniment Royal under Dr. Nares. On the death of his for the violin, and later a similar collection with [W. H. H.] father in 1803 he was appointed his successor as an accompaniment for the harp. organist of York. He published a Collection of CAMPENHOUT, FRANCOIS VAN, born at Tunes adapted to Sandys' version of the Psalma Brussels 1780, died there 1848, began his career (York, 1789), and ' A Method of Instruction in in the orchestra at the Theatre de la Monnaie. Musick by Questions and Answers.' He died Having developed a high tenor voice he appeared Oct. 23,1844, aged 80. His son JOHN graduated on the stage at the same theatre. During the at Cambridge as Bachelor .of Music in 1812, and ensuing thirty years he sang in the chief towns as Doctor in 1819, About 1828 he published a of HoDand, Belgium, and France, and made his volume .of Cathedral Music of his composition. farewell appearance at Ghent in 1827. He He received the appointment of organist of York composed several operas, ' Grotius' (AmsterCathedral on the death of his father in 1844, dam, 1808) ; ' L e Passe-partout' (Lyons, 1815); having for many years previously discharged the ' L'heureux Mensonge,' and others unpublished, duty. The present organ of the cathedral, one besides songs, choruses, and church music. His of the largest in England, was constructed chiefly name, however, is chiefly associated with the under his superintendence. Early in 1^59 he B , which he composed at the time His son MATTHEW was born in 1764, and re-

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CAMPORESE.

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of the revolution in 1830, and has now become lished in 1655 under the title of 'The Art of the national air of Belgium. [M. C. C] Setting or Composing of Musick in Parts by a CAMPIOLI, ANTONIO GUALANDI, DETTO, born most familiar and easie Rule'; and another in Germany, of Italian parents. He learnt to edition called 'the last' appeared in 1664, with sing in Italy and returned to Germany, where the word 'Setting' in the title changed to his lovely contralto voice created a great sensa- 'Descant.' The later editions were appended tion. He appeared first at Berlin in 1708. In to the first eight or nine editions of John Play1720 he was engaged at Wolfenbtittel. Six ford's ' Introduction to the Skill of Musick.' years later he visited Hamburg; and, after traDr. Campion died in 1619, and was buried velling in Germany and Holland, returned to on March I in that year in the church of St. Dresden, where- he sang in Hasse's ' Cleofida' Dunstan in the West, Fleet Street. [W. H. H.] in 1731. At the end of that year he appeared CAMPORESE, VIOLANTE, was born at Rome, in London in Handel's 'Poro.' On Feb. 19, 1785. She belonged to a good family, and had 1732, he sang in the new opera 'Sosarme,' and cultivated music only as an amateur; but, having in revivals of 'Flavio' and 'Acis,' all by the married a gentleman of the noble family of same master. He passed the remainder of his Giustiniani, she found herself compelled by cirlife in Italy. [J. M.] cumstances to practise it as a profession. She CAMPION or CAMPIAN, TITOSIAS, M.D., appeared at first only in concerts. Possessed as a physician by profession, was a poet, dramatist, she was of a very good soprano voice and great composer, and writer on music in the earlier facility of execution, she was already a talented part of the 17th century. In 1602 he pub- singer, when she was engaged for the private lished 'Observations on the Art of English concerts of Napoleon in Paris, where she so proPoesie,' and in 1607 wrote and invented a fited by the lessons of Crescentini as to become masque performed at Whitehall on Twelfth an admirable artist. Ebers, while in Paris in the Night in honour of the marriage of Lord Hayes autumn of 1816, was introduced to Mme. Camwith the daughter of Lord Denny, for two of porese at the house of Paer, and gives a good the songs in which he also furnished the music. account of her voice, style, and appearance. She In 161 o he produced 'Two Bookes of Ayres. possessed a fine-toned voice of more than two ' The First contayning Divine and Morall Songs : octaves, from C in alt. to A below; but her best 'The Second Light Conceits of Lovers. To be notes were from C to F. She ' cultivated a pure, ' sung to the Lute and Viols, in two, three and chaste, and expressive style, was a handsome and •foure Parts ; or by one Voyce to an Instrument.' elegant woman of 31, with dark hair, eyes, and This was followed, in 1612, by 'The Third and complexion, a tall, slender figure, a fine Roman ' Fourth Booke of Ayres. Composed by Thomas countenance full of tragic dignity, and features ' Campian so as they may be expressed by one rather strongly marked.' The purity and force of 'Voyce with a Violl, Lute or Opharion,' the her singing, and the exquisite quality of her voice, words as well as the music being of his pro- were united to an execution refined, polished, and duction. In 1613 he wrote 'Songs of Mourning free from any effort at display. From Paris she bewailing the untimely death of Prince Henry,' went to Milan, where she sang at La Scala to which were set to music by John Coprario ; and crowded and enthusiastic houses. While there, also devised and wrote the entertainment given Bhe is said to have given up an evening engageby Lord Knowles at Cawsome [Caversham] ment in order to visit a poor insane musician House, near Reading, to Queen Anne in her in the hospital, whom she soothed by singing to progress towards the Bath on April 27 and 28; him. She was as kind and charitable as she the Masque presented in the Banqueting House was talented. In 1817 she was engaged for at Whitehall on St. Stephen's night, 1613, on the King's Theatre in London, and made her the marriage of the Earl of Somerset and Lady debut on Jan. 11, in Cimarosa's 'Penelope.' Frances Howard; the Masque of Flowers pre- She was not accustomed to the stage, and was sented by the gentlemen of Gray's Inn in the therefore at first nervous and embarrassed, and same place on Twelfth Night, 1613, in honour made little effect. A critic of the day said, 'Her of the same marriage; and the Lords' Masque intonation is generally good, and her science presented in the Banqueting House on the is indisputable. It in alike manifest in what she marriage of Frederick, the Elector Palatine, does and in what she declines. She never attempts with the Princess Elizabeth on Feb. 13, 1613, in the way of ornament what she cannot perfor one song in which he also composed the fectly execute. Gatalani takes her hearers by music. Some lines by Campion are prefixed to storm; Camporese wins by more quiet, more Alfonso Ferrabosco's Ayres, 1609, and others regular, but not less certain approaches.' As to Ravenscroft's 'Briefe Discourse of the true Susanna in ' Le Nozze di Figaro,' she established (but neglected) use of Charact'ring the Degrees her reputation, and this success was followed by by their Perfection, Imperfection, and Diminution another when she played Donna Anna in 'Don in Measurable Musicke,' 1614. Campion's trea- Giovanni.' In May she appeared as Agnese in tise, ' A New Way of making Fowre parts in Paer's opera of that name, taken from Mrs. Counter-point, by a most familiar and infallible Opie's 'Father and Daughter,' in which she Rule,' was first published without date, but delighted the critics by her pure and tasteful probably about 1618; the second edition, with singing. Ambrogetti's acting, however, was so annotations by Christopher Sympson, was pub strongly and painfully dramatic, that the piece

CAMPORESE.

CANCRIZANS.

gave more pain than pleasure, and was soon withdrawn. In July ' La Clemenza di Tito' was given, Camporese sustaining the principal part of Sesto. Lord Mount-Edgcumbe declares that she gave more effect to it than Braham or Tramezzani. She sang also at the Ancient Music and Philharmonic Concerts. Owing to a mistake, she was not re-engaged for the opera, and she consequently went to Milan. After singing there and at other places in Italy, she returned in 1S21 to London, with an engagement for the season at a salary of £1550, with extra allowance for costumes, permission to sing at concerts, and her salary paid in advance. Meanwhile she was welcomed in all ranks of society, even the most exclusive. She sang, March 10, in 'La Gazza ladra,' with the greatest e"clat; but, thinking she could succeed in comic parts still more than in tragic, she attempted Zerlina, but had the good sense not to repeat the experiment. In 1822 she was again engaged, and appeared in 'Le Nozze di Figaro' and ' Otello'; and she sang also at the concerts at the Argyll Rooms. She appeared again at the King's Theatre in 1823, bringing out at her benefit Rossini's ' Riccardo e Zoraide,' in which opera she took her leave Aug. 5. In 1824 she again returned; but her voice was worn, and she could not bear comparison with Malibran and Sontag, then in full force. She prudently retired to Rome ; but we find her singing in Rossini's 'Aureliano' and other operas at Ancona, 1827. Two years later she came once more to London, and sang in concerts; but her voice was gone, and her performance was not successful. She had a public benefit concert, with guinea tickets, June 12. She was still living in 1S60. [J. M.]

CANCAN, a word applied by modern slang to a peculiar way of dancing at public balls, which became popular in Paris shortly after 1830, and has even been brought on the stage in operettas. It is neither a national dance nor a characteristic step ; but a mere succession of extravagant jumps, with loose and obscene gestures, introduced into the usual figures of the quadrille. According to Francisque Michel it is called cancan either because the performers are imitating the walk of a goose (or rather a duck—cane), or because they quack like that animal. It is more probably from the Latin word quamqiiam, a fruitful subject of squabbles in the schools of the Middle Ages, and written indifferently 'cancan' and 'quanquan.' French people still employ the expression ' faire un grand cancan de quelque chose,' in order to [G. C] say ' much ado about nothing.'

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CANCRIZANS. This is a name given to canons by retrogression, on account of their crablike motion—from the Latin word cancer, a crab. The German term is krehsweis. An example (from A. Andre's 'Lehrbuch der Tonsetzkunst') will best explain their construction.

CANARIE. A now antiquated dance, deriving Sometimes a canon is both cancrizans and by its name from the Canary Islands, whence it is contrary motion—' Retrograde-inverse,' of which said to have been introduced, in which the two we give an example from Fetis's 'Traite du partners danced alternately before each other Contrepoint et de la Fugue.' with the gestures of savages (Littre). It was greatly in vogue at the time of Louis XIV. According to some authorities, however, it is of Spanish origin. It is a species of gigue, usually in 3-8 or 6-8 time, the distinctive peculiarity of which is that the first note of the bar is almost always dotted. In this respect it resembles the LOURE, but differs from it in its tempo, the Canarie being moderately quick and the Loure somewhat slow. It always commences on the first beat of the bar, and consists of two short Renversez le livre. periods, each repeated. The following example, dating from the 17th century, is quoted from 3ESEE F. L. Schubert's 'Die Tanzmusik': —

m ^s A specimen may also be found, in 3-4 time by the way, in the second suite (or 'ordre,' to use the composer's own term) of the first book of The book should be turned upside down to showthe Couperin's ' Pieces de Clavecin.' [E. P.] retrograde and inverse structure. [F.A.G.O.]

CANNABICH.

CANON.

303

CANNABTCH, CHRISTIAN, a violin-player, to be unknown; but we know that he was apcomposer, and renowned orchestral conductor, pointed Maestro at S. Maria Maggiore in 1709, was born at Mannheim in 1731. He was a pupil and that he retained that post until his death, first of his father, a flute-player, and afterwards which took place Dec. 29, 1744. He amassed a of Stamitz (see that name), the celebrated vio- large musical library, and bequeathed it to the linist at the head of the Mannheim orchestra. Basilica in the service of which his manhood had The Elector afterwards sent him to Italy, where he been passed. This collection, along with the studied composition under Jomelli. In 1765 he other contents of S. Maria, has been dispersed, was appointed leader, in 1775 conductor, of'the and much of it has probably been lost. In the orchestra at Mannheim; and in 1778 followed Santini library there were various pieces by the Elector in the same capacity to Munich. Canniciari:—Three masses for 4 and one for 5, He died in 1798 at Frankfort, while on a visit six for 8 and four for 16 voices; four motets to his son. for 4 and ten for 8 voices; two Magnificats for Cannabich was a very good violinist and a 4 voices, with organ accompaniment; and an fair composer, but all contemporary writers on Ave Maria for 8 voices. He wrote music for musical matters lay most stress on his great two and for four choirs. An Ave Maria for 4 skill as a leader and conductor. Mozart in voices is given by Proske, 'Musica Divina,' ii. [E. H. P.] many letters to his father praises the perfect en- No. 10. semble in the orchestral performances at MannCANON, This is the strictest and most heim, and speaks of Cannabich as the best conductor he ever met with. Burney, in his ' Tour regular species of imitation. [See IMITATION.] through Germany,' is not less hearty in his praise, It is practised in music for two, three, or more and Schubart, a German writer of considerable parts. The word is derived from the Greek authority, reports upon the Mannheim orchestra Kavuiv, a rule or standard. A canon, therefore, in the flowery style of the period as follows: is a composition written strictly according to ' Here the forte is a thunder, the crescendo a cata- rule. The principle of a canon is that one voice ract, the diminuendo a crystal streamlet babbling begins a melody, which melody is imitated away into the far distance, the piano a breeze of precisely, note for note, and (generally) interval for interval, by some other voice, either at the spring.' There can be no doubt that the performances same or a different pitch, beginning a few beats at Mannheim under Cannabich enjoyed a special latar and thus as it were running after the reputation for refinement and observance of na- leader. For this reason the parts have been ances, somewhat like those of the Paris Conser- sometimes respectively called ' Dux' and 'Comes,' vatoire concerts at a later period. And although or ' Antecedens' and 'Consequens.' The following is a simple example of a canon it has been suggested with much probability, that Cannabich had in this respect derived his •two in one at the octave,' i.e. for two voices experience from Italy, where his master Jomelli an octave apart, and both singing one and the had introduced more refinement into orchestral same melody. playing, he must still be considered as one of the first and most successful promoters of that exact style of performance, which alone can do justice to the works of the great modern composers. He was also a successful teacher. Most of the violinists at Mannheim,—some of them artists of reputation,—were his pupils. That he was not only a fervent admirer of Mozart's genius, when it was by no means universally recognised, but also for many years a true and useful friend to the great master, is another point which secures him a lasting place in history, and in the By means of a coda (or tail piece) this canon hearts of all lovers of music. is brought to a conclusion. But many canons He composed a number of operas, which how- lead back to the beginning, and thus become ever were not particularly successful. Some 'circular' or 'infinite.' The following is a ballets and a considerable number of symphonies specimen of this kind, which is 'two in one at and quartets were much liked at the time, but the fifth below,' or ' canon ad hypodiapente' : — appear to have been of little importance. His son CAKI., born at Mannheim in 1769, was also a good violinist and composer. After having for some time conducted the opera at Frankfort he succeeded his father in 1800 as conductor at Munich, and died there in 1806. His compositions are numerous but of no importance. Lists pf the works of both father and son are given by F probably to obviate the recurrence of the Magnificat when that canticle, happened to be in the second lesson of the day. It appears not to have been a favourite with musicians. Indeed the Magnificat is in every way preferable, as regards both the service and the opportunities the words seem to offer to the composer. ' Cantate Services' are therefore rare, and in the most famous collections of our church music there are very few of them. In Barnard there is not one ; in Boyce only three, viz. two by Blow and one by Purcell; and in Arnold one by Aldrich and, one by King. [C. H. H. P.] CANTICLE is the name now generally given to certain hymns taken from the Bible, and sung in the services of the different churches of Christendom : such as the Benedictus, the Benedicite, the Magnificat, and the Nunc Dimittis. In the

CANTICLE.

CAPO TASTO.

Prayer-Book the word is used for the Benedicite only. The word is derived from the Latin canticnm, the term applied in the Vulgate to the Song of Moses, the Song of Solomon, many of the psalms, etc., etc. In the Calendar of the PrayerBook the Song of Solomon is entitled 'The Canticles,' but in common parlance the above is the meaning of the term. [C.H.H.P.] CANTO (Lat. Cantus; Fr. Chant). With the Italians this word has a great variety of acceptations ; e. g. music, instrumental as well as vocal; the motif, subject or leading idea, of a musical composition ; the art and practice of singing ; a section of a poem, etc., etc. Canto fermo or cantus firmus is the tune or melody of an ancient hymn on which a motet is founded, and which remains firm to its original shape while the parts around it are varying with the counterpoint. Technically canto is more generally understood to represent that part of a concerted piece to which the melody is assigned. With the old masters this was, as a rule, the TENOR; with the modern it is almost always the SOPRANO. Thence canto (voice as well as part) has become synonymous with soprano. The canto clef is the C

variety of lyric poetry in the Italian style, and of Provencal origin, which closely resembled the madrigal. Musically, the term is applied (1) to the setting to music of the words of a canzona, whether for one or more voices, the only difference between the canzona and the madrigal being that the former was less strict in style. (2) The name was also given to an instrumental piece written in the style of a madrigal. An example of such a canzona, by Sebastian Bach, may be found in the fourth volume of Griepenkerl's edition of his organ works. (3) It appears to have been used as an equivalent for sonata for a piece of several movements ; and also as a mark of time, in place of Allegro (Brossard). [E.P.]

306

CANZONET (in Italian Canzonetta) originally meant a smaller form of canzona. Morley in 1597 published 'Canzonets or little short songs to four voices; selected out of the best and approved Italian authors.' Afterwards the word was used for vocal soli of some length in more than one movement; nowadays it is applied to short songs, generally of a light and airy character. Haydn has left us some admirable canzonets, grave and gay ; for example, ' She never told her love,' and 'My mother bids me [J.H.] bind my hair.' [W.H.C.]

clef on the first line— 4 U U l . Inl CANTO FERMO, OK CANTUS FIRMUS, the plain song — as distinguished from Canto figurato, the florid orfiguredsong—is the simple unadorned melody of the ancient hymns and chants of the church. Such tunes are often employed by the great church composers of the Koman church as the basis of their compositions. Thus in Palestrina's masses '^Eterna Christi munera,' and ' Assumpta est Maria,' each movement begins with the first phrase of the hymn. His motet ' Beatus Laurentius' is still more completely founded on the canto fermo, since the tune is sung throughout the piece in thefirsttenor, while the other four parts are moving in counterpoint above and below it—a counterpoint more or less closely modelled on the tune. In such cases the tune is usually marked in the score as C. F. (canto fermo). Bach treats his choralmelodies in the same way (see his cantata ' Ein' feste Burg'; his organ 'Vorspiele' on 'Kyrie'; 'Christe'; 'Kyrie'; on 'Allein Gott'; 'Dies sind die heiligen'; ' Vater unser,' etc., etc.), and in so doing styles them 'canti fermi.' In English the term is often translated by ' Plain-chant.' [G.] CANTORIS. One of the most prominent features of the singing in the services of the Christian churches is its antiphonal character; that is, the manner in which the singers on either side of the church answer one another in the chants or in passages of the music. In order to distinguish the sides from one another in English cathedrals the words Decani and Cantons are used, the former being the side of the dean's stall on the south or right-hand side when facing the altar, and the latti r that of the cantor or precentor on the north or left-hand side. \C. H. H. P.] CANZONA (Ital.) The name of a particular

CAPELLA (Ital. a chapel). Di capella, or a capella, mean in a church-like fashion, as distinguished from Di camera, or Di teatro, in the fashion of the chamber or the theatre. [CHAPELLE.] The same word in German, CAPELLE, means the private band of a court or church, or even a dance-orchestra, and CAPELLHEISTER the conductor of the same. [KAPELLE.] [G.] CAPORALE, ANDEEA, an Italian cello-player who arrived in London in 1735, and excited much attention. In 1740 he joined Handel's opera-band, and died in London in or about 1756. He was more famous for tone and expression than for execution. [G.] CAPO TASTO (Ital., from Crtpo, head, and tasto, touch, or tie ; Germ. Capotaster, sometimes Capo d'astt-o). In Italian the nut of a lute or guitar, but also the general name of a contrivance for shortening the vibratory lengths of strings, thus forming a second nut, expressed in French by 'barre,' to facilitate change of key. The construction of a capo tasto varies according to the stringing and shape of the neck of the instrument it is to be applied to, but it may be described as a narrow rail of hard wood, metal, or ivory, clothed with leather or cloth, and often fastened by a screw upon the fret from which it is intended to mark off the new length of the strings. There are other but less simple ways of attaching it. The technical advantage of using a capo tasto is that higher shifts can be more easily obtained; and the use of open strings, upon which the possibility of chords often depends, is facilitated in a higher compass than that natural to the instrument. How much transposition may be facilitated by it is thus shown byHerr Max Albert in Mendel's Lexicon.

CAPO TASTO.

CARADORI-ALLAN.

307

Take a guitar the strings of which are tuned in at first a singer in the private choir of the real notes Elector of Ba'varia. Having quitted this service he spent some years at Rome and at Venice, and then returned to his native place, where he was appointed Maestro at the cathedral. He held the basis of sharp keys: with a capo tasto on this post for twenty-three years, when he migrated to Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, rethe first semitone fret we have maining there until his death in 1626. He was one of those fourteen composers of different nations who showed their appreciation of Palestrina's genius by dedicating to him a volume of the basis of flat keys, the fingering remaining Psalms to which each had contributed. [PALESthe same. With bow instruments the capo tasto TRINA.] His published works are :—Magnificat is no longer used, but it was formerly with those omnitonum, pars 1; Venice 1581. Magnificat having frets as the viol da gamba. The use omnitonum, pars 2 ; Venice 1582. Madrigali a of the thumb as a bridge to the violoncello 5 voci, lib. I ; Venice 1583. Musica a 5 voci serves as a capo tasto, as also, in principle, the da sonare ; id. 1585. Dialogo a 7 voci nel, lib. J, pedal action of the harp. [A. J. H.] di Madrigali di Claudio da Correggio; Milan 1588. Madrigali a. 5 voci, lib. 2 ; Veniee 1589. CAPKICCIETTO (Ttal., dimin. of capriccio). Salmi di compieta con le antifone della Vergine, A CAPRICCIO, on a small scale, and of no great ed otto falsi bordoni a 5 voci; Venice 1591. development. [E. P.] Salmi a cinque per tutti i vesperi dell' anno, con alcuni hymni, mottetti, e falsi bordoni accomCAPRICCIO (Ital.; Fr. caprice), (i) This modati ancora a voci di donne; Venice 1593. name was originally given, according to Mar- Madrigali a 5 voci, lib, 4; Venice 1594. Salmi purg, to pieces written for the harpsichord a cinque; Venice 1594. Madrigali a 5 voci, in a fugued style, though not strict fugues. It lib. 5 ; Venice 1597. Canzoni francesci a quatwas also sometimes applied to actual fugues, tro; Venice 1597. Canzonette a tre; Venice when written upon a lively subject; and the 1598. Madrigali a 5 voci, lib. 6; Venice 1599. composition was consequently for the most part Messe per i defonti a quattro e cinque, con moin quick notes. Examples of this kind of ca- tetti; Milan 1611. priccio can be found in Handel's 'Third set of Bergameno has inserted some of Caraccio's Lessons for the Harpsichord' (German Handel in his 'Parnassus musicus Ferdinandseus,' Society's edition, part 2), and in the second of work [E.H.P.] Bach's 'Six Partitas.' Bach also uses the word 2-5vocum; Venice 1615. CARADORI-ALLAN, MARTA CATERINA as synonymous with 'fantasia,' i.e. a piece in a free form, in his 'Capriccio on the departure of ROSALBINA, nie de Munck, was born in 1800 in a beloved brother.' (2) In the middle of the the Casa Palatina at Milan. Her father, the last century the term was applied to exercises Baron de Munck, was an Alsacian, and had been for stringed instruments, such as would now be a colonel in the French army. Mile. Munck's called ' etudes,' in which one definitefigurewas musical education was completed entirely by her carried through the composition. (3) In the pre- mother, without assistance. Her father's death sent day the word CAPRICE is usually employed, obliged her to avail herself of her gifts in order and the name is applied to a piece of music con- to support herself. Having attempted the stage structed either on original subjects, and fre- in the course of a tour through France and part quently in a modified sonata- or rondo-form (as of Germany, she took her mother's family name in Mendelssohn's 'Three Caprices,' op. 33, or of Caradori, and accepted an engagement in Sterndale Bennett's Caprice in E), or to a bril- London in 1822. She made her debut on Jan. liant transcription of one or more subjects by 12 at the King's Theatre as Cherubino. ' I t other composers. As an example of the latter may be observed,' says Lord Mount-Edgcumbe, kind may be named Heller's 'Caprice brillant ' as an odd coincidence that Pasta, Vestris, and sur la Truite de Schubert.' Although, as already Caradori all have acted the Page in Le Nozze mentioned, the sonata- or rondo-form is frequently di Figaro, and none more successfully than the adopted for the caprice, there is, as implied by the last, who by accident, not choice, made her debut name, no limitation in this respect, the composer in that part; and it proved fortunate for her, as being at liberty to follow his inclinations. [E. P.] her charming manner of performing it laid the foundation of her subsequent favour.' She sang afterwards in ' La Clemenza di Tito,' ' Elisa e CAPULETTI ED I MONTECCHI, I, an Claudio,' and ' Corradino,' as prima donna; and Italian opera in 3 acts, taken from Romeo and in 1824, as seconda donna, in 'II Fanatico,' with Juliet; libretto by Romani, music by Bellini, Catalani. She continued engaged through 1823 produced at Venice March 12, 1830, at Paris and 24; and in the latter year took her benefit Jan. 10, 1833, and in London at the King's in ' Don Giovanni.' In 25 she sang the second Theatre July 20, 1833. A fourth act was added part in 'L'Adelina' of Generali, with Mad. by Vaccai, and is usually performed. [G.] Ronzi de Begnis as prima donna, showing thereby her great good nature. The same year, CARACCIO, GIOVANNI, was born at Bergamo ehe played Fatima. in Rossini's ' Pietro 1'eremita,' about the middle of the 16th century. He was

X2

.CARADORI -ALLAN.

CARESTINI.

and chose "Cosl fan tutte' for her benefit; and at Velluti's de^but in ' II crociato,' Mme. Caradori sang the first woman's part, distinguishing herself particularly in the duet 'II tenero affetto' with the musico. In 1S26, though still belonging to the company, she was removed for the purpose of introducing Bonini, who was better suited as a foil for Velluti; and Caradori, when she re-appeared in ' La Donna del Lago,' was received with joy by the public. She sang also in the 'Barbiere' and in 'Romeo e Giulietta;' and took her benefit in ' Le Nozze,' as Susanna. Pasta having returned to London, and chosen Mayer's 'Medea' for her benefit, Caradori acted and sana: most charmingly the tender and gentle part of Creusa. There is a good portrait of her in this character by J. Hayter, lithographed by Hulhnandel. Her voice, though not very powerful, was exceedingly sweet and flexible, and her style almost faultless. She had much knowledge of music, and sang with great delicacy and ex- i pression. In a room she was perfect. Her appearance was interesting, her countenance very agreeable, and her manner modest and unassuming : she always pleased, though she never astonished, her audience. Her salary rose gradually from £300 in 1822 to £1200 in 27. In 34, happening to be again in England, she j carried on the operas with tolerable success until the arrival of the expected prima donna, Giulia Grisi. But it was in concerts that she now ' achieved her greatest success, and first of all in the Festival in Westminster Abbey in this same I year, in which she sang with her usual excellence, | and was well heard, though it had been feared 1 that her voice was not powerful enough for so large a space. Her 'With verdure clad' appeared to Lord Mount-Edgcumbe to be ' decidedly the best solo performance of the whole concert.' She took part also in the performance of the ' Mount of Olives,' ' in which it need not be said she sang well,' and gave equally well ' Rejoice greatly,' which, though a brilliant song, did not show her to the best advantage. During the carnival of 1830 she sang with success at Venice, but after 1S35 she remained in England, singing- at festivals and concerts. She sang the soprano part in 'Elijah' at Birmingham, Aug. 26, 1846, when Mendelssohn's judgment of her performance was not so favourable as Lord Mount-Edgcumbe's fetters, Aug. 31). She died on Sunday, Oct. 15, 1865. [J.M.]

etc., were produced in Italy, but he was equally successful in Vienna and in Paris. In the latter city he made his debut with 'Le Solitaire,' Aug. 17, 1822, which long remained extraordinarily popular. In 27 he took up his residence in Paris, and brought out 'La Violette,' -La fiance'e de Lammermoor,' ' Masaniello' (Dec. 27, 1827, evidently written in competition with Auber's 'Muette,' Feb. 29, 1828), ' L a prison d'Edimbourg,' etc. These operas, and many others, were very popular, notwithstanding the immense counter attractions of Auber and Rossini. This they owe more to an easy flow of melody and natural unaffected instrumentation than to any original character, and in consequence they have now fallen into oblivion. As a composer for the pianoforte Carafa was almost equally the fashion, and at Cherubim's instance he was made Professor of Composition in the Conservatoire shortly after his arrival in Paris, a post which he was still filling in 1876. In 1837 he was elected a member of the Acade'mie des beaux arts.

303

CARAFA, MroHELE, born at Naples Nov. 28, 1785 ; studied under Fazzi, Fenaroli, and Ruggi, and in Paris under Cherubini. His first opera was ' II Fantasma.' So little however did C'arafa feel his vocation that he entered the army, and became an officer in the bodyguard of Murat, then king of Naples. Like Henri Beyle (Stendhal) he. made the campaign of Russia in 1812, and was decorated by Napoleon. After the Emperor's fall he left the army and embraced music as his profession. His first opera, 'II vascello di occidente,' was produced at Naples in 1814, and was followed by a large number of others. 'Gabriele' (1818), 'Ifigenia,' 'Berenice,' etc.,

The 'Dictionnairelyrique' ofM. Felix Clement mentions no less than 35 of his operas. [G.] CARDARELLI, SIGNOKA, a singer who performed the part of Marina in Sacchini's ' L'Isola d'amore' at the King's Theatre in 1776. [J, M.] CARDON, Louis, a harpist of great repute, of Italian parentage, but born in Paris 1747. On the outbreak of the Revolution he migrated to Russia, where he died in 1805. His 'Art de jouer la harpe' was for long esteemed. His brother Pierre, born 1751 in Paris, was a singer and cello player. [M.C.ij.] CARDOSO, MANUEL, a. Spanish priest, born at Fronteira 1569; entered the Carmelite order at Lisbon 1588, and became its sub-prior and chapel-master, and a great favourite of King John IV. His works are exclusively for the church. Several are said to have been published, but only one is quoted, 'Livro . . . na Semana Santa,' Lisbon 1648. Two motets are given by Proske in the ' Musica Divina,' ii. Nos. 5 and 33. [M.C.C.] CARESANA, CRISTOFORO, an Italian musician of note, born at Tarentum 1655, and settled in Naples in 1680. He published motets, hymns, and duetti da camera, and left many MSS. in the library at Naples. But his most famous work is his 'Solfeggi' (Naples, 1680), of which Choron published a new edition for use in the Conservatoire. [M.C.C.] CARESTINI, GIOVANNI, one of the greatest of Italian singers, was born at Monte Filatrano, Ancona, about 1705. At the age of 12 he went to Milan, where he gained the protection of the Cusani family, in gratitude to whom he assumed the name of Cusanino. His voice, at first a powerful clear soprano, afterwards changed to the fullest, finest, and deepest contralto ever, perhaps, heard. His first appearance was at Rome 1721, in the female part of Costanza in Buononcini's 'Griselda.' In 1723 he sang at Prague, at the coronation of Charles VI as King

CAHESTIOT.

CARET.

of Bohemia. The following year he was at Mantua, and in 1725 sang for the first time at Venice in the ' Seleuco' of Zuccari, and in 1726 with Farinelli and Paita. In 1728 and 30 he visited Rome, singing in Vinci's 'Alessandro nell' Indie' and 'Artaserse.' Owen Swiny, happening to be in Italy with Lord Boyne and Mr. Walpole, wrote to Colman from Bologna, on July 12, 1730, mentioning letters which he had received from Handel, and goes on to say: ' I find that Senesino or Carestini are desired at 1200 guineas each, if they are to be had. I am sure that Carestini is engaged at Milan, and has been so for many months past.' Senesino was engaged for London on this occasion; but three years later Handel was more fortunate, and Carestini made his debut here on Dec. 4, 1733, in 'Cajus Fabricius,' a pasticcio; and his magnificent voice and style enabled Handel to withstand the opposition, headed by Farinelli, at the other house. In 34 he sang in 'Ariadne,'' Pastor Fido,' 'Parnasso in Festa,' 'Otho,' 'Terpsichore,' •Deborah,' and ' Athaliah'; and the next season in 'Ariodante' and 'Alcina.' In the cast of the latter his name is spelt Carestino, as it is also by Colman. In ' Alcina' occurs the beautiful song 'Verdi prati,' which he sent back to the composer as not suited to hini. Handel on this becanje furious, ran to the house of the singer, and addressed to him the following harangue : ' You tog ! don't I know petter as yourseluf vaat es pest for you to sing ? If you vill not sing all de song vaat I give you, I will not pay you ein stiver' (Burney). In 1735 Carestini left England for Venice, and for twenty years after continued to enjoy the highest reputation on the continent, singing at Berlin in 1750, 54, and 55. In 55 he was engaged at St. Petersburg, where he remained till 58, when he quitted the stage, to retire to his native country and enjoy a well - earned repose. Shortly after, he died. He was held in the highest esteejn by Handel, Hasse, and other composers, in whose works he had sung. Quantz says : ' he had one of the strongest and most beautiful contralto voices, which extended from D (in the F clef) to G above the treble clef. He was also extremely perfect in passages which he executed with the chest-voice, according to the principles of the school of Bernacchi, and after the manner of Farinelli: in his ornaments he was bold and felicitous. He was also a very good actor ; and his person was tall, handsome, and commanding. There is a good mezzotint of him by J. Faber, engraved in 1735 from a picture by George Knapton, of which a fine impression is now rare. [J. M.]

ing. In 1715 he wrote and composed the music for the farce of ' The Contrivances; or, More Ways than One,' which was produced at Drury Lane Theatre on August 9 in that year with much success. The character of Arethusa in this piece was long the probationary part for female singers before they ventured on parts of more importance. His next production was a farce called ' Hanging and Marriage ; or, The Dead Man's W.edding,' performed March 15, 1722. at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre. In 2S he set to music the songs in Vanbrugh and Cibber's comedy 'The Provoked Husband.' He next wrote the operas of 'Amelia' (the music by Lampe), which was performed at the Haymarket Theatre in the summer of 1732, and 'Teraminta,' which was set to music by John Christopher Smith and produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre on Nov. 20, 1732. Each of these pieces was described as ' a New English Opera after the Italian manner.' On Dec. 2, 32, Carey produced at Drury Lane Theatre a ballad opera called ' Betty; or, The Country Bumpkins,' which met with a cold reception. In 33 he wrote and composed a musical entertainment called ' Cephalus and Procris,' which was produced at Drury Lane Theatre with a pantomime interlude entitled ' Harlequin Volgi.' On Feb. 22,1734, he produced at the Haymarket Theatre ' The most Tragical Tragedy that ever was Tragedized by any Company of Tragedians, called, Chrononhotonthologos'; a highly humorous burlesque of the bombast and fustian prevalent among some of the dramatists of the day, and especially of their partiality for tautologous expressions. This he also described as his ' Tragedy of half an act,' In 1735 he produced a balladopera entitled ' A Wonder; or, the Honest Yorkshireman,' performed by the Covent Garden company at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre for one night only, July 11, 1735, but which, when transferred to the Haymarket and Goodman's Fields Theatres later in the same year under its second title, met with such success that it was soon adopted at the other theatres and long remained a stock piece. On Oct. 26, 1737, Carey's burlesque-opera ' The Dragon of Wantley,' a satire on the Italian opera of the day, the music by Lampe, was produced at Covent Garden Theatre with such signal success that it ran 67 nights during the season. In the next year the author an4 composer joined in the production of a sequel entitled ' Margery; or, A Worse Plague than the Dragon' (a title afterwards changed to 'The Dragoness'), which was produced at Covent Garden Theatre on Dec. 9, 1738. Although by no means deficient in merit, its success was but partial. In 39, on the breaking out of the war with Spain, Carey wrote and composed a musical interlude called ' Nancy; or, The Parting Lovers,' which was brought out at Drury Lane Theatre and was remarkably successful. It was revived at Covent Garden Theatre, with alterations in 1755 (on the prospect of a war) under the name of ' The Press Gang ; or, Love in Low Life,' and frequently brought forward on similar

CAREY, HENBY, a reputed natural son of George Savile, Marquis pf Halifax, was a popular composer and dramatist in thefirsthalf of the 18th century. His first music-master was a German named Olaus Westeinson Linnert, and he subsequently received instruction from Roseingrave and Geminiani. Although possessed of ready invention as a melodist, yet, his acquaintance with the science of his art being but limited, he had to gain a subsistence phiefly by teach-

S09.

CAREY.

CARILLON.

occasions under the title of 'True Blue.' In the latter part of his life Carey collected his principal dramatic pieces and published them in 1743 by subscription in a quarto volume. In 1720 Carey published a small volume of his poems This he afterwards enlarged and published by subscription in 29, with the addition of a poem called ' Namby Pamby' (a goodhumoured satire on a poem written by Ambrose Phillips on the infant daughter of Lord Carteret), which received the commendations of Pope. The songs and cantatas written and composed by Carey were very numerous. In 1732 he published 'Six Cantatas,' and in 1739-40, under the title of ' The Musical Century, in One hundred English Ballads on various subjects and occasions, adapted to several characters and incidents in Human Life, and calculated for innocent conversation, mirth and instruction,' issued two folio volumes of songs written and composed by himself, to the first of which his portrait is prefixed. A second edition appeared in 1740, and a third in 43. Of all his compositions, the most popular, and that which will transmit his name to posterity, is his ballad of 'Sally in our Alley,' one of the most striking and original melodies that ever emanated from the brain of a musician. The author's account of its origin is as follows :—' A shoemaker's prentice, making holiday with his sweetheart treated her with a sight of Bedlam, the puppet shows, the flying chairs, and all the elegancies of Moorfields, from whence proceeding to the Farthing Pye House he gave her a collation of buns, cheese-cakes, gammon of bacon, stuffed beef and bottled ale, through all which scenes the author dodged them. Charmed with the simplicity of their courtship, he drew from what he had witnessed this little sketch of nature.' He adds, with pardonable pride, that Addison had more than once expressed his approbation of his production. Carey died at his house in Great Warner Street, Clerkenwell, on Oct. 4, 1743. It has been generally said that ' he put a period to a life which had been led without reproach, at the advanced age of eighty, by suicide,' and the impulse to the act has been variously assigned to pecuniary embarrassment, domestic unhappiness, and the malevolence of some of his fellow professors. But the manner of his death seems doubtful. In the Daily Post of Oct. 5, 1743, we read ' Yesterday morning Mr. H. Carey, well known to the musical world for his droll compositions, got out of bed from his wife in perfect health and was soon after found dead. He has left six children behind him.' An advertisement in the same newspaper on Nov. 17, 43, announces a performance on that evening at C'ovent Garden Theatre ' For the Benefit of the Widow and Four small Children of the late Mr. Henry Carey,' in which the widow describes herself as 'left entirely destitute of any provision.' His age at the time of his death was probably much overstated. Sir John Hawkins thus estimates Carey's abilities :—'As a musician Carey seems to have been one of the first of the lowest rank ; and as

a poet the last of that class of which D'Urfey was the first, with this difference, that in all the songs and poems written by him on wine, love and such kind of subjects, he seems to have manifested an inviolable regard for decency and good manners/ Carey's posthumous son, George Savile Carey, inherited much of his father's talent. He became an actor, but not succeeding he contrived by giving entertainments of singing, recitation, and imitations, to earn a precarious living for about forty years. In the latter part of his life he claimed for his father the composition of ' God save the King,' and the claim occupied much attention for some time. Indeed it is still as hotly dtbated as ever, and will probably never be satisfactorily decided. G. S. Carey's daughter, Anne, was the mother of Edmund Kean, the tragedian, [W.H.H.] CARILLON is the name given to a set of bells so hung and arranged as to be capable of being played upon, either by manual action or by machinery, as a musical instrument, i.e. so as to give out a regularly composed melody in correct and unvarying time and rhythm, in contradistinction to the wild and irregular music produced by change-ringing on a peal of bells hung to swing in the more usual manner. [BELLS.] A much larger number of bells are required to make a good carillon than are ever hung for an ordinary peal, which latter, owing to the difficulties of ringing and the space required for the bells to swing in, can scarcely exceed ten or at most twelve bells with advantage, whereas a carillon peal not infrequently includes as many as forty or more bells, the adequate performance of set tunes requiring not only a mure extended range but the presence of the chromatic intervals of the scale, instead of the simple diatonic scale of the ordinary peal. The most radical distinction in the method of hanging and sounding a carillon as compared with a peal is that while in the latter the bells are slung to a wheel and axle, and are sounded by the stroke of the clapper inside on being swung round, in the carillon the bells are absolutely fixed on the frame, and are struck by a hammer on the outside. It is owing to this stationary position of the bell that so large a number of bells can be safely hung in a tower which would not accommodate half the number of swinging bells; and it is obvious that the precise moment of the stroke is much more under the control of the ringer when he has only to regulate the striking of the hammer than when he has to bring about this by causing the bell to swing: and it need hardly he mentioned that the system of striking on the outside of the bell is always employed when the latter is made use of for striking the hours upon in connection with a clock. In fact, the carillon system, when sounded mechanically (as in a majority of cases it is), may be regarded as an extension and multiplication of the stroke of the clock, with which it is generally connected, rather than as allied to bell-ringing properly

310

311

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CARILLON.

so-called. Occasionally, however, the ringingbells are also used as part of the carillon, an apparatus being fitted up in the ringing chamber whereby the carillon and clock hammers can be simultaneously pulled off the bells before commencing the ringing of the peal. The system of playing tunes on small bells, hung in a graduated order and struck by hand, is believed to be of some antiquity, as indicated by occasional illustrations of some such system in mediaeval manuscripts; and it seems probable enough that so obvious a means of musicmaking in a simple form may be even older than any such records imply. But we first meet with carillon music in its greater form in the 15th century, when the steeples of the churches and hotels-de-ville of Holland, Belgium, and North Germany made the country resound with the bell-music for which Belgium especially was famed during that and the three succeeding centuries. The Van den Gheyn family, of whom the most notable member, Mathias van den Gheyn, was born in 1721, were pre-eminent among the Belgian makers of carillons; Mathias himself having been also an organ-player and carillon • player. The family were of Mechlin, but migrated to Louvain, where the traditions of their manufacture are kept up by the firm of Aerschodt. Among the most celebrated and largest carillon-peals of the continent may be mentioned those of Antwerp (40 bells), Bruges (48 bells), Malines (44 bells), Ghent (48 bells), de Tournai (42 bells), de Boulers (39 bells), Louvain1 (35 bells), etc. It is worth remark that this bell-music has had its special development in flat countries, where its loud and travelling sounds are heard with far more effect and at far greater distance than in hilly districts, where the sound is closed in, interrupted, and echoed back. Indeed, the instinctive feeling which has led to great sets oJ' bells being placed in the towers of flat countries is analogous to the instinct which gave rise to the towers themselves. A flat landscape suggests the building of towers, which become far-seen landmarks, and connect one city with another; and what the towers were to the eye the bells were to the ear, sending greeting or warning from one city to another over a vast expanse of level landscape. Carillon-playing in these cities of the Low Countries, however, was not always a mere piece of mechanism; it took rank as a branch of executive art in music, and required the culture of a musician to develop its resources. The Belgian and Dutch carillons were furnished with a keyboard, rough and uncouth enough indeed, but still such as enabled the carilloneur to perform pieces in two, or (by the aid of pedals and of the prolonged resonance of the bells) even in three parts. Compositions were written for or extemporised on them; and some of the ' morceaux fugues' for carillons by Mathias van den Gheyn have been collected and published (by Messrs. Schott & Co.). The bells which were

intended thus to be played by hand were furnished with an inside clapper as well as the outside hammers, the clapper being connected by a wire with the keyboard below, and the hammer operated upon by the mechanical barrel, so that the same set of bells could be played either by machinery or by hand. The keyboard, though arranged on the same principle as the ordinary pianoforte keyboard, was a large affair with wooden keys, so far distant from one another as to admit of being struck with the fist without disturbing the keys on either side; for as the leverage of the key had to raise the weight of the clapper, which in the larger bells was considerable, and as the force of the sound depended also in great measure on the force with which the key was struck, it is obvious that mere finger work was out of the question. The keyboard in fact was analogous rather to the pedal board of an organ, and in some cases the largest bells actually were connected with pedal keys, so as to enable the player to strike a heavier blow than he could with his hands. It may easily be imagined that, on this system, carillon-playing was a matter of no small physical exertion, and required the performer to pos-

1 The Louvain peal has been reproduced, or nearly so. in the carillon made by GiUet and Bland for Gattistock churcb in Dorsetshire,

sess mens sana in corpore sano to have a chance

of getting successfully through his task, for which he clothed himself generally in a suit of flannels alone, the hands being protected by thick gloves to prevent injury in striking the keys. It was perhaps owing to these practical difficulties that the art of carillon - play ing never seems to have been very extensively practised, and has now very much fallen into disuse. But the difficulty arising from the player having to contend with the weight of the clapper in sounding the bells was even more felt in the application of chiming machinery to the hammers which struck on the exterior of the bells. The chimes were sounded by means of a large barrel connected with and regulated by clockwork, by which it was periodically released, and driven round under the ordinary motive power of a weight, strong pins fixed on the barrel coming in contact, each at the proper moment, with levers which raised the hammers, and released them to fall upon the bell at the moment when the pin on the barrel quitted the lever. The barrel was ' pricked' for various tunes (generally seven or eight), a change being effected by shifting it slightly, on the principle familiar to every one in the 'musical-box' toy, which is in iact a carillon on a minute scale, playing on vibrating tongues instead of on bells. The application of this principle, on the large scale necessary for carillon-ringing, is fraught with difficulties, which the rude and unscientific system still prevalent on the continent (and clung to, apparently, with the same kind of conservatism which leads the North German organ-builders to ignore all the refinements of modern mechanism) quite failed to meet. As with the clavier-system, the difficulty really lies in the weight to be overcome in lifting the striking hammer. As the pins on the barrel had to take this whole weight, it was necestary

CARILLON".

CARILLON".

that they should be very strong, and the barrel itself thus became so large, cumbrous, and expensive an affair as to add very much to the difficulties of fixing a large carillon-machine both in regard to cost and space. The time occupied in raising the hammer rendered any rapid repetition of a note impossible with a single hammer, especially with the larger bells; consequently a large proportion of the bells had to be furnished with two or more hammers to provide for this difficulty, the pins being arranged so as to sound two or three hammers successively on the same bell when the immediate repetition of a note was required. The method of sounding the note by the release of the lever from the pin did not conduce to precise accuracy in the time of sounding, but a much more serious interference with correct tempo arose from the fact that as some of the heavier hammers offered much greater resistance to the pins than others, while the barrel was driven by the same uniform weight, the progress of the tune was constantly retarded before the striking of the larger bells, producing the irregular or 'stuttering' effect which those who have1 listened to carillon chimes must have noticed. The system is in fact mechanically so clumsy, and involves so much loss of time and power, that it is obvious that carillon-chimes, if worth doing at all, are worth doing better than this. England has borrowed the idea of carillons only recently from the continent, but has the credit of inventing and perfecting the principle of mechanism which has surmounted all the above-named drawbacks of the Belgian carillon machinery. The part which Enylish science and ingenuity has played in the matter is, in fact, exactly similar to that which it has taken in regard to organ-building. We borrowed from the Germans the idea of the grand instruments with full pedal organ which supplemented the 'box of whistles' of the old English builders, but our modern builders have applied to them mechanical refinements which have almost revolutionised organ-playing (not perhaps always in the right direction), and have placed at the disposal of the English organist facilities for variety of effect and brilliant execution such as his German brother in the art is scarcely cognisant of at all. In regard to the improvement in carillons it is only simple justice to say that, so far, its history is identified entirely with one firm, who perseveringly set themselves to accomplish the task of simplifying and perfecting the control of the bells on true mechanical principles. Messrs. Gillett and Bland,.of Croydon, clock manufacturers, having turned their attention to the construction of carillons, aimed at getting rid of the main difficulty which is, as we have shown, at the bottom of all the defects of the old system, namely, the use of the same action both fur lifting and letting go the hammers. The principle on which this improvement is effected

is by the introduction of a revolving cam wheel beneath each lever, which, continually turning, raises the lever the moment the hammer has struck the bell, so that the latter is at once brought into position again for striking, and the action of the pins on the barrel, instead of being a lifting and letting-off action, is merely a lettingoff, the whole of the lifting being done by the cam wheels. As in many other mechanical inventions, the simplicity of action which characterises the new carillon machinery was not attained at once. In the first attempts, of which the chiming machine at St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, is an example, the barrel was still of an unwieldy size, though an attempt was made to compensate for this in some measure by a novelty I of construction, the barrel consisting not of a solid cylinder but a series of double bars, between which the pins were fixed in such a manner, by screws, as to be readily capable of being loosened and shifted one way or the other, so as to be adjusted to a new set of tunes if desired. The first machine made on this system was put up at Boston, playing 28 tunes on 44 bells, but the connection between the letting-off and lifting action being much too complicated and circuitous, the inventors patented a further improvement which very much simplified the action, and the contact between the pins and the levers was brought to the front instead of the top of the barrel, so as to render the most important portion of the mechanism more easily accessible. These improvements were first introduced in the machine erected in Croydon church. There was still a weak point in the action: but it would be impossible to explain all the intermediate stages of improvement without the aid of a number of diagrams, and I we must be content here with giving a description, of the new carillon action in its most perfected I form, as described in the following extract from the 'Engineer' of August 13, 1875, and which is rendered more intelligible by the accompanying diagram, representing in a simple manner the principle of the action, without encumbering it with details:—

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1 To many listeners, no doubt, this irregularity, so far from detracting from the effect of this airy music, would seem rather pleasing frum its oM-fashioneil snund ami associations. This association, however, ttK.Uk'h it may be a reason for nut interfering with old chimes, is no reason for repeating the same defects in new ones.

' The diagram is supposed to show the gear for working one hammer. It must be multiplied in proportion to the number of hammers, but the parts are all repetitions of each other. ' The musical barrel B is set with pins in the usual way. A is a cam wheel of very peculiar construction, operating on a lever C by what is

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CARILLON.

313

to all intents and purposes a new mechanical Thus the physical effort entailed by carillonmotion, the peculiarity of which is that, however playing on the old continental system, which fast the cam wheel revolves, the tripping of the rendered it an art only to be attacked by a muslever ia avoided. In all cases the outer end cular person in rude health, is entirely a thing of must be lifted to its full height before the swing- the past, and there is no reason, so far as the ing piece D quits the cam. The little spring ! difficulty of the task is concerned, why carillonroller E directs the tail D of the lever into the playing should not be as common, in connection cam space, and when there it is prevented from with large churches and public buildings, as coming out again by a very simple and elegant organ-playing. The new carillon for Manchester little device, which the inventors do not at pre- Town Hall, in construction at the time of writing sent desire to be made public, by which certainty these remarks, is to be furnished with such a of action ia secured. At the other end of the keyboard, in addition to the mechanical arrangelever C is a trip lever F. Thia lever is pulled ment for sounding the chimes. It may also be toward C by a spring, and whenever C is thrown observed that the carillon system can be applied up by the cam wheel, F seizes it and holds it up ; to produce mechanical change-ringing, by having but the wire to the bell-hammer in the tower a barrel pricked with changes, and thus the above is secured to the eye G, so that when D is 'ringing tor church' can be done automatically, lifted, the eye G being pulled down, the hammer in places where ringers capable of change-ringing is lifted. The pins in the musical barrel B come are not to be found. This, however, can only against a step in F, and as they pass by they be regarded as an inferior and meagre substitute push F outwards and release C, which immediately for the grand effect produced by change-ringing drops, and with it the hammer, so that the in- with swinging bells ; and many, perhaps would stant the pin passes the step F a note is sounded. even prefer round-ringing with the swung bells But the moment D drops it engages with A, to mechanical cbange.ringing with fixed" bells. which last revolves at a very high speed, and D The result however can be heard and judged of is incontinently flung up again, and the hammer at Greenfield church, and at St. Mark's, Oldham, raised, and raised it remains until the next pin where this contrivance has been applied. on B passes the step on F, and again a note is The bells composing a carillon peal are fixed struck. It will be seen therefore that, if we may use the phrase, B has nothing to do but let off to a frame, generally of oak, slightly pyramidal traps set continually by A, and so long as A sets in shape, so that while the lower cross-beams the traps fast enough, B will let them off in bear upon the wall, the upper portion of the correct time. But A revolves so fast and acts so frame stands free; this is not so absolutely essenpowerfully that it makes nothing of even a tial as in the case of bells hung to swing, where 3 cwt. hammer, much less the little ones; and the swaying action is very violent when the peal thus a facility of execution is obtained hitherto | is being rung; but still it is better to keep the unknown in carillon machinery. We venture to vibration oft' the wall as much as possible. The think that our readers will agree with us that large bells are hung at the bottom of the frame such a carillon machine as we illustrate is about (in some of the continental towers they were as ingenious a combination of mechanism as is to hung low down, below the ban-el and quite apart from the rest), and the smaller ones above, In be met with in the range of the arts.' arranging the scale of the bells it is seldom conIt will be seen that here we have a system sidered necessary to have the complete chromatic in which all the direct work that the musical scale throughout; and in almost all the older barrel has to do is merely to let off the triggers, carillons the lower portion of the scale was reso to speak, of the hammers, while the force stricted to a few notes giving the tonic or dominecessary to raise them is so distributed and so nant to the keys intended to be most used, the much better applied than when the pins on the intermediate intervals being omitted on account barrel had to perform this office, that the in- of the great expense of the larger bells, and the equality of weight between the large and small amount of space which they occupied. The arhammers is not felt as a perturbing influence on rangement, in fact, is much the same as that the speed of working. One result of this is that which obtained on the pedal boards of old English the barrel is greatly reduced in dimensions ; the organs, before what were at first called ' German pins being required only for such light work can pedals' (i. e. the complete scale) were introduced. be made much smaller, and require little or no This principle has mostly been more or less folleverage power in themselves ; and consequently, lowed in the modern English peals. The followwhile the old carillon barrels were sometimes ing is the scale for Manchester Town Hall, coneight or ten feet in diameter, that at Shoreditch sisting of twenty-one bells:— is only ten inches diameter. A barrel of this JJ°w Bell, 7 tons. size, besides taking up so much less room, can easily be taken out and exchanged for a fresh 7f VV 1 one, with a new set of tunes, when desired. — -or -&>• . 21)20. (Brussels, 1704)

315

CARISSIMI.

CARMAN'S WHISTLE.

a Nisi Dominus, both for eight voices, and both in manuscript. Baini says that in the archives of the Pontifical Chapel there is a mass by Carissimi for twelve voices, written on the famous Provencal melody • L'homme anne.' This is believed to be the last occasion on which that favourite theme was ever employed. The National Library in Paris has a rich manuscript collection of the oratorios of Carissimi. The following is a list of their names :—' La Plainte des DamneV ; 'Histoire de Job'; 'Ezechias'; ' Baltazar'; ' David et Jonathas'; ' Abraham et Isaac'; 'Jephte'; 'Le Jugement Dernier'; 'Le Mauvais Riche'; 'Jonas'. Chief among these ranks the Jephthah, of which Hawkins has said that ' for sweetness of melody, artful modulation, and original harmony, It is justly esteemed one of the finest efibrts of musical skill and genius that the world knows of.' Handel thought it worth while to borrow his chorus in 'Samson,' 'Hear Jacob's God' from a famous movement in the •Jephte' called 'Plorate filise Israel.' Croft has imitated his ' Gaudeamus,' and Aldrich adapted his motets to English words for anthems. Hawkins prints a remarkably graceful little duet of Carissimi, called 'Dite, o Cieli.' It was in emulation of this piece, upon hearing it overpraised by King Charles II, that Dr. Blow composed his celebrated 'Go, perjured man.' The library of the French Conservatoire is rich in the manuscripts of Carissimi, and there are some valuable volumes of his music in the British Museum. But the magnificent collection of his works made by Dr. Aldrich at Oxford throws all others into the shade, and forms one of the special ornaments of the library at Christ Church. A few of his pieces are in the Musica Romana of Spiridione, and a few more, disfigured by French words, in the collection of 'Airs serieux et a boire,' published by Ballard. There are some motets of his in Stevens's ' Sacred Music,' and Crotch has published one or two examples in his 'Selections of Music' Five specimens are printed in the 'Fitzwilliam Music' Jephte, Judicium Salomonis, Jonas, and Baltazar have been published by Chrysander (Schott); and Jonah by Henry Leslie (Lamborn Cock). Enough has now been said to indicate where those who are interested in this master may form acquaintance with his work; and it only remains to add that the 'Judgment of Solomon,' a cantata often attributed to him, was in all probability not his, but the production of his pupil Cesti. [E. H. P.]

1612 presented to the rectory of Bawsby and Glosthorp, Norfolk. [W.H.H.] CARMAGNOLE. The French song called 'La Carmagnole' is a popular tune originating in Provence. Gretry (Memoires, iii. 13) thought it was originally a sailor-song often heard in Marseilles ; it is more probably a country roundelay or dance-tune, adapted to a patriotic military song which was written either at the end of August or early in September, 1792. The four stanzas of this national song are known to a very few historians only ; we transcribe the first couplet:— ' Le canon vient de r&onner : G-uerriers, soyez prets a marcher. Citoyens et soldats, En volant aux combats, Dansons la carmagnole : Vive le son, vive le son, Dansons la carmagnole, Vive le son Du canon !' The unknown author of these lines was probably some brave soldier, whilst the bloody ' Carmagnole des Royalistes' may be attribute'I to the worst of demagogues. The original eight stanzas of the latter began as follows:— ' Oui, je suis sans culotte, moi, En depit des amis du roi. Vive les Marseillois, Les Bretons et nos lois !' But this new song was soon enlarged, and when published by Frere it contained thirteen stanzas, the first of which ran in the following manner, to the tune of the Carmagnole:—

a - vait pro-mis,

faire

6

gor - ger

De faire 6 - gor - ger tout Pa - ris, De

tout Pa - ris; Mais son coup a

man-

EE5=SEE

que, Grace a

nos

^=£P± ca - non-niers.

Dan-sons

la

Car - ma-

Rno-le, Vi-ve le son, vi-ve le son, Dan-sons la Car-ma-

CARLO, GERONIMO, born at Reggio in the first half of the 16th century; author of a collection of five-part motets by eminent composers, gno - le, Vi Ze son du ca Crequillon, Clemens non Papa, Ciera, etc., enDuring the French Revolution a great many titled 'Motetti del Labirinto/ 2 vols. (Venice, 1554 and 1555). [M.C.C.] songs were adapted to this tune, which, in spite of its association with the Terreur, has often CARLTON, REV, RICHARD, MUS, Bac, pub- been introduced on the stage in vaudevilles or lished in 1601 a collection of twenty-one ' Ma- burlettas. [G.C.] drigals for five voyces,' the preface to which isCARMAN'S WHISTLE, THE, an old Engdated from Norwich. He had in the same year contributed a madrigal, 'Calme was the aire,' lish tune found in the Virginal books of Lady to 'The Triumphes of Oriana.' Nothing is known Nevill (159') and Queen Elizabeth (1603-12), of his biography. One of the same name was in in both with harmony and variations by Byrd.

316

CARPANL

CARMAN'S WHISTLE.

The following is the air as there given (see Burney, 'History,' iii. So,):—

Andantino

[G.C.] CARNICER, RAMON, Spanish dramatic composer, born near Lerida in Catalonia 1789, died in In Chappell's ' Popular Music of the Olden Mai'ril 1855. In 1818 he was appointed conTime' (p. 139) the tune is given to the words of ductor at the Italian Opera of Barcelona, and 'The courteous carman and the amorous maid,' here he produced successfully his first opera and is mentioned (p. 42S) as suiting 'The country j ' Adela de Lusignano,' which was followed by hostesses vindication.' [G.] Iseveral others. Between 1820 and 27 he visited Paris and London, and was favourably received CARMIGNANI, GIOVAXXA, sang in London in both. In 28 he was appointed conductor at in 1763, taking, among others, the principal the Theatre Royal in Madrid, for which he comserious part of Lavinia in ' La C'ascina,' produced posed 'Elena e Malvino' (1829). and 'Colombo' at the King's Theatre by J, G. Bach. Anna de (1831), generally considered his best work. Amicis sang in the same piece. [J.M.] He largely contributed to the foundation of a CARNABY, WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, born in national opera. From 1830 to 54 he was professor London in 1772, was a chorister of the Chapel- of composition at the Madrid Conservatoire. Royal under Dr. Nares and Dr. Ayrton. On Besides nine operas, he composed Church music, leaving the choir he became organist at Eye, symphonies, military marches, national hymns, which he quitted for a similar appointment at and an infinity of songs. His music is original Huntingdon. Whilst residing at the latter place and rhythmical, though much impregnated with [M.C.C.] he published ' Six Canzonets,' and also ' Six phrases from national airs. Songs,' which were favourably received. In 1805 CAROL, see HYMN. be graduated at Cambridge as Bachelor of Music, CARON, FIRMIN, a composer of the 15th and in 1808 proceeded to Doctor. In the interval he had settled in London, and on the opening of century, probably born about 1420. He is said Hanover Chapel, Regent Street, in 1823, he was by Tinctor to have been the scholar of Binchois appointed its organist. His compositions, chiefly or Dufay. The name is Flemish. Baini (' Palesvocal, were numerous. They have been charac- trina') states that the Library of the Pope's Chapel terised as scientific, but deficient in taste. He possesses a MS. volume of masses by Caron, condied Nov. j 3 , 1S39. [W.H.H.] taining one on ' L'omme armeV Cavou also wrote secular songs, some of which were known to CARNAVAL DE VEXISE. This popular M. Fe'tis, who found them to surpass those of air, which was heard by Paganini at Venice, Ockenheim and Busnois in ease. One of them when he visited the Queen of the Adriatic in begins ' Helas ! que pourra devenir.' [M.C.C.] 1S16, 1824, and 1S26, and which his magic bow CAROSO, MARCO FABRICE, of Sermoneta, in has made a favourite tune all .over the world, is Italy; author of' II Ballerino ... con intavolatura the effusion of an unknown musician probably of di liuto, e il soprano della musica nella sonata the end of the last century. Several talented di ciascun ballo' (Venice, 1581), valuable for composers have embroidered it, and all pianists the dance music which it contains. [M.C.C.] have played the brilliant variations and fantasias CARPANI, GIUSEPPE, poet and writer on written upon it by Herz and Schulhoff. It has been even introduced on the lyric stage. Am- music, born Jan. 28, 1752, at Villalbese, in the broise Thomas has composed very clever variations district of Brianza. His father destined him on the tune for the overture to his opera ' Le for the law, he studied at Milan and Padua, Carnaval de Veni.se,' and Victor Massi', in his and practised under the celebrated advocate ' Reine Topaze,'introduces an air varie upon it Villata at Milan. But he soon gave up the law, entered the society of artists and literary to the words men, and indulged his natural taste for art. He ' Venise est tout en fetes, had already written more than one comedy Car voici le carnaval.' and several opera-libretti for the Italian stage, among others 'Camilla,' composed by Paer. In England ic was for long known to the words In consequence of some violent articles against ' 0 come to me, I'll row thee o'er the French Revolution in the 'Gazetta di Milano,' Across yon peaceful sea.' of which he was editor from 1792-96, he ha>l to leave Milan whon it was taken by the French. The air, as given by Paganini, is as follows :—

CARPANI. Until the peace of Campo Formio in 1797 he lived at Vienna; after that date he became censor and director of the stage in Venice, but a malady of the eyes drove him back to Vienna, where the Emperor pensioned him till his death. He published a number of translations of French and German operas, and also wrote an oratorio on 'La passione di Gesii Christo,' which was set to music by Weigl, and performed in 1808, in the palace of Prince Lobkowitz, and in 1821 by the Gesellschaft der Musik-Freunde. He also translated the ' Creation' into Italian, and wrote a sonnet on the celebrated performance of that work, at which Haydn was present the year before his death. Carpani had the greatest esteem and affection for Haydn, which led to his publishing his well-known ' Haydine,' etc. (Milan, 1812, and a second enlarged edition at Padua, 1823). ' La Haydine' is a kind of sesthetical work, and a eulogy on Haydn's compositions, written with enthusiasm. It quickly found a translator in Beyle, the French writer, who published it as his own composition under the name of Bombet — ' Lettres e'crites de Vienne, etc., by Louis Alexandra Ce"sar Bombet' (Paris, 1814). Carpani attacked this piracy in two spirited letters •—'Lettere due, dell' Autore delle Haydine' (Vienna, 1815). Beyle was, nevertheless, audacious enough again to publish his work, this time under the alias of Stendahl, ' Vies de Haydn, Mozart, et Metastase,' etc. (Paris, 1817). In spite of Carpani's protestations, the first of the two appeared in English aa 'Lives of Haydn and Mozart' (Murray, 1817; and Boston, U.S., 1839). Extracts of Carpani's original work, translated by D. Mondo, appeared at Niort in 1836, and in a complete form at Paris 1837, under the title 'Haydn, sa vie, ses ouvrages, et ses aventures, etc., par Joseph Carpani ; traduction de Mondo.' Some clever but partial sketches of Rossini were published by Carpani in one volume as 'Le Kossiniane,' (Padua, 1824). Thisalsowaspiratedanonymously by Beyle (Paris), and published by Mondo. In 1809 Carpani accompanied the Archduke John on his expedition to Italy. After the return of peace, he devoted himself to starting the 'Biblioteca Italiana.' He died in the smaller Liechtenstein Palace at Vienna, a bachelor of 73, on Jan. 22, 1825, from simple decay of nature. [C.F.P.] CARPENTRAS, OK IL CARPENTRASSO, the sobriquet of Eliazar Genet, born at Carpentras, Vaucluse, before 1500. Being in priest's orders he became a member of the Pope's Chapel, and wrote some Magnificats and Lamentations, the latter of which induced Leo X to make him Bishop in partibus in 1518. About the same time he became the Pope's Chapel-master. He was much employed in negotiations by both Leo and Clement VII, and died after the year 1533 —the date of two out of four volumes of music which he published. Vol. 1 contains 5 masses, written on the most secular tunes—'A 1'ombre d'un buissonet,'' Encore irai-je jouer,' etc.; vol. 2, the Lamentations of Jeremiah; vol. 3 is Liber

CARTIER.

317

Hymnorurn; vol. 4, Liber Magnificat. Carpentras' music enjoved a great fame at the time, and was much published (see the list in .Fe"tis). His Lamentations were so favourite as to keep those of Palestrina out of the Pope's Chapel for many years. M. Fe'tis had examined them, however, and finds them inferior not only to Palestrina but to Josquin des Pres. CARRODUS, JOHN TIPLADT, born at Keighley, Yorkshire, Jan. 20, 1836. His father was a zealous amateur, a violin player, and leader of the local Choral Society. The boy was destined to music from the first, and at 12 years of age was put into the able hands of Molique, whom he accompanied to Stuttgart, and with whom he remained till nearly 18. On his return to London he entered the orchestra of Covent Garden, and made his first appearance as a solo-player at a concert of the Musical Society of London, on April 22, 1863, since which time he has been frequently heard at the Philharmonic, the Crystal Palace, and other leading concerts, both metropolitan and provincial. He has published two Violin Solos and a Morceau de Salon. [G.] CARTER, THOMAS, born in Dublin about 1735' a* a u early age displayed a capacity for music, and was sent, under the auspices of the Earl of Inchiquin, to Italy for study. He afterwards went to India and undertook the direction of the music at the Calcutta Theatre, but the climate proving injurious to his health, he returned to England and appeared as a dramatic composer. He furnished Drury Lane Theatre with music for ' The Rival Candidates' (1775), 'The Milesians' (1777), and the ' Fair American' (1782). In 1787 he became musical director of the Royalty Theatre, Goodman's Fields, then opened under the management of John Palmer, and produced there 'The Birth-day' and 'The Constant Maid,' besides songs and catches. In 1792 he composed the comic opera 'Just in Time,' for Covent Garden Theatre. He published many concertos and lessons for the pianoforte, but he is now best known as the composer of Bishop Percy's ballad, ' 0 Nanny, wilt thou gang wi' me ?' and the naval song ' Stand to your guns.' Carter's life was passed in a constant succession of embarrassments, consequent upon his incorrigible carelessness and improvidence. He died Oct. 12, 1804. [W.H.H.] CARTIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French violinist, born at Avignon in 1765 ; the son of a dancingmaster. His first teacher on the violin was an Abbe" Walrauf. In 1783 he went to Paris and continued his studies under Viotti. His progress must have been rapid, as he very soon, on Viotti's recommendation, obtained the post of accompanyist to Marie Antoinette, which he held up to the outbreak of the Revolution. In 1791 he entered the band of the opera as assistant-leader and solo-player. From 1804 he was a member of the Emperor Napoleon's private band under Paisiello and, after the Restoration, of the Royal band till 1830. He died at Paris in 1841. Cartier was a good violinist, and it was his great merit

CARTIEB.

CASINI.

to have revived the noble traditions of the old Italian school of violin - play ing by publishing new editions of the works of Corelli, Tartini, Nardini and other great masters, which at that time were all but unknown in France. He thereby caused not only his own numerous pupils but all the young French violinists of his time to take up the study of these classical works for the violin. In his work 'L'art du violon' (Paris 1798 and 1801) Cartier gives a comprehensive selection from the violin music of the best Italian, French, and German masters, which is rightly regarded as a practical history of violin-literature in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is much to be regretted that a history of violin-playing, which he wrote, has never been made public. His compositions are of no importance. He published Sonatas in the style of Lolli, Etudes, and Duos for violins. Fetis also mentions two Operas, two Symphonies and Violinconcertos, which have remained in MS. [P. D.]

style, though without much invention. A mass and 4 other pieces are given by Luck (Sammlung, 1859), and an ' 0 quam suavis,' a pretty melodious movement, by Novello, from Choron. [G.] CASARINI, SIGNORA, sometimes called CASARINA, an Italian soprano engaged in London for Handel's operas in 1748. She appeared in ' Alexander Bal us' and 'Joshua.' [J. M.] CASE, JOHN, M.D., a native of "Woodstock, was a chorister, first at New College and afterwards at Christ Church, Oxford. He subsequently became a fellow of St. John's College, which he vacated on marriage, when he established himself in Oxford as a lecturer to private pupils on philosophy, for which he enjoyed a high and deserved reputation. In 1586 he published ' The Praise of Musicke,' and in 1588 'Apologia Musices tarn vocalis tarn instrumentalis et mixtse.' Thomas Watson wrote a song in his praise, which was set to music by William Byrd. He died Jan. 23, 1599-1600. [W.H.H.] CASENTINI, SIGNOKA, a good singer in the comic style, appeared at the Pantheon in London in 1791, taking the principal part in Paisiello's 'Locanda,' and other operas. Lord MountEdge umbe describes her as ' a pretty woman and genteel actress.' In 93 she had married Borghi, second violin at the opera, and was singing at the King's Theatre; but she was not in good health, and her voice was too weak for that house. Her later history is not known. [J.M.]

318

CARTONI, a barytone engaged at the King's Theatre in 1822, at a salary of £700, on the recommendation of Camporese. For his musical education he was indebted entirely to his wife. He made his first appearance as the King in Pacini's ' II Barone di Dolsheim,' and, although not possessed of first-rate talents, was a respectable performer. [J.M.] CARTJLLI, FEKDINANDO, an eminent guitarist, born at Naples 1770, died in Paris 1841. Though self-taught he attained a perfection of execution hitherto unknown on the guitar, and on his arrival in Paris created a perfect furore. In the space of twelve years he published 300 compositions, including a ' Method' which passed through four editions. He was also the author of ' L'Harmonie appliquee a la Guitare' (Paris, 1825), a treatise on the art of accompanying, which was the first work of its kind. [M. C.C.] CARUSO, LUIGI, born at Naples 1754, died at Perugia 1822 ; son of a musician at Naples, studied under Nicolo Sala, composed in all sixty operas (for list see Fetis) of which the first was 'II Barone di Trocchia' (Naples, 1773), and the last ' L'Avviso aiMaritati' (Rome, 1810). His ' Artaserse' was performed in London in 1774. He also composed four oratorios, four cantatas, and masses, etc., of a style more dramatic than ecclesiastical. He is said to have lived for some time in Paris and Germany, and to have been conductor at Palermo. He had a brother Emmanuele, also a musician. [M.C.C.] CASALI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA. Chapel-master

of St. John Lateran in Rome from 1759 *iU n ' s death 1792. An opera of his, 'Campaspe,' was produced at Venice 1740. Gre"try was his pupil lor two years in Rome, but Casali did not detect his talent, and sent him back with a letter of introduction in which he described the great opera writer as 'a nice fellow, but a thorough ass and ignoramus in music' Casali's works comprise 4 masses, motets, magnificats, and many other pieces for the church. He wrote in a very pure

CASINI, GIOVANNI MARIA, was a Florentine

priest, and born towards the close of the 17th century. Fe'tis gives 1675 as the date of his birth, but it is not ascertained. He came to Rome early in life, but not before he had learnt the elements of counterpoint in his native town. At Rome he was successively the pupil of Matteo Simonelli and Bernardo Pasquini, under the lastnamed of whom he perfected himself as an organ player. The only post which he is known to nave held was that of organist in the cathedral of Florence. He was simply a perverse man of talent who elected to join the ranks, and to add one or two more to the absurdities, of those musical reactionists who tried to stop the progress of the art in the 17th century. He followed in the wake of Doni Vicentino and Colonna in endeavouring to revive the three old Greek 'genera' of progression, viz. the diatonic, the chromatic, and the enharmonic. Fe'tis, indeed, says that, as several enthusiastic pedants of his class had done before him, he constructed a clavecin in which the notes represented by the black keys were subdivided, so as to obtain an exact equalisation of the semitones. Baini does not carry him this length, but only states him to have adopted the views of those who thus wasted their labour and ingenuity. In his account of Casini the last-named biographer tells us that the most celebrated of these instruments was one which he purchased himself from motives of patriotism to prevent such a curiosity being taken out of Italy. It was a cembalo, which had been constructed in 1606 at the ex-

CASINI.

CATALANI.

pense of Camillo Gonzaga, Count of Novellara. It had four octaves, each divided into 31 notes, and as the highest of the treble was in octaves to the lowest of the bass, it had 125 keys in all, black and white. He bought with it a four-stringed instrument, noted to correspond with it, so that the two could easily be tuned m unison. Casini's published works consist of—a volume of motets for 4 voices in the 'stile osservato,' intituled 'Johannis Mariae, Casini Majoris Ecclesiae Florentiae modulatoris, et sacerdotio proediti, Moduli quatuor vocibus : opus primum. Romae, apud Mascardum, 1706.' 'Responsori per la Settimana Santa, a 4 voci, op. 2, Florence, C. Bindi, 1706.' ' Motetti a 4 voci a Cappella, ibid. 1714.' 'Fantasies and Fugues for the Organ, Florence, 1714.' A motet of his is given by Proske in 'Musica Divina,' ii. No. 58. [E.H.P.]

castanets to the performer's fingers, who generally is playing some other instrument, and must suddenly take up the castanets to play a few bars. The Spanish name is Castanuela, either because made sometimes from the wood of the chestnut-tree castauo) or from some fancied resemblance to the two halves into which the chestnut (castana) naturally divides itself. [V. de P.] CASTELLI, a seconda donna engaged at the King's Theatre in 1825, at a salary of £250. She sang the part of Alma in 'II Crociato' with, Velluti in 25 and 26 ; and, in the latter year, also that of Cherubino in ' Le Nozze.' She pleased the public, though far from equalling Caradori in that role. She was engaged again in 1828, since when her name does not occur. [J. M.]

CASSATION, perhaps implying 'farewell,' designates a piece of instrumental music of the last century, for the open air, in several movements, much like the SERENADE or DIVERTIMENTO. In Kochel's Mozart Catalogue there are three, Nos. 62, 63, 99, the two last of 7 movements each. [G.] CASSEL, GUILLAUME, born at Lyons 1794, died at Brussels 1836 ; dramatic singer ; studied first under Georges Jadin, and then at the Paris Conservatoire under Garat and Talma. He made his debut at Amiens, and sang at various places previous to his appearance at the Opera Comique in Paris, where he remained for three years. At the end of that time he quarrelled with Pixerecourt, the director, and retired to Belgium, where he settled, for life. After a five years' engagement in Brussels he retired from the stage in 1832, and became a teacher. He trained many eminent pupils, including Madame Dorus-Gras. In 33 he was appointed professor of singing at the Brussels Conservatoire. _ His compositions were unimportant, but he was successful as a teacher. [M.C.C.] CASTANETS. A pair of castanets (or castagnettes) consists of two small pieces of hard wood, shaped somewhat like the bowl of a spoon, or a scallop shell. These are hinged together by a cord, the ends of which pass over the thumb and first finger of the performer. The remaining fingers strike the two halves together, either in single strokes or in trills ; the instrument emitting a deep hollow click, which, although not a musical note, is nevertheless not disagreeable to the ear. The performer has usually a pair in each hand. It is a Moorish and Spanish instrument, and is intended for accompanying dances. Its use by ballet-dancers is well known. When required to be played in the orchestra, to accompany dance-music, it is best to attach a pair, half on each side, to a flat piece of hard wood, ending in a stick about eight inches long. By shaking this apparatus, the required effect is produced, without the necessity of fitting the

319

, CASTELLI, IGNAZ FRIEDRICH, born at Vienna 1781, died there 1854; German dramatist of great popularity, author of the librettos of Weigl's ' Schweizer Familie,' and Schubert's ' Verschwornen' or ' Hiiusliche Krieg,' and adaptor amongst others of Meyerbeer's ' Huguenots.' From 1811 held the post of ' Hoftheaterdichter' at the Karnthnerthor theatre in Vienna. Founder, and from 1829 to 1840, sole editor of the ' Allgemeiner musikalischer Anzeiger.' He was a good amateur violinist, and was greatly esteemed and beloved. [M. C. C] CASTRO, JEAN DE, composer and lutist. In 1570 he was at Lyons, and in 1580 chapelmaster to the Prince of Juliers. He composed many sets of madrigals, odes, sonnets, and sacred songs (1569-1600). One collection, 'La I leur des Chansons' (Louvain and Antwerp 1547). contains, besides compositions of his own, songs by Severin, Cornet, Noe Faignent, Clereau, Crequillon, Jacotin, and Jannequin. For list see Fetis. [M.C.C.] CASTRUCCI, PIETEO, pupil of Corelli, and distinguished violin player, born at Rome 1689. In 1715 he came to England with Lord Burlington and became leader of Handel's opera-band. He had a special reputation as performer on the VIOLETTA MARINA, an instrument of his

own

invention. In Handel's 'Orlando' is an air accompanied by two Violette marine with celli pizzicati, ' per gli Signori Castrucci' (see the MS.) meaning Pietro and his brother Prospero. In Handel's ' Sosarme' is also an air with Violetta marina obligato. In 1737 he was superseded at the opera by Festing—not by Clegg. To his undoubted talent Castrucci added an amount of charlatanism surprising in a pupil of Corelli's, though paralleled by other great players, Clement, Boucher, Ole Bull, &c. An instance of these is given by Burney (Hist. iv. 353 note). He died 1769 in great poverty. Castrucci is said to have been the original of Hogarth's 'Enraged musician'; but that is now known to be intended for Festing. [P. D.] CATALANI, ANGELICA, born Oct. 1779 at Sinigaglia, where her father was a tradesman.

320

CATALANI.

CATALANI.

About the age of 12 she was sent to the convent j the Italian Opera there, and she arrived aboot of Santa Lucia at Gubbio, near Eome, where the end of the year 1804. Her salary was 24,000 her beautiful voice soon became a great attraction, j cruzados (£3,000). In its full freshness, according to Fetis and all | Some writers have said that she derived very other authorities, it must have been one of , great advantage from the instruction of Cresextraordinary purity, force, and compass, going centini, which, indeed, seems more than likely; as far as G in altissimo, with a sweet clear tone. ] but Fe'tis, on the authority of Crescentini himself, This exquisite quality was allied to a marvellous contradicts this statement categorically, affirming truth and rapidity of execution. No singer has i that Crescentini told him that he had endeavoured ever surpassed, or perhaps equalled, her in chro- to give her a little advice, which she had seemed matic scales, whether in velocity or precision. On incapable of understanding. It was here that leaving the convent, into which she had been she married Valabregue, of the French embassy; introduced by the Cardinal Onorati, and where but she never quitted her name of Catalani the congregation could frequently not be pre- before the public. Her husband, a stupid, vented from openly applauding her splendid ignorant soldier, appears to have had no ideas notes in the services, she found herself, owing beyond helping his talented wife to gain the to the sudden impoverishment of her parents, utmost possible amount of money on every compelled to perform in public. Her musical occasion, and spending it for her afterwards. education had been but ill cared for in the From their marriage dates one of the worst of convent, where she passed three years; and she the many speculations that have been based on had contracted bad tricks of vocalisation, which the capital of a grand voice and great personal she never entirely overcame, even after hearing charm. They went first to Madrid, and then to such great models as Marchesi and Crescentini. Paris, where she sang only in concerts, but One of her faults was that she could never where she gained even more fame than before. execute certain passages without a very perOctober 26, 1805, Mme. Catalani signed ceptible oscillation of the lower jaw, which made herOnfirst engagement (in the possession of the them, instead of being even and smooth, sound writer) with F. Goold and W. Taylor, manager like a succession of staccato passages on the and proprietors the King's Theatre in the violin. In spite of this fault, which was indeed Haymarket, for of season from September 15, more within the criticism of connoisseurs than 1806, to Augustthe 1807, at a salary of £2,000 of the public generally, her voice was so full, sterling, with 'a further sum of £100 sterling powerful, and clear, her intonation so pure and to defray the expenses of her to London,' true, and her instinctive execution of difficult and also ' one Benefit Nightjourney of expence in and brilliant music so easy and unfaltering, that the month of March, at whichfree a new opera shall her singing had a charm which has scarcely be performed.' Before crossing, however, she ever been equalled, and her very first steps in gave concerts at Madrid and Paris, which a theatrical career were marked by the most she gained large sums of money, and by created a extraordinary success. When she began, the deep impression; indeed, Napoleon offered her favourite style was that of expressive and engagement from which she had some difficulty pathetic song, and in this she never produced the an escaping, in order to fulfil that at the King's effect which she subsequently made in bravura. in At the moment of her arrival in Thus at Paris she failed comparatively in a Theatre. London, Grassini and Mrs. Billington had just tender son^ of Piccini's, 'Se'l ciel mi divide,' retired; and, as Lord Mount-Edgcumbe says, though shortly after, she created the greatest 'the great, the far-famed Catalani supplied the enthusiasm by her 'Son regina,' by an air of Rode's place of both, for many years reigned alone, with variations, concert: for the voice, and other for she wouldand no rival, nor any singer pieces of the most florid execution. In 1795, at sufficiently goodbear divide the applause.' 'It the age of 16, she obtained her first engagement is well known,' hetocontinues, her voice is at the Fenice at Venice, and made her debut as of a most uncommon quality,' that and capable of Lodoiska in the opera of that name by Mayer. exertions almost supernatural. Her throat seems Her face, figure, and voice, assured her success, endued (as has been remarked by medical men) a success which grew day by day, and lasted for with power of expansion and muscular motion nearly thirty years. In the season of 1798, she by noameans and when she throws out all sang at Leghorn with Crivelli, Marchesi, and her voice to usual, utmost, it has a volume and Mrs. Billington; the year after, at La Pergola strength that the are quite surprising; while its in Florence, in Nasolini's ' Monima e Mitridate'; agility in divisions, running up and down the and, in 1801, at Milan, in the ' Clitemnestra' of scale in semi-tones, and compass in jumping Zingarelli, and Nasolini's ' Baccanali.' In these over two octaves at once,its are equally astonishing. early efforts her effect was not due to method or It were to be wished,' says this connoisseur of skill; it was her superb voice that carried all old school, 'that she was less lavish in the before her. From Milan she went to Florence, the display of these wonderful powers, and sought to Trieste, Rome, and Naples, exciting everywhere please more than to surprise; but her taste is the same astonishment and admiration. vicious, her excessive love of ornament spoiling every simple air, and her greatest delight (indeed Her reputation now reached the ears of the her chief meriti being in songs of a bold and Prince Regent of Portugal, who engaged her, spirited character, where much is left to her with Mme. Gafforini and Crescentini, to sing at

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discretion (or indiscretion), without being confined by the accompaniment, but in which she can indulge in ad libitum passages with a luxuriance and redundancy no other singer ever possessed, or if possessing ever practised, and which she carries to a fantastical excess.' The opinions of all good judges were nearly the same with the above; but the public was led completely away by her marvellous powers. She made her de"but Dec. 15, 1806, in the 'Semiramide' of Portogallo, composed for her expressly. She appeared also in ' Mitridate,' 'Elfrida,' and most unwillingly in 'La Clemenza di Tito,' for the strict time required in Mozart's music, and the importance of the accompaniments, were not suited to her style. She was, however, the singer who introduced to the English stage his 'Nozze di Figaro,' in which she played Susanna to admiration. In the 'Orazi' she performed the part of the first soprano, Curiazio, that of the first woman being filled by Ferlendis. In 'Didone' she caused the rdle of Enea to be sung by Madame Dussek, who was entirely unfitted for it; and, in another opera, she made Madame Dussek act the first woman's part, choosing for herself that of the primo uomo. Subsequently she assumed also the place of prima baffa, and succeeded equally well in that line; singing with greater simplicity and ease, she was by some preferred in comic opera. Her face and figure suited both styles ; for her handsome countenance was capable of great varieties of expression. Her gains soon became enormous. She was the great attraction of Goold's manage^ ment, and her engagements entailed on the theatre an expense surpassing anything before experienced. Mr. Waters, in a pamphlet which he published, gives the total amount received by her from the theatre in 1807, including benefits, at £5,000, and her total profits that year, with concerts, provincial tour, etc., at £16,700,—an immense sum to be received in such a period for the services of a single artist. That she sometimes found a difficulty in getting payment is not surprising, especially from such a manager as Taylor. Ebers relates that, on one occasion, she refused to sing unless a debt of £1,000 due to her was paid; and that he gave security for this, of which he had ultimately to pay every farthing. She received as much as 200 guineas for sinking 'God save the King' and 'Rule Britannia,' and at a single festival £2,000. Had she practised the least economy she must have amassed a very great fortune; but this she did not do. It is said, for example, that the consumption of beer by her servants during a single year amounted to £103. More serious causes, however, contributed to dissipate these riches as fast as she gained them; for her husband was passionately addicted to gambling, and lost vast sums at play. She remained seven years in England, where shefinallysucceeded in becoming the only singer of eminence, and led in both lines; but one singer does not constitute an opera, though Valabregue used to say 'Ma femme et quatre ou cinq poupees,—voila tout

ce qu'il faut.' Neither would her disposition endure the possibility of rivalry, nor the extravagance of her increasing demands allow any manager to engage other singers. She quitted the theatre at the end of the season of 1813, having first endeavoured (unsuccessfully) to purchase it, and so become sole proprietor, sole manager, and sole singer. After leaving this stage, she for many years never trod any other, except at Paris, where she obtained the management of the Italian opera, with a subvention of 160,000 francs; but the undertaking was not fortunate. On the return of Napoleon, in 1815, she left Paris, going first to Hamburg, and afterwards to Denmark and Sweden, and exciting everywhere the wildest admiration and enthusiasm. She returned to France, after the Restoration, by Holland and Belgium. On her arrival at Paris, she resumed the direction of the Theatre Italien, and established the same ruinous system which had destroyed, for a time, opera in London. Every expense of scenery, orchestra, and chorus, was curtailed, and every singer of worth excluded, in order that the entire receipts might go, with the subvention, into the purse of Valabregue. This was not all. To suit this state of things the operas were arranged in such a manner that little of the original but the name remained. The rest consisted of variations by Rode, and similar things, with the famous ' Son regina,' interpolated in place of the concerted pieces and songs which had been cut out. In May 1816 Catalani left her opera in the hands of managers, and went to Munich to give some concerts and representations. Thence she proceeded to Italy, and only returned to Paris in August 1817. In the next April she left her opera entirely, and resumed her wanderings. Having engaged Mme. Gail to accompany her, as Pucitta had done in London and Paris, she started for Vienna. No sooner had they arrived than she quarrelled with her companion, who returned to Paris. Catalani continued her tour alone, and it lasted nearly ten years. In 1824 she returned to London, performing a certain number of nights with no regular engagement. She reappeared in 'II Nuovo Fanatico per la Musica,' an opera by Mayer, arranged for her. 'Her powers were undiminshed, her taste unimproved.' She next continued her wanderings on the continent. In 1826 an attempt was made by Ebers to engage her, but the terms proposed by her were so exorbitant that it was impossible to consider them seriously. Her voice was, however, no longer what it had been, especially in the highest part of her register. Though still beautiful, flexible, and strong, it was losing gradually a little of these qualities. In turn she visited Germany, Italy, and Paris once more, where she sang without success; then Poland, Russia, and the north of Germany again in 1837. About this time she sang for the last time at Berlin, and resolved to cease singing in public. But she revisited England once more in 1828, and sang at the York Festival. Lord Mount-Edgcumbe heard her the same year at Plymouth, and

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describes her as having lost, perhaps, a little in voice, but gained more in expression : as electrifying an audience with her ' Bule Britannia ;' and as still handsome, though somewhat stout. After a time, she retired to a villa which she had bought in the neighbourhood of Florence. On the stage, she is described as having always produced an unnatural impression, owing to an invincible nervousness, whichmade her exaggerate the effects she wished to create. She said herself, that it was as painful to her to sing in the theatre as it was delightful to perform at a concert. She never lost her simplicity and purity of manners, nor her piety, modesty, and generosity. Her charitable deeds were innumerable, and the amount of money earned by her in concerts for such purposes alone has been estimated at 2,000,000 francs. At her residence she founded a school of singing for young girls. Catalani died of cholera at Paris, June 12, 1849. P- ^ 0

questionable character of the words to which many of the catches of that age were allied ha3 sufficedi to ensure the banishment of a large amount of clever and learned musical contrivance. In later times Dr. William Hayes, S. Webbe, and Dr. Callcott have excelled in the composition of catches: ' Would you know my Celia's charms' by Webbe is a well-known example ; ' Ah, how, Sophia,' and 'Alas cry'd Damon' by Callcott are also tolerably well known, and still occasionally performed. Dr. W. Hayes published several collections of catches, some with words by Dean Swift, and in his preface to the first set (1763) says, 'the Catch in music answers to the Epigram in poetry, where much is to be exprest within a very small compass, and unless the Turn is neat and well pointed, it is of little value.' [W. H. C] CATCH CLUB. This society, the full title of which was 'The Noblemen and Gentlemen's Catch Club,' was formed in 1761 for the encouragement of the composition and performance of canons, catches, and glees, and thefirstmeeting took place in November of that year, when there were present the Earls of Eglinton, Sandwich, and March, Generals Rich and Barrington, the Hon. J. Ward, and Messrs. H. Meynell and E. Phelps. These gentlemen, with the Duke of Kingston, the Marquesses of Lome and Granby, the Earls of Eochford, Orford, and Ashburnham, Viscounts Bolingbroke and Weymouth, Lord George Sutton, Colonels Parker, Windus, and Montgomery, Sir George Armytage, and Messrs. H. Pen ton, W. Gordon, and J. Harris, who joined in 1762, were the original members, and all subsequently enrolled were balloted for. Among distinguished persons afterwards admitted to the Club were George IV (elected when Prince of Wales in 1786), William IV (elected when Duke of Clarence in 1789), the Dukes of Cumberland (1786), York (1787), Cambridge (1807), and Sussex (1813). The professional members elected into the Society of the Catch Club included Beard, Battishil!, Arne, Hayes, Atterbury, Paxton, S. AVebbe, Piozzi, Knyvett, Stevens, Callcott, Danby, Greatorex, Bartleman, E. Gooke, Horsley, Goss, Walmisley, and Turle. In 1763 the Club offered its first prizes, one for two catches, a second for two canons, and a third for two glees, and they were awarded to Baildon, Marella, Dr. Hayes, and G. Berg. From its foundation to 1794 the prizes were competed for annually, and among the winners were Arne, Hayes, J. S. Smith, Danby, S. Webbe, Lord Mornington, Paxton, Atterbury, Dr. Cooke, E. Cooke, Dr. Alcock, Stevens, Spofforth. and Callcott. In 17S7, in consequence of Dr. Callcott having submitted nearly 100 compositions in competition for the prizes, a resolution was passed that ' in future no composer should send in more than three compositions for one prize.' From 1794 to 1811 no prizes were offered, and after being awarded for two years they were again discontinued, until in 1821 they were once more revived, a gold cup taking the place of the medals. The rules of

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CATAEINA COENAEO, the last of Donizetti's sixty-six operas, produced at Naples in the Carnival of 1844, and performed for the last time in 1S45. [G.] CATCH originally meant simply a round for three or more voices (unaccompanied), written out at length as one continuous' melody, and not in score. The catch was for each succeeding singer to take up or catch his part in time ; this is evident not only from the manner in which they were printed, but aKo from the simple and innocent character of the words of the oldest catches, from which it would be impossible to elicit any ingenious cross- reading. But in course of time a new element was introduced into catches, and words were selected so constructed that it was possible, either by mis-pronunciation or by the interweaving of the words and phrases given to the diffeient voices, to produce the most ludicrous and comical effects. The singing of catches became an art, and was accompanied by gesture, the skill with which they were sung has become a tradition, and certainly many old specimens are so difficult that they must have requited considerable labour and practice to sing them perfectly. The oldest published collections containing catches were— 1. 'Painmelia: Musicke's Miscellanie, or mixed varietie of Pleasant Eoundelayes and delightful Catches of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 9, 10 parts in one. None so ordinarie as musicall, none so musicall as not to all very pleasing and acceptable. 1609.' 2. 'Deuteromelia : or second part of Musicke's Melodie, or Melodious Musick of Pleasant Koundelaies. K. H. Mirth, or Freemen's songs, and such delightful catches. 1609.' 3. ' Melisinata : Musicall Phansies fitting the court, citie and countrey Humours. 1611.' Catches were most in vogue in the reign of the dissolute Charles II, and as much of the popular literature of that period was sullied by indecency and licentiousness it is not suiprising that catches were contaminated with the preViuling and fashionable vice; the more than

CATCH CLUB. the Club required the members to take the chair in turns at the dinners which were held at the Thatched House Tavern every Tuesday from February to June, except in Passion and Easter weeks. The successive secretaries of the Club were Warren (1761-94), S.Webbe (1794-1812), Sale (1812-28), R Leete (1828-36), Jas. Elliott (1836-52), O. Bradbury (1852-73), E. Land (1859-76). Webbe's glees ' Hail! Star of Brunswick' and 'The Mighty Conqueror' were composed specially for George IV, who invariably took his call and sang in his glee; and the late Duke of Cambridge attended to the last year of his life and rarely omitted his call, one of his favourite glees being Webbe's ' Glorious Apollo.' In 1861 the Club celebrated its centenary with much vigour, and to commemorate the event offered a silver goblet for the best four-part glee, which was awarded to Mr. W. H. Cummings for ' Song should breathe.' The present subscription is ten guineas each season, and the meetings are held fortnightly at Willis's Rooms from Easter to July. [C. M.] CATEL, CHAKLES SIMON, born June 1773 at l'Aigle (Orne); began his studies very early under Sacchini, Gobert, and Gossec, in the ' Ecole royale de chant et de declamation,' at Paris.

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and wind, Songs, Solfeggi, etc.; but it is by his Treatise on Harmony, by his great practical sense and ability, and by his character for goodness and probity that he will be known to posterity. His treatise is founded on those of Kirnberger and Turk, and at once superseded the more artificial and complicated theories of Rameau, which had till that time reigned supreme in France. [G.C.] CATELANI, ANGELO, musician and writer on music, born at Guastalla March 30, 1811. He received his first instruction from the organist of the place, and afterwards at Modena from Giuseppe Asioli and M. Fusco. In 31 he entered the Conservatoire of Naples, then under Zingarelli, and became the special pupil of Donizetti and Crescentini. From 31 to 37 he was director of the theatre at Messina, and finally settled at Modena, where he was living a few years ago as keeper of the Este Library. Catelani is the author of three or four operas, as well as of a Requiem and other pieces of church music ; but his claim to mention rests on his archaeological works—Notice on P. Aron (1851) ; on N. Vincentino (1851); 'Epistolario di autori celebri in musica' (1852-4); 'Bibliografia di due stampe ignote di 0. Petrucci da Fossombrone' [CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIQUE.] In 1787 he was (1856)—a treatise on the two first pieces of made accompanist and 'professeur-adjoint' of music printed from type; Delia vita e delle the School, and in 1790 accompanist at the opere di Orazio Vecchi (1858); Ditto di Claudio Opera. The same year he became chief, con- Merula da Correggio (i860); Ditto di Alessandro [G.] jointly with Gossec, of the band of the Garde Stradella (Modena, Vincenzi, 1866). Nationale, for which he wrote a vast quantity of CATENACCI, a seconda donna, appeared in military music, which was adopted throughout 1784 the King's Theatre in Anfossi's ' Issipile,' the revolutionary army. His first work of public in' Leatdue Gemelle' and the ' Demofoonte' ot Bernote was a ' De profundis' for the funeral of toni. She was re-engaged in 1786, and sang with Gouvion in 1792. Another was a Hymn of Mara and Rubinelli the 'Virginia' of Tarchi, Victory on the battle of Fleurus (June 26, 94), under the direction ofinCherubim. [J. M.] written for chorus with wind accompaniment CATERS. The name given by change ringers only. On the formation of the Conservatoire in 95 Catel was made professor of harmony. He to changes on nine bells. The word should probimmediately began the compilation of his 'Traite" ably be written quaters, as it is meant to denote d'harmonie,' which was published in 1802, and the fact that four couples of bells change their [O.A.W.T.] remained for many years the sole textbook of places in the order of ringing. France. In 1810 he became one of the InCATHEDRAL MUSIC. Music composed spectors of the Conservatoire, a post which he for use in English Cathedral Service since the retained till the suspension of that institution in Reformation. 1814. In 17 he was elected Member of the Just as the Reformed,Liturgy was composed Institut, in the room of Monsigny, and in 24 of prayers, versicles, responses, and other eleChevalier of the Legion of Honour. He died ments which, though in a different language, at Paris Nov. 29, 1830. Catel wrote largely for had formed the basis of the church services for the stage—'Semiramis' (1802), 'L'Auberge de centuries, so the music to which the new services Bagneres' (1807), 'Les Bayaderes' (1810), and were sung was not so much an innovation as an other operas in 1808, 1814, 1817, and 1818. inheritance from earlier times : precedents can These have the merit of elegance and purity, be found for the greater part of it in the prebut they were not successful; the public in- Reformation church music. The truth of this sisted on recognising Catel as a savant and a will appear if we compare the style of church professor, and prejudged his works as ' learned music used in England at the end of the 15th music' On one occasion Napoleon, who had a I and beginning of the 16th centuries with what singular taste for soft and ineffective music, had was introduced about 1550 as an accompaniment the 'Bayaderes' performed with all the instru- to the reformed liturgy. Our inferences as to ments muted and every mark of expression sup- the music of the former date must be drawn pressed—a very severe trial for any opera. Be- chiefly from breviaries and antiphonaries with sides his theatrical and military music Cat el musical notes, from compositions for the church, wrote Symphonies for wind only, Hymns and such as masses and motets, and from treatises on Choral Pieces, Quintets and Quartets for strings music. We learn from these sources that the Y2

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psalms, canticles, versicles, responses, and creeds were sung invariably in plainsong, which signifies a certain specific mode of chanting in unison, guided by definite rules that can still be ascertained, and implying to a great extent the use of certain well-known melodies appropriated to particular parts of the service. Of this mode of chanting the Gregorian chants used at the present day are a regular form. [CHANT.] So far then as regards simple melody we are fairly well informed as to pre-Eeformation church music. But there is less certainty as to the use of harmony. It is true that a rude style of partsinging, called ' organising,' had been known for centuries before the Eeformation, and later on the development of counterpoint had resulted in the composition of masses and motets, of which we have specimens by English composers, e. g. Byrd, Taverner, Fayrfax, and Tye, dating from before the Eeformation. But though these compositions show that harmony was recognised in English church music before 1550, it is difficult to show to what extent they were used, and whether they were regularly introduced in the way that anthems by various composers are now employed in cathedral service. Possibly at ferial times plainsong may have predominated, and at festal times harmonised compositions, chants, and cantic'es, as well as anthems, may have been used ; though these would interfere with the plainsong, which invariably formed the 'subject' to which the parts were adapted. Such was the general character of English church music as it was found by the reformers of the 16th century. We must now enquire in what way it was dealt with by them in the transition from the Eomish to the reformed service, and in what form it appeared after the change had taken place. The two works which directly illustrate the mind of the English church as to the musical rendering of her reformed services are, (1) the Litany published by Cranmer with its musical notation; (2) the more important work containing the musical notation of the remainder of the then Common Prayer Book, edited by John Marbeck. Now both these works seem to show that the aim of the reformers was not to discard but to utilise the ancient plainsong, by adapting it to the translated services. In the first place the music of Cranmer's litany is a very ancient chant, almost identical with that appointed for the Eogation days in the Eoman processional, and with that which occurs in the Salisbury ritual for the procession of peace : hence we see that it was from the oldest sources that Cranmer obtained the musical setting of the new litany in English. Secondly, the music of Marbeck's work consists of the old plainsong simplified and adapted to the new services. Mr. Dyce, in his ' Preface and Appendix to the Book of Common Prayer,' shows conclusively that Marbeck intended to follow the ancient Salisbury use (the great standard of English choral music) note for note, as far as the rules of plainsong would permit; and that where his notation varies from that of Salisbury, the

CATHEDEAL MUSIC. variation is due to the difference between the English and Latin syllables, and as such is merely what the technical rules of plainsong would dictate. It would appear then that as regards plainsong, the Eeformation brought little or no change to our services; the ancient melodies were preserved intact, except where change was required to adapt them to the new liturgy. As to compositions in harmony, these, as we saw above, had been undoubtedly introduced into the service to some extent before the Eeformation, but were sung to Latin words. During the changing times of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth, when the form of church service was not yet settled, the great church composers wrote and arranged for whatever services were established at the time—for the Latin words of mattins, vespers, the little hours, and the mass, or for the English canticles of Morning and Evening Prayer, and for the English Communion Service, according as the Eomish or Protestant liturgy was recognised. Sometimes, as in the case of Byrd's ' Ne irascaris, Domine,' and ' Bow thine ear, 0 Lord,' the same music was set to the two languages, or what had been written for the one was adapted to the other. And thus the change of ritual may be said to have affected compositions in harmony even less than it affected the mere melodic forms or plainsong. Though a complete scheme for the musical service was set forth in Marbeck's book (except for the litany, which Cranmer had already supplied, and the Psalms, which no doubt Marbeck intended to be sung in the manner he indicated for the Canticles, viz. in the old plainsong); the canticles and other parts of the service were set very frequently in harmony, about the time when Marbeck's book appeared. All the church musicians whose harmonised compositions remain to us, from the time of Edward VI onwards, have set the canticles anthemwise as 'services'; and thus, even while Marbeck's was the only authorised musical - service book, a more perfect system was displayed alongside of it. Hearers could not fail to be struck by the superiority of harmonised canticles and services over the simple melodies sung in unison, of which Marbeck'B book consists. Dr. Jebb considers that the latter work was only meant as an elementary and tentative one, and that it never became authoritative. However this may be, it was superseded by a work containing harmonized compositions, contributed by Tallis, Shepherd, Taverner, and some others. This was John Day's book, published in 1560, and entitled, 'Certaine Notes, set forth in foure and three partes, to be sung at the Morning, Communion, and Evening Praier, . . . . and unto them be added divers Godly praiers and psalmes in the like forme.' The latter clause leads us to the consideration of the anthem, with reference to which Blunt (Introduction to the Book of Common Prayer) says as follows :—' It is difficult to ascertain the exact time when the practice of popular hymn

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and metrical psalm singing established itself in connection with our revised ritual, though independently of its direct authority. Such singing was in use early in Elizabeth's reign, having doubtless been borrowed from the Protestants abroad. For the purpose of giving a quasi-official sanction to-a custom which it would have been very unwise to repress, it WAS ordained by a royal injunction in the year 1559, that while there was to be a 'modest and distinct song so used in all parts of the common prayer, that the same might be understanded as if it were read without singing' (in other words, while the old traditional plainsong in its simplified form is to be employed throughout the whole service, yet) ' for the comforting of such as delight in music it may be permitted that in the beginning or at the end of the common prayer there may be *ung an hymn or such like song, to the praise of Almighty God, in the best melody and music that may be devised, having respect that the sentence of the hymn may be understanded & perceived.' This injunction gave legal authority to the setting of English words to be sung anthemwise. The first anthems written for the Reformed Church are full, i.e. sung in regular alternation by the whole choir; they resemble the motets of the Italian Church, which furnished models to the first English anthem-writers. ' Verse anthems', i.e. those in which certain passages, called verses, were sung in slower time, not by all the voices on one side but by a selected number, were introduced about 1670 ; though Dr. Jebb informs the writer that precedents for verse anthems existed in the pre-Reformation service. As principal composers of cathedral music from the Reformation to the Rebellion we may select Tye, Tallis, Farrant, Shepherd, Taverner, Redford, Morley, Byrde, Bull, and Gibbons. The compositions of this period are more conspicuous for technical skill than for musical expression, and no difference can be traced between the secular and the sacreil style. Dr. Jebb however maintains that the latter was at least national and peculiar to this country, and that the Church of England was not indebted to Palestrina; which statement he supports by urging the similarity of the style of Byrde and Tallis to that of Robert White, who was anterior to the great Italian composer. Under the Commonwealth, music, except in the form of metrical psalmody, was expelled from English churches; it was restored in 1660 by Charles II, the effect of whose French tastes upon Cathedral music is thus described by Tudway (Burney's History, vol. iii. 443) : ' His majesty was soon tired with the grave and solemn way which had been established by Bird and others, and ordered the composers of his chapel to add symphonies with instruments to their anthems ; and established a select number of his private music to play the symphony and litornellos which he had appointed. The old masters of music, Dr. Child, Dr. Gibbons, Mr. Low, etc., hardly knew how to comport them-

selves with these new fangled ways, but proceeded in their compositions according to the old style.' There was great difficulty during the first years of the Restoration in finding boys capable of singing in the choirs, since the art had been so much neglected during the Protectorate. Hawkins (History of Music, iv. 349) says on this point, ' Nay, to such streights were they driven, that for a twelvemonth after the Restoration the clergy were forced to supply the want of boys by cornets, and men who had feigned voices.' It appears from a passage in the life of Archbishop Whitgift (Biographia Britannica. p. 4255), that cornets had been before introduced; for an allusion is made to the ' solemn music with the voices and organs, cornets and sackbuts'; and in Stow's Annals (864), we read that at the churching of the Queen after the birth of Mary daughter of James I, in the Royal Chapel, sundry anthems were sung with organ, cornets, sackbuts, and other instruments of music' [See ANTHEM, -2nd period.] ' In about four orfiveyears time' says Tudway, ' some of the forwardest and brightest children of the chapel, as Pelham Humphrey, John Blow, etc., began to be masters of a faculty in composing; this his majesty greatly .encouraged, by indulging their youthful fancies. In a few years more, several others educated in the chapel, composed in this style : otherwise it was vain to please his majesty.' The peculiar influence here ascribed to Charles II may be traced in the works of Humphrey, Blow, Wise, and their contemporaries, in the too evident aim at effect, and the mannerisms and exaggerated ornaments which characterise them; even the great genius of Purcell did not escape the effect of Charles's fantastic tastes. Many of his finest anthems are disfigured by symphonies of such a kind as were evidently invented merely to gratify the king's desire for French mannerisms. But it was in the j 8th century that the lowest musical standard prevailed in the service of the church. A florid sing-song melody, with a trivial accompaniment, was the type to which everything was sacrificed, and a rage set in for objectionable adaptations and arrangements. The works of Nares and Kent may be taken as specimens of this class, though one worthy exception should be noticed in Dr. Boyce. Within ^he last 25 years choral communions have been introduced: they had been discarded at the Restoration, from which time up to 1S40 the Communion Service was never set to music except in so far as parts of it, e. g. the Sanctus, and the Gloria, were arranged as anthems and introits. [E. H. D.] CATHERINE GREY, an opera in 3 acts; libretto by Bunn ; music by Balfe. Produced at Drury Lane May 27, 1837, the composer himself playing the Earl cf Hertford. [G.] CATLEY, ANNE, was born in 1745 ' n a n alley near Tower Hill, of very hum! le parents, her father being a hackney coachman, and her

326

CATLEY.

CAUVINI.

mother a washerwoman. Endowed with great Garden Theatre. Miss Catley performed the personal beauty, a charming voice, and a natural part of Juno with a spirit and humour that extalent for singing, she gained her living at the cited the utmost applause, and was particularly early a^e of 10 years by singing in the public admired for her singing of two- of the songs, viz. houses in the neighbourhood, and also for the ' Push about the jorum,'—the tune of which has diversion of the officers quartered in the Tower. been used for an almost endless number of comic When about 15 years of age she was apprenticed songs,—and ' Where's the mortal can resist me V by her father to William Bates for the purpose —the tune of which, slightly varied, has long of receiving regular instruction in the art of been associated with the Advent Hymn. Having singing, Gatley binding himself in the penalty amassed an independence Miss Catley retired of £200 for her due fulfilment of the covenants from public life in 17 84. She died Oct. 14,1789, in the indenture. She made rapid progress, and at the house of General Lascelles (to whom in the summer" of 1762 made her first appearance she was married), near Brentford. The public in public at Vauxhall Gardens. On Oct. 8 in prints of the day eulogised her as a good the same year she appeared7 at Covent Garden j mother, a chaste wife, and an accomplished [W. H. H.] Theatre as the Pastoral N3 mph in Dr. Dalton's woman. alteration of Milton's 'Comus.' Early in 1763 CAURROY, FRANCOIS EDSTACHE DD, Sieur she became acquainted with Sir Francis Blake Delaval, a young baronet, who prevailed on her de St. Fremin, born at Gerberoy near Beauvais ti> quit the house of Bates and reside with him. 1549, died in Paris 1609; canon of the Ste. Desirous of obtaining a legal control over her, Chapelle and prior of St. A'ioul de Proving; Delaval, in April 1763, induced Bates to consent a composer of great merit in his day. He was to an arrangement for his pupil doing some act appointed director of the King's band in 1569, which would put an end to the apprenticeship, and continued in office during the reigns of Delaval paying him the £200 penalty, and also Charles IX, Henry III, and Henry IV. In 1599 the amount of an engagement he had entered the post of Surintendant de la Musique du Roi into for her sinking during the summer season at was created for him. He was buried in the Marylebone Gardens. She was then colourably Church des Grands Augustins. A monument apprenticed to Delaval to be taught singing by (destroyed in the Revolution) was erectedtohis him. Application being made to her father, who memory by his successor Nicolas Forme, with an was then coachman to Barclay, the quaker, of epitaph by his friend Cardinal du Perron. Du Cheapside, for his concurrence, he consulted his Caurroy was called by his contemporaries ' Prince master, who, shocked at the iniquity of the trans- des professeurs de musique,' a title he shared action, at once sent Catley to his attorney. A with Orlando Lasso and Pale«trina. His comhabeas corpus was obtained for Delaval to pro- positions include 'Missa pro defunctis,' performed duce Anne Catley before the Court of King's at the funerals of the kings of France until the Bench, where the affair being inquired into, the iSth century ; one copy only exists at the BiblioCourt ordered that Delaval; Bates, and John theque Nationale in Paris ; 'Pre"ces ecclesiastics;' Frayne, an attorney employed by Delaval, should (Paris 1609), 'Precum ecclesiasticaruin lib. 2' be prosecuted for conspiracy, the Chief Justice, (Paris 1609), and, published by his grandnephew Lord Mansfield, denouncing their conduct in Andre" Pitart, 'Fantaisies' in 3, 4. 5, and 6 parts strongly indignant language. They were accord- (Paris 1610) and 'Melanges de musique' (Paris ingly tried, convicted, and fined. In the summer 161 o) from which Burney prints in his 3rd volume uf 1763 Anne Catley fulfilled her engagement at a Noel in four parts. Du Caurroy has been Marylebone Gardens, and shortly afterwards be- credited with the airs 'Charmante Gabrielle' [M. C. C] came a pupil of Macklin, the actor, who pro- and ' Vive Henri IV.' cured her an engagement at Dublin, where she CAUSTON, THOMAS, was a gentleman of the became a great favourite. O'Keeffe, the dramatist, Chapel Royal in the reigns of Edward VI, Mary, who became acquainted with her there, says, in and Elizabeth. He contributed to the curious his amusing ' Reminiscences,' ' She wore her hair collection published by John Day, the eminent plain over her forehead in an even line almost to printer, in 1560, in separate parts, under the title her eyebrows. This set ths fashion in Dublin, of ' Certain Notes, set forth in four and three and the word was with all the ladies to have parts, to be sung at the Morning, Communion, and their hair Catley-fied.' He elsewhere observes, Evening Prayer'; he was also a contributor to ' She was one of the most beautiful women I the collection of psalm tunes published by Day ever saw; the expression of her eyes and the in 1563 under the title of 'The whole Psalmes smiles and dimples that played round her lips ! in foure parts, which may be sung to all musical and cheeks enchanting. She was eccentric, but instruments.' Some of his compositions are still had an excellent heart.' In 1770 she returned extant. ' They are remarkable for purity of part to England, and reappeared at Covent Garden writing and flowing melody, closely resembling Theatre on Oct. 1 as Rosetta in ' Love in a Vil- the style of Orlando Gibbons, the great church lage.' After the season she was again engaged composer of a later period.' Causton died Oct. n: Marylebone Gardens, where she appeared on 28, 1569. A 'Venite exultemus,' and a ComJuly 30, 1771, and sang until the close of the munion service by him were reprinted by the season. On Feb. 6, 1773, O'Hara's burletta, Rev. Dr. Jebb some years since. [W. H. H.] 'The Golden Pippin,' was produced at Covent CAUVINI, an Italian singer, described by

327

CAUVINI.

CAVALIERI.

Lord Mount-Edgcumbe as ' a very pretty woman and pleasing actress,' who appeared about 1812, in ' Cosl fan tutte.' Another singer of the same name, perhaps her husband, whom the same critic calls 'a very respectable tenor,' appeared with her in that opera, with Tramezzani and Naldi, all new to the English stage. They joined the party, including Morelli, Bertinotti, Collini, and the youthful Miss Stephens, which was driven by Catalani to secede to the Pantheon. Nothing [J. M.'J further is known of the Cauvinis. CAVAILLE, the name of several generations of distinguished organ builders in the south of France. The present eminent member of this

Cavalieri, then, was one of the earliest projectors of instrumental accompaniment, and among the first to employ that early form of it which goes by the name of the Basso Continuo, with figures and signs attached to guide the different instruments in filling up the intermediate parts. Alessandro Guidotti, who published 'La Rappresentazione di Anima e di Corpo,' after the death of its author, thus explains the system of the ' Basso figurato':—' I numeri piccoli posti sopra le note del basso continuato per suonare, significano le consonanze e le dissonanze di tal numero, come il 3 terza, il 4 quarto, e cosl di mano in mano.' Cavalieri did not attempt to elaborate the accompaniment thus suggested; a great deal was still left to the players themselves, just as in the plain-song the underlying parts were filled in by what in England was known as 'descant,' and in Italy as 'II Contrapunto della Mente.' Not the less, however, did the labours of Cavalieri and his contemporaries constitute at once a starting-point and a stride in art. He was also among the earliest employers of vocal ornaments, such as the gruppetto or groppolo, the monachina, the zimbalo, and perhaps the trillo. It may be questioned, however, whether the last-mentioned was the true 'shake'; that is to say, a rapid oscillation between two tones or semitones ; or whether it was only a certain vibratory production of the voice, probably considered an elegance in early times, but now more fitly estimated as a fault common among bad singers, and known

family is ARISTIDE CAVAILLE - COL, born at

Montpellier, 1811. The name of Col was that of his grandmother. In 1833 he went to Paris, to see what progress was being made in his art, but without the intention of establishing himself there. Hearing that there was to be a competition for the construction of a large organ for the royal church of St. Denis, he determined to send in a tender, although only two days remained for preparing it. When called up before the committee he gave them such interesting explanations of his plans that they decided to accept his tender. Barker's pneumatic lever was first used in this organ. He thus became established in Paris, built the fine organ of the Madeleine, and many others in the capital and in the provinces. [V. DE P.] CAVACCIO, GIOVANNI, born at Bergamo about 1556, was for a time singer at the court of Munich, and after visiting Rome and Venice settled in his native town as maestro at the Cathedral. Thence after 23 years service he was called to be maestro at S. Maria Maggiore at Rome, where he remained till his death, Aug. i i , 1626. Cavaccio contributed to a collection of Psalms, dedicated in 1592 to'Palestrina. His works are Magnificats, Psalms, Madrigals, etc., 1581-1611. (.See list in Fle amante'; and to Innspruck for the fete on the reception of Queen Christina. His wife belonged to the Sozomeni family; he grew rich and enjoyed the esteem and affection of his fellow-citizens. He took the opera from the hands of Monteverde, and maintained it with much dramatic power and \\ ith a force of rhythm before unknown. An air by Cavalli and some fragments will be found in Burney's ' History,' vol. iv. [G.] CAVATINA originally signified a short song, but has been frequently applied to a smooth melodious air, forming part of a grand scena or movement. Thus Mozart's noble scena 'Andromeda ' commences with a recitative ' Ah, lo previdi!' followed by an Aria, Allegro, then muru recitatives in several tempi, and lastly a Cavatina, Andantino :—

DJ [JJ LW Several examples of cavatine may be found in Bfliini'6 ' Sonnambula,' Meyerbeer's ' Ugonotti,' and other well - known operas. The word is

CECILIA, ST., VIRGIN and MARTYR, was a

young Roman lady of noble birth, who, being educated in the Christian faith, vowed to lead a celibate life and to devote herself to the service of religion. She was, however, compelled by her parents to marry Valerianus, a young Roman noble and a Pagan, with whom she prevailed so much as not only to induce him to respect her vow, but, with his brother, to embrace the Christian faith. Seized and brought before the Pagan authorities, and refusing to abjure their faith, they were condemned to death, the brothers being decapitated, and the virgin-wife p'aced in a dry bath with fire beneath, which failing to terminate her existence as rapidly as her persecutors desired, they sent an executioner to despatch her by severing her head from her body. These events occurred at Rome about 229. under Alexander Severus, according to most writers, although some state them to have happened in Sicily under Marcus Aurelius between 176 and 180. Her house at Koine where she was put to death, was converted into a church, or a church was built over it, to which in 821 her remains, with those of her husband and brother and other martyrs were translated. This church was repaired and sumptuously embellished in 1599, *nd a monument of the saint erected.

329

CECILIA.

CELESTINO.

St. Cecilia has long been regarded as the tutelary saint of music and musicians, but the period at which she was first so looked upon is involved in obscurity. There is a tradition that an angel by whom she was visited was attracted to earth by the charms of her singing, but when it originated is equally unknown. Early writers make no mention of her skill in music : even as late | as 1594 a long Italian poem by Castelletti, entitled ' La Trionfatrice Cecilia, Vergine e Martire Eomana,' was published at Florence, which does not allude to it. It is certain however that nearly a century before she had been considered as Music's patroness, for in 1502 a musical society was established in Louvain, the statutes of which were submitted to the magistrate for his sanction. The founders desired to place the new association under the patronage of ' St. Job,' but the magisstate decided that it should be put under the auspices of St. Cecilia. For a very long time the custom of celebrating upon St. Cecilia's festival (,Nov. 22) the praise of music by musical performances existed in various countries, and many associations were formed for the purpose. The earliest of such associations of which any notice has been found was established in 1571, at Evreux in Normandy, under the title of 'Le Puy de Musique.' A solemn celebration of vespers and complin took place in the cathedral on the vigil; high mass, vespers and complin were performed on the feast day, and a requiem mass for the souls of departed founders on the morrow. A banquet was given after mass on the feast day, and prizes were awarded for the best motets, part-songs, airs, and sonnets. The best composers of the day were competitors for these prizes, and amongst those who obtained them are found the names of Orlando de Lasso, Eustache du Caurroy, and Jacques Salmon. It was a century later before any similar association was regularly established in England. In 1683 a body of persons known as 'The Musical Society,' held the first of a series of annual celebrations. Their practice was to attend Divine worship (usually at St. Bride's church), when a choral service and anthem with orchestral accompaniments (often composed expressly for the festival), were performed by an exceptionally large number of musicians, and a sermon, usually in defence of cathedral music, was preached. They then repaired to another place (commonly Stationers' Hall), where an ode in praise of music, written and composed expressly for the occasion, was performed, after which they sat down to an entertainment. These odes were written by Dryden (1687 and 1697), Shadwell, Congreve, D'Urfey, Hughes, and other less-known writers, and composed by Henry Purcell (1683 and 1692), Blow (1684, 1 91, 1695, and 1700), Draghi, Eccles, Jeremiah Clarke, and others of lesser note. Purcell produced for 1694 his 'Te Deum and Jubilate in D,' and Blow his for 1695. These celebrations were kept uninterruptedly (with the exception of the years 1686, 1688, and 1689) until 1703, after which they were held only occa-

sionally. Pope wrote his fine ode in 170S, but it was not set to music until 1730, and then in an altered and abbreviated form by Dr. Greene, as the exercise for his doctor's degree. It was first set in its original form about 1757 by William Walond, organist of Chichester cathedral, and at a much later period by Dr. Thomas Busby. In 1736 Handel reset Dryden's 'Alexander's Feast,' originally composed in 1697 by Jeremiah Clark, and in 1739 Dryden's first ode, originally set in 1687 by Draghi. Odes were composed at various periods by Drs. Pepusch and Boyce, by Festing, Samuel Wesley, and others. About the same time that the London celebrations were established similar meetings were held at Oxford, for w.iieh odes were written by Addison, Yalden, and others, and set by Blow, Danie' Purcell, etc. These meetings were continued until 1708, and perhaps later. Other places followed the example, as Winchester, Gloucester, Devizes, and Salisbury. At the latter place, in 1748 (the time of holding it having previously been changed), the meeting was extended to two days, and gradually developed into the modern musical festival, oratorios being performed at the cathedral in the morning, and secular concerts at the Assembly Room in the evening. There are some records of a musical celebration having taken place on St. Cecilia's day in Edinburgh in 1695, and in the early part of the iNth century several took place in St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. In Paris some years since it was the custom to have a solemn mass performed in the fine church of St. Eustache on St. Cecilia's day, for the benefit of the Society of Artist Musicians. On these occasions a new mass, composed expressly by some eminent musician, was usually produced. Amongst those who wrote such masses were Adolph Adam, Niedermeyer (1849), Dietsch, Gounod (1855), and Ambroise Thomas (1857). Musical celeb ations on St. Cecilia's day are recorded as having taken place at various periods in Italy, Germany, and elsewhere. Spohr composed a ' Hymn to St. Cecilia' for the Cecilian Society at Cassel in 1823, and Moritz Hauptmann another for the same society in the following year. It only remains to allude to the fact of St. Cecilia having long been a favourite subject with poets and painters from Chaucer to Barry Cornwall, from Raffaelle to Delaroche, her story has frequently been set forth in verse and on canvas. [W. H. H.] CELESTINO, ELIGIO, a violin-player, born at Eome, 1739. Burney heard him in that city in 1770, and considered him the best Roman violinist of the period. In 1776 he began to travel, and settled in 1781 at Ludwigslust in Mecklenburg, as leader of the Ducal band, which post he retained till his death in 1812. When sixty years of age, Celestino came to England, and met with considerable success. In Preston's Catalogue (London, 1797), we find of his composition Six Sonatas for a Violin and Bass (op. 9), ami three Duoss a Yiolino e Violoncello (London, Clementi, 179 )[P- D.]

CELLO.

CERONE.

CELLO, a contraction of VIOLONCELLO. CEMBAL D'AMORE translated is 'harpsichord of love.' but according to Adlung (' Musica Meehanica'), this instrument did not belong to the clavicembalo or harpsichord genus, but to that of the clavichord. The strings, lie states, were as long :v_;ain as in the ordinary clavichord, and the tangents which produced the tone from the strings, instead of touching them near to their left-hand terminations, made the impact exactly in the middle of their whole length between the bridges, of which there were two instead of one as in the clavichord, and two soundboards of unequal forms and dimensions. Both halves of the strings were thus set in vibration simultaneously, which necessitated the use of a different damping contrivance to the simple one of the clavichord. In the cembal d'amore the strings lay upon the damping cloth, instead of its being woven between them, and small wooden uprights supported it. The strings were therefore damped when at rest; when raised upwards by the tangents they were free to vibrate, and remained so as long as the keys were pressed down. The form of a cembal d'amore was that of an English spinet with the keyboard to the right hand of the player instead of the left, thus reversing the extension of the instrument laterally. Adlung attributed to it more tone than the ordinary clavichord, and more capability of bebend effect by the gently reiterated movement of the key. But too much pressure on the key would affect the intonation as in a clavichord. In estimating its dynamic power he places the cembal d'amore far behind the pianoforte, though beyond the clavichord. Matthtsnn ((Jritica Musica) refers to it and to a parallel between the Florentine (pianoforte) and Freiberg (cembal d'amore) in a bantering tone. Gottfried Silbermann of Freiberg (1683-1753) invented it, and Hiihnel of Meissen attempted to improve it by adding a 'Celestine' register. Others, as Oppelmann and Hasse of Hamburg, made the instrument.

being well known in modern military bands. These cymbals and bells in the middle ages were regarded as closely allied, and rows of bells of different sizes, tintinnabula or glockenspiel, were also called cymbrda. Virdung (1511) names zymbcln and glocken (cymbals and bells) together. It was most likely the bell-like tone of the wire strings struck by the hammers of the dulcimer that attracted to it the name of cvmbal or cembalo. It is explained here, however, not only for the meaning dulcimer,- but for the frequent use of the word 'cembalo' by composers who wrote figured basses, and its employment by them as an abbreviation of clavicembalo. The dulcimer, or cembalo, with keys added, became the clavicembalo. In course of time the first two syllables being, for convenience or from idleness in speaking or writing, dropped, 'cembalo' also was used to designate the keyed instrument, that is, the clavicembalo or harpsichord—just as cello in the present day frequently stands for violoncello. In the famous PassacaiUe of J S. Bach, ' cembalo' occurs where we should now write ' manual,' there being a separate pedal part. [See PEDAL.] But we know from Forkel that Bach used a double 'fliigel' or clavicembalo, having two keyboards and obbligato pedals, as well as the organ with pedals. There is a story in the Decamerone of Boccaccio of one Dion, who being asked to sing, said he would if he had a cembalo. The early date of this quotation (1352-3) has led to much difference of opinion among musical authorities as to the instrument that was meant. Burney leans to a tambour de basque, a tambourine, which by some caprice had been designated, some time or other, cembalo. Dr. Rimbault (Pianoforte, p. 36) maintains that it was a small clavichord, but for this explanation the date is almost too early. The opinion of Fetis, that it was a dulcimer, is probably the true one. [HARPSICHORD.]- [A. J.H.]

330

CENERENTOLA, LA, opera on the story of Cinderella, by Rossini, libretto by Feretti; produced at the Teatro Valle in Rome at the Through the even series of overtones being carnival, 1817, at the King's Theatre, London, banished by the contact with the first, or node (much mutilated), Jan. 8, 1820, and at the at the half length of the string, the quality of Theatre des Italiens, Paris, June 8, 1822. Its tone or timbre must have tended towards that favourite numbers are ' Miei rampolli,' 'Un of the clarinet. The Rev. J. K Cotter, of Don- segreto d'importanza,' and ' Non piu mesta.' oughmore Rectory, Cork, between the years 1840 ' Cinderella . . . with the music by Rossini and 1865 endeavoured to obtain this effect from was produced in English at Covent Garden, a pianoforte which he had constructed in Messrs. April 13, 1830 ; but it was a mere pasticcio, Broad woods workshops, by making a 'striking the music being made up from ' Cenerentola,' place' at the middle of the vibrating length of • Armida,' ' Maometto,' and ' William Tell.' No string. In this, the Lyrachord, as he named it, better adaptation has yet been made. [""J the clarinet quality was a prominent characterCERONE, DOMENICO PIETRO, priest, born at istic. [A. J. H.] Bergamo, 1566, migrated to Spain in 1592, andQ CEMBALO or CIMBALO (Italian"!, a dulcimer, entered the chapel of Philip II in 1593. I an old European name of which, with unimportant 1608 he left Spain for Naples, where he belonged phonetic variations, was Cymbal. According to to the Chapel Royal, and was living in 1613. Mr. Carl Engel this ancient instrument is at the His claim to mention is his treatise ' El Melopeo, present day called rymbnly by the Poles, and cym- a folio volume, in Spanish, of 22 books and 1160 brtlont by the Magyars. The derivation of cembalo pages of small print (Naples, 1613), a work, is from the Greek Kiinffr/ (Latin cymba), a hollow according to the account of Fe"tis, valuable in vessel: and with the Greeks KvpjiaXa. were small some respects, but tedious, confused, and unequal cymbals, a larger form of this ringing instrument to an astonishing degree. It is founded on the

331

CERONE.

CHACONNE.

system of Zarlino; indeed there is some reason to believe that it'is a mere redaction of a work with the same title which Zarlino speaks of as having completed in MS., but which has totally disappeared. The whole edition of Cerone's work is said to have been lost at sea except 13 copies, one of which is in the Fetis library of the Bibliotheque Roy ale de Belgique, No. 5340. [G.] CERTON, PIEREE, a French musician of the first half of the 16th century ; master of the choir at the Saint Chapelle, Paris; mentioned by Rabelais in the Nouveau prologue to the 2nd book of Pantagruel. A list of his works is given by Fetis. They include 31 Psalms (1546); another collection of the same (1552); 3 Masses (1558); lMass(i558); iRequiein. A Magnificat of his is found in a collection of 8 (Canticum B. M. Virginis etc. 1559), and many of his motets are included in the collections of Attaignant (1533~49)> Susato (Antwerp, ,1543-50), Phale'se (Louvain, 1558), and Cipriani (Venice, 1544). In the 'Collection of Ancient Church Music printed by the Motet Society' (1843), a piece by Certon is given for 2 trebles and tenor, to English words, which is very melodious and graceful, and with a marked character of its own. [G.]

unimportant pieces for his instrument behind him. [G.] CESTI, ANTONIO, was an ecclesiastic, a native of Arezzo according to Baini, whom Fetis follows, but of Florence according to Adami. He was born about 1620, and in due course became a pupil of Carissimi. He was made a member of the papal choir on Jan. 1, 1660. Bertini says that he was subsequently Maestro di Cappella to the Emperor Ferdinand III. The bent of Cesti's genius was towards the theatre, and he did much for the progress of the musical drama in Italy. Bertini says of him— 'Contribui molto ai progressi del teatro drammatico in Italia, riformando la monotona salmodia che allova vi regnava; e transportando ed adattando al teatro le cantate inventate dal suo maestro per la chiesa.' That he owed much to his master CaTissimi, as he did to his contemporary Cavalli, whose operas were then in vogue at Venice, cannot be doubted, but that he deserves to be dismissed as the plagiarist of either of them is untrue. Allacci gives the following list of the operas of Cesti—L'Orontea ; Cesare Amante; La Dori ; Tito; La Schiava fortunata; Genserico: this last work he left incomplete at his death, and it was finished by .Domenico Partenio. To these Fttis adds Argene, Argia, and II Porno d'Oro. Bertini and Gerber say that he set Guarini's ' Pastor Fido' to music, but the work is not known to exist. Dr. Burney has preserved a scene from 'L'Orontea' in his History of Music, and Hawkins has done the like by a pretty little duet for soprano and bass, called 'Cara e dolce e liberta.' The Abbs' Santini had a collection of his chamber pieces, and the score of his Dori; some of his canzonets were published in London by Pignani in 1665 ; and there is a solitary sacred motet by him in the National Library at Paris. [E.H.P.]

CERVETTO. The name of two eminent violoncello players of the last century. 1. It was the sobriquet of GIACOMO BASSEVl,born in Italy 1682. He came to England and joined the orchestra of Drury Lane in 1728. The cello was not then known in England, but Cervetto, though his tone is said to have been coarse and his execution not remarkable, made it a popular instrument. Probably there was something genial and attractive in the personality of the man. He had a very large nose, and it was a favourite joke to call to him from the gallery, 'Piay up, nosey'-—an expression still heard in the theatres. 'That he was a man of humour is shewn by an anecdote given in the books. Garrick Was playing a drunken man, and ended by throwing himself into a chair. At this moment, the house being quite still, Cervetto gave a long and loud yawn, on which Garrick started up, and coming to the footlights demanded furiously what he meant. ' I beg your pardon,' said Cervetto, 'but I always gape when I am particularly enjoying myself.' He became manager of Drury Lane, and died January 14, 1783, over 100, leaving £20,000 to his son. 2. JAMES, who was born in London 1758 or 9. He made his first appearance when 11 years old at a concert at the Haymarket Theatre, when all the performers were children. Among them were Giardini (11), Gertrude Schmiihling (9)— afterwards the celebrated Madame Mara, but then a violin player—and Miss Burney, sister of the authoress of ' Evelina.' (Pohl's ' Haydn in London,' 339.) Up to the death of his father he played at the professional concerts and other orchestras of the day, Crosdill being his only rival; but after that event he retired upon his fortune, and died Feb. 5, 1837, leaving a few

CEVALLOS, FRANCISCO, Spanish composer from 1535 to I572i canon and musical director of the cathedral at Burgos. Among his compositions scattered throughout Spain, may be mentioned a fine mass in the church 'Del Pilar' at Saragossa, and a motet ' Inter vestibulum' in Eslava's Lira Sacra Hispana. [M. C. C ] CHACONNE (Ital. Ciaccona), an obsolete dance, probably of Spanish origin. At any rate the name is Spanish, chacona, from the Basque ch'ieuna, 'pretty' (Littre'). The chaconne was a dance usually in 3-4 time, of a moderately slow movement, which belonged to the class of variations, being, in fact> in the large majority of cases, actually a series of variations on a ' ground bass,' mostly eight bars in length. It closely resembles the Passacaglia, the only differences being that the tempo of the latter is somewhat slower, and that it begins upon the third beat of the bar, whereas the chaconne commences upon the first. Among the most celebrated examples are that in Bach's fourth sonata for violin solo, and the two (one with 21 the other

332

CHACONNE.

CHANGE.

with 62 variations) in Handel's 'Suites de works of this kind exist by many of the great Pieces.' As a modern example of the chaconne Italian masters, as by Corelli', and by our own (though not so entitled) may be instanced Bee- Purcell, whose 'Golden Sonata' for two violins thoven's ' thirty-two variations in C minor on an and bass was held in great repute. It is someoriginal theme.' Gluck has also used this form, what singular that the name should have been with some modifications, in the ballet music of so restricted, as the works which we now know his ' Iphigenie en Aulide." In Couperin's • Pieces as trios, quartets, quintets, and like names pour le GliVccin,' edited by Brahms, is a cha- designating the number of solo instruments for conue in 2 4 time. [E. P.] which they were written, are always in the same with the pianoforte works which we call CHAIR ORGAN, a corruption of CHOIR ORGAN, form sonatas, and the legitimate descendants of the in use in the last century, not impossibly arising earlier combinations of instruments which went from the fact that in cathedrals the choir organ by the same name. Works of this description often formed the back of the organist's seat. form a very considerable portion of modern CHALET, LE. A comic opera of three music both in value and amount, almost all the characters and in one act; the libretto by Scribe greatest composers of the last hundred years and Melesville, the music by A. Adam—his most having produced some, especially Haydn, Mozart, popular work. It was produced at Paris Sept. and Bv-ethoven. The latter seemed in his later 25. 1834. [G.] years to regard the quartet of strings as one CHALUMEAU. Supposed to have been an of the most perfect means of expressing his old instrument of the clarinet or oboe type, now deepest musical thoughts, and left some of the entirely disused. The name occurs in the scores greatest treasures of all music in that form. In the present day the most popular form of of Gluck's operas. The word is also used for the lowest register of instrumental music of this description seems to the Clarinet. [CLARINET.] [W. H. S.] be the combination of piano forte, and strings, as duos, trios, quartets, etc., and of such works CHAMBER MUSIC is the name applied to great quantities are constantly produced by many all that class of music which is specially fitted distinguished composers of Germany. for performance in a room, as distinguished from Chamber music offers such signal opportunities concert music, or dramatic music, or ecclesiastical music, or such other kinds as require many for the display of the finest qualities of great performers and large spaces for large volumes players that it has become a common practice to perform it in large concert rooms where great of sound. It was early recognised as a special department numbers of people can come together to hear it, of the art, as we find Louis XIV with a ' Maltre so that the title threatens to become anomalous; de la Musique de la Chambre du Roy,' and in but it so aptly describes the class of music which is Italy as early as the beginning of the 17th at least mostfittedfor performance in.a room that century Peri and Caccini and many other dis- it is not likely to fall into disuse. [C.H.H.P.] tinguished composers of that time and shortly CHAMBONNIERES, JACQUES CHAMPION DE, after produced an abundance of 'Cantate da Camera' and 'Madrigali da Camera,' which were son of Jacques and grandson of Antoine Chamgenerally pieces for a single voice with ac- pion, took the name of Chambonnieres from his companiment of a single instrument. These wife's estate near Brie, was first harpsichord were probably the most important part of player to Louis XIV. Le Gallois, in his 'Lettre chamber music for some time, but they changed a Mdlle. Regnault' (Paris 1680), says Chamtheir character by degrees, and becoming more bonnieres excelled every performer of his day in extensive, and more fitted for large numbers of the roundness and softness of his touch. He performers, passed out of its domain. The name formed the school of harpsichord players which is now more generally applied to instrumental preceded Rameau. Among other pupils he taught music, either for single instruments or solo Anglebert, Le Begue, and the earlier Couperins, instruments in combination ; though it is still of which celebrated family he introduced Louis appropriate to songs, and vo"al ^pieces for a few to the court. Chambonnieres published two volumes of harpsichord music (Paris 1670), of which voices, alone or with a simple accompaniment. the first is in the library of the Conservatoire The earliest forms of instrumental chamber and the second at the Bibliotheque Nationale. music, as indeed of all instrumental music, were These pieces are elegant, original, and corthe dance tunes, and the collections of dance rectly harmonized. He died in or soon after tunes which wei e called suites; and great 1670. [M. C. C] quantities of these exist for various combinations of instruments, but most of those which are still CHAMPION, ANTOINE, grandfather of Chamwell known are for ' clavier' alone. These were bonnieres, an eminent organist in the reign of the forerunners of the sonata or ' sound piece,' Henri IV. A five-part mass of his and a book which is the type of the greater part of modern of organ pieces (in MS.) are in the Royal Library instrumental music. This designation is now at Munich. His son Jacques was also a good ahiicist entirely restricted to works for pianoforte organist in the reign of Louis XIII. [M. C. C] or pianoforte and one solo instrument, but the first sonatas were fir combinations of various CHANGE. I. The word used as the short instruments, and especially for strings; and for change of key or MODULATION, under which

CHANGE.

CHANGE.

latter head a fuller account is given. Changes are commonly spoken of as of three kinds, representing three degrees of abruptness. I. The Diatonic, which passes from one key to another, nearly related to it, by means of notes common to both, as—

it should be written A(, Cfl, G. Thus there is a double equivoque. The chord as it is approached seems to be an inversion of the minor gth of the supertonic of E ; it is then written as an inversion of the chord of the minor 9th of the dominant in the key of D, and resolved as an inversion of the minor 9th of the dominant of F. A more obvious instance to the uninitiated is the following—

333

from Bach's Cantata,' Freue dich, erloste Schaar.' 2. The Chromatic, when accidentals appear from Chopin's Nocturne in G minor (op. 15), which are not common to both keys, as— where he passes from Cfl major to F in this manner. [C.H.H.P.] Tu suscipe pro animabus illis. II. Change is the term applied to any order in which bells are struck other than the usual order in wh:ch rings of bells are arranged, viz. the diatonic scale—struck from the highest to the lowest bell; and CHANGE RINGINGHSthe continual production of such changes—without any repetition—from the time the bells leave the position of rounds (123456) to the time they return to that position again. It is an interesting, and, to many, an engrossing art, and has been in practice in this country, it is supposed, for the last 250 years ; during which time many persons of rank and education have practised it as an amusement, among the earliest of whom may be mentioned Lord Brereton, and Sir Cliff Clifton in about 1630. Change ringing, as has been said, is the from Mozart's Requiem. 3. The Enharmonic, where advantage is taken constant production of changes without repetition of the fact that the same notes can be called from the time that the bells leave the position of by different names, which lead different ways, rounds to the time that they return to that posiand consequently into unexpected keys. For tion again. It is a rule. that every bell which instance, the dominant 7th can be translated can change its position should do so in order into the chord of the augmented 6th, and by that of striking at each successive blow, thus :— means lead into very remote keys, and by the 12 3 4 5 universal transformable power of the inversions of the minor 9th, we can pass from any one 2 14 3 5 key to almost any other; e.g. in Beethoven's 24 1 5 3 'Leonore' Overture the transition from E major It is the change ringers' and the composer's object to F is thus managed— to obtain with as musical a combination as may be, the whole of the changes to be produced on any given number of bells. It will be seen by examining the following figures that with this simple rule—that every bell which can must

the chord * being resolved as if it had been written Bb, Dt>, G, and being approached as if

1 This work being a Dictionary of Music, a loDg description of the art. would be out of place, and we must therefore refer the reader to the elementary book entitled 'Change Kinging' by Ciiarles A. W. Troyte, Esq., of Huntsham, Devon (Masters, New Bond Street!, and for the more advanced stapes to the book of the same name by Mr. William Banister (Pollard, Exeter).

CHANGE.

CHANGE.

change pla-es—only 10 changes can be produced on five bells 12345 54321 . . 5 3 4 12 21435 35142 •2 4 1 5 3 31524 4 2 5 13 13254 45 2 31 12345 It will also be observed that the bells work in regular order from being first bell to being last, striking' two blows as first and two as last: this is called by ringers 'hunting up and down'—• all the work from being first bell being called hunting 'up,' till she becomes the last striking bell, and the reverse being termed going ' down.' A bell can never l.e made to skip a place, she must always be rung in the next place to that in which she last struck. This being the rule, therefore, that bells must thus change places, and it having been shown that by simply doing so only TO changes of the 120 on five bells (see Table") can be produced, it becomes necessary to alter the rule in the case of some of the bells, by making fresh ones; and these rules, being more or less intricate, comprise the methods by which peals or touches are produced. For the purposes of this work it will be enough to glance at one or two of those in most general use. The Orundslre method is supposed to be the original one, and shall therefore be first noticed. Taking the rule above given as to plain 'hunting,' and which has been shown to produce ten changes only on five bells, it is by this method thus altered :—The bell that leads next before the treble only goes up into 3rd's place and then goes back to lead again ; the bells in fourths and fifths places are by this thrown out of their work, as will be seen by the following diagram at the asterisk, and are said to dodge :— 12 3 4 5 51423 21354 15243 23145 1 2 5 3 4* 32415 21543 34251 25134 43521 52315 45312 53241 5 4 1 3 2f By following this rule again only 30 changes of the 120 can be produced, and now the services of the conductor have to be called in, who uses the terms 'Bob' or ' Single' to denote the changes in work shown in the following diagrams, taking up the work from the + in the foregoing one. We will in the first show the working of a Bub, in the second that of a Single,—these changes of course always taking place when the treble is leading:—

treble, are thrown out of their plain hunting work ; the 4th and 5th remain below 3rd's place, and the 2nd and 3rd keep changing places: in change-ringing terms the 4th and 5th are said to ' make places,' and the 2nd and 3rd are said to make a 'double dodge.' It is by calling these bobs and singles at intervals previously settled on that the conductor is able to produce the whole 120 changes. This method is much and generally practised on all numbers of bells from 5 to 12, its working being exactly the same on all, with the only difference that when the courses of the bells are altered by the rule, there are more bells to dodge, and the arrangements of bobs and singles become more complicated. It is, however, considered better suited to an uneven number of bells with a tenor covering,—such as would be ten bells when only the first nine were changing. The Stedman method is another and favourite method among change-ringers. It derives its name from a Mr. Fabian Stedman by whom it was invented about the year 1640. It is on an entirely different principle to the Grandsire method, the foundation of it being that the three first bells go through the six changes of which they are capable (see Table of Changes) while the bells behind ' dodge' ; at the end of each six changes one of these bells going up to take part in the dodging, and another coming down to take its place in the changes. It is an intricate method, and our space will not allow of a fuller explanation ; it is carefully explained in Troyte's ' Change Kinging,' to which we have already referred. Treble Boh. There are many variations of this which is usually performed on an even number of bells. It derives its name from the fact that, instead of the plain hunting course, the bells, and more especially the 'Treble,' have a dodging course. This will be seen by the following diagram, and for further explanation we must again refer to Troyte's ' Change Ringing.'

334

'Bob' 5 4 13 2 'Single' 5 4 13 2 5 14 2 3 5 14 2 3 15 4 3 2 15 4 3 2 14 5 2 3 15 4 2 3 4 15 3 2 5 14 3 2 4 5 12 3 5 4 12 3 It will be observed that all the bells, except the

123456 2 13 4 6 5 12 4 3 5 6 2 1 43 6 5 2 4 16 3 5 4 2 61 5 3 4 2 16 3 5 2 4 61 5 3 2 6 45 1 3 6 2 54 3 1 6 2 45 1 3 2 6 543 1 2 5 6 341 5 2 36 14

526341 2 5 3 6 14 2 3 5 164 3 2 1546 3 2 5 164 2 3 1546 2 13 4 56 12 3 4 6 5 2 14 3 5 6 124365 14 2 6 3 5 4 12 6 5 3 14 6 2 3 5 4 16 2 5 3 461523

The foregoing remarks we trust will explain the general meaning of the term 'Change Ringing' as used technically. The following Table shows the number of changes to be derived from any given number of bells up to 12 (the largest number ever rung in peal), the names given to such

CHANGE.

CHANSON.

335

Hours.

Days.

No. of Bells.

changes, and the time generally allowed for and written in an easy, natural, simple, yet ringing them :— lively style. As a rule, each couplet concludes with a repetition of one or two lines constituting the ' refrain'; but the refrain is sometimes sepaNo. of rate, and precedes or follows the couplet, in £ "g Name. Changes. which case it may be a distich or quatrain, or g even a stanza, of different rhythm to the rest of the song. The history of the chanson would 3 6 involve a review of the whole history of France, 4 Singles . . . . 1 24 political, literary, and social. Suffice it to say 5 Doubles . . . 120 5 here that all modern songs may be classed under 6 Minor . . . . 720 SO four heads — the ' chanson historique'; the 5,040 7 Triples . . . . 3 ' chanson de metier'; the ' chanson d'amour'; and the ' chanson bachique'; four divisions 40,320 8 Major . . . . 1 4 which may be traced in the ancient poets. 362,880 9 Caters (quaters) 10 12 3,628,800 1. The historical songs may be subdivided 10 R o y a l . . . . 105 into four classes, sacred, military, national, and 11 C i n q u e s . . . . 39,916,800 3 60 satirical. The sacred songs include the ' can12 M a x i m u s . . . 479,001,600 37 355 tique,' the ' noel,' or Christmas carol, the [C.A.W.T.] 'hymne,' and also the 'complainte,' or lament, ' chanson de solennites politiques,' comCHANOT, FRANCOIS, son of a violin-maker, and the to celebrate an accession to the throne, or was born in 1787 at Mirecourt in France. He posed other public event. The • cantatas' performed entered the army as an engineer under the on state occasions by other nations took their Empire, but quitted it after the Restoration. origin from these ' chansons de solennites.' The Returning to Mirecourt, he made special studies national of France are entirely modern. on the construction of the violin, and ultimately [See VIVEsongs IV ; MARSEILLAISE ; DEPART built one which deviated considerably in form CHAM DU,HENRI LA PARISIENNE, &C."1 from the accepted pattern. Believing that, in 2. The ' chansons de metier,' like the ' chanorder to make every part of the instrument partake equally of the vibrations of the sound, the sons militairea,' were originally merely cries. fibres of the wood should be preserved in their (Kastner, 'Les Voix de Paris.') Of all the entire length, he considered the corners and popular songs, these professional chansons are curves of the outline as so many obstacles to the fewest in number, and the least interesting the propagation of the waves of sound, and both as regards words and music. 3. On the other hand, the ' chansons d'amour' accordingly gave his violin a pear-shaped form, resembling that of the guitar. The belly he are innumerable and well worth studying. In made quite fiat, and left out the soundpost them the French poets exhausted all the realtogether, on the ground that it merely served sources of rhythm. The 'lai,' an elegiac song, to break the waves of sound, while in reality it accompanied by the rote, harp, or vielle (hurdygurdy) ; the ' virelai,' turning entirely on two transmits them from belly to back. This violin (if one may still call it so), the rhymes ; the ' descort,' in which the melody, and only one Chanot ever made, he submitted to the sometimes the idiom changed with each couplet; authorities of the Institut de France. After I the 'aubade,' the 'chant royal,' the 'ballade,' having been examined by a committee of eminent the'brunette,'the 'rondeau,' and the 'triolet,' men, both scientific and musical, and tried against are all forms of the 'chanson amoureuse,' which instruments of Guarnerius and Stradivarius, it" was the precursor of the modern ' romance.' 4. The 'chansons bachiques' are also remarkwas pronounced not inferior in quality to the violins of these great makers. (Rapport de able for variety of rhythm, and many of l'lnstitut, in the 'Moniteur,' Aug. 22, 1817). them have all the ease and flexibility 01 the It is difficult to account for this decision, which ' couplets de facture' of the best vaudeville experience quickly proved to be a complete writers. In some songs the words are more delusion, as all instruments made after the new important, in others the music. Hence arose pattern turned out of indifferent quality. A a distinction between the ' note' or air, and brother of Chanot's, a violin-maker at Paris, for the 'chanson' or words. The old chansons some time continued to make violins of this kind, have a very distinctive character ; so much so but was soon obliged to give it up. This that it is easy to infer the time and place of endeavour to improve upon the generally adopted their origin from their rhythm and style. The pattern of the great Italian makers, resulted, popular melodies of a country where the inlike all similar attempts before and since, in habitants live at ease, and sing merely for complete failure. Chanot died in 1823. [P. D.] amusement, have as a rule nothing in common with those of a people whose aim is to perCHANSON. The French chanson, derived petuate the memory of the past. The songs from the Latin cantio, cuntionem, is a little poem too of those who live in the plains are monoof which the stanzas or symmetrical divisions are tonous and spiritless; whilst those of mouncalled 'couplets.' Being intended for singing, taineers are naturally picturesque, impressive, the couplets are generally in a flowing rhythm, and even sublime. It is not only the influence

336

CHANSON.

of climate which leaves its mark on the songs of a people ; the spirit of the age has a great effect, as we may see if we remark how the chansons of France have drawn their inspiration mainly from two sources—church music, and the ' chansons de chasse.' Even in its songs, the influence of the two privileged classes, the clergy and the nobility, was felt "by the people. Without pursuing this subject further, we will merely remark that the name " chansons populaires' should be applied only to songs of which the author of both words and music is unknown. It is also important to distinguish between the anonymous chanson, transmitted by tradition, and the ' chanson musicale,' by which last we mean songs that were noted down from the first, and composed with some attention to the rules of art. Such are those of the Chatelain de Coucy, composed at the end of the 12th century, and justly considered most curious and instructive relics in the history of music. (Michel et Perne, ' Chansons du Chatelain de Coucy,' Paris, 1830). Of a similar kind, and worthy of special mention, are the songs of Adam de la Halle, of which some are in three parts. (Coussemaker, 'Adam de la Halle,' Paris, 1872). True these first attempts at harmony are rude, and very different from the ' Inventions Musicales' of Clement Jannequin, and the songs for one or more voices by the great masters of the madrigal school; but the chanson of the middle ages was nevertheless the parent of the ariette in the early French operas-comique, and of the modern couplet; while the ' chanson musicale' in several parts is the foundation of choral music with or without accompaniment. By some of the great Flemish musicians the word chanson was extended to mean psalms and other sacred pieces. It is much to be regretted that the French, who are so rich in literary collections of songs, should have at present no anthology of ' chansons musicales' in notation, where might be seen not only ' Belle Erembor' and ' 1'Enfant-Gerard,' anonymous compositions of the 12th century, but the best works of the troubadours Adenez, Charles d'Anjou, Blondel, Gace Bruits, Colin Muset, Thibault IV, Comte de Champagne, and of the Norman and Picard trouveres of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries. One great obstacle to such a work lies in the fact that the chansons of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries were so often altered in transcribing. It is however much to be hoped that some musician of taste and erudition will before long place within our reach the 'chansons d'amour,' and the 'chansons a boire,' which have been the delight of the French from the middle ages downwards. The best works on the subject at present are :—'Histoire litteraire de la France,' vol. 23 ; ' Les Poe'tes francais' (Crepet, Paris, 4 vols.); Du Mersan's ' Chants et Chansons populaires de la France ' (Paris, 1848, 3 vols.), with accompaniments by Colet, not in the style of the chansons ; Coussemaker's ' Chants populaires des Flamands de France' (Ghent, 1856); Champfleury and Wekerlin's 'Chansons populaires des provinces

CHANT. de France' (Paris, i860) ; Gagneur's 'Chansons populaires du Canada' (Quebec, 1865); Landelle's 'Chansons maritimes' (Paris, 1865); Nisard's 'Des Chansons populaires' (Paris, 1867). Capelle's ' La Cle du Caveau' (4th ed. Paris, 1872); and Verrimst's ' Rondes et Chansons populaires illustrees' (Paris, 1876). In the last two works the songs are not always correctly given. [G.C.] CHANT. To chant is, generally, to sing; and, in a more limited sense, to sing certain words according to the style required by musical laws or ecclesiastical rule and custom; and what is thus performed is styled a Chant and Chanting, Gantus Jirmus, or Canto fermo. Practically, the word is now used for the short melodies sung to the psalms and canticles in the English Church. These are either 'single,' i.e. adapted to each single verse after the tradition of 16 centuries, or 'double,' i.e. adapted to a couple of verses, or even, according to a recent still greater innovation, ' quadruple,' ranging over four verses. The qualifying terms Gregorian, Anglican, Galilean, Parisian, Cologne, etc., as applied to the chant, simply express the sources from which any particular chant has been derived. It is historically incorrect to regard the structure of ancient and modern chants as antagonistic each to the other. The famous 'Book of Common Praier noted,' of John Marbeck (1559), which •contains the first adaptation of music to the services of the Reformed Anglican Church, is an adaptation of the ancient music of the Latin ritual, according to its then well-known rules, mutatis mutandis to the new English translations of the Missal and Breviary. The ancient Gregorian chants for the psalms and canticles were in use not only immediately after the Reformation, but far on into the i;th century; and although the Great Rebellion silenced the ancient liturgical service, with its traditional chant, yet in the fifth year after the Restoration (1664) the well-known work of the Rev. James Clifford, Minor Canon of S. Paul's, gives as the ' Common Tunes' for chanting the English Psalter, etc., correct versions of each of the eight Gregorian Tones for the Psalms, with one ending to each of the first seven, and both the usual endings to the eighth, together with a form of the Peregrine Tone similar to that given by Marbeckl. Clifford gives also three tones set to well-known harinunies, which have kept their footing as chants to the present day. The first two are arrangements of the 1st Gregorian Tone, 4th ending—the chant in Tallis's ' Cathedral Service' for the Venite—with the melody however not in the treble but (according to ancient custom) in the tenor. It is called by Clifford 'Mr. Adrian Batten's Tune'; the harmony is essentially the same as that of Tallis, but the treble takes his alto part, and the alto his tenor. The second, called 'Christ Church Tune' and set for 1st and 2nd altos, tenor, and bass, is also the same; except the third chord from the end— 1 See Table ol chants in • Ate. harmonies to Brief Directors,' br Rev. T. Helmure. App. II. No, cxi.

CHANT.

Christ Church Tune.

' four parts, proper for Choirs to sing the Psalms, Te Deum, Benedictus, or Jubilate, to the organ.' The Rev. Canon Jebb, in the second volume of his 'Collection of Choral Uses of the Churches of England and Ireland' (Preface, p. 10), gives from the three writers quoted and from Morley's ' Introduction' (1,^97) a table of such old English chants as are evidently based upon or identical with the Gregorian psalm tones. It is interesting to note also that in the earliest days of the Reformation on the Continent, books of music for the service of the Reformed Church were published, containing much that was founded directly upon the Gregorian plainsong; and it was chiefly through the rage for turning everything into metre that the chant proper fell into disuse among Protestant communities on the Continent. See the 'Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch' of Vopelius (Leipzig 1682). The special work for the guidance of the clergy of the Roman Church, and all members of canonical choirs, in the plainsong which they have specially to chant, is called the Directorium Chori. The present Direetorium corresponds to the famous work prepared by Guidetti (1582), with the aid of his master Palestrina. But as is the case in most matters of widespread traditional usance, differences are found between the books of present and past liturgical music, not simply in different countries and centuries, but in different dioceses of the same country and the same century. The York, Hereford, Bangor, and Lincoln 'uses' are named in our Prayer Book, as is also that of Salisbury, which obtained a foremost place of honour for the excellence of its church chant. Our own chants for the responses after the Creed, in the matins and vespers of English cathedrals, are the same to the present day with those found, in the most ancient Sarum Antiphonary, and differ slightly from the Roman. The psalm tone, or chant, in its original and complete form, consists of (1) An Intonation at the beginning, followed by a recitation on the dominant of its particular mode; (2) A Mediation, a tempo, closing with the middle of each verse ; (3) Another recitation upon the dominant with a Termination completing the verse, as in the following—the Third Tone :—

Clifford's third specimen is quoted as 'Canterbury Tune,' and is that set to the Quicunque vult (Athanasian Creed) in Tallis's 'Cathedral Service'; but, as before, with harmonies differently arranged. Canterbury Tune. 1 Cmmicr Tenor

i Counter Tenor

f Whosoever! X will be !

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i Before all things it is necessary that he | 1 hold the Catholic

It has all the characteristics of the 8th Gregorian Tone, with just such variations as might be expected to occur from the lapse of time, and decay of the study of the ancient forms and rules of Church music. The fourth of Clifford's examples is also a very good instance of the identity, in all essential characteristics, of the modern Anglican chant and the ancient Gregorian psalm tones. It is an adaptation of the 8th Tone, 1st ending—the tone being in the Tenor:— The Imperial Tune.

r Serve the 1 Lord with 10 be joy-) < ful in the !• all ye lands: i gladness, I pre-sence with a song. I and come I I Lord J L before his J

The work published in 1661 by Edward Lowe, entitled ' Short Directions for the Performance of Cathedral Service' (2nd ed., 1664), also gives the whole of the tones, and nearly all their endings, according to the Roman Antiphonarium, and as Lowe had sung them before the Rebellion when a chorister at Salisbury. He also gives the harmonies quoted above as the 'Imperial' and 'Canterbury' tunes, and another harmony of the 8th Tone, short ending (Marbeck's 'Venite') with the plainsong in the bass. The ' Introduction- to the Skill of Music,' by John Playford (born 1613), in its directions for the ' Order of Performing the Divine Service in Cathedrals and Collegiate Chapels' confirms the above statements. Playford gives seven specimens of psalm tones, one for each day of the week, with 'Canterbury' and the 'Imperial' tunes in

Intonation.

Mediation.

Termination.

In the modern Anglican chants the Intonation has been discarded, and the chant consists of the Mediation and Termination only. When the tune or phrase coincides with a single verse of the psalm or canticle it is styled a ' single chant,' as are all those hitherto cited. At the time of the Restoration, as already stated, the Gregorian chants were still commonly used, till lighter tastes in music and the lessened numbers of men in cathedral choirs led to the composition of new treble chants and a rage for variety. Some of these, which bear such names as Farrant, Blow, and Croft, are fine and appropriate compositions. But a different feeling

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CHAPELLE.

gradually arose as to the essential character of remained, so far as the recitation and division church music; double chants, and pretty melodies of the words were concerned. with modern major or minor harmonies, came to On the revival of Church principles in 1830be substituted for the single strains, the solemn 1840 our own English documents of ecclesiastiand manly recitation tones, and the grand cal chanting, and the pre-Reformation sources harmonies of the 16th century. The Georgian from which they were derived, began to be period teemed with flighty chants, single and studied. Pickering and Rimbault each re-edited double ; many of which can hardly be called Marbeck. Dyce and Burns published an adapeither reverential or beautiful—terms which no tation of his plainsong to the Prayer Book. one can apply to the following (by Camidge,) Oakley and Redhead brought out the 'Laudes still in frequent use, and by no means the worst diurnae' at the chapel in Margaret Street, that might be quoted :— London. Heathcote published the Oxford Psalter, 1845. Helmore's 'Psalter Noted' (184950) took up Marbeck's work, at the direction after the Venite—'and so with the Psalms as they be appointed' — and furnished an exact guide for chanting according to the editor's view of the requirements of tl:e case. Moreton Shaw, Sargent, and J. B. Gray also published Gregorian Psalters. Meantime the modern Anglican chant was But however objectionable this practice may be regarded, it must be confessed that many being similarly cared for. Numerous books, bevery charming melodies have been produced ginning with that of Mr. Janes (1S43), issued on the lines of the modern double chant by from the press, giving their editors' arrangement modern composers of yreat eminence. The of the syllables and chant notes for the Psalter following by Dr. Crotch is remarkable for its and Canticles. Among the most prominent of grace and elegance, as well as for the severity of these may be mentioned Mr. Hullah's ' Psalms the contrapuntal rule to which the quondam with Chants' (1844); Helmore's 'Psalter Noted' Oxford professor has subjected himself in its (18-0); the Psalter of the S.P.C K. edited by construction (per recte et retro). Each of the Tur'le (1865); the 'English Psalter' (1865); (1872); the 'Cathedral four parts in the former half of the chant has its the 'Psalter Accented' tne Psalters of Ouseley, Elvey, notes repeated backwards in the corresponding Psalter' (1875) ; Gauntlett, Mercer, Doran and Nottingham, Heybars of the second half. wood and Sargent. Among these various publications there reigned an entire discrepancy aa to the mode of distributing the words. Beyond the division of the verse into two parts given in the Psalms and Canticles of the Prayer Book, no pointing or arrangement of the words to the notes of the chant has ever been put forward by authority in the Anglican Church, or even widely accepted. Each of the editors mentioned has therefore followed his own judgment, and the methods employed vary from the strictest syllabic arrangement to the freest attempt to make the musical accent and expression agree with those which would be given in reading—which is certainly the point to aim at in all arrangements of words for chanting, as far as consistent with fitIt remains to add a few remarks on the ness and common sense. It may be hoped that the increased attention given to this important arrangement of the words in chanting. That the principles of the old Latin chanting subject, may lead to the use of those guide books vreie adopted in setting the music to the new only which best reconcile the demands of good [T. H.] English liturgy and offices, is evident from every reading and good singing. text-book of English chanting from Archbishop CHANTERELLE, a French term for the Ci anmer's letter to Henry VIII and from Mar- upper or E string of the violin.—that on which beck downwards, as long as any decent knowledge the melody is usually sung. [G-] of the subject remained in English choirs. Little CHAPEAU CHINOIS. [CHINESE PAVILION.] by little, however, the old rules were entirely neglected ; generally .speaking, neither the clergy CHAPELLE, originally the musicians of a nor the lay members of the English choirs knew chapel, and now extended to mean the choir or anything more about chanting than the oral the orchestra, or both, of a church or chapel traditions of their own churches ; thus things or other musical establishment, sacred or secular. grew gradually worse and worse, till no rule or The maitre de chapelle is the director of the guide seemed left; choirmen and boys took their music. In German the word Kapelle or Capelle own course, and no consent nor unity .of effect is used more exclusively for the private orchestra

CHAPELLE.

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of a prince or other great personage, and the 'Prevent us, 0 Lord' (Byrd), 'Call to reKapell-meister is the conductor or director. Cap- membrance, O Lord' (Fan-ant), ' 0 praise the pella pontificale is the term for the whole body Lord all ye heathen' (Croft). They are now of singers in the Pope's service, the cantatore varied each year. cappellani, the cantatori apostolice, and the canThe Chapel Royal of the SAVOY (Strand) is a Chapel Royal in name only. The appointment tatori pontificale. The word ' capella' is said to be derived from of minister is in the gift of the Duchy of Lancaster, the cape of S. Martin, on which solemn oaths and the service is dependent on the taste or used to be taken. Thence it came to mean the ability of the minister, as in any other ordinary [T.H.] building containing the cape, and thence the chapel. musicians, also the vestments, and the vessels of CHAPERONS BLANCS, LES. A comic the building. [G.] opera in three acts; the libretto by Scribe, the CHAPELS RO YA L. Bodies of clergy and lay- music by Auber. Produced in Paris April 9, clerks who minister at the courts of Christian 1836. [G.] monarchs; and also the places in which they CHAPPELL & CO. This musical firm comworship. There are several in England—viz., at St. James's Palace, Whitehall, and St. George's, menced business in January 1812, at 124 New Windsor, etc. From the 'Liber Niger Domus Bond Street, previously tenanted by Goulding, Regis' (1461), the earliest known record on the D'Almaine, & Co. The firm consisted of Samuel subject, we learn that in Edward IV's reign Chappell, John Baptist Cramer, and Francis Tatthere was a well-established Chapel Royal, con- ton Latour. At the expiration of seven years, sisting of a dean ; a confessor to the household; J. B. Cramer retired, and Chappell & Co., re24 chaplains and clerks variously qualified—by quiring more space, removed to a nearly opposite skill in descant, eloquence in reading, and ability house, 50 New Bond Street.' Recent enlargements in organ-playing; 2 epistlers, ex-chorister-boys; have increased the premises to three houses 8 children; a master of the grammar school; in Bond St., and the site of a former stableand a master of the children, or master of song, j yard as well as of large back gardens of three The term Chapel Royal is now usually applied houses in George Street. The first partnership to that at St. James's Palace. The chapel is is noticeable for the establishment of the Philbetween the Colour Court and the Ambassadors' harmonic Society, all the business arrangements Court. The establishment consists of the Dean, ' for which were made at No. 124. Mr. Chappell the Lord High Almoner; the Clerk of the Closet, I further lent his house for the meetings of the and 2 deputies; the sub-dean; 48 chaplains; Directors, and refreshed the weary ones. J. B. 8 priests in ordinary, a master of the children; Cramer was then at the zenith of his fame, and one lay composer; one lay organist and chapel- the spirit would sometimes move him to play master or choir-master; 8 lay gentlemen and 10 until one; two, or three in the morning, to the boys ; 1 sergeant of the vestry; 1 groom of ditto; great delight of his auditors. When the society had become firmly established, a silver teapot and other attendants. The service is a full choral one, at 10 a.m., was presented to the lady of the house. At the 12 noon, and 5.30 p.m. on Sundays, and at end of the second term of partnership (1826), 11 a. m. on feast-days. The boys are educated Latour withdrew, and carried on a separate busiat the cost of the chapel, and as a rule sing ness until 1830, when he sold it to his former there only. The chief musical posts of the es- partner. Samuel Chappell died Dec. 1834, and tablishment are at present held as follows:— the business was then carried on for the widow Master of the Children, Rev. Thos. Helmore, by her sons,—William, the eldest, being 25 years one of the priests in ordinary; Composer, Sir old. Desiring to propagate a knowledge of the John Goss; Organist and Choir-master, Mr. music of the Madrigalian era, William (in 1840) projected the Musical Antiquarian Society, which C. S. Jekyll. The Chapel Royal at WHITEHALL (Banqueting held its meetings and rehearsals at No. 50. He House) is under the same chief officers as St. edited Dowland's songs for the Society, and also James's—but is now attended only once a year edited and published (1838-40) a 'Collection of by the choir of that establishment in the special National English Airs,' giving their pedigrees and service of Maundy Thursday, on the afternoon the anecdotes connected with them, with an of Thursday in Holy Week, when gifts called essay on minstrelsy in England. This was after'Benevolences' are distributed by the Lord wards expanded into his ' Popular Music of the High Almoner to certain poor people, as many Olden Time' (2 vols. 1855-59). The business in number as the sovereign is years old. was greatly extended by Thomas Chappell, under The ceremony is a relic of a service which a family arrangement by which his elder brother included washing the feet of the poor, of the same left, and bought the half of the business carried nature with that performed by the Pope on the on under the name of Cramer & Co., with the late same day. That part of it, however, as well as T. F. Beale as his partner. It was under Thos. the distribution of fish and bread before the Chappell's management that the great extension of the buildings took place, and he was the prosecond lesson, has long been discontinued. jector of the Monday Popular Concerts, and the The following special anthems were formerly Saturday Popular Concerts which sprang out of sung in the course of the service :—' Hide not them, both of which have owed their success in thou thy face from us, O Lord' (Farrant), Z 2

CHAPPELL & CO.

CHAULIEU.

great measure to the management of S. Arthur

1705 at St. Sepulchre's, where the service took place until 1738, when it was held at Christ Church, Newgate St., and was continued there until 1801. In that year the children met at the cathedral, where the services have since been held, except in i860 when the cathedral was under repair and the schools assembled on the Handel orchestra at the Crystal Palace. On April 23, 1789, the children met at St. Paul's, when George the Third went in state to return thanks for his restoration to health; and, earlier still, on July 7, 1713, at the thanksgiving for the Peace of Utrecht they were assembled in the streets. The effect of the music has been recorded by many eminent musicians, including Haydn, in whose memorandum book in the Conservatoire at Vienna there is a note on the service, quoting Jones's double chant (Pohl's ' Haydn in London,' 212), and Berlioz, who was present in 1851 ('Soirees de l'Orchestre,' No. 21). The number of the children varies, but is generally between 5000 and 6000; they are arranged in an amphitheatre constructed for the occasion under the dome. The service, which includes the Hallelujah Chorus, is accompanied by the organ, trumpets, and drums. Up to 1863 the 113th psalm had been sung before the sermon, but in that year Mendelssohn's ' Sleepers, wake' was substituted for it. In 1865 Sir John Goss wrote a unison setting of the ' Te Deum,' which took the place of Boyce in A, and in 1866 he wrote a ' Jubilate' in the same form. Among the conductors have been Mr. Bates, Mr. H. Buckland, and Mr. Shoubridge. [C. M.]

340

Chappell, the younger brother. [MONDAY POPU-

LAR CONCERTS.] A large concert-room had been much wanted at the west end of London, and St. James's Hall was projected and carried out mainly by the Chappells. The pianoforte factory of Chappell and Co. ia in Chalk Farm Eoad. The average of manufacture isfrom25 to 30 pianos per week. [W. C ] CHAPPINGTON, JOHN, built an organ in 1597 for Magdalen College, Oxford. [V. DE P.] CHAPPLE, SAMUEL, was-born at Crediton, in 1775. Whilst an infant he was deprived of sight by small-pox. At an early age he commenced the study of the violin, and when about fifteen was taught the pianoforte by a master named Eames, who had been a pupil of Thomas, a scholar of John Stanley—all blind men. In 1795 he was appointed organist of Ashburton, where he continued for upwards of forty years. He composed and published many anthems, songs, glees, and pianoforte sonatas. [W. H. H.] CHARACTERISTIC. This term is sometimes applied to music which is designed as the expression of some special sentiment or circumstance. Thus in vocal music, if the melody is appropriate to the words, we may speak of the 'characteristic settingofthetext.' In instrumental music, also, the word may be used where what is known as 'local colouring' is introduced ; e.g. the 'Ranz des vaches' movement in Rossini's overture to 'Guillaume Tell' might be properly described as 'characteristic' The term is also occasionally applied to programme music. Beethoven's sonata 'Adieu, Absence, and Return' is frequently entitled the 'Sonate Caracteristique,' though it does not appear that the title was given by the composer. He has, however, himself used it for the overture to Leonore, published as op. 138. (See Nottebohm's 'Them. Verzeichniss.') Spohr's 4th Symphony is entitled ' Die Weihe der Tone ; charakteristisches Tongemalde,' &c. [E. P.]

CHARLES THE SECOND. An English opera in two acts; the words by Desmond Ryan, the music by Macfarren. Produced at the Princess's Theatre Oct. 27, 1849. [G-.]

CH ASSE, A LA, a term applied to music which intentionally imitates hunting or contains horn passages suggesting it. Such are Mehul's overture to ' Le Jeune Henri,' the hunting choruses in ' The Seasons,' and in ' Der Freischutz.' But this does not excuse the French publisher who CHARD, GEORGE WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, was entitled Beethoven's overture in C (op. 115) 'La born about 1 765. He received his early musical Chasse,' because of a passage for two horns education in the choir of St. Paul's under Robert in the introduction, or the German publisher Hudson, Mus. Bac. In 1787 he became lay clerk who followed him in designating it 'Jagdof Winchester Cathedral, and some years later ouverture.' [&•]

•was appointed organist of that church and of the adjacent college. In 1812 he took the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge. He composed Bome church music and other sacred pieces, some of which have been published, and some songs and glees; of the latter he published ' Twelve Glees, for three, four, andfivevoices.' He died May 23, 1849, aged 84. [W. H. H.]

CHARITY CHILDREN, MEETING AT ST.

PAUL'S. A festival service attended by the childrenof the old charity schools of the metropolis, is held annually in June under the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, the children taking a prominent part in the singing. The first of these festivals was held in 1704, on the Thursday in Whitsunweek, at St. Andrew's, Holborn; the second in

CHATTERTON, JOHN BALSIR, eminent harp-

ist, born at Norwich 1810, studied under Bochsa and Labarre ; succeeded Bochsa as professor of the harp at the Royal Academy, and in 1844 was appointed harpist to the Queen. He retained both appointments till his death, which took place in London in 1871. Chatterton wrote much for the harp, chiefly operatic selections. [M. C. C] CHAULIEU, CHARLES, born in Paris 1788, died in London 1849, pianist; studied in the Conservatoire under Adam and Catel. In his earlier years he was a good teacher, but failed to keep pace with the progress of execution. In 1840 he settled in London. He arranged an immense quantity of opera airs for the pianoforte,

CHAULIEU.

CHERUBIM.

341

and composed sonatas, caprices, rondeau^, and a that it was Chelard who urged the eccentric collection of studies called ' L'Indispensable' for Frenchman to visit Mendelssohn at Leipsic, and the same instrument. He contributed well-written 'made him blush' at the suggestion that his old articles to ' Le Pianiste' a musical journal (Paris friend would probably not be glad to see him. 1834 and 1835). [M. C. C ] ('Voyage musicale,' Lettre 4.) He was succeeded by Liszt in 1852, but he continued to CHAUNTER. The highest pipe of the bagpipe, the close of his life at Weimar, and died in from which the 'chaunt' or melody is produced, 1861. He composed several other operas, but as opposed to the drones, which each speak only none so successful as 'Macbeth.' 'Hermanns[W. H. S.] Schlacht' (Munich, 1835) is a solid and carefully to a single note. [BAGPIPE.] CHECK (Fr. L'Attrape, La Chaise; Ital. written work in the German style. His operas, Jtibatto or Paramartello; Ger. Ftinger), an im-though full of merit, and effective in their day, portant member in the action of a grand piano- are no longer performed; the overture to ' Macforte, consisting of an upright of thick wire, bearing beth' alone is occasionally heard at concerts. an almost spade-shaped head of leather or some While he clung to the style of French romantic light wood covered with leather. It isfixedin the opera, he strove somewhat ostentatiously to adopt back part of the key behind the hammer., and its that of the German school. But he wanted the duty is to catch the hammer when it falls a certain power to enable him to weld these conflicting [A. M.] distance away from the string, and hold it until elements into a harmonious whole. it is released by the finger of the player allowing CHELL, WiLi/iAM, Mus. Bac., successively the key to rise. In cottage pianofortes or pianinos lay vicar, prebendary, and precentor of Hereford that have check actions the check is placed be- Cathedral, graduated in music at Oxford in fore the hammer, and a stud projecting from the 1524. He was author of two works, entitled butt of the hammer comes in contact with the ' Musicae practicae Compendium,' and ' de Procheck. [PIANOFORTE.] [A. J. H.] portionibus Musicis.' [W. H. H.] CHEESE, G. J., organist of Leominster in CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIGI CARLO ZENOBI I771) and subsequently organist and professor of SALVATORE, born in Florence, Sept. 14, 1760, the pianoforte in London, published ' Practical son of a musician at the Pergola theatre. His Rules for Playing and Teaching the Pianoforte musical faculty was evident from the first. ' I and Organ.' [W. H. H.] began,' says he, in the Preface to his autograph Catalogue, 'to learn music at six, and compoCHELARD, HIPPOLYTE ANDRE JEAN BAPat nine. The first from my father, the TISTE, born Feb. 1, 1789, in Paris, son of a sition from Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, musician at the Grand Opera, was destined for second and after their death from Bizzarri and J. Casthe musical profession from his childhood, and trucci.' first work was a Mass and Credo studied at the Conservatoire under R. Kreutzer in D, forHis four and accompaniment, and for the violin, and Gossec, Me'hul, and Cherubini by the time hevoices was sixteen he had composed for composition. Having won the ' Grand Prix' 3 Masses, 2 Dixits, a Magnificat, a Miserere, for composition he went to Italy, and studied and Te Deum, besides an Oratorio, 3 Cantatas, church music under Baini and Zingarelli in and aother smaller works. In 1777 or 8 the Rome, and dramatic music under Paisiello and Duke, afterwards the Emperor Leopold II, Fioravanti at Naples. He produced his first Grand granted him an allowance that he might study work, a comic opera, 'La casa da vendere,' at under Sarti at Bologna. Thither Cherubini Naples in 1815. On his return to Paris he went, and there he remained for four years, became a violinist at the Grand Ope'ra, and gave thoroughly the old Italian contralessons, composing diligently at the same time. puntal style,acquiring and gaining that proficiency in After infinite trouble his tragic opera of 'Mac- polyphonic writing in which no composer since beth' (libretto by Rouget de l'lsle) was produced his time has equalled him, unless it be Menat the Grand Opera (June 29, 1827)., but it was delssohn. The compositions given in the Catasoon removed from the boards, and Chelard left logue1 under 1778 and 9 are all Antiphons Paris for Munich, where the success of ' Macbeth' written on Canti fermi, a la Palestnna. was so decided, that the King of Bavaria made the early .part of 1780, however, this stops. With His him his chapel-master. He returned to Paris, first opera, ' Quinto F&bio,' was written during and remained there till the Revolution of 1830 that summer and produced at Alessandria, and drove him back to Munich to become widely for the next fourteen years operas and draknown as a composer and leader. In 1831 he music seem to have engaged almost his led the Thuringian Festival at Erfurt. In 1832 matic attention:—1782, 'Annida' (Florence'), and 1833 he was in London conducting the entire ' Adriano in Siria ' (Leghorni, ' II Messenzio' German opera company, of which Schroder1783, ' I I Quinto Fabio' (Rome), Devrient, and Haitzinger were members.1 In (Florence); 1836 he was employed as theatre and concert 'Lo sposo di tre' (Venice); 1784, ' L ' Idalide' director at Augsburg, and in 1840 succeeded 1 The Catalogue referred to here and elsewhere in this article was Hummel as court Kapellmeister at Weimar. compiled by Cherubini himself, with an interesting Preface, and One of the events of this time was the arrival of published after his death by Bottee de Toulmon, unrler the title of ' Notice des manu«crits autographes de la musique coniposee par feu Berlioz in 1843 ; and it is pleasant to remember 11. L. ('. Z. S. Cherubini. etc., etc., Paris, Chez les prinripaux Editeurs 1 Fetis says that Malibran sang.in his ' Student' in 18B4.

de musique.' 1343. It has been reprinted by Mr. Bellasis in Ins ' Memorials.'

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(Florence!, 'L'Alessandro nell' Indie' (Mantua). not likely to diminish his anxieties. He thereThese operas must have made his name known fore willingly accepted an offer to write an opera all over Italy. In 1784 he was invited to for the Imperial Theatre at Vienna, where he London, and wrote 'La Finta Principessa' arrived early in July 1805. Here he made (1785), and 'Giulio Sabino' (1786), for the acquaintance with Beethoven, whose deafne;s King's Theatre, but without success. He also was not then so great as to be an obstacle to made large additions to Paisiello's ' Marchese conversation, and the two were often together. Tulipano,' and other operas then on the stage Beethoven esteemed Cherubini above all the then in London. He was much noticed by the Prince I living writers for the stage, and his vocal music of Wales, and held the post of Composer to the was much influenced by him. What Cherubim King for one year. In July 1786 he left London ! thought of Beethoven's music is not so clear. for Paris, where he seems to have remained for He was present at the first performances of the whole of the next year, very much feted and 'Fidelio,' but beyond his remarks that no one liked. In the winter of 1787-8 he brought out could tell what key the overture was in, and his eleventh opera at Turin, 'Ifigenia in Aulide.' that Beethoven had not sufficiently studied He then returned to Paris, which from that time writing for the voice, nothing is known. 'II became his home. His first opera in Paris was 1 e^ait toujours brusque,' was his one answer to ' Demophon,' to Mannontel's libretto, Dec. 5, enquiries as to Beethoven's personal character1788. In this opera he broke loose from the I istics. (See Schindler's 'Beethoven,' i. 118, also light and trivial vein of the Neapolitan school, p. 184 of this Dictionary.) and laid the foundation of the grand style which The 'Wassertrager' was performed shortly he himself afterwards so fully developed. Mean- after Cherubini's arrival, and ' Faniska' prowhile he was fully employed. Leonard, Marie j duced Feb. 25, 1806. But it was a poor time Antoinette's coiffeur, had obtained permission to for operas in Vienna. The war between Austria found an Italian Opera, and Cherubini received and France broke out immediately after his the entire musical direction of it. During the arrival; Vienna was taken on Nov. 13, and years 1789-93, he conducted the so-called Cherubini was soon called upon to organise and ' Bouffons' at the Theatre de la Foire St. Ger- conduct Napoleon's soirees at Schbnbrunn. But main, in operas of Anfossi, Paisiello, Cimarosa, his main object at Vienna was frustrated, and he and other Italians, besides writing a great returned to France. His mind became so much number of separate pieces in the same style embittered as to affect his health. Whilst living for insertion into these works. At the same in retirement at the chateau of the Prince de time he was eagerly pushing on in the path Chimay, his friends entreated him to write some opened by 'Demophon.' On the 18th of July, sacred music for the consecration of a church 1791, he brought out 'Lodoiska,' a decided step there; for a long time he refused, but at last in advance. The effect produced by his new set to work secretly, and surprised them with the style, with its unusual harmonic combinations Mass in F for three voices and orchestra (1809). and instrumental effects, was both startling With this work a new epoch opens. It is true and brilliant, and took the composers of the that both in 1809 and 1810 we find one-act day completely by surprise. 'Lodoiska' was operas ('Pimmalione,' Nov. 30, 1809, 'Le followed by a series of operas in which he Crescendo,' Sept. 1, 1810), that in 1813 he wrote advanced still further. 'Koukourgi' (1793) re- the ' Abence'rages,' and even so late as 1833 ' Ali mained in MS. to be afterwards adapted to Baba,' but the fact remains that after 1809 sacred 'Ali Baba'; but 'Elisa' (Dec. 13, 1794), music was Cherubini's main occupation. Besides 'MedeV (March 13, 97), 'L' Hdtellerie Por- a number of smaller sacred pieces for one, two, tugaise' (July 25, 98), 'Les deux Journees' three, or more voices, with orchestra, organ, or (Jan. 16, 1800), known in Germany as 'Der quartet, the Catalogue for the years 1816-25 Wassertrager,' as well as a number of small contains the ' Messe Solennelle' in C (March 14, one-act works, such as 'Anacreon' (1803), and 1816), a 'Gloria' in Bb, a 'Credo' in D, the 'Achille a Scyros,' both ballet-operas and both 'Messe des Morts' (Requiem) in C (all 1817); masterpieces, show how unceasing was his the 'Messe Solennelle' in E (1818) ; that in G, activity, and how much he must have pleased and a 'Kyrie' (both 1819); that in Bb (Nov. the opera-goers. But though successful with 1821) ; a 'Kyrie' in C minor (Sept. S3, 1823); the public, his pecuniary position was anything the Coronation Mass for 3 voices (April 29, but satisfactory. When the 'Conservatoire de 1S25) ; and lastly the ' Requiem' in D for men's Musique' was founded in 1795, he was ap- voices (Sept. 24, 1S36). pointed one of the three ' Inspecteurs des During the hundred days Napuleon made him Etudes,' an appointment by no means commensurate with his genius and artistic position, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ; and shortly chiefly no doubt because of Napoleon's dislike after, under Louis XVIIT, he was elected member to him, a dislike which the Emperor took no of the ' Institut,' and in 1816 was appointed pains to conceal. Cherubini's nature, at all [jointly with Lesueur ' musician and superintimes grave, not to say gloomy, became visibly tendant of the King's Chapel,' with a salary of depressed under these circumstances, and he 3,000 francs. Thus almost at once did honour, began to lose all pleasure in his profession. In J position, and income, all fall upon him. In 1822 1795 he married Madlle. Cicile Tourette, a step he became Director of the Conservatoire, and the energy which he threw into his new work

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is shown by the 'Solfeges pour l'examen de of Cherubini's versatility. Here the sphere of l'Ecole,' which fill the Catalogue during the next action is purely human, simple, even plebeian, few years, and by the ' Cours de Contrepoint et and it is impossible not to admire the art with de la Fugue,' which was published in 1835. which Cherubini has laid aside his severe style Nor are these years barren in instrumental and adapted himself to the minor forms of works. In 1815 the Philharmonic Society, then the arietta and couplet, which are in keeping recently formed, offered him the sum of £200 with the idyllic situations. The finales and for a symphony, an overture, and a vocal piece, other large movements are more concise, and and at their invitation he paid a second visit to therefore more within the range of the general London. He arrived in March; the Symphony public, and there is an ease about the melodies, (in D) was finished on April 24, and played on and a warmth of feeling, not to be found elsethe 1st of May. It was afterwards (in 1829) where in Cherubini. This period closes with scored as a quartet. The Overture was per- 1 the ' Abence'rages' in 1813, for 'Ali Baba,' formed at the concert of the 3rd of April, and though completed in 1833, was largely founded another MS. overture on May 29. In addition j on 'Koukourgi' (1793). The third period, that to these the Catalogue shows a Funeral March of his sacred compositions, dates properly speakfor full orchestra (March 1820); a march for ing from his appointment to the Chapelle Koyale 'Faniska' (May 15, 1831); six string quartets, in 1816, though it may be said to have begun viz. in Eb (1814I, in C, from the Symphony, with with the Mass in F (1809), which is important a new Adagio (1829), in D (July 31, 1S34), in as being the first sacred work of his mature E (Feb. 12, 1835), in F (June 28, 1836), in life, though it is inferior to that in A, and A minor (July 22, 1837); and a string quintet especially to the Kequiem in D minor. The in E minor (Oct. 28, 1837). Cherubini died on three-part writing in the Mass in F seems the 15th of May, 1842, highly honoured and scarcely in keeping with the broad outlines of the esteemed. In addition to the works above work, and the fugues are dry and formal. That mentioned he wrote several operas in con- in A, also for three voices, is concise, vocal, and junction with other composers, such as 'Blanche eminently melodious. The Requiem in C minor de Provence' in 1821, to celebrate the baptism is at once his greatest and most famous work. of the Due de Bordeaux, with Boieldieu, Paer, The Credo for eight voices a capella is an astonBerton, and Kreutzer; also a great number of ishing instance of command of counterpoint, and canons for two, three, or more voices. The shows how thoroughly he had mastered the style catalogue contains in all 305 numbers, some of of Palestrina, and how perfectly he could alapt them very voluminous, besides a supplementary it to his own individual thoughts. Technique list of thirty works omitted by Cherubini, as apart, it ranks below his other great sacred well as eighteen volumes (some of them of more works. It is probable that Cherubini intended than 400 pages) of music by various Italian it to be considered- as a study, for only two numwriters, copied out by the great composer himself, bers were published during his life-time, viz. the a practice which he admits to have learned from concluding fugue ' Et vitam,' and an elaborately his old master Sarti. developed 'Ricerca' in eight parts with one chief Cherubini's artistic career may be divided subject and three counter-subjects, in which all into three periods. The first, 1760-1791, when imaginable devices in counterpoint are employed. In estimating Cherubini's rank as a musician, he was writing motets and masses a la Palestrina, and operas in the light Neapolitan vein, it must be remembered that though he lived so or may be called his Italian period. The second long in Paris, and did so much for the developOperatic period opens with 'Lodoiska,' though ment of French opera, he cannot be classed among the beginning of the change is apparent in French composers. His pure idealism, which ' Demophon ' (1788) in the form of the concerted resisted the faintest concession to beauty of pieces, in the entrances of the chorus, and the sound as such, and subjugated the whole appaexpressive treatment of the orchestra. 'Lodo- ratus of musical representation to the idea; the iska' however shows an advance both in inspi- serious, not to say dry, character of his melody, ration and expression. 'MedeV and 'Les deux his epic calmness—never overpowered by cirJournees' form the climax of the operatic period. cumstances, and even in the most passionate In the former the sternne>s of the characters, moments never exceeding the bounds of artistic the mythological background, and above all the moderation—these characteristics were hardly passion of Medea herself, must have seized his likely to make him popular with the French, imagination, and inspired him with those poig- especially during the excitement of the Revonant, almost overpowering accents of grief, lution. His dramatic style was attractive from jealousy, and hatred in which ' Medi'e' abounds. the novelty of the combinations, the truth of the But it is impossible not to feel that the interest dramatic expression, the rich harmony, the rests mainly in Medea, that there is a monotony peculiar modulations and brilliant instrumentin the sentiment, and that the soliloquies are ation, much of which he had in common with tedious; in a word that in spite of all its force Gluck. But his influence on French opera was and truth the opera will never command the only temporary. No sooner did Boieldieu appear wide appreciation which the music as music with his sweet pathetic melodies and delicate deserves. The ' Deux Journees' forms a strong harmonies, and Auber with his piquant elecontrast to ' MedeV and is a brilliant example gant style, than the severer muse of Cherubini,

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dwelling in a realm of purer thought, dropped its hold on the public. His closest tie with the French school arose from the external accident of his connection with the Conservatoire, where he had the formation of all the important French composers of the first half of the century. It was in Germany that his works have met with the most enduring appreciation. His church music, 'Medee,' and the 'Deux Journe'es,' still keep their hold on the German public. One of the first things Mendelssohn did after he felt himself safe in the saddle at Diisseldorf was to revive the latter opera, and to introduce the mass in C in the church. Six months later he brought forward one of the Requiems, and when he had to conduct the Cologne Festival in 1835 it is to Cherubim's MS. works that he turns for something new and good. A reference to the Index of the Leipzig Allgeni. musikalische Zeitung will show how widely and frequently his works are performed in Germany. In England, too, the operas just named have been revived within the last few years, and the operaovertures are stock pieces at all the best concerts. Cherubini forms the link between classic idealism and modern romanticism. His power of making the longest and most elaborate movements clear is very remarkable, especially when combined with the extraordinary facility of his part-writing; while his sense of form was almost as perfect as Mozart's, though he cannot compare with Mozart in the intensity of his melodic expression, or in the individuality with which Mozart stamped his characters. In the techni'/ ue of composition, and in his artistic conception and interpretation, he shows a certain affinity to Beethoven, more especially in his Masses. His greatest gift was perhaps the power of exciting emotion. His style had a breadth and vigour free from mannerism and national peculiarities. It was in his sacred music that he was most free to develope his individuality, because he could combine the best points in his operas with masterly counterpoint. When we consider the then deplorable state of church music, it is difficult to exaggerate the importance of the change he wrought.

CHEST-VOICE. That no voice is 'produced' throughout its extent, in precisely the same manner, is certain. The results of the different manners of vocal 'production'—three in number —are sometimes spoken of in England as • chestvoice,' 'head-voice,' and 'falsetto.' The classification and terminology adopted by the French, viz. 'first, second, and third registers,' are however much to be preferred, since the causes of the variety of timbre they indicate, of which little is known, are left by them unassumed. The average compass of each vocal register is perhaps naturally an octave ; but the facility with which the mode of production natural to one register can be extended to the sounds of another renders this uncertain. By ' chest-voice' is commonly understood the lowest sounds of a voice, and any others that can be produced in the same manner; in other words, the ' first register.' [J. H.]

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The latest and most complete work on Cherubini is the biography of Mr. Edward Bellasis, 'Cherubini: Memorials illustrative of his Life,' London, 1874; the preface to which contains a list of the principal authorities, including Cherubini's own Catalogue, of which the title has been already given in full. For personal traits and anecdotes—and in the case of Cherubini these are more than usually interesting and characteristic—the reader should consult the article in Fe'tis's 'Biographie universelle' and Berlioz's 'Memoirs,' also an article by Hiller, which appeared in 'Macmillan's Magazine,' July 1875, and afterwards in his 'Musikalisches und Persiinliches,' 1876. His portrait by Ingres is in the gallery of the Luxemberg, Paris. He left one son and two daughters, the younger of whom was married to Hippolyte Rossellini of Florence. [A.M.]

CHEVAL DE BRONZE, LE. A comic opera on a Chinese subject, in three acts; words by Scribe, music by Auber. Produced at the Opera Comique March 23, 1835. On Sept. 21, 1857, it was reproduced with additions in four acts at the Aeade'mie (Grand Opera). As ' The Bronze Horse' it has been often played on the London boards since Jan. 5, 1836, when it was produced at Drury Lane. [G.] CHEVALIER, played the violin and the quint, a kind of viol, in the private band of Henri IV and Louis X I I I , and composed in whole or in part between the years 1587 and 1617 no less than 34 court ballets, according to a list drawn up by Michel Henry, one of Louis XIII's 24 violins, and now in the Bibliothe'que at Paris. [M.C.C.] CHEZY, WILHELMINB (or HELMINE) CHMS- '

TINE VON. a literary lady of very eccentric life, nee von Klencke 1783, at Berlin, married at 16, and divorced the next year; married again at 22, in Paris, to Antoine L. de Che'zy, a wellknown Orientalist, and was divorced again in 1810. She spent the rest of her life between Heidelberg, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna (1823-28), Municli and Paris, and died at Geneva, 1856. Her claim to notice here is her having written the play of 'Rosamunde,' for which Schubert composed his music, and the libretto of ' Euryanthe' for Weber. In neither case was the genius of the musician sufficient to save the piece from failure. See Hellborn's • Schubert,' chap, xi; Max M. von Weber's ' Carl Maria von Weber' (1864), ii. 371, 517, 522, &c.; and her own ' Unvergessenes . . . an meinem Leben, 1S58. [G.] CHIABRAN, FRANCESCO (alias CHABRAN, or

CHTABRA.NO), a violin-player, was born in Piedmont about 1723. He was a nephew and pupil of the celebrated SOJIIS. In 1747 he entered the royal band at Turin, and about the year 1751 appears to have gone to Paris, where his brilliant and lively style of playing created a considerable sensation. His compositions show that his character as a musician was somewhat superficial, and wanting in true artistic earnestness. The three sets of sonatas which he pub-

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CHILD, WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, was born at lished in 1756 and the following years are flimsy in construction and devoid of ideas, and appear Bristol in 1606, and received his musical eduto be intended merely to give the player an cation as a chorister of the cathedral there under opportunity of displaying his proficiency in the El way Bevin, the organist. In 1631 he took execution of double stops, staccato passages, the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford, and harmonics, and other technical difficulties. He in 163 2 was appointed one of the organists of St. occasionally indulges in realistic traits of de- George's Chapel, Windsor, in the room of Dr. John Mundy, and shortly afterwards one of the scriptive music. If we consider that Chiabran, through Somis, organists o* the Chapel Royal. About 1660 he was indirectly a pupil of Corelli, his deterioration was appointed chanter of the Chapel Royal and from the noble style of that great master is one of the king's private musicians. On July 8, really astonishing, though not without parallel in 1663, he proceeded Doctor of Music at Oxford, the present day, when the traditions of the great his exercise being an anthem which was perParis school of Rode, Kreutzer, and Viotti appear ' formed in St. Mary's church on the 13th of the almost equally forgotten in France. [P. D.] j same month. He died at Windsor, March 23, 1697, in the 91st year of his age, and was interred CHICKERING. Messrs. Chickering and in St. George's Chapel, where a tablet to his Sons, pianoforte-makers of Boston and New memory is placed. Dr. Child published in 1639, in York, TJ.S. They claim to be the earliest ex- separate parts, engraven on small oblong copper isting American house, and the first to have plates, a work entitled ' The first set of Psalms obtained any prominence. According to infor- of iii voyces, fitt for private chapels, or other mation supplied by Messrs. Chickering, the first private meetings with a continual basse, either pianoforte made in America was upon an English for the Organ or Theorbo, newly composed after model, probably one of Broadwood's. It was the Italian way,' and consisting of twenty short made by Benjamin Crehorne, of Milton, U.S., anthems for two trebles and a bass, the words before the year 1803. From that year the con- selected from the Psalms. This work was restruction of American pianofortes was persist- printed, with the same title, in 1650, and was ently carried on, but without any material de- again reproduced, from the same plates, in 1656, velopment until a Scotchman named James but with the title changed to ' Choice Musick to Stewart, afterwards known in London through the Psalmes of David for Three Voices, with a his connection with Messrs. Collard and Collard, Continuall Base either for the Organ or Theorbo.' gave an impetus to the American home-manu- His other published works consist of ' Divine facture. Stewart induced Jonas Chickering to Anthems and vocal compositions to several pieces join him, but two years after, Stewart re- of Poetry'; Catches in Hilton's ' Catch that turned to Europe, when Chickering was left I Catch can,' 1652, and Playford's 'Musical Comupon his own account. The year given as • panion,' 1672 ; and some compositions in 'Court that of the actual establishment of the Chick- Ayres.' Several of his Church Services and Anering firm is 1823. Two years subsequent to thems are printed in the collections of Boyce this, Alpheus Babcock, who had served his time : and Arnold, in Smith's 'Musica Antiqua,' and with Crehorne, contrived an iron frame for a 1 elsewhere, and many more are extant in manusquare pianoforte, with the intention to com- ! script in the choir books of various cathedrals pensate for changes of temperature affecting the and the collection made by Dr. Tudway for Lord strings, for which he took out a patent. Whether Oxford. His Service in D is a fine specimen of this was suggested by an improvement with the writing in the imitative style, with much pleassame object patented in London in 18 20 by James ing melody, a feature which distinguishes Child's Thorn and William Allen, or was an independent music generally. Dr. Child did a munificent idea is not known, but Babcock's plan met with no act which ought not to be left unnoticed. His immediate success. However, this attempt at salary at Windsor having fallen greatly into compensation laid the foundation of the modern arrear, he told the Dean and Chapter that if equipoise to the tension in America as Allen's they would pay him the amount due to him did in England. Jonas. Chickering produced , he would repave the body of the choir of the a square pianoforte with an iron frame com- chapel. The bait took, the arrears were displete, except the wrest-pin block, in 1837. From charged, and the Doctor fulfilled his promise. 1840 this principle was fostered by Messrs. His generosity likewise manifested itself on Chickering, and applied to grand pianofortes as other occasions. He gave £20 towards building Well as square, and has since been adopted, by the Town Hall at Windsor, and bequeathed £50 other makers in America and Europe. For fur- to the corporation to be applied in charitable ther particulars of the American construction, purposes. A portrait of Dr. Child, painted in see PIANOFORTE and STEINWAY. [A. J. H.j 1663, shortly after taking his doctor's degree, was presented by him to the Music School at [W. H. H ] CHILCOT, THOMAS, was organist of the Ab- Oxford. bey Church, Bath, from 1733 until late in the CHIMENTI, MARGARITA, DETTA LA DROGHIlast century, and the first master of Thomas Linley, the composer. He produced ' Twelve ERINA, a distinguished singer, the origin of whose English Songs, the words by Shakspeare and sobriquet is unknown. She was engaged in other celebrated poets ;' two sets of harpsichord London in 1737, singing the part of seconrlo uomo concertos, and other works. [W. H. H.] in Handel's ' Faramondo.' She had arrived at

346

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the end of 1736, for the 'London Daily Post' to Ely Cathedral was offered him, a position of Nov. 18 announces that 'Sg». Merighi, Sg». which lie still (1S77) occupies. Chimenti, and la Francesina, had the honour to The works produced by this composer are the sing before Her Majesty, the Duke, and the Oratorio of ' J o b ' ; ' Naomi, a Sacred Idyl'; a Princesses at Kensington on Monday night, and book of 24 sketches for the organ, and various met with a most gracious reception.' 'Fara- minor works, songs, etc. mondo' was only played five times. In 1738 CHIROPLAST. An apparatus designed to Chimenti appeared as Atalanta in 'Serse,' which facilitate the acquirement of a correct position of had no better fortune than Faramondo. She the hands on the pianoforte. It was the invention plaved also Absirto in ' L a Conquista del Velo of J. B. Logier, and was patented in 1814. d'Oro' by Pescetti in the same year, after which It consisted of a wooden framework which exher name is not found again. [J. M.] tended the whole length of the keyboard, and CHIMING-. A bell is said to be chimed when was firmly attached to the same by means of she is swung through the smallest part of a circle screws. At the front of the keyboard, and possible so as to make the clapper strike; or when therefore nearest the player, were two parallel a separate hammer is fixed apart from her and rails, between which the hands were placed. she is struck by it. There are many different The wrists could thus be neither raised nor machines in use by which one man can chime any lowered, but could only move from side to side. number of bells : of these the best, perhaps, is At a suitable elevation above the keys, and that invented by the Rev. H . T. Ellaeombe of about six inches behind the parallel rails, was a Clyst St. George, Devon, which is put up by brass rod extending the whole length of the Messrs. Warner and Sons, Cripplegate, London. framework, and carrying the so-called 'Finger There are also such machines patented by nearly Guides.' These were two brass frames, which could be moved along the rod to any part of the all good bell-founders. keyboard, each having five divisions, through The plan adopted in many towers of fastening which the thumb and four fingers were introthe rope of the bell to the clapper for th : s purpose duced. The divisions were formed of thin plates is a most dangerous practice and ought never to of metal, which exactly corresponded to the be allowed, many fine bells having been cracked divisions between the keys of the instrument. in this way. Even if no actual damage is done They hung in a vertical position from the brass the gear of the bell is twisted and strained by frames above mentioned to very nearly the level the misapplication of the rope. It is called of the keys, and of course prevented the fingers ' Clocking' the bell. [C. A. W. T.] from moving in any but a vertical direction. To the top of each finger-guide was attached CHINESE PAVILION, CHINESE CRESCENT, OR CHAPEAU CHINOIS. This con- a stout brass wire with regulating screw, which sists of a pole, with several transverse brass pressing against the outside of the wrist, kept plates of some crescent or fantastic form, and the hand in its proper position with regard to the generally terminating at top with a conical arm. In addition, there was a board ruled with pavilion or hat, whence its several names. On bass and treble staves, called the gamut board, all these parts a number of very small bells are to be placed on the music-desk, on which each hung, which the performer causes to jingle, by note throughout the entire compass of the instrushaking the instrument, held vertically, up and ment was found written precisely above its cordown. It is only used in nn'litary bands, and responding key. This was believed to be of more for show than use. [V. DE P.] great service in teaching the names of the notes. The chiroplast was designed to assist Logier C H I P P , EDMUND THOMAS. MUS. DOC. Cantab., in the instruction of his little daughter, seven eldest son of the late T. P. Chipp (well known years of age. He was then living in Ireland, as the player of the ' Tower drums'), born Christ- and the result so fully answered his expectamas Day, 1823, educated in her Majesty's Chupel tions that he determined to repair to Dublin Royal, St. James's. Studied the violin under (about 1S14) and devote himself entirely to the Nadaud and Tolbecque, and entered the Queen's propagation of his system. Here his success was private band in 1 ^44. Became known as an so considerable, that he soon took the highest organist of some repute, and in 47 succeeded position as a pianoforte teacher. Dr. Gauntlett at St. Olave's, a position he reHis method included two novelties - t h e use of signed on being elected organist to St Marv-at- the chiroplast, and the plan of making several Hill, Eastcheap. On Mr. Best's retirement from pupils, to the number of twelve or more, play at the Panopticon, Mr. Chipp was chosen to suc- the siine time on as many pianofortes. To this ceed him as organist, and retained the appoint- end he wrote a number of studies, which were ment until the close of that institution. He published in his ' First Companion to the Royal was invited to become organist to Holy Trinity, C'hiroplast,' and other works, in which several Paddington, where he remained until his appoint- studies, of various degrees of difficulty, were ment as organist of the Ulster Hall, Belfast, in capable of being played simultaneously. About 62. In 66 lie was appointed organist to the Kin- this part of the method great diversity of opinion naird Hall. Dundee, and also to St. Paul's existed. Many critics could perceive nothing but Clmrch, Edinburgh In the following year the evil in it. Spohr, however, in a letter written position of organist and Magister Ciioristarum from London to the 'Allgemeine musikalische

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Zeitung,' in 1820, expresses himself favourably ' service to Herr Logier, who has to look after upon it. He was present at an examination of l thirty or forty children playing at once.' And in Logier's pupils, and writes—' when a new study 18 21 Franz Stoepel, who was sent to London by was begun in quick tempo, the less advanced the Prussian government to examine into Logier's pupils were unable to get in more than a note or system, made so favourable a report that Logier two in each bar, but by degrees they conquered was invited to Berlin, where in 1822 he esmore and more of the difficulties, and in a shorter tablished a chiroplast school, which was so suctime than one could have believed possible the cessful that the King proposed to him to instruct study went well.' twenty professors in his method, with the view By the terms of his patent, Logier exercised of spreading it over the whole of Prussia. Logier the right of granting permission to other profes- accordingly remained three years in Berlin, sors to make use of the chiroplast and his system, visiting London at intervals. Meantime the chirofor which they paid high terms. In 1816 he suc- plast was introduced into many of the leading ceeded in persuading so many professors of the towns of Germany. In Paris, Zimmersnann, proexcellences of his method, that chiroplast aca- fessor of the pianoforte at the Conservatoire, had demies were established in the provinces, and classes pn the system, but in England it gradually Samuel Webbe, at that time in great vogue, com- died out, until it may be doubted if a single professor remains who employs the method, though menced teaching the system in London. So much success was not allowed to pass un- the apparatus is still occasionally to be met with challenged, and hostile criticisms found expres- at sales of secondhand instruments. sion in a number of pamphlets, some respectable, The chief drawback to the chiroplast, apart some merely abusive. Of these the principal from the risk of the hands falling into bad posiwere an article in the ' Quarterly Musical Mag- j tions when the support was withdrawn, was the azine and Review,' i. 3; 'General Observations,' fact that the thumb could not be passed under etc. (Edinburgh, R. Burdie, 1817); and 'Stric- the fingers, nor the fingers over the thumb, as in tures on Mr. Logier's System . . .,' by H. de scale-playing. Kalkbrenner, who joined Logier in Monti (Glasgow, W. TurnbuU). the establishment of a chiroplast class in 181S, perFeeling that these publications were likely to ceived this, and in consequence adopted his soinjure him Logier determined to invite the mem- ' called hand-guide, which consisted simply of the bers of the Philharmonic Society, and other mu- lower rail or wrist-support of the chiroplast, withsicians, to attend an examination of Webbe's out thefinger-guides,in which simplified form it is pupils in London on Nov. 17, 1817. The results manufactured and sold at the present day (1877I. of this examination were published by him in a j By another modification the hand was placed in pamphlet entitled 'An Authentic Account, etc., a sliding wooden mould, made to fit the palm, and secured by a small strap which passed over the by J. B. Logier' (London, Hunter, 1818). This was answered in a new pamphlet, 'An back of the hand, thus allowing free movement exposition of the New System . . ., published by of the hand along the keyboard, and of the thumb a Committee of Professors in London' (London, under the fingers. Budd and Calkin, 1818). The committee was That Logier's proceedings were not free from chosen from among those who had attended th& charlatanism may be inferred from the fact of the examination on Nov. 17, and consisted of 29 of establishment in Dublin of a ' Chiroplast Club,' the most distinguished musicians of the day— with a special button; and that his pretensions Sir George Smart, Drs. Carnaby, Crotch, and were extravagant may be gathered from his Smith, Messrs. Attwood, Ayrton, Beale, Bur- remark to Mazzinghi, that he 'considered himrows, Francois Cramer, Dance, Ferrari, Great- self an instrument, in the hands of Providence, orex, Griffin, Hawes, William Horsley, Hull- for changing the whole system of musical inmandel, Knyvett, C. Knyvett, jun., Latour, struction.' Still, the object in view was good, and Mazzinghi, Neate, Vincent Novello, Potter, the attention drawn to the subject cannot fail to Ries, Sherrington, Scheener, Walmisley, T. have exercised a beneficial influence on pianoforte Welch, Williams. teaching. [F. T.] Logier rejoined in a not very temperate tract—• ' A Refutation of the Fallacies and MisrepreCHITARRONE (Ital., augmentative of Chisentations,' etc. tarra). A theorbo, or double-necked lute of great For some time after this, pamphlets in abund- length, with wire strings and two sets of tuningance made their appearance. One of the most pegs, the lower set having twelve, and the higher bitter was an article written by Kollmann, or- eight strings attached; the unusual extension in ganist to the German Chapel, St. James's, to the length affording greater development to the bass 'Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung' in Nov. 1821,. of the instrument. The Italian chitarra was not and published at the same time in English, in strung with catgut like the Spanish guitar, but which the writer is candid enough to say that he with wire, like the German cither and the old believes the principal secret of Logier's system is English cithern. The chitarrone, as implied by the suffix, was a large chitarra. Like its cousin to rob all other professors of their pupils. On the other side, Spohr, in the letter already the archlute it was employed in Italy in the 16th quoted, says, ' There is no doubt that the chiro- century with the clavicembalo and other instruplast fulfils its purpose of inducing a good posi- ments to accompany the voice, forming a band, tion of the hands and arms, and is of great the nutty, slightly bitter timbre of which must

CHITARRONE.

CHLADNI.

have been very sympathetic and agreeable. Lists of these earliest orchestras are extant, notably one that was got together for the performance of Monteverde's ' Orfeo' in 1607, in which appear two chitarroni. The very fine specimen of this interesting instrument here engraved is in the South Kensington Museum. The length of it is 5 feet 4 inches. I t is inscribed inside 'Andrew Taus in Siena, 1621.' In the photographs published by the Liceo Comunale di Musica of Bologna, the applications of the names chitarrone and archlute — possibly by an oversight — are re-

rings, were published as early as 1787. It was in connection with these that he invented the beau-tiful and famous experiment for showing the modes of vibration of metal or glass plates, by scattering sand over the surface. His researches extended over a considerable part of the domain of acoustics; embracing, besides those mentioned above, investigations on longitudinal vibrations, on the notes of pipes when filled with different gases; on the theory of consonance and dissonance ; the acoustical properties of concert-rooms ; and the distribution of musical instruments into classes. With shortsightedness characteristic at once of the greatest .and least of mortals, he thought the noblest thing to do would be to invent some new instrument on a principle before unknown. To this .object he himself said that he devoted more time, trouble and money, than to his great scientific researches. The result was first an instrument which he called Euphon, which consisted chiefly .of small cylinders of glass of the thickness of a pen, which were set in vibration by the moistened finger. This he afterwards developed into an instrument which he called the Clavi-cylinder, ,and looked upon as the practical application of his discoveries, and the glory of his life. In form it was like a square pianoforte, and comprised four and a half octaves. The sound was produced by friction from a single glass cylinder connected •with internal machinery, by which the differences •of the notes were produced. Its advantages •were said to be the power of prolonging sound and obtaining 'crescendo' and 'diminuendo' at pleasure. After 1802, when he published his •' Treatise on Acoustics,' he travelled in various parts of Europe taking his clavi-cylinder with him, and lecturing upon it and on acoustics. In Paris, in 1808, he was introduced to Napoleon by Laplace. The Emperor with characteristic •appreciation of his importance gave him 6000 francs, and desired him to have his great work translated into French, for the benefit of the nation. This work he undertook himself, and in 1809 it was published with a short autobiography prefixed, and dedicated to Napoleon. After this he resumed his travels and lectures for some years. His labours in science, mostly but not exclusively devoted to acoustics, continued up to the year of his death, which happened suddenly of apoplexy in 1827.

348

versed. [ABCHLDTB, CITHER, LUTE, THE-

ORBO.]

[A.J.H.]

CHLADNI, ERNST FLOUENS FRIEDRICH, who

has been called the father of modern acoustics, was born at Wittemberg in 1756. His father was a stern educator, and his youth was conseq uently spent in cL >se application to the study of a variety of subjects, of which geography seems to have been the chief, and music very subordinate, lor he did ? not beijin to study the latter consistently till he was 19. At the college of Grimma he studied law and medicine, apparently uncertain to which to apply himself. At Leipzig in 17S2 he wai made doctor of laws, but soon abandoned that position and the study of jurisprudence to apply himself exclusively to physical science. His attention was soon drawn to the imperfection of the knowledge of the laws of sound, and he determined to devote himself to their investigation. His first researches on the vibrations of round and square plates, bells, and

The following is a list of his more important works in connection with acoustics, in the order of their appearance. 1. Entdeckungen iiber die Theo-' des Consontrens und Dissonirens rie ties Klanpes. 1787. 18U1 (?) -. leb-r die Liingentone einer 6. Nachricht Ton dem Ciavicvlinder, einen neugefundenen ]nSuite. 17'J2. 3. felrer die longitudinal strumeute. 1800 (V) 10. Zweite Naciiricht von dem t Schwingungen der Saiten und Clavicjlinder, und einem neiw Miicke. 1796. 4. Ueber drehende Schwingun- Baue desselben. 1KT! (?) 11. Die Akustik. Breitkopf und gen eines States. 5. Beitr&ge zur Befurderung Hartel. I«u2. eines bessern Vortrags des Klang- 12. Xeue Bertriige zur Akustik. l b . 1S17. lehre. IT'.iT. 6. Ueber die T5ne einer Pfeife in 13. Beitrilge zur praktlschen Akustik. etc. (with remarks on the verschiedenen Gasarten. 7. Eine neue Art die fieschwin- construction of instruments), lb. digkeit des Schwingungen bei 1821. einem jeden Tone durch den 14. Kurze Uebersicbt der SchnllAngeschein zu bestimmen. 1S0O. und Klang-gelehre, etc. Schott. & Veber die Wahre Ursache [C.H.H.P.J

CHOICE OF HERCULES.

CHOPIN.

349

CHOICE OF HERCULES, THE, a 'musical and harmony. As he preferred forms in which interlude' for solos and chorus; the words from some sort of rhythmic and melodic type is preSpenser's Polymetis; the music by Handel, scribed at the outset, — such as the Mazurka, partly adapted from his Alcestes. Autograph Polonaise, Valse, Bolero, Tarantelle, &c, he in Buckingham Palace—begun June 28, 1750, virtually set himself the task of saying the same finished July 5, 1750; but last chorus added sort of thing again and again; yet he appears afterwards. Produced at Covent Garden, March truly inexhaustible. Each Etude, Prelude, Im1, 1751[G.] promptu, Scherzo, Ballade, presents an aspect CHOIR, often pronounced QUIRE. The part of of the subject not pointed out before ; each the church east of the nave, in which the services • has a raison d'etre of its own. With few exare celebrated. The term is now almost restricted ceptions, all of which pertain to the pieces to cathedrals and abbey churches, 'chancel' written in his teens, thought and form, matter being used for the same part of an ordinary 1 and manner, shades of emotion and shades of church. 'Choir' is also used for the singers in I style, blend perfectly. Like a magician he apchurches of all kinds ; and for the portions into pears possessed of the secret to transmute and which a chorus is divided when the composition transfigure whatever he touches into some is written for two, three, or any other number weird crystal, convincing in its conformation, of'choirs.' [G.] transparent in its eccentricity, of which no duplicate is possible, no imitation desirable. CHOIR ORGAN. The name given to the He was a great inventor, not only as regards small organ which, in cathedral and otherchurches, I the technical treatment of the pianoforte, but used to hang suspended in front and below the as regards music per se, as regards composilarger or Great Organ. It derived its name from tion. He spoke of new things well worth its employment to accompany the vocal choir in hearing, and found new ways of saying such the chief portions of the Choral Service except things. The emotional materials he embodies the parts marked ' Full,' and the ' Glorias,' which are not of the very highest; his moral nature were usually supported by the ' Loud Organ' as was not cast in a sublime mould, and his init was sometimes called. The choir organ was tellect was not of the profoundest; his bias was generally of very sprightly tone however small it romantic and sentimental rather than heroic might be; one of three stops only not unfre- or naive—but be his material ever so exotic, quently consisting of the following combination— he invariably makes amends by the exquisite Stopped Diapason, Principal, Fifteenth. refinement of his diction. He is most careful Father Smith's choir organ at St. Paul's to avoid melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic comne Cathedral (1694-7), * most complete he ever monplaces; a vulgar melody or a halting rhythm made, had the following eight stops :—Stopped seem to have been instinctively revolting to Diapason (Wood),Principal, Flute (Metal), Gems- him; and as for refined harmony, he strove horn Twelfth, Fifteenth, Mixture III ranks, so hard to attain it, that in a few of his last Cremona (through), Vox humana (through). pieces he may be said to have overshot the Since the development of the swell organ mark, and to have' subtilised his progressions within the last 50 years, the choir organ has had into obtuseness. to yield its position to its more attractive rival The list of his works extends only up to the ' second' manual, and now occupies the op. 74, and when bound up in a few thin voplace of ' third.' It is nevertheless of so useful lumes Chopin is 'certainly not formidable, yet and convenient a nature, that it cannot be his published pieces represent an immense omitted without its absence being constantly felt. amount of care and labour. With regard to [CHAIR ORGAN.] [E. J. H.] rare musical value, originality and perfection CHOPIN, FEANCOIS FREDERIC, was born of style, the solo pieces might be classed as March 1, 1809 (not 1810, as has been fre- follows : — Etudes and Preludes ; Mazurkas quently stated and even inscribed on his tomb- and Polonaises; Ballades and Scherzi; Nocstone\ at Zela Zowa Wola, a village six miles turnes and Valses; etc. The two concertos are from Warsaw, in Poland; died at Paris, Oct. 17, highly interesting as far as the treatment of 1849, and was buried at the cemetery of the the solo part is concerned, but the orchestration Pere-la-Chaise, between the graves of Cherubini is poor. and Bellini. Robert Schumann, when reviewing During Chopin's lifetime it seems to have Chopin's Preludes for the ' Neue Zeitschrift fur been a fixed notion with the generality of musimusik,' in 1839, called him 'the boldest and cians that he was a sort of inspired amateur, proudest poetic spirit of the times!' (Ges. who could not be classed with professional Schriften, iii. 122) ; he might have added with academically trained musicians. Liszt's singular at least equal truth, and in the face of all con- and clever essay, ' Frederic Chopin,' did not temporary opposition, that Chopin was a legiti- mend matters much—for Liszt too, though he mately trained musician of quite exceptional of all men knew best how eminent a musician attainments, a pianist of the very first order, Chopin was, chose to accent the poetical, roand a writer for the pianoforte preeminent mantic side of his individuality. Liszt was, beyond comparison—a great master of style, moreover, led into errors of fact by the paucity a fascinating melodist, as well as a most origi- of authentic biographical materials. The truth nal manipulator of puissant and refined rhythm about Chopin's birth, family, health, character,

CHOPIN.

CHOEAGUS.

friendships, early training, and the dawn of his career as a player and composer, was not known till the publication of Moritz Karasowski's recent and trustworthy biography (Dresden^ 7 7, Ries). A Polish emigrant, 'Grzymala,' who was amongst Chopin's early acquaintances at Paris, seems answerable for the various misstatements in the contemporary Dictionaries, and in Liszt's essay. The assertion for instance that Prince Radziwill, the composer of tolerable music to Goethe's ' Faust,' had defrayed the expenses of Chopin's schooling, is as much without foundation as the sentimental talk about Chopin's extreme feebleness and continuous ill-health. Both Liszt, and George Sand I,in her memoirs), chose to paint Chopin as a feeble youth continually at death's door, living in an atmosphere of moonshine and sentimentality. The truth was quite the reverse. He was not a robust person, but he did not know a moment's illness before the last ten years of his life, when the germs of bronchitis and consumption developed rapidly under the late hours and excitement of Parisian life. As a young man he was fresh and lively, ready for all kinds of fun and frolic, a good mimic and caricaturist, and quite strong enough to stand long journeys in rough German stagecoaches. There are records of his visits to Eerlin, Dresden, Dantzig, Leipzig, Vienna, &c, ere he was twenty. Nicolas Chopin, his father, a Frenchman by birth and extraction, a native of Nancy, came to Warsaw as a private tutor. He became professor at the Lycee of Warsaw, and kept a select private school of his own, where young men of good families were brought tip. together with his son Frederic. The mother, Justine Kryzanowska, was of a pure Polish family, and seems to have transmitted to her son the peculiar sensitiveness of her Sclavonic temperament. In 1S18, when barely nine, Frederic played a concerto by Gyrowetz, and improvised in public. His first, very early compositions, were dances: Polonaises, Mazurkas, and Valses. A native of Bohemia, Zwyny, and a learned German, Joseph Eisner, director of the school of music at Warsaw, composer of much mediocre church music, &c, a sound musician, and it is always said a devoted student of Bach (i.e. of what little was then and there known of Bach), were his masters and subsequently his friends. At nineteen, a finished virtuoso, equal if not superior to all contemporaries except Liszt, Chopin started with his two concertos and some minor pieces, via Vienna and Munich, where he gave concerts, for Paris, ostensibly on his way to England. But he settled in Paris, and rarely stirred from thence. He used to say that his life consisted of an episode, without a beginning and with a sad end. The episode was this : at Liszt's instigation, in 1836, he made the acquaintance of Madame George Sand, and was completely fascinated and absorbed. In the autumn of 38, when he had begun to suffer from bronchitis, Madame Sand took him to Majorca, where they

spent the winter, and where she nursed and loved him, for which kindness he was profuse in expressions of gratitude to the end of his days. Soon after their return to Paris she put him into one of the least attractive of her novels, 'Lucrezia Floriani,' under the name of Prince Karol, whom she depicts as a highflown, consumptive, and exasperating nuisance, and left him after some eight years of sentimental amenities to his cough and his piano. Barring a couple of ' short visits to England, and one to Scotland shortly before his death in 49, he lived a retired yet far from quiet life in Paris, giving lessons, practising, and at intervals composing—the spoiled child of a small circle of sympathising admirers. But it was no ignoble retirement, as the names of some of his Parisian friends, such as Liszt and Berlioz, Balzac and Bellini, Adolph Nourrit and Heine, Ernst, Delacroix, and Meyerbeer, sufficiently attest. Chopin's works include 2 Concertos for Piano and Orchestra; 1 Trio for Piano and Strings; 2 Duos for Piano and Cello. For Piano Solo 3 Sonatas; 27 Etudes; 52 Mazurkas; 25 Preludes; 19 Nocturnes; 13 Waltzes; 12 Polonaises ; 5 Rondos; 4 Scherzos; 4 Ballades; 4 Fantaisies; 3 Eccossaises; 4 Impromptus; 4 sets of Variations; a Barcarole; a Berceuse; aKrakoviak; a Bolero; a Tarantelle; a Funeral March ; an Allegro de concert, also a Rondeau for 2 Pianos, and 16 Polish songs, in all 74 numbered and 7 unnumbered works. By far the best edition is Carl Klindworth's, published at Moscow. There is a Thematic Catalogue, pub[E. D.] lished by Breitkopf & Hartel. CHORAGUS. A titular functionary in the University of Oxford, who derives his name from the leader of the chorus in the ancient Greek drama (j(opay°s)- In the year 1626, Dr. William Heather, desirous to ensure the study and practice of music at Oxford in future ages, established the offices of Professor, Choragus, and Coryphseus, and endowed them with modest stipends. The Professor was to give instruction in the theory of music ; the Choragus and the Coryphseus were to superintend its practice. 'Twice a week,' say the ordinances of Dr. Heather, 'is the Choragus to present himself in the Music School and conduct the practice, both vocal and instrumental, of all who may choose to attend.' The instruments to be used by the students at these performances were furnished out of Dr. Heather's benefactions; provision was made for obtaining treble voices, and everything requisite to the regular and practical cultivation of music as one of the academic studies appeared to have been devised. Yet Dr. Heather must have had certain misgivings as to the future of his institutions, for he enacts that 'if no one shall attend the meetings in the Music School, then the Choragus himself shall sing with two boys for at least an hour.' Little as Dr. Heather asked of posterity, he obtained still less. The

350

1 One of these was during the devolution of '48. He gave two concerts in London, at the houses r>f Mr. Fartoris anil Lord lalmouth, and played at Guildhall at the Polish Ball in November.

CHORAGUS.

CHORAL FANTASIA.

351

prnctices ceased ; the instruments were dispersed, the origin. That generally known in England and their remnant finally broken up by the au- as Luther's Hymn (Es ist gewisslich) cannot with thorities as old lumber; and no Choragus has probability be attributed to him ; but there seems either conducted or sung in the Music School no doubt that the famous 'Ein' feste Burg,' which •within the memory of man. The history of this Meyerbeer took as the text of 'The Huguewell-meant endowment may point either to the nots,' and Mendelssohn used in his Reformation indifference and mismanagement of a University, Symphony, Wagner in his ' Kaiser Marsch,' and or to the doubtful vitality of official attempts Bach in various ways in his Cantata to the to foster a free art. Of late years the Choragus same words, is really by the great reformer. has been charged, along with the Professor, with The most prolific composer of chorales was the conduct of the examinations for musical de- Johann Cruger, who was born some time after grees. The emoluments of the office, derived in Luther's death. One of his, ' Nun danket alle part from the above-mentioned endowment, in Gott,' is best known, in England from its use part from fees paid on examination, amount in by Mendelssohn in his 'Lobgesang.' all to an insignificant total. [C. A. F.] The chorale which Mendelssohn uses in ' St. CHORALE (Ger. Choral, and Corale), a sacred Paul,' at the death of Stephen, is by Georg choral song (cantus choralis) which may almost Neumark, who also wrote the original words be said to belong exclusively to the reformed to it. In the preface to Bennett and Goldchurch of Germany, in which it originated. schmidt's ' Chorale-book for England' this tune Luther introduced a popular element into wor- is said to have been so popular that in the ship by writing hymns in the vernacular and course of a century after its first appearance no wedding them to rhythmic music, which should less than 400 hymns had been written to it. A very famous collection of tunes was pubappeal to the people in a new and more lively sense than the old-fashioned unrhythmic church lished in Paris in 1565 by Claude Goudimel. music. The effect was as great (with all due Most of these soon found their way into the respect to the different quality of the lever) as German collections, and became naturalised. the Marseillaise in France or Lillibullero in Eng- Among them was the tune known in England as land, or Auber's Masaniello and the Brabanconne the ' Old Hundredth.' Its first appearance seems in Brussels ; for it cannot be doubted that no to have been in a French translation of the insignificant share in the rapid spread of the Psalms with music by Marot and Beza, pubnew ideas was owing to these inspiriting and lished at Lyons in 1563. Many of the tunes vigorous hymns, which seemed to burst from the in Goudimel's collection were from secular hearts of the enthusiastic and earnest men of sources. whom Luther was the chief. The movement The custom of accompanying chorales on the passed rapidly over Germany, and produced in a organ, and of playing and writing what were short time a literature of sacred hymns and called figured chorales, caused great strides to be tunes which cannot be surpassed for dignity and made in the development of harmony and counsimple devotional earnestness. Luther and his terpoint, and also in the art of playing the friend Walther brought out a collection at Erfurt organ ; so that by the latter part of the 17th in 1524, which was called the 'Enchiridion,' or century Germany possessed the finest school of hand-book. Though not absolutely the first, it organists in Europe, one also not likely to be [C. H. H. P.] was the most important early collection, and had surpassed in modern times. a preface by Luther himself. A great number CHORAL FANTASIA. A composition of of collections appeared about the same time in Beethoven's (op. 80) in C minor, for piano solo, various parts of Germany, and continued to ap- orchestra, solo quartet and chorus. It is in two pear till the latter part of the 17th century, when, sections—an ' Adagio' and a ' Finale, Allegro.' from political as well as religious circumstances, The Adagio is for piano solo in the style of an the stream of production became sluggish, and improvisation; indeed it was actually extemthen shortly stopped altogether. porised by Beethoven at the first performance, The sources of the chorales were various ; and not written down till long after. The Orgreat numbers were original, but many were chestra then joins, and the Finale is founded on adapted from the old church tunes, and some the melody of an early song of Beethoven's— were from altogether secular sources. For in- 'Gegenliebe'—being the second part of 'Seufzer stance, the chorale 'Der Du bist drei' is from the eines Ungeliebten' (1795)—first, variations for ancient ' 0 beata lux Trinitatis'; and 'Allein piano and orchestra, Allegro ; then an Adagio ; Gott in der Hoh sei Ehr,' which Mendelssohn then a Marcia, assai vivace; and lastly, an Alleuses in a modified form in ' St. Paul,' is also gretto in which the solo voices and chorus sing based upon a hymn of the Roman church. On the air to words by Kuffner in praise of music. the other hand 'Herr Christ der einig' Gott's The form of the piece appears to be entirely Sohn' is taken from a secular tune ' Ich hcirt' ein original, and it derives a special interest from Fraulein klagen'; and 'Herzlich thut mich ver- its being a precursor of the Choral Symphony. langen,' which appears several times in Bach's In both the finales are variations ; the themes of 'Matthaus-Passion'—for instance to the words the two are strikingly alike ; certain passages in ' 0 Haupt voll Blut und Wunden'—is taken the vocal part of the Fantasa predict those in from a secular tune ' Mein Gemuth ist mir the Symphony (compare ' und Kraft vermiihlen' verwirret.' Of many of them it is difficult to fix with ' uberm Sternenzelt') ; and lastly, there is

352

CHORAL FANTASIA.

CHORLEY.

occurred to Beethoven as early as 1792 (see p. 166 a); but no traces remain of music to it at that date. In 1811 we find a sketch for an ' Ouverture Schiller,' with the opening words of the ode set to notes (Thayer, CLr. Verz. no. 238), but no further mention of it has been discovered till 1822. The first allusion to the Symphony in D minor is as the third of three which he projected while writing nos. 7 and 8 in 1812 (p. 186 6). The first practical beginning was made in 1817, when large portions of the first movement and the Scherzo are found in the sketch-books. The Finale was settled to be choral, but Schiller's Ode is not named till after the revival of CHORAL HARMONIC SOCIETY. The Fidelio, in Nov. 1822. It then appears in the members of this amateur society met at the sketch-books. After inventing with infinite Hanover Square Rooms for the practice of pains and repetitions the melody of the Finale, concerted vocal and instrumental music. In and apparently the variations, a mode had to be 1837 Mr. Dando was the leader, Mr. Holdernesa discovered of connecting them with the three the conductor, and Mr. Bevington the organist. preceding movements. The task was one of very The programmes usually included a glee or ; great difficulty. The first solution of it was to madrigal with symphonies, overtures, and vocal make the bass voice sing a recitative, 'Let us solos. [C. M.] sing the song of the immortal Schiller.' This CHORAL HARMONISTS' SOCIETY. An was afterwards changed to ' 0 friends not these association of amateurs devoted to the performance tones' {i.e. not the tremendous discords of the of great choral works with orchestral accompani- Presto 3-4—which follows the Adagio—and of ments ; held itsfirstmeeting at the New London the Allegro assai), ' Let us sing something pleaHotel, Bridge Street, Blackfriars, Jan. 2, 1S33, santer and fuller of joy,' and this is immediately and the subsequent ones at the London Tavern followed by the Chorus ' Freude, Freude.' The until the last Concert, April 4, 1851, twelve whole of this process of hesitation and invention months after which the Society was dissolved. and final success is depicted in the most unmisIt had a full band (containing, in 1838,14 violins, takeable manner in the music which now inter6 violas, 3 cellos, 3 basses, with complete wind) venes between the Adagio and the choral portion and chorus. The solo singers were professionals— of the work, to which the reader must be reClara Novello, Miss Birch, Miss Dolby, Mr. ferred. J. A. Novello, etc. Its conductors were Messrs. The Symphony was commissioned by the PhilV. Novello, Lucas, Neate, and Westrop ; leader harmonic (Nov. 10, 1822), for £50, and Mr. Dando. The programmes were excellent. they have Society a MS. with an autograph inscription, Among the works performed were Beethoven's 'Grosse Sinfonie geschrieben fur die PhilharMass in D (April 1, 1839, and again April 1, monische Gesellschaft von Ludwig 1S44), Haydn's Seasons, Mendelssohn's Walpur- van Beethoven.' ButinitLondon was performed in gisnight, etc. Vienna long before it reached the Society, and The Choral Harmonists were a secession from the printed score is dedicated (by Beethoven1! to the CITY OF LONDON CLASSICAL HARMONISTS, Frederic William III, King of Prussia. The who held their first meeting April 6, 1831, autograph of the first 3 movements is at Berlin, and met alternately at Farn's music shop, with a copy of the whole carefully corrected by 72 Lombard Street, and the Horn Tavern, Doc- Beethoven. tors' Commons. Mr. T. H. Severn was conductor, The first performance took place at the Theater and Mr. Dando leader, and the accompaniments an der "VVien, May 7, 1824. First performance were arranged for a septet string band. Among in London, by the Philharmonic Society, March the principal works thus given were—Oberon, 21, 1825. At the Paris Conservatoire it was Spohr's Mass in C minor, and ' Letzten Dinge,' played twice, in 1832 and 34, half at the beginning a selection from Mozart's Idomeneo, etc. The and half at the end of a concert. At Leipzig, name' City of London' was intended to distinguish on March 6, 1826, it was played from the it from the CLASSICAL HARMONISTS, a still older parts alone; the conductor having never seen the society, meeting at the Crown and Anchor Tavern, score! [G.] Strand, of which Mr. Griffin and Mr. V. Novello were conductors. [CM.] CHORD is the simultaneous occurrence of CHORAL SYMPHONY. The ordinary several musical sounds, producing harmony, such English title for Beethoven's 9th Symphony as the ' common chord,' the chord of the sixth, (op. 125) in D minor, the Finale of which is a of the dominant, of the diminished seventh, of [C. H. H. P.] chain of variations for solos and chorus. Fr. the ninth, etc., etc. 'Syruphonie avec Choeurs.' Beethoven's own CHORLEY, HENRY FOTHERGILL, journalist, title is 'Sinfonie mit Schluss-Chor fiber Schil- author, and art critic, was born Dec. 15, 1808, ler's Ode An die Freude.' The idea of com- at Blackley Hurst, in Lancashire. Sprung from posing Schiller's Ode to Joy 'verse by verse,' an old Lancashire family, he had a self-willed,

the fact that Beethoven speaks of the finale of the Symphony as ' in the same style as the Fantasia but far more extended' (Letter to Probst, March 10, 1824). It was first performed by Beethoven himself, at the Theatre an der Wien, Dec. 22. 180S ; published July 1811 ; dedicated to the King of Bavaria. Its first appearance in the Philharmonic programmes is May 8, 1843— repeated on 2 2nd—Mrs. Anderson pianist both times. Sketches for the Fantasia are said to exist as early as 1S00, with those for the 6 Quartets (op. iS), and the C minor Symphony (Thayer, Chron. Verzeichniss, no. 142). [G.]

353

CHORLEY.

CHORON.

eccentric character, and an erratic temperament, common to most of its members, which accorded ill with the rigid tenets of the Society of Friends, to which they belonged. At 8 years of age he lost his father, and he received afterwards a somewhat desultory education, first at the hands of private tutors, and then at a day-school at St. Helen's. School, however, was intolerable to him. At an early age he was removed, and placed in a merchant's office. This suited him as little. The only approach to systematic teaching in music which he ever received was from J. Z. Herrmann, afterwards conductor of the Liverpool Philharmonic Society. It soon became evident that nothing like executive proficiency was to be attained by him, and this he had the sense to perceive and acknowledge. Music, however, remained his leading passion. He frequented all the performances within reach; and his notes of these in his journal bear witness to the steady growth of his judgment. In September 1830 he made his first appearance in the columns of the 'Athenaeum,' and shortly after was received upon its staff. He then settled in London, and continued to write for the Athenaeum until within a few years of his death in 1872. The work entrusted to him was very varied, and shows how high an estimate of his ability must have been formed by its shrewd editor, before an untried youth could have been selected to criticise such authors as Moore, Landor, Southey, Crabbe, Mrs. Hemans, William and Mary Howitt, and Mrs. Jameson; or to write the obituary notice of Coleridge. In all this he acquitted himself admirably, but naturally made some enemies, partly through the criticisms of other writers being attributed to his pen. At the same time he attempted composition in other branches of literature — novels, dramas, biographies, and poems. Among these may be mentioned ' Sketches of a Seaport Town' (1834); 'Conti, the Discarded'(1835) ; 'Memorials of Mrs. Hemans' (1836); 'The Authors of England' (1838); 'The Lion, a Tale of the Coteries' (1839); 'Music and Manners inFrance and North Germany' (1841) ; 'Old Love and New Fortune' (1850), a five-act play in blank verse; 'Pomfret'(1845); 'TheLovelock'(1854); 'Duchess Eleanour' (1866). He dramatised G. Sand's ' L'Uscoque,' set to music by Benedict; for whom also he wrote the libretto of 'Red Beard.' Besides translating many foreign libretti, he wrote the original word-books of one version of the 'Amber Witch' (Wallace), of 'White Magic' (Biletta), of the 'May Queen' (Bennett), 'Judith' and 'Holyrood' (Leslie), 'St. Cecilia' (Benedict), 'Sapphire Necklace' and 'Kenilworth' (Sullivan), and words for many songs by Meyerbeer, Goldschmidt, Gounod, Sullivan, etc. He will be best remembered, however, as a musical critic. Within a year of his joining the staff of the ' Athenteum' he had that department entrusted entirely to him, which he did not give up till 1868. His two published works which will live the longest are those which contain the deliberate expression of his opinions on the

subject of music, viz. 'Modern German Music' (1854) — a republication, with large additions, of his former work 'Music and Manners'—and 'Thirty Years' Musical Becollections' (1862). His musical ear and memory were remarkable, and his acquaintance with musical works was very extensive. He spared no pains to make up for the deficiency of his early training, and from first to last was conspicuous for honesty and integrity. Full of strong prejudices, yet with the highest sense of honour, he frequently criticised those whom he esteemed more severely than those whom he disliked. The natural bias of his mind was undoubtedly towards conservatism in art, but he was often ready to acknowledge dawning or unrecognised genius, whose claims he would with unwearied pertinacity urge upon the public, as in the cases of Hullah, Sullivan, and Gounod. Strangest of all was his insensibility to the music of Schumann. ' Perhaps genius alone fully comprehends genius,' says Schumann, and genius Chorley had not, and, in consequence, to the day of his death he remained an uncompromising opponent of a musician whose merits had already been amply recognised by the English musical public. He was still more strongly opposed to recent and more ' advanced' composers. Of Mendelssohn, on the other hand, he always wrote and spoke with the enthusiasm of an intimate friend. Beside his many notices in the Athenaeum and in the musical works already mentioned, he contributed an article on Mendelssohn to the 'Edinburgh Review' (Jan. 1S62), and a Preface to Lady Wallace's translation of the Beisebriefe. In the second volume of his letters Mendelssohn names him more than once. He had, indeed, won the esteem and friendship of most of the distinguished literary and artistic men and women of his day, and ' it was not a small nor an obscure number, either in England or on the continent, who felt, at the announcement of his death, Feb. 16, 1872, that an acute and courageous critic, a genuine if incomplete artist, and a warm-hearted honourable gentleman had gone to his rest' (See ' H . F. Chorley, Autobiography, Memoir, and Letters, by H. G. Hewlett.' London, 1873). [J. M.] CHORON, ALEXANDRE ETIENNE, born at

Caen October 21, 1771, died at Paris June 29, 1834. He was a good scholar before becoming a musician. He began the study of music without assistance, but afterwards received lessons from Roze, Bonesi, and other Italian professors. Highly gifted by nature, he soon acquired great knowledge in mathematics, languages, and every branch of music, and published his ' Principes d'accompagnement des e'coles d'ltalie' (Paris, 1804). In 1808 he gave his ' Principes de composition des ecoles d'ltalie' (3 vols.). in which he introduced Sala's practical exercises on fugue and counterpoint, Marpurg's treatise on fugue, many exercises from Padre Martini's ' Esemplare,' and a new system of harmony of his own—a work which cost him much time and money. He next became a music publisher, and published many fine works of the best Italian and German Aa

CHORON.

CHOUQUET.

masters. In conjunction with Fayolle he then undertook the publication of his ' Dictionnaire des Musiciens' (2 vols., 8vo., Paris, 1810-11). Though devoted to his scientific studies and hampered with an unsuccessful business, Choron could not resist the temptation of trying his powers as a composer, and gave to the public ' La Sentinelle,' a song still popular, and introduced in many French plays. But his great scheme was his ' Introduction a l'etude ge'nerale et raisonne'e de la Musique,' a capital book, which he left unfinished, because his necessities obliged him to devote his time to teaching music and to accept the situation of ' Directeur de la musique des fetes publiques' from 1812 to the fall of Napoleon. He was appointed director of the Acade'mie royale de Musique (Opera) in January 1816, but the appointment having been rudely revoked in 1817 he founded a school for the study of music, which was supported by the government from 1824 to 1830 under the title of ' Institution royale de Musique classique et religieuse,' but declined rapidly when deprived of external aid. Amongst the musicians educated by Choron in this famous school we shall mention only the composers Dietsch, Monpou, Boulanger-Kunze, G. Duprez, Scudo, Jansenne, and Nicou-Choron; the lady singers Clara Novello, Rosine Stolz, and Hebert-Massy. The premature death of Choron may be attributed to disappointments and difficulties after the fall of Charles X. This learned musician and very kind-hearted man composed a Ma-s for three voices, a Stabat for three voices, and a number of hymns, psalms, and vocal pieces for the church; but his best titles to fame, after the works already mentioned, are his translations and editions of Albrechtsberger's works, his ' Muthode concertante de Musique a plusieurs parties' (Paris, 1817), his ' Me'thode de PlainChant,' his 'Manuel complet de Musique vocale et instrumental ou Encyclopedic musicale,' which was published by his assistant Adrien de La Fage in 1836-38 (Paris, 6 vols. and 2 vols. of examples), and several other didactic treatises, which contributed greatly to improve the direction of musical studies in France. In fact, Choron may be considered as a pedagogue of genius, and he had the credit of opening a new field to French musicians, such as Fetis, Geo. Kastner, and Adrien de La Fage. A full list of his essays, titles, and prefaces of intended works, revised treatises of Italian, German, and French didactic writers would be too long for this dictionary; it is given by Fetis in a remarkable article on Choron in his 'Biographie Universelle.' For more detailed information the reader may be referred to that work and to the 'Eloges' of Gauthier (Caen, 1845) and A. de La Faue (Paris, 1843). Scudo, in his 'Critique et Literature musicales' (Paris, 1852, p. 333), has given a vivid picture of Choron as director of his school of music. Choron's drawback appears to have been a want of perseverance, and a propensity to forsake his plans before he had carried them out. But he exercised a very use-

ful influence on musical education in France, and will not soon be forgotten there. [G. C] CHORUS. 1. The body of singers at an opera, oratorio, or concert, by whom the choruses are sung. 2. Compositions intended to be sung by a considerable body of voices—not like glees, which are written for a single voice to each part, or like part-songs, which may be sung indifferently by single voices or larger numbers. Choruses may be written for any number of parts, from unison (Bach, No. 5, in 'Ein' feste Burg'; Mendelssohn, parts of No. 7 in ' Lauda Sion') and two parts (Haydn, Credo of Mass No. 3; Mendelssohn, No. 2 of 95th Psalm) to 40 or 50 ; but the common number is from 4 to 8. Handel mostly writes for 4, though occasionally, as in ' Acis and Galatea,' for 5, and, in ' Israel in Egypt,' for 8, divided into two choirs. In the latter days of the Italian school, Gabrielli, Pitoni, etc., wrote masses and motets for as many as 10 and 12 choirs of 4 voices each. TalKs left a chorus in 40 independent parts, called his '40-part song.' Choruses for 2 choirs are called double choruses; those in Handel's 'Israel in Egypt' and Bach's 'Matthew Passion' are the finest in the world. The two choirs answer one another, and the effect is quite different from that of 8 real parts, such as Palestrina's 'Confitebor,' 'Laudate,' or ' Domine in virtute' (see De Witt's ed. ii. 132, etc.), Gibbons's 'O clap your hands,' or Mendelssohn's ' When Israel out of Egypt came.' Handel often begins with massive chords and plain harmony, and then goes off into fugal treatment. In the ' Darkness' chorus in ' Israel,' he introduces choral recitative; and Mendelssohn does something similar in the chorus in ' St. Paul,'' Far be it from thy path.' In his ' Kirchen Cantaten' Bach's choruses are often grounded on a chorale worked among all the parts, or sung by one of them, with independent imitative counterpoint in the rest. But for these varieties

354

see the article FORM.

In the opera the chorus has existed from the first, as is natural from the fact that opera began by an attempt to imitate the form of Greek plays, in which the chorus filled an all-important part. Till Gluck's time the chorus was ranged in two rows, and however stirring the words or music they betrayed no emotion. It was he who made them mix in the action of the piece. In modern operas the choruses are absolutely realistic, and represent the peasants, prisoners, fishermen, etc., who form part of the dramatis persona of the play. [G.] CHOUQUET, GUSTAVE, born at Havre April 16, 1819, has written the verses of a great many choruses and songs. He contributed for a number of years to 'La France musicale,' and 'L'Art Musical' still giving occasional musical articles to ' Le Menestrel' and the ' Gazette musicale'; but his chief works are ' Histoire de la Musique drainatique en France, depuis ses origines jusqu'a nos jours,' Paris, 1873, and ' Le Mus^e du Conservatoire national de Musique,' Paris, 1875, two works containing original views and much in-

355

CHOtJQUET.

CHEOMATIC.

formation. M. Chouquet has been keeper of the museum of the Conservatoire since 1871, and has made large additions to it. [G.] CHRISM ANN, FRANZ XAVIEB, secular priest, eminent organ-builder, date and place of birth unknown. He worked chiefly in Upper and Lower Austria and in Styria. His name first appears in connection with a monster organ at the monastery of St. Florian, near Linz, begun in i77°> but left unfinished in consequence of a quarrel with the provost. The fame of this organ spread far and wide, though it was not completed till 1837. He also built organs at the abbey Spital-am-Pyhrn, and in the Benedictine monastery at Admont, both organs destroyed by fire. The latter he considered his best work. Mozart and Albrechtsberger were present in 1790 at the opening of an organ built by Chrismann in the church of Sehottenfeld, one of the suburbs of Vienna, and both pronounced it the best organ in Vienna. Though little known it is still in existence, and in spite of its small dimensions the workmanship is admirable, particularly the arrangement and voicing of the stops. Chrismann died in his 70th year, May 20, 1795, when engaged upon an organ for the church of the small town of Bottenmann in Styria, where there is a monument to his memory. The date and place of his death h^ve only recently been ascertained. [C. F. P.]

the Birmingham Musical Festival, September 8, 185a. [GO CHRISTUS AM OELBERGE. The original title of Beethoven's MOUNT OF OLIVES.

CHROMATIC is a word derived from the Greek xptofuiTiicos, the name of one of the ancient tetrachords, the notes of which were formerly supposed to be similar to the scale known as 'chromatic' in modern times. It is applied to notes marked with accidentals, beyond those normal to the key in which the passage occurs, but not causing modulation. A scale of semitones does not cause modulation, and is called a chromatic scale, as in the following from the Andante of Mozart's symphony in D—

which remains in the key of G throughout; and various chords, such as that of the augmented sixth, and the seventh on the tonic, are chromatic in the same manner. The following example, from Beethoven's sonata in Bb (op. 106), is in the key of D :—

CHRISTMANN, JOHANN FKIEDEICH, born at

Ludwigsburg 1752, died there 1S17; Lutheran clergyman, composer, pianist, flutist, and writer on the theory of music. He was educated at Tubingen, and in 1783 was appointed minister in his native town. His great work ' Elementarbuch der Tonkunst' is in two parts (Spire, 1782 and 1790) with a book of examples. He was joint editor of the Spire ' Musikalische Zeitung'; in which among other articles of interest he detailed a plan (Feb. 1789) for a general Dictionary of music. This scheme was never carried out. He was also a contributor to the Musikalische Zeitung of Leipsic. Christmann composed for piano, violin, andflute,and with Kneeht arranged and edited a valuable collection for the Duchy of Wurtemberg, entitled' Vollstandige Sammlung . . . . Choral-melodien.' Many of the 318 hymns were his own composition. He was a friend of the Abbe" Vogler. [M. C. C ] CHRISTUS, an oratorio projected by Mendelssohn to form the third of a trilogy with 'St. Paul' and 'Elijah.' The book of words was sketched by Chevalier Bunsen, and given to Mendelssohn at Easter 1844, before he had begun 'Elijah.' He made great alterations in it, and in 1847, his last year, after 'Elijah' was off his hands, during his visit to Switzerland, made so much progress with the work that 8 numbers of recitatives and choruses—3 from the first part, 'the birth of Christ,' and 5 from the second part, 'the sufferings of Christ,' — were sufficiently completed to be published soon after his death (op. 97 ; No. 27 of the posthumous works). The fragments were first performed at

With regard' to the writing of the chromatic scale, the most consistent practice is obviously to write such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs. Thus taking the key of C as a type the first accidental will be Db, as the upper note of the minor 9th on the tonic; the next will be Eb, the minor 3rd of the key, the next will be FS, the major 3rd of the supertonic—all which cam occur without causing modulation—and the remaining two will be Afc> and Bb, the minor 6th and 7th of the key. In other words the twelve notes of the chromatic scale in all keys will be the tonic, the minor 2nd, the major 2nd, the minor 3rd, the major 3rd, the perfect 4th, the augmented 4th, the perfect 5th, minor 6th, major 6th, the minor 7th and the major 7th. Thus in Mozart's Fantasia in D minor, the chromatic scale in that key, beginning on the dominant, is written as follows— Aa2

356

CHROMATIC.

in Beethoven's Violin Sonata in G (op. 96), the chromatic scale of that key is written thus, beginning on the minor 7th of the key—

and as a more modern instance, the chromatic scale of A which occurs in Chopin's Impromptu in F major, is written by him thus—

beginning on the minor 3rd of the key. The practice of composers in this respect is however extremely irregular, and rapid passages are frequently written as much by Mozart and Beethoven as by more modern composers in the manner which seemed most convenient for the player to read. Beethoven is occasionally very irregular. For instance, in the last movement of the Concerto in G major he writes the following—

in which the same note which is written A b in one octave is written Gj in the other, and that which is written Eb in one is written D | in the other. But even here principle is observable, for the first octave is correct in the scale of G according to the system given above, but having started it so far according to rule he probably thought that sufficient, and wrote the rest for convenience. In another place, viz. the slow movement of the Sonata in G (op. 31, No. 1), he affords some justification for the modern happygo-lucky practice of writing sharps ascending and flats descending; but as some basis of principle seems desirable, even in the lesser details of art, the above explanation of what seems the more theoretically correct system has been given. [C.H.H.P.] CHRYSANDER, FRIEDEICH, born July 8, 1826, at Liibthee, in Mecklenburg, studied at the university of Rostock, lived for some time in England, and now resides on his own estate at Bergedorf, near Hamburg. l'hry. ' manicordion' is rendered by monochord. Citole and mandore are also there, but not clavichord. As to the etymology of clavichord : the word clams, key, in the solmisation system of Guido d'Arezzo, was used for note or tone, and thus the clavis was the 'key' to the musical sound to be produced. The claves were described by alphabetical letters, and those occupying coloured lines, as F on the red and C on the yellow, were

369

CLAY.

CLAVICHORD.

claves signatae, the origin of our modern clefs. When the simple monochord gave place to an instrument with several strings and keys, how easy the transference of this figurative notion of claves from the notes to the levers producing them ! Thus the name Clavichord, from clavis, key, and chorda, string, would come very naturally into use. (Herr Ambros, ' Geschichte der Musik,' vol. ii., Breslau, 1864). According to Fischhof (Versuch einer Geschichte, etc., 1853), Lemme of Brunswick, "Wilhelmi of Cassel, Vensky, Horn and Mack of Dresden, and Kramer of Gottingen, were reputed in the last century good clavichord makers. Mr. Engel quotes the prices of Lemme's as having been from three to twelve louis d'or each ; Kramer's from four to fourteen, according to size and finish. Wilhelmi charged from twenty to fifty thalers (£3 to £7 10s.). [A. J.H.] CLAVICYTHERIUM. An upright instrument allied to the horizontal harpsichord and spinet, but concerning which of all that tribe we have the least evidence. Mr. Carl Engel (Descriptive Catalogue, 1874"), surmises that 'a pair of new long virginalls made harp fashion of cipres with keys of ivory,' mentioned in the inventory of King Henry VIII's musical instruments, was a clavicytherium. He goes on to say that this instrument had a stop or register to cause the strings to be twanged by small brass hooks, whereby a quality of tone like that of the harp was produced, and hence the name 'Arpichord,' by which Prastorius (Syntagma Musicum; Wolfenbiittel, 1619) describes a clavicytherium. [See HARPSICHORD.]

[A. J. H.]

CLAVIER. In French, a keyboard or set of keys of an organ or pianoforte; Italian Tastatura ; in German expressed by Claviatur or Tastatur. Clavier in German is a pianoforte, specially a square pianoforte, the prototype of which is the clavichord, having borne the same name. [CLAVICHORD, KEYBOARD, PIANOFOKTE.]

[A.J.H.]

CLAY, FREDERIC, son of James Clay, M.P. for Hull. Born Aug. 3, 1840, in the Rue Chaillot, Paris; educated in music entirely by Molique, with the exception of a short period of instruction at Leipzig under Hauptmann. Mr. Clay's compositions have been almost wholly for the stage. After two small pieces for amateurs, 'The Pirate's Isle' (1S59) and 'Out of sight' (i860), he made his public de"but in 1862 at Covent Garden with 'Court and Cottage,' libretto by Tom Taylor. This was followed by 'Constance' (1S65), by 'Ages ago' (1869), 'The Gentleman in Black' (1870), 'Happy Arcadia' (1872), 'Cattarina' (18741), 'Princess Toto,' and 'Don Quixote' (both 1875). In addition to these Mr. Clay wrote part of the music for 'Babil and Bijou' and the 'Black Crook' (both 1872), and incidental music to 'Twelfth Night' and to Albery's 'Oriana.' He has also composed two cantatas, 'The Knights of the Cross' (1866) and ' Lalla Rookh,'produced with great success at the Brighton Festival in February 1877 ; and not a few separate songs.

Bb

CLAY.

CLEGG.

In all his works Mr. Clay shows a natural gift of graceful melody and a feeling for rich harmonic colouring. Although highly successful in the treatment of dramatic music, it is probable that his songs will give him the most lasting fame. 'She wandered down the mountain side,' 'Long ago,' and 'The sands of Dee,' among others, are poems of great tenderness and beauty, and not likely to be soon forgotten. [S.]

One or other of these characters, placed on one or other of the lines of a stave, indicated, and still indicates, the name and pitch of the notes standing on that line, and by inference those of other notes on lines and spaces above and below it. The stave which, at various times and for various purposes, has consisted of various numbers of lines, consists now commonly of five. [STAVE.] On any one of these each of the three clefs might be (almost every one has been) placed. In the following examples they occupy the positions in which they are now most commonly found :—

370

CLAYTON, THOMAS, was one of the king's band in the reign of William and Mary. He went to Italy for improvement. On his return he associated himself with Nicola Francesco Haym and Charles Dieupart, both excellent musicians, in a speculation for the performance of musical pieces at Drury Lane Theatre. Clayton had brought with him from Italy a number of Italian songs, which he altered and adapted to the words of an English piece written by Peter Motteux, called ' Arsinoe, Queen of Cyprus,' and brought it out in 1705 as an opera of his own composition. Elated by his success he proceeded to set to music Addison's opera, ' Rosamond,' which was performed in 1707 and completely exposed his incapacity. The speculation however continued to be carried on until 1711, when the Italian opera being firmly established in the Haymarket, the managers of Drury Lane Theatre determined to discontinue the production of musical pieces. Clayton and his colleagues then gave concerts at the Music Room in York Buildings, and John Hughes, the poet, having at the request of Sir Richard Steele, altered Dryden's 'Alexander's Feast,' it was set to music by Clayton and performed there on May 24, I'JH, in conjunction with ' The Passion of Sappho,' a poem by Harrison, also set by Clayton. Both failed from the worthlessness of the music, and have long since sunk into oblivion; but copies of some of his operas which were printed testify to Clayton's utter want of merit as a composer. [W.H.H.] CLEF (Ital. Chiave, from the Lat. Claris; Ger. Schliissel), i. e. key, the only musical character by which the pitch of a sound can be absolutely represented. The clefs now in use are three and @C These severally repreonly— ^^ sent the sounds known as middle C~(of the pianoforte), the G a fifth above it, and the F a fifth below it. Two other clefs, severally represent- J! and the G, a ^-.. ing the D, a fifth above **y' seventh below © ' have been long obsolete. From the last of these, F, the Greek gamma, which represents the lowest sound of the musical system, is derived the word gamut, still in use. The following tables (from Koch's Musikalisches Lexicon) will show that the three clefs now in use are but corruptions of old forms of the letters C, G, and F :—

Uj

Only however in its relation to the stave of five lines can a clef be said with truth to change its place. On the Great Stave of Eleven Lines [STAVE] the clefs never change their places; but any consecutive set of five lines can be selected from it, the clef really retaining, though apparently changing, its place :—

C

C

From the above it will be seen that when notes are written ' in the tenor clef (more properly 'on the tenor stave') they are written on the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th lines of the 'great stave' of eleven ; that when written 'in the alto clef they are written on the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th lines of this great stave; and when ' in the soprano clef on the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th. The more familiar ' bass and treble staves' consist severally of the lowest and the highest five lines of the great stave :—

G In early musical MSS. two, and even three, clefs are sometimes found on the same stave. It would be in no way inconsistent with modern theory, and indeed might be convenient in books of instruction, so to place them now :—

w

[J.H.] CLEGG, JOHN, a distinguished violinist, was born in 1714, probably in Ireland. He appears to have been a pupil of Dubourg at Dublin, and afterwards of Bononcini. When only nine years of age he performed in London in public a concerto of Vivaldi, and afterwards gained an eminent position in the musical profession, surpassing, according to contemporary

CLEGG.

CLEMENT.

•writers, every other player in England in tone and execution. In 1742 however, owing probably to excessive practice, he became insaiie, and was confined in Bedlam Hospital, where, as Burney relates, ' it was long a fashionable, though inhuman amusement, to visit him there, among other lunatics, in hopes of being entertained by hisfiddleor his folly.' Clegg appears also to have been a composer for his instrument, but no work of his has come down to us. [P. D.]

largely to Didron's 'Annales archeologiques,' thus preparing himself for his 'Histoire gene"rale dela Musique religieuse' (Paris, 1861), in which are included translationsfromCardinal Bona's treatise 'De divina Psalmodia' and Formby's 'Gregorian chant compared to modern music' He has edited several books of religious music for the Roman church, such as 'Eucologe en musique selon le rit parisien' (Paris, 1843 and 1851); 'Le Paroissien romain' (Paris, 1854); and 'Chants de la Sainte Chapelle.' His 'M^thode complete de Plain-Chant' does not contain anything new, but is clear and orderly. His ' Mdthode d'orgue' exhibits a moderate knowledge of thorough bass and fugue. M. Clement's most useful compilation is his ' Dictionnaire lyrique,' a convenient list of operas on the plan of Allacci's ' Drammaturgia,' compiled from Babault's ' Dictionnaire ge'ne'ral des TheStres' and similar works, not without occasional errors and omissions. Two supplementary parts have been issued, bringing the work down to 1873. He has also published 'Les Musiciens celebres depuis le i6eme siecle' (Paris, 1868, 42 portraits). [G.C.]

CLEMENS NON PAPA, the sobriquet of Jacques Clement, one of the most renowned musicians of the 16th century. He was born in Flanders, and succeeded Gombert as chief Chapel-master to Charles V. Of the time and place of his birth or death, or of any event of his life, nothing is known. It is probable that he spent several years in Italy ; and it is certain that he died before 1558, since a motet on his death, by Jacob Vae't, is contained in a work published in that year (' Novum et insigne opus . . .' torn. I. Noribergae, 1558). Clement was one of the most prolific composers of his day. This man, whose very name is now known only to a few curious students, was the universal favourite of cultivated Europe, and his works, both sacred and secular, were printed and reprinted in every shape, from costly folios to cheap pocket editions. They formed the gems of the various collections published in Italy, Germany, Belgium, and France. The sobriquet itself is a proof of the reputation of the man, since it was intended to distinguish him from Pope Clement VI, and in one of the chief collections of the time he is styled ' Nobilis Clemens non Papa.' Some of his works appeared in 1543 (Fetis), others in 1556-1560. Fetis enumerates 11 masses and 92 motets. Also four books of Flemish psalms (Souter Liedekens) and one of French chansons. Separate pieces will be found in the 'Liber primus Cantionum, sacrarum' (Louvain, 1555); the 'Motetti del Labirinto" (Venice, 1554); and the 'Recueil des fleurs,' etc. (Louvain, 1569). Commer has published 43 of his motets and chansons, as well as the Flemish psalms (Collectio op. mus. batavorum). Proske has included three motets in his ' Musica Divina,' and winds up a notice of his life by the following remarks:—'He seems to have attempted all the styles then known. He was no slave to counterpoint, but for his time possessed an extraordinary amount of melodies and clear harmony. No one in his day surpassed him for tunefulness and elegance, his melodies are far more fresh and pleasing than those of: his contemporaries, and his style is easy, simple, and clear. That he often pushed imitation too far and neglected the due accentuation of the text is only to say that he belonged to the 16th century.' [G.] CLEMENT, FELIX, born at Paris Jan. 13, 1822, composer, and writer on musical history and archaeology. His most important published compositions are choruses for Eacine's ' Athalie' and ' Esther.' For several years he contributed

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CLEMENT, FRANZ, an eminent violin-player, was born in 1780 at Vienna, where his father was butler in a nobleman's establishment, and at the same time, after the fashion of the period, a member of his master's private band. His father and Kurzweil, the leader of another nobleman's band, were his teachers. Clement began to play the violin when he was only four, and at the age of seven made his first successful appearance in public at a concert in the Imperial Opera-house. He soon began to travel with his father, and in 1790 came to London, were he gave very successful concerts, some of which were conducted by Haydn and Salomon. He also played at Oxford at the second concert given in celebration of Haydn's installation as Doctor of Music. Having returned to Vienna he was appointed Solo-player to the Emperor, and in 1802 conductor of the newly established theatre 'an der Wien,' which post he retained till 1811. From 1812 to 1818 he travelled in Russia and Germany, and then again for three years conducted the Opera in Vienna. In 1821 he began to travel with the celebrated singer Catalani, conducting her concerts, and also was for a short time conductor of the Opera at Prague. He died in poor circumstances at Vienna in 1842. Clement was not only a remarkable violinplayer, but an unusually gifted musician. Some curious facts are reported, bearing testimony to his general musical ability and especially to his prodigious memory. Spohr, in his Autobiography, relates that Clement after having heard two rehearsals and one performance of the oratorio 'The Last Judgment,' remembered it so well, that he was able on the day after the performance to play several long pieces from it on the piano without leaving out a note, and with all the harmonies (no small item in a composition of Spohr's) and accompanying passages; and all this without ever having seen the score. Bb2

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musical gifts at an early period, and induced a relation of the family, Buroni, choirmaster at one of the churches at Rome, to teach him the rudiments. In 1759 Buroni procured him lessons in thorough bass from an organist, Condicelli, and after a couple of years' application he was thought sufficiently advanced to compete for an appointment as organist, which he obtained. Meanwhile his musical studies were continued assiduously: Carpani taught him counterpoint and Sartarelli singing. When barely 14 Clementi had composed several contrapuntal works of considerable size, one of which, a mass, was publicly performed, and appears to have created a sensation at Rome. An English gentleman, Mr. Bedford, or Beckford, with some difficulty induced dementi's father to give his consent to the youth's going to England, when Beckford offered to defray the expenses of his further education and introduce him to the musical world of London. Until 1770 Clementi quietly pursued his studies, living at the house of his protector in Dorsetshire. Then, fully equipped with musical knowledge, and with an unparalleled command of the instrument, he came upon the town as a pianist and composer. His attainments were so phenomenal that he carried everything before him, and met with a most brilliant, hardly precedented, success. From 1777 to 80 he acted as cembalist, i. e. conductor, at the Italian Opera in London. In 1781 Clementi started on his travels, beginning with a series of concerts at Paris; from thence he passed, via Strasburg and Munich, to Vienna, where he made the acquaintance of Haydn, and where, at the instigation of the Emperor Joseph II, he engaged in a sort of musical combat at the pianoforte with Mozart. Clementi, after a short prelude, played his Sonata in Bb—the opening of the first movement of which was long afterwards made use of by Mozart in the subject of the Zauberflote overture—and followed it up with a Toccata, in which great stress is laid upon the rapid execution of diatonic thirds and other double stops for the right hand, esteemed very difficult at that time. Mozart then began to preludise, and played some variations; then both alternately read at sight some MS. sonatas of Paisiello's, Mozart playing the allegros and Clementi the andantes and rondos; and finally they were asked by the Emperor to take a theme from Paisiello's sonatas and accompany one another in their improvisations upon it on two pianofortes. The victory, it appears, was left undecided. Clementi ever afterwards spoke with great admiration of Mozart's' singing' touch and exquisite taste, and dated from this meeting a considerable change in his method of playing: striving to put more music and less mechanical show into his productions. Mozart's harsh verdict in his letters (Jan. 12, 1782; June 7, 1783) was probably just for the moment, but cannot fairly CLEMENTI, Muzio, born at Rome 1752, died be applied to the bulk of dementi's work. at Evesham March 9, 1832. Clemcnti's father, He disliked Italians; the popular prejudice an accomplished workman in silver, himself of a was in their favour, and they were contiuumusical turn, observed the child's uncommon Similarly he was said to have made a piano-score of the 'Creation' from memory, after having heard the oratorio a few times, merely with the help of the book of words, and that his arrangement was so good that Haydn adopted it for publication. If Weber, in one of his published letters, does not speak highly of Clement as a conductor, it must be remembered that Weber's criticism was seldom unbiassed, and that he probably felt some satisfaction at Clement's want of success at Prague, where he was Weber's successor. Clement's style was not vigorous, nor his tone very powerful: gracefulness and tenderness of expression were its main characteristics. His technical skill appears to have been extraordinary. His intonation was perfect in the most hazardous passages, and his bowing of the greatest dexterity. Beethoven himself has borne the highest testimony to his powers by writing especially for him his great Violin-concerto. The original manuscript of this greatest of all violin-concertos, which is preserved in the imperial library at Vienna, bears this inscription in Beethoven's own handwriting :—' Concerto par Clemenza pour Clement, primo violino e Direttore al Theatro a Vienne dal L. v. Bthvn., 1806.' Clement was the first who played it in public, on Dec. 23rd. 1806. If we hear that in later years Clement's style deteriorated considerably, and that he yielded to a lamentable degree to the temptation of showing off his technical skill by the performance of mere tours de force unworthy of an earnest musician, we may ascribe it to his unsteady habits of life, which brought him into difficulties, from which he had to extricate himself at any price. But the tendency showed itself early. It is difficult to believe, if we had not the programme still to refer to, that at the concert at wliich he played Beethoven's Concerto for the first time, he also performed a set of variations ' mit umgekehrter Violine'—with the violin upside down. He published for the violin 25 concertinos, 6 concertos, 12 studies, a great number of airs varies and smaller pieces. For the piano, a concerto. For orchestra, three overtures. For the stage, an opera and the music for a melodrame. All these works are however entirely forgotten. [P-D.] CLEMENT, JOHANN GEORG, whom Gerber calls Clementi; born at Breslau about 1710, Knight of the Golden Spur, and Chapel-master for over fifty years at the church of St. Johann in Breslau. His numerous compositions for the church comprise masses, offertories, Te Deums, etc., and a requiem performed at the funeral of the Emperor Charles VI (1742). None of them have been published. For list see Fe'tis. He left two sons, one at Vienna; the other first violin at Stuttgart, 1790, at Cassel 1792, and afterwards Chapel-master at Carlsruhe. [M. C. C]

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CLEMENTI. 373 ally in his way. He depicts Clementi as ' a dementi has left upwards of 100 sonatas, of mere mechanician, strong in runs of thirds, but which about 60 are written for the piano without without a pennyworth of feeling or taste.' But accompaniment, and the remainder as duets or L. Berger, one of dementi's best pupils, gives trios—sonatas with violin orflute,or violin or flute the following explanation of Mozart's hard sen- and violoncello ; moreover, a duo for two pianos, tence:—'I asked Clementi whether in 1781 he 6 duets for four hands, caprices, preludes, and had begun to treat the instrument in his pre- ' point d'orgues composes dans le gout de Haydn, sent (1806) style. He answered no, and added Mozart, Kozeluch, Sterkel, Wanhal et Clementi,' that in those early days he had cultivated a op. 19; Introduction a l'art de toucher le piano, more brilliant execution, especially in double avec 50 lecons; sundry fugues, toccatas, variastops, hardly known then, and in extemporised tions, valses etc., preludes and exercises remarkcadenzas, and that he had subsequently achieved able for several masterly canons, and lastly, as a more melodic and noble style of performance his indelible monument, the ' Gradus ad Parnasafter listening attentively to famous singers, and sum ' already mentioned. also by means of the perfected mechanism of As Viotti has been called the father of violinEnglish pianos, the construction of which for- playing, so may Clementi be regarded as the merly stood in the way of a cantabile and legato originator of the proper treatment of the modern style of playing.' pianoforte, as distinguished from the obsolete With the exception of a concert tour to Paris harpsichord. His example as a player and in 1785 Clementi spent all his time up to teacher, together with his compositions, have 1802 in England, busy as conductor, virtuoso, left a deep and indelible mark upon everything and teacher, and amassing a considerable for- that pertains to the piano, both mechanically tune. He had also an interest in the firm of and spiritually. His works fill a large space in Longman & Broderip, ' manufacturers of musical the records of piano-playing ; they are indisinstruments, and music-sellers to their majesties.' pensable to pianists to this day, and must reThe failure of that house, by which he sustained main so. heavy losses, induced him to try his hand alone In a smaller way Clementi, like Cherubini in at publishing and pianoforte making; and the a larger, foreshadowed Beethoven. In Beethoultimate success of his undertaking (still carried ven's scanty library a large number of dementi's on under the name of his associate Mr. Collard) sonatas were conspicuous; Beethoven had a shows him to have possessed commercial talents marked predilection for them, and placed them rare among great artists. In March 1807 pro- in the front rank of works fit to engender an perty belonging to dementi's new firm, to the artistic treatment of the pianoforte; he liked amount of £40,000, was destroyed by fire. them for their freshness of spirit and for their Amongst his numerous pupils, both amateur concise and precise form, and chose them above and professional, he had hitherto trained John all others, and in spite of the opposition of so B. Cramer and John Field, both of whom soon experienced a driller of pianoforte players as Ca»l took rank amongst the first pianists of Europe. Czerny, for the daily study of his nephew. In 1802 Clementi took Field, via Paris and The greater portion of Clementi's Gradus, and Vienna, to St. Petersburg, where both master several of his sonatas—for instance the Sonata and pupil were received with unbounded en- in B minor, op. 40 ; the three Sonatas, op. 50, thusiasm, and where the latter remained in dedicated to Cherubini; the Sonata in F minor, affluent circumstances. On his return to Ger- etc.—have all the qualities of lasting work: clear many Clementi counted Zeuner, Alex. Klengel, outlines of form, just proportions, concise and Ludwig Berger, and Meyerbeer amongst his consistent diction, pure and severe style ; their pupils. With Klengel and Berger he afterwards very acerbity, and the conspicuous absence of went again to Kussia. In 1810 he returned to verbiage, must render them the more enduring. London for good, gave up playing in public, deLike his Italian predecessor D. Scarlatti, voted his leisure to composition and his time to Clementi shows a fiery temperament, and like business. He wrote symphonies for the Philhar- Scarlatti, with true instinct for the nature of the monic Society, which succumbed before those of instrument as it was in his time, he is fond of Haydn, many pianoforte works, and above all quick movements—quick succession of ideas as completed that superb series of 100 studies, well as of notes; and eschews every sentimental Gradus ad Parnassum (1817), upon which to this aberration, though he can be pathetic enough if day the art of solid pianoforte playing rests. In the fit takes him. His nervous organisation 1820 and 21 he wa3 again on the continent, must have been very highly strung. Indeed the spending an entire winter at Leipzig, much degree of nervous power and muscular endurance praised and honoured. He lived to be 80, and required for the proper execution of some of his the 12finalyears of his life were spent in London. long passages of diatonic octaves (as in the SoHe retained his characteristic energy and fresh- nata in A, No. 26 of Knorr's edition), even in ness of mind to the last. He was married three so moderate a tempo as to leave them j ust accepttimes, had children in his old age, and shortly able and no more, from a musical point of view before his death was still able to rouse a com- (bearing in mind Mozart's sneer that he writes pany of pupils and admirers—amongst whom prestissimo and plays moderato, and recollecting were J. B. Cramer and Moscheles—to enthusiasm the difference in touch between his piano and with his playing and improvisation. ours), is prodigious, and remains a task of almost

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insuperable difficulty to a virtuoso of to-day, in spite of the preposterous amount of time and labour we now devote to such things. He is the first completely equipped writer of sonatas. Even as early as his op. 2 the form sketched by Scarlatti, and amplified by Emanuel Bach, is completely systematised, and has not changed in any essential point since. Clementi represents the sonata proper from beginning to end. He played and imitated Scarlatti's harpsichord sonatas in his youth; he knew Haydn's and Mozart's in his manhood, and he was aware of Beethoven's in his old age ; yet he preserved his artistic physiognomy—the physiognomy not of a man of genius, but of a man of the rarest talents— from first to last. He lived through the most memorable period in the history of music. At hig birth Handel was alive, at his death Beethoven, Schubert, and Weber were buried. There is an annoying confusion in the various editions of his works: arrangements are printed as originals, the same piece appears under various titles, etc. etc. The so-called complete editions of his solo sonatas—the best, that published by Holle at Wolfeubiittel, and edited by Schumann's friend Julius Knorr, and the original edition of Breitkopf & Hartel, since reprinted by that firm—are both incomplete; the sonatas with accompaniment etc. are out of print, and his orchestral works have not been printed at all. A judicious selection from his entire works, carefully considered with a view to the requirements and probable powers of consumption of living pianists, would be a boon. [E.D.] CLEMENZA DI TITO, LA. Mozart's 23rd and last opera ; in 2 acts ; words adapted from Metastasio by Mazzola. Finished Sept. 5, 1791, and first performed the following day at Prague. At the King's Theatre, Haymarket, March 27, 1806. The autograph is entirely in Mozart's hand, and contains no recitatives. They were probably supplied by Siissmayer. The German title of the opera is ' Titus.' [G.] CLERINI, a Frenchwoman, who had altered her name from Le Clerc, and had an engagement at the Opera in London in 1823 at £150. She sang the part of Servilia in 'La Clemenza di Tito' that year ; but, beside her face, she had no attraction. She appeared again as Albina in ' La Donna del Lago' in the same season. [J.M.] CLICQUOT, FRAN901S HENRI, eminent organbuilder, born in Paris 1728, died there 1791. In 171^0 he built the organ of St. Gervais. In 1765 he entered into partnership with Pierre Dallery, and the firm constructed the organs of Notre Dame, St. Nicolas-des-Champs, the Sainte Chapelle, and the Chapelle du Eoi at Versailles. Clicquot's finest organ was thab of St. Sulpice, built after his partnership with Dallery had been dissolved, and containing 5 manuals and 66 stops, including a pedal-stop of 32 feet. For the organ in the Cathedral at Poitiers, his last work, he received 92,000 francs. His instruments were over-loaded with reeds—a common defect in French organs. [M.C.C.]

CLIFFOED, REV. JAMES, the son of Edward Clifford, a cook, was born in the parish of St. Mary Magdalen, Oxford, in 1622. In 1632 he was admitted a chorister of Magdalen College, Oxford, and so remained until 1642. On July 1, 1661, he was appointed tenth minor canon of St. Paul's Cathedral, and in 1675 was advanced to the sixth minor canonry. In 1682 he became senior cardinal. He was al-^o for many years curate of the parish church of St. Gregory by St. Paul's, and chaplain to the Society of Serjeant's Inn, Fleet Street. He died about the year 1700. In 1663 Clifford published, under the title of 'The Divine Services and Anthems usually sung in the Cathedrals and Collegiate Choirs of the Church of England,' a collection of the words of anthems ; the first of its kind which appeared in the metropolis. (It had been preceded by a collection compiled and printed by Stephen Bulkley at York in 1662.) So great was the success of the work that a second edition, with large additions, appeared in 1664. To the first edition are prefixed ' Briefe Directions for the understanding of that part of the Divine Service performed with the Organ in St. Paul's Cathedral on Sundayes and Holydayes'; and to the second chants for Venite and the Psalms and for the Athanasian Creed. The work is curious and interesting as showing what remained of the cathedral music produced before the parliamentary suppression of choral service in 1644, and what were the earliest additions made after the re-establishment of that service in 1660. Clifford's only other publications were 'The Catechism, containing the Principles of Christian Religion,' and ' A Preparation Sermon before the receiving of the Holy Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, preached at Serjeants' Inn Chapel, in Fleet Street,' which appeared together in 1694. Clifford had a younger brother, Thomas, born in Oct. 1633, who was admitted chorister of Magdalen College in 1642 and resigned in 1645. [W.H.H.]

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CLIVE, CATHERINE, daughter of William Raftor, an Irish gentleman, was born in London in 1711. Displaying a natural aptitude for the stage she was engaged by Colley Cibber for Drury Lane Theatre, and made her first appearance there in November 1728, as the page Ismenes, in Nat. Lee's tragedy ' Mithridates.' In 1729 she attracted great attention by her performance of Phillida in Colley Cibber's ballad opera, ' Love in a riddle.' Her personation of Nell in Coftey's ballad opera, 'The Devil to pay,' in 1731, established her reputation, and caused her salary to be doubled. On Oct. 4, 1734, she married George Clive, a barrister, but the pair soon agreed to separate. She continued to delight the public in a variety of characters in comedy and comic opera until April 24, 1769, when, having acquired a handsome competence, she took leave of the stage, and retired to Twickenham, where she occupied a house in the immediate vicinity of Horace Walpole's famous villa at Strawberry Hill, until her death, which occurred on Dec. 6, 1785. One of the most prominent events in

CLIVE. Mrs. Clive's career as a singer was Handel's selection of her as the representative of Dalila in his oratorio 'Samson,' on its production in I742[W.H.H.]

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laurel,' to 'The Triumphes of Oriana,' 1601. The only other known compositions by him are another madrigal, 'New Fashions,' and an anthem, 'In Bethlehem towne,' of which some separate parts are preserved in the library of the CLOCKING. See CHIMING. CLOSE is a word very frequently used in the Sacred Harmonic Society. Nothing is known of [W.H.H.] same sense as CADENCE, which see. In ordinary his life. conversation it may very naturally have a little COCCHETTA. See GABEIELLI, C. more expansion of meaning than its synonym. COCCHI, GIOAOOHINO, born at Padua 1720, It serves to express the ending of a phrase or died in Venice 1804; dramatic composer; proa theme, or of a whole movement or a section duced his first operas, ' Adelaide' and ' Bajaof one, as a fact, and not as denoting the sette,' in Rome (1743 and 1746). In 1750 he particular succession of chords which are re- was at Naples, and in 1753 was appointed cognised as forming a cadence. Hence the Chapel-master of the Conservatorio degli Interm 'half-close' is very apt, since it expresses curabili at Venice. Here he wrote *11 Pazzo not only the most common form of imperfect glorioso.' In 175 7 n e came to London as comcadence which ends on the dominant instead of poser to the Opera. During a sixteen years' the tonic, but also the position in which that residence in this country he composed 11 operas, form of close is usually found, viz. not at the as well as taking part in several pasticcios. For end of a phrase or melody, but marking the most list see Fetis. In 1773 he returned to Venice. visual symmetrical division into two parts in such His reputation was considerable for a time both a manner that the flow of the complete passage in Italy and in this country. Burney praises ' his is not interrupted. good taste and knowledge in counterpoint,' but The word is also used as a verb, where again says he ' lacked invention, and hardly produced it has the advantage of the word cadence, since a new passage after his first year in England.' one can say 'Such a passage closes in such a He realised a large sum by teaching. [M.C.C.] key,' but one cannot say ' Such a passage caCOCCIA', CARLO, born at Naples 1789, date dences so' ; and if one could, it would hardly and place of death uncertain ; son of a violinist, express the sense so plainly. [C.H.H.P.] studied under Fenaroli and Paisiello. His early CLUER, J., an engraver and publisher of compositions were remarkable for his years. music, who carried on business in Bow Church- Paisiello was extremely fond of 'him, procured yard, London, in the middle of the first half of him the post of accompanist at King Joseph the 18th century. He issued his 6publications in Bonaparte's private concerts, and encouraged him connection with ' B. Creake, at y Bible, in Jer- after the failure of his first opera, ' II Matrimonio myn Street, St. James's.' Cluer engraved and percambiale' (Rome, 1808). Between the years published in 1720 Handel's Suites de Pieces 1808 and 19 he composed 22 operas for various pour le clavecin, and between 1723 and 1729 towns in Italy, and two cantatas, one for the nine of the same composer's Italian operas, viz. birth of the King of Rome (Treviso, 1811), the 'Giulio Cesare,' 'Tamerlane,' ' Rodelinda,'' Ales- other (by a curious irony, in which Cherubini sandro,' 'Scipione,' 'Ricciardo Primo,' 'Siroe,' also shared) for the entry of the allied armies and 'Lotario.' The titles of these operas are into Paris (Padua, 1814). In 1820 he went to contained in a label upon an,engraved emblematic Lisbon, where he composed four operas and a design, very fairly executed. Cluer also published cantata, and thence to London (August, 2,^), 'A Pocket Companion for Gentlemen and Ladies, where he became conductor at the Opera. He being a collection of Opera Songs in 8vo. size, discharged his duties with credit, and profited never before attempted,' 2 vols. He was mis- by hearing more solid works than were performed taken in supposing that music had never before in Italy, as he showed in the single opera he been published in octavo size. Half a century wrote here, 'Maria Stuarda' (1827). He was earlier Henry Brome, the bookseller, had adopted also professor of composition at the Royal Academy it for Banister and Low's ' New Ayres and Dia- on its first institution. In 28 he returned to logues,' 1678, and the contemporary French Italy. In 33 he paid a second visit to England, printers had for some years frequently used it. and then settled finally in Italy. In 36 he Among other works engraved and published by succeeded Mercadante at Novara, and was apCluer were a periodical called ' The Monthly pointed Inspector of Singing at the Philharmonic Apollo, a collection of New Songs and Airs in Academy of Turin. His last opera, 'II Lago English and Italian,' and two packs of ' Musical delle Fate' (Turin, 1814), was unsuccessful. Playing Cards.' [W.H.H.] Coccia wrote with extreme rapidity, the entire opera of 'Donna Caritea' (Turin, 1818), being COBBOLD, WILLIAM, a composer of the lat- completed in six days. 'Clotilde' (Venice, 1816), ter part of the sixteenth, and early part of the was the most esteemed of all his works in Italy. following century, was one of the ten musicians He was highly thought of in his day, but his who harmonised the tunes for ' The Whole Booke science was not sufficient to give durability to his of Psalmes with their wonted Tunes as they are compositions. (For list see F^tis). [M.C.C.] song in Churches, composed into foure partes,' COCKS & CO., ROBERT, one of the principal published by Thomas Este in 1592. He con- London music-publishing firms. The business tributed a madrigal, ' With wreaths of rose and

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was established in 1827 by the present senior partner, Robert Cocks, and was carried on at No. 20 Princes Street, Hanover Square, for about 21 years, when it was removed to No. 6 New Burlington Street, where it is still conducted. In 1868 Kobert Cocks took into partnership with him his two sons, Arthur Lincoln Cocks and Stroud Lincoln Cocks. The present firm consists of Robert and Stroud Lincoln Cocks. During the half century of its existence upwards of 16,000 publications have issued from the house, including many works of solid and permanent worth, such as Czerny's Schools of Practical Composition and of the Pianoforte; Spohr's and Campagnoli's Violin Schools; Albrechtsberger's and Cherubini's Treatises on Counterpoint; Bertini's Method; J.S.Bach's Pianoforte Works, etc., etc. A periodical, the Monthly Miscellany, contains original notices of Beethoven byCzerny. [W.H.H.]

Similarly in the other forms of instrumental composition there is a certain set order of subjects which must be gone through for the movement to be complete, and after that is over it is at the option of the composer to enlarge the conclusion independently into a coda. When the sections of a complete movement are very strongly marked by double bars the word is frequently written, as in the case of Minuet and Trio, and the corresponding form of Scherzos, which are mostly constructed of a part which may be called A, followed by a part which may be called B, which in its turn is followed by a repetition of the part A; and this is all that is absolutely necessary. But beyond this it is common to add an independent part which is called the coda, which serves to make the whole more complete. In instrumental forms which are less obviously definite in their construction, the coda is not distinguished by name, though easy to be distinguished in fact. For instance, in a rondo, which is constructed of the frequent repetition of a theme interspersed with episodes, when the theme has been reproduced the number of times the composer desires, the coda naturally follows and completes the whole. The form of a first movement is more involved, but here again the necessary end according to rule may be distinguished when the materials of the first part have been repeated in the latter part of the second, generally coming to a close ; and here again the coda follows according to the option of the composer. In modern music the coda has been developed into a matter of very considerable interest and importance. Till Beethoven's time it was generally rather unmeaning and frivolous. Mozart occasionally refers to his subjects, and does sometimes write a great coda, as in the last movement of his Symphony in C, known as the 'Jupiter,' but most often merely runs about with no other ostensible object than to make the conclusion effectively brilliant. The independent and original mind of Beethoven seems to have seized upon this last part of a movement as most suitable to display the marvellous fertility of his fancy, and not unfrequently the coda became in his hands one of the most important and interesting parts of the whole movement, as in the first movement of the 'Adieux' Sonata, op. 81, the last movement of the quartet in Eb, op. 127, and the first movement of the Eroica symphony. Occasionally he goes so far as to introduce a new feature into the coda, as in the last movement of the violin and pianoforte sonata in F major, but it is especially noticeable in him that the coda ceases to be merely 'business' and becomes part of the sesthetical plan and intention of the whole movement, with a definite purpose and a relevancy to all that has gone before. Modern composers have followed in his steps, and i t is rare now to hear a movement in which the coda does not introduce some points of independent interest, variety of modulation and new treatment of the themes of the movement being alike resorted to to keep up the interest till the last. [C.H.H.P.]

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CODA. Coda is the Italian for a tail, and that which goes by the name in music is very fairly expressed by it. For it is that part which comes at the end of a movement or piece of any kind, and has to a certain extent an independent existence and object, and though not always abBolutely necessary cannot often be easily dispensed with. The earliest idea of a musical coda was probably a few simple chords with a cadence which served to give a decent finish to the mechanical puzzles over which so much ingenuity was wont to be expended in old days. For instance when a number of parts or voices were made to imitate or follow one another according to rigorous rules it would often occur that as long as the rules were observed a musical conclusion could not be arrived at. Indeed sometimes such things were constructed in a manner which enabled the piece to go on for ever if the singers were so minded, each following the other in a circle. In order to come to a conclusion a few chords would be constructed apart from these rigorous rules, and so the coda was arrived at. Applied to modern instrumental music this came to be a passage of optional dimensions which was introduced after the regular set order of a movement was concluded. For instance, in a series of variations, each several variation would only offer the same kind of conclusion as that in the first theme, though in a different form; and in the very nature of things it would not be aesthetically advisable for such conclusion to be very strongly marked, because in that case each several variation would have too much the character of a complete set piece to admit of their together forming a satisfactorily continuous piece of music. Therefore it is reasonable when all the rariations are over to add a passage of sufficient importance to represent the conclusion of the whole set instead of one of the separate component parts. So it is common to find a fugue, or a finale or other passage at the end which, though generally having some connection in materials with what goes before, is not of such rigorous dependence on the theme as the variations themselves.

CODETTA.

COLMAN.

CODETTA is the diminutive of Coda, from which it offers no material differences except in dimensions. It is a passage which occurs independently after the set order of a piece is concluded, as for instance in the combination of the minuet and trio, or march and trio; after the minuet or march has been repeated a short passage is frequently added to give the end more completness. [See CODA.] [C.H.H.P.] COL ARCO, Ital. ' with the bow.' See AEOO.

not appear to have been commensurate with their enterprise: Clementi, about 1798-1800, had to assume and remodel the business, and the Haymarket branch passing into other hands we find him in the early years of this century associated with F. W. Collard and others, presumably out of the old Longman and Broderip concern, pianoforte makers in Cheapside. There can be no doubt that the genius of this eminent mu-ician applied in a new direction bore good fruit, but it was F. W. Collard, whose name appears in the Patent Office in connection with improvements in pianofortes as early as 1811, who impressed the stamp upon that make of pianofortes which has successively borne the names of 'Clementi' and of 'Collard and Collard.' The description of the improvements from time to time introduced by the house will be found under PIANOFOKTE. The present head of the firm (1877) is Mr. Charles Lukey Collard. [A. J. H.]

COLBRAN,ISABELLA ANGELA, born atMadrid

Feb. 2, 1785. Her father was Gianni Colbran, •court-musician to the King of Spain. At the age of six she received her first lessons in music from F. Pareja, of Madrid. Three years later, she passed under the care of Marinelli, by whom she was taught until Crescentini undertook to form her voice and style. From 1806 to 15 she enjoyed the reputation of being one of the best singers in Europe. In 1809 she was prhna donna seria at Milan, and sang the year after at the Fenice at Venice. Thence she went to Rome, and so on to Naples, where she sang at the San Carlo till 1821. Her voice remained true and pure as late as 1815, but after that time she began to sing excruciatingly out of tune, sometimes flat and sometimes sharp. The poor Neapolitans who knew her influence with Barbaja,the manager, were forced to bear this in silence. She was a great favourite with the King of Naples ; her name became a party-word, and the royalists showed their loyalty by applauding the singer. An Englishman asked a friend one night at the San Carlo how he liked Mile. Colbran : ' Like her ? I am a royalist!' he replied. On March 15, 1822, at Castenaso near Bologna, she was married to Rossini, with whom she went to Vienna. In 24 she came with her husband to London, and sang the principal part in his ' Zelmira.' She was then entirely passee, and unable to produce any effect on the stage; but her taste was excellent, and she was much admired in private concerts. On leaving England, she quitted the stage, and resided at Paris and Bologna. She was herself a composer, and has left a few collections of songs. She died at Bologna Oct. 7, 1845. [J.M.]

377

COLLEGE YOUTHS, ANCIENT SOCIETY OP.

This is the chief of the change-ringing societies of England. It dates back to the early part of the 17th century, and derives its name from the fact that the students at the college founded by the renowned Sir Richard Whittington about that date, having six bells in their college chapel, used to amuse themselves by ringing them; and the annals of the society show that, being joined by various gentlemen in the neighbourhood, the society was definitely started under the name 'College Youths' by the then Lord Salisbury, Lord Brereton, Lord Dacre, Sir Cliff Clifton, and many other noblemen and gentlemen connected with the city of London, on Nov. 5,1637. There are books in possession of the society (which has gone through many vicissitudes) in which are recorded the performances of its members for the last 150 years. Of late years the society has been in a most flourishing condition; its books contain the names of many noblemen and gentlemen, not only as patrons but as actual performers, and there are few counties in England in which it has not members. It flourishes also in the ringing line, for there is no society of ringers in England who can equal some of its later performances, amongst the most important of which should be mentioned a peal of 15,840 changes of COLLA PARTE OR COLLA VOCE, 'with Treble Bob Major rung by eight of its members the part,' denoting that the tempo of the ac- in 1868 at St. Matthew's, Bethnal Green, and companiment is to be accommodated to that of which lasted without any pause for nine hours the solo instrument or voice. and twelve minutes. [C.A.W.T.] COLLARD. This firm of pianoforte-makers in COL LEGNO, ' with the wood,' a term indiGrosvenor Street and Cheapside, London, is in cating that a passage is to be played by striking direct succession, through Muzio Clementi, to the strings violin with the stick of the Longman and Broderip, music publishers located bow insteadofofthe with the hair—the effect proat No. 26 Cheapside, as the parish books of St. duced being something like that of guitar and Vedast show, as long ago as 1767. Becoming castanets combined. Amongst others Spohr has afterwards pianoforte-makers, their instruments employed it in the Finale all' Espagnola of his were in good repute here and abroad, and it is a sixth violin-concerto, and Auber in Carlo Broschi's tradition that Gieb's invention of the square air in ' La part du diable.' [P. D.] hopper or grasshopper was first applied by them. Their business operations were facilitated by COLMAN, CHARLES, MUS. DOC, was chamber money advances from Clementi, whose position as musician to Charles I. After the breaking out a composer and pianist was the highest in Eng- of the civil war he betook himself to the teaching land. The fortunes of Longman and Broderip do of music in London, and was one of those who

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taught the viol lyra-way. Some of his songs are contained in the several editions of ' Select Musicall Ayres and Dialogues,' 1652, 1653 and 1659, and some of his instrumental compositions are to be found in 'Courtly Masquing Ayres,' 1662. He was associated with Henry Lawes, Capt. Cooke, and George Hudson in the composition of the music for Sir William Davenant's 'First Day's Entertainment at Rutland House by Declamations and Musick,' 1657. He died in Fetter Lane in 1664. [W.H.H.] COLMAN, EDWARD, son of Dr. Charles Colman, was a singing master and teacher of the lute and viol. In 1656 he and his wife took part in the performance of the first part of Sir William Davenant's ' Siege of Rhodes,' at Rutland House, she playing Ianthe, and the little they had to say being spoken in recitative. Upon the re-establishment of the Chapel Royal in 1660 Colman was appointed one of the gentlemen. Of Mrs. Colman, who was one of the first females who appeared on the English stage, Pepys, who was well acquainted with both her and her husband, writes, under date of Oct. 31, 1665, 'She sung very finely, though her voice is decayed as to strength, but mighty sweet, though soft.' Colman died at Greenwich on Sunday, Aug. 19, 1669. Some of his songs are printed in ' Select Musicall Ayres and Dialogues,' 1653, and other of his compositions in Playford's ' Musical Companion,' 1672. [W.H.H.] COLOGNE CHORAL UNION, the English title of a singing society of men's voices only, who visited London in 1853 and 54. [See MANNERGESANG-YEREIN.]

COLOMBANI or COLUMBANI, OKAZIO, born at Verona in the 16th century, eminent contrapuntist, Cordelier monk, and Chapelmaster to the convent of San Francesco at Milan. Besides five collections of Psalms for 5, 6, and 9 voices, and two of madrigals, published in Italy (1576-1587), there is a Te Deum of his in Lindner's ' Corollario cantionum sacrarum,' and two Magnificats and some madrigals in the King of Portugal's Library at Lisbon. One of the Magnificats is in 14 parts. Colombani united with other musicians in dedicating a collection of Psalms to Palestrina (1592). [M.C.C.] COLOMBE LA. A comic opera in two acts, words by Barbier and Carre, music by Gounod; produced at the Opera Comique, June 7, 1866. The libretto was translated by Farnie as ' The Pet Dove,' and produced at the Crystal Palace on Sept. 20, 1870. [G.] COLOMBI, VINOENZO, an Italian, built the magnificent organ in the church of St. John Lateran at Rome, in 1549. [V.deP.] COLOXXA. GIOVANNI PAOLO, was born about 1640, at Brescia according to Cozzando, but at Bologna according to other authorities. He was the son of Antonio Colonna, a maker of organs, who must not be confounded with the Fabio Colonna who constructed the ' Penteconta chordon.' The subject of this notice studied

music at Koine under Carissimi, Abbatini, and Benevoli. In 1672 we find him established at Bologna, where he was four times elected Principal of the Musical Academy. Among many pupils of note he numbered the famous and unfortunate Buononcini. Nearly all his compositions were for the church, but he condescended to write one opera, 'Amilcare,' which was performed at Bologna in 1693. He is certainly entitled to take rank among the most distinguished Italians of his century. At all events his music is far above the level of his epitaph, which has been unfortunately preserved :— 'Joannes Paulus cantus basis atque Columna, Hie situs est; omnis vox pia juxta canat.' He died on Nov. 28,1695. Fetis, in his 'Biographie universelle des Musiciens ' gives a list of his works extending to no less than 44 items. A Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis of his for two choirs are printed in the collection of the Motet Society, and four other pieces in the Fitzwilliam music. [E.H.P.] COLOPHONIUM, the German term for the rosin used for fiddle bows, from xoXotpaivia, so called because the best rosin came from Colophon, in Asia Minor, the same place which gave its name to the imprints of early books, and has thus left a double mark on modern times. In French, Colvphane is the term used. [G.] COLORATUR. Vocal music coloured, that is, ornamented, by runs and rapid passages or divisions, where each syllable of the words has two or more notes to it. It is what the old school called ' figurato'—figured. Colorat'ir may be employed in slow or fast airn, plaintive or passionate. Almost all the great airs contain examples of it. The following example from the Messiah:—

re-joice,

Odaughter of

Zl - on.

contains both plain and coloratur passages. On the other hand, ' How beautiful are the feet' (Messiah), or 'Hear ye, Israel' (Elijah), are not coloratur songs. Nor are passages in which each note has its syllable, as in Schumann's ' Die Rose, die Lilie,' or Mozart's ' La piccina' (Madamina), however rapid they may be. [G.] COLPORTEUR, LE, ou L'ENFANT DD BUCHE-

BON, lyric drama in 3 acts ; words by Planard, music by Onslow; produced in Paris Nov. 2 2, 1827. Given at Drury Lane as 'The Emissary; or, the Revolt of Moscow,' May 13, 1831. The overture was formerly a favourite at classical concerts. [G.] COLTELLINI, CELESTE, born at Leghorn 1764, death uncertain ; daughter of a poet and a celebrated singer, made her first appearance at Naples in 1781. The Emperor Joseph II engaged her for the Opera at Vienna in 1783, and

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COMIC OPEEA.

she did not return to Naples till 1790. She married a French merchant named Me'ricofre, and retired from the stage in 1795. Her voice was a mezzo-soprano, and she excelled in the expression of sentiment. Paisiello wrote his ' Nina' for her, and on one occasion as she was singing the air ' II mio ben quando verra ?' a lady among the audience burst into tears, crying aloud ' Si, si, lo rivedrai il tuo Lindoro.' [M.C. C] COMBINATION PEDALS (Pedales de combinaison) are an ingenious modern French invention originating with the eminent firm of Cavaille"Col. Instead of operating upon the draw-stops they act upon the wind-supply, and in the following manner. A great organ contains, say, twelve stops. The first four (1-4) will be placed on one sound-board ; the next four (5-8) on a second ; and the remaining four (9-12) on a third sound-board. Each sound-board receives its windsupply through its own separate wind-trunk, and in that wind-trunk is a ventil which when open allows the wind to reach the sound-board, and when closed intercepts it; which ventil the organist controls by means of a pedal. The advantages of the ventil system are, first, that instead of the stops coming into use in certain fixed and invariable groups, any special combination can be first prepared on the three soundboards, and then be brought into use or silenced at the right moment by simply the admission or exclusion of the wind. Moreover their action is absolutely noiseless, as it consists in merely opening or closing a valve, instead of shifting a number of long wooden sliders to and fro. The objection has been raised, that in the ventil system the stops no longer 'register' what is about to be heard; and the extreme case is cited that every stop in the organ may be drawn, and yet no sound respond to the touch if the ventils be closed. [E.J.H.]

are both instructive and pleasant reading. Of his musical works, the following are among the most important: — Trois ans aux Etats-unis (Paris 18.^8); La Proprie'te' intellectuelle, etc. (Paris 1858) ; Histoire d'un inventeur au I9eme Siecle (Paris i860)—a life of Adolphe Sax, and defence of his claims; Musique et Musiciens (Paris 1862)—a collection of articles originally published in the 'Siecle'; Le Danemark tel qu'il est (Paris 1865) ; La Musique, les Musiciens, et les Instruments de musique chez les differents peuplesdu monde (Paris 1869)—an important work, written on the occasion of the Exhibition of 1867; Les Musiciens, les Philosophes, et les Gaietes de la Musique en chiffres (Paris 1870)—a polemical treatise. [G. C ] COMIC OPEEA. Opera has in recent times been cultivated more or less successfully by every people having any claim to be called musical. The particular branch of it which is the subject of this article, as it originated, so it has attained its highest development, among the French. In the dramas with music of the Trouveres of the 13th century we find at least the germ of ' opera comique'; and in one of them, 'Li Gieus de Eobin et de Marion,' of Adam de la Hale, which has reached us intact, an example of its class of great interest, whether regarded from a literary or a musical point of view. The renascence of 'opera comique' in France dates from the latter part of the 17th century, and is attributable in great part to the decline in popularity of the style of Lully and his imitators. In his ' Parallele des Italiens et des Francais, en ce qui regarde la musique et les opera,'—the result of a visit to Naples, the school of which under Alessandro Scarlatti had already given earnest of its future supremacy—the Abbe Franjois Eaguenet first gave utterance to the extent of this decline in the year 1702. Some years prior to this publication d'AUard and Vanderberg, proprietors of 'marionette' or puppet theatres, had introduced music into their performances at the ' Foire St. Germain' with such success as to excite the jealousy of Lully, who obtained an order forbidding the performance of vocal music in the marionette theatre, and reducing the orchestra to four stringed instruments and an oboe. Moreover the entrepreneurs of the 'Comedie Francaise,' on whose domain the marionettes would seem considerably to have encroached, obtained another order forbidding even speech in their representations. At the instigation of two ingenious playwrights, Chaillot and Kemy, the difficulty created by these orders was in some sort met by furnishing each performer with a placard on which were inscribed the words he would or should have uttered under other circumstances. These placards, of necessity large, being found to impede the action and even sight of the performers, their ' parts' were subsequently appended to the scene. The utterance, musical or other, of the songs of which these were largely made up, though forbidden to the actors were not unallowable for the audience, who, perfectly familiar with the airs to which

COME SOPEA, ' as above' ; when a passage or section is repeated, to save the trouble of recomposing, reprinting, or recopying. COMES, JUAN BAPTISTA, born in the pro-

vince of Valencia about 1560 ; Chapel-master of the Cathedral and of the Church del Patriarca at Valencia. His compositions, said to be excellent, are to be found mainly at Valencia and in the Escurial. Eslava in his ' Lira sacra' publishes a set of Christmas Day responses for three choirs in twelve parts, which amply justify Comes' reputation in Spain. [M. C. C ] COMETTANT, OSCAE, born at Bordeaux, April 18, 1819, entered the Paris Conservatoire in Nov. 1839, where he studied under El wart and Carafa till the end of 43. He first became known as a pianist, and as the author of a number of pieces for that instrument, duets for piano and violin, as well as songs and choruses. He also came forward as a writer, and soon obtained reputation as the musical critic of the 'Siecle,' with which he is still connected (1877). Comettant has an easy, humorous, brilliant style; he is a great traveller, and has published a large number of books on various subjects which

COMIC OPERA.

COMMER.

(vaudeville-wise) they had been written, took on themselves this portion of the dumb actors' duties—doubtless with sufficient spirit and intensity. The popularity of these performances, which, in spite or because of the restrictions upon them, increased day by day, eventually brought about a treaty of peace between the would-be monopolists of speech and song and the 'marionettes.' In 1716 Catherine Vanderberg, then directress, obtained a licence for the presentation of dramatic pieces interspersed with singing and dancing, 1and accompanied by instruments, to which the name ' ope"ra comique' was given, and has since inFrance always been applied. Meanwhile the numerous alumni of the Neapolitan school, of whose existence the Abbe Raguenet had first made his countrymen aware, had been continuing the important work, initiated by the Florentine Academy a century earlier, of cultivating and refining musical expression—the widest sphere for whose exercise is unquestionably the musical drama. As among the French ' opera comique,' so among the Italians 'opera buffu,' took root and nourished, though restricted for a long time to short pieces of one act only, which were given (as 'divertissements' continued to be till our own time) between the acts of 'opere serie.' One of the most successful of these (it still keeps the stage), the ' Serva Padrona' of Pergolesi, was produced in Paris by French performers in 1746—ten years after the untimely death of its composer— with favour, but without any perceptible effect on the French taste. But its second production, in 1752, resulted in bringing the new Italian and the old French tastes into direct and fierce antagonism. Among the leaders in this war, of which that of the Gluckists and Piccinnists was but a continuation, one of the most distinguished was Jean Jacques Rousseau, who indulged his love of paradox to the extent of endeavouring to prove that, the French language being incapable of association with music, French music was and always must be nonexistent. Rousseau's practical commentary on this thesis was the subsequent and very successful production of ' Le Devin du Village.' Since the beginning of the 18th century comic opera has everywhere divided with serious the attention and affection alike of composers and audiences. Among every people cultivating musical drama it has had its creators and admirers. The conditions of comic opera in Italy and France, where it has as yet taken the deepest root and branched out most luxuriantly, have remained unchanged since its first growth in either country. In the former the dialogue of opera is still uttered musically; in the latter it is for the most part spoken. A class of comedian has consequently been formed, and indeed brought to perfection, in France, which has no existence in Italy—a class formed of actors, and therefore on the French stage speakers, who are also not unfrequently singers of considerable, and

indeed very considerable, skill. On the Italian stage the singing actor never speaks. The progress therefore of comic opera in the direction it has taken in France has in Italy been impossible ; and whether from this or some other cause productiveness in this delightful form of art on the part of Italian composers may be said to have come to an end. More than sixty years have elapsed since the production of ' II Barbiere,' thirty since that of 'Don Pasquale.' Moreover some of the best modern works of this class, whether by Italian or other composers, have been formed on the French model and first produced on the French stage. ' Le Comte Ory' of Rossini, and ' La Fille du Regiment' of Donizetti, are to all intents and purposes French operas. The present undisputed representative of Italian musical drama, Verdi, made some experiments in opera buff'a at the outset of his career; but with such small success as to have discouraged him from renewing them. [J.H.]

380

1 Comic opera is the opera of Cvmedy, nut 'comic' in the vul.-ar English sense. "

COMMA. A comma is a very minute interval of sound, the difference resultingfromthe processof timing up by several steps from one note to another in two different ways. There are two commas. I. The common comma is found by tuning up four perfect fifths from a fixed note, on the one hand, and two octaves and a major third on the other, which ostensibly produce the same note, thus—

or by multiplying the number of the vibrations of the lowest note by ^ for each fifth, by 2 for each octave, and by i for the perfect third. The result in each case will be found to be different, and the vibrations of the two sounds are found by the latter process to be in the ratio of So : 81. The difference between the two is a comma. 2. The comma maxima, or Pyth agorean comma, is the difference resulting from the process of tunim; up twelve perfect fifths on the one hand, and the corresponding number of octaves on the other; or, by multiplying the number of vibrations of the lowest note by 4 for everyfifth,and by 2 for every octave. The difference will appear in the vibration of the two notes thus obtained in the ratio of 524,288 : 551,441, or nearly 80 : 81'0915. Other commas may be found by analogous processes, but the above two are the only ones [C.H.H.P.] usually taken account of. COMMANO, GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE, an Italian

basso, engaged at the King's Theatre in Handel's company in 1731. He sang the part of the Mago, originally intended for a tenor, in the revival of ' Rinaldo' in that year; and that of Timagene in 'Poro.' His name does not occur again. [J.M.] COMMER, FRANZ, born Jan. 23, 1813, at Cologne, a pupil of Joseph Klein, Leibl, Rungenhagen, A. W. Bach, and A. B. Marx; librarian to

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COMMUNION SERVICE.

the 'KSnigliche Musik-Institut,' choir-master at the Catholic church of St. Hedwig in Berlin (1846), member of the ' Akademie der Kiinste,' and joint-founder with Theodor Kullak of the Berlin 'Ton-Kunstler-Verein.' He is best known as the editor of the following important works :— ' Collectio operum musicorum Batavorum saeculi XVI,' 12 vols.; 'Musica sacra XVI, XVII, saeculorum,' 13 vols., containing organ-pieces, masses and motets for men's voices and full choir; 'Collection de compositions pour l'orgue des XVI, XVII, XVIII siecles,' 6 parts. 'Cantica sacra . . . aus den XVI-XVIII Jahrh.' 2 vols. Commer has also composed some church music, Lieder and dances for pianoforte. [A. M.] COMMON TIME. The rhythm of two or four beats in a bar, also called Equal time. According to the method of teaching usually observed in England, common time is divided into two kinds, Simple and Compound, Simple common time including all rhythms of two or four in a bar, except those in which the 'measure note,' or equivalent of a beat, is dotted ; while a rhythm of two or four beats, each of which is dotted and therefore divisible into three, is called Compound common time. Thus 4-4 time or four crochets in a bar, and 2-4 or two crochets, are simple common times; while 6-4 or six crochets, 6-8 or six quavers, and 12-8 or twelve quavers, are compound common, because though the number of beats in a bar is even, each beat is of the value of three crochets or quavers respectively, and may be expressed by a dotted note. A better and more logical method is that taught in Germany, by which all rhythms are divided into Equal and Unequal, that is having two or three beats as a foundation, and each of th se again into Simple and Compound; simple rhythms being such as have either two or three beats in a bar, the first alone accented, and compound rhythms those in which each bar is made up of two or more bars of simple time, and which have therefore two or more accents, the first being the strongest. It will be seen that according to this system, 4-4 time, which we call simple common time, will be considered as compound common, being made up of two bars of 2-4 time, just as 6-8 is compound common, being made up of two bars of 3-8 time. And this plan has the advantage that it allows for the secondary accent which properly belongs to the third beat of a bar of 4-4 time, but which is not accounted for by the theory that the time is simple. Although the term common time is generally applied to all equal rhythms, it properly belongs only to that of four crochets in a bar, the tempo ordinario of the Italians, denoted by the sign C> which is a modernized form of the semicircle Q of the ancient 'measured music,' in which it signified the so-called 'tempus imperfectum' or division of a breve into two semibreves, in contradistinction to 'tempus perfectum' in which the breve was worth three. Another relic of the ancient time-signatures which is of importance in modern music is the sign of the 'diminutio simplex,' which was a

semicircle crossed by a vertical line (J , and indicated a double rate of speed, breves being sung as semibreves, semibreves as minims, and so on. The modern form of this sign, (£, has much the same signification, and indicates the time called 'alia breve,' or two minims in a bar in quick tempo. [SeeBEEVB.] [F.T.] COMMUNION SERVICE. The ancient counterpart of the English Communion Service, the Mass, has always been looked upon by those who have held music to be an important part of worship as a fit opportunity for displaying the grandest resources of musical effect. The magnificent works which have been produced by great masters for the use of the Roman church are well known to musicians, but for a variety of reasons which this is not the place to discuss, the English Communion Service has not been so fortunate, though the words available for musical purposes are almost the same. Most of those remarkable composers who wrote the music for the English services in the early days of the Reformation have been far less liberal of their attention to this than to the ordinary Morning and Evening Services, having been content to write music merely for the Creed and the Kyrie, and sometimes the Sanctus. This was evidently not the intention of the compilers of the service, nor was it the idea of Marbeck, who adapted the first music for it. In the first Prayer Book of Edward VI the Communion Service was ordered to be introduced by an ' Introit,' according to an ancient custom of the Western church, which was sung to a chant. This injunction was omitted in later editions, but the custom of singing while the priest goes up to the altar still continues, though there is no rubrical direction for it. At one time it became customary to sing a Sanctus, but that seems to be growing into disfavour at the present time. The Offertory sentences were ordered to be said or sung, and for them also there is music in Marbeck, but none in later composers of the early period, probably because the word ' sung' was afterwards struck out of the rubric, and the sentences ordered to be read by the priest—an order which does not now prevent their being sung by the choir in many churches after the manner of an anthem. The Kyrie which foDows each commandment is almost universally sung wherever there is any music in the service at all, and the settings of it are fairly innumerable. Many attempts have been made to vary the monotony of the repetitions by setting each to different music, by varying the harmonies of a common melody, or by alternating harmony and unison of the voices. The latter probably best hits the desired mean between musical effect and comprehensibility. The Creed has invited most composers who have written for the service at all. Marbeck's setting of it with the ' Gloria in excelsis' is the freest and most musical of all his arrangement. [CREED.] With the Creed most frequently ends the musical part of the service, probably because there has been a very general prejudice against unconfirmed choir-boys being present at the celebration. Hence also there is not much

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COMPOSITION PEDALS.

music writtenforthe latter part, though Marbeck's Mais composez un ne ricorderis, and Tallis's settings go throughout the service to Pour lamenter notre maistre et bon pere.' the end. Marbeck's work embraces a good deal His reputation stood high with the contrapuntists which is not sung now, such as the versicles with of his own and the succeeding age, and it is which the Post Communion used to begin, and the amply sustained by the few compositions which Lord's Prayer which used to follow them, and now are known to be his. These are, two motets in begins the Post Communion, the versicles having Petruccio di Fossombrone's ' Motetti XXXIII'; been removed. But though the Lord's Prayer is 21 compositions in Petruccio's ' Harmonice Mustill retained, it is not customary to sing it as used sices Odhecaton'; two songs in Petruccio's colto be done in the Roman and in the early days of lection of ' Frottole'; an ' Asperges' and a the English church. Marbeck's setting of it is to 'Credo,' both a 4, in Petruccio's 'Fragments what is called a varied descant, and the chants Missarum'; a motet ' 0 bone Jesu,' signed simply for the versicles are most of them drawn from old Loyset, in Petruccio's 'Motetti della Corona'; Roman antiphonaria. The Sanctus has been more some motets in the collection 'Trium vocum frequently set than the Gloria in Excelsis, probably Cantiones' (Nuremberg, 1541), and, finally, a because it was, as before mentioned, used out of its curious five-part motet, now in the Pope's Chapel, proper place while the choir-boys were still in in which the tenor and second alto sing 'Fera church. pessima devoravitfiliummeum Joseph,' while the In the primitive church it was customary to treble, first alto, and bass are recounting the insing a psalm while the people were communi- juries received by Pope Julius II from Louis XII cating. It was called 'communio.' The psalm of France. Compere has been confounded with ' 0 taste and see' wai so sung in the churches of Piston, who had the same Christian name— Jerusalem and Antioch in the 4th century. In Loyset, a diminutive of Louis. The confusion the first edition of the English Prayer Book this arises from the practice of the early masters, of custom was ordered to be preserved, but the in- signing their compositions with the Christian [M.C.C.] junction was afterwards removed. [C. H. H. P.] name alone. COMPASS, from the Latin compassus, ' a COMPOSITION means literally ' putting tocircle,' designates the range of notes of any voice gether,' and is now almost exclusively applied to or instrument as lying within the limits of the the invention of music—a novelist or a poet extreme sounds it is capable of producing. being never spoken of as a composer except by The compass of the various instruments which way of analogy, but a producer of music being are in use in modern music will be found under almost invariably designated by that title. their respective names; but it may be said gen- 'Gedichtet,' says Beethoven, "octer wie man erally that it is limited in the direction of the sagt, componirt' (Briefe, Nohl, no. 200). As bass, but often varies in the direction of the treble far as the construction of a whole movement according to the skill of the player, except in from the original ideas is concerned the word is instruments of fixed intonation. perhaps not ill adapted, but for the ideas themThe compass of a modern orchestra is gene- selves nothing could be more inappropriate. For rally from about the lowest the mysterious process of originating them the note of the double basses to word 'invention' seems more suitable, but even about E in altissimo, which that does not at all describe it with certainty. It can be taken by the violin if is the fruit sometimes of concentration and someproperly led up to. times of accident; it can hardly be forced with The compass of voices for chorus purposes is success, though very ingenious imitations of other from F below the bass stave to A above the peoples' ideas to be made to look like new may treble stave. Solos are not often written above be arrived at by practice and the habitual study C in alt, except for special singers; as the part of of existing music. Nevertheless the title of comAstrafiammante in Mozart's ' Zauberflote,' which poser, though only half applicable, is an honourwas written for Josepha Hofer, his sister-in-law, able one, and those who do put together other and goes up to F in altissimo. [See AGUJARI.] people's ideas in the manner which should best The compass of voices varies much in different justify the title are generally those who are [C.H.H.P.] climates. In Russia there are said to be basses most seldom called by it. of extraordinary depth, capable of taking the F COMPOSITION PEDALS. As up to within an 8ve below the bass stave. Basses are not often heard in England who can go below lower C, the last century English organs were quite unwhich is a fifth above that. [C. H. H. P.] provided with pedals, the notes required to be played had to be lowered exclusively by the COMPERE, LOTSET, eminent contrapuntist of fingers of the two hands ; and as a hand could the 15th century, chorister, canon, and chancellor rarely be spared for changing the combination of of the Cathedral of St. Quentin, where he was stops during the performance of a piece of music, buried 1518. In Crespel's lament on the death the same stops that were prepared previously to of Okeghem he is mentioned among the dis- its commencement had generally to be adhered tinguished pupils of the latter— to throughout. When the instrument had two 'Agricola, Verbonnet, Prioris, manuals of full compass, as was the case with all Josquin des Pres, Gaspard, Brumel, Compere, the most complete examples, a change from forte Ne parlez plus de joyeulx chants, ne ris, to piano, and back, was practicable, and repre-

COMPOSITION PEDALS.

CONCENTORES SODALES.

sented almost the full amount of contrast then available; and the departments which are now called the 'great' and 'choir' organs were then not unfrequently named from this circumstance the 'loud' and the 'soft' organs. When the organ possessed but one complete manual, the means for even this relief, either by change of row of keys or shifting of stops by the hands, were not readily presented; and this difficulty pointed to the necessity for some contrivance for obtaining it by the foot; and the invention of the 'shifting movement,' as it was called, was the result. Father Smith's smaller organs, generally consisting of a Great manual of full compass and an echo to middle C, were usually supplied with an appliance of this kind. On depressing the controlling pedal all the stops smaller than the principal, including the reed, were silenced; and on letting it rise they again sounded, or at least so many of them as had in the first instance been drawn. The pedal was hitched down when in use, and when released the sliders were drawn back into position by strong springs. Shifting movements remained in use for small organs up to the commencement of the present century, about which time they were superseded by the late Mr. Bishop's invention called ' Composition Pedals,' in which the contending springs were done away with, and the stops were left to remain as the pedal arranged them until another pedal, or a hand, made a readjustment. We can now say a ' hand,' because a few years before the invention of Mr. Bishop's appliances pedals for drawing down the lower notes of the manuals had been added to English organs, so that a hand could be spared for the above purpose. Composition pedals were of two kinds—singleaction and double action; but the latter only are now made. A 'single-action' would either throw out or draw in given stops, but would not do both. A 'double-action' composition• pedal will not only draw out a given number of stops— we will suppose the first four—but will draw in all but the same four. [E. J. H.] COMPOUND TIME. A rhythm formed by the combination of two, three, or four bars of simple time. The compound times most used are as follows:— Compound Common Times. 6-8 formed of two bars of 3-8 time. 6-4 » .. 3-4 » 12-8 „ four „ 3-8 „ Compound Triple Times. 9-8 formed of three bars of 3-8 time. 9-4 ,. » 3-4 » To these may be added 4-4 time, which is made up of two bars of 2-4 time, and in Germany is always classed with the compound times. In England however it is more often called simple time, those rhythms only being considered as compound, in which each beat is divisible into three parts. [See COMMON TIME.] [F.T.] COMTE ORY, LE, an opera in two acts; libretto in French by Scribe and Delestre-Poirson,

music by Rossini; produced at the Acade"mie Royale, Aug. 20, 1828. Neither libretto nor music were new; the former was an adaptation of a piece produced by the same authors 12 years before, and the greater part of the music had been written for ' II viaggio a Reims,' an opera composed for the coronation of Charles X. ' Le Comte Ory' was first performed in England by a French company (Mr. Mitchell) at the St. James's Theatre, June 20,1849. [G.] CONACHER & Co. established an organ factory at Huddersfield in 1854. Out of a list of upwards of 400 organs built or enlarged by them, we may quote those of the parish church, Huddersfield, St. Michael's, Hulme, near Manchester, Glasgow University, and the Catholic cathedral, St. John's, New Brunswick. [V. de P.] CON BRIO, 'with life and fire.' Allegro con brio was a favourite tempo with Beethoven; hardly one of his earlier works but has an example or two of it, and it is found in the overture op. 124, and in the last piano sonata. The most notable instances are the first movements of the Eroica and the C minor, and the Finale of the No. 7 symphonies. Mendelssohn, on the other hand, rarely if ever employs it. His favourite quick tempo is Allegro molto or di molto. [6.] CON SPIRITO, ' with spirit'; an indication oftener found in Haydn and Mozart than in later compositions. [G.] CONCENTORES SODALES, established in June 1798, and to some extent the revival of an association formed in 1790 by Dr. Callcott, Dr. Cooke, and others. For that society Dr. Callcott wrote his glee ' Peace to the souls of the heroes,' and Robert Cooke ' No riches from his scanty store.' After its dissolution the want of such an association was greatly felt, and in 1798 Mr. Horsley proposed to Dr. Callcott the formation of the 'Concentores Sodales.' The first meeting was held on June 9, at the Buffalo Tavern, Bloomsbury, and was attended by Dr. Callcott, R. Cooke, J. Pring, J. Horsfall, W. Horsley, and S. Webbe, jun. Among the early members were S. Webbe, sen., Linley, and Bartleman, Harrison, Greatorex, Spofforth, etc. Each member who was a composer contributed a new canon on the day of his presidency. In the Additional MSS. in the British Museum, 27,693, is the programme of Thursday, Nov. 18, 1802. The society began to decline about 1812, and it was decided to dissolve it. In May 1817, at a meeting at the Freemasons' Tavern, at which Attwood, Elliott, Horsley, Linley, and Spofforth were present, it was resolved to re-establish it, with this difference — that no one should be a member who was not practising composition and did not, previous to his ballot, produce a work in at least four parts. The original members were soon joined by Evans, W. Hawes, T.F. Walmisley, and Smart, and later by Bishop, Goss, Jolly, and Attwood. The associates included King, Leete, Terrail, and Sale. The members took the

383

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CONCERT-PITCH.

chair by turns, and the chairman for the evening usually produced a new canon which was followed by glees of his own composition, and a madrigal or some vocal work. As an illustration of the programmes may be cited that of Feb. 13, 1824, when Mr. (now Sir) John Goss presided:—newcanon, 4 in 2, ' Cantate Domino'; new glees, •While the shepherds,' 'My days have been,' ' When happy love,' ' There is beauty on the mountain,' 'Kitty Fell,' 'Calm as yon stream,' ' List! for the breeze'; glee by Spoffbrth, ' Hail, smiling morn.' The society was dissolved in 1847, when it was resolved to present the books belnnging to it to Gresham College, the wine to the secretary. T. F. Walmisley. and the money in hand was spent on a piece of plate for Mr. Horsle}', the father of the society. [C. M.]

and June 30, 1877, no less than 386 concerts and recitals of individual artists, including the 'Wagner Festival,' Mr. Rubinstein's Recitals, etc., etc. In Manchester there are the Gentlemen's Concerts and Mr. Charles Halle's Concerts. In Liverpool, the Philharmonic. In Edinburgh, the Reid Concert and the Choral Union; in Glasgow the Choral Union. In New York the Philharmonic is on the model of our own ; Mr. Thomas's orchestra gives periodical concerts of deserved reputation. In Boston the Handel and Haydn Society for Oratorios, and the Harvard Institute for chamber music, are the chief musical bodies. In Vienna, the concerts of the TonkunstlerSocietat appear to have been the earliest institution for periodical performances. They were founded at the same date with Banister's Concerts in London, 1772. The history of Concerts in Vienna has been thoroughly examined in Hanslick's ' Concert-wesen in Wien' (Vienna 1869). The first of the famous Gewandhaus Concerts of Leipsic, which through Mendelssohn's exertions reached so high a rank in the music of Europe, was held on Nov. 25, 1781. In France, the ' Concerts Spirituels' began as far back as 1725, and the concerts of the Conservatoire (Societe des Concerts) in 1828; the Concerts Populaires (Pasdeloup), 1861, etc. In Amsterdam, the 'Felix Meritis' Concerts (1780) are celebrated all over the continent. The programme of a miscellaneous concert is not less important than the execution of it. For fifty-nine seasons the programme of the Philharmonic Society included 2 symphonies and 2 overtures, besides a concerto, and often another piece of full sonata-form, with several voial pieces and smaller instrumental compositions. In 1872, however, after the removal of fte concerts to St. James's Hall, this rule v as broken through, and the programmes are now of more reasonable length. A symphony, a concerto, and two overtures, besides less important items, are surely as much as any musical appetite can properly digest. Mendelssohn somewhere proposes to compose an entire programme, in which all the pieces should have due relation to each other, but he never carried out his intention. [£••]

CONCERT. The word was originally 'consort '—as in Ecclus. xxxii. 5, or in Milton's lines, ' At a Solemn Musick'—and meant the union or symphony of various instruments playing in concert to one tune. A 'consort of viols' in the 15 th and 16th centuries was a quartet or sestet, or other number of stringed instruments performing in concert—concerted music. From this to the accepted modern meaning of the term, a musical performance of a varied and miscellaneous programme—for an oratorio can hardly be accurately called a concert—the transition is easy. In German the word ' Concert' has two meanings—a concert and a concerto. The first concerts in London at which there was a regular audience admitted by payment seem to have been those of John Banister, between 1672 and 78. They were held at his house in Whitefriars, Fleet Street, daily at four in the afternoon, and the admission was one shilling. After Banister's death, concerts were given by Thos. Britton, ' the small-coal man,' at his house in Clerkenwell, on Thursdays, subscription 10s. per annum, and continued till his death in 1714. By the latter part of last century the concerts of London had greatly multiplied, and were given periodically during the season by the 'Academy of Antient Music' (founded 1710), the 'Castle Society' (17 24\ the ' Concert of Antient Music' (1776), 'The Professional Concerts' (1783), besides occasional concerts of individual artists, amongst which those of Salomon and Haydn were preeminent in 1791 and 92. In 1813 the Philharmonic Society was founded, to give eight concerts a year, and has been followed in our own time by many other enterprises, of which the Musical Society, the New Philharmonic Society, the Crystal Palace Saturday Concerts, and the British Orchestral Society, for orchestral music; the 'Musical Union,' the 'Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts,' and Charles Halle's Recitals, for chamber in usic; the Sacred Harmonic Society, Leslie's, Barnby's, and the Bach Choir for vocal music, have been most prominent in the metropolis. Mr. Hullah's four historical concerts (184;) must not be forgotten. At the present date, in addition to the established periodical concerts just named, there were given in the metropolis between March 1

C O N C E R T - M E I S T E R , t h e German term for t h e leader, i. e. t h e first of t h e first violins in an orchestra, who sits next t h e conductor and transmits his wishes to t h e b a n d . H e is, as far as a n y one player can be, responsible for t h e attack, t h e tempo, t h e nuances of the playing. Ferdinand David, w h o was t h e head of the orchestra at t h e Gewandhaus concerts during Mendelssohn's reign, a n d till his own death, was the

model concert-meister of our time. [GJ CONCERT-PITCH. An absurd expression, meaning a pitch slightly higher than the ordinal" pitch, used at concerts for the sake of producin ; brilliancy and effect. Since attention has bee.i given to the subject of pitch the expression is or ought to be obsolete. [G.]

CONCERT SPIEITUEL.

CONCERT SPIRITUEL.

385

CONCERT SPIEITUEL. A great musical institution of France, dating from the reign of Louis XV. The Academie Royale de Musique (the Opera House) being closed on the great religious festivals, it occurred to Anne Danican Philidor to give concerts on these occasions in place of the prohibited performances. Having obtained the necessary permission, Philidor entered into an agreement with Francine, the Impresario of the Opera, by which he pledged himself to pay 1000 francs a year, and to perform neither French nor opera music. The first Concert Spirituel accordingly took place between 6 and 8 p.m. on Sunday in Passion Week, March i8, 1725. The programme included a Suite for violin and a Capriccio by Lalande, Corelli's 'Nuit de Noel' (Concerto 8, op. 6), and a 'Confitebor' and 'Cantate Domino' of Lalande, and the concert was most successful. The number of concerts in the year never exceeded twenty-four. They were held in the Salle des Suisses of the Tuileries, on Purification Day, Feb. 2 ; Lady Day, March 25 ; on certain days between Palm Sunday and Low Sunday (first Sunday after Easter); Whit Sunday; Corpus Christi Sunday ; on Aug. 15, Sept. 8, Nov. 1,8; Dec. 24, 25—those being the days on which the Opera was closed. In 1728 Philidor, having previously acquired the right of introducing French and opera music into the programmes, transferred his privilege to Simard, on an annual payment of 3000 francs, and the musical direction of the concerts was confided to Mouret. On Dec. 25, 1734, Thuret, the then Impresario of the Opera, took the concerts into his own hands, and appointed Rebel leader of the orchestra. In 1741 he resigned it to Royer for six years, at an annual rent of 6000 francs; in 1749 Eoyer renewed the contract on the same terms, in partnership with Caperan. In 1752 the rent was raised to 7S 00 francs, and in 1755 to 9000 francs, at which it remained for eight years. On Royer's death in 1755, Mondonville took the direction of the concerts until 1762, when he was succeeded by D'Auvergne, who retained it for nine years in combination with Joliveau and Caperan. In 1771 D'Auvergne and Berton renewed the agreement; but the concerts had for some time been failing, and D'Auvergne — as we learn from a remark by Burney ('Present State,' etc. p. 23)—becoming very poor, cancelled the agreement after a short trial. Gavinies, in 1773, took the direction with Le Due and Gossec, and was more successful. Le Gros succeeded him in 1777, with Berthaume as his partner in 1789 ; but political events gave a fatal blow to the undertaking, and in 1791 the Concerts Spirituels ceased to exist. We have given the names of the successive Impresarios because many among them are worthy of mention, not as mere speculators, but as true artists. Mouret, Rebel, D'Auvergne, and Berton are among the best composers and leaders of the orchestra that the Academie can show in the 18th century; while Gavinie's, Simon Leduc, Lahoussaye, Gudnin, and Berthaume, who conducted the concerts during the last eighteen

years of their existence, were all violin-players of very great merit. Whatever may be said of the vocal music and the French singers at the Concerts Spirituels it must be admitted that foreign artists always met with the most courteous reception, and also that the concerts greatly assisted the progress of music in France, especially by developing a taste for the highest orchestral music. Among the celebrated artists who appeared, it will be sufficient to mention the famous brothers Besozzi, whose duets for oboe and bassoon made furore in 1735 ; the violinists Traversa, Jarnowick, Francois Lamotte, Viotti, and Frederic Eck; the horn-players Punto and Rodolphe ; Jerome Besozzi and Louis Lebrun (oboe) ; Etienne Ozi (bassoon) ; Michel Yost (clarinet), and many others of less repute. Among many illustrious singers we must content ourselves with mentioning Farinelli, Raff, Caffarelli, Davide, Mesdames Agujari, Danzi, Todi, and Mara. Up to the present time no history of the Concerts Spirituels has been written, though ample materials exist in the monthly 'Mercure de France,' which plainly testifies to the importance of the concert movement and the influence it exercised on musical art in France. To the brilliant success of the Concerts Spirituels must be attributed the creation of many rival societies which served the cause of good music in France, and also encouraged it abroad. Thus in 1770 the important enterprise of the Concert des Amateurs was founded by d'Ogni and Delahaye at the Hotel Soubise. It was conducted by Gossec, and its solo violin was the famous Chevalier de St. Georges. At these concerts the symphonies of J. B. Toeschi, Van Maldere, Vanhall, Stamitz and Gossec, for wind instruments, were first produced. When the Amateura removed to the Galerie de Henri III, in the Rue Coq Heron, they adopted the title of Concert de la Loge Olympique, and their orchestra contained the best players of the day. The change took place in 1780, a year after the introduction of Haydn's symphonies into France by the violinist Fonteski. So great was the success of these admirable compositions as to induce the directors to engage the great composer to write six symphonies specially for the society. They date from 1784 to 1789; are in C, G minor, Eb, Bb, D, and A; and were afterwards published in Paris as op. 51, under the special title of 'Repertoire de la Loge Olympique.' Two similar institutions, the Concert de la Rue de Clery (1789), and the Concert Feydeau (1794), may be considered as feeble imitations of the Loge Olympique. They had, however, their periods of success—according to F6tis in 1796 and 1802. Among the artists who chiefly contributed to the eclat of the performances we can only name the violinists R. Kreutzer and Rode, Fred. Duvernoy the horn-player, and the singers Garat and Mme. Barbier -Valbonne. In 1805 the Concerts Spirituels were re-established by the Impresario of the Italian Opera House, and the sacred concerts given during Cc

CONCERT SPIRITUEL. 386 Holy Week in Paris at the Cirque d'hiver, the Conservatoire, and other places, are still known by that name. In fact, in a historical point of view, the Concerts du Conservatoire must be considered as the successors of the Concerts Spirituels and of the Concerts de la Loge Olympique. The creation of the celebrated Socie'te' des Concerts du Conservatoire was due to Habeneck, and its first ' Matine'e dominicale' took place on Sunday, the 9th of March, 1828, at 2 p.m., in the theatre of the Conservatoire—the same hour and place at which they are still given. The programme was as follows :—(1) Beethoven's Eroica Symphony; (2) Duet from the 'Semiramide,' sung by Nelia and Caroline Maillard; (3) Solo for Horn, composed and executed by Meifred; (4) an air of Rossini's, sung by Mile. Nelia Maillard; (5) Concerto by Rode, performed by Mr. Eugene Sauzay ; (6) Chorus from 'Blanche de Provence'; (7) Overture to' Les Abencerages'; and (8) the Kyrie and Gloria from the Coronation Mass—all by Cherubini. The effect of this programme was extraordinary. The concerts are held on Sundays at 7 p.m. The season originally consisted of six concerts, but by degrees the number has been increased to nine. Since Jan. 7, 1866, the same programme has been always repeated on two consecutive Sundays in consequence of a division of the subscribers into 'old' and 'new.' The seats, which originally varied from 2 to 5 francs, are now 5, 9, 10, and 12 francs. The orchestra is composed of 84' musicians, 74 of them being 'Socie'taires,' and the other ten assistant members. The following is the list of conductors :— Conductor

Sub-Conductor|

Tilmant aine Habeneck Narcisse Girard Ditto Tilmant Deldevez G. Hainl Ditto Deldevez Lamoureux E. Altes

Date l i a r . 9,1828—Ap. 10, 48 Jan. 14, 49—Jan. 60 1860—186S 1864—March 17,73 May 25, 72—1877 1677

The choir contains 36 members, with a small number of assistants. M. Heyberger leader. The repertoire of this society comprises all the symphonies of the classical masters, overtures of every school, oratorios, selections from operas and religious music, choruses with and without accompaniment, pieces for the orchestra alone, ode-symphonies and instrumental solos. For some years the programmes have been more varied than was formerly the case, introducing the works of Schumann, Berlioz, and Waoner, and of the young masters of the modern French school. M. A. Elwart published in i860 his ' Histoire de la Societe des Concerts du Conservatoire,' and the author of this article has collected materials for a ' Histoire du Conservatoire National de Musique,' which will contain a sketch of the work of that illustrious institution from its foundation by Habeneck to the present date [1878]. [G. C ] CONCERT-STUCK, i. e. Concert-piece. A term familiar to the English reader through 1

Fourteen first, and fourteen second violins.

CONCERTINA. Weber's well-known composition in F minor (op. 79),.which is to all intents and purposeB a concerto for piano and orchestra. Weber's intention was to make it more dramatic than usual, and to have given the movements expressive headings, and hence perhaps the variation in the title. Schumann has left a ' Concert-Stiick' for 4 horns and orchestra (op. 82), which also is a concerto under another name. CONCERTANTE (Ital.). In the last century this name was given to a piece of music for orchestra in which there were parts for solo instruments, and also to compositions for several solo instruments without orchestra. The fine concerto by Handel in C major, for two violins and violoncello, accompanied by strings and two oboes (published in part 21 of the German Handel Society's edition) is in Arnold's old English edition entitled 'Concertante.' In the present day the word is chiefly used as an adjective, prominent solo instrumental parts being spoken of as ' concertante parts,' and a work being said to be 'in the concertante style' when it affords opportunities for the brilliant display of the powers of the performers. For example, those quartets of Spohr in which especial prominence is given to the part of the first violin are sometimes called 'concertante quartets.' His op. 48 is a ' Sinfonie concertante, pour 2 Violons avec Orchestre'; his op. 88 a 'Concertante' for the same. See also his op. 112-115, etc. [E. P.] CONCERTINA, a portable instrument of the Seraphine . family, patented by the late Sir Charles Wheatstone June 19, 1829. It is hexagonal, and has a keyboard at each end, with expansible bellows between the two. The sound is produced by the pressure of air 8va at from the bellows on free metallic . ip reeds. The compass of the treble 5E ' concertina is four octaves, through JJ I ===- which it has a complete chromatic T scale. This instrument is double action, and produces the same note both on drawing and pressing the bellows. Much variety of tone can be obtained by a skilful player, and it has the power of being played with great expression and complete sostenuto and staccato. Violin, flute, and oboe music can be performed on it without alteration ; but music written specially for the concertina cannot be played on any other instrument, except the organ or harmonium. Nothing but the last-named instruments can produce at once the extended harmonies, the sostenuto and staccato combined, of which the concertina is capable. There are also tenor, bass, and double bass concertinas, varying in size and shape. These instruments are single-action, producing the sound by pressure only, and are capable of taking tenor, bass, and double bass parts without alteration. The compass of these is as follows— Tenor

„ £:

Bast

_ 4

Double bast (8i>e lower)

CONCERTINA.

CONCERTO.

making the total range of the four instruments 6J octaves. The late Signor Regondi was the first to make the instrument known, and was followed by Mr. George Case. Mr. Richard Blagrove is now the principal performer and professor. Among the music written specially for the instrument are 2 Concertos in G and D for solo concertina and orchestra, by Molique; 2 ditto ditto in D and Eb, by G. Regondi; Sonata for piano and concertina in Bt>, by Molique ; Quintet for concertina and strings, by G. A. Macfarren; Adagio for 8 concertinas in E, by E. Silas; Quintet in D for piano, concertina, violin, viola, and cello, by the same; 6 Trios for piano, concertina, and violin, by the same. Much brilliant salon music has also been written for it. Messrs. Wheatstone & Co. are the best makers. [G.]

is between the 'Suites Anglaises' and the 'Waldstein' sonata. In the time of Bach and Handel the word ' Concerto,' though applied exclusively to instrumental music, had a less restricted signification than is given to it in the present day. Many of the specimens of this form in the works of the masters named more nearly resemble symphonies than concertos in the modern acceptation of the term. For instance, the first of Handel's so-called 'Oboe Concertos' is written for strings, two flutes, two oboes, and two bassoons, and excepting in occasional passages these are treated orchestrally rather than as solo instruments; while of Bach we have a concerto for violino piccolo, three oboes, one bassoon, and two horns, with string quartet, and another for three violins, three violas, three violoncellos, and double bass, neither of which possess the characteristics of a modern concerto. The form, moreover, of the older concerto was much freer than now. With Bach we find a preference for the threemovement form at present in use. In the whole of his piano concertos, as well as in those for one or two violins, we find an allegro, a slow movement, and a finale in quick time—generally 3-8. The two concertos named above are, exceptionally, the former in four and the latter in only two movements. With Handel, on the other hand, the three-movement form is the exception. As examples of the freedom of which he makes use, may be quoted the movements of two of hie 'Twelve Grand Concertos' for two violins and violoncello soli, with accompaniment for stringed orchestra. These works are concertos in the modern sense, as regards the treatment of the solo instruments ; but their form is as varied aB possible. Thus the sixth consists of a Larghetto, Allegro ma non troppo, Musette, and two Allegros, the second of which (though not so entitled) is a minuet; while the eighth contains an Allemande, Grave, Andante allegro, Adagio, Siciliana, and Allegro. It should be mentioned here that Handel was one of the first, if not the first, to introduce opportunities for extempore performance on the part of the soloist, thus anticipating the 'cadenza,' an important feature of the modern concerto, to be spoken of presently. In the second movement of his Organ Concerto in D minor (No. 4 of the second set) are to be found no less than six places marked organo ad libitum, and with a pause over the rests in the accompaniments, indicating that the player (that is to say, he himself) was to improvise.

CONCERTINO (Ital., dim. of Concerto). A piece for one or more solo instruments with orchestral accompaniment, which differs from the CONCERTO in its much greater conciseness. The concertino is less restricted in form than the concerto ; it may be in three short movements, which are usually connected; but it more often consists of one rather long movement, in which the time may be changed or a middle part in slower tempo be introduced episodically. As good examples may be cited Weber's 'Concertino' for clarinet, op. 26, and Schumann's 'Introduction and Allegro Appassionato,' op. gi, for piano and orchestra. For some not very obvious reason the form is much less frequently used for the piano than for the violin or other orchestral instruments. [E. P.] CONCERTO (Ital.; Ger. and Fr. Concert). This name is now given to an instrumental composition designed to show the skill of an executant, and which is almost invariably accompanied by orchestra—one exception being Liszt's ' Concert Pathe'tique' for two pianos, and another Schumann's Sonata op. 14, originally published as 'Concert sans orchestre.' The word was however at one time used differently. It was first employed by Ludovico Viadana, who in 1602-3 published a series of motets for voices and organ, which he entitled 'Concerti ecclesiastici.' In this sense the word was used as equivalent to the Latin 'concentus,' and such works were called 'Concerti da Chiesa' (Church Concertos). Soon other instruments were added to the organ; and ultimately single instrumental movements in the sacred style were written which also received the name of 'Concerti da Chiesa.' The real inventor of the modern concerto as a concert piece was Giuseppe Torelli, who in 1686 published a 'Concerto da Camera' for two violins and bass. The form was developed by Corelli, Geminiani, and Vivaldi. From the first it resembled that of the sonata; and as the latter grew out of the suite, the movements becoming larger in form and with more internal cohesion, so it was also with the concerto : there is as much difference between a concerto by Bach and one by Beethoven as there

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The modern form of the concerto was finally settled by Mozart, and though several modifications have been introduced during the present century, the general lines of construction remain the same as fixed by him. Nearlyfiftyconcertos of his composition for various instruments are in existence, and, while presenting slight differences of detail, closely resemble one another in the more important points. The concerto form is founded upon that of the SONATA (which see); there are however several variations which must be noted. In the first place, a concerto consists of only three movements, the scherzo, for some (Jc2

CONCERTO.

CONCEETO.

not very obvious reason, being excluded. For the sake of completeness it should be mentioned that Litolfi's so-called Concerto-Symphonie in E flat, for piano and orchestra, has exceptionally a scherzo as the third of four movements. The first movement in Mozart's concertos always begins with a tutti passage for the orchestra, in which the principal subjects are announced, much as in the first part of the first movement of a sonata. Sometimes the ' second subject' is omitted in this portion of the piece, but it is more frequently introduced. An important difference in form, however, is that this first tutti always ends in the original key, and not in the dominant, or the relative major (if the work be in a minor key), as would be the case in a sonata. The solo instrument then enters, sometimes at once with the principal subject, and sometimes with a brilliant introductory passage. A repetition, with considerable modification, of the first tutti mostly follows, now divided between the principal instrument and the orchestra ; the second subject is regularly introduced, as in a sonata, and the 'first solo' ends with a brilliant passage in the key of the dominant (or relative major, as the case may be). A shorter tutti then leads to the second solo, which corresponds to the ' Durchfuhrungsatz,' or ' working out' of a sonata, and which, after various modulations, leads back to the original key. The principal subject is then re-introduced by the orchestra, but in a compressed form, and is continued by the soloist with the ' third solo,' which corresponds in its form to the latter part of a sonata movement. A short final tutti brings the movement to a close. In most older concertos a pause is made, near the end of this last tutti upon the 6-4 chord on the dominant for the introduction of a cadenza by the player. Though very general, this custom was by no means universal; in several of Dussek's concertos—notably in his fine one in G- minor, op. 49—no such pause is indicated. The cadenza, when introduced, could be either improvised by the player, or previously composed, either by himself or by some other person. Mozart has left us thirty-five cadenzas written for various concertos of his own, which, though presenting in general no very great technical difficulties, are models of their kind. Beethoven has also written cadenzas for his own concertos, as well as for that by Mozart in D minor. In the cadenza the player was expected not merely to show off his execution, but to display his skill in dealing with the subjects of the movement in which it was introduced. A cadenza consisting entirely of extraneous matter would be altogther faulty and out of place, no matter what its technical brilliancy. It was the invariable custom to finish the cadenza with a long shake on the chord of the dominant seventh, after which a short passage for the orchestra alone concluded the movement. In older works the soloist was silent during these few bars ; but in his concerto in C minor (Kochel's Catalogue, No. 491) Mozart for the first time tried the

experiment of associating the piano with the orchestra after the cadenza; and his example was followed by Beethoven in his concertos in C minor, G major, and Et>. Before proceeding to speak of the modifications introduced into the concerto by Beethoven and other more modern composers, it will be well to complete our description of the form as left by Mozart. The second movement, which might be an andante, a larghetto, an adagio, or any other slow tempo, resembled in its form the corresponding portion of a sonata. Sometimes the variation form was used, as in Mozart's two concertos in Bb (Kochel, Nos. 450 and 456); but more frequently the ordinary andante or larghetto was introduced. Two charming examples of the Romance will be found in the slow movement of Mozart's concertos in D minor and D major (Kochel, Nos. 466 and 537), though the latter is not, like the first, expressly so entitled, but simply bears the inscription larghetto. The solo part in the slow movements is frequently of an extremely florid character, abounding in passages of ornamentation. Sometimes a cadenza is also introduced at the close of this movement—e.g. in Mozart's Concertos in A major (Kochel, 414), C major (Kochel, 415), and G major (Kochel, 453). In such cases, as is evident from the examples written by Mozart himself for the works mentioned, the cadenza should be much shorter than in the first movement. The finale of a concerto was mostly in rondo form, though examples are to be found in Mozart of the variation form being employed for this movement also; see concertos in C minor (Kochel, 491), and G major (Kochel, 453). Sometimes this rondo was interrupted by a complete change of tempo. Thus the rondo of the concerto in C major (Kochel, 415), which is in 6-8 time, is twice interrupted by an adagio in C minor, 2-4; in the middle of the rondo of the concerto in Eb (Kochel, 482) is introduced an audantino cantabile; while another concerto in Eb (Kochel, 271) has a minuet as the middle portion of the final presto. Short cadenzas were also frequently introduced in the finales; the concerto in Eb, just mentioned, has no less than three, all of which, instead of being left to the discretion of the player, are, exceptionally, written out in full. Similar short cadenzas will be found in the rondo of Beethoven's concerto in C minor, op. 37, while in the finale of the concerto in G, op. 58, a pause is made with the special direction ' La cadenza sia corta'—the cadenza to be short. The innovations introduced by Beethoven in the form of the concerto were numerous and important. Foremost among these was the greater prominence given to the orchestra. In the concertos of Mozart, except in the tuttis, the orchestra has little to do beyond a simple accompaniment of the soloist, but with Beethoven, especially in his later concertos, the instrumental parts have 1really symphonic importance. Beethoven was also the first to connect the second and third movements (see concertos in G and E flat), an example which was imitated by Men-

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389

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CONDUCTOR.

delssohn, in whose pianoforte concertos in G minor and D minor all the movements follow continuously. Beethoven, moreover, in his concertos in 6 and E flat, broke through the custom of commencing the work with a long tutti for the orchestra; in the former the piano begins alone, arid in the latter it enters at the second bar. It is worthy of remark that the same experiment had been once, and only once, tried by Mozart, in his little-known concerto in Eb (Kbchel, 271), where the piano is introduced at the second bar. One more innovation of importance remains to be noticed. In his concerto in Eb, op. 73, Beethoven, instead of leaving a pause after the 6-4 chord for the customary cadenza, writes his own in full, with the note 'Non si fa una Cadenza, ma attacca subito il seguente'—' do not make a cadenza, but go on at once to the following.' His cadenza has the further peculiarity of being accompanied from the nineteenth bar by the orchestra. Another curious example of an accompanied cadenza is to be found in that which Beethoven has written for his pianoforte arrangement of his violin concerto, op. 61, through a considerable part of which the piano is accompanied by the drums, which give the chief subject of the movement. It is evident that the example of Beethoven in his Eb concerto led the way to the disuse of the introduced cadenza in the first movement. Neither Mendelssohn nor Brahms in their pianoforte concertos have inserted one at all; and •where such is intended, composers mostly write out in full what they wish played, as for example Mendelssohn in his violin concerto, op. 64 (where, it may be remarked in passing, the cadenza is the middle of the first movement, and not at the end). Schumann (concerto in A minor, op. 54) and Raff (concerto in C minor, op. 185) have also both written their cadenzas in full. The concertos written since those of Beethoven have been mostly constructed upon the lines he laid down. The introductory tutti has been ehortened (as in Mendelssohn's, Schumann's, and Raff's concertos), though occasionally works are Btill written in the older form, the most striking example being Brahms's concerto in D minor, in which the piano does not enter till the ninetyfirst bar. Sometimes also a quickening of the tempo is introduced at the end of the first movement (Schumann, op. 54; Grieg, op. 16). Various other modifications have been made by different composers, of which it is not necessary to speak in detail, as they are merely isolated examples, and have not, at least as yet, become accepted as models of the form. The two concertos for piano and orchestra by Liszt are constructed upon a plan so different from that generally adopted that they should rather be described as fantasias or rhapsodies than as concertos in the ordinary meaning of the term. Sometimes concertos are written for more than one solo instrument, and are then known as double, triple, etc., concertos as the case may be. The construction of the work is precisely the Banie as when composed for only one instrument.

As examples may be named Bach's concertos for two violins, and for two, three, and four pianos; Mozart's Concerto in Eb for two pianos, and in C for flute and harp; Beethoven's triple concerto, op. 56, for piano, violin, and violoncello ; Maurer's for 4 violins and orchestra. Mendelssohn's autograph MSS., now in the Imperial Library at Berlin, contain 2 Concertos for 2 pianos and orchestra, and one for piano and violin, with strings. [E. P.] CONCORD is a combination of notes which requires no further combination following it or preceding it to make it satisfactory to the ear. The concords are perfect fifths, perfect fourths, major and minor thirds, and major and minor sixths, and such combinations of them, with the octave and one another, as do not entail other intervals. Thus the combination of perfect fifth with major or minor third constitutes what is known as a common chord, as (a). And different dispositions of the same notes, which are called its inversions, give, first a bass note with its third and sixth, as (6) ; and, secondly, a bass note with its fourth and sixth, as (c). Besides these a chord composed of the third and sixth on the second note of any scale is regarded as a concord, though there is a diminished fifth or augmented fourth in it according to the distribution of the notes, as (d) or (e) (c)

(«)

—since the naturally discordant quality of the diminished fifth and augmented fourth is considered to be modified by placing the concordant note below them, a modification not effected when it is placed above them. This combination was treated as a concord even by the theorists of the old strict diatonic style of counterpoint. [See HABMONT.] [C.H.H.P.] CONDELL, HENRY, was a violinist in the orchestras at the Opera House and Drury Lane and Covent Garden Theatres early in the present century. In 1811 he gained a prize at the Catch Club for his glee, ' Loud blowe the wyndes.' He composed the music for the following dramatio pieces:—'The Enchanted Island,' ballet, 1804; ' Who wins ?' musical farce, 1808; and ' Transformation, ' musical farce, 1SI o; and was one of the six contributors to the comic opera, 'The Farmer's Wife,' 1814. He died in June 1824. [W. H. H.] CONDUCTOR—the English equivalent for the German ' Capellmeister,' and the French ' Chef d'orchestre'—has to study the score, correct the parts and see that they are clearly marked, beat the time for the band and chorus at rehearsal and performance, animate them with the spirit of the work, and generally be responsible for the due interpretation of the composer's intentions and for the success of the music. A separate conductor, standing in 'front of the 1 In Germany the conductor does not now stand, as with us, exactly in the centre of the orchestra with his back to the audience, but a trine to the right, with bis left aide towards the room.

CONDUCTOR.

CONRADI.

orchestra and beating time with a baton, though apparently long known abroad, is in England an institution of comparatively recent date. In former times the chief musician sat at a pianoforte in the orchestra with the score before him; but it does not appear that he beat time continuously, or in any way influenced the band, or did more than put in a few chords now and then when the orchestra was going astray, which when heard must have had a very bad effect. The leader it was who kept the band together—or as nearly together as possible—beating time with his bow, stamping, and occasionally tapping on the desk. But as he stood in the middle of the violins and was therefore out of sight of the majority of the orchestra he could have had but a very small influence on the other players. The programmes of the Philharmonic Society (founded 1813) for the first seven years always end with the following words, ' Leader Mr. , Pianoforte, Mr. ,' and the names are rarely if ever the same for two concerts together. 'Mr. Cramer' and ' Mr. dementi' took it nearly turn about at the piano till Sir G. Smart shared it with them: but the leaders varied between Salomon, F. Cramer, Spagnoletti, Viotti, Yaniewicz, Weichsel, Mori, Baillot. Thus the band was each time under a fresh head, and the 'reading' of the works, and the style of performance—as far as such things were then attempted—must have changed with each concert. With the second concert of 1820 (March 20") the announcement changes to ' Leader, Mr. Spagnoletti; Conductor, Mr. Cramer,' a change apparently due to the resolution of Spohr, who in a pleasant passage in his Autobiography describes the old state of things and his action at the concert which he had to direct (during the series of 1820), when he produced his baton and insisted on conducting from the front in the present sense of the word, and as he had been accustomed to do (Selbstbiographie, ii. 87). 'Henceforth,' says he, 'no one was ever again seen seated at the piano during the performance of symphonies and overtures.' But the alternations of leaders and conductors continued for many years. The first attempt at uniformity was made in 1844, when the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th concerts were conducted by Mendelssohn, the leader still changing each time. The concerts of 1845 were conducted, 3 by Sir H. Bishop, and 5 by Moscheles, and at length in 1846 we find the simple announcement 'Conductor, Signor Costa,' and the commencement of the present system. That system is obviously the right one. The office of conducting is to a great extent a mechanical one. A perfect performance depends far more than it might be supposed on such matters as the legibility and accuracy of the parts, and the intelligibility of the conductor's beat and of his communications with the players ; and it is obvious that this part of a conductor's duties can only be adequately performed if he is constantly engaged with the same band. In a perfect conductor mechanical excellence must be accompanied with knowledge, feeling, appreciation, enthusiasm, poetry, and the

highest qualities of the musician; but these last will be of little avail without the former, or without the familiar relation between the conductor and the band which long knowledge, or at any rate several rehearsals, alone can give. Composers do not always make good conductors. Beethoven, apart from his deafness, was too strange and eccentric; Schumann forgot what he was about; Mendelssohn, on the other hand, had the practical intelligence and the rare tact and temper which made him an exceptionally good conductor. But it is better that the two offices—the composer and the conductor—should be kept apart. So far the Philharmonic, as representative of London concerts. At the Opera the change is said to have been brought about by Chelard, who conducted the German Company in London in 32. Of late years—with Herr von Biilow—the practice of conducting from memory has come in, and for those who can stand the enormous strain which is implied in the recollection of every nuance and the exact entry of every instrument in a long and complicated work, no doubt it is a great comfort not to have to think of the book, but the power must surely be confined to a few and must always be full of risk. It would be difficult within the limits of this article to give any definite instructions on the art of conducting, even if such instructions could be practically useful; but conducting, perhaps more than any other business, is a matter of natural gifts and practice. Those however who wish to see what has been said on the subject by three great musicians may consult the ' Vollkommene Capellmeister' of Mattheson (1739), the ' Orchestral Conductor' of Berlioz—the appendix to his Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration —and (less didactic and more polemical) the 'Ueber das Dirigiren' of Wagner. There is a_ description from a different point of view, well worth reading, in Berlioz's letter to Liszt, No. 3 of his ' Voyage musical.' [G.] CONDUCTOR'S PART. A substitute for a full score, in which the parts are condensed into two staves, and the names of the various instruments are inscribed as they enter. Spohr's D minor Symphony is published in this shape only.

390

CONFORTI, GIOVANNI LUCA, was a Calabrian,

and born at Mileto about 1560. He was admitted into the Papal Choir in 1591. He was doubtless a successful and accomplished singer according to the fashion of his time; but his chief title to notice seems to have been the publication of a volume containing a series of vocal ornamentations of all kinds wherewith to overlay the Psalms in ordinary use in the church on Sundays and holidays throughout the year. Baini ascribes to him what he considers the restoration of the'trillo.' [TBEMOLO ; TKILLO.]

[E.H.P.]

CONRADI, AUGUST, born at Berlin 1821, studied harmony and composition under Rungenhagen. In 1843 he produced a symphony,

CONEADI.

CONSERVATOIEE DE MUSIQUE.

391

and in 1847 an opera, 'Bubezahl,' both at Berlin. able in vocal music, or music for solo instruments In 1849 he was chapel-master at Stettin, and con- in combination, such as quartets and quintets of ductor successively at the Kbnigstadt Theatre in strings, when each part stands out distinctly, and Berlin, at Dusseldorf, Cologne, and finally (1853) the relations of the parts are easily perceived. at the Kroll Theatre in Berlin. In 1855 his In pianoforte music and orchestral music the 'Musa der letzte Maurenfurst' wag performed at objectionable effect would be often lost in the Berlin. His other compositions include 5 sym- mass of sound. phonies, overtures, string quartets, dance-music for Instances of violations of the rule against conpianoforte and orchestra, and a quantity of Lieder. secutive fifths are to be found in the works of [M.C.C.] almost all the greatest composers. Sometimes it He died at Berlin, May 21, 1873. CONEADI, JOHANN GBOEG, chapel-master at may have been an oversight, at others it may have been done on principle. Eies's well-known Oettingen in Bavaria towards the end of the anecdote Notizen, p. 87) referring to a 17th century, one of the earliest composers of passage in(Biog. one of Beethoven's quartets, op. 18, German opera. He produced successfully at the may show either one or the other. Elsewhere Hamburg Theatre 'Ariadne,' 'Diogenes,' and Beethoven seems to considered that it was 'NumaPompilius'ini6o,i; 'Karl derGrosse'and better to violate suchhave a rule or incur a consider'Jerusalem' (1692); ' Sigismund/ 'Geiserich,' able harshness than to change the order of a [M. C. C] thoroughly established idea, and ' Pygmalion' (1693). because the alteraCONSECUTIVE, the term applied to intervals tion of the idea not only produces a sense of •which recur between the same parts or voices, weakness, but is also much more disturbing •• aesthetically than the violation of a rule of harbut more especially to such as are —a. forbidden to do so, as consecutive ^gH—^ f*Z]|mony. Thus in the finale of his Sonata in A, op. 101, rather than alter his established idea (a), fifths, which everybody perceives «J to be ugly; or consecutive octaves, which are he allows the part below to make consecutive fifths with it ( * * ). only perceived to be objectionable in a combination of distinct parts. It is held that consecutive fifths are objectionable because the parts move simultaneously in two different keys ; hence when the effect of two keys is avoided they are admissible ; as when the lower part progresses from tonic It was long considered, from the description of to dominant (a) (between the tenor and bass); or from tonic to subdominant (b) (between treble it which exists, that the supposed first form of harmony, which was called Diaphony, or Orand alto). ganum, consisted of continuous consecutive fifths, W fourths, and octaves; but later investigations of •(a) • ' " 1 ^ " the subject tend to show that the description has been misunderstood, and refers in reality to a T repetition of phrases at the fifth above or the fourth below. [C.H.H.P.] CONSEEVATOIEE DE MUSIQUE. A free school of music, established in Paris by the Consecutive octaves are held to be objection- Convention Nationale, Aug. 3, 1795. Its first able because in music in parts which are clearly suggestion was due to a horn-player named Eodefined the balance is suddenly disturbed. For dolphe, and the plan which he submitted to the if three voices are singing together, each with minister Amelot in 1775 was carried into effect a well defined part assigned to it, and two of on Jan. 3, 1784, by Baron Breteuil, of Louis them suddenly, without any ostensible reason, XVI's household, acting on the advice of Gossec. sing the same notes in two or three successive This Ecole royale de Chant, under Gossec's dichords, not only is the harmony weakened by rection, was opened on April 1, 1784, in the the loss of a part, but the succession of notes Hotel des Menus-Plaisirs du Eoi, then used by which they sing together is brought into unsea- the Aeadeinie for its rehearsals. Thefirstpublic sonable prominence. When it is intended to concert was given April 18, 1786, and on the bring a melody or a phrase into prominence it addition of a class for dramatic declamation in is common to double it in octaves; but when the following June it adopted the name of the this is done in music in definite parts it must Ecole royale de Chant et de Declamation. The be continued long enough for the intention to be municipality engaged a band under Sarrette in perceived. 1790, and instituted on June 9, 1792, the Ecole Some theorists add consecutive sevenths to the gratuite de Musique de la Garde Nationale category of forbidden progressions, but there are Parisienne, which did good service under SarBO many to be found in the works of the greatest rette's skilful direction, andfinallytook the name masters, and when they are harsh they are so of Institut National de Musique, Nov. 8, 1793. obviously so, that'the rule seems both doubtful But the independent existence of both these schools came to an end on the formation, by and unnecessary. The forbidden consecutives are most objection- government, of the Conservatoire de Musique,

~A

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Aug. 3, 1795, in which they were incorporated. Sarrette was shortly afterwards appointed president of the institution, and in 1797 his charge extended to 125 professors and 600 pupils of both sexes, as well as to the printing-office and warehouse established at 15 Faubourg Poissonniere, where the ' Me'thodes du Conservatoire,' prepared under the supervision of Catel, Me"hul, Rode, Kreutzer, and other eminent professors, were published. The organisation of the Conservatoire was modified by Bonaparte in March 1800, after which the staff stood as follows :—A Director—Sarrette; five Inspectors of Tuition—Gossec, Mehul, Lesueur, Cherubini, and Monsigny; thirty firstclass Professors—Louis Adam, Berton, Blasius, Catel, Devienne, Dugazon, Duvernoy, Garat, Gavinies, Hugot, Kreutzer, Persuis, Plantade, Rode, Rodolphe, Sallentin, etc.; forty secondclass Professors—Adrien, Baillot.Boieldieu, Domnich, Eler, Jadin, etc. The Conservatoire was again re-organised Oct. 15, 1812, by the famous Decret de Moscow, under which eighteen pupils, nineof each sex, destined for the Theatre Franjais, received an annual allowance of 1100 francs, on the same footing with the Pensionnaires—eighteen vocal students, twelve male and six female. This Pensionnat had been established in 1806; but the men alone lived at the Conservatoire. On Dec. 28, 1814, Sarrette was abruptly dismissed from the post he had filled with so much zeal and talent, and though reinstated on May 26, 1815, was compelled to retire finally on the 17th of the following November. The studies were interrupted for the time, and the school remained closed until April 1816, when it reopened under its former title of Ecole royale de Musique, with Perne as Inspector-general. Cherubini succeeded him April i, 1822, and remained until Feb. 8, 1842, when he was replaced by Auber, who directed the Conservatoire until his death, May 12, 1871 ; M. Ambroise Thomas, the present director, was appointed on the 6th of the following July. Before speaking of the Conservatoire of our own day, itsfinancialcondition, staff, and musical importance, we must enumerate some of the most remarkable acts which marked its successive administrations. The budget originally amounted to 240,000 francs, but this in 1802 was reduced to 100,000, a fact indicative of the grave money difficulties with which Sarrette had to contend through all his years of office, in addition to the systematic opposition of both artists and authorities. By the publication of the ' Methode du Conservatoire,' however, to which each professor gave his adherence, he succeeded in uniting the various parties of the educational department on a common basis. Amongst the savants of the institution who assisted in this work were Ginguene', Lacepede, and Prony. Under Sarrette the pupils were stimulated by public practisings; to him is also due the building of the old library, begun in 1801, and the inauguration of the theatre in the Rue Bergere, 1812. In the same year he obtained an increase of 26,Soo francs for the

CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIQUE. expenses of the Pensionnat; and the institution of the 'Prix de Rome' in 1803, which secured to the holders the advantage of residing in Italy at the expense of government, was his doing. Under Perne's administration an 'Ecole primaire de Chant' was formed, April 23, 1817, in connection with the Conservatoire, and directed by Choron. The inspectorship of the Ecole de Musique at Lille was given to Plantade. In 1810 it adopted the title of 'Conservatoire secondaire de Paris,' in which it was followed by the Ecole at Douai, no longer in existence. The formation of special classes for lyrical declamation and the study of opera parts was also due to Perne. Cherubim's strictness of rule and his profound knowledge made his direction very favourable for the progress of the Conservatoire. The men's pensionnat was re-organised under him, and the number of public practices, which all prize-holders were forced to attend, increased in 1823 from six to twelve. By his means the opera pitch, universally allowed to be too high, was lowered in 1826, and the Ecole de Musique founded at Toulouse in 1821 was attached to the Conservatoire, as that of Lille had previously been. He opened new instrumental classes, and gave much encouragement to the productions of the ' Societe des Concerts du Conservatoire.' By his means the library acquired the right to one of the two copies of every piece of music or book upon music which authors and composers are compelled to deposit with the Ministre de Hnterieur (March 29, 1834). In 1841, through Cherubini's instrumentality, the Ecoles of Marseilles and Metz became 'Succursales du Conservatoire'; in short, during his long administration he neglected no means of raising the tone of the studies of the Central Conservatoire, and extending its influence. The following were among his principal coadjutors:— Habeneck and Paer, inspectors of tuition; Lesueur, Berton, Reicha, Fetis, Halevy, Carafa, composition ; Laine, Lays, Garat, Plantade, Ponchard, Banderali, Bordogni, Panseron, Mme. Damoreau, singing : instrumental classes—Benoist, the organ; Louis Adam and Zimmerman, piano; Baillot, Kreutzer, Habeneck, violin; Baudiot, Norblin, Vaslin, violoncello; Guillou, Tulou, flute ; Vogt, oboe ; Lefevre, Klose, clarinet; Delcambre, Gebauer, bassoon; Dauprat, Meifred, horn; Dauverne, trumpet; Dieppo, trombone ; Naderman, Prumier, harp ; Adolphe Nourrit, the opera; Michelot, Samson, Provost and Beauvallet, professors of tragedy and comedy. Amongst the professors appointed by Auber we may mention Adolphe Adam, Ambroise Thomas, Reber, composition ; MM. Elwart, Bazin, harmony; Battaille, Duprez, Faure, Garcia, Re vial, Masset, singing; Madame Farrenc, Henri Herz, Marmontel, Le Couppey, piano; Alard, Girard, Massart, Ch. Dancla, violin; Franchomme and Chevillard, violoncello. Classes for wind instruments—Toulou, Dorus, flute; Verroust, oboe; Willent, Cokken, bassoon; Gallay, Meifred, horn ; Forestier, Arban, cornet; Mile. Brohan, MM. Regnier, Monrose, Bressant,

CONSERVATOIRE DE MUSIQUE. professors of comedy. Auber also instituted lectures on the history and literature of music, to which he appointed Samson in 1855. The debuts under Auber's management were most brilliant, and he drew public attention to the Conservatoire by reviving the public practices. The facade of the establishment in the Faubourg Poissonniere was re-built in 1845, and in 1864 the building was considerably enlarged, and those in the Rue du Conservatoire inaugurated, including the hall and offices of the theatre, the museum, and library. The associate classes of military pupils, formed on the suppression of the Gymnase militaire in 1856, made these enlargements indispensable. But notwithstanding the growing importance of the Conservatoire under Auber's strict and impartial direction, the last years of his life were embittered by the revival of the office of ' Administrateur' in the person of Lassabathie, and the appointment of a commission in 1870 to reorganise the studies—a step in which some members foresaw the ruin of the school. In 1859, at the beginning of this troubled period, the reform of the pitch took place which fixed the A at 870 vibrations. Lassabathie at the same time published his 'Histoire du Conservatoire imperial de Musique et de Declamation' (Paris, i860), an hasty selection of documents, but containing ample details as to the professorial staff. Since the nomination of M. Ambroise Thomas, the present director, the office of 'Administrateur' and the pensionnat have been suppressed, and Mr. Emile Rety has been appointed Secretary-General. Lectures on the general history of music have been instituted; M. Barbereau, the original lecturer, has been succeeded by M. Euge'ne Gautier; an orchestral class directed by M. Deldevez, and compulsory vocal classes for reading at sight have been founded, and the solfeggio teaching has been completely reformed. The following professors have been appointed :—MM. Theo. Dubois, Guiraud, harmony; MM. Crosti, Bussine, Boulanger, Potier, Mme. Viardot, who has lately resigned, and been succeeded by M. Barbot, singing; M. Charles Colin, oboe; M. Jancourt, bassoon; M. Delisse, trombone; M. Maury, cornet-a-piston. M. Ambroise Thomas has endeavoured to improve the tuition in all its branches, to raise the salaries of the professors, and increase the general budget, which has risen to 210,000 francs, and is expected soon to reach 240,000 francs—a sum amply sufficient for the expenses of the Institution with its staff of 8 titularies, 77 professors, and 10 employes. The tuition at present is divided as follows:— 16 solfeggio classes under 4 masters—in 12 of which the lessons are individual, in the remaining 4 in class; 8 singing classes under 8 masters; a class for vocal harmony, and another for the study of part-writing, each with its professor. For lyrical declamation there is 1 class for the opera and 2 classes for the opera-comique. The 31 instrumental classes are as follows :—6 for violin; 2 for cello; 1 for double-bass, for flute,

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oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn, cornet, trombone, harp, chamber music, organ, improvisation, and orchestral composition. There are also 10 classes for piano, 4 for men and 6 for women. For the study of harmony there are 6 classes. Also three for composition, counterpoint, and fugue (under Reber, Mass c a s t a a grave s l u r o n Conti's character through a confusion between him and his son Ignaz. The mistake was corrected by Quantz in Marpurg's 'Kritische Beitrage' (1754, vol. i. p. 219), and by Gerber in his 'Neues Lexicon,' but Fe'tis maintained the authenticity of the anecdote in the 'Revue musicale' (1827, No. 3), and even repeated it in his • Biographie Universelle' after the real facts had been made known by Molitor in the ' Allg. musik. Zeitung' (1838, p. 153). Conti died in Vienna July 20, 1732. Mendel, in his ' Mus. Conv. Lexicon,' states that he was promoted to the post of court chapel-master, but this is incorrect, as he was still court-composer at the time of his death. The younger Conti, Ignaz, whom Fe'tis is uncertain whether to call the son or the brother of Francesco, was really his son, born in 1699. He held the post of 'Hof-scholar' up to the time of his death, March 28, 1759, and composed several serenades and oratorios which bear no traces of his father's ability. [C. F. P.]

CONTI, FRANCESCO BARTOLOMEO, eminent

theorbist and dramatic composer, born at Florence Jan. 20, 1681, appointed courttheorbist at Vienna in 1701. He resigned in 1705, but was reappointed theorbist in 1708, \\ ith the additional post in 1713 of court-composer. From this time he devoted himself with marked success to the composition of operas, especially the higher kind of comic operas. His best work was the tragicomic opera 'Don Chisciotte in Sierra Morena,' which is a model of its kind for the clear delineation of each separate character. It was performed first at the Carnaval of 1719 in Vienna, and afterwards (1722) at Hamburg, in German. His first opera, 'Clotilde' (Vienna, 1706), was produced in London (1709), and the songs published separately by Walsh. Conti's cantatas and oratorios are solid and thoughtful. Von Kochel (J. J. Fux: Vienna, 1872) gives a catalogue of all his works performed in Vienna between 1706 and 1732. They comprise 16 grand operas, 13 serenades or 'Feste teatrali,' and 9 oratorios, the scores of which are to be found almost entire

CONTI. See GIZZIELLO. CONTINUO. The short for BASSO CONTINUO,

which see. CONTRABASSO.theltalianforDouBLEBASS. CONTRABASS POSAUNE. See TROMBONE. CONTRABASS TUBA. See BOMBARDON. CONTRA-FAGOTTO, the ordinary name in orchestral scores for the DOUBLE BASSOON.

See

scores of Beethoven's Symphonies 5 and 9, Brahms's Variations on a theme of Haydn's, etc. CONTRALTO. The lowest of the three principal varieties of the female voice (the two others being soprano and mezzo soprano), and that to which in choral music the part next above (contra, or counter to) the alto is assigned. [ALTO.] The culture and employment, as a solo instrument, of the female contralto voice, like that of its correlative the bass, is comparatively modern, and even yet not universal. By the opera composers of France and Germany it has been, and still continues to be, but rarely employed. In his adaptation for the French Theatre of his Italian ' Orfeo,' originally composed (1762) for a contralto, Gluck transposed and otherwise re-cast the music of the titlecharacter for a tenor. It is to Rossini and his Italian contemporaries that this voice owes its present very important status. In few of their operas is it unemployed. In the choral music however of the composers of all nations it has now definitively taken its place—till lately monopolised, in England especially, by the male countertenor, a voice of somewhat different compass and altogether different quality. [ALTO.] In extent the contralto voice sometimes exceeds every other, male or female. Like the bass it has a third register, but far more frequently and successfully brought under control. A contralto has been known to possess an available compass

S96

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COOKE.

of three octaves. Its most effective notes however, and those only which it is safe to employ in choral music, are the notes which can be placed on the stave (unfortunately obsolete) which has -Ithe C clef on the second line—from the G — - = below middle C to the octave above the fei— latter — incorrectly called the Mezzo- \U, Passing notes are allowed to progress consoprano stave. Though not so penetrating as the tinuously by contrary motion until they arrive soprano, the contralto voice surpasses it in ten- at notes which form a part of some definite derness and in volume ; and even, which is more harmony ( * ),: remarkable, in flexibility, recent contralti have certainly equalled, perhaps surpassed, vocalists of every other class. As examples of singers in the full acceptation of the term the names of Grassini, Pisaroni, Brambilla, and Alboni, all contralti, have become historical. [J.H.] CONTRAPUNTAL is properly that which is written according to the rules of strict Counterpoint, which see; but it is commonly used to describe music of a pure and dignified style, in which the effect is produced more by the independent motion of the parts than by the massing of the harmonies. The larger proportion of early modern music was essentially contrapuntal, and it seems that the first ideas of harmony were derived from the species of counterpoint called Discantus, which was a popular device of the latter part of the eleventh century, and consisted of fitting two independent tunes together. This basis, and the faot that musicians were slow in developing a sense for more than very simple harmonies, made the contrapuntal style their natural mode of musical expression. But the development of the elaborate harmonies of modern instrumental music has so changed its whole character, that an attempt to write true contrapuntal music at the present day is something like trying to write a poem in the English of Chaucer; and very few composers, unless they devote their attention specially to it, are likely to achieve a contrapuntal work which shall not have the appearance of being either forced or meaningless. [C.H.H.P.] CONTRARY MOTION is the progression of parts in opposite directions, one or more ascending while the other or others descend, as—

In contrapuntal music it was considered preferable to similar or oblique motion, and it always has a stronger and more vigorous character than either of these. Many conspicuous examples of its use in modern music may be found, as for instance in the slow movement of Beethoven's Symphony in C minor—

from the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata in Bb, op. 106. [C.H.H.P.] CONTREDANSE (Engl. country-dance, Ger. contretanz). A dance of English origin, which was introduced into France in the Regency, 1715-23, and has since become very popular. The music to the contredanse is of a lively character; it is written either in 2-4 or in 6-8 time, and consists uniformly of eight-bar phrases, j each of which is usually repeated. The name I probably arose from the fact that the dancers i were ranged over against (contre) one another. The English term 'country-dance' is probably a mere adaptation. Beethoven has written twelve contredanses for orchestra, from one of which he developed the finale of his 'Eroica' symphony. Mozart has also left a large number of specimens of this class of composition. A series of five or six contredanses forms a QUADKILLE. [E. P.] CON VERSI, GIROLAMO, was born at Correggio about the middle of the 16th century, and is known as the author of the following works:— Canzoni a 5 voci; Venice, G. Scotto 1575; reprinted by the same publisher in 1580 in 4to; Madrigali, a 6 voci, lib. 1 ; Venice 1584; ibid, in 4to. Conversi is familiar to English amateurs through his fine Madrigal 'When all alone my pretty love was playing.' [E. H. P.] CONVICT (Convictorium), an establishment existing in many German towns for the free or very economical education of boys ; usually connected with the convent system, and supported by the state or private foundation. Its only claim to mention here is the fact that Schubert was educated for the Hof-kapelle at the Convict at 45 in the Piaristen Gasse, Josephstadt, Vienna. That for the choristers of St. Stephen s is in the Stubenbastei, No. 2. COOKE, BENJAMIN, MUS. DOC, the son of

Benjamin Cooke, a music publisher in New Street, Covent Garden, was born in 1734. In his ninth year he was placed under the instruction of Dr. Pepusch, and made such rapid progress as in three years time to be able to act as deputy for John Robinson, organist of West-

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minster Abbey. In 1752 he was appointed successor to Dr. Pepusch as conductor at the Academy of Ancient Music. In September 57, on the resignation of Bernard Gates, he obtained the appointment of master of the choristers of Westminster Abbey, and on Jan. 27, 58, that of lay vicar there. On July I, 62, on the death of Robinson, Cooke was appointed organist of the Abbey. In 75 he took the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge, and in 82 was admitted to the same degree at Oxford. In the latter year he was elected organist of St. Martinin-the-Fields. In 1789 he resigned the conductorship of the Academy of Ancient Music to Dr. Arnold. He died Sept. 14, 1793, and was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey, where a mural tablet, with a fine canon, records his skill and worth. Dr. Cooke's compositions, which are voluminous, are for the church, concert-room, and chamber. For the theatre he produced nothing except an ode for Dr. Delap's tragedy, 'The Captives,' 1786. His church music comprises the fine service in G, and one composed in 1787 at the request of Lord Heathfield for the use of the garrison in Gibraltar; two anthems composed in 1748 and 49 for the Founder's day at the Charter House; an anthem with orchestral accompaniments for the funeral of William, Duke of Cumberland, 1764; another of the same description, for the installation of the Bishop of Osnaburg, afterwards Duke of York, as Knight of the Bath, 1772; and fourteen others, besides several chants and psalm and hymn tunes. For the Academy of Ancient Music he added choruses and accompaniments to Pergoiesi's 'Stabat Mater,' 1759, and to Galliard's 'Morning Hymn' (printed 1773); and composed an Ode for Christmas Day, 1763; 'The Syrens' Song to Ulysses'; Collins's Ode on the Passions (printed 1784); Ode on the Genius of Chatterton, 1786; and Ode on the King's recovery, 1789. But the compositions by which he is best known, and which will convey his name to posterity, are his numerous and beautiful glees, canons, etc. For seven of these (five glees, a canon, and a catch) the Catch Club awarded him prizes. Dr. Cooke published in his life-time a collection of his glees, and a second collection appeared in 1795 under the care of his son Eobert. Twenty-nine glees, and eleven rounds catches and canons by Dr. Cooke are printed in Warren's collections. His instrumental compositions consist of organ pieces, concertos for the orchestra, marches, and harpsichord lessons. Apart from his eminence as a composer and practical musician, Dr. Cooke was one of the best and most learned theorists of his time. [W. H. H.] COOKE, HENBT—'CaptainCooke'—was educated in the Chapel Royal of Charles I. On the breaking out of the civil war he joined the king's army, and obtained, in 1642, a captain's commission. During the Commonwealth he subsisted by teaching music. On the re-establishment of the Chapel Royal in 1660, Cooke was appointed one of the gentlemen and master of the children. In 1663 he obtained a grant for himself and his

successors of £30 per annum for the diet, lodging, washing, and teaching of each of the children of the chapel. In July 1664 he was appointed • Composer of-the king's private music for voices,' at a yearly salary of £40. Cooke died July 13, 1672, and was buried on July 17 in the east cloister of Westminster Abbey. Antony Wood asserts that his death was hastened by chagrin at finding himself supplanted in favour by Pelham Humfrey, who had been his pupil. Cooke retained the title of' captain' until his death. He composed several anthems, the words of which are contained in Clifford's collection, and a processional hymn which was performed at Windsor at the festival of the Knights of the Garter, April 17, 1661. He also contributed some of the music to Davenant's ' First Day's Entertainment at Rutland House' in 1657. [W. H. H.] COOKE, NATHANIEL, born at Bosham, near Chichester, in 1773, was nephew of Matthew Cooke, organist of St. George, Bloomsbury, from whom he received the chief part of his musical education. He became organist of the parish church of Brighton, for the use of the choir of which he published a Collection of Psalm and Hymn tunes, including some of his own compositions, which long continued in favour. He also published some small pieces for the pianoforte. [W.H.H.] COOKE, ROBERT, son of Dr. Benjamin Cooke, succeeded his father, on his death in 1793, a3 organist of St. Martin-in-the-Fields. On the death of Dr. Arnold, in 1802, he was appointed organist and master of the choristers of Westminster Abbey. In 1814 he unfortunately became deranged, and in a paroxysm of his disorder drowned himself in the Thames. Robe'rt Cooke composed an Evening Service in C and an anthem, ' An Ode to Friendship,' and several songs and glees. Three of the latter obtained prizes at the Catch Club. A collection of eight of his glees was published by the author in 1805. [W.H.H.] COOKE, THOMAS SIMPSON, familiarly known as Tom Cooke, was born in Dublin in 1782. Evincing early a taste for music he studied under his father, and made such rapid progress as to perform in public a violin concerto when only seven years of age. He received instruction in composition from Giordani. When only fifteen he was appointed leader of the band at the theatre in Crow Street, Dublin, in which situation he continued several years, and composed several musical pieces. On one of his benefit nights he announced himself to sing the tenor part of The Seraskier, in Storace's opera ' The Siege of Belgrade,' an experiment which proved quite successful, and led to his removal to London, where he made his first appearance, in the same character, at the English Opera House, Lyceum, on July 13, 1813. On Sept. 14, 1815^ he appeared as Don Carlos in 'The Duenna,' at Drury Lane Theatre, where he continued as a principal tenor singer for nearly twenty years. During this period, on one of his

COOKE.

COPERAEIO.

benefit nights, he exhibited the versatility of his talents by performing in succession on the violin, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn, violoncello, double bass, and pianoforte. About 1823 he undertook, alternately with his duty as tenor singer, the duty of leader of the band. Some years later he was engaged, at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as director of the music and conductor. He was a member of the Philharmonic Society, and occasionally led the band or conducted the concerts. In 1846 he succeeded John Loder as leader at the Concert of Antient Music. For several years he held the post of principal tenor singer at the chapel of the Bavarian Embassy. He died at his house in Great Portland Street, Feb. 26, 184S, and was buried at Kensal Green cemetery. Cooke's compositions were numerous and varied. He wrote much for the theatre, but his music of that description has mostly passed out of memory. As a glee composer he was more successful, and several of his compositions of that class obtained prizes from the Catch and Glee Clubs. As a singing-master he had a deserved reputation, and several of his pupils achieved distinction; amongst them Miss M. Tree, Mrs. Austin, Miss Povey, Miss Rainforth, the Misses A. and M. Williams, and Mr. Sims Reeves. He wrote a treatise on singing, which was much esteemed. Cooke's principal dramatic pieces were 'Frederick the Great,' 1814; 'The King's Proxy,' 1815; ' The Count of Anjou,' 1816 ; ' A Tale of Other Times' (with Bochsa), 1822; 'The Wager, or, The Midnight Hour,' 1825; 'Oberon, or, The Charmed Horn,' 1826; 'Malvina,' 1826; 'The Boy of Santillane,' 1827; 'The Brigand,' 1829, one song in which, 'Gentle Zitella,' attained great popularity; 'Peter the Great,' 1829; •The Dragon's Gift,' 1850; 'The Ice Witch,' 1831 ; 'Hyder Ali,' 1831 ; 'St. Patrick's Eve,' 1832; 'King Arthur and the Knights of the Bound Table,' 1835: additional songs for ' A Midsummer Night's Dream,' 1840. He also adapted several foreign operas to the English stage, after a fashion in vogue in his time, i. e. omitting much that the composer wrote, and supplying its place by compositions of his own. He published 'Six Glees for 3 and 4 voices' in 1844, besides many singly. Among his glees which gained prizes were 'Hail! bounteous Nature,' 1S29; 'Come, spirits of air,' 1830; 'Let us drain the nectared bowl,' 1830; 'Thou beauteous spark of heavenly birth,' 1832 ; ' 0 fair are thy flowerets,' 1836: he likewise obtained a prize for his catch, ' Let's have a catch and not a glee,' 1832. Cooke had considerable abilities as a wit

he subsequently prosecuted them under Churchill, and finally under Jackson of Exeter. At fourteen years of age he obtained the appointment of organist of Chard, which he in a few years resigned for that of Totnes, which he in turn gave up, after holding it for nine years, for the like place at Chelmsford. He published several pianoforte pieces of his composition. [W.fi.H.] COOMBS, JAMES MOKRIS, was born at Salisbury in 1769. He was admitted a chorister of the cathedral under Dr. Stephens and Parry. In 1789 he was appointed organist at Chippenham, and retained that place until his death in 1820. His published works consist of a Te Deum and Jubilate, songs, glees, a set of canzonets, and a selection of psalm tunes. [W. H. H.] COOPER, GEORGE, son of the assistant organist to St. Paul's; born in Lambeth July 7, 1820. His quickness of ear, readiness of execution, and taste for good music, developed themselves very early, and his road to the organ was smoothed by an old harpsichord with pedals and two rows of keys, on which the lad practised at all available times. When 11 years old he often took the service at St. Paul's for his father, and at the Festivals of the Sons of the Clergy it was Attwood's delight (then chief organist) to make him extemporise. On one such occasion Mendelssohn is said to have remarked and praised him. At 13J he was made organist of St. Benet, Paul's Wharf. On Attwood's death he became assistant organist of St. Paul's, vice his father resigned ; in 1836 organist of St. Ann and St. Agnes ; and on the death of his father, in 1843, suceeeded him at St. Sepulchre's, and became singing-master and organist to Christ's Hospital as well. On the death of Sir George Smart he was appointed organist of the Chapel Koyal. He died Oct. 2, 1876, much regretted. Cooper did much to familiarise his hearers with the works of Bach and other great composers, which he played in a noble style. His 'Organ Arrangements,' 'Organist's Manual,'and 'Organist's Assistant,' are well known, and so is his 'Introduction to the Organ,' long the only work of its kind in England. These were his only publications of any moment. He had a strong taste for natural science, and divided his time between the organ, his ferns, and photography. C0PERARI0, JOHN, was an Englishman named Cooper, who, having Italianised his name during a sojourn in Italy, continued the use of it after his return to England. He was a composer for and performer on the lute and viol da gamba, and the musical instructor of the children of James I. In 1606 he published 'Funeral Teares for the Death of the Right Honorable the Earle of Devonshire: figured in seaven songes, whereof sixe are so set forth that the wordes may be exprest by a treble voice alone to the Lute and Base Violl, or else that the meane part may be added, if any shall affect more fulnesse of parts. The seaventh is made in forme of a Dialogue and can not be sung without two voycea.'

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and humourist. His eldest son, HENRY ANGELO MICHAEL (commonly known as GRATTAN) COOKE,

was educated in the Royal Academy of Music, and for many years held the post of principal oboe in all the best orchestras, and was subsequently band-master of the second regiment of Life Guards. [W. H. H.] COOMBE, WILLIAM FRANCIS, son of a sing-

ing-master at Plymouth, was born there in 1786. Commencing his musical studies under his father,

COPERARIO. He composed the music to ' The Masque of the Inner Temple and Graye's Inn,' performed at Whitehall, Feb. 20, 1612. In 1613 he published 'Songs of Mourning bewailing the untimely death of Prince Henry. Worded by Tho. Campion and set forth to bee sung with one voyce to the Lute or Violl.' He contributed three of the songs to the masque performed at Whitehall on St. Stephen's Night, 1614, and supplied the whole of the music in ' The Masque of Flowers' presented in the same place on Twelfth Night in the same year, both masques being given in honour of the marriage of the Earl of Somerset and Lady Frances Howard. He composed a set of Fancies for the organ for Charles I, the manuscript of which is still extant, and numerous Fancies for viols. He contributed two vocal pieces to ' The Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule,' published by Sir William Leighton in 1614. Coperario was the master of Henry and William Lawes. He died during the Protectorate. [W.H.H.] COPPOLA, GIUSEPPE, a singer at the King's Theatre in 1777. He appeared as 'Ciro' in Saechini's ' Creso,' and in other operas. [J. M.] COPPOLA, PIER ANTONIO, born in 1792 at

Castrogiovanni in Sicily, son of a musician, studied at the Royal College of Music at Naples. His first opera, 'IlFiglio bandito' (1816) was well received, and his 'Nina pazza per amore' (Rome, 1835), was performed in every town of Italy, in Vienna, Berlin, Lisbon, Spain, Mexico, and, as an ope'ra-comique with the title of ' Eva,' in Paris (1839). In 1836 he composed 'Enrichetta di Baienfeld' for Vienna, and this was followed by 'Gli Illinese' (Turin), one of his best •works; and 'La bella Celeste degli Spadari' (Milan). At the Royal Theatre in Lisbon he produced 'Giovanna i m a ' (1841), and 'Ines de Castro' (1842). In 1843 he returned to Italy, and composed five more operas, which were less successful than his earlier works, and hefinallyreturned to his post at Lisbon. Coppola might have taken a higher place had he not come into competition with Rossini. Some masses, litanies, and other church music are to be found in the libraries at Naples. He died Nov. 14, 1877. [M.C.C.] COPYRIGHT. The statutes regulating copyright in music are 3, 4 Will. IV, c. 15 ; 5, 6 Viet. c. 45 ; and 7, 8 Viet. c. 12 ; and their joint effect is, that the composer, or the person to whom he transfers his interest, has an exclusive right to publish or give performances of the work during the lifetime of the composer and seven years afterwards, and also during the period of fortytwo years from the publication orfirstperformance of the work. The copyright proprietorship of a British composer in his work is complete from the moment of composition; but for purposes of public convenience a register is kept at Stationer's Hall, at which the title, date, and proprietorship of any work may be officially entered: and although such entry is not necessary to give the composer the copyright of his work, and, without making any such entry, an action

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can be brought against any person performing the work without written permission, yet no action can be brought against any one publishing the work until the entry has been made. A similar entry should be made whenever the copyright changes hands. Such transfer may also be made by writing, and in this case the exact nature of the rights transferred will be collected from the document; but if the transfer is evidenced by registration alone, an entry of the transfer of the copyright will be taken to prove no more than the transfer of the right of publication, and the right of performance will remain with the transferor. If therefore the latter right is intended to pass, a written contract should be made to this effect. To obtain the full benefit of the English law, even for British subjects, the first publication or performance must take place in the United Kingdom; if it takes place abroad, the work is in every respect considered as foreign, although the author be a British subject. An arrangement for the piano of a work written for other instruments has not hitherto been considered as an infringement of the copyright of the latter; but the cases do not go so far as to prove that any bare transcription of the score to pianoforte staves would necessarily escape with impunity. The amount of change constituting a really new work cannot be expressed in any general rule; each case is determined on its merits. We now pass to works composed by foreigners, or first published or performed abroad. There is no doubt that a foreigner, by residing in England at the time of publication or first performance, may place his work in every respect under British law; but it has hitherto been held that for this purpose residence in Great Britain at the time of publication is indispensable. It is doubtful whether, under the Aliens Act of 18 70, this is still so; but the short residence necessary is a Ies3 evil than the chance of expensive litigation. If a foreigner sell to a British subject his work while still unpublished and still unperformed, the purchaser has full English copyright property in the work, just as if he had written it himself. But a work first published or performed abroad can only obtain protection in England, when a treaty exists between this country and the country where the work is produced, creating reciprocal copyright interests. Such treaties exist between this country and France, Prussia, and some other German states, Belgium, Spain, and Italy. There is no copyright treaty with the United States, nor with Austria, Russia, Norway, or Sweden. The Act 7 and 8 Viet. c. 12, upon which international copyright rests, requires that every Order in Council granting copyright privileges to foreigners shall prescribe a time within which the work shall be registered at Stationers' Hall. Registration therefore, as concerns foreign productions, is of the utmost importance. Not only is it necessary, as in the case of English works, that entry shall be made before legal proceedings can be commenced against an unlicensed publication;

400

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the opera orchestra, and Corbett, quitting his position in the Queen's band, went to Italy, and resided for many years at Rome, making occasional visits to Venice, Milan, Florence, Cremona, Bologna, Naples, etc., amassing during the time a large collection of music, and a most valuable assemblage of Italian violins, etc. Those acquainted with his circumstances were at a loss to account for his ability to make these purchases except by the supposition that he was a government spy, employed to watch the movements of the Pretender. Corbett returned to England in 1740, and seems to have resumed his position in the royal band. He died, at an advanced age, in 1748. By his will he bequeathed his collection of instruments to Gresham College, providing also for the stipend of a person to show them, and for their care. The college authorities, however, rejected the gift on the ground that there COR ANGLAIS. (Ital. Oboe di Caccia; and was no room in the college for its reception, and Corno Inglese; Germ. Englisches Horn.) A tenor the instruments were consequently sold by aucoboe, standing in the key of F, and therefore tion • at the Great Room over against Beaufort speaking a fifth lower than the ordinary oboe. Buildings, in the Strand, formerly the Hoop It has the same scale and compass as the latter Tavern,' on Saturday, March 9, 1751. Corbett's instrument, from E or Eb in the bass, to about A collection of music was also sold by auction at or Bb above the treble clef. It bears the same bis house in Silver Street, Golden Square. Before relation to the oboe that the bassethorn does to quitting England Corbett published several sets the clarinet, hence frequent confusion between of sonatas for violins, flutes, oboes, etc.; some the two instruments. It is probably similar in concertos for orchestra; and instrumental music many respects to the 'oboe di caccia' found in for 'Henry IV,' 1700; 'As you find it,' 1703; Bach's scores, and perhaps to the ' chalumeau ' of and ' Love Betray'd, or, The Agreeable DisGluck's operas ; although the former was made in appointment,' 1703. After his return he pubthe form of a bassoon or alto-fagotto, and the lished 'Concertos, or Universal Bizzarries comlatter may have been a kind of clarinet. posed on all the new Gustos during many years' Beethoven has written afinetrio, Op. 29, for two residence in Italy,' containing thirty-five concertos oboes and cor anglais, and variations on 'La ci in seven parts, professing to exhibit the different darem,' which though performed at Vienna on styles of various countries and cities. [W. H. H.] Dec. 23, 1797, are still in MS. Rossini employs CORDIER, JACQUES, better known under the it to represent the alpenhorn in the overture to ' William Tell'; Meyerbeer, Wagner, Halcivy, name of BOCAN, born in Lorraine about 1580; Ambroise Thomas, and other modem composers dancing-master and performer on the violin and frequently introduce it in their operas. It has a rebec in the reign of Louis XIII. He was peculiar wailing and melancholy tone, which is unable to read music, but had great power of very effective, but it is difficult and somewhat execution, and Mersennus mentions his gift of treacherous in the orchestra. [W. H. S.] modulating the tones of the violin. He was dancing-master to Henrietta Maria, Queen of CORBET, FEANCISQDE, whose real name was Charles I, and came with her to England. The Francesco Corbetti, born at Pavia about 1630, King took great delight in hearing him play the died in Paris about 1700 ; the best player of his violin. He returned to Paris when the Civil time on the guitar. After travelling in Italy, War broke out, and his tomb at St. Germain Spain, and Germany, he settled for a time at the l'Auxerrois was restored in 1843. Chancy's 'Tabcourt of the Duke of Mantua, who sent him to lature de Mandore' (Paris, 1629), contains a Louis XIV. He stayed for a few years in the graceful ' branle' by Cordier. [M. C. C] French court, and then came to England, where CORELLI, AEOANGELO, a great violinist and Charles II appointed him to an office in the Queen's household, with a large salary, and composer, born at Fusignano, Imola, 1653. He provided him with a wife. The Revolution of learnt counterpoint from Matteo Simonelli, and 1668 drove him back to France. His best pupils the violin from G. B. Bassani. Of the earlier were De Vabray. De Vise', and Medard, who part of his life but little is known. He appears wrote a curious epitaph on him. [M. C. C] to have travelled in Germany, and to have stayed for some time at Munich, attached to the CORBETT, WILLIAM, an eminent English court of the Elector of Bavaria. It is also violinist at the commencement of the 18th cen- related that he went to Paris in 1672, but soon tury, was one of Queen Anne's band of music, left it again, owing to Lulli's jealousy. Thia and leader of the band at the Opera House in however, according to FiStis, is very doubtful. the Haymarket on its first opening in 1705. On In 1681 he returned to Italy and settled at the production of Handel's 'Rinaldo' in 1711 a Rome, where he published his first work, a set new set of instrumentalists was introduced into of twelve sonatas. He soon made a great

but, unless the work be registered at Stationers' Hall, no protection can at any future time be obtained for it. The period within which a work must be registered is specified in the Order of Council announcing in the London Gazette the terms of each copyright treaty when made ; and the terms may vary in every treaty. Foreign musicians who contemplate introducing their works into England ought therefore to consult a qualified adviser immediately upon the completion of their work ; or, for want of this precaution, they mayfindtheir productions public property at the moment that they might have become remunerative. The opera of 'Faust' has experienced this fate ; not having been registered within the three months specified in the Order of Council, its performance is open to all Her Majesty's subjects. [C.A.F.]

401

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CORELLI.

reputation as performer and composer, and became a favourite in the highest circles of Koman society. Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, an enthusiastic lover of the arts in general and of music in particular, was his great friend and patron. Corelli lived in the Cardinal's palace up to the day of hia death, conducting the concerts, which took place every Monday, and which were considered the most important and interesting events in Roman musical life. He also lived on terms of intimate friendship with some of the most eminent painters of the time, Cignani, Maratti, and others, with whose assistance he formed a collection of valuable pictures. This collection, together with a not inconsiderable sum of money, he left in his will to his friend and benefactor the Cardinal, who however accepted the pictures only and handed over the money to Corelli's relations. Corelli appears to have been of the most amiable disposition, and a model of truly artistic modesty. He was very simple and unpretentious in all his habits. Handel, though esteeming him highly, used to say of him : ' He likes nothing better than seeing pictures without paying for it, and saving money.' He dressed almost shabbily, and would on no account hire a carriage, but always went on foot. Hawkins, in his History of Music, gives an account of his meeting with Handel at Rome. Handel conducted some of his own cantatas, which were written in a more complicated style than the music with which Corelli and the other Italian musicians of that period were familiar. Handel tried in vain to explain to Corelli, who was leading the band, how a certain passage ought to be executed, and at last, losing his temper, snatched the violin from Corelli's hands and played it himself, whereupon Corelli remarked in the politest manner ' Ma, caro Sassone, questa musica e nel stilo francese, di ch' io non in' intendo' (but, my dear Saxon, this music is in the French style, of which I have no experience). It was the overture to 'II trionfo del tempo,' which Handel, probably with special regard to Corelli, had written in the style of his concerti grossi with two solo-violins. It is a fiery impetuous piece, truly Handelian in character, and it is not difficult to understand how Corelli in his quiet elegant manner failed to attack with sufficient vigour those thundering passages. That Corelli, who in his own compositions never goes beyond the third position, might have been puzzled by this passage, which occurs in the same overture, is also possible, but it is hardly likely to have caused the scene described above. His fame was not limited to Rome and Italy. From all countries young talents came to benefit by his instruction; and his compositions were published in Amsterdam, Antwerp, Paris, and London, as well as in Italy. Among his numerous pupils the most eminent were Geininiani, Locatelli, Somis, Eaptiste, and Castrucci.

Illustrious foreigners visiting Rome hardly ever failed to pay homage to Corelli. When Queen Christina of Sweden came there, he conducted in her palace the performances of an orchestra of 150 musicians. The King of Naples repeatedly tried to induce him to settle in his capital, and made him most favourable offers, which were however all declined by Corelli, who was not willing to give up his happy position at Rome, where he was universally loved and esteemed. It was not till late in life that he visited Naples, which town, with Alessandro Scarlatti as its leading musician and an excellent orchestra, was at that period by far the most important musical centre of Italy. Corelli, who appears not to have been away from Rome for many years, was most anxious to ensure complete success in Naples, and, in order to be sure of effective accompaniment, took with him two violinists and a violoncello player. But he soon saw that this precaution had been superfluous. At the first rehearsal Scarlatti's band went through the introductory tutti of one of Corelli's concertos without a mistake, whereupon Corelli admiringly exclaimed: 'Si suona a Napoli !' (They play well at Naples!) The king however did not appreciate his playing, and, pronouncing his adagio tedious, left the concert-room before Corelli had finished. But this was not all. Soon afterwards Corelli was leading the performance of a composition of Scarlatti's, when, in a passage that probably was not well written for the violin, he made a very conspicuous mistake, while Petrillo, the Neapolitan leader, who was familiar with the passage in question, executed it correctly. Then came a piece in the key of C minor. Corelli, already disconcerted, led it off in C major. ' Ricominciamo !' (let us begin again!) said Scarlatti, with his usual politeness, and poor Corelli started once more in major, so that Scarlatti was at last obliged to point out his mistake. Corelli felt this incident as a great humiliation, and left Naples immediately. Returned to Rome he found that a new violinist, Valentini, had won the general applause and admiration of the public, and considering himself slighted and superseded, took it so much to heart that his health began to fail. In 1712 he published his last work, dedicated to his admirer John William, Prince Palatine of the Rhine, and died January 18, 1713. He was buried in a princely style in the Pantheon, not far from Raphael's tomb, and Cardinal Ottoboni erected a marble monument over his grave, the inscription on which bears testimony of the high esteem and admiration in which Corelli was held. For many years a solemn musical service was held on the anniversary of his death, when some of the great master's compositions were performed, conducted by one of his pupils. Corelli has a double claim to a prominent place in the history of musical art—as a great violinist who laid a firm foundation for all future development of technique and of a Dd

402

COEELLI.

pure style of playing; and as a composer who materially advanced the progress of composition. Still there can be no doubt that above all he was a great violin-player, and that all he wrote grew out of the very nature of his instrument; an 1 as the violin is not only a solo instrument but at the same time the leading orchestral one, we owe to Corelli the typical treatment of it in two important branches of composition. In his chamber-sonatas and concerti grossi (op. i, 2, 3, 4, and 6) he must be considered the founder of the style of orchestral writing on which the future development in this direction is based, while in the sonatas (op. 5) which have merely an accompanying fundamental bass, he gives a model for the solo sonata, and thereby for all writing for the violin as a solo-instrument. All his works are characterised by conciseness and lucidity of thought and form, and by a dignified, almost aristocratic bearing. The slow movements show genuine pathos as well as grace, bringing out in a striking manner the singing power of the violin. The quick movements are not on the whole of equal merit with the adagios,—at least in point of originality of thought and variety of character. They appear to our modern feeling somewhat dry, almost exercise-like. Corelli's gavottes, sarabandes, and other pieces with the form and rhythm of dances, do not materially differ from similar productions of his immediate predecessors and contemporaries, although, like everything that he wrote, they are distinguished by great earnestness and dignity of style, and are especially well adapted to the instrument. He was not so much an innovator as a reformer; he did not introduce new striking effects; it cannot even be denied that his technique was a limited one—he never goes beyond the third position — but, by rigidly excluding everything that appeared to him contrary to the nature of the instrument, and by adopting and using in the best possible way everything in the existing technique which he considered conformable to the nature of the violin, he not only hindered a threatened development in the wrong direction, but also gave to this branch of the art a sound and solid basis, which his successors could and did build upon successfully. The following are the titles of the original editions of his works:— (1) XII Sonate a tre, due violini e violoncello, col basso per l'organo, op, 1; Roma, 1683. Another edition of this work was published in 1608 at Antwerp ; another at Amsterdam. (2) XII Suonate da camera a tre, due violini, violoncello e violone o cembalo, op. 2; Roma, 1^86 Two later editions published at Amsterdam. (3) XII Suonate a tre due violini e arciliuto col basso per l'organo, op. 3 ; Bologna, 1690; Antwerp. 1681; Amsterdam. (4) XII Suonate da camera a tre, due violini e violone o cembalo, op. 4; Bologna, 161)4. Another edition o; this work at Amsterdam under the title, Ealetti da camera. (5) XII Suonate a violino e violone o cembalo, op. 6; Roma, 1700. The same arranged by Geminiaui as Concerti gros3i. (6) Concerti grossi con due vjolini e violoncello di concertino obligati, e due altri violini e basso di concerto grosso ad arbitrio che si potramo nirioppiare, op. 6; lioma. 171:!. Another edition at Amsterdam. A number of spurious works were published under Corellis name, but none are genuine except the above six. rp j\ -I

COENELIUS. CORFE, JOSEPH, born in 1740 at Salisbury, was one of the choristers at the cathedral there under Dr. John Stephens, organist and master of the boys. In 1782 he was appointed Gentleman of the Chapel Eoyal. In 1792 he succeeded Robert Parry as organist and master of the choristers of Salisbury Cathedral, which offices he held until 1804. Corfe composed and published a volume of Cathedral Music, consisting of a service and eight anthems, etc.; three sets of Glees, of twelve each; a Treatise on Singing; a Treatise on Thorough Bass, a work still held in esteem; besides editing a Selection of Sacred Music made by James Harris, and other works. He died in 1820, aged 80. His son ARTHUR

THOMAS, was born at

Salisbury, April 9, 1773. In 1783 he became a chorister of Westminster Abbey under Dr. Cooke. He subsequently studied the pianoforte under Muzio Clementi. In 1804, on the resignation of his father, he was appointed organist and master of the children of Salisbury Cathedral. A. T. Corfe produced and published a service and some anthems, several pianoforte pieces, and ' The Principles of Harmony and Thorough Bass.' He died, whilst kneeling in prayer, Jan. 28, 1863, in the 90th year of his age, and was buried in the cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral, where a tablet was erected to him by his thirteen surviving children, one of whom, CHARLES WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, is organist of

Christ Church, Oxford. [W. H. H.] CORKINE, WILLIAM, probably a lutenist, published in 1610 'Ayres to Sing and Play to the Lute and Basse Violl. With Pavins, Galliards, Almaines and Corantos for the Lyra Violl,' and in 1612 'The Second Booke of Ayres, some to sing and play to the Base Violl alone; others to be sung to the Lute and Base Violl, with new Corantoes, Pavins, Almaines; as also divers new Descants upon old Grounds, set to the Lyra Violl.' Nothing is known of his life. [W.H.H.] CORNEGA, an Italian contralto, engaged by Ebers for the season of 1826, at a salary of ,£500. Among other parts, she played Felicia in ' II Crociato,' which had been played by Garcia's daughter the year before. She was re-engaged in 1827 at a salary of £200. [J.M.] CORNELIUS, PETER, a near relation of the painter of the same name, and as composer and author a prominent representative of the socalled New-German school, was born at Mayence Dec. 24, 1824. He was originally intended for the stage, and it was not till after hisfirstperformance, which seems to have been unsuccessful, that he decided to adopt music as a profession. His musical education had been incomplete, but his dramatic studies had made him acquainted with literature, and were of considerable service in developing his poetic faculties. He worked hard, and acquired a vast amount of general information. After the death of his father (1844) he pursued music with energy and completeness ; but his tendencies were forwards towards the modern ideal, rather than backwards to the

CORNELIUS.

CORNET.

strict rules of counterpoint. In 1852 he went to Weimar and joined the young artists who, under Liszt's leadership, were striving to carry out the ideas of Richard Wagner. They formed eventually a separate school, to which the name 'New-German' became attached. It was here that Cornelius became acquainted with Wagner's works, while with Liszt he formed ties of the closest intimacy. His active and versatile pen was of great service to the young enterprise. He strove to elucidate the new principles in the 'Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik,' the organ of the party, both by original articles and by translating a series of lectures given in French by Liszt. As a practical embodiment of the new views he composed a comic opera, 'Der Barbier von Bagdad,' of which only a single performance took place (1858). Liszt resented the judgment of the public, and left Weimar, which ceased to be the centre of the school. In 1858 Cornelius went to Vienna, where Wagner was then living, and became intimate with him also. When King Ludwig II invited Wagner to Munich, Cornelius followed him there (1865), first as reader to the king, and later as professor of harmony and rhetoric at the Conservatoire, after it had been transformed into the 'Kbnigliche Musik-schule' with H. von Bulow as principal. Cornelius's grand opera the 'Cid,' produced at Weimar (1865), may be considered as the fruit of his intercourse with Wagner. He was working at another, entitled 'Gunlb'd'—of which, after Wagner's example, he had himself taken the subject from the legends of the Edda—when he died at Mayence, Oct. 24, 1874. The effect of his dramatic works in furthering the Wagner movement cannot fairly be estimated, as the public have had no real opportunity of judging of them. His published works, principally vocal, show him to have had much feeling. The following deserve mention :—' Duets for Soprano and Baritone,' op. 6; ' Lieder-cyclus,' op. 3 ; 'Weihnachtslieder,' op. 8; and 'Trauerchbre' (for men's voices), op. 9. Most of these are Bettings of his own poems. He published a volume called 'Lyrische Poesien' in 1861. Some of his works will shortly be published; and Gunldd is to be completed from his ample notes by his friend Hof bauer of Munich. [A. M.]

It is also possible to produce four notes above the top C, corresponding to those commonly used in the trumpet; but for the , '" larger bore and mouthpiece n f of the cornet they are diffi- tfl% cult, and comparatively un- £)' used. The French horn, on the other hand, standing an octave lower than the cornet, obtains two harmonic sounds, the Bb and C, above the G last given. The chief characteristic of the cornet is the use of valves or pistons for the purpose of increasing its compass and bridging over the gaps between the natural harmonic sounds. The valves are usually three in number. They consist essentially of mechanism, by means of which a bye-way or diversion, somewhat longer than the direct road, is opened to the vibrating column of air. The first valve thus depresses the pitch by a tone, the second by a semitone, the third by three semitones. They can be used singly or together. In this manner the lower limit is removed downward to F j in the bass stave, and six semitones are obtained by the use of the pistons singly or in combination:—

CORNEMUSE.

The Italian and French

name for the BAGPIPE.

CORNET. (Ital. Cornetto; Fr. Cornet a pistons). The name was formerly given to a rude reed instrument of the oboe family, but is now applied to a brass instrument with cupped mouthpiece, intermediate between the French horn, trumpet, and bugle, of comparatively modern construction, and formerly called also CORNOPEAN. It possesses the usual scale of open or harmonic notes, as follows:—

the real fundamental being the octave below the lowest here given, which is never made use of.

7=r.

1.2,3

1,3

2.3

.-

»

4>.

I,2or3

-ft.

4 OS

1

>

2

W

By the same method all notes intervening between the open notes of the natural scale can be provided for. In the absence of such a contrivance, the early composers for the trumpet were driven to make use of the superior octave, in which a consecutive scale of open notes can be obtained. This is well seen in Handel's solos for the trumpet. It materially increases the brilliancy and the difficulty of the older instrument. The cornet was originally made with several 'crooks,' for the keys of A, Bb, Ab, G, C, and even others; but it has been customary of late to dispense with all but the A and Bb crooks, which correspond to the clarinets of similar name. The bore of the instrument is intermediate in size between the small cylindrical tube and restricted bell of the trumpet, and the broad conical form of the bugle. The tone stands in corresponding relation to those instruments, lacking the penetration of the former, and the smooth hornlike fulness of the latter. The cornet has not yet been much employed in the scores of classical music, though occasionally used in orchestras instead of the trumpet. In operas an instance of its use which will be familiar is the air ' When other lips' in Balfe's Bohemian Girl.' [W. H. S.] CORNET. This name is given to several kinds of organ stops; among others to pedal reed-stops of 4 and 2 feet length in numerous Dutch and German organs. A ' Cornette' of 4 feet occurs in the cathedral organ at Kronstadt; a ' Cometin' of 2 feet in the ' Old Church* organ at Amsterdam; and a 'Cornettino,' 2 feet, in the music hall organ at Boston in America. The great organ Solo Cornet comprised either 5, 4, or 3 ranks of pipes. When of the former Dd2

CORNYSHE.

CORNET.

404

it consisted of a stopped diapason, principal, middle C; and the stop starts with a fifteenth twelfth, fifteenth, and tierce. When of 4 ranks and tierce, to which are added first a twelfth . .^ the stopped diapason was omitted; when of 3, and then a principal, thus— that and the principal were left out; so that 2 ranks 3 ranks "£• the 'composition' on the middle C key stood thus— 5

ranks

4 ranks

3 ranks

=E and the one or two separate stops necessary were added or 'drawn' with the cornet when the series of 5 pipes was not complete. The pipes of the solo cornet were 4 or 5 'scales' wider or 'larger' than the corresponding pipes of the ordinary stops, to render the tone very powerful and broad; and very frequently, in order to make it still more prominent, the stop was placed on a sound-board of its own and raised a few feet above the surrounding pipes, in which case it was called a 'mounted cornet.' Father Smith's solo cornet at the Temple (4 ranks) was not mounted. The Echo Cornet, of soft tone, and shut up in a box, was of 3 ranks, or 4 at most, the composition being as above given. ' Cornet Voluntaries,' as they were called, were in great vogue for a very long time, and consisted of runs and twirls for the right hand, played in single notes, first on the louder stop and then repeated on the softer, the left hand meanwhile playing a soft bass. So fashionable were these peculiar display pieces that Dr. Dupuis states on the title-page of his volume of voluntaries, containing specimens of the kind, that they were ' Performed before their Majesties at the Chapel Royal, St. Paul's Cathedral, etc.'; while Russell, in his book printed in 1812, shows that the attachment for the old Echo still lingered exactly a century after it had been improved upon by the invention of the Swell (in 1712), by directing at the head of one of his pieces ' The Swell Pedal not to be used in this movement.' The name ' Echo Cornet' is still frequently applied to a compound stop of small scale and light tone in swell organs. In many of the continental organs the cornet stop extends down to tenor C ; and in some places it is used, on account of its strong and travelling tone, as an accompaniment to the priest's voice at the far end of the church. This is, or was, the custom a few years ago in many of the churches of Cologne, including the cathedral. As the cornet is a compound stop that can be carried through the usual compass of a manual without any 'break' in its composition, it 13 sometimes looked upon as a good stop for covering the repetitions which necessarily occur in all compound stops that rise to a greater altitude than itself above the unison. At such times it is made as a 'progressive' stop; that is to say, it has fewer pipes in the bass, with an increasing number up to the middle of the key-board. Commencing with two pipes on the CC key, a third rank is added at tenor C, and a fourth at

The 'large scale' is preserved, but the pipes have only narrow mouths, and produce a pleasant and rather flute-like quality of tone. A stop somewhat of this kind occurs on the great manual of Schulze's fine organ in Doncaster parish church. [E. J. H.] CORNETTE, VICTOR, son of an organist, born at Amiens 1795, a musician of indefatigable activity. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1811, and studied composition under Lesueur. He served in the band of the ' Grenadiers tirailleurs de la Garde Impe"riale' in 1813 and 1814, and was at Waterloo; was professor at the College of St. Acheul from 1817 to 1825; member of the orchestra at the Ode'on (1825), Opera Comique (1827); chorus master at the Op^ra Comique (1831-1837); director of singing at the Gymnase de musique militaire (1839) ; conductor of the Strasburg theatre (1842); chorus master to the Ope"ra national (1847) ; and again chorus master at the Opera Comique (1848); also trombonist in the band of the Garde Nationale, and deputy organist at St. Sulpice and the Invalides. Cornette composed an enormous mass of music for every variety of instrument, and published methodes for trombone, ophicleide, cornet a pistons, bugle, saxhorn, saxophone, bassoon, oboe, horn, trumpet, harp, cello, viola, organ, and harmonium. [M. C. C] CORNO, the Italian term for HORN. CORNO DI BASSETTO. See BASSET-HORN. CORNO DI CACCIA, i. e. hunting horn, the French horn. The name often occurs in J. S. Bach's scores. CORNOPEAN, a name originally applied to the cornet a pistons, though now disused. CORNYSHE, or CORNISH, WILLIAM, was master of the children of the Chapel Royal, in which office he succeeded Gilbert Banestre about the year 1490. In the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry VII under date Nov. 12, 1493, a payment is entered ' to one Cornyshe for a prophecy in rewarde, 13s. 4d.,' and in the Privy Purse Expenses of Henry's Queen, Elizabeth of York, under date Dec. 1502, a similar amount for setting of a carralle upon Christmas day.' When the children of the chapel under Cornyshe took part in the performance of a play at court they were rewarded with the sum of ' 61. 13s. 4^.' Cornyshe was a great favourite with Henry VIII. We find a payment, '8 Henry VIII. Nov. To Master Cornishe, gentylman of the King's Chapell, upon a warraunt, in rewarde,

COENYSHE. y

2ool. But this large sum, no doubt, included gratuities to his brethren in the Chapel. In 1504 Cornyshe, being confined in the Fleet prison, upon, as he informs us, some false information given by an enemy, wrote a poem entitled, ' A Treatise between Trouth and Informacion,' some extracts from which are given in Hawkins's History of Music. The real cause of his incarceration is unknown, but it has been conjectured that he had allowed his pen greater freedom than was agreeable to some persons. However in 1508 we again find him taking part in a court play, as appears by a payment 'To Mr. Kite, Cornishe, and other of the Chapell that played affore the King at Eichmonte, 61. 13s. 4 chapel-master to the confraternity of the construction, found appreciation, and brought Rosary at Ancona, and afterwards at the cathe- about the displacement of the Cabinet and the dral of Orvieto. His compositions include motets once familiar Square. To Robert Wornum the for 2, 3, and 4 voices (Rome 1596) ; 'Motetti younger, whose patent (No 3419) for an upright, . . . . e Psahni e Magnificat' (Ib. 1618); and with diagonal strings, was taken out in 1811, is ' Condette amorose,' a series of canzone and mad- due the invention and earliest manufacture of rigals (Orvieto 1621). He also published 'Se- oblique and vertical cottage pianofortes in Englectae cantiones excellentissimorum auctorum' land. In the year 1815 Ignace Pleyel, founder (Rome 1614), a collection of 8-part motets by of the house of Pleyel, Wolff, et Cie., employed Palestrina, the Nanini, the Anerii, Marenzio, Henri Pape, an ingenious mechanician, to organise Lucatello, Giovanelli, and others beside himself; the introduction of the construction of these inand another collection of airs and madrigals called struments in Paris (Pape, Sur les Inventions, etc.; 'Ghirlandettaamorosa' (Orvieto 1621). [M.C.C.] Paris, 1845), from which beginning arose the important manufacture of French cottage pianos. COSTANZI, JUAN, known as Gioannino di In Germany and America upright pianos have Roma, because he was born there; was for some not made much way. [See PIANOFORTE, also CABItime in the household of Cardinal Ottoboni, and NET PIANO, OBLIQUE, and PICCOLO.] [A. J. H.] was appointed in 1754 chapel-master of St. Peter's, COTUMACCI, or CONTUMACCI, CARLO, which he retained till his death in 1778. He composed an opera ' Carlo Magno' (Rome 1729); born at Naples 1698, died there 1775; pupil of a fine ' Miserere'; motets in 16 parts for 4 choirs, A. Scarlatti, succeeded Durante at S. Onofrio; offertoriums, and other church music. [M.C.C.] organist and prolific composer of church music. wrote 'Regole dell' accompagnamento' and COSTE, GASPAED, chorister in the cathedral He 'Trattato di contrapunto,' works which have of Avignon about 1530, composer of songs and remained MS., excepting some 'Partimenti,' madrigals, preserved in the following collections ; published in by Choron in his ' Principes de compo'Trente-cinq livres des chansons k quatre parties' sition des Creoles d'ltalie' (Paris 1808). [M.C.C.] (Paris 1539-1549); ' Le Parangon des chansons' COUAC (French for ' quack'), a sudden hor(Lyons 1540-1543) ; 'Motetti del Fiore' (Ib. 1532-1539); 'Sdegnosi ardori; Musica di di- rible noise to which any clarinet is liable when versi authori sopra un istesso sogetto di parole' the reed is out of order and the wind not quite (Munich 1575); and 'Ghirlanda di Fioretti under control. Called also ' the goose.' (See a musicale' (Rome 1589). [M.C.C.] good story in Spohr, Selbstbiographie, i. 167.) COUNTERPOINT is ' the art of combining COSTELEY, WILLIAM, a Scotch musician, born 1531, settled in France, and was organist to melodies.' Its name arose from the ancient Henri II and Charles IX. Author of a treatise system of notation by points or ' pricks.' When called 'Musique' (Paris 1579); songs in the one set of points was added to another, to signify ' Chansons h, 4 et 5 parties' published by Le Roy the simultaneous performance of various meloand Ballard (Ib. 1567). Some pieces of his are dies agreeing in harmony, it was called ' point in the library at Orleans. Costeley was one of against point'—i. e. contrapunctum, or counterthe society called ' Puy de musique en honneur point. Counterpoint is usually divided into two de Ste. Cecile' (1571) at Evreux, and sometimes kinds—plain and double—and each of these is entertained the members at his own house in subdivided into various orders or species. There Evreux. He died there in 1606. [M.C.C.] are very stringent rules about the use of different intervals in plain counterpoint, which are COSYN, BENJAMIN, was probably a son of more or less relaxed in modern music ; when, John Cosyn, who in 1585 published sixty psalms however, they are fully observed, the piece is in six parts in plain counterpoint. He was said to be written in ' strict counterpoint.' It is eminent as a composer of lessons for virginals. usual to take some fragment of an old chant or Many of his pieces are extant. He flourished in chorale as the • canto fermo' or plain-chant, to the first half of the 17th century. | W - H : H 0 which other parts or melodies are added as acCOTILLON (i.e. ' a petticoat'). Originally a companiments according to the rules above simple French dance of the age of Louis XIV, referred to. This is called 'adding a counterpoint which, according to some authors, resembled the to a given subject.'

COUNTERPOINT.

COUNTERPOINT.

408

The fifth species is called ' florid counterpoint,' The difference between the ancient strictness and modern laxity in plain counterpoint chiefly and is a combination or rather alternation of the relates to the admission of consecutive octaves last three, with certain ornamental variations and fifths by contrary motion, even between peculiar to itself. extreme parts, and the doctrine of false relations, ^Counterp nnt. especially that of the tritone. Plain counter- t ~i f~ -n— point, however, is most useful as a study, whereby #— f —1 J—| -- «lJ facility may be acquired in conquering difficulties arising from the various motions of the different parts in a piece of music. It is obvious, therefore, that the more stringent rules should be Canto fei mo. observed by students with a view to this particular object, and that therefore they are enforced in the best text-books. 1 i -1 * r I r 'i Plain counterpoint is generally divided into five species. The first is called 'note against note.' 1—s>—1

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i

Canto fermo.

m

Counterpoint.

The second species is called ' two notes to one.1 Canfn fermo.

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Counterpoint.

Plain counterpoint may be in any number of parts, and the canto fermo may be assigned to the upper, middle, or lowest parts, according to circumstances. Double counterpoint is when two or more melodies are so constructed that either of them may form a correct bass to the others; and when the various melodies may, by transposition, be placed in any relative order of acuteness, without infringing the laws of harmony. These transpositions may be such as to produce counterpoints at the octave, tenth, twelfth, or any other interval, but the most usual is double counterpoint at the octave. Examples of various double counterpoints— MOZAKT.

First melody.

Second meloiy.

The third species is called ' four notes to one.' Counterpoint.

t

Cnnto fermo.

Second melody.

First melody.

The above is a specimen of double counterpoint at the octave. The next species is at the tenth, on a Canto fermo. The fourth is called ' syncopated counterpoint.' Counterpoint.

Canto fermo.

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Counterpoint.

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COUNTERPOINT. Canto firmo.

COUPERIN.

409

was a favourite with the composers of the last century ; instances of it with different countersubjects will be found in Handel's 'Joseph,' in Mozart's Requiem, and in a quartet of Haydn's in F minor; also in Corelli's Solos, op. I, No. 3. When a second subject appears simultaneously with the first proposition of the principal subject it is common to speak of it as the countersubject, as in the following, by Handel (6 organ fugues no. 3)—

fm The above is double counterpoint at the ten_h below. Triple or quadruple counterpoints consist of three or four melodies so adopted that any of them may be a basa to the other. This can only be done with counterpoint at the octave. Counterpoints may also be constructed by contrary motion, or by augmentation, or diminution, or retrogression. In compositions in more than two parts, the counterpoint is often confined to two parts, while the others are free accompaniments in order to fill up and complete the harmony. In a fugue the subject and countersubject are necessarily constructed in double counterpoint. [See article FUGUE.]

For a good example of counterpoint at the twelfth and in diminution, see thefinechorus ' Let all the Angels of God,' in Handel's ' Messiah.' For an example of five subjects in double counterpoint at the octave, see the finale of Mozart's ' Jupiter' Symphony. [F.A.G-. 0.] COUNTERSUBJECT. When the subject of a fugue has been proposed by one voice it is usual for the answer, which is taken up by another voice, to be accompanied by the former with a counterpoint sufficiently recognisable as a definite subject to take its part in the development of the fugue, and this is called the countersubject; as in the chorus 'And with his stripes,' in Handel's 'Messiah'— Subject.

It should be capable of being treated with the original subject in double counterpoint—that is, either above or below it, as in the chorus just named, where it first appears in an upper part, but further on in the tenor, with the original subject in the treble ; thus— •Subject,

c.s. But it is allowable to alter it slightly when thus treated, so long as its character is distinctly marked. The principal subject of the above

but many theorists think that this tends to confusion, and wish it to be called a second subject. Cherubini held that a fugue could not have more than one principal subject, and that therefore the terms first, second, or third countersubject should be used to designate any subjects which follow after the first; but the question does not seem to be of any very great importance. For further treatment of this question see FUGUE. [C.H.H.P.] COUNTERTENOR. See ALTO. COUNTRY-DANCE. See CONTREDANSE.

COUPART, ANTOINE MARIE, born in Paris 1780, died there 1854, originator and editor of the ' Almanach des Spectacles' (Paris 1S22-1836). Coupart was for many years an employe' in the ' Bureau des journaux et des theatres' and had special opportunities for gaining his information. He also wrote vaudevilles and comedies, and edited several collections of songs. [M. C.C.] COUPERIN, FRANCOIS, called, like Louis XIV, 'Le Grand,' was born at Paris 1668, and died there 1733. In 1696 he became organist of St. Gervais, in which office, from about 1650 to 1700, he was both preceded and succeeded by members of the Couperin family, who were all professional musicians. But though he is reported to have been a first-rate organist, his reputation rests upon his various suites of pieces for the ' clavecin,' his excellent Me'thode for that instrument, and his proficiency as an executant upon it. It is of particular interest for historians of music, as well as for professed pianists, to note the unmistakeable influence which Couperin's suites and Me'thode had upon Sebastian Bach, both in his practice (mode of touch, fingering, execution of 'les agremens '—shakes, turns, arpeggii, etc.) [AGBEMENTS] and in the shape and contents of some of his loveliest contributions to the literature of the instrument, such as his suites and partitas. The principal pieces in Bach's ' Suites francaises,' ' Suites anglaises,' 'Partitas,' and even in some of his solo works for violin and violoncello, as well as in his suites for stringed or mixed stringed and wind instruments—'Concerti Grossi,'—the allemandes, courantes, sarabandes, gavottes, gigues, etc., are frequently in close imitation of the French types of dance tunes then current, and of which Couperin's suites furnished the best specimens. Bach here and there goes to the length of

410

COUPERIN.

COURANTE.

copying the curious rhythmical oddities which give to some of Couperin's pieces, particularly his •courantes, an air of stiffness and angularity akin to ill-carved wooden puppets :—compare Bach's second courante, in the first of the Suites anglaises, particularly the first Double thereof, or the courante in the fourth Partita in D major, with Couperin's courantes in G minor and D minor, C minor, A major, and B minor, from the first, second, third, fifth, and eighth ' ordre' of his 'Pieces de clavecin.' A distinction should be made between Couperin's type of 'courante' and the Italian 'corrente,' as it is to be found in Corelli's works—of which latter type Bach also gives many specimens. [COUEANTE.] Couperin's suites, in a word, are a sort of refined ballet music. He has re-set the dances played by the orchestra in Lully's operas for the clavecin, and the theatrical twang noticeable in the quaint titles of many of the pieces—for instance, 'La majestueuse,' ' L'enchanteresse,' 'La prude,' 'La flatteuse,' 'La voluptueuse,' 'Les enjouments bachiques,' ' Tendresses bachiques,' ' Fureurs bachiques,' etc.—has stood in the way of a thorough musical development. Couperin's published works are four sets of ' Pieces de clavecin'; his ' Me'thode, ou l'art de toucher le clavecin, y compris huit Preludes'; 'Les gouts reunis, ou nouveaux concerts, augmentes de l'apotheose de Corelli'; ' L'apotheose de l'incomparable Lully'; ' Trios for two violins and bass'; and ' Pieces de viole.' A careful reprint of his suites for the clavecin, of which two volumes have hitherto appeared, is being edited by Brahms. [E. D.]

' from courir, to run. It is in 3-2 time, of rather rapid movement, and begins with a short note (usually a quaver) at the end of the bar. It is distinguished by a predominance of dotted notes, as in this, from Bach's 'English Suites,' No.4,

COUPLER. All modern organs are provided with mechanical appliances called ' couplers.' These useful adjuncts are of two general kinds— ' manual couplers ' and ' pedal couplers.' (I) The former operate in one of three ways : either by taking down on one manual the key corresponding to that played on another, in which case it is a 'unison coupler' ; or by taking down the octave above the note pressed down, when it forms an 'octave coupler,' sometimes incorrectly called a ' super-octave coupler'; or by operating on the octave below, forming a ' sub-octave coupler.' The octave and sub-octave couplers sometimes act on the manual on which the note is struck. The couplers are put in action by draw-stops inscribed according to circumstances—as ' Swell to Great,' ' Great to itself,'—or by pedals. Manual couplers date back at least as far as 1651, when Geissler's organ at Lucerne was completed; which, according to the account formerly existing over the keys, contained ' several registers, whereby one may make use of the three manuals together, or of one or two of them separately.' (,2) A pedal coupler attaches a particular manual to the pedal-clavier ; and by bringing the lower 2i octaves of the compass of the manual under the control of the feet, produces the effect of a third hand on any manual required. [E. J.H.] COURANTE (Ital. Corrente). (1) A dance of French origin, the name of which is derived

As a component of the suite, the Oourante follows the ALLEMANDE, with which in its character it is strongly contrasted. In losing its connection with the dance, it underwent a slight modification: whereas in its earlier shape the 6-4 rhythm was only to be found in the concluding bar of each part, courantes are frequently to be met with in suites wherein the two rhythms are mixed up, and sometimes even where, in spite of the time-signature, the 6-4 rhythm predominates throughout. This is especially the case in many of those by Couperin. The endeavour to bring out these various features clearly and prominently, without injuring the flow of the whole, led to the adoption of the polyphonic style, by which the Courante is so strongly contrasted with the Allemande. Its chief points may be briefly summed up thus—triple time, prevalence of dotted rhythms, alternations of 3-2 and 6-4 times, and polyphonic treatment. (2) The Italian courante (Courante Italienne), called also, like the preceding, simply Corrente or Courante, is a different form, quite independent of that just mentioned. It answers more nearly to the etymological meaning of its name, consisting chiefly of running passages. This courante is also in triple time—usually 3-8, but sometimes 3-4—and of rapid tempo, about allegro, or allegro assai. It is thus, like the French courante, contrasted with the allemande. As an example of this class may be

Efe

and requires a staccato rather than a legato style of performance. Like most of the other old dances, it consists of two parts, each of which is repeated. A special peculiarity of the courante is that the last bar of each part, in contradiction to the time-signature, is in 6-4 time. This will be seen clearly by an extract from the movement quoted above :— ^ ~- I 1-

I

COTJRANTE.

COUSSEMAKER.

411

taken the following from Bach's ' Partita' songs which appeared in ' The Theater of Music,' 1685-87. [W.H.H.] No. 5 :— COURTOIS, JEAN, eminent composer, lived in the first half of the 16th century, chapel-master to the Archbishop of Cambray in 1539 when Charles V passed through that city on his way to and composed a motet in 4 parts,' Venite Other specimens of this kind of courante may Ghent, terrae,' which was performed in the Cabe found in No. 5 of Handel's 'First Set of populi Eight of his masses are in the Royal Lessons,' and in Nos. 5 and 6 of Bach's ' Suites thedral. at Munich, and one in the library at Fran9aises,' these last being in 3-4 time. They Library Cambray. He composed many motets, published are also frequent in Corelli's ' Violin Sonatas.' in the following collections, ' Fior de' Motetti' (3) One more species of courante remains to (Venice 1539); ' Selectissimae . . . Cantiones' be noticed, which is founded upon, and attempts (Augsburg 1540); 'Novum et insigne opus musito combine the two preceding ones, but with the cum'(Nuremberg 1537); 'Liber quartus : XXIX peculiarity that the special features of both—viz. musicales quatuor etc' (Paris 1534); 'Psalmorum the French change of rhythm, and the Italian selectorum' (Nuremberg 1539); 'Cantiones saruns—are hot introduced. It is in fact a hybrid crae' (Antwerp 1546); and in 3 vols of motets possessing little in common with the other published at Lyons (1532-1538). His French varieties, except that it is in triple time, and songs include a canon and two songs in 5 and 6 consists of two parts, each repeated. Most of parts in ' Chansons a 4, 5, 6, et 8 parties, de divers Handel's courantes belong to this class. The auteurs' (Antwerp 1543-1550); ' Si par souffrir,' commencement of one, from his ' Lessons,' Bk. i. in 'Trente chansons . . . a 4 parties' (Paris); No. 8, will show at once the great difference be- and two songs in ' Trentecinq livres de Chansons tween this and the French or Italian courante. nouvelles' (Paris 1532-1549). [M.C.C.] COUSSEMAKER, CHARLES EDMOND HENRI

DE, a distinguished French writer on the history of music, born at Bailleul (Nord), April ig, 1805 (not 1795). His family dates from the fifteenth century, and had for many generations held important magisterial posts in Bailleul; his father, a 'juge de paix,' destined him for the law ; but Bach, on the other hand, chiefly uses the first his musical aptitude was such that at ten he kind of courante, his movements more resembling could play any piece upon the piano at sight. those of Couperin. [E. P.] He also learned the violin and violoncello. He COURTEVILLE, RAPHAEL, was one of the was educated at the Douai 'Lycee,' and took gentlemen of the Chapel Royal in the reign of lessons in harmony from Moreau, organist of St. Charles I. He lived through the interregnum, Pierre. In 1825 he went to Paris, and studied resumed his place in the chapel on its re- counterpoint under Lefebvre. The recent researches of Fe'tis had roused a general interest in establishment in 1660, and died Dec. 28, 1675. His son RAPHAEL, was brought up as a cho- the history of music, and Coussemaker's attenrister in the Chapel Royal. As a composer of tion was turned in that direction. Having comsongs his productions abound in the collections pleted his studies he was appointed 'juge' sucpublished in the latter part of the 17th century cessively at Douai, Bergues, Hazebrouck, Dunand at the commencement of the next. His first kerque, and Lille. He died Jan. 10, 1876. He printed work was ' Six Sonatas for two Violins,' was a member of the ' Institut' for twenty years, and he also produced, about 1685, Sonatas for and belonged to several other learned societies, two Flutes. In 1691 he was appointed the first besides being a 'chevalier' of the Legion of organist of St. James's church, Piccadilly, for Honour, and of the order of Leopold of Belgium. which he composed the psalm tune well known His works are 'Memoire sur Hucbald,' &c. by the name 'St. James's.' In 1696 he was (1841) ; 'Notices sur les collections musicales de one of the composers associated with Henry la bibliotheque de Cambrai,' etc. (1852); 'HisPurcell in setting the third part of D'Urfey's toire de l'harmonie au moyen age' (1852); 'Don Quixote.' He is supposed to have died ' Trois chants historiques' (1854); ' Chants populaires des Flamands' (1856) ; • Chants liturgiques about the year 1735. His son RAPHAEL, succeeded his father as de Thomas a Kempis' (1856); 'Notice sur un MS. organist of St. James's church. He was a poli- musical de . . . S. Di he graduated as Bachelor of Music. In March, 1797, he succeeded Dr. Philip Hayes, deceased, as organist of St. John's College, and Professor of Music in the University. On Nov. 11, I799> he proceeded Doctor of Music, composing as his exercise Dr. Joseph Warton's 'Ode to Fancy,' the score of which he afterwards published. From 1800 to 1804 he delivered lectures in the Music School. In 1812 he produced his oratorio 'Palestine,' which was received with great favour, and also published a treatise on the ' Elements of Musical Composition.' About 1820 he was appointed music lecturer at the Royal Institution, London, and on the establishment of the Royal Academy of Music in 1822 was placed at its head as principal. On June 10, 1834, he produced at Oxford, on the installation of the Duke of Wellington as Chancellor, an oratorio, ' The Captivity of Judah,' wholly different from his juvenile work bearing the same title.1 On June 28 in the same year he made his last public appearance as a performer, by acting as organist for part of the third day's performance at the Royal Musical Festival in Westminster Abbey. Dr. Crotch died at Taunton at the house of his son, the Rev. William Robert Crotch, then Head Master of the Grammar School there, where he had for some time resided, while seated at dinner, Dec. 29, 1847, and was interred in the neighbouring church of Bishop's Hull, where a monumental inscription is placed

420

CROSS, THOMAS, an engraver of music in the latter part of the 17th and early part of the 18th centuries. He resided in Catherine Wheel Court, on the south side of Snow Hill, near Snow Hill Conduit. At a time when printing by metal types was the almost universally adopted means for placing music before the public, he commenced the issue of a long succession of single songs engraved on copper plates by the graver, and printed on one side only of the leaf, and led the way to the general adoption of that method of printing music. Henry Hall, organist of Hereford Cathedral, mentions him in some verses prefixed to Dr. Blow's ' Amphion Anglicus,' T 700 ; ' While at the shops we daily dangling view False concord by Tom Cross engraven true.' And again in some lines prefixed to the second book ot'Purcell's 'Orpheus Britannicus,' 1702 ; ' Then honest Cross might copper cut in vain.' It is probable that he engraved some of the earlier publications of the elder Walsh. THOMAS CROSS, junior, his son, was a stamper

of music, and (according to Sir John Hawkins) 'stamped the plates of Geminiani's Solos and a few other publications, but in a very homely and illegible character, of which he was so little conscious that he set his name to everything he did, even to single songs.' He probably bore in mind his father's superscription, 'Exactly [W.H.H.] engraved by T. Cross.' CROSSE, JOHN, a native of, and resident in, Hull, published in 1825 a large quarto volume entitled ' An Account of the Grand Musical Festival held in September, 1823, in the Cathedral Church of York, . . . to which is prefixed a Sketch of the rise and progress of Musical Festivals in Great Britain, with biographical and historical notes'—an admirably executed work, replete with valuable and useful information. [W.H.H.] He died in 1829. CROTCH, WILLIAM, MUS. DOC, was born at Norwich, July 5, 1775. His father, a master

1 The MS. is now (1876) in possession of the Kev. Sir F. Ouseley, Bart.

CROTCH.

CRUVELLI.

421

to his memory. Besides the works above specified, Philharmonic Feb. 29, 1864. He died in harness [G.] Dr. Crotch produced ' Ten Anthems,' some chants, at Upper Norwood, Dec. 20, 1870. a motet, ' Methinks I hear' ; several glees ; CRUGER, JOHANN, born April 9, 1598, at some fugues and concertos for the organ ; several Gross-Breese near Guben in Prussia, educated pianoforte pieces; an ode on the accession of chiefly at the Jesuit college of Olmiitz, at the George IV, performed at Oxford, 1820 ; Funeral school of poetry at Regensburg, and the uniAnthem for the Duke of York, 1827; 'The Lord versity of Wittenberg; in 1622 was appointed is King,' anthem for voices and orchestra, 1843 ; cantor at the church of St. Nicolaus at Berlin, and some works on Thorough Bass and Harmony. a post which he retained till, his death in 1662. He also published ' Specimens of various styles His reputation in his own day both as an author of Music referred to in a course of Lectures on and composer was great, but he is now chiefly Music read at Oxford and London,' and in 1831 known as the composer of some of the most the ' Substance of several courses of Lectures on favourite chorales. The best-known of them are Music read at Oxford and in the Metropolis.' As 'Nun danket alle Gott'; 'Jesu meine Zuvera teacher he enjoyed a high and deserved repu- sicht'; 'Jesu meine Freude'; and ' Schinttcke tation. [W.H.H.] dich 0 liebe Seele.' They were published under CROTCHET, a note which is half the value the title 'Praxis pietatis melica, oder Kirchenof a minim, and twice that of a quaver, and is melodien fiber D. Luthers und Anderer Gesange,' represented thus f. The origin of the name is for four voices and two instruments (Leipsic, not known. It is apparently derived from the 1649). This work has passed through inFrench croche; but croche is a quaver, f , and isnumerable editions; the 30th bears date Berlin so called on account of the hook at the end of its 1703. He also composed many concertos and tail, whereas a crotchet has no hook. The French motets which no longer exist. Other works have name for this note is noire, the Italian, semi- been preserved ; they are ' Meditationum musicaminima, and the German Viertel, ' a quarter'— rum Paradisus primus, oder Erstes musikalisches i. e. of a semi-breve. The French call a crochet Lust-Gartlein,' in three and four parts (Frankrest, r, by the pretty name of un soupir. [G.] fort, 1622); and 'Med. mus. Parad. secundus' (Berlin, 1626); a collection of new Magnificats CROUCH, F. NICHOLLS, a composer of songs in German, in two and eight part harmony, and ballads during the second quarter of the arranged in all the eight tones. Also 'Represent century, was the author of many pro- creationes musicae, das ist neue poetische Amoductions which gained great popularity, and one rosen' (Leipsic, 1651), containing 33 pieces. —' Kathleen Mavourneen'—which still retains Among his theoretical works may be mentioned its place in public favour. He quitted England (1) 'Synopsis musices,' a method for thoroughabout the year 1845 and went to America, where, bass (Berlin, 1624)—the third edition (Berlin, it is believed, he is still living. [W.H.H.] 1634) has a different title ; (2) 'Preceptae musiCROUCH, MRS. ANNA MAEIA, born April cae practicae figuralis' (1625), also published in 20, 1763, was the daughter of Peregrine Phillips, a German form as ' Rechter Weg zur Singekunst' a solicitor. Being gifted with a remarkably (Berlin, 1660) ; (3) 'Quaestiones musicae practi[A. M.] sweet voice Miss Phillips was at an early age cae' (Berlin, 1650). placed under the instruction of a music-master CRUVELLI, JEANNE SOPHIE CHARLOTTE, named Wafer, and some time afterwards was articled to Thomas Linley, under whose auspices whose family-name was Cruwell, was born March she made her appearance in the winter of 1; 80, 12, 18 2 6, at Bielefeld in Westphalia. Her father at Drury Lane Theatre, as Mandane in Dr. was fond of music, and played the trombone Arne's ' Artaxerxes.' Her success was great, tolerably. Her mother, had a fine contralto and for upwards of twenty years she held a high voice, and sang with expression. She had a place in public esteem, both as actress and singer. voice of admirable quality, compass, and truth, Early in 1785 she married Mr.Crouch, a lieutenant but did not receive the instruction which should in the navy, but after an union of about seven have developed its advantages, and enabled her yeafs the parties separated by mutual consent. to avoid those faults and imperfections which About 1800 Mrs. Crouch's health became im- are inevitable without it. She made her de"but paired, she withdrew from public life, and died at Venice in 1847, and the beauty of her voice at Brighton, Oct. 2, 1805. [W.H.H.] ensured her a brilliant success, which was confirmed when she sang in Verdi's ' Attila' at the CROWN DIAMONDS, THE, the English theatre of Udine on July 24, and in ' I Due version of Auber's opera ' Les Diamans de la Foscari.' Coming now to London, in the height Couronne'; produced at the Princess s Theatre, of her fame, she Italianised her name, and beLondon, May 2, 1844, Mme. Anna Thillon as came known as Cruvelli, on her appearance in Catarina. ' Le Nozze di Figaro,' and ever after. The role CROZIER, WILLIAM. A few words are due to of the Countess was not suited to her fiery style, the memory of this oboe player, whose tone and nor was the comparison between her and Jenny exquisite taste will not soon be forgotten by those Lind, who played Susanna, to her advantage. who heard him in the Crystal Palace orchestra and After this partial failure, she returned to Italy, and continued to earn success by the mere beauty elsewhere. He learned the oboe from Barret; of her organ, and even by the exaggeration of joined the C. P. orchestra 1855; appeared at the

CRTTVELLI.

CRYSTAL PALACE CONCERTS.

her dramatic effects. In 1851 she went to Paris, where she had sung in concerts before her first appearance in Italy. She appeared with immense success in 'Ernani' at the Theatre Italien, for Verdi's music seemed made for her. She sang again in London that year, and was very successful, in spite of many faults. Beside her splendid voice, she had a very fine face and figure, and enormous energy of accent and dramatic force : her performance in ' Fidelio' was especially admirable. In Jan. 1854 she was engaged at the Grand Ope'ra at Paris, and appeared as Valentine in ' Les Huguenots,' when the enthusiasm of the public knew no bounds. But a violent reaction soon succeeded, and the last opera in which she preserved some of her former popularity was the ' Vepres Siciliennes' of Verdi. In this work she exercised the greatest control of voice and action : it was her last role. In the following winter she retired, and married the Comte Vigier. [J.M.]

hear it mentioned again by Daines Barrington, a Welsh judge and archaeologist, who relates that he knew one John Morgan, born 1711 in the isle of Anglesey, who still played the crwth. Bingley also heard it played at Carnarvon as late as 1801; but it is now entirely out of use. In its later form it was mounted with six strings, four stretched over the finger-board and played with the bow, and two, lying at the side of the fingerboard, pinched with the thumb of the left hand. The strings were tuned either as (a)—according to Edward Jones, the celebrated Welsh harpplayer— (a) (5)

422

=1= On t h e i M ^ f t h s 0 1 " ^ " ^ finger-board.

or as (6)—according to Bingley ('Musical Biography,' 1814). The sound-holes are perfectly circular, and have a diameter of i£ inch. The bridge does not stand straight, but inclines toward the right, and its left foot, which is 2^ inches in length (while the right foot measures only £ of an inch), passes through the sound-hole and rests on the back of the instrument, thus acting the part of the sound-post in the violin. The crwth is 22J inches in length ; its width near the tailpiece is ioi inches, near the top 9 inches; the height of the sides is 2 inches. [P. D.] CRYSTAL PALACE SATURDAY CONCERTS, of orchestral and vocal music. These concerts were begun on Sept. 22, 1855, and assumed their present well-known character in i860, after the construction of the concert-room. They have been throughout under the direction of Mr. Manns, their present conductor. The concerts begin with the first Saturday in October, and last, with an interval at Christmas, till the end of April. The orchestra consists of 16 first and 14 second violins, n violas, 10 cellos, and 10 double basses, with single wind, etc. The chorus, who appear only occasionally, are 300 strong. The solo players are the greatest who can be obtained. The programmes usually contain 2 overtures, a symphony, a concerto, or some minor piece of orchestral music, and 4 songs. The distinguishing feature of the concerts is their choice and performance of orchestral music. Not to mention the great works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Spohr, Weber, and other time-honoured classics, the audience were familiar with Schumann's symphonies and overtures, and with Schubert's symphonies and Rosamunde music, at a time when those works were all but unknown in the concert-rooms of tiie metropolis. Mendelssohn's Reformation Symphony was first played here; so was his overture to Camacho ; Brahms's Symphony, Pianoforte Concerto, Variations on a theme of Haydn's, and Song of Destiny; Raff's Its oldest foTm was probably the • crwth trithant,' Lenore and (i minor Symphonies; Wagner's or with three strings, pictures of which are found Faust Overture; Sullivan's Tempest Music and in manuscripts of the n t h century. We first Symphony in E ; Benedict's Symphony in G CRWTH (i.e. Crooth) or CROWD, as far as we know the oldest stringed instrument played with the bow; probably at home in India, but in its European use apparently limited to England, and especially to Wales. It is first mentioned in some elegiacs, written about 1609, by Venance Fortunat, Bishop of Poitiers, running thus: 'Romanusque lyra plaudat tibi, Barbarus harpa, Graecus achilliaca, chrolta Brittanna canat.'

CRYSTAL PALACE CONCERTS.

CURIONI.

423

minor, and many other works were obtained rectly after the long pauses. A few notes of (often in MS.) and performed before they were some other part immediately preceding the enheard in any other place in the metropolis. trance of his own are therefore printed small in Bennett's 'Parisina' was first played there after the stave as a guide; and this is called a cue :— an interval of a quarter of a century. „ , Alto A disposition is apparent in the managers of 3E these concerts to present the audience with pieces of special interest; such as the MS. ho . . . . ly Sins ye the Lord and works of Schubert, and of Mendelssohn; BeeCUMBERLANDS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF. This thoven's arrangement of his Violin Concerto for is an ancient society of change-ringers long esthe piano, and his Leonora Overture, ' No. 2' ; tablished in London, and originally called the an alternative Andante written by Mozart for Society of London Scholars. But in the early his Parisian Symphony; the first version of part of the 18th century some members of the Mendelssohn's Hebrides Overture, and other society rang the bells of Shoreditch Church in rare treasures of the same nature. honour of the public entrance into London of the The performances are of that exceptional Duke of Cumberland, and to commemorate this quality which might be inferred from the ability, event a medal was presented to the society bearing energy, and devotion of the conductor, and from a likeness of the Royal Duke. It was on receipt the fact that owing to the wind and a portion of this that its members changed the name of of the strings of the orchestra being the per- their society to that of ' Cumberland Youths' or manent band of the Crystal Palace, Mr. Manns [C. A. W. T. ] has opportunities for rehearsal which are en- ' Royal Cumberlands.' CUMMINGS, WILLIAM HAYMAN. native of joyed by no other conductor in London. [G.] Sidbury, Devon, born 1835, placed at an early CSARDAS. A national dance of Hungary, age in the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral, and afterwhich consists of two movements, an andante and wards in that of the Temple Church. On leaving an allegro, both in common (4-4 or 2-4) time the latter he was appointed organist of Waltham and in the same key. The andante, which is Abbey, and after a time admitted as tenorwritten in the Hungarian Lied-form, has usually singer in the Temple, Westminster Abbey, and no repeats ; but the Allegro consists generally of the Chapels Royal, appointments which he subeight- and sixteen-bar phrases which are repeated. sequently resigned. Mr. Cummings is much in The character of the latter is wild and impetuous, request for the important parts in Bach's and the whole is sometimes in a major key, Passion, Bach's Mass, and tenor other works where an sometimes in alternating majors and minors. accomplished musician is as necessary as a good The music of the cssirda's is always performed singer. His publications include several prize by gipsies, and it partakes strongly of the glees, Morning Service, an Anthem, various peculiar character of Hungarian national music, songs, aa Cantata,' The Fairy Ring,' and a Primer in its accents on the weak beats of the bar, its [G.] cadences, etc. An example of the csirdas, of the Rudiments of Music (Novello). CURIONI, a seconda donna, engaged at the which is too long to be quoted here, may be see at p. 91 of F. L. Schubert's 'Die Tanz- King's Theatre about 1754. Among other parts, musik,' from which book the above particulars she sang that of Plistene, a male character in are derived. [E.P.] the ' Ipermestra' of Hasse and Lampugnani. She was, perhaps, the mother of ALBEEICO CUDMORE, RICHARD, was born at Chichester CURIONI, a distinguished tenor, born about 1790. in 1787, and received hisfirstinstruction in riiusic After singing at the San Carlo at Naples, and from James Forgett, an organist in that city. At a other theatres, he went to Barcelona, and had very early age he became a proficient on the violin, great success. Benelli, catering for the London and at eleven years old was placed under Salomon. Opera, found him there and engaged him for the The next year he led the band at the Chichester season of 1821 at £600. He had a very sweet Theatre, and was engaged in the orchestra at and pleasing voice, was a very agreeable, if not the Italian Opera, London. He next resided for yet a great, singer, and was one of the handnine years in Chichester, and then removed to somest men that ever appeared on the Italian London for the purpose of studying the piano- stage. As time went on, his talent developed forte under Woelfl, and became a member of the and he improved in dramatic forpe and value. Philharmonic Society's band. He afterwards His expression and taste were pure, and he sang settled in Manchester as leader of the Gentle- with much intelligence. In 1821 he made his first men's Concerts there. He composed several con- appearance in London as Tito with Camporese. certos for the violin and others for the pianoforte, He then seemed the best tenor that had belonged as also an oratorio, 'The Martyr of Antioch' to the theatre for some time, but he hardly gave (published) portions of which were performed in the full promise of his future excellence. Curioni Manchester and Liverpool. Cudmore died at was re-engaged in 1822, at an increased salary, Manchester in January 1841. [W. H. H.] and appeared in ' Otello' with renewed eclat; CUE. i. e. queue, the tail of the preceding pas- and again in ' La Clemenza di Tito,' in ' La sage. Where a player or singer is reading from Donna del Lago,' and 'Ricciardo e Zoraide,' in a separate part, and not from the score, some 1823. In 24 and 2^ he was again engaged. In help is advisable to aid him in ooniing in cor- the latter year he appeared as Orosmane in

424

CURIONI.

•Pietro 1'Eremita,' and in 'Otello,' in 'Coslfan tutte,' and 'II Crociato.' In the latter opera he reappeared in 1826, as also in 'Medea,' where he was very effective in the part of Giasone. His portrait was drawn by Hayter in this character, and there is a good lithograph of it. He was re-engaged in 1827, at the increased salary of £1450, and played a principal part in Pacini's 'Schiava in Bagdad.' In 1828 he was again at the King's Theatre, where he was heard by Lord Mount-Edgcumbe in 1834, singing with undiminished powers. He was an honorary member of the Royal Academy of Music. [J. M.] CURIOSO INDISCRETO, IL. An opera of Anfossi's, produced at Milan in 1778; of little interest for the present day, except for the fact that Mozart added three songs to it on the occasion of its performance at Vienna in 1783. Two of these, 'Vorrei spiegarvi' and 'No, no, no' (bravura), were for Madame Lange; the third, ' Per pieta non ricercate,' was for Adamberger, but owing to a trick of Salieri's was not sung (Kochel, 418, 419, 420). CURSCHMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH, born at

Berlin June 21, 1805. As a child he showed considerable talent for music, and had a beauts ful soprano voice, but having been intended for the law it was not till 1824 that he decided to adopt music as a profession. He studied for four years under Spohr and Hauptmann at Cassel, and in 1824 settled in Berlin, making occasional concert tours in Germany, France, and Italy. He died in the prime of life Aug. 24, 1S41. Curschmann's fame rests on his 'Lieder.' He was the favourite song-writer before Schubert's songs were known, and when Schumann had scarcely attempted vocal composition. His sons's are full of real melody, and if they do not possess the intensity of expression which characterise the creations of Schubert, Schumann, and Brahma, they are far superior to the shallow productions which deluged Germany at that and a later period. The fact that many of them are still sung speaks much for their inherent merit. Curschmann's collected 'Lieder' (2 vols., Berlin, 1871) comprise 83 solos, and 9 songs in 2 and 3 parts. A few of them have Italian words. Among his other works may be mentioned a one-ast opera, 'Abdul und Erinnieh,' written and performed at Cassel, and some church music now forgotten. In England he is best known by his song ' In every opening flower' and his trios 'Ti prego' and 'Addio,' the former a general favourite with amateurs. [A.M.] CUSANINO. See CARESTINI.

CUSHION DANCE (i.e. possibly 'kissingdancd'). An old English dance, dating from the beginning of the 16th century—especially used at weddings. The curious old melody is as follows :—•

CUTLER.

m [E.P.] CUSINS, WILLIAM GEORGE, was born in

London, Oct. 14, 1833, and in his tenth year entered the Chapel Royal, as so many good English musicians have done before him. In 1844 he entered the Brussels Conservatoire under Fetis for the study of the piano, violin, and harmony. In 47 he gained the King's Scholarship at the R. A. M. of London, where his Professors were Potter, Sterndale Bennett, Lucas, and Sainton. In 49 his scholarship was .prolonged for two years and he made his first appearance in public as a piano player in Mendelssohn's D minor Concerto, and as composer with a MS. overture. In 49 he was appointed organist to the Queen's Private Chapel, and entered the orchestras of the Royal Italian Opera and the principal concerts of London, in which he played the violin for about five years. In 51 he was appointed Assistant Professor at the R. A. M. and afterwards Professor. In 67 he became Conductor of the Philharmonic Society, vice Sir W. Sterndale Bennett resigned. In 70 he was appointed Master of the Music to the Queen ; in 75 succeeded Bennett as examining Professor at Queen's College ; and in 76 became joint examiner, with Mr. Hullah and Mr. 0. Goldschmidt, of scholarships for the National Training School of Music. Besides these posts Mr. Cusins has been often before the public as a player and concert giver, having amongst other places performed at the Gewandhaus Leipzig, and at Berlin, as well as the Philharmonic and Crystal Palace at home. His works, if not numerous, are all on an important scale :—Royal Wedding Serenata (1863); Gideon, an oratorio (Gloucester, 18 71) ; two Concert overtures, 'Les Travailleurs de la Mer' (1869), 'Love's Labour's Lost' (1875); Piano Concerto in A minor; besides marches, songs, etc. CUTELL, RICHARD, an English musician of the 15th century, was the author of a treatise on counterpoint, a fragment of which is preserved among the manuscripts in the Bodlean Library, Oxford. [W.H.H.] CUTLER, WILLIAM HENRY, MUS. Bac, was

born in the city of London in 1792. Having manifested a precocious musical ability, he was instructed in pianoforte playing by Little and Griffin, and in singing by Dr. Arnold. In 1803 he became a chorister of St. Paul's Cathedral, on quitting which he studied under William Russell, Mus. Bac. In 1812 he took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford, his exercise for which (an anthem for voices and orchestra) he afterwards published. In 1818 he was appointed organist of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, and about the same time opened an academy for teaching music on Logier's system, but which he gave up after about three years' trial. In

CUTLEK. 1821 he appeared as a singer at the oratorios- at Drury Lane Theatre, but failed from nervousness. In 1823 he resigned the organistship of St. Helen's for that of Quebec Chapel, Portman Square. Cutler's compositions comprise a service, anthems, songs, and numerous pianoforte pieces. [W.H.H.]

CZERNT.

425

him the pianoforte when quite a child, and at the age of ten he could play by heart the principal compositions of all the best masters. He gained much from his intercourse with Wenzel Krumpholz the violinist, a great friend of his parents, and a passionate admirer of Beethoven. Having inspired him with his own sentiments, Krumpholz took his small friend to see Beethoven, CUVILLON, JEAN BAPTISTE PHILEMON DE, a distinguished violinist, was born at Dunkirk in who heard him play and at once offered to teach 1809. As a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire he him. Czerny made rapid progress, and devoted studied the violin under Habeneck sen. and himself especially to the study of the works of Baillot, and composition under Reicha. He is his master, whose friendship for him became considered as one of the best representatives of quite paternal. Czerny also profited much by the modern French school of violin-playing at his acquaintance with Prince Lichnowsky, BeeParis, where he occupies the post of professor of thoven's patron; with Hummel, whose playing the violin at the Conservatoire. He is mentioned opened a new world to him; and with dementi, in Hiller's 'Mendelssohn,' pp. 20, 21. [P.D.] whose method of teaching he studied. He was soon besieged by pupils, to whom he communicated CUZZONI, FRANCESCA. See SANDONI. the instruction he himself eagerly imbibed. In CYMBALS are a pair of thin round metal the meantime he studied composition with equal plates, with a leather strap through the centre ardour. Czerny was always reluctant to perform of each, by which the performer holds one in in public, and early in life resolved never to each hand. The metal is an alloy of 80 parts appear again, at the same time withdrawing of copper to 20 of tin. To produce a good entirely from society. In 1804 he made prepatone they should not be struck so as to coincide rations for a professional tour, for which Beethotogether, but should rather be rubbed against ven wrote him a flattering testimonial, but the each other in a single sliding motion (French state of the continent obliged him to give up the froister). The part for the cymbals is generally, idea. Three times only did he allow himself to but not always, the same as that for the bass- travel for pleasure, to Leipsic in 1836, to Paris drum, and, from motives of economy, it is gene- and London in 1837, and to Lombardy in 1846. rally played by the same performer. One cymbal He took no pupils but those who showed special is then tied to the drum, and the other held in talent; the rest of his time he devoted to selfhis left hand, while his right hand uses the drum culture, and to composition and the arrangestick. [V.deP.] ment of classical works. Hisfirstpublished work ' 20 Variations concertants' for pianoforte and CZAKAN, or STOCKFLSTE, a Bohemian or violin on a theme by Krumpholz, appeared in Transylvanian instrument of theflageoletfamily, 1805. It was not till after his acquaintance with usually standing in the key of A, though made the publishers Cappi and Diabelli that his second to other pitches. It is said to have been lost work, a 'Rondo Brillante' for four hands folfor many years after its original invention, and lowed (1818). From that time he had difficulty to have been rediscovered in a Transylvanian in keeping pace with the demands of the pubmonastery in 1825. However this may be, it lishers, and was often compelled to write at rose to great popularity at Vienna about 1830, night after giving 10 or 12 lessons in the day. and received many additions and improvements. From 1816 to 1823 Czerny had musical perIt consisted of a largeflageoletmouthpiece, with formances by his best pupils at his parents' house a long slender body, bored with an inverted every Sunday. At these entertainments Beeconical tube like that of the old flute, at right thoven «a* often present, and was so charmed angles to the mouthpiece. It thus resembled an with the peaceful family life he witnessed, as to ordinary handled walking-stick, and indeed was propose living there entirely; the project howcommonly put to that use. It had the octave ever fell through owing to the illness of the scale of the old concert flute, with fingering parents. One of Czerny's most brilliant pupils intermediate be'ween that and the oboe. There was Ninette von Belleville, then 8 years old, who was also a small vent-hole for the thumb at the in 1816 lived in the house, and afterwards spread back, as in the flageolet. It possessed about two the fame of her master through the many countries octaves compass, starting from the low B of the in which she performed. She married Oury the flute. There exists a Method for this almost violinist, and settled in London. She was folforgotten instrument by Kramer dated 1830. lowed by Franz Liszt, then 10 years old, whose Its music appears to have been written in the father placed him in Czerny's hands. The boy's key of C. [W.H.S.] extraordinary talent astonished his master, who of him in his autobiography ' it was evident CZAR UND ZIMMERMANN. Opera in 3 says at once that Nature had intended him for a acts, by Lortzing; produced in Berlin 1854, and pianist.' Theodor Dohler and a host of other at the Gaiety Theatre, London, translated, as distinguished pupils belong to a later period. 'Peter the Shipwright,' April 15, 1871. About 1850 Czerny's strength visibly declined; CZERNY, KARL, excellent pianoforte teacher his health gave way under his never-ceasing and prolific composer, born at Vienna Feb. 21, activity, and he was compelled to lay aside his 1791. His father, a cultivated musician, taught

CZERNY.

DA CAPO.

indefatigable pen. His active life closed on July !?> i^?7, shortly after he had, with the help of his friend Dr. Leopold von Sonnleithner, disposed of his considerable fortune in a princely manner. Czerny was never married, and had neither brothers, sisters, nor other near relations. He was modest and simple in his manner of life, courteous and friendly in his behaviour, just and kindly ill his judgment on matters of art, and helpful to all young artists who came in his way. His disposition was so gentle that he shrank from a harsh or coarse word even spoken in jest, which was partly the cause of his living so much in retirement. His industry was truly astounding. Besides his numerous printed works, which embrace compositions of every species for pianoforte he left an enormous mass of MS., now in the archives of the ' Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde' at Vienna. These compositions comprise 24 masses, 4 requiems, 300 graduales and offertoires, symphonies, overtures, concertos, string-trios and quartets, choruses, songs for one or more voices, and even pieces for the stage. His book ' Umriss der ganzen Musikgeschichte ' was published (1S51) by Schott of Mayence, and in Italian by Ricordi of Milan. His arrangements of operas, oratorios, symphonies, and overtures for 2 and 4 hands, and for 8 hands on 2 pianofortes are innumerable. As a special commission he arranged the overtures to' Semiramide' and ' Guillaume Tell' for 8 pianofortes four hands each. An arrangement for pianoforte of Beethoven's 'Leonora,' which he made in 1805, was of

great service in training Czerny for this kind of work. He says in his Autobiography, ' It is to Beethoven's remarks on this work that I owe the facility in arranging which has been so useful to me in later life.' His printed compositions amount to nearly 1000: of which many consist of 50 numbers or even more. A catalogue containing op. 1-798, with the arrangements and the MS. works, is given in his ' School of practical composition' (op. 600, 3 vols. Cocks and Co.). Czerny's pianoforte compositions may be divided into three classes, scholastic, solid, and brilliant. The best of all, especially if we include the earlier works, are undoubtedlya nthe scholastic, op. 299, 3°°, 335> 355. 399. 4°°. ( i 5OO> published under the title ' Complete Theoretical and Practical Pianoforte School' (3 vols. Cocks). However worthy of admiration Czerny's industry may be, there is no doubt that he weakened his creative powers by over-production, and the effect has been that the host of lesser works have involved the really good ones in undeserved forgetfulness. [C.F.P.]

426

CZERWENKA, JOSEPH, born at Benadek in Bohemia 1759, died at Vienna 1835, one of the finest oboists of his time. In 1789 entered the private band of Count Schafgotsche at Johannisberg in Silesia. In the following year played in Prince Esterbazy's band, under Haydn, where his uncle played the bassoon. In 1794 he settled in Vienna as solo oboist in the Imperial band, and the Court Theatre, and professor at the Conservatorium. He-retired in 1820. [M. C.C.]

CANTABILE, i. e. singable, a direction placed against an instrumental phrase when it is to be •sung' with feeling. Beethoven does not often use it, and when he does it is always with special intention, as in the 2nd subject of the Larghetto of the Bb Symphony, and in the semiquaver figure in the working out of the first movement of the 9th Symphony:—

He has before marked it ' expressivo'—but now it is as if he said ' you may see no special melody in this group, but / do, and will have it played accordingly.'

Viol.l

Viol. 2

D. The second note of the natural scale. In solfaing it is called Re. The scale of D • major contains FJ and CjJ, and its relative minor is B ; that of D minor contains Bfc>, and its relative major is F. The dominant of D is A. Among the must important compositions in D major art- the Missa Solennis and 2nd Symphony of Beethoven; Handel's Dettingen Te Deum ;

D

Moznrt's Parisian Symphony. In D minor there aie a noble Toccata and Fugue by Bach ; the Choral Symphony, Schumann's Do. No. 4, Pianoforte Concertos by Mendelssohn and Brahms, etc. DA CAPO, or D.C.—'from the beginning'— is placed at the end of the second part of an air, or chorus ('0 the pleasure'), or scherzo and trio, or other movement in two portions, to show that

DA CAPO.

DALLAM.

427

the first portion ia to be played over again as Napoleon, and he died in 1809 at Paris. Of the a conclusion. In airs the direction is often Dal numerous works of Dalayrac none have survived. Segno—'from the sign'—the sign being a •$: at The titles of the more important ones may be the beginning of the first portion. In scherzos cited :—'LeCorsaire' (1783), 'L'Amant Statue' and minuets, with trios, the direction at the end (1785), 'Nina' (1786), 'Azemia' (one of his best of the trio is usually 'Scherzo, or Minuetto, D.C. works, first performed on May 3, 1787), 'Raoul senza repetizione.' The first known occurrence de Crequi' (1789), 'Fanchette' (same year), of Da Capo is in Tenaglia's opera of 'Clearco' 'Adele et Dorsan' (1794), 'Adolphe et Clara' (1799), 'Maison a vendre' (1800), 'Une Heure (1661). de Marriage' (1S04),' Le Poete et le Musicien' DACHSTEIN, WOLFGANG, Boman Catholic (first performed in 1811, two years after the priest at Strassburg, adopted the Reformed prin- composer's death), and many others. ciples in 1524, married, and became vicar and Amongst the earlier composers of the modern organist of St. Thomas's Church there. He is known chiefly as a composer of chorales, especi- French school of dramatic music Dalayrac takes ally ' An Wasserfliissen Babylon.' [M. C. C] a high position. To us his means of expression appear primitive, but considering the date of his DACTYL, a metrical 'foot' (-^v), exactly earlier works, his skill in orchestral treatment, expressed by the original word SCUCTVKOS, a finger and his keen perception of dramatic effects and pro—one long joint and two short ones. A fine prieties, are by no means of a despicable order. example of dactyls in instrumental music is in The opeYa comique, consisting of simple airs and the slow movement of Beethoven's 7th Sym- short ensembles, was his favourite mode of prophony, alternately with spondees, or alone :— duction. Such a work as the one-act operetta 'Maison a vendre' is not deprived of a certain archaic charm even at the present day. Lise's song 'Fiez vous,' with which it opens, a piece DALAYRAC, NICOLAS, a celebrated French of music much affected by our great-grandcomposer, was born at Muret (Languedoc) in mothers, is a charming specimen of the French 1753. His father occupied a high civil appoint- romance, and the finale of the same work is rement in his province, and in spite of his son's markable for the skilful and fluent treatment of early passion for music destined him for the bar. the vocal parts. The same feature is noticeable His studies of the violin were put a stop to, and in his more elaborate compositions, as for instance it is said that the young enthusiast, in order to in the finale of 'Azemia,' which winds up with play without interruption, used every night to a charming bit of choral writing. It may briefly ascend the roof of the house. This however in- be said that Dalayrac's style contains, although terfered with the nocturnal exercises of a neigh- in a somewhat embryonic stage, all the qualities bouring nunnery. But the complaints of the which have made the French school justly popular pious damsels addressed to his father ultimately in Europe. He is a unit amongst a galaxy of led to the fulfilment of young Dalayrac's dearest brilliant stars. His claim to remembrance lies wish. His aversion to the law was considered perhaps less in his individual merits than in the conclusive, and he was sent in 1774 to Paris, fact that without him and other composers of his where a commission in the guards of the Count type and epoch there would have been no Gretry, [F. H.] of Artois had been obtained for him. But the no Auber, and no Boieldieu. love of his art was proof against the attraction DALLAM (spelt also DALHAM, DALLUM, and of a military career. Immediately on his arrival DALLANS), the name of a family of English in the capital he took lessons in harmony from organ-builders in the 17th century. The eldest Langle, and soon made his debut as a dramatic was employed in 1605-6 to build an organ for composer with a comic opera called ' Le petit King's College, Cambridge, for which purpose he Souper,' first performed at the French court in closed his workshop in London and removed his 1781. Encouraged by this success, he produced whole establishment to Cambridge. He and his in the following year an opera, 'L'Eclipse totale,' men were lodged in the town, but boarded in the at the Opera Comique. This also was successful, College Hall. Dr. Rimbault ('History of the and secured Dalayrac's position amongst the best Organ') gives a very curious account of every and most fertile composers of his time. He con- item paid for building this organ. It was detinued for the remainder of his life producing stroyed in the time of the Long Parliament, but operas at the rate of one or two a year. Not the case, with some alterations, remains to this even the Reign of Terror interrupted or in any day. This Dallam's Christian name does not way influenced the inexhaustible productiveness appear in the college books, but he is most proof his pen. Two of his most charming operas, bably identical with Thomas Dallam, who built ' L'actrice chez elle' and ' Ambroise, ou Voila an organ for Worcester Cathedral in 1613. The ma journee,' bear the terrible daie of 1793- In three following were probably his sons :— 1790 he lost much of his property, but in spite born 1602, died 1665, and buried in of this misfortune he refused to avail himself of theROBERT, cloisters of New College, Oxford, for which his father's will, which excluded his younger college he built the organ ; but his principal work brother from a share in the family property. was that of York Minster, since destroyed by At the beginning of the century he was fire. He also built similar organs for the cathemade a chevalier of the Legion of Honour by drals of St. Paul and Durham.

428

DALLAM.

DAMOREAU.

RALPH built the organ for St. George's Chapel, of the Musicke of M. William Damon, containWindsor, at the Restoration, as well as those at ing all the Tunes of David's Psalms, differing Rugby, Hackney, and Lynn Regis. The Windsor from the former in respect that the highest organ is still preserved at St. Peter's-in-the-East, part singeth the Church tune.' [W.H.H.] St. Alban's. He died while making the organ at DAMOREAU, LAURE CINTHIE MONTALANT, Greenwich Church, begun by him in Feb. 1672. born at Paris Feb. 6, 180/, was admitted into James White, his partner, finished it 1673. a vocal class at the Conservatoire Nov. 28, 1808. GEOBGB lived in Purple Lane in 1672, and in She made quiok progress, and soon began to 1686 added a 'chaire organ' to Harris's instru- study the piano. In 1814 she left the pianoment in Hereford Cathedral. [V.deP.] class to enter that of vocalisation. She began DAL SEGNO, 'from the sign,': or al Segno, her career by giving some concerts which were ' to the sign'; the ' sign' being a &\ probably a not successful. Engaged at the Theatre Italien capital S. ' Da capo al Segno IS'-' is the full in seoond parts at the age of 18, Mile. Cinti, direction, as at the end of the second part of as she now called herself, made her first appear' Consider, fond shepherd' in ' Acis,' the &: being ance as Cherubino in ' Le Nozze.' She played the part with great charm and grace, but her in bar 2 of the first part. time was not yet come. It was not till 1821 DAMASCENE, ALEXANDER, a foreigner, of that she attempted principal parts. In 22 she probably Italian extraction, but French birth, was engaged by Ebers for the London opera, at who, on June 16, 16S2, obtained letters of a salary of £500. She was young and pretty, denization in England, was an alto singer. On her manners pleasing and elegant, and her acting August 30, 91, Damascene was sworn in as a correct and unaffected, if not forcible; but her gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel Royal, voice was not strong enough for the size of the and on the death of Henry Purcell in 95 was theatre, and she created little sensation. She advanced to a full place. He died July 14, returned to Paris, where she soon began to take 1719. Damascene was a prolific song writer, a higher place; her salary was raised, and the and many of his compositions may be found in arrival of Rossini was a fortunate event for her. the following collections, viz. ' Choice Ayres She made her de'but at the Grand Ope"ra Feb. and Songs,' 1676-84; 'The Theatre of Musick,' 24, 1826, in 'Fernand Cortez,' and her succesB 1685-87 ; ' "Vinculum Societatis,' 1687-91 ; was complete. Rossini wrote for her the prin'The Banquet of Musick,' 16S8-92; 'Comes cipal female parts in the 'Siege de Corinthe' Amoris,' 1687-94; 'The Gentleman's Journal,' and ' Moise,' which contributed to her reputation. 1692-94. [W.H.H.] In consequence, however, of some misunderDAME BLANCHE, LA. Opera comique in standing with the management, Cinti quitted the 3 acts, founded on Scott's 'Monastery'; libretto 1 theatre abruptly in 27, and went to Brussels, by Scribe, music by Boieldieu ; produced at the where she excited the greatest enthusiasm. Opera Comique Deo. 10, 1825; played at the Concessions having been made she returned to same theatre for the 1 oooth time on Dec. 16, Paris ; but, before leaving Brussels, was married 62. Produced in English as 'The White Maid' to Damoreau, an unsuccessful actor. This union at Coveut Garden Jan. 2, 1827. was not happy. Returned to Paris she resumed DAMON, WILLIAM, one of the musicians to her career, singing in ' La Muette de Portici,' Queen Elizabeth, harmonised for the use of a 'Le Comte Ory,' 'Robert le Diable,' and 'Le friend the psalm tunes then in common use, to Serment,' in each more excellent than before. the number of about forty. His friend, in 1579, In 29 she took part, with Sontag and Malibran, published them under the following title :—'H The in the ' Matrimonio Segreto.' Never was there Psalmes of David in English Meter with a more brilliant combination; nor did Cinti Notes of foure partes set unto them by Guilielmo j suffer by comparison. Fetis boldly declares that Damon, for John Bull [who is called in the she now became one of the best singers the preface, 'Citezen and Goldsmith of London '], to world has known. In 32 she came over with a the use of the godly Christians for recreatyng French company, and sang at Covent Garden in themselves in stede of fond and unseemly Bal- Meyerbeer's 'Robert le Diable.' Her engagelades. At London, Printed by John Daye. ment was not renewed in 1835, and she was Cum privilegio.' This work seems to have been gladly welcomed at the Opera Comique, where but ill received, and Damon set himself to work Auber wrote for her such works as the ' Domino to reharmonise the tunes. The new work was 1 noir,' 'L'Ambassadrice,' and 'Zanetta.' Cinti published in 1591 with the title of ""The foimer retired from the stage in 1843, sang again in Booke of the Musicke of M. William Damon, London in that year, then at the Hague, at late one of her Majesties Musitions, containing Ghent in 1845, at St. Petersburg, at Brussels in all the tunes of David's Psalms, as they are 1846, and made a tour in the United States with ordinarily soung in the Church: most excellently the violinist Artot. In 18,',4 she had been apby him composed into 4 partes. In which sett pointed professor of singing at the Conservatoire the Tennr singeth the Church tune. Published in Paris; this place she resigned in 1856, and for the recreation of such as delight in Musicke by retired to Chantilly, and died in 1863. W. Swayne, (Jent. Printed by T. Esie, the assigne j Mine. Cinti published an 'Album de romances,' of W. -Cyril, 1591.' The work is in two parts, and a few separate pieces. She wrote also a the second being entitled ' "1 The second Booke ' Methode de chant,' dedicated to her pupils.

DAMOREAU.

DANKERTS.

429

Her son died at an early age after distinguishing born in 1755, was in the orchestra of the Opera himself by some vocal compositions; and her from 1775 to 93, and led the band at the Handel daughter, a singer, married M. Weckerlin. [J. M.] Commemoration of 1790 in the absence of Cramer. DAMPER (Fr. VEtouffoir; Ital. Saltarello, He died full of years and credit in 1840. The Spegnitoio, or Smorzo ; Ger. Ddmpfer), that part circular proposing the meeting which led to the of the action of a pianoforte contrived to stop formation of the Philharmonic, was issued by the vibration of the strings belonging to a note ' Messrs. Cramer, Com, and Dance,' from Mr. when the finger is raised from the key. It com- Dance's house, 17 Manchester Street, on Sunday, prises several folds or thicknesses of cloth or soft Jan. 17, 1813. He was afterwards one of the felt, elevated upon a wire upright, which rest Directors, and Treasurer. His son Henry was upon or press upwards against the strings when secretary to the society for the first year, 1813. the key is not touched, but quit the strings when DANDO, JOSEPH HAYDON BODENE, was born the key is pressed down. The pedal movement in Somers Town in 1806. At an early age he connected with the dampers removes them col- commenced the study of the violin under his lectively from the strings, and so long as the uncle, Signor Brandi. In 1819 he became a pedal is pressed down the instrument has virtually pupil of Mori, with whom he continued about no dampers, the strings continuing to sound until seven years. In 1831 he was admitted a member their vibrations cease. There are no dampers to of the Philharmonic orchestra. For many years the treble notes, as the duration of vibration in he filled the post of leader of the bands of the this part of the scale is too short to need arresting. Classical Harmonists and Choral HarmonistB [See PIANOFORTE.] [A. J.H.] Societies (both now extinct), whose concerts DANBY, JOHN, born 1757, one of the most were given in the City. Dando was the first distinguished glee composers Between 1781 and to introduce public peiformances of instrumental 94 he obtained ten prizes from the Catch Club quartets. It is true that in the earlier days of for eight glees and two canons. He published the Philharmonic Society a quartet occasionally three books of his compositions, and a fourth formed part of the programme, but no concerts was issued after his decease. In 1787 he pub- consisting exclusively of quartets had before lished an elementary work entitled 'La Guida been given. The occasion on which the experialia Musica Vocale.' He held the appointment ment was first tried was a benefit concert got up of organist at the chapel of the Spanish embassy, by Dando at the Horn Tavern, Doctors' Comnear Manchester Square, for the service of which mons, on 23rd Sept. 1835. The programme was he composed some masses and motets. He died entirely composed of quartets, trios, etc. The May 16, 1798, during the performance of a con- experiment proved so successful that two more cert which his friends had got up for his benefit, similar concerts were given in October, each he having long lost the use of his limbs by proving more attractive than its precursor. having been placed in a damp bed at an inn. Dando then formed a party consisting of Henry He was buried in Old St. Pancras churchyard, Blagrove, Henry Gattie, Charles Lucas, and where an altar tomb was raised to his memory. himself, to give regular series of Quartet ConHis fine glee, 'Awake, iEolian lyre!' will not soon certs, and they commenced their enterprise be forgotten. [W.H.H.] on March 17, 1836, at the Hanover Square Rooms. They continued their performances DANCE MUSIC. Music designed as an annually until 42, when Blagrove seceded from accompaniment to dancing, national, social or the party, upon which Dando assumed the first on the stage—the ballet; also music written in violin, the viola being placed in the hands of dance rhythms though not for dancing purposes, John Loder. Thus constituted they removed to such as the Polonaises of Beethoven, Weber, Crosby Hall, where they continued until the and Chopin; Schulhoff's 'Valses de Concert,' deaths of Gattie and Loder in 53 broke up Liszt's ' Galop Chromatique.' the party. Dando occupied a prominent position The music of theindividualdance tunes has been in all the best orchestras until 75, when the examined under the separate heads of Allemande, fingers of his left hand becoming crippled he was Bolero, Courante, Gigue, Minuet, Waltz, etc. compelled to desist from performing. During The influence of the dance on music in general, his long career he has ever shown himself an exand the manner in which it gradually communi- cellent violinist and amiable man. [W.H. H.] cated the rhythm and accent which are its very essence to the unrhythmical and unaccented DANIEL, HERMANN ADALBERT, a German strains of church music, and thus built up the theologian, born 1812 at Cothen near Dessau, fabric of modern composition, will be examined professor in the University of Halle. His under the head of RHYTHM. The more direct 'Thesaurus Hymnologicus' (5 vols. Lbschke, and material connexion between the SUITE— Leipsic) is a valuable work on the history of a mere string of dances in one key—and the early church music and collection of hymns. modern SONATA and SYMPHONY, which grew out [M.C.C.] of the Suite, will be most conveniently discussed DANKERTS, GHISELAIN, a native of Tholen under the last-named headings. in Zeeland, and a singer in the Papal Chapel in DANCE, WILLIAM. An English musician the middle of the 16th century. An eight-part whose name deserves preservation as one of the motet of his composition, ' Lsetamini in Domino,' founders of the Philharmonic Society. He was is included in Uhlard'a 'Concentus octo . . .

430

DANKERTS.

vocum' (Augsburg 1545), and a six-part motet 'Tua est potentia' in the ' Selectissimae cantiones ultra centum' (Augsburg 1540). Also two books of madrigals for 4, 5, and 6 voices were published by Gardano (Venice 1559). Notwithstanding the new school of composers, already well established in Rome, with Costanzo Festa, Arcadelt, etc. at its head, there were still many conservative musicians in that city, and Dankerts was one of them, who adhered strictly to the old Netherland school, and remained uninfluenced by the new art that had grown up around them. He gained great celebrity as judge in the dispute between two ecclesiastical musicians, Vicentino and Lusitano, upon the nature of the scales on which the music of their time was constructed. Dankerts was obliged to defend his verdict against Vicentino, in a learned and exhaustive treatise on the matter in dispute, the original MS. of which is preserved in the Vallicellan library at Rome. A full account of this controversy is given by Hawkins. [J.R. S.B.] DANNELEY, JOHN FELTHAM, born at Oak-

ingham in 1786, was the second son of a layclerk of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. At fifteen years of age he studied thorough bass under Samuel Webbe, and the pianoforte first under Charles Knyvett and afterwards under Charles Neate. He resided with his mother at Odiham until he reached his twenty-sixth year, when he established himself at Ipswich as a teacher of music, and in a few years became organist of the church of St. Mary of the Tower in that town. In 1816 he visited Paris, and studied under Antoine Reicha. Danneley published in 1825 'An Encyclopaedia, or, Dictionary of Music,' and in 1826 ' A Musical Grammar.' He died in London in 1836. [W.H.H.]

DAEGOMYSKI. well-known chamber concerts, his own able interpretations of Bach and Beethoven, his lectures on Mozart, Beethoven, and Chopin, his article on Beethoven in Macmillan's Magazine (July, 76), and other acts and words abundantly prove. He has not yet published any music. DANZI, FRANCESCA. See LEBRON, MADAME.

DANZI, FEANZ, composer and violoncellist, born at Mannheim 1763, studied chiefly under his father, first violoncellist to the Elector Palatine, and in composition under the Abbe Vogler. At 15 he was admitted into the Elector's band. In 1778 the band was transferred to Munich, and there Danzi produced his first opera 'Azakiah' in 1780, which was followed by 'Der Kuss,' 'Iphigenia,' and others. In 1790 he married Marguerite Marchand, a distinguished singer, and in the following year started with her on a professional tour which lasted six years. At Prague and Leipsic he conducted the performances by Guardassoni's Italian company, and his wife was especially successful in the parts of Susanna in ' Le Nozze di Figaro,' and Caroline, and Nina, in ' II Matrimonio Segreto.' They were also favourably received in Italy, especially at Venice and Florence. In 1797 they returned to Munich, where Mdme. Danzi died in 1799. Her husband soon after resigned his post of vice-chapel-master to the Elector. In 1807 he was appointed chapel-master to the King of Wurtemberg, but was soon compelled to leave Stuttgart on account of the political changes in that part of Germany. He then became chapel-master at Carlsruhe, where he remained till his death in 1826. He composed 11 operas, besides a mass of orchestral, chamber, and church music. For list see Fe'tis. None of it has survived. He was a sound musician, but strained too much after orchestral effects. He was an excellent teacher of singing, and his ' Singing Exercises' were used for long after his death and form his most permanent work. [M.C.C.]

DANNREUTHER, EDWARD, born Nov. 4, 1844, at Strassburg. When five years old was taken to Cincinnati, U. S., where he learned music from F. L. Ritter. In 59 entered the Conservatorium at Leipzig, and remained there DARGOMYSKI, ALEXANDER SERGOVITCH, till 63, under Moscheles, Hauptmann, and Rich- Russian noble and composer, born 1813 near ter. His career was very brilliant, and he held Toula, Smolensk. He early manifested a taste all the scholarships of the Conservatorium. From for music, and at seven composed little sonatas Leipzig he removed to London, where he has etc. for the pianoforte. He afterwards learnt the since resided (excepting two professional visits violin, and studied harmony and counterpoint to the United States), and is one of the most pro- under Schoberlechner. In 1830 he appeared with minent musicians of the metropolis, well known great success in Petersburg as a pianist, and as a pianoforte-player and teacher, litterateur and in 31 received an appointment in the Emperor's lecturer, and a strong supporter of progress in household, but in 35 gave it up, and devoted music. He is especially known as the friend and himself for eight years to severe study. His champion of Wagner. He founded the Wagner intimate friendship with Glinka and with the Society in 1872, and conducted its two series of dramatic poet Kukolnik were of great service to concerts in 73 and 74. He was also a warm him. In 1845 he visited Germany, Brussels, and promoter of the 'Wagner Festival' in 1877, Paris. In 1847 he produced in Moscow, with translated his 'Music of the Future' (Schott brilliant success, an opera 'Esmeralda,' libretto 1872), and received Wagner in his house during from Victor Hugo's 'Notre Dame de Paris,' which his stay in London. He was the first to play the he had composed in 1838, and which was reconcertos of Liszt and Tschaikowsky (Crystal peated in Petersburg. Besides ' Esmeralda,' Palace, Jan. 27, 72; Nov. 21, 74; March 11, 76). 'Rusalka' (Petersburg 1856), and 'Kozacek,' But while Mr. Dannreuther is an earnest which have kept their place on the stage, his apostle of the new school, he is no less zealous published workB consist of 60 songs with pianofor the old, as the range of the programmes of his forte accompaniment; variations, fantasies, etc.

DAUVERGNEE.

DARGOMYSKI. for pianoforte, and orchestral dance music. He died Jan. 17, 1868, while at work on an opera by Pushkin, called 'Kamenyi gost' (Don Juan), and, besides the operas named, left an immense number of orchestral works. His melodies are noble and poetical, but ids composition is more distinguished for grace than force. As a pianist he was remarkable for the facility with which he accompanied at sight. [M.C.C.] DASH. The sign of staccato, written thus (f), and placed under or over a note to indicate that the duration of the sound is to be as short as possible, the value of the note being completed by an interval of silence ; for example— Written

Performed

A round dot (•) is also used for a similar purpose, but with this difference, that notes marked with dots should be less staccato than those with dashes, being shortened about one half, thus— Written

_

Performed

-(——H • a 1 3 f :

M

This distinction, which is enforced by all the most celebrated teachers of modem times, such as Clementi, Czerny, and others, is, strange to say, often ignored by modern editors of classical compositions, and it is remarkable that in such valuable and conscientious editions of Beethoven's works as those of Von Bulow (' Instructive Ausgabe'; Cotta, Stuttgart), Pauer (Augener & Co. London), and others, only one sign should have been employed for the two effects. That Beethoven himself considered the distinction of importance is proved by various corrections by his hand of the orchestral parts of the 7th symphony, still extant, and also by a letter written in 1825 to Carl Holz, in which he expressly insists that '» • » and • • p is not a matter of indifference.' See Nottebohm's ' Beethoveniana,' No. xxv, in which extracts are given from several of Beethoven's works, with the signs of staccato as originally marked by himself. And there can be no doubt that every effort ought to be made, at any rate in the case of Beethoven, to ascertain what were the intentions of the composer on a point so essential to correct phrasing. [F.T.] DAUBLAINE ET CALLINET. Organ builders established in Paris in 1838 as Daublaine & Cie. In 39 the firm was joined by Louis Callinet, member of an old Alsatian family of organ builders. But he brought bad fortune to the house, for in 43 or 44, in a fit of rage, excited by some dispute, Callinet destroyed all the work which he and his partners had just added to the organ at St. Sulpice. After this feat he retired to Cavaille's factory as a mere journeyman. BARKER then took the lead at Daublaine's and under him the S. Eustache organ was built, to be destroyed by fire in 45. The same year the firm

431

became Ducroquet & Cie; they built a new organ at S. Eustache, and exhibited at Hyde Park in 51, obtaining a council medal and the decoration of the Legion of Honour. In 55 Ducroquet was succeeded by a Socie'te anonyme, and that again by Merklin, Schutze, et Cie. The business is now carried on by Merklin alone, whose principal factory is at Lyons, with a branch in Paris. [V.deP.] DAUGHTER OF ST. MARK, THE. An opera in 3 acts, founded on 'La reine de Chypre,' words by Bunn, music by Balfe; produced at Drury Lane Nov. 27, 1844. DAUNEY, WILLIAM, son of William Dauney of Falmouth, Jamaica, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1800. He commenced his education at Dulwich, and completed it at the University of Edinburgh. On June 13, 1823, he was called to the Scottish bar. He found in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh a MS. collection of music, written between 1614 and 1620 and known as the Skene Manuscript. It consists of 114 English and Scottish ballad, song, and dance tunes, written in tableture. This manuscript Dauney deciphered and published in 1838 in a 4to vol. under the title of 'Ancient Scottish Melodies from a manuscript of the reign of James VI.' He accompanied it with a long and ably written 'Dissertation illustrative of the history of the music of Scotland,' and some interesting documents. The work is valuable as showing the (probably) earliest versions of such tunes as 'The flowers of the forest,' 'John Anderson my jo,' 'Adieu, Dundee,' etc. Shortly after 1838 Dauney quitted Scotland for Demerara, where he became Solicitor General for British Guiana. He died at Demerara, July 28, 1843. [W.H.H.] DAUVERGNE, ANTOINE, violin-player and composer, born at Clermont-Ferrand in 1713. He was a pupil of his father, leader of the band at Clermont. In 1739 he went to Paris to complete his studies, and very soon played with success at the Concert spirituel and entered the band of the King and of the Opera. It is however more as a composer of operas than as a violin-player that Dauvergne claims our attention. Up to his time an ope'ra comique meant merely a vaudeville, a comic play interspersed with couplets. In his first opera, 'Les Troqueurs,' Dauvergne adopted the forms of the Italian intermezzi, retaining however spoken dialogue in place of recitative, and thereby introduced that class of dramatic works, in which French composers have ever since been to eminently successful. Dauvergne wrote 15 operas in all. Fetis also enumerates 15 motets of his composition, trios for two violins and bass (1740), sonatas for the violin, and two sets of symphonies in four parts (1750). In 1755 Dauvergne bought the appointment of composer to the king and the next presentation as master of the band. From 1751 he conducted the Opera, and from 1762 the Concert spirituel; and finally, with some interruptions, became manager of the Opera. He

DAVID, FELICIEN.

DAVID, FELICIEN.

retired at the outbreak of the Revolution, and died at Lyons in 1797. [P-D.] DAVID, FELICIEN, one of the most prominent of French composers, was born March 8, 1810, at Cadenet, in the south of France. His father was an accomplished musical amateur, and it is said that Felicien at the mature age of two evinced his musical taste by shouts of applause at his father's performances on the fiddle. At the age of four the boy was able to catch a tune. Two years later Gamier, first oboe at the Paris Opera, happened to hear the child sing, and strongly advised his mother to cultivate Felicien's talent. Soon afterwards the family removed to Aix, where David attended the Maitrise (school) du Saint Sauveur, and became a chorister at the cathedral. He is said to have composed hymns, motets, and other works at this early period, and a quartet for strings, written at the age of 13, is still preserved at the Maitrise. In 1825 he went to the Jesuit college at Aix to complete his studies. Here he continued his music, and acquired some skill on the violin. He also developed an astonishing memory for music, which enabled him to retain many pieces by Mozart, Haydn, Cherubini, and Lesueur, by heart. When he left the college, at the age of 18, want of means compelled him to enter the office of his sister's husband, a lawyer, but he soon afterwards accepted the appointment of second conductor at the Aix theatre, which he occupied till 1829, when the position of maitre de chapelle at St. Sauveur was offered to him. During the one year he occupied this place he wrote several compositions for the choir of the church ; one of these, a 'Eeatus Vir," afterwards excited the admiration of Cherubini. In 1830 David went to Paris to finish his musical education. He had a small allowance from his uncle, but his wants were moderate and his enthusiasm great. Cherubini received him kindly, and under his auspices David entered the Conservatoire, and studied harmony under Millot. He also took private lessons from Reber, and thus accomplished his course of harmony within six months. He then entered the class of Fetis for counterpoint and fugue. An 'Ave verum' composed at this time proves his successful advance. On the withdrawal of his allowance David had to support himself by giving lessons. At the same period he narrowly escaped the conscription. In 1831 we have to date an important event in our composer's life, viz. his joining the St. Simoniens. David lived for some time in the kind of convent presided over by the Pere Enfantin, and to his music were sung the hymns which preceded and accompanied the religious and domestic occupations of the brethren. When, in 1833, the brotherhood was dissolved, David joined a small group of the dispersed members, who travelled south, and were received with enthusiasm by their co-religionists at Lyons and Marseilles. The music fell to our composer's share, and several of his choruses were received with great applause.

At Marseilles David embarked for the East, where he remained for several years, at Constantinople, Smyrna, Egypt, and the Holy Land. The impressions thus received were of lasting influence on his talent. He managed wherever he went to take with him a piano, the gift of an admiring manufacturer at Lyons. Soon after his return, in 1835, he published a collection of ' Melodies orientales * for piano. In spite of the melodious charm and exquisite workmanship of these pieces they met with total neglect, and the disappointed composer left Paris for several years, and lived in the neighbourhood of Igny, rarely visiting the capital. Two symphonies, 24 quintets for strings, several nonets for wind, and numerous songs (one of which latter, ' Les Hirondelles,' was at one time very popular in England) belong .to this period. One of his symphonies, in F, was in 1838 performed at the Valentino concerts, but without success. In 1841 David again settled in Paris, and his name began to become more familiar to the public, owing to the rendering of some of his songs by M. Walter, the tenor. But his chief fame is founded on a work of very different import and dimensions—his 'Ode-symphonie' 'Le Desert,' in which he has embodied the impressions of his life in the East, and which was produced Dec. 8, 1844. The form of this composition is difficult to define. Berlioz might have called it a 'melologue.' It consists of three parts subdivided into several vocal and orchestral movements, each introduced by some lines of descriptive recitation. The subject is the mighty desert itself, with all its gloom and grandeur. On this background is depicted a caravan in various situations, singing a hymn of fanatic devotion to Allah, battling with the simoom, and resting in the evening by the fountain of the oasis. Whatever one's abstract opinion of programme music may be, one cannot help recognising in the 'Desert' a highly remarkable work of its kind. The vast monotony of the sandy plain, indicated by the reiterated C in the introduction, the opening prayer to Allah, the 'Danse des Almees,' the chant of the Muezzin, founded on a genuine Arabic melody—are rendered with a vividness of descriptive power rarely equalled by much greater musicians. David, indeed, is almost the only composer of his country who can lay claim to genuine local colour. His Arabs are Arabs, not Frenchmen in disguise.

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The 'Desert' was written in three months. It was the product of spontaneous inspiration, and to this circumstance its enormous success is mainly ascribable. None of David's subsequent works have approached it in popularity. ' Le Desert' was followed, in 4 6, by ' Mo'ise au Sinai,' an oratorio written in Germany, where David had gone on a concert-tour, and where he met with much enthusiasm not unmixed with adverse criticism. ' Mo'ise,' originally destined for Vienna, was performed in Paris, its success compared with that of its predecessor being a decided anticlimax. The next work is a second descriptive symphony, 'Christophe Colomb' (1847), and its

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success again was anything but brilliant. ' Eden, a Mystery,' was first performed at the Opera in 48, but failed to attract attention during that stormy political epoch. His first genuine success since 1844 David achieved with an opera comique, 'La Perle du Bre"sil' (1851). His remaining dramatic works are ' La Fin du Monde' (in four acts, never performed), ' Herculanum'1 (serious opera in four acts; 1859 at the Opera ), 'Lalla Boukh' (two acts; 1862), and 'Le Saphir' (in three acts; 1865 both at the Opera Comique). Another dramatic work, 'La Captive,' was in rehearsal, but was withdrawn by the composer for reasons unknown. David's power as an operatic writer seems to lie more in happy delineation of character than in dramatic force. Hence his greater success with comedy than with tragedy. ' Lalla Roukh' particularly is an excellent specimen of felicitous expression, and easy but never trivial melodiousness. Here again his power of rendering musically the national type and the local surroundings of his characters becomes noticeable. This power alone is sufficient to justify the distinguished position he holds. As to his final place in the history of his art it would be premature to give a definite opinion. Felicien David died on Aug. 29, 1876. Since his death several of his works— 'Le Desert' and 'Lalla Roukh' amongst the number—have been revived with much success in Paris, and his quartets are now (1877) being played. An essay on David's life and works up to 1854 is found in the collection called Mirecourt's ' Contemporains.' For the earlier part of his life a brochure (Biographie de F. David, Marseilles, 1845, out of print), by M. Saint-Etienne, is a valuable source. [F. H.] DAVID, FERDINAND, one of the beBt and most influential violin-players and teachers of Germany; born at Hamburg Jan. 19, 1810. His musical talent showed itself very early, and, after two years study at Cassel in 1823 and 1824 under Spohr and Hauptmann, he entered, when still a mere boy, on that artistic career which was destined to be so eminently successful. His first appearance at the Gewandhaus at Leipzig, with which he was afterwards so closely identified, was in 1825, in company with his sister Louise—ultimately famous as Mme. Dulcken. He passed the years 1827 and 1828 as a member of the band of the Kbnigstadt Theatre, Berlin, where he first became acquainted with Mendelssohn. In 1829 he accepted an engagement as leader of a quartet in the house of a noble and influential amateur at Dorpat, whose daughter he subsequently married. He remained in Russia till 1835, making frequent and successful tours to Petersburg, Moscow, Riga, etc. In 1836 Mendelssohn, on becoming conductor of the Gewandhaus concerts, obtained for him the post of leader of the band (Concertmeister), which he filled with such distinction and success until his

death. Of the intimate nature of their connection a good instance is afforded by the history of Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto. It is first mentioned in a letter from Mendelssohn to David, dated July 30, 1838. Constant letters on the subject of the work passed between them during the process of composition; hardly a passage in it but was referred to David's taste and practical knowledge, and canvassed and altered by the two friends; and he reaped his reward by first performing it in public at1 the Gewandhaus concert of March 13, 1845. The autograph is now in the possession of David's family. In like manner 'Antigone' (letter of Oct. 21, 1841), and probably many another of Mendelssohn's works, was referred to him; and he was one of the three trustees to whom the publication of the MS. works of his illustrious friend was confided after his death. As a virtuoso David combined the sterling qualities of Spohr's style, with the greater facility and piquancy of the modern school; as a leader he had a rare power of holding together and animating the band; while as a quartet-player his intelligence and tact enabled him to do justice to the masterpieces of the most different periods and schools. Among numerous compositions of the most various kinds his solo-pieces for the violin are most pleasing and effective, and are so founded on the nature and character of the instrument as to be indispensable to the student. As a teacher his influence was probably greater than that of any preceding master, and to him the German orchestras owe many of their most valuable members. He took a warm personal interest in his pupils, amongst whom the most eminent are Joachim and Wilhelmj. Within the sphere of his influence he was always ready to help a friend or to further the true interests of musical art and artists. It is one of David's special merits that he revived the works of the eminent violin-players of the old Italian, German, and French schools, which he edited and published with accompaniments, marks of expression, etc. He also edited nearly the whole classical repertoire of the violin for purposes of study, and took a prominent part in the critical editions of the works of Beethoven, Haydn, and other great masters. His unremitting activity was as earnest as it was quick. He was particularly fond of intellectual pursuits, was eminently well read, full of manifold knowledge and experience. His conversation abounded in traits of wit and humour, he was the pleasantest companion, a faithful friend, and an exemplary husband and father. In 1861 the 25th anniversary of his appointment as leader was celebrated at Leipzig. He died very suddenly July 18,1873, while on a mountain excursion with his children, near Klosters in the Grisons. He was buried at Leipzig, where he was highly honoured, and where a street has recently been named after him. Among his numerous compositions the five

1 It appears that In ' Herculanum' a great many pieces from the •Fin du Monde" have been embodied. The present writer has no personal knowledge of either work.

1 See details in the programme of the Crystal Palace Saturday Conceit, Dec. 19.1871.

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violin concertos, a number of variations, and other concert pieces for the violin hold the first rank. He also published for piano and violin ' Bunte Reihe,' ' Kammerstiicke,' etc. Besides these, two symphonies, an opera ' Hans Wacht,' a sextet and a quartet for strings, a number of songs and concert pieces for trombone and other wind instruments, deserve to be mentioned. His ' Violin School' is certainly one of the best works of the kind, and the publication of the ' Hohe Schule des Violinspiels' (a collection of standard works of old violinists) marks an epoch in the development of modern violin-playing. [H-] DAVIDDE PENITENTE. A'cantata'for 3 solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, to Italian words by an unknown author, adapted by Mozart in 1785 from his unfinished mass in C minor (K. 427), with the addition of a fresh soprano and fresh tenor air, for the widows' fund of the Society of musicians (Tonkiinstler-Societiit) ; and performed on March 13 and 15, 1785, in the Burgtheatre at Vienna. DAVIDE, GIACOMO, a very great Italian tenor, better known as ' David le pere,' born at Presezzo, near Bergamo, in 1750. Possessing a naturally beautiful voice, he made the best use of it by long and careful study. To a pure and perfect intonation he joined good taste in the choice of style and ornament. Having studied composition under Sala, he was able to suit his fioriture to the harmony of the passage he wished to embroider; but he was even more distinguished in serious and pathetic music, and that of the church, than in bravura. Lord Mount-Edgoumbe heard him at Naples in 1785, and thought him excellent in opera. In that year he went to Paris, sang at the Concert Spirituel, and made a great sensation in the 'Stabat' of Pergolese. Returning to Italy, he sang during two seasons at the Scala. In 90 he was at Naples again, and in 91 he came to London. Owing, however, to the Pantheon having been licensed as the King's Theatre, it was impossible to obtain a licence for the Haymarket Theatre, at which Davide was engaged, except for concerts and ballets. This, and the want of good singers to support him, prevented him from becoming as well known here as he deserved. ' He was undoubtedly the first tenor of his time,' says Lord Mount-Edgcumbe, ' possessing a powerful and well-toned voice, great execution as well as knowledge of music, and an excellent style of singing. He learned to pronounce English with tolerable correctness, and one of his last performances was in Westminster Abbey, at the last of the Handel festivals. In 1802 he was at Florence; and, although 52 years of age, had still all his old power, and was able to sing every morning in some church, and at the opera every evening. He returned in 1812 to Bergamo, where he was appointed to sing at the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. It is said that he sang at Lodi in 1820; but he was then no more than the shadow of his former self. He formed two pupils, one of whom was his son, and the other

Nozzari. Davide died at Bergamo December 31, 1830.

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2. His son GIOVANNI was born in 1789, and

long enjoyed the reputation in Italy of a great singer, though his method of producing his voice was defective, and he frequently showed want of taste, abusing his magnificent voice, with its prodigious compass of three octaves comprised within four B flats. He had, however, a great deal of energy and spirit, and his style was undoubtedly original. He made his debut at Brescia in 1810, and sang with success at Venice, Naples, and Milan. He was engaged at the Scala for the whole of 1814. In the autumn of that year he was first employed by Rossini in his 'Turco in Italia.' Rossini then wrote roles for him in 'Otello' (1814% 'Ricciardo e Zoraide' (1818), 'Ermione' and 'La Donna, del Lago' (1819). In 1818 he sang at Rome,Vienna, and London. Ebers had made overtures to him in 1822, and his engagement was on the point of completion, when he was engaged for seven years by Barbaja, who at that time directed the operas of Naples, Milan, Bologna, and Vienna. Davide appeared here in 29, singing, among other operas, with Mrs. Wood in Pacini's 'L'Ultimo giorno di Pompei'; but he was passe, and his voice so unsteady that he was obliged to conceal its defects by superfluity of ornament. He arrived in Paris in the same year. His voice had now become nasal, and his faults of taste and judgment more apparent. Yet, with all these faults, he was able occasionally to rise to a point that was almost sublime. Edouard Bertin, a French critic, said of him, 'it is impossible for another singer to carry away an audience as he does, and when he will only be simple, he is admirable; he is the Rossini of song. He is a great singer; the greatest I ever heard.' After his return into Italy, Davide sang at Milan and Bergamo in 1831, at Genoa and Florence in 32, at Naples in 32, 34, and 40, at Cremona and Modena in 35, at Verona in 38, and at Vienna in 39. He retired in 41 to Naples, where he founded a school of singing, which was not much frequented. A few years later he accepted the post of manager at the Opera of St. Petersburg, and is said to have died there about 1851. [J.M.] DAVIDOFF, CHARLES, eminent cello-player, born at Goldingen in Courland March 15, 1838, received his first musical instruction from H. Schmitt at Moscow. His bent was to mathematics, which he studied in the Moscow university from 1854 to 58, but at length decided to embrace music as his. profession, and then learned the cello under C. Schuberth at St. Petersburg, and composition under Hauptmann at Leipzig. His first appearance in public was at the Gewandhaus Dec. 15, 59, after which he at once became leading cello in that orchestra and Professor at the Conservatoire, vice Griitzraacher. In 1S62 he was appointed solo cello to the Emperor of Russia, and professor at the new music school and Conservatoire of St. Petersburg. Davidoff made his first appearance in London at the Philharmonic on May 19, 1862, in a concerto

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of his own. His position among cello-players is high. His tone is expressive, his intonation certain, especially in the higher registers, and his execution extraordinary, and there is great individuality in his style. He has composed much both for the cello and piano.

volume of voice, but a remarkably neat and facile execution. She subsequently revisited Florence, and performed there until about 1784, when she returned to England. Marianne's nerves had become so seriously affected by her performance on the harmonica (a so frequent result of continued performance on the instrument as to have occasioned official prohibition of its use in many continental towns), that she was compelled to retire from her profession. She died in 1792, and Cecilia shortly afterwards also ceased to perform. About 1817 she published a collection of six songs by Hasse, Jomelli, Galuppi, etc. She survived until July 3,1836, having for years suffered from the accumulated miseries of old age, disease, and poverty. [W. H. H.]

DAVIDSBUNDLER. An imaginary association of Schumann and his friends, banded together against old-fashioned pedantry and stupidity in music, like David and his men against the Philistines. The personages of this association rejoiced in the names of Florestan, Eusebius, Earo, Chiara, Serpentinus, Jonathan, Jeanquirit, etc., and their displays took place in the pages of the Neue Zeitsehriffc fur Musik, Schumann's periodical. It was Schumann's half humorous, half melancholy way of expressing his opinions. He himself, in the preface to his Gesammelte Schriften (Leipzig, 1854), speaks of it as 'an alliance which was more than secret, since it existed only in the brain of its founder.' The Davidsbiindler did not confine themselves to literary feats; their names are to be found in Schumann's compositions also. Florestan and Eusebius not only figure in the Carneval (op. 9), but the Grande Sonate, No. 1 (op. 11), was originally published with their names, and so was the set of pieces entitled 'Davidsbiindler' (op. 6). The most humorous of all these utterances is the 'Marche des Davidsbiindler contre les Philistins,' which winds up the Carneval, and in which the antiquated 'Grosvatertanz' is gradually surrounded and crushed by the strains of the new allies. [G.] DA VIES, the MISSES MARIANNE and CECILIA,

DAVY, JOHN, was born in the parish of Upton Helion, near Exeter, in 1765. From his earliest infancy he discovered a remarkable propensity for music. After many other manifestations of his inclination, he was, when about six years of age, detected as the purloiner of from twenty to thirty horse-shoes from a neighbouring smithy. From these he had selected as many as formed a complete octave, and, having suspended them in an upper room, was amusing himself by imitating upon them the chimes of the neighbouring church of Crediton. By the advice of the Rev. Mr. Eastcott, he was articled to Jackson of Exeter. Some years afterwards Davy came to London, and obtained employment in the orchestra of one of the theatres and as a teacher. His ability for composition soon became known, and he was engaged to supply music for several dramatic pieces. After upwards of twenty years of such employment his frame gave way under the pressure of infirmities rather than of age, and he gradually sank until he died, in May's Buildings, St. Martin's Lane, Feb. 22, 1824. He was buried in St. Martin's churchyard on Feb. 28 following. Davy composed the music for the following dramatic pieces :—'What a Blunder!' 1800; 'Perouse' (with J. Moorehead), 1801; 'The Brazen Mask' (with Mountain), 1802; 'The Cabinet' (with Braham and others), 1802; ' The Caffres' (with others), 1802; 'Red Roy,' 1803; 'The Miller's Maid,' 1804; 'Harlequin Quicksilver,' 1804; 'Thirty Thousand' (with Braham and Reeve), 1805; 'Spanish Dollars,' 1805; 'Harlequin's Magnet,' 1805; 'The Blind Boy, 1808; 'The Farmer's Wife' (with others), 1814; ' Rob Roy Macgregor,' 1818; 'Woman's Will, a Riddle,'1820. Also an overture and other music for Shakspere's 'Tempest,' performed in conjunction with the songs of Purcell, Arne, and Linley. Many of Davy's songs gained great popularity. ' Just like love,' ' May we ne'er want a friend,' and ' The Death of the Smuggler,' have perhaps passed out of remembrance, but 'The Bay of Biscay' retains, and in all probability will long retain, its place in the public favour. [W.H.H.]

were daughters of a relative of Benjamin Franklin. Marianne, the elder, attained some distinction as a performer on the harpsichord and pianoforte, but about 17B2 achieved much more repute for her skill on the harmonica, or musical glasses, then recently much improved by Franklin. Cecilia, born 1740, won considerable renown as a vocalist. She made her first public appearance at the Concert Room in Dean Street, Soho, April 28, 1756. In 68 the sisters quitted England and went 'to Paris, and Vienna. Whilst there, Metastasio wrote and Hasse composed an ode, which was sung by Cecilia, accompanied by Marianne on the harmonica. Metastasio, in a letter dated Jan. 16,1772, describes the beautiful tone of the instrument, and the admirable manner in which Cecilia assimilated her voice to it, so as to render it difficult to distinguish the one from the other. From Vienna the sisters went to Milan, where Cecilia appeared in 1771, with great success, in the opera of Ruggiero, written by Metastasio and composed by Hasse, being the first Englishwoman accepted in Italy as prima donna. The Italians bestowed on her the sobriquet of ' L'Inglesina,' and confessed her to be superior to any Italian singer but Gabrielli. She afterwards sang at Florence. In 1773 the two ladies returned to London, where Cecilia appeared at DAVY, RiCHAKD, an English composer in the the Italian Opera with the greatest success. early part of the 16th century. Some of his She is described as having no great power or compositions are preserved in the British Museum, Ff 2

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in the volume known as the Fayrfax Manuscript the exceptions and rules will alike follow. Thus, ^Add. MSS. 5465). [W. H. H.] in dealing with the theory of false relations, he DAY, ALFRED, M.D., the author of an im- points out that the objectionable nature of conportant theory of' harmony, was born in London tradictory accidentals, such as Clj and CjJ occurring in January 1S10. In accordance with the wishes in the same chord, or in succeeding chords or of his father he studied in London and Paris for alternate chords, arises from the obscurity of the medical profession, and, after taking a degree tonality which thereby results, and which must at Heidelberg, practised in London as a homoeo- always result when accidentals imply change pathist. His father's want of sympathy for his of key: but since accidentals under particular musical inclinations in his earlier years having circumstances do not imply change of key, conprevented him from attaining a sufficient degree tradictory accidentals are not necessarily a false of practical skill in the art, he turned his attention relation; and he gives as an extreme instance, to the study of its principles, and formed the among others, the succession of the chords of the idea of making a consistent and complete theory subdominant and supertonic in the key of C, in of harmony, to replace the chaos of isolated rules which F and F( follow one another in different and exceptions, founded chiefly on irregular parts in successive chords. observation of the practice of great composers, which till comparatively lately was all that in J I J1 * J reality supplied the place of system. He took some years in maturing his theory, and published C f r it finally in 1845, three years only before his death. In this work there was hardly any department in which he did not propose reforms. For instance, Proceeding after the same manner in his in view of the fact that the figures used in thorough bass did not distinguish the nature of discussion of forbidden progressions of parts, he the chord they indicated—since the same figures points out that as the objectionable effect of stood for entirely different chords, and the same consecutive fifths is caused by the two parts chords in different positions would be indicated seeming to move simultaneously in two different by different figures—he proposed that the same keys, there are cases in which the progression chord should always be indicated by the same of the bass on which they are founded would figures, and that its inversions should be indicated prevent that effect and render them admissible ; by capital letters A, B, C, etc., placed under the as, for instance, when the bass moves from Tonic bass, so that the chord of the seventh in its various to dominant, as in the Pastoral Symphony of Beethoven, positions would be indicated as follows :— I instead of <Sg-

B C D as under the old system. And whenever a chord had also a secondary root, as the chord of the augmented sixth, it would be indicated by a capital letter with a line drawn through it, and lines also drawn through the figures which indicated the intervals derived from that secondary root. With respect to the differences of opinion about the minor scale, he insisted with determined consistency that the principles of its construction precluded the possibility of its containing a major sixth or a minor seventh, and that the only true minor scale is that with a minor sixth and major seventh, the same ascending and descending ; and his concluding remarks are worth quoting as characteristic:—'This scale may not be so easy to some instruments and to voices as the old minor scale, therefore let all those who like it practise that form of passage, but let them not call it the minor scale. Even as a point of practice I deny the old minor scale to be the better; as practice is for the purpose of overcoming difficulties, and not of evading them.' The principle which throughout characterises his system is to get behind the mere shallow statement of rules and exceptions to the underlying basis from which 1

Treatise on Harmon;, by Alfred Day. Royal 870. Novello & Co.

The most important part of his theory, and that which most distinguishes it, is its division of styles into Strict or Diatonic, and Free or Chromatic, and the discussion of the fundamental discords which can be used without preparation. His explanation of the 'Chromatic system' was quite new, and his prefatory remarks so well explain his principles that they may be fitly quoted. After pointing out that the laws of diatonic harmony had been so stretched to apply them to modern styles that they seemed ' utterly opposed to practice,' he proceeds — ' Diatonic discords require preparation because they are unnatural; chromatic do not because they may be said to be already prepared by nature'—since the harmonics of a root note give the notes which form with it the combinations he calls fundamental discords. 'The harmonics from any given note are a major third, perfect fifth, minor seventh, minor or major ninth, eleventh, and minor or major thirteenth.' And this series gives the complete category of the fundamental chords of Day's chromatic system. Moreover, with the view of simplifying the tonal development

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of music, and giving a larger scope to the basis of a single key—and thereby avoiding the consideration of innumerable short transitions—he gives a number of chromatic chords as belonging essentially to every key, though their signatures may not be sufficient to supply them, and with the same object builds his fundamental discords on the basis of the supertonic and tonic as well as on the dominant. In respect of this he says— ' The reason why the tonic, dominant, and supertonic are chosen for roots, is because the harmonics in nature rise in the same manner; first the harmonics of any given note, then those of its fifth or dominant, then those of the fifth of that dominant, being the second or supertonic of the original note. The reason why the harmonics of the next fifth are not used, is because that note itself is not a note of the diatonic scale, being a little too sharp, as the fifth of the supertonic, and can only be used as part of a chromatic chord.' The advantages of this system of taking a number of chromatic chords under the head of one key will be obvious to any one who wishes for a complete theory to analyse the progressions of keys in modern music as well as their harmonic structure. For instance, even in the early 'Sonata Pathetique' of Beethoven, under a less comprehensive system, it would be held that in the first bar there was a transition from the original key of C minor to G; whereas under this system the first modulation would be held to take place in the 4th bar, to Eb, which is far more logical and systematic. The detailed examination of the series of chords which have been summarised above is very elaborate. In most cases his views of the resolutions, even of well-known chords, are more varied and comprehensive than is usual with works on harmony, and point to the great patience and care bestowed on the elaboration of the theory. The most salient points of this part of the work are the reduction of well-known chords and their recognised and possible resolutions under the author's system of fundamental discords. The chord of the diminished seventh (a) he points out to be the first (a) (6) inversion of that of the minor ninth (6) ; and though this inversion, in which the root is _ omitted, is decidedly more common than the original chord (6), yet the latter is to be found complete—as is also the major ninth, without omission of the root—in the works of the great masters ; and that on tonic and siipertonic as well as dominant roots. Thechordofthedominanteleventh, ^ When complete (as c), is hardly likely to be found unabridged; and it is even doubtful whether any examples of its first position ~sr exist, even with some notes omitted, which can be pointed to with certainty as an essential chord. But in this scheme the chord is important as giving in its fourth inversion the chord known as the added sixth (d), in which case the

fifth of the original chord is at the top and the root and third are omitted, and the free treatment which has generally characterised this formerly isolated chord fully agrees with the rest of the principles of the system. This chord of the eleventh, unlike the others in the series, can only be used on the dominant, because if used on either the tonic or supertonic it would resolve out of the key. The last chord of the series is that of the major or minor thirteenth on either of the before-mentioned roots ; of which the whole chord on the dominant of C (for example) (ej would stand as (e). It is not b-, _ suggested that all these notes SEzSEEjl occur at once, but that the j&orl? discordant ones have their own " proper resolutions, which they will follow in whatever positions they may be combined; their resolutions being liable to modification by the omission of any notes with which they form dissonances. The commonest and smoothest form of the chord is

PP which will be readily recognised ; and there are various resolutions given of the interval which makes the thirteenth with the root in this combination. One of the resolutions of the minor thirteenth deserves special consideration, namely, that in which it rises a semitone while the rest of the chord moves to tonic harmony. This if\ makes the chord appear to be the same as that which was and : *s ^ H is commonly known as that of EiE. .g. the sharp fifth, as (/). To the ~ar whole doctrine of a sharpened fifth Dr. Day strongly opposed himself, and maintained that the two chords marked (g) and (h) in the example were identical; and brought to bear (ff)

(ft)

both mathematics and practical experiment to prove it. The combinations and resolutions which result from his views of the nature of this chord are some of them very curious and original, and would probably be impossible if the chord were not a minor thirteenth but a, sharp fifth. Still, the case against the sharp fifth cannot be said to be thoroughly substantiated, and the singular results of his views in this special case are not to be found in great numbers in the works of composers. The chord of the augmented sixth he derives from the primary harmonics arising from a primary root, and the secondary harmonics arising from a secondary root. Thus in the following chord in the key of C, the lower note Ab he

DAY.

DEFESCH.

explains to be the minor ninth of the dominant root, and the remaining three notes to be the seventh, ninth, and third of the supertonic or secondary root; both these notes being already recognised as capable of being taken as roots in any key. The progressions of the component notes of the chord are the same as they would be in their positions in the respective fundamental discords of tonic and supertonic of which they form a -part. His views of the capacity of the interval of the augmented sixth for being inverted as a diminished third are opposed to the practice of the greatest composers, who though they use the inversion rarely use it with great effect. He says: 'This interval should not be inverted, because the upper note being a secondary harmonic and capable of belonging only to the secondary root, should not be beneath the lower, which can only belong to the primary root.' As in his views with respect to the sharp fifth and the minor thirteenth, the question cannot be said to be definitely settled. Thus the musical feeling of people of cidtivated taste may still count for something, and it seems probable that if the inversion were vicious Bach and Beethoven would not have used it. This is not the place to point out in what respects Dr. Day's hypothesis is vulnerable; theorists of very high standing repudiate the chords of the eleventh and thirteenth, and even cast doubts on the essential nature of the ninths; but whatever may be said of its hypothetical and as yet incompletely substantiated views it must be confessed that no other theory yet proposed can rival it in consistency and comprehensiveness. The strong adhesion given to it by one of our most distinguished living musicians, the Professor of Music at Cambridge, should be sufficient to recommend it; and the study of it, even if it lead to dissent on some points, can hardly fail to be profitable. [C. H. H. P.] DAY, JOHN, one of the earliest of English musical typographers, began printing about 1549 in Holborn, a little above the Conduit. He afterwards dwelt ' over Aldersgate beneath Saint Martyns,' and subsequently had a shop in St. Paul's Churchyard. He used the motto 'Arise, for it is Day,' which was probably intended as a reference to the introduction of the Reformed religion, as well as a punning allusion to his own name. On March 25, 15S3, he obtained a licence to print 'A Catechism in English with an A B C thereunto annexed,' and also the works of John Poynet, Bishop of Winchester, and Thomas Beacon, Professor of Divinity. He subsequently procured a patent to be granted to him and his son for printing the Psalms, etc. He was the printer of Fox's 'Acts and Monuments.' In 1582 he was Master of the Stationers' Company. He died July 23, 1584. The musical works printed by Day were ' Certaine Notes set forth in foure and three partes to be sung at the Morning, Communion and Evening Prayer.' 1560; 'The whole Booke of Psalmes in foure partes,' which may be sung

to all Musicall Instruments,' 1563, reprinted in 1 5^5', 'Songes of three, fower and five voyces composed and made by Thomas Whythorne,' 1571; 'The Psalmes of David' by William

438

Damon, 1579.

[DAMON.]

[W. H. H.]

DEANE, THOMAS, MUS. DOC, born in the latter half of the 17th century, was organist at Warwick and Coventry. He composed a service and other church music, and in 1703 the instrumental music for Oldmixon's tragedy 'The Governor of Cyprus.' He is said to have been the first to perform a sonata of Corelli in this country in 1709. Many compositions by him for the violin are contained in the collection called 'The Division Violin.' He graduated as Doctor of Music at Oxford July 9, 1731. [W.H.H.] DEBAIN, ALEXANDEE FRANCOIS, keyed in-

strument maker, born in Paris 1809. Originally foreman in a pianoforte factory, but in 1834 established a factory of his own. Has distinguished himself by the invention of several musical instruments, amongst others the Antiphonel—a kind of barrel-organ—the Harmonicorde—a combination of reeds and strings—and the Harmonium, or Orgue expressif. Died Nov. 7 7. DEBOEAH. An oratorio of Handel's, the words by Humphreys; completed Feb. 21, 1733 ; first performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, March 17, 1733. No less than 14 of the airs and choruses are founded on, adapted, or transferred, from other works of Handel's— Dixit Dominus (1707); the Passion (1716); the ode on Queen Anne's birthday (1715); the Coronation Anthems (1727). Deborah was revived by the Sacred Harmonic Society Nov. 8 DECANI. The words Decani and Cantoris are used to distinguish the two sides of the choir for the purposes of antiphonal singing in the Anglican Church. The names are derived from the position of the stalls of the Decanus or Dean and the Cantor or Precentor, which are the first on either side on entering the choir of a cathedral, the Dean always on the south side. [C.H.H.P.] DECRESCENDO, decreasing—the opposite of crescendo—consists in gradually lessening the tone from loud to soft. It is also expressed by dec, decresc, and by the sign ^ r = - . Whether there was originally any difference between decrescendo and diminuendo or not. at present the two terms appear to be convertible. There is a splendid instance of the thing, where both words are used, at the end of the first section of the Finale of Schubert's Symphony in C, No. 9, in a decrescendo of 48 bars from fff, the bass at the same time going down and down to the low G. DEFESCH, WILLIAM, a Fleming by birth, was organist of the church of Notre Dame at Antwerp, and in 1725 succeeded Alfonso D'Eve as chapel-master there, but was in 1731 dismissed on account of his ill-treatment of some of the choir-boys under his charge. He then came to England, and established himself in London, where, in 33, he produced an oratorio entitled

439

DEPESCH.

DELDEVEZ.

' Judith,' which enjoyed some degree of popularity, and in 45 another called 'Joseph.' Whilst at Antwerp he composed a mass for voices and orchestra. His published works comprise several sets of sonatas and concertos for stringed and other instruments, some solos for the violoncello, and a collection of canzonets and airs, and some single songs. He was an able violinist. An engraved portrait of him was published in London in 1757. He died about 1758. [W. H. H.] DEGREE. The word 'degree' is used to express the intervals of notes from one another on the stave. When they are on the same line or space they are in the same degree. The interval of a second is one degree, the interval of a third two degrees, and so on, irrespective of the steps being tones or semitones, so long as they represent a further line or space in the stave. Hence also notes are in the same degree when they are natural, fiat, or sharp of the same note, as C and Cff, E and Eb ; and they are in different degrees when, though the same note on an instrument of fixed intonation, they are called by different names, as F# and Gb, C and Dbb. [CH.H.P.] DEGREE. For the degrees in music at the

tion Griepenkerl undertook his edition of Bach's complete works for clavier and organ (Peters, Leipsic). Dehn also published a collection sf vocal compositions in 4, 5, 6, 8, and 10 parts, called 'Sammlung alterer Musik aus dem XVI und XVII Jahrh.' (Crantz, Berlin). He succeeded Gottfried Weber in the editorship of the musical periodical 'Caecilia' (Schott). He reedited Marpurg's treatise on Fugue (Leipzig 1858), had translated Delmotte's work on Orlando Lasso, under the title ' Biographische Notiz iiber Roland de Lattre,' and was preparing a larger work on the same subject, from valuable materials collected with great labour, when he died. In addition to these and similar labours he conducted a large correspondence on musical subjects and formed many distinguished pupils, among whom may be mentioned Glinka, Kullak, A. Rubinstein, and F. Kiel. Among his friends were Kiesewetter and Fe'tis, for the latter of whom he collected materials equal to two volumes of his ' Biographie universelle.' His theoretical works were ' Theoretisch-praktische Harmonielehre' (Berlin 1840 ; 2nd edition Leipsic 1858); ' Analyse dreier Fugen . . . J. S. Bach's . . . und Bononcini's etc' (Leipzig 1858), and 'Lehre vom Contrapunkt' (Schneider, 1859). The latter, published after his death by his pupil Scholz, contains examples and analyses of canon and fugue by Orlando Lasso, Marcello, Palestrina, etc. Dehn was a good practical musician and violoncellist. [M.C.C.]

English Universities see BACHBLOB and DOCTOR.

Since BACHELOR was printed an addition has been made to the Oxford examination by requiring candidates to pass previously either Responsions or a local examination in English, Mathematics, Latin, and one of four modern languages—Greek, French, German, or Italian. Additions of a similar nature have also been made by Cambridge and Dublin, and the London University has adopted a report to the same effect. Thus the degree will henceforward be evidence of a certain general education as well as of musical attainments. [C.A.F.] DEHN, SIEGFRIED WILHELM, musical writer, born at Altona 1796, died at Berlin 1858. His studies at the University of Leipsic were interrupted in 1813 by having to join the army against the French. On the • restoration of peace he went to Plon and Leipsic, and in 1823 to Berlin, where he studied under Bernhard Klein in harmony and composition. He possessed strong literary tastes, and being a good linguist, made diligent researches on various subjects connected with music both in Germany and Italy, which he utilised in Marx's 'Berliner Musikzeitung' and other periodicals. In 1842, on the recommendation of Meyerbeer, he was appointed librarian of the musical portion of the royal library at Berlin, a choice he amply justified. He catalogued the entire collection, and added to it a number of valuable works scattered throughout Prussia, especially Poelchau's collection, containing, besides many interesting theoretical and historical works, an invaluable series of original MSS. of the Bach family. Dehn scored no less than 500 motets of Orlando Lasso, and copied for the press an enormous number of works by J. S. Bach. He it was who first published Bach's six concertos for various instruments (Peters, 1850); the concertos for one, two, and three pianofortes ; and two comic cantatas. At his instiga-

DEISS, MICHAEL, musician to the Emperor Ferdinand I of Germany, for whose obsequies in 1564 he composed a motet for four voices, and eight other pieces, published by Joannelli in his ' Thesaurus Musicus.' Other motets of his are contained in Schad's ' Promptuarium Musicum.' Deiss's part-writing was fluent and natural for his time, as is shown in his motet 'Misit Herodes rex.' [M. C. C ] DELDEVEZ, ERNEST, born in Paris May 31, 1817, studied at the Conservatoire, where he was a pupil of Habeneck, and obtained thefirstviolin prize in 1833, the second prize for fugue in 1837, and the second 'prix de Rome' in 1838 for his cantata 'La Vendetta,' which he subsequently revised and printed (op. 16). That he is not only a talented violinist and leader, but also a sound and melodious composer, is shown in his published works. These consist of songs, sacred choruses, 2 trios (op. 9 and 23), quartets (op. 10), a quintet (op. 22), concert-overtures (op. 1 and 3), symphonies (op. 2, 8, 15), besides some still unpublished; a 'Requiem' (op. 7), and dramatic works, besides others still in MS. Among his ballets performed at the Opera we may mention 'Lady Henriette' (3rd act), 'Eucharis' (1844), 'Paquita' (1846), and 'Vertvert' (1851), which contain much pleasing and brilliant music. This learned and conscientious musician has also published an Anthology of Violinists, 4 vols. (op. 19) —a selection of pieces by various composers, from Corelli to Viotti; a work ' Des Principes de la formation dea intervalles et des acoords'; the

DELDEVEZ.

DEPART, CHANT DU.

' Cours complet d'harmonie et de haute composition' of Fenaroli; 'Transcriptions et Realisations d'ceuvres anciennes'; • Curiosity Musicales' (Didot, 1873), on certain peculiarities in the works of the great masters, and ' L'art du Chef d'Orchestre' (Didot, 1878). On the death of George Hainl (1873) Deldevez was appointed first leader to the ' Academie' and to the ' Societe des Concerts.' In October 1873 he was chosen to direct the class for instrumental performance, instituted at the Conservatoire at the instance of Ambroise Thomas, and hitherto most successful. He retired from the Opera July 1, 1877. Deldevez is a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. [G-. C] DELICATI, MAEGHEEITA, an Italian soprano engaged at the King's Theatre with her husband in 1789. They played principally in opera buffa. She sang with Marchesi in Tarchi's ' Disertore,' and they both took part in 'La Cosa rara' and ' La Villana riconosciuta.' Delicati also played a email part in Paisiello's 'Barbiere di Siviglia.' Their subsequent history is unknown. [J.M.] DELMOTTE, HENEI FLOBENT, born at Mons 1799, died there 1836, librarian of the public library at Mons, and author of 'Notice biographique sur .Roland Delattre, etc' (Valenciennes 1836). This work was translated into German by Dehn. The authenticity of the chronicler Vinchant, from whom Delmotte took the chief part of his facts, has been contested since his death. (See LASSO.) At the time of his death Delmotte was collecting materials for the life of Philippe de Mons. [M. C.C.] DEMANTIUS, CHEISTOPH, composer, born at Reichenberg 1567; was cantor at Zittau about 1596, and in 1607 at Freyberg in Saxony where he died 1643. His works (for list see Fttis) comprise songs sacred and secular, dances, and threnodies, or funeral laments, besides two elementary works, ' Isagoge artis musicae' etc. (Nuremberg 160;, 12th edition Freyberg 1671) and 'Forma musices, griindlicher . . . Bericht der Singekunst' (Budissin 1592). Four 8-part motets are printed in the Florilegium Portense, and a short 'Doniine ad adjuvandum,' a 4, in Proske's ' Musica Divina'—Lib. Vesperarum. [M. C. C] DEMI-SEMI-QUAVER, the half of a semiquaver ; in other words, a note the value or duration of which is the quarter of a quaver and the eighth part of a crotchet. In French ' triple croche'; in Italian ' semi-bis-croma.' It is shown by p> or> when joined, by if, and its rest by ^.

came director of the Ecole, conductor of the Societe des Concerts, and founder and conductor (1841) of the Roland de Lattre choral society. He composed three operas for the Mons theatre; a number of choruses for men's voices; several cantatas (one for the erection of a statue to Orlando Lasso in 1858); a Requiem, and various orchestral pieces. Denefve is a member of the 'Society des beaux arts et de literature' of Ghent, and honorary member of the most important choral societies in Belgium and the north of France. [M. C. C ] DEPART, CHANT DU. This national air was composed by MeTiul to some fine lines by Marie Joseph Chenier,forthe concert celebrating the fourth anniversary of the taking of the Bastille (July 14, 1794). Ch^nier was in hiding at the house of Sarrette when he wrote the words, and the original edition, by order of the National Convention, states merely ' Paroles de . . . . ; musique de Me'hul.' Of all the French patriotic songs this is the only one actually written during the Terror. Thefirstverse is as follows:—

440

DEMOPHON, trage"die lyrique, in 3 acts; words by Mannontel; music by Cherubini, his first opera in Paris; produced at the Acade'mie royale Dec. 5, 1788. DENEFVE, JULES, violoncellist and composer, born at Chimay 1814, entered the Brussels Conservatoire in 1833. He studied the violoncello under Platel and Demunck ; became professor of the violoncello at the Ecole de Musique, and first violoncello at the theatre, and at the Societe des Concerts at Mona. Yv'itliin a few years he be-

Tempo di marcia

La vie - toire

en chant-ant

lie" - re. La Ii-ber-t6

di

bats.

gui-de nos pas; Et du Nord au m i -

la trom - pet - te guer - rie

Trem

m

nous ou - vre la bar -

re a sonne l'heu - re des com-

blez, en - ne - mis de la

i - vres de sang et d'or - gueil!

Fran - ce,

Le peuple souve - rain s'a -

«l J4 avan - ce;

Kois

=•=*=

Ty - rans, descendez au cer - cueil!

La r f i - p u -

m

-fee

-c i i

bli - que nous ap - pel - le, Sa-chons vaincre ou sa-chons p6-

rir;

UnFran-c.ais doit

vi - vre pour el -

elle un Francais doit mou - rir! -H

el

1

le.

1

le.

1

Pour

Un Franc-aia doit vi - vre pout

—i—M—^-

Pour

elle un Francais doit mou - rir!

The opening phrase is spirited and sonorous; the modulation in the middle recalls perhaps involuntarily that in the Marseillaise ; while the end foreshadows too definitely the melodies cf the Empire. Apart from its merit as music, the air is appropriate to Chenier's words, and produces an almost overwhelming effect when sung by a multitude. " ' [G.C]

DERING.

DEVIN DU VILLAGE, LE.

DERING, RICHABD, Mus. Bac., a member of the ancient Kentish family of that name, was educated in Italy. He returned to England with a great reputation as a musician, and for some time practised his profession in London. In 1610 he took the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford. Being strongly importuned thereto he became organist to the convent of English nuns at Brussels. Upon the marriage of Charles I, in 1625, Dering was appointed organist to the queen, Henrietta Maria, which office he continued to hold until she was compelled to leave England. He died in the Romish communion about the year 1658. Dering's published works are wholly of a sacred kind. They consist of 'Cantiones Sacrse quinque vooum cum basso continuo ad Organum,' Antwerp, 1597 ; ' Cantica Sacra ad Melodium Madrigalium elaborata senis Vocibus,' Antwerp, 1618 ; ' Cantica Sacra ad Duos & Tres Voces, composita cum Basso-continuo ad Organum,' London, 1662. On the title-page of thia work, which is dedicated to the Queen Dowager, Henrietta Maria, Dering is styled 'Regiae Majestatis quondam Organista.' In 1674 Playford published a second set of Cantica Sacra by various composers, in which are eight motets attributed to Dering, but which Playford, in his preface, candidly admits were ' by some believed not to be his.' In the library of the Sacred Harmonic Society are preserved in manuscript imperfect sets of parts of the following compositions by Dering: anthem, ' Unto Thee, O> Lord'; madrigal, 'The Country Cry'; some motets, and several fancies for viols. [W.H. H.]

Settings of it are comparatively rare. To take for example the most famous ancient collections of services; there is only one setting in Barnard's collection, viz. that by Strogers; there are three in Boyce's, and only two in Arnold's. With regard to the setting in Barnard's collection, it is worth remarking that there is a quaint note at the end of the index suggesting that it should be sometimes used as an anthem. [C. H. H. P.] DEUX JOURNEES, LES. Com^die lyrique in 3 acts, words by Bouilly, music by Cherubini; produced at the Theatre Feydeau Jan. 16, 1800. Translated into German as ' Der Wassertrager,' and into English as 'The Escapes ; or, the Water Carrier'; produced, in a very mutilated state, in London 1801, and at Covent Garden Nov. 12, 1824, with the ^overture and all the music' In Italian produced at Drury Lane June 20, 1872, as Le due Giornate, for one night only. Beethoven thought the book of this opera the best in existence. [G.] DEVELOPMENT. A word used in two somewhat different senses ; on the one hand of a whole movement, in a sense analogous to its use with reference to an organism; and on the other of a subject or phrase, with reference to the manner in which its conspicuous features of rhythm or melody are employed by reiteration, variation, or any other devices which the genius or ingenuity of the composer suggests, with the object of showing the various elements of interest it contains. The term is very apt and legitimate when used in the above senses, which are in reality no more than the converse of one another; for the development of a movement is rightly the development of the ideas contained in its subjects; otherwise in instrumental music neither purpose nor unity of design could be perceived. It must however be borne in mind that the mere statement of a transformed version of a subject is not development. A thing is not necessarily developed when it is merely changed, but it is so generally when the progressive steps between the original and its final condition can be clearly followed. The most perfect types of development are to be found in Beethoven's works, with whom not seldom the greater part of a movement is the constant unfolding and opening out of all the latent possibilities of some simple rhythmic figure. It is impossible to give examples, owing to the space they would require; but reference may be made to the first movement of the Symphony in C minor; the Scherzo of the 9th Symphony; the Allegro con brio of the Sonata in C minor, opus i n ; the last movement of the Sonata in F, opus 10, no. 2; and the last movement of the Sonata in A, opus 101. [C. H. H. P.] DEVIL'S OPERA, THE, in two acts, words by G. Macfarren, music by G. A. Macfarren; produced at the English Opera House Aug. 13,1838. DEVIN DU VILLAGE. LE (the village Sorcerer), an Interm^de, in one act; words and music by J. J. Rousseau; played for the first

DESERTEUR, LE, a musical drama in 3 acts, words by Sedaine, music by Monsigny—his best; produced at the Theatre des Italiens March 6, 1769, and revived at the OptSra Comique Oct. 3°, i843DETTINGEN TE DEUM, THE, written by Handel to celebrate the victory of Dettingen (June 26, 1743). 'Begun July 1743'; first performed (not at the thanksgiving service July 28, but) at the Chapel Royal, St. James's, Nov. 2 7, 43. Many of the themes and passages are from UBIO.

DEUS MISEREATUR is the psalm (Ixvii.) used in the evening service of the Anglican church after the lessons, alternatively with the Nuno Dimittis. It is considered as a'responsorypsalm' in conformity with the 17th canon of the Council of Laodicea, which appointed lessons and psalms to be read alternately. In the ancient church the psalm was used at Lauds, and in the Sarum use it was coupled with the bidding prayer on Sundays. Neverthelessa n it is not in Cranmer's Prayer-Book of 1549, ^ consequently has no special chant given for it in Marbeck's ' Book of Common Prayer Noted,' of 1550. It was appointed as an alternative to the Nunc Dimittis in the revised edition of the Prayer-Book, 1552. Like its fellow, the 98th Psalm, it is not so often used as the 'Nunc Dimittis,' partly because it seems less appropriate than that canticle, and partly because it is longer.

441

442

DIBDIN.

DEVIN DU VILLAGE, LE.

time at Fontainebleau Oct. 18, 1752, and at the Academic royale March I, 53. Last played in 1829, after more than 400 representations ; some one threw a perruque on the stage, which decided its fate. It was translated and adapted as ' The Cunning J.Ian' by Dr. Burney in 1766. One of Jullien's very first public feats was a Quadrille on the motifs of the Devin, 1836 or 37. [G.] DEVRIENT, WILHELMINE SCHBODEK. SCHRODER.

See

DIABELLI, ANTON, head of the firm of Diabelli & Co., music publishers in Vienna, and composer of pianoforte and church music, born Sept. 6, 1781, at Mattsee in Salzburg. His piano pieces are well written, at once graceful and good practice, and both these and his numerous arrangements had an immense popularity. His masses, especially the ' Landmessen' (for country churches), are widely spread in Austria, being for the most part easy to execute, and interesting, if not particularly solid. He also composed songs for one and more voices, and an operetta, 'Adam in der Klemme.' Being intended for the priesthood he received a good general education, and profited much from association with Michael Haydn, who superintended his musical studies. When the Bavarian convents were secularised in 1803, he gave up the idea of taking orders, went to Vienna, and was warmly received by Joseph Haydn. He soon became a popular teacher of the pianoforte and guitar, made money enough to become partner with Peter Cappi the music-publisher in 1818, and in 24 the firm became Diabelli & Co. The latter half of his life is much more interesting than the former, as it brings us into contact with one of the first musicpublishing establishments in Vienna, where Czerny was for many years a daily visitor, and where all the leaders of the musical world went in and out. In 1852 the firm became C. A. Spina, and in July 7 2 F. Schreiber, under which name it still continues, though the business was purchased in May 76 by A. C'ranz of Hamburg. Their publications at this moment amount to over 25,000. In Diabelli's time they acquired the publications of the extinct firms of M. Artaria, L. Kozeluch, Th. Weigl, Berka, Leidesdorf, Pennauer, and Traeg, and in 1855 those of Carlo Mecchetti. They published specially for Schubert, Czerny, Strauss, and Lanner; also Marpurg's 'Abhandlung von der Fuge' revised by Sechter, and Reicha's ' Lehrbuch'; and, under the title ' Ecclesiasticon,' a collection of church music. In 1874 they issued a fresh catalogue of their publications, and a thematic catalogue of Schubert's published works, compiled with his usual exhaustive accuracy by Notfcebohm. Diabelli died April 8, 1858. His quiet and unassuming life made him many friends, some of whom in 1871 erected a tablet to his memory on the house at Mattsee in which he was born. Beethoven wrote his 33 Variations (op. 120) on a waltz of Diabelli's, and this alone will preserve his name to posterity should it disappear in other ways. [C.F.P.]

DIADESTE. A buffo Italian opera, words by Fitzball, music by Balfe; produced at Drury Lane May 17, 1838. DIAMANTS DE LA COURONNE, LES. Opera comique in 3 acts, words by Scribe and St. George, music by Auber; produced at the OpeVa Comique March 6,1841; at the Princess's Theatre, London, May 2, 44, as Crown Diamonds. DIAPASON originally meant the interval of an octave, because it was did. iraauiv x°P^v ov/jHpaivia, the consonance arrived at by going ' through all the strings of the lyre' from first to last. In this sense it is used by Dryden:— "Through all the compass of the notes it ran, The diapason closing full in man.' In French it came to mean a tuning-fork, and hence also the pitch which was as it were registered by it, the 'Diapason normal' being the standard of pitch supposed to be generally accepted in France, which gave 435 vibrations for the A above middle C. In England the name is given to the most important foundation stops of the organ.

(See ORGAN.)

[C. H. H. P.]

DIAPENTE was the ancient Greek name for the consonance of the 5th. By the musicians of the 17 th and iSth centuries a canon in the fifth was called in Epidiapente or Subdiapente, as it answered above or below. DIATESSARON was the ancient Greek name for the consonance of the 4th—81a rtooapav S i DIATONIC is the name given to music which is confined to notes proper to the signature of the key in which they occur—such as the white notes only, in the key of C major. The different forms of the minor scale are considered diatonic. Therefore the major 7th and major 6th, which often occur instead of the minor 7th and minor 6th in the signature of a minor scale, can be used without the passage ceasing to be diatonic. The theme of the Finale of the Choral Symphony is a splendid example of a diatonic melody. [C.H.H.P.] DIBDIN, CHARLES, was the son of a silversmith at Southampton, where he was born March 15, 1745, his mother being in her fiftieth year and he being her eighteenth child. His grandfather was a considerable merchant, who founded the village near Southampton which bears his name. Dibdin's eldest brother, who was twentynine years his senior, was captain of an Indiaman and father of the .Rev. Dr. Thomas Frognall Dibdin, the well-known bibliographer. Charles Dibdin, being intended by his father for the Church, was placed at Winchester College, but a passion for music took possession of him, and he sang with the choristers both at the cathedral and college. He had a good voice and a quickness in learning, which induced Kent to compose anthems for him and teach him to sing them, and Fussel, who afterwards succeeded Kent as organist, taught him the rudiments of music and a few common tunes. All musical knowledge beyond that he acquired for himself, studying

443

DIBDIN.

DIBDIN.

chiefly the concertos of Corelli and the theoretical works of Rameau. The place of organist at Bishop's Waltham becoming vacant, Dibdin offered himself for it, but was rejected on account of his youth. When fifteen years old his eldest brother brought him to London and placed him in- the music warehouse of Johnson in Cheapside, where however he did not remain long, a friend having advised him to try the stage. He obtained an engagement at Covent Garden Theatre as a singing actor. About the same time he began to write verses as well as music, in which he was encouraged by Beard, then become manager of the theatre, who advised him to try his hand at something for the stage, promising to bring it out at Dibdin's benefit. He accordingly set to work and wrote and composed'The Shepherd's Artifice,' a pastoral, which was performed at his benefit in the season of 1762-63, and repeated in the following season, the author-composer performing the character of Strephon. He had performed in the summer of 62 at the Richmond theatre on the hill; and he now obtained an engagement at Birmingham, where he not only played at the theatre but sung at Vauxhall. In the beginning of 65 the opera of 'The Maid of the Mill' was about to be produced at Covent Garden, and some difficulty arising with Dunstall, who was to have played Ralph, Dibdin was requested by Beard to undertake the part. He made a decided hit, and at once established himself firmly in the public favour. In 1767 he composed part of the music for 'Love in the City,' and in the next year two-thirds of that of ' Lionel and Clarissa.' In 68 Dibdin transferred his services from Covent Garden to Drury Lane, where he signalised himself by his composition of the music of' The Padlock,' and his admirable performance of Mungo in it. In the following year he was engaged to compose for Ranelagh, where he produced 'The Maid the Mistress,' and 'The Recruiting Sergeant.' He likewise composed some of the music for the Shakspere Jubilee at Stratford-on-Avon in that year. In 1772 Thomas King, having become proprietor of Sadler's Wells, engaged Dibdin to write and compose some little musical pieces to be brought out there. In 74 Dibdin produced 'The Waterman,' and in 75 'The Quaker,' pieces which have kept uninterrupted possession of the stage ever since, the songs being still listened to with as much pleasure as when first heard. At the end of the latter season he quitted Drury Lane owing to differences that had arisen between him and Garrick, and exhibited at Exeter Change a piece called ' The Comic Mirror,' in which well-known characters of the day were personated by puppets. In 1776 he took a journey into France, where he remained some months. On his return he was engaged as composer to Covent Garden Theatre at a salary of £10 a week, but he held the appointment for two or three seasons only. In 1782 he projected the erection of the Royal Circus (afterwards the Surrey Theatre), which was opened Nov. 7, 1782, Dibdin undertaking the general manage-

ment, Hughes the equestrian department, and Grimaldi (father of the afterwards famous clown) the stage direction. For this theatre the everactive pen of Dibdin was employed in the production of numerous little musical pieces and pantomimes. The first season was remarkably successful. In the second, dissensions broke out amongst the managers, in consequence of which he retired from the theatre. He then made an attempt to regain his position at the patent theatres, and succeeded in getting his opera, ' Liberty Hall' (containing the popular songs of ' Jack Ratlin,' 'The high-mettled racer,' and 'The Bells of Aberdovey'), brought out at Drury Lane on Feb. 8, 1785. Soon afterwards he listened to a proposal to erect a theatre at Pentonville, where he purposed representing spectacles in which hydraulic effects should be introduced. He proceeded to some extent with the building, which he intended to call 'Helicon,' but his application for a licence was refused, and shortly afterwards a gale of wind destroyed the edifice and put an end to the project. Dibdin next meditated a visit to India, and, to raise funds for the purpose, in 1787-88 made a tour through a large part of England and gave entertainments, He published an account of this tour in 1788. in a quarto volume, under the title of 'The Musical Tour of Mr. Dibdin.' In the summer of 88 he sailed for India, but the vessel being driven to take shelter in Torbay, he finally abandoned his intention and returned to London. Dibdin next resolved to rely on his own unaided exertions, and in 1789 produced at Hutchins' Auction Room, King Street, Covent Garden, the first of those 'table entertainments' which he originated, and of which he was author, composer, narrator, singer, and accompanyist, under the title of ' The Whim of the Moment.' On the first evening there was an attendance of only sixteen persons. Dibdin, however, persevered; he engaged the Lyceum and brought out 'The Oddities,' the success of which was at once decisive ; and no wonder, for it contained, amongst others, the songs, 'To Bachelors' Hall,' ''Twaa in the good ship Rover,' 'The Flowing Can,' ' Saturday night at sea,' ' Ben Backstay,' ' I sailed from the Downs in the Nancy,' 'The Lamplighter,' and 'Tom Bowling'; the last written on the death of his eldest brother, Captain Dibdin. And here it may be observed that nearly the whole of those sea songs that contributed so largely during the war to cheer and inspire the hearts of our seamen, and gained for their author the appellation of the Tyrtseus of the British Navy, were written by Dibdin for his entertainments. In 1790 'The Oddities' was revised, and ran 79 nights, when it was succeeded by ' The Wags,' which was performed for 108 nights. The great sale of ' Poor Jack,' the copyright of which and eleven other songa he had sold for £60, and which in a short time had brought its purchaser a profit of £500, induced Dibdin about this time to become his own publisher. In 1791 he removed from the Lyceum to a room in the Strand, opposite Beau-

DIBDIN.

DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC.

fort Buildings, which he opened under the name of Sans Souci, and where he remained for four years. He then built for himself a small theatre on the east side of Leicester Place, which he opened under the same name in 1796. Towards the close of the last century Dibdin published a 'History of the Stage,' in five volumes, and in 1803 his 'Professional Life,' in four volumes. In 1805 he sold his theatre and retired from public life. In 1802 government granted him a pension of £200 per annum, but this being withdrawn on a change of ministry he was led to open a music shop in the Strand as a means of subsistence. The speculation, however, failed, and he became bankrupt. A subscription for his relief was opened in 1810, with part of which an annuity of .£30 was purchased for himself, his wife and daughter successively. Subsequently his pension was restored to him. Towards the end of the year 1813 Dibdin was attacked by paralysis, and on July 25, 1814, he died at his residence in Arlington Street, Camden Town. He was buried in the cemetery belonging to the parish of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, in Pratt Street, Camden Town, where there is a monument to his memory. Dibdin's two sons, Charles and Thomas, were well-known dramatists. The following is a list of Dibdin's operas and other dramatic pieces. Of those marked thus * he was author as well as composer :—

•Dibdins' house,' Sadler's Wells, Sept. 8, 1813. He acquired his first knowledge of music from his eldest sister, Mary Anne, afterwards Mrs. Tonna, an excellent harpist, pupil of Challoner and Bochsa. He subsequently studied the harp under Bochsa, and also became proficient on the organ and violin. Early in 1833 Dibdin went to Edinburgh, where he established himself as a teacher. He died May 6, 1866. Dibdin composed a few psalm tunes and some pieces for the organ and pianoforte, but he is best known as the compiler of' The Standard Psalm Tune Book,' the largest and most authentic collection of psalm tunes ever published, the contents being mainly derived from ancient psalters. Besides his attainments as a musician Dibdin possessed considerable skill as a painter and illuminator. [W.H.H.]

444

*' The Shepherd's Artifice.' 1763; Hunter,' and • ' All's not Gold that 'Love in the City' ipart of the (.litters,' 1776; * loor Vulcan,' music).1767;'Damonami l'hillida," >'Knse and Colin,' * ' The Wives 'Lionel and Clarissa' {partof the Revenged.' • ' Annette and Lubin,' music), and ' The Padlock.' 17; ' The ffiu-s. 1799; ' The Cake House,'lj-00 ; ' A 17.0; 'Private Theatricals.' 17'JJ ; Frisk.' 1801; '.Host Votes,' J8d'2 ; ' The Quizzes," 1792 ; ' Castles in the New Year's Gifts.' 'Britons, strike Air,' 1793; :at News.' 1794; liume.' ' Heads and Tails.' ' The -- Frelic,"Datchet Mead," The Pro' Will of the Wisp,' and ' I hristmas Gambols,' 17:i5; ' T h e General fessionaM olunteers,' 'Kent Day.' Election,'1796;'The Sphinx," and I and ' Commodore Penuant," be' Vak-ntine's Day," 1797; ' King and I tween 15:02 and 1805. Qutjt.-ii,' 179S; 'A Tour to the

Besides these Dibdin was author of ' The Gipsies,' a comic opera for which Dr. Arnold composed the music, 'The Harmonic Preceptor,' a didactic poem, 1804, 'The Musical Mentor,' ' Music Epitomised,' and a few novels and miscellaneous works. [W. H. H.] DIBDIN, HENRY EDWARD, the youngest son

of Charles Dibdin the younger, was born in the

DICKONS, MRS., daughter of a gentleman named Poole, was born in London about 1770. Her musical talent was early developed. She became a pupil of Rauzzini, and in 1787 appeared at Vauxhall Gardens as a singer. Her progress was rapid, and she became engaged at the Concert of Ancient Music and other concerts. On Oct. 9, 1793, she made her appearance at Covent Garden Theatre as Ophelia in ' Hamlet.' She next sang in several of the principal towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland with great success. She was subsequently engaged at the King's Theatre, where she performed the Countess in Mozart's 'Nozze di Figaro' to the Susanna of Mme. Catalani. She afterwards sang at Drury Lane Theatre. In 1816 she was engaged at the Italian Opera at Paris. From thence she went to Italy. On her return to England she was again engaged at Covent Garden, where she appeared Oct. 13, 181S as Kosina in Bishop's adaptation of Rossini's 'Barber of Seville.' In 22 she was compelled by ill health to relinquish her profession. She died May 4, 1833. [W.H.H.] DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC. The oldest known work of the kind is that of the learned Flemish musician Jean Tinctor, entitled ' Terminorum musicae Diffinitorium/ 15 sheets, 4to, undated, but in all probability printed with the type of Gerard de Flandre, and published in 1474. The original is extremely rare, but Forkel has reprinted it in his ' Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik,' and thus placed it within the reach of students. The 'Glossarium' of Du Cange also includes many musical terms and explanations useful to historians of music. Musical archaeologists will further do well to consult Manage—whose ' Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue FranC.oise' appeared in l6jO—and the 'Dictionnaire Universel' (Rotterdam, 1690) of Furetiere, afterwards remodelled by Basnage (the Hague, 1701). These works are often overlooked, and the credit of having writteu the two oldest dictionaries of music is generally assigned to Janowka and the Abbe Subastien de Brossard. The Bohemian organist wrote in Latin, and his 'Clavis ad the^aurum magnae artis musicae' (Prague, 1701) was unknown to Brossard when he published his 'Dictionnaire deMusique' (Ballard, Paris 1703).

DICTIONAEIES OF MUSIC.

DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC.

445

Taking into account the enormous difficulties under which they laboured, both authors are deserving of great praise for works so eminently useful to students of musical terminology. Amongst their imitators may be named Walthern, Grassineau, and J. J. Bousseau. Walthern's work, 'Alte und neue musikalische Bibliothek, oder musikalisches Lexicon,' was originally published at Weimar, but the second edition (Leipsic, 1732) is the important one. In it he so far adopted the plan suggested by Brossard at the end of his dictionary, that his work forms a kind of complement to that. In his 'Musical Dictionary' (London, 1740, I vol. 8vo.; 2nd ed. 1769) James Grassineau has made ample use of Brossard's definitions and examples; but his work is much more complete, and his remarks on the music of the ancients and on musical instruments evince much reading, and may still be consulted with advantage. J. J. Eousseau in his ' Dictionnaire de Musique' (Geneva, 1767) also utilised the labours of Brossard, especially with regard to ancient music; but it is to his literary ability rather than to his elevated views on aesthetics that the enormous success of his dictionary is due. Not only was it translated into several languages, but it was imitated by Meude-Monpas (Paris, 1788) and by Eeynvaan (Amsterdam, 1795), only half of whose ' Musikaal Kunst Woorden-book' was ever published. Eousseau's influence may be traced also in the 'Dictionnaire de Musique' contained in the ' Encyclopedic Methodique." That enormous mass of undigested material forms two huge 4to. volumes, of which the first (1791) was compiled under the superintendence of Framery and Ginguene', with the assistance of the Abb£ Feytou and of Surremain de Missery, and is far superior to the Becond (1818) edited by Momigny, whose theories were not only erroneous but at variance with those of the first volume. In spite however of its contradictions and errors, both scientific and chronological, a judicious historian may still find useful materials in this dictionary. Whilst Eousseau's writings were exciting endless discussions among French musicians, the labours of Gerber and Forkel in Germany were marking a new era in the literature of music. By his History (Allg. Geschichte der Musik, Leipsic 1788-1801) Forkel did as much for the musicians of Europe as Burney and Hawkins had in all probability done for him. His influence may be recognised in Koch's 'Musikalisches Lexicon' (Frankfort 1802), a work in all respects superior to that of G. F. Wolf (Halle 1787). Koch also published his ' Kurzgefasstes Handworterbuch der Musik' (Leipsjc 1807), a work distinct from his Lexicon, but quite as useful and meritorious. But the happy influence of Forkel is more especially evident in the biographical work of Gerber, ' Neues historisch-biographisches Lexicon der Tonkiinstler' (Leipzig, 1812-14, 4 vols.) a work in every way a great improvement on his first edition (Leipzig, 1790-92, 2 vols.), although incomplete without it, owing to his habit of referring back. Gerber was the model

for the 'Dictionnaire historique des musiciens' of Choron and Fayolle (Paris, 1810-11), the first book of the kind published in France, and preceded by an excellent Introduction, by Choron, of which Fetig in his turn has made good use. In Italy the Abbe" Gianelli was the author of the first dictionary of music printed in Italian (Venice 1801, 2nd ed. 1820); but his book has been entirely superseded by the 'Dizionario e Bibliografia della Musica' of Dr. Lichtenthal, the first two volumes of which are devoted to music proper, while the last two contain an historical and critical catalogue, which has been largely utilised by Fetis. Lichtenthal doubtless took many of his materials from Forkel and Gerber, but his work shows a marked advance upon those of Koch and Eousseau in the definitions of words, the descriptions of instruments, and the historical articles. It was translated into French by Mondo (Paris 1821, 2 vols. 8vo.). The ' Dictionnaire de Musique moderne' of Castil Blaze (Paris 1821 2nd ed. 1825, 2 vols.), in part copied from that of Eousseau, attained a certain amount of success from the position of its author and its animated style; but it is by no means equal either in extent or accuracy to Lichtenthal's work. Partly founded on a similar model is the ' Dictionnaire de Musique d'apres les theoriciens, historiens, et critiques les plus celfebres' (1844; 5th ed. 72) by MM. Marie et Le"on Esoudier, a compilation, as its title indicates, but containing much useful information in a small space, especially on ancient musical instruments and on contemporaneous matters. Jos. d'Ortigue, on the other hand, opened up a new line in his 'Dietionnaire liturgique, historique, et the'orique de Plain-chant et de Musique dVglise . . .' (Paria 1854 and 60), an interesting and valuable work written from the point of view of an orthodox Eoman Catholic. It has the merit of quoting distinctly all the sources from which the author derived his information, and of mentioning by name all those who assisted him; and for the special branch of which it treats this dictionary is hitherto without a rival. The 'Biographie universelle des Musiciens,' by the late F. J. Fetis, is hitherto equally unrivalled.m The first edition (Paris and Brussels, 1835-44), 8 vols. 8vo., double columns, contains a long and admirable introduction, not republished in the second edition. That edition (Paris, 1860-65), a l s o m 8 vols. 8vo., though a great advance on the former one, is still very imperfect. It swarms with inaccurate dates; its blunders, especially in regard to English musicians, are often ludicrous; it contains many biographies evidently written to order; and its author, while severely criticising his victims, has an ugly knack of borrowing from them at the same time: but his labour and spirit were prodigious, he is always readable and often impartial, and while he developes a shrewd and even philosophic critical faculty, he has the art of expressing his judgment with great clearness. The misfortune of biographical (Uetionaries is that they are never

DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC.

DIEUPART.

complete, and a supplement to Fetis is on the point of publication. Whilst the French authors were writing their dictionaries, either on Rousseau's plan or were following the lead of Choron, F^tis, and d'Ortigue, by enlarging their sphere beyond that of musical terminology, the tendency in Germany was to include in dictionaries not only all that concerns the technical part of music, but the biography of musicians, and the philosophy, literature, and bibliography of the art. Gustav Schilling therefore justly entitles his dictionary ' Encyclopadie der gesammten musikalischen Wissenschaften, oder universal Lexicon der Tonkunst' (Stuttgart 1835-38, 7 vols. 8vo.). In this work biography holds an important place, but the other departments are treated with equal skill and research, so that the wholeformsa precious depository of information, and is a notable advance on all previous works of the kind in other countries. Gassner, in his ' Universal Lexicon der Tonkunst' (Stuttgart 1849, 1 vol.), and Bernsdorf, in his 'Neues universal Lexicon der Tonkunst,' in continuation of Schladebach (Dresden and Offenbach 1856-61, 3 vols.), have obviously made considerable use of Schilling, and both works have a well-merited reputation. Koch's 'Lexicon' has been re-edited by Dommer (Heidelberg 1865), and Oscar Paul has published a useful 'Handlexicon der Tonkunst' (Leipsic 1873), in which condensation is carried to its utmost limit. But of all the German works which have followed Schilling the most important and deserving of mention is the 11 usikalisches Conversations-Lexicon, edited by Mendel, and since his unfortunate death by Keissmann (Berlin, 1870 etc.), of which 7 vols. have already appeared, carrying the work down to ' Paisiello.' There is a want of proportion in some of the articles, a cumbrousness of style and an occasional appearance of bias, but the staff of writers is unequalled for eminence and number, and there is much in their essays which has never been collected before and which is highly valuable. In dictionaries however one work can never supersede another, and perfect information is only to be got by consulting all.

the ' Dictionnaire de l'Academie des Beaux Arts,' begun in 1858, of which the 3rd vol. (1869-75) concludes with the words 'Chceur,' 'Choral,' and ' Choregique.' It contains new and striking articles by Halevy, Henri Re'ber, and other eminent musicians. In England, among cyclopaedias, the earliest place is held by that of Sees (1819), the musical articles in which were written by the eminent Dr. Burney. In the new issue of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (begun 1875) the musical articles—restricted in number—are written by Dr. Franz Hueffer. Chambers's Cyclopaedia (1741-53 or 1778-91) on a smaller, and Brande's Dictionary (1842 ; 3rd ed. 1853) on a still smaller scale, contain good articles on musical topics, the former including the leading biographies. The Dictionaries are few and unimportant:—Grassineau (1740), Busby (1786), Jousse (1829), Wilson, or Hamilton's and Hiles's Dictionaries of Musical Terms—each a small 8vo. volume—are specimens of the manner in which this department has been too long filled in England. A great advance has been recently made in the ' Dictionary of Musical Terms' edited by Dr. Stainer and Mr. W. A. Barrett (1 vol. 8vo., Novello 1S76), though even that leaves something to be desired. As regards biography, the 'Dictionary of Musicians' (2 vols. 8vo., 1822 and 27), though good in intention, is imperfectly carried out. An excellent work for its date and its intention is the ' Complete Encyclopaedia of Music' by John W. Moore (Boston, U.S.A., 1852), a large 8vo. volume of 1000 pages, constructed on a popular basis, and which would be more valuable if it were corrected and modified to date. [G. C] DIESIS, from the Greek Siecrts which means division, and was the name given to quarter tones in their system. Aristotle takes it as the unit of musical tones, the last subdivision of intervals. In modern acoustics it means the interval which results from the two sounds which are arrived at by tuning up 3 perfect thirds and an octave, which is the same as the difference between a major or diatonic semitone, and a minor or chromatic semitone, the ratio of their vibrations being 125 : 128. It is commonly called the Enharmonic Diesis, enharmonic being the word which is applied to intervals less than a semitone. Diese has been adopted by the French as their term for sharp. [C. H. H. P.] DIEUPAET, CHARLES, a native of France, who came to England in the latter part of the 17th century, was a fine performer on the violin and harpsichord. In 1707 he was associated with Clayton and Haym in introducing translations of Italian operas at Drury Lane Theatre. [CLAYTON.] After the discontinuance of those operas and the failure of their subsequent concert speculation, Dieupart devoted himself entirely to teaching the harpsichord, and for some time with considerable success, but towards the latter part of his life he acquired low habits, and frequented alehouses, where he entertained the company by his fine performance of Corelli's violin solos. He died in necessitous circum-

446

Space compels us to confine ourselves to a mere mention of such works as the Swedish dictionary of Envalson (Stockholm 1802); the illustrated dictionary of Soullier (Paris 1855); and the Spanish dictionaries of Melcior (Lerida 1859) and Parada (Madrid 1868). Besides musical lexicons properly so called there are a certain number of Encyclopedias and Dictionaries of the Fine Arts, which contain important articles on music and musical terms. Amongst these may be cited the ' Encyclopedia' of Diderot and D'Alembert (Paris 1751-80, 35 vols.) ; the 'AUgemeine Theorie der schonen Kiinste' (Leipsic 1 773)> by Sulzer, of which Millin has made great use in his ' Dictionnaire des Beaux Arts' (Paris 1806) ; the ' Allgemeine Encyclopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste' (Leipsic 1818-47), by Ersch and Gruber, an enormous collection, containing many remarkable articles on music; and

DIEUPAET.

DIMINISHED INTEEVALS.

447

The resistance offered by the Digitorium is stances, and at an advanced age, about the year 1740. He published 'Six Suittes de Clavessin, far in excess of the above numbers ; it is manudivise'es en Ouvertures, Allemandes, Courantes, factured in three different degrees of strength, Sarabandes, Gavottes, Minuets, Eondeaux, et the resistance of the medium touch being no Gigues, compose'es et misea en Concert pour an less than 12 ounces. On this account, and also Violin et Flute, avec une Basse de Viole et lin because the resistance is obtained by metal Archilut.' [W.H.H.] springs, instead of by weights at the farther end of the lever (as in the old dumb pianos), DI GIOVANNI, a very useful Italian second the touch of the digitorium does not in the least tenor engaged at the King's Theatre in 1818 resemble that of the pianoforte, but rather a and subsequent years. In 1821 he received a heavily weighted organ-touch, and it should salary of £ 12 7 from Ebers, which was increased in therefore be looked upon as a gymnastic apT 8 2 2 and 2 3 to £ 180. In the latter year he played paratus, and by no means as a substitute for the Serano in 'La Donna del Lago'; and continued pianoforte in the practice of exercises. to play similar parts as late as 1827. [J. M.] The question of finger gymnastics has received DIGITOEIUM. An apparatus for exercising very full consideration from Mr. E. Ward and strengthening the fingers, intended especially Jackson, in a work entitled ' Gymnastics for the for the use of pianists, but claimed by its inventor, Fingers and Wrist' (London, Metzler and Co, Myer Marks, to be of great service to all who 1874), in which he quotes opinions in favour of require flexible and well-trained fingers. his system of exercises, not only from musicians, It consists of a small box about six inches but from very eminent surgeons. [F. T.] square, provided with five keys1, fitted with strongly resisting springs, upon which keys such DIGNUM, CHARLES, son of a master tailor, exercises as the five-finger exercises to be found was born at Eotherhithe in 1765. His father, in every Pianoforte School are to be practised. being a Eoman Catholic, placed him when a boy In addition, there are attached to the sides of in the choir of the Sardinian ambassador's chapel the box certain appliances for stretching the in Duke Street, Lincoln's Inn Fields, where his fingers, and a support for the wrist. fine voice attracted the attention of Samuel The idea of sparing the ears of pianoforte Webbe, the glee composer, then organist there, students, and those who may be in their neigh- who undertook to instruct him. On leaving the bourhood, by the use of dumb keyboards is by no choir he had no idea of pursuing music as a promeans new, either here or abroad. Great com- fession, but was rather solicitous of being sent to posers in boyhood, practising under difficulties, Douay to be educated for the priesthood. His have been reduced to muffling the wires that father's pecuniary embarrassments however and they might practise unheard. It is difficult how- other circumstances prevented it. He decided on ever to say when the first ' dumb-piano' was adopting the profession of music, and articled himmanufactured. In 1847 a long article appeared self to Thomas Linley for seven years. Linley in the 'Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung' cen- bestowed the utmost attention on his pupil, and Buring the employment of the dumb piano, and would not allow him to sing in public until his Schumann in his ' Musikalische Haus- und Le- powers were sufficiently matured. In 1784 Digbensregeln' says, 'There have been invented num made his first appearance at Drury Lane so-called dumb keyboards; try them for a Theatre as Young Meadows in ' Love in a Vilwhile, that you may discover them to be of lage,' and, although his figure was somewhat no value. One cannot learn to speak from the unsuited to the part, the beauty of his voice and dumb.' Though this may be incontrovertible his judicious singing secured him a favourable the question is worth consideration, whether the reception. He next appeared as the hero in muscles of the fingers may not be increased in Michael Arne's 'Cymon,' and fully established speed and endurance (two essential qualities himself in public favour. In 1787, on the rein pianoforte playing), by a suitable course of moval of Charles Bannister to the Eoyalty Theatre, properly regulated gymnastic exercises, just as Dignum succeeded to a cast of characters better the other muscles of the body are trained for suited to his person and voice. In 96 he gained much credit by his performance of Crop the running, rowing, etc. That considerable muscular power is required miller, in Storace's 'No song no supper,' of in pianoforte playing at the present day, will which he was the original representative. After be seen from the following table of resistances, singing at the theatres, at Vauxhall Gardens, the one set being taken from one of the most and at concerts for several years, he retired in recent concert grand pianos, and the other from a easy circumstances. He died March 29, 1827. grand made in 1817, both by Messrs. Broadwood Dignum composed several ballads. He published a volume of songs, duets, and glees, composed and Sons2. and adapted by himself, to which an engraved Lowest C. Middle C. Highest C. portrait of him is prefixed. [W. H. H.] igOZ. 1817 2f OZ. 1877 4OZ. DIMINISHED INTEEVALS are such as are either less than perfect or less than minor by 1 Dlgitoriums are occasionally made of greater compass, with black one semitone. Thus (a) being a perfect fifth, and white keys, the ordinary digitorium having only white keys. 2 It will be seen that the amount of resistance is not equal through- (6) is a diminished fifth; and (c) being a perfect out the key-board, and that the left hand, although ihe weaker, baa fourth, (d) is a diminished fourth :— the greatest resistance to overcome.

448

DISCORD.

DIMINISHED INTERVALS. ('•)

(d)

(F)

These are both of discordant nature, the diminished fourth always so; but if a major sixth be added below the bass note of the diminished fifth it is considered to modify the discordance so far as to admit of its being used as a concord. This rule is of old standing, especially in regard to the occurrence of the chord diatonically, as (e) in the key of C, which was admitted in the strict old style where discords were excluded. Of intervals which are changeable into major or minor the diminished seventh is the commonest, ( / ) , which is a semitone less than the ordinary minor seventh (g), according to the rule above given. The complete chord, which is commonly known as that of the • diminished seventh,' (h), is properly speaking an inversion of a chord of the minor ninth, (i). It occurs with remarkable (.) (.«) (A) (0

m

frequency in modern music, part of its popularity no doubt arising from the singular facilities for modulation which it affords. For the notes of which it is composed being at equal distances from one another, any one of them can be chosen at will to stand as minor ninth to the root which is understood. Thus the above chord might be written in either of the following ways—

in which Db, Fb, and G are respectively the minor ninths to C, Eb, and Ffl, the absent root notes, and could pass into as many different keys as those root notes could serve, either as dominant, tonic, or supertonic. [See CHANGE, MODULATION.]

The chord of the diminished third, as (&), occurs in music as the inversion of the chord of the augmented sixth, as (I). It has such a strongly (0 J

marked character of its own that great composers seem agreed to reserve it for special occasions. Bach uses it with powerful effect at the end of the 'Crucifixus' in his B minor Mass, and Beethoven in the cherus to the same words in his • Missa Solennis.' [C. H. H. P.] DIMINUENDO. Lessening the tone from loud to soft; employed indiscriminately with decrescendo. Expressed by dim. or dimin., and by the sign ^ ^ = - . DIMINUTION, in Counterpoint, is the repetition of a subject or figure in notes of less value than in its original statement, as—

r

rr

It is a device almost confined to music of a contrapuntal character, such as fugues and canons, and is not of as frequent occurrence as augmentation, which is its converse. There is an example in Handel's chorus 'Let all the angels of God' in the Messiah; in Bach's well-known fugue in E, No. 33 in the ' VVohltemperirte Clavier'; and in the Overture to the Meistersinger by Wagner. [C.H.H.P.] DINORAH. The original and Italian title of Meyerbeer's opera which was brought out in Paris (Opera Comique, April 4, 1859) as 'Le Pardon de Ploermel'—Cabel as Dinorah. Dinorah was produced, with recitatives by Meyerbeer, and under his own direction, at Covent Garden July 26, 1859, in 3 acts, with Miolan Carvalho as the heroine; and in English in the autumn of the same year at Drury Lane by Pyne and Harrison, DIRECT. A mark (w) to be found in music up to the present century at the end of a page, and even of a line, to warn the performer of the note at the beginning of the next page or line, like the catchword at the foot of a page, formerly universal, and still retained in the Quarterly Review. m( "cates t t Thus note of the next line will be G. DIRECT MOTION is the progression of parts or voices in a similar direction, as—

As a matter of contrapuntal effect it is weaker and less effective than CONTRARY MOTION, which see. [C.H.H.P.] DIS. The German term for D j , and also, according to a curious former Viennese custom, for Eb. The Eroica Symphony was announced at Clement's concert April 7, 1805 (its first performance), and at Meier's concert, 1808, as ' in Dis.' DBS is the term for Db. DISCANT, dis-cantus, a double song; originally the melody or 'counterpoint' sung with a plain-song; thence the upper voice or leading melody in a piece of part-music; and thence the canto, cantus, or soprano voice, which was formerly—as late as Mendelssohn, who used to say zrziz he had learnt it from Zelter—written in £ S ~ the C clef. Thus in earlier English the Ifii word 'discant' or 'descant' means an air: ' And sprightly voice sweet descant sing.' And the violin, because it took the upper part in the quartet, was called the 'diskant-Violin.' DISCORD is a combination of notes which produces a certain restless craving in the mind for some further combination upon which it can rest with satisfaction. Discords comprise such chords as contain notes which are next to each other in alphabetical order, and such as have augmented or diminished intervals, with the exception in the latter caBe of

DISCORD.

DITTERSDORF.

the chord of the 6th and 3rd on the second not of any key. The changed combination which must follow them in order to relieve the sense of pain they produce is called the resolution. F01 the various kinds of discords and their reso lutions sefe HARMONY. [C.H.H.P. DISSOLUTO PUNITO, IL, OSSIA IL DON GIOVANNI. The full title of Mozart's opera, s well known by the latter half of its name. [See

the year 1798. The harp-lute had originally twelve catgut strings—

DON GIOVANNI.]

DISSONANCE is any combination of note: which on being sounded together produces BEATS ; that is, an alternate strengthening and weakening of the sound, arising from the opposition of the vibrations of either their prime tones, or their harmonics or their combination tones, which causes a painful sensation to the ear. [C.H.H.P.] DITAL HARP, or chromatic harp-lute, one of the numerous attempts made about the beginning of this century to improve or replace

449

but this notation was a major sixth higher in pitch than the actual sounds. In 1816 the same Edward Light took out a patent for an improvement in this instrument, which he now denominated 'the British harp-lute.' The patent was for the application of certain pieces of mechanism called 'ditals' or 'thumb-keys,' in distinction from' pedals' or' foot-keys'; each dital producing by pressure the depression of a stop-ring or eye to draw the string down upon a fret and thus shorten its effective length, and render the pitch more acute. The most complete instrument of this construction he named the 'Dital harp.' In this each string has a 'dital' to raise it a semitone at pleasure. [A. J. H.] DITTERSDORF, KAEL DITTERS VON—whose

original name was DITTERS—distinguished violinist, and prolific composer in all branches of music, but specially esteemed for his German national operas; born at Vienna, Nov. 2, 1739. He soon outstripped his early teachers on the violin, Kbnig and Ziegler (not Zugler, as he calls him in his biography). Ziegler worked his pupil in the orchestra at St. Stephen's, and also in that of the Schottenkirche. Here Ditters was noticed by his chiefs, and on their recommendation was received into the private band of the Prince von Hildburghausen, who, being himself a man of high cultivation, looked after the general education of his young page (a lad of 11), and had him instructed in composition by BONNO, the court-composer, in the violin by Trani, and in foreign languages, fencing, dancing, and riding. The formation of his taste was much assisted by hearing Vittoria Tesi, who sang regularly at the Prince's concerts, and he soon formed an intimacy with Gluck and Haydn. When the Prince dismissed his band in 1759 he procured a place for Ditters in the Empress's opera, but wishing to see the world he started in 1761 with Gluck on a professional tour in Italy, where his playing was much admired. Meantime the famous Lolli had been performing in Vienna with great success, but Dittersdorf on his return vanquished him; the general verdict was 'Each has marvellous execution, but Ditters also speaks to the heart.' His intimacy with Haydn was of service to them both. 'Whenever we heard,' says he, 'a new piece, we went through it carefully together, doing justice to all that was good, and criticising what was bad in it'—an impartial course eldom pursued by young composers. In the early part of 1764 he went with Gluck and T-uadagni to Frankfort for the election and coroation (April 3) of the Archduke Joseph as King f the Romans. He played twice at court with arilliant success, but his expectations were not )therwise fulfilled, and on his return to Vienna he rudeness of Count Wenzel Spork, the then the guitar. Edward Light appears to have in- manager of the theatre, made him gladly accept vented this form of stringed instrument about G

DITTEESDOEF.

DIVERTIMENTO.

the post of capellmeister to the Bishop of Grosswardein, rice Michael Haydn departed to Salzburg. For his new master he composed symphonies, violin-concertos, string quartets, and his first oratorio, ' Isacco figura del Eedentore,' to a Latin adaptation of Metastasio by the Bishop himself. He also started a small theatre in the castle, for which he wrote several pieces, including his first comic opera, 'Amore in Musica.' But in 69 the Bishop received a rebuke from the Empress on the laxity of his life, and dismissed his whole band. At Troppau Dittersdorf made the acquaintance of Count Schafgotsch, Prince Bishop of Breslau, who invited him to his estate at Johannisberg, where he was living in retirement and disgrace. The versatile musician found means to cheer his master's solitude. He got together a band, engaged singers and musicians, set up a theatre, wrote operas and oratorios, and went out hunting, all with equal zest. In return for his services he was made, through the Bishop's influence (in 1770), Knight of the Golden Spur (a distinction enjoyed by Gluck and Mozart), and Amtshauptmann of Freiwaldau (1773), and received a title of nobility—'Ditters von Dittersdorf.' The oratorio ' Davide' and the comic opera ' II viaggiatore Americano' belong to this period, and it was while rehearsing them that he fell in love with Friiulein Nicolini, whom he hadengaged from Vienna, and married her. During a visit to "Vienna he composed ' Ester,' words by the Abbe1 Pintus, for the concerts (Dec. 19 and 21, 1773) in aid of the widows' fund of the Tonkiinstler Societat. Between the parts he played a concerto of his own, and so pleased the Emperor, that on Gassmann's death (Jan. 22, 1774), he wished to appoint him court-capellmeister, but Dittersdorf was too proud to apply for the post, and the Emperor was not inclined to offer it unsolicited. ' Ester' was repeated before the court in 1785 ; ' Isacco' was performed in Vienna (1776); and 'Giobbe,' also written for the Tonkiinstler Societat, on April 8 and 9, 1786, one part each night, Dittersdorf himself conducting. In 1789 it was produced in Berlin with marked success. On another visit to Vienna, in 1786, he produced a symphony on Ovid's Metamorphoses at the morning concerts in the Augarten, and it was on this occasion that the often-quoted conversation with the Emperor Joseph II took place. 'Der Apotheker und der Doctor' (July 11), a lively, sound, though somewhat rough operetta, which has kept the stage to the present day; 'Betrug durch Aberglauben' (Oct. 3, 1786); 'Democrito corretto' (Jan. 24, 17S7); 'Die Liebe im Narrenhause' (April 12), all at Vienna ; and ' Hieronymus Knicker' (Leopoldstadt, July 1789), were brilliant successes, with the exception of' Democrito.' In the meantime things had changed at Johannisberg. The Bishop's band, dismissed during the war, had reassembled after the Peace of Teschen, 1779. About 1790 Dittersdorf was obliged to attend to his duties at Freiwaldau, and during his absence his enemies slandered him to the Bishop. Ditteradorf nursed him devotedly during his long

illness, but on his death (1795) was dismissed with 500 gulden, a sum soon exhausted in visiting the baths with a view to restore his health, shattered by his irregularities. His next asylum was at the house of Count von Stillfried at Rothlhotta in Bohemia, and here, in spite of constant suffering, he composed operas, symphonies, and innumerable pianoforte pieces, for which he in vain sought a purchaser. On his death-bed he dictated his autobiography to his son, and died two days after it was completed, Oct. 31,1799. Dittersdorf was a thoroughly popular composer. He possessed a real vein of comedy, vivacity, and quick invention, bright spontaneous melody, original instrumentation, and breadth in the 'ensembles' and 'finales,' qualities which, exercised on pleasing librettos, made him the darling of his contemporaries. He held the same position in Germany that Gre'try did in France, though inferior to Gre'try in delicacy, spirituality, and depth of sentiment. His oratorios, much valued in their time ; his symphonies, in the style of H aydn, though inferior to Haydn in grace and liveliness; his violin-concertos, stringquartets (of which 12 were published in 1866), duos, ' divertimenti,' a concerto with 11 instruments obbligato, masses, motets, and songs—all contributed to his fame, and if they did not survive him, were of moment in their day. Besides the operas already named he composed ' Lo sposo burlato' (1775) ; 'La Contadina fedele' (1785); ' Orpheus der zweite' (1787); ' Das rothe Kappchen'(i788); ' Der Schiffspatron'(1789); 'Hocus Pocus' (1790); ' Das Gespenst mit der Trommel' (1794) ; ' Gott Mars oder der eiserne Mann'; 'Don Quixotte'; 'Der Schach von Schiras' (all 1 795) > ' Ugolino,' grand ' opera seria'; ' Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor'; 'Der schone Herbstag'(all 1796); 'Der Ternengewinnst'; 'Der Madchen-markt'; ' Die Opera buffa'; 'DonCoribaldi' (1798); 'II Tribunale di Giove/ serenata (1788) ; and 'Das Madchen von Cola,' a song of Ossian's, for pianoforte (1795). Of his symphonies, 'Six Simphonies a 8 parties'; 'Trois Simphonies a 4 parties obi., etc.'; and 'Simphonie dans le genre de cinq nations, etc.,' were published in Paris in 1770. On the title-page of the first set he is called ' first violin and maltre de musique to Prince Esterhazy.' His autobiography (Leipsic 1801) forms the foundation of Arnold's 'Karl von Dittersdorf, etc. Bildungsbuch fur junge Tonkunstler' (Erfurt 1810). [C.F.P.]

450

DIVERTIMENTO, a term employed for various pieces of music. 1. In Mozart it designates a piece closely akin to a SERENADE or CASSATION, usually in 6 or 7

movements—though sometimes only 4, and once as many as 10; indifferently for trio or quartet of strings, wind alone, or wind and strings mixed. Kochel's Catalogue contains no less than 22 of such Divertimenti. The following is the order of the movements in one of them (no. 287):— (1) Allegro; (2) Andantegrazioso (6 variations); (3) Minuet; (4) Adagio; (5) Minuet; (6) Andante and Allegro molto. The changes of key are slight; in some there is no change at all.

DIVERTIMENTO.

DOCTOR OP MUSIC.

451

2. A Pot-pourri or arrangement of the airs of vocum cantiones centum D' published by Petreius (Nuremberg 1540). (7) A setting of the words an opera or other piece for orchestra or piano. * Isttl GSt avicninciri * in in +.li£i collection fnll^l^t.lnTI * rYinilTlJl the 'ina, Germanica, etc.,' published by some- Rhaw (Wittenberg). (8) Two chansons, under times mixed with songs. Also a pot-pourri or the name Le Riche, in the collection 'des plus piece on given motifs, such as Schubert's ' Diver- excellentes chansons' published by Nicolas Duchetissement a l'hongroise.' Also the French term nun m 1551. [J.xt.o.xs.J for an entr'acte. The term is no longer used. DLABACZ, GOTTFRIED JOHANN, librarian and DIVISION VIOLIN, THE, the title of a choir-master of the Premonstratensian convent work which, during the latter part of the 17 th of Strahov, Prague; born July 17, 1758, died century and for some time afterwards, was the Feb. 4, 1820. Author of 'AUgem. historisches favourite vade-mecum of amateur violinists. It Kiinstlerlexikon fur Bohmen,' etc. (Prague 1815was the successor of 'The Division Violist' of 18, 3 vols.) ; 'Versuch eines Verzeichniss der Christopher Simpson, first published in 1659. vorzuglichsten Tonkiinstler,' etc. (in Rigger's Both works consist of divisions, or variations, Statistik von Bohmen)—two exact and valuable upon a given theme or subject, denominated the works. ' ground.' The earlier work contains instructions DO. The syllable used in Italy and England for performing such divisions extempore, but the later one is confined to divisions already com- in solfaing instead of UT. It is said by Fe'tis to posed. These are often upon popular song-tunes have been the invention of G. B. Doni, a learned or other well-known subjects. The first edition Delia Cruscan and writer on the music of the of ' The Division Violin' appeared in 1684, en- ancients, who died 1669. It is mentioned in the graved on copper plates, and a second part a 'Musico pratico' of Bononcini (1673), where it is few years later. Both parts went through several said to be employed ' per essere piu resonante.' editions, the contents of which varied, but were DOCTOR OF MUSIC. The superior degree always derived from the best composers of the in music conferred by the English Universities, day, amongst whom were Henry and Daniel the inferior one being that of Bachelor. These Purcell, Davis Mell, John Banister, Solomon, degrees can be traced as far back as the 15th John, and Henry Eccles, G. B. Draghi, Jeremiah century: an outline of their history and of the Clark, etc. Some pieces by Corelli are included history of musical study at the Universities has in some of the later editions. [W. H. H.] been given under the title BACHELOR. In the ordinary course the degree of Bachelor of Music DIVISIONS, in the musical nomenclature of must at Oxford and Cambridge precede that of the 17th and 18th centuries, were rapid pas- Doctor by a period of five years; but by special sages—slow notes divided into quick ones—as leave of the University the degrees may be taken naturally takes place in variations on a theme or together, and the honorary degree of Doctor ground. Hence the word can be applied to quick of Musio has occasionally been conferred on consecutive passages like the long semiquaver musicians of distinction who had not graduated runs in Handel's bravura songs, as :— Bachelors. At Dublin no interval of time is necessary, and the degrees may in all cases be taken on the same day, other conditions being fulfilled. Among Oxford Doctors of Music the following are the best known names : — John Marbeck, 1550; John Bull, 1586; W. Heather (founder of the Professorship), 1622 ; Arne, 1759,; Burney, 1769; Callcott, 1785; Crotch, 1799; S. DIVITIS, ANTONIUS, or ANTOINE LB RICHE, Wesley, i83y ; Bishop, 1854. Haydn received a French composer, and colleague of Mouton as an honorary degree on his visit to Oxford in singer in the chapel of Louis XII, who reigned 1791, when his Symphony in G, thence called from 1498 to 1515. The following is a list of the Oxford Symphony, was performed. The same his works at present known :—(1) A.4-partmass, distinction is said to have been offered to Handel 'Gaude Barbara' (MS.), in the library at Cam- in 1733, when his 'Esther' was performed at bray. (2) A 6-part Credo (MS.) in the Royal Commemoration, and to have been refused by Library at Munich. (3) A mass, ' Quern dicunt him with characteristic humour. Cambridge homines' (of which Ambros gives a description owns the following names :—Greene, 1730; Boyce, in his history of music), in the 15th. book of 1749; Randall, 17.^6; Nares, 1757 ; Cooke, 1775 ; the collection by Pierre Attaignant of Paris. Walmisley, 1848; Sterndale Bennett, 1856 ; Mao (4) A motet, 'Gloria laus,' in the 10th book farren, 1875 ; Sullivan, 1876; Joachim, 1877. of the collection of ancient motets by Pierre During the last century there was no examinaAttaignant (Paris 1530) who has also, in his tion for either degree; it was sufficient for the collection of Magnificats (Paris, 1534), included candidate to present an ' exercise,' or composition, one by Divitis. (5) A motet, 'Desolatorum conso- to be performed in the Music School. Stricter lator,' in 4 parts, in the 1st book of the 'Motetti regulations have been now established, with the della corona'(Petrucci, Venice 1514)- (6) Many view of giving a more genuine character to these motets for 3 voices in the collection 'Trium degrees; and the following rules are in force. Gga

452

DOCTOR OP MUSIC.

At Oxford the candidate for a degree of Mus. Doc. must compose and send in to the Professor a vocal composition secular or sacred, containing real eight-part harmony and good eight-part fugal counterpoint, with accompaniments for a full orchestra, of such a length as to occupy from forty to sixty minutes in performance. The exercise having been approved by the Professor, an examination follows, embracing the following subjects:—Harmony; Eight-part counterpoint; Canon, Imitation, etc. in eight parts; Fugue; Form in composition ; Instrumentation ; Musical History; A critical knowledge of the scores of the standard works of the great composers; and so much of the science of Acoustics as relates to the theory of Harmony. After duly passing this examination (which is entirely in writing) the candidate must have his exercise publicly performed in Oxford, with complete band and chorus at his own expense; and must deposit the MS. full-score in the Library of the Music School. The fees on tak ing this degree amount to about £ 2 o. The regulations at Cambridge and Dublin are almost identical with those of Oxford, and the amount of the fees much the same. Degrees in music are not conferred by the University of London. An anomalous power of creating a Doctor of Music by diploma still vests in the Archbishop of Canterbury. The only regulation existing in connection with this strange prerogative is that the person for whose benefit it is exercised shall pay £63 in fees. [C. A. F.] DOHLER, THEODOE, of a Jewish family, born April 20, 1814, at Naples; died Feb. 21, 1856, at Florence; an accomplished pianist, and composer of ' salon' music—a vendor of the sort of ware for which the epithet ' elegant' seems to have been invented. His Fantasias, i.e. operatic tunes embroidered with arpeggios; his * Variations de concert,' or 'de salon'—similar tunes not necessarily operatic, but bedizened with the same cheap embroidery; his 'Transcriptions'— nondescript tunes bespangled after the selfsame fashion; his 'Nocturnes'—sentimentaleausucree, made up of a tearful tune for the right hand propped upon undulating platitudes for the left, in D flat; his 'Etudes,' also 'de salon' or 'de concert' —some small piece of digital gymnastics with little sound and less sense,—are one and all of the same calibre, reprehensible from an artistic point of view, and lacking even that quaintness or eccentricity which might ultimately claim a nook in some collection of musical bric-a-brac. Dbhler was an infant phenomenon, and as such the pupil of Benedict, then resident at Naples. In 1829 he was sent to Vienna, and became Carl Czerny's pupil. From Vienna, where he remained till 34, he went to Naples, Paris, and London—then travelled in Holland, Denmark, Poland, and Russia—as a successful fashionable virtuoso. He died of a disease of the spinal marrow which troubled him for the last nine years of his life. His works, if works they can be called, reach as far as opus 75. [E. D.] DOLBY, CHARLOTTE. DAMli.

DON QUIXOTE.

DOLCE, i.e. sweetly; a sign usually accompanied by piano, softly—p dol., and implying that a sweet melodious feeling is to be put into the phrase. Beethoven (op. 59, no. 1) has mfe dolce; and Schumann begins the Finale of his Eb Symphony with / dolce, which is difficult to realise. DOMINANT is the name now given to the jth note of the scale of any key counting upwards. Thus G is the dominant in the key of C, F in that of Bb, and Fjf in that of B. It is so called because the key of a passage cannot be distinguished for certain unless some chord in it has this note for root; for which reason also it is called in German 'Der herrschende Ton.' The dominant plays a most important part in cadences, in which it is indispensable that the key should be strongly marked; and it is therefore the point of rest in the imperfect cadence or half close, and the point of departure to the tonic in the perfect cadence or full close. [MODES.] It also marks the division of the scale into two parts; as in fugues, in which if a subject commences with the tonic its answer commences with the dominant, and vice versa. In the sonata form it used to be almost invariable for the second subject to be in the key of the dominant, except when the movement was in a minor key, in which case it was optional for that part of the movement to be in the relative major. In lighter and simpler kinds of composition the harmonic basis of the music often alternates chiefly between tonic and dominant, and even in the most elaborate and deeply thought works the same tendency is apparent, though the ideas may be on so extended a scale as to make the alternation less obvious. [C.H.H.P.] DOMINO NOIR, LE. Opera comique in 3 acts, words by Scribe, music by Auber; produced Dec. 2, 1837. Translated by Chorley and produced in English (an earlier attempt had failed) Feb. 20, 1861, at Covent Garden. DON CARLOS. (1) An opera seria in 3 acts, words by Tarantini, music by Costa; produced at Her Majesty's Theatre, London, June 20, 1844. (2) Grand opera in 5 acts, words by Demery and Du Locle, music by Verdi; produced at the Grand Opera, Paris, March 11, 1867, and in London, at Her Majesty's Theatre, June 4 of the same year. DON GIOVANNI—or, full title, II dissolute punito, ossia il Don Giovanni—opera buffa in 2 acts ; words by Da Ponte; music by Mozart. Produced at Prague Oct. 29, 1787 (the overture written the night before); at Vienna May 7, 1788, with 3 extra pieces, 'In quali,' 'Mi tradi,' 'Dalla sua pace'; in London, King's Theatre, April 12, 1817. Autograph in possession of Mme. Viardot Garcia. DON PASQUALE, opera buffa in 3 acts; music by Donizetti. Produced Jan. 4, 1843, at the Italiens, Paris; in London, Her Majesty's Theatre, June 30, 1843. DON QUIXOTE, a comic opera in 2 acts; See SAINTON, MA- words by G. Macfarren, music by G. A. MacI farren ; produced at Drury Lane, Feb. 3, 1846.

453

DONIZETTI.

DONIZETTI.

DONIZETTI, GAETANO, was born at Bergamo, in 1798, six years after Rossini; and though he began his career at a very early age, he never achieved any important success until after Rossini had ceased to compose. Having completed his studies at the Conservatorio of Naples, under Mayer, he produced at Vienna, in 1818, his first opera ' Enrico di Borgogna,' which was rapidly followed by ' II Falegname di Livonia' (Mantua, 1819). His 'Zoraide di Granata,' brought out immediately after ' II Falegname' at Rome, procured for the young imitator of Rossini exemption from the conscription, and the honour of being carried in triumph and crowned at the Capitol. The first work however by Donizetti which crossed the mountains and the seas and gained the ear of all Europe, was ' Anna Bolena,' given for the first time at Milan in 1830. This opera, which was long regarded as its composer's masterpiece, was written for Pasta and Rubini. It was in ' Anna Bolena' too, as the impersonator of Henry VIII, that Lablache made his first great success at our 'King's Theatre,' as the Haymarket opera house was called until the close of the past reign. The graceful and melodious 'Elisird'Amore' was composed for 'Milan in 1832.' 'Lucia di Lammermoor,' perhaps the most popular of all Donizetti's works, was written for Naples iD 1835, the part of Edgardo having been composed expressly for Duprez, that of Lucia for Persiani. The lively little operetta called ' II Campanello di Notte' was produced under very interesting circumstances, to save a Neapolitan manager and his company from ruin. ' If you would only give us something new our fortunes would be made,' said one of the singers. Donizetti declared they should have an operetta from his pen within a week. But where was he to get a libretto ? He determined himself to supply that first necessity of the operatic composer; and, recollecting a vaudeville which he had seen some years before at Paris, called ' La Sonnette de Nuit,' took that for his subject, rearranged the little piece in operatic form, and forthwith set it to music. It, is said that in nine days ' the libretto was written, the music composed, the parts learned, the opera performed and the theatre saved.' Donizetti seems to have possessed considerable literary facility. He designed and wrote the last acts both of the ' Lucia' and of ' La Favorita'; and he himself translated into Italian the libretto of ' Betly' and ' La Fille du Regiment.' Donizetti had visited Paris in 1835, when he produced, at the Theatre des Italiens, his 'Marino Faliero.' Five years later another of his works was brought out at the same establishment. This was 'Lucrezia Borgia' (composed for Milan in 1834) ; of which the ' run ' was cut short by Victor Hugo, who, as author of the tragedy on which the libretto is founded, furbad the representations. ' Lucrezia Borgia' became, at the Italian Opera of Paris, 'La Rinegata' — the Italians of Alexander the Sixth's Court being changed into Turks. ' Lucrezia' may be ranked with ' Lucia and ' La Favorita' among the most successful of Donizetti's operas. ' Lucia' contains some of the most

beautiful melodies in the sentimental style that its composer has ever produced; it contains too a concerted finale which is well designed and admirably dramatic. The favour with which 'Lucrezia Borgia' is everywhere received may be explained partly by the merit of the music, which, if not of a very high order, is always singable and tuneful—partly by the interest of the story, partly also by the manner in which the interest is divided between four principal characters, so that the cast must always include four leading singers, each of whom is well provided for by the composer. But of the great dramatic situation, in which a voluptuous drinking-song is contrasted with a funeral chant, not so much has been made as might have been expected. The musical effect, however, would naturally be more striking in the drama than in the opera; since in the former singing is heard only in this one scene, whereas in the latter it is heard throughout the opera. 'Lucrezia Borgia' may be said to mark the distance half way between the style of Rossini, imitated by Donizetti for so many years, and that of Verdi which he in some measure anticipated: thus portions of ' Maria di Rohan' (1843) might almost have been written by the composer of 'Rigoletto.' In 1840 Donizetti revisited Paris, where he produced successively ' I Martiri' (which as ' Poliuto' had been forbidden at Naples by the censorship); 'La Fille du Regiment,' composed for the Op^ra Comique, and afterwards brought out in the form of an Italian opera, with added recitatives; and ' La Favorite,' represented at the Academie. Jenny Lind, Sontag, Patti, Albani, have all appeared with great success in • La Figlia del Reggimento.' Butwhen'La Fille du Regiment'wasfirstbrought out, with Madame Thillon in the chief part, it produced comparatively but little effect. 'La Favorite,' on the other hand, met from the first with the most decided success. It is based on a very dramatic subject (borrowed from a French drama, 'Le Comte de Commingues'), and many of the scenes have been treated by the composer in a highly dramatic spirit. For a long time, however, it failed to please Italian audiences. In London its success dates from the time at which Grisi and Mario undertook the two principal parts. The fourth and concluding act of this opera is worth all the rest, and is probably the most dramatic act Donizetti ever wrote. With the exception of the cavatina ' Ange si pur,' taken from an unproduced work, ' Le Due d'Albe,' and the slow movement of the duet, which was added, at the rehearsals, the whole of this fine act was composed in from three to four hours. Leaving Paris, Donizetti visited Rome, Milan, and Vienna, at which last city he brought out ' Linda di Chamouni,' and contributed a Miserere and Ave Maria to the Hofkapelle, written in strict style, and much relished by the German critics. Then, coming back to Paris, he wrote (1843) 'Don Pasquale' for the Theatre Italien, and ' Dom Sebastien' for the Acade'mie. ' Dom Sebastien' has been described as 'a funeral in five acts,' and the mournful drama to which the music

454

DONIZETTI.

of this work is wedded rendered its success all but impossible. As a matter of fact it did not succeed. The brilliant gaiety, on the other hand, of ' Don Pasquale' charmed all who heard it, as did also the delightful acting and singing of Grisi, Mario, Tamburini and Lablache, for whom the four leading parts were composed. For many years after its first production 'Don Pasquale' was always played as a piece of the present day; but the singers perceived at last that there was a little absurdity in prima donna, baritone, and basso wearing the dress of every-day life ; and it is usual now, for the sake of picturesqueness in costume, to put back the time of the incidents to the last century. 'Don Pasquale' and 'Maria di Eohan' (Vienna) belong to the same year; and in this last opera the composer shows much of that earnestness and vigour for which Verdi has often been praised. Donizetti's last opera, ' Catarina Cornaro,' was produced at Naples in 1844, and apparently made no mark. This was his sixty-third work, without counting two operas which have never been played. One of these is the' Due d'Albe,' composed to a libretto originally meant by Scribe, its author, for Rossini, but which •Rossini returned when, after ' William Tell,' he resolved to write no more for the operatic stage ; the other a piece in one act composed for the Ope'ra Comique, and which, some years ago, used every now and then to be announced for performance. Of Donizetti's sixty-three operas, counting those only which have been represented, at least two-thirds are quite unknown in England. Donizetti, during the last three years of his life, was subject to fits of melancholy and abstraction which became more and more intense, until in 1848 he was attacked with paralysis at Bergamo, where he expired. Buried some little distance outside the town, he was disinterred in 1876 and reburied in Bergamo itself.

DORIAN. (Operas adapted.) Buoudelmonte—Maria Stuarda.

Eleonora di Gulenna—Rosamonda d'lnghllterra. l e s Martyrs, 1840—Poliuto.

[H.S.E.] DONNA DEL LAGO, LA, opera in 2 acts, founded on 'The Lady of the Lake'; libretto by Tottola, music by Rossini. Produced at San Carlo, Naples, Oct. 4, 1819; in London, King's Theatre, Feb. 18, 1823. DONZELLI, DOMENIOO, was born at Bergamo about 1790, and studied in his native place. In 1816 he was singing at the Valle Theatre in Rome. Rossini wrote for him the part of Torvaldo, in which he distinguished himself. At the carnival of the next year he sang at the Scala in Milan, and was engaged for two seasons. From thence he went to Venice and Naples, returning to Milan, where ' Elisa e Claudio' was written for him by Meroadante. He was very successful in 1822 at Vienna, and obtained an engagement at Paris for 1824. There he remained, at the Theatre Italien, until the spring of 31. As early as 1822 efforts had been made, unsuccessfully, to get him engaged at the King's Theatre in London. At length, in 28, he was announced; but did not actually come until 29—making his first visit to England at the same time with Mendelssohn. When he did appear, Lord Mount-Edgcumbe thought him 'a tenor, with a powerful voice, which he did not modulate well.' Another critic, in 1830, says of him, 'He had one of the most mellifluous, robust, low tenor voices ever heard, a voice which had never by practice been made sufficiently flexible to execute Rossini's operas as they are written, but even in this respect he was accomplished and finished, if compared with the violent persons who have succeeded him in Italy. The volume of his rich and sonorous voice was real, not forced. He had an open countenance and a manly bearing on the stage, The following list of Donizetti's operas is but no great dramatic power.' He was reprobably not far from complete; the dates are engaged in 1832 and 33. In 34 his place waa not quite certain :— taken by Rubini. Returning to Italy, he sang Enrico di Borgogna, lfilfl. Fausta. at various theatres; and in 41 at Verona and II Falegnarae di Livonia, 1819. Dgo Conte dl Parigi, 1832. Vienna. About the end of that year he retired 35 Sancia di Castella. t e Nozze in Villa, 182". fcora de di Granata, 1822. to Bologna. He was an associate member of Ii nuovo Fourceaugnac. 5 La >.ingara. 11 Furioso, 1833. the Accademia Filarmonica at Bologna, and of Parisina. La lettera anonima. that of Santa Cecilia at Rome. He published a Chiara e Serafiua. Torquato Tasso. 40 L'Assedio di ( 'alais. 11 fortunato Inganno, 1S23. set of 'Esercizi giornalieri, basati sull'esperienza Alfredo il Grande. Lacrezia Bnrgia. 1*31. di molti anni' (Ricordi, Milan). He died at 10 UnaFollia. Rosamonda d' Inghilterra. L'ajo nell' imbarazzo, 1824. Maria Stuarda. Bologna, March 31, 1873. [J.M.] Emilia di Liverpool. Gemma di Yergy, 1835.

45 Marino Faliero. Alabor in Granata. 1826. Lucia di Lammermoor. n CasteUo degli InvaLdi. Belisario, ia%. 15 II Giovedi grasso, 1827. 11 Campaneilo di Notte. Olivo e I'asquale. Betly. II Eorgomestro di Saardam. 50 Roberto Devereux. Le Convenienzi tealrali. Pio di Tolomei. 1837. Otto mese in due ore, 1828. Maria di Budenz, If38. 20 Elisabetta a Kenilworth. Poliuto. La Regina di Golconda. Gianni di Farigi, 1839. Gianni di Calais. 55 Gabriella di Vergy. L'esule de Roma. 1829. L'ElisIre d'amore. La Fille du Regiment, 1840. 23 n Paria. La Favorite. II Castello de Kenilworth. Adelasla, 1841. II Dlluvio universal, 1830. Maria Padilla. 1 pazzi per progelto. 60 Linda di chamounix, 1842. Francesca di 1' oix. Maria di Rohan. 80 Irnalda di Lambertazzi, Don Pasquale, 1843. La Romanziera. Com Sebastien. Anna Bolena, 1831. Catarina Curnaro, 1844, 65 Elisabletli, 1853.

DOPPIO, Italian for double. ' Canone doppio,' double canon, 4 in 2. 'Doppio movimento,' double the speed of the preceding. 'Pedale doppio,' two parts in the pedals (organ music), etc. DORIAN, OR DORIC, the first of the ' authentic' church modes or tones, from D to D, with its dominant A—

It resembles D minor, but with Bl] and no Cf. Many of the old German chorales were written in this mode, such as 'Vater unser';

455

DORIAN.

DOT.

'.Wir glauben all*; 'Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam'; .'Christ lag in Todesbanden.' For longer compositions see Orlando Lasso's 5-part motet 'Animam meani,' in Commer's • Musica sacra,' viii. No. 20, and the fugue in Bach's well-known Toccata (Dorffel, No. 818), marked ' Dorisch.'

etc. As a conductor he was one of the first of hia day, with every quality ot intelligence, energy. tact, and industry, to fill that difficult position. [F.G.]

DORN, HEINBTCH LUDWIG EDMUND, a very

DORUS-GRAS, JULIE AIM^E.

See GRAS.

DOT (Fr. Point; Ger. Punkt; Ital. Pwnto). A point placed after a note to indicate that its length is to be increased one half; a semibreve with the addition of a dot being thus equal to three minims, a minim with a dot to three crotchets, and so on. So far as regards rhythm, this is at the present time the only use of the dot, and it is necessitated by the foct that modern notation has no form of note equal to three of the next lower denomination, so that without the dot the only way of expressing notes of three-fold value would be by means of the bind, thus f |* instead of P', f f instead of |*', which method would greatly add to the difficulty of reading. The sign itself is however derived from the ancient system of ' measured music' (musica mensuralis, about A. D. 1300), in which it exercised various functions, and where it is met with in four forms, called respectively 'point of perfection,' 'point of alteration,'' point of division,' and ' point of addition.' The different uses of these points or dots was as follows.

considerable musician of modern Germany, born at Kbnigsberg, Prussia, Nov. 14, 1804. His turn for music showed itself early, and was duly encouraged and assisted, but not so as to interfere with his general education. He went through the curriculum of the Kb'nigsberg University, and after visiting Dresden (where he made Weber's acquaintance) and other towns of Germany, fixed himself at Berlin in 1824 or 25, and set seriously to work at music under Zelter, Klein, and L. Berger, mixing in the abundant intellectual and musical life which at that time distinguished Berlin, when Rahel, Heine, Mendelssohn, Klingemann, Marx, Spontini, Devrient, Moscheles, Reissiger, and many more, were among the elements of society. With Spontini and Marx he was very intimate, and lost no opportunity of defending the former with his pen. At Berlin he brought out an opera,' Die Rolandsknappen,' with success. In 1817 he left Berlin, and after travelling for some time returned to his native place as conductor of the theatre. In 1829 he went to The rhythm of the measured music was at Leipzig in the same capacity, and remained there first always triple ; that is to say, the accent fell till 32. During this time he had the honour of upon the first beat of every three (the division giving instruction in counterpoint to Schumann. of music into bars is of later date, see BAR), and After leaving Leipzig, his next engagements were each note was of the value of three of the next at the theatres of Hamburg and Riga, in the lower denomination, the long ^ being equal to latter place succeeding Wagner. During the three breves •, and the breve to three eemibreves whole of this time he added much teaching to •, and so on. But whenever a long note was his regular duties, and exercised an excellent followed or preceded by one of the next shorter influence on the musical life of the places in kind, and the latter sung to an unaccented which he lived. At Riga he remained till 1843, syllable, it became necessary to shorten the long when he was called to succeed C. Kreutzer at note by one third, in order to preserve the triple Cologne. During the five years of his residence character of the rhythm. Thus Ex. 1 would there he was fully occupied, directing the Festivals of 44 and 47i founding the Rheinische Musik- be sung as Ex. 2, and not as Ex. 3, notwithschule (1845), and busying himself much about standing the breve under other circumstances music, in addition to the duties of his post and would be worth three semibreves:— 3- Notthut much teaching. In 47 he succeeded O. Nicolai I . Written 2. Performed as conductor of the Royal Opera in Berlin, in conjunction with Taubert. This post he retained 3= till the end of 68, when he was pensioned off in favour of Eckert, and became a ' Kbniglicher The note thus shortened was termed imperfect. Professor.' Since then he has occupied himself Cases often arose, however, in which the long in teaching and writing, in both which capacities note was required to be perfect, i. e. worth three he has a great reputation in Berlin. Dorn is beats, in spite of its being followed by a shorter of the conservative party, and a bitter opponent note; in these cases a dot called the 'point of of Wagner. He is musical editor of the Post, perfection,' and written either as a simple dot or and writes also in the Gartenlaube and the a dot with a tail / {punctus caudatus), was introHausfreund. His account of his career, 'Aus duced after the note, the function of which wag meinem Leben' (Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.) and to preserve the long note from being made 'Ostracismus' (Ib. 74), are both valuable books. imperfect by the next following short note, thus— A paper of his on Mendelssohn apj eared in Performed 'Temple Bar' for February 1872. His compo- 4. Written sitions embrace 10 operas, of which ' Die Nibelungen' (1854) is the most remarkable; a requiem (1851); many cantatas; symphonies and other orchestral works; many pianoforte pieces, songs, Another kind of dot, the 'point of alteration,' written like the foregoing, but placed either

456

DOT.

DOT.

before the first or above the second of two similar notes, indicated that the second of the two was to be ' altered,' i. e. doubled in length, again for the sake of preserving the triple rhythm; for example—

means of two dots, with a proportional shortening of the next following note.' His son, Wolfgang Mozart, not only made frequent use of the double dot invented by his father, but in at least one instance, namely at the beginning of the symphony in D written for Hafner, employed a triple dot, adding seven eighths to the value of the note which preceded it. The triple dot has however never come into general use; indeed, the above is the only instance of its employment with which the writer is acquainted. Dots following rests lengthen them to the same extent as when applied to notes. In old music a dot was sometimes placed at the beginning of a bar, having reference to the last note of the preceding bar (Ex. 7) ! this method of writing was not convenient, as the dot might easily escape noiice, and it is now superseded by the use of the bind in similar cases (Ex. 8).

5- Written

Or

Performed

±

In the absence of the dot in the above example, there would be a doubt as to whether the two breves ought not to be rendered imperfect by means of their respective semibreves, as in Ex. 1. Like the point of perfection therefore this dot preserves the first note from imperfection; but owing to the fact that it is followed by two short notes (instead of three as in Ex. 4), it also indicates the 'alteration' or doubling of the second of the two. The third kind of dot, the ' point of division,' answers to the modern bar, but instead of being used at regular intervals throughout the composition, it was only employed in cases of doubt; for example, it would be properly introduced after the second note of Ex. 1, to divide the passage into two measures of three beats each, and to show that the two breves were to be made imperfect by means of the two semibreves, which latter would become joined to them as third and When a passage consists of alternate dotted first beats respectively, thus— notes and short notes, and is marked staccato, 6. Written Performed the dot is treated as a rest, and the longer notes are thus made less staccato than the shorter ones. Thus Ex. 9 (from the third movement of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 22) should be played as in Without the point of division the example might Ex. 10, and not as in Ex. 11. be mistaken for the ' alteration ' shown in Ex. 5. The last of the four kinds of dots mentioned above, the ' point of addition,' was identical with ffcq: our modern dot, inasmuch as it added one half to the value of the note after which it was placed. It is of somewhat later date than the others (about A. D. 1400), and belongs to the introduction of the so-called tempus imperfectam, in which the rhythm was duple instead of triple. It was applied to a note which by its position would be imperfect, and by adding one half to its value rendered it perfect, thus exercising a power similar to that of the ' point of perfection.' ^r-h^rp—H^ =^ss= In modern music the dot is frequently met with doubled; the effect of a double dot is to lengthen the note by three-fourths, a minim In all other cases the value of the dotted note with double dot ( ^ " ) being equal to seven should be scrupulously observed, except—in the quavers, a doubly dotted crotchet (P" ) to seven opinion of some teachers—in the case of a dotted semiquavers, and so on. The double dot was the note followed by a group of short notes in invention of Leopold Mozart, who introduced it moderate tempo; here it is sometimes considered with the view of regulating the rhythm of certain allowable to increase the length of the dotted adagio movements, in which it was at that time note and to shorten the others in proportion, for customary to prolong a dotted note slightly, for the sake of effect. (See Koch, ' Musikalisches the sake of effect. Leopold Mozart disapproved Lexicon,' art. Pwiikt; Lichtenthal, ' Dizionario of the vagueness of this method, and therefore della Musica,' art. Punto.) Thus Ex. 12 would wrote in his ' Violinschule' (2nd edition, Augs- be rendered as in Ex. 13. burg, 1769), 'It would be well if this proAndante longation of the dot were to be made very definite and exact; I for my part have often made it so, and have expressed my intention by

^=m

^m

DOT.

DOUBLE BASS.

457

chestra, sonatas, variations, and exercises for the cello. He edited Bach's 6 sonatas for cello solo, and left an excellent Method for his instrument. DOUBLE BAR divides a piece or a movement into main sections, and when accompanied by In view however of the fact that there are a dots indicates that the section on the same side variety of means such as double dots, binds, etc. by which a composer can express with perfect with the dots is to be repeated. (1) (2) (3) accuracy the rhythmic proportions which he requires, it certainly seems advisable to employ the utmost caution in making use of such licences The double bar is a principal feature in the as the foregoing, and in particular never to introduce them into movements the rhythmical symphony or sonata. In the first movement it character of which is dependent on such pro- occurs at the end of the first section, which is gressions of dotted notes as the above example, then repeated, and is followed by the working such for instance as the 14th of Beethoven's out, or J)urchfiihrung. In the symphonies before 33 Variations, Op. 120, or the coda of the Beethoven, and in Beethoven's own earlier sonatas, the second section was often repeated Fantasia, Op. 77. 2. Besides the employment of the dot as a as well as the first. In the minuet, or scherzo, sign of augmentation of value, it is used to with trio, both sections of each are repeated, and indicate staccato, being placed above or below then after the trio the minuet is given again the note, and written as a round dot if the without the repetitions. staccato is not intended to be very marked, and DOUBLE BASS (Ital. Contrabasso orViolone) as a pointed dash if the notes are to be extremely is the largest of the stringed instruments played, short. [DASH.] As an extension of this practice with a bow. Whether it was invented before or dots are used to denote the repetition of a single after the violin is still an unsettled question. note ; and they are also placed before or after a In its forms it has some of the characteristics double bar as a sign of the repetition of a passage of the older gamba tribe, viz. the flat instead of or section. In old music for the clavecin they the arched back, and the slanting shoulder; are used as an indication of the Bebung. [AB- while, on the other hand, it has the four corners, BREVIATIONS ; BEBUNG.] [F. T.] the /-holes, and in every respect the belly of the DOTTI, ANNA, a distinguished seconda donna violin, thus appearing to be a combination of the who formed part of Handel's company at the gamba and the violin, and therefore probably of King's Theatre in London for some years. She a date posterior to both. appeared first as Irene in 'Tamerlane' with The double bass was originally mounted with Cuzzoni in 1724, and as Agatnira in the ' Arta- three strings only, tuned thus (a). At the serse' of Ariosti. In 25 she sang in 'Rodelinda' present time, however, basses with four strings, and 'Giulio Cesare,' as well as in the anony- tuned thus (6), are used by all, except the Italian mous 'Elisa,' the 'Dario' of Attilio, and Vinci's Italian, (a) English. (b) ' Elpidia.' During the next season she played in the ' Ottone' and ' Alessandro' of Handel; and in 27 was again in London, and took the =t= part of Orindo in the first representations of and some English players, who still prefer the ' Admeto,' and that of Pilade in 'Astianatte.' After 1727 her name does not occur again in the three - stringed instrument on account of its libretti. [J. M.] greater sonority. For orchestral playing, however, the fourth string has become an absolute DOTZAUER, JUSTUS JOHANN FRIEDRICH, one necessity, since modern composers very frequently of the greatest composers, players, and teachers of use the contra E and F in obligato passages. In the violoncello; born at Hildburghausen, Jan. 20, England, up to a very recent period, a phrase like 1783. His teachers were Henschkel, Gleichmann, that which opens Mendelssohn's ' Meeresstille' and Ruttinger—a pupil of Kittl's, and therefore (c), owing to the absence of the fourth string only two removes from J. S. Bach. For the cello and the consequent impossibility of producing he had Kriegk of Meiningen, a famous virtuoso the low J F, had to be altered to the octave {d). and teacher. He began his career in the Meiningen court band, in 1801, and remained there till 1805. He then went by way of Leipzig to Berlin, where he found and profited by B. Romberg. In 1811 he entered the King's band at This and other similar musical barbarities were Dresden, and remained there till his death, March committed, until at the Crystal Palace the sensible 9, i860, playing, composing, editing, and, above plan was adopted of having half the number of all, teaching. His principal pupils were Kum- the basses with four, and the other half with three mer, Drechsler, C. Schuberth, and his own son, strings, thus avoiding the mutilation of phrases 0. Ludwig. His works comprise an opera (' Gra- like the above, without sacrificing the greater ziosa,' 1841), a mass, a symphony, several over1 In the Storm in the Pastoral Symphony, Beethoven takes his double tures, 9 quartets, 12 concertos for cello and or- basses down to the C below this. ( a nd is supposed to have come to England, perhaps to the court of Henry VIII, but as his name does not appear in the lists of court musicians at that time, and no manuscript compositions of his have been found in this country, it appears that his residence here must have been very short, if not altogether mythical. His elegy on the death of Josquin (1531), and another on the death of Erasmus (1536) fix two more dates in his life. After that no more is known of him. Some German historians have claimed him as a countryman on the strength of the publication and dedication of a setting of the Odes of Horace (published at Ulm in 1539, and dedicated to the youths of that city), maintaining that this proves his residence in that city, but the dedication was more probably the work of the publisher than of the composer. His connection with Antwerp, mentioned above> was discovered not many years ago, by M. Leon de Burbure, and certainly outweighs anything said in favour of his being a German; while the internal evidence of his compositions, which bear the decided Flemish character, and very closely approach the style of Josquin, sets the matter entirely at rest. We have the following compositions of his :— (1) A 4-part 'monody' on the death of Josquin, in the 7th set of French chansons in 5 and 6 parts printed by Tylman Susato in 1545. A copy of the book is in the British Museum. The composition itself is printed in Burney's History (ii, 513), with critical remarks. There are also several songs by Ducis in former volumes of the same work. (2) Another elegy in 5 parts,'Plangite Pierides,' on the death of Erasmus, and an 8-part 'Agnus Dei,' both from the 'Selectissimae nee non familiarissimse cantiones ultra centum' (Augsburg 1540). (3) Songs in the collection of German songs made by Fbrster and printed by Petreius (Nuremberg 15 39-1540). (4) A motet, 'Peccantem me quotidie,' from the ' Cantiones octo . . . vocum' printed by Uhlard (Augsburg 1545"). 'No wonder,' says Ambros, speaking of this motet, 'that historians have striven to prove such a composer their countryman.' (5) A motet, 'Dum fabricator mundi supplicium,' from Rhau's ' Selectee Harmonise . . . de Passione Domini' (Wittenberg 1538). (6) Two 5-part motets, 'Benedic Domine,' and 'Corde et animo,' from Kriesstein's 'Cantiones sex et quinque vocum etc'(Augsburg 1545). [J.R.S.-B.]

DUBOURG, GEORGE, a grandson of Matthew Dubourg, born 1799, is author of a history of the violin and the most celebrated performers on it, originally published in 1836, and which in 1878 reached a fifth edition. [W. H.H.] DUBOURG, MATTHEW, an eminent English violinist, pupil of Geminiani, born in London 1703. It is reported that he first appeared as a boy at one of the concerts of Britton the small-coal man, when he performed a solo of Corelli with great success, standing on a high stool. In 1728 he was appointed to succeed Cousser as conductor of the Viceroy's band at Dublin, in which capacity he set many odes for the celebration of royal birthdays. During his residence there he led the band at the performances given by Handel during his visit to Ireland in 1741, and then had the distinction of assisting at the first performance of the ' Messiah.' Later he returned to London, and in 17.S2 succeeded Festing as master of the King's band, which post he retained up to his death in 1767- He lies in Paddington churchyard. Dubourg appears to

* Benedictus Ducis, who is often called by his first name alone, must not be confounded with Benedicts Appenzelders, a Swiss musician who lived in Belgium, but of later date and less genius.

Hh2

468

DUDDYNGTON.

DULCIMER.

DUDDYNGTON, ANTHONY, citizen of London, contracted in 1510 to build an organ for AllHallows, Barking,forthe sum of £50. [V. de P.] DUET (It. Duetto; FT. Duo). A composition for two voices or instruments, either with or without accompaniments. Some writers use the form 'Duet' for vocal, and 'Duo' for instrumental compositions; this distinction, however, is by no means universally adopted. Strictly speaking, a duet differs from a two-part song in the fact that while in the latter the second voice is mostly a mere accompaniment to the first, in the duet both parts are of equal importance. In cases where it is accompanied, the accompaniment should always be subordinate to the principal parts. The most important form of the duet is the 'Chamber Duet,' of which the old German and Italian masters have left many excellent examples (see especially Handel's 'Chamber Duets'). These duets were often in several movements, sometimes connected by recitatives, and almost invariably in the polyphonic style. The dramatic duet, as we find it in the modern opera, is entirely unrestricted as to form, which depends upon Lhe exigences of the situation. Among the finest examples of operatic duets may be named those in the first act of 'Guillaume Tell,' in the fourth act of 'Les Huguenots,' and in the second act of 'Masaniello,' in the more modern school; while the duets in 'Fidelio' and in the operas of Mozart and Weber are models of the older classical forms of the movement. Many of the songs in Bach's cantatas in which the voice and the obligato instrument are equally prominent are really duets in character, but the term is not applied to the combination of a voice and an instrument. The ' word is now often employed for a pianoforte piece « quatre mains, of which Schubert's 'Grand duo' (op. 140) is a splendid example. [E. P.]

The prototype of the pianoforte, as the psaltery was of the harpsichord. These instruments were so nearly alike that one description might serve for both, were it not for the different manner of playing them, the strings of the dulcimer being set in vibration by small hammers held in the hands, while in the psaltery the sounds were produced by plectra of ivory, metal, or quill, or even the fingers of the performer. It is also no less desirable to separate in description instruments so nearly resembling each other, on account of their ultimate development into the harpsichord and pianoforte by the addition of keys. [See HARPSIOHOKD, and PIANOFORTE.]

Dr. Rimbault (Pianoforte, p. 23) derives dulcimer from ' dulce melos.' Perhaps the ' dulce,' —also used in the old English 'dulsate' and ' dulsacordis,' unknown instruments unless dulcimers—arose from the ability the player had to produce sweet sounds with the softer covered ends of the hammers, just as 'piano' in pianoforte suggests a similar attribute. The Italian 'Salterio tedesco' implies a German derivation for this hammer-psaltery. [See also CEMBALO.] The roughness of description used by mediaeval Italians in naming one form of psaltery 'strumento di porco,' pig's head, was adopted by the Germans in their faithful translation ' Schweinskopf,' and in naming a dulcimer ' Hackbrett'—a butcher's board for chopping sausage-meat. The dulcimer is a trapeze-shaped instrument of not more than three feet in greatest width, composed of a wooden framing enclosing a wrestplank for the tuning-pins, round which the strings are wound at one end ; a soundboard ornamented with two or more sound-holes and carrying two bridges between which are the lengths of wire intended to vibrate; and a hitchpinblock for the attachment of the other ends of the strings. Two, three, four, and sometimes five springs of fine brass or iron wire are grouped for each note. DUETTINO (Ital. dimin.). A duet of short The dulcimer, laid upon a table or frame is extent and concise form. struck with hammers, the heads of which are DtJGAZON, MMB. ROSALIE, daughter of an clothed on either side with hard and soft leather obscure actor named Lefevre, born at Berlin 1755, to produce the forte and piano effects. The tone, died in Paris Sept. 21, 1821. She and her sister harsh in the loud playing, is always confused, aa began their career as ballet-dancers at the Comedie there is no damping contrivance to stop the Italienne, and Rosalie made her first appear- continuance of the sounds when not required. ance as a singer at the same theatre in 1774. This effect is well imitated in various places in She had an agreeable voice, much feeling and Schubert's ' Divertissement Hongroise.' The 'finesse,' and played to perfection ' soubre'ttes,' compass of two or three octaves, from C or D in •paysannes,'and'coquettes.' Her most remark- the bass clef, has always been diatonic in Engable creation was the part of Nina in Dalayrac's land, but became chromatic in Germany before the opera of that name. After an absence of three end of the 18th century. As in most mediaeval years during the Revolution, she reappeared in musical instruments ornamentation was freely used 1795, and played with unvarying success till j on the soundboard, and on the outer case when 1806, when she retired. To this day the classes one existed. The dulcimer and psaltery appear to of parts in which she excelled are known as have come to us from the East, it may be through 'jeunes Dugazon' and 'meres Dugazon.'—Her the Crusades, for the dulcimer has been known son GUSTAVE (Paris 178-2-1826), a pianist and for ages in Persia and Arabia, and also in the pupil of Berton's, obtained the second 'Prix de Caucasus, under the name of ' santir.' Its EuroRome' at the Conservatoire in 1S06. His operas pean use is now limited to the semi-oriental and ballets, with the exception of 'Aline' (1823), gypsy bands in Hungary and Transylvania. did not succeed. [G.C] The Magyar name is ' citnbelom.' Mr. Carl Engel ('Descriptive Catalogue,' 1874) points out the DULCIMER (Fr. Tympavon; Hal. Cembalo, remarkable resemblance between an Italian Timpanon, Salterio tedeaco ; Germ. Uackbrett). \

469

DULCIMER.

DUODRAMA.

dulcimer in South Kensington Museum of the 17th century and a modern Georgian santir; and refers to the uBe by the translators of the English Bible of the word -dulcimer' aa well as of the names of other instruments common in the Elizabethan epoch, to represent Hebrew musical instruments about which we have no sure knowledge. Pantaleon Hebenstreit of Eisleben, a distinguished violin-player, became about 1697 a virtuoso upon the dulcimer, whioh he quadrupled in dimensions and had constructed as a double hackbrett with two soundboards, each with its scale of strings—on the one side overspun catgut, on the other, wire. There were 185 strings in

all, costing 100 thalers a year to keep in order. With this powerful chromatic instrument, demanding herculean force to play, Hebenstreit travelled to Paris in 1705, where Louis XIV baptised it with his name, PANTALEON. Kiihnau (in Mattheson's 'Critica Musica,' Dec. 8, 1717) praises the instrument and its prerogative over harpsichords and clavichords in the properties it possessed of piano and forte. It was this, according to Schroter's account, that led him to ponder over a keyed instrument to do the like, and to his notion of a pianoforte. [See CEM-

DTTLCKEN, MADAME LOUISE, a great pianoforte-player, younger sister of Ferdinand David, born at Hamburg, March 20, 1811. She was the pupil of Grund, and made her appearance in public at Hamburg as early as her loth year. In 1823 she played at Berlin, and in 25 with her brother at Leipzig, always with the greatest suocess. In 1828 she married, and left Germany for London, where she resided for the rest of her life. Her first public appearance here was at one of Mr. Ella's soirees in 1829. At the Philharmonic she played a concerto of Herz's on March I, 1830, and thenceforward was one of the most prominent features in the music of London. She was an executive pianist of the first order, with remarkable brilliancy of finger. Her intelligence and general capability were very great. She spoke four languages, and was aufait in the literature of Germany, France, Italy, and England. In teaching she was extraordinarily successful, and for her time no teacher could boast so large a number of pupils, at the head of whom was Queen Victoria. In fact she overtasked her strength, and died after a short and severe illness April 12, 1850. [G.] DUNI, EGIDIO ROMOALDO, the founder of opera comique in France ; born at Matera, Naples, Feb. 9. 1709; brought up from his 10th year under Durante at the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesu Cristo at Naples. His life was a varied one. At Rome he competed with Pergolesi, and his opera of 'Nerone' was successful, while Pergolesi's 'Olimpiade' was damned. This shows how early and how strong was Duni's gift of melody; for ' Olimpiade' is Pergolesi's capo d'opera. A political mission to Vienna gave him the chance of producing his music there. Returning to Naples he wrote ' Artaserse' for San Carlo, with great applause. He then visited Venice, Paris, and

London. In London his health failed, and he was driven to Holland to consult the great Boerhaave. Boerhaave cured him, but in returning to Naples he was attacked by brigands, and the fright undid all that the physician had done, and maile him a permanent invalid. In 1755 he was called to Parma, as music-master to the Duke's daughter. The court was French, and here at last Duni found his place in life. His first attempt was on Favart's ' Ninette a la Cour,' and it was thoroughly successful. France was evidently his field. To Paris in 1757 he went, and made his debut in ' Le Peintre amoureux'; and there he remained till his death, which took place June 11,1 1775, after he had delighted the public with 18 pieces, full of gaiety and tune. Those in fact are his characteristics. His orchestration is poor, he is often weak in dramatic expression, but he is always charming and always melodious. His pen was taken up by Monsigny, and the Ope>a Comique was established, [G.] DUODRAMA. A kind of melodrama, of which Mozart speaks with enthusiasm and at some length in letters to his father from Mannheim and Kaisersheim in the end of 1778. The name would indicate a piece for two performers; and those which he heard—Benda's ' Medea' and 'Ariadne auf Naxos'—and that which he contemplated writing himself—'Semiramis'— appear to have been pieces in which spoken dialogue was accompanied by the orchestra, as in Mendelssohn's 'Midsummer Night's Dream' and other pieces, and those called ' Melodram.' ' Not a note is sung,' says he, 'only spoken; in fact it is a recitative with instruments, only the actor speaks instead of singing' (Letter 120). There is no trace of ' Semiramis' having been composed, but Mozart acted on the idea in 'Zaide' (1780),

BALO, HABPSICHOBD, PIANOFORTE, PSALTERY, SCHROETEE.] [ A , J . H,1

1 See the list in IiUis.

470

DUODRAMA.

DURAND.

which contains two long monologues treated great, and when the theatre closed in 1828 he en melodrame. [G.] Went to Italy. At first he attracted little attention; but having altered his style and DUPARC. See FRANCESINA. adopted the 'voix sombree' he became speedily DUPORT. Two eminent cellists, brothers. popular, and by his creation of the part of Edgardo 1. JEAN PIERRE—-Duport laind'—born at in ' Lucia di Lammermoor' (Naples, 1835) placed Paris, Nov. 27, 1741. Considered the best himself at the head of the French dramatic pupil of Berthaut. Soon achieved a great repu- singers of his time. He was engaged for the tation in Paris, but after 10 years of success Grand Ope"ra in Paris, and made his first apstarted on a lengthened tour through England pearance (April 17, 1837) in 'Guillaume Tell,' and Spain, and finally in 1773, on the invitation when his novel and striking reading of his part of Frederick the Great, settled at Berlin as first contributed greatly to the revival of the opera. cello in the king's band, and after Frederick's During the 12 years he remained at this theatre death director of Court concerts. After the he created the principal tenor part in 'Guido et battle of Jena, his post was abolished, but he Ginevra,' 'Benvenuto Cellini,' 'Le Lac des ftes,' continued to live at Berlin till his death in 'Les Martvrs,' 'La Favorite,' 'La Heine de 1818. His publications are few and unimportant. Chypre,"CharlesVIL' 'DomSebastien,' 'Otello,1 2. He was eclipsed by his brother, JEAN LOUIS, 'Lucie,' and 'Jerusalem' (a translation of ' I also born at Paris, Oct. 4, 1749. His fame, like Lombardi'), as well as playing the parts created his brother's, came early, but it was the arrival by Nourrit in 'La Muette,' 'Robert,' 'La Juive,' of Viotti in Paris (1782) that inspired him to ' Les Huguenots,' and ' Stradella.' His physical imitate the breadth and brilliancy of style of appearance was against him, and he had a that great violinist, and thus to become the propensity to over gesticulation ; but in spite of extraordinary player he was. About this time these defects he made his way as a tragedian, he made the acquaintance of Crosdill, and and was frantically applauded for his excellent at his invitation visited London for six months. declamation and the smoothness of his ' canto On the breaking out of the Revolution he joined spianato.' His two most serious faults, the abuse his brother in Berlin, and entered the king's of the notes ' sombrees,' so prematurely wearing band. At that time he had the reputation to the voice, and a habit of dragging the time, of being one of the first cello players of the day, which is as fatal to the interests of the composer and was much visited and sought after. He as it is to all artistic interpretation, have materially had not the force and execution of Romberg, affected French singing to the present day- Dubut in tone and style was unrivalled. It was prez was professor of singing at the Conservatoire either with him or his brother—probably with from 1842 to 1850, and in 1853 founded an him—that Beethoven played his two sonatas for ' Ecole spe"ciale de chant,' which still exists, and piano and cello (op. 5) at the Prussian Court in has turned out many dramatic singers. He has 1796. Duport returned to Paris in 1806 ruined composed romances, chamber music, two masses, by the war. Though his playing was as fine and eight operas, of which the best are ' Joanita' as it had ever been, he had great difficulty in 1848; 'La lettre au bon Dieu' (1S51); and obtaining employment. He entered the service 'Jeanne d'Arc' (1857) though none of the eight of the ex-King of Spain at Marseilles, but re- have any originality. He has also published turned to Paris in 1812. At length fortune ' L'Art du chant' (1845) and 'La Melodie' smiled on him, he was admitted into the private (1873), two Methods which deserve to be better [G. C ] band of Marie Louise, then into that of the known. Emperor, and at length as professor into the Conservatoire. In the evening of his life he DUPUIS, THOMAS SANDERS, Mua. Doc, was composed a great deal, but the work by which born in England of French parents in 1733. He he will survive is his ' Essai sur le doigter du received his early musical education as a chorister violoncelle et la conduite de l'archet, avec une of the Chapel Royal under Bernard Gates, and suite d'exercises.' A sentence from this work subsequently became a pupil of John Travers, exhibits the modesty of a great artist. 'Tout then one of the organists of the Chapel Royal. le monde connoit le coup d'arehet martele" ou On the death of Dr. Boyce, in 79, Dupuis was staccato; c'est une affaire de tacte et d'addresse. appointed his successor as organist of the Chapel II y a des personnes qui le saisissent tout de Royal. On June 26, 1790, he accumulated the suite, d'autres ne parviennent jamais a le faire degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music at parfaitement. Je suis du nombre' (p. 171). His Oxford. He died in 96. He published during cello became the property of Franchomme, who his lifetime several sonatas and concertos for the purchased it for the enormous sum of 25,000 pianoforte, some organ pieces, chants, anthems, francs (£1,000). He died at Paris 1819. [G.] and glees. In the year after his death a selection from his cathedral music was published under the DUPREZ, GILBERT, the 13th of the 22 children editorship of John Spencer, one of his pupils, to of a Paris perfumer, was born Dec. 6, 1806. which his portrait is prefixed. Dupuis was one Having completed his studies under Choron at of the best organists of his time. [W.H.H.] the Conservatoire, he made his debut (Dec. 1825) as tenor at the Odeon, where Castil Blaze was DURAND, alias DURANOWSKY, AUGUSTS producing his translations of the favourite operas FREDERIC, violin-player, born at Warsaw about of Rossini and Weber. His success was not 1770. After having received his first instruction

DUEAND.

DUEASTANTI.

on the violin from his father, a musician at the court of the king of Poland, he was sent in 1787 to Paris by a nobleman. Here he studied under Viotti, but appears not so much to have adopted the style of his master, as to have followed the bent of his own talent for the execution of technical tours de force. In 1794 and 95 he travelled in Germany and Italy, meeting everywhere with great success. Suddenly however, discarding the violin, he entered the French army, and became adjutant to one of the generals. Owing to some misconduct he was imprisoned at Milan, and had to quit the service. He then returned to the violin, and till 1814 led an unsettled life in Germany, continually changing his abode. He finally settled at Strassburg as leader of the band, and was living there in 1834. The date of his death is not known. According to Fetis, Paganini confessed that his peculiar style and many of his most brilliant and popular effects were to a considerable degree derived from Durand, whom he had heard when young. There can be no doubt that Durand's technical skill was extraordinary and his treatment of the violin full of originality. The full development of his talent appears however to have been impeded by his irregular habits of life. It is amongst other things related that he often had no violin of his own, and would play in public on any instrument he could get hold of, however bad. His compositions—concertos, airs varies, and a number of smaller pieces for the violin—show him to have been but an indifferent musician. [P. D.] DURANTE, FRANCESCO, born at Frattamaggiore, Naples, March 15, 1684, a year before Handel and Bach. As a boy he entered the ' Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesu Cristo,' passed to that of S. Onofrio under A. Scarlatti, then perhaps (though this is doubtful) to Eome for five years' study under Pitoni and Pasquini. In 1718 became head of S. Onofrio, and in 1742 relinquished that post to succeed Porpora at the Conservatorio Santa-Maria di Loreto at Naples, in which position he died Aug. 13, 1755. Durante was a man of singularly reserved and uncouth manners, yet he was three times married, and his pupils were not only numerous and very distinguished, but appear to have been much attached to him. His salary at S. Maria was but 1 o ducats a month—not £ 20 per annum— but out of it he contrived to add a chapel to the church of St. Antonio in his native town, with a statue of the archangel Gabriel, bearing his own name. He himself composed only for the church, but his scholars, Traetta, Vinci, Jomelli, Piccinni, Sacchini, Guglielmi, and Paisiello, were all great opera writers, and may be said to have occupied the stage of Europe during the last half of the 18th century to the exclusion of every one but Gluck and Mozart. The library of the Conservatoire at Paris contains a large collection of his works. The list, as given by Fe'tis, comprises 13 masses and credos ; 16 psalms ; hymns, motets, litanies, etc., to the number of 28. These are written for various numbers of voices from

3 to 9, occasionally with orchestra, but usually without. The Vienna library has in addition his Lamentations of Jeremiah, a so-called 'PastoralMass ' and other compositions. His works have not been much published. The collections of Schlesinger, Eochlitz, and Commer, contain a few pieces—amongst them a Misericordias Domini for 8 voices, of which Hauptmann (Briefe an Hauser, ii. 112) speaks in hish terms; and our own Fitzwilliam music has a Trio and a Chorus—but the bulk of them are still in MS. Durante and Leo are often spoken of as founders of the Neapolitan school, but it is difficult to understand this when they were preceded there by A. Scarlatti and Porpora. [G.]

471

DTTEASTANTI, MABGHERITA, a prima donna at the King's Theatre in the Haymarket, during Handel's management. She was born about 1695, and, like Senesino, was engaged from the Dresden Theatre. She was a married woman when she came here, and the following quotation from the 'Evening Post' of March 7, 1721, shows that she soon acquired favour at court:— ' Last Thursday, his Majesty was pleased to stand godfather, and the Princess and Lady Bruce godmothers to a daughter of Mrs. Durastanti, chief singer in the Opera-house. The Marquis Visconti for the King, and the Lady Litchfield for the Princess.' This was so unusual a favour, that it seems likely that either she or her husband was of a noble family. She had already appeared in 1720 in company with Senesino. Her popularity continued: in 1721 she played the principal female parts in ' Muzio Scevola'; in ' Arsace'; and in ' Odio e l'amore,' probably a pasticcio. On Jan. 12, 1723, the ' Otho,' or ' Ottone,' of Handel was produced, and Durastanti played Gismonda, but a formidable rival had appeared in Cuzzoni, who sang the principal part of Theophane. Durastanti, however, continued to sing through this and the next season, in spite of Cuzzoni, and performed in ' Flavio,'' Coriolano,''Erminia,' and 'Farnace.' In 24 she played Sesto in 'Giulio Cesare,' and appeared also in ' Calfurnia' and ' Vespasiano.' She took her leave of the public at her farewell performance in ' Calfurnia,' in a song written by Pope for her—some say at the desire of her patron the Earl of Peterborough— which ended with this couplet, ' But let old charmers yield to new; Happy soil, adieu, adieu !' If she understood the meaning of the words, her modesty was astonishing, and sets a brilliant example to all singers. Durastanti returned to London in 1733, in company with Carestini, Scalzi, and the two sisters Negri, to help Handel to withstand the opposition of Cuzzoni and Farinelli at the other house. Against old Porpora, their composer in ordinary, Handel was strong enough to put on a bold front; not so his singers against the company commanded by Porpora. On Jan. 26,1734, Handel produced his 'Ariadne,' on March 11' Parnasso in Festa,' and subsequently a, revival of ' Ottone'; in all which Durastanti

DURASTANTI. 472 took her part. She never appeared again in ' England, nor is she mentioned as having appeared subsequently on any other stage. She seems to have been an estimable and faithful artist, and her popularity in London only yielded, as it might well do, to the exceptional powers of Cuzzoni. [J. M.] DURCHFUHRUNG —lending through, or taking through. Durchfiihrung-satz is the German term for that portion of the first movement of a sonata or symphony—or other movement in similar form—which occurs between the doublebar and the reprise of the first subject; and in which the materials of the previous portion— with or without episodes, or other fresh matter— are led through such changes and varieties of treatment and contrivance as the genius and knowledge of the composer may dictate. In England this portion is often called the 'free fantasia'—surely an unfortunate name, as 'fantasia' suggests rather an entire movement than a part of one. Perhaps ' development' or ' working out' would be a better term. [FORM.] D'URFEY, THOMAS, the son of a French Huguenot father, who fled from Rochelle before i the siege in 1628 and settled at Exeter, was ] born (as is supposed, of an English mother) in Exeter about 1649. He was educated for the | law, but abandoned that profession for poetry j and the drama. Between 1676 and his death | he produced upwards of thirty plays, which j were at first very popular, but were in the course of a few years afterwards banished from the stage on account of their licentiousness and indecency. | The songs in a few of them still survive, being preserved through having had the good fortune j to be allied to the music of Henry Purcell. These are in ' A Fool's Preferment,' 1688; j 'Bussy d'Ambois,' 1691 ; 'The Richmond Heiress,' 1(193 ; and the three parts of ' Don Quixote,' 1694.-96 His comic opera, 'Wonders in the Sun,' 1706, was set by Giovanni Baptista Draghi. Much of his fame was owing to his songs and to the lively manner in which he himself sang them, which procured him the favour of Charles II, William III, and Queen Anne. In this he resembled Tom Moore, and like him he was particularly apt at adapting his verses to existing music. He published, between 1683 and T685, three collections of songs written by himself, and set to music by the best composers of the period. About 1706 he collected and published, in four small volumes, a large number of songs by himself and others, many of them with the tunes prefixed, under the title of ' Wit and Mirth ; or, Pills to purge Melancholy.' This he republished with variations and the addition of two more volumes in 1719-20. D'Urfey wrote several of the birth-day and New Year's odes which were set to music by Purcell and Blow, and supplied the former with the words for his fine ode known as ' The Yorkshire Feast .Song.' In the latter part of his life he was reduced to great distress, from which he was relieved by the profits of a performance of his own comedy 'The Fond Husband; or, The Plotting Sisters," which the

DUSCHEK. managers of the theatre generously gave for his benefit on June 15, 1713. D'Urfey died Feb. 26, 1723, and was buried at St. James'*, Piccadilly, where, against the outer south wall of the tower of the church, may be seen a tablet with the simple inscription, 'Tom D'Urfey, Dyed Febr* y» 26th, 1723.' [W.H.H.] DUSCHEK (DDSSEK), FRANZ, valued pianoforte teacher, performer, and composer, born Dec. 8, 1736, at Chotiborz in Bohemia. Count von Spork had him educated in the Jesuit's seminary at Kbniggratz, but after a fall which crippled him for life he gave up other studies and devoted himself to music. His patron sent him first to Prague and then to Vienna, where, under Wagenseil's instruction, he became an excellent pianist. On his return to Prague, he soon had numerous pupils, and exercised a powerful influence on the taste of his time. Reichardt, in his 'Briefe' (i. 116), speaks of him as one of the best pianists of that time (1773), 'who, besides his excellent reading of Bach, possesses a peculiarly pleasing and brilliant style of his own.' Among his best pupils may be numbered L. Kozeluch, Maschek, Wittassek, von Nostiz, and his own wife Josephine. He was also esteemed as a composer of symphonies, quartets, trios, pianoforte concertos, sonatas, Lieder, etc., of which only a small part were published. In his compositions is reflected the gentleness of character which made him universally beloved. He was a kind-hearted man, and all artists, whether his own countrymen or foreigners, were sure of a kind reception at his house. His friendship with Mozart is well known, and it was in his villa and garden near Prague that the great composer put the finishing touches to the score of ' Don Giovanni.' In this very villa Bertramka, at Koschirz near Prague, the present proprietor erected a bust of Mozart, which was solemnly unveiled on June 3, 1876. For further particulars of both husband and wife see Jahn's 'Mozart'; 'Jahrbuch der Tonkunst von Wien und Prag,' 1796; Cramer's 'Magazin f iir Musik'; and Mozart's Letters, edited by Nohl. His wife JOSEPHINE, a celebrated singer, whose maiden name was HAMBACHER, was born at Prague 1756, and died there at an advanced age. Her husband taught her music, and she became a good pianist and composer, but above all a fine singer. Her voice was full and round, and according to Reichardt she sang with great expression, especially in recitative. She executed the most difficult bravura passages with ease, had a good portamento, and united grace and expression with force and fire. Mozart's father, however, was of a different opinion, as appears from a letter to his daughter (April 1786), whilst Schiller and Korner have recorded their unfavourable impression of her—the latter specially denying that she had expression ^chiller,' Briefwechsel mit Kbrner,' i. pp. 280, 294). Mozart, from his first acquaintance with her in Salzburg in 1777, looked upon her as a true and sympathising friend, and wrote for her (Nov. 3,

473

DTTSCHEK.

DUSSEK.

1787) at Prague the concert-aria 'Bella mia fiamma' (Kbchel, No. 528). She sang at Vienna, Berlin, Weimar, Leipsic, and Dresden, where the Elector had her portrait painted life-size (1787). On her first visit with her husband to Vienna (March and April 1786), they gave no public performance, but were often invited to the houses of the aristocracy, especially to Prince Paar's, where Josephine sang with great success. They witnessed the downfall of the intrigues against the first representation of Mozart's Figaro in Vienna, and it was their partisanship and enthusiastic admiration of the work which prepared the way for its brilliant reception in Prague on Oct. 14, and that of 'Don Giovanni' on Oct. 29, 1787. Beethoven was at Prague early in 96, and wrote his ' Ah perfido !' there; and as it was first sung by Madame Duschek on Nov. 21 of that year, we may infer that he composed it for her. On her second visit to Vienna, Madame Duschek gave a concert at the Jahn'sche Saal (March 29,1798), at which she herself sang an aria by Danzi and a rondo by Mozart, accompanied by Mozart's questionable friend Stadler, with corno di bassetto obligato. Schuppanzigh played a violin concerto, and Beethoven a pianoforte sonata with accompaniment. Fetis's statement that she came to London in 1800 and died there, arises from a confusion with the wife of [C. F. P.] Dussek the pianist.

fifth year, and the organ in his ninth, and in the capacity of organist soon gave valuable assistance to his father. From Czaslau he went to Iglau, where he was engaged as treble singer in the Minorite church, pursuing his musical studies with Father Ladislaw Spinar, and familiarising himself with the ' humanities' at the College of Jesuits, subsequently for two years continuing the same course of instruction at Kuttenberg, where he was appointed organist of the Jesuit church. Thence he removed to Prague, where, if we may credit the naturally part al testimony of his father, he went through a course of' philosophy,' and took the degree of ' Master.' Here Dussek cherished an earnest desire to join the Cistercian 'friars; but, happily, his youth was an obstacle to his admission as member of that respectable fraternity. In his straits he met with a patron — Count Manner, an artillery officer in the Austrian service, who took him to Mechlin (Malines\ where he remained for some time as organist at the church of St. Rotnbaut, and teacher of the pianoforte. Tired of Mechlin, he left for Berg-op-Zoom, again accepting the post of organist at one of the principal churches. Such a dreary spot, however, was not likely to suit one of Dussek's temperament, and he speedily went to Amsterdam, where he may be said to have laid the foundation of his after brilliant reputation as pianist and composer. It is worth remark that Dussek's last engagement as church organist was at Berg-op-Zoom; and at the same time—which more than one German critic (Professor Marx among others) has observed—that his early acquaintance with the organ had much to do with the peculiar style of not a few of the slow movements to be met with in his finest sonatas -—among which may especially be cited the adar/io of the ' Invocation (op. 7 7), his last great compos'tion for the pianoforte. DuBsek's brilliant success at Amsterdam soon obtained for him an invitation to the Hague, where he passed nearly a twelvemonth, giving lessons on the pianoforte to the children of the Stadtholder. Here he also devoted much time to composition, producing 3 concertos, and 12 sonatas for pianoforte, with accompaniments of stringed instruments, about which Cramer's 'Magazin der Musik' (Hamburg) speaks in very favourable terms. From the Hague, Dussek, now twenty-two years of age, mindless of the praise that had been awarded to his early compositions, proceeded to Hamburg, obtaining further instruction from Emmanuel Bach, second son of the immortal John Sebastian. The advice and encouragement of this eminent master would seem to have exercised a salutary influence on our young musician. A year later, nevertheless, we find him at Berlin, astonishing the dilettanti of the Prussian capital with his pianoforte-playing, and also with his performances on an instrument called the ' Harmonica,' the qualities of which, in agreement with one Hessel, the soi duant inventor, he travelled through various parts of Germany to exhibit, exciting the admiration of Gerber (at Hesse-Cassel, 1785) both for

DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG, or

LADISLAW,

one of the most renowned pianists and composers for the pianoforte of the latter part of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, was born at Czaslau in Bohemia, Feb. 9, 1761. His father, John Joseph Dussek, a musician of considerable repute in his day, was organist and leading professor in that town, where he married the daughter of Judge Johann Stebeta, by whom he had three children, the eldest being Johann Ludwig. Although the brother, Franz Benedikt, and the sister, Veronika Rosalia, were more or less distinguished, the subject of this brief memoir is the only one of the three whose memory and works have come down to us. According to Dlabacz, there were various modes of spelling our composer's patronyme. It will be enough, however, to cite three, Dussik, Duschek, Dussek, the last of which has long been recognised, and is unlikely henceforth to be disturbed in its prerogative, notwithstanding that the father of our English Dussek signed ' Johann Joseph Dussik.' When the son established himself in London, he altered the penultimate letter from i to e, and pronounced his name 'Duschek,' for which we have the authority of Pio Oianchettini, whose sire wedded Veronica Rosalia, already mentioned. Franz Duschek, not the least noted member of the group of artists bearing the cognomen in one or another form, was the intimate friend of Mozart.

[See DDSCHEK.]

According to Dlabacz, on the whole a far better authority than either the reticent Gerber, or Fo., do. Eb. (or Harp) and Orch. C. 7(1. Fantaisie, P. F. F. 29. 3 Sonatas. Flute or V. and 77. Sonata, P. F. (No. 31). F Cello. F. B b . D . min. (L'invocation.) 30. 4 Sonatas, P. F . and V. ad Works without Opus-number. lib. 0, F, Bb. G. Feudal times, favourite Over31. 3 Trios, P. F. and Strings. ture. Bb. D, 0 ; and 3 Preludes,

P.F. 32. Grand Sonata, P.F.,4 hands. 0. 33. ' II rivocato.' 84. 2 Trios, P. F . and Strings. Eb, Bb. 34. 2 Sonatas for Harp, V., and Cello. 34, Serenade, Orch. in 9 pts. lib

Overture to Pizarro. Grand Overture, P. F., 4 hands. Instructions on the Art of playing the P. F. 2 Trios, P.F. and Strings. Eb, Bb. Le combat naval.' Sonata for P. F.. V.. and Cello, with Gr. Tambour ad lib. D.

DYKES.

477

Variations on 'Hope told a flatter2 Duos facilps, 2 Pianos. 0, F. ing tale.' Sonata facile, P. F., 4 hamls. C. Do. on a favourite German air. 3 Grand Sonatas, P. F., 4 liands. 3 Fugues and Sonata, P. F., Do. on Blaise et Babet. Do. on Fal ial la. 4 hands. Do. on God save the King. 8 Rondos. Do. Petits air connus, '(Euvro Sonata. P. F. F. (La Chasse.) VI.1 6 Sonatines for Harp. Do. Three Parisian airs. Hondo ou 'L'adieu,' P.F. Bb. New Waltzes, for P. F. and VloDo.. Air Russe. C. 1 lln or Flute. Do., A laTedesca. Bb. 2 English airs and 2 Waltzes. Do.. L'Amusolre. F. Do., on Countess of Sutherland's 3 Preludes, Bk. 1, P. F. reel. F. 6 Canons, for 3 and 4 voices. Do., Militaire. Bb. IBong on 3 notes (Bb, C, D) for Voice and P. F. Do.. Jlignon. C. Do., on the favourite Hornpipe. 6 Songs for Voice and P. F. on Lord Howe's Hornpipe, 'The Captive of Spilburg,' a musical drama, produced at Drury Do., on ' My lodging is on.' Lane, Nov. 1798. Do., o n ' The Ploughboy.' The naval battle and total defeat Do., on the Royal Quickstep. of the Dutch Fleet by Admiral Do., on ' To to Carabu.' Do., on Viotti's Polacca. Duncan,Oct. 11.1797. P.F. solo. Do., L'Ele"gante. A complete . . . delineation of the Do., La Matlnta. ceremony from St. James's to Variations on ' Anna," do. C. St. Paul's Dec. 19, 1797. Do. on ' II Pastore Alpigiano,* P.F. D. The Paris correspondent of the do. C. A.M. Z. (1811, Nov. 6) mentions Do. on ' Partant pour la Syrie,' a Grand Mass sent to Prince do. E b . Do. on 3 Scotch airs Esterhazy. [J.W.D.]

DUSSEK, SOPHIA, daughter of Domenico Corri, born in Edinburgh in 1775. Instructed by her father, she at a very early age performed in public on the pianoforte. In 1788 the family removed to London, when Miss Corri appeared with great success as a singer. In 1792 she married J. L. Dussek, under whose instruction she became as able a pianist and harpist as she was a singer. She continued to sing in public, at her husband's concerts and elsewhere. After his death, in 1810, she contracted in 1812 a second marriage with John Alvis Moralt. She composed and published many pieces for the pianoforte and harp. Her daughter, OLIVIA, was born in London in 1799, and under the instruction of her mother became an excellent performer on the pianoforte and harp. She composed some songs and several pieces for both instruments. [W. H. H.] DUX (leader), an early termforthefirstsubject in a fugue—that which leads ; the answer being the comes or companion. The dux is in German called Fiikrer. DYKES, Eev. JOHU BACCHUS, MUS. DOC,

was born in Hull, where his grandfather was incumbent of St John's Church, in March 1823. He received his first musical tuition from Skelton, organist of St. John's. In October 1843 he went to St. Catherine Hall, Cambridge, where he very soon obtained a scholarship. He graduated as B.A. in 1847, and in the same year, having taken Holy Orders, obtained the curacy of Malton, Yorkshire. During his stay in Cambridge he pursued his musical studies under Professor Walmisley, and became conductor of the University Musical Society. In July 1849 he was appointed Minor Canon and Precentor of Durham Cathedral. In the next year he proceeded M. A. In 1861 the University of Durham conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Music, and in 1862 he was presented by the Dean and Chapter to the vicarage of St. Oswald, Durham, on which he resigned the precentorship. He died January 2 2, 1876. Dr. Dykes composed many services

DYKES.

EAGER.

and anthems, and a large number of hymn tunes, many of which have met with very general acceptance. Among these may be noted ' Nearer my God to Thee,' 'The day is past and over,' and -Jesu, lover of my soul.' He was joint editor of ' Hymns, Ancient and Modern.' Beyond his musical repute he was much esteemed as a theologian. [W. H. H.I DYNE, JOHN, a distinguished alto singer and glee composer. One of his glees, ' Fill the bowl,' obtained a prize from the Catch Club in 1768. In 7 2 he was appointed a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and in 79 a lay vicar of Westminster Abbey. He was one of the principal singers at the commemoration of Handel in 1784. A pistolshot, by his own hand, terminated his existence Oct. 30, 1788. [W.H.H.] DWIGHT'S JOURNAL OF MUSIC, Boston, U. S. A., 4to. fortnightly, was founded in 1852 by John S. Dwight, whose name it bears, and is still edited by him. Mr. Dwight was one of the since somewhat famous little community at Brook Farm who did much in many ways to advance the interests of literature and philanthropy. Hawthorne, for a time, was one of them, and the names of others have since become famous. Mr. Dwight, though not an educated musician, was musical editor of the ' Harbinger,' a periodical published at Brook Farm, and a frequent contributor of musical critiques to the daily papers of Boston, where he did good service in directing attention to what was noblest and best in music. For six years he was editor, publisher, and proprietor of the Journal, the publication of which was then assumed by Oliver Ditson & Co. During the war it was changed from a weekly

to a fortnightly paper. Its object was to advocate music and musical culture in the highest sense, and to give honest and impartial criticisms, a purpose to which it has been always steadily devoted. As its title indicates, it is ' Dwight'a Journal,' expressing the convictions of its editor without fear or favour; and this course has gained for it the respect of many who differ widely from the opinions which it advocates. Mr. Dwight has been sole editor up to this day, although the volumes contain valuable contributions from other pens. Among the most noticeable are those from A. W. Thayer, the biographer of Beethoven, who has written for it many valuable biographical and historical articles, as well as musical tales. Especially noteworthy are his articles on some of the contemporaries of Beethoven—Salieri, Gyrowetz, Gelinek, Hummel, and others. Prof. Ritter and his wife (now of the Vassar Female College), W. S. B. Mathews of Chicago, and C. C. Perkins of Boston, have also contributed frequent and valuable articles to its columns. Its republications of the best articles in European musical journals, and translations from valuable works, with its excellent foreign correspondence and well selected pages of classical music, make these volumes a valuable book of reference during the whole period of its existence, during which over 100 musical papers have arisen—and in great part disappeared—in the United States. Whatever is good and noble and earnest in art has never failed to find in 'Dwight's Journal of Music' an enthusiastic advocate and staunch defender. And hence, while other journals have disappeared with the fashions of the day, it still pursues its course, in form and spirit the same that it was a quarter of a century ago. [H.W.]

478

E. The third note of the scale of C. In perhaps the most widely known of all the imFrench and in solfaing, Mi. The first mortal 48. ' string, or chanterelle, of the violin, and E flat (Fr. mi be'mol: Germ. Es) on the other the 4th of the double bass, are tuned to E in hand has a splendid progeny, of which we need their respective octaves. The scale of E major only mention the Eroica Symphony, the Septet, has 4 sharps in the signature ; that of E minor the ,5th Pianoforte Concerto, 2 solo sonatas, op. I sharp ; and Cj and G are their relatives, minor 31, No. 3, and 'Lea Adieux,' 2 string quartets, and major. E is the key note of the ' Phrygian' a pianoforte trio, and the ' Liederkreis,' among mode in Gregorian music, and C (not B) its Beethoven's works alone; the St. Ann's fugue by Bach, with the noble Prelude which may or may Dominant there E is not a frequent key in orchestral com- not belong to it; Mozart's well-known Symphony; [G.j positions— probably from difficulties connected 2 of Haydn's ' Salomon Set,' etc., etc. with the Clarinets, Horns, and Trumpets. At EAGER, JOHN, born 1782 at Norwich, where any rate neither Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, his father was a musical instrument maker and Mendelssohn, Spohr, Schubert, or Schumann, have organ builder. Having learned from his father written a symphony in E major. The overtures the rudiments of music, he was at twelve years to Fidelio and Midsummer Night's Dream, Deux old taken under the care of the Duke of Dorset, J ournees and Tannhauser, are exceptions among an amateur violinist, who carried him to his overtures. In chamber music it is more often seat at Knole, where free access to the library employed. Mozart has a fine pianoforte trio enabled him to repair the defects of his early in it; Beethoven uses it in 2 sonatas (op. 14, education. His pitron dying he established No. 1 ; 109). Bach's fugue in E (Bk. 2) is himself at Yarmouth as a violinist and teacher

E

EAGER.

EBERLIN.

479

of music. On the appearance of Logier's system cess. In 1803 he went again to Russia and in of instruction Eager became one of its warmest 1806 travelled to all the principal towns of advocates. He was appointed organist to the Germany, where the brilliancy and fire of his corporation of Yarmouth. He passed the re- playing were universally acknowledged. He remainder of his life in teaching. He is said to turned to Vienna and died suddenly March 11, have possessed a knowledge of, and to have 1807. His compositions were long favourites. taught, nearly every instrument then in use. The following are among the most remarkable :—• His compositions consist of a pianoforte sonata 'Grand Sonata,' op. 27, dedicated to Cherubini; and a collection of songs. [W. H. H] Gr. Sonata caracteristique' in F minor, op. 12, dedicated to Haydn (Peters') ; " Variations sur EASTCOTT, REV. RICHARD, a resident in un the"me Russe,' for Cello obbl., op. 17; 3 PianoExeter, was author of ' Sketches of the Origin, forte Trios, op. 8, dedicated to Grand-Duke PawloProgress and Effects of Music, with an Account witsch ; Trio for Pianoforte, Clarinet, and Cello, of the Ancient Bards and Minstrels,' a well- op. 36 (Kiihnel); Pianoforte Quartet in C major, executed compilation published at Bath in 1793, op. 18, dedicated to Maria Theresa; ditto in G and which was so favourably received as to call minor, op. 25 (Vienna); Clavier Quintet, op. 78 forth a second edition in the same year. He (Vienna); Pianoforte Concertos in C major, op. also published some pianoforte sonatas. He died 32, and E b major, op. 40 (Kiihnel); and 3 towards the end of 1828, being then chaplain String Quartets, op. 13, dedicated to Emperor of Livery Dale, Devonshire. He was the early Alexander I (Vienna, Mollo). He also pubpatron of John Davy. [W. H. H.] lished many smaller pianoforte pieces for 2 and EBDON, THOMAS, born at Durham in 1738. 4 hands, and 6 Lieder, op 4 (Hamburg) ; a CanIt is presumed from the circumstance of the tata with orchestral accompaniment, ' La gloria name and date 'T. Ebdon, 1755,' still remaining, d'lmene'o,' op. 11, also arranged for pianoforte; carved on the oak screen which divides the and a Symphony in D minor (Breitkopf & choir of Durham cathedral from one of the Hartel). He left in MS. symphonies, sereaisles, that he received his early musical edu- nades, concertos for I and 2 pianofortes, several cation in that church as a chorister, and pro- pieces of chamber-music, and unpublished operas, bably, after the breaking of his voice, as an besides the three already mentioned. Though he articled pupil of the organist. In 1763 he was has now entirely vanished from the concert-room, appointed organist of Durham Cathedral, which Eberl must in his day have been a very conoffice he held until his death, 48 years afterwards, siderable person. It is well known that several on Sept. 23, 1811. Ebdon's published compo- of his pianoforte works were long published, and sitions comprise two harpsichord sonatas (about popular, as Mozart's,—viz. the fine Sonata in C 1780), a collection of glees; and two volumes minor (finally published with his own name as of cathedral music, the first of which appeared op. 1 by Artaria); Variations on the theme ' Zu in 1790, and the second in 1810. Besides these Steffen sprach; Variations on 'Freundin sanfter he left many anthems etc., in MS., the last of Herzenstriebe ;' and on ' Andantino von Dittersthem bearing date June 1811. [W. H. H.] dorf' (see Kochel's Mozart, anh. 287, 8). His Symphony in Eb would actually appear to have EBERARDI, TERESA, a singer of mezzo-carat- been played in the same programme with Beetere parts in London, 1761. Among other rdles thoven's 'Eroica' (A. M. Zeitung, vii. 321); and she sang that of Lena in Galuppi's opera ' II the two are contrasted by the reviewer to the Filosofo di Campagna,' adapted for the King's distinct disadvantage of the latter ! [C. F. P.] [J.M.] Theatre by Cocchi. EBERLIN, JOHANN ERNST, court-organist EBERL, ANTON, distinguished pianist and and ' Truchsess' (or carver) to the Prince-Archcomposer, born June 13, 1766, at "Vienna. He bishop of Salzburg, and an eminent German was intended by his father, a well-to-do govern- composer of sacred music. His name, place and ment employe1, for the law, but his love for date of birth and death are here for the first time music broke through all obstacles, and started correctly given from official records. His orihim as a pianist. His theoretical studies were ginal name was Eberle, which was turned, acslight, but his first opera, 'La Marchande de cording to a custom then common with women, Modes' (Leopoldstadt 1787), is said to have into Eberlin, and as such he retained it. He pleased Gluck so much, that he advised the was the son of the land-steward to Baron von young composer to devote himself seriously to Stain, and was born March 27, 1702 (not 1716) music. His friendship with Mozart was also of at Jettingen (not Jettenbach), a market-village great service to him. His melodrama ' Pyramus near Gunzburg, in the Upper-Danube district of and Thisbe' was produced at the court theatre Bavaria. He died at Salzburg, June 21, 1762 in 1794, on his return from his first professional (not 1776). He was court-organist to Archtour; but he soon undertook another in Germany, bishop Franz Anton, Graf von Harrach, as early in company with Mozart's widow and Lange the as the time of his marriage, which took place singer. In 1796 he was appointed Capellmeister in 1727 at Seekirchen on the Wallersee, near at St. Petersburg, where he remained for 5 years Salzburg. Of his early life or musical education greitly esteemed. On his return to Vienna he nothing is known, and the number even of his produced at the court theatre (May 1801) a many valuable contrapuntal works can only be romantic opera ' Die Konigin der schwarzen imperfectly ascertained. Among the best known Inseln,' which was however only a partial suc-

480

EBEKLIN.

EBERWEIN.

•are ' I X Toccate e fughe per l'organo' (Lotter, meister to withdraw the publication on the Augsburg 1747), dedicated to Archbishop Jacob ground that it was inaccurate and unfair, and Ernst. They passed through many editions, and most damaging to the original work; but he are also printed in Commer's ' Musica sacra,' has vouchsafed me only a curt statement that vol. i. Nageli's edition contains only the nine if the arranger is to blame I may criticise him as fugues. The last fugue, in E minor, was published severely as I like, but that to him as publisher (in Eb minor) as Bach's in Griepenkerl's edition it is a matter of no moment. I have therefore of Bach's works (Book ix, No. 13"), an error no other course than to protest with all my which has since been corrected. Haffner pub- might against the arrangement, abstaining from lished sonatas in G and A, and Schott 2 motets, all comment, except to mention that without 'Qui confidunt' and 'Sicut mater consolatur,' for counting engravers' blunders, my melodies have 3 voices, with clavier accompaniment. To Leo- been unnecessarily altered 41 times, that in pold Mozart's collection for the Hornwerk at 3 places one bar has been omitted, in another Hohen-Salzburg, ' Der Morgen und der Abend' place 4 bars, in another 8, and in another 11.— (Lotter 17,19), Eberlin also contributed 5 pieces. C. M. von Weber, Berlin, Nov. 22, 1816.' This Fetis, in his ' Biographie universelle,' gives a list drew forth a reply from Ebers addressed to ' the of his church compositions in MS. in the libraries lovers of music,' and appearing in the next No. of of Berlin and Vienna, and of the Latin dramas he the 'Zeitung':—'Herr Schlesinger of Berlin has composed for the pupils of the Benedictine mon- published as op. 34 of C. M. von Weber a Quintet astery at Salzburg (1745-60), of which, however, for Clarinet and Strings—where five people play the words only are extant. Proske's library con- together I believe it is called a quintet—which tains the autographs of 13 oratorios, including is so absolutely incorrectly engraved that no the ' Componimento sacro,' performed with great clarinet player not previously acquainted with success at Salzburg in 1747. The Gesellschaft the work can possibly detect and avoid the der Musikfreunde at Vienna possesses a copy of mistakes in certain places—such as bar 60 of a mass and a fugue for two choirs with double J the second part of the first allegro. I took the orchestra. Eberlin's strict writing was so much trouble to put the thing into score, and found prized by Mozart, that about 1777 he copied 13 the melodies pretty and not bad for the piano; of his pieces (mostly church-music in 4 parts) and, as every man is free to arrange as he likes, together with some by M. Haydn, into a MS. I turned it into a solo sonata, which I can conbook which he kept for hia own instruction, and scientiously recommend to the lovers of music which still exists. He afterwards (1782) how- without any further remarks. As clarinet pasever wrote to his sister that Eberlin's fugues sages however are not always suitable for the could not be ranked with those of Bach and piano, I have taken the liberty to alter and omit Handel—'All honour to his 4-part pieces; but where I found mere repetitions without effect. his clavier fugues are merely extended Versetti.' This has been done with intelligence, and it is Marpurg was the first to proclaim his merit absurd to talk of disfigurement. Mozart and '('Kritische Beitriige,' Berlin 1757, vol. iii. Stiick Haydn were great men, who sought their effects 3, p. 183), and says that he wrote as much and by other means than noise and display, otldity as rapidly as Scarlatti and Telemann. [C.F.P.] or absurdity; they gladly welcomed arrangements of their works, as Beethoven himself does every EBERS, CAKL FRIEDRICH, son of a teacher of j day. But should it still annoy Herr Weber to a English at Cassel, born March 20, I77°> man | see his child in a new dress, and should he thereevidently of great ability, but as evidently of fore withdraw his paternity from it, I shall then little morale, taking any post that offered, and have to ask the public to acknowledge me as its keeping none; doing any work that turned up foster father. But the public has a right to to keep body and soul together, and at length insist that Herr Schlesinger shall free his pubdying in great poverty at Berlin, Sept. 9, 1836. lications from mistakes, for as long as one work Some of his arrangements have survived, but his remains uncorrected he is open to the remark compositions—half-a-dozen operas, symphonies, of ne sutor ultra crepidam.—Leipzig, 6 Dec. overtures, dance music, wind-instrument ditto, 1816.' [G] and, in short, pieces of every size and form— have all disappeared, with the exception of a EBERS, JOHN, born in England of German little drinking song, ' Wir sind die Konige der parents about 1785, originally a bookseller; underWelt,' which has hit the true popular vein. took the management of the opera at the King's One occurrence, in which he succeeded in an- Theatre in 1821, with Ayrton as musical director. noying a better man than himself, is worth per- He engaged Garcia, Galli, Mme. Camporesi, petuating as a specimen of the man. In the Pasta, and other celebrated singers, besides Rosnumber of the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung sini (1824), but the expenses were so enormous, for 11 Dec. 1816 appears a notice from C. M. von that in seven years he was completely ruined. Weber to the following effect: — 'Herr Hof- He published ' Seven Years at the King's meister of Leipzig has published a quintet of Theatre' (London, H. Ainsworth, 1828), an mine (op. 34) for clarinet and strings, arranged interesting record of Italian opera at that time [M.C.C.] as a solo sonata for piano, with the following in London. misleading title, " Sonata for the P. F., arranged EBERWEIN, TBADGOTT MAXIMILIAN, violinby C. F. Ebers from a Quintuor for Clarinet by ist and composer, of great note in his day, though C. M. de Weber, op. 34." I requested Herr Hof- now quite forgotten, born at Weimar 1775. At

EBEKWEIN.

ECCLESIASTICON.

seven he played in the court band of Weimar. In 1797 he entered the service of the Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, but it was not till 1817 that he became his chapel-master. In the interval he travelled much, making the acquaintance of Adam Hiller and Zelter at Berlin, and of Beethoven and Salieri at Vienna. He was a man of some influence and position, and one of the original founders of the musical festivals in Germany. Goethe frequently mentions him in his correspondence. He died at Rudolstadt, Dec. 2, 1831. His works, more numerous than original, include 11 operas ; 3 cantatas; a mass in Ab, his best work; a symphonie-eoncertante for oboe, horn, and bassoon; concertos, quartets, etc. [M.C.C.]

it, but yet approves of the Musick that pleaseth God'—from which the foregoing particulars are gathered. He subsequently resumed his profession and contributed several ground basses with divisions thereon to ' The Division Violin.' The date of his death is unknown. His eldest son, JOHN, was born in London about the middle of the 17th century. He learned music from his father, and about 1685 became engaged as a composer for the theatre, in which occupation he continued for upwards of a quarter of a century. Of the pieces to which he contributed, the most important (musically considered) were ' Don Quixote' (with Purcell), 1694; 'Europe's Revels for the Peace,' 1697; 'The Sham Doctor,' 1697; 'Rinaldoand Armida,' 1699; and 'Semele," 1707. The composition of the music in ' Macbeth,' generally attributed to Matthew Lock, has sometimes been ascribed to Eccles. In 1698, upon the death of Dr. Nicholas Staggins, Eccles was appointed Master of the King's Band of Music, in fulfilment of the duties of which office he composed numerous birth-day and new-year's odes. In 1700 he gained the second of the four prizes given for the best compositions of Congreve's masque, ' The Judgment of Paris'; thefirstbeing awarded to John Weldon, and the third and fourth to Daniel Purcell and Godfrey Finger. The score of Eccles' music for this piece was printed. In 1701 he set the ode written by Congreve for the celebration of St. Cecilia's day in that year. About 1710 he published a collection of nearly one hundred of his songs, comprising many of those which he had written for no fewer than forty-six dramatic pieces. The freshness and flow of Eccles' melodies rendered his songs universal favourites. In the latter part of his life he gave up all professional pursuits, except the annual production of the birth-day and new-year's odes, and retired to Kingston-upon-Thames for the diversion of angling, to which he was much attached. He died in January T 735. HENRY, second son of Solomon, was a violinist of considerable ability, who conceiving himself neglected in England, betook himself to Paris, where he was admitted a member of the French King's band. In 1720 he published at Paris, in two books, Twelve Solos for the Violin written in the style of Corelli. THOMAS, youngest of the three sons of Solomon, studied the violin under his brother Henry, and became an excellent performer. Being idle and dissipated, he gained a scanty and precarious subsistence by wandering from tavern to tavern in the city and playing to such of the company as desired to hear him. [W. H. H.] ECCLESIASTICON. A collection of classical church music in score, published by Diabelli & Co. (now Schreiber) of Vienna. Its contents are as follows:—

ECCARD, JOHANNES, born at Miihlhausen in Thuringia in 1553, was probably at first a scholar of Joachim Burgk, and afterwards of Orlando di Lasso at Munich, with whom he went to Paris in 1571. He was for some time in the employ of the Fuggers at Augsburg; in 1583 was made vice-capellmeister, and in 1599 full capellmeister, at Kbnigsberg to the Margrave of Brandenburg. In 1608 he obtained the same post under the Kurfurst at Berlin, in which post he died in 1611. He composed 20 ' Cantionea sacrae,' etc. (Muhlhausen, 1574); ' Crepundia sacra' (Muhlhausen, 1577 and 96; 2nd ed. Erfurt, 1680) ; 24 Deutsche Lieder (Muhlhausen, 1578); Newe Deutsche Lieder (Kbnigsberg, 1589) ; 'Der erste Theil 5-Stimmiger geistlicher Lieder' (4 vols., Kbnigsberg, 1597); and'Preussische Festlieder, 5, 6, 7, 8 Stimmen' (Ibid. 1598). Eccard wrote both Hymns and Chorals, some of which are still in use (Dbring's 'Choralkunde,' p. 47). There is a portrait of him, with a Latin inscription by G. Frbhlich. A short motet by Eccard, on the Chorale 'O Lamm Gottes,' for 5 voices, and an 'O Freude' for 2 Choirs, are included in the Berlin Domchor Collection, 'Musica Sacra.' The whole of the 'Geistliche Lieder' and of the ' Preussische Festlieder' (with Stobaus' additions) have been recently republished by Breitkopf & Hartel. [M.C.C.] ECCLES, SOLOMON, born in the first half of the 17th century, whose ancestors for three generations had been musicians, was from about 1642 a teacher of the virginals and viols, a pursuit from which he for some years derived a considerable income, but embracing the tenets of quakerism, he abandoned his profession, broke all his instruments, and burned them, together with his music books (the value of the whole being more than £24), on Tower Hill, and adopted the trade of a tailor. In 1667 he published a curious tract entitled 'A Musick-Lector, or, The Art of Musick . . . discoursed of, by way of dialogue between three men of several judgments ; the one a Musician . . . . zealous for the Church of England, who calls Musick the gift of God: the other a Baptist who did affirm it to be a decent and harmless practice : the other a Quaker (so called) being formerly of that art doth give his judgment and sentence against

No. 1-20. Graduates by Michael Haydo. „ 21. Horzalka. Missa Solonnis. Op. 27. „ 22. Stadler. Salvum fac. „ 23. Do. Magna et mirabilia. „ 24. Mozart, Begiua call.

481

No. 25-34. Offertorium and Graduates by Cherubini. „ 35. Stadler, Delectare. „ 36. Do. Si Deus. „ 37. J. S.Bach,Chorus,Dapacem. „ 38. Winter, Dominus Israel. „ 3d. Sechter. Mass, Graduate, e t c

Ii

ECCLESIASTICON.

ECKERT.

No.40. Albrechtsberger, Offerto- No.68. Geiger, Mass. „ 69-71. Assmayr, Offertoriums. rium. „ 41-62. uraduales, Michael Haydn. 72. Mozart, Offertorium in F. 73. Seegner, Mass in F. „ 63. Czerny, 6 Graduates. „ 64. Reissiger, Grand Mass in Eb. 74. Sechter, Missa Solennis in C. 75. Mozart, Bancti et Justi. „ 6">. Mozart, Tremendum. „ 66. Sechter, Salve Begina and 76. Seegner, Grand Mass in Eb. 77. Do. Mass in D. Ave Maria. 78. Beraneck, Offertorium. H 67. Worzischek, Offertorium.

instruction at the places where the journey was broken, but otherwise profiting chiefly by hearing his master. In his autobiography he speaks very highly of Eck as a violin-player. He describes his style as powerful without harshness, exhibiting a great variety of subtle and tasteful nuances, irreproachable in his execution of difficult passages, and altogether possessing a great and peculiar charm in performance. On the other hand, Eck was evidently an indifferent musician, unable to enter into the compositions of the great masters, and showing great incapacity in his own attempts at composition. That he was not ashamed to pass off unpublished compositions of his brother and other composers under his own name confirms the low estimate of his general character to be gathered from Spohr's narrative. On arriving at St. Petersburg in 1803 he met with great success, and was appointed SoloViolinist to the Court, but becoming involved in a scandalous affair, he fell into disgrace and was transported by the police over the Russian frontier. His health broke down and he became insane. After living for some time near Nancy he appears to have died in a lunatic asylum at Bamberg in 1809 or 10. Eck's importance in musical history rests mainly on the fact of his having been the master of Spohr, and thus having handed over to that great artist the traditions and principles of the celebrated Mannheim school of violin-playing. [P.D.]

482

ECHO. The organs built immediately after the Restoration generally contained what was then a novelty in England, called the Echo. This consisted of a repetition of the treble portion of a few of the leading stops of the organ, voiced softly, shut up in a wooden box, placed in some remote part of the organ case—usually behind the desk-board—and played upon by a separate half row of keys. The 'echo effect' enjoyed great popularity for many years, and exercised an influence on much of the cotemporary music both for voices and instruments. Purcell in some of his anthems exhibited a predilection for the loud and soft contrast; while most of the pieces written for keyed instruments abounded with recognitions of it up to the time of Handel, whose Concertos, Suites, etc., gave fresh impetus to the popular taste. [CORNET.] [E. J. H.] ECHOS DU TEMPS PASSE. One of those popular collections of which the French have so many. It embraces Airs, Brunettes, Chansons a boire, Chansons a danser, Noels, Rondeaux, Gavottes, Musettes, Minuets, from the 12th to the 18th centuries, by Adam de la Hale, Lasso, ECKERT, CARL ANTON FLORIAN, violinist, Marot, Arcadelt, Ronsard, Charles IX, Louis XIII, Lulli, Rameau, Couperin, Rebel, etc., pianist, composer, and conductor, born at Potsdam edited and accompanied by J. B. Wekerlin, in Dec. 7, 1820. Left an orphan at an early age he was brought up in barracks by his father's 3 vols. 8vo. (Flaxland, Paris). comrades, but owed his education to Hofrath ECK, JOHANN FRTEDKICH, an eminent violinof Berlin. His early ability was remarkplayer, born 1766 at Mannheim, where his father Forster not only as a player, but as a composer. was a member of the band. He was a pupil of able, the age of 10 he had completed an opera, Danner, and soon rose to be one of the best By 13 an oratorio, and by 20 another, and both violin-players in Germany. Reichardt of Berlin by and are warmly praised in Bpeaks of him as having all the qualities of a these were performed, of thetime. He studied under various really great player—large tone, perfect intonation, theA.M.Z. and in 1839 had the good fortune to taste and feeling, and adds that, with the single musicians, become a pupil of Mendelssohn's at Leipzig. With exception of Salomon, he never heard a better characteristic sympathy for talent Mendelssohn violinist. From 1778 to 88 Eck was a member gave him great encouragement, himself of the band at Munich, and afterwards conducted warmly to him, spoke of him as 'aattached sound, practical the opera of that town. In 1801 however, musician,' and corresponded with 1 His having married a lady of rank and wealth, he oratorio 'Judith' was performed byhim. the 'Singquitted Germany and spent the rest of his life in Akademie' in Berlin in 1841, and in the followParis, and in the neighbourhood of Nancy. The ing year the King of Prussia sent him to Italy date of his death is unknown. Eck published for two years. On his return he composed an 4 Concertos for the violin, and a Concertante for opera, 'Wilhelm von Oranien,' which was suc2 Violins. cessfully performed in B rlin (1846) and at the His most distinguished pupil was his brother Hague (1848). In 51 he became accompanyist FRANZ, also an eminent violin-player, born to the Italian theatre in Paris, then accompanied at Mannheim 1774. He entered the band Sontag on her tour in the United States, returnat Munich while very young; but, driven from ing to Paris in 52 as conductor of the Italian that city by a love-affair, he travelled in 1802 Opera. In 54 he was called to Vienna to take through Germany, and gained a great reputation the direction of the Court Opera, a post which as violinist. The Duke of Brunswick was at he filled with great ability and distinction. But that time looking out for a master on the violin none of these things could satisfy him, and in for Spohr, then 18, in whose rising talent he 61 he went to Stuttgart as Capellmeister in took a lively interest. He invited Eck to Kiicken's place. This too he threw up in 67; Brunswick and confided to him the technical education of the future great musician. They at • See an excellent letter (Jan. 26.1R42) full of kind feeling and the once set out on a tour to Russia, Spohr getting most judicious advice and encouragement.

483

ECKERT.

EHLERT.

but in 68 he was suddenly appointed to the head directorship at Berlin in place of Dorn, who was pensioned to make way for him. This post he still retains. Eckert is one of the first conductors of the day, but as a composer he is hardly destined to live. He has composed three operas, much church music, a symphony, a trio, and many pieces of smaller dimensions ; but none has made anything that can be called an impression, unless it be a few songs and a fine violoncello concerto. There must be something vacillating and wanting in earnestness in the nature of the man, to have so sadly disappointed the fair hopes entertained of him by Mendelssohn in the outset [M. C. C] of his career. ECOSSAISE. A dance, as its name implies, of Scotch origin. It was at first accompanied by the bagpipes, and in its original form was in 3-2 or 2-4 time. The modern Ecossaise, however, is a species of contredanse in quick 2-4 time, consisting of two four-bar or eight-bar sections, with repeats. Franz Schubert has written a number of Ecossaises for the piano, which will be found in his ops. 18, 33, 49, and 67. The following example of the first part of an Ecossaise dates from the commencement of the last century.

Rooms at Park Place, which were constructed at a cost of £10,000, including the organ. The Concert takes place at the Music Hall. [G.] EDWARDS, RICHARD, a native of Somersetshire, born in 1523. He was educated under George Etheridge, 'one of the most excellent vocal and instrumental musicians in England'— of whom however nothing more is known. On May 11, 1540, he was admitted a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1547, on the foundation of Christ Church College, he became a student there, and in the same year graduated as M. A. Antony Wood says he was also a member of Lincoln's Inn. In 1563 he was appointed Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal in succession to Richard Bower. Edwards was the compiler of and chief contributor to the collection of poems called ' The Paradise of Dainty Devices,' which was not however published until 1576, ten years after his death. He was the author of two dramatic pieces, viz. ' Damon and Pythias,' and 'Palamon and Arcite'; the first was acted at Court, and the second before Queen Elizabeth in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford, Sept. 3, 1566. This performance so pleased Elizabeth that she sent for the author and 'gave him promise of reward.' Unless however this promise was very promptly fulfilled it must have been profitless to Edwards, as he died on October 31 following. But few examples of his skill in composition remain. The beautiful part-song, ' In going to my naked bed,' has been conjecturally assigned to him by Sir John Hawkins, and, as it is certain that he wrote the verses, it is highly probable that he also composed the music, but there is no proof of it. His charming little poem 'The Soul's Knell,' said to have been written on his death [W. H. H.] bed, is still admired.

[E.P.] EDINBURGH PROFESSORSHIP OF MUSIC. Founded by General John Reid, who died in 1807, leaving funds in the hands of trustees for various purposes, amongst others for endowing a chair of music in the University, and founding a concert to be given annually on . his birthday, Feb. 13, in which a march and minuet of his composition should be included 'to show the taste for music about the middle of the last century, and to keep his name in remembrance.' The Professorship was founded in Dec. 1839, and Mr. John Thomson was the first professor. He was succeeded in 1841 by Sir H. R. Bishop; in 1844 by Henry Hugo Pierson ; in 1845 by 1 John Donaldson : and in 1865 by Herbert (now Sir Herbert) S. Oakeley. The portion of the Reid bequest set apart for musical purposes is ,£28,500, the annual revenue from which is divided as follows: — professor, £420; assistant, .£200; class expenses, £100; expenses of the Concert, £300. A sum of £3,000 was bequeathed in 1871 by Signor Theophile Bucher to be applied to bursaries or scholarships ; but this will not come into operation till the death of an annuitant. The class fee for the session is 3 guineas. The duties of the professor consist in lectures and organ performances on an organ built by Hill of London at the instance of Professor Donaldson, and placed in the Class 1 There was a severe contest for the Chair on this occasion; and Sterndale Bennett was among the candidates. Besides the organ mentioned in h - se feind, mit ernst ers itzt meint.

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EITNER. Bardd Cadeiriawg—the bard of the chair—because after election he was installed in a magnificent chair, and was decorated with a silver or gold chain, which he wore on his breast as a badge of office. His emoluments from fees were considerable. Persons desiring to take degrees in music were presented to the Eisteddfod by a Pencerdd, who vouched for their fitness, the candidates being required to pass through a noviciate of three years, and to study for further several periods of three years before advancement to each of the three higher degrees. It is now difficult to define the status of the titles conferred, but they cannot be considered more than historical names or complimentary distinctions, often bestowed by the Eisteddfodau upon persons who had but little knowledge of music. After being discontinued for some time the Eisteddfodau appear to have been revived in the reigns of Edward IV, Henry VII, Henry VIII, and Elizabeth. In 1450 what has been called 'The great Eisteddfod of Carmarthen,' was held in that town, with the king's sanction; and another meeting was held in South Wales in Henry VII's reign, of which no records are preserved. In 1523, at Caerwys, Flintshire, an Eisteddfod was held, at which many eminent men were present; and on May 26, 1567, there was another at the same place, under a commission granted by Queen Elizabeth. Still more memorable was the congress at Bewpyr Castle in 1681, under the auspices of Sir Richard Bassett. In 1771 the Gwyneddigion, a society established in London for the cultivation of the Welsh language, promoted several of these meetings in North Wales; and in 1819 the Cambrian Society held a great Eisteddfod at Carmarthen, at which the Bishop of St. David's presided. Mr. John Parry, who was a chief promoter of this society, and its registrar, edited the Welsh melodies for it, and in recognition of his efforts a concert was given to him at Freemasons' Hall on May 24, 1826, at which Miss Stephens, Braham, Mori, Lindley, and others assisted, followed by a dinner, at which Lord Clive presided. In later years the revival of these meetings was promoted by Sir Benjamin Hall (afterwards Lord Llanover); and at one of them, held in 1828 at Denbigh, the Duke of Sussex was present, and Sir Edward Mostyn president. The Eisteddfodau are now annually held at several places in the Principality, the leading Welsh musicians, including Mme. Edith Wynne and Mr. Brinley Richards, taking part in the concerts, which usually follow the competitions for the prizes. There is no special day for holding the Eisteddfod, but according to an ancient regulation the meeting is not considered ' legal' unless it be proclaimed a twelvemonth and a day. Strictly speaking, the Eisteddfodau are no longer 'national,' except that they are held in Wales, and retain some of the quaint formalities which marked the ancient meetings. [CM.]

The tune has been Used a3 tie foundation of various pieces of music, such as Bach's cantata just referred to; the Finale of Mendelssohn's 'Reformation Symphony'; a Fest-ouverture by O. Nicolai; an overture by Raff; and Wagner's 'Kaisermarsch.' It is also largely employed by Meyerbeer in the Huguenots. [G.] EISTEDDFOD (Welsh, ' a sitting of learned men'). These musical and literary festivals and competitions originated in the triennial assembly of the Welsh bards usually held at Aberffraw, the royal seat of the Princes of North Wales and Anglesey, at Dynevor in South Wales, and at Mathravael, Merionethshire, for the regulation of poetry and music, for the conferring of degrees, and electing to the chair of the Eisteddfod. The antiquity of this ceremony is very high, mention being made of an Eisteddfod in the 7th century at which King Cadwaladr presided. Those barda only who acquired the degree EITNER, ROBERT, born at Breslau, Oct. 22, of ' Pencerdd' (chief minstrel) were authorised 1832, now living in Berlin; founder in 186S of the to teach, and the presiding bard was called ' Gesellschaft iiir Musikforschung,' and contri-

EITNER.

ELFORD.

485

have simplified the system by devising a new form of pallet which offers no resistance in opening, and thus does away with the necessity for the pneumatic bellows. The action may be thus briefly described. Each key is furnished with a rocking lever provided with a copper point, which latter, on being depressed, is plunged into a mercury cell, and so establishes the electric current. The other end of the wire is furnished with an electro-magnet, acting directly on the pallet. The insulated wires of the several keys can be gathered up into a cable not more than an inch in diameter and carried in any desired ELECTRIC ACTION. Under the head KEY- direction, and to any distance, without there being MOVEMENT a description is given of the usual any appreciable interval between the touch upon forms in which communication is established the keys and the response at the pipes. [E. J.H.] between the claviers of an organ and the soundboard pallets which admit wind for the service ELEGY (eAcyos). In its original sense a of the pipes. poem, always of a sad and touching character, There are some situations, however, in which and generally commemorative of some lamented it is difficult or even impossible to establish a decease (e.g. Gray's Elegy) ; subsequently such satisfactory connection by means of the ordinary a poem with music; and still more recently a mechanism; or if possible is scarcely desirable piece of music inspired by the same feeling and on account of drawbacks which may easily be suggested by a like occasion, but without poem, foreseen. Apart from the tendency to derange- or any words whatever. The elegy has taken ment inevitable in the numerous parts of an many musical forms; that of the vocal solo, extended movement of the kind under con- duet, trio, quartet, etc., with or without acsideration, the trackers when so very long are companiment ; of the instrumental solo for the apt to expand with the damp and shrink with violin, pianoforte, 'or other instrument, and of the drought; and if in tracker-work, traversing the concerted piece for stringed or other instrua distance of 30 feet or more, the total alteration ments. One of the most beautiful specimens of amounts to no more than one eighth of an inch, the first class extant is Beethoven's quartet in that is quite sufficient to cause a thorough dis- memory of the deceased wife of his friend Baron arrangement. The normal depth for the touch Pasqualati ('Elegischer Gesang,' op. 118). In of an organ is three eighths of an inch. If the score of Handel's 'Saul' the lament of the reduced by one eighth—to a quarter of an inch— Israelites over the king and Jonathan is entitled the pallets are opened imperfectly, the wind ad- ' Elegy.' Of the second we have Dussek's mitted is insufficient, and the organ sounds out ' Elegie harmonique' on the death of Prince of tune : if increased by that much—to half an Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, for piano solo. inch—some of the pallets are drawn slightly open, Better known than either of these to the modern concert-goer is Ernst's 'Elegie' for violin solo and hummings or ' cypherings' are the result. Some other means of communication, which with piano accompaniment. Of the third class should if possible be less under the influence a better instance can hardly be cited than Mr. of atmospheric variation, and therefore better Arthur Sullivan's overture ' In Memoriam,' adapted to withstand the frequent sudden changes which is in truth an elegy on the composer's [J. H,] of our climate, as well as for other reasons, thus father. became a great desideratum, and two were ELFORD, RICHARD, was educated as a chordevised—first the ' electric action,' and then the ister in Lincoln Cathedral. His voice changing ' pneumatic tubular transmission system.' to a fine counter-tenor he became a member of The earliest patent for anything like electric the choir of Durham Cathedral. About the action was taken out by the late Dr. Gauntlett commencement of the i8th century he came to in 1851, who proposed erecting in the Great London, and was engaged as a singer at the Exhibition of that year facsimiles of the eight theatre. On August 2, 1702, he was sworn-in most celebrated organs in Europe, and playing as a gentleman of the Chapel Royal, a place being them all together or separately from the centre created expressly for • him. He also obtained of the building by electric agency; but the the appointments of vicar-choral of St. Paul's suggestion was not favourably received. In 1863 Cathedral and lay vicar of Westminster Abbey. Mr. Goundry patented an elaborate electric After a few years he withdrew from the stage, system; and in 68 Mr. Barker protected his on which he had never been successful, owing to 'electro-pneumatic system' for opening pallets, his ungainly figure and awkward action. Weldrawing stops, etc. ; since then Messrs. Bryceson2 don, in the preface to the first book of his 1 He omits all mention of the collections of Barnard (1641), Boyce 'Divine Harmony'1 (six solo anthems composed (1778). and Arnold (1790), as well as Morlej's Triumphs of Oriana 0601). expressly for Elford ), and Dr. Croft, in the pre2 The house of Bryceson—now Messrs. Bryceson Brothers & Morten- face to his ' Musica Sacra,' speak in high terms was founded in 1796 by Henry Bryceson. Amongst their instruments maybe mentioned those at the Great Concert Hall,.Brighton; the of Elford's voice and singing. He died Oct. Tro-Cathedral, Kensington; St. Michael's, Cornhill; St. Peter and 29,1714. [W.H.H.]

bntor to the valuable historical periodical 'Monatshefte fiir Musikgeschichte.' He edited a ' "Verzeichniss neuer Ausgaben alter Musikwerke . . . bis zum Jahre 1800' (Berlin 18 71), which though singularly defective as regards the English 1 School, is a useful catalogue. More recently he edited, in conjunction with Haberl, Langerberg, and C. F. Pohl, a valuable ' Bibliographie der Musik-Sammel-werke des 16 und 17 Jahrhunderts' (Berlin 1877). His papers on Peter Sweelinck (Berlin 1870) and Arnold Schlick are of importance. [F. G.]

Bt, Paul, Cork; and that for Mr. Holmes, Primrose Hill Boad.

ELIJAH.

ELSNEE.

ELIJAH (Elias in German)—'an oratorio on words from the Old Testament' (op. 70)—was Mendelssohn's 2nd oratorio. The idea appears to have occurred to him when reading the passage ' and the Lord passed by' (1 Kings xix. 11). ' Would not that be splendid for an oratorio ?' said he to Hiller. This, if the case, must have been before Nov. 2, 1838, when, from his letter to Schubring, he had evidently gone far into the subject. The score has no dates. On Aug. 5, 1846, the orchestral parts were rehearsed by Mendelssohn at Leipzig; Aug. 10 he had a vocal rehearsal at Moscheles' house, London; then two full ones at Hanover Square ; Aug. 24 a full rehearsal at Birmingham ; and on Wednesday the 26th it was first performed. Various alterations and additions were made afterwards, including the trio 'Lift thine eyes' and the last chorus. He was helped by Schubring in the selection of the words. The English words by Mr. Bartholomew were sent to him as he worked, and were the subject of a long correspondence. The first performance in Germany was at Hamburg in October 1847, conducted by Krebs. ELISA, OU LE VOYAGE AU MONT BERNARD. Opera in two acts; words by SaintCyr, music by Cherubini; produced at the Theatre Feydeau, Dec. 13, 1794. ELISI, FILIPPO, a tenor singer in Italian opera in London, 1765. Among other parts, he sang that of Eumene in the pasticcio of the same name at the King's Theatre that season. [J.M.] ELTSIR D'AMORE, L', opera buffa in 2 acts; libretto by Romani, music by Donizetti. Produced at Milan in 1829 (?); at Lyceum, London, Dec. 10, 1836. Also, as The Love Spell, at Drury Lane, June 24, 1839. ELLA, JOHN, violinist, son of Richard Ella of Thirsk, was born Dec. 19, 1802. At the age of 19 he quitted the profession of the law for music. In T822 he became a member of the orchestra of the King's Theatre, and subsequently of the orchestras of the Concerts of Antient Music, Philharmonic, etc., retiring finally in 1848. In 1819 he received lessons in violin-playing from M. Ferny, in 1826 he was a pupil of Attwood in harmony, and finally completed his education in counterpoint, instrumentation, and composition, under Fe'tis at Paris, 1845. In 1845 he established, under the name of ' The Musical Union,' a series of morning concerts of instrumental chamber music at which the best classical works have been rendered by the best artists native and foreign. He lias directed the Musical Union uninterruptedly for thirty-two years. In 1850 he established a similar series of concerts under the name of' Musical Winter Evenings,' which were given annually, under his direction, until 1859, after which they were discontinued. At both these concerts he introduced, and has continued, the ' analytical programmes' (wholly written by himself), which have since been frequently adopted elsewhere. He has contributed many

notices of music and musicians to the Morning Post, Musical World, and Athenaeum. In 1855 he was appointed lecturer on music at the London Institution, where he has delivered several lectures, some of which have been published. He also published a Personal Memoir of Meyerbeer, with an analysis of Les Huguenots, and under the title of ' Musical Sketches abroad and at home,' a volume of interesting musical

486

chit-chat, &c. [MUSICAL UNION.] [W.H.H.] ELLERTON, JOHN LODGE, an amateur com-

poser, born in Cheshire, Jan. 11, 1807, was a descendant from an ancient Irish family. In his childhood he showed a remarkable fondness for music, and notwithstanding his father's strong discouragement, soon attained by his own efforts to as much knowledge as enabled him to play the piano. Being sent to Oxford (where he graduated as M.A. in 1828), he lost no opportunity of pursuing music; devoting his attention chiefly to composition. While at Oxford he composed an English operetta and an Italian opera. On quitting the university he went to Rome, studied counterpoint for two years under a chapelmaster named Terriani, and composed several operas. Ellerton essayed nearly every species of composition. His works comprise 6 anthems; 6masses; 17 motets; 'Paradise Lost,' oratorio; 'Issipile,' 'Berenice in Armenia,' 'Annibale in Capua,' 'II Sacrifizid di Epito,' '1 Andromacca,' ' I I Carnovale di Venezia,' and II Marito a Vista,' Italian operas; Carlo Rosa, German opera; ' Lucinda,'' Dominica,' and ' The Bridal of Triermain,' English operas; 61 glees; 83 vocal duets; 5 symphonies; 4concert overtures; 3 quintets, 44 quartets and 3 trios for stringed instruments ; and 8 trios and 13 sonatas for various combinations of instruments. In 1835 and 1838 the Catch Club awarded him prizes for glees. He died Jan. 3, 1873. [W.H.H.] ELLIOT, THOMAS, organ-builder, one of the early members of the firm of HILL & SON. ELSNER, JOSEPH, composer, born June 1, 1769, at Grodgrau, in Silesia, son of a carpenter who made harpsichords, harps, and other musical instruments. Being intended for the profession of medicine, he had no regular instruction in music beyond a few lessons in harmony from Forster, director of the theatre at Breslau, but early began to compose. A visit to Vienna enabled him greatly to improve himself by studying classical scores, and by intercourse with the best musicians of his time. In 1791 he was appointed first violin in the theatre at Briinn, and in the following year Capellnieister at Lemberg, where he wrote 5 operas, 4 symphonies, quartets, sonatas, etc. In 1799 he was appointed conductor of the theatre at Warsaw, and here he established himself for life, composing 22 operas in the Polish language within the space of 20 years. During a visit to Paris some of his compositions were performed at the Tuileries. With the assistance of Countess Zamoiska he started in 1815 a society at Warsaw for the encouragement of music, which resulted in the

487

ELSNER.

ELY CATHEDRAL.

Conservatoire, of which he became the first director and professor of composition. This institution did good service before it was closed by the political troubles of 1830. In 1834 it was revived, with Soliva as director. Eisner continued to compose, chiefly sacred music, till 1844, when he wrote his 'Stabat Mater,' his right hand being paralysed. He died in 1854. He is an interesting example of a successful composer who learnt composition by composing. His works are legion — Operas, ballets, melodramas, cantatas, church music, symphonies, and instrumental pieces of all sizes and kinds. His operas, immensely popular in Poland, are light, and in the now old-fashioned style of Paer and Mayer. His part-writing is easy and natural, but without any great originality or variety, while his fugues betray the want of sound instruction. His church music in general is perhaps too dramatic. He wrote two little treatises on the adaptability of the Polish language to music. [M.C.C.]

of the University from 1840 till his death, Oct. 6, i860. Stephen Elvey's compositions are not numerous ; they consist chiefly of chants and services. His Evening Service, composed in continuation of Dr. Croft's Morning Service in A, and his ' Psalter and Canticles pointed' (Oxford, Parker), are well known. Some years before his death he had to submit to the amputation of a leg, through a gun accident whilst shooting. [W.H.H.] ELWART, ANTOINE AIMABLE ELIE, learned

musician, composer, and author, of Polish origin, born in Paris Nov. 18, 1808. He was originally a chorister in the church of St. Eustache, but at 13 his father apprenticed him to a packing-case maker, from whom he ran away and supported himself by playing in the orchestra of a small theatre on the Boulevards. He became a pupil of the Conservatoire, learning composition under Fetis. In 1828, when in Lesueur's class, he founded 'concerts dMmulation' among the pupils, which continued for six years, and proved most ELVEY, SIR GEORGE JOB, Knight, Mus. useful to the students in composition as well as Doc. was born at Canterbury, March 27, 1816. to the soloists. In 1831 he obtained the second He commenced his musical education as a prize for composition, and in 1834 the 'Grand chorister of Canterbury Cathedral under High- Prix de Rome.' While at Rome he composed, more Skeats, the organist. After quitting the amongst other things, an 'Omaggio alia memoria choir he pursued his studies under his elder di Bellini,' performed at the Teatro Valle in brother, Stephen. In 1834 he gained the Gres- 1835. In 1S36 he resumed his post of assistant ham prize medal for his anthem, 'Bow down professor to Reicha at the Conservatoire. He Thine ear.' In 1835 he was appointed to succeed conducted the concerts in the Rue Vivienne, Skeats as organist of St. George's Chapel, Wind- and those of the Socie'te' de Ste. Ce'cile. Elwart sor. In 1838 he graduated as Bachelor of Music was for long professor of harmony at the Conat Oxford, his exercise being a short oratorio, servatoire ; after the war of 1870 he retired into 'The Resurrection and Ascension,' which was private life, and died Oct. 14, 77. Among his afterwards produced in London by the Sacred compositions may be specified—the oratorios Harmonic Society on Dec. 2, 1840, and has also 'Noe' (Paris 1845) and 'La Naissance d'Eve' been given at Boston, U. S. A., and at Glasgow. (1846); an opera 'Les Catalans'(Rouen); and In 1840 he proceeded Doctor of Music, his exercise choruses and instrumental music for the Alcestis being an anthem, ' The ways of Zion do mourn.' of Euripides, performed at the Odeon; besides He composed an anthem for voices and orchestra other operas not produced, symphonies, overtures, 'The Lord is King' for the Gloucester Musical string quintets, quartets, and trios, masses, and Festival of 1853, and a similar one, 'Sing, O other church music. He has written a life of heavens,' for the Worcester Festival of 1857. Duprez (Paris, 1838); a 'Petit Manuel d'hannoElvey's compositions are entirely for the church ; nie' (Paris, 1839), translated into Spanish, and many of his anthems are published. He com- in use at the Madrid Conservatoire; ' Le Chanteur posed a Festival March for the wedding of the accompagnateur' (Paris 1844); 'Traite du conPrincess Louise in 18 71, which was afterwards per- trepoint et de la fugue' (Paris), and other formed in public. In the same year he received theoretical works. He completed the 'Etudes the honour of knighthood. His tune for the ele'mentaires de musique' of Burnett and Damour harvest hymn, ' Come, ye thankful people,' is (Paris 1845), and contributed articles on musical generally admired. [W. H. H.] subjects to the ' Encyclopedie du dix-neuvieme siecle' and to the 'Revue et Gazette musicale ELVEY, STEPHEN, MUS. DOC, the elder de Paris.' His ' Histoire de la Societe des Conbrother of the preceding, was born in Canterbury, certs ' and ' Histoire des Concerts populaires' are June 27, 1805. He was entered as a chorister of two compendiums of useful and interesting matter. the cathedral under Skeats, whose pupil he Though independent and eccentric, Elwart was [M.C. C] continued after the breaking of his voice. On both esteemed and liked. the death of Alfred Bennett in 1830, Elvey was ELY CATHEDRAL. The music library of appointed his successor as organist of New College, Oxford. In the following year he took this church contains a very valuable and interestthe degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford, his ing collection of MSS., principally of English exercise being the hymn from Thomson's 'Sea- church music, due chiefly to the pious care and sons,' 'These as they change.' In 1838 he pro- industry of James Hawkins, its organist for 47 ceeded Doctor of Music, his exercise being an years from 1682. It consists of 36 volumes—21 anthem, ' Great is the Lord ]' He was Choragua of anthems, services, and chants, in score, 11 of

488

ELY CATHEDRAL.

ENGLISH OPERA.

ENGLISH HORN. The tenor oboe in F, intermediate between the ordinary oboe and the bassoon. It seems in great measure to have superseded an older instrument, the Corno di caccia, which occurs in the scores of Bach, and which was curved back on itself like a bassoon, or at an obtuse angle. [See COR ANGLAIS.] [W.H.S.] ENGLISH OPERA. An English opera may EMBOUCHURE. The part of a musical in- be defined as a regular drama, the most important strument applied to the mouth ; and hence used parts of which are set to music and sung, the to denote the disposition of the lips, tongue, and subordinate parts being spoken as ordinary other organs necessary for producing a musical dialogue, as in German and French operas. It differs from a musical play in the fact that in tone. most cases the musical pieces may be omitted To the embouchure are due, not only the correct from the play without interrupting the progress quality of the sound produced, but also certain of the action, whilst in an opera they form inteflight variations in pitch, which enable the gral and essential portions of it. The exceptions player to preserve accurate intonation. In many from this rule will be noticed presently. instruments, such especially as the French horn The earliest instances of the alliance of music and the Bassoon, almost everything depends upon the embouchure. [W.H.S.] with the English drama are probably to be found in the mysteries, or miracle-plays, anciently perEMPEROR CONCERTO. THE, a title, like formed at Coventry, Chester, and other places. 'Jupiter Symphony' and 'Moonlight Sonata,' As the drama became developed, the association gratuitously bestowed on Beethoven's P. F. Con- of music with it became closer and more frequent. certo in E& (op. 75). Such titles are unneces- In several of Shakspere's comedies the songs, sary, and the only excuse for them is that they etc., are absolutely essential to the piece, and enable non-professional persons to refer to musical cannot be omitted. Witness particularly 'The Tempest,' 'As You Like It,' 'Twelfth Night,' and works without using musical nomenclature. 'A Midsummer Night's Dream.' In the masques EMPEROR'S HYMN, THE. A hymn performed at court, temp. James I and Charles I, written in 1796 by Lorenz Leopold Haschka a nearer approach was made to the opera—poetry, during the patriotic excitement caused by the music, scenery, machinery, and characteristic movements of the French revolutionary army, dresses and decorations being combined in them. set to music for 4 voices by Haydn, and first Alfonso Ferrabosco junior, Laniere, Coperario, sung on Feb. 12, 1797, at the Emperor's birthday. Robert Johnson, Campion, Simon Ives, and WilHe afterwards employed it as the theme for 4 liam and Henry Lawes, were the principal comvariations in his well-known quartet (op. 76, posers employed. The first approaches towards No. 3). (See A. Schmid, • J. Haydn und N. the revival of dramatic entertainments, which Zingarelli," Venice 1847.) had been suspended by the closing of the theatres during the Civil War, were made during the ENCORE—the French for 'again'—the cry interregnum through the medium of musical pieces. in English theatres and concert-rooms when a On March 26, Shirley's masque, 'Cupid piece is desired to be repeated. It has taken and Death,' with1653, by Matthew Locke, was the place of the 'altra volta' of last century. performed before music Portuguese ambassador. The French and Germans use the Italian term Three years later the Sir William Davenant gave, ' Bis,' and the French have even a verb, ' bisser.' a semi-public manner, ' The First Day's 'Le public anglais est grand redemandeur, et in at Rutland House by Declamations exprime son vceu par un mot francais, comme Entertainment Musick,' with music by Colman, Cook, H. nous par un mot latin' (A. Adam, Souvenirs, and Lawes, and Hudson. In the prologue it is desigxxvii.). nated an opera, though not one in any respect. ENFANT PRODIGUE, L\ opera in 5 acts; In the following year Davenant produced 'The words by Scribe, music by Auber; produced at Siege of Rhodes,' the dialogue of which was the Acade"mie Dec. 6. 1850; in Italian, as ' I I given in recitative, which Davenant describes as ' unpractised here, though of great reputation Prodigo,' at her Majesty's June 12, 1851. amongst other nations.' This piece, to which ENGEDI. See MOUNT OF OLIVES. a second part was subsequently added, maintained ENGLAND, GEORGE, and GEORGE PIKE (his its position for some years, but the music has Bon), organ-builders. The former flourished be- not, so far as is known, been preserved. ' The tween 1740 and 1788, and married the daughter Siege of Rhodes' was followed by the production of Richard Bridge; the latter between 1788 and by Davenant in 1658 of 'The Cruelty of the in Peru, expressed by instrumental 1814. The elder England built many noble Spaniards vocal music, and the art of perspective in organs. Of Bridge little is known ; he is believed and scenes,' a performance said to have been not only to have been trained by Harris the younger, and connived at, but secretly encouraged by Cromwell, to have lived in Hand Court, Holborn, in 1748. who was then supposed to be meditating some His best organ was at Christ Church, Spitalfields, designs against the Spaniards. During the four 173°[V.deP.] voice parts, and 4 of organ parts. The number of compositions is over 580, and includes some of large dimensions, as Handel's Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate for voices and orchestra, Croft's ditto, ditto. A catalogue of these works was prepared by the Rev. W. E. Dickson, Precentor of the cathedral, and published for the Dean and Chapter by Deighton, Bell, & Co., 1861.

489

ENGLISH OPERA.

ENGLISH OPERA.

or 6ve years which followed the re opening of the public theatres in 1660, little, beyond occasional repetitions of ' The Siege of Rhodes,' appears to have been done to forward operatic performances on the English stage. The Plague in 1665 and the Great tire of London in 66 caused a temporary suspension of all theatrical performances, but a step onwards was made in 67 by the production of an adaptation by Davenant and Dryden of Shakspere's • Tempest' with large additions to the lyric portions. The vocal music of this version was supplied by Pelham Humphrey and John Banister, and the instrumental by Matthew Locke. Soon after the opening of the theatre in Dorset Gardens (1671), the proprietors resorted to opera as the principal attraction. In 1673 they brought out Shadwell's 'Psyche,' of which the author said ' the great desire was to entertain the town with variety of musick, curious dancing, splendid scenes and machines.' Matthew Locke composed the vocal, and Giovanni Baptista Draghi the instrumental music for ' Psyche,' the dances being arranged by St. Andre, and the scenery painted by Stephenson. In 1675 was 'performed at Mr. Josias Priest's Boarding School at Chelsey by young Gentlewomen' the youthful Henry Purcell's first opera 'Dido and ^Eneas,' the dialogue in recitative. In 1677 Charles Davenant's 'Circe' was produced, with the music of John Banister. The Frenchman Grabut's Betting of Dryden's ' Albion and Albanius' appeared in 1685 and failed. A few years later the form of English opera had become definitively settled, and in 1690 Purcell reset ' The Tempest,' revised for that purpose by Dryden, and composed the music for ' Dioclesian' —an adaptation by Betterton of Beaumont and Fletcher's 'Prophetess,' 'with alterations and additions after the manner of an opera,' and for Dryden's ' King Arthur.' Two years later he set Dryden's alteration of Sir R. Howard's 'Indian Queen,' and 'The Fairy Queen,' an adaptation of Shakspere's ' Midsummer Night's Dream.' Purcell's contemporaries and immediate successors adhered to the form adopted by him, from which no deviation took place (with the exception of Clayton's setting of Addison's 'Rosamond' in 1707, Boyce's 'Chaplet' 1749, and 'Shepherd's Lottery,' 1751, and Arne's 'Thomas and Sally,' 1760, in all which, and possibly in a few minor pieces, the dialogue was set as recitative) until 1762, when Arne produced his ' Artaxerxes,' set after the Italian manner, with the dialogue wholly in recitative. This departure from the established form produced however no immediate imitators, and Arne's contemporaries and successors, Dibdin, Arnold, Jackson, Linley, Hook, Shield, Storace, Attwood, Braham, Bishop, Barnett, Rooke, etc., adhered for nearly a century to the established model, which, as already remarked, was also that of German opera and of French Opera Comique. Efforts have been made at different times and with very chequered results to establish theatres especially devoted to the production of English

opera. In 1809 Samuel James Arnold, son of Dr. Arnold, obtained a licence for opening the Lyceum Theatre (which he named the English Opera House) for their performance, and for several years afterwards produced, besides the standard operas, new works by Braham, Horn, M. P. King, Davy, and other native composers. The great success of Weber's ' Der Freischiitz,' produced in English in 1824, induced Arnold to change his plan, and for some years afterwards he brought forward principally English versions of German operas, until the success in 1834 of Barnett's ' Mountain Sylph' led him to revert to his original design, and to produce works by Loder, Thomson, and Macfarren. From about 1835 to 1850 successive managers of Drury Lane Theatre devoted much attention to the production of English opera, and many new works by Barnett, Balfe, Wallace, Macfarren, Benedict, and others, were brought out there. In 1856 Miss Louisa Pyne and Mr. W. Harrison embarked in an undertaking for the performance of English operas; and under their management, which lasted about seven years, several new operas by Balfe, Benedict, Wallace, and others, were produced. An 'English Opera Company, Limited,' was formed in 1865, an and A. The latter of these was his last work, and was played under Joachim's lead at the Monday Popular Concerts, June 6, 64. [P. D.]

EROICA.

EETMANN.

EROICA. The SINFONIA EROICA is the third

of Beethoven's Symphonies, the greatest piece of Programme music yet composed. The title is his own—'Sinfonia eroica composta per festeggiare il sovvenire di un grand' uomo dedicata a Sua Altezza Serenissima il Principe di Lobkowitz da Luigi van Beethoven. Op. 55. No. III. Partizione. Bonna e Colonia presso N. Simrock.' (N. B. the Italian: the titles of Symphonies 1 and 2 are in French.) But its original title was simply ' Bonaparte. Louis van Beethoven.' The subject was suggested to him—perhaps as early as 1798, two years before the known completion of the 1st Symphony—by Bernadotte, the French ambassador at Vienna; but there is no trace of his having set seriously to work at it till the summer of 1803. On his return to town in the autumn of that year he played the Finale to Mahler and Breuning (Thayer, ii. 236). Early in 1804 the work was finished, and the MS. lay on Beethoven's table with the title-page as just given, waiting for transmission to the First Consul at Paris. But the news of Napoleon's assumption of the title of Emperor reached Beethoven; his faith in his hero was at once destroyed, and he tore off the title in a rage. The cover of the MS. now in the Library of the 'Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde' at Vienna—a curious medley of ink and pencil—stands as given on page 183 of this work, and thus appears to have been an intermediate form between the original and the present title. But this point has not yet been investigated. If we might venture to assume that Beethoven weighed his words as carefully as he did his notes, we might infer from the word ' sovvenire' in the final title that to him Napoleon, by becoming Emperor, had ceased to be a ' hero' or a ' great man' as much as if he were actually dead. The work is in 4 movements:—(1) Allegro con brio, Eb. (2) Marcia funebre. Adagio assai, C minor. (3) Scherzo and Trio. Allegro vivace, Eb. (4) Finale. Allegro molto; interrupted by a Poco Andante, and ending in a Presto. Eb. Under BASTIEN the curious coincidence between the subject of the 1st movement and that of an early overture of Mozart's has been pointed out. This movement may be a portrait of Bonaparte ; it is certainly one of Beethoven himself. The Coda forms an epoch in composition. The subject of the Scherzo is said by Marx (L. v. B. Leben & Schaffen i. 273) to be a Volkslied, beginning as follows:—

r i r• i r &

und was ich des Tags mit der Lei-er

ver - dien

But this requires confirmation. There is reason to believe that Beethoven used the Austrian Volkslieder as themes oftener than is ordinarily suspected ; but this one at least has not yet been identified with certainty. The Finale is a set of variations, the theme of which, whether a Volkslied or not, was a singular favourite with Beethoven. He has used it 4 times, in the following order :—(1) in the finale

493

of Prometheus (1800); (2) in a Contretanz (1802); (3) as theme of a set of variations and a fugue, for Piano solo (op. 35, 1802); and (4) in the Symphony. The intention of this Finale has been often challenged, and will probably never be definitely ascertained; but the Poco andante, which interrupts the Allegro molto, and to which all the latter might well be a mere introduction, is at once solemn enough and celestial enough to stand for the apotheosis of a hero even as great as the one portrayed in the first movement. The Symphony was purchased by Prince Lobkowitz. There is an interesting story of its having been played three times in one evening by the Prince's band, to satisfy the enthusiasm of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, passing through Vienna in strict incognito; but thefirstknown performance (semi-private) was in Dec. 1804, when it was preceded by the previous 2 Symphonies and the Pianoforte Concerto in C minor. The first public performance was at the Theatre ' an der Wien' on Sunday evening, April 7, 1805, at a concert of Clement's, where it was announced as in Dj, and was conducted by Beethoven. Czerny remembered that at this performance some one in the gallery called out ' I'd give a kreutzer, if it were over.' In England it was played by the Philharmonic Society at the 2nd concert of the 2nd year—Feb. 28, 1814—and is announced as 'containing the Funeral March.' In France it was the opening work of the first concert of the Socie'te' des Concerts (Conservatoire), March 9, 1828. It was published by Simrock of Bonn, the publisher of the first 4 Symphonies, Oct. 29, 1806. The unusual length of the Eroica is admitted by Beethoven himself in a memorandum prefixed to the original edition, in which he requests that it may be placed nearer the beginning than the end of the Programme—say after an Overture, an Air, and a Concerto—so that it may produce its proper and intended effect on the audience before they become wearied. He has also given a notice as to the 3rd horn part, a very unusual [G.] condescension on his part. ERTM ANN, THE BARONESS. This lady, whose maiden name was Dorothea Cacilia Graumann, of Offenbach near Frankfort, will go down to posterity as an intimate friend of Beethoven's, and one of the most competent interpreters of his pianoforte music during his lifetime. She passed many We hear of her there from years in Vienna. Reichardt1 in Feb. 1809, when her husband was major of the 'Hoch-und-deutschmeiater' infantry regiment. Reichardt met her at her sister's, Mme. Franke's, and at Zmeskall's, and heard her play the Fantasia in CJ minor (op. 27, no. 2) and a Quartet (perhaps an arrangement of the Quintet, op. 16); and his description implies that she had both great power and great delicacy of expression, and a beautiful singing tone. On the second occasion dementi was present, and was so far surprised out of his usual taciturnity as to exclaim more than once 'Elle joue en grand 1 Nohl, 'Beethoven nach deu Echilderungeu seiner Zeiteenoasen.' 1877, p. 66.

ERTMANN.

ESLAVA.

maitre.' The Trio in D (op. 70) and the Sonata in E (op. 90) were also pieces of hers; and her playing of the Largo in the former and the 2nd movement in the latter are spoken of by Schindler as marvels of expression in different directions (i. 241). In 1820 she was still in Vienna, and we have another report of her from W. E. Miiller, of Bremen,1 who met her at the house of Gaymiiller, with four other ladies, all good players, but whom, in his opinion, she far surpassed, not so much in execution as in her rendering of the intention and character of the music, and in fancy and expression. Between these two dates she had had lessons from Beethoven, and had become very intimate with him. He visited the Ertmanns in the evenings, and she would play to him, while he made himself thoroughly at home.2 ' Meine liebe werthe Dorothea Cacilia' is the beginning of the only letter from him to her yet published, in which he conveys to her the dedication of the noble and imaginative Sonata in A, op. 101, which bears her name. During the Ertmanns' stay in Vienna she lost a child. Beethoven at first discontinued his visits, but at length asked her to call on him, and saying ' we will talk in music,' played to her for more than an hour, ' in which he said everything; and at length even gave me comfort.'3 It was the happy lot of Mme. von Ertmann, after having been thus intimate with one great composer, to make the acquaintance of another. Bather more than four years after Beethoven's death the regiment moved from Vienna to Milan, and General Ertmann became commandant ; and there, in July 1831, she received a visit from Mendelssohn, then on his return from Kome. The account may be read in Mendelssohn's own delightful language in his 'Reisebriefe.' * She played him the Cjf minor Fantasia and the Sonata in D minor (op. 31, no. 2), and his verdict is quite in accordance with those we have already heard. ' She plays the Beethoven things very beautifully, although it is so long since she studied them : true, she often forces the expression a little, now retarding, and then again hurrying; but certain pieces she plays splendidly, and I think I have learnt something from her.' In 1844 Mme. Ertmann was again living in Vienna, where Moscheles met her, and induced her to play him the Cj minor Fantasia (ii. 123). She died there in 1848, about 70 years old. [G.] ESCUDIER, MARIE, born June 29, 1819, and LEON; born Sept. 17,1821, at Castelnaudary, two brothers famous as litterateurs on music. They were the founders of ' La France musicale' (1838), a weekly musical periodical, and joint authors of' Etudes biographiques sur les chanteurs contemporains' (Paris, Tessier, 1840); ' Rossini sa vie et ses oeuvres' (Paris 1854); and 'Vie . . . . des cantatrices celebres,' etc. (Paris 1856), which contains a life of Paganini. Their 'Dictionnaire de musique' (5th ed., 1872) is a compact but very unequal work, many articles in

which are admirable, while others can be of no interest to any one. [M.C. C]

494

1 Notil. 'Beethoven nach ileu bchilderungen seiner Zeitgenossen,' 1877. p. iris. ' Mendelssohn's letters. July 14 1831. • Ibid. • Ibid.

ESLAVA, MIGUEL HILARION, distinguished

Spanish musician, born Oct. 21, 1807, near Pampeluna, where he was cathedral chorister. In 1824 he was appointed violinist in the cathedral at Pampeluna, and in 1828 chapel-master of that at Ossuna. Here he was ordained deacon, and took priest's orders when chapel-master at the metropolitan church of Seville (1832). In 1841 he produced at Cadiz hisfirstopera,' II Solitario,' speedily followed by ' La Tregua di Ptolemaide' and ' Pedro el Cruel,' which were successfully performed in several Spanish towns. In 1844 he was appointed chapel-master to Queen Isabella. He has composed over 140 pieces of church music, including masses, motets, psalms, etc. The work by which he will live is his ' Lira sacro-hispafia' (Madrid, Salazar, 1869, 10 vols.), a collection of Spanish church music of the 16th19th centuries, with biographical sketches of the composers. Some of his organ music appears in another collection, his 'Museo organico espanol' (Madrid). His ' Metodo de Solieo' (1846) has been adopted throughout Spain. His 'Escuela de armonia y composicion,' in 3 parts, harmony, composition, and melody, the fruits of many years' labour, appeared at Madrid in 1861 (2nd ed.). He also edited the ' Gaceta musical de Madrid,' a periodical of considerable interest. Eslava died July 23, 1878. The following are the contents of the 'Lira sacro-hispafla' :— VOL. I 06th cent.). Bamos, Ave Regina. a 4 voces. Do. Magnificat. 4. Anon. Domine Jesu. 4, Fevin, A. Sanctus. 4. Do. Benedictus. 3. Do. Agnus. 4. Do. Do. 6. Do. Ascendens Christus. 6. Peualo>a, F. Sancta Mater. 4. Do. Tribularer si nescirem. 4. Do. In passione positus. 4. Do. Memorare, piissima. 4. Do. Versa est in luctum. 4. Do. Frecor te, Domine. 4. Ribera, B. Magnificat. 4. Do. Virgo prudentissima. 6. Do. Rex autem David. 5. Torrentes, A. De, Magnificat. 4. Do. llortus conclusus. 4. Do. Inter vestibulum. 4. Do. Exaudiat Dominus. 4. Morales, Ch. Emendemus. 6. Do. O vos omnes. 4. Do. Verbum iniquum. 6. Do. O crux ave. 5. Do. Lamentabatur Jacob. 5. Do. Kyrie; (hriste; Gloria. 4. Escobedo, B. Immutemur. 4. Do. Exurge. 4. Do. Erravi sicut ovis. 4. Fernandez, P. Dispersit, dedit. 4. Do. Heu mihi Domine. 4. Beinal, A. Ave sanctissiinum. Robledo, M. Domine Jesu. 4. Do. Kegem eui omnia. 4. Do. Magna opera. 4 & 5. Do. Sumens illud ave. 4. VOL. I, Pt. 2 (16th cent.). Victoria, J. L. de. Mass, 'Ave maris Stella.' 4 solo. Do. Vere languores. Do. 0 Domine. Do. Jesu dulcis memoria. Do. 0 quam gloriosum. Do. Laiulate. Do. Requiem mass, 'el canto llano.1

Guerrero, F. Fassio sec. Matthasum. 2,4,5,6. Do. Do. sec. Joannem. 4 & 5. Do. Ave Virgo. 5. Do. Trahe me post. 5. Do. Mass,' Simile est regnum.' 4, Xavarro, J. M. Lauda Jerusalem. 4. Do. In exitu Israel. 4. Do. Magnificat Imi toni. 4. Do. Do. 2di toni. 4. Do. Do. Svitoni. 4. Castello, D. del, Quis erdm cognovit. 5. Do. 0 altitude E. Las Infantas, F . de. Vlctlmae Paschal!. 6. Camargo, M. 6 . Defensor alma Hispame. 5. Ortiz, D. Fereat dies. 6. Feriauez, P. Maria virgo. 5. VOL. II (17th cent). Comes, J. B. Hodie nobis. 12. Lobo, A. Versa est. 6. Do. Credo quod Redemptor. 4. Do. Vivo ego. 4. Do. Ave Maria. 8. Heredia, A. de, Magnificat (super 8 tonos). 4. Tafalla, P. Qul Lazarum. 5 4 8. Romero, M. Libera me. 8. Veana, M. Villaneico Asturiano. 8. Vivenco, 8. 0 Domine. 6. Vargas, TJ. de. Magnificat. 8. Baban, G. Voce mtft. 8. Juarez, A, Vulnerastl cor meum. Do. Dum sacrum pignus. Caseda, D. Mass. 8. VOL. II, Pt. 2 (17th cent.). Fontac, D. Mass,' In exitu Israel.' 4. Patino, C. Mass,' In devotione." 8. Salazar, G. He! mihi. 4 (soli). Do. O Hex gloriae. 8, col organo. Do. Quae est ista. 6 Do. Do. Vidl speciosam. 6 Do. Do. gancta Maria. 5 Do. Do. Nativilas tua. 6 Do. Do. Mater Dei. 6 Do.

ESLAVA. Ortells, lamentatlo. 12. Prieto, J. Salve regina. 4 (str., Wontemayor, F. de. Requiem mass. trump., organ), Cuellar, R. Lauda Sion. 6. Duron, S. O vos omnes. 4. Montesinos, A. Sancta et immaculataVirginitas. 8. VOL. I l l (18th cent.). Bravo, J. de T. M. Parce mihi. 8. Pons, J. Letrida,' O Madre.' 8. Cabo, F. J. Memento Domine. 7. Dudoso, Dan, dan, don, don. 5. Kabasia, P. Audits, universi. 12. VOL. IV, Pt. 2 (19th cent.). Tails, F. Tota pulchra. 5. Eslava, H. Te Deum. 4. Cabrera, F. V. Kyrie and Gloria. 8. Do. 0 sacrum convlvium. 4. Eoldan, J. P. Sepulto Domine. 4. Do. Bone Pastor. 4. Sanjuan, N. Spiritus meus. 8. Do. 0 salutaris hostia. 8. Faez, J. Jesu Eedemptor. 4. Do. Requiem mass. 8 (orch.). Muelas, D. 0 vos omnes. 8. Do. Parce mihi. 8. Do. Tedet animam. 8. Du. Ductus est Jesus. 4. Do. Libera me. 8. Do. Dicebat Jesus. 4. Do. Erunt signa. 4. VOL. V (19th cent.). Do. Cum audisset Joannes. 4. Ledesma, N. Stabat mater (12 Do. Vox clamantis. 3. verses). 3. C&seda, J. de, Kyrie and Gloria. 4. Literes.A.Vos saeculorum judices. i. Andrevi, Fr. Nunc dimittls. 4. Do. Salve Kegina. 6 (orch.). Do. Sunt quos fatue. 4. Ledesma, M. E. Principes persecuti. Julia, B. Dilexi quoniam. 4. 4 (orch.). Fuentes, P. Beatus vir. 10. Soler, F. A. Introito and offertoria Bros, J. Benedictus. 4 (orch.). de difuntos. 8. VOL. V, Pt. 2 (19th cent.). Anon. Ecce sacerdos. 5. Perez y Alvarez, J. Salve Eegioa. 8. Do. 0 Salutaris. Ear. solo, VOL. III. Pt. 2 (18th cent.). Nebra, J. de. Requiem mass. g Nuqalde, C. J. Bone pastor. Bass solo. (strings). Eipa, A. Mass. 8 (strings and Do. 0 salutaris. S. Meton, V. 0 quoniam suavis. 4. trumpets). Do. Stabat Mater (6 verses). 8 Do. Ecce panis. 5. Do 0 salutaris. 5. (organ). Lidon, J. Ave marls stella. 4 and 8. Olleta, D. Salve Regina. 5. Garcia, M, Ave mans stella. 4. VOL. IV (19th cent.). Pradanos, H. 0 quam suavis. 4. Garcia, F. J. Lamentation. 8 (orch.). Caballero, M. F. Ave maris stella. 4. Do. Do. 7 (orch.). Calonora, R. O. Lauda Sion. 1. Aranaz, P. Ad te levavi. 4 (solos). Do. Vere languores. 4. Do. Laudate. 6 (viol, and trumAPPENDIX. pets). DoyagQe, M. Miserere. 4 (wind), Becanilla, F. Hymn, Scripta sunt. fiecanilla, F. Defensor almae Hia8, 3, 8, 4, 8. p&nae. 5. Doyagiie, M. Magnificat. 8. Do. Pange lingua. 7. Duron, S. Ftagmenta.

|_M. C. C] ESSER, HBINEICH, born at Mannheim 1818, appointed concert-meister 1838, and then musical director in the court-theatre at Mannheim ; was for some years conductor of the ' Liedertafel' at Mayence, and in 1847 succeeded O. Nicolai as Capellmeister of the Imperial Opera, Vienna, where he was honoured as an artist and beloved as a man. In November 1869, shortly after becoming art-member of the board of direction of the Opera, he was compelled by ill-health to resign, and retired on a considerable pension to Salzburg, where he died June 3, 1872. The Emperor honoured his memory by granting an annuity to his widow and two young children. Esser's character was elevated, refined, and singularly free from pretension, and his compositions bear the same stamp, especially his melodious and thoughtful 4-part songs for men's voices. As a conductor he was admirable —conscientious, indefatigable, and in thorough sympathy with his orchestra, by whom he was adored. Wagner showed his appreciation by entrusting him with the arrangement of his ' Meistersinger' for the piano. Esser was the first to discern the merit of Hans Richter, whom, while a member of his band, he recommended to Wagner as a copyist and arranger, and who ultimately justified the choice by succeeding Esser at the Opera in May 1875. As a composer Esser was industrious and successful. His works contain scarcely a commonplace thought, and much earnest feeling, well and naturally expressed. The stage was not his forte, and though three of his operas were pro-

ESTE.

495

duced—'Silas' (Mannheim, 1839), 'Ei'quiqui' (Aix-la-Chapelle, 43), and 'Die beiden Prinzen' (Munich, 44)—they have not kept the boards. His compositions for the voice are numerous and beautiful—some 40 books of Lieder, 2 of duets, 4 of choruses for men's voices, and 2 for mixed ditto, etc. —and these are still great favourites. His symphonies (Op. 44, 7g) an( ^ Suites (Op. 70, 75), and orchestral arrangements of Bach's organ works (Passacaglia, Toccata in F), performed by the Philharmonic Society in Vienna, are published by Schott, and a stringquartet (Op. 5) by Simrock. [C. F.P.] ESTE, EAST, or EASTE (as he variously spelled his name), MICHAEL, MUS. Baa, is conjectured to have been a son of Thomas ESTB, the noted music printer. He first appeared in print as a composer, in 'The Triumphesof Oriana,' 1601, to which he contributed the madrigal, 'Hence, stars, too dim of light.' In 1604 he published a set of Madrigals, which was followed in 1606 by a second set, the preface to which is dated 'From Ely House in Holborne,' whence it may be inferred that he was then a retainer of Lady Hatton, the widow of Sir Christopher Hatton. In 1610 he published a third set of Madrigals. Between that date and 1618, when he published a set of Madrigals, Anthems &c, and a set of three-part songs, he had obtained his bachelor's degree and become Master of the Choristers of Lichtield Cathedral. In 1624 he published a set of Anthems, from the dedication of which to ' John Williams, Bishop of Lincoln and Keeper of the Great Seal,' we learn that that prelate some time before, on hearing one of Este's motets, had voluntarily settled an annuity on its composer, personally a stranger to him. Este's last publication was a set of Duos and Fancies for Viols, which appeared in 1638, and was many years afterwards re-issued by John Playford with a new undated title-page. One of the 3-part madrigals in Este's second set,' How merrily we live,' retained its popularity down to our days. [W.H.H.] ESTE, EST, or EAST (as the name was variously spelled), THOMAS, was (having regard to the number of works printed by him) one of the most important of our early music typographers and publishers. He was probably born in the earlier part of the latter half of the 16th century. The fir^t work printed by him with which we are acquainted was Byrd's ' Psalmes, Sonets and Songs of sadnes and pietie,' which appeared in 1588, he then 'dwelling by Paules Wharf,' and describing himself as ' the Assigne of W. Byrd' ; i. e. assignee of the patent granted to the latter for the sole printing of music and ruled music paper. In the following year Este removed to Aldersgate Street, where he published at the sign of the Black Horse. In 1592 he edited 'The Whole Book of Psalms, with their wonted tunes, in four parts.' The composers employed by him to harmonise the tunes were some of the most eminent men of the day, being ten in number, viz: Richard Alison, E. Blancks, Michael Cavendish, William Cobbold, John Dowland, John

496

ESTE.

ETUDES.

Farmer, Giles Farnaby, Edmund Hooper, Edmund Johnson and George Kirbye. Two other editions of the work appeared in 1594 and 1604. This collection was the first in which some of the tunes were called by distinctive names—'Glassenburie,' ' Kentish,' and ' Cheshire.' Este was a member of the Company of Stationers, to which in 1604 he gave a piece of plate of 31 oz. weight to be excused from serving some office of the Company. In the early part of 1609 he described himself on the title-pages of his productions as ' Thomas Este alias Snodham,' and before the end of the year and ever after used the latter name only. In 1600 he described himself as 'The Assigne of Thomas Morley,' and in 1609 as 'The Assigne of William Barley,' having acquired the interest in the patent granted to Morley in 1598 and by him assigned, or perhaps only licensed, to Barley. The latest work known to have been printed by Este appeared in 1624, and it is probable that he died shortly afterwards. His widow, Lucretia Este, died in 1631, having bequeathed £20 to purchase a piece of plate to be presented to the Stationers' Company. The most important works printed and published by Este were—

'My heart is inditing' and 'Zadok the Priest' were interpolated into the performance), and then lay on the shelf till Nov. 6, 1875, when it was revived at\he Alexandra Palace. The overture was for long played annually at the 'Festival of the Sons of the Clergy' at St. Paul's. ESTWICK, REV. SAMPSON, B. D., born 1657, was one of the children of the Chapel Royal under Captain Henry Cooke. Upon quitting the chapel on the breaking of his voice he went to Oxford, took holy orders and became one of the ihaplains of Christ Church. In 1692 he was appointed a minor canon of St. Paul's. On Nov. 27, 1696, he preached at Christ Church, Oxford, 'upon occasion of the Anniversary Meeting of the Lovers of Musick on St. Csecilia's day,' a sermon upon ' The Usefulness of Church Musick,' which was printed in the following year. In 1701 he was appointed, vicar of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate, which he resigned in 1712 for the rectory of St. Michael, Queenhithe. Estwick composed several odes for performance at the Acts at Oxford, and other pieces still in MS. He died Feb. 1739. [W.H.H.]

Adson's ('ourtly Masquing Ayres Canzonets. 1593, Madrigals, 1504, 1621; Attey's Ayres, 1622 ; Bate- Ballets, 1595, Canzonets, 1595. Madson's Madrigals. 1604 and 1618 ; rigals, 1598, Triumpiies of Oriana, Byrd's l'salmes, Sonets and Songs, 11501, and Consort Lessons. 1611; 15x8, Conges of sundry natures. John Mundy's Songs and Psalms, 1589, Cantiones Sacne, 1589 and 1594; Martin Pierson's Private 1591, Gradualia, 1607 and 1610, and Musicke, 1620; Tilkington's Ayres, Fsalmes, Songs and Sonnets, 1611; 1605. and Madrigals t2nd set), lt.24; Campion's Ayres, 1610 and 1612; Kobrnson's Schoole of MusicWe, Croce's Musica Sacra, Newly Eng- 1603; Kossetor's Lesson3 for Conlished. 11X18; Danyel's Songs, 16«; sort. 1609; Robert Tailour's Sacred Dowland's Second Book of Ayres. Hymnes, 1615; Thon)as Tomkins's 1600; Michael Este's 1st. 3rd. 4th, Songs, 1622; Vautor's Madrigals, 5th. and 6th Sets of Madrigals. 1019; Ward's Madrigals. 1613; Anthems, etc., 1604-1624; Ferra- Watson's Madrigals. 1090; Weelkes' bosco's Ayres. 1609; Orlando Gib- Madrigals, 1597, 1598, and 1600; bons's Madrigals, 1612; Jones's First Wilbye's Marlrifials, 1598 and 1609; Book of Ayres. 1601; Kirbye's Mad- Yonge's Musica Transalpina, lf>8S rigals, 1597; Maynard's XII Won- and 1597; and Youll's Canzonets, ders of the World, 1611; Morley's 1608.

The Whole Book of Psalms was published in score by the Musical Antiquarian Society in 1844, edited •with a Preface, by Dr. Rimbault. [W. H. H.] ESTE, in N. E. Italy, between Padua and Rovigo. Two musical academies—' Degli Eccitati' and 'Degli Atestini'—were established in Este in 1575. The family of the Este, always liberal patrons of the fine arts, encouraged especially the revival of music. Francesco Patrizzi, a professor in the latter of these two academies (born 1530— died 1590), in dedicating one of his works to Lucrezia d'Este, daughter of Ercole II, the reigning Duke, ascribes the revival of music in Italy to the House of Este, because Guido d'Arezzo was a native of Pomposa in their dominions, and because such famous musicians as Fogliano, Giusquino (Josquin), Adriano, and Cipriano, first found favour and support from the dukes of Este. [CM.P.] ESTHER. Handel's first English oratorio; words by S. Humphreys, founded on Racine's Esther. Written for the Duke of Chandos, who paid Handel £1000 for it, and first performed at Cannons Aug. 29, 1720. Performed again, in action, under Bernard Gates—in private Feb. 2 3, 1732, and in public at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, May 2, 32, with 'additions' not specified. It was occasionally performed up to 1757 (when

ETOILE DU NORD, L', opera in 3 acts, principal characters Peter the Great and Catherine; words by Scribe, music by Meyerbeer, comprising many numbers from his ' Feldlager in Schlesien.' Produced at the Opera Comique Feb. 16, 1854 ; and in England, as La Stella del Nord, at Covent Garden, July 19, 1855. ETUDES, studies, exercises, sonatas, caprices, lessons. The large number of works extant under these heads for pianoforte, violin, violoncello, and in sundry instances for other orchestral instruments, are in a large measure mere supplements to the respective instruction-books. They may be divided into two kinds—pieces contrived with a view to aid the student in mastering special' mechanical difficulties pertaining to the technical treatment of his instrument, like the excellent pianoforte Eludes of Clementi and Cramer; and pieces wherein, over and above such an executive purpose, which is never lost sight of, some characteristic musical sentiment, poetical scene, or dramatic situation susceptible of musical interpretation or comment is depicted, as in certain of Moscheles' 'Characteristische Studien,' or the Etudes of Chopin, Liszt, or Alkan. The distinction between these two classes of etudes closely resembles the difference recognised by painters between a tentative sketch for a figure, a group, or a landscape, which aims at rendering some poetical idea whilst attending particularly to the mechanical difficulties accruing from the task in hand, and a mere drawing after casts or from life with a view to practice and the attainment of manipulative facility. An etude proper, be it only a mechanical exercise or a characteristic piece, is dintinguished from all other musical forms by the fact that it is invariably evolved from a single phrase or motif, be it of a harmonic or melodious character, upon which the changes are rung. Thus many of Bach's Preludes in the' wohltemperirte Clavier,' and the like, could be called etudes without a misnomer.

ETUDES.

EUEYANTHE.

497

The most valuable etudes for the pianoforte language. After remaining there a considerable are the following :— time he returned to Germany, and is now (1878) living at Gunzburg, near Uhn. [V.deP.] I. CLASSICAL SCHOOL. BACH. | CKAMER. EUPHONIUM. A name given to the bass Inventions — & deux et & trois 100 Etudes. instrument of the Saxhorn family, usually tuned Part eS ' CLEHENTI. MOSOHELES. in Bb or C. It only differs from the barytone 24 Gradus ad Parnassum. Preludes', Studien. op. 70. CharacteristSaxhorn in the larger diameter of its bore, which ische et exercises dans tous les tons. Studien. op. 95. thus produces a louder and somewhat deeper Toccata in Bb. I quality of tone. It is usually furnished with II. MODERN SCHOOL. four valves, sometimes even with five, the first CHOPIN. Etudes d'execution transcendante. 12 gTandes Etudes. Op. 10. Ab-Irato, Etude de perfectionne- three worked by the fingers of the right hand, 12 Etudes. Op. 25. ment. and severally depressing the pitch by a semitone, Trois Etudes. Trois grandes Etudes de concert. 24 Preludes. Zwei Etuden—Waldesrauschen; a tone, and a minor third; the fourth by the Prelude in C j minor. Gnomentanz. left hand applied to a different part of the C. V. ALKAN. instrument, and lowering the pitch by two tones HENSELT. 12 Etudes. 12 Etudes de concert. Op. 2. and a semitone. 12 Grandes Etudes. 12 Etudes de salon. Op. 5. Etude pour la main gauche. From the gradual disuse of the Serpent and „ droite. THALBEEG. 12 Etudes. les deux mains. Ophicleide, the Euphonium is becoming the chief 11SZT. EUBINSTEIN. representative of the eight-foot octave among Grandes Etudes de Faganini, trans- 6 Etudes, crites, etc. Zwei Etu the brass instruments; with the exception of Besides these there exists an enormous number the few notes attainable on the French horn in of e'tudes with comparatively little educational that register. In quality it is however less and less artistic value, which are for the most part sympathetic than its forerunners, and less able to written to the order of publishers, from whose blend with the stringed instruments. It thereshops they find their way to the schoolrooms and fore serves chiefly as a solo instrument, in salons of amateurs; such are those by Czerny, which capacity it affords considerable support Steibelt, Hummel, Kessler, Bertini, Mayer, to the brass or military band. It possesses the Dbhler, Schulhof, Eavina, etc. [E.D.] usual harmonic series of open notes. Its comOf Etudes for the VIOLIN, the following four pass is to a considerable degree dependent on worka are considered as indispensable for the the lip of the individual player. The fundaformation of a good technique and correct style, mental note is obviously C or Bb according to by the masters of all schools of violin-playing :— the pitch of the instrument, and the gap between this and the next harmonic above is more or less It. Kreutzer, 40 Etudes or Caprices. Fiorillo, Etude de Violon, formant 36 caprices. bridged over according to the number of the valves. The valves also admit of being used, P..Rode, Vingt-quatre Caprices. together or separately, as integral parts of the N. Paganini, 24 Caprices, op. 1. to which may be added GavinieV ' Vingtquatre tube, thus lowering the fundamental tone obtained, even to the extent of an octave. matine'es.' The upper limit may be generally described as Of more modern e'tudes, those of Dont, Ferd. £ David, Alard, and Wieniawsky, are amongst the three octaves above the funt^ most valuable. The violin-schools of Spohr, damental before named, alI Hies, and others, also contain a great many use- though accomplished players jSl 1 I ful e'tudes. Some movements from Bach's Solo obtain sounds very much more (jf • Sonatas, such as the well-known Prelude in E acute. It is usually written major, fall under the same category. [P-D.] for in the bass clef, and in orchestral usage the real notes are given. If the instrument be in C, EULENSTEIN, CHARLES, was born in 1802 which it commonly is, no change is necessary; if at Heilbronn, in Wurtemberg. His father was a however it be a Bb instrument, the whole scale respectable tradesman; but nothing could deter has to be really and systematically raised through the son from following his strong predilection the interval of a tone. [See TRANSPOSING.] for music. After enduring all sorts of privations Some French writers, however, transpose the part and ill-success, he appeared in London in 1827, exactly as is done for the clarinets and cornet. and produced extremely beautiful effects by perThe Euphonium being a modern invention, is forming on sixteen Jew's-harps, having for many years cultivated this instrument in an extra- not written for by the older composers. It is ordinary manner. [JEW'S-HARP.] The patronage however freely employed in more recent in[W. H. S.] of the Duke of Gordon induced him to return in strumentation. 1828; but he soon found that the iron Jew's-harp EURYANTHE. The 6th of Weber's 7 operas. had so injured his teeth that he could not play Text by Helmine von Chezy. Overture completed without pain, and he therefore applied himself Oct. 19, 1823; produced Oct. 25, 23, at the more and more to the guitar. At length a Karnthnerthor theatre, Vienna; in London, at dentist contrived a glutinous covering for the Covent Garden, June 29, 33; at Paris, Grand teeth, which enabled him to play his Jew's-harp Opera, April 6, 1831, with interpolations from again. He was very successful in Scotland, and Oberon; at Theatre Lyrique, with new libretto, thence went to Bath, to establish himself as Sept. 1, 57. The opera is damaged by its liteacher of the guitar, concertina, and the German bretto, and is too little known. ("G.l

Kk

498

EVANS.

EVANS, CHAELES SMART, born 1778, was a

chorister of the Chapel Royal under Dr. Ayrton. On arriving at manhood he became the possessor of an unusually fine alto voice. On June 14, 1808, he was admitted a gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He was the composer of some anthems (two of them printed), and of many excellent glees and other pieces of vocal harmony, most of which have been published. In 1811 the Glee Club awarded him a prize for his Cheerful Glee, ' Beauties, have you seen a toy,' and in the following year a second for his 'Fill all the glasses.' In 1817 he carried off the prize offered by the Catch Club for the best setting of William Linley's Ode to the Memory of Samuel Webbe, the eminent glee composer. In 1821 he obtained another prize for his glee, ' Great Bacchus.' He also produced several motets for the use of the choir of the Portuguese Ambassador's chapel in South Street, Grosvenor Square (of which he was a member), some of which are printed in Vincent Novello's Collection of Motets. Evans died Jan. 4, 1849. [W.H.H.] EVERS, CARL, pianist and composer, born at Hamburg April 8, 1819, made hisfirstappearance when 12, and shortly after went on long professional tours. Returning to Hamburg in 1837 he studied composition under Carl Krebs. On a visit to Leipsic in 1838 he made the acquaintance of Mendelssohn, whose influence affected him greatly, and started him in instrumental compositions on an extended scale. In the following year he went to Paris, and was kindly received by Chopin and Auber, where he remained for some time working hard. In 1841 he was appointed chapel-master at Gratz, where he started a music business, taught, and otherwise exercised his profession. Since 1872 he has resided in Vienna. His compositions comprise 4 pianoforte sonatas, of which those in B minor, Bb, and D minor were much esteemed; ' Chansons d'amour' for Piano; fugues; fantasias; solo and part-songs, etc., etc. Haslinger of Vienna and Schott of Mayence are his publishers. His sister KATINKA, born 1822, was favourably known as an opera[M.C.C.] singer in Germany and Italy. EXIMENO, ANTONIO, Spanish Jesuit, born 1732 at Balbastro in Arragon. Having studied mathematics and music at Salamanca he became professor of both sciences at Segovia. On the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain he settled in Rome, and died there in 1 798. His work ' Dell' origine de'la musica, colla storia del suo progresso, decadenza, e rinovazione' contains the germ of the theories afterwards elaborated by Wagner, and at the time raised a host of polemical writings, to which even Padre Martini contributed his share. He proposed to abolish the strict laws of counterpoint and harmony, and apply the rules of prosody to musical composition. He was the first scientific exponent of the doctrine that the aim of music is to express emotion, and thus exercised considerable influence on musical aesthetics. His contemporaries stigmatised bis book as an 'extraordinary romance, in which he seeks to destroy music without being

EXTEMPORE PLAYING. able to reconstruct it'—a verdict which curiously anticipates that often passed upon Wagner in our own day. [F. G.] EXTEMPORE1 PLAYING. The art of playing without premeditation, the conception of the music and its rendering being simultaneous. The power of playing extempore evinces a very high degree of musical cultivation, as well as the possession of great natural gifts. Not only must the faculty of musical invention be present, but there must also be a perfect mastery over all mechanical difficulties, that the fingers may be able to render instantaneously what the mind conceives, as well as a thorough knowledge of the rules of harmony, counterpoint, and musical form, that the result may be symmetrical and complete. This being the case it is not surprising that the greatest extempore players have usually been at the same time the greatest composers, and we find in fact that all the great masters, including Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven, have shown much fondness for this form of art, and have even exercised it in public. Mozart improvised in public at the age of 14, as is shown by the programme of a concert given as an exhibition of his powers by the Philharmonic Society of Mantua on Jan. 16, 1770, which included an extempore sonata and fugue for the harpsichord, and a song with harpsichord accompaniment, to be sung to words given by the audience. These extemporaneous performances were sometimes entirely original, but more frequently consisted of the development (often in the form of a fugue) of a theme given by the listeners, and they not unfrequently took the form of a competition between two players, each giving the other subjects on which to extemporise. Thus when Louis Marchand, banished from France, came to reside in Dresden in 1717, and was about to receive the appointment of organist to the King of Poland, Volumier, the court conductor, fearing Marchand as a rival, invited Bach to appear at a court concert in competition with him. Accordingly, after Marchand had played with great applause a French air with variations, Bach took his place, and extemporised a number of new variations on the same theme, in such a manner as incontestably to prove his superiority. Sometimes two players would extemporise together, either on one or two pianofortes. This appears to have been done by Mozart and dementi at Vienna in 1781, and also by Beethoven and WblfH, who used to meet in 1798 at the house of Freiherr von Wetzlar, and, seated at two pianofortes, give each other themes upon which to extemporise, and, according to Seyfried (Thayer, ii. 27), ' created many a capriccio for four hands, which, if it could have been written down at the moment of its birth, would doubtless have obtained a long existence.' It is probable that in most of these competitions the competitors were but ill-matched, at least 1 The German term is curious—aus dem Stegrtife— 'from the stirrup.'

EXTEMPORE PLAYING. when one of them happened to be a Bach or Beethoven; and the wonder is that men were found willing to measure their strength against such giants. Occasionally their presumption was rebuked, as when Himmel extemporised before Beethoven in 1796, and Beethoven having listened for a considerable time, turned to Himmel and asked 'Will it be long before you begin?' Beethoven himself excelled all others in extempore, and according to the accounts of his contemporaries his playing was far finer when improvising than when playing a regular composition, even if written by himself. Czerny has left a most interesting account of Beethoven's extempore playing, which is quoted by Thayer (ii. 347), and is worth reproducing here, since it helps us to realise to some extent the effect of his improvising. Czerny says —' Beethoven's improvisation, which created the greatest sensation during the first few years after his arrival at Vienna, was of various kinds, whether he extemporised upon an original or a given theme. I. In the form of the first movement or the final rondo of a sonata, the first part being regularly formed and including a second subject in a related key, etc., while the second part gave freer scope to the inspiration of the moment, though with every possible application and employment of the principal themes. In allegro movements the whole would be enlivened by bravura passages, for the most part more difficult than any in his published works. 2. In the form of variations, somewhat as in his Choral Fantasia, op. 80, or the last movement of the 9th Symphony, both of which are accurate images of this kind of improvisation. 3. In mixed form, after the fashion of a potpourri, one melody following another, as in the Fantasia op. 77. Sometimes two or three insignificant notes would serve as the material from which to improvise a complete composition, just as the Finale of the Sonata in D, op. 10,1 No. 3, is formed from its three opening notes.' Such a theme, on which he had 'gottlich phantasirt' at Count Browne's house, has been preserved (Nohl's 'Beethoven's Leben,' iii. 644) :—

Another given him by Vogler was the scale of C major, 3 bars, alia breve (^Thayer, ii. 236). v Since Beethoven many great musicians have extemporised in public—Mendelssohn, Hummel, Moscheles, and, on the organ, our own Wesley, have all been celebrated for their improvisations; but the practice of publicly extemporising, if not extinct, is now very rare. Mendelssohn himself, notwithstanding his uniform success, disliked doing it, and in a letter to his father, written in Oct. 1831 (Reisebriefe, p. 283), even declares his determination never to extemporise in public again; while Hummel on the other hand says 1 A less definite, but still highly interesting, account of his improvisations is given by Starke in Nolil's ' Beethoven nach den fcchilderungen seiner Zeitgeuossen * (1S77J.

EXTRAVAGANZA.

499

(•Art of playing the Pianoforte') that he' always felt less embarrassment in extemporising before an audience of 2000 or 3000 persons than in executing any written composition to which he was slavishly tied down.' Even the CADENCE of a concerto, which was once the legitimate opportunity for the player to exhibit his powers of improvisation, is now usually prepared beforehand. [F.T.] EXTEMPORISING MACHINE. An invention for printing the notes of an extemporaneous performance, by means of mechanism connected with the keyboard of a pianoforte or organ. The idea of being able to preserve the improvisations of great musicians is certainly an attractive one, and has often engaged the attention of mechanicians, but without any very practical result. The earliest endeavour in this direction appears to have been made by an English clergyman named Creed, who wrote a 'Demonstration of the Possibility of making a machine that shall write Extempore Voluntaries or other Pieces of Music as fast as any master shall be able to play them upon an Organ, Harpsichord, etc' This was communicated by John Freke to the Royal Society, after Creed's death, and was published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1747, vol. xliv. part ii. p. 445. A similar invention, called the Melograph, was conceived by Euler the mathematician, and was constructed according to his directions by Hohlfeld of Berlin, about 17 ^2. It consisted of two revolving cylinders with a band of paper passing over them, on which the notes were marked by means of pencils attached to the action of a pianoforte, their duration being shown by the relative length of the lines formed. The machine was placed in the Academy of Arts and Sciences at Berlin, but was subsequently destroyed in a fire. The priority of invention of the Melograph was disputed by Unger, of Einbeck, who, in a long correspondence with Euler (afterwards published), states that the idea occurred to him as early as 1745. There have also been several more modern inventions for the same end, notably one by Pape of Paris in 1824, which attracted much notice at the time; but the difficulty of expressing the varying rhythms of an elaborate piece of music by mechanical means has hitherto proved insurmountable. [F.T.] EXTRAVAGANZA. Any work of art in which accepted forms are caricatured, and recognised laws violated, with a purpose. A musical extravaganza must be the work of a musician familiar with the forms he caricatures and generally amenable to the laws he violates. Mozart's ' Musikalischer Spass' (Kb'chel, No. 522) is an instance on a small scale. The pantomime overture would seem to be the most legitimate field for the exercise or gratification of musical extravagance. In this, ludicrous effects might be produced by assigning passages to instruments inapt though not altogether incompetent to their execution; by treatingfragments of familiar tunes contrapuntally, and the like. Perhaps nofieldfor musical invention has been less worked than that of extravaganza. Ot no Kk2

EXTRAVAGANZA. 500 class of music does there exist so little as of that which is ludicrous in itself, and not dependent for its power of exciting risibility on the words connected with it, or the circumstances under which it is heard. Haydn's Toy symphonies are in a certain sense extravaganzas. His ' Farewell Symphony,'though open to a ludicrous interpretation, is, as Mendelssohn truly said of it, a ' melancholy little piece.' Indeed, as orchestras now are, it cannot be performed as intended. Mendelssohn's own Funeral March for Pyramus is an exquisite piece of humour. [J. H.] EYBLER, JOSEPH EDLER VON, Capellmeister

to the Emperor of Austria, born at Schwechat, near Vienna, Feb. 8,1765. His father, a schoolteacher and choir-master, taught him singing and the principal instruments, and a place was procured for him in the boys' seminary at Vienna. While there he took lessons (1777-79) fr°m Albrechtsberger. On the dissolution of the seminary in 1782, Eybler turned his attention to the law, but was driven by the sudden impoverishment of his parents to earn his bread by music. Haydn now proved a true friend, not only encouraging him in his studies but recommending him to Artaria the publisher. In the meantime some of his symphonies were performed, and both Haydn (1787) and Mozart (1790) testified to his ability as a composer and his fitness for the post of Capellmeister. Eybler nursed Mozart during his last illriess, and after his death it was to him that the widow at once committed the task of completing the Requiem. He accepted the charge in a letter dated Dec. 21, 1791, and began the work, but soon gave it up. He was appointed choir-master to a church in the suburbs in 1792, and in 1794 to the 'Schotten' monastery in Vienna itself. About this time hisfirstwork, 3 String Quartets dedicated in Italian to Haydn, was published by Traeg. In 1810 he was appointed music-master to the imperial children, in 1804 vice-capellmeister, and, on Salieri's retire-

FABRI. ment in 1824, chief capellmeister. In 1834 he was ennobled by the Emperor, whose meetings for quartet practice he had regularly attended. A year before he had been obliged to give up the exercise of his profession owing to a paralytic stroke while conducting Mozart's Requiem. He died July 24, 1846. As a composer Eybler restricted himself entirely to sacred music, Mozart having confirmed his own conviction that his disposition was too simple and quiet for the intrigues and conflicts of the stage. For the ' Tonkiinstler Societat,' of which he was many years president, he wrote the cantata ' Die Hirten bei der Krippe' (1794); and for the Emperor 'Die vier letzten Dinge,' an oratorio first performed at court (1810) and afterwards by the Tonkunstler - Societat. His printed works—chamber-music, pieces for pianoforte and other instruments, vocal music, and several symphonies — were favourites in their day, but his church-music is of greater value. Here, the devotional spirit with which the whole is penetrated, the flow of the voice-parts, and the appropriate if at times too powerful instrumentation—all remind us of Michael Haydn at his best. His best work, the Requiem in C minor, which isfineas a whole and even sublime in parts, has been brought into notice by Rochlitz (Allg. mus. Zeitung 1826, No. 19). Haslinger published the Requiem, 7 Masses, 2 Te Deums, 13 Offertoriums, Graduates, and Vespers, the greater part of which are still in use. Eybler's quiet life, undisturbed by jealousy or envy, made him respected by high and low. For many years he held an honourable post, and saw the great heroes of his art, Gluck, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, and Schubert, carried to the grave. — In England Eybler is hardly even a name; and it is probable that in the numerous and extensive collections of pieces and arrangements of Hullah, Novello, Best, Cooper, etc., not a single [C. F. P.] composition of his is to be found.

F.

F

The 4th note of the natural scale, with Bb for its signature. In French and in solfaing, Fa. D is its relative minor. The F clef is the bass clef, the sign of which is a corruption of that letter. F minor has a signature of 4 flats, and Ab is its relative major. F is the tonic of the Aeolian church mode, with C for its dominant. FJ is in German Fis, in French Fa -diese. Beethoven has very much favoured these keys, having left 2 Symphonies (Pastoral and No. 8), 3 String Quartets (the 1st and last, and Rassomoffsky, No. 1), 2 P. F. Sonatas, etc., in F major, Overture to Egmont, Sonata appassionata, Quartet, op. 95, in F minor. Haydn, on the other hand, very seldom composed for the orchestra in this key, major or minor

FjJ is more rarely used ; but we may mention Haydn's Farewell Symphony; a P. F. Sonata (op. 78) by Beethoven, for which he had a peculiar affection; and a charming Romance of Schumann's (op. 28). /, for., or forte, is the well-known sign for loudness. The holes in the belly of the violin are called [G.] the / holes from their shape. FABRI, ANNIBALE PIO, DETTO BALINO, one

of the most excellent tenors of the 18th century, was born at Bologna in 1697. Educated musically by the famous PISTOCCHI, he became the favourite of the Emperor Charles VI, and other Princes sought to engage him in their service. He was also a composer, and member of the Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna; received into that society in 1719, he was named its PWra-

FABRI.

FALSETTO.

cipe, or president, in 1725, 29, 45, 47, and 50. In 1729 he came to England and sang, with Bernacchi, his fellow-pupil under Pistocchi, in Handel's 'Tolomeo,' taking the part of Araspe, formerly sung by Boschi. As the latter was a Bass, the part was probably transposed for Fabri for want of a Bass to sing it. In the tame year he performed the tenor part in ' Lotario,' as also in 'Partenope' (1730), and in •Poro' and a reprise of 'Kinaldo' (1731), all by the same master. Having been appointed to the Royal Chapel at Lisbon a few years later, he died there Aug. 12, 1760. [J.M.] FABRIZZI, ORAZIA, an Italian prima donna, described by Lord Mount-Edgcumbe as ' very far from a bad singer, but neither young nor pretty, therefore not liked'; she appeared in London about 1796 and sang that year the principal rdles in Martini's 'Consiglio Imprudente' and Cimaro3a's 'Traci Amanti,' as also in Martini's 'Arbore di Diana.' She was not re-engaged. [J. M.] FACKELTANZ, or Marche aux flambeaux, a torchlight procession—a survival from the mediaeval tournaments—which takes place at some of the German Courts on occasion of the marriage of members of the royal family. The procession has to march round the court or hall, with various intricate ceremonies (Times, Feb. 19, 1878). The music—for military band— is a Polonaise in march-time (3-4), usually a loud first and last part, and a soft trio. Meyerbeer has written four—one for the marriage of the Princess Eoyal (Jan. 25, 1858). Spontini, Flotow, and others, have also written them. [G.] FAGOTTO. The Italian name for the Bassoon, obviously arising from its resemblance to a faggot or bundle of sticks. The Germans have adopted

of one has not passed from the mind before the other comes to contradict it with a new accidental, as at (6). .(a) (*>)

it as Fagott. [See BASSOON.]

—I—hJ-

The disagreeable effect is produced by the contradictory accidentals belonging to different keys, or unequivocally to major or minor of the same key; and it follows that when the contradiction is between notes which can coexist in the same key the effect is not disagreeable. Thus chromatic passing notes and appoggiaturas do not affect the key, and are used without consideration of their apparent contradictions. Schumann uses the sharp and natural of the same note in the same chord in his 'Andante und Variationen' for two pianofortes, op. 46 (a), and Haydn the same in his Quartet in D, op. 71 (6).

Again, notes which are variable in the minor key do not produce any objectionable effect by their juxtaposition, as the minor 7th descending and the major 7th ascending or stationary; thus Mendelssohn in the Overture to ' Ruy B i a s ' has Bfc> and B \ in alternate chords.

[W. H. 8.]

FAIR ROSAMOND. A grand opera in 4 acts; words by C. Z. Barnett, music by John Barnett; produced at Drury Lane Feb. 28, 1837. FA-LA. A piece of vocal music for three or more voices, originally set wholly or in part to these two sol-fa syllables. Fa-las belong essentially to the madrigalian era, most of the composers of which have left specimens of them. They are said to be the invention of Gastoldi di Caravaggio—if the utterance of musical sounds on unmeaning syllables can be called an invention. Many of his ' balletti,' like many of the Ballets of Morley—such as ' Now is the month of Maying'—end with a lengthened Fa-la. A 4-part song known as 'The Waitts,' by an English composer Jeremiah Saville, set wholly on those syllables, is probably the most popular Fa-la in existence. [J. H.] FALLING A BELL. The operation of gradually swinging a bell from the position shown in Fig. 2, p. 219, to that in Fig. 3, p. 220. [See BELLS.]

501

[C.A.W.T.]

FALSE RELATION is the occurrence of chromatic contradiction in different parts or voices, either simultaneously, as at (a), or in chords which are so near together that the effect

And the treatment of notes which are interchangeable in chromatic and diatonic chords in the same key is equally free, as between a chromatic note of the chord of the augmented sixth and a succeeding diatonic discord.

•

I

The rule is further modified by so many exceptions that it is almost doubtful if the cases in which the effect is objectionable are not fewer than those in which it is not. [C.H.H.P.] FALSETTO. The voices of both men and women contain two—or, as defined in the 'M£thode du Chant du Conservatoire de Musique,' three—registers, viz. chest voice (voce di petto); head voice (v. di testa); and a third which, as being forced or non-natural, is called by Italians and French falsetto or fausset, or 'false' voice. The limits of these are by no means fixed. I n every voice identical notes can be produced in more ways than one, and thus each register can be extended many, degrees beyond its normal

502

FALSETTO.

FANFARE.

limits. But it is all but impossible for a singer to keep both first and third registers in working order at the same time. The male counter-tenor, or alto voice, is almost entirely falsetto, and is generally accompanied by an imperfect pronunciation, the vowels usually partaking more or less of the quality of the Italian u or English oo, on which the falsetto seems to be most easily producible. The earliest mention of the falsetto in musical Europe is in reference to the Sistine Chapel, where Spaniards exceptionally gifted with this The rhythm of the castanets was voice preceded that artificial class to whom since the 16th century alto and even soprano parts have been assigned. [J. H.] FALSTAFF. A comic Italian opera in 2 Mozart's version is known and accessible; acts ; words by Maggioni, music by Balfe. Pro- Gluck's will be found in the Appendix to Jahn's duced at Her Majesty's Theatre July 19, 1838. Mozart. There is a curious piece of history said to be FANDANGO. An Andalusian dance, a variety of the SEGUIDILLA, accompanied by the connected with this dance. Soon after its first guitar and castanets. In its original form the introduction, in the 17th century, it was confandango was in 6-8 time, of slow tempo, mostly demned by the ecclesiastical authorities in Spain in the minor, with a trio in the major; some- as a ' godless dance.' Just as the Consistory times, however, the whole was in a major key. were about to prohibit it, one of the judges Later it took the 3 -4 tempo, and the characteristic remarked that it was not fair to condemn any one unheard. Two celebrated dancers were accordSpanish rhythm J ^ J J J J J J • I n this ingly introduced to perform the fandango before the Consistory. This they did with such effect, 3 shape it closely resembles the seguidilla and that, according to the old chronicler, ' every one bolero. One Fandango tune is given by Hawkins joined in, and the hall of the consistorium was (Appendix, No. 33). Another has been rendered turned into a dancing saloon.' No more was famous through its partial adoption by both heard of the condemnation of the fandango. Gluck and Mozart—the former in his Ballet of Similar dances to the fandango are the TIRANA, Don Juan, the latter in Figaro (end of Act 3). the POLO, and the JOTA ARRAGONESA. [E.P.] It is given in its Spanish form by Dohrn in the FANFARE. A French term of unknown Neue Zeitschrift f. Musik (xi. 163, 7) as follows:— origin—perhaps Moorish, perhaps onomatopoeic— Andante, denotes in strictness a short passage for trumpets, tr such as is performed at coronations and other state ceremonies. In England they are known as ' Flourishes,' and are played by the Trumpeters of Her Majesty's Household Cavalry to the number of eight, all playing in unison on Eb trumpets without valves. The following, believed to date from the reign of Charles II, is the Flourish regularly used at the opening of Parliament, and was also performed at the announcement of the close of the Crimean War, the visit of the Queen and Prince of Wales to St. Paul's after the Prince's recovery, and so on :—

r c cZr t a I r t £& t c.

2. So picturesque and effective a feature as the Fanfare has not been neglected by Opera composers. No one who has heard it can forget the

503

FANFARE.

FARCE.

effect of the two nourishes announcing the arrival of the Governor in Fidelio, both in the opera and in the two earlier overtures. True to the fact, Beethoven has written it in unison (in the opera and the later overture in Bb, in the earlier overture in Eb, with triplets). Other composers, not so conscientious as he, have given them in harmony, sometimes with the addition of horns and trombones. See Olympie ; Struensee, Act 2 ; Hamlet, Tabl. 2, Sc. I, and many more. A good example is that in Tannhauser, which forms the basis of the march. It is for 3 Trumpets in B:—

of this kind by very ancient English composers, and some also for the 'Virginals' by Bird and Gibbons in ' Parthenia.' They seem to have been a very dry species of composition, and Dr. Burney quotes Simpson's ' Compendium' to the intent that in the year 1667 'this style of music was much neglected because of the scarcity of auditors that understand it, their ears being more delighted with light and airy music' In the works of Bach there are a great number of Fantasias both as separate works and as the first movement to a Suite, or conjoined with a Fugue. In the latter capacity are two of the finest Fantasias in existence, namely that in A minor called 'Grosse Fantasie und Fuga' (Dorffel, 158), and that in D minor, commonly known as the ' Fantasia cromatica.' Among his organ works also there are some splendid specimens, such as Fantasia et Fuga in G minor (Dorffel, 798), and a Fantasia of considerable length in G major, constituting a complete work in itself (Dorffel, 855). Among the works of his sons and other contemporaneous German masters are also many specimens of Fantasias. Some of them are very curious, as the last movement of a Sonata in F minor by Philip Emmanuel Bach, published in Roitzsch's 'Alte Klavier Music,' in the greater part of which the division by bars is entirely dispensed with ; and the same peculiarity distinguishes a Fantasia by Johann Ernst Bach which is published in the same collection. Two of those by Friedemann Bach (in A and C) have been revived at the Monday Popular Concerts. Mozart produced some fine examples of Fantasias, Beethoven apparently only two distinctly BO called, namely Opus 77 and the Choral Fantasia; and two of the Sonatas (op. 27) are entitled 'quasi una Fantasia,' which implies some irregularity of form. In more modern times, apart from Schumann's fine example dedicated to Liszt (op. 17), the name has gone somewhat into disrepute, having been commonly employed to label vulgar effusions which consist of brilliant passages connected with popular airs strung together into a piece for the mere display offingercleverness. But in these days of revivals there seems to be no reason why the name should not be given to more honourably conceived compositions, and yet play a rSle of some dignity in modem instrumental music; and the very fact that there are no rules for its formal construction would seem to be an inducement to composers of an independent turn of mind. [C.H.H.P.]

A fine Fanfare for four trumpets, composed by Mr. Waterson,1 Bandmaster of the 1st Life Guards, is played as a dirge at the funerals of that Regiment. Weber has left a short one— 'kleiner Tiisch'—for 20 trumpets in C (Jahns's Thematic Cat. No. 47 A).

[TUSCH.]

3. The word is also employed in a general sense for any short prominent passage of the brass, such as that of the Trumpets and Trombones (with the wood wind also) near the end of the 4th movement in Schumann's Eb Symphony; or of the whole wind band in the opening Andante of the Reformation Symphony. 4. A Fanfare differs essentially from a Call or Signal.

[SIGNAL.]

[G]

FANISKA. Cherubini's 21st opera; in 3 acts; words by Sonnleithner from the French. Produced at the Kamthnerthor Theatre, Vienna, Feb. 25, 1806. FANTASIA is a term of very respectable antiquity as applied to music, for it seems to be sufficiently established by both Bumey and Hawkins in their Histories that it was the immediate predecessor of the term Sonata, and shares with the term RICBRCAR the honour of having been the first title given to compositions expressly for instruments alone. It seems itself to have been a descendant of the madrigal; for when madrigals, accompanied as they commonly were by instruments playing the same parts with the voices, had to a certain extent run their course as the most popular form of chamber compositions, the possibility of the instruments playing the same kind of music without the voices was not far to seek. Hawkins remarks that the early Fantasias 'abounded in fugues and little responsive passages and all those other elegances observable in the structure and contrivance of the madrigal.' They were written for combinations of various instruments, such as a ' Chest of Viols,' and even for five ' Cornets' of an ancient kind, seemingly something like a family of modern serpents. There are examples 1 To whom I am indebted for much Information.

FANTASIESTUCK. A name adopted by Schumann from Hoffmann to characterise various fancy pieces for pianoforte, alone and with other instruments (P. F. solo, op. 12,111; with Clarinet, °P- 73! 'with Violin and Cello, op. 88). They are on a small scale, but several of them of considerable beauty. FARCE (Ital. Farsia, probably from the Latin fa/rcio to stuff—Plautus has centones farcire, to insert falsehoods or tricks). A farsia was a canticle in the vulgar tongue intermixed with Latin, originating in the French church

FARCE.

FARINELLI.

at the time when Latin began to be a tongue 'not understanded of the people.' The farsia was sung in many churches at the principal festivals, almost universally at Christmas. It became a vehicle for satire and fun, and thus led to the modern Farsa or Farce, an opera in one act, of which the subject is extravagant and the action ludicrous. [J. H.] FAEINELLI. A serio-comic opera in 2 acts; words by C. Z. Barnett, music by John Barnett; produced at Drury Lane Feb. 8, 1839, Balfe acting Farinelli, and being forced by hoarseness to leave off at end of 1st act. FAKINELLI, a violin-player and composer, was either a brother or a a uncle of the celebrated singer Farinelli (Carlo Broschi). Date and place of his birth and death are unknown. After living for some time in France we find him in 1680 at Hanover, side by side with Handel, as leader of the band. He appears to have enjoyed a great reputation as a performer, and considerable popularity as a composer of instrumental music in a light and pleasing style. He excelled especially in the performance of Lulli's airs and his own so-called ' Folia,' which was known in England during the last century as 'Farinell's 'ground.' [See FOLIA.] Farinelli was knighted by the King of Denmark, and, according to Hawkins, was appointed by George I. his resident at Venice. [P. D.]

sio's 'Angelica e Medoro'; for the latter did not leave Eome till 1721, and 'Angelica e Medoro' was not written before 1722. (FtStis.) In that year Farinelli, already famous in southern Italy under the name of il ragazzo (the boy), accompanied Porpora to Eome, and made his first appearance there in ' Eomene,' composed by his master for the Teatro Aliberti. There was a German trumpet-player at that time in the capital, who excited the admiration of the Eomans by his marvellous powers. For this artist Porpora wrote an obbligato part to a song, in which his pupil vied with the instrument in holding and swelling a note of extraordinary length, purity, and volume. Although the virtuoso performed this in a wonderful manner, Farinelli excelled him in the duration, brilliance, and gradual crescendo and diminuendo of the note, while he carried the enthusiasm of the audience to the highest pitch by the novelty and spontaneity of the shakes and difficult variations which he introduced into the air. It is probable that these were previously arranged by Porpora, and not due to the impromptu inspiration of the singer. Having remained under the instruction of his master until I724> Farinelli made his first journey to Vienna in that year. A year later he sang for the first time at Venice in Albinoni's 'Didone abbandonata,' the libretto by Metastasio ; and subsequently returned to Naples, where he achieved a triumph in a Dramatic Serenade by Hasse, in which he sang with the celebrated cantatrice, Tesi. In 1726 he appeared in Fr. Ciampi's ' Ciro' at Milan; and then made his second visit to Eome, where he was anxiously expected. In 1727 he went to Bologna, where he was to meet the famous Bernacchi, the ' King of Singers,' for the first time. Meeting this rival in a Grand Duo, Farinelli poured forth all the beauties of his voice and style without reserve, and executed a number of most difficult passages, which were rewarded with tumultuous applause. Nothing daunted, Bernacchi replied in the same air, repeating every trill, roulade, or cadenza, which had been sung by Farinelli. The latter, owning his defeat, entreated his conqueror to give him some instruction, which Bernacchi, with equal generosity, willingly consented to bestow; and thus was perfected the talent of the most remarkable singer, perhaps, who has ever lived.

504

FARINELLI, CARLO BROSCHI, DETTO,

was

born January 24, 1705, at Naples, according to his own statement made to Dr. Burney, who saw him at Bologna in 1770, though Padre G. Sacchi, his biographer, fixes his birthplace at Andria. Some say that he derived his sobriquet from the occupation of his father, who was either a miller or a seller of flour (farina); others contend that he was so named after three brothers Farina, very distinguished amateurs at Naples, and his patrons. It is, however, quite probable that he simply took the name of his uncle Farinelli, the composer. Sacchi declares that he saw in Farinelli's possession the letters of nobility which he was required to produce when admitted, by the favour of the King of Spain, into the orders of Calatrava and St. Iago. It seems scarcely credible that noble parents should have destined their son for the musical stage, or consented to the peculiar preparation necessary to make him a soprano; but this, as usual, is explained by the story of an accident having happened to the boy while riding, which rendered necessary the operation by which he retained his treble. The voice, thus manufactured, became the most beautiful ever heard. He soon left the care of his father, who taught him the rudiments, to enter the school of Porpora, of whom he was the first and most distinguished pupil. In spite of his now explicit statement to Dr. Burney, it is not possible that Farinelli could have made his dAbut at Naples in 1720, at the age of 15, in Metasta1 PTrfey wrote his song 'Joy to great r ^ e a r ' i n honour of Charles n . tn 'divisions' OD this bass; it roust, therefore,have been composed befure 16S5.

After a second visit to Vienna in 1728, Farinelli went several times to Venice, Rome, Naples, Piacenza, and Parma, meeting and vanquishing such formidable rivals as Gizzi, Nicolini, Faustina, and Cuzzoni, and everywhere loaded with riches and honours. In 1731 he visited Vienna for the third time. It was at this point that he modified his style, from one of mere brilliance and bravura, which, like a true pupil of Porpora, he had hitherto practised, to one of pathos and simplicity. This change is said to have been suggested by the Emperor Charles VI. ' You have,' he said, 'hitherto excited only astonishment and admiration, but you have never touched the heart; it would be easy to you to create

505

FARINELLI.

FARINELLI.

emotion, if you would but be more simple and more expressive !' Farinelli adopted this admirable counsel, and became the most pathetic, as he was still the most brilliant, of singers. Returning once more to Italy, he revisited with ever increasing renown Venice, Rome, Ferrara, Lucca, and Turin. In 1734 he made his first journey to England. Here he arrived at the moment when the opposition to Handel, supported by the nobles, had established a rival Opera, with Porpora for composer, and Senesino, who had quarrelled with the great German, for principal singer. The enterprise, however, did not succeed, but made debts to the amount of £19,000. At this juncture Porpora naturally thought of his illustrious pupil, who obeyed the summons, and saved the house. He made his first appearance at the Theatre, Lincoln's Inn, in 'Artaserse,' the music of which was chiefly by Riccardo Broschi, his own brother, and Hasse. The most favourite airs were ' Pallido il sole,' set by Hasse and sung by Senesino; ' Per questo dolce amplesso,' by the same, and ' Son qual nave,' by Broschi, both the latter being sung by Farinelli. In the last, composed specially for him, the first note (as in the song in ' Eomene') was taken with such delicacy, swelled by minute degrees to such an amazing volume, and afterwards diminished in the same manner to a mere point, that it was applauded for full five minutes. After this, he set off with such brilliance and rapidity of execution that it was difficult for the violins of those days to accompany him. He sang also in 'Onorio,' ' Polifemo,' and other operas by Porpora; and excited an enthusiastic admiration among the dilettanti whichfinallyculminated in the famous ejaculation of a lady in one of the boxes (perpetuated by Hogarth in the Rake's Progress)— ' One God and one Farinelli!' In his first performance at Court, he was accompanied by the Princess Royal, who insisted on his singing two of Handel's songs at sight, printed in a different clef, and composed in a different style from any to which he had ever been accustomed. He also confirmed the truth of the story, that Senesino and himself, meeting for the first time on the same stage, ' Senesino had the part of a furious tyrant to represent, and Farinelli that of an unfortunate hero in chains; but, in the course of the first song, he so softened the obdurate heart of the enraged tyrant that Senesino, forgetting his stage character, ran to Farinelli and embraced him in his arms.' The Prince of Wales gave Farinelli a 'fine wrought-gold snuff-box, richly set with diamonds and rubies, in which was enclosed a pair of diamond knee - buckles, as also a purse of one hundred guineas.' This example was followed by most of the courtiers, and the presents were duly advertised in the Court Journal. His salary was only £1500, yet during the three years 1734, 5, and 6, which he spent in London, his income was not less than iB^ooo per annum. On his return to Italy, he built, out of a small part of the sums acquired here, 'a very superb mansion, In which he dwelt,

choosing to dignify it with the significant appellation of the English Folly.' Towards the end of 1736, Farinelli set out for Spain, staying a few months in France by the way; where, in spite of the ignorance and prejudice against foreign singers which then distinguished the French, he achieved a great success. Louis XV heard him in the Queen's apartments, and applauded him to an extent which astonished the Court (Riccoboni). The King gave him his portrait set in diamonds, and 500 louis d'or. Though the singer, who had made engagements in London, intended only a flying visit to Spain, his fortune kept him there nearly 25 years. He arrived in Madrid, as he had done in London, at a critical moment. Philip V, a prey to melancholy depression, neglected the affairs of the state, and refused even to preside at the Council. The Queen, hearing of the arrival of Farinelli, determined to try the effect of his voice upon the King. She arranged a concert in the next room to that which the King occupied, and invited the singer to perform there a few tender and pathetic airs. The success of the plan was instantaneous and complete ; Philip was first struck, then moved, and finally overcome with pleasure. He sent for the artist, thanked him with effusion, and bade him name his reward. Farinelli, duly prepared, answered that his best reward would be to see the monarch return to the society of his Court and to the cares of the state. Philip consented, allowed himself to be shaved for the first time for many weeks, and owed his cure to the powers of the great singer. The Queen, alive to this, succeeded in persuading the latter to remain at a salary of 50,000 francs, and Farinelli thus separated himself from the world of art for ever. He related to Burney that during 10 years, until the death of Philip V, he sang four songs to the King every night without change of any kind. Two of these were the ' Pallido il sole' and ' Per questo dolce amplesso' of Hasse; and the third, a minuet on which he improvised variations. He thus repeated about 3,600 times the same things, and never anything else: he acquired, indeed, enormous power, but the price paid for it was too high. It is not true that Farinelli was appointed prime minister by Philip; this post he never had: but under Ferdinand VI, the successor of Philip, he enjoyed the position offirstfavourite, superior to that of any minister. This king was subject to the same infirmity as his father, and was similarly cured by Farinelli, as Saul was by David. His reward this time was the cross of Calatrava (1750), one of the highest orders in Spain. From this moment his power was unbounded, and exceeded that ever obtained by any singer. Seeing the effect produced on the King by music, he easily persuaded him to establish an Italian opera at Buen-retiro, to which he invited some of the first artists of Italy. He himself was appointed the chief manager. He was also employed frequently in political affairs, was consulted constantly by the minister La Enstifiada, and was especially con-

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FARINELLI.

sidered as the agent of the ministers of those European Courts which were opposed to the family treaty proposed by France. (Bocous.) Tn all his prosperity, Farinelli ever showed the greatest prudence, modesty, and moderation : he made no enemies, strange as it may seem, but conciliated those who would naturally have envied him his favour with the King. Hearing one day an officer in the anti-chamber complain of the King's neglect of his 30 years' service, while riches were heaped on ' a miserable actor,' Farinelli begged a commission for the grumbler, and gave it to him, to his great surprise, observing mildly that he was wrong to tax the King with ingratitude. According to another anecdote, he once requested an embassy for a courtier, when the King asked him if he was not aware that this grandee was a particular enemy of his: ' True,' replied Farinelli; ' but this is how I desire to take my revenge upon him.' He was as generous also as he was prudent. A story is told of a tailor who brought him a handsome gala-costume, and refused any payment, but humbly begged to hear one song from the incomparable artist. After trying in vain to change his resolution, Farinelli good-humouredly complied, and sang to the delighted tailor, not one, but several songs. Having concluded, he said: ' I too am rather proud; and that is the reason, perhaps, of my having some advantage over other singers. I have yielded to you ; it is but just that you should yield in turn to me.' He then insisted on paying the man nearly double the value of the clothes. While still at Madrid, he heard of the death of his former rival, teacher, and friend, Bernacchi. In a letter (in the possession of the present writer), dated April 13, 1756, he speaks with deep regret of the loss of one 'for whom he had always felt esteem and affection,' and condoles with his correspondent, the Padre Martini. Shortly after the ascent of Charles III to the throne (1759), Farinelli received orders to leave the kingdom, owing probably to Charles's intention to sign the family pact with France and Naples, to which the singer had ever been opposed. He preserved his salary, but on condition that he should live at Bologna and not at Naples. Once more in Italy, after 25 years of exile, Farinelli found none of his friends remaining. Some were dead; others had quitted the country. New friends are not easily made after middle age; and Farinelli was now 57 years old. He had wealth, but his grandeur was gone. Yet he was more addicted to talking of his political career than of his triumphs as a singer. He passed the 20 remaining years of his life in a splendid palazzo, a mile from Bologna, contemplating for hours the portraits of Philip V, Elisabeth, and Ferdinand, in silence, interrupted only by tears of regret. He received the visits of strangers courteously, and showed pleasure in conversing with them about the Spanish Court. He made only one journey during this period, to Rome, where he expatiated to tlie Pope on the riches and honours he had enjoyed at Madrid.

FARINELLI. The Holy Father answered, 'Avete fatta tanta fortuna costa, perche vi avete trovato le gioie, che avete perdute in qua.' When Burney saw him at Bologna in 1771, though he no longer sang, he played on the viol d'amour and harpsichord, and composed for those instruments: he had also a collection of keyed instruments in which he took great delight, especially a piano made at Florence in 1730, which he called Rafael d'Urbiyio. Next to that, he preferred a harpsichord which had been given to him by the Queen of Spain; this he called Correggio, while he named others Titian, Ovddo, etc. He had a fine gallery of pictures by Murillo and Ximenes, among which were portraits of his royal patrons, and several of himself, one by his friend Amiconi, representing him with Faustina and Metastasio. The latter was engraved by I. Wagner at London (fol.), and is uncommon; the head of Farinelli was copied from it again by the same engraver, but reversed, in an oval (4to), and the first state of this is rare: it supplied Sir J. Hawkins with the portrait for his History of Music. C. Lucy also painted Farinelli; the picture was engraved (fol.) in mezzotint, 1735, by Alex. Van Haecken, and this print is also scarce. Fetis falls into an error in contradicting the story of Farinelli's suggesting to the Padre Martini to write his History of Music, on the ground that he only returned to Italy in 1761, four years after the appearance of the first volume, and had no previous relations with the learned author. The letter quoted above shows that he was in correspondence with him certainly as early as April 1756, when he writes in answer to a letter of Martini, and, after adverting to the death of Bernacchi, orders twenty-four copies of his work, bound in red morocco, for presents to the Queen and other notabilities of the Court. It is, therefore, quite possible that their correspondence originated even long before this. They remained in the closest intimacy until death separated them by the decease of Farinelli, July 15, 1782, in the 78th year of his age. Martinelli speaks in glowing terms of this great artist, saying that he had 7 or 8 notes more than ordinary singers, and these perfectly sonorous, equal, and clear; that he had also much knowledge of music, and was a worthy pupil of Porpora. Mancini, a great master of singing and a fellow-pupil of Bernacchi with Fa.inelli, speaks of him with yet more enthusiasm. 'His voice,' he says, 'was thought a marvel, because it was so perfect, so powerful, so sonorous, and so rich in its extent, both in the high and the low parts of the register, that its equal has never been heard in our times. He was, moreover, endowed with a creative genius which inspired him with embellishments so new and so astonishing that no one was able to imitate them. The art of taking and keeping the breath, so softly and easily that no one could perceive it, began and died with him. The qualities in which he excelled were the evenness of' his voice, the art of swelling its sound, the

FARINELLI. porfamento, the union of the registers, a surprising agil ty, a graceful and pathetic style, and a shake as admirable as it was rare. There was no branch of the art which he did not carry to the highest pitch of perfection . . . . The successes which he obtained in his youth did not prevent him from continuing to study; and this great artist applied himself with so much perseverance that he contrived to change in some measure his style and to acquire another and superior method, when his name was already famous and his fortune brilliant.' Such was Farinelli, as superior to the great singers of his own period as they were to those of more recent times. [J.M.] FARINELLI, GIUSEPPE, composer, born at Este, May 7, 1769; in 1785 entered the conservatorio ' De' Turchini' at Naples, where he studied accompaniment under Fago, and composition under Sala and Tritto. In 1808 he was in Venice, and 1810-17 a* Turin. In 1819 he was appointed chapel-master at Trieste, where he died Dec. 12, 1836. He composed an immense number of operas in avowed imitation of Ciniarosa, which however were more successful than the majority of imitations. A duet he introduced into the ' Matrimonio Segreto' has been mistaken for Cimarosa's own composition. He also wrote masses, a 'Stabat' in two parts, and other church music. [M. C. C] FARMER, JOHN, ' practitioner in the art of Musique' in the latter part of the 16th century, published in 1591 a little tract entitled 'Divers and sundrie waies of two Parts in one, to the number of fortie upon one playn Song; sometimes placing the Ground above and the parts benethe, and otherwise the Ground benethe and the parts above,' etc. He was one of the ten composers employed by T. Este to harmonise the tunes for his 'Whole Book of Psalms' published in 1592. In 1599 he published his 'First Set of English Madrigals to Foure Voyces,' in the address 'To the Reader' prefixed to which he says he has fitly' linkt' his ' Musicke to number,' and given to each 'their true effect.' Both this work and his tract are dedicated to the Earl of Oxenford, whom the author describes as 'my very good Lord and Master.' Farmer contributed to ' The Triumphes of Oriana,' 1601, the madrigal ' Faire nimphes I heard one telling.' Noth-ng is known of his biography. [W.H. H.] FARMER, THOMAS, MUS. Baa, was originally one of the Waits of London, and graduated at Cambridge in 1684. He composed instrumental music for the theatre and contributed some songs to 'The Theater of Music,' 1685-87, and to D'Urfey's Third Collection of Songs, 1685. In 1686 he published ' A Consort of Musick in four parts, containing thirty-three Lessons beginning with an Overture,' and in 1690 ' A Second Consort of Musick in four parts, containing eleven Lessons, beginning with a Ground.' Purcell composed an Elegy, written by Nahum Tate, upon his death (printed in Orpheus Britannicus, ii. 35) from which it may be inferredW that he died young. [ -H.H.]

FARRENC.

607

FARNABY, GILES, MUS. Bac, was of the

family of Farnaby of Truro, and nearly related to Thomas Farnabie, the famous Kentish schoolmaster. He commenced the study of music about 1580, and on July 9, 1592, graduated at Oxford as Bachelor of Music. He was one of the ten composers employed by Thomas Este to harmonise the tunes for his 'Whole Book of Psalms,' published in 1592. In 1598 he published ' Canzonets to foure voyces, with a song of eight parts,' with commendatory verses prefixed by Antony Holborne, John Dowland, Richard Alison, and Hugh Holland. A madrigal by Farnaby, 'Come, Charon, come,' is extant in MS. [W.H.H.] FARNESE, MARIANNA, a seconda donna who appeared in London about the years 1776 and 7. She took part in Traetta's ' Germondo,' and also played Calipso in his ' Telemaco.' [J. M.] FARRANT, JOHN. There were two musicians of this name, who both flourished about the year 1600. The elder was organist of Salisbury Cathedral, and the other organist of Christ's Hospital, London. Nothing more is known of their lives. [W.H.H.] FARRANT, RICHARD, was one of the Gen-

tlemen of the Chapel Royal in the sixteenth century. The date of his first appointment is not known, but he resigned in April, 1564, on becoming Master of the Children of St. George's Chapel, Windsor, of which he is said to have been also a lay vicar and organist. During his tenure of office at Windsor he occupied ' a dwelling house within the Castle, called the Old Commons.' On Nov. 5, 1569, he was reappointed a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and remained such until his death, which occurred on Nov. 30,1580. Farrant's church music merits all the eulogy which has been bestowed upon it for solemnity and pathos. His service printed by Boyce in G minor is given by Tudway (B. Museum, Harl. MSS. 7337 and 8) in A minor, and called his ' High Service.' His two anthems, 'Call to remembrance' and 'Hide not Thou thy face' were for many years performed on Maundy Thursday during the distribution of the royal bounty. The beautiful anthem, ' Lord, for Thy tender mercies' sake' (the words from Lydley's Prayers), has long been assigned to Farrant, although attributed by earlier writers to John Hilton. Tudway (Add. MSS. 7340) gives another anthem—' O Lord, Almighty,' full, 4 voices—as his, but this is questionable. His son, DANIEL, was one of the first authors who set lessons ' lyra way' for the viol, after the manner of the old English lute or bandora, in the time of Charles I. [W. H. H.] FARRENC, ARISTIDE, born at Marseilles April 9, 1794, died in Paris Feb. 12, 1869, composed some pieces for the flute, but is best known as a writer on music. He took an important part in the 2nd edition of Fdtis's 'Biographie universelle,' and wrote the biographical notices in Madame Farrenc's 'Tresor des Pianistes.' He also contributed critiques to ' La France

508

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musicale,' and ' La Kevue de Musique ancienne etmoderne' (Rennes 1858). Some of his valuable notes and unpublished articles are among the MSS. in the library of the Paris Conservatoire. His wife LOUISE—born in Paris May 31,1804; died there Sept. 15 1875—was a sister of the sculptor Auguste Dumont, and aunt of Ernest Reyer. She studied under REICHA, and at an early age could compose both for the orchestra and piano. She married in 1821, and made several professional tours in France with her husband, both performing in public with great success. Madame Farrenc was not only a clever woman, but an able and conscientious teacher, as is shown by the many excellent female pupils she trained during the thirty years she was professor of the piano at the Conservatoire (Nov. 1842-Jan. 1873). Besides some remarkable e'tudes, sonatas, and pieces for the pianoforte, she composed sonatas for piano and violin or cello, trios, two quintets, a sestet, and a nonet, for which works she obtained in 1869 the prize of the Acade'mie des Beaux Arts for chamber-music. She also wrote two symphonies and three overtures for full orchestra, and several of her more important compositions have been performed at the Conservatoire concerts. More than by all these however her name will be perpetuated by the ' Trdsor des Pianistes,' a real anthology of music, containing chefs-d'oeuvre of all the classical masters of the clavecin and pianoforte from the 16th century down to Weber and Chopin, as well as more modern works of the highest value. [TRESOR DE.S PIANISTES.]

[G.C.]

FASCH, CARL FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN, founder

of the ' Singakademie' at Berlin, born Nov. 18, I736J &t Zerbst, where his father was Capellmeister. As a child he was delicate, and much indulged. He made rapid progress on the violin and clavier, and in the rudiments of harmony. After a short stay at Coethen, where he made his first attempts at composition in church-music, he was sent to Strelitz. Here he continued his studies under Hertel, in all branches of music, but especially in accompaniment, at that time a difficult art, as the accompanyist had so little to guide him. In 1751 Linicke, the court clavierist, having declined to accompany Franz Benda, Fasch offered to supply his place at the harpsichord, and Benda's praises incited him to still greater efforts. After his return to Zerbst he was sent to complete his education at Klosterbergen near Magdeburg. Benda had not forgotten their meeting, and in 1756, when just 20, Fasch was appointed on his recommendation accompanyist to Frederic the Great. His coadjutor was no less a person than Emmanuel Bach; they took itin turns to accompany the King's flute-concertos, and as soon as Fasch had become accustomed to the royal amateur's impetuous style ot execution his accompaniments gave every satisfaction. The Seven Years War put an end to Frederic's flute-playing, and as Fasch received his salary in paper, worth only a fifth part of its nominal value,—a misfortune in which he

anticipated Beethoven—he was compelled to maintain himself by giving lessons. For his lessons in composition he made a collection of several thousand examples. About the same time he wrote several most ingenious canons, particularly one for 25 voices containing five canons put together, one being in seven parts, one in six and three in four parts. After the battle of Torgau the King granted him an addition of 100 thalers to his salary, but the increase covered the direction of the opera, which was put into his hands from 1774 to j6. After the war of the Bavarian succession Frederic gave up his practice, and Fasch was free to follow his natural inclination for church music. In 1783, incited by a 16-part Mass of Benevoli's, which Reichardt had brought from Italy, he wrote one for the same number of voices, which however proved too difficult for the court-singers. He retained his post after Frederic's death, but occupied himself chiefly with composition and teaching. In the summer of 1790, as he himself tells us, he began choral- meetings in the summerhouse of Geheimrath Milow, which resulted in the 'Singakademie,' an institution which under his pupil and successor Zelter became very popular and exercised an important influence on musical taste in Berlin for many years. Before his death Fasch was twice visited by Beethoven, who spent some time in Berlin in the summer of 1796. On the first occasion, June 21, he heard a chorale, the three first numbers of Fasch's mass, and several movements from his 119th Psalm, and he himself extemporised on one of the subjects of the latter. On the 28th he reappeared and again extemporised, to the delight of Fasch's scholars, who, as Beethoven used to say, pressed round him and could not applaud for tears (Thayer's 'Beethoven,' ii. 13). The Academy at that date was about 90 strong, but at the time of Fasch's death, Aug. 3, 1800, it had increased to 147. In accordance with a wish expressed in his will, the Academy performed Mozart's Requiem to his memory—for the first time in Berlin. The receipts amounted to 1200 thalers, an extraordinary sum in those days, and were applied to founding a Fund for the perpetual maintenance of a poor family. In 1801 Zelter published his Life—a brochure of 62 pages 4to., with a portrait. In 1839 the Academy published Fasch's best sacred works in 6 volumes. A 7th, issued by the representatives of Zelter, contains the mass and the canon above alluded to. Of his oratorio ' Giuseppe riconosciuto,' performed in 1774, one terzetto alone remains, Fasch having destroyed the rest, together with several other works composed before the 16-part mass. As a master of composition in many parts, Fasch is the last representative of the great school of sacred composers which lasted so long in Italy, and his works are worth studying. They combine the severity of ancient forms with modern harmony and a fine vein of melody, and constitute a mine which would well repay investigation. [F.G.] FAUST. Opera in 5 acts; words after Goethe, by Barbier and CarrtS; music by Gounod. Pro-

FAUST.

FAUX-BOURDON.

duced at the Theatre Lyrique Mar. 19, 1859 ; at Her Majesty's Theatre, as 'Faust' June 11, 63 ; at the Royal Italian Opera, Covent Garden, as 'Faust e Margherita'; in English (by Cho'rley), as 'Faust,' at Her Majesty's Jan. 23, 64. In Germany as ' Margarethe.' Music to Goethe's Faust was composed by Lindpainter, and appears to have been produced at Stuttgart in June 1832 ; also by Prince Kadziwill, the score of which was published in 1836. Spohr's Faust (words by Bernhard), a romantic opera in 2 acts, is in no respect connected with Goethe's play. It was composed at Vienna in 1813 for the Theatre an der Wien, but was first performed at Frankfort in March 1818, and was for many years a great favourite. It was produced in London by a German company at the Prince's Theatre May 21, 1840 ; and in Italian at Covent Garden under Spohr's baton July 15, 52. [G.] FAUSTINA BORDONI. See HASSE, SIO-

509

The word Bordone, and Bourdon, in its primary sense, is (in both languages) a pilgrim's staff; hence, from similarity in form, tbe basspipe, or drone, of the bag-pipe ; and thence again simply a deep bass note. As the earliest Fahi bordoni of which we have specimens are principally formed, except at their cadences, by successions of fourths and sixths below the Plain Song melody, such an accompanying bass, to those who had hitherto been accustomed to use the low octaves of the organum, and to consider thirds and sixths inadmissible in the harmonised accompaniment of the Gregorian Chant, would sound false; and this application of the meaning of the falso and faux seems a more rational derivation than that sometimes given from falsetto and fal&ette, as implying the combination of the high voices with the low in Falso Bordone harmony. The following example, from a 'MS. copied from authentic sources at 2Rome, will give a NORA. better idea of the nature of this kind of CounterFAUX-BOURDON, or Falsobordone, a simple point than any verbal description. It is a Fauxkind of Counterpoint to the Church Plain Song ; bourdon, of the 15th century, on the 2nd tone in other words, a harmony to the ancient chant. (transposed from L) to G); originally written for Thefirstkind of variation from strictly unisonous 3 voices with the canto fermo in the alto part; singing in the Middle Ages was the ' Organum,' and with a soprano part, ad libitum, added by or simple aggrandisement of multitudinous choral Baini:— effect by the additions of octaves above and below the Plain Song or melody, answering to the accompaniment of the diapasons by principal and bourdon stops in the modern organ. Other parC.F. -grs r? allel concords were also (as in the ' mixture' organ -g—g—g—tr. stops) blended with the octaves—as the fifth, and even the fourth. These appear to have been used as early as the 8th century. After the Organum the next improvement was the 'Diaphonum' and ' Descant,' and by the 14th century there are historical intimations that these had led, by a natural development, to the use of ' Faux bourdon' at Avignon, whence it was et Spi - ri ta i San cto. taken to Home on the return of the Papal Court after its seventy years absence from that city. The same harmony (in 4 parts) is given by Hawkins (History, ch. 56) mentions an English Alfieri (1840) a jth higher. A Faux-bourdon MS. tract, by one Chilston, preserved in the on the same tone (transposed into FJJ) is given ' Manuscript of Waltham Holy Cross,' most likely by M. C. Frank, Paris 1857 :— Et ex ul ta vit Spi - ri - tus me - us of the 14th century, giving rules and directions « « I 1 I I I 'for the sight of descant . . . . and of Faburdon.' Gaforius (1451-1522), who is justly considered the father of the artistic music of the great C.F. I school which culminated in Counterpoint a la Palestrina, as also Adam da Fulda, about the same period, are among the earliest writers who I speak of this kind of harmony. M. Danjou has De discovered in the Library of S. Mark, Venice, 1 Vtreatises by Gulielmus Monachus, from which it is plain that in the 15th century the faux-bourdon was held in equal honour in England and in France. The English term Fa-burden is evidently a corruption from the French and Italian. Burden, 1 i 1 1 1 I if or Burthen, is used both for the refrain of a part Falsi bordoni by Vittoria, Bernabei, de Zachasong or chorus, and for a vocal accompaniment 1 'jOcto Melodiae octo Modorum hannonice factae ut motJulabantur to dancing— saeculo VII., ad praescriptum Adami de Fulda, et Franchini Gaforii.* 2 For this and similar specimens of harmonies to other tunes, see ' Foot it featly here and there, ' Accompanying Harmonies of Plain Song,' by Rev. T. Helmore, Brief And let the rest the burden bear.' Directory, p. v.

r r

FAUX-BOURDON. 510 riis, and "Viadana will be found in Proske's Musica ] Sacra, torn, iii., Liber Vesperarum. [T.H.] FAVORITE, LA. Opera in 4 acts ; words by Royer and Wae'tz, music by Donizetti. Produced at the Acaddmie royale Dec. 2, 1840; in London, as La Favorita, at Her Majesty's, Feb. 16, 47. FAWCETT, JOHN, born at Bolton-le-moors, Lancashire, in 1789, was originally a shoemaker, but abandoned that calling to follow the profession of music in his native town. He composed three sets of Psalm and Hymn Tunes, published at various periods under the titles of ' The Voice of Harmony,' 'The Harp of Zion,' and 'Miriam's Timbrel,' which are still very popular in Lancashire. In 1840 he edited and arranged the accompaniments to a collection of psalm and hymn tunes and other pieces selected by Joseph Hart, the music publisher, entitled ' Melodia divina.' An oratorio of his composition, called 'Paradise,' was published in 1853. He died at Bolton, Oct. 26, 1S67. His third son, JOHN FAWCETT, jun.,

Mus.

Baa,

was

born

about 1824, and when only eleven years old obtained the appointment of organist at St. John's Church, t'arnworth. Seven years later he succeeded an elder brother as organist of the parish church, Bolton. In 1845, leaving a sister to discharge his duties at Bolton, he came to London and entered as a pupil at the Royal Academy of Music, where he studied under Sterndale Bennett. During his stay in London (about twelve months) he officiated as organist of Curzon Chapel. On Nov. 4, 1852, he was admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Music at Oxford, his exercise, a cantata, entitled ' Supplication and Thanksgiving,' performed on the previous day, being highly commended by the Professor of Music, Sir H. R. Bishop. Fawcett died, after a short illness, at his residence in Manchester, July i, 1857. [W.H.H.] FAYOLLE, FRANfois JOSEPH MARIE, born in Paris Aug. 15, 1774; after a brilliant career at the College de Juilly, entered the corps- des ponts et chaussees in 1792, and became 'chef de brigade' of the Ecole polytechnique on its foundation in 1794. Here, under the instruction of Prony, Lagrange, and Monge, he studied the higher mathematics, but without neglecting literature, and with Fontanes' assistance translated a great part of the ^neid. Of his verses the following line has alone survived :— ' Le temps n'epargne pas ce qu'on a fait sans lui.' Though forgotten as a mathematician and a poet, Fayolle has acquired a solid reputation for his services to musical literature. He studied harmony under Perne, and the violoncello under Barni, but abstained from printing his compositions ; and contented himself with publishing 'Les quatre Saisons du Parnasse' (Paris 1805-9), a literary collection in 16 vols. 12mo. for which he wrote many articles on music and musicians. He also furnished the greater part of the biographical notices in the ' Dictionnaire historique des Musiciens,' published under the names of

FELIX MERITIS. Choron and himself (Paris 1810-11), a work to which Fetis is much indebted. He collected materials for a History of the Violin, of which however only fragments appeared, under the title ' Notices sur Corelli, Tartini, Gavinies, Pugnani, et Viotti, extraites d'une histoire du violon' (Paris 1810). After the fall of Napoleon, Fayolle came to England, where he taught French, and wrote for the ' Harmonicon.' On the eve of the Revolution of 1830 he returned to Paris, and resumed his old occupation as a musical critic. Among his later works may be mentioned a pamphlet called 'Paganini et Beriot' (Paris 1830), and the articles on musicians in the supplement to Michaud's ' BiogTaphie Universelle.' He died Dec. 2, 1852, at Ste. Perrine, a house of refuge in Paris. [G. C] FAYRFAX, ROBERT, MUS. DOC, of an an-

cient Yorkshire family, was born in the latter part of the 15th century. He was of Bayford, Hertfordshire, and is supposed to have held the appointment of organist or chanter of St. Alban's Abbey early in the 16th century. It appears from the Privy Purse Expences of Elizabeth of York that on March 28, 1502 (the Princess being then at St. Alban's), Fayrfax was paid 20s. ' for setting an Anthem of oure lady and Saint Elizabeth.' In 1504 he took the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge, and in 1511 was admitted to the same degree at Oxford. He was buried in St. Alban's Abbey, under a stone afterwards covered by the mayor's seat. Several of his compositions are extant in MS. in the Music School, Oxford, and the British Museum. In the latter library, Add. MSS. 5465, is a volume of MS. old English songs for 2, 3, and 4 voices by composers of the 15 th and 16th centuries formerly belonging to him, and afterwards in the possession of General Fairfax, at whose death it passed into the hands of Ralph Thoresby of Leeds. Four three-part songs by Fayrfax are printed by John Stafford Smith in his Old English Songs, and others by Hawkins and Burney. [W.H.H.] FELDLAGER IN SCHLESIEN, EIN, opera in 3 acts, words by Rellstab, music by Meyerbeer ; written and composed in memory of Frederick the Great for the opening of the Berlin Opera house—burnt Aug. 18, 1843; re-opened Dec. 7, 44. It was performed with extraordinary applause at Vienna Feb. 17, 47, with Jenny Lind as Vielka; 80 florins were given for places, and Meyerbeer was called on ten times. The Feldlager appears never to have been played either in France or England, but some of the music was afterwards used up in the Etoile du Nord. [G.] FELIX MERITIS, an institution in Amsterdam that includes with the performance of music the cultivation of letters, art, and science. It occupies a building architecturally important, with a large concert-room, library, and observatory, situated on the Keizersgracht, one of the larger canals. Orchestral concerts take place in the winter, similar to those of the London Philharmonic and the Crystal Palace : they are

FELIX MERITIS.

FEEIAL AND FESTAL.

511

at the present time conducted by the eminent I ments. He was one of the stewards of the MeetDutch musician, Heer Joh. J. H. Verhulst. ing of the Three Choirs at Hereford 1744, and The usual number is io, and the subscription is at Gloucester 1745. 'Felton's Gavot' was long equivalent to £5. The early history of Felix highly popular. He died Dec. 6, 1769. iW.H.H.] Meritis has been narrated by Professor Jorieson FENTON, LAVINIA, whose real name was on the occasion of the Centenary, Nov. 2, 1877. Beswick, was an actress and singer who first It was founded in 1777, beginning its existence appeared in 1726 at the Haymarket Theatre as on the Leliegracht (Lily Canal) of Amsterdam. the Parish Girl, in Gay's burlesque, ' The What The founders intended it to be ' for the further- d'ye call it,' and afterwards at Lincoln's Inn ance of laudable and useful arts and sciences ; the Fields Theatre, July 15, 1726, as Lucilla. in Sir augmentation of reason and virtue ; the increase W. Davenant's comedy, ' The Man's the Master.' and prosperity of trade, navigation, agriculture, She attracted no particular attention until she and fishery,' etc., etc. But Felix began at once appeared as Polly Peachem in 'The Beggar's with music and fine art, adding literature to the Opera,' on the first night of its performance, scheme two years later. The original locale soon Jan. 29, 1728, when she 'became all at once proved to be too small, and in May 1782 the the idol of the town ; her pictures were engraven members removed to the Vorburgwal. In 1785 and sold in great numbers; her life written ; continued increase determined the erection of books of letters and verses to her published; and the present building on the Keizersgracht, com- pamphlets made of even her very sayings and pleted three years after, and with 400 members, jests.' This success led to her being entrusted instead of, as at first, 40. (On May 1, 1876, with more important parts than had before been the number of members of all classes was 324.) assigned to her. At the end of the season, after The wave of disturbance caused by the French she had played Polly upwards of 60 times, she Revolution washed over Felix Meritis, and in withdrew from the stage and went to live with 1792, through want of funds, the concerts ceased. Charles, third Duke of Bolton. On Oct. 21, 1751, However, the leaders of the institution would his wife, from whom he had been separated not allow it to sink in the vortex, of political many years, having died, the Duke married speculation; and, in the abolition of societies Lavinia Beswick at Aix, in Provence. She throughout Holland this one was exempted. became a widow in 1754, died in January, 1760, During the clatter of weapons the Muses were at West Combe Park, Greenwich, and was buried silent, but in 1800 the complement of members in Greenwich Church, Feb. 3, 1760. [W.H.H.] was again full, and in 1806 the reading-room, FEO, FRANCESCO, one of the masters of the long closed during the prohibition of newspapers, opened again. In that year Louis Bonaparte, Neapolitan school, was born at Naples in 1699. made King of Holland, offered his protection, The traditions of Greco and Scarlatti were still which was declined, as was also the proposal fresh there, and it was at the suggestion of the that the public business of the country should last named that Domenico Gizzi had opened the be carried on in the building. Napoleon I. and private school at which Feo learnt the art of Marie Louise, were however later received in singins and the principles of composition. His it. In these troubled times the music of Felix bent was essentially dramatic, as indeed was that Meritis tended to soften the feelings of distress of nearly all the Neapolitans of his epoch, with and almost despair of the Amsterdam patriots; the exception of Durante, whose colder and yet that solace ceased once more towards the gloomier temperament predisposed him towards close of 1813, the country being in a state of the ecclesiastical severities of the Roman style. insurrection against the French. After 1815 Feo, like Durante and Leo, passed some time at came peace and the gentle arts again, and within the Vatican as the pupil of Pitoni, but the inthe last thirty years great has been the spiritual fluence of his master was not sufficient to divert him from Opera. His 'Ipermestra,' 'Ariana,' harvest of the ' happy through their deserts'! and 'Andromache' were all published at Home The name Felix Meritis was more than once itself, and apparently during his residence there. applied by Kobert Schumann to Felix Mendels- In 1740 he succeeded his old master Gizzi at sohn ; see' Gesammelte Schriften' (Leipzig, 1854), Naples, and did much to establish the school as [A. J.H.] a nursery of great singers. Though addicted to i. 219 ; also i. 191, 92, and 93. FELTON, EEV. WILLIAM, born 1713, vicar- the stage, Feo did not altogether neglect Church choral of Hereford Cathedral in the middle of Music, and his work is distinguished by elevaof style and profound scientific knowledge. the 18th century, was distinguished in his day as tion a certain sensuousness. even in his sacred a composer for, and performer on, the organ and But pieces, is suggested by the fact that Gluck borharpsichord. He published three sets of con- rowed the subject of a Kyrie by him for a chorus certos for those instruments in imitation of those in one of his operas. [E. H. P.] of Handel. Burney, in the life of Handel preFERIAL AND FESTAL. In the Christian fixed to his account of the Commemoration, relates, on the authority of Abraham Brown, Church from very early times the term Feria the violinist, a droll anecdote of Felton's un- secunda was used to denote Monday, Feria tertia successful attempt, through Brown, to procure Tuesday, and so on. Hence the word Feria, or the name of Handel as a subscriber to the second Ferial day, came to denote a day marked by no set of these concertos. Felton also published special observance, either of a festal or a penitwo or three sets of lessons for the same instru- tential character. So lar as music is concerned,

FERIAL AND FESTAL.

FERRARA.

the chief diiFerence is that on the ferial days the music is less elaborate and ornate than on festal days, when it is more florid, for more voices, accompanied by the organ, etc. The two kinds are known respectively as the ferial use and festal use. [G.] FERLENDIS, SIGNOBA, daughter of an architect named Barberi, born at Rome about 1778. Her voice was a strong contralto, but somewhat hard and inflexible. Having studied with a teacher called Moscheri, she made her debut at Lisbon. Here she had the advantage of some lessons from Crescentini, and here also (1802) she married Alessandro Ferlendis, the oboist, member of a very distinguished Italian family of players on the oboe and English horn. She appeared at Madrid in the next year, at Milan in 1804, and in 1805 at Paris (Theatre Louvois) in Fioravanti's 'Capricciosa pentita.' She achieved there/ however, no success in any other role but that one. Soon after this, she made her first appearance in London with Catalani in Cimarosa's ' Orazzi e Curiazzi.' She was ' a pretty good actress, and at that time first b uffa; she was less liked than she deserved, for she had a very good contralto voice, and was far from a bad buffa. She would have been thought, too, to have acted the part of Orazzia well, had it not been for the comparison with Grassini, and for Catalani's then eclipsing everybody.' (Lord Mount-Edgcumbe.) She accompanied her husband to Italy in 1810; her later career is not known. [J. M.]

backbiting,' 'each making other Censor of that which they had done.' And Peacham mentions another friendly contest between them which could best set the words of the madrigal, ' The nightingale so pleasant and so gay,' and awards the palm to Ferrabosco. Many of Ferrabosco's madrigals were printed in the two books of 'Musica Transalpina,' 1588 and 1597, and several of his other compositions are extant in MS. [W.H.H.] FERRABOSCO, ALFONSO, the younger, probably son of the preceding, born at Greenwich about 1580, was one of the extraordinary grooms of the privy chamber of James I, and the instructor in music of Prince Henry, for his services in which respect he was rewarded in 1605 with an annuity of £50. In 1609 he published a folio volume of 'Ayres,' dedicated to Prince Henry, and prefaced by commendatory verses by Ben Jonson, Dr. Campion, and N. Tomkins. This work contains many of the songs in Ben Jonson's plays and masques. In the same year Ferrabosco published some Lessons for Viols, with some introductory lines by Ben Jonson. He was one of the contributors to the collection published in 1614 by Sir William Leighton under the title of ' The Teares or Lamentacions of a Sorrowfull Soule.' He composed numerous Fancies for viols. Antony Wood says he first set music lyra-way for the lute. In 1641 his name occurs in a warrant exempting the king's musicians from the payment of subsidies. He died in 1652. Pepys twice (1664 and 1667) mentions a lady named Ferrabosco as a good singer. At the latter date she was an attendant on the Duchess of Newcastle. She was probably a daughter of Alfonso the younger. AfineSOD^ by Ferrabosco, ' Shall I seek to ease my grief:' from the 'Ayres' above mentioned, is published by Dr. Rimbault (Novello). [W.H.H/

512

FERMATA is the Italian name for the sign " s , which in English is commonly called a Pause, and signifies that the note over which it is placed should be held on beyond its ^ natural duration. It is sometimes H—put over a bar or double bar, in M which case it intimates a short interval of silence. Schumann, in the first movement of his ' Faschingsschwank in Wien' for the pianoforte, has the sign over the double bar in this manner, where the key changes from two flats to six sharps, and has also written • Kurze Pause.' [C.H.H.P.] FERNAND CORTEZ, OU LA CONQUETE DU MEXIQUE. Opera in 3 acts; words by Esme'nard and De Jouy, after Piron; music by Spontini. Produced at the Acad&nie imperiale Nov. 28, 1808; at Dresden, March 1812; after revision by the composer, at Paris, May 28,1817, Berlin, Apr. 20, 1818. FERRABOSCO (or FERABOSCO), ALFONSO, an Italian musician who settled in England in the middle of the 16th century, ranked among the first of the Elizabethan era. He composed motets, madrigals, and pieces for the virginals. His first book of madrigals was printed at Venice in 1542, and some of his motets at the same place in 1544. Morley (Introduction to Practical Music, 1597) speaks of a 'vertuous contention' between Ferrabosco and W. Byrd in making each to the number of 40 parts upon the plainsong of Miserere, ' without malice, envie, or

FERRABOSCO, JOHN, MUS. Baa, organist of Ely Cathedral from 1662 to his death in 1682, was probably a son of Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger. He obtained his degree at Cambridge in 1671 "per literas regias.' Eight complete services and eleven anthems by him are preserved in MS. in the library of Ely Cathedral, some of which have often been erroneously ascribed to his presumed father. [W.H.H.] FERRARA. The earliest and best-known musical academy in Ferrara was that of the 'Intrepidi,' founded in 1600 by Giambattista Aleotti d'Argenta for dramatic musical representation. The magistrates of the city allowed the academicians 100 scudi a year for public celebrations in their theatre. Previous to the founding of this academy, Ferrara could boast one of the most magnificent theatres of Italy, opened in 1484 by Ercole I, Duke of Ferrara, in which were celebrated the 'Feste Musicali,' those earliest forms of the musical drama universal in Italy in the 15th century. While the 'Orfeo' , of Poliziano was represented at Mantua, the theatre of Ferrara witnessed the 'Cefalo' of Niccolb da Correggio, the ' Feast of Amphitrione

FERRARA.

513

FERREL.

and Sosia,' and others. The 'Intrepidi' in 1607 the invention of this kind of piece was claimed [F.G.] represented with great pomp the Pastorale called by Barbara Strozzi twenty years later. FERRARI, DOMENICO, an eminent Italian 'La Filla di Sciro' by Guidubaldo Bonarelli. Frescobaldi was a native of Ferrara and made violin-player, born at the beginning of the 18th his studies there. [C.M.P.] century. He was a pupil of Tartini, and lived for a number of years at Cremona. About the FERRARESE BEL BENE, the sobriquet of year 1749 he began to travel, and met with Francesca Gabrielli, an Italian singer, native of great success at Vienna, where he was considered Ferrara. When Burney was in Venice, in Aug. the greatest living violin-player. In 1753 he 1770, he heard at the Ospedaletto an orphan girl la Ferrarese with an 'extraordinary compass' and became a member of the band of the Duke of a 'fair natural voice.' She sang in London from Wurtemberg at Stuttgart, of which Nardini 1784 to 87 in Cherubini's 'Giulio Sabino' and was at that time leader. If Ferrari was a pupil other parts, but without much success. In 1789 of Tartini, he certainly, according to contemposhe was prima donna in Vienna. Mozart wrote rary critics, did not retain the style of that great for her the Rondo 'Al desio,' introduced into master in after life. He had an astonishing the part of the Countess in Figaro on its revival ability in the execution of octave-runs and harAug. 89, and she played Fiordiligi in ' Cosi fan monics, and appears altogether to have been tutte' at its production Jan. 26, 90. Mozart more a player than a musician. He twice visited did not think much of her, for in speaking of Paris, and played there with great success. He Allegrandi he says, 'she is much better than died at Paris in 1780, according to report, by the Ferrarese, though that is not saying a great the hand of a murderer. Ferrari published a set deal.' She probably owed her good fortune to of 6 Violin-Sonatas (Paris and London), which [P.D.] her pretty eyes and mouth, and to her intrigue however are now forgotten. with da Ponte, with whom she lived as his FERRARI, GIACOMO GOTIFKEDO, a cultivated mistress for three years. In the end she and versatile musician, son of a merchant at quarrelled with the other singers, and was sent Roveredo, born there 1759. He learned the [G.] pianoforte at Verona, and the flute, violin, oboe, from Vienna by the Emperor. FERRARI, BENEDETTO, called 'della Tiorba,' and double-bass at Roveredo, and studied theory an Italian musician, and composer of words and under Pater Marianus Stecher at the convent of music for the species of Italian dramas called Mariaberg near Chur. After his father's death 'dramme per musica,' was born most probably he accompanied Prince Lichtenstein to Rome at Reggio in 1597 ; as according to a letter, now and Naples, and studied for two years and a half in the archives of Modena, written by him to under Latilla at Paisiello's recommendation. the Duke of Modena in 1623, his reputation Here also he made the acquaintance of M. Camas a musician, and especially as a player on the pan, Marie Antoinette's master of the housetheorbo, was by that time considerable. It hold, and went with him to Paris, where he was was largely owing to him that the ' dramma appointed accompanyist to the new Theatre musicale' took such deep root in Italy and Feydeau. In 1793 the company was dispersed, Germany, and herein lies his chief interest for and Ferrari shortly afterwards left France. us. His opera 'Andromeda,' set to music by Having travelled for some time he finally settled Manelli and brought out at the Teatro San in London, where he composed a very large Cassiano at Venice in 1637, was the first opera number of works, including 4 operas and 2 performed before a mixed audience. In 1639 ballets. In 1804 he married Miss Henry, a followed his 'Adone,' set by Monteverde, and well-known pianist. From 1809 to 1812 he 'Armida,' of which he wrote both words and suffered from loss of sight. In 1814 he went to Italy with Broadwood the pianoforte-maker, ' music. Its success induced Ferrari to devote and visited Naples, Venice, etc., returning in himself more to composition than before. He 1816. He died in London Dec. 1842. He was ' remained in Venice till 1644, when he was in- an active teacher of singing, and published a vited to Vienna by the Emperor Ferdinand. 'Treatise on Singing' in 2 vols., of which A ballet by him was performed at the Diet of a French translation appeared in 1827. His Ratisbon in 1653. In the same year he was 'Studio di musica pratica e teorica' (London) appointed maestro di capella to Duke Alfonso is a useful treatise. Two of his French songs, of Modena, on whose death in 1662 he was 'Qu'il faudrait de philosophic' and 'Quand dismissed, but reappointed in 1674, and died l'amour nacquit a Cythere,' were extremely in possession of the post Oct. 22, 1681. His popular in their day. His acquaintance with librettos were collected and printed at Milan and almost every contemporary musician of imPiacenza, and passed through several editions; portance gives a historical value to his book none of these collections however are complete. ' Anedotti . . . occorsi nella vita di G. G. Ferrari,' The library at Modena contains several of his 2 vols. London, 1830. Besides the operas, ballets, MSS., including the ballet ' Dafne in alloro' and songs already named, Ferrari composed an (Vienna, 1651). We have not sufficient materials extraordinary quantity of music for the voice, to form any opinion on the style of his music. pianoforte, flute, and harp. [F.G.] He published at Venice in 1638 ' Musiche varie a voce sola,' in which, according to Burney, the FERREL, JEAN FBAJ^OIS, musician in Paris term' Cantata' occurs for the first time, although about the middle of the 17th century, wrote

LI

FERREL.

FESCA.

a small pamphlet ' A savoir que les maistres de dance, qui sont de ways maistres larrons a l'endroit des violons de France, n'ont pas royale commission d'incorporrer es leur compagnie les organistes et austres musiciens, comme aussy de leur faire paier redevance, de'monstre par J. F. Ferrel, praticien de musique a Paris, natif de l'Anjou' (Paris, 1659). This was the signal for a contest lasting for 100 years, between the French musicians and the dancing-masters, whose chief, the 'roi des menetriers,' claimed jurisdiction over all musicians. Hard words were exchanged on both sides, and after several law-suits, a decree of the Paris parliament in 1750 settled the question in favour of the musicians. Some of the pamphlets had curious titles; for example, 'La cloche felee, ou le bruit faict par un musicien qui ne veult etre maistre de dance parce qu'il ne sait sur quel pied se tenir,' and ' Discours pour prouver que la danse dans sa plus noble partie n'a pas besoin des instrumens de musique, et qu'elle est en toute independante du violon.' [See FEUS.] [M.C.C.]

had, nevertheless, made one journey (before 1654) to Sweden, to gratify Queen Christina's wish to hear him. Ginguene" says that his portrait was engraved with the inscription' Qui fecit mirabilia multa'; but such a portrait (as far as the present writer knows) has never been seen. A medal was struck, bearing on one side his head crowned with bays, and on the other the device of a swan dying by the banks of Meander. Ferri was tall and handsome, with refined manners; and he expressed himself with distinction. He died very rich, leaving 600,000 crowns for a pious foundation. His voice, a beautiful soprano, had an indescribable limpidity, combined with the greatest agility and facility, a perfect intonation, a brilliant shake, and inexhaustible length of breath. Although he seems to have surpassed all the evirati in brilliance and endurance, he was quite as remarkable for pathos as for those qualities. (Bontempi, Historic/, Musica.) [J.M.]

514

FERRETTI, GIOVANNI, born at Venice about 1540, composed five books of 'Canzoni' in 5 parts (Venice 1567-91), 2 books in 6 parts (Venice 1576-86), and another of 5-part madrigals (Venice 1588), all excellent examples of their kind. A madrigal of his, ' Siat' avertiti,' for 5 voices, is included in Webb's madrigals. [M. C. C] FERRI, BALDASSARE, one of the most extraordinary singers who ever lived, was born at Perugia, Dec. 9, 1610. He owed to an accident in his boyhood the operation by which he became a sopranist. At the age of 11 he entered the service of the Bishop of Orvieto as a chorister, and remained there until 1625, when Prince Vladislas of Poland, then on a visit at Rome, carried him off to his father's Court. In 1665 he was transferred to Ferdinand III, Emperor of Germany, whose successor, Leopold I, loaded him with riches and honours. This prince had a portrait of Ferri, crowned with laurels, hanging in his bed-chamber, and inscribed, 'Baldassare Perugino, Re dei Musici.' At the age of 65 he received permission to retire to his native country, with a passport, the terms of which indicated sufficiently the consideration in which he was held. He reached Italy in 1675, and died at Perugia, Sept. 8,1680. Ferri was made a Knight of S. Mark of Venice in 1643 ; and, therefore, probably visited Italy at that time. He aroused the greatest enthusiasm wherever he appeared; hundreds of sonnets were written in his honour, he was covered with roses in his carriage after simply singing a cantata, and at Florence a number of distinguished persons went three miles out of the town, to escort him into it. (Ginguene.) He is said also to have visited London, and to have sung here the part of ' Zephyr' : but this must be a fable, as Italian opera did not begin here till 1692,—12 years after his death. It is true that in M. Locke's 'Psyche' (1671) there is a character called 'Zephyr'; but he has only four lines to speak, and none to sing. Ferri

FERTE, PAPILLON DE LA, became in 1777, by purchase, 'Intendant des Menus-plaisirs' to Louis XVI, and as such had the direction of the ' Ecole Royale de chant' founded by the Baron de Breteuil, and of the opera after the municipality had given up the administration of it. In 1790 he published a reply to a pamphlet by the artists of the opera—' Me"moire justificatif des sujets de l'Acade'mie royale de musique'—in which they demanded a reform of the administration. His son occupied the same post after the Restoration. [M.C.C.] FESCA, FRIEDRICH ERNST, composer, born at Magdeburg, Feb. 15, 1789. His father was an amateur, and his mother a singer, pupil of J. A. Hiller, so he heard good music in his youth, and as soon as he could play the violin had taste enough to choose the quartets and quintets of Haydn and Mozart in preference to Pleyel's music, for which there was then a perfect rage in Germany. Having completed his elementary studies, he went through a course of counterpoint with Pitterlin, conductor of the Magdeburg theatre. On Pitterlin's death in 1804 he became a pupil of August Eberhardt Muller at Leipsic. Here he played a violin concerto of his own with brilliant success. In 1806 he accepted a place in the Duke of Oldenburg's band, but in the following year became solo violinist under Reichardt at Cassel, where he passed six happy years and composed his first seven quartets and first two symphonies, interesting works, especially when he himself played the first violin. In 1814, after a visit to Vienna, he was appointed solo violin, and in the following year concert-meister, to the Duke of Baden at Carlsruhe. During the next eleven years he wrote 2 operas, 'Cantemir' and 'Leila,' overtures, quartets, quintets, chorales, psalms and other sacred music. He died at Carlsruhe May 24, 1826, of consumption, after many years' suffering, which however had not impaired his powers, as his last works contain some of his best writing. Hia 'De profundis,' arranged in

515

FESCA.

FESTING.

4 parts by Strauss, was sung at his funeral. Fesca was thoughtful, earnest, and warmhearted, with occasional traits of humour in striking contrast to his keen sensibility and lofty enthusiasm for art. He appreciated success, but steadfastly declined to sacrifice his own perceptions of the good and beautiful for popularity. Fesca's rank as a composer has been much disputed. There is a want of depth in his ideas, but his melodies are taking and his combinations effective. His quartets and quintets, without possessing the qualities of the great masters, have a grace and elegance peculiar to himself, and are eminently attractive. His symphonies are feebly instrumented, but his sacred works are of real merit. In richness of modulation he approaches Spohr. A complete edition of his quartets and quintets (20 and 5 in number) has been published

(iii. 245, 6) prints a motet and a madrigal of Festa's; and a Te Deum and motet are given in Bock's collection (vi. 31, 40). His madrigal 'Down in a flow'ry vale' ('Quando ritrovo la mia pastorella') enjoys the distinction of being the most popular piece of this description in England. [E.H.P.]

in Paris (Rimbault). His son, ALEXANDER ERNST,

born at Carlsruhe May 2 2,18 2 o, died at Brunswick Feb. 22,1849, was a pupil of Rungenhagen, Wilhelm Bach, and Taubert, and composer of trios for pianoforte, violin, and cello, and other chambermusic popular in their day. His best opera was • Le Troubadour' (Brunswick, 1854). [M. C. C ] FESTA, COSTANZO, one of the earliest composers of the Eoman school, was born somewhere towards the close of the 15th century. He was elected a member of the Pontifical choir in 1517, and died April 10,1545. He eventually became Maestro at the Vatican, and his nomination was BO far singular that he was at that time the only Italian in a similar position throughout the Peninsula. His genius cannot be doubted, and Dr. Burney, who had been at the trouble of scoring a great number of his Madrigals, was astonished at the rhythm, grace, and facility of them. The Doctor calls one of Festa's Motetti, 'Quam pulchra es, anima mea,' a model of elegance, simplicity, and pure harmony, and Bays that 'the subjects of imitation in it are as modern, and that the parts sing as well, as if it were a production of the eighteenth century.' Festa, according to Baini, fell in his motets into a fashion too prevalent in his day, of setting distinct words to each voice. The Abbe' (' Life of Palestrina,' vol. i. pp. 95-103) explains in great detail the lengths to which this absurd and undignified affectation was carried, and quotes with obvious and well-merited approval a rebuke administered by the Cardinal Capranica, in the pontificate of Niccolo V, to some singer who had asked him to admire the caprice. ' Mi pare,' said the Cardinal, 'di udir una mandra di porcelli, che grugniscono a tutta forza senza profferire per6 un suono articolato, non che una parola.' The principal repertories for Festa's music are the collections which flowed from the presses of Gardano and of Scotto at Venice in the middle of the 16th century, and for which the curious enquirer must be referred to the Bibliographie of Eitner. The archives of the Pontifical chapel are rich in his MSS., and a celebrated Te Deum of his is still sung by the Pontifical choir at the election of a new Pope. Burney, in his History

FESTING, MICHAEL CHRISTIAN, an eminent

performer on, and composer for the violin, was the son of a flautist of the same names, who was a member of the orchestra of the King's Theatre in the Haymarket about 1727. Festing was at first a pupil of Richard Jones, leader of the band at Drury Lane, but subsequently studied under Geminiani. He first appeared in public about 1724. He became a member of the king's private band and first violin at an amateur association which met at the Crown and Anchor Tavern in the Strand, under the name of the Philharmonic Society. On the opening of Ranelagh Gardens in 1742 he was appointed director of the music as weil as leader of the band. Festing was one of the originators of the Society of Musicians. Being seated one day at the window of the Orange Coffee-house in the Haymarket in company with Weidemann, the flautist, and Vincent, the oboist, they observed two very intelligent looking boys driving milch asses. On inquiry they found them to be the orphans of Kytch, an eminent but imprudent German oboist, who had settled in London and then recently died, literally in the streets, from sheer want. Shocked by this discovery Festing consulted with Dr. Greene, his intimate friend, and other eminent musicians, and the resnlt was the establishment of the Society of Musicians for the support and maintenance of decayed musicians and their families. Festing for many years performed gratuitously the duties of secretary to this institution. He died July 24, 1752. In September of that year his goods, books, and instruments were sold at his house in Warwick Street, Golden Square. He left an only son, the Rev. Michael Festing, rector of Wyke Regis, Dorset, who married the only child of his father's friend, Dr. Greene. From this union sprang many descendants to perpetuate the name of Festing, and not many years since an Hertfordshire innkeeper, bearing the names of Maurice Greene Festing, was living. Festing's compositions consist of several sets of solos for the violin; sonatas, concertos and symphonies for stringed and other instruments; part of the 3rd chapter of Habakkuk, paraphrased; Addison's Ode for St.Cecilia's day; Milton's Song on May morning; an Ode on the return of the Duke of Cumberland from Scotland in ^ 745 ; an ode ' For thee how I do mourn'; and many cantatas and songs for Ranelagh. Sir John Hawkins says that -as a performer on the violin Festing was inferior to many of his time, but as a composer, particularly of solos for that instrument, the nature and genius whereof he perfectly understood, he had but few equals.' Festing had a brother of the name of John, an oboist and teacher of the flute, whose success in his profession was such that he L12

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FESTING.

died in 1772 worth £8,000, acquired chiefly by teaching. [W.H.H.] FESTIVALS. The earliest musical festivals of which any trustworthy record exists were held in Italy. At an interview between Francis I, King of France, and Pope Leo X at Bologna in 1515, the musicians attached to their respective courts combined and gave a performance, but no details of the programme have been preserved. In the early part of the 17th century there was a thanksgiving festival at St. Peter's at Rome on the cessation of the Plague, when a mass by Benevoli for six choirs was sung by more than 200 voices with organ accompaniment, the sixth choir occupying the highest part of the cupola. In France the first festival recorded is that which took place as a thanksgiving for the recovery of the eldest son of Louis XIV, when Lulli's 'Te Deum' (written to celebrate a similar happy event in His Majesty's own life in 16S6) was performed by 300 musicians. In Bohemia the earliest festival was held at Prague in honour of the coronation of the Emperor Charles VI as King of Bohemia, when an opera by Fux was performed in the open air by a baud of 200 and a chorus of 100 voices—a somewhat singular proportion of orchestral to vocal resources—and of this an account is given by Burney in his German Tour, vol. ii. p. 178. French musicians united at Paris in 1767 in a solemn service at the funeral of Rameau; and at Naples in 1774, at the burial of Jomelli, the service was rendered by 300 musicians. In Austria the earliest festivals were given by the Musical Institution at Vienna (Tonkiinstler - Societat), by whose members, to the number of 400, oratorios were performed twice annually, in Advent and Lent,1 for charitable purposes, beginning with 1772. In the same city there was a festival in honour of Haydn in 1808, at which the 'Creation' was performed, and at which the composer bade farewell to the world. More important, and in its dimensions approaching more nearly to the modern festival, was a performance given at Vienna in 1811, also in Haydn's honour, when the numbers are said to have been upwards of 700.

FESTIVALS. the Clergy Corporation, at which, since the year 1709, a full band and choir has annually assisted, the Royal Society of Musicians for many years undertaking to supply the orchestra. The second English festival established was that of 'The Three Choirs'—Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford—which after having been held previously for some years for the enjoyment of the lay clerks and choristers, was in 1724 utilised as a means of securing an annual collection for the widows and orphans of the clergy of the three dioceses. [See THREE CHOIRS FESTIVALS.]

In 1739 a festival, to which Handel lent his aid, was established in connection with the ' Fund for the Support of Decayed Musicians,' and this institution was in 1790 incorporated as 'The Royal Society of Musicians,' which still follows the ancient custom by giving an annual performance of the 'Messiah' in aid of its funds. In 1749 Handel conducted a festival at the Foundling Hospital in aid of that charity, and directed it annually until his death. [See FOUNDLING HOSPITAL.] Festivals were subsequently held at Cambridge in 1749 on the occasion of the Chancellor's installation; at Leeds in 1767 for the Leeds Infirmary then recently opened; at Birmingham in 1768 [see BIRMINGHAM] ; at

Beverly in 1769—at the opening of Snetzler'a organ in the Minster; at Norwich in 1770 [see NORWICH]; at Westminster Abbey in 1784 [see HANDEL COMMEMORATION]; at Oxford in 1785;

at Manchester in 1785 ; at Sheffield in 1786; at Derby, Winchester, and Salisbury—in celebration of the opening of Green's organ—in 1788 ; at Hull in 1789 in aid of the Infirmary; at Liverpool in 1790; at York in 1791 (held annually till 1802 and revived 1823) [see YORK] ; at St. Margaret's, Westminster, in 1792—the first annual performance of the 'Messiah' in aid of the Westminster Hospital; and at Edinburgh in 1815. Many of these festivals were continued in subsequent years, and some are still held. The Sons of the Clergy Festival, the Three Choirs Festival, the Birmingham and Norwich Festivals, are now held triennially, and at Leeds, Liverpool, and Bristol, festivals of a similar character are also held every third year. So are the Handel The greatest of the German festivals, the Festivals of the Sacred Harmonic Society at the Lower Rhenish, had its origin in a ' Thuringian Crystal Palace, which after a preliminary trial Musical Festival,' held at Erfurt in 1811, under in 1857 began their triennial existence in 1859. the direction of Bischoff, the organist of Gran- [HANDEL FESTIVAL.] The Edinburgh Orchestral kenhausen, whose example was imitated in 1817 Festivals are now held annually under the when Johann Schornstein, the musical director direction of the Reid Professor of Music, and at Elberfeld, gave a performance at that town festivals of importance have been established at in which the musicians of Diisseldorf also took Glasgow and Dundee. part. At first the Lower Rhenish festivals were held alternately at Elberfeld and Biisseldorf, Festivals of Parochial Choirs, which are now but in 1821 Cologne joined in the scheme, and held annually in the majority of the cathedrals the Musikfest took place there. In 1825 the and at other large churches, were first organised festival was held at Aix la Chapelle, and, with about the year 1850, the Cheadle Association in the exception of 1827—the year of Beethoven's the diocese of Lichfield being one of the earliest. death—when Elberfeld once more took its place, The first festival of this nature on a large scale it has been held at Diisseldorf, Aix, or Cologne. was held in Durham Cathedral in 1863. Next in order in the cathedral or diocesan festivals [NlEDERRHEINISCHE MUSIKFESTB.] In England the earliest festivals were those came Ely, Peterborough, Salisbury, and Norwich, held at St. Paul's Cathedral in aid of the Sons of and ab York in 1861 there was a festival in the Minster with 2700 trained singers. Similar ' HamslickVConcert-wesen In Wien,' p. 18.

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services are now held annually in St. Paul's partition' (1829); his 'Traite* complet de la Cathedral, and the system has been adopted in the'orie et de la pratique de l'harmonie [ (1844), Scotland, Ireland, and in the United States. [See which has passed through many editions and CHABITT CHILDREN.] [CM.] been translated into several languages; and FETIS, FBAN901S JOSEPH, born March 25, his 'Traite" du contrepoint et de la fugue' 1784, at Mons, died March 25, 1871, at Brussels, (1824), a really classical work. These two last the most learned, laborious, and prolific musical Fe'tis considered his best original productions, litterateur of his time. He was the son of an and looked to them for his permanent reputaorganist at Mons, and early learned to play the tion. They were the more important in his violin, piano, and organ, completing his studies eyes because he believed in the infallibility of at the Paris Conservatoire. Boieldieu and his doctrines. Outside his own peculiar system Pradher were his masters for the piano, but he of harmonic generation—the 'omnitonic'system, only succeeded in gaining the harmony prize in whose main principle is that harmonic combina1803, and the second 'second prix' for com- tions exist by which any given sound may be position in 1807, scarcely as much as might have resolved into any key and any mode—he saw been expected from one who delighted to style nothing but error and confusion. As a historian himself the pupil of Beethoven. He married he was equally systematic and equally impatient in 1806, and in 1811 pecuniary difficulties, of contradiction. Nevertheless, in his 'Biographie caused by the loss of his wife's fortune, com- universelle des Musiciens,' and in his 'Histoire pelled him to retire to the Ardennes, where he generale de la Musique' errors of detail and remained till his appointment as organist and mistakes in chronology abound, while many of professor of music at Douai in Dec. 1813. In the opinions he advances are open to question. 1821 he succeeded Eler as professor of counter- Easy as it may be however to find fault with point and fugue at the Paris Conservatoire, and these two standard works, it is impossible to became librarian of that institution in 1827. In do without them. The first edition of the March 1833 he was appointed director of the 'Biographie' (Paris 1835-44) is especially deBrussels Conservatoire and maitre de chapelle fective, but it contains a remarkable introducto the King of the Belgians, two important posts, tion founded on the writings of Forkel, Gerber, which, besides ensuring him many gratifying Kiesewetter, Hawkins, and others. Fe'tis indistinctions, obliged him to take part in the tended to use this introduction as material for a labours of the Belgian Academic Royale, for 'Philosophie de la Musique,' but had not time to accomplish it. The second edition of the which he wrote several interesting memoirs. 'Biographie' (Paris 1860-65) though more comFe'tis must be considered separately in his plete and more satisfactory than its predecessor, various capacities of composer, author of theo- should still be consulted with discretion; its retical works, historian, and critic. As a dates are still often wrong, and there are mistakes, composer he wrote much pianoforte music for especially in the articles on English musicians, 2 and 4 hands, chamber-music, duos, a which are almost ludicrous, and might have been quartet, quintets, and a sestet, overtures and avoided. [For Supplement see POUGIN.] Fe'tis symphonies for orchestra, operas and sacred unfortunately allows his judgment to be biassed music. His operas 'L'Amant et le Mari' by passion or interest. It is a pity that in hie (1820), 'Marie Stuart en Ecosse' (1823), 'La 'Histoire generale de la Musique' (Didot, 5 Vieille' (1826), and 'Le Mannequin de Ber- vols. 1869-76) he is not more just to some of his game' (1832) were produced at the 'Opera predecessors, such as "Villoteau and Adrien de la Comique' with some success, though they now Fage, whom he quotes freely but never without seem feeble and antiquated. Among his sacred some depreciatory remark, thus forgetting the compositions we will only specify his 'Messes poet's words:— faciles pour l'orgue,' and his ' Messe de Requiem' composed for the funeral of the Queen of the ' Ah! doit-on Writer de ceux qu'on assassine ?' In spite of this defect, and of a strong tenBelgians (1850). The greater part of his church music is unpublished. Fe'tis's fame dency to dogmatism, the 'Histoire generale de however rests not upon his compositions, but la Musique,' although a fragment—for it ceases upon his writings on the theory, history, and at the 15th century—exhibits Fetis at his best. literature of music. His 'Methode el&nentaire Another useful work is ' La Musique mise a la . . . . d'harmonie et d'accompagnement' (1824, portee de tout le monde' (Paris 1830, 34, 47), 36, 41), which has been translated into English which has been translated into German, English, (Cocks & Co.) and Italian; his 'Solfe"ges pro- Spanish, and even Russian. The same elevation gressifs'; 'Manuel des principes de musique'; and clearness appear in his innumerable articles ' Traits e'le'mentaire de musique' (Brussels 1831- and reviews, which were all incorporated in the 32); 'Traite" du chant en chceur'—translated by 'Biographie,' the 'Curiosite's historiques de la Helmore (Novello) ; ' Manuel des jeunes com- Musique' (Paris 1830), the ' Esquisse de Thistoire positeurs'; ' Me"thode des me"thodes de piano'; de l'harmonie' (Paris 1840, now very scarce), and 'Methode e'le'mentaire de Plain Chant,' have and other works already named. The 'Revue been of great service to teachers, though some of musicale' which he started in 1827, and conthem bear traces of having been written in haste tinued till 35, was the foundation of the musical for the publishers. Far above these must be press of France. This short resume' of Fe'tis's ranked his 'Traits de l'accompagnement de la labours will suffice to show the immense services

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he rendered to musical instruction and literature. Had he been a little less one-sided, and a little more disinterested and fair, he would have been a model critic and litterateur. His eldest son, EDOCARD, born at Bouvignes in Belgium, May 16, 1812, at an early age assisted his father, and edited the 'Revue musicale' from 1833 to 35. He is now art critic of the 'Independance Beige,' has edited the 5th vol. of ' Histoire g